PART 2. SUBSTANTIVE TRADEMARK LAW
CHAPTER 5: ESTABLISHMENT OF TRADEMARK RIGHTS
CHAPTER 6: TRADEMARK SUBJECT MATTERCHAPTER 7: TRADEMARK ENFORCEMENT
CHAPTER 8: TRANSFER OF TRADEMARK RIGHTS
CHAPTER 9: DURATION AND EXHAUSTION OF TRADEMARK RIGHTSCHAPTER 5. ESTABLISHMENT OF TRADEMARK RIGHTSSECTION 1:
DOCTRINE

REGISTRATION-BASED DOCTRINE AND USE-BASED

I. Registration-based Doctrine Defined
Trademark rights are established two different ways. When trademark rights have been
established based on a formal registration, the rights as granted are said to be"registration-based." When trademark rights are established based on actual use, therights that are effectively granted are said to be "used-based." (See Amino, page 118;
Shibuya, page 1; Toyosaki, page 349; and Ono-Sodan, page 8).
In some systems, actual use is a requirement at the time of trademark registration.1
These systems are still called use-based systems, even though registration is sought orobtained. On the other hand, there are systems in which registration is permitted based
only on an intent to use without a showing of actual use at the time of registration (forexample, this is the case under English, German, and even Japanese law). Thesesystems are strictly registration -based. (See Tikujyo-Kaisetsu, page 990; and Mitsuishi,
page 11. Toyosaki Older Version, page 68 discusses the registration-based system, andTikujo-Kaisetsu modified that explanation slightly at page 734 of 1986 version.)
There are two types of registration: registration in which effective rights are granted(German trademark law) and registration in which effective rights are presumptively
granted (England and the U.S.). Previously, when presumptive rights are granted uponregistration even when there is no use of the trademark (England), the system wasconsidered to be use-based. Now, however, it is considered a registration-based system.
In this book, the terms "use-based" and "registration-based" will not be used in aprocedural sense, but will be used in regard to the "establishment" of trademark rights.
Specifically, use-based rights are established under the theory that use is required whenregistering a trademark; and registration-based rights will herein refer to the theory thatsuch use is not required. Internationally, it is common for the usage of the terms to
distinguish between whether effective rights are established or not by trademark
registration. In Japan, the terms registration-based and use-based are often used toindicate whether or not actual trademark use is required for trademark registration,
which makes for a confusing situation. One explanation says that, "in terms of theorigin of the term "use-based," there was no existing word to describe a legal systemthat permitted the establishment of trademark rights through actual use, such as UnitedStates trademark law, German trademark law, French law under the Trademark Act of1857, and English law before the Trademark Registration Act was enacted."
Furthermore, the term "use-based" could mean the degree to which the law requires
actual use of the trademark, the adoption of a use-based theory, or it could refer to asystem that is increasing trademark usage requirements. We therefore may certainly use
the terms "compulsory use" or "strengthening the use requirement" as well.

1

It has always been the case under U.S. trademark law that actual use is required before registration,even though it is not required at the time of filing.

1II. The History and Development of Use-Based and Registration-Based Systems
Laws protected actual trademark use before any trademark registration systems weredeveloped. If such protection may be called use-based, then use-based trademark
protection was the original form of trademark protection. Historically, trademark
protection stemmed from laws designed to suppress the confusion and abuse that
stemmed from counterfeiters and unfair competitors. Trademark protections was
designed primarily as a place to deposit a record of actual use rather than protect
property rights or serve to "register" the mark. Gradually, this "deposit" came to be
associated with absolute rights similar to ownership rights, and a use-based trademark
law was established in places such as France.
Early use-based systems were deposit systems with no notice requirement. The systemevolved from this point to become the registration system it is today. For example, theTrademark Act of 1857 in France and the Trademark Registration Act of 1875 in
England merely established a presumptive trademark right through registration. In
other words, trademark owners merely achieved an advantageous position (apresumption) in lawsuits. Thus, owning a trademark registration did not indicate
trademark ownership as an absolute fact.
As for U.S. federal trademark law before the 1988 amendments, trademarks currently in
use were presumed under common law to establish trademark rights. Furthermore, theU.S., even more so than England, strictly enforced the requirement that actual
trademark use be a requirement for registration. However, under current U.S. federal
trademark law, registration (on the Principal Register), provides constructive notice ofownership (of prior use). [U.S. Trademark Act, Section 22]. Furthermore, a trademark
used for five continuous years after registration achieves incontestability when a
Declaration is submitted stating that there has been continuous use for (at least) five
years. [U.S. Trademark Act, Sections 15 and 8). After that, a trademark registration
becomes decisive proof of exclusive trademark use. [U.S. Trademark Act Section 33(b)]. In this way, even under U.S. law, the defects of a use-based system are removed.
Incidentally, for this reason, the U.S. system cannot be considered a completely pureuse-based system. Later, U.S. trademark law was brought into harmonization with thetrademark laws of other countries under the 1988 amendments (which went into force
on November 16, 1989). Consequently, there are two types of U.S. trademark
applications: applications filed based on use, the dominant type of application filed, andapplications filed on an intent-to-use basis. To be legitimate, an applicant must have abona fide intent to use the mark in the near future. The applicant may not simply beusing the intent to use filing scheme as a defensive maneuver or with the objective ofpreserving the mark for the future without actual use. It is necessary that the applicant
use a mark within six months of receipt of the Notice of Allowance. However, theapplicant may apply for six month extensions for up to a total of twenty-four months forproper cause. Then, if the applicant does not use the mark, the mark will not beregistered.
Due to the inherent instability of the relationship between competing rights, even in
trademark systems adopting use-based principles, use-based systems have provided
measures to stabilize a number of rights through trademark registration. For example,2

trends towards a registration-based system appeared in the English Trademark Law of1905, and the French Trademark Law of 1964. In particular, in both England andFrance, the systems were already taking steps away from use-based principles, towards
registration-based principles, meaning that actual use was not being required forregistration. Obviously, the French movement to a registration-based system did notoccur overnight.
In England, registration does not go beyond prima facie evidence. However, under theold English trademark law, in the event that seven years passed after receiving
registration of Trademark A, the registration would be affirmed. [Former British
Trademark Law, Section 13]. As for English law now, there are colorings of a usebased past, however, the majority of the current law is no different from a purely
registration-based system. Under the 1994 law, British law came even closer to being a
registration-based system. Similarly, French trademark law, which hitherto had been a
use-based/non-examination system, moved towards registration-based principles underthe 1964 law, as well as the 1991 law of today. Other countries, under the 1971 Unified
Trademark Law of Benelux (amended in 1996 and involving the countries of Belgium,
Holland, and Luxembourg), continued the movement from use-based principles toregistration-based principles. Many advanced nations, such as Germany (and excluding
Japan and the English Empire), can trace the progression of their trademark laws in the
19th Century from unfair competition laws directly to a registration-based trademark
system. In those early registration-based systems, acts that caused confusion as toproduct source were also prohibited. Those unfair competition laws also protected
unregistered marks so that it cannot be said that the systems were purely registrationbased.
III. A Comparison of Use-Based and Registration-Based Trademark Concepts
1. Use-BasedOne fundamental premise of the English trademark system allows for the simultaneous
registration and coexisting registration of marks. A system that adheres to use-based
principles could allow such marks that appear on the market almost simultaneously tocoexist. However, is still necessary to avoid damage caused by confusion of productsource. In order to do this, even in a use-based system, society requires that only one
user will ideally use a particular mark (one source). At the least, it is a given that theperson or entity who first used a trademark be acknowledged as having a preferential
position, and be granted the right to prevent the use of other marks that carry the dangerof causing confusion.
Because use-based systems ordinarily value the most senior user, when such countries
adopt a registration system (which typically grants only presumptive rights), theregistration is granted to the most senior user. Under use-based principles, trademark
rights do not emanate from registration, but rather, the establishment of said rights isbased on actual use, such that registrations in a use-based system provide a prima facie
presumption of first use. [U.S. Trademark Act, Section 15]. However, after registration,
if a mark is used for a certain amount of time, the system allows a mark to reach a levelof incontestability. [U.S. Trademark Act, Section 15].

3

2. Registration-Based
Under registration-based principles, trademarks can be registered without an inquiry as
to whether a mark is actually being used or not at the time of filing, even though theapplicant intends to use the trademark. The applicant is granted an exclusive right byregistration. Of course, it is possible in such a system for similar trademarks to coexist.
In such a situation, under a registration-based system, there is a first-to-file preference
that typically establishes trademark rights in the person who files first.
Registration systems are a means for legally stabilizing trademark use; there is no value
in registration itself. Specifically, trademark law protects the "functional relationshipwhich exists between trademarks and goods," and is not meant to protect the drawing(the lettering or design) separately. In the end, trademark law is just a set of provisions
regulating unfair competition through trademarks. Therefore, we must not forget thefundamental concept of "protection of use" when it comes to unregistered marks.
3. Advantages and Disadvantages of The Two Systems
Both use-based and registration systems have advantages ad disadvantages. One
fundamental shortcoming of a use-based system involves reversion of rights. Even
though it is good to protect first users, it is extremely difficult to determine who used amark first when multiple parties are claiming first use. As a result, the stability oftrademark adoption and use cannot be assured. This is to say that, if a business is using
a particular trademark (even if the use is for significant length of time, there will always
be the possibility that someone will appear claiming that to have used the mark even
earlier. The ability of use-based systems to remedy problems such as these is limited,
and therefore, legal systems based on use almost always take advantage of trademark
registration systems (and deposit systems) that bring about trademark ownership andpresumptive use by registration. Therefore, theoretically, it is necessary to use some
sort of a registration system.
Under registration-based principles, it is possible to easily adopt a first-to-file systemthat grants priority to whomever files first, looking to the application as fact, while
avoiding the use of a difficult standard such as is required for determining the first userof a trademark. It is therefore acceptable to determine with whom the rights of a markbelong by simply looking at the applications. In such a way, the stability of rights isgreatly increased; this is a great advantage.
However, under a first-to-file system, it is difficult to avoid unfair competitors who
immorally apply for trademarks without permission when these trademarks havealready been in actual use in society, or when such names have acquired distinctivenessand value in society. Under registration-based systems, even if measures are taken to
suppress this kind of immoral trademark appropriation, the effectiveness of the first-tofile system is weakened, and the advantage of a first-to-file system that is legally stableis partly sacrificed. However, rules requiring trademark owners of use of registeredtrademarks to use their marks (Japan's trademark reforms of 1970 and Germany's of1967) and protection of unregistered well known trademarks have gradually been

4

getting stronger. In this way, systems which exclusively use either registration-based
principles or use-based principles are few.
4. Registration System
After establishment of registered trademark rights, it is necessary to have a system forproviding notice to the public in order to give the public an advance opportunity to
avoid choosing conflicting trademarks. In a registration system, a notice system isusually implemented2, and a trademark's original registration is made public. Therefore,
in general, the instability of conflicting rights is less pronounced under registrationbased principles, as opposed to use-based principles. Another shortcomings of a usebased system is that the scope of trademark rights is geographically limited, and thestrength of trademark rights has actually been limited to areas where the trademark has
been used. Because it is generally normal for businesses to expand geographically,
when these businesses acquire trademark rights, they cannot use the mark withconfidence that expansion will not encroach on another's trademark area. Due to thislack of confidence, most countries are moving towards a first-to-file system when it
comes to trademark law, while continuing to modify the registration law to prevent
damage under registration-based principles.
SECTION 2: REQUIREMENTS OF TRADEMARK REGISTRATION
I. Meaning of Trademark Requirements
Trademark registration requirements are promulgated to determine what kind of markdeserves protection under trademark law, and to provide a list of steps that must all be
fulfilled.
There are several types of registration requirements. The first type involves the"registrability" of trademarks. These are the normal, "active" requirements found in
Article 3 of the Trademark Act that refer to the trademarks that can be registered. Next,
there are the requirements of Article 4 of the Trademark Act, normally referred to as"passive requirements." These are reasons for which registration could be barred, that is
to say, the trademark would be ineligible for registration. Finally, some registration
provisions set out what is necessary to achieve trademark protection. They determine
whether a mark is "eligible for rights" or "qualified for rights." Fundamentally, there
are some basic requirements:c a mark that is eligible for registration (for example, regarding a small group without
a representative or rules, reference general rules of civil law),d an applicant who is eligible to obtain trademark registration, that is, one who iscurrently using a mark, or one who has filed with an intent to use the mark in the future,e an application for a trademark to be applied to the goods or services of one's own
business,
f an application which conforms to proper application form,
2

Under the 1999 reforms of Japanese law, there is an opposition system that can be used after
registration, and due to the application notice being abolished, current law shoulders the role ofproviding notice in a Gazette (official application publication) after registration.

5

g a person who is in fact the first to file.
Normally, however, when we speak of the registration requirements of trademarks, weare often referring to a narrow meaning, including only "active" requirements, and thepassive requirements. Both are discussed more completely below.
II. Active Requirements"Active" requirements are the requirements of registration that have the narrowest
meaning of all the general requirements. They ask the question, "what kind of marks
can obtain registration?"
1. Marks Which Are Used in Connection with the Goods or Services of One's Own
Business(1) Intention to Use a Trademark
For a trademark to obtain registration, it must be a "mark which is used in connection
with the goods or services of one's own business." In other words, an applicant cannot
obtain a trademark registration if the mark is not currently being used in connection
with one's own goods or services, or if there is no intent to use the mark for one's own
goods or services.
Under article 3, paragraph 1 of the Trademark Law, "a trademark which is used"
appears to be referring to current use. However, this wording can be interpreted to bevery similar to the term "exclusive use" in the old trademark law.3 Therefore, it can beinferred that the current law encompasses an intent to use a trademark in the future andis not only limited to one's current use. It takes time to progress from filing toregistration, so the meaning must be interpreted to include the time necessary to prepare
from the commencement of a business. It is therefore sometimes necessary to allow
applications before use. Furthermore, included in this meaning is the necessity to beable to obtain registration in advance in order that the trademark registration is allowed
without apprehension of denial and ready for use from the time that a business iscommenced. In addition, as part of ongoing business, new plans for development
continually arise. At times it is necessary to obtain a registration in advance for new
trademarks to benefit the future of a company. Therefore, although the wording "atrademark which is used" may be in the present tense, it is unquestionable that themeaning of future use is also included, such that an applicant can obtain a registration
for a mark he intends to use in the future.4
We have seen that trademarks that are not currently being used, but will be used in the
future, are included as registrable. However, for intention to use, it is insufficient tosimply state the intention. It is necessary to show a likelihood of use in the future.
Marks that have not been used for three years are illegal and are called "dead wood;"3

From the former Trademark Law, article 1, paragraph 1, referring to the intent to use exclusively.
Incidentally, a recent report of the Amendment Committee for the current law, modified the law toinclude "a mark being used or a mark for which there is a bona fide intent to use.” [Report, page 70].
46

they can be canceled for non-use. Of course, because it is difficult to examine a
subjective intention, so called defensive trademark registrations do exist in actuality,
even though there is absolutely no intention to use them, but at a theoretical level, they
are not allowed.
The Trademark Examination Guidelines (Japanese Patent Office, Trademark Section,
Official Standards of Trademark Examination (1971 First Edition, amended 1997, Sixth
Edition, page 2)) states that, "when it becomes clear that a trademark will not be used inconnection with one's goods or services, as a rule, said trademark is not eligible forregistration under the meaning of Article 3, Paragraph 1."(2) One's Own Business' Use
Registration of trademarks must be for marks that will be used in connection with goods
or services of "one's own business." Therefore, registration cannot be obtained if one ismerely using the mark of another with permission. However, when an application is
filed by a group, and a member of the group is allowed to use the mark (collective
marks, Article 7), or when an application is filed by a promoter for a mark that is
intended for use by a company that is in the process of being established, theregistration is permitted. Previously, Japan had created a use-based rights system underwhich collective marks are prohibited, but under the Paris Convention was obligated toprotect collective marks. With the trademark amendments of 1996, Japan's law
permitted group registration of marks by the creators of a company to substitute for theuse requirement.5 The collective trademark, then, is not used by the entire trademark
owning organization itself. It is presumed that individual members of the collective will
use the mark, and because this is a case in which there is no use by one's own business,
if we were to interpret this article extremely literally, the collective mark presents an
inconsistency. However, the law is interpreted to mean that when it comes to marksthat are filed under "use" in connection with goods or services of a business that istreated as if it is one's own business, then that mark must be allowed. In the case ofcollective marks, it is proper to read the term "one's own" under Article 3, Paragraph 1,
as meaning "one's own, or one's constituent member." (Article 7, Paragraph 2).
2. Distinctiveness
Article 3, paragraph 2 states: "trademark registration may be obtained where theconsumers are able to recognize the goods or services as being connected with a certain
person's business." (Article 3, paragraph 2).
The power of a mark to distinguish to consumers the goods or services of a certain
business is normally referred to as "distinctiveness." Within this question of
distinctiveness is not only the issue of whether a mark has distinctiveness in the present,
but also whether a mark has the capability of being distinctive in the future. Similarly,
for a mark that lacks distinctiveness, there is also not only the question of whether amark does not have distinctiveness in the present, but also whether it is already5

Under the former trademark law, collective marks were not used by the group itself, so they were
not called trademarks, but "marks."

7

predicted to lose distinctiveness in the future.
The former trademark law stated that "marks eligible for registration must be capable ofa special conspicuousness." The current law avoids the difficulties in interpreting theexpression "special conspicuousness," by stating that trademarks are understood to havethe function of "identifying the goods and services of a certain business to consumers."6
Additionally, the definition of distinctiveness should parallel the definition of
distinctiveness set forth in the Paris Convention, article 6, section 5, paragraph (b)(2).
The Tokyo High Court stated the following regarding distinctiveness: "When it comesto the nature of trademarks, we are speaking of a mark that functions to distinguish thegoods of one's own business from those of another's business. From this function of
distinguishing goods comes sub-functions that include indicating source, guaranteeing
quality, and advertisement. ... The purpose of article 1 of the Trademark Law, the listed
requirements for trademark registration under article 3, and the nature of the trademarks
discussed above, all require the interpretation of trademark protection as guaranteeing
the basic functionality of a trademark and removing impediments that prevent a
trademark from serving to distinguish goods. Therefore, when a third party uses a
trademark that is identical or similar to a registered trademark, a trademark owner canpetition to enjoin the third party's use. This applies not only to trademarks of the third
party displayed officially on goods, but also includes any trademark that is functioning
as a distinctive mark on one's goods or the goods of another. [Terebi Manga Jiken
Judgment (Tokyo High Court 1981) quoting Tatsumura Hirakurasei (Tokyo High Court
1976)].
On the other hand, there is the view that some trademarks are not necessarily distinctive(Amino, pp 73 onwards). The Tokyo High Court, spoke regarding the loss of a
trademark due to non-use, stating the following:"When a trademark registration is cancelled for non-use, ... one can argue thatcancellation can be avoided by simply using a trademark in various forms in connection
with the designated goods. There are no reasons to require a mark to be distinctive, thatis, to be used in a way that fulfills the basic functions of a trademark, such as
distinguishing goods." [Pora Jiken Judgment (Tokyo High Court 1991)].
Takeda interprets this decision on page 387 of his book. "There is a problem inestablishing this view of trademark distinctiveness as precedent. If the designatedgoods for a particular trademark are fruit and the fruit is shipped to the customer in abox with a paper belt bearing the mark thereon around the box, the mark does not serve
to distinguish to the customer that the trademark owner is the source of the fruit. And,
"if the function of distinguishing goods is not performed, it is difficult to find that such
use is trademark use."(1) The Meaning of Special Conspicuousness
A mark having "special conspicuousness", as used in the former Trademark Law (called
6

This history of the change from "special conspicuousness" to the current wording appears inNakamura, pp 109 onwards.

8

distinctiveness now), is generally defined as a trademark that draws the attention of thecommon person; special conspicuousness is meant to mean that the mark is
distinguishing. It has the capability of distinguishing the goods or services of one's own
business from those of another's business. Thus, a mark that merely imitates ageographic place is not sufficient to be considered a mark that "identifies the goods orservices of a certain business." An extreme example of something that does not havespecial conspicuousness is white paper. White paper contains nothing, and therefore iscompletely incapable of identifying goods or services of a business to a number ofpeople. In a less extreme example, a logo displaying white circles against a brownbackground would not automatically have special conspicuousness. However, it waspossible for "special conspicuousness" to be attained with respect to white circles that
represented pipes that were used for a long time by Dunhill Corp, i.e., "Dunhill Corp.'s
famous white spot." Marks that do not have special conspicuousness are not permitted
access to the monopoly created by trademark registration, and they must be left open forgeneral use.
There were various debates in the old law about the meaning of special conspicuousness.
These arguments are represented in the following theories: (a) the appearance ofcomposition theory and (b) the distinctiveness of goods theory. (The Comments for the
statute set forth these two theories (Comments, page 991). Professor Amano sets forth afurther theory which is referred to below as (c) the monopolization adaptability theory).
(a) Appearance of composition theory
The "appearance of composition theory" isthe theory that special conspicuousness refers to characters, designs, symbols (three
dimensional shapes), and combinations thereof (and combinations of colors therefor)that compose a trademark, and refers to marks having a composition that draws theattention of the consumer.
This theory merely contemplates the attributes of a marks's composition considered tobe registrable subject matter, and does not refer to the functionality of the trademark.
This perspective, which emphasizes composition, should be understood to only
contemplate the registrability of symbols based on appearance. Therefore, it is difficult
to explain this theory in terms of special conspicuousness based on use because no
matter how much time passes, the appearance of composition is always the same.
Under the Law of 1899, the appearance of composition theory was followed to theutmost. "Marks having no particular conspicuousness, such as colored blocks" wereconsidered unregistrable matter.
However, if the pattern became famous,
distinctiveness would be attained. Further, whether the appearance was famous or not,geographic names, person names, and words describing quality were within the scope of" lacking particular conspicuousness appearance." Consequently, geographic names,
person names, and words describing quality could not be registered. The words
normally used for geographic names, person names, and quality descriptors had to beineligible for registration, not for the public good, but as a natural outgrowth of the
purpose of the trademark law. Even if the geographic name, person name, or quality
marks appeared to be specially conspicuous it was still ineligible for registration,
revealing the theoretical inconsistency of this theory of the law.

9

(b) Distinctiveness of Goods Theory
The second theory refers to the"distinctiveness" of goods when determining when a mark is specially conspicuous.
The phrase "special conspicuousness" under the old Law (enacted in 1888), wassupposed to mean "the appearance of a special and famous name," but rather thaninterpreting this phrase to mean the composition or appearance of the trademark itself,
this theory emphasized distinguishing one's own goods from another's goods.
During the time when the old Trademark Law was in force, the wording, "special
conspicuousness of a mark," gradually evolved from the appearance of composition
theory to the to the theory that the goods themselves had to be distinctive. This thinking
has been carried forward to the statutory language of today.
(c) Monopolization Adaptability
The third theory was named the monopolization
adaptability theory by Dr. Amano. (Amano, 172). This theory explains that marks thatare not suitable for monopoly due to lack of distinctiveness are not speciallyconspicuous. It also argues that some marks are unsuitable for monopolization by aspecific person despite distinctiveness. In other words, marks that must be left open foruse by general people for the public good are considered not to have special
conspicuousness under this theory.
(2) The Meaning of Distinctiveness
Under the prior law, the wording "special conspicuousness" had been difficult tointerpret as a special trademark term, and because no one could agree on its meaning it
was removed from the text of the current law. One result of this was the rejection of theidea that special conspicuousness was a requirement of a trademark, a generalexplanation under the old Law. It was replaced with the thinking that a mark without
special conspicuousness might be considered a trademark, but was unregistrable due tothe registration requirements under Article 3.
Today, the composition of trademarks can be extremely simple or extremely complex.
Marks that are registerable can include designs, lettering, dominant lettering within thelettering, numerals, or can be additional lettering put together in various ways.
Trademarks can say "we're the best in the world," or "carefully produced." In any case,trademarks can be infinitely complex forms.
This presents a dilemma about how to determine what a trademark actually is. The
current law did not subscribe to the view that "marks will be considered identical if thedominant parts of the respective trademarks are the same." Instead, the interpretation
adopted is that for marks to be considered identical, they must be the same in all
respects, including non-dominant parts. Therefore, the requirement of special
conspicuousness was discarded in the interest of conducting a precise examination andavoiding debate about which part of the mark was the real trademark. Furthermore, theNon-claiming Right System was abolished. Under the Non-claiming Right System, forexample, if "ichi" was applied for as a trademark, the numeral "1" would be considered
unclaimed.
Substituting for the Non-claiming Right System, two new provisions were established.

10Article 4 introduced "Trademarks Barred From Registration," and Article 3 included the
new "Requirements for Trademark Registration." But Article 3 does not list special
conspicuousness as a requirement. Instead, the legislators who drafted Article 3
specifically listed the requirements of registration. In other words, the requirements for
examination prior to registration were incorporated. Recent changes have seen the term
"special conspicuousness" brought back into the law. It is now thought that the purposeof Article 3 is to explain the meaning of special conspicuousness. (Statutory
Explanatory Notes, page 991).
As one commentator observed:"We determine trademarks almost mechanically, looking at the lettering, designs, or
symbols that make up the trademark, rather than considering special conspicuousness.
When the trademark is filed, that application is first analyzed under the provisions ofArticle 3, to see if the requirements for registration are met. Then, the Examiner must
decide whether the trademark falls within a bars to registration under Article 4."(Eguchi, New Explanation, page 52).
Even the abolition of the non-claimed right system and the removal of special
conspicuousness as a necessary element of a trademark did not solve all trademark
registration problems. In fact, itemization of the registration requirements did not evenclarify the problem. In particular, even though examination has become simpler, theproblem has simply shifted to the arena of enforcement and infringement lawsuits.
First, making "special conspicuousness" a requirement for a trademark makes sense interms of the concept of trademarks. When special conspicuousness was rejected as arequirement for trademarks, some critcized that the price and symbol of a good is atleast better than scratching and staining of the good. (Eguchi, page 22). The removal of
special conspicuousness as an element of trademarks makes it impossible to have acomplete trademark law, no matter how thorough a formal registration-based system is.
Secondly, the current law's limitation of the term "special conspicuousness" to thenarrow meaning of "distinctiveness" has also left problems. For example, the lettering'Heisei,' which indicates the current era in Japan, would be registerable under thisprovision. Although the 'Heisei' lettering would, under the law, be considered "a markincapable of distinguishing goods or services of a certain business to consumers," thelettering for 'Heisei' has distinctiveness. Rather, even though the phrase 'Heisei' era has
not been in use for a long time, it would be unfair to allow one person to monopolize theterm based on a simple trademark application. Even though the text of the statute uses
the wording "trademark incapable of distinguishing goods or services of a certain
business to consumers," Examiners are specifically dictated to interpret the law based
only on "distinctiveness" in the already strict meaning. Marks such as names for cities
that will appear in the near future, even though currently not in use, can be said to havedistinctiveness. However, if such a mark were registered, its inadequacy would appear
after the establishment of the city. When the Seto Oohashi bridge (an immense bridgein Japan connecting Shikoku and Honshu Islands) was in the planning stages, a brand of
sweets registered under the same name was a problem. Although the expression"trademarks incapable of distinguishing the goods or services of a certain business toconsumers" is a most apt expression for the term "distinctiveness," it falls short in truly

11defining "special conspicuousness" as a requirement of registration. Strictly interpreted,
the word "distinctiveness" does not incorporate the "public good" in its meaning. And
defining a lack of distinctiveness as "even though a mark is displayed, it's not helpful"does not clarify the argument that "Heisei" or "a geographic indication" is unregistrable.
Within the framework of special conspicuousness, however, not only is "theunsuitability of the indication" subject to review as part of the composition, but theconcept of contributing to the "public good" is incorporated therein. In current
trademark law, the term special conspicuousness has been avoided, and the meaning ofdistinctiveness has been adopted, but with the avoidance of special conspicuousness, theconcept of "public good" is nonetheless omitted.
(3) Summary of the Meaning of the Statute
Trademark law, article 3, paragraph 1, item 6 is a general provision regarding
distinctiveness as a trademark registration requirement, while items 1 to 5 areillustrative provisions. (Statutory Comments, page 994). Trademarks which fall into
items 3 to 5 appear to mostly be distinctive. Item 3 takes distinctiveness a step farther
by considering public policy considerations. There is, however, a theory that Item 3
better fall under the bars to registration under Article 4. However, under the concepts ofeither special conspicuousness or distinctiveness it is implied that a public interest
perspective is incorporated. For example, when an inappropriate mark is registered, thetrademark system is criticized in the field relating to the designated goods of the
trademark. From a company's perspective, if a competitor is seen filing for registrationof a mark that should be left open for public use, it might make sense for the company
to file its own application as a precautionary measure. (This is especially true if thevalue of the monopoly is high). This is one reason for many inappropriate filings. The
harmis done through a lack of information regarding marks, and the casual evaluation of
distinctiveness. The damage is particularly directed to the idea of the "public good" as apart of special conspicuousness or distinctiveness. It is not really emphasized in
trademark-related academic circles; therefore, because these harmful effects are notstrongly felt or articulated by trademark-related individuals is another reason forfrequent inappropriate filings.
Recently, however, awareness of special
conspicuousness or distinctiveness has been increasing. Even if the general provision of
distinctiveness in item 6 is to be interpreted as an expression focusing only on
distinctiveness, by properly interpreting the text, these types of harmful effects havebeen minimized. (See Amino, page 294)
(4) Standard Time of Decision
According to the Tokyo High Court, "the decision period, whether stated in article 3,
paragraph 2 or not, is the period for examination." (Furoatamu Jiken Judgment (Tokyo
High Court 1971), regarding hearing invalidating trademark registration). A hearing
commences when a petition for hearing regarding a refusal is filed. (Trademark
Examination Guidelines). The judgment period is begun when an action seeking adecision of right or wrong in a hearing regarding a refusal is filed.
3. Trademarks Without Distinctiveness (Special Conspicuousness)

12(1) Generic Names of Goods or Services"Trademarks which consist solely of a mark indicating, in a common generic way, thecommon name of the goods or services." (Clause 1)(a) The meaning of a common name of a good or service
A common name for agood or service is a "name that is acknowledged as a general name for the goods orservices" in the trade. For example, the word "ship" would be a common name in the
shipping business, but not for the good "candy."
When it comes to common names, there are specific names of common goods orservices, like "film," "sweets," "lending," and "lodging." There are also abbreviations,nicknames, and slang names for specific goods or services, like "hanchyoko (chocobar)" (chocolate candy bars); "funawakayu (sake)," "takuwan (pickled radish)"(takuwandzuke, pickled radish)); "sonpo (loss protection)" (abbreviation for damage
insurance); "sarakin (salary man money)" (abbreviation for financing for salaried
workers, and slang for citizen financing); and "ichirokuginko (16 Bank)" (slang forpawn shops). Regarding abbreviations and slang, the Trademark Examination
Guidelines say: "As a rule, abbreviations and slang are included in the definition ofcommon names for goods or services."
Furthermore, some names of geographic origin, like "Satsuma" (Amasho) or "Oshima"(Oshimasanmeisen) have become common names. In other cases, registered trademarks
like "cellophane" or "cherry mochi (rice cake)" have become generic names.
(b) Recognizing when a mark has become a common name
Often it is often
difficult to actually tell when a mark has become a common name. The determination
is made from the totality of the circumstances, including the relationship between thename in question and the goods or services, the relationship between the manufacturerof the goods and the seller of the goods or provider of the services, the period of use, thecircumstances of use, and the circumstances of the mark in the era.
In determining whether a mark is a common name or not, the fundamental relationships
in the trade are the primary data points and not abstract details such as the appearance oflettering. It is not possible to decide whether a mark is a common name or not bylooking only at whether a portion of consumers recognize the mark in question to be a
general name for the goods or services. Furthermore, it is not possible to determine
whether a mark has become a common name by only looking at how a mark is defined
generically in dictionaries and documents, or if a mark is only partially being used as acommon name.
Whether or not a trademark has become a common name, it is important to realize that
subjective considerations such as trademark infringement and the willfulness of
trademark infringement do not factor into the equation. There is a greater danger thatthe goods or services to which a trademark is affixed, or with which the mark is used inconnection, will be recognized by consumers as a common name that is representativeof similar goods or services, when the goods or services are new or are monopolistic, or
the goods are of high quality or the services are excellent. However, there are common

13names that can attain individual status through long use (Mobil Oil). It is also possiblethat trademarks that were once common names at first can attain distinctiveness again.
(c) Standard for Determining if a Mark has Become Generic In a case in which amark "sanbishi tsuyu no su" (Sanbishi Broth) was used while the mark "ichibiki tsuyu
no su" (Ichibiki Broth) was in existence, it was decided that "tsuyu no su (broth) was acommon name. The court recognized that there were other tsuyu no su in the world of
instant products, shiru no su, dashi no su (broth). In the case, the following was stated:"In determining whether a mark is a common name, rather than deciding this based on
abstract lettering, one must look at the usage of the economic and societal background
during the period of use, the relationship between the lettering in question and the goods,
the substantive relationship of the trade, an analysis of the business from which thegoods emanated, and the interrelations of the participants in the channels of trade of thegoods. We must inquire as to whether the awareness of the person who adopted themark in question had an incentive, intention, or conviction to make the mark common
name, or the awareness of the general consumer. Additionally, we cannot ignore theawareness of the common consumer amongst all consumers. It is also important toconsider whether distinctiveness remains in the eyes of the retail merchant towards themark. In other words, sometimes even when a common name by itself is not common,
consumers can make it so, even without the consent of the merchant, such that decisions
can be based on class consideration. Furthermore, a mark can have varying degrees ofcommonness in different countries." [Nagoya District Court 1965].
There is no hard rule, in determining whether a name has become common, regardingwhether one should look at the recognition of the mark among traders, or whether one
should do the same among consumers. The answer does not lie with one or the other.
The recognition by the consumer is very important, but by no means is this the only
consideration. Merchants cannot be permitted to justify the abuse of distinctive
indications. Similarly, by no means is the determination of whether or not a name has
become common unrelated to the recognition of a mark by merchants. It is possible fora mark to be distinctive among tradesmen without being distinctive among consumers.
Furthermore, in precedential cases, merchant recognition is often more dispositive(Tikujyo-Kaisetsu, page 992). For example, in addition to the "tsuyu no su" case,mentioned above, there is the "celotape" case discussed merchant recognition.
"Regarding whether a trademark has become a common name, some importantconsiderations include the relevant business area of the business in question, whether
the mark was being used as a common name, and how this process of becoming acommon name (also known as "genericide") made the mark lose its function ofindicating source as to the manufacturer of the trademarked goods. Therefore, thegeneral consumer's awareness is not always dispositive." (Kobe Amagasaki District
Court 1961). Furthermore, in the "Celotape Case" the "common name" claim wasdenied, but on appeal was affirmed (Osaka High Court 1965), affirming the JPO's
decision that the mark was common name. The claim was subsequently denied by the
Tokyo High Court which vacated the lower court's decision (Tokyo High Court 1967).
Currently, the debate has ended, and the trademark has become "Nichiban." In the
dictionaries and documents, "Celotape" is now listed as a generic name, but precedent14

does not agree, and it is a trademark.
(d) Cases involving becoming a common name
In another case, the generic natureof the term "Toilet Cleanser" was at issue. (Tokyo High Court 1958). The court said
that even though the appellant was the first to use the term 'Toilet Cleanser' in themarket, the term did not go beyond a normal noun, meaning cleanser for toilet use,
under the normal meaning of the word. The court's rationale, however, was insufficient.
Compare, for example, the "tsuyu no su" case (above): the same conclusion was reached,but it was based on the fact that the mark was used on many similar goods. Anothercase in which the name was found to be common was the "Five Year Diary" case
(Osaka High Court 1966).
The case of "Nagasaki Tanmen" is an example of a case in which the name was
not found to be common (Maehashi District Court 1966). In another case, involving thetrademark "Goshi Kaisha Hachyo Miso,"7, it was asserted that the mark was distinctive.
The court considered the right to registration, stating the following: "When we consider
the actual business circumstances and take out the part "Goshi Kaishi (Combined Asset
Company)" that merely identifies the type of legal entity involved, we can easily seethat the recognition of only "Hacho Miso" (8th Street Miso) as a distinctive mark is
significant. The mark Hacho Miso was born in Okazaki City, Aichi-Ken at 8th Street,and came to mean a distinct type of miso made out of soybeans. It is also
acknowledged as a common name for similar types of goods. Therefore, we cannot
recognize that the term Hachyo Miso has a distinguishing function in the trade."(Supreme Court, 1990).
Here, the term "common name" refers to the recognition by merchants and consumersof a general term for goods and services. There is of course the case in which, throughlong use, the name of a good becomes generic. In contrast, there are also cases wheregeneric names have been used for a long time and have come to indicate a productspecifically. (Supreme Court, 1990).
One long and hard fought case is that of "SEIROGAN" (made up of characters meaning"Conquering Russia Bullets"). SEIROGAN, initiated in 1902, referred to thesubjugation of Russia and was canceled in 1926 because it was contrary to international
principles and public order (June 28, 1926, Osaka High Court, Shinketsu Kouhou
Daishinin Hanketsu). Then, "SEIROGAN" (made up of the characters "Correct Dew
Pill") appeared. A the trademark registration was denied based on the judgment that it
had become a common name (Tokyo High Court 1965); the Supreme Court affirmed
this decision in 1974. However, today, whether the mark is still currently a common
name is another issue. There are cases when, through long use, a mark becomes acommon name; but, conversely, as in the case of Singer sewing machines (Singer Mfg.
Co., 5th Cir. 1953), Goodyear tires (Goodyear Tire, D.C. Minn. 1965), and Benberugu(Osaka High Court 1938), through long use on a particular product, a mark loses its
status as a common name regarding that particular product.
(e) Exception for Geographic Origins for Wine
Geographic origins of goods areoften merely common names; but in regard to geographic origins for wines and spirits
7

Hachyo Miso was miso created by the plaintiff's ancestors.

15

(for example, Champagne, Port, Cognac), even if they become a common name, there isa special exception; these names can achieve protection. This mirrors article 4 of the
Madrid Agreement, which incorporated special protection instigated by wine producing
countries, like France and Spain, that claimed great concern for the wine market.
(2) Customarily Used Trademarks"Trademarks which are customarily used in respect of particular goods or services."(Clause 2)(a) The Meaning of Customarily Used Trademarks "Customarily used trademarks
are marks like "Masamune" (sake), "Habutaemochi" (mochi (rice cake) sweets),"kakiyama" (arare (hail) mochi (rice cakes)), "OrandaBune no Zukei" (Designs of Boatsof Holland) (sponge cake), or "Sightseeing Hotels" (lodging facility services), and"PureiGaido" (play guide) (arrangement of seating at playhouses) that are used bymembers in a trade nationally or locally, and due to such use in the trade over many
years, become used for goods of a certain kind, such that a mark does not havedistinctiveness, and is not capable of distinguishing the goods or services of a particularbusiness." (Tokyo District Court, 1953).
Customarily used trademarks are marks that are customarily used, that is, generally used,in the trade. Members of the trade must be able to use them freely. Therefore, they are
not marks that can be registered by just one individual.
Often when it comes to customarily used trademarks, though there may be elements thatare originally unavailable for trademarking, some of the elements are in fact functioning
as a trademark. This is similar to those marks that become common names, discussed in
the section above. On this point, some marks, then, overlap as both common names andcustomarily used marks. For example, "Maku no uchi" is a "common name" used toindicate a certain kind of bento (take out lunch), but it is also an example of a local,
customarily used trademark. In addition, "Habutae mochi" can be said to be a common
name, but also indicates a particular local kind of mochi centered in Fukui City. In thismeaning, it has been recognized that marks can play a dual role as a "common name"and a "customarily used trademark." (Tokyo High Court, 1956).
(b) Differences Between "Customarily Used Trademarks" and "Common Names"
Common names are generally formed with letters that comprise words. Customarily
used marks are not only comprised of letters, but typically incorporate a combination oflettering, design, and symbols to form the mark. Some examples include the design for"Daruma" medicine or the design of "OrandaBune" for sponge cakes. Further, whereas
common names require recognition in the mind's of tradesmen and general consumers,
customarily used marks are based on the recognition of only merchants in the relevant
trade.
In the Robinson Case, the mark "Robinson Helicopter," affixed to helicopters owned by
the helicopter manufacturer Robinson, was said to be "a trademark indicating the shapeof the land of geographic origin in a commonly used method for the designated goods,"
and the marks such as "Robinson Type R22 Beta Model," are "customarily used model

16

designations." I In light of article 26, paragraph 1, the use of the mark was not eligible
for trademark protection. Even though use of the mark distinguished between "the shapeof land of geographic origin" (the design) and the customarily used model designations
this separation was hard to distinguish. (Osaka District Court 1990).
(c) Recognizing Customary Use Whether a mark is in customary use does not relate
to the intention of the user. That is, in establishing that a mark is a customarily used
mark, one does not inquire as to the user's frame of mind. Yet just because a mark has
many infringers does not necessarily mean that the mark is a customarily usedtrademark. It is necessary that the trademark's customary use corresponds to the extent
that the mark has lost distinctiveness amongst members of the relevant trade.
Trademarks that are customarily used are used by merchants in the same field who are
not related to one another. Marks that are used by a number of large firms that are
members of a group, or marks that have many licensees, are not customarily used marks.
Customarily used trademarks could be established locally. If a mark functions
territorially to indicate the source of one group of companies, even if a number ofpeople cannot recognize the source by looking at the mark, that fact alone is notindicative that the mark is a common name or a customarily used mark. A mark canhave relative geographic effectiveness. For example, it is possible to form a group andhave a mark registered as a collective mark. For customarily used trademarks that startout as registered trademarks and become marks of customary use, it is possible that they
can be customary marks for a while, then return to the monopoly right. This isdetermined on a case-by-case basis.
(3) Geographic Origin, Geographic Market, and Quality of Goods"Trademarks which consist solely of a mark indicating in a common way the origin,place of sale, quality, raw materials, efficacy, use, quantity, shape, or price of the goods,
or the method or time of manufacturing or using them; or the location of provision of
the services, quality, articles for use in such provision, efficacy, use, quantity, modes,
price or method or time of the provision of services." (Clause 3).
(a) Purpose
Public policy dictates that certain information or indicators should be
able to be used freely by those in the relevant trade. These include: the origin, place ofsale, quality, raw materials, efficacy, use, quantity, shape, or price of goods, etc. Not
only do these indicators lack distinctiveness, but they are necessary when dealing in the
goods or services, such that it would be inappropriate to allow a specific person tomonopolize them as a mark. (Supreme Court, 1979). Therefore, indications that cannot
distinguish goods or services, are not suitable for monopoly and will be refused
registration (assuming that the mark does not reach levels of special fame through use).
These marks are also called "descriptive marks" (U.S. Trademark Law Section 2 (c) andshould be refused registration.
The following examples of descriptive marks that are not suitable for registration relate
to goods: "KOBE" for batteries (origin of goods); "Seto Ohashi" for sweets (place ofsale); "Kureen" (Clean) for water tanks (quality); "Anmin Ketto" (Sound Asleep(blanket)) for electric blankets (efficacy); "Ito Wasabi Pai (Ito Wasabi Pie)" for pie (rawmaterials); "GOLF" for clothing (use); "WanKappu" (One Cup) for cooking oil for one

17

person (quantity); "Eru" (El) for clothing (shape); "Ooba-gen" (Big bargain) for
furniture (price). For the mark "Urobaggu," URO means "urine"; those working in the
medical apparatus field (the consumers of the designated goods) would easily
understand the mark to mean "a bag relating to urine." (Tokyo High Court, 1994).
Further, "TaranokoKoujidzuke" was refused under article 3, paragraph, item 3.
The following are examples of services whose marks were found to be descriptive:"Ginza" for dining (place of provision of service); "Teiki" (time deposit) for savings
accounts (quality); "Ko-doresu" (Cordless) for wireless calling machines (an item
offered to use the service); "One Week" for language instruction (quantity);"RiftoShisutemu" (Lift System) for parking lot services; "Cheap Plan" for sponsoredvacations (price); "ZenkanYoyaku" (All building reservations) for entertainment
promotion (method of providing service); "Open Year Round" for warehouse provision(time).
Conversely, the following are examples of marks that were not found to be descriptive:"Tabakoya" (Tobacco Store) toothpaste (place of sale); "Green Apples" for soap
(characteristic); and "2/IN 1/tsuinwan" (twin one) for electric instruments (quantity).
The question of whether a mark is descriptive or not descriptive is determined inrelation to the goods or services. For example, "Anmin (sound asleep)" (efficacy) may
be descriptive for electric blankets, but for language instruction it is not descriptive;"passport" (use) may be descriptive for photography, it is not descriptive for candy.
Nonetheless, the following names tend to be considered descriptive with noinvestigation into the goods or services: country names, famous geographic names, andshopping districts like "Japan," "London," "Ginza," "Champs Elysees," and marks like
"new," "big," and "hi."(b) Trademarks with more than one descriptive factor
There are trademarks thatare comprised of not just one of the following features, but two or more: geographic
origin, place of sale, quality, raw materials, efficacy, use, quantity, shape, and price, etc.,
or, in terms of services, the place where a service is provided, quality, an item that isprovided in order to use the service, efficacy, use, quantity, circumstance, price, etc.
For example, the mark "Excellent Family Kobe Beef" combines quality, geographic
origin, use, etc. The composition of a mark falls under item 3 of the trademark
provision. (Manual of Trademark Examining Standards, page 7).
(c) Descriptive Trademarks
Item 3 is not limited to only the list set forth therein.
Instead it is thought to give examples of "descriptive marks," according to theTrademark Examination Guidelines (page 7). It is construed to include country names,
famous geographic names (including administrative districts, former country names andforeign places), shopping districts (including those overseas), maps, etc., as well as theorigin or place of sale of goods, or the place of provision of the service (including theplace where the business is located). Some examples include: "Japan," "America,""Osaka," "London," "Ginza," "Champs Elysees," etc.
Even if the goods are not actually manufactured or sold in the place indicateddesignations of "geographic origin" and "place of sale," are still not permitted. If

18

consumers and merchants can recognize mark as a place, that is enough for a refusal.
("Jyoujia (Georgia) Jiken, Supreme Court, 1986, regarding lipstick, etc.; "Waikiki
Jiken," Tokyo High Court, 1979, discussing make-up). In addition, in order to ensurethat those in the trade can use the mark freely, if a place name is well known, it ispresumed that free use is allowed, and counter evidence must be set forth by theapplicant. If the place is not well known, the examiner has the burden of confirmingthat it is a place of sale.
(d) Technical Trademarks
When the descriptive expressions under this clause are
not displayed in a normal manner, they may become distinctive in relation to theparticular goods or services. In such a case, the expression becomes registerable. For
example, "Kerorin" for efficacy of medicine, and "milky" for ingredients of candy were
found to be registrable). Furthermore, when a mark is not only comprised of a
descriptive expression, but other elements are added, such that the mark as a whole isdistinctive, the mark could be registrable. However, under this provision, public policy
dictates that most technical expressions should be unregistrable, unless they havespecial conspicuousness. When special conspicuousness is acquired through use, it
should be acknowledged. This provision should be applied as broadly as possible;
technical trademarks and geographic names, under item 3, and sometimes under item 6,
should be refused as often as possible, and should not be registered. So, in the interestof harmonizing the law with public policy, we have to adjust article 3 paragraph 2.
In contrast, when special conspicuousness has been gained through use, it is in
the interest of public policy to allow technical trademarks to exist to the greatest degree
possible because we can not let unfair competitors profit. A "technical trademark" ismore than an item explained in words; it includes marks that express a technicalmeaning through the combination of a symbol and design. (Toyozaki, page 355).
According to the Trademark Examination Guidelines (page 7) ("excluding marks withelongated vowel sounds, such as "kokuna-ru," "sugure-ta (greeeat)," "to-kubetsu(speeecial)," and "uma-i (deliiiicious)), when we acknowledge the quality, efficacy, use,
etc., of a good, or the quality, efficacy, use, etc. of a service, as a rule, the marks comeunder this clause."(e) Suggestive Marks According to the Trademark Examination Guidelines (page 7),
a "trademark that indirectly expresses" the quality, efficacy, use, etc., of a good, or thequality, efficacy, use, etc. of a service does not fall under clause 3. This creates the
problem of deciding whether marks are "suggestive." Suggestive marks should bethought of in as limited a way as possible when they do not carry special
conspicuousness. Further, when a mark is used for a long time, such that its
distinctiveness increases, the expression of function is diluted, so that registration
requirements should be reconsidered. Some examples of registration refusals for marks
on goods include: "RIP CAP," designating lids and plugs of bottles as goods (Tokyo
High Court, 1969); "pa-fekuto (perfect)," designating dye as the good (Tokyo High
Court, 1973), and "Milk Donuts," designating donuts (Tokyo High Court 1974).
Obviously, the public good is weighed heavily. As a result, this kind of suggestive
mark is perhaps better protected under the Unfair Competition Prevention Law, rather
than the Trademark Law. Protection under the Unfair Competition Prevention Law
allows a person to use a mark exclusively, to an extent. Distinctiveness can then beborn out of the use, such that the mark can indicate to consumers a fixed source. Based19

on this, when the degree of suggestiveness is low, meaning that the ability of the markto indirectly identify a characteristic peculiar to the good or service is weak, although
first glance it is wise to proceed along the path towards registration, in this case, onemust also consider the chance of refusal.
(f) Slogans and Titles of Books "Slogans" are normally not distinctive; it is often thecase that they cannot be registered. However, there are also examples of when they
have been registered. Indeed, slogans and titles of books present a difficult problem.
c "Titles of Books" Titles of books, besides indicating the source of the goods, areused to indicate the contents of the work. Due to the fact that a title indicates a certain
type of book (making "a general good" a designated good), the idea of recognizing
proprietary rights for a book title in one person upon trademark registration, unlike aperiodic publication, would limit others' ability to take advantage of available works.
Furthermore, because trademark rights do not expire, the control of the work could be
extended indefinitely, even after the copyright in the work had expired. Thus, after the
expiration of the copyright, the copyright owner, using the trademark right in the title,
could actually extend his right. This would be contrary to copyright policies, and would
not benefit the public good. The Patent Office even stated in the Trademark
Examination Guidelines (page 8), "Regarding titles of books, when it is recognized thatthe title directly refers to the contents of the book, the title is considered to be indicating
quality." However, if the title does not refer to the contents of the book, but is instead astrong indicator of source, the title could be registered as an exception to the rule. (Forexample, once a study encyclopedia was registered, the registration would provide alimit for registrability).
d "Titles of Periodic Publications Like Newspapers and Magazines"
Unliketitles of books, titles of periodicals are typically able to distinguish goods. (Trademark
Examination Guidelines, page 8). In contrast, for "images recorded on film," when thetitle directly indicates the contents, the title is thought to be indicating quality.
Similarly, with respect to a "recording on a magnetic tape," the same rule applies.
e "Names of Broadcasted Shows"
With respect to names of broadcasted shows(including series) or designated services (production of broadcasted shows, television
broadcasts, and the like), if the name of the broadcast directly indicates the specificcontents, the name is thought to be indicating the quality of the services (Trademark
Examination Guidelines, page 8).
As far as specific services (rental of films, rental of pre-recorded video magnetic tapes,
rental of records or pre-recorded magnetic tapes), if the title of the item to be offered aspart of the service (film, pre-recorded video tapes, records or pre-recorded magnetic
tapes) directly indicates the contents, the title is seen as indicating the quality of theservice.
(4) Personal names and names of legal entities"Trademarks which consist solely of a mark indicating, in a common way, acommonplace surname or name of a legal entity" (item 4).

20

(a) The meaning of commonplace surnames and names of legal entities
Becausecommonplace surnames or names of legal entities that have no distinctiveness arewidespread across the country, public policy dictates that an exclusive right should not
be given to an individual claiming them. A "surname" is a family name (not the givenname) of a natural person. For example, this provision would apply to shiba for printed
materials, and so on (Volume 5 (1), page 27, Mutai-shu, February 23, 1973, at Tokyo
High Court), and shiba for dye, pigment, paints and so on (Volume 5 (1), page 27,
Mutai-shu, February 23, 1973, at Tokyo High Court). A combination of first andsecond names is generally considered to have distinctiveness. However, even the
combination will sometimes have no distinctiveness.
"Meisho (name of a legal entity)" refers to a legal person, so the same rules apply.
(b) The Official Standard for Examination for commonplace surnames and namesof legal entities
As a rule, there will be a large number of similar names for acommonplace surname or a name of a legal entity. For example, there will be a rather
large number of names listed in an alphabetical telephone book, such as the Telephone
Book published by NTT (Trademark Examination Guidelines). Marks that arecommonplace surnames or names of legal entities written in kana lettering or romaji,
such as "taki (in katakana)," fall under this provision (Trademark Examination
Guidelines, page 10).
(c) Trade names, and the like
Trademarks that combine commonplace surnames,business classification names, famous geographical names, and so on, with any of thelegal entity types listed below come under this provision as commonplace names:"Shyouten (store/shop)," "Shyoukai (a commercial firm)," "Ya (shop)," "Ya(family/shop)," "Sya (company)," "Do (hall)," "Sya (building)," Youko (go abroad),""Kyokai (an association)," "Kenkyusyo (research lab)," "Seisakusyo (manufacturer),""Kai (committee/group)," "Kenkyukai (research group)," "Gomei Kaisya (partnership),""Goshi Kaisya (partnership)," Yugen Kaisya (closely held corporation)," "Kabushiki
Kaisya (joint stock corporation)," "K.K.," "Co.," "Co., Ltd." and so on (Trademark
Examination Guidelines, page 10).
A name that combines an administrative regional name and a type of entity name, even
if it can be adopted in a common way, may be registered as an exception to the rule, aslong as it is acknowledged that there is no similar mark available. Such examples
include Nihon (Japan) Typewriter Kabushiki Kaisha, Nihon Kogyo (Japan Mining
Industry) Kabushiki Kaisha, and Osaka Henatsuki (Transformer) Kabushiki Kaisha(Trademark Examination Guidelines, page 10). These names are examples of
distinctiveness based on use. Therefore, "even if the mark is a name capable of being
adopted in a common way, it must also be acknowledged as not being the same as
another mark, and must have acquired distinctiveness by use." One problem with thistype of combined name is that it may be limited by territory. In other words, if a tradename is simply attached to, for example, Kabushiki Kaisha, and then registered, and thetrademark owner, asserting his trademark rights nationwide, then attempts to prevent
usage or registration of an identical or similar trade name, he may have a problem.
There is a relationship between the Trademark Law and the Commercial Law that21

regionally limits enforcement of trade name registrations (See Commercial Law, article19). Trade names are distinct from trademarks, and registering trade names based on
use is problematic. Even in the event that the distinctiveness of a trade name isstrengthened by use, it is generally a problem if that trade name is registered in its
original form, which could happen "even if the mark is a name capable of being adopted
in a common way, and is acknowledged as not being the same as another mark." Forexample, the trademark "Morita Golf Kabushiki Kaisha," was judged not based onwhether or not the surname "Morita" and the trade name "golf" were commonplace, but
by whether or not "Morita Golf" was commonplace, such that article 3, paragraph 1,
item 4 was not applicable (6885, volume 242, Prompt Report, June 13, 1995, at Tokyo
High Court. In addition, there is a list of examples of Appeal Board decisions regarding"commonplace surnames or names of a legal entities" in Nakamura, page 165).
A store name that is frequently used for a specific service (such as "Ai (love)" and "Ran(orchid)" for provision of food and drink, mainly of alcohol, or of food and drink,mainly of tea or coffee) would not come under item 4 of this provision, but rather the"catch-all" provision of Article 3, paragraph 1, item 6. (See Trademark Examination
Guidelines, page 10).
(d) When the surname or name of a legal entity has distinctiveness The surname
or name of a legal entity, if it is not commonplace, may be considered to be distinctive.
The surname or name of a legal entity may be registered if it is shown in a non-common
way, or not alone but in a combination with other elements that together generatedistinctiveness.
(5) Very simple and commonplace trademarks"Trademark which consists solely of a very simple and commonplace mark" (item 5)(a) Purpose
Trademarks which consist solely of a very simple and commonplace
mark have no distinctiveness. These kind of marks are generally used and are notappropriate for monopolization by a specific person, such that they should not beregistered.
There are two differing views on whether "very simple but not commonplace marks"and "not simple but commonplace marks" should be rejected under the subject provision,
item 5, (Amino, page 288) or the next provision, item 6. Either way, both views
maintain that such marks should be rejected.
(b) The Standard for Examination
The Trademark Examination Guidelines lists
marks to be considered simple or commonplace (page 11).
1.
One letter in kana (including stylization thereof); one straight or wavy line; anoutlined, commonly used symbol, such as ∆, , {, ◊, #, ♥; and designs such as a laurelor shield shall come under this provision.
2.
(1) When a mark is comprised of either one or two letters in romaji (Roman
characters), and the letter in kana that corresponds to the sound of the romaji lettering is
written or displayed beside the mark, this provision will apply.
(2) When a mark is displayed by letters in kana that correspond to the sound of22

two letters in romaji, this provision shall not apply, unless such romaji letters arecommonly used for the goods or services as a symbol or mark.
(3) When two letters in romaji are connected by a hyphen, or when one or two
letters in romaji are attached to "Co.," "Ltd." or "K.K.," each of them being recognized
as meaning "Company," "Limited" or "Kabushiki Kaisha," respectively, this provision
shall apply. However, two letters in romaji connected by "&" shall not fall under thisprovision.
(4) Two letters in romaji expressed by a monogram such as (T+S) shall not fallunder this provision.
3.
(1) A numeral, as a rule, falls under this provision.
(2) When a mark indicates a sound coming from a number with one or two
digits such as "wan-tsu (one-two)," "toeruburu (twelve)" and "jyuuni (twelve)," or if
these numbers are written next to the letters, as a rule, this provision applies.
(3) When a mark contains a number with three or more digits, it will be treated in
the following manner.
(i) Examples to which this provision may apply:"wan handoreddo ando touenteisuri- (one hundred and twenty three)";"hyakunijyuusan (123)";(ii) An example to which this provision may not apply:"wan tsu suri- (one two three)"4.
A simple outline in the form of the outline that directly preceded this paragraph,that is, 1, 2 (1) and (3); and 3 (1), 3 (2), 3 (3) (i) shall be considered to fall within thisprovision.
(c) Examples to which this provision has applied include: "5" for food (1258, volume8(7), Gyo-shu, July 9, 1962, at the Tokyo High Court); "WA7" for polyester fibers andthe like (page 49, volume 2(1), Mutai-shu, February 26, 1970, at the Tokyo High
Court); and VO5 for chemicals, and the like (volume 26(565), Rapid Report, June 7,
1977, at the Supreme Court, and page 178, volume 6(1) Mutai-shu, June 26, 1974 at theTokyo High Court).
There are examples, however, of trademarks made up of symbols that can be distinctive
for goods even though the symbols are simple. Other trademarks made up of symbols
have acquired recognition through business. Examples of such cases include "ツ"[tsu]for food cans in former Class 5, and "ニ"[ni] for metal products in former Class 7 (page1493, volume 11, Min-shu, June 20, 1932, and page 3, volume 691, October 21, 1938).
A trademark that consists of a very simple but non-commonplace mark may havedistinctiveness due to its degree of peculiarity; therefore, if a monopoly right is granted,
there would be no harm. Because a trademark which is not simple but commonplace
may often have distinctiveness, there is a strong view that it should be treated not underitem 5, but by the "catch-all" provision in item 6.
(6) Trademarks that do not have distinctiveness"Trademarks which do not enable consumers to recognize the goods or services as being
connected with a certain person's business"23

(a) In addition to those marks mentioned in items 1 to 5 of paragraph 1, Article 3,
trademarks which do not enable consumers to recognize the goods or services as being
connected with a certain person's business may not be registered. When this provision
is analyzed word for word, it seems to regulate only trademarks that have no
distinctiveness. However, this provision should be understood as an all-inclusive,"catch-all" provision of paragraph 1. The marks included in items 1 to 5 should not
only be construed to be marks that have no distinctiveness in the narrow meaning of theterm, but "marks inappropriate for monopoly" having no so called "special
conspicuousness," as embodied in the former Trademark Law. Therefore, the item 6 isgenerally considered to be a "catch-all" provision for items 1 to 5. Thus, thedistinctiveness defined in this provision has a broader meaning than the others, andbased on factors of appearance and other factors, trademarks that do not fall within
items 1 to 5, may fall under Item 6. Some examples of the types of trademarks caught
in the "catch-all" provision include: "trademarks that have no distinctiveness based onform," or "trademarks that are not simple, but commonplace, and have no
distinctiveness due to current use by a number of people," or "trademarks that arerecognized as being inappropriate for monopolization by a specific person."(b) The Trademark Examination Guidelines lists examples to which this provision isapplied:
1. Trademarks consisting solely of a texture pattern (such as one continuously
repeated a pattern) shall come under this provision.
2. A slogan (such as catch phrase) shall come under this provision.
3. Characters, etc., used commonly in commerce for indicating quantity, and thelike, of the goods or services, such as "Net" or "Gross," shall come under this provision.
4. "Heisei," which indicates the name of the present era, shall come under thisprovision.
5. (1) A store name which is used for a specific service in large numbers(excluding marks that come under article 3, paragraph 1, item 4) shall come under thisprovision.
Some examples of this include:
For provision of food and drink, mainly of alcohol, or of food and drink, mainlyof tea or coffee ...):→ "Ai (love)," "Jun (pure)," "Yuki (snow)," "ori- bu (olive)," and "furendo(friend)"(2) Trademarks of the kind of store name mentioned above in (1) combined witha term expressing the business type, such as "sunakku (snack)" or "kissa (coffee shop),"or trademarks of the kind of store name mentioned in (1), excluding the term expressing
the business type shall, as a rule, come under this provision.
6. A three dimensional trademark which is recognized to be merely a shape of astore or place of business where the designated goods or services are handled, excepting
those applicable under article 3, paragraph 1, item 3, shall come under this provision.
The way to consider the "Heisei" name of the present era set forth here under thisprovision may be understood by considering the broader meaning of distinctivenessunder this provision. Also, the concept of distinctiveness ("special conspicousness") isdeeply embedded in the concept of the public good itself.

24

(c) Even if the individual constituents of a pattern of a flower or arabesque constituting
a design trademark may be commonplace, its arrangement, combination, coloring andso on may allow the mark to have distinctiveness as a whole (3(42), Rapid Report, June27, 1975, at the Supreme Court, and page 291, volume 6(2), Mutai-shu, September 18,
1974 at the Tokyo High Court).
(d) Evaluation Standards relating to newly incorporated three-dimensional
trademarks
c Evaluation regarding article 3, paragraph 1, item 3
Regarding newly
incorporated three-dimensional trademarks, the Japanese Patent Office has said that"trademarks which consist solely of a mark indicating, in a common way ... articles foruse in the provision of goods and services," refers not only to names of marks in only
letters, but includes trademarks in design form such as the ones indicating articles foruse in the provision of services.
This provision also includes articles for the provision of designated services, meaning,
not only shapes of designated goods but also including shapes of the packaging ofdesignated goods. Therefore, three-dimensional trademarks that consumers identify as
the actual shapes of these designated goods, etc., strictly fall under Article 3, Paragraph
1, Item 3.
d Evaluation regarding Trademark Law article 3, paragraph 1, item 5.
Beforethe revision, marks considered extremely simple or commonplace trademarks included:a straight line together with a wavy line, and outlines of shapes such as a triangle,
square, and circle. With the incorporation of three-dimensional marks, spheres, cubes,
rectangular parallelograms, cylinders, and triangular columns were added under article
3, paragraph 1, item 5 as "extremely simple or commonplace trademarks."(7) Distinctiveness (special conspicuousness) based on use(a) Meaning Even a trademark that falls under Trademark Law article 3, paragraph 1,
item 3 can obtain registration, in spite of this provision, if a certain person uses the markover a long period of time, and "the result of the use is that consumers are able todistinguish the goods or services of a certain business." (Article 3, paragraph 2).
(b) Intent If consumers can distinguish the goods or services of a certain business by
way of a mark that indicates the origin of the goods, the location of the services or acommon surname, or by way of a mark that is an extremely simple and commonplacemark, it may be that the mark has acquired distinctiveness if it has been used
exclusively in the relevant field for a long time in a considerably wide regional area.
(c) Judgment standards
In order to acquire distinctiveness (special
conspicuousness) through use, it is necessary for a mark to actually be used extensively
in connection with the goods or services for a rather long period of time in the relevant
field in a considerably wide regional area. Therefore, the inevitable result of long,exclusive use is the acquisition of distinctiveness. Still, the phrase "rather long period,"25

is very vague. With today's advertising model in mind, it is possible that a mark could
acquire distinctiveness quickly as a result of concentrated advertising, such that one
should not interpret this expression regarding "long use" too formally. This is also trueof the phrase "large quantity" of goods. Indeed, the question of use must be decided ona case-by-case basis; there is no set, formal standard when it comes to "use." Theprimary question will always be whether distinctiveness has been attained.
Distinctiveness (special conspicuousness) is rooted in the concept of the public benefit;
allowing the original monopolization of a trademark with no distinctiveness would beinappropriate. On the other hand, it's important to remember that the legal purpose of
trademarks is to prevent unfair competition. Therefore, in terms of determining the
subject matter that can be protected, we must not interpret the rules with excessive
strictness, for a mark may really be distinctive, and finding the right balance between
these two notions is extremely difficult.
(d) Examination standards
Trademark examination standards are explained in thefollowing manner. (Trademark Examination Guidelines, page 16)
1.
(1) Registration for trademarks that have acquired distinctiveness through use
will only be granted in cases relating to the trademark, the identical trademark together
with the goods or services, or goods or services that were identical to those used inconnection with the trademark.
(2) If the trademark drawn in the trademark application and the trademark
displayed in the certificate proving distinctiveness are not the same, registration basedon acquired distinctiveness will not be granted, as in the following:(a) cases in which the trademark in the drawing of the application is written in
cursive Chinese handwriting, and the trademark in the certificate is written in printed orsemi-cursive Chinese handwriting;(b) cases in which the trademark in the drawing of the application is written in
hiragana, and the trademark in the certificate is written in katakana, kanji, or romaji;(c) cases in which the trademark in the application is written in arabic numerals,
and the trademark in the certificate is written in Japanese numerals;(d) cases in which the trademark in the application is written vertically, and thetrademark in the certificate is written horizontally;(e) cases in which the trademark in the application is written as "P" in a circle,
and the trademark in the certificate is written as "P" in a square, or "P" in a triangle, or"P" in a circle inside a square ;(f) cases in which the trademark in the application is a three-dimensional
trademark, and the trademark in the certificate is flat, or vice versa;
2.
The following general factors may be considered as examples in determining
whether distinctiveness has been acquired:26

(1) whether the trademark and the goods or services have actually been used;(2) the date of first use;
(3) the duration of use;(4) the geographic area of use;
(5) the scale of the volume of production, proof of licensing, or the scale of thebusiness (number of shops, degree of business territory, sales, etc);(6) advertising methodology, frequency, and content;
3.
For the factors (listed above) that may be considered, the following are methodsof proof:(1) sales vouchers, sales slips, order slips, invoices, receipts, and accounting
books;(2) printed materials that have advertisements, etc., within (newspapers,
magazines, catalogues, leaflets, etc.)(3) pictures, etc., showing the trademark being used;(4) Affidavits from the advertiser, broadcaster, publisher, or printer.
(5) Affidavits from unions or individuals in the relevant trade;(6) Affidavits from clients or agents;(7) Affidavits from consumers;(8) Affidavits from public organizations, for example (the government, local
public groups, foreign embassies, chambers of commerce, etc.)(e) Precedential Cases
Some examples of precedential cases acknowledging
distinctiveness include: "pasutaa" for medicine (Dai-han, April 10, 1928, Minsyu, Vol.
7, page 185); "Miyoshi" for shampoo (Tokyo High Court Decision, July 15, 1950, KoMinsyu, Vol. 3, No. 2, page 76); "Tokyo Ro-pu (Tokyo Rope)" for rope (Tokyo High
Court Decision, October 31, 1967, Gyo-syu Vol. 18, No. 10, page 1398); "Gorufu(Golf)" for a few clothing articles, not all (Tokyo High Court Decision, May 14, 1970,
Muta-syu, Vol. 2, No. 1, page 315); "Miruku Dona-tsu (Milk Doghnuts)" for donuts(Tokyo High Court Decision, September 17, 1974, Mutaisyu, Vol. 6, No. 2, page 257).
III. Negative Requirements
1. The Meaning of the Negative Requirements

27

The negative requirements are defined as "reasons not to register" or "bars toregistration." The affirmative requirements for registration of a trademark are elementsa mark must have, such as descriptiveness and so on. On the other hand, when a markfalls under the requirements defined in article 4, paragraph 1 of the Trademark Law, themark will be refused registration, such that the requirements are said to be "reasons forrefusal of registration." Similarly, because any one of the requirements can prevent
registration, the requirements are also said to be "bars to registration." Therefore, when
it is said that "a mark can't be registered if ... " the requirements are said to be "negativerequirements."8
Because trademark law prevents unfair competition and protects trust in business,
negative requirements regulate various types of items for the public benefit in order toavoid likelihood of confusion and misunderstanding of the quality of goods or services.
This requirement can apply to any registrable trademarks in public use which satisfy the
positive requirements in article 3 of the Trademark Law.
2. Types of unregistrable trademarks
Among various types of negative requirements, there are two categories of registration
bars: "absolute bars" for public benefit (items 1, 7, 9, and 16) and "relative bars" forpersonal benefit (by a junior user of the mark) that are registrable under certain
conditions (items after item 8). Because the latter category is regulated for personal
benefit,9 any trademark can be invalidated. However, there is a specific, limited period
for the junior party to initiate an invalidation proceeding (Section 47); after this period,
such an avenue is foreclosed. Multiple bars to registration may be relevant to one
trademark, however if only one applies, there is no need to apply the others. Therefore,
trademark applications can be rejected for a wide variety of reasons.
Next, we will present, in numerical order, an outline of the absolute bars (items 1 to 7, 9
and 16, although 9 and 16 will be presented under the relative bars) and the relative bars
(items 8, 10 to 15, 17 to 19, although relative bars 9 and 16 are absolute bars).
(1) Absolute Registration Bars (items 1-7)(a) National Flag
"Trademarks which are identical to or similar to the national flag,
the imperial chrysanthemum crest, a decoration, a medal of merit, or a foreign nation'sflag" (item 1).
These marks protect the dignity of a nation and others and prevents any individual who
uses these marks from monopolizing them by using them as trademarks.
"National flag" means a flag which symbolizes Japan. "Chrysanthemum Crest"
represents the Japanese Imperial Family. A "decoration" is awarded to an individual
who contributes to Japan. A "medal of merit" is awarded to an individual who
8Hereinafter, these reasons will be referred to as the bars to registration'
Japanese law does not allow registration through agreement of interested parties, unlike the British
Consent law
928

contributes to Japanese society; there are Red, Green, Blue, Dark Blue, Yellow, andPurple medals of merit. A "foreign nation's flag" means a flag of a foreign nation.
The Trademark Examination Guidelines describes these trademarks as follows:
1. Decorations, medals and foreign nations' flags are defined as those that exist
at the present time. Foreign nations are defined as nations with or without Japanese
government acknowledgment.
2. Any trademark consisting of or comprising any feature of the National flag or
a foreign nations' flag explicitly shall be considered to have similarity. Any design
intended to harm the dignity of Japan or another foreign nation, even if there is no
similarity, shall fall under the regulation in article 4, paragraph 1, item 7.
3. Any emblem designed as a chrysanthemum consisting of 12-24 petals or apart of any trademark having features of a Chrysanthemum Crest or the emblems
described above explicitly shall be considered to have similarity except if they have theconditions set forth below:(1) The diameter of the central area of the flower is longer than petals.
(2) One-third of the area of the chrysanthemum is covered by other designs or
cut out.
(3) The central area of the flower is offset more than one-fourth from the centerof the flower.
(4) The design of the flower shows no feature of an emblem, but instead shows
biological features.
(b) Emblems of Allied Nations"Trademarks which are identical to or similar to a
State coat of arms or other emblem (other than a national flag) of a country party to theParis Convention ... or a Member of the World Trade Organization." (Clause 2).
This item prohibits registration of trademarks which are identical or similar to a State
coat of arms or another emblem of a country party to the Paris Convention, World
Trade Organization, or Trademark Law designated by the Japanese Minister ofInternational Trade and Industry under the Trademark Law.
These trademarks are regulated for the dignity and the respect of international
relationships. This item excludes the flags of other nations and the Japanese flag, whichcome under item 1.
The category "other crests of nations" includes all crests representing the dignity of animperial family, a royal family, or a nation, such as emblems of an imperial family or
royal family, or badges of governments or federations of states. These marks are29

applicable only when the Minister of International Trade and Industry so designates.10
This item corresponds to the regulation of the Paris Convention Article 3 (1)(a)regarding the protection of Industry Property Rights.
(c) The Emblem of the United Nations "Any trademarks that are identical or similar
to the emblems of the United Nations or other international organizations that have been
designated by the Minister of International Trade and Industry" (item 3)
The importance of international activity heightens the value of internationalorganizations to the level of independent nations. Therefore, in order to protect their
publicity and dignity, it is inappropriate for any individual to monopolize the emblem of
the United Nations or other international organizations.
International organizations are designated by the Minister of International Trade andIndustry. This provision designates the title, the flag and the design of the flag of "theUnited Nations," 11 the title and the crest of "the International Nuclear Power
Institution,"12 and the titles and the crests of "WHO," "UNESCO," "IMF," "WIPO," etc.
The Paris Convention adopted the concepts of this provision in 3(1)(b) of Paragraph 6
after the Lisbon Amendment.
(d) Symbol of the Red Cross"Any trademarks which are identical or similar to the
Red Cross symbol on a white background or the title Red Cross, or Geneva Cross"(item4)
The Red Cross is an outside, neutral international organization. The symbol has been
regulated in order to protect it, because allowing it to be monopolized by a particular
individual would be inappropriate. (Law Relating to the Restriction of Use of the Red
Cross Mark and Name, etc., Based on the Red Cross Treaty, article 1).
According to the Trademark Examination Guidelines, "any trademarks having the Red
Cross ensign on a white ground, or the title Red Cross or Geneva Cross (even partially)shall be in violation of this provision." (Id., p. 20).
(e) Seal of Official Identification"Trademarks comprising an official seal or signthat indicates supervision or certification by the government of Japan or by theGovernment of a country party to the Paris Convention or a Member of the World Trade
Organization or a contracting party to the Trademark Law Treaty, or by a local public
entity, that has been designated by the Minister of International Trade and Industry."(Item 5).
"Trademarks comprising a mark identical or similar to an official seal or sign whichindicates supervision or certification by the Government of Japan or by the Government
10

The emblem of the Swiss Federation was designated by the Notice No. 19 of Commerce andIndustry Department on March 1, 1935; the coat of arms of the German Federal Republic wasdesignated by notice No. 239 of the International Trade and Industry Department at May 25, 1961.
11
Designated notice No. 154 of International Trade and Industry Department in 1960.
12
Designated notice No. 254 of International Trade and Industry Department in 1995.

30

of a country party to the Paris Convention or a Member of the World Trade
Organization or a contracting party to the Trademark Law Treaty, or by a local public
entity and which has been designated by the Minister of International Trade andIndustry." (Item 5).
These official seals and signs cannot be registered to an individual, in order to maintainthe authority in the supervision or certification. They have been limited to those that aredesignated by the Minister of Trade and Industry so that they can be handled withconvenience. This provision is applicable to trademarks that are the same or similar tothe seals or signs, including trademarks that contain the seals or sign only as a portion of
the whole; such trademarks are unregistrable.
This provision is not applicable to seals or signs under the supervision or certification of
a foreign country that is not a member of the Paris Convention, the WTO, or the
Trademark Law Treaty.
This provision is based on article 6, 3(1)(a) and (2) of the Paris Convention. This
provision includes the seals and signs of Japan and local public entities of Japan. Local
public entities are defined as cities, towns, prefectures, villages and other normal local
entities, the special district of Tokyo, unions of local entities, and property or local
development enterprises (Local Self-Governing Law, article 1-2).
(f) Marks of Public Institutions "Any trademarks which are identical or similar to a
famous mark indicating a State or local public entity, or an agency thereof" (Item 6)
Any marks which are identical or similar to a famous mark indicating a State or local
public entity, or an agency thereof, or a non-profit organization or enterprise working in
the public interest (item 6) shall not be open for monopolization by an individual, inorder to protect the public interest.
"The government" means only the Japanese government. "Local public entities" aredefined in the Constitution. "An agency thereof" indicates the agencies of the Japanese
government and local public entities. "Entity in the public interest" indicates a nonprofit organization. "Enterprise working in the public interest" indicates public utility
companies for water, sewage, and the like.
According to the Trademark Examination Guidelines, page 21, "marks that come under
this provision are marks that are famous and indicate cities, prefectures, towns, villages,
municipal subways, streetcars, city buses, public water enterprises, universities,
religious organizations, the Olympics, the IOC, the JOC, the Boys Scouts, JETRO, andthe like."
The applicability of this provision shall be limited to famous organizations. Because
there are a great number of marks for organizations contemplated in this provision, suchas non-profit organizations, the public good is sufficiently protected. The issue of
whether a mark is "famous" shall be decided on a case-by-case basis.
Since this provision was created as a bar to registration in deference to the authority of31

the organizations, if one of these organizations applies for a trademark itself, it may
obtain registration, as long as none of the other bars to registration are compromised.
(Article 4, paragraph 2).
(g) Any trademark liable to contravene public order or morality
liable to contravene public order or morality" (No. 7)"Any trademarks

Some marks are regulated for public order and morality. The question of whether
public morality has been contravened depends on the norms of society. In other words,
the answer to whether the public order has been damaged or not will be different basedon the era and unique social phenomena.
The Trademark Examination Guidelines (page 22) evaluates this in the following
manner:
1. A trademark liable to contravene public morality consists of or comprises
characters or designs that impart violent, obscene, discriminative or unpleasant
impressions to another. Even if the composition of the mark itself does not impart such
impressions, this category includes those marks used on goods or in connection withservices in such a way that is against the benefit of public society or general concepts ofpublic morality.
2. Trademarks that are banned under other laws, trademarks that insult specificcountries or the citizens thereof, or trademarks that contravene general international
trust come under this provision.
A famous example of this regulation is the "SEIROGAN" case. (Dai-han, June 28, 1926,
Decision Quick report, Extra, No. 3, page 187). Interpreted to mean "the conquest of
Russia," this phrase was determined to be a contravention of public morality because it
violated international trust. Another example is the title "Patent Engineering Doctor"(Supreme Court Decision, April 13, 1982, Quick Report No. 85, 2143; Tokyo High
Court Decision, August 31, page 9 of 2757) and other similar trademarks consisting of
the word Doctor as an academic "degree."(2) Relative Registration Bars
Items 8-19, with the exception of items 9 and 16, are absolute bars to registration(a) Portraits and names"Trademarks containing the portrait or name of anotherperson or a famous abbreviation thereof" (Item 8)c Portrait or name of another person, or name of a legal entity of another person,
or famous translation thereof Trademarks containing the portrait of another person,or the name of another person, or name of a legal entity of another person, or a famous
pseudonym, stage name, or pen name of another person, or abbreviation thereof (in theabsence of consent) are barred from registration in order to protect the personal rights of
the other person.

32

d Definitions"Another person" means any person other than oneself, either
naturally existing in Japan at the present time, or a corporation other than one's own
existing in Japan at the present time. A "portrait" is any portrait, even if not a dominantportion of the trademark, that displays a certain individual to the extent that he or she
can be recognized, such that consent of the individual who is depicted is required. A
portrait of a person who is altered or disguised is treated the same way if the person isrecognizable. This definition is interpreted with respect to protection of individual
profit. A "name of a person" is a natural person's first name and last name, that is, fullname. An "appellation" - refers to the name of a legal entity.
e Meaning of Abbreviation"A famous pseudonym, stage name, or pen name orabbreviation thereof. This restriction is limited to "famous abbreviations" only because
there is no way to notify the public of assigned abbreviations, it would be difficult to
identify them all, and because providing protection to all abbreviations would be too
onerous. The language "abbreviation thereof" covers names of natural persons, namesof legal entities, pseudonyms, pen names, and stage names, while "famous" covers
pseudonyms, pen names and stage names. Of course, "another person" refers to every
portrait or name. Pen names and stage names are required to be famous whereas
personal names and names of legal entities are not (Tokyo Supreme Court February 22,
1969 Non-Body-Series; series 1 page 132). The legislative purpose of this provision
was not the prevention of likelihood of confusion, but the protection of individual profit.
However, the provision requires that a mark be something more than just acommonplace name. (There is a theory that says that a degree of fame and rareness isrequired, though it is the opinion of the author that such rareness is unnecessary).
f Consent of the other person
Consent of the other person is a requirement forregistration; the applicant is required to submit a consent form. Without issuing anorder to amend, the examiner shall refuse the application in the Office Action if there isno consent.
g Registration by Mistake
If a trademark registration is applied for without theconsent of the person with the right to the name due to mistake, the rightholder can,without being limited by the trademark right, use his or her name or name of a legal
entity in a normal manner (article 23). If a trademark registration is applied for without
the consent of the person with the right to the name, said person can still exercise hisright to his name or the name of the legal entity. In one example, even though a
trademark right consisting of "Meiji" combined with a design was in existence, theMeiji Seika Company was able to use its company's name in a normal manner (May 17,
1934, Day and People Series; series 13 page 742). There are many similar precedents
as well. However, an application for registration can be refused if the trademark would
be likely to cause confusion, even with the consent of the other party concerned. (Seeitem 15).
h Standard of Examination
The Trademark Examination Guidelines, page 23,
describes the "standards" in the following way:
1. In this provision, "other person" means people who are alive and includes
foreigners.

33

2. Consent is required when the name of the applicant and the name of the otherperson are the same.
3. In this provision, the degree of "fame" needed in making a determination
should be considered in light of the relationship between the mark and the goods orservices.
(b) Prizes awarded at an exhibition"Trademarks comprising a mark which is
identical with, or similar to, a prize awarded at an exhibition." (Clause 9)
c Prizes awarded at an exhibition
Trademarks comprising a mark which is
identical with, or similar to, a prize awarded at an exhibition held by the Government or
a local public entity (hereinafter referred to as the "Government, etc.") cannot beregistered. This includes marks not held by the Government, etc., but designated by the
Director-General of the Patent Office or at an international exhibition held in a foreigncountry by its government, etc., or a person authorized thereby (except where therecipient of such a prize uses the mark as part of his or her trademark).
This provision protects the dignity of a prize and prevents misunderstanding of quality.
Regarding specific exhibitions, those people who win the award, and, of course, those
who do not, may not register marks identical with or similar to a prize, since "prizes ofan exhibition" are awarded to multiple individuals; if one person were permitted toregister the prize, the use of others could cease to exist. This provision bars registrationof not only "trademarks which are identical with, or similar to, prizes of an exhibition,"but "marks which are identical with, or similar to" the prize mark. Its purpose is toprevent registration of marks that have the mark of the prize even as only a part,
because such a mark could misdescribe the quality of the goods or services to
consumers.
However, if the use of the mark as a part of a trademark by a prize recipient customarily
exists and is not likely to cause misdescriptiveness, such a mark is registrable.
d The meaning of prize"Prize," under this provision, means a prize bestowed for
merit, and does not mean goods or services bestowed as a good or service. The word"exhibition" in this provision means general exhibitions and competitions (The
Trademark Examination Guidelines, page 24). However, this provision is only
applicable to exhibitions held by the government, etc. or local public entities. If theexhibition is not held by the government, etc., but designated by the Director-General of
the Patent Office, or international exhibitions held in a foreign country by that country's
government, etc, or a person authorized thereby, this section applies.
The Trademark Examination Guidelines contains the following description: "1.
"Exhibition" is to be interpreted broadly, and includes competitions. 2. "The person
who is awarded the prize" includes the successor of this individual's business. (Id., page24)."(c) Well-Known Trademarks"Any well-known trademark or trademark similar to a34

well-known trademark that is used by another person on goods or in connection withservices or on similar goods or in connection with similar services." (Item 10).
c Well-known trademarks
Trademarks that are well-known among consumers as
indicating the goods or services connected with a particular business, and trademarks
similar thereto that are used on the designated goods or designated services (item 10),are unregistrable. In general, "well known trademark" is a shortened way to describe a
trademark that is widely recognized by relevant consumers.
d The meaning of a well-known trademark"Well-known trademark" means any
trademark indicating goods or services of a certain business that is widely recognizedamong consumers in Japan at the time of filing of the trademark application. The range
of well-known recognition can be either national or local. (The Trademark Examination
Guidelines, page 25-1) However, because under this provision, an unregistered mark is
protected to the point that another application for registration may be blocked, it isrequired that the mark be relatively known by merchants in the relevant trade in the
major national markets, or at least by relatively overwhelming numbers of merchants in
the relevant trade in bordering prefectures.13
The determination of whether a mark is well-known is a case-by-base determination,and depends on the characteristics of the goods or services, the period of use, and thevolume of the goods or services provided. The period of the use, however, has no
specified minimum limit. Some marks may become well-known after only a shortperiod of time due to the use of advertisements, while others become well-known after along period of time without advertisement. Whether a mark is well-known or notshould be determined under the objectives of this provision.
e The degree of recognition
The term "widely recognized" is the same as the oneused in the definition of defensive marks (article 64) and as in the definition of thefactors relating to the derivation of prior use rights (article 31, section 1). In the context
of prior use rights, the term "widely recognized" must be interpreted less strictly than inthis provision, because protection of prior use is contemplated. However, from theperspective of this law, the term "widely recognized" means "famous" for defensive
marks. (Shibuya, page 299).
The concept of well-known trademarks are contingent on the goods or services being
used and cannot be considered in terms of the mark itself, separated from the goods orservices. Therefore, in order to protect well-known marks, it is overly narrow andinsufficient to only protect identical marks. In examining a well-known mark, one must
look beyond the mark itself, because the factors for examination as to similar
trademarks are expanded as well. On the other hand, in terms of examination factors,
only goods and services of a well-known mark, or goods and services of a mark similar
to a well-known mark, are expanded. Depending on the situation, protection under this13

Meaning of "Trademarks widely recognized among consumers" in the sense of Art. 4, Para. 1-10,
by Tatsunori Shibuya, Jury No. 878, page 110; The "overwhelming number of dealers" requirementand "bordering prefectures" requirement are shown in Supreme Court Decision, September 17, 1985,
Quick report No. 125, 3320; and Tokyo High Court Decision, June 16, 1983, Mutaisyu, Vol. 15, No.
2, page 501.

35

provision can be insufficient; even if a mark is identical to a well-known mark, if thegoods or services are different from the those of the well-known mark, the well-known
may not be protected. However, the examination will be based on the particularsituation, and the well-known mark could be protected under the likelihood of confusion
principles of clause 15, or through an injunction under the Unfair Competition
Prevention Law. (Article 3, section 1).
f Well-known marks and registration
It is natural to be able to receive a
trademark registration for one's own well-known marks. However, if an identical orsimilar well-known trademark exists in a different region, it will not be possible for thatsame mark to be registered, since the range of the trademark right extends nationwide.
As for famous trademarks in foreign countries, even if such a mark has not been affixed
to goods and used in Japan, in the event that it is widely recognized as famous byJapanese consumers, the trademark will be considered a well-known mark in Japan.
However, no matter how famous a mark is in a foreign country, if it is only well-known
in the foreign country (even if the mark is extremely famous in the foreign country), and
it is not known in Japan, it will not come under this provision.
The Trademark Examination Guidelines, page 25, provides the following explanation:
1. "Widely recognized trademarks among consumers" includes trademarks not
only widely recognized by the consumer who is the end-user, but trademarks widely
recognized by merchants in the relevant trade. Furthermore, it includes not only
trademarks widely known nationally, but those widely known regionally.
2. For this provision to be applicable to a cited trademark, the trademark must be
widely recognized among Japanese consumers at the time of the filing of the application.
(See article 4, paragraph 3).
3. The method for proving "wide recognition" of a trademark, and theexamination thereof can be found in The Trademark Examination Guidelines, No. 2-2(article 3, section 2).14
4. When evaluating the degree of "wide recognition" a trademark has relating toparticular goods or services of a business,15 the specific conditions of the trade of those
goods or services must be sufficiently considered.
5. As for the degree to which foreign trademarks are "widely recognized," when
documents are submitted that go to the fact that a mark is well-known in a foreigncountry, such as documents showing records of exportation of the goods to a number offoreign countries, or the provision of the services in a number of foreign countries, these
documents must be sufficiently considered.
14

For standards of examination of distinctiveness based on use, see page 120 supra, paragraphs 2
and 3.
15
Some examples include, goods circulating in a specific market, such as medicines for medical
treatment, or services provided only in a limited market, such as experimenting and testing or
research of medicines.

36

g The legislative intent of this provision
Regarding the intent of this provision, it
was drafted to be either a provision that protects the public good by preventing the
confusion of the origin of goods and services, or a provision that protects the status ofprior trademark usage for personal benefit. Which legislative intention is correct
depends on which theory and legal precedent one consults. (The former theory is
supported by Adachi, page 30; and Dai-han, May 12, 1915, Min-roku, No. 20, page382; the latter theory is supported by Amino, page 341; Toyozaki, page 365; Kaneko
and Someno, page 439; Shibuya, page 269; and Dai-han, October 30, 1928, Minsyu,
Vol. 7, page 951. The latter is more controlling.) The legislative history of thisprovision is seen as a compromise theory focusing on the former idea, whereas the latteridea appears to be the theory that is actually employed in practice. However, there is noneed to take only one and exclude the other, because the protection of a well-known
trademark itself has the effect of protecting the consumer, such that is appropriate tothink of focusing on the latter theory while considering the former theory's likelihood ofconfusion as to goods and services.
h Good faith and well-known trademarks
The circumstances surrounding "widerecognition" must be brought about through good faith. General case law reveals that"wide recognition" is limited to cases of "good faith," and that "bad faith" cases are notawarded. If trademarks were protected solely for the monopoly value, the question
whether conscientious bad faith would not be a problem. However, the reason forproviding trademark protection for the benefit of status is rooted in the protection of faircompetition for companies. Therefore, any status of popularity caused by bad faith is
not appropriate to be protected.
(d) Prior application"Trademarks that are identical with, or similar to, anotherperson's trademark registration, but having an application date prior to the other person'sdate of registration, that are used for goods or services that are similar to the designatedgoods or services of that other person's registered trademark." (Item 11).
c Registration with prior application date
Trademarks that are identical with, orsimilar to, another person's registered trademark that are applied for prior to the filingdate of the trademark application concerned, and which are used on the designatedgoods or designated services covered by the trademark registration referred to or usedon similar goods or services (Item 11) shall be unregistrable. This kind of trademark
cannot be registered under "first-to-file" (article 8) and "registration-based" systems. In
addition, in order to prevent confusion as to source of goods or services, marks that are
identical with, or similar to, registered trademarks or service marks cannot be registered.
Even if a trademark registration is obtained for a mark whose application date issubsequent to another mark, that is, even if a subsequently filed mark is registered
before a mark with a prior application date, the mark with the prior application dateshall not be refused. Where the current law says "[t]rademarks ... (related to) anotherperson's registered trademark applied for prior to the filing date of the trademark
application" the old law formerly read "trademarks ... (related to) another person's
registered trademark." Because of this, when a subsequently filed application would
reach registration first, the illogical result of the prior application being refused would37

occur. Therefore, in consideration of first-to-file principles, the text was amended.
Now, when a subsequently filed application is registered first, the prior application
remains valid, causing a temporary double registration situation. (Eventually, thesubsequently filed application will be invalidated, and then adjusted, being afforded a
mandatory or compulsory license which will be discussed later.
The applicability of this provision cannot be waived, even if the trademark owner who
is the prior user consents. This is unlike the consent system of the English Trademark
Law, in which, to the extent that confusion will not be caused, a prior applicant can
acknowledge an adjustment of rights through an agreement, allowing registration.
Further, the applicability of this provision cannot be avoided, even without the use of
the registered trademark, unlike in Germany, where the effect of a subsequently filed
application that becomes registered first can be affected by non-use.
This provision is mainly intended to be either a provision that protects the public goodby preventing confusion regarding the origin of goods and services, or a provision that
protects the status of prior trademark usage for personal benefit.
d The intent of this provision
Regarding the legislative intent of this provision,
there are two theories: first, that the purpose is to protect a trademark owner's right; andsecond, that the purpose is to prevent likelihood of confusion of the origin of goods andservices. (The former concept is described in TOYOSAKI page 367 and the latter
concept is described in Article Guide page 1004) A case decided under the old
Trademark Law ruled that even with an agreement, a registration could be cancelled.
(Dai-han, March 10, 1931, newspaper 3246, page 10) Another case expressed the legal
opinion that the intent was to protect the trademark owner's right, and at the same timeto prevent confusion relating to goods and services among general dealers in the trade.
e Designated goods and services
Under this provision, "designated goods andservices" means those goods and services described in article 6 section 1 (including thecase corresponding to article 68, section 1) of the Trademark Law. The meaning of"'identical with' and 'similar to' a registered trademark," and the meaning of "'identicalwith' and 'similar to' designated goods and services are, in practical terms, extremely
important, and will be described separately in chapter 7 section 2 (page 171 below).
(e) Defensive Mark
"Trademarks that are identical to another person's registereddefensive mark and that are used on the designated goods or designated services
covered by the defensive mark registration"(Item 12)
c The intent of the provision The use of a registered defensive mark with respect tothe designated goods or designated services shall be deemed to be an infringement of
the principal trademark right.(Article 67, item 1). Therefore, the types of trademarksthat cause likelihood of confusion of these kinds of goods or services cannot beregistered. (Item 12).
d Defensive marks identical with prior registration Unlike item 11, this provision
does not contain the language "related to another person's prior application." Therefore,
even if there is a defensive mark application pending having a prior application date,38

because it is not yet registered, this provision cannot be invoked. However, if a
trademark registration exists and the mark has already become famous before that
defensive mark application, the provision may be invoked, under item 15, regulating"any trademarks having a risk of likelihood of the confusion of goods and services."
Protection of defensive marks is limited as to goods and services of identical marks; theprovision cannot be invoked when trademarks and goods or services are only similar to
one another. In addition, most of these cases will be resolved under item 15.
e Standard of Examination
The Trademark Examination Guidelines, page 36,
states the following with respect to this provision:
1. Trademarks that come under this provision are limited to ones that are
identical to a registered defensive mark. Any trademark that is similar to a registereddefensive mark or is identical with, or similar to, a portion of a registered defensive
mark, and is used for designated goods or services that are related to those of aregistered defensive mark, or, any trademark that is identical with a defensive mark or is
identical with, or similar to, a portion of a registered defensive mark, and is used fordesignated goods or services that are related to those of a registered defensive mark do
not come under the subject provision, but, rather, come under Article 4, paragraph 2,
item 15.
(f) Registration prohibition immediately after extinguishment of the trademark
rightTrademarks which are identical or similar to another person's trademark where
one year has not elapsed since the date of extinguishment of the trademark right, andwhich are used in respect of the designated goods or designated services covered by thetrademark right or in respect of similar goods or services, are not registerable till theyear has passed. (Item 13).
c The Meaning
Trademarks that are identical or similar to another person's
trademark where one year has not elapsed since the date of extinguishment of the
trademark right, and which are used in respect of the designated goods or designatedservices covered by the trademark right or in respect of similar goods or services are
unregistrable for that period. Trademarks that are identical with, or similar to, anotherperson's trademark where one year has not elapsed since the date of extinguishment of
the other person's trademark right, or from a judgment cancelling the mark, or from acancellation hearing within the Patent Office in which the mark was cancelled, may belikely to cause confusion as to source among consumers if used in connection withidentical or similar goods or services within about one year from said date. Because it
was thought best to prevent these marks from being registered, these kinds of marks areincluded as a registration bar. Therefore, if an expired mark had not been used in over a
year, there would be no likelihood of confusion as to source of goods or services, suchthat it is alright to register the mark, (the prohibition is waived).
d Legislative intent
The intention of the legislature in passing this provision is toprevent confusion of the origin of goods where a trademark is identical to a mark thatwas registered but has become extinguished, and about which an impression may still
remain among consumers. It is believed that a one year prohibition of use is necessary39

in order to provide a period for the prior impression to dissipate. One theory says that,in the case where a trademark has existed through its whole term but the owners missed
the opportunity to renew the registration, this regulation gives them preference in filinga new application. In cases where a trademark registration issues in violation of thisprovision, even if more than a year has elapsed from the date of extinguishment, andeven though there is no likelihood of confusion, a cancellation proceeding could be
brought against the mark under item 13, raising an inconsistency in the law. (Amino,
page 360; Hanabusa, Kaisetsu, page 621).
e Extinguishment of the trademark right "Extinguishment of the trademark right"
means that a valid trademark right is lost, due to satisfaction of the full term,
cancellation of the registration, the non-existence of a successor-in-right, abandonment,
and the like.
Because "cancellation" should not be included as a cause of "extinguishment," there has
been criticism of the legislative drafting of this provision. Critics have found error in
putting extinguishment and cancellation in the same provision, using "or" between theterms instead of using making cancellation a parenthetical.
(g) Registered name of a legal entity under the Agricultural Seed and Seedlings
Law
Trademarks which are identical with, or similar to, the name of a variety registeredunder the Agricultural Seed and Seedlings Law, and which are used on the seeds orseedlings of the variety concerned or in respect of similar goods or services. (Item 14).
c Registered name registered under the Agricultural Seed and Seedlings Law
Trademarks which are identical with, or similar to, the name of a variety registeredunder article 18, paragraph 1 of the Agricultural Seed and Seedlings Law, and which areused on the seeds or seedlings of the variety concerned or in respect of similar goods orservices (item 14), are unregistrable. The goods under this paragraph are goods in class
31. Under the Agricultural Seed and Seedlings Law, a person who cultivates a variety
can register the variety16 (article 3, paragraph 1 of the Agricultural Seed and Seedlings
Law). The registrant is required to list the name of the variety on the application (article
5, paragraph 1 of the Agricultural Seed and Seedlings Law). The purpose of this is toprevent double registration (article 9, paragraph 1 of the Agricultural Seed andSeedlings Law). The person who cultivated the variety has a 20 year monopoly(increased to 25 years for long-life plants) (article 19, paragraph 2 of the Agricultural
Seed and Seedlings Law). During the term, the person has the exclusive right to use theregistered variety. Because there is no need to use the Trademark Law to protect theperson to whom a registration was given under the Agricultural Seed and Seedlings Law,
the registration bar is in effect.
d Change of a registered variety name into a common name after the protection
periodBecause most variety names become common names after the period ofprotection under the Agricultural Seed and Seedlings Law and are no longer capable of16This right also passes to the heirs and assigns of the person registering the variety.

40being distinctive, even the person to whom the registration was given under the
Agricultural Seed and Seedlings Law will not be allowed to register the name under the
Trademark Law. The Trademark Examination Guidelines reads, "after the registration
period, the name of a variety registered under article 12-4, paragraph 1 [article 18,
paragraph 1 after the 1998 amendment] of the Agricultural Seed and Seedlings Law isconsidered to come under the provisions of the Trademark Law, article 3, paragraph 1,
items 1 or 3;" therefore the name is refused because it indicates a common name orvariety (id., see page 38).
(h) Confusing trademark
Trademarks which are liable to cause confusion with thegoods or services connected with the business of another (other than the trademarks
mentioned in paragraphs 10 to 14) are not registrable (item 15).
c Intent of the paragraphThis paragraph is a blanket provision covering items 10
to 14 created for the purpose of protecting personal rights. This provision is provided asa provision separate from item 16, which sets forth a registration bar for marks thatmislead as to the quality of the goods or services. The provision creating a right ofincontestability after a period of time (Article 47 prohibits trials challenging a
trademark registration after a period of time) applies to this provision, except where theregistration was obtained with unfair objectives.
d Character of the provision
According to judicial precedent and tradition under
the old Trademark Law, this provision has a public benefit aspect, and could overlap in
its applicability with other provisions that use public benefit principles to prevent
confusion (see, for example, old items 8 and 9). In contrast, the current Trademark Law
includes the phrase, "other than the trademarks mentioned in paragraphs (x) to (xiv)),"
thereby making it clear that this provision does not overlap in its applicability with otherprovisions. However, there is criticism that because this provision protects both the
public good and personal benefit, it is more appropriate from the viewpoint oflegislative intent to apply this provision in the same overlapping manner as in the old
Trademark Law (Toyosaki, page 373).
e Confusion as to source of goods and services
Whether or not a trademark is"likely to cause confusion" should be judged by considering not only the trademark
itself but also circumstances in the business world. In making the determination as toconfusion, the similarity of trademarks or the similarity of goods or services are notabsolute factors to be considered. It is enough to judge whether there is a concrete
likelihood of confusion with goods or services connected with another person's business.
Particularly, in the case of a famous trademark, confusion can extend beyond the rangeof similarity of goods or services, and includes the tendency of a business to diversify.
The potential applicability of this provision expands even to cases in which nocompetitive business relation exists.
f Examination standard
The Trademark Examination Guidelines regarding item
15 states as follows (see pp. 39 to 41):
1. In this paragraph, "Trademarks which are liable to cause confusion with the goods orservices connected with another person's business" refers to the case in which the41

trademark is liable to misidentify the goods or services as goods or services connectedwith another person's business, therefore creating a likelihood that consumers of thegoods or services will be confused regarding the source of the goods or services. It also
covers the case in which the trademark is likely to misidentify the goods or services as
goods or services of another person who is connected to the trademark holder
economically or organizationally, therefore creating a likelihood that consumers of thegoods or services will be confused regarding the source of the goods or services. The
following is an example:(1) Suppose a businessman "A" uses a mark (M) in respect of goods G in
connection with his business and the mark (M) is well-known throughout the country.
Then suppose a businessman "B" uses the mark (M) in respect of his goods X inconnection with his business (the goods X are not similar to the goods G, and there is no
relationship between them regarding manufacturers, sellers, networks, materials, oruses). Even if consumers of the goods X do not recognize the goods X as goods inconnection with A's business, the consumers misidentify the goods X as being
connected to businessman A's subsidiary company or the like (A1, who actually does
not exist, is assumed to be the source), and confusion as to source of the goods occurs.17(2) In another example, suppose businessman A uses the mark (S) in respect ofservices in connection with his/her business and the mark (S) is well known throughout
the country. And suppose businessman B uses the mark (S) in respect of goods (which
is not similar to the services in connection with A's business) in connection with his/herbusiness. If consumers of the goods misidentify the goods as goods in connection with
A's side business there is a likelihood they will confuse the source of the goods.18
2. In determining whether or not "trademarks are liable to cause confusion with goods
or services connected with another person's business," the following factors should beconsidered:(a) degree of recognition of the other person's mark (degree of advertising anddiffusion thereof);(b) whether or not the other person's mark is a creative mark;(c) whether or not the other person's mark is a house mark;(d) the possibility of the other person's business expanding into related areas(also known as the possibility of "bridging the gap"); and(e) relatedness between the respective goods, or between the respective services,or between the respective goods and services.
3. The method of proof used for 2 (a) above can also be used for paragraphs 2-2 and 217

This case can also be applied to services. In the case where A's business and B's business are
related to services, the word 'goods' can be replaced with the word 'services', and the phrase 'there is
no relationship between them regarding manufacturers, sellers, networks, materials, or uses' can be
replaced with the phrase 'there is no relationship between them regarding goods or the like related tothe service provider, service method, or uses.'18

This example can also be reversed to the case where A's business relates to goods and B's business
relates to services.

42

3 in the Trademark Examination Guidelines (article 3, paragraph 2).
4. A trademark partly including another person's famous trademark will be treated asfollows:(1) Where a trademark is similar to another person's famous registered trademark
and the trademark is used in respect of goods or services which are the same, or similar
to, the designated goods or designated services of the registered trademark, thetrademark is considered to come under the article 4, paragraph 1 of item 11;(2) Even where a trademark is considered not to be similar to another person's
famous trademark, or the trademark is considered to be similar to another person's
famous trademark, but the respective goods or services are considered not to be similar
to each other, this provision will apply when there is a likelihood of confusion of thesource of goods or services.
(3) Where a trademark is found to be similar to another person's famous
trademark, but the goods or services are not similar to each other and there is no
possibility of confusion of the source of goods or services, if the trademark is used forthe purpose of unfairness, the case is considered to come under article 4, paragraph 1,
item 19.
5. Trademark applications may be refused under this provision by citing a famous mark.
This includes a mark that is recognized by consumers in Japan (it is not necessarily
required that end-user consumers recognize the mark) as a famous mark in foreigncountry at the time of the application (see article 3, paragraph 3). This is because, if theapplicant uses the trademark indicated in the application, there will be a likelihood ofconfusion as to source of goods or services.
6. In determining whether or not there is likelihood of confusion of goods or services
relating to another person's business, the actual individual conditions of the businessshould be considered.
7. If the trademark in question is a three-dimensional trademark showing theconfiguration of a building that is widely recognized in Japan as another person'sbuilding before the application, this provision is applicable. Examples of appellate
decisions in which this provision has been applied are shown on page 87 of Nakamura.
A recent judicial decision affirmed the applicability of item 15. The trademarks inquestion were comprised of "kome" ("rice" in kanji) in a circle and the wording"maruyone" ("rice in a circle," in katakana) beneath the circle. (Tokyo high court,
February 15, 1996, No. 250-7077).
Another recent judicial decision denied the applicability of item 15. In this decision, thecourt ruled that there was no likelihood of confusion between the registered trademarks"NOVIGEN" and "nobigen" (in katakana, used for a vinyl house cleaner) and thefamous "Bigen" (in katana) and "Bigen" for hair dying liquid (Tokyo high court,
November 22, 1995, Vol. 27, 4, p.855). The applicability of item 15 was also denied
because there was no likelihood of confusion between "Sanansonii" (in katakana) and43

"Sony" (in katanaka) (Tokyo high court, March 27, 1996, No. 250-7123). Finally, alower appellate decision applying item 15 was vacated since a possibility of confusion
between "pora" (in katakana), which is an abbreviation of "Polaroid" (in katakana), and"POLA," judging that "pora" is not fixed as the abbreviation of "Polaroid" (Tokyo highcourt, February 7, 1996, No. 250-7072).
(i) Misleading trademarks as to quality"Trademarks liable to be misleading as tothe quality of the goods and services" (item 16).
c Misleading as to quality of a product or service The terms "product quality" and"service quality" have a broad meaning as to the special qualities of a product or service.
The phrase "misleading as to product quality or service quality" could mean that theconsumer is misled as to the goodness or badness regarding an identical product orservice, or it could mean that the consumer is misled as to the kind of product or service.
When the place of origin of the goods or services is misrepresented, it could be a case inwhich consumers may simply be confused as to source of the product or service, or it
could be a case in which such confusion further misleads consumers as to quality of the
product or service so that the consumer is led to believe that the producer of the goods
or provider of the services is excellent.
d Character of the provisionThis provision protects the public good, such thatincontestability (the certain period after which a person cannot challenge a trademark
based on certain provisions) is not applicable (article 47). Thus, this provision is one of
the absolute statutory bars. Whether or not a trademark is subject to this provision isdetermined in light of common societal thought and of objective considerations. Of
course, subjective intent in misleading consumers as to quality of a product or service is
not a required factor.
e The Trademark Examination Guidelines
The following is written in theTrademark Examination Guidelines (Pages 42-43) regarding item 16:
1. Regarding the phrase "trademarks liable to be misleading as to the quality of
the goods and services," without making an inquiry into whether the quality actuallyexists in the product or service, the question is whether there is a possibility that
consumers will be misled as to the quality of the goods or services.
2. When an examiner issues an office action rejecting registration of a mark forcertain goods or services based on the possibility that consumers will be misled as toquality, an amendment may be made as to the goods or services eliminating thepossibility of misconception as to quality thereof. Such amendment must be madewithin the scope of the goods or services at filing, but shall not be accepted by theexaminer if the amendment changes said scope.
3. When a trademark is used in connection with goods or services produced orsold in a country or place other than the claimed country or place, this provision shall beapplicable because the trademark may mislead as to the quality of goods or services.
Examples of trademarks that are contemplated include marks that indicate the quality ofa product's place of origin or sale, or special quality of the content of a service, or the44

place that a service is provided, including those trademarks comprising a name of anation or place, and the like.
This provision, however, may not be applicable if the trademark is used without actually
misleading as to the quality of the goods or services. Some examples include:(a) A trademark contains the word "England" for goods relating to clothing, inwhich the designated goods are "western clothing made in England";(b) A trademark that contains the word "France" for services relating to theprovision of food and drink, where the designated services are "French cooking
services."
Also, a term such as a name of a nation or place indicating a place of origin or sale ofgoods, or a country name indicating a quality of service, which is used only as a minor
element of the mark, may be deleted by amendment.
4. When the wording or a design of a trademark purports to guarantee the qualityof goods or services ("XX Exhibition's Gold Medal Received" or "XX Minister's Prize
Received"), evidence shall be required to prove the fact. If the fact is not proven, thisprovision shall be applicable, except where the trademark is refused under Article 4,paragraph 1, item 9.
5. Where a trademark additionally contains a minor element such as "JIS,""JAS," "Patent," "Utility Model," or "Design Patent," this provision shall be applied
thereto unless such term or figure is deleted by amendment.
f Regarding a recent case applying item 16, a trademark application "TANINO
CRISCI" for clothing was challenged by the famous shoe company Tanino Crisci S.R.L.
The court refused the application, applying item 16. (At Page 102, Hanji 1596th,
December 12, 1996, at the Tokyo High Court).
(j) Trademarks comprising a mark indicating an origin of wines or spirits
Trademarks comprising 1. a mark indicating an origin of wines or spirits in Japan thathas been designated by the Director-General of the Patent Office or 2. a mark indicating
an origin of wines or spirits in a Member of the World Trade Organization prohibitedfor use on wines or spirits not originating in the claimed region, which are used onwines or spirits that do not originate in the claimed Japanese or member region." (Item17).
This provision is provided in accordance with the TRIPS Agreement, article 23 - 2.
Unlike item 16, this provision is applied regardless of whether or not customers may be
misled. This item, in line with the treaty, was passed as a technical provision so thatJapanese wine and spirits would not be at a disadvantage. The Trademark Examination
Guidelines, page 44, states the following.
1. This provision, for example, shall be applicable not only to a mark indicating
an origin of wine or spirits using local lettering styles, but also includes marks that use

45other lettering, such as the katakana rendition or another translation.
2. The "wine" defined in this provision shall include alcohol rich grape wines. In
addition, "spirits" shall include, for example, awamori, shochu, whisky, vodka, brandy,
rum, gin, kaoranchu, paikaru, and so on, but shall not include liqueurs.
(k) Functional three-dimensional shapes
functionally indispensable (Item 18).

A three-dimensional shape that is"Trademarks consisting solely of a three-dimensional shape of goods or packaging
where the shape of the goods or packaging being indispensable to their functions."
Regarding the shape of a product or the shape of the packaging of a product, when the
shape is indispensable to the function of the product, the exclusive use of the shape by
only one business cannot be permitted. If such a monopoly were allowed, thetrademark owner would have a monopoly on the production and sale of the product.
Such a situation would hamper industrial development and prevent a fair and freecompetitive order, which would also violate the legislative purpose of the Trademark
Law, as stated in article 1.
Therefore, this provision is provided as one of the statutory bars.
Originally, indispensable shapes were not entitled to registration as trademarks, even if
the shape became distinctive through use (article 3, section 2).
A critical question is whether it is necessary to permit copying where a threedimensional trademark has been used for many years and comes to have distinctiveness,in order to protect the function of the shape of the goods or services. One factor toconsider is whether the mark is comprised of only the indispensable three-dimensional
shape, that is, whether or not it is possible to avoid the shape with an alternative shape.
Furthermore, if a three-dimensional trademark is made of a combination of an
indispensable shape with an alternative shape, the problem can be remedied by selecting
the alternative shape. The Trademark Examination Guidelines, page 45, explains asfollows:
1. In making determinations under this provision as to the applicability of article
3, paragraph 2, in advertisements and business documents, etc., in which the shape of
the product or packaging of the product is noted as an actual advantage of the product orpackaging such that the function is shown off and focused upon, the following points
are considered in particular:(a) Whether or not there is a latent alternative shape that can secure the function;(b) Whether or not the alternative three-dimensional shape of the product or
product packaging may be produced at a similar or lower cost.
Even if the three-dimensional shape is indispensable to the function of the
product or product packaging, the shape of the trademark must mirror the shape of the
product or the shape of product packaging, such that the trademark would fall under46

article 3, paragraph 1, item 3. Therefore, the problem with the application of thisprovision is that the trademark is recognized as falling under article 3, paragraph 2.
(l) Famous Trademarks
Trademarks that are well-known among consumers inJapan or abroad as indicating the goods or services associated with a particular business,and trademarks identical or similar to them that are used by the applicant in bad faith19(other than the trademarks mentioned in each of the preceding paragraphs) in respect ofsuch goods or services. (Item 19).
c Intent of this provision This provision was added with the revision of 1997. The
purpose of this provision is stated in a report on the revision, which reads as follows:"In the current information society, a famous trademark that has achieved nationalrecognition, fame, goodwill and praise through large-scale advertising utilizing multiple
media or through the accumulation of strenuous company efforts, and that has
transcended the original framework of merchants, consumers and business area, may
attract consumers, even if the mark is used in connection with goods or services
completely unrelated to the goods or services previously associated with the famous
trademark, so that the trademark itself is construed to be a precious intangible property.
Recently, third parties have plotted to take "free rides" on these famous marks, resulting
in the dilution of the ability of the mark to indicate source, resulting in increased
demands for protection.
Furthermore, with the vitalization of international exchange of products and persons, it
has become more important to protect marks that are well-known and famous in foreigncountries.
Formerly, an application for a well-known trademark in Japan or a foreign country thatis made by an applicant in bad faith would fall under the provisions of article 4,paragraph 1, item 7 (violation of the public good) and item 15 (confusion of source) of
the Trademark Law. The Revisions of 1997 instead added article 4, paragraph 1, item
19 as a statutory bar, which then made it clear that trademarks applied for with an unfair
intention (bad faith) would be prevented from reaching registration."d Requirements(a) "A trademark widely recognized in Japan or a foreign country
The first
requirement is: "A trademark that is widely recognized among consumers in Japan orabroad as indicating the goods or services that are connected with another person's
business."
The term "a trademark which is widely-recognized among consumers" is used in at least
three kinds of provisions in the Trademark Law. The first is the provision on prior use(article 32); the second is the provision regarding refusal to register based on a wellknown trademark (article 4, paragraph 1, item 10); and the third is the provision on
19

I.e. an intention to gain an unfair profit, intention to cause damage to such another person andother unfair intentions.

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defensive marks (article 64). In each type of provision, a different level of the degree offame prevails.
The Report on the Revisions of 1996 appears to include famous trademarks as well as
well-known trademarks. However, the provision newly added by revision could not
focus solely on well-known trademarks in Japan, because if that were the case, it would
completely overlap with item 10. Furthermore, in looking at the degree of fame in aforeign country that would trigger the applicability of item 10, it is assumed that themark is known in Japan. If this were not the case, the protection afforded foreign marks
would be too much. Foreign countries do not protect their own marks to that extent,
neither do they expect other countries to afford such strong protection. Therefore, someinterpret this provision to mean "famous trademarks in Japan and abroad."
The Report does not differentiate between "well-known" and "famous" with clear
distinction and the terms are often confused. The focus of this provision is considered
to be the unauthorized registration of famous trademarks in foreign countries where themarks have not yet been registered or the bad-faith registration of well-known marks inforeign countries. However, it is also construed to include trademarks well-known inforeign countries, and, through strict application, limit subjective unfair competition
intentions. The focal point of this provision is preventing the registration of foreign
trademarks intended to be used for unfair competition.
(b) Protection of not only "identical" trademarks, but also "similar" trademarks
The standard for similarity in this provision is interpreted more narrowly than in item 10,
and is aimed at preventing an applicant who registers a mark with an unfair intention("bad faith") from profiting. If the degree of similarity is not interpreted to besomething close to "identical," some critics claim that the result would be overprotection of foreign trademarks to the point that domestic companies would be
adversely restricted in the selection of trademarks as a business activity. While foreigncompanies also file trademark applications in Japan, unduly broad protection of foreign
trademarks could result in protection exceeding that granted in the foreign country,
resulting in criticism." The theory states that, "the range of the degree of similarity isdefined to the extent that it is easily conceived." The above explanation regarding overprotection is considered to be fair, but it is broader than the standard for "likelihood ofconfusion."(c) "Trademarks which are used for unfair intention"
The requirement "used for
unfair intention (intention to gain an unfair profit, intention to cause damage to anotherperson and other unfair intentions, or "bad faith")" was included in the provision as alimitation to its applicability.
Regarding the meaning of "unfair intention," the Report on the revision states thefollowing: "the provision may apply not only to an intention to gain unfair advantage(including objectives of unfair competition) but also to the intent to violate the fairbusiness order and faith, including the intent to damage another person (for example,
financial damage, loss of trust, and otherwise tangible or intangible damage) eventhough there is no competitive business relationship. While "unfair intention" is very
difficult to determine, it may be determined by generally considering objective facts,48

such as the degree of wide recognition or fame of the mark, the relationship between theapplicant and the well-known or famous mark of the user, and the condition of the
trademark (originality, for example). However, the concept of "unjust use of fame" isconsidered easier in terms of establishing and determining damages.
The Trademark Examination Guidelines (page 46 and 47) comments in the following
manner:1. The following are examples of trademarks come under this provision:(a) a mark for which a person seizes an opportunity and files a trademark inJapan that is identical or similar to a well-known trademark of another person in acountry other than Japan, in order to sell at a high price," "a mark for which a person
files a trademark with the intention of preventing a foreign trademark owner fromentering the Japanese market, or a mark for which a person files an application in order
to compel a foreign company to issue him a license as a domestic representative;(b) a mark for which a person files an application that is identical or similar to amark known across Japan, not to cause confusion as to source, but to dilute the original
mark's ability to indicate source and to damage the fame of the mark.
2. "A trademark which is widely recognized among consumers" in this provision shall
include not only trademarks widely recognized by end-user consumers, but also bymerchants.
3. "A trademark which is widely recognized among consumers in a foreign country" inthis provision is required to be well-known in the foreign country, but not necessarily
required to be well-known in several countries. Also, it is not necessary that the markbe well-known in Japan.
4. When determining whether "unfair intention" exists, for example, in the event that
there is physical evidence as shown in (a) through (f) below, the said physical evidence
must be sufficiently considered.
(a) Evidence showing that the trademark of another is well-known to consumers(such as period of use, region of use, or frequency of use).
(b) Evidence showing whether or not the well-known trademark comprises a
coined word, or whether or not the trademark's composition has conspicuous features.
(c) Evidence showing that the owner of the well-known trademark has a concrete
plan to enter the market in Japan (for example, exports into Japan or sales within Japan).
(d) Evidence showing that the owner of the well-known trademark is planning toenlarge his business scale in the near future (for example, a new business or the start ofa business in a new region).
(e) Evidence showing that the applicant has offered to the owner to buy the49application, to take a license as a representative and so on.
(f) Evidence showing that if the applicant uses the trademark, there may be apossibility of damaging accrued goodwill, fame, and attraction to the mark.
IV. TIMING OF DETERMINING WHETHER THERE IS A STATUTORY BARTiming is critical in determining whether or not a statutory bar applies. Article 4,paragraph 3 states that "items 8, 10, 15, 17 and 19 of article 1 shall not be applicable if
the mark does not come under the said provisions at the time the trademark application
is filed."
In other words, if marks do not fall under items 8 (portrait of another), 10 (well known
trademarks), 15 (confusion), 17 (names of origin of wine, etc.) or 19 (trademark wellknown in Japan and abroad) at the time of filing, even if such marks come to be underthese provisions at the time of examination, these provisions will not apply. This rule isprovided in order to remedy the harsh predicament of a trademark that did not violate
any of the provisions at the time of filing, but later came to be under one of theprovisions, being deemed unregisterable.
A trademark which does not come under item 17 (names of origin of wine, etc.) at thetime of filing is also construed to be in "good faith," as defined in article 24 - 5 (b) of
the TRIPS Agreement. Regarding item 19 (well-known trademarks in Japan or abroad),which is not applicable in the absence of an unfair intention, a trademark which does
not come under item 19 at the time of filing is said to be free of "unfair intention."
The Trademark Examination Guidelines, page 48, comments in the following mannerwith respect to article 4, paragraph 3:
1. In order to apply items 8, 10, 15, 17 or 19 of article 4, section 1, thetrademark application must come under the provisions at the time of filing and at thetime of examination.
2. The time for determining whether or not a mark comes under article 4,paragraph 1, not included above, is at the time of examination.

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