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Parental Involvementin their children’s
Japanese learning:
language course forparents at a high school
YUJI OKAWA
Redlands, Sydney Church of England Coeducational Grammar School (NSW)TAKUYA KOJIMAUNSW Sydney (NSW); Ca’ Foscari University of Venice (Italy)

Abstract
This study explores parental engagement in second/foreign language education. While the current literature highlights
the significance of parental engagement, it tends to view its impact as a unidirectional process from parents to children.
This study explores the reciprocal and broader impact that parental engagement can have on children, parents andschool communities. Data was collected from a Japanese language course designed for parents at a high school in
Sydney. Thematic analysis was applied to pre- and post-course surveys for parents, children’s video messages to theirparents, and teachers’ participant observation. The results identified that parents’ and children’s language learning wasmore collaborative, and that they also came to view Japanese learning more positively, thus further strengthening theirrelationships by considering each other as learning partners. Parental engagement also impacted on existing parent-teacher
relationships, which can be considered to support children more comprehensively through parent-teacher partnerships.

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Introduction
This paper explores the significance of parental engagement in Japanese language education (JLE) by drawing on thepractice of a Japanese course designed for parents at Redlands, a high school in Sydney.1 Parental engagement concerns“how parents and families support their children’s academic achievement and wellbeing” (DET 2018) and is conceived of
as a crucial element that enhances the academic performance and wellbeing of children (e.g., Henderson and Mapp 2002;
Harris and Goodall 2007; Emerson, Fear, Fox and Sanders 2012). Despite the various challenges that schools and teachers
may face when attempting to promote parental engagement, it is typically discussed as a viable educational strategy tosupport children’s learning.
In the context of second/foreign language education, research has given us indications of the influence parents have on
their children’s language learning. For example, several studies indicate that parents have varying degrees of influenceon their children’s attitudes to language learning (Bartram 2006; Curnow, Liddicoat and Scarino 2007; Kormos, Kiddle andCsizér 2011). Other studies also report the correlation between the level of parents’ competence in the target language andthat of their children (Bleakley and Chin 2008; Guven and Islam 2013). Furthermore, research has shown that even when
they are not able to speak the target language, parents can still encourage their children’s language learning by displaying
positive attitudes towards the target language and culture (Gardner, Masgoret and Tremblay 1999; Prescott and Orton2012).
The number of studies on Asian language education in Australia (including Japanese) that explore the issue of parental
engagement appears to be increasing. A report conducted by the Asia Education Foundation (2015a), for example,
qualitatively examined cases of parental engagement in schools across Australia and presented key approaches that
potentially enhance parental support for children’s language learning. Another study by the Asia Education Foundation(2015b) documented parents’ attitudes towards the learning of Asian languages in Australian schools. The study also
explored the current situation regarding parental engagement in children’s Asian language learning. The key findings of thestudy are considered to “assist in guiding future collaborative work with and within the schools sector to foster parental
attitudes towards Asian language learning in schools” (Asia Education Foundation 2015b, 4). These studies confirm theincreasing significance of parents as key stakeholders who can exert a strong and positive influence on their children’s
Asian language learning in the Australian context.
While the current literature implies the significance of parental engagement in children’s language learning, it tends todiscuss its educational value by separating parents and children and assuming a unidirectional influence, i.e., from parents
to their children. Drawing on a sociocultural view of language learning (Benson and Cooker 2013), this study aims toquestion this fundamental assumption and explores how both parents and children can mutually influence each other by
being collaboratively engaged in their foreign language learning. This sociocultural view further suggests the importanceof examining the impact of parental engagement on broader communities (e.g., the school community), which has not yet
been widely discussed. Our study also aims to explore this area.
To achieve these aims, this study explores the experiences of the individuals who participated in an eight-week Japanese
course for parents whose children were studying Japanese at Redlands. The paper will firstly explain how this study
views learning, then describe the design of the course and the study, and finally present the results of data analysis:
1) how parents and their children influenced each other’s learning by learning Japanese collaboratively; and 2) how parental
engagement impacted on the wider school community. The analysis identifies various benefits of parental engagement forparents, their children and teachers. The study concludes by discussing the implications of parental engagement in JLE at
the secondary level.

1	Redlands is a private coeducational school consisting of preschool and K-12 and is located in Sydney. This study focuses on Years 7-12.
One author (Yuji) is a Japanese teacher at Redlands, who initiated and executed this project. The other author (Takuya) is a PhD candidate
and Japanese teacher at UNSW Sydney, who contributed to the design of the course and also taught the course. Both have been involvedin the research part of this project, which was generously funded by the Association of Independent Schools of NSW. Redlands offers fiveforeign languages at the secondary level (Year 7 to 12); Group A constitutes Japanese, Chinese and Latin, and Group B constitutes Spanish
and French. Students are required to take two language courses (one from each group) in Year 7 and they must continue studying one of themin Years 8 and 9.

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Vertical and horizontal development
This study draws on the sociocultural concepts of “vertical development” and “horizontal development” (Beach 1999, 128)
to understand the language learning experiences of parents and their children, since these provide a useful two-dimensionalmodel of the dynamic process of learning. Vertical development refers to 1) increasing the amount of knowledge (e.g.,memorising expressions), and 2) refining one’s existing skills to do something more skilfully, (e.g., writing kanji faster andwell).2 Vertical development often requires repetitive engagement with knowledge and skills (e.g., pronouncing the target
expression a number of times). Horizontal development, on the other hand, is defined as “the transformation or creationof a new relation between individuals and social activities” (Beach 1999, 128). Horizontal development is triggered when
individuals realise a new aspect of what they already know. Therefore, instead of repeating a certain pattern of activity,
actually participating in various activities is the key to horizontal development. For instance, when individuals participate
in multiple contexts where a Japanese expression which they already know is used differently, they begin to understandit differently, which results in creating a new relationship with the expression and the activity involving the expression.
Likewise, when they interact with others in different contexts, they may receive different impressions about thoseparticipants and may change their relationships with them. Thus, activities promoting horizontal development can create
positive relationships with social activities and individuals involved in those activities (e.g., developing an interest in them).
Vertical and horizontal development are aspects which ideally grow together to enhance one’s language learning, although
they are often discussed separately (Beach 1999; Kagawa and Aoyama 2015). The interdependent relationship between
vertical and horizontal development is conceptualised as shown in Figure 1 below. When vertical development facilitates
one’s participation in a variety of social activities, we can imagine that horizontal development occurs, just as the roots of atree grow wider and stronger. In turn, this means that horizontal development encourages individuals’ active and sustained
engagement in activities, which promotes their vertical development, just as the tree grows taller and stronger.

Figure 1: The interdependence between vertical and horizontal development (Stubbing 2015; modification added by the authors)2	In the field of language acquisition, vertical development can be understood as the process of automatisation (Ellis 2003). Ellis explains thatlearners move from knowing what as declarative knowledge to knowing how as procedural knowledge through repetitive practice of certain
knowledge/skills. However, we take a sociocultural view of learning. Therefore, vertical development is not about one’s cognitive development
operating independently regardless of context but construed socially to acknowledge development dependent on a particular context.

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Study design
This study involves two components: 1) designing and implementing the Japanese course for parents, and 2) data collection
and analysis.3 The first component was crucial to enable both parents and their children to be collaboratively engaged inJapanese learning. The second component aimed to explore and understand the experience of individuals (e.g., parents,
their children, and teachers) involved in the project as well as the impact of the course on the wider community.

The Japanese course for parents
An eight-week Japanese course for parents was held every Tuesday between 18:30 and 20:30 during Term 3, 2017.4 The
target audience was beginners with no or little learning experience of Japanese; this was one of the requirements set
by the funding organisation. We designed the program by referring to the content of Stage 4 prescribed in the current
Japanese K-10 Syllabus (NSW Education Standards Authority 2003) so that parents and their children were more likely toshare their learning experiences. The following topics were included in the course:• Self-introduction;• Counting in Japanese, asking and saying age and year grade;• Family terms and descriptive expressions (adjectives);• Hobbies, likes and dislikes; and• Favourite Japanese foods/restaurants.
In addition to the contents of the K-10 Syllabus, the course also introduced expressions that aimed to better suit parents’learning context. For example, we included expressions such as Nansai ni miemasu ka5 and Eien no jūhassai desu6 toanswer the question O-ikutsu desu ka,7 and O-wakaku miemasu8 to make a compliment.
The primary motivation to provide this course for parents was to encourage parents and their children to be collaboratively
engaged in Japanese learning. To achieve this end, we adopted a project-based approach and several teaching and learning
strategies that are used for children’s Japanese learning at Redlands such as lecturing on basic language concepts,
conducting pattern practice, engaging in interactive pair and group activities, and using ICT. In addition, the class showedvideos in which participating parents’ children demonstrated model sentences and activities. This aimed to provide
opportunities for parents to see their children’s progress in Japanese learning while presenting goals for parents to achievewith their children.
Outside the class, participating parents were instructed to film themselves using Japanese with their children for homework.
Homework was based on what parents learned in their class. Therefore, parents could show what they had learned and,
when necessary, seek support from their children. That is, parents and their children could learn collaboratively at home.
These videos were shared at the beginning of each class so that parents could observe how their classmates were making
progress and, more importantly, could learn from each other.9
For the end product of the project, parents combined, added new parts to and edited homework videos to make one long
version of a video entitled “My Family Video Album”, in which they used what they had learned to introduce their family
members, their ages and year grades, personalities, hobbies and interests, and their favourite restaurants.10 At the end-ofcourse party (the last lesson), parents and their children watched the videos together in class and peer-voted the top three3	Ethics clearance was sought and granted by the school. Participating parents also gave their permission for data to be collected and used for thisstudy.
4	The authors decided on Term 3 because this is when children and their parents start to consider whether they will continue with the language inthe following year. While the influence of their decision has not been examined, based on our reflection, the course for parents should have moreor less a positive influence on their decision making.
5“How old do I look?”
6“I am forever 18.”
7
“How old are you?”
8“You look so young.”
9	We emphasised that homework was optional, as we assumed that making it compulsory could put excessive pressure on parents. Most parents
did their homework regularly.
10	We did not implement any assessment in this course as evaluating parents’ progress was not part of the course’s purpose. However, we
introduced peer voting for the final videos to determine the top three videos. The peer voting acknowledged the effort parents and their families
put into making the video. We also provided a certificate for the completion of the course to all parents.

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videos to acknowledge their efforts and progress together. In the last lesson, parents also watched their children’s video
messages, in which children expressed their gratitude to their parents and celebrated their parents’ successful completionof the course.11

Participating parents
Following an advertisement for the course via email to parents whose children were studying Japanese, 32 parents
registered, although 28 attended the first lesson. Six parents stopped coming mid-way through the course. Twentytwo parents completed the course. The number of absences varied among the participating parents. Out of the 22,
17 participants were female. Three pairs were couples.

Data collection and analysis
This study employed a qualitative approach to explore the experiences of those who were involved in the course: parents,
their children and the teachers. Three tools were used to collect data: 1) pre- and post-course surveys for parents; 2)
children’s video messages to parents; and 3) participant observation. These tools allowed for data triangulation (Rothbauer2008), which co-constructed reflection on the significance of parental engagement in children’s Japanese learning forindividuals and communities.
The first tool, a pre-course survey, was administered to gather general information about whether parents had studied
Japanese or been to Japan, their understanding regarding their child’s Japanese learning at Redlands, and their own
motivation for taking the course. The post-course survey asked about their interactions with their children through Japaneselearning during the course, the influence of their Japanese learning on their children, and an evaluation of the course using
a Likert scale along with open-ended questions. These were used to understand parents’ learning experiences in thiscourse, and relationships between their learning and interactive experiences that they had with their children.12
The second tool, children’s video messages, asked each child to make a video message regarding their parents’ Japaneselearning in the course. The video messages were shown to parents in the final lesson, then transcribed and analysed by
the authors. This helped the authors understand how the children observed, reflected upon and were influenced by theirparents’ Japanese learning.
The third tool, participant observation, was used to understand parents’ and children’s experiences and their changes
from the teachers’/researchers’ perspectives. After each lesson, the teachers wrote a journal to reflect upon participants’engagement in learning, their interactions, and their comments and conversations about their own and their children’s
language learning. The teachers regularly discussed what they had observed in order to deepen their understanding of theparticipants’ experiences in this course.
We conducted a thematic analysis (Nowell et al. 2017) to identify the salient themes in the data sets relevant to the aimsof this study. The concepts of vertical and horizontal development as the overarching framework guided the analysis.

Findings
The first part of these results of the data analysis sets out how parental engagement through collaborative learning ofJapanese impacted on parents and their children. Their vertical development is explored, followed by an exploration of
their horizontal development. We then illustrate the impact of the course for parents on the school community. The study
shows how parental engagement can bring about a positive impact on not only parent–child but also teacher–parent
relationships to benefit broader educational practice.

11
12

The schedule and brief summary of the course contents for each week are presented in Appendix I.
For the pre- and post-surveys, please see Appendix II.

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Child–parent mutual impact of parental engagement in Japanese learningThis study found that parental engagement enhanced children’s vertical development. First, it was salient that children
gained opportunities for their own vertical development in helping their parents’ vertical development. For instance, oneof the parents commented that “it was good to have her ‘teach’ or ‘tutor’ me. I’m still not very good but much better than
before” (Parent B). Parents and children often constitute unidirectional relationships in terms of learning, i.e., parents tend
to guide their child’s learning. Instead, in this case, they switched roles. Another parent called this “a good role reverse”(Parent C). Children, likewise, reported that they helped their parents, saying that “I like how you have to ask me questions
and I can help you” (Student B). This suggests that the children’s “help” was given when questions occurred to their parents
as they undertook the Japanese course, questions that could be dealt with by children who were more or less advanced
in Japanese.
Secondly, as parents kept using Japanese at home, their children’s exposure to Japanese increased. One child said that“it’s really nice when you come home and speak to me in Japanese” (Student A). The increased exposure was not only
about frequency but also variety. Parents’ Japanese uses were not the same as their children’s due to the extra contentsof the course and parents’ unique needs. As a result, one parent reported that her child “was forced to practise ‘my’ words
and new words that I asked her to pronounce” (Parent B). This signifies that children together with their parents not only
reviewed what they knew but also learned new knowledge that had not been introduced yet in their own Japanese class.
These parent–child interactions remained active and reciprocal. Children commented that “we are together […] doing workwith you” (Student C) and “you talk to me in Japanese at home, we can be fluent together” (Student D). Our observationof their homework videos affirmed that both parents and children were collaboratively engaged in their learning, and theyused Japanese in a mutually supportive way. Even while filming their performances, there was frequent scaffolding ofeach other’s listening, understanding and utterances.
Parents’ and children’s comments also suggest the occurrence of horizontal development in children. One of the key
feelings expressed by them was enjoyment and fun of learning Japanese together. One parent wrote that “[the children]
enjoyed learning together and so did I” (Parent F). Children also expressed such feelings by using the terms “fun”, “loved”,“happy”, “cool” and “nice” (Students A; C; D; and E). The homework videos (where a group of parents and children gathered
to play bingo in Japanese; a father cooking rice balls with his two sons and saying oishii13 together; and another father andhis son joking about whether he likes studying by using the expressions uso14 and usotsuki15) document how children andparents enjoyed “hang[ing] out together” (Parent L). Furthermore, parents and children encountered what one parent called“encouragement” (Parent H) to converse in Japanese together. In turn, children had their parents as their encouragement.
As one parent mentioned, “children find it encouraging that I am trying to learn new things” (Parent I). These comments
indicate that parental engagement in this case was not unidirectional and obtrusive, but mutually encouraging.
Such mutual encouragement supported children’s increase of motivation in Japanese learning. Parents wrote that “learning
together increased her motivation and confidence” (Parent K), “it was good to hang out together to do the video. It helps
build my son’s confidence” (Parent L), and “I think it made him more diligent with his homework knowing we were more
involved” (Parent D). Children also reported how they wanted to continue learning Japanese together with their parents;for example, Student A said “I hope you can learn further and practise with me.” All these comments suggest that childrenchanged how they viewed Japanese learning and built a (positive) relationship with Japanese learning when parents weremore involved.
The parental engagement in their children’s Japanese learning offered opportunities for children to see their parents
differently. The data indicate that children expressed their gratitude and respect to their parents by acknowledging theirparents’ initiative, persistence and progress in Japanese learning. Comments from children included “I am just really happy
that you are taking initiative to learn a language” (Student A), and “thank you for giving up your time to really try and learn
Japanese” (Student F). One of the children told his mother “well done on going to all the classes” (Student I), showing that
he was impressed with her sustained effort. Furthermore, children offered observations like “you’ve been really doing
good with Japanese and you progressed so much and you can say some really cool sentences now” (Student G), “I’ve been

13
14
15

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very impressed with the work you’ve done in Japanese” (Student H), and “well done with your Japanese progression. I
noticed a very good improvement” (Student I). The children who commented appear to have drawn on an evaluative voice.
Considering the parents’ common role as guide in their children’s learning, perhaps it seemed unusual and yet impressive
and inspiring to children to see their parents demonstrating learning themselves.
Likewise, parents changed how they viewed their children. This change occurred when parents were brought to understandtheir children’s relationship with Japanese learning more intimately by experiencing their “interest and enthusiasm” (Parent
J) directly. In the pre-survey, most parents did not have a clear understanding of why their children selected Japanese.
What the data indicated was that parents not only practised Japanese with their children but also understood what learning
Japanese meant to their children. This better understanding resulted in filling the gap that had existed between them andtheir children in regard to Japanese learning.
Furthermore, by attending the course parents experienced how their children learn Japanese, since the class employedboth the content and pedagogy that were often used in their children’s Japanese classes. Importantly, when parents cameto know what learning Japanese was like, they acknowledged the difficulty involved and how well their children weremaking progress in such a challenging school subject. One of the parents wrote that “[I have gained] an appreciation of the
progress and confidence my daughter has achieved” (Parent K); another wrote “now, I fully understand it requires lots oftime and effort to learn Japanese well and I will provide my best support to her” (Parent N). In the end, being on the same
page allowed parents to view how their children were learning Japanese from the children’s perspective. This experienceenabled parents to respect and appreciate their children’s effort, progress and achievement. As a result, they increased
their willingness to ‘support’ their children.

Impact on the wider school community and PARENT-TEACHER relationships
The data analysis indicates that this course for parents functioned as a strategy for advocacy to promote the presence of
JLE at Redlands. Tohsaku (2014) emphasises the importance for advocacy of raising the visibility of JLE. To achieve this end,
the six Cs (Communication, Collaboration, Culture, Credibility, Connections, and Communities) need to be considered (seeNational Network for Early Language Learning (NNELL) (2011), in Tohsaku 2014). Regarding Communication, for example,
Tohsaku claims that “we [Japanese language educators] should communicate what we are doing in our classroom
to parents, other educators, community and stakeholders whenever possible” (2014, 9). This course was designed by
employing the content and teaching/learning strategies that are used for the children’s Japanese language learning. In thisway, the course provided one of the authors, Yuji, who teaches both participating parents and their children, with a directcommunication channel by which he could share what he does for their children with the participating parents.
The data support the view that this course functioned as a communication channel between the teacher and theparticipating parents. Several parents expressed that they formed a clearer understanding of how their children learned
Japanese at school, for example, commenting “[this course] makes me understand the learning process of my kids”(Parent N). Furthermore, many participating parents highly evaluated the professionalism presented by the teachers. This
positive evaluation was often represented by words such as “enthusiasm” (Parent D) and “commitment” (Parent E). This
indicates that this parents’ course also allowed Yuji not only to convey to parents what he teaches his students (the childrenof the participating parents), but also to communicate the passion and vision that he maintains to enrich their children’s
Japanese language learning.
The data indicated that the participating parents communicated with other parents in the school community regarding
their experiences in this course. One parent, for example, commented that “I’ve mentioned to other parents that I’m doing
the course, and I think there would be a lot of interest from parents to do a Chinese, Latin, French, and Spanish course
too” (Parent D). This comment is considered important not only for raising the visibility of the Japanese language programin the wider school community, but also for highlighting the great potential of this course to advocate foreign languages
education programs in the school by involving other stakeholders such as other language teachers and collaboratively
working with them.
This course for parents was considered beneficial in terms of strengthening the teacher–parent partnerships for children’s
learning. Parent P, for example, commented “it was fun to meet other parents and teachers”. As explained above, Yuji
has been teaching their children for some time; it may therefore sound somewhat strange to hear “meet teachers” fromparents, since he has met them before. Reflecting upon this comment, it is important to ask how much he knew about

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the parents of the children in his classrooms. Although we come to know each other through various opportunities where
teachers and parents interact (e.g., school events, emails, telephone calls, and parent–teacher nights), it appears likely thatparent-teacher relationships were strengthened considerably by working together towards a particular goal, discussing
children’s progress regarding Japanese on a more regular basis, exchanging and negotiating their educational visions, andsharing a lot of laughs throughout this course.
Interestingly, before this course, many parents addressed Yuji as Mr Okawa, to signify that he was their children’s classroom
teacher. However, as the course progressed, the same parents began calling him not only Okawa Sensei (the significanceof which was explained to parents) but also Yuji (his first name). This is another example that indicates that relationships
shifted to create something different, something that parents and teachers could establish by sharing a larger amount oftime and a stronger sense of trust towards each other.

Discussion
This study demonstrated how improved parental engagement facilitated opportunities for children and parents to influenceeach other’s development (vertical and horizontal) in the context of the Japanese course for parents. As our literature
review identified, the current scholarship on parental engagement in second/foreign language education tends to discuss
its educational values by addressing parents separately from children, based on the assumption that parents influencechildren’s language learning (e.g., Prescott and Orton 2012). However, as shown above, through the series of activities set
in this course, the children and parents were able to mutually scaffold each other’s vertical and horizontal development ina variety of ways. Thus, this study suggests that an emphasis needs to be placed on this mutual engagement in Japaneselearning when viewing, designing and facilitating parental engagement.
It is now clear that mutual influence between children and parents brings about additional benefits, i.e., increased horizontal
development rather than just increased vertical development. When a unidirectional influence of parental engagement
is assumed, the individual activity and child–parent relationships are unlikely to change. However, child–parent mutual
involvement in Japanese learning altered how they engaged with and viewed Japanese learning. To them, learning Japanese
became not merely a school subject to study but a social activity where they “[hung] out”, enjoyed and shared their “interest
and enthusiasm”. Furthermore, children and parents gradually came to view each other differently as they understood,
acknowledged and respected each other’s initiative, effort, persistence, progress, confidence and achievement in Japaneselearning. This change transformed their relationships into more harmonious, mutually encouraging and collaborative ones.
These positive relationships between children, parents and Japanese learning enhanced children’s motivation, confidence
and diligence in their own Japanese learning. This interplay between vertical and horizontal development can facilitate
development of a child as a whole person, thus putting their wellbeing at the forefront.
The focus on mutuality in this study requires re-addressing what it means to support children in language learning. As
mentioned, parental engagement concerns “how parents and families ‘support’ their children’s academic achievement
and wellbeing” (DET 2018, single quotes added). It is certainly beneficial for children to receive direct support in forms ofteaching and guiding from their parents. In high school core subjects that parents are likely to have studied themselves,
such as English and mathematics, they often have more knowledge than their children and are able to support theirchildren. However, for subjects that parents often have not studied, such as Japanese, a different approach is needed. This
study demonstrated that children can develop their knowledge and skills in Japanese by tutoring and helping their parents
who are less advanced in Japanese than themselves, revising language items with their parents, and being exposed to new
expressions that are brought back to the home by their parents. Both parents and children could develop their language
knowledge and skills through a “good role reverse”, by being involved in the varied tasks that were set to promote theircollaboration. This suggests that support can take different forms. Importantly, parents do not have to teach the subject
or guide their children with their expertise. Parents’ “best support” can be provided not only as guides who walk ahead ofchildren but also as partners who walk alongside their children. When support is viewed in this way, parental engagement
can become achievable for subjects like Japanese.
The results of this current study also suggest that teachers reflect upon their views of parents to design a more supportive
learning environment for children. Harris and Goodall’s study (2007) revealed that, while parental engagement is often
regarded as a “good thing” by teachers, parents and children, these three cohorts interpret the term differently. They foundthat children view parental engagement as being primarily about moral support and interest in their progress, parents

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view it as offering support to their children, and teachers view it as a means for improving behaviour (39). These findings
cannot be overgeneralised, and we, as educators, need to be cautious about this result. The gap that appears between
parents and teachers might confine parents to a limited role for their children’s learning or may even exclude them fromthe process. It is also debatable if teachers can provide the “best support” for their students on their own. Rather, it can besuggested that this best support takes a stronger and more comprehensive form by encouraging parents and teachers towork collaboratively without confining them into certain roles.
The results of this study further indicated that the teachers and participating parents began to construct stronger
relationships by sharing their interests, passion and educational visions around Japanese language learning. They shifted
the focus of their mutual gaze and came together by reconstructing their expected roles. This shift is a type of horizontal
development that enabled teachers and parents to realise their potential to better support their students/children byconnecting with each other differently. It seems that the stronger parent-teacher partnership fostered through this course
can function as a more solid foundation that enables students’ (children’s) Japanese language learning at school and home.

Concluding Remarks
This study questioned an often-fundamental assumption that parental engagement operates in one direction, i.e., parent
to student. We investigated how both parents and children can mutually influence each other’s learning. The study also
explored the potential impact that parental engagement can have on the broader school community. The results discussed
above clearly indicate that the Japanese course designed for parents enhanced both parents’ and children’s vertical andhorizontal development, affecting how the notions of support and of parental engagement ought to be reconceptualised.
We used the metaphor of a tree in Figure 1 to illustrate vertical and horizontal development. We conclude by returning to it
here. Parental engagement can promote both vertical and horizontal development of children. To nurture the tree or child tobecome taller and stronger (vertical development; something that is visible to the eye), the tree also requires an extensive
network of roots (horizontal development; something that is invisible to the eye). To become a healthier tree, however, thetree (child) also needs a number of optimal conditions (contexts) that support its growth and development. One way thiscan be achieved, through parental engagement, is discussed in this paper. Through their mutual partnership and interest in
the tree, parents and teachers can provide the nourishment that best supports a child’s learning and wellbeing.

Acknowledgments
This research was supported by the Association of Independent Schools of NSW. We, the authors, would like to express
our appreciation to Dr William S. Armour, Dr Maki Yoshida and Dr Todd James Allen for their constructive comments thatallowed us to refine our ideas and writing. We are grateful for the warm support of Ms Sarah McGarry (Deputy Principal of
Redlands) for our project. We also thank the anonymous reviewers for their constructive comments.

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Appendix I
Summary of schedule, topics, and activities of the Japanese course for parents
WEEK

TOPIC

ACTIVITIESCOOKING LESSONHOMEWORK

1

Getting to know each other(Self-introduction)Role-play(Greetings at a gorgeous party)

Welcome sweets

Introduce yourself to yourfamily members in Japanese!

2

Counting in Japanese(age, year grade)

Bingo in Japanese!

Onigiri rice ballPlay Bingo with your family!!

3

Introducing your family
members(description)

Ask me about my family

4

Revision Week

5

Talking about your hobbies,
what you like to do, what you
are good at

Find your best friends!

Ask your child about what they
proud of themselves!

6

Talking about your favourite
Japanese foods

Let’s use Interactive
Whiteboard!

Family time at your favourite
Japanese restaurant

7

Expressions and sentences you
want to know

Okonomiyaki
Yakisoba

8

Presenation:
My Family Video Album

Party!!

Interview your child using
Japanese!
(e.g. Personality)
Temakizushi

Make onigiri rice balls with yourchild!

Edit your video clips for yourpresentation with your child

NSJLE 2018 PROCEEDINGSAppendix II
Samples of pre- and post-surveys
Pre-survey

Parental Polyglots - Japanese class preliminary survey3) Do you have any chance to speak Japanese? Give details

Thank you very much for participating in this survey.
This survey aims to obtain some information regarding why you have decided to takethis Japanese language course. The survey will be useful for us to design and deliver
this course and future courses. Information contained in this survey is strictly
confidential, however, we would like to be able to present our findings to several
stakeholders such as the school and in other venues. To gain your permission for the
information to be used (anonymously), please check the appropriate box below.

4) Why have you chosen to study the Japanese language in this course?

[] I give my permission for the information in this survey to be used.

Yes, (give details)[] I do not give my permission for the information in this survey to be used.

5) Do you know why your son/daughter chose Japanese at Redlands?

No

We are planning to set a post-course survey in which we would like to understandyour potential change you might experience by having done this course. Please createa pseudonym (a combination of first name and family name) which allows us to link
your preliminary course survey (this survey) with your post-course survey. Pleaseavoid names that are considered ‘typical’ (e.g., John Smith or Mary Jones). You will
be asked to write your pseudonym on your post-course survey.

6) Do you discuss their study of the Japanese language with your son or daughter?
If yes, what do you discuss with him/her?

If no, why not?

Your pseudonym:
1) Have you ever studied the Japanese language before?

7) What do you want to achieve by doing this short Japanese language course?

If yes,When?
How long?
Where?
No

8) Any comments for us to consider at this stage of the program?

2) Have you ever been to Japan?
Yes (give details)
No, but would like toThank you for your cooperation.

No, and don’t intend to
Never really thought about it

Post-survey
Parental Polyglots - Japanese class post-course survey2) What, in your opinion, were some of the best things about doing this course?

Thank you very much for participating in the post-course survey. This survey aims to obtain some information
regarding your experience of learning Japanese language in this course. The survey will be useful for our reflectionand evaluation of this course as well for planning future courses. Information contained in this survey is strictly
confidential, however, we would like to be able to present our findings to several stakeholders such as the school andin other venues. To gain your permission for the information to be used (anonymously), please check the appropriate
box below.
[[

3) Have your chances to speak in Japanese increased since doing this course? Give details.

] I give my permission for the information in this survey to be used.
] I do not give my permission for the information in this survey to be used.

Please circle the pseudonym that you created for the preliminary survey from the list below.
List of pseudonyms

4) Did your participation in this course assist your child's language learning? If so, how?

1) Please evaluate the following aspects of the course by circling the most appropriate number on the scale.
a) Satisfaction
1 - - - - - - - - - - 2- - - - - - - - - - 3- - - - - - - - - - 4 - - - - - - - - - - 5
Extremely low5) What did you think about learning the Japanese language with your child? Why do you think so?

Extremely highProvide reasons:b) Applicability to your situation

6) What do you think you have achieved by having done this Japanese language course?

1 - - - - - - - - - - 2- - - - - - - - - - 3- - - - - - - - - - 4 - - - - - - - - - - 5
Not applicableat allHighly applicable

Provide reasons:7) Did you find it beneficial for you to get to know other parents doing this course? Give reasons.

c) Motivation
1 - - - - - - - - - - 2- - - - - - - - - - 3- - - - - - - - - - 4 - - - - - - - - - - 5
UnmotivatedHighly motivated8) Any further comments?

Provide reasons:d) Curriculum (e.g. teaching, course content, materials)
1 - - - - - - - - - - 2- - - - - - - - - - 3- - - - - - - - - - 4 - - - - - - - - - - 5
PoorProvide reasons:

ExcellentThank you for your cooperation.

28