Pan SIG
Journal2023

PanSIG is an annual conference
held in May and organized bymany of the Special Interest
Groups (SIGs) of the Japan
Association for Language
Teaching (JALT).

Edited by
PanSIG Journal 2023 Editorial Team
Miguel Campos
Allyson MacKenzie
Ezra Vasquez
Duncan Iske
Annie Minami
Shanique Hutchinson

MESSAGE FROM THE EDITOR
Dear Readers,
The 22nd Annual PanSIG conference convened from May 12 to 14, 2023, at the scenic Kyoto Sangyo University.
Embracing the theme "Looking Forward," we sought not only to reflect on our recent transformative experiences in
education but to anticipate and shape future paradigms. This year, amidst the serene beauty of Kyoto, over 250 face-toface and pre-recorded presentations ignited discussions that bridged past insights and future innovations.
I extend my heartfelt gratitude to Nicholas J. Wilson, our Conference Chair, and Amanda Gillis-Furutaka, our Site Chair,
whose leadership was instrumental in orchestrating this successful event. Their dedication, along with the tireless effortsof our organizing team, brought to life a conference enriched with diverse learning opportunities and community
engagement.
The 2023 PanSIG Journal proudly encapsulates this spirit of innovation and forward-thinking. With rigorous peer review
and a renewed editorial approach led by a freshly assembled team, including Assistant Editors Ezra Vasquez, Duncan
Iske, Annie Minami, and Shanique Hutchinson, we’ve curated a collection that reflects the breadth of topics discussed at
the conference. Special thanks are due to Allyson MacKenzie, our new Senior Editor, whose expertise was vital during
critical phases of the publication process.
This year was particularly challenging and rewarding for me, stepping into the role of Editor-in-Chief amid the journal’s
editorial team transition. The learning curve was steep, and the experience invaluable. Observing the evolution ofsubmissions through the review process was profoundly educational, underscoring the journal as a growth platform forboth novice and seasoned authors.
Our contributors and reviewers deserve immense recognition for their adaptability and commitment to excellence.
Watching authors refine their submissions in response to insightful reviews has been truly inspiring. I am especially gratefulfor the support from Patrick Conaway, whose guidance has been so important for navigating the complexities of editorial
responsibilities.
As we look to the future, I am excited about the potential to further enrich our journal and conference offerings. The 2024
PanSIG at Fukui University of Technology promises to continue this trajectory, exploring fundamental educational
strategies and nurturing the academic community. I am confident that under the guidance of incoming Conference Chair
Parvathy Ramachandran and Site Chair Bradford Lee, the PanSIG community will reach new heights.
In closing, I hope that the articles within this journal inspire you as much as they have inspired us. May they provoke
thought, incite dialogue, and encourage you to contribute to our ever-evolving field.
Warm regards,

Miguel Campos
Editor-in-Chief, PanSIG Journal 2023
May 15, 2023

The PanSIG is an annual conference held in May, and organized by many of the Special Interest Groups (SIGs) of theJapan Association for Language Teaching (JALT). The conference brings together leading scholars and practitioners inlanguage education from Japan, Asia, and throughout the world. It is meant to be a smaller, more intimate conference
than the annual international JALT conference (which is held each fall), and is a place where SIG members can networkwith each other.

ii
Website: http://pansig.org/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/JALTpansig/
Twitter: https://twitter.com/JALT_PanSIG (Twitter handle: @JALT_PanSIG)

Artwork courtesy of James Dunn

ISBN# 978-4-901352-72-7
PanSIG Journal 2023
Selected articles from the PanSIG 2023 Conference
JALT Central Office
Marunouchi Trust Tower Main Building, 20F, 1-8-3 Marunouchi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-0005 Japan

http://jalt.org/

http://www.pansig.org/

All materials in this publication are copyright © (2024) by JALT and their respective authors.

PanSIG Journal 2023

iii

PanSIG Journal 2023
PDF Version
Conference info
PanSIG 2023 was held May 12-14 face to face with hybrid presntations at Kyoto Sangyo University. Thank you to everyone
who helped make this conference a success!
Website: http://pansig.org/
Facebook: https://www.facebook.com/JALTpansig/
Twitter: https://twitter.com/JALT_PanSIG (Twitter handle: @JALT_PanSIG)

Edited by the PanSIG Journal Editorial Team
Editor-in-Chief: Miguel Campos
Associate Editor: Allyson MacKenzie
Assistant Editor: Ezra Vasquez
Assistant Editor: Duncan Iske
Assistant Editor: Annie Minami
Assistant Editor: Shanique Hutchinson

PanSIG is the annual conference for Special Interest Groups of the Japan Association of Language Teachers

PanSIG Journal 2023

iv

Thanks to all PanSIG Journal 2023 reviewers
Ambinintsoa Dominique Vola

Figueroa Roberto

Kanda University of International Studies

University of the Philippines

Armstrong Craig

Forsythe Edo

Kumamoto Health Science University

Hirosaki Gakuin University

Arthurson Devon

Fujishima, Cecilia Smith

Hakuoh University

Shirayuri University

Barber Zoe

Goto Marina

Konan University

Marina English School

Barnett Jeffrey Charles Jr.

Hillis Mary

Shiga University of Medical Science

Ritsumeikan University

Bennett Phillip A.

Hobman Jason

Kanda University of International Studies

Saitama University

Birdsell Brian

Iske Duncan

Hirosaki University

Yamagata University

Brown Tina

Jayasooriya Lasni Buddhibhashika

Kanda University of International Studies

Kyushu University

Campbell-Larsen John

Jibiki Yuka

Kyoto Women’s University

University of the Sacred Heart

Capati Wilma

Kawashima Chie

Kanazawa Institute of Technology

Oyama Johnan High Schoolde Vera Leilani

Kobayashi Dawn

Doshisha University

Onomichi City University

Dias Joseph

Kuziw Michael

Aoyama Gakuin University

Jin-ai University

PanSIG Journal 2023

v
Lee Bradford

Smith Hamish

Fukui University of Technology

Iwate Prefectural University

McGettigan Martyn

Smith Cameron

Hiroshima City University

Aichi Gakuin University

Moser Jason

Strong Gregory

Kanto Gakuin University

Aoyama Gakuin University

Nagai Emi

Swanson Mark

Temple University

Yamaguchi Prefectural University

Nakagawa Hiroyo

Thomas Victoria

Osaka Jogakuin University

University of Shimane

Nakamura Mari

Toms Amy

MELEP (Mari’s English Language Education Port)

Fukuoka Women’s University

Oshima Sachi

Tsukamoto Mizuka

Chuo Gakuin University

Ryukoku University

Parsons Andre

Tuttle Terry R.

Hokkaido University of Education

Moriguchi City Board of Education

Ratcliff Esther

Williams Elisabeth

Tokyo Woman’s Christian University

Kobe Women’s University

Reidak Jesse

Wright Brent

Kyoto Seibo Gakuin Elementary School

Kanazawa Institute of Technology

Roloff Jennie

Yao Yaya

Kanda University of International Studies

Kyushu University

Shiiba Aya

Yosef Michael

University of Kitakyushu

Sophia University

Shimamoto DavidNational Institute of Technology, Niihama College

PanSIG Journal 2023

vi

Embodied Learning: A GEM Approach to Couple the Body with Language
Brian J. Birdsell

9

Looking Forward with Vocabulary Notebooks
Esther Ratcliff

16

Back to the Future for Task-based Learning with Jane and Dave Willis’s Collins COBUILD
English Course
Jason Moser

23

Using Drawing Prompts to Promote Topic Development in Discussion Tasks
Hamish Smith

30

Using Positive Psychology Interventions to Support EFL Students
Dominique Vola Ambinintsoa
Phillip A. Bennett

39

Effect of Self-Efficacy and Proficiency on Speaking Test Scores
Dawn Kobayashi

45

Reflective Practice: How Learner Reflections Facilitate Teacher Development
Joan M. Kuroda

55

Effects of an Intro Level Disability Studies CLIL Course on Student Perceptions of Disability
Tina Brown

61

Locating Practice: A Duoethnography on Language Teacher Identities
Yaya Yao
Lasni Buddhibhashika Jayasooriya

68

Student Perceptions of the Benefits of Free Writing in English
Edo Forsythe
Steven Gary MacWhinnie

75

Error Analysis of EFL Expository Writing: Implications for Pre-College Classrooms
Michael Yosef
Satoko Matsuo

84

Critical Thinking Through Comparisons: Strategies From An EMI Course
Cecilia Smith Fujishima
Adrienne Johnson

92

Finding Meaning in Paintings: Promoting Critical Thinking Through Art
Mark Swanson

100Japanese High School Students’ Engagement in Online Global PBL
Mari Nakamura

109

Do Textbook Dialogues Represent Pragmatically Appropriate Language Use?
Chie Kawashima

117

Developing the Reading Anxiety Questionnaire for Japanese Beginner-level College Students
Sachi Oshima

125

PanSIG Journal 2023

vii

Enhancing IELTS Prep with Phrasal Verb Analysis: A Corpus-Based Study
Aya Shiiba
Joseph Oliver

133

A Survey of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in TESOL
Bradford J. Lee
Dale C. Jeffery

142

Student Debates: Scaffolding for Success in Task-Based Learning
Martyn John McGettigan

151

Making monsters: sociocultural creativity and language classroom tasks
Cameron Smith

157

Photos vs Drawings: Effect on Vocabulary Retention
Craig Armstrong

168

Collaborative Writing - A Report About Integrating Technology as a Virtual Partner
Marina Goto
Daniel Dusza

173

Exploring Student Engagement in an Online Environment
Mizuka Tsukamoto

182

Pairing Contemporary Issues and Poetry
Mary Hillis

189

Classroom Ideas for Teaching Circumlocution to False Beginners
David Shimamoto

196

Investigating Homeroom Teacher Influence on Student Self-Efficacy in Elementary Schools
Michael Andrew Kuziw

201

Self-stimulated Recall for Continuing Professional Development in Advising
André Parsons

210

Likert Scale Survey of Team Teaching Communication Challenges in Japan
Terry R. Tuttle
Aquanna Ishii

216

Responding to MEXT: Pre-Entry Programs at Japanese Universities
Hiroyo Nakagawa
Kaori Hakone
Tamara Swenson

225

Examining Student Perspectives on Improving Online Self-Access Learning
Victoria Thomas

233

The Good Life: Foreign Teachers and Retirement
Gregory Strong

245

At Play: Drama for Language Education
Gregory Strong
Joseph Dias
Michiyo Okawa
Miki Tanaka

254

PanSIG Journal 2023

viii

GALE SIG Forum: Gender-Friendly Practices in Language Classrooms
Amy Toms
Elisabeth (Libby) Ann Williams
Chelanna White

263

Exploiting Textbook Conversations for Pragmatic Lesson Resources
John Campbell-Larsen

271

Students' Sense of Accomplishment in a University Business English Course
Brent Alden Wright277

Literary Texts and their Writers: An Examination of Gender and Representation in
Secondary Textbooks in the Philippines
Leilani de Vera

284

PanSIG Journal 2023

9

Embodied Learning: A GEM Approach to Couple the Body with Language
Brian J. Birdsell
Hirosaki University
Embodied cognition argues that the body plays a crucial role in cognitive processes including perception, problem-solving, andlanguage. As a result, research in the learning sciences has recently begun to explore the implications of embodied cognition inlearning, resulting in an emerging field called embodied learning. In this paper, I first review the theory of embodied cognition andhow it differs from traditional views, focusing on both hybrid and strong views of embodiment. Next, I consider how this theoreticalframework can strengthen arguments for using embodied learning in the language classroom through a GEM approach. Thisapproach outlines how gesture, enactment, and mental simulation can facilitate vocabulary learning. Practical examples of how
this can be done within the natural constraints of a classroom environment are also included.

身体化された認知は、知覚、問題解決、言語などの認知プロセスにおいて、身体が不可欠な役割を果たすと主張する。そのため、近年、教育研究においても、身体化された認知が学習にどのような意味を持つのかが模索され、「身体化学習」という新たな分野が生まれつつある。本論文では、まず、具現化認知の理論を概観し、それが従来の見解とどのように異なるのか、ハ
イブリッドな具現化観と強い具現化観の両方に焦点を当てながら検討する。次に、この理論的枠組みが、言語教室で身体化学習を使用するための議論をどのように強化することができるかを検討する。GEM アプローチと呼ばれるモデルを開発し、ジェ
スチャー、エンクトメント、メンタルシミュレーションがどのように語彙学習を促進するかを概説している。さらに、教室という自然の制約の中で、どのようにこれを行うことができるかの実践例も紹介する。

This paper explores the concept of embodied cognition
and its potential implications for language learning,
specifically in the context of vocabulary acquisition.
Theories of embodied cognition argue that cognition isdependent on the physical body for meaning and thiscoupling is non-trivial (Wilson, 2002). In essence,
semantic knowledge is “structured by our constantencounter and interaction with the world via our bodies
and brains” (Gallese & Lakoff, 2005, p. 3). Therefore,
learning new vocabulary can be improved throughincorporating multimodal materials and physicalmovement during the learning event. This paper isorganized as follows. Section 1 presents the findings
from the cognitive sciences over the past 20 years,
which suggests semantic knowledge is grounded in thesensorimotor and emotional systems of the body, rather
than abstract symbols. This provides the theoreticalbackground for Section 2, which outlines a GEM
approach. The GEM approach demonstrates practicalways to focus on embodied learning in the classroom toenhance learning outcomes.

Semantic Knowledge
Consider the following sentence: The girl with a yellow
jersey kicked the soccer ball. This sentence iscomposed of a person, objects, and an action verb.
Over the last several decades, neuroscientists andlinguists have tried to pinpoint where in the brain is what

we know of the world. This what is our semantic memoryor our knowledge about people, objects, actions,relations, self, and culture acquired through experience(Binder et al., 2009). This memory helps us to recognize
objects, perform actions, think creatively, andcommunicate through language. It consists of concepts
that we have learned over our lifespans – some areviewed as being more concrete (e.g., tree, violin, orange,
jump, and skip) while others are more abstract (e.g.,
freedom, democracy, and infinity). The semantic
content of these abstract concepts is more variable anddependent on context (Borghi et al., 2017).

An early view of semantic knowledge
The classical or traditional view of semantic knowledge
argues that our concepts are “amodal” (Pylyshyn, 1984).
This means that our understanding of words andconcepts is independent of sensory and motor
experiences.
For
example,ourconceptual
understanding of garlic is first learned through thesensorimotor system, but then is transformed into an
abstract symbolic code. In other words, when we firstlearn the word garlic, our experience of interacting withthis bulb whether smelling it, seeing it, cooking or eatingit, or peeling the cloves activates the sensorimotor
system, but then goes through a process called

PanSIG Journal 2023

10transduction where this semantic content is stored in a
separate, amodal system (consisting of abstract
symbolic codes) that is divorced from the sensorimotor
systems. Thus, the original modality-specificsensorimotor information is lost (see Barsalou, 2008afor a visual representation). Proponents of this view do
not deny the possibility that when one reads the word
garlic, the sensorimotor systems are activated, yet they
will argue that this is simply epiphenomenal (orsecondary) and not causal for comprehension (Machery,2007).
According to this view, semantic knowledge is notdirectly tied to any specific sensory or motor experience,but instead resides in a dedicated language module
within the brain. This module stores abstract
representations that can be accessed and manipulated
independently of our sensory and motor modalities. If
this is the case, then teaching language can be done ina de-contextualized and disembodied way with theteacher (or perhaps a textbook) transmitting knowledge
to a passive recipient, or the student. This would include
rote memorization, drills, and test-focused learning. In
this teaching approach, students sit and remain
sedentary throughout the learning session because thebodies of both the teachers and students are seen as
irrelevant to the teaching-learning event (Macrine &Fugate, 2022, p. 14).

Embodied theories of semantic knowledge
Embodied theories of semantic knowledge contend that
our understanding of language and concepts isgrounded in sensory and motor experiences, and that
our mental representations of concepts are shaped bythese experiences (Barsalou, 2008b; Shapiro, 2019).
This means that the same neural systems that are
involved in perception, action, and emotion are also
involved in language comprehension and production.
Therefore, researchers within an embodied framework
argue that semantic knowledge is distributed acrossbrain regions and not stored in a separate amodal
system (Hoenig et al., 2008). Thus, language is shapedby our bodily experiences interacting with the world
around us. Over the last couple decades, bothbehavioral and brain imaging studies have provided
compelling evidence to support this embodied view oflanguage comprehension.

Evidence from neuroimaging studies
It is first important to note that the body is
topographically mapped onto the primary motor andsomatosensory cortices. In other words, specificstructures within the motor cortex correspond to certain
parts of the body (e.g., leg, arm, lips, etc.). Using
functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), studies
have shown that reading a word such as “kick” activatesthe corresponding motor area of the brain for that
effector (e.g., leg) and this has been done with arm

related words like “pick” and mouth related words like“lick” (see Hauk et al., 2004; Pulvermüller, 2001 formore details). These are examples of processing motorrelated concepts, or otherwise action verbs, but otherstudies have similarly found corresponding activation inmodality-specific brain region for reading gustatory (e.g.,ham) (Barros-Loscertales at al., 2012) and olfactory(e.g., lavender) related words (Gonzalez et al., 2006).
If we return to this sentence, The girl with a yellow jersey
kicked a soccer ball. To comprehend this sentencemeans activating the motor (specifically the effector forthis action, as in, the leg), vision, and object/person
recognition. These are all integrated through running amental simulation of this event. There is considerable
agreement in the field that this is the case for highly
concrete language where the body and sensory
systems are closely coupled to the action or object.
However, one of the more debated topics now in thefield is not whether language is embodied, but rather towhat degree it is embodied – fully embodied, including
abstract language or partially embodied or what iscommonly referred to as a hybrid model.

A hybrid view of semantic knowledge
A hybrid view suggests that there is interaction between
modality specific areas (sensory and motor regions of
the brain) with multimodal and amodal conceptual hubsthat provide conceptual binding and integration(Patterson, Nestor, & Rogers, 2007). Therefore,
concepts are formed through the hub-and-spoke
representational system with the hub localized to theanterior temporal lobe (ATL) and the spokes inmodality-specific cortices that are distributed across thecortex. The ATL is active in semantic processing acrossvirtually all types of concepts.

A strong view of embodied cognition
A strong embodied view proposes that abstract
language is also grounded by way of metaphor and thus
also relies on the sensorimotor systems for meaning
comprehension (Gallese & Lakoff, 2005). For example,
both the literal sentence, “Grasp an object”, andcorresponding metaphorical sentence, “Grasp an idea”,
have been shown to activate motor areas of the brain
for that effector, as in, the hand (Boulenger, Shtyrov, &Pulvermüller, 2012). This has also been shown withgustatory related metaphors, as in, “She received asweet compliment” compared to “She received a nicecompliment” (Citron & Goldberg, 2014) and the former
activated brain regions for taste.
There are countless examples of how abstract concepts
are grounded by way of metaphor. Take for example theabstract concept of time. This concept is mapped onto
physical space; “I’m looking forward to seeing you” or“Let’s put the past behind us”. This allows one tounderstand and reason about this abstract concept in a
PanSIG Journal 2023

11
more concrete and embodied way. People also gesture
in a congruent way when talking about time – forward
movements when talking about the future, andbackward movements when talking about the past.
Other examples include justice and physical balance;
affection and physical warmth; creativity and breaking
of walls or thinking outside the box; or the abstract
concept of negative past experiences and physicalweight (e.g., emotional baggage). All in all, there is aconsiderable amount of research that has provided
evidence for a strong view of embodiment (see Landau,
2016 for more details). However, its major drawback isthat not all abstract language is metaphorical.
Nonetheless, a growing body of research suggests
language processing is at least partially embodied.
Therefore, educators should consider teachingapproaches that incorporate movement and sensory
experiences. Recent studies have also exploredembodied representation of semantic knowledge insecond language acquisition and have found thatreactivating experiential traces is not limited to one’s
first language (see Buccino et al., 2017). The following
section explores the application of embodied learning inlanguage education.

A GEM Approach for Increasing the
Coupling of the Body and Language
Language teaching is primarily based on the
combination of oral or written language with pictorial,
auditory, or audiovisual materials. Few methods haveacknowledged the importance of active bodily
experience for language learning (except for a couple
methods like drama-based teaching and Total PhysicalResponse). Embodied theories of cognition provide
empirical evidence for such methods. In this GEM
approach, I focus on research that shows how Gesture,
Enactment, and Mental Simulation (GEM) can have an
enhancing effect on language learning, particularly forvocabulary.
Embodied theories of cognition highlight the relevanceof movement and experiential interactions with ourenvironment during learning. This may seem intuitive forteachers to comprehend, but difficult to conceptualize
what this means from a practical perspective. Therefore,
this GEM approach helps visualize how embodied
theories of cognition could be integrated into thelanguage classroom.

GEM practical activity 1: Gesture
Gestures-speech integration is the cognitive processthat binds audio and visual information into a single
communication exchange (Green et al., 2009). It is anatural part of language, but is an often overlooked andunderutilized communication strategy in the classroom.
This is likely due to constraints of the classroom suchas sitting and using the hands for other functions (e.g.,holding a pen, paper, book, writing, etc.). Gestures canreveal knowledge that the speaker wants to say, but
simply cannot produce the language to communicate
this intention effectively. A large body of research has
been accumulating over the last 30 years showing thebeneficial effects of gesture on vocabulary retention.
For example, Mayer and colleagues (2015) show thatlearning foreign vocabulary through gestures facilitates
long-term memory retention (2 and 6 months later).
Using neuroimaging, they also show that gestureenriched learning has an enhancing effect due to its
recruitment of visual and motor cortical areas of thebrain. Thus, learning through gesture builds deeper
semantic coding. In addition, Kelly and colleagues(2009) had participants learn Japanese verbs that werelearned audio-visually and by additionally performing a
congruent or an incongruent iconic gesture. Results
suggest that better memorization was achieved withwords trained with congruent gestures, non-matchinggestures did not enhance memory.
Below are some practical applications for integrating
gestures into the classroom:(1) Use matching gestures (gestures previously usedby a student) for teaching opportunities thathighlight a linguistic point (Majlesi, 2014).
(2) Have
students
stand
when
doing
conversation/group activities. This provides themmore space to use their hands.
(3) Use videos where people are gesturing. Watch thevideo without sound and then discuss what they arelikely saying to each other based on gestures. Thenlisten to the video and finally perform a skit basedon the content of the video focusing on gesturespeech integration.
(4) Introduce gesture as a content topic in theclassroom by showing different types of gestures
based on McNeill’s classification (1992). Show how
we use our hands to point out things in our
immediate environment (deictic gestures), how we
use our hands to physically represent somethingthat is semantically related to the co-occurringspeech (e.g., opening folded hands when talking
about reading a book) (iconic gestures), and how
we use gestures to refer to abstract concepts liketime (e.g., motion forward to talk about the future)(metaphorical gestures). A good video on YouTube
to introduce this topic to students is Tom Scott’s“Why do we move our hands when we talk”.

GEM practical activity 2: Enactment
Similar to gesture, but more purposeful and dramatic is
to enact the meaning of words. This so-called“enactment effect” (Engelkamp & Jahn, 2003) proposesthat actions can facilitate the learning and recall of
verbal information, by engaging the same neural
PanSIG Journal 2023

12
systems that are involved in perception and action.
Words that have been enacted activate the motor areasof the brain and thus are more deeply encoded andfacilitate memory retrieval by reactivating theseexperiential traces in the motor cortex (Senkfor et al.,2002). In one recent study (Birdsell, 2021), students
enacted the meaning of a set of phrasal verbs (seeFigure 1). Students who viewed these enactments
performed better on a posttest than those who saw thephrasal verbs with an L1 translation.
Figure 1
A student research assistant enacting the meaning of a phrasal verb
(Birdsell, 2021)

experiential traces from an earlier experience (Zwaan &Pecher, 2012). In a writing activity, students areprovided the following writing prompt for a homeworkassignment (this is part of a semester long creative/freewriting project in a required English Communication
course for 1st year students).
It is autumn and the weather is lovely. Go for awalk and find some place in Hirosaki (park, cafe,
shopping mall, mountain, train station, temple,
shrine, etc.) that you don’t frequently visit. Bringsome paper. Write down a description of thissetting. Provide lots of details. Use all yoursenses to describe this place: smell, taste, sight,
sounds, and texture. If you run out of things todescribe, observe the people. Imagine who they
are and where they are going.
In class, students read their writings to other students intheir groups. The other students are to mentally
simulate these experiences. Below is a condensed(non-edited) student excerpt from the above writing
prompt.

Enactment can take many forms. Recently, creativity
research has begun to examine the benefits ofmovement for improving creativity. Creativity isimportant for both linguistic competency and fordeveloping higher order thinking skills in the target
language. One study (Leung et al., 2012) showed thatenacting metaphors for creativity (e.g., physicallystanding outside a box, compared to sitting inside it)
improved scores on various assessments to measurecreative potential. This has also been shown with simple
fluid movements of the hands in the air (Slepian &Ambady, 2012). Recently, in a virtual reality (VR) study(Wang et al., 2018), participants who virtually enacted“breaking walls” as they walked down a corridor(compared to a “no-break” condition) scored higher on
divergent thinking tasks for originality and fluency.
Doing such activities with students in the classroom canhighlight a range of metaphorical expressions in English
from thinking outside the box to having a breakthrough.
Such studies confirm that the body has a modulating
effect on creative cognition, suggesting that creativity is
not only in the head, but in the interaction between thebrain, body, and environment. In short, physicallyenacting the meaning of words from phrasal verbs to
metaphorical expressions can strengthen the semantic
representation of these words for foreign language
learners.

GEM practical activity 3: Mental Simulation
The final part of this GEM approach is to provide
students opportunities to run a mental simulation of anevent. A mental simulation of an event reactivates

I came to Hirosaki Central Citizen's Square forthe first time. Recently, we had a lot of rain. But
the weather is fine today. The sun is bright.
Sometimes it’s blowing. I feel slightly cold whenit’s blowing. It smells like autumn and a little bitof winter.
At first, I sat down on a wooden bench that has
a square shape. It was warm because of thesunlight. The surface of the bench feels rough.
There are some fallen leaves around thebench.
This park is surrounded by roads. There is a
public restroom in front of me. And there is abank across the road. Next to the bank, there isa gas station. I can see Hirosaki Park on theright-hand side. Some of the cherry trees in
Hirosaki Park have started turning red.
I hear the telephone ringing from the gas station.
It rings 8 or 9 times. A woman wearing an apron
enters the public restroom. It seems that she isgoing to clean there. Some people are walking
or riding a bicycle. And Traffic is busy here. I canhear birdsongs. I think sparrows are singing. But
the noise of traffic is louder than the songs.
Sunshine is warm. I forgot to put on sunscreen.
Since most classrooms naturally constrict movement,
this is one practical activity that can be easily done in a
traditional classroom environment. It can also beenhanced by incorporating gestures and enactment
while the student reads the assignment to their groupmembers.

PanSIG Journal 2023

13

Conclusion

Birdsell, B. J. (2021). Enhancing phrasal verb learning:
A quasi-experimental study of different

Accumulating evidence from cognitive neurosciencesuggests that language is embodied and the body plays
a crucial role in facilitating language acquisition andproduction. Therefore, foreign language educators
should consider integrating movement into theclassroom. One possible way to do this is to use the
GEM approach, as outlined in the previous section. The
aim is to expand movement beyond the TPR approach,which primarily focuses on action commands for lowerlevel students, to language teaching in general and for
all levels of students. In summary, the bodies of bothteachers and students are in fact an integral point of theteaching-learning event.

Borghi, A. M., Binkofski, F., Castelfranchi, C., Cimatti,

References

Boulenger, V., Shtyrov, Y., & Pulvermüller, F. (2012).

approaches. JALT: Communities of Teachers &Learners, 244-251.
https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTPCP2020-30

F., Scorolli, C., & Tummolini, L. (2017). The
challenge of abstract concepts. Psychological
Bulletin, 143(3), 263-292.
https://doi.org/10.1037/bul0000089

When do you grasp the idea? MEG evidence forBarros-Loscertales, A., Gonzalez, J., Pulvermuller, F.,

instantaneous idiom

Ventura-Campos, N., Bustamante, J. C.,

understanding. Neuroimage, 59(4), 3502-3513.

Costumero, V., et al. (2012). Reading salt

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2011.11.01

activates gustatory brain regions: fMRI evidence

1

for semantic grounding in a novel sensory
modality. Cerebral Cortex, 22, 2554-2563.
https://doi:10.1093/cercor/bhr324

Buccino, G., Marino, B. F., Bulgarelli, C., & Mezzadri,M. (2017). Fluent speakers of a second
language process graspable nouns expressed in

Barsalou, L. W. (2008a). Grounding symbolic

L2 like in their native language. Frontiers inoperations in the brain's modal systems. In G. R.

Psychology, 8, 1306.

Semin & E. R. Smith (Eds.), Embodied

https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01306

grounding: Social, cognitive, affective, andneuroscientific approaches (pp. 9–42).

Citron, F. M., & Goldberg, A. E. (2014). Social context

Cambridge University

modulates the effect of physical warmth on

Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511805

perceived interpersonal kindness: A study of

837.002

embodied metaphors. Language andCognition, 6(1), 1-11.

Barsalou, L. W. (2008b). Grounded cognition. Annual

http://doi:10.1017/langcog.2013.4

Review of Psychology, 59, 617-645.
https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.psych.59.10300
6.093639

Engelkamp, J., & Jahn, P. (2003). Lexical, conceptualand motor information in memory for action
phrases: A multi-system account. Acta

Binder, J. R., Desai, R. H., Graves, W. W., & Conant,
L. L. (2009). Where is the semantic system? A

Psychologica, 113(2), 147-165.
https://doi.org/10.1016/S0001-6918(03)00030-1

critical review and meta-analysis of 120
functional neuroimaging studies. Cerebral

Gallese, V., & Lakoff, G. (2005). The brain’s concepts:

Cortex, 19(12), 2767-2796.

The role of the sensory–motor system inhttps://doi.org/10.1093/cercor/bhp055

conceptual knowledge. Cognitive

PanSIG Journal 2023

14
Neuropsychology, 22, 455-479.

PsychologicalScience, 23(5), 502-509.

https://doi:10.1080/02643290442000310

https://doi:10.1177/0956797611429801

González, J., Barros-Loscertales, A., Pulvermüller, F.,

Machery, E. (2007). Concept empiricism: A

Meseguer, V., Sanjuán, A., Belloch, V., & Ávila,

methodological critique. Cognition, 104, 19-46.

C. (2006). Reading cinnamon activates olfactory

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cognition.2006.05.002

brain regions. Neuroimage, 32(2), 906-912.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuroimage.2006.03.03
7

Macrine, S. L., & Fugate, J. M. B. (2022). Movement
Matters: How Embodied Cognition Informs
Teaching and Learning. Cambridge. MIT Press.

Green, A., Straube, B., Weis, S., Jansen, A., Willmes,
K., Konrad, K., et al. (2009). Neural integration

Majlesi, A. R. (2015). Matching gestures – teachers’of iconic and unrelated coverbal gestures: arepetitions of students’ gestures in second

functional MRI study. Human Brain Mapping, 30,

language learning classrooms. Journal of

3309-3324. https://doi:10.1002/hbm.20753

Pragmatics, 76, 30-45.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.pragma.2014.11.006

Hauk, O., Johnsrude, I., & Pulvermüller, F. (2004).
Somatotopic representation of action words inMayer, K. M., Yildiz, I. B., Macedonia, M., & vonhuman motor and premotor

Kriegstein, K. (2015). Visual and motor cortices

cortex. Neuron, 41(2), 301-307.

differentially support the translation of foreign

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0896-6273(03)00838-9

language words. Current Biology, 25(4), 530535. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cub.2014.11.068

Hoenig, K., Sim, E.-J., Bochev, V., Herrnberger, B., &Kiefer, M. (2008). Conceptual flexibility in thehuman brain: Dynamic recruitment of semantic
maps from visual, motion and motor-relatedareas. Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience,20(10), 1799-1814.
https://doi:10.1162/jocn.2008.20123
Kelly, S. D., McDevitt, T., & Esch, M. (2009). Brief
training with co-speech gesture lends a hand toword learning in a foreign language. Language
and Cognitive Processes, 24(2), 313-334.
https://doi.org/10.1080/01690960802365567
Landau, M. J. (2016). Conceptual metaphor in social
psychology: The poetics of everyday life.
Psychology Press.
Leung, A. K., Kim, S., Polman, E., Ong, L. S., Qiu, L.,
Goncalo, J. A., & Sanchez-Burks, J. (2012).
Embodied metaphors and creative "acts".

McNeill, David (1992). Hand and mind. The Chicago
University Press.
Patterson, K., Nestor, P. J., & Rogers, T. T. (2007).
Where do you know what you know? The
representation of semantic knowledge in thehuman brain. Nature Reviews
Neuroscience, 8(12), 976-987.
https://doi.org/10.1038/nrn2277
Pulvermüller, F. (2001). Brain reflections of words andtheir meaning. Trends in Cognitive Sciences,5(12), 517-524. https://doi.org/10.1016/S13646613(00)01803-9
Pylyshyn, Z. W. (1984). Computation and cognition:
Towards a foundation for cognitive science. MIT
Press.
Senkfor, A. J., Van Petten, C., & Kutas, M. (2002).
Episodic action for real objects: An ERPPanSIG Journal 2023

15
investigation with perform, watch, and imagine
action encoding tasks versus a non-action
encoding task. Journal of Cognitive
Neuroscience, 14(3), 402-419.
https://doi.org/10.1162/089892902317361921
Shapiro, L. (2019). Embodied cognition. Routledge.
Slepian, M. L., & Ambady, N. (2012). Fluid Movement
and Creativity. Journal of Experimental
Psychology-General, 141(4), 625-629.
https://doi:10.1037/a0027395
Wang, X., Lu, K., Runco, M. A., & Hao, N. (2018).
Break the "wall" and become creative: Enacting
embodied metaphors in virtual reality.
Consciousness and Cognition, 62, 102-109.
https://doi:10.1016/j.concog.2018.03.004
Wilson, M. (2002). Six views of embodied
cognition. Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, 9,625-636. https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03196322
Zwaan, R. A., & Pecher, D. (2012) Revisiting mental
simulation in language comprehension: Six
replication attempts. PLoS ONE 7(12): e51382.
https://doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0051382

PanSIG Journal 2023

16

Looking Forward with Vocabulary Notebooks
Esther Ratcliff
Tokyo Woman’s Christian University
Learners need to be specifically taught how to use a vocabulary notebook (Folse, 2017). Notebooks are only one vocabulary
learning strategy (VLS), but Folse argues that no one VLS will equip learners for the huge task of acquiring L2 vocabulary.
Therefore, teachers must show their learners a range of vocabulary learning tools, enabling them to choose the most appropriate
ones for them. Drawing on research into effective vocabulary learning and about what it means to know a word, this paper will
present methods that under-graduate university educators can use with A2 learners and above. First it will look at how to structure
a notebook, then it will present two activities to further develop students’ knowledge and awareness of words. The activities
discussed will not only help students increase their lexical resource but also enable them to become better at guiding their own
vocabulary learning, equipping them with the ultimate VLS.

学習者は単語帳の使い方を具体的に教わる必要がある（Folse, 2017）。ノートブックは語彙学習ストラテジー（VLS）のひと
つに過ぎないが、L2 語彙習得という膨大なタスクに対応できる VLS はひとつもないと Folse は主張する。したがって、教師は学習者にさまざまな語彙学習ツールを示し、学習者が自分に最も適したものを選択できるようにしなければならない。本稿では、効果的な語彙学習と、単語を知ることの意味に関する研究をもとに、大学学部以下の教育者が A2 以上の学習者に使える方法を紹介する。まず、ノートをどのように構成するかを検討し、次に生徒の単語に対する知識と認識をさらに深めるための 2
つのアクティビティを紹介する。これらのアクティビティは、生徒の語彙リソースを増やすだけでなく、生徒自身が語彙学習を指導できるようになり、究極の VLS を身につけることを可能にする。

The ability to learn vocabulary is the single mostimportant factor in successful language acquisition.
(McCarten, 2007). It follows therefore that the mostimportant task for teachers is to increase learners’
lexical repertoire. Teachers’ manuals often suggest thatlearners keep vocabulary notebooks such as the Oxford
series Q Skills for Success (Sherman, 2019). Despite
this, suggestions for what makes an effective notebook
are often lacking. Furthermore, students are notnecessarily familiar with the format of a vocabulary
notebook. For some students, the term represents apublished book of word lists that are used to memorize
words. For clarity, the term vocabulary notebook usedin this paper refers to a small to medium-sized blanknotebook, which is used to record new vocabulary byhand. Given the definition of a vocabulary notebook isseemingly rarely made explicit, the purpose of thispaper is to present effective methods of using one tohelp learners become more independent at learning
vocabulary. As Dronjic (2019) says, if learners rely
solely on a textbook and receive no specific guidance
about how to learn vocabulary from the teacher, they
will not succeed.

Context
The author works as an contract lecturer in a university
language department teaching both compulsory andelective courses at A2 CEFR level. The methods
suggested in this paper have been used withcompulsory courses. The principles that underpin
compulsory courses are based on Nation’s four strand
approach consisting of meaning-focused input,
language-focused instruction, meaning-focused output,
and fluency development (Nation, 2011), which shouldeach form 25% of classroom time. The courses also
have a very strong focus on vocabulary learning.
Motivation towards learning vocabulary is generally highamong students as there is a clear link with theclassroom activities and the course goals. It should also
be noted that the courses use core textbooks, Q Skills
for Success Listening and Speaking and INSIDE
Listening and Speaking. Both textbooks draw on corpus
lexis. Therefore, these supplementary vocabulary
learning techniques complement the textbooks andcourse aims well.

PanSIG Journal 2023

17

Importance of Learning Vocabulary“Language consists of grammaticalized lexis, notlexicalized grammar” (Lewis, 1993, p.34). It is widely
accepted that a lexical approach to learning a language,
whereby students are taught to look for common
combinations of words or chunks of vocabulary, isessential in helping them to acquire fluent productive
skills. Vocabulary is not only important for productive
skills. According to Dronjic (2019), it is also the bestindicator of comprehension. The wider a student’s
vocabulary, the more they can comprehend.
Time dedicated to learning vocabulary is also essential
because there are multiple layers to learning a word
successfully (Zimmerman, 2009). For example,
learners need to know not only about possible
collocates, but also its grammatical structures, register,frequency, part of speech, pronunciation, relevantcognates, or false friends. It is not possible to fully grasp
the meaning in one sitting. This means that learners
need multiple occasions to encounter words in order toacquire this word knowledge. How can educators help
their learners increase these opportunities?
Schmitt (2008) suggests that to learn vocabulary,learners need to engage with words, which could
include an increase in exposure, attention to an item,
intention to learn a word and manipulation of a word andits properties. All of these can be categorized as what
Nation (2017) calls deliberate learning, which falls under
the language-focused strand of a course. Vocabulary
notebooks represent one method or instruction for thisstrand.

Benefits of Using a Vocabulary Notebook
The first benefit of using a notebook is related to theability to retrieve hand-written information. A 2021 study
by the University of Tokyo and NTT Data Institute ofManagement Consulting published in Frontiers in
Behavioral neuroscience, revealed that the act ofphysically writing with a pen or pencil onto paper
improves information retrieval ability, compared to when
students write using electronic devices. (Umejima et al.,2021). The study showed that Japanese university
students using the former method showed more activity
in the language zones of the brain, and also in the
hippocampus, an area closely related to memory.
Consequently, it could be suggested that if vocabulary
is learned by using a pen or pencil and paper, students
are better able to retrieve a word later, making thismethod more effective, that using electronic recording
methods. Another study investigating students’ opinions
towards notetaking whilst listening suggested thatstudents who use a pen and paper method, as opposed
to electronically, preferred doing so because it helped
their “concentration, comprehension and organizational
skills” (Siegel, 2023, p. 8). Therefore, the argument for
using the pen or pencil method to write down new words

could have two potential benefits. First, vocabulary canbe retrieved more easily, and second, some learners
prefer to use the pen and paper method.
Secondly, the notebook activities proposed in this paper
help promote learner autonomy. Students themselves
decide which words to add, and as such they are incontrol of their learning. In addition, students are free tochoose which activities they feel best suit their learning
style. As a result, their notebook becomes anautonomous learning tool, which can transcend theclassroom. For Nation (2011), teachers should actually
be doing less teaching, with more onus on the students
working hard. However, crucial to this are the students
being motivated enough to take responsibility for theirown learning. But how can teachers motivate students
to take responsibility?
Allowing time to work with words that have a low
learning burden could help foster motivation. The term
learning burden refers to the degree of effort necessary
to fully learn a word. The difficulty of learning increases
with factors such as irregular spelling, pronunciation, or
grammatical irregularities (Nation & Webb, 2017).
Dronjic (2019) also suggests that words with only one
meaning, such as “bungalow”, are easier to learn thanwords that have multiple meanings, such as “present”.
Therefore, working with low burden words, or evenwords that students already know to some extent, might
help motivation. As Meurers et al. (2019) discuss,working memory is crucial for L2 acquisition. However,working memory may become overloaded if students
are exposed to words with multiple meanings orirregular spellings, they may feel demotivated.
Conversely, when learners work with words that areconsidered more straightforward, they can free up
space in their working memory.

Analysis of the Activities
An important stage in each activity requires learners toassess themselves as to how well they think they know
a word. This type of self-assessment activity is aneffective method by which learners can come tounderstand their knowledge of vocabulary. Figure 1
illustrates self-assessment task used in the core
textbook ‘Oxford INSIDE Listening and Speaking Intro’.
Figure 1
INSIDE Listening and Speaking self-assessment (Blackwell, 2015, p.
5).

PanSIG Journal 2023

18
Zimmerman (2009) proposes this type of reflection
activity is a way for students to assess their word
knowledge. When students engage in metacognitive
activity such as a ranking task illustrated above, theyfirst become more aware of their word knowledge, andsecond, they identify a gap in their knowledge, which
guides them to the next step in learning. They arecompletely engaged in deciding, for themselves, to what
extent they should focus their attention on a specificlexical item. This stage illustrates Nation’s idea ofdeliberate learning very effectively. In turn, it helps
students feel a sense of progress as they become more
confident using each word, and it also demonstrates
how word knowledge is built up over time (Zimmerman,2009).
Another similarity between the activities described
below is that learners use word lists. Folse (2014)
suggests that presenting semantically unrelated words
together, rather than related words, leads to more
effective learning, than presenting semantically related
words together. The author used two types of word list,
first the lists presented in each core textbook andsecond the Oxford 3000, the latter of which has beendeveloped by language experts and teachers
combining the most important and useful vocabulary forlearners. In addition, since both course textbooks
present lexis from the Oxford 3000 list, this was an
obvious choice. Word lists help teachers guide theirlearners to the most useful language for their particulargoals and can perhaps avoid students feeling daunted.
Finally, all the activities incorporate attention to
collocation, which would also fall into Nation’s deliberatelearning category (2017), and is a crucial stage invocabulary learning. Collocation represents anotherlayer of word meaning (Zimmerman, 2009). It can beillustrated by showing common collocates of thedelexicalised verbs “make” and “do”. However, otherverbs are not delexicalised and do not have clear
collocates. According to Sketch Engine (n.d.), an online
corpus, “pain” most frequently collocates with the noun
“relieve”. Should learners also learn it often occurs with“throbbing”?
It appears that dealing with collocation is notstraightforward. A simpler way to introduce frequency of
collocations is the website Just the Word, whichindicates frequency as a number. In the case of theword “pain”, “feel” is by far the most common verb
collocation (Just the Word, n.d.). Depending on the levelof their class, teachers can decide to what extent they
explain the relationship between collocation and corpus
linguistics. For A2 learners, it is not necessary to give alengthy explanation of each collocation. Teachers
should focus on two or three common collocates toillustrate the idea of frequency. Nevertheless, using
concordances is essential when teaching collocation(Dronjic, 2019), and online concordance tools are usefulfor independent study. Moreover, by using
concordances, learners observe real examples, rather
than random examples of collocation.

Layout of the Notebook
This section looks at three ways to use vocabulary
notebooks. First, it will show how to layout a notebook
for new words. Then, it will present two activities thatcan be used for further engagement and manipulationof lexical items. For each activity, the author suggests
aims, possible stages for the procedure, a rationale foreach task and also possible problems and solutions.
Folse (2014) presents a very simple method for how tolay out each new entry in the notebook. As can be seenin Figure 2, each entry has four elements: target word,translation, synonym or short definition and an example
collocation.
Figure 2
Example of student vocabulary notebook (Folse, 2014, p. 104).

Limitations
Perhaps the most obvious missing piece of informationis the part of speech. Zimmerman (2009) suggests thatstudents can be encouraged to record vocabulary insuch a way that incorporates part of speech. This isevident in the second entry in Figure 2. The indefinite
article “a” appears with the noun “valley” reinforcing thepart of speech for the target word. However, it is notpresent for “come up with”, which could be changed to“to come up with”. Similarly, when entering an adjective,“to be” can be added before the adjective. Students
should also be reminded that the part of speech isalways presented on the word list.
Another possible limitation is there is not sufficientspace to write long sentences for each entry. However,
Folse (2014) claims writing full sentences is time
consuming, which leads to a loss in interest.
Furthermore, writing whole sentences could be
categorized as meaning-focused output, as opposed tolanguage-focused meaning which is what the goal of anotebook is. Moreover, the greater the learning
challenge, the more unattainable the goal becomes(Hattie, 2023). For this reason, it is not necessary for
PanSIG Journal 2023

19
learners to write complete sentences, which could resultin the task becoming too demanding and thus demotivating.

Benefits
A major benefit to this layout is that it facilitates various
ways for the students to retrieve the item, encouraging
repeated meetings of the same word. An importantcondition for vocabulary learning is repetition, or how
many times a learner comes across a word (Nation,2017). There are varying opinions about the exact
number of times a learner needs to meet a word to learn
it; however, Nation (2014) suggests that twelve
repetitions would be adequate. Folse (2014) suggeststhat students use the list they create to practice retrievalof the items by using a small piece of card with a cut out
as illustrated by Figure 3 below. Students use the cardwith a cut-out by moving it down the page to reveal each
item one by one. The card can then be turned over andused in the reverse way to retrieve the other column.
Figure 3
Notebook entry with cut-out card adapted from Vocabulary Myths(Folse, 2014, p.106).

deeper level. In the first activity, learners investigate
collocations, while in the second, they experiment withcategorizing random words. The former activity is morechallenging than the second, however the contrast
between the two helps illustrate that there are varying
stages to learning vocabulary. Teachers may decide to
introduce the activities in a different order.

Activity One: Using Mind Maps for Words You
Want to Know More About
The aim of this activity is to encourage learners toresearch words that they have already encountered,might be able to use to some degree, but which theywould like to be able to use better. This activity
demonstrates how words tend to occur together.

Procedure
The teacher models the activity by telling students aword that they themselves are interested in. An example
word might be “education”. The teacher displays the
Oxford 3000-word list on the large screen if available.
Next, the teacher then indicates where example
collocations appear as illustrated in Figure 4.
Figure 4
Oxford Learner’s Dictionary collocations with “education” (Oxford
Learner’s Dictionaries, n.d.).

Another major benefit of this layout is that it is orderly,
which is crucial for increasing appeal and likelihood thatstudents will want to use it. Secondly, a blank line
between each entry leaves space to add more
information later (Folse, 2014). For these reasons, thelayout plays an important role in learner engagement.

Using a Notebook for New Words
The first way students can use the notebook is byentering words from the word list. However, they might
not know which words to add. One way to help them isto have them consider how well they think they know the
word. If students tick either the first or second column inself-assessment table in Figure 1, then the word should
be entered. Another way to guide them would be tosuggest adding low burden, such as words that haveregular spelling patterns or words that are easy topronounce.

Next, the teacher then demonstrates how to make amind-map using the collocations with the target word asshown in Figure 5. In the final step, individual students
research their own words. Students can either choose
from the word lists presented in their textbook or canuse the Oxford 3000-word list.
Figure 5
Mind-map of collocations with “education”

Helping Students Engage more with Lexis
This section introduces two further notebook activities
designed to help learners explore vocabulary on a
PanSIG Journal 2023

20

Rationale
The rationale behind this activity relates to the idea thatstudents need time not only for repetition, but also timeto think deeply about words, promoting good quality
processing (Nation, 2017). Here, they are focusing on
explicit words which are relevant and interesting to them,and processing them in a new way as well as
discovering collocations. Zimmerman (2009) suggeststhat the use of mind-maps in this way teaches learners
about connections between words and how words are
related, thus increasing their word knowledge
incrementally.

Potential problems and solutionsFirstly, students might not know which collocations tochoose, and some examples might even be too difficult.
To avoid students feeling discouraged, they should be
advised to work with simple collocations first such as
cognates, which have a lower learning burden.
Secondly, the concept of collocation might be difficult tograsp initially. This can be illustrated by using a cognate
word. For Japanese learners this could be the word forcoffee, コーヒー, which often collocates with “drink”,“make” or “shop”.

Activity Two: Using Mind Maps for Known Words
The aim of this activity is to encourage students to workwith words with which they already feel confident, whilst
deciding how best to categorize them. This activity
demonstrates there are multiple connections between
words.

Procedure
The activity can be demonstrated as a whole-class task.
The teacher should choose approximately 15 words thatthey know the students have learnt. Next, the teacher
displays these words for all students to see. Students
are then instructed to categorize the words dependingon their own criteria. It is useful for the teacher to givean example or two at this stage, however they should
not go into too much detail as to do so might hinder
students’ creativity. In the final stage students share
their ideas in small groups. Students often find it
interesting to see how others have approached theactivity, noticing differences and similarities between
ideas.

Rationale
The rationale behind this activity relates to the idea thatin a vocabulary course, students should be exposed tocontent they already know. Nation suggests that 98% of
meaning-focused
input
shouldbealready
comprehensible, it would follow therefore that learners
need to engage with words that they already know quite
well (2011). Even though words in this activity might
have a low learning burden, deep mental processing is

still necessary when assessing the suitability of eachword. This is important because when students thinkcarefully and more profoundly, it is more probable thatlearning will happen (Nation, 2017).

Potential problems and solutions
The first problem might be that students find it difficult
to explain in L2 the reasons for their choices. The
teacher can consider allowing them to explain theirchoices in L1 if more appropriate. Another problem
might be that students do not fully understand that thewords can be grouped in multiple different ways. It isnecessary to make this clear so that students can use
their full creativity.

Limitations
A downside to the discussed activities is that there is no
immediate opportunity for productive tasks to recycle
the vocabulary. There is a chance that learners could
feel dissatisfied if they do not have the immediatechance to use the target words learnt. However, it isnecessary to remember how these activities fit into thewider course design. Consequently, it would be
beneficial to communicate to students how deliberate
language-focused learning complements their learning.
The teacher can communicate this to students byexplaining the importance of dedicating time toanalyzing vocabulary, in addition to other language
skills. They should also be reminded that the notebook
activities will contribute to them becoming independent
vocabulary learners.
Secondly, since the notebooks are individual tasks,
another negative point might be that students do nothave the chance to share their learning with otherclassmates. Therefore, it could also be beneficial toincorporate peer discussion in L1, whereby learners use
their notebooks as a springboard for discussion about
their learning process. One way to do this is to havestudents share interesting words or collocations they
have learnt or discuss which activity they find mostuseful for them personally. A metacognitive task like theone described in this approach, allows students tomonitor their learning helping them to achieve theirgoals (Anderson, 2002).

Assessing Student Progress
Schmitt (2008) suggests that students are more likely tolearn a word if they know they will be assessed. In
practice, it would be impossible to create a valid
summative test to measure students’ individualacquisition, because each learner chooses different
words. Therefore, the author feels it would be moreadvantageous to incorporate notebooks into formative
assessment. Firstly, this can be done by collecting thenotebooks in the middle and at the end of the course.
This would enable the teacher to give an overall
PanSIG Journal 2023

21
impression grade and constructive feedback.
Zimmerman (2009) suggests that students need to be
encouraged to ask themselves questions about words.
Teacher feedback, therefore, could entail posing
questions to students such as “Is this noun singular orplural?“, “Have you come across any words with thesame root?, or “Does this word have a positive or
negative connotation?”. It is not necessary to commenton every word. With some carefully poised questions by
the teacher, students might start asking themselves
similar questions. This type of feedback helps students
to feel a sense of progress, notice the incremental
nature of learning vocabulary, and appreciate thedifferent layers of meaning words can have.

Blackwell, A. (2015). INSIDE Listening and

It is worth noting that, when checking student work,
teachers should check if students are engaging with not
only new words, but also words with which they are
already familiar. If students are only using theirnotebooks to enter new words, their motivation might
decrease as the learning burden will always be high.
Moreover, if they do not engage with familiar words,
their word knowledge does not increase. Therefore,teachers should be alert to whether students areengaging with a wide range of vocabulary, not only
unknown words, but also familiar words.

Hattie, J. (2023). Visible Learning: The Sequel.

Finally, it is essential that students reflect on their own
progress. They can do this by using the selfassessment table illustrated in Figure 1 at the end of thecourse to consider to what extent their learning has
progressed. If students do not have the chance toreconsider their word knowledge periodically, thelearning cycle is left incomplete.

Conclusion
Lexical items presented in textbooks are predetermined whereas the activities and approaches
discussed in this paper are designed to be student-led.
Teachers can choose to supplement their syllabus byincorporating freer, independent tasks such as these.
They are designed to allow students to guide their own
vocabulary learning, but also to increase time spentengaging with lexis in multiple ways. The author hopesthat these types of activities will help students tobecome better equipped vocabulary learners.

References

Speaking Intro. Oxford University Press.
Dronjic, V. (2019). How (Not) to Teach English
Vocabulary. The CATESOL Journal, 31(1).
https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1238807.pdf
Folse, K. S. (2014). Vocabulary Myths: Applying
Second Language Research to Classroom
Teaching. The University of Michigan.

Routledge.
Just The Word. (n.d.). Combinations for the word
"pain+". http://www.just-theword.com/main.pl?word=pain%2B&mode=comb
inations
Lewis, M. (1993). The Lexical Approach. Language
Teaching Publication.
McCarten, J. (2007). Teaching Vocabulary Lessons
from the Corpus, Lessons for the Classroom.
Cambridge University Press. 10.14393/DL15v8n1a2014-39
Meurers, D., Rebuschat, P., & Ruiz, S. (2019) The
effects of working memory and declarative
memory on instructed second language
vocabulary learning: Insights from intelligent
CALL, Language Teaching Research, 2.
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/33560
2518_The_effects_of_working_memory_and_declarative_memory_on_instructed_second_langu
age_vocabulary_learning_Insights_from_intellig
ent_CALL

Anderson, N. J. (2002). The Role of Metacognition in
Second Language Teaching and Learning.

Nation, I.S.P. (2011). My Ideal Vocabulary Course. In

ERIC Digest,

M.H. Chai & I.A. Khairi (Eds). Vocabulary

https://www.govinfo.gov/content/pkg/ERIC-

learning in the language classroom. Petaling

ED463659/pdf/ERIC-ED463659.pdf

Jaya: MELA-Sasbadi
https://www.wgtn.ac.nz/lals/resources/paulnations-resources/paul-nationsPanSIG Journal 2023

22
publications/publications/documents/my-idealvocabulary-teaching-course.pdf

Umejima, K., Ibaraki, T., Yamazaki, T., & Sakai, K. L.
(2021). Paper Notebooks vs. Mobile Devices:
Brain Activation Differences During Memory

Nation, I.S.P. (2014). How much input do you need toRetrieval. Frontiers in Behavioral Neuroscience,learn the most frequent 9,000 words?. Reading

15, 1-11,

in a Foreign Language, 26(2), 1-16.

https://www.frontiersin.org/articles/10.3389/fnbe

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1044345.pdf

h.2021.634158/full

Nation, I.S.P. (2017). How Vocabulary is Learned.

Zimmerman, C. B. (2009). Word Knowledge:

Indonesian Journal of English Language

A Vocabulary Teacher's Handbook. Oxford

Teaching, 12(1), 1-14.

University Press.

https://doi.org/10.25170/ijelt.v12i1.1458
Nation, I.S.P., & Webb, S. (2017). How Vocabulary is
Learned. Oxford University Press.
Oxford Learner’s Dictionaries. (n.d.). Education noun definition, pictures, pronunciation and usage
notes.
https://www.oxfordlearnersdictionaries.com/defin
ition/english/education
Schmitt, N. (2008). Teaching Vocabulary. Pearson
Education.
https://smartlib.umri.ac.id/assets/uploads/files/50
723-final-high-res-schmitt-vocabularymonograph-.pdf
Sketch Engine. (n.d.) Pain.
skell.sketchengine.eu/#result?f=wordsketch&lan
g=en&query=pain%20
Sherman, K. D. (2020). Q Skills for Success (3rd
Edition) Listening and Speaking 2. Teacher’sBook, New York: Oxford University Press.
Siegel, J. (2023). Pen and paper or computerized
notetaking? L2 English students’ views andhabits. Computers and Education Open, 4,
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.caeo.2022.100120

PanSIG Journal 2023

23

Back to the Future for Task-Based Learning with Jane and Dave Willis’s
Collins COBUILD English Course
Jason Moser
Kanto Gakuin University
In 2022, Jane Willis, Robert Maran, and myself started the free site Taskbasedlearningforall.com. It contains the downloadable
digitalized version of the original three-level Collins COBUILD English Course (CCEC) that was written by Jane and Dave Willis
and published between 1988-1990. The CCEC introduced two important innovations to ELT coursebooks: a task-based learning
methodology (TBL), and a lexical syllabus. The Willis’s TBL methodology is widely practiced in educational settings around theworld (Willis & Willis, 2007). While TBL has become mainstream, few of its current practitioners have seen the CCEC. In the firstpart of this paper, I will introduce the six key features of the CECC centered around the two innovations. In the second part of thepaper, I will use a recent lesson I taught from the course to show how the CCEC can be utilized. This paper will be of interest toteachers interested in TBL and the work of Jane and Dave Willis.

2022 年、2 人の同僚と私が無料サイト Taskbasedlearningforall.com を立ち上げた。 ジェーン・ウィリスとデイブ・ウィリス（以下、ウィリス夫妻）によって書かれ 1988 年から 1990 年にかけて出版された 3 レベルの Collins COBUILD English Course(CCEC)がありますが、このサイトにはそのダウンロード可能なデジタル版が含まれています。 CCEC には、タスク・ベース
ド・ラーニング（TBL）とレキシカルシラバスという 2 つの重要な革新を ELT コースブックに導入しました。 ウィリス夫妻のTBL 手法は、世界中の教育現場で広く実践されています。TBL が主流となっている一方で、現在 TBL を実践している人の中でCCEC を見たことがある人はほとんどいません。 本論文の第 1 部では、2 つのイノベーションを中心に CECC の 6 つの主要な特徴を紹介しています。 第 2 部では、CCEC とその特徴がどのように機能するのかを、私が最近教えた授業を用いて紹介しています。この論文は、TBL とウィリス夫妻の研究に関心のある教師にとって興味深いものとなるでしょう。

In 1983, Jane and Dave Willis were commissioned by
the publisher Collins to write the CCEC. The course waspart of the COBUILD (Collins-Birmingham University
International Language Database) language research
project. This eventual 20 million-word digital corpus ofcontemporary English text provided the language for the
CCEC and other Collins COBUILD products which arestill sold to this day. The COBUILD project wasoverseen by John Sinclair, an important pioneer in
corpus linguistics. In addition to Sinclair being theeditor-in-chief for the CCEC, two other very well-known
linguists Michael Halliday and Ronald Carter advised on
the CCEC. With Jane Willis having won numerous
awards over her career including being honored with the
IATBLT Distinguished Practitioner Award in 2022, it isdifficult to think of an ELT coursebook series that wasdeveloped with this many influential professionals
involved. The CCEC is probably the only coursebook
series that has had books written about its key ideas
and development. D. Willis’s classic The Lexical
Syllabus (1990) is a detailed account of the rationale
and development of the CCEC. His later book Rules,

Patterns, and Words (2003) is an expansion of theoriginal ideas first realized in the CCEC. J. Willis’s alsoclassic A Framework for Task-Based Learning (1996) isan in-depth guide to the TBL methodology that wasused in the CCEC.

The Willis TBL Methodology
The Willis six-component TBL framework, comprising
pre-task, task cycle (task, plan, report), and language
focus (analysis, practice), emerged from their extensive
language teaching experience and Prabhu’s
Communicational Teaching Project (Bangalore Project
1979-1982). The Willis TBL methodology for the CCEC
realized six learning and teaching features:
1. Aim to support general language development
rather than to teach discrete language items.
2. Recognize learners are engaged in building ameaning system.
3. Opportunities for learners to improvise with thelanguage they already have.

PanSIG Journal 2023

24
4. Incentives for learners to refine their language
to meet different communicative demands.

The Willis Pedagogical Corpus and Lexical
Syllabus

5. Procedures which encourage learners to thinkcarefully about how language is structured andhow it is used.

The Willises aimed to maximize students' exposure torich input and, furthermore, foster student exploration of
the target language by designing the CCEC language
syllabus as a pedagogical corpus. This unique idea
envisioned a mini corpus of the larger 20 million-word
COBUILD corpus with the former being comprised ofcarefully selected authentic written and spoken texts(e.g., native speaker task recordings). Students are
expected to initially process these texts for meaning
related to the main task, and then later analyze
the same texts as part of their post-task study. This
student post-task exploration is as D. Willis (2003,
p.163) notes the same as corpus linguists analyzing a
corpus of language to better understand how the target
language works. D. Willis (2010, p.11) believes that thepedagogical corpus is a more suitable tool for looking at
aspects of grammar like orientation (e.g., determiners)that are too subtle for teacher explanation, and forpattern grammar (e.g., preposition + verb patterns) thatis impossible for the teacher to give complete coverage
to.

6. Exposure to spoken and written texts to provide
opportunities for learners to explore language
for themselves (D. Willis, 2003, p. 215).
With the first feature, the Willises rejected the structural
syllabuses that were popular at the time. Thesesyllabuses presented grammar as a list of discrete items
to be accumulated one at a time. The Willises thoughtthat this reductionist approach to language syllabus
design denies the learner’s built-in syllabus, and,moreover,diminishes
thecomplexity
andextensiveness of the language being learned regarding
such features as orientation, class, and pattern. The
Willises and others (e.g., Wilkins, 1975) wrote about
these discrete itemized syllabuses as having ‘low
surrender value.’ This term refers to an investment thattakes a long time to extract value from and will offer very
little return if abandoned early. This contrasts with acourse having a 'high surrender value,' where there ispotentially a quicker return on the learning investment.
The next three features of their TBL methodology (two,three, and four) are arguably no longer absent in mostlanguage education settings. These three related
features acknowledge that languages are ultimately
learned for communicative purposes and therefore
learning a language is about building a ‘system formeaning.’ From a teaching perspective, the third feature
involves creating opportunities in the classroom withtasks for students to engage in meaningful goaloriented use of the language as part of their systembuilding. The fourth feature is also about meaningfullanguage use and relates to the planning and reportstages in the Willis task cycle. The final two features(five and six) of the Willis TBL methodology recognizethat language learning needs to include conscious
attention to language that is both teacher-directed andself-directed. At the time of the writing of the CCEC,
many coursebooks followed a PPP (Present, Practice,
Produce) method which purposely discouraged student
analysis of the target language in favor of activities
based on simple habit formation (Prabhu, 2019). Since
the Willises first developed their framework, subsequent
decades of SLA research (Ellis, 2018) haveconvincingly demonstrated that TBL can be an effective
methodology for facilitating second language
acquisition. The enduring influence of the Willis TBL
framework is evident in a more recent collection ofclassroom-based TBL studies (Samuda et al., 2018),
where seven out of the 10 studies reference theframework.

Central to the development of the pedagogical corpus
was ensuring that it was not just a random collection of
texts, but instead level-appropriate with texts carefully
selected to ensure relevance and accuracy of coverageof the English language. Their answer to realizing thisbrings us to the second major innovation of the course- a lexical syllabus. Sinclair’s COBUILD project
demonstrated that the 700 most frequent words in
English account for around 70% of all English text (Willis,
1990). The top 1,500 words contribute to 76%, and the
top 2,500 words cover 80% of the language. As D. Willis(1990) explains, “the commonest and most important,most basic meanings in English are those meanings
expressed by the most frequent words in English” (p.47).
The CCEC project team decided that word frequency
would determine the content and level of the course.
The level one course was comprised of a corpus that
contextualizes the 700 most frequent words together
with their common patterns and uses. The level two
course recycles those 700 words and adds the next 800
frequent words in English. Finally, the level three course
incorporates the previous 1500 words and introduces
an additional 1000 words, resulting in a total vocabularyof 2500 words, along with their most frequently usedphrases, across all three courses. Below is the six-partprocess of how they developed the CCEC lexical
syllabus around a pedagogical corpus which includes
supporting tasks with analysis and practice activities.
1. List the lexical items you believe learners at agiven level should become familiar with(frequency lists corpus-informed).
2. Identify a set of topics likely to be of value andinterest to your target learner. Design a
PanSIG Journal 2023

25
pedagogic corpus by assembling a set of tasks
and associated spoken and written texts which
cover these topics.
3. Order your texts and tasks according todifficulty. There is no objective way of doing this(teacher mediation).
4. Analyze your texts for coverage of lexical items
identified in part 1. The frequent words of thelanguage not covered in the text should becovered in supplementary exercises.
5. Identify elements of the grammar (structure,orientation, and pattern) illustrated in the texts
you have assembled and decide on ordering.
This ordering doesn’t imply control andsimplification.
6. Design a set of language-focused activities
which will focus on the targets in context. Items
which are treated for recognition are recycled
later as part of system building (D. Willis 2003,
p. 223).

The Commercial Success of the CCEC
Although CCEC never attained the commercial successof other popular courses at the time it did manage to sell
well internationally and was acknowledged for being
influential (Lewis, 1993). O’Dell (1997) suggests the
CCEC’s weaker commercial appeal stemmed fromputting one theory (lexical approach) too rigidly into
practice rather than creating a course that was more
eclectic. By this, she is referring to the popular language
coursebooks of the time that typically combined adiscrete itemized syllabus with communicative activities.
Her criticism highlights the misconception that theWillises replaced grammar for lexis. The Willis’s lexical
syllabus naturally subsumed a grammatical syllabus.
For instance, the passive form in the course is treatedas just one of the patterns of the verb be. Anyone who
has thoroughly examined the CCEC would wonder whysome teachers thought there was no visible grammar
syllabus. Each unit lists the grammar relevant to thetasks and at the back of the student book there is
Grammar Book which lists all the grammar for thecourse and where it can be found and for what use.
The Willis's analysis of their lexical syllabus, prior to the
CCEC's release, showed that it offered the same, if notricher, grammar coverage as other traditional grammar
syllabuses. The grammar omissions in CCEC wereintentional, as certain elements, such as reported
speech, were regarded as artificial categories orinfrequent. Jane Willis (personal communication)
thought that the most substantial issue with the course
not achieving greater commercial success was its sales
presentation. The Willises felt, as the grammar issue
demonstrates, that the CCEC was not explained as wellas it should have been considering the innovations

involved. This problem was compounded by the factthat they were not introducing one innovation but two (alexical syllabus and TBL), and even three if you include
the pedagogical corpus. It should also be rememberedthat it was not until 15 years after the CCEC was
published that the first-ever international task-based
conference was held. By the time TBL became
mainstream the course was already out of print. Even if
it had been marketed better the innovations wereperhaps too novel for most teachers at the time.

The CCEC in PracticeIn this second part of the paper, I will demonstrate, using
a recent lesson, how the lexical syllabus, TBL, andpedagogical corpus can be employed to help teachersand students realize the six learning and teaching
features discussed earlier. The students in my lesson
are Japanese university students at the CEFR A1-A2
level taking a general communicative English course aspart of their graduation requirement. The start of each
unit in the CCEC lists all the tasks for the unit and theircommunicative aims/goals including corresponding
analytical and practice activities. The lexical, grammar,and discourse objectives are also listed. The task in
Figure 1 is from the level one coursebook and belongs
to Unit 6, titled 'Just Over Eight Million.' This unit focuseson tasks that involve using numbers such as talking
about dates and times.
Figure 1
Task: ways of saying numbers (from Willis & Willis, 1988)

This task’s communicative aim/goal (Figure 2) is forstudents to focus on different ways of saying numbers
based on their context of use. The teacher’s manuallists the high frequency lexis for this task includingwords and phrases (grammar) for ‘understanding only.’
PanSIG Journal 2023

26
Figure 2
Teacher manual information for task (from Willis & Willis, 1988)

S2: たぶん(perhaps)(then reads) what about nineteen
eighty-nine for example? Could it be a telephone
number . . .
S1: だから(therefore) nineteen eighty-nine is date andyear だよね.
S2: Telephone number telephone number is . . . zero
two zero two one.
S1/S2: (said together) three three seven zero.
S2: O . . . zero なんとういの？

This ‘understanding only’ category is to help teachers
identify which words and phrases students will be
exposed to for the first time in the CCEC, and possibly
for the first time in their language learning. While it isunlikely that students will use this language during thetask, by the end of the lesson, they are expected torecognize the use of, for example, could and would forexpressing possibility. This recognition is for many
students the first step in the eventual acquisition ofthese words and their accompanying phrases. The
CCEC course then offers students repeated exposure
and opportunities to employ these words and phrases.
For example, with the word could the Grammar Book
section in CCEC level one lists the sentences in thecourse that use could, what purpose they are used for(suggestion,
possibility,
ability,offer/request,
permission), and where each sentence can be found. In
total, could in its most common uses appears sixteen
times in the level one course thus ensuring repeatedexposure.
Part B is the task for the lesson. Students in pairs
discuss the different ways of saying these numbers andwhen/where you would find them said in that way. The
explanation text in part B provides the students withincidental exposure to the language that they might finduseful for achieving the communicative outcome of thetask. Below is an excerpt from a pair of my students.
The following excerpt is typical of all the student
recordings from this task in that much of the student
focus was on just trying to say the numbers correctly.
For example, at the start of this excerpt, the pair decides
if it is ‘zero’ or the letter ‘o’ for the phone number. We
also see S1 trying to correctly say 1989. None of thepairs I recorded (eight) used speculative language inEnglish during the tasks outside of reading the task
instructions as S2 did two times in this excerpt. However,as this excerpt shows the students in all the recordings
did speculate on the numbers in their own language. In
other recordings, か も し れ な い (could possibly) is
frequently used by students.

S1: Zero じゃない？
S1/S2: (said together) Zero four five two.
S2: And car number.
S1: What is this number?
S2: Car is 22756 でしょ？
S1: Date date’s is ten point two.
S2: Twelve.
S1: Twelve. One one nine and . . . one one 九十 (nineten).
S2: it’s one nine eight nine じゃないS1: one nine
S2: (reads) How would you say it if it was a date?
The next step of the task cycle is ‘tell the class.’ This is
the report stage of the task cycle, and its purpose is topush students to carefully refine their task language bymaking it more presentable, and thus closer to more
ideal speech. In other words, although none of thestudents used speculative language during the task inthe target language the report section will require themto incorporate it into their final reports. The teacher’smanual (Figure 3) part 3 provides a possible reporttemplate for teachers and students who may need some
support in the planning stage.
Figure 3
Task planning and report information for teacher (from Willis & Willis,
1988)

Extract 1
Spoken excerpt from pair work

S1: What is . . . telephone is . . .
PanSIG Journal 2023

27
As the report guidance demonstrates, the CCEC
teacher’s manuals provide extensive support forteachers on all aspects of teaching the course. In part 4of Figure 3 advice is even offered on how to organize
the report stage to prepare for the upcoming listening inpart C. There is also information reminding teachersthat the number zero of all the basic numbers has themost varied ways of saying it, which as we saw in theexcerpt was something my students encountered during
the task.

and Dave do not do this task very well, and that student
pairs may even do the task more successfully! Whilesome teachers may wonder if authentic texts in CCEC
are too challenging for students, the Willises (1990) in
their piloting of these recordings found that the natural
redundancy of words and phrases in negotiated tasks
along with many discourse markers made therecordings very accessible to students. My own
experiences with these spontaneous recordings confirm
their findings.

After the report stage of the TBL sequence students
move on to language focus (analysis and practice). This
stage starts with a listening activity that is meant toprovide students with more language exposure. In part
C they listen to two English native speakers (Bridget
and Dave) do the same task. All the task recordings are
unscripted and therefore give students exposure toauthentic language. This means, as demonstrated in
Figure 4, part A, that there are numerous false starts,
hesitations, and various discourse makers (yeah, okay,so right, oh).

For the language analysis part of the post-task work inpart A, students engage in a consciousness-raising
activity. They review the excerpt and attempt to answer
the three accompanying questions. The goal of thesequestions is for the students to recognize that could andwould/’d are used to express possibility. While anexcerpt is provided, typically in most of the tasks
throughout the three levels the students are required to
explore the complete transcript. For part C, students are
given more practice in saying numbers, accompanied
by further practice with Wordpower (Figure 5), which isincluded in each unit of the first two courses. This
practice
activity
introduces
expressionsofapproximation with numbers.

Figure 4
Post task language analysis and practice (from Willis & Willis, 1988)

Figure 5
Wordpower practice (from Willis & Willis, 1988)

This naturally messy discourse occurs because it isnegotiated interactively. It contrasts sharply withscripted dialogues in coursebooks that incorrectly
present discourse as built up one piece at a timethrough clear concise turn-taking of the participants. In
the teacher’s manual we are even warned that Bridget

This last activity in Figure 5 is one demonstrable reason
why the CCEC can offer ‘high surrender value’ in that itgives quick return on time invested in thecourse. Typically, when we use numbers in everyday
life, it is very common to use words of approximation
PanSIG Journal 2023

28
with them (e.g., 300 and something). Puzzlingly, I havenever seen a four-skills coursebook at the A1 to B1
levels that introduces these types of expressions,despite their prevalence. A similar point can be madefor the early introduction of the highly frequent could andwould for expressing possibility. If one reviews popular
coursebook series at the same language levels, they
will find that the use of 'could' and 'would’ for expressing
possibility is either not covered at all or is introduced
only after hundreds of hours of study with the courses.
With the CCEC's use of only authentic texts andactivities that push students to analyze and explore
language, it is fair to say that students can potentiallyachieve a richer learning experience with the sameamount of time invested. This is an importantconsideration in EFL settings where classroom time isvery limited.

course, and it serves as a good starting point for ideas
on how TBL can progress as a global project.

References
Bygate, M. (2020). Some Directions for the possible
survival of TBLT as a real world project.
Language Teaching Research 53, 275-288.
Ellis, R. (2018). Reflections on Task-Based Language
Teaching. United Kingdom. Multilingual Matters.
Lewis, M. (1993). The Lexical Approach.Hampshire,
United Kingdom. Heinle Cengage learning.

Conclusion
Jane and Dave Willis have been central figures in thedevelopment of TBL in the classroom. To fully
appreciate their ideas, it is important to have somefamiliarity with the CCEC since it is the mostcomprehensive realization of their work. The free site
Taskbasedlearninforall.com now makes the course
accessible to everyone. It took us over five years tocollect all the material. Large multi-level courses can bevery expensive and this free access to the CCEC canoffer institutions and teachers working with limited
financial resources a chance to use high-quality
language learning material. Over the course of myteaching career, I have worked as an adult coursebook
advisor for all the major publishers. Comparing the
CCEC to current courses, I do not think it is an
exaggeration to say that, despite being 30 years old, theCCEC remains innovative and, for TBL (Task-Based
Learning), still very relevant. Only a very small numberof the tasks might be outdated for some teachers (e.g.,
how to use a payphone). The high-frequency word list
from the COBUILD Corpus remains consistent withthose from other more recent corpora (e.g., BNC).
Bygate (2020) writing on the future ‘survivability’ of TBL
believes, that it needs to more effectively demonstrate
how it can facilitate students’ access to the breadth anddepth of coverage of the target language. In addition, hefeels that TBL needs to better demonstrate how it can
incorporate a full range of learning processes (analyticallearning, chunk learning, category induction,
inferencing, memorization, rehearsing, and so forth)that are crucial for language learning. Bygate, too, uses
the term ‘high surrender value’ and feels TBL has yet toshow this. These two contemporary concerns with TBL
that Bygate identifies are ones that I believe the Willises
carefully considered over 30 years ago when they wrote
CCEC. This is why the title of this paper employs thephrase 'back to the future' for TBL. To date, CCEC is
the most comprehensive attempt to construct a TBL

O’Dell, F. (1997). Incorporating vocabulary into thesyllabus. In N. Schmitt & M. McCarthy (Eds.),
Vocabulary Description, Acquisition Pedagogy,
258-278. Cambridge, United Kingdom. CUP.
Prabhu, N.S. (2019). Perceptions of Language
Pedagogy. Himayatnagar, India. Orient Black
Swan.
Samuda, V., Van den Branden, K., Bygate, M. (2018).
TBLT as a Researched Pedagogy. Amsterdam,
Netherlands. John Benjamins Publishing.
Wilkins, D. (1976). Notional Syllabuses. Oxford,
United Kingdom. OUP.
Willis D, & J. Willis. (2007). Doing Task- based
Teaching. Oxford, United Kingdom. OUP.
Willis, D. (2003). Rules, Patterns and Words: Grammarand Lexis in English Teaching.
Willis, D. (2010). Three reasons why. In S. Hunston &D. Oakley (Eds.), Introducing Applied Linguistics
Concepts and Skills, 6-11. New York, New York.
Routledge.
Willis, D. (1990). The Lexical Syllabus. London, United
Kingdom. HarperCollins. Cambridge, United
Kingdom. CUP.
PanSIG Journal 2023

29
Willis, J. (1996). A Framework for Task-based
Learning. Harlow, United Kingdom. Longman
Pearson Ed.
Willis J, & D. Willis. (1988). The Collins COBUILD
English Course, Level 1. London, United
Kingdom. Collins ELT.

PanSIG Journal 2023

30

Using Drawing Prompts to Promote Topic Development in Discussion Tasks
Hamish Smith
Iwate Prefectural University
A lack of engagement with partner’s ideas and disjointed monologic interaction patterns can be a hallmark of peer-to-peer
conversation tasks in English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classrooms in Japan. In response to this, the author trialed an
instructional method informed by research on interactional competence. Thematic drawing prompts, accompanied by a topic
development method worksheet, were used as springboards for extended student discussions. Teacher reflections andobservations made during a summative speaking assessment give insight into the efficacy of the method. Whilst a need for more
focused student questionnaires and conversational analysis of student performances was found, observations obtained from thisinitial trial are promising. This initial trial suggests that drawing prompts can provide a useful forum for the modeling, practice,feedback, and ultimate production of context responsive topic development techniques.

日本の EFL の授業では、相手の考えを掘り下げることが欠如していたり、生徒同士が一方的に話すモノローグ的な会話が特徴的である。そこで筆者は、相互作用能力の研究分野に基づいた指導法を試行した。この指導法では、テーマ別に描かれたプロ
ンプトとトピック展開法を説明するワークシートと組み合わせて、生徒の会話のための出発点として使用した。教師の振り返りや実施した会話の総括的な評価の観察から、この方法の有効性が評価された。生徒に対して、この方法により特化したアン
ケートの実施や生徒のパフォーマンスの会話分析が必要であることが明らかになったが、この最初の試行から得られた観察結果は有望であり、プロンプトの使用により、トピック広げる手法を生徒に紹介し、練習、フィードバック、そして応答させる
機会を提供できることを示唆している。

Encouraging free-flowing reciprocal conversation andtopic development in peer-to-peer conversation tasks inJapanese English as a Foreign Language (EFL) classes
can be challenging for both teachers and students. For
teachers, it can be disheartening to see students
showing a tendency to exchange longer monologic
turns as described by Hauser (2009), and missing thequick topically-interconnected back and forth andexpansion of ideas that characterizes a natural flow ofconversation. For the students, it can be difficult tonavigate these expectations considering that the
majority of their English learning experience has been
within a junior high school and high school system thatis arguably still struggling to overcome agrammar/vocabulary-heavy backwash effect fromuniversity entrance exams (Otaka, 2011) and a relianceon the grammar translation method (Koby, 2015). The
persistence of these issues can create a scenario in
which students may not have had sufficient exposure to,and opportunities to practice the skills required tonavigate and co-create an unfolding conversation.
This paper details a teaching intervention implemented
in response to a number of issues related to topic
expansion and engagement with partners observed
during peer-to-peer conversation tests in a first year
English Communication class at a Japanese university,

consisting of 38 students. Prior to the change inteaching approach (which occurred in week eight of a
15-week semester), the course had followed a structurein which, after the completion of certain content topics(Different cultures, education, etc.), students wererandomly paired for a five to six minute assessed
conversation, based on a list of 10-12 questions. The
questions were generally similar in nature to discussion
questions which had come up in class. Students did nothave to address all questions and were encouraged to
be flexible to what their partners were saying and extend
the conversation. This style of test, henceforth referred
to as a question list style assessment, was used for two
midterm conversation tests in weeks four and seven.
However, after identifying a variety of issues in student
conversations, particularly ones in relation to topic
development, the teaching and assessment style waschanged to one in which students completed thematic
drawing/storytelling prompts which served as thecatalyst for extended conversations. This drawing
prompt style activity, along with an accompanying topic
expansion technique worksheet, was used each weekfrom weeks eight to 14, and formed the basis of the thirdand final speaking test in week 15.
The following discussion will seek to evaluate the trialed
approach based on the extent to which it provided a

PanSIG Journal 2023

31
classroom forum for the teaching and learning of topic
development techniques, and whether or not there wasany discernible improvement towards more naturalpeer-to-peer conversations.

Issues Observed in Initial Student
Performances
The following issues were found to be prevalent in
multiple pairs across the two initially administeredquestion list style conversation tests.

Unnatural Interaction Patterns
Conversation structures tended to gravitate towards a
repetitive pattern: Question > Answer > How about you?
> Answer > Next question. In essence, this flow thatstudents fell into set up a turn-taking dynamic wherestudents engaged in long, uninterrupted turns and often
failed to acknowledge and integrate content from theirpartner’s just prior turn. Such issues are reminiscent ofdescriptions of student discussions made by Hauser(2009) who noted that students can tend to produce
semi-monologues without sufficient meaningful topic
engagement with their partner. In a number of cases,
the monologic nature of student contributions led tothem covering multiple self-extension points in one turnand giving multiple details in a kind of soliloquy, without
proper points of poise for interjection or comprehension
checks. Then, upon the realization that they had been
speaking for too long, or that they had run out of things
to say, the student would abruptly throw theconversation back to their partner with a rushed “How
about you?” prompt. In the most egregious cases, thiswould place their partner in a situation where they had
to think back through a span of multiple content points
from their partner’s just-prior turn to isolate exactly
which point “How about you?”, actually referred to. Suchoccurrences indicated that as a pair, the speakers had
fallen out of sync with one another and were not truly
engaging in a collaborative and co-constructedconversation.

Formulaic Expressions and Minimal Topic
Expansion
Another issue was that acknowledgement of partner’s
contributions often took the form of generic andformulaic minimal expansions such as “Okay, Okay”,“Nice, Nice” and “I see”. Whilst these acknowledgement
tokens may fit as an appropriate response to a partner’sturn, they did not offer any context renewing
springboard from which to project the conversation
further (Sandlund & Greer, 2020; Schegloff, 2007).
Even responses which hinted at engagement with theideas of their partner such as “I think so too”, “That’sgood” or “really?”, came across as formulaic when notdelivered with convincing intonation or facial expression,and not followed through with some type of extensioncomment to move things forward. This created an

atmosphere in which students were seemingly
disinterested and waiting for their turn to speak rather
than engaging with their partner’s ideas.

An Overreliance on WH Questions
When students did engage in expansion of a partnerinitiated topic, an overreliance on WH questions wasprominent. WH questions can be considered ameaningful topic expansion move in response to a
speaker’s prior turn. However, in the conversations
observed during the initial speaking tests, this technique
was overused as a crutch. This created an interview
style dynamic in which students were prompted to go
into minute details of the When/ What/ Who/ Why/ How?
of a particular avenue of conversation without any
reciprocal topic work by their partner (e.g., speaking of
their own experiences, adding to or countering opinions).
This often led to conversational dead ends, as seen in
the following excerpt:
A: I do not like carrots.
B: Why?
A: I don’t like crunchy textures.
B: Why don't you like crunchy textures?
This example clearly illustrates the extent to which
student B was over-relying on WH questions. Answeringsuch questions, even in a first language, can bechallenging to articulate meaningfully. This left thepartner with no choice but to simply restate that they just
don’t like crunchy textures. This brought theconversation to halt before the pair moved onto a
different, unrelated question. Instances similar to thiswere common across multiple pairs. When topic
expansion moves relied too heavily on long strings ofWH questions, topics were generally closed with longawkward silences, and this ultimately affected theperceived mood, pacing, and energy of the exchange.
This also often led to abrupt “Next question” style topic
shifts which negatively impacted the cohesive flow of
the conversation.

Drawing on Previous ResearchInteractional Competence and Patterns ofInteraction
The issues highlighted above can be attributed to
weaknesses within the interactional competence of thestudents. Interactional competence (henceforth IC)
refers to the extent to which a speaker is able tonavigate and co-create meaning and structural flow with
their partner in a spoken interaction (Galaczi & Taylor,2018; Burch and Kley, 2020; Lam, 2018). An easily
digestible and concise depiction of how this takes placein practical terms is offered by Galaczi and Taylor(2018) who, after amalgamating a number of key
elements from previous research on IC put forward a
construct of Interactional Competence as a tree, withthe main branches representing the following key
PanSIG Journal 2023

32
elements of spoken interaction Galaczi and Taylor(2018, p.8):•

Topic management: initiating, extending,
Shifting, Closing•

Turn management: starting, maintaining,
ending, latching•

Interactive listening: backchannelling,
comprehension checks, continuers•

Breakdown Repair: joint utterance creation,
recasts•

Non-verbal behavior: eye contact, facial
expressions, laughter and posture.

The extent to which speakers are able to implement
these elements ultimately affects the eventual overall
shape or pattern of interaction and whether it feels
natural or not. Galaczi (2008) has highlighted three main
patterns of interaction, namely cooperative, parallel andasymmetrical. The patterns are categorized by different
levels at which speakers engage in the conversation.
First, speakers show effective engagement in both self
and other-initiated topic expansion, a concept referred
to as mutuality. Second, they balance the amount of
speaking and topic initiation moves between them,ensuring equality. Lastly, a healthy back and forth isachieved through backchannelling, support moves, andinterruptions. This keeps the conversation moving
smoothly without anyone being too passive or dominant,equalizing conversational dominance. Ideally, whenthese balances align, healthy a cooperative pattern ofinteraction emerges.

Intersubjectivity
Another key aspect of IC is the notion of intersubjectivity.
Although it is not explicitly mentioned in Galaczi and
Taylor’s (2018) construct and Galaczi’s (2008) patternsof interaction, it is implied and serves an importantfunction. As discussed by Burch and Kley (2020),
intersubjectivity refers to the ways in which speakers
show one another that they understand, as well as how
they have understood or align with their partner’scontent. The processes by which these elements are
made publicly visible are important. This is done byengaging in turns that are contextually contingent on
their partner’s just-prior turn (Lam, 2018) and can takethe shape of paraphrasing, signposting connections,
integrating partners’ ideas into their own contributions,
showing epistemic or affective stances, or extending(Burch & Kley, 2020).
In a sense, when someone comes across as being
present or engaged in a conversation, and engaging in
natural topic development, it is usually as a result of the
speaker smoothly exhibiting a number of behaviors
related to Galaczi and Taylor’s (2018) construct ofInteractional Competence and intersubjectivity to work
towards a collaborative pattern of interaction.
Whilst there are of course other factors at play in IC, it
was these specific aspects that the teacher used to
identify what was missing in initial student conversations.
It was determined that students were either lacking, or
not utilizing the necessary skillset to engage in the topic
expansion branch of Galaczi and Taylor’s (2018)
construct of Interactional Competence. This was
exacerbated by an overreliance on WH questions which
tended to mire conversations in details rather thanfacilitate a natural flow and shift of dialogue. The
characteristics that were perceived as being unnaturalinteraction patterns, specifically stiff and repetitive turntaking patterns, seemingly waiting for one’s turn tospeak, and generally only expanding their own selfinitiated topics could be characterized as parallelinteraction patterns (Galaczi, 2008). In addition, a lackof intersubjectivity via non-use of segues, and using
formulaic responses which failed to indicate one’s
stance or interest, further contributed to a feeling ofdisjointedness in the observed conversations. In
response to this, the teacher decided to trial a different
teaching and assessment approach intended to guidestudents towards more natural exchanges and topic
development.

MethodParticipants
The participants were a class of 38 students first-year
students in a compulsory Communication English classin the spring semester at a Japanese university.
Students were non-English majors, predominantly
coming from Agriculture and various Engineeringcourses. The class was the “advanced” class, as
decided by incoming scores, and is generally describedby the university as being representative of around theB1 level on the Common European Framework ofReference for Languages (CEFR).

Procedure
In response to the prevalence of the problems observedin the two initial question list assessment style, thedecision was made to trial a different style of activity andassessment. The teaching intervention in question was
a combination of two main components: the use ofdrawing prompts completed by the students as entry
points for conversations, and the instruction of topic
development methods via a worksheet resource madeto accompany the prompts.

Drawing Prompts
The drawing prompts created for use in this class were
inspired by the book “99 Stories I could tell: a
doodlebook to help you create” by Nathan Pyle (2018).
The book is comprised of a large selection of semiPanSIG Journal 2023

33
complete drawing prompts in which readers draw inextra details and add writing to create an image whichacts as the springboard for story telling across a diverse
array of themes. Applying this core concept from thebook, a selection of original drawing prompts (SeeAppendix A for examples) were created and became arecurring touchstone resource throughout the durationof course. While these particular examples are original,
Pyle’s (2018) book is filled with creative story prompts
that can be adapted for classroom use and is highly
recommended for those interested in this idea.

Topic Expansion Method Worksheet
Due to the aforementioned issues of parallel interaction,
and an over-reliance on WH questions, a topic
expansion worksheet was created as a means to help
students broaden the repertoire of skills with which toexpand and shift topics (See Appendix B). Thesemethods are based on how the teacher had observed
students with high IC attributes navigating topic
expansion in the past. The premise is based on theability to capitalize on keywords from partners’ just-priorturns and outlines the thinking processes behind somepotential topic expansion and shift moves and some
simple expressions.
Specifically, in addition to WH questions, the worksheet
encourages students to think about three methods thatthey can use to give open up avenues of topic
extension. Examples and potential language patterns
to use can be found in the worksheet (See Appendix B)
but as a brief overview, the three potential topic
expansion methods were,
1. Categorization: Can a key word from a partner’sutterance be categorized under a broader
theme that can be used to segue or extend theconversation?
2. Association: Does a keyword from a partner’sutterance evoke any other themes or related
topics that the conversation could be steered
towards?
3. Personal Connection/Observations/ Facts: Are
there any particular anecdotes on the topic orthings a person has heard, read or noticed thatmight help bring depth to or expand the topic?
The overall keyword capitalization method, andexample language suggestions were intended toencourage intersubjectivity via the signposting of
connections, segues and keywords in order to make thecontingency of students’ topic moves visible to both theirpartners and the assessor (Lam, 2018; Burch & Kley,
2020). In addition, the “association", and “personalconnection/observations / facts” aspects were intended
to encourage students to take on ownership of both self
and other-initiated topics in order to promote deeper

mutuality and a more collaborative interaction pattern(Galaczi, 2008).

Introduction and use of resources
The drawing prompts and topic expansion worksheet
were introduced in week eight of the 15-week semester
following two question list style assessments held inweeks four and seven in which issues were highlighted
and given as feedback to the students. From week eight
onwards, a new drawing prompt was introduced andused in class each week. The prompts were used bothas simple one-off warmup activities, as well being
integrated as advance organizers and summary
activities for broader topics covered in class before
culminating in a final conversation test using a selectionof prompts in week 15.
Each time the drawing prompts were used, students
were given about 10 minutes to complete their drawing
and think through their content before being paired withrandom partners and encouraged to converse about
what they and their partner had written and expand theconversation using methods from the worksheet whenapplicable. These practice runs were done in pairs andwould span about 10 minutes, with students rotating to
speak with multiple partners if time allowed.
Whilst the drawing prompts were different each time, therepetition of the task type provided multiple
opportunities for student speaking practice. To help
acquaint students with the topic expansion methods,
either the teacher or a volunteer student would show
their own model drawing to the class. Then, throughgroup work and whole class discussion, students used
the topic development methods to extend out the initial
topic in different ways. Part of this centered on
demonstrating how speakers can use the method todrop and pick up on keywords to help shape andrespond to the flow of a conversation.
This consistent repetition of the task style was used by
the teacher to observe students’ interactions andcapitalize on key feedback points to model techniquesand language.
Finally, in the final week of the semester (week 15), thestudents completed a final paired speaking assessmentin which they could choose one option from a selectionof different drawing prompts. Some of the drawing
prompts had been done in class and some were new.
Partners were selected at random, with no promise thata participant’s partner will have chosen the same
prompt. The conversations went for 10 minutes andstudents were instructed that there was no need for a
50/50 split and that the main goal was to be responsive
to the partner and the topic at hand and “go with theflow”. It should be noted that the rubric for theassignment (See Appendix C) did not make any
stipulations about “completion of story” and instead
PanSIG Journal 2023

34
rewarded the extent to which students could giveenough exposition to their ideas on either self or otherinitiated topics whilst still being reflexive to theirpartner’s input.

Observations and Discussion
Initial observations indicate that the drawing prompt/
topic development method worked well on a number oflevels. Firstly, in terms of teacher planning, theunderpinning ideas within the extended researchavailable on IC helped the teacher to articulate the more
ephemeral notions of what is “natural”, and how abstract
terms such as “presence” or “engagement” manifest in
student interactions. This was beneficial in ascertaining
what was lacking in student interactions, what goals lay
ahead, and ultimately informing potential teachingapproaches to raise student awareness and increase
their repertoire of skills.
From a classroom teaching perspective, the drawing
prompt and topic expansion format provided somedynamics to class time, creating opportunities forindividual and pair/small group work as well as classwide discussions. These moments also facilitated a“Show, don’t tell” dynamic, offering multiple points formodeling and the co-construction of understanding andskill development at multiple levels.
In terms of the efficacy of the method to facilitate morenatural peer-to-peer interaction patterns, the prompts
provided a novel forum for students to navigate all“branches” of Galaczi and Taylor’s (2018) construct ofinteractional competence. Students engaged in lively
conversations, which showed diversity and spontaneity
in the absence of a laid-out track of prescribed
questions. Especially in regards to topic development,
student performances on the final speaking test showedpromising results on the “Topic Development” and the“Content and Flexibility” aspects of the rubric used forstudent evaluation. However, it should be noted that the
rubric remains a work in progress and thus there may
be some potential oversights across marking criteria.
Despite this caveat, the teacher’s observational noteson student performances also indicate a promising shift
in student performance. Comments such as “Topics
abandoned too quickly”, “Failed to capitalize on
interesting points from partner”, “Overuse of WHquestions”, “Monologic spiels of memorized content ininappropriate places”, and “Abrupt ‘How about you?’exchanges” which had previously been commonplace,
noticeably decreased. Students were observed using
different combinations of the WH questions,
categorization, association and personal connection
techniques from the worksheet. This contributed
towards more responsive and nuanced style of topic
development and connection with each other’s ideas.
Their increased engagement with other-initiated ideas
also indicates a move from Galaczi’s (2008) parallel
pattern of interaction, towards higher mutuality and amore collaborative model. Alongside this, explicitly
stating connections and building on each other’s ideas
helped give a more in sync or contingent (Lam, 2018)
feel to student utterances and increased perceived
intersubjectivity between speakers.
Finally, post-semester student questionnaires alsosuggested positive student experiences in terms of theamount of speaking opportunities in class, speaking
confidence levels, and general enjoyment.

Limitations
Despite these initial promising results, there are somecaveats. Firstly, as this was a teaching intervention
done in active response in order to remedy issues instudent performances during the semester, there aresome limitations in the type of data obtained and theclaims can be made. Whilst the initial trialing of thedrawing prompt and topic development method shows
promise, some consideration must be made as to how
the research process and results could be made more
empirically sound in the future.
For example, in terms of the aforementioned positive
questionnaire
results,thesequestionnaires
unfortunately dealt with the course as a whole and, assuch, there is conflation with other activities andteaching approaches used throughout the semester.
With this in mind, future exploration of this research will
likely benefit from a more focused questionnaire toascertain how students perceived the method in termsof enjoyability and classroom atmosphere, provision of
speaking opportunities, access to and understandabilityof concepts, level of difficulty and relevance to student
goals. In addition, a more compartmentalized analysis
of each step of the teaching method using Laurillard's(2013) conversational framework, which focuses onproviding different types of communication, modelling,practice, and production across different learning
activities, could be also useful when implementing andevaluating the classroom teaching aspect of theapproach.
It would also be a valuable step to bookend theintervention with more robust pre and postimplementation conversational analysis. In particular, a
comparative analysis which isolates the type of topic
extension moves, and the frequency at which they occur,
could provide a more effective scope through which toquantify any improvement in interactional patterns andtopic development.

Conclusion
Whilst there are limitations to the implications that canbe drawn from this initial trial, potential for the future is
promising. Initial observations made by the teacher
suggest that the drawing prompts and topic expansion
worksheet can be an enjoyable, and potentiallybeneficial way to model, reinforce, and assess aspects
the topic expansion aspect of IC. It is hoped that asecond trial of the teaching method within a more robust
PanSIG Journal 2023

35
research framework will help to further evaluate andimprove the method.

Otaka, H. (2011). The backwash effect of the entrance

References

Ex: エクス: 言語文化論集, (7), 161-184.

Burch, A. R., & Kley, K. (2020). Assessing interactional
competence: The role of intersubjectivity in apaired-speaking assessment task. Papers in
Language Testing and Assessment, 9(1), 25-63.
doi:10.58379/VKYG7791
Galaczi, E. D. (2008). Peer-peer interaction in a
speaking test: the case of the first certificate inexam on English language education in Japan.

Pyle, N. W. (2018). 99 stories I could tell: a doodlebook
to help you create. William Morrow Paperbacks
Schegloff, E. A. (2007). Sequence organization ininteraction. A primer in conversation analysis.
Cambridge University Press.
Sandlund, E., & Greer, T. (2020). How do raters

English examination. Language Assessment

understand rubrics for assessing L2 interactional

Quarterly, 5(2), 89-119.

engagement? A comparative study of CA-anddoi: 10.1080/15434300801934702

non-CA-formulated performance descriptors.

Galaczi, E., & Taylor, L. (2018). Interactional
competence: Conceptualisations,

Papers in Language Testing and Assessment,
9(1), 128-163.

operationalisations, and outstanding questions.
Language Assessment Quarterly, 15(3), 219236.
doi: 10.1080/15434303.2018.1453816
Hauser, E. (2009). Turn-taking and primary
speakership during a student discussion. In H.
Nguyen & G. Kasper (Eds.), Talk-in-interaction:
Multilingual perspectives (pp. 216-244). Hawaii:
University of Hawaii.
Koby, C. J. (2015). Communicative competence inhigh school? Really? In P. Clements, A. Krause,& H. Brown, JALT2014 Conference
Proceedings. Tokyo: JALT.
Lam, D. M. (2018). What counts as “responding”?
Contingency on previous speaker contribution
as a feature of interactional competence.
Language Testing, 35(3), 377-401.
doi: 10.1177/0265532218758
Laurillard, D. (2013). Teaching as a design science:
Building pedagogical patterns for learning andtechnology. Routledge.

PanSIG Journal 2023

36

Appendices
Appendix A: Drawing Prompt Examples

PanSIG Journal 2023

37

Appendix B: Topic Expansion Method Worksheet

Appendix C: Rubric used for Assessment of Student Performance
SPEAKING

5-6

Student shows a natural balance(doesn’t talk too much or too little)
and is cooperative:

Balance between
speakers••

andCooperation••

Invites other student
opinions
Avoids long silences byoffering help or modeling ananswerAvoids dominantinterruptions
Shows a variety of turntaking tactics (not just how
about you)

Student uses a variety of

Topic Development

•
•
•
•

WH questions
Categorization
Association
Personal Connection / trivia
To expand both their own AND
their partners topics in a natural /smooth and engaging way.

3-4

Student shows a natural balance(doesn’t talk too much or too little)
but sometimes noticeably misses
some of the following cooperative
behaviors:•

Inviting other student
opinions•

Avoiding long silences byoffering help or modeling ananswerAvoiding dominantinterruptions••

The student is either too passive or far
too dominant.
Student often fails to show cooperative
behaviors. The other student must put ina lot of work to keep the conversation
going.
Student shows very variation in turntaking style - often sticking to Question,
Answer, How about you? Pattern.

Student may rely too heavily
on “How about you?”

Student uses some development
techniques shows some of thefollowing problems•

over reliance on WH
questions•Cuts topic short in an
unnatural way
Lack of “other development”
Some standout missed
opportunities to develop topic

•
•

0-2

Student uses some development
techniques but commonly shows someof the following problems••

over reliance on WH questions
Cuts topic short in an unnatural
way

•
•

Lack of “other development”
Some standout missed
opportunities to develop topic
Relies on partner to develop
topics•PanSIG Journal 2023

38
Student consistently shows theirpartner they are engaged andinterested through consistent

Energy and
Presence•

Backchanneling - Includingcomments•

Gestures / expressions / eyecontact
Intonation and surprise
expressions•

Student generally shows interest
and engagement but is sometimes
inconsistent or misses the mark
with:

•
•
•

Backchanneling -Includingcomments
Gestures / expressions / eyecontact
Intonation and surprise
expressions

Student does not seem interested or
engaged and this shows through a lackof•

Backchanneling - Includingcomments•

Gestures / expressions / eyecontact
Intonation and surprise
expressions••

Student generally does not show
enough enthusiasm

Content andflexibility

Can you be
understood?

Content is well chosen andconveys information smoothly but
also change gears/pivot withpartners input.

Content is not quite as smooth as it
could be or student does not always
show the ability to change gears andor pivot with partners input.

Student has either not prepared wellenough to smoothly tell content or isoverly rehearsed and cannot be flexible
with partners input.

Student makes an active effort toinclude interesting content throughopinions / feelings / reasons /stories etc.

Student generally an active effort toinclude interesting content throughopinions / feelings / reasons / etc.
but falls short on some occasions.

Student does not make enough effort toinclude interesting content throughopinions / feelings / reasons / etc.

Often shows that they havelistened to and thought about what
their partner has said in theircontributions.

Contributions sometimes seem
overly pre-rehearsed and/or said
without real connections to what
their partner has said.

The student’s speaking can beunderstood enough to have aconversation without trouble or a
lot of patience. Ideas are not too
simpleThe student’s speaking has somemistakes can be understood enoughto have a conversation without too
much trouble. Ideas not TOO simple

Contributions often seem pre-rehearsed
and/or said without connections to what
their partner has said.

The listener has to spend a lot of effort
thinking about what the student is trying
to say. Ideas too simple. Partner orteacher has to spend a lot of effort trying
to understand the student

PanSIG Journal 2023

39

Using Positive Psychology Interventions to Support EFL Students
Dominique Vola Ambinintsoa
Kanda University of International Studies (KUIS)

Phillip A. Bennett
Kanda University of International Studies (KUIS)

Positive psychology, which focuses on well-being and aims to promote flourishing (Seligman, 2011), has its relevance in language
learning. Promoting a positive learning environment and highlighting positive experiences can impact students’ perspectives andbeliefs with regards to learning (MacIntyre & Ayers-Glassey, 2022; Seligman, 2019). Integrating positive psychology interventions
into the language classroom can foster a learning environment (Hegelsen, 2016). Such interventions can heighten students’awareness of their strengths and positive aspects of their learning experience (Gregersen, 2019). This in turn, can boost theirmotivation and resilience, aiding them in maintaining their learning journey (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021). In this practice-oriented
paper, we will share five examples of positive psychology interventions that we applied with our students in English as a Foreign
Language (EFL) classes and during one-to-one advising sessions.

ウエルビーングに焦点を当て、繁栄の促進を目指すポジティブサイコロジー（Seligman, 2011）は、言語学習にも関連性がある。ポジティブな学習環境を促進し、ポジティブな経験を強調することで、学習に関する生徒の視点や信念に影響を与える（MacIntyre & Ayers-Glassey, 2022; Seligman, 2019）。言語教室にポジティブサイコロジーの介入を取り入れることで、学習環境を向上させる（Hegelsen, 2016）。このような介入は、学習者の長所や学習経験の肯定的な側面に対する意識を高めることができる（Gregersen, 2019）。その結果、学習者のやる気と回復力を高め、ラーニングジャーニーを継続させることができる（Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021）。 この実践志向の論文では、EFL（外国語としての英語）の授業や 1 対 1 のアドバイジング・
セッションで学習者に適用したポジティブサイコロジー的介入の 5 つの例を紹介する。

In this practice-oriented paper, we will discuss therelevance and the benefits of positive psychology inlanguage learning. We will introduce positive
psychology interventions that we have learned fromliterature but also from resources about advising andreflection activities. In our functions as learning advisorsand lecturers, we have applied those interventions with
our EFL undergraduate students, both in classes andduring one-to-one advising sessions at a university inJapan. Though we did not conduct research, we noticed
from our observations that the interventions enable
students to notice their strengths and achievements,
which result in higher motivation and self-confidence.
Our aim for this paper is to share these positive
psychology interventions so that other language
teachers can also cultivate positivity in their classes.

What is Positive Psychology?
While psychology tends to focus on treatments dealing
with pathological effects, positive psychology
concentrates on recognizing and building upon thepositive qualities of life (Csikszentmihalyi & Seligman,2000). That does not mean that positive psychology
coerces people to completely ignore all negative
aspects of life such as the difficulties and stresses aswell as the array of emotions in life (e.g., in language
learning). Rather, it attempts to build the “understandingthat along with neurosis, psychosis, and a host of otherills, life also has an abundance of positives” (Gregersen,
2019, p. 96). Defined as “the scientific study of whatgoes right in life” (Fresacher 2016, p. 344), positive
psychology aims to promote well-being and to help
people flourish by increasing five factors, known under
the acronym PERMA (Seligman, 2011):

PanSIG Journal 2023

40•

Positive emotion, including pleasure, comfort,
ecstasy, happiness, and life satisfaction,•

Engagement, defined as something that aperson can get totally absorbed in,•

Relationships, referring to a sense of belonging
and of connection to people,•

Meaning, “belonging to and serving somethingthat you believe is bigger than self” (p. 17),•

Accomplishment or a sense of fulfillment.

According to Seligman, these five factors, not only
happiness, which is part of positive emotion, arenecessary for a person to feel a sense of well-being.

Relevance of Positive Psychology inLanguage Learning
Language learning is a long-term process involving
positive and negative emotions (Gregersen & MacIntyre,
2014; MacIntyre & Ayers-Glassey, 2022; Oxford, 2016).
It can be enjoyable and exciting for some people, but it
can be stressful, demotivating and cause anxiety forothers; it requires patience, perseverance, action andcourage (Gregersen & MacIntyre, 2014; Williams et al.,2021). Additionally, learners’ emotions and thoughts
can fluctuate (Gregersen & MacIntyre, 2014) dependingon many factors such as test scores, classroom
interactions, and performances. Emotions influencelearners’ motivation (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021). For
instance, a highly motivated learner can lose theirmotivation due to not performing as well as they hoped(e.g., a low TOEIC score). On the other hand, a learner
who is not usually willing to participate in classdiscussions may find motivation to speak after receiving
positive feedback and encouragement from a teacher
and their peers (Ryan & Deci, 2017). Positive emotions
can help learners keep and increase existing motivation,
making positive emotions an “additional fuel” enabling
motivation to be long-term (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021, p.
85). Therefore, promoting a positive learning
environment and highlighting positive experiences canimpact learners’ motivation (Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2021),
their performance (Oxford, 2016) as well as theirperspectives and beliefs with regards to learning(MacIntyre & Ayers-Glassey, 2022; Seligman, 2019).
That is why positive psychology has its place ineducation and should be fostered and practiced in theclassroom.
Further, positive psychology is beneficial not only forstudents but also for teachers. Who would not wish tohave students who have positive emotions, areengaged in class activities, have good relationships with
one another, find what they learn meaningful, and areaware of their achievements? As Helgesen (2016) says
“happy, engaged students learn more” (p. 321), is that

not what all teachers want? Talbot (2022) summarizes
the importance of well-being for both students andteachers well in this statement:
A positive sense of well-being is a necessary
condition for both language learners andlanguage teachers; it forms the foundation forsuccessful teaching and successful learningand should be a central concern of educational
stakeholders seeking to support learners andteachers’ development (p. 200).
However, teachers themselves might not be willing to
do extra class tasks designed to purposefully promote
well-being, not necessarily because they do not believein the benefits of such tasks, but they feel they alreadyhave enough responsibility. Furthermore, they may feelthey do not have sufficient time even to finish therequired activities in their syllabi. Helgesen (2016)
suggests, “we should think of positive psychology tasks
as more of an opportunity than a responsibility” (p. 305).
Those can be opportunities to foster well-being and also
to practice different language skills as well as reflective
skills. Considering the advantages of having happy andengaging learners, it is worth integrating those tasks
into the classroom.

Examples of Positive Psychology
Interventions
In this section, we give five examples of positive
psychology interventions that we have learned andadapted from the literature related to positive
psychology, advising, and reflection activities. Theinterventions are three good things, confidence-building
diary, savoring, action logs, and medal.

Three Good Things
The first positive psychology intervention we suggest iscalled three good things (Helgesen, 2016) or whatwent-well exercise (Seligman, 2011). This writing task
enables students to recall good events that happened
during the day and the reasons why they occurred.
Such regular practice gets students in the habit ofnoticing positive aspects in their lives and can evenreduce depression (Seligman, 2011). We suggest
providing students with linguistic support to help
students express their emotions and expand their
vocabulary repertoire at the same time. A list of
adjectives denoting positive emotion such as happy,
excited, wonderful, motivated, cheerful, comfortable
can be helpful. Also, we recommend linguistic
scaffolding like in Figure 1. This writing task can also bedone at the end of each week or at the beginning ofclass. Assigning this as a routine task at the beginningof class and then having students share one of theirpositive things as a warm-up activity is ideal. If that is
not possible, however, we think implementing thisPanSIG Journal 2023

41
activity in more distant intervals, such as after
completing a unit or assessments, may still be beneficial.
Figure 1
Linguistic Scaffolds adapted from Bennett and Yarwood (2021)

Savoring
Savoring is a technique “to deliberately and mindfully
derive pleasure and fulfilment from a positive
experience, either in the present or by allowing ourminds to ‘time travel’” (Mercer & Gregersen, 2020, p.
44). Such a technique allows positive emotion toincrease in intensity and to last longer (Seligman, 2011).
One way to better understand the concept of savoringis to consider the opposite strategy which is coping. As
Gregersen et al. (2014) explain:
A more familiar process comparable in someways to savouring is coping—that is, where an
unpleasant event engenders undesirable
emotions that individuals deal with byattempting to change the event itself, itsconsequences, or themselves in order todecrease the negative impact as quickly as
possible. (p. 333)

Confidence-building Diary
The second intervention is confidence-building diaryfrom Kato and Mynard (2016). While three good things
can be about anything positive in life, confidencebuilding diary helps students focus on small daily
achievements that are specifically related to theirlanguage learning (see Figure 2). Confidence-building
diary enables students to consciously think about small
improvements that they might not easily notice. Thesecan be tasks they were able to complete, help they
could provide to someone by using the target language,
or even just the fact of being able to remember a usefulword at an opportune time. Confidence-building diary,
thus, allows students to notice and appreciate small
achievements and to realize that what they do ismeaningful. We suggest that students write in their diary
every day, and then have an opportunity to share their“biggest achievements” with their peers once a week,time permitting. Sharing will help them reflect on theirachievements once again, interact with their peers on
positive things, learn from their peers, and discover theirpeers’ achievements. That is one way for them to“celebrate” those achievements.

In other words, as opposed to coping with undesirable
experiences, savoring is a practice of focusing ondesirable outcomes and achievements. Gregersen et al.
(2014) continue,
Coping strategies in language learning, such as
dealing with error correction or seeking extra
help from the teacher, are often taught explicitly
in the classroom. Compared to coping, however,savoring strategies such as anticipating
positive events in the future, relishing them inthe moment and reminiscing about those in thepast seem to be taught less frequently. (p. 334)
In a language learning context, savoring can be doneright after assessments, projects, presentations, orother difficult activities. The following questions can beused to relish positive events in the moment (or rightafter something important has happened):•

What did you do well in your presentation? How
are you feeling?

•

What did you like most in your project?

•

How are you feeling now that the project isfinished?

Figure 2
Confidence-building Diary adapted from Kato and Mynard (2016)

To help students reminisce past positive experiences or
to give them a boost, we suggest questions like thefollowing:•

What are you most proud of this semester?

•

What is something you couldn’t do at the
beginning of the semester, but you can do now?

Some students could find it difficult to focus only on
positive points, for example, after doing a presentation
PanSIG Journal 2023

42
or a project. If that is the case, they can be given theopportunity to also share the negative points, but to help
them develop more positivity, we would recommend
giving them instructions like the following:•Think of one thing that needs to be improved
and three things that went well in yourpresentation.

To help students anticipate positive events in the future,questions related to the achievement of their goals(which should have been addressed in class earlier) canbe used:••What is your goal? How will you feel when yourgoal is achieved?
Imagine that you get the scores you need for
TOEFL. How would you feel? Who are you
going to share the news with?

Action Logs
The fourth intervention we would like to introduce is aform of “action logging” (see Murphey, 1993; MiyakeWarkentin, et al., 2020; Caballero & Bennet [sic], 2023).
Action logs are “documents that students use to record
activities of a class and their evaluations, which are later
reviewed by a teacher in order to adjust the activities tomeet students’ needs” (Caballero & Bennet [sic], 2023).
In brief, the action log allows students to be aware of
their mood at the beginning (pre-class) and at the endof a class (post-class), set a goal for the class andsubsequently their level of goal achievement, and finallyprovide feedback to their teacher. Useful language andlanguage frames are provided for students as to lessen
the strain of coming up with their own language toexpress their emotions (see Bennett & Yarwood, 2021).
As seen in Figure 3, both Good and Not Good
adjectives are provided on the right side of the action
log. As mentioned above, positive psychologicalapproaches are not about ignoring or avoiding negative
emotions as Gregersen, et al. (2014) state,

the post- and pre-sections can take place in the first andlast three to five minutes of a class resulting between acumulative 6 to 10 minutes of class time.
In the post-class section, students are asked to whatlevel they were able to achieve the goal set in the preclass section by completing the sentence “I was … toachieve my goal today” (see Figure 3) by choosing oneof four options:•completely not able•

somewhat able

•

able

•

more than able

They are also asked to once again share how they are
feeling. Although the feedback section is not directly
designed as a positive psychological activity, it can
provide opportunities for the teacher to implement
positive interventions in future classes. For example,
the teacher could receive feedback that students are
feeling discouraged or feeling a high sense ofachievement and then can respond accordingly. Finally,
the action log can be adapted to facilitate the abovementioned interventions (e.g., three good things, andsavoring) as well as other reflection activities.
Figure 3
An Example of an Action Log

If positive emotion is like the wind in a ship’s
sails, negative emotion is like the rudder
keeping a ship on course. It is not the presenceof positive emotion but the ratio of positive tonegative emotion that is especially important for
wellbeing. (p. 329)
In the pre-class section of the action log, students are
asked to share their current feelings and set a goal forthe class. After answering these questions, students areencouraged to ask their peers how they feel and what
they hope to achieve in the class. The purpose for thispre-class activity is to facilitate relatedness (see Ryan &Deci, 2017) between students and provide them withthe opportunity to set a goal that is self-endorsed andwhich may become a positive learning experience. Both

MedalsMedals, an activity suggested by Helgesen (2016), canbe used after a pair or group work, for example, acollaborative project or a collaborative presentation. ForPanSIG Journal 2023

43
this activity, which is similar to what Dörnyei (2001)
suggested, teachers need to provide each student witha few small pieces of paper with pictures of medals onthem or star-shaped pieces of paper. They can also give
students plain pieces of paper and ask them to decorate
and to cut those according to their liking. Then, each
student is asked to write a quality of each of theirpartners, which they noticed during the project, on theirpiece of paper. That piece of paper is the medal. We
would recommend encouraging students to state thereason for the quality they are stating. For example,
they can write “You are a good organizer. Thanks to you,we were able to finish the project before the deadline”,“You are an enjoyable person to work with because you
are a good listener”. Medals enables students torecognize the advantages of peer collaboration andtheir peers’ qualities, which can enhance positive
relationships in class. It also allows students to havetheir qualities recognized and highlighted by their peers,which is an achievement in itself.

Conclusion
In this paper, we have established the critical role ofpositive psychology in enhancing language learning
experiences. By integrating targeted interventions, EFL
classrooms can become environments that foster
greater student engagement and well-being. Theinterventions showcased in this paper may enhance thepotential for learners’ positive emotions, engagement,
positive
relationships,
meaning-making,andachievement, which are the “five well-being pillars”(Butler & Kern, 2016, p. 2). We implore, or at least hope,that EFL teachers will consider the benefits of theinterventions discussed and make an effort toimplement them in their classrooms.

References
Bennett, P. A., & Yarwood, A. (2021). A case forscaffolding self-reflection. PanSIG Journal, 6(1)55-64.
Butler, J., & Kern, M. L. (2016). The PERMA-Profiler: A
brief multidimensional measure of flourishing.
International Journal of Wellbeing, 6(3), 1-48.
https://doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v6i3.526
Caballero, N.& Bennet [sic], P. A. (2023, June).

https://www.catesol.org/docs/CATESOL_NEWSLETTE
R-Volume_56_Issue_2_FINAL.pdf
Csikszentmihalyi, M., & Seligman, M. (2000). Positive
psychology: An introduction. American
Psychologist, 55(1), 5-14.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5
Dörnyei, Z. (2001). Motivational strategies in thelanguage classroom. Cambridge.
https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667343
Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2021). Teaching andresearching motivation. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315833750
Fresacher, C. (2016). Why and how to use positive
psychology activities in the second language
classroom. In P. D. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen, &S. Mercer (Eds.), Positive Psychology in SLA,
344-358. Multilingual Matters.
https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783095360-016
Gregersen, T. (2019). Aligning positive psychology
with language learning motivation. In M. Lamb,
K. Csizer, A. Henry & S. Ryan (Eds.), The
Palgrave handbook of motivation for language
learning, 139-161. Palgrave.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-030-28380-3_30
Gregersen, T. & MacIntyre, P. D. (2014). Capitalizing
on language learners’ individuality. Multilingual
Matters.
Gregersen, T., MacIntyre, P. D., Finegan, K. H.,
Talbot, K. R., & Claman, S. L. (2014). Examining
emotional intelligence within the context of
positive psychology interventions. Studies inSecond Language Learning and Teaching. 4(2),Repositioning After a Time of Change:

327-353.

Autonomy Supportive Pedagogy via Addressing

https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2014.4.2.8

the Basic Psychological Needs of Students.
CATESOL Newsletter, 56(2), 16-20.

Helgesen, M. (2016). Happiness in ESL/EFL: Bringing
positive psychology to the classroom. In P. D.
PanSIG Journal 2023

44
MacIntyre, T. Gregersen, & S. Mercer (Eds.),

Seligman, M.E. (2019). Positive psychology: A

Positive Psychology in SLA, 305-323.

personal history. Annual Review of Clinical

Multilingual Matters.

Psychology, 15, 1-23

https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783095360-014

https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-clinpsy-050718095653

Kato, S. & Mynard, J. (2016) Reflective Dialogue:
Advising in Language Learning.

Talbot, K. R. (2022). Well-being. In T. Gregersen & S.

Routledge. https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315739

Mercer (Eds.),The Routledge handbook of the649

psychology of language learning and teaching,
191-204. Routledge.

MacIntyre, P.D. & Ayers-Glassey, S. (2022). Positive

https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429321498

psychology. In T. Gregersen & S. Mercer (Eds.),
The Routledge handbook of the psychology ofWilliams, M., Puchta, H., & Mercer, S. (2021).

language learning and teaching, 61-73.

Psychology in practice: A wealth of practicalRoutledge.

ideas to put students in the best frame of mind

https://doi.org/10.4324/9780429321498-7

of learning. Helbling Languages.

Mercer, S., & Gregersen, T. (2020). Teacher
wellbeing. Oxford University Press.
Miyake-Warkentin, K., Hooper, D., & Murphey, T.
(2020). Student action logging creates teacher
efficacy. In P. Clements, A. Krause, & R. Gentry(Eds.), Teacher efficacy, learner agency. JALT.
https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTPCP2019-40
Oxford, R.L. (2016). Toward a psychology of wellbeing for language learners: The ‘EMPATHICS’vision. In P. D. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen, & S.
Mercer (Eds.), Positive Psychology in SLA, 1087. Multilingual Matters
https://doi.org/10.21832/9781783095360-003
Ryan, R. M., & Deci, E. L. (2017). Self-determination
theory: Basic psychological needs in motivation,
development, and wellness. Guilford
Publications.
Seligman, M. E. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new
understanding of happiness and well-being.
Simon and Schuster.
https://doi.org/10.1521/978.14625/28806

PanSIG Journal 2023

45

Effect of Self-Efficacy and Proficiency on Speaking Test Scores
Dawn Kobayashi
Onomichi City University
This paper investigates the relationship between 1st-year university students' self-efficacy, English proficiency, and speaking test
performance. English skills are essential for participation in global education and employment opportunities; however, theproficiency level among Japanese students has not yet reached the targets set by the Japanese government. While existing
research points to self-efficacy as a predictor of academic performance, a more detailed study is needed comparing it withstudents' performance at the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages levels. In this survey study, a teacher
research stance was adopted, and data were triangulated from self-efficacy questionnaires, English proficiency assessments, andspeaking test scores from 116 1st year university students. The results indicate that although these measurements are correlated,students have lower self-efficacy scores than expected, suggesting the need for interventions.

本研究では、大学 1 年生の自己効力感、英語力、およびスピーキングテストの成績との関係を調査しました。英語スキルは、
国際的な教育や就業の機会への参加に不可欠ですが、日本の学生の英語力はまだ政府の目標に達していません。自己効力感が
学業成績の予測要因であることは研究によって示唆されていますが、学生の自己効力感と欧州言語共通参照枠のレベルでの成績に関するさらなる研究が必要です。この調査研究では、教師の研究スタンスを採用し、自己効力感のアンケート、英語力評
価、スピーキングテストのスコアからデータを三重に収集しました。その結果、これらの測定値は相関していますが、学生は期待されるよりも低い自己効力感のスコアを示し、学生の自己効力感を向上させるための介入が必要であることが示されました。

Due to English’s status as a lingua franca for global
communication, students’ English proficiency level candetermine access to global educational andemployment opportunities (Baker, 2016; Breaden,
2014; OECD, 2022). However, the English proficiencyof Japanese university students is low compared toother Asian countries (English First, 2022) which places
them at a disadvantage. Accordingly, over the years theJapanese government has implemented various
projects such as Tobitate and Global 30 to increase
student interest and ability in English. Further, The
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sport, Science, andTechnology (MEXT) have set the goal for at least 50%
of high school students to achieve Common European
Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR) A2 by
graduation, which is determined by gaining the Step
Eiken grade pre-2 (MEXT, 2022). Prominent research
has pointed to how affective factors such as selfefficacy (hereafter SE) impact student academic
achievement prompting change in proficiency levels(Bandura, 1982; Mills, 2014). Since SE is influenced bybehavioral, environmental, and personal determinants,
measures to elevate SE can stimulate higher
achievement levels. Consequently, the purpose of thisresearch was to explore how students’ SE levels related
to English proficiency levels and achievement on an
English speaking test.

Self-Efficacy Theoretical Framework
Self-efficacy is a core component of Bandura’s social
cognitive theory which relates to people’s capability tocontrol their actions through the interplay of behavioral,
environmental, and personal determinants (Bandura,
1994); within that framework, SE refers to theconfidence a person feels in their ability to perform a
specific task. Self-efficacy is determined by four factors:(a) mastery experiences, which constitute the pastexperiences with a task, (b) social modelling, which areopportunities to watch similar others such asclassmates complete the task successfully, (c) social
persuasion, which is the verbal support that significant
others such as friends and teachers give the student
about the task, and (d) physiological states, which are
the students’ interpretations of their emotions related tothe tasks. Bandura advises measuring SE with Likert
scales in which participants are asked to indicate how
confident they feel to successfully complete a specificfuture task by choosing a point on a 11-point Likert scale(Bandura, 2006).
Self-efficacy developed as a treatment for people withsnake phobias in which participants who underwent
interventions, such as observing others holding snakes
and looking at photos of snakes, achieved an increase
PanSIG Journal 2023

46
in SE and achievement. Subsequently, SE advanced toencompass how people determine their ability to control
wider life events, especially how students with high SE
are likely to attempt difficult tasks and exert higher
cognitive effort than those with low SE (Bandura, 1994).
It is important to understand that SE is different to othersimilar sounding concepts such as self-worth or selfesteem. The latter are general personality traits which
relate to how people perceive themselves in broad
terms; SE is highly domain specific, for example, people
can have high SE in some areas such as math and low
in others such as music (Zimmerman, 1995). SE is also
predictive of future actions rather than an assessmentof past ones (Bandura, 2012).

addressed. Indeed, the teachers’ closeness to theresearch participants is regarded as a benefit because
the teacher’s in-depth knowledge of students andcontext allows them to anticipate potential issues with
implementing the research (Allwright & Hanks, 2009, p.
150). Finally, since the teacher is researching their own
context, the research results contribute to ongoingdevelopment of teaching practice and student learning
goals. They should also have direct benefits to theresearch participants (Leuverink & Aarts, 2019). In thisway, the intrusive nature of third-party researchers is
ameliorated.

Self-efficacy in EFL

The body of research points to SE having a positive
influence on academic achievement. Further research
into students’ SE levels at the different CEFR levels
would facilitate assessment of student confidence toreach MEXT’s target A2 level and identify if confidence
at different CEFR levels correlates to achievement. The
research aim was to administer a SE questionnaire to
1st -year university students to examine the relationshipbetween their English proficiency scores, English
speaking test scores, and SE to speak English as aforeign language (hereafter SE to speak English). The
research questions were:

Research suggests that SE equips students withdiverse, beneficial learning outcomes in foreign
language learning such as the formation of long-term
learning goals (Bai & Wang, 2020; Kormos et al., 2011)
and the adoption of advantageous learning strategies(Gahungu, 2009; Mills et al., 2007; Wang & Bai, 2017).
Additionally, SE is useful for teachers because it can be
developed by implementing activities that foster theformation of the four sources of SE. Accordingly, there
has recently been more interest in the role SE plays inforeign language learning (Graham, 2022; Kobayashi,2018).
In the Japanese context, research has also shown thepositive effects of SE on language learningachievement. In Leemings’ study (2017) increases inspeaking SE and ability over the course of a year were
attributed to students’ familiarity with the course andinfluence of classmates. Similarly, SE has been shown
to be predictive of success in English immersion
programs (Thompson et al., 2019). It is also likely that
SE works in combination with other affective forces toyield gains in performance. For example, in a study ofvocabulary acquisition, SE was predictive ofdevelopment through effort regulation mechanisms(Onoda, 2014).

Teacher ResearchThis research was conducted within the framework ofteacher research. According to Cochran-Smith andLytle, teacher research is a form of practitioner researchwhich positions the teacher as “knower and agent inclassrooms and in larger wider educational contexts”(2009, p. 7). Hence, teachers are not just consumers of
research conducted by others outside of their context,
but creators of research grounded within their local
practice which can impact on wider teaching contexts
through dissemination to national and international
research communities (Borg, 2010). Although teacherresearch has an inherent element of subjective bias, it
is not seen as a fault of the stance if ethicalconsiderations, right to withdraw, and privacy are fully

Research Aim

RQ1: How confident do students feel to complete
speaking tasks at the A2 level?
RQ2: Which items on the SE scale do students feelmost and least confident to complete?
RQ3: How do students’ speaking SE level and TOEIC
scores correlate with English speaking test results?
RQ4: What implications for practice can be gleaned
from the results of RQ1-3?

Methods
The study used a survey design employing threedifferent research instruments to achieve triangulationof data. The participants were 116 students (female=51,
male=65) in their 1st year at a small, Japanese university
managed by the local city council. The students werefrom the economics and the art department and allenrolled in the General English course. Their English
proficiency level was CEFR A2.

Ethical Considerations
Ethical considerations were addressed by explaining
the purpose of the study to all students and clarifyingthat students would not be identifiable afteranonymization. Additionally, students were told that
non-participation would in no way influence their grades
and that there would be no follow-up contact in relation
to their responses. Informed consent was collected fromall participants. Students wishing to participate were
PanSIG Journal 2023

47
asked to fill in their student number on the self-efficacy
questionnaire so that data from the three measures
could be matched. After matching was completed,student numbers were replaced with random numbers
to anonymize the data. Once this step was completed,
it was no longer possible to identify which number
belonged to which student. Furthermore, to reduce theparticipation burden on students, the data collection
instruments were administered as part of the course
development and results were used to transformteaching practice in alignment with teacher research
conventions.

Instruments
The data collection instruments were the students’
TOEIC bridge test scores which were administered in
April 2022. This test was administered to students for
assignment to different proficiency level English classes.
The students’ SE to speak English levels were collectedwith a SE scale which was based on CEFR descriptors
for levels A1 to C1 and phrased as can-do sentences(see Appendix A). The highest level, C2, was notincluded because it denotes a fluent, native-speaker
level and most students would respond with low scores.
Additionally, inclusion of such high-performance items
might cause students to form negative appraisals of
ability or unattainable learning goals. The scale used an
11-point Likert scale as recommended by Bandura, with
0 denoting not confident at all, and 10 definitively
confident. The 11-point scale was chosen over a 5-point
one because, as respondents tend to avoid the extreme
points, in practice, only three choices remain, andvariance becomes limited. Thus, an 11-point scale is amore sensitive measure and yields better variance(Bandura, 2006). All items were translated into
Japanese and checked by two native speakers. Theinternal consistency of the scale was excellent with
Cronbach alpha score of 0.964. and all corrected interitem correlations were over 0.50.
The final data collection instrument was the results of a
1:30-2:00 minute speaking test. Students delivered aspeech about a time when someone was kind to them.
This was selected with reference to the CEFR
descriptor for addressing an audience at the A2 level“Can give a short, rehearsed presentation on a topic
pertinent to their everyday life, and briefly give reasonsand explanations for opinions, plans and actions. Can
cope with a limited number of straightforward follow-up
questions” (Council of Europe, 2020, p. 66) The speech
was graded out of thirty points using a rubric which
evaluated the following three areas, each marked out often: (a) content, which encompassed vocabulary,grammar, and language choice; (b) structure, which
included use of discourse markers, logical progression,and engaging style; and (c) delivery, which included use
of gestures, eye contact, and body language.

After collection, the data was checked for missing anderroneous entries and then inputted into SPSS 28. The
means and standard deviations in descriptive statistics
were examined for outliers, and none were deemed to
be unusual.

Results
The data was collected in 2022. The TOEIC bridge
scores were collected in April at the beginning of theacademic year, and the self-efficacy questionnaire andspeaking test were collected in July during the second
semester.
First, means and standard deviations of the self-efficacy
scale were examined to understand students’ self
efficacy level for each of the 5 CEFR levels in the study(see Appendix B). Table 1 shows that A1 has thehighest SE level (M=5.75) and C1 has the lowest level(M=1.47). However, it is apparent that the only level
which most students expressed confidence at is A1.
Table 1
Mean SE Scores for Different CEFR Levels
CEFR Level

Min

Max

M

St. D

A1 items

1.00

10.00

5.75

2.16

A2 items

1.25

10.00

4.83

1.80

B1 items

0.00

7.75

3.32

1.75

B2 items

0.00

7.50

3.24

1.89

C1 items

0.00

8.75

1.47

1.67

Additionally, a histogram for average A2 was created tounderstand the distribution in-depth. The results
resemble a normal curve with a peak at 3.5 mark whichis also the mode for the data set (Figure 1).
Figure 1
Distribution of Average A2 SE Scores

Next, the means and standard deviations of individual
items were examined to understand which items
students felt most and least confident to perform(Appendix B). The item that students felt most
PanSIG Journal 2023

48
confidence for was item 1, “I can ask and answer
questions about name and age” (A1), and least
confidence was item 20, “I can describe complex issues
with their causes and offer an appropriate conclusion”(C1). In total, students indicated confidence to perform
6 items and lack of confidence for 14 items.
Finally, correlation analysis using Pearson’s coefficient
was conducted to examine the relationship between
measures (Table 2). TOEIC Bridge scores and SE hadlarge positive correlation (.508); speaking test and SE,
and speaking test and TOEIC bridge scores had
medium positive correlations (.457 and .401
respectively). According to Cohen’s (1988) conventions
correlations below.3 are small, between .3 and .5 are
medium and over .5 are large.
Table 2
Correlations between Speaking Test, TOEIC Bridge, and SelfEfficacy
Variable

1.

2.

1. Speaking Test-

2. TOEIC Bridge.457**-

3. Self-Efficacy.401**.508**

3.

-**p<.001

Discussion
In this section, the results will be discussed in relation
to the four research questions and will conclude with
implications for practice and suggestions for future
research.

Confidence to Perform A2 Speaking Tasks
Students did not indicate that they felt confident toperform speaking tasks at the A2 level. This was not
unexpected considering that the percentage of highschool graduates reaching A2 level or higher whilst at
high school still stands at 48.7% (Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sport, Science and Technology (MEXT), 2022).
Just under half of high school graduates attaining A2level is strikingly similar to the average SE at A2 levelself-efficacy scale of just under half 4.83. However, themajority of students attained A2 level scores on the
TOEIC Bridge test and also the majority of students
passed the A2 level speaking assignment. The result
suggests that many students’ SE is unreasonably low
and does not reflect what they can actually achieve.
Although, some students did express confidence toachieve A2 tasks, it is surprising that other students did
not feel confident to complete A2 tasks such as to givea short self-introduction or to talk briefly talk about theirfamily.

Confidence to Perform Speaking Tasks at
Different Levels

Examination of the means for the SE items indicate thatthe item that students felt most confident about was
asking and answering questions about name and age(M=6.38). However, this figure is only just over the
midpoint of 5 and shows slight confidence. This issimilar to the results for the other A1 items. Althoughmeans were over the midpoint of 5, there were several
students who indicated that they were not confident toperform quite basic speaking tasks. This finding mirrorsthat of Ahn et al., (2016) who found that students’ from
East Asian cultures often understate their ability. It is
likely that, although students’ low SE to perform basic
tasks does not necessarily reflect their actual ability, it
does negatively impact on what they could achieve.
Not surprisingly, the item students felt least confident
about was item 20 (C1). Indeed, all the C1 items scoredvery low, and the distribution curve of the averages
showed a negative skew with most answers clusteringto the left. Closer examination of the inter-itemcorrelations shows that all C1 items have low
correlations to the other items in the scale. This isprobably due the difference in what is being asked, theA and B level items address the ability to converse,
describe, and give justification for opinions; at the C1level students also need to have knowledge of complex
issues and then discuss them in depth. In other words,
the items are measuring not only English-speaking
knowledge but also knowledge of topical issues.

Correlation of English Proficiency and SelfEfficacy on Speaking Performance
The research showed that both students’ self-efficacy to
speak English and their English-speaking proficiency
were correlated to speaking test scores. English
proficiency had a strong positive correlation and selfefficacy had a medium correlation. It is essential to pointout that although this indicates that students who havehigh SE also score high on the speaking test it does notreveal causation. However, considering that the selfefficacy scale was administered prior to the speaking
test, it is likely that both students’ English proficiency
and the self-efficacy level is influencing the speaking
test score. This finding aligns well with existing researchthat points to the synergic relationship between SE andproficiency (Leeming, 2017, Thompson et al., 2019;
Todaka, 2017).

Implications for PracticeBoth English proficiency and SE appear to influence
speaking test scores of students. Considering thesynergic relationship between SE, proficiency andperformance, intervention of one of the items should
also raise scores of other items. Therefore, it was
decided at the research site to deliver more positive
sources of self-efficacy experiences to students.
Students’ mastery experiences will be increased byusing role plays and scaffolded speaking activities to
PanSIG Journal 2023

49
expand occurrences of successful communication. The
possibility of social modelling will be increased by using
Japanese speakers of English in listening activities.
Opportunities for using social persuasion will beenhanced by creating a vocabulary list of useful support
phrases that students and teachers will be encouraged
to use in class. Finally, positive physical and emotional
responses to speaking English will be enriched by
implementation of the previous three points along withimprovingtheclassroom
environment
andestablishment of achievable learning goals.

Limitations and Future Research
It is important to note that this a small-scale study and,as such, the results are difficult to generalize to othercontexts. There is also the possibility of bias stemmingfrom the teacher-student relationship. Although, every
effort was made to reduce the power imbalance of ateacher researching their own students, it must be
acknowledged that this may have influenced how
students responded. However, it is hoped that theresults can be strengthened by other teacherresearchers conducting replication studies in othercontexts. Other suggestions for further studies are to
remove the C1 items from the scale due to the negativeskew. Also, since the SE scale in this study used items
from the CEFR descriptors, future work could be done
to expand them with items from the CEFR J, which is
specially adapted to the Japanese context. Finally, alarger study using regression analysis should be
conducted to understand the contributing effects ofEnglish proficiency, SE and other factors such as goals
and foreign language learning anxiety on speaking test
performance.

Conclusion
This study suggests that Japanese university students
do not feel confident to perform speaking tasks at
MEXT’s target level for high school students (CEFR A2).
It also highlights that since low SE correlates toperformance indicators, integrated interventions might
be required to enhance both confidence and ability.

practice. Palgrave Macmillan UK.
doi.org/10.1057/9780230233690
Bai, B., & Wang, J. (2020). The role of growth mindset,
self-efficacy and intrinsic value in self-regulated
learning and English language learningachievements. Language Teaching Research.
doi.org/10.1177/1362168820933190
Baker, W. (2016). English as an academic lingua
franca and intercultural awareness: Student
mobility in the transcultural university. Language
and Intercultural Communication, 16(3), 437–
451. doi.org/10.1080/14708477.2016.1168053
Bandura, A. (1982). Self-efficacy mechanism in humanagency. American Psychologist, 37(2), 122–147.
doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.37.2.122
Bandura, A. (1994). Self-efficacy. In V. S.
Ramachaaudran (Ed.), Encyclopedia of humanbehavior (Vol. 4, Issue 1994, pp. 71–81).
Academic Press.
Bandura, A. (2006). Guide for constructing self-efficacy
scales. In F. Pajares & T. Urdan (Eds.), Selfefficacy beliefs in adolescents (pp. 307–337).
Information Age Publishing.
Bandura, A. (2012). On the functional properties ofperceived self-efficacy revisited. Journal ofManagement, 38(1), 9–44.
doi.org/10.1177/0149206311410606

References

Borg, S. (2010). Language teacher research

Ahn, H. S., Usher, E. L., Butz, A., & Bong, M. (2016).

engagement. Language Teaching, 43(4).

Cultural differences in the understanding of

doi.org/10.1017/S0261444810000170

modelling and feedback as sources of selfefficacy information. British Journal of

Breaden, J. (2014). Global attributes or local literacy?

Educational Psychology, 86(1), 112–136.

International students in Japan’s graduate

doi.org/10.1111/bjep.12093

employment system. Japan Forum, 26(4), 417–
440. doi.org/10.1080/09555803.2013.865661

Allwright, D., & Hanks, J. (2009). The developing
language learner: An introduction to exploratory
PanSIG Journal 2023

50
Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. (2009). Teacher
research as a stance. In S. Noffke & B. Somekh

Linguistics, 32(5), 495–516.
doi.org/10.1093/applin/amr019(Eds.),The SAGE handbook of educational
action research (pp. 39–50). SAGE Publications
Ltd. doi.org/10.4135/9780857021021

Leeming, P. (2017). A longitudinal investigation into
English speaking self-efficacy in a Japanese
language classroom. Asian-Pacific Journal of

Cohen, J. (1988). Statistical power analysis for the
behavioral sciences (2nd ed.). Routledge.

Second and Foreign Language Education, 2(1).
doi.org/10.1186/s40862-017-0035-x

doi.org/10.4324/9780203771587
Leuverink, K. R., & Aarts, A. M. L. (2019). A quality
Council of Europe. (2020). The CEFR illustrative

assessment of teacher research. Educationaldescriptor scales: Communicative language

Action Research, 27(5), 758–777.

activities and strategies. In Common European

doi.org/10.1080/09650792.2018.1535445

Framework of Reference for Languages:
Learning, Teaching, Assessment – Companion

Mills, N. (2014). Self-efficacy in second language

Volume (pp. 47–121). Council of Europe

acquisition. In S. Mercer & M. Williams (Eds.),

Publishing. https://rm.coe.int/chapter-3-

Multiple Perspectives on the Self in SLA (Ebook,communicative-language-activities-and-pp. 6–22). Multilingual Matters.

strategies/1680a084b4

doi.org/10.21832/9781783091362-003

English First. (2022). English first English proficiency
index. https://www.ef.com/wwen/epi/

Mills, N., Pajares, F., & Herron, C. (2007). Self-efficacy
of college intermediate French students:
Relation to achievement and motivation.

Gahungu, O. (2009). Are self efficacy, language
learning strategies, and foreign language ability

Language Learning, 57(3), 417–442.
doi.org/10.1111/j.1467-9922.2007.00421.x

interrelated ? Buckingham Journal of Language
and Linguistics, 2, 47–61.
doi.org/10.5750/bjll.v2i0.14

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sport, Science andTechnology -Japan (MEXT). (2022). 令和 4 年度
「英語教育実施状況調査」概要 [Overview of theGraham, S. (2022). Self-efficacy and language
learning–what it is and what it isn’t. Language
Learning Journal, 50(2), 186–207.
doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2022.2045679
Kobayashi, D. (2018). We think we have to speak
English perfectly. PanSIG Journal, 135–143.
https://pansig.org/publications/2018/PanSIG_20
18_Journal.pdf
Kormos, J., Kiddle, T., & Csizér, K. (2011). Systems ofgoals, attitudes, and self-related beliefs insecond-language-learning motivation. Applied

FY2022「English Education Implementation
Status Survey」].
https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/kokusai/gaikoku
go/1415043_00004.htm
OECD. (2022, November). Student mobility. Review
Educational Policies.
https://gpseducation.oecd.org/revieweducationp
olicies/#!node=41771&filter=all
Onoda, S. (2014). Examining the relationships
between self-efficacy, effort regulation strategy
use, and English vocabulary skills. Studies in

PanSIG Journal 2023

51
Self-Access Learning Journal, 5(4), 357–371.
doi.org/10.37237/050404
Todaka, Y. (2017). Self-efficacy of English listening
skills in Japanese college EFL learners.
European Journal of English Language
Teaching, 2(1), 93–120.
https://oapub.org/edu/index.php/ejel/article/view/543
Thompson, G., Aizawa, I., Curle, S., & Rose, H.
(2019). Exploring the role of self-efficacy beliefs
and learner success in English medium
instruction. International Journal of Bilingual
Education and Bilingualism, 1–14.
doi.org/10.1080/13670050.2019.1651819
Wang, C., & Bai, B. (2017). Validating the instruments
to measure ESL/EFL learners’ self-efficacy
beliefs and self-regulated learning strategies.
TESOL Quarterly, 51(4), 931–947.
doi.org/10.1002/tesq.355
Zimmerman, B. J. (1995). Self-efficacy andeducational development. In A. Bandura (Ed.),
Self-efficacy in changing societies (pp. 202–
231). Cambridge University Press.
doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511527692

PanSIG Journal 2023

52

Appendices
Appendix A: English Speaking Confidence Survey

英語を話す自信アンケート

当てはまる答にチェック✓をつけてください。

1. 何年⽣ですか？
1 年⽣

2 年⽣

3 年⽣

4 年⽣

.

2. 年齢: _______________ 歳
3. 性別:

男性

⼥性

4. 国籍:

⽇本

他.
(国籍を書いてください) _______________

5. あなたは海外に住んだことがありますか？
はい

いいえ

.

→『はい』と答えた方に聞きます。
a. どこの国ですか？＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿
b. 何ヵ⽉住みましたか？
1 ヶ⽉以下１ヵ⽉―６ヶ⽉

６ヶ⽉以上.

6. 学校の授業意外で英会話を勉強したことはありますか？
はい（年数を書いてください）＿＿＿＿＿＿＿＿, いいえ.

7. あなたの両親のどちらかが⺟国語として英語を話しますか？
はい

いいえ

.

8. 最新の TOEIC スコアーは何点ですか？

PanSIG Journal 2023

53

Directions: 以下のスケールを使って質問に答えてください。あなたの英語を話す自信についてあてはる番号 0 から 100 まで○をつけてください。
0
1↑
まったく自信がない
1
2

2

3

4

5
6
7
↑
有る程度自信がある

8

住んでいる場所、名前、年齢などの基本的な情報について
英語で聞いたり答えたりすることができる。
相手がゆっくり話すなら、自分の趣味などについての質問に英語で答えることができる。

910↑
とても自信がある$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$3

簡単な英語で自分の住んでいる場所を説明することができる。 $ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$4

簡単な英語で友人について説明することができる。

$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$5

相手がほとんどの質問をすれば、趣味や関心事について
英語で短い会話をすることができる。

$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$6

レストランで料理の注文を英語ですることができる。

$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$7

いくつかの簡単な英語のフレーズを使って自己紹介ができる。 $ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$8

いくつかの簡単な英語のフレーズを使って、自分の家族につい$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$て話すことができる。

9

海外旅行する際に、英語で道を尋ねることができる。

$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$10

日本で外国人観光客に英語で道案内をすることができる。

$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$11

自分の夢やその理由を英語で説明することができる。

$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$12

おとぎ話のような短い物語を英語で説明することができる。

$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$

13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

趣味や興味のあることについて、英語で率先して会話すること$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$ができる。
好きな曲や映画など、好きなものの理由を英語で説明すること$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$ができる。
趣味について英語で詳しく説明することができる。
ソーシャルメディアの活用など、様々な問題について
英語でメリットとデメリットを説明することができる。
時事問題やニュースのトピックについて、自発的かつ流暢に英語で話すことができる。
英語で自分の意見を明確に表現し、他の人の意見と関連付けることができる。
気候変動のような複雑な問題を英語で詳細に説明することができる。
複雑な問題やその要因について説明し、適切な結論を英語で述べることができる。

$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$$ % & ' ( ) * + , - %$アンケートのご回答ありがとうございます！

PanSIG Journal 2023

54

Appendix B: Analysis of Variables
Variable

Min

Max

Mean

Std. Dh. I can ask and answer questions about name and age

1

10

6.38

2.46

i. I can answer questions about hobbies if asked slowly

1

10

5.83

2.29

j. I can explain where I live in simple English

0

10

5.51

2.46

k. I can describe my friends in simple English

0

10

5.28

2.26

l. I can have a short conversation about hobbies and interests if other takes lead

0

10

4.97

2.08

m. I can order a meal in a restaurant in English

0

10

3.81

1.97

n. I can introduce myself using several simple phrases

1

10

5.53

2.02

o. I can talk about my family using several simple phrases

1

10

5.02

2.11

p. I can ask directions in English when travelling abroad

0

10

3.79

2.09

hq. I can give directions in English to a tourist in Japan

0

10

3.18

2.02

hh. I can describe my future plans with reasons

0

10

3.66

2.27

hi.I can narrate a short story such as a fairy tale in English

0

10

2.63

1.85

hj. I can talk spontaneously about my hobbies and interets in English

0

8

3.24

1.98

hk. I can describe my favorite movies and songs giving reasons

0

10

4.06

2.32

hl. I can talk about my interests in detail

0

10

3.60

2.27

hm. I can talk about complex subjects such as social media with their advanatages anddisadvantages

0

7

2.04

1.82

hn. I can talk fluently and spontaneously about current affairs

0

7

1.56

1.74

ho. I can say my opinion clearly and relate it to others' opinions

0

8

1.89

2.03

hp. I can explain complex issues such as climate change in English

0

10

1.28

1.76

iq. I can describe complex issues with their causes and offer an appropriate
conclusion

0

10

1.14

1.68

Note. Variables are written as English translation of scale items.

PanSIG Journal 2023

55

Reflective Practice: How Learner Reflections Facilitate Teacher Development
Joan M. Kuroda
Hyogo University of Teacher Education
Reflective practice can enhance the decision-making process essential to the professional development of teachers. Decisions
made by teachers are directly related to the outcome of their courses since there are a variety of factors such as teaching methods,
materials, and student engagement that must be managed. Though there are many ways teaching skills can be evaluated, thesemethods tend to center on course outcomes. Incorporating student reflections on the experience of learning can inform teachers
about the ongoing progress of the course and level of student satisfaction The focus of reflective practice is the process of making
meaning which can counteract teacher burnout. Learner reflections also create a space for communication between instructor
and learner which is essential for intercultural communication. The development of awareness through reflective practice sheds
light on how teachers adjust to new policies, practices, and decision-making processes.

日本語概要リフレクティブ・プラクティスは、教師の専門的な能力開発に不可欠な意思決定プロセスを強化することができる。
教授法、教材、生徒の取り組み方など、管理しなければならない様々な要素があるため、教師の意思決定はコースの成果に直結する。教育スキルを評価する方法は数多くありますが、これらの方法はコースの成果を中心に行われる傾向があります。学
習経験に関する学生の振り返りを取り入れることで、教師はコースの進行状況や学生の満足度について知ることができる。学
習者のリフレクションはまた、異文化コミュニケーションに不可欠な、講師と学習者のコミュニケーションの場を作り出す。
リフレクティブ・プラクティスを通して気づきを深めることは、教師がどのように新しい方針、実践、意思決定プロセスに適応していくかに光を当てることになる。

Reflection is the active pursuit of making meaning fromexperiences. Reflective practice operationalizes thisprocess and since difficult experiences highlight what
we have previously taken for granted when things gosmoothly, they are the starting point of an inquiry.
Incorporating reflection papers that elicit theperspective of the students can give instructors insight
into their classroom activities which in turn can uncoverhidden assumptions and improve communication withstudents. Learner reflections can give ongoing
feedback to the instructor and provide information about
how the course is meeting their needs, which isespecially important in a classroom where culturaldifferences may impede communication.
Foreign language instructors who have a different
cultural background from their students may facechallenges interpreting of their students’ behaviors. Theintercultural classroom is already a complicatedenvironment, but the abrupt changes, such as the shift
to online classes, brought about by the COVID-19
pandemic led to an enormous increase in mental andphysical fatigue as instructors were on call around theclock to support their students as they navigated thisnew type of learning environment. It may be counter-

intuitive to add more work while being overburdened,
but adding learner reflections to the syllabus engages
the teacher in the process of making meaning, an
important part of professional development and job
satisfaction. In sum, reflective practice has the potential
to improve teaching practice, and can also counteract
teacher burnout.

Reflective Practice as Professional
Development
When addressing the conflict between technicalrationality and competence earned from experience,
Donald Schön, in his call for a new epistemology ofpractice (1983), developed the notion of reflection-inaction and reflection-on-action. His view of professional
knowledge argues for the examination of experiences
to properly assimilate technical knowledge to shorten
the gap between theory and practice (Schön,1987).
Reflection-in-action is the ability to instantly makeinformed decisions in the moment. This implies taking amoment to respond rather than acting rashly. It is a skill
that can be cultivated with reflective practice.
Reflection-on-action is reflecting after the event. This is
PanSIG Journal 2023

56
where the development of awareness takes place which
in turn, improves reflection-in-action. The process ofreflecting after the episode during reflection-on-action
influences how teachers and other professionals
develop their own theory of practice. As a scholar ofJohn Dewey, Schön was also critical of the divide
between research-based theory with the messy day-today of practice with problems that do not have a tidy
solution (Schön, 1983).

Reflective Practice as a Method of Inquiry
Practitioner Research is a “systematic, intentional
inquiry by teachers” (Cochran-Smith & Lytle, 1990, p.
2.) The purpose of teacher research differs significantly
from typical academic research about teaching. Sinceteacher-led research is an inquiry that aims to gain
insight into individual practices or classrooms, theresults are highly contextual and not generalizable.
Teachers begin their inquiries as they integrate theory
into practice, when they feel dissatisfaction, or when
they are curious about a problem. Reflective practice asa method of first-person inquiry is subjective therefore
the results are individualized (Rodgers, 2001; Torbert,
2006), but these studies add the teachers’ voices to thebody of academic research (Cochran-Smith & Lytle,
1990).

but to go through the process of discovery for greater
understanding of the current situation (Rodgers, 2002).

Reflective Practice Framework and theReflective Cycle
Terry Borton (1970) developed an uncomplicatedreflective practice model (Figure 1) that provides
structure for a reflective inquiry that also allows theteacher-researcher the freedom to explore. It begins
with “sensing.” Like Dewey, the starting point for thismodel is a sense of discomfort. The teacher thengathers descriptive data from the classroom and thelearners such as observations, written reflections, andinterviews. “Transforming” indicates the meaningmaking process as the teacher reflects on andcontemplates “so what does this mean” whileconsidering various interpretations of data. At the endof the process, in the “Now What” phase of the inquiry
a new, clearer understanding of the situation andawareness of attitudes and actions informs future action.
Figure 1
Basic Model of Reflective Cycle (Borton, 1970)

John Dewey’s Theory of Inquiry
There are a variety of reflective inquiry models available
to the teacher-researcher, but the underlying concepts
follow John Dewey’s theory of inquiry which begins withan experience—one that makes you feel uneasy or in
doubt. He explains this discomfort as “genuine
ignorance,” (1910, p. 177) where feelings of humility,
curiosity, and open-mindedness are likely to co-occur.
At the core of a reflective inquiry is the concept ofreflection. Rodgers (2002) organizes Dewey’s concept
into four criteria. First, reflection is a meaning-making
process. In other words, each process is unique, andthe outcome is personalized for the individual making
the inquiry. Second, it is a systematic, rigorous,
disciplined way of thinking, with roots in scientific inquiry.
Although the purpose is different from the naturalsciences, the inquiry is systematic and purposeful. Third,
the reflection must happen in a community. To prevent
rumination and getting lost in one’s own perspective,
the teacher-researcher can engage with an outside
research community or with the learners. Finally,reflection requires attitudes that value the personal andintellectual growth of oneself and of others. Rather thanusing the inquiry to justify teaching practices anddecisions, the inquiry should open them up for
examination. So, although the results of a reflective
inquiry will likely lead to improved teaching practices,
the aim is not to generalize a solution or to replicate it,

Decision-Making Processes in Foreign
Language Teaching
Foreign Language Teaching
Although foreign language teaching, including English
as a Foreign Language (EFL), has developed from an
Applied Linguistics tradition (Freeman 1989; White,1988), depending only on this research will result inincomplete information and difficulties will likely arise
when it comes time to teach the course. People areunpredictable and learning is not so easily categorized.
Everyone—teachers and students, comes into theclassroom with their own histories, expectations, andreasons for being there. Schön’s criticism of the gap
between theory and practice (1983) is applicable forforeign language instructors who rely too heavily on
theory. Applied linguistics may provide robust
information about the different traditions and methodsof foreign language learning, but another approach is
PanSIG Journal 2023

57
needed to deal with the complex and messy
environment of the classroom.

Teaching as a Decision-Making Process
Donald Freeman (1989) warns about the problem offocusing too much on knowledge about language rather
than the teaching of the language. He advocates finding
a balance between the two disciplines of applied
linguistics and education by examining how people
learn to teach and has developed a model based on four
components: knowledge, skills, attitude, and awareness,that represents teaching as a decision-making process.
Freeman describes knowledge as information about the
subject, students, and the teaching context. Skills arecomprisedofteaching
methods,
classroom
management and so forth. Attitude is what teachers
think of themselves, the learners and teaching. Attitude,or teacher beliefs, are often hidden and stem frompersonal experience, unlike knowledge which is learned.
Freeman (1989) defines awareness as “the capacity torecognize and monitor the attention one is giving or has
given to something. (p. 33)” The difference between
reacting and responding in a situation is awareness.
If instructors view teaching language as a decisionmaking process, then they can start to become awareof the complexity of the classroom and how theirdecisions affect the many layers of the teaching andlearning experience. Reflective practice provides a
structure to guide the teacher-researcher with theirinquiry.

An Example of Reflective Practice in theOnline Teaching Context
Decisions with Course Modification
When class content had to be quickly modified to fit theonline format at the start of the pandemic, instructors
had to navigate unfamiliar territory that may not haveaccommodated their current teaching practices. For
lecture-based courses where students gather to listen
to information, the traditional academic model can beeasily transferred directly online, but for skills-based
courses it was more complicated.
Engaging learners to practice English can be trying at
the best of times, but when these courses went online
and instructors were faced with a screen full of blackboxes and silence, it became clear that simply
transferring content from face-to-face classes to an
online format was not appropriate. In addition, with thisnew format, instructors had to re-evaluate how tomanage in-class practices and assignments. Finally,
there was the new technology to quickly learn and thenteach the students so they could attend the online
lessons and successfully submit their assignments.

Deciding to Use Blended Learning
My English communication courses for first-year
university students at a national university in Japanneeded revamping to adjust to the online context.
Blended learning which uses a backward design,experiential learning, and a project-based instructionalframework (International Association of Blended
Learning, 2020) matched my view of teaching andlearning and incorporated elements I was already using,so I felt more comfortable about shifting my face-to-faceclasses online.
With blended learning, classes are a combination of
face-to-face, online, and asynchronous so continuingwith blended learning was a future possibility.
I also created peer groups so students could consult
with each other to clarify their understanding of theclasses and so they wouldn’t feel so alone.
Since I teach English communication courses, I look forways for learners to exchange information. This often
means assigning individual and group presentations, so
my basic syllabus remained the same, but the methodof submission changed drastically. I chose to use Flip
(formerly Flipgrid) an application for making videos toshare. Students post their video presentation in thisapplication and their classmates ask questions in video
format in the comments section. The original poster canthen respond by video. I found this method to be moreinteractive than live presentations where students
tended to be silent during question-and-answer
sessions.

Learner Reflections as Part of the Syllabus
I typically incorporate two kinds of reflection papers inthe syllabus: post-class reflections, and a final reflection
report. These assignments are evaluated based on thedetails of the descriptions.
Post-class reflection questions focus on the lesson justtaught so the comments can help the instructor
understand how the class aims are being interpreted by
the students. Sample questions include: 1) What went
well today, 2) What did not go well today, 3) What
helped you learn today, 4) What did not help you learn
today, 5) Questions/Comments/Frustrations. To avoid
overwhelming the students I usually choose two directquestions and one free comment-type question.
The final reflection report asks the students to think
about their growth throughout the semester. I often
begin with my own reflection of the course before asking
the students to tell me about their experiences. For thiscourse, I asked: 1) What did you learn about yourself,
2) What did you learn about English communication,and 3) How will you use online communication skills in
the future. I wondered how students were feeling about
PanSIG Journal 2023

58
making the short-form videos, and how they were
coping with being separated from their classmates. I
was also curious to see if the students would connect
their language learning with future online activity inaddition to their overall growth.

What: The Sense of Unease
Kyodo News (2021) reported that 45% of Japanese
university students were not feeling fulfilled during the
pandemic. Students felt unmotivated, stressed,
overwhelmed with the large number of assignments,
and could not see how their classmates were
progressing with their studies.
In the second year of the pandemic (2021) restrictions
eased, but many students were still taking classes fromhome. I made minor adjustments to the course basedon the learner reflections from the previous year.
I still felt uncomfortable with staring into a screen full of
black boxes, especially since, as a reflective practitioner,
I relied heavily on observation. So, this was my senseof unease. I could see their final products, but I couldn’t
really tell how they were experiencing my teaching.

So What: The Learner Reflections
The following reflections were taken from one of the
freshman courses I was teaching that incorporated
learner reflections into the syllabus, but I have seen
similar comments in all my courses. In the second weekof the semester, I asked the students what went wellduring the lesson. This student shows a high level ofanxiety with being taught in English.
This class speak all English. So I am very,
very anxious. I don’t feel going well…I don’t
understand today’s lesson. (M.I.)
This comment reminds me that I should keep myteacher talk to a minimum and to slow down especiallywhen the class is online. Moreover, I start to question
the purpose of teaching these courses in English. I’m
not convinced that having an all-English class with meonce a week for 15 weeks benefits the students. I
wonder if it causes more anxiety and confusion than
improvement with English skills.
This student blamed themselves for not speaking out.
Today, I cannot talk to myself. It did not work.
Because I did not have the courage. I thinkthat I am shy. So, I do not want to make thesame mistake. (M.M.)
As a new university student, they must navigate
different learning styles, a new environment, create newfriend groups, and so forth. It is no wonder that they are
feeling hesitant to speak up in a language they don’t yet

feel comfortable with. Experiencing this alone likely
contributes to the unease.
Anxiety about the course being taught in English was acomment I saw often so when it came time for the
students to write their final reflection report, I asked
them to write the main points in English and allowed
them to write detailed examples in Japanese.
M.I., who expressed high anxiety at the start of thecourse, described their understanding of thedifference between learning about English
communicating in English when they write:

andAfter posting videos on the Flip grid andwatching the videos and comments of myclassmates, I found the videos of those who
spoke with bright expressions and gestures,and those who were conscious of theirintonation and accent, even if they were notvery good and fluent to be very interesting andeasy to understand. I realized that it is notimportant to say difficult things, but tocommunicate in a way that is easy for others tounderstand. [translated from Japanese]
One of my beliefs about language learning is todifferentiate between knowledge-based and skillsbased teaching. I designed this course to focus oncommunication skills, so this comment showed that myintentions were clearly conveyed. M.I. also explained
how the short-form video assignments contributed tothe creation of friendship circles which reduced theiroverall anxiety about the university life experience:
I have learned about the importance of face-toface communication. Ex) Without thecoronavirus, it would have been possible tohave face-to-face classes, but this was nolonger possible and online classes began. The
breakout rooms and flip grids were a great way
for me to communicate face to face with friends
and new people I met. This allowed me toexpand my circle of friends, and even whenclasses were face-to-face for the first time in awhile, I was not isolated and felt less anxious.
[translated from Japanese]
This comment about peer groups and having space
during the online courses to consult with each other inZoom breakout rooms highlights their loneliness anddisappointment by having classes online. They wereable to exchange new information about themselves inEnglish with the short-form videos and make friends bycommunicating through the videos. I saw students
introducing themselves when we did have face-to-faceclasses which indicated the assignments were reaching
their objectives—communicating in English.

PanSIG Journal 2023

59
M.M. stopped blaming themselves for not speaking
English and realized that they were able to improve theirskills with practice when they write:
I learned the reason that my English skills is nothigh. This is there is no opportunities what I
speak in English. I improved at this class.
Because, I was able to talk with my friend in
English on online and, take communication
very well. I practiced speaking in English at flip
grid. For example, I watched classmate’svideos. And I did questions or comments. WhenI was first time, I couldn’t speak in English well,
see the camera lens and make a good
expression. Over and over, I became able to dothese. I learn that I had little experiencespeaking english.

Now What: Teacher Reflections and Making
Meaning
I was still unsure about teaching language skills online
and there were many aspects of the medium that I was
not comfortable with. For example, there were times
when I entered breakout rooms to find the students had
their cameras off and mics muted, but after reading theirreflection papers I could understand how to incorporate
the use of breakout rooms more effectively and stop
assuming the worst.
After reading the learner reflections about theirexperiences using short-form videos, I don’t plan toreturn to live presentations with in-personclasses. Although video presentations are more timeconsuming to implement, they encourage out-of-classpractice and are easier to evaluate.
The process of making meaning from the learners’
descriptions about their experiences gave me insight
into how my teaching affected the students. Seeing theimplementation of the course through the learners’
perspective showed me that they were engaging withthe syllabus the way I intended and that gave mesatisfaction that my efforts were worth the investment.
When M.M. describes their experience using English“over and over” and realizing it is the usage of languagethat improves their skills, I can see how they arelearning about themselves in addition to meeting theobjectives of the course.

Discussion & Implications
Teacher burnout stems not only from overwork, but froma malaise stemming from job dissatisfaction. Difficultycommunicating with reticent students can exacerbate
the situation. Engaging in reflective practice byattempting to view the classrooom experience from thelearners’ perspective combined with academic literature

can afford the teacher-researcher a richer, morenuanced interpretation of their experiences.

Teacher Burnout
Teacher burnout has been described as a combinationof mental, emotional, and physical exhaustion andstress, which leads to negativity toward work
(Mahmoodi-Shahrebabaki, 2019; Watts & Robertson,2011). In other words, overwork makes you hate yourjob, but it is not that simple. There is another dimension
to teacher burnout that may be overlooked:
meaningfulness. According to van Manen (1990),“Teacher burn-out is not necessarily a symptom ofexcessive output of effort, of being overworked. It may
be the condition that ensues when as teachers we nolonger know why we are doing what we are doing”(p.123). In addition, Lackritz (2004) notes that when
students demonstrate satisfaction with their learning,teachers feel a higher sense of achievement. Clearly,
how teachers make meaning from their experience isdirectly related to their students.
Although there were many times when I questioned theadded workload of reviewing reflection papers, I
realized that these learner reflections were the reason I
was able to continue and even enjoy teaching in the
online context. The comments from the students in their
final reports describing how they were able to learn newthings about their classmates from their short video
assignments were encouraging to me. It showed methat students were indeed communicating in English
and students who described their difficulties with thecourse gave me insight into how I could make
improvements.

Intercultural Communication
We all have conscious and unconscious biases towards
different cultures which was likely highlighted with thenew online context which exacerbated an alreadycomplicated interpersonal dynamic. For example,
instructors who come from a western culture may
already be confused about the silence they experiencein the classroom and make assumptions about themeaning of this silence such as categorizing Japanese
students as being shy or not willing to use English.
However, this narrow perspective does not leave room
for potential and individualized explanations that may or
may not be cultural. Written reflections create a spacefor communication with the instructor which is especially
important in a classroom where cultural differences may
impede communication. Fantini (2009) describesintercultural communication as “…complex abilities thatare required to perform effectively and appropriately
when interacting with others who are linguistically andculturally different from oneself” (p.458). As facilitatorsin the classroom, teachers should take the responsibility
for communication difficulties. Byram’s model for
PanSIG Journal 2023

60
intercultural communicative competence for learners of
foreign languages like English is also applicable to
instructors, especially “readiness to suspend disbelief
about other cultures and belief about one’s own” and“general knowledge of processes of societal andindividual interaction” (Byram, 2021, pp. 62-63). Like
teaching, intercultural competence requires awarenessabout attitude which is described by Freeman (1989) as
the interplay of external behavior and internal feelings.
Learner reflections can bridge this gap described byFreeman.

Dewey, J. (1910/1933). How We Think: A Restatement

Conclusion

Freeman, D. (1989). Teacher training, development,

Practitioner research that focuses on the developmentof awareness through reflective practice sheds light on
how teachers adjust to new policies, practices, and theirdecision-making processes. Learner reflections are an
essential part of the inquiry as teacher practices arereflected in the experiences of the students. Re-framing
research and professional development to embark froma subjective and generative perspective humanizes theexperience of teachers and their students while adding
critical information to existing theory- based literature.
Cochran-Smith & Little (1990) are critical of research onteaching because teachers are cast as objects ofresearchers’ investigations (p. 3). Academic literatureon teaching still lacks the voices of teachers so I would
like to add information about my classroom life and myperspective on teaching in the context of English in
Japan as a non-Japanese instructor with the hope that
others can learn from my experiences.

Referencesof the Relation of Reflective Thinking to the
Educative Process. Lexington, MA: D.C. Heath.
Fantini, A. E. (2009). Assessing interculturalcompetence. In D.K. Deardoff (Ed.) The SAGE
handbook of intercultural competence (pp. 456–
476). SAGE Publications.

and decision making: A model of teaching andrelated strategies for language teacher
education. TESOL Quarterly, 23(1), 27.
International Association for Blended Learning. (2020,
April 7). IABL Zoom Chat #7-3 April 2020Online Course Framework Blueprint [Video].
YouTube. https://shorturl.at/E2Q5d
Lackritz, J. R. (2004). Exploring burnout among
university faculty: Incidence, performance, anddemographic issues. Teaching and Teacher
Education, 20(7), 713–729.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tate.2004.07.002
Mahmoodi-Sharebabaki, M. (2019). Teacher Burnout.
In J. L. Lionatas (Ed.), The TESOL

45% of Japanese university students say life notfulfilling amid pandemic. (2021, August). Kyodo

Encyclopedia of English Language Teaching(pp. 1–8).

News. https://shorturl.at/9ePXN
Rodgers, C. (2002). Defining reflection: Another look
Borton, T. (1970). Reach, Touch, and Teach: Student
Concerns and Process Education. New York:at John Dewey and reflective thinking. Teachers
College Record, 104(4), 842–866.

McGraw-Hill.
Schön, D.A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How
Byram, M. (2020). Teaching and assessing
intercultural communicative competence:

professionals think in action. Ashgate
Publishing.

Revisited. Multilingual Matters.
Schön, D.A. (1987). Educating the reflective
Cochran-Smith, M., & Lytle, S. L. (1990). Research onpractitioner. Jossey-Bass.

Teaching and Teacher Research: The Issues
That Divide. Educational Researcher, 19(2), 2–

van Manen, M. (1990). Researching lived experience:

11. https://doi.org/10.3102/0013189X019002002

Human science for an action sensitive
pedagogy. Ontario: The University of Western
Ontario.

PanSIG Journal 2023

61

Effects of an Intro Level Disability Studies CLIL Course on Student
Perceptions of Disability
Tina Brown
Kanda University of International Studies

Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL) courses have become increasingly popular and research seems to support
their use for language acquisition, though less information is available about the effectiveness of learning the content of a CLIL
course, particularly in a university setting. In addition, planning and implementing a brand new CLIL course can be a daunting
task and often leaves the teacher wondering how they will know if the students have learned the intended content. With this inmind, before and after surveys were conducted for a disability studies course which aimed to track student growth over thesemester, particularly to see if the students understood key concepts, such as the medical and social models of disability, and ifthey changed their thinking about disabilities over the course. This paper discusses some background, results, and analysis of
the study which will be used to improve the course in the future.

日本語概要 近年、内容言語統合型学習（CLIL）は益々注目を集めるようになり、言語習得におけるその有効性は研究によって支持されてきているようである。一方で、特に大学レベルでの CLIL の内容の学習効果については、あまり情報が見られない。
また、全く新しい CLIL のコースを計画し、実施することは教師にとって大変な作業であり、学生が意図した内容を学んだかど
うかをどのように知ることができるのか、教師はしばしば悩むことになる。こうしたことを念頭に置き、学期中の学生の成長を追跡し、特に学生が障害の医学的モデルや社会的モデルといった重要な概念を理解したかどうか、またコースを通して障害についての考え方が変わったかどうかを確認することを目的として、障害学コース受講前と受講後に調査を実施した。本稿では、この調査の背景、結果、分析について述べ、今後のコース改善に役立てる。

Kanda University of International Studies (KUIS) is a
private foreign language university in Chiba, Japan. At
KUIS lecturers are encouraged to propose semesterlong Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL)
courses on any topic, which students take as electives.
In order to improve a course called Disability Studies:
Rights and Current Issues for the next academic year,
students were surveyed both at the beginning and endof the course with two goals in mind: assessing myeffectiveness as an educator, and tracking any changes
to student perceptions of disabilities over the course of
the semester.
The topic of disability studies was chosen for a numberof reasons. The primary reason is because of myexperience and research into disability related issues.
CLIL courses are a combination of content andlanguage, so having a high level of knowledge about thecontent area in order to teach a semester-long course
can be beneficial. In addition, there has been an
increasing focus on global issues in recent decades,
partially due to the SDGs, which KUIS incorporates into
various areas of the university. Furthermore, since 2006

Japan has been pushing more for integration of
disabled students into mainstream schooling, and thenumber of disabled students in schools has been
increasing (Isogai, 2017; Mithout, 2016). This meansthat more students are able to join mainstream
education, and students already in mainstream
education encounter students with disabilities at ahigher rate than before. Course content is divided into
three units: defining disability, history of disability rights
movements, and current issues in the disabledcommunity. Some key concepts include understanding
different models of disability (such as the medical andsocial models), learning how rights were won over time,and being able to apply that knowledge to imagine amore inclusive environment. The course culminates in a
project that aims to improve some aspect of the campus
for people with disabilities.
Four research questions guided this study:
Q1: Did I cover all of the material in the survey during
our semester-long course?

PanSIG Journal 2023

62
Q2: Did students retain the information I intended forthem to retain until the end of the semester?
Q3: Did students seem to understand the material I
covered in the way I intended them to understandit?
Q4: Did the class as a whole demonstrate a shift inperceptions of disabilities? In what ways?

Context and Theory
CLIL
CLIL began in the 1990s as an educational approachthat teaches content through an additional languagethat students are studying. At any particular time either
content or language may be the larger focus, but theoverall goal is to teach both (Coyle, 2006; Coyle et al.,2010; Ball et al., 2015). This balance can be challenging,but the potential benefits may be worth the effort.
There is significant research demonstrating theeffectiveness of CLIL in language acquisition. For
example, Pérez-Cañado and Lancaster (2017)
demonstrate that CLIL education is more effective inacquisition of oral comprehension and production skills
when compared with non-CLIL styles of teaching, withthe exception of pronunciation. While their study isabout primary education and took place over several
years, some studies have focused on higher education.
Through the use of pre and post test scores, Sato andHemmi (2022) found that English production skills ofstudents in CLIL courses improved over a one semester
CLIL course. A study by Ito (2019) about teachingbasketball to junior high school students in Japandemonstrated how just one CLIL lesson can help
disinterested English learners maintain interest.
However, when it comes to studies focusing on how wellcontent is learned in a CLIL course, there is lessresearch. One study by Hughes and Madrid (2019)
compared primary and secondary bilingual CLIL
courses in Spain, basically concluding there are no
detrimental effects to content learning and possibly
even positive effects. While CLIL students’ test scores
were slightly lower in primary school, these differenceswere insufficient to cause problems and were made up
for by the time students reached secondary school.
While this is not a resounding endorsement, given that
linguistic skills also increase in a CLIL setting, this is still
a point in favor of CLIL, at least in primary school
settings. While many studies have investigated theefficacy of L2 acquisition in CLIL courses, fewer studies
have investigated the efficacy of CLIL on content
learning. Thus, more research into this specific area
needs to be done, particularly in university level settings.

Transformative Education
Transformative learning is when something shifts in alearner, causing a shift in worldview or some kind oftransformation in a learner’s life (Mezirow, 2000; Slavich& Zimbardo, 2012). In the case of social issues,
students would reconsider what they think they havealways known about an issue and learn to understand it
more deeply. In this disability studies CLIL course, thegoal is for students to think more deeply about the topic
as the semester progresses, and hope that the
curriculum moves them towards transforming how they
think about the topic.
Keeping this in mind, I designed a disability studies CLIL
course with the intent to assess content goal
achievement. To measure any shifts in student thinking,surveys were administered before and after the course.
These surveys were not expected to capture the full
depth of student transformation but were implemented
to offer indications of whether the course content goals
were being met.

Disability Studies and Perceptions of Disabilities
The number of publications on the topic of disability is
far too immense to detail in this paper. Having a basic
understanding of the history of disability law and social
attitudes towards disabilities in Japan are importantwhen teaching a course about disabilities in the country.
English language information about disabilities in Japan
in general is somewhat accessible and plentiful(Cabinet Office, n.d.; Heyer, 2015; Mithout, 2016;
Stevens, 2013). Narrowing down the literature to
English language studies about university student
perceptions of disability in Japan also produces someresources, though the sample sizes are sometimes
small, or the studies quite old (Iwakuma et al., 2021;
Mino et al., 2000; Brown et al., 2023). Iwakuma et al.
(2021) conducted a thorough study with a small sample
size that aims to ascertain changes in student
perceptions of disabilities before and after a semesterlong course, much like in this paper. Using pre and post
tests, they found significant changes in students’
perceptions of disability. This understanding of topic
areas shaped the development of the CLIL course andinfluenced the selection of content for the before/aftersurvey.

Methods
In an attempt to answer the research questions, thesame 38 question survey was given on the first day ofclass and on the second to last day of class. This survey
was nearly the same as the survey used by Brown et al.
(2023). Some minor adjustments were made to tailor it
to one specific class instead of all university students,
and to fix some translation errors. The bilingual survey
consists of open ended questions (8), multiple answer
PanSIG Journal 2023

63
checkbox questions (3), Likert scale questions (21), andnon-Likert multiple choice questions (6). While themajority of questions were required, some were notbecause they were either too sensitive to require ananswer or dependent upon a certain answer in aprevious question. Even when there were multiple
choice or checkbox answer questions, respondents
were generally given the option of choosing “other” andwriting in an answer. The goal of the Likert scalequestions was to force a decision on the part of the
respondents. However, at the end of all Likert scalequestions there was an opportunity for respondents to
add comments about any of them, should they feel itnecessary. Respondents were informed they had theoption to answer in either English or Japanese and aprofessional translator was employed for the process.
The full survey is available from the author upon request.
While completion of the survey was a required part ofthe course, respondents were given the choice of
whether their answers could be used for research. On
the first day of class, 24 usable responses werereceived, and 22 usable responses were received forthe after survey. Respondents were all junior or senior
undergraduate English majors with varying English
proficiency. In an attempt to maintain confidentiality,
specific respondents were not tracked, which presented
some difficulties. This approach, while protecting
anonymity, also posed challenges in determining which
respondents preferred their answers to be excluded
from each survey. Therefore, it is possible a participant
in the before survey did not give consent, while in theafter survey the same participant did give consent. In
addition, one student dropped the class and there is no
way of knowing if that student gave consent in the
before survey or not, and of course that participant did
not take the after survey. In light of these limitations,only general class trends that have clear differences
can be tracked and there was no attempt to claim
statistical significance.
Finally, there was no control group, so this study should
be read bearing this in mind. It cannot claim an overall
effectiveness or ineffectiveness of CLIL in content
learning.

Results
Research question two asks if students retained theinformation I intended for them to retain until the end of
the semester. There is evidence that some information
was retained while other information was not. On thesurvey, question three asks respondents “Were there
any terms in question 2 that you were unfamiliar with?”and students check applicable boxes. All are terms that
could be considered a disability depending on a
person’s social context and definition of disability. In thefirst survey, there were several unfamiliar terms. The
terms “cerebral palsy” and “experiencing a traumatic

event” were both not understood by 7 respondents. As
seen in Table 1, in the after survey this number changed
to one and two respondents respectively. The results ofthis particular question demonstrated that the
respondents remembered some important terminology
from the course.
Table 1
Unfamiliar terms
BeforeAfter

Wheelchair user

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

Anxiety

0 (0%)

1 (4.5%)

Depression

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

Dyslexia

1 (4.2%)0 (0%)

Blindness

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

Deafness

0 (0%)

0 (0%)ADHD

2 (8.3%)1 (4.5%)Hearing loss

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

Autism Spectrum
Disorder6 (25%)

2 (9.1%)Brain injury

6 (25%)

1 (4.5%)

Down syndrome

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

Cerebral palsy

7 (29.2%)

1 (4.5%)Experiencing a traumaticevent

7 (29.2%)2 (9.1%)

Rheumatoid arthritis

11 (45.8%)

7 (31.8%)

Diabetes

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

Obesity

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

Speech disorders

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

None of the above

8 (33.3%)

9 (40.9%)

However, another question points to where
respondents did not learn the intended content.
Question 10 is a Likert scale statement that says “I amfamiliar with some accommodations disabled people
might receive in various situations.” In the before survey,
18 students either mostly agreed or strongly agreed,
and the after survey was 19. While there were veryslight changes in responses in the before and aftersurvey, they could be attributed to the different numberof respondents. There was no clear understanding ofwhat accommodations are before the course or after thecourse.
Research question three asks if students seemed tounderstand the material I covered in the way I intended
them to understand it. As with research question two,
results were mixed. One of the main points I intended
for students to take away from this class isunderstanding various models of disability. We talked a
lot about how to define a disability and how definitions
PanSIG Journal 2023

64
of disability can change in a different context.
Respondents were asked what percent of people inJapan they think have a disability. In the before survey,
answers ranged from 0.5% to 90%. In the after survey,
answers ranged from 3% to 80%.
Another key point for consideration is if students wereable to recognize more disabilities after the course,
particularly invisible, also called hidden, disabilities.
Question 2 of the survey asks “Which of the following
do you think is a disability?” and respondents were able
to select multiple checkboxes from a list. This is related
to the above key concept of understanding the definitionof disability. What are often known as invisible
disabilities were recognized as disabilities more often by
the end of the semester. For example, “experiencing a
traumatic event” was thought to be a possible disability
by only 13 people before, and 21 after. Even with thechanges in sample size this is a clear change.
Rheumatoid arthritis changed from 11 before to 17 after,
and anxiety rose from 6 before to 12 after. In Table 2,please note that alcoholism, drug dependence andadjustment disorder were write-in answers which noone wrote in for the after survey.
Table 2
Recognizing possible disabilities
BeforeAfter

Wheelchair user

20 (83.3%)

21 (95.5%)

Anxiety

6 (25%)

12 (54.5%)

Depression

13 (54.2%)

21 (95.5%)

Dyslexia

23 (95.8%)

22 (100%)

Blindness

24 (100%)

22 (100%)

Deafness

24 (100%)

22 (100%)

ADHD

21 (87.5%)

22 (100%)

Hearing loss

22 (91.7%)

22 (100%)

Autism Spectrum
Disorder24 (100%)

22 (100%)

Brain injury

17 (70.8%)

20 (90.9%)

Down syndrome

21 (87.5%)

21 (95.5%)

Cerebral palsy

15 (62.5%)

20 (90.9%)

Experiencing a traumaticevent

13 (54.2%)

21 (95.5%)

Rheumatoid arthritis

11 (45.8%)

17 (77.3%)

Diabetes

8 (33.3%)

15 (68.2%)

Obesity

1 (4.2%)13 (59.1%)

Speech disorders

24 (100%)

21 (95.5%)

Alcoholism, drug
dependence

1 (4.2%)-Adjustment disorder

1 (4.2%)-

None of the above

0 (0%)

0 (0%)

Research question four asks if the class demonstrated
a shift in perceptions of disabilities and in what ways.
Once again, due to not being able to compare individual
results, it was unclear whether there were big changes
in perceptions of disabilities based on the Likert scalequestions. However, there are a couple of notable
points. Question 12 was a Likert scale question that said,“disabled people should be granted accommodations inschool.” Table 3 demonstrates that opinions definitely
shifted for this question. More respondents strongly
agreed with this statement, and nobody mostly orstrongly disagreed by the end of the course.
Table 3
School accommodations
Strongly
agree

Mostlyagree

MostlydisagreeStrongly
disagreeBefore8 (33.3%)

13 (54.2%)2 (8.3%)1 (4.2%)After

14 (63.6%)

8 (36.4%)

A similar Likert question asked students to choose howmuch they agree with the statement “disabled people
should be granted accommodations in the workplace.”
Table 4 indicates another shift in opinion. Again, there
is a shift toward stronger support for workplaceaccommodations.
Table 4
Workplace accommodations
Strongly
agree

Mostlyagree

MostlydisagreeBefore8 (33.3%)

15 (62.5%)

1 (4.2%)After

14 (63.6%)

8 (36.4%)

Strongly
disagreeSome interesting results came from open-ended
questions where respondents were asked to elaborate
or give more general comments. Question 37 was an
open-ended question that asked “how do you think yourexposure to information about disabled people affects
your perceptions of disabilities?” One respondent wrote“Actually before taking the class, I thought people withdisability cannot do anything by themselves. However,Through the listening to guest speakers and lectures, I
realized the recognize was not correct.” In answer to thesame question, another respondent wrote:
I believe that people who are prejudiced anddiscriminatory about disabilities are ignorant
about them. I believe that by being informed, we
can accept it. I myself must have been
discriminatory without knowing it, so I would liketo gain knowledge so that I can dispel these(ideas/stereotypes)
andbecomeanunderstanding person.

PanSIG Journal 2023

65
Although not all intended teaching points were covered,and students may not have grasped every nuanced
concept expected, evidence of learner transformation
was present.

Discussion
These results can be interpreted and understood in a
number of different ways which I’ve categorized ascourse improvement and limitations.

Course improvement
When asking students if they were familiar withaccommodations that could be made for people withdisabilities, there was no big change in the before andafter survey. This can be interpreted as a shortcomingin the way I taught about accommodations. While thetopic came up organically in small group discussions
and when talking with guest speakers, howaccommodations could be used in school, work, anddaily life were not taught as the main part of any lesson.
One example of when the topic came up was during a
Q&A session with a guest speaker. Students asked the
speaker what they need to be successful at work.
Another guest speaker, unprompted, described how theclothes they wear accommodate disabled bodies. The
responses demonstrate a need for more concrete andexplicit instruction on this topic.
Another demonstration of a place for course
improvement can be seen in respondent understandingof what a disability is. While the minimum number
students selected when asked “What percentage ofJapanese people do you think are disabled?” increased
from 0.5% to 3%, the fact that the maximum number
was still extremely high (from 90% to 80%)
demonstrates continued misunderstanding of what adisability is. I wonder if this is a case of students
overcorrecting. Sometimes, a person thinks very few
people have disabilities, but learns otherwise. Insteadof fully understanding the societal barriers a disabled
person faces, a person may overcorrect and think thatevery person wearing glasses has a disability. There
could be many reasons for these answers, so all I can
do is be more careful about how I teach this point nexttime, as it is a key concept.
While respondent answers for what percentage of
people in Japan they think are disabled demonstrates aneed to more carefully teach this key concept, it does
seem that students were able to recognize hidden
disabilities more easily in the after survey. Recognitionof experiencing a traumatic event and rheumatoid
arthritis as disabilities by more respondents showssome understanding of what a disability is, or at least
understanding of vocabulary. Being able to identify
invisible disabilities is a key concept to the course anddemonstrates a more holistic understanding of what adisability is.
Planning and teaching CLIL courses pose many
challenges, and teaching a serious, often depressing
topic can wear on any instructor. However, the effort
and insecurity I experienced seemed worth the struggle
after reading respondent comments and seeing
genuine transformative thinking. While every single
respondent may not have undergone some sort oftransformation, these comments indicate thatperceptions changed a lot for some, and there weresome class wide changes. Improvements to the course
are needed, but students were able to learn and grow.

Limitations
While this research is personally very helpful andinteresting, there exist several limitations, particularly
when attempting to draw any widely applicableconclusions.

Survey design
Although the survey was professionally translated, inthe process of transposing it from one document toanother I added the wrong translation to question 22, sothat question was removed from the study. In addition,some questions were unclear and didn’t produce thedesired results. For example, question 37 asked “If you
have/have had a relationship with disabled people or adisabled person: How do you think your relationshipwith disabled people affects your perceptions of
disabilities?” Based on the progression of questions
before it, in English it can be assumed to mean any typeof relationship. However, the translator’s use of 恋愛関係 (renaikankei) implies a romantic relationship, thus
respondents answered in an unintended manner.
Finally, survey question three would be better phrased
as “Which of the following do you think could beconsidered a disability?” instead of “Which of thefollowing do you think is a disability?” This phrasing
would fit better with the social model of disability byrecognizing what might be a disability for one person
might not be a disability for another person in a different
context.

Sample population
This is a small sample size from only one course at one
university in Japan, and there was no way to add acontrol group. Conclusions cannot be extended to the
population of Japan as a whole, other countries orcultures, or even other nearby universities. As an
example, our university is a place that attracts students
who are interested in other cultures, and thus may
already have a tendency towards wanting to understandhuman diversity. Other universities with different
PanSIG Journal 2023

66
specializations will attract different types of students
with different interests.

their students to experience some transformation, or
those who wish to research this topic themselves.

Context

References

In addition to the context mentioned, I would like toreiterate that our university asks us to teach our CLIL
topic for an entire semester. Recognizing the varying
constraints on instructional time, readers should notethat implementing CLIL does not necessarily require
extensive commitment and can be effectively integrated
on a more modest scale as well. Even one good lesson
about an important topic can be meaningful to students.
I recommend reading Ito (2019), mentioned at the
beginning of the paper, if you are interested in seeing
an example of CLIL being taught in one lesson.

Ball, P., Kelly, K. & Clegg, J. (2015). Putting CLIL into
Practice. Oxford University Press.
Brown, T., Goncalves, J., & Haugland, D. (2023).
Student perceptions of disabilities at a small
Japanese university. Literacies and Language
Education: Research and Practice, Spring 2023,
13-26.

Recommendations and future research
There are several ways to improve this project andmany possibilities for future research. After reviewing
the results, it was clear that some questions on thesurvey were unnecessary as there was not time to coverthem in class. Therefore, a shorter survey could be used
and would be more time efficient. In addition, tracking
individual respondents would enable seeing more
specifically how a respondent changed and what theyretained from the course. Certain questions can paint a
limited picture of an individual’s learning and attitudes,
so another option for future studies would include
interviews or in-depth written reflections at the
beginning and at the end of the course. Another way to
study content retention in a CLIL course could be to use
an exam, project, or other type of content evaluation.
While it would be ideal to track respondents to see ifthey retained the knowledge and if any attitudinalchanges remained or progressed in the same direction,
logistically that would be difficult. The course is offeredto junior and senior students, so they soon leave theuniversity setting, making them much more difficult tocontact. However, if this barrier could be overcome, itwould be valuable information to learn.

Conclusion
This small study is intended to add to the existing workon the topic. While it cannot be used to draw larger
conclusions, it can add to the English language
literature about content retention in CLIL courses.
Respondents were able to learn and retain both
linguistic and content related information studied in thiscourse and results indicate some learner transformation.
These results illustrated areas of improvement for thecourse, such as a need for more explicit instruction
explaining accommodations. It is also hoped that thisstudy gives some inspiration to those who are
considering tackling complex topics, those who wish

Cabinet Office, Government of Japan. (n.d.). Basic act
for persons with disabilities (Overview).
https://www8.cao.go.jp/shougai/english/pdf/act1.pdf
Coyle, D. (2006). Content and language integrated
learning: Motivating learners and teachers.
Scottish Languages Review, 13, 1–18.
Coyle, D., Hood, P. & Marsh, D. (2010). CLIL: Content
and language integrated learning. Cambridge
University Press.
Heyer, K. C. (2015). Rights enabled: The disability
revolution, from the US, to Germany and Japan,
to the United Nations. University of Michigan
Press.
Hughes, S.P. & Madrid, D. (2019). The effects of CLIL
on content knowledge in monolingual contexts.
The Language Learning Journal, 48(1), 48-59.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09571736.2019.1671483
Isogai, K. (2017, March). Recent developments inJapan’s special needs education (No. 16). NISE
Bulletin.
https://www.nise.go.jp/nc/report_material/resear
ch_results_publications/kiyou_jarnal_bulletin

PanSIG Journal 2023

67
Ito, Y. (2019). The effectiveness of a CLIL basketball(Eds.), Taboos and controversial issues inlesson: A case study of Japanese junior highforeign language education: Critical language

school CLIL. English Language Teaching,pedagogy in theory, research and practice (pp.

12(11), 42-54.

113-125). Routledge.

https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v12n11p42

https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003220701

Iwakuma, M., Miyamoto, K., & Murata, J. (2021).

Wentzel, A. (2021). Less is more: Content

Changes in perceptions of Japanese university

compression in CLIL. Latin American Journal of

students toward disability: A mixed methods

Content & Language Integrated Learning, 14(1),study. International Journal of Disability,

9–4. https://doi.org/10.5294/laclil.2021.14.1.1

Development and Education, 70(2), 156-168.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1034912x.2020.1865521
Mino, Y., Yasuda, N., Kanazawa, S., & Inoue, S.
(2000). Effects of medical education on attitudes
towards mental illness among medical students.
Acta Medica Okayama, 54(3), 127–132.
Mithout, A. L. (2016). Children with disabilities in theJapanese school system: A path toward social
integration? Contemporary Japan, 28(2), 165–
184. https://doi.org/10.1515/cj-2016-0009
Pérez-Cañado, M. L. & Lancaster, N. K. (2017). The
effects of CLIL on oral comprehension andproduction: A longitudinal case study.
Language, Culture and Curriculum, 30(3), 300316.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2017.1338717
Sato T. & Hemmi, C. (2022). Development of second
language productive skills through CLIL in a
Japanese university: a pre-experimental
longitudinal study. Language Learning in Higher
Education, 12(1), 309–326.
https://doi.org/10.1515/cercles-2022-2040
Stevens, C. S. (2013). Disability in Japan (Japan
Anthropology Workshop Series). Routledge.
Thomson, K. (2023). Disability awareness education in
ELT: Addressing disability through shortanimation films. In C. Ludwig & T. Summer
PanSIG Journal 2023

68

Locating Practice: A Duoethnography on Language Teacher Identities
Yaya Yao
Kyushu University

Lasni Buddhibhashika Jayasooriya
Kyushu University
Teaching language is an inherently political act; systemic hierarchies shape the roles of and interactions between practitioners
and learners. Teachers who reflect on their own experiences and identities as language learners and users can develop theawareness needed to effectively disrupt such hierarchies. Such reflection ideally includes recognition of how intersectional social
locations inform their access to English as embodied cultural capital. This article offers insights into the formative language
learning experiences of two practitioners from Sri Lanka and Canada developed from a duoethnographic study. The aim is to
explore how these experiences connect to their current language instruction practices. Four semi-structured dialogues uncovered
understandings related to bilingualism, ethnicity, and language policy that challenge misconceptions related to each country’s
inner and outer circle status.

言語を教えることは、本質的に政治的な行為である。体系的なヒエラルキーが、教育者と学習者の役割や相互作用を形作っている。言語学習者や言語使用者である自分自身の経験やアイデンティティを振り返る教師は、そのようなヒエラルキーを効果的に崩壊させるために必要な意識を育むことができる。このような振り返りには、交差する社会的位置が、英語という「具現化された文化資本」 へのアクセスにどのような影響を与えるかを認識することが理想的である。本稿は、スリランカとカナダ
出身の 2 人の実践者の形成的言語学習経験に関するデュオエスノグラフィック研究から得られた洞察を提供する。その目的は、これらの経験が現在の言語指導の実践にどのように結びついているかを探ることである。4 回の半構造化対話により、バ
イリンガリズム、エスニシティ、言語政策に関連する理解が明らかになり、内輪と外輪の地位に関連する誤解が覆された。

The sustained expansion of World Englishes continues
to increase the diversity of the field of English language
teaching (Sadeghpour & D’Angelo, 2022). Kachru’s
three concentric circles of English provides ahierarchical, state-based understanding of thispropagation as informed by speech communities,
patterns of spread, and distinct language practices(1986). Mediated by sociopolitical dynamics, inner circle
countries such as Canada and the UK are regarded as
the bastions of the English language, utilizing it as avernacular, whereas in outer circle countries like Sri
Lanka and Nigeria, colonization served as the vehicle
for the entrenchment of English. In the latter, its
influence endures either formally as an official language
or informally as an important lingua franca among intranational elites (Mufwene, 2010). In expanding circle
countries such as Japan, English is perceived as aforeign language or foreign lingua franca primarily
employed for communication with non-nationals(Mufwene, 2010). While it is now common to assert that

English language teaching is not the domain of the inner
circle, native-speakerism (Holliday, 2006) endures.
These shifts come with a parallel increase in researchon language teacher identity and self-efficacy (Kaez &Faras, 2021). Considering our diversity along with the
dynamic nature of power, our relationships to thecultural capital of English are in constant flux. As such,
identity has an inherent impact on practice, making it a
critical area of study in need of greater attention.
Student and teacher positionality being relational anddependent on the broader context (Kayi-Aydar, 2019),
reflecting on teacher identity must be an integral part ofpre-service education and professional development(Kanno & Stuart, 2011; Lawrence & Nagashima, 2020).
Reflective practice is one way of giving overt attention
to identity construction, growing from the notion that
identity is “a discursive and performative phenomenon”(Aktekin & Celebi, 2020, p. 113). As a tool in practicebased learning settings, reflective practice emphasizes
wisdom gathered through experience rather than formal
PanSIG Journal 2023

69
learning (Mathew et al., 2017, p. 126). Despite this, it is
not necessarily embedded in pre-service programs.
This research juxtaposes our divergent experiences as
English language instructors and researchers tounderstand how our formative experiences as language
learners shape our sociolinguistic identities and current
practice. We have engaged in dialogue delving into thecommonalities and divergences between our formative
contexts, current practices, and the ways in which theformer informs the latter. Our interest in examining earlysociolinguistic and language learning experiences
through duoethnography was initially informed by theoverlaps between our two settings: Sri Lanka andCanada. Both countries are officially bilingual, witheducational practices that reflect the highly contested
landscape of language policies heavy with the weight ofcolonial history. We grew up as speakers and learnersof multiple languages and have spent our adult lives aspractitioners in these countries as well as in Japan.
Sri Lanka is a small island state with a centrally
administered education system, so we take the wholecountry into consideration. For Canada, the provinciallymandated nature of the curriculum makes geographic
specificity important. While the two contexts might seemdifficult to set side by side, comparing them highlights
the dynamic nature of linguistic identity and implications
for practitioner reflexivity. One is an outer circle country,
the other an inner circle one, and we now collaborate inan expanding circle context.

Researcher Positionality
Lasni
A multicultural and multi-ethnic country in South Asia,
Sri Lanka is a conflict-ridden society. Colonized by thePortuguese, Dutch, and finally the British, its 26-year
civil war ended in 2009. Sinhalese people compriseapproximately 74.9% of the total population, while
11.2% are Sri Lankan Tamils, 4.1% Indian Tamils, and9.3% Sri Lankan Moors (Department of Census andStatistics, 2012). Its two official languages are
Sinhalese and Tamil; Sinhala is the language of theSinhalese people, while Tamil is spoken by Tamils andmost Moors/Muslims. Though the status of English is
not recognized on paper, it functions as a de facto
official language in commerce and higher education.
I am Sinhala by birth, with Sinhalese as my mothertongue. Throughout my studies, Sinhala was themedium of instruction, English was mandatory, andTamil was an elective. Living in the ethnically andlinguistically diverse central region, I was exposed tovarious ethnic and social groups. Attending threedifferent schools, I experienced how language can be
instrumentalized according to urban/rural, class,religious, and ethnic disparities. I shifted to English
medium higher education after my Advanced-Level

exams and subsequently became a teacher of English.
I have taught English for 8 years while pursuing
graduate studies, currently working on a PhD.

Yaya
The state of Canada rests uneasily in the north of Turtle
Island, an indigenous name for North America.
Canada’s official languages are English and French,with the Inuit languages of Inuinnaqtun and Inuktitut
also considered official in the northern territory of
Nunavut. The province of Québec is French dominant,
New Brunswick is extremely English-French bilingual,and the remaining provinces and territories are English
dominant . The state has historically taken a race-based,
essentialist stance to language (Leeman, 2019),
stipulating that “mother tongue is one’s native language,
the language of his race”, rather than the language one“speaks most fluently, or uses chiefly in conversation”(Canadian Census Office, 1901, p. 17).
I was born and raised in Tkaronto (colonially Toronto,
Canada), the capital of Ontario, on ceded and unceded
lands traditionally stewarded by the Mississaugas of theAnishinaabe, the Haudenosaunee Confederacy and theWendat peoples. More than half of Tkaronto’s
population was born outside of Canada (Statistics
Canada, 2023). My parents came from Hong Kong as
international students in the 1960s, and my first
language was Mandarin, followed by Cantonese. From
K-12, I attended programs in public schools: French
Immersion, bilingual, and one French medium programadministered by one of Ontario’s 12 French-language
school boards. My English is now dominant, and while
my French reading skills are at a secondary school level,
my verbal skills are now elementary. As a practitioner, I
have spent 12 years in arts-based and social justiceeducation in Canada and Hong Kong, and 10 years
teaching English language and literature in secondary
and university settings in Japan and Thailand.

Key Concepts
Our dialogic reflection is rooted in two concepts: theFreirean notion of praxis and Bordieu’s cultural capital.
Praxis argues for an equitable regard for practice andtheory. The articulation of an intertwined, dynamic
process through which theory grows from practice andvice versa reflects a radical commitment to socialtransformation (Freire, 1970). Engaging in “education
as the practice of freedom” (hooks , 1991, p. 54) meansin part the critical interrogation of our own lenses as
informed by our particular social locations, which areshaped by systems of power and privilege. All practice
is informed by theoretical constructs that can be madevisible through critical reflexivity. The underpinnings ofmuch practice are shaped by the hidden curriculum(Jackson, 1960): the unwritten rules, values, beliefs,
and expectations shaped by sociopolitical dynamics
PanSIG Journal 2023

70
that uphold the status quo. Delving into teacher
identities is a key way to unpack this implicitly
hegemonic curriculum.

3. How do our formative language learning experiences(as shaped by marginalization and lingualism)
influence our practices as language teachers?

Related to this concept is cultural capital (Bordieu &Passeron, 1977). It is regarded in three states: theembodied state (the behaviors that represent rulingclass ideals of sophistication), the institutionalized state(which reifies those ideals through academic
qualifications and job titles), and the objectified state,(possessions and property that hold symbolic power).
As a manifestation of embodied cultural capital, or lackthereof, language is animated by underlying systems of
power. The degree to which a language can beleveraged on the linguistic market as a tradable
commodity is informed by the extent it is validated by
the state, for example through official language status(Bordieu, 1991).

Below, we share the two excerpts to highlight two key
moments as connected to the questions above. Eachexcerpt is followed by an in-depth discussion from thestandpoint of one of the authors.

Methodology

YY So when did the “break” between your school
language and your home language happen–
between which grades?

Duoethnography is an emerging form of study in which
two or more researchers come together to interrogate
the cultural contexts of autobiographical experiences todialogically critique issues related to personal andprofessional life (Sawyer & Norris, 2012). Rooted in
autoethnography, which is informed by feminist theories
that challenge the notion of academic objectivity, itenables researchers to gain insight into the questions at
hand through the exploration of lived experience. The
researchers involved are the site of the inquiry, not the
subjects of it (Breault, 2016). Given the nature of ourpositionalities from inner and outer circle contexts, theduoethnographic approach serves to highlight thecomplexities of the differing levels of cultural capitaleach researcher holds in the linguistic market.
With this evolving qualitative method, we first discussed
our experiences and contexts in an open-ended way.
Next, four in-depth dialogues totalling eight hours wererecorded following an interview guide prepared in thefirst session. Discussions were transcribed and themes
were identified collaboratively. We then selected two
excerpts addressing key themes in a dialogue format to
capture the polyvocal nature of the process. Narrative
can play a powerful role in distilling insights. Informedby narrative inquiry’s understanding of how the granular
illustrates the whole and the need for a fine balance
between the two (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990), excerpts
were refined to enhance accessibility and clarity. The
research questions emerging from the initial dialogue
are:
1. What were our experiences of conflicts between
dominant and family language practices?
2.

How was bilingualism conceptualized andrepresented to us as language learners, growing up?

Dialogue A: Conflicts between Dominantand Family Language Practices
YY When did you switch from a Sinhala medium school
to a bilingual, English dominant school?
LB That was when I went from more semi-urban school
to urban school so it is more like from lesscompetitive school to more competitive school I
would say

LB There were two transitions. First, I went from a semiurban school in which Sinhala was the medium of
instruction to an urban school in which English was
widely used, in Grade 8. The break, or rupture, wascultural as well. In the semi-urban school, myclassmates and I listened to Sinhala music, wereinterested in Sri Lankan pop culture and so on. But
as I went through secondary school, especiallywhen I scored well enough to enter an elite highschool in the same neighborhood, most of thestudents were into US and UK pop culture, so it
was a huge transition not only in terms of language
but in terms of culture. Although the medium of
instruction was still Sinhala, all of theannouncements and extracurricular activities, all of
the life outside of formal lessons was informed by
English and oriented to the West.
YY That must have been jarring.
LB Yes, and the class dynamics were really in-yourface. Almost all the students who got into Student
Council (prefect board) had a powerful parent, adoctor, an engineer or such.
YY Hearing about your experience, I feel envious of theamount of education you received in your mothertongue. For me, that break between home andschool cultures was automatic, from when I
entered school. My home languages were
Mandarin and Cantonese, and school languages
were English and French. They were culturally
different worlds, and I inhabited them in completely
different ways. To oversimplify a bit, I was assertiveat home, but at school I struggled a lot withexpressing myself, because of how racism, sexism,
PanSIG Journal 2023

71
and homophobia affected my self-esteem. I hid my
Mandarin and Cantonese selves in public, so theylanguished. They were markers of difference that I
knew to hide to fit in. The way I spoke had to be“perfect” – as “Anglo Canadian”– sounding as
possible.
LB It’s essential to think about how our students might
be experiencing this kind of fragmentation when
they enter the classroom. The classroom is a
microcosm of society, so a certain degree of racism
and lingualism is inevitable, but how can we help
students understand and question those dynamics,
or at least cast some doubt at these norms andassumptions.

and educators and linguists in Sri Lanka often talkabout “Kaduwa vs. Manne” – sword or machete?
The machete is a tool that is commonly used in Sri
Lankan households. Hence, is English a weapon
or a tool?
YY If we’re thinking about it as embodied cultural capital,
something that is vested with power because ofhegemony, there might not be much of a difference
between the two.
LB

I always teach my students to use it as a tool. It
doesn’t make you better than someone else thatyou speak better English, I mean in theory. Using
it to disrespect, divide or punish another would beusing it as a weapon. But in material terms, in Sri
Lanka, it will give you access to better job
opportunities, and people will certainly treat you
better if you use it in public situations. It’s like what
we talked about earlier, “Language is power.”

YY

That’s true. Power doesn’t necessarily mean“power over.”Discussion of Dialogue A (Lasni)
The identity politics related to language in our contexts
seem complex and divergent. I consider my transition
from a Sinhala-speaking home environment to an
English dominant elite school relatively smooth, as I
attended another urban school in between, which
prepared me for the culture shock. My willingness todeal with the English dominant linguistic landscape ofthe new school paved the way for me to benefit from theincreased access to embodied cultural capital (Bordieu,1986). Nevertheless, despite the transition from aSinhala to English dominant environment, my mothertongue remained the medium of instruction. This
allowed me to maintain my proficiency in my mothertongue through additive bilingualism (Lambert, 1981).

LB Yes, use of power may not always put others down
but can be used to lift yourself up instead. This
makes me think of our earlier discussion about
accents. It sounds like an accent is very crucial
when it comes to the Canadian situation. Can you
elaborate more on that, and how you deal with it in
the classroom?

In contrast, Yaya’s language transition from home toschool environment is more jarring. She too benefited
from increased embodied cultural capital, acquiring andbecoming fluent in the dominant languages, all the more
so given the inner circle accent, yet she experienced
subtractive bilingualism (Lambert, 1981) as her English
came at the cost of the mother tongue (Natolo andMatas, 2014). This realization leads me to believe thatin the context of inner circle countries, there is a higher
tendency to overlook the support for maintaining thehome languages of immigrants. In contrast, outer circle
countries which cast English as a second language,
tend to appreciate the importance of preserving
language diversity.

YY There is a lot of ethnic diversity in Canada, but still
a lot of racism, and a lot of discrimination based on
accent. As a child, I consciously put effort intodeveloping a “Canadian accent” because everyone
knows we’ll get more respect if we speak with adominant, Anglo Canadian accent. Generally,
people don’t discriminate against those with
Western European or dominant US accents,
though. And then a French-accented English
would be respected, especially because I was inFrench Immersion. Thinking about this in relation
to your experience of bilingual education, which
involved Sinhala, Tamil, and English, I’m realizingthat French-English was the gold standard.
Growing up, I didn’t even really consider myself
bilingual, because to me, being bilingual meantthat you spoke English and French fluently. The
other languages I spoke were not invited into theregular classroom, weren’t legitimized by school.

Dialogue B: Representations of
Bilingualism

LB This is interesting. Do you encourage your students
to acquire a certain accent?

LB When I think about how my experiences as alanguage learner shape my teaching, class is a key
theme for me. It really informed my experience asa student, and as a teacher in Sri Lanka, I am trying
to support my students to more confidently wield
English as a form of embodied cultural capital. In
Sri Lanka, we have a word that we use to refer tothe English language: Kaduwa. It means sword. It
refers to the aggressive power of English in society,

YY I focus on stress patterns and emphasis rather thanaccent. Of course, we need phonic awareness, but
try to focus on intelligibility rather than sounding
like a certain kind of speaker. My experience as a“non-native speaker” among mostly Anglo students
shapes this. It also means I don’t enjoy beingprescriptive, so although it’s a necessary evil, I try
to do so in a way that shares the role of “thePanSIG Journal 2023

72
knower,” something that can be hard for us asteachers.

Discussion of Dialogue B (Yaya)
In learning about how Lasni’s outer circle school
experience led to additive bilingualism, I became moreaware of how the casting of English and French as the“gold standard” of bilingualism in my inner circle context
fed into my experience of subtractive bilingualism. Thisis also connected to the raciolinguistic class reality in
Ontario, where the median income for English-Frenchbilinguals is 20% higher than English monolinguals,
40% higher than French speakers, and well over doubleof those who speak neither (Statistics Canada, 2023).
In the bilingual public school, I attended from age 4 to
11, my classmates were almost entirely from white,
upper-middle class liberal families. I still feel that I “failed”
at French, far from fluent despite years of study. I hadn’t
reflected on how that “failure” might be informed by how
my linguistic ideals were shaped by white, upper-middle
class culture. While access to embodied cultural capital
motivated my parents to enroll me in the program, suchcapital seemed unattainable. This perception is one somany of my Japanese students relate to as educational
institutions privilege white “native speaker” instructors
from inner circle countries.
Lasni learned English in the first two schools as a
subject less connected to an ethnic group in her
immediate context. This might have facilitated a morepractical, instrumental attitude towards the embodied
cultural capital of English as Manne (machete/tool)
instead of Kaduwa (sword/weapon) (Medawattegedara,2015). Her experience at the third school could beconsidered an experience of English as Kaduwa given
the elitist, Western-oriented nature of the school culture.
In a post-colonial society like Sri Lanka, conceptualizing
English as an instrument rather than a tool of
oppression can be understood as an attempt to mitigate
the power of English on the linguistic market.
Nevertheless, teachers play a key role in supporting
students to gain better access to cultural capital while
facilitating critical thinking that mitigates theweaponizing of this capital.

Conclusion: Embracing reflective practiceThis article captured understandings that have emergedin an ongoing, iterative process of inquiry. The study
highlights the situated nature of our practices asteachers from outer circle and inner circle contexts,
highlighting commonalities and divergences in ouridentities as learners and instructors. Cast as buyers
and sellers on the linguistic market, the research
process allowed us to challenge these interpellations in
a productive way. This type of collaborative criticalreflexivity inherently confronts the concept of theomniscient teacher. Speaking from our particularintersectional (Crenshaw, 1989) social locations acrossour differences allowed us to question our assumptions
and furthered our understanding of reflexivity as aninherently relational endeavor.
As such, our main recommendation is related tolanguage teacher training and in-service professional
development. Engaging in duoethnographic and selfreflexive studies to critically understand the connections
between formative language learning experiences,teaching practice, and relationships to inner, outer, andexpanding circle political dynamics can deepen practiceat any stage of one’s career. Duoethnography lends
itself especially to professional development because of
the relational and emerging nature of the methodology,
which invites practitioners to embark on the processwith a great sense of autonomy, creativity, andpartnership. In the realm of language teacher education,
the journey of assisting emerging educators in honing
the skills of rigorous self-reflexivity begins with us.

Acknowledgment
This research was supported by JST SPRING, Grant
Number JPMJSP2136.

References
Adamson, J., & Muller, T. (2018). Joint
autoethnography of teacher experience in theacademy: Exploring methods for collaborativeinquiry. International Journal of Research &Method in Education, 41(2), 207–219.
Aktekin, N. C., & Celebi, H. (2020). ELT student
teacher identity construction: Exploring teacher
roles and domains of expertise. International
Journal of Language Education, 4(1), 113–128.
Bordieu, P. (1986). The forms of capital. In J. G.
Richardson (Ed.), Handbook of theory andresearch for the sociology of education (pp.
241–258). Greenwood.
Bourdieu, P. (1991). Language and symbolic power.
Harvard University Press.
Bourdieu, P., & Passeron, J. C. (1977). Reproduction
in education, society, and culture. Sage.
PanSIG Journal 2023

73
Breault, R. A. (2016). Emerging issues induoethnography. International Journal ofJackson, P. W. (1968). Life in classrooms. Holt,
Rinehart and Winston.

Qualitative Studies in Education, 29(6), 777–
794.

Jayanath, T. (2021). A comparative study on
bilingualism and multilingualism. KnowEx Social

Cameron, D. (2012). The commodification of

Sciences, 1(02), 79–91.

language: English as a global commodity. In T.
Nevalainen & E. C. Traugott (Eds.), The Oxford

Kachru, B. B. (1986). The power and politics ofhandbook of the history of English (pp. 352–

English. World Englishes, 5(2–3), 121–140.

361). Oxford Academic.

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1467971X.1986.tb00720.x

Canadian Census Office. (1901). Fourth census ofCanada 1901: Instructions to chief officers,

Kanno, Y., & Stuart, C. (2011). Learning to become aenumerators and commissioners. Canadiansecond language teacher: Identities-in-practice.

CensusOffice.

Modern Language Journal, 95, 236–252.

http://publications.gc.ca/site/eng/9.828375/publi

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-

cation.html

4781.2011.01178.x

Connelly, F. M., & Clandinin, D. J. (1990). Stories ofKaras, M., & Faez, F. (2021). Self-efficacy of English

experience and narrative inquiry. Educational

language teachers in Ontario: The impact ofResearcher, 19(5), 2–14.

language proficiency, teaching qualifications,linguistic identity, and teaching experience.

Crenshaw, K. (1989). Demarginalizing the intersection

Canadian Modern Language Review, 77(2),of race and sex: A Black feminist critique of

110–128. https://doi.org/10.3138/cmlr-2020-

antidiscrimination doctrine, feminist theory and0012

antiracist politics. University of Chicago Legal
Forum, 1989(1), Article 8.
http://chicagounbound.uchicago.edu/uclf/vol198
9/iss1/8
Department of Census and Statistics. (2012). Census

Kayi-Aydar, H. (2019). Language teacher identity.
Language Teaching, 52(3), 281-295.
Lambert, W. E. (1981). Bilingualism and language
acquisition. Annals of the New York Academy ofof Population and Housing, Sri Lanka.

Sciences, 379, 9–22.

http://www.statistics.gov.lk/Resource/en/Populati

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1749-

on/CPH_2011/CPH_2012_5Per_Rpt.pdf

6632.1981.tb41993.x

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. Herderand Herder.

Lawrence, L., & Nagashima, Y. (2020). Theintersectionality of gender, sexuality, race, andnative-speakerness: Investigating ELT teacher

Holliday, A. (2006). Native-speakerism. ELT Journal,
60(4), 385–387.

identity through duoethnography. Journal of
Language, Identity & Education, 19(1), 42–55.

https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccl030
Leeman, J. (2019). Measured multilingualism: Census
Hooks, B. (1994). Teaching to transgress. Routledge.

language questions in Canada and the United
PanSIG Journal 2023

74
States. In T. Ricento (Ed.), Language politics

24(2), 211–221.

and policies: Perspectives from Canada and thehttps://doi.org/10.1080/13488678.2022.2076368

United States (pp. 114–134). Cambridge
University Press.

Sawyer, R. D., & Norris, J. (2012). Duoethnography.
Oxford University Press.

Medawattegedara, V. V. (2015). Kaduwa or manne?
Issues and tensions related to bilingual

Statistics Canada. (2023, June 21). Knowledge ofeducation policy in Sri Lanka. OUSL Journal, 8,

official languages. Census of population 2021.

39–50.

Government of Canada.

http://repository.ou.ac.lk/bitstream/handle/94ousl

https://www150.statcan.gc.ca/t1/tbl1/en/tv.action/628/04.%20Paper%2003-p39.pdf?sequence=1?pid=9810036501&geocode=A000235

Mathew, P., Mathew, P., & Peechattu, P. J. (2017).

Zeichner, K. M. (1994). Research on teacher thinking

Reflective practices: A means to teacher

and different views of reflective practice indevelopment. Asia Pacific Journal ofteaching and teacher education. In Carlgren, I.,

Contemporary Education and Communication

Handal, G., & Vaage, S. (Eds.), Teachers’ minds

Technology, 3(1), 126–131.

and actions: Research on teachers’ thinking andpractice (pp.9–27). Falmer Press

Mufwene, S. S. (2010). Globalization, global English,
and world English(es): Myths and facts. In N.
Coupland (Ed.), The handbook of language andglobalization (pp. 29-55). Wiley-Blackwell.

Natolo, S., & Matas, C. P. (2014). Spanish speakers inAustralia: Exploring the motivation behindlanguage contact. Interdisciplinary Cultural
Studies, 8.
https://core.ac.uk/download/pdf/143865099.pdf
Norris, J., & Sawyer, R. (2012). Toward a dialogic
method. In J. Norris, R. Sawyer & D. Lund
(Eds.), Duoethnography (pp. 9–39). Left Coast
Press.
Rose, H., & Montakantiwong, A. (2018). A tale of two
teachers: A duoethnography of the realistic andidealistic successes and failures of teaching
English as an international language. RElC
Journal, 49(1), 88–101.
Sadeghpour, M., & D’Angelo, J. (2022). World
Englishes and ‘Global Englishes’: Competing orcomplementary paradigms? Asian Englishes,
PanSIG Journal 2023

75

Student Perceptions of the Benefits of Free Writing in English
Edo Forsythe
Hirosaki Gakuin University

Steven Gary MacWhinnie
Hirosaki Gakuin University
Japanese university students are often required to perform free writing activities in their EFL classes to encourage and build
confidence in writing in English. Free writing activities in this research are writing freely about a given topic for a set time. The
authors had students do free writing activities throughout the course of 1 semester of an English composition course and thenanswer a qualitative questionnaire about their feelings toward free writing activities. This paper provides insight into students’
perceptions of the efficacy of free writing, following up on previous research into the efficacy of free writing in English Language
writing classes. In spite of quantitative data demonstrating that no significant improvement in English writing results from freewriting, this study found that students generally find it beneficial despite its difficulty, keeping with the findings of existing qualitative
research.

日本の大学生は EFL の授業で、英語で文章を書くことを奨励し、自信をつけるために、しばしばフリーライティングを行うことを求められる。本研究でいうフリーライティングとは、決められた時間、決められたトピックについて自由に書くことである。筆者らは、英作文の 1 学期を通して学生にフリーライティングを行わせ、その後、フリーライティングに対する学生の感想について質的アンケートに回答させた。本論文は、英語ライティングの授業におけるフリーライティングの有効性に関する先行研究に続き、フリーライティングの有効性に関する学生の認識についての洞察を提供するものである。量的なデータでは、フリーライティングによって英作文に有意な向上は見られないことが示されているにもかかわらず、本研究では、学生はフリーライティングをその難しさにもかかわらず一般的に有益であると感じており、既存の研究結果と一致していることがわかった。

Language teachers have used free writing in foreign
language writing instruction for decades, ever since
Jacobs’ (1986) concept of quickwriting and Fox and
Suhor’s (1986) free writing coined terms that formalizedthat practice. Li (2007) defined free writing as, “writing
quickly for a set time from ten to fifteen minutes, justputting down whatever is in the mind, without pausing
and worrying about what words to use, and without
going back to modify what has been written” (p. 42).
Rivers (2007) further clarified free writing as writing
continuously for a set time without pausing, thinking, orcorrecting. Darling (2018) explained that free writing
could be either guided—with a teacher-defined topic—
or unguided—with a student-chosen topic. Recently,
language teachers in Japan have used free writing
activities to encourage learners’ confidence and fluency
in foreign language writing (Azizi, 2015; Baba & Nitta,
2014; Darling, 2018; Forsythe & MacWhinnie, 2023;
Muller, 2014a, b; Piper, 2015; Rivers, 2007; Townsend,2023).

Even though free writing is a long-standing practice inforeign language education, its efficacy has not beenthoroughly researched in the Japanese university
English as a Foreign Language (EFL) learning context(Ferreira, 2013). More specifically, the perceptions ofstudents on the practice of free writing in EFL classes
has almost no existing research in a Japanese
university context. Therefore, this study aims to addressthat gap in research by exploring Japanese university
students’ perceptions of free writing in EFL writingclasses. This study expands on Baba and Nitta’s (2010,2014) study exploring student perceptions of free writing
as part of their research into development of writing
fluency. The research question that guided this study
was, what are students’ perceptions of doing free writing
activities in Japanese university EFL writing classes?

PanSIG Journal 2023

76

Literature Review
Fox and Suhor (1986) found that free writing
encouraged the learners to write in less formal language,
but that the practice did not “automatically produce
better writers” (p. 35). Later, Elbow (1998)
recommended free writing because it improved awriter’s ability to write more fluently due to them nothaving to worry about being judged for making mistakes.
Bello (1997) recommended free writing as one of two
approaches to improving EFL writing skills, the otherapproach being process writing, and used free writing
as a springboard to more extensive process writing (p.
2). Fox and Suhor (1986), and Bello (1997) seemed toview free writing as an activity to warm up the learner’s
creativity and writing abilities before engaging in more
focused writing development activities. Li (2007)
provided a strong rationale for the use of free writing topromote students’ general academic skills (p. 51) but
did not focus on using free writing to improve writing
fluency. These are only a few examples of the existing
research into free writing in language learning, but theauthors feel that they are representative of theconflicting views about its efficacy in the EFL classroom.
In a Japanese university EFL context, free writing has
been recommended for teaching writing (Ohno, 2002),
even in the face of strong reluctance due to lack ofteacher confidence (Iseno, 1991) and some skepticism
in the process (Rivers, 2007). One reason for this might
be that Japanese high school textbooks were not using
free writing to improve students’ English writing abilities
as the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science,
and Technology (MEXT) recommended (Kobayakawa,2011). Also, few Japanese high school students are
given experience with free writing (Darling, 2018; Inoue,2022; Townsend, 2023). This lack of familiarity with freewriting carried over into university EFL classes,
therefore, Bradley (2013) stated that the lack of freewriting experience of Japanese university students in
EFL also has origins in Japanese-language writing
instruction methods, so there would be little expectationof L1 to L2 carry over to support the efficacy of freewriting in EFL (p. 9). Bradley recommended a mixed
approach to EFL writing instruction that included simple
and well-explained free writing activities, and Rivers(2007) recommended free writing as a tool to improve
Japanese university students’ creativity in writing aswell as in oral communication with little demands on theteacher for preparation or feedback.
Following these recommendations, several instructors
have used free writing in Japanese EFL writingclasses—including the authors of this study. Muller(2014) evaluated the use of free writing in Japanese
EFL classrooms in both high school (2014a) anduniversity settings (2014b). In the high school-based
study, Muller’s (2014a) students responded positively tothe free writing activities and stated that they felt that
their writing had improved. Muller (2014a) provided
several recommendations for making free writing more
effective, such as providing topics that students areinterested in and making the process communicative by
having students share their writing with partners (p. 25).
These recommendations align with those proffered by
Herder and King (2012) who also found that students
reported a feeling of positive improvement from the freewriting activities (p. 130). At the university level, Muller(2014b) found that the participants had an “overall
positive evaluation of free writing…in relation to theresults obtained” (p. 29).
Baba and Nitta (2010, 2014) also explored the effects
of regular, 10-minute free writing on a given topic with
two Japanese university students over a 30-weeklongitudinal study. Baba and Nitta (2014) did
recommend repetitive free writing practice to improvewriting fluency over the course of a semester or evenlonger if possible (p. 30). Their recommendation is likely
based on the fact that students’ reflective comments
became more positive toward their L2 writing (2014, pp.
19, 26) and student interviews showed that students
became more reflective of their writing over the courseof a year of practice (2010, p. 221).
Leblanc and Fujieda (2012) also found increased
positive attitudes and confidence toward EFL writing inparticipants after free writing activities. Participants intheir study believed that free writing was helpful for
future English writing (p. 251), and a continuation of freewriting practice was desired by participants (p. 251).
Further, Dickenson’s (2014) participants found English
writing was more important and their enjoyment ofwriting increased over time (p. 20). Their participantsalso wanted to continue the free writing activities in the
future (p. 22). Additionally, Shiobara (2014) foundstudents enjoyed free writing and felt it to be beneficial,
but that the choice of topics had an impact on how muchthey could write (p. 68), and Broekema (2020) revealed
that students found free writing to be fun but difficult,also they perceived it as worthwhile for assisting theirEnglish writing skills (p. 188). Ottosan and Crane’s(2017) participants liked the free writing activities andincreased their language skills and their ability to write
better over time (pp. 56-57). Two-thirds of their
participants wanted to continue the free writing activities
in classes (p. 58). Within Piper’s (2015) study,
participants stated that they believed that their writing
skills improved through free writing activities, and that
free writing was a good strategy for improving English
writing (p. 127). They thought it was useful and enjoyed
the free writing done in classes (p. 125).
Azizi (2015) explored free writing in Japanese EFL
settings with research similar to Muller’s (2014b) in an
attempt to encourage the students’ tolerance for
PanSIG Journal 2023

77
ambiguity in language learning and to build the learners’
confidence (p. 84). When considering student
perceptions of free writing, the participants in Azizi’s(2015) study expressed positive feelings toward theefficacy of free writing activities in their EFL classroom.
Relatedly, in Darling’s (2018) study of using free writing
journals in Japanese university EFL classes, thestudents had only positive comments and felt that theactivities helped them improve their writing fluency (p.
22).
Regarding the topics used in free writing, Muller (2014a)
found that students prefer to be given a topic to write
about and Darling (2018) reported that participants wereokay with either teacher-provided or self-selected topics(p. 22). Ferreira (2013) found that participants seemed“to express themselves with a larger variety of words
when asked to write about topics of their own choosing.
That is, they appear to be more fluent according to thefluency index used…for this research” (p. 304). Ottoson& Crane (2017) found students stated preference forassigned topics but demonstrated increased fluency inself-selected topics (pp. 53-55). As with Ottoson andCrane (2017), Piper (2015) also replicated Bonzo’s(2008) research into topic choice in free writing andfound that students performed marginally better whenwriting about teacher-provided topics (p. 120).
Interviews also showed that half of the participantspreferred teacher-provided topics because the students
had difficulty in deciding topic content when they wereleft to decide the topic (p. 126).
Free writing as a language improvement activity has
been used for decades to varying degrees of success,but one theme that seems to be constant across thecurrent research among Japanese university students
regarding their feelings about free writing activities: they
feel that free writing helps improve their writing fluency
even if the quantitative data does not always reveal
lexical or grammatical improvements. Therefore, tofollow up on the authors’ previous quantitative findingsthat free writing did not improve their students’ English
writing abilities, this qualitative study was conducted to
explore their perceptions about doing free writing in
English.

Methods
Participants
The participants of this study were 29 Freshmen English
majors at a private university in northern Japan. All
participants were informally assessed by authors to beapproximately at the CEFR A2 – B1 level of proficiency.
Free writing activities were done at the beginning of
required English writing classes for one semester at theend of the participants’ Freshman year. Informed
consent was obtained from all of the participants at the

beginning of the study period and students were given
the option to opt out of the study at any time.

Data collection
All of the free writing done in this study was done in theclassroom by hand in order to eliminate the confounding
variables of variances in participants’ computer andtyping proficiency. Students were given a worksheetwith three different topics for that week’s free writing
assignment (see the Appendix for full list of topics).
Topics in the writing assignments were based on topics
that were covered in the course textbook, American
Headway (Soars & Soars, 2016), or on slightly moredifficult topics related to content the students were
expected to have encountered throughout the year atuniversity or recent news headlines. A variety of topics
was provided with the intention of accounting for bothstudent ability and students’ interests as recommended
by Baba and Nitta (2014).
Students were instructed to choose a topic and then to
write about the same topic for two weeks’ worth of freewriting activities. Students were given 10 minutes for thefree writing exercise. Students were allowed, but notencouraged, to use dictionaries for free writing, but they
were told not to use machine translation. At the end of
10 minutes, students were instructed to count the
number of words they had written and write that number
at the bottom of the worksheet before submitting it to theresearcher. Participants completed a total of 12 freewriting activities in this study. After the final free writing,participants completed a Free Writing Reflection
Questionnaire adapted from Baba and Nitta (2014).

Data analysis
Participant Free Writing Reflection Questionnaire
responses were independently translated and coded byboth authors following Grounded Theory data analysis
methods (Glaser & Strauss, 1967) to identify emerging
themes in the qualitative response data.
The Free Writing Reflection Questionnaire based on
Baba and Nitta’s (2014) post-free writing reflection
sheets included the following three questions in English
and Japanese (responses were allowed in either
language):
1. When writing and using English, how was it?
2. Think about when you started writing at the
beginning of the term. Compare it to the final
composition you wrote today. How do you feel
about it?
3. Looking back at the compositions and thinking
about your writing next year, what are yourplans?
PanSIG Journal 2023

78

Results
Based on Baba and Nitta’s (2014) study, three common
themes were expected in the students’ comments:
vocabulary, fluency, and grammar. Examples of the
vocabulary-related comments that were seen are: “I
didn’t know what word to use…” (22E04), and “At first I
didn’t know what expression to use…” (22E14).
Examples of the fluency-related responses provided
include: “I was disappointed that I couldn’t write what I
wanted to say.” (22E05), and “More in-depth sentences,
I want to be able to write more easily” (22E18). The
grammar-related comments included such statements
as, “I thought that I need to work harder on grammar
and vocabulary.” (22E24), and “I have a better
understanding of grammar than before.” (22E09).
In addition to those themes revealed in Baba and Nitta’s(2014) research, six other themes emerged from thedata: usefulness, enjoyability, content / topic, motivation/ effect, L1 / L2 processing, and difficulty. Comments
related to the usefulness of free writing included “It wasa chance to better understand my own English skill.”(22E01) . Student statements that expressed that freewriting was enjoyable were exemplified by “It wasdifficult, but it was fun.” (22E02). An example of thecomments about the content or topic is, “Based on the
topics, I could clearly see the difference in what I could
write about and what I couldn’t write about.” (22E10).
Regarding motivation or effects of free writing, a student
remarked, “Not much changed [over time]. It’s because
I don’t try hard enough.” (22E05). The comments about
L1/L2 processing included, “I’m still using translators towrite, but I think I want to use my own English to write
even only a little bit…” (22E33). Finally, statements
about the difficulty of free writing were exemplified by,“It was difficult for me to write essay with English…”(22E06).

Figure 2 shows the responses to question 2, “Think
about when you started writing at the beginning of theterm. Compare it to the final composition you wrote
today. How do you feel about it?”Figure 2
Themes that emerged from Question 2 responses

Figure 3 shows the responses to question 3, “Looking
back at the compositions and thinking about your writing
for the future, what are your plans?”
Figure 3
Themes that emerged from Question 3 responses.

The following charts show the types of responses
provided to each question in the Questionnaire.
Figure 1
Themes that emerged from Question 1 responses

Discussion
The themes that emerged from the participants’reflection questionnaires were in line with Baba andNitta’s (2010, 2014) research that showed students had
a generally positive attitude toward free writing (2014,
pp. 19-20). In addition, in response to question 1 about
participants feelings toward free writing, the comments
most commonly revealed feelings of it being difficult andthat participants had concerns about their fluency.
PanSIG Journal 2023

79
Comments that express these feelings include: “It wasdifficult to start writing quickly.” (22E02), “It is difficult. I
was disappointed that I couldn’t write what I wanted tosay.” (22E05), and “Creating a long text in English wasdifficult.” (22E11). These results match Ottoson andCrane’s (2017) and Broekema’s (2020) findings about
students finding free writing difficult.
Statements about vocabulary were also common: “Ilearned new words.” (22E09), and “At first I didn’t knowwhat expressions to use, but I gradually learned thebenefit of writing in English.” (22E14). Comments suchas these align with Ottoson & Crane’s (2017) findings ofparticipants seeing free writing as means to increase
vocabulary.
The responses to question 2 about participants’ English
writing development over the course of free writing
matched Baba and Nitta’s (2010) findings as well, thatstudents became more reflective about their writing over
the term of the free writing (p. 221). The participants’
most common responses concerned their fluency, suchas: “I think I was maybe able to write a little longer.”(22E04 & 22E08), “I think I could improve my skills to
express.” (22E06), and “When I started writing, all usingtranslators, but I feel without the need to translate somea little bit.” (22E12).
Statements about vocabulary improvements were also
very common. “I think I developed the ability to use
many words to express the information I want to.”(22E02), “I also looked up vocabulary I didn’t know
afterwards, so I gained knowledge.” (22E19), and “I feltthat equally my vocabulary, writing speed, and thinking
speed is improving.” (22E27) were examples. These
results align with Leblanc and Fujieda’s (2012), Ottoson
and Crane’s (2017), and Shiobara’s (2014) findings ofparticipants seeing free writing as means to increase
their English writing fluency and vocabulary use.
Finally, regarding the participants’ answers to question
3 about future writing goals, comments about
vocabulary improvement plans were most common,with comments also tied to improving their own English
fluency, grammar, and motivation or effort. Revealing
comments about these topics include: “I need more
grammar and more words. I’ll effort to get them.”(22E07), “I believe I want to be able to write texts more
like native writers write in English.” (22E08), “I want tomemorize more grammar and vocabulary and notdepend on tools to be able to create texts.” (22E11), “I
thought I want to work to increase the number of words
I can use even more.” (22E15), and “I think I want tocontinue to study with the goal of increasing my
vocabulary.” (22E21). These results align with Baba andNitta’s (2010, 2014), Dickenson’s (2014), Leblanc andFujieda’s (2012), and Ottoson and Crane’s (2017)

findings of participants being motivated to improve their
vocabulary, fluency, and general writing skills after
experience with free writing in their EFL classes.
Looking across the responses to all of the questions,
themes emerged about participants’ feelings about freewriting content and topics. In questions 1 and 2,
comments about content / topics having an impact on
the participants’ writing ability included, “I was able tosee the big difference between topics I could write about
and topics I couldn’t write about.” (22E10), “There werevocabulary not used in daily life, so it was terribly difficult
to smoothly translate the Japanese I wanted to write into
English.” (22E21), and “The topics were hard. When the
topic was easy to write about, I could write a lot; but thetimes when I did not have an opinion about the topic, I
could only write a little bit.” (22E24). These results alignwith Dickenson (2014), Leblanc and Fujieda (2012),
Ottoson and Crane (2017), and Shiobara’s (2014)
findings that the topics can have a limiting effect on theparticipants writing fluency. Further, these studies
showed that self-selected topics result in greater fluency
in writing. This slightly contradicts Piper’s (2015)
research that showed students performing marginallybetter on topics chosen by the teacher (p. 120) and that
free choice had no real effect on students’ writing
fluency. In the current study, some students thought that
free writing was very difficult, and some topics could
increase the difficulty. But this was not a universal
response. Therefore, it seems that the selection of freewriting topics has little influence on how well thestudents perform.
The biggest factors commented on by participants wereabout their own insufficient vocabularies and knowledge
about grammar. Generally, the students found freewriting to spur their motivation to improve their language
skills to be able to communicate what they want inwriting. This study, as well as Broekema (2020), Darling(2018), Dickinson (2014), Head (2016), Hwang (2010),
Leblanc & Fujieda (2012), Muller (2014a, 2014b),
Ottoson & Crane (2017), Piper (2015), and Shiobara(2014), all found that students felt that free writing was
enjoyable and beneficial to their English writing skills.
Also, Baba and Nitta’s (2010, 2014), Dickinson (2014),
Leblanc and Fujieda (2012), and Ottoson and Crane(2017) all found that students wanted to continue doing
free writing in future EFL writing classes. In the entiretyof the literature reviewed for this study as well as theresults obtained in the current study, no negative effects
stemming from free writing were observed, so there
seems to be no harm in doing it even if the data do notstrongly support a quantitative increase in students’English writing fluency (Forsythe & MacWhinnie, 2023).
Existing research does provide the following
suggestions about making free writing as beneficial as
PanSIG Journal 2023

80
possible: Broekema (2020) suggests doing learnertraining at the beginning to explain free writing goals
and processes with a focus on fluency over accuracy.
Dickinson (2014), Leblanc and Fujieda (2012), Ottoson
and Crane (2017) as well as Shiobara (2014) all
recommend allowing students the freedom to choose
the writing topic, but Piper (2015) also says that
instructors should give possible topics to choose from if
students have no idea what to write about. Instructors
should also encourage students to notice their language
gaps as they emerge during free writing and then work
to address those gaps through self-study. Baba andNitta (2010) found that students who were reflective
about their free writing improved in their lexical diversity
and grammatical complexity over the course of a yearof weekly free writing activities (p. 219).

Limitations
The main limitation in this study was the small andrelatively homogenous sample size of the population.
Future research should expand the sample pool acrossboth public and private universities in a variety of majors
to obtain a more balanced view of a diverse student
population’s views about free writing in EFL classes.

Conclusion
Free writing is a commonly used activity in language
classes (Baba & Nitta, 2010, 2014); Bello, 1997; Elbow,
1996; Muller, 2014a, b; Piper, 2015; Rivers, 2007;
Shiobara, 2014) and students have a variety of feelings
toward doing this widely used English practice activity.
Baba and Nitta (2010, 2014) surveyed their participants’feelings toward free writing using a reflection sheet thatwas used as the basis for the current study’s datacollection tool to explore the perceptions of Japanese
university students toward doing free writing activities intheir English writing classes. The participants of thisstudy were 29 first year, private university English
majors. The data collected were the responses to Free
Writing Reflection Questionnaires completed by theparticipants after one semester of weekly free writing
activities in EFL writing classes.
The findings of this study aligned with Baba and Nitta’s(2014) study revealing the three most common themesin the students’ comments were related to concerns
about their vocabulary, fluency, and grammar.
Additionally, six other themes emerged from theparticipants’ response data: usefulness, enjoyable,
content / topic, motivation / effect, L1 / L2 processing,and difficulty. The content of the responses aligned with
Leblanc and Fujieda’s (2012), Ottoson & Crane’s (2017)& Shiobara’s (2014) findings of participants seeing freewriting as means to increase their English writing
fluency and vocabulary use. Also, this study’s resultsalign with Baba and Nitta’s (2010, 2014), Dickenson’s(2014), Leblanc & Fujieda’s (2012), and Ottoson andCrane’s (2017) findings that participants in free writing
activities are motivated to improve their vocabulary,fluency, and general writing skills after experience withfree writing in their EFL classes.
Regarding the impact of free writing content or topic
choice on the participants’ writing ability, the current
study’s results align with Dickenson (2014), Leblancand Fujieda (2012), Ottoson and Crane (2017), andShiobara’s (2014) findings that the topics can have alimiting effect on the participants writing fluency. Further,
these studies showed that self-selected topics canresult in greater fluency in writing, so topics for freewriting activities can be left to the students to choose
but should also have suggestions by the instructor justin case students are having difficulty deciding on a topic.
In all of the literature reviewed for this study as well as
the findings provided from the current study’s data,
students find free writing to be an enjoyable and usefulactivity for improving their EFL writing abilities (Baba &Nitta, 2014; Broekema, 2020; Darling, 2018; Dickinson,
2014; Head, 2016; Hwang, 2010; Leblanc & Fujieda,
2012; Muller, 2014a, 2014b; Ottoson & Crane, 2017;
Shiobara, 2014), despite the general lack of empiricalevidence to support the quantitative improvement ofstudents’ English writing fluency through free writing
activities (Forsythe & MacWhinnie, 2023; Muller, 2014b).
Up to now, no negative effects stemming from freewriting have been reported in the literature, so there
seems to be no harm in doing it. If instructors are going
to continue doing free writing in EFL classes, it should
be done so purposefully to help students gain the mostfrom free writing in English.

References
Azizi, E. (2015). Word count matters: Increasing EFL
learner’s writing fluency through freewriting.
Kokusaigaku Kenkyu, 4(1), 83-89. Retrieved
from http://hdl.handle.net/10236/13145
Baba, K., & Nitta, R. (2010). Dynamic effects of task
type practice on the Japanese EFL university
student's writing: Text analysis with Coh-Metrix.
In H. W. Guesgen & R. C. Murray (Eds.),
Proceedings of the 23rd International Florida
Artificial Intelligence Research Society
Conference, FLAIRS-23, (pp. 217-222), AAAI
Press. Retrieved fromhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/22143
8851
PanSIG Journal 2023

81
Baba, K., & Nitta, R. (2014). Phase transitions inFerreira, D. (2013). Researching the effects ofdevelopment of writing fluency from a complex

students’ self-selected topics on writing fluency.

dynamic systems perspective. Language

Ferris Letters, 48, 297-306. Retrieved from

Learning, 64(1), 1–35. Retrieved fromhttps://www.academia.edu/6241332/Researchin

https://doi.org/10.1111/lang.12033

g_the_Effect_of_Students_Self_selected_Topics_on_Writing_Fluency

Bello, T. (1997). Improving ESL learners’ writing skills(ED409746). ERIC. Retrieved fromhttps://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/ED409746.pdf

Forsythe, E., & MacWhinnie, S.G.B. (2023).
Reflections on the Effects of Free Writing in an
EFL Writing Class. 2022 PanSIG Journal, 201-

Bonzo, J. D. (2008). To assign a topic or not:209. Retrieved from:

Observing fluency and complexity inhttps://pansig.org/publications/2022/PanSIG_20

intermediate foreign language writing. Foreign

22_Journal.pdf

Language Annals, 41(4), 722-735.
Fox, D., & Suhor, C. (1986). Limitations of free writing.
Bradley, N. (2013). Approaches to writing and theJapanese university context. Language and

The English Journal, 75(8), 34-36. Retrieved
from https://www.jstor.org/stable/819077

Culture: Bulletin for the Institute for Language
Education, 26, 1-15. Retrieved from

Herder S., & King, R. (2012). Extensive Writing:https://taweb.aichi-

Another fluency approach for EFL learners.

u.ac.jp/tgoken/bulletin/pdfs/NO26/01p1-

Extensive Reading World Congress

15Bradley.pdf

Proceedings, 1, 128-130. Retrieved fromhttps://erfoundation.org/proceedings/erwc1-

Broekema, D. (2020). Introducing freewriting to

Herder-King.pdf

Japanese EFL students. KIT Progress, 28. 184190. http://kitir.kanazawa-

Inoue, M. (2022). Paragraph writing instruction forit.ac.jp/infolib/meta_pub/G0000002repository_20

university students. The Asian Conference on

200325020

Education 2021: Official Conference
Proceedings, Retrieved from

Darling, M. (2018). Using freewriting in journals toimprove written fluency. Encounters, 6, 19-27.

https://doi.org/10.22492/issn.21865892.2022.38

Retrieved fromhttps://core.ac.uk/display/233128817

Iseno, K. (1991). Free writing instruction. Annual
Review of English Language Education in

Dickinson, P. (2014). The effect of topic-selection

Japan, 2, 73-82.

control on EFL writing fluency. Journal of Niigata
University of International and Information

Jacobs, G. (1986). Quickwriting: A technique forStudies, 17, 15-25.

invention in writing. ELT Journal, 40(4), 282-

https://cc.nuis.ac.jp/library/files/kiyou/vol17/17_d290. Retrieved fromickinson.pdf

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24925
2394

Elbow, P. (1998). Writing without teachers. New York,
NY: Oxford University Press.
PanSIG Journal 2023

82
Kobayakawa, M. (2011). Analyzing tasks in Japanese

47-64.

high school writing textbooks: English I, II, andhttps://koreatesol.org/sites/default/files/pdf_publi

writing. JALT Journal, 33(1), 27-48. Retrieved

cations/KTJ12-2web.pdf

from https://jalt-publications.org/files/pdfarticle/art2_14.pdf

Piper, C. (2015). Topic choice: Effects on written
fluency in second language free writing. Tsuda

Leblanc C., & Fujieda, M. (2012). Investigating effects
of topic control on lexical variation in JapaneseCollege…Retrieved fromhttps://core.ac.uk/works/70582404

university students’ in-class timed-writing.
Kwansei Gakuin University Humanities Review,
17. 241-253.

Rivers, D. (2007). Free-writing as an expressive
communication tool for Japanese English
Learners. The Language Teacher, 31(11), 9-12.

Li, L. Y. (2007). Exploring the use of focused
freewriting in developing academic writing,

Shiobara, F. (2014). Increases in writing fluency

Journal of University Teaching & Learning

through free-writing journals. Journal of thePractice, 4(1), 40-53. Retrieved fromFaculty of Letters, Kobe Shoin Women’s

http://ro.uow.edu.au/jutlp/vol4/iss1/5

University, 3(March 2014), 63-73.
https://shoin.repo.nii.ac.jp/?action=repository_uri

Muller, T. (2014a). Implementing and evaluating free

&item_id=1455&file_id=22&file_no=1

writing in a Japanese EFL classroom. In T.
Muller, J. Adamson, P.S. Brown & S. Herder(Eds.), Exploring EFL Fluency in Asia (pp.163177), London, England: Palgrave Macmillan.
Retrieved fromhttps://www.researchgate.net/publication/30498
7593_Implementing_and_Evaluating_Free_Writi
ng_in_a_Japanese_EFL_Classroom/
Muller, T. (2014b). Free writing in medical ESP:

Soars, L., & Soars, J. (2016). American headway
series. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Townsend, D. J. (2023). Preparing students foracademic writing: A first-year university writingclass. 2022 PanSIG Journal, 186191. Retrieved fromhttps://pansig.org/publications/2022/PanSIG_20
22_Journal.pdf

Exploring issues of research methods for intact
classroom research. Journal of Liberal Arts andScience University of Toyama, 42, 29-37.
Retrieved fromhttps://core.ac.uk/reader/84136915
Ohno, A. (2002). Considering strategies for teaching
English writing. Sōgō Seisaku Ronshū[Comprehensive Policy Collection], 2(1), 113118.
Ottoson, K. J., & Crane, P. A. (2017). Self-selected
topics vs. teacher-selected topics: The impact
on writing fluency. Korea TESOL Journal, 12(2).
PanSIG Journal 2023

83

Appendix
English Composition IB Class Free Writing Topics
There are six sets of question topics. Each set was used twice (once per week for two consecutive weeks) for a total of 12 free writing sessions.
Set 1: Hobbies, favorite game / sport, favorite movie
Set 2: School days, clubs, part-time jobs, favorite holiday
Set 3: Foreign country to visit, studying at university, favorite foodSet 4: Where you want to live, favorite book, school trips
Set 5: Weekend activities, favorite TV show, pets, animals
Set 6: Summer vacation, North Korea problem, celebrities

PanSIG Journal 2023

84

Error Analysis of EFL Expository Writing:
Implications for Pre-College Classrooms
Michael Yosef
Sophia University

Satoko Matsuo
Metropolitan Higashiyamato High School
This quantitative study provides an account of the grammatical error Japanese EFL senior high school learners make in expository
writing. The study adopts the Error Analysis (EA) approach and is based on the Surface Structure Taxonomies of errors. The
research examined errors in a corpus of 392 compositions from 280 students in an urban second-tier metropolitan senior highschool. The data were collected and analyzed using WordSmith Tools Version 8.0. Errors were identified and classified into
categories to analyze the data from a quantitative perspective. The findings revealed the common types of grammatical error
committed by participants and the frequency of their occurrence. The misuse or omission of prepositions and concord werecommon errors that were found. Other notable errors include punctuations, fragments and ambiguity. Pedagogical implications
are discussed in terms of providing remedial action to ensure effective teaching of these grammar components in high school EFL
writing contexts.

この定性的研究は、日本人の EFL 高校生学習者が説明的文章を書く際に犯す文法的誤りについて説明するものである。本研究は、誤用分析 (EA) アプローチを採用し、誤用の表層構造分類法に基づいてなされた。本研究では、中堅上位の都立高等学校の生徒 280 名によって書かれた 392 本の作文コーパスにおける誤用を調査した。データは WordSmith Tools Version 8.0 を用いて収集・分析した。定性的な観点からデータを分析するために、誤用を特定し分類した。その結果、被験者がよく犯す文法ミスの種類とその発生頻度が明らかになった。前置詞の誤用や省略、主語と動詞の不一致はよく見られる誤用であった。句読
点、断片的な表現、主語等が曖昧である表現なども目立った誤用であった。高等学校の EFL ライティングの授業において、これらの文法要素を効果的に学習指導する上での改善策の提案という観点から、その教育方法について論じる。

It is commonly accepted that English as a foreign
language (EFL) writing is gaining traction in many
Japanese language classrooms as more universities,
particularly national and top private universities, haveadopted essay components as part of their university
entrance examinations (Watanabe, 2016; Yosef, 2018;
Ikeguchi et al., 2023). Many faculties (e.g., law,economics, business) within each tertiary institutioncommonly include an EFL written component as part offiltering potential national and international applicants
who seek to gain placement into competitive programs.
There is thus an increasing demand placed on manyjunior and senior high school EFL teachers in Japan toprepare learners to manage this portion of university
entrance examinations. Second- and third-year highschool Japanese EFL teachers are required to prepare

learners in writing practices for high-stakes national andprivate universities entrance examinations (Hosoki,2011). Many assistant language teachers in senior highschools are frequently tasked to teach EFL writing toequip students in paragraph writings such as
formulating reasoned responses to expository
questions and creating short summaries from stateapproved English curriculum textbooks (Kobayakawa,2011).
As more attention should be given to teaching writing inhigh school classrooms, the contribution of this study tothe body of knowledge of EFL teaching and learning ofgrammar is believed to be valuable. This study aims at
exploring and analyzing the common errors made bysenior high school Japanese EFL learners in the context
of expository writing.
PanSIG Journal 2023

85This study investigated the following two researchquestions:
1. What are the types of grammatical error that students
make in expository writing?
2. What is the frequency of their occurrence in learners’
compositions?

Literature Review
Grammar study with a textbook is the most reported
type of study in multi-regional parts of Japan (Lockley etal., 2012) where 80% of lessons observed were spenton teacher-led grammar presentations in L1 rather thanfor activities where the grammar was practiced(Nishimuro & Borg, 2013). Using writing tasks from fivedifferent publishers of Japanese senior high school
textbooks (English I course textbooks, English II course
textbooks and Writing course textbooks), Kobayakawa(2011) examined the various writing tasks in thesetextbooks for these courses using comparative
quantitative analysis. Among the five writing course
textbooks series, three out of five senior high schoolstate-mandated textbooks (Crown, Pro-Vision, Unicorn,
Vivid, Big Dipper) emphasized grammar translation
while only two emphasized controlled writing in thetarget language (Ishikawa, et al., 2011; Sasahara, 2011;
Shimozaki, 2011; Watanabe, 2010). Textbooks tasks
and prompts are used as they are simple to execute interms of task design and instruction.
Several studies have been done on EFL high schooland pre-college learners’ written production (Alhaisoni
et al., 2017; Anakampun & Fithriani, 2023; Darus &Subramaniam, 2009; Hussain et al., 2021; Manokaran
et al., 2013; Okada, 2005). These studies investigateddifferent kinds of errors such as the absence of copula,subject-verb agreement, misuse of articles in the formof omission or insertion of definite and indefinite articles
and intralingual errors due to L1 transference in
misspellings.
In reviewing the literature, we found few studies thatinvestigated the errors made in expository writing by
Japanese high school students. Only one study
investigated the writing of Japanese high school
students (Kato, 2006). The data scripts underinvestigation were competition essays where selectedparticipants were allowed to do translations. More thanten years ago, researchers began noticing the trend.
However, since then, there have been few attempts byclassroom teachers to modify their teaching from anemphasis on grammar instruction to one on remedial
writing and calls for more writing instruction forJapanese high school students have been made inrecent times (Yosef, 2018; Cecilia, et al., 2023). Thereis little current research on how much expository writing
Japanese high school students are doing for university

entrance exams. As there are different kinds of errors
and variations in EFL learners’ writings, it is important
to investigate their written production, particularly incontexts where grammar translation pedagogy(Gorsuch, 2001) is adopted as a main teachingapproach where the learners’ spoken L1 andtranslanguaging pedagogy are used as the main
medium of foreign language instruction.

MethodThe Error Analysis (EA) approach which is based on the
Surface Structure Taxonomies of errors (Dulay et al.,1982) was adopted for this study. An error is an
idiosyncrasy in the language of the learner which is adirect manifestation of a system within which a learneris operating at the time and this is distinct from a mistake,which refers to a performance error that is either arandom guess or a “slip,” i.e., a failure to utilize a known
system correctly (Brown, 2007). The approach viewerrors as highly systematic and these errors served as
windows to learners’ development in EFL writing, and isindicative of the potential strategies used by learners totest their hypotheses about the nature of the language
form they are learning.

Participants
280 students (157 males, 123 females) from an urban
second-tier metropolitan senior high school in a major
city in Japan participated in this study. All participants
had experienced approximately ten years of educationin state elementary and junior high schools. Consent
was sought from the school and participants toparticipate in the research study.

Procedure and Instrument
Data in the form of 401 handwritten compositions ofapproximately 100 words were collected from 11th
grade students over a two-year period. Scripts with lessthan 80 words and had Japanese inscriptions (kanji
characters incorporated as part of sentence
constructions) were removed, and several scripts with
faint pencil writings were scanned and enlarged. There
were no scripts with complete breakdown incommunication. A final data of 392 scripts were typed
into Microsoft Notepad version 11.2. Errors wereidentified, coded and subsequently described according
to the steps in EA. The corpus consisted of two
composition prompts adapted from Dualscope (Kotera
et al., 2017), a state-approved English textbook forsenior high schools: ‘Are you for or against school
uniform in schools?’ and ‘Nowadays, many Japanesepeople are doing volunteer work. Do you think thenumber of these people will increase in the future?’.
Scripts were written during class time and were thus notplagiarized with generative artificial intelligence
applications.
PanSIG Journal 2023

86
Procedural analysis (Ellis, 1994) was adopted toanalyze the data from a quantitative perspective. The
data was analysed using a Windows-based lexical
analysis software, WordSmith Tools Version 8.0. The
errors were tagged and coded into error codes andclassified into categories (Table 1).

from four cultural settings – Indonesia, Malaysia,
Taiwan and Pakistan (Anakampun & Fithriani, 2023;
Darius and Subramaniam, 2009; Hussain et al., 2021;
Tseng, 2016).

Categories

Error
codes

Mechanical

E1

Misuse of punctuations

E2

Wrong forms of verbs

E3

Inappropriate use of capitalizations

E4

Concord

The errors committed by the Japanese high school
student writers highlighted in Table 1 can be grouped
into three broad categories: mechanical, grammaticaland structural. The mechanical category of errors
includes wrong forms of verbs, inaccurate usage ofpunctuations and inappropriate use of capitalizations.
The grammatical categories of errors include students’inability to apply the rules of concord, poor usage of
preposition, wrong tense usage and misuse of articles.
Structural forms of errors were limited to fragments andambiguity. Table 3 highlights the overall error
distribution.

E5

Wrong tense usage

Table 3

E6

Improper use of articles

E7

Incorrect usage of prepositions

E8

Ambiguity

E9

Fragments

Table 1
Error Codes

Grammatical

Types

Overall Error Distribution across Major Linguistic Categories
Category

Percentage

Grammatical

55.7%

Results

Mechanical

44.6%

The findings from the corpus data revealed nine typesof errors. These are grouped into three broad categories
which typified the participants’ compositions. Table 2
provides a description of the errors found in students’compositions.

Structural

11.7%

Structural

Table 2Error Types in Senior High School Students’ Expository Writing
ErrorsFrequency

Percent

Rank

Concord

179

21.5

1

Wrong forms of verb

137

16.5

2

Incorrect usage of prepositions

134

16.1

3

Wrong use of punctuations

100

12.0

4

Wrong tense usage

81

9.7

5

Fragments

73

8.8

6

Improper use of articles

53

6.4

7

Inappropriate use ofcapitalizations

50

6.0

8

Ambiguity

24

2.9

9

Total

831

100

Across the three categories of errors identified in theparagraph writings of Japanese senior high school
students, analysis related to the grammatical categoryof errors was the highest. Table 4 provides the rank
distribution of errors captured in this category. There
was a total of 447 errors, i.e., 55.7% of overall errors in
the data set relates to grammatical inaccuracies. The
highest frequency counts of grammatical errors relate to
subject-verb agreement while a third involves theincorrect usage of prepositions. Close to a fifth ofgrammatical errors found were misuses of articles insentences. Even though grammar errors accounted formore than half, punctuation also featured relatively highafter the grammar points among Japanese EFL learners
in this study. This is notably in contrast to theaforementioned studies from different cultural settings.
Table 4Overall Error Distribution across Grammatical Category

Concord recorded the highest frequency of errors in theparticipants’ expository writings. Wrong forms of verbs
and incorrect usage of prepositions recorded thesecond and third most dominant errors. This confirms
the findings of other researchers in which errors insubject-verb agreement and improper use of
prepositions dominated written texts of EFL learners

ErrorsFrequency

Percentage

Rank

Concord

179

40.0

1

Poor usage of prepositions

134

30.0

2

Wrong tense usage

81

18.1

3

Misuse of articles

53

11.9

4

Total

447

100

PanSIG Journal 2023

87Participants often failed to match plural nouns with theirquantifiers, as seen when "way" was incorrectly usedinstead of "ways," omitted plural forms in noun phrases,
and mistakenly paired plural verbs with singularindefinite pronouns like "everyone." In example 2,omission errors occur where a plural noun has to be
adopted but was omitted potentially due to writers not
adopting a generalized stance.
Table 5
Sample Errors Related to Concord and their Corresponding Accurate
Forms
Wrong usage of agreement

Accurate usage ofagreement

Prepositions

ErrorsTotal attempts

Rank

in

13

551

3

with

9

99

5

through

1

6

between

3

6

to

31

536

about

6

45

without

1

11

1

These omissions as noted in examples 5 and 6 led to
choppy sentences which compromised cohesion within
sentences, but not meaning-making.

1.

In my opinion, it is one of
the *way to prevent bullying.

In my opinion, this is one of
the ways to prevent bullying.

2.

So, I think that they should
help when *earthquake,*natural disaster andterrible *accident happens.

So, I think that they should
help when earthquakes,
natural disasters andterrible accidents happen.

Errors Related to Incorrect Usage of Prepositions

Third, when everyone *puton the uniform and schools
become good…

Third, when everyone putson the uniform and schools
will improve…

4.

It is because we do not*want waste time to choose
clothes.

It is because we do not want
to waste time to choose
clothes.

5.

For example, when the
Great East Japan
Earthquake disaster
happened on March 11 [sic]many people served asvolunteers *help for victims.

For example, when the
Great East Japan
Earthquake disaster
happened on March 11,
many people served asvolunteers to help thevictims.

6.

So [sic] people in Japan are*afraid this.

So [sic] people in Japan are
afraid of this.

3.

Table 7

Accurate usage of
prepositions

Wrong usage of prepositions

Misuse of prepositions was the second highest ranked
grammatical error. Of the 2008 attempts at using
prepositions in sentence formulations, the preposition`upon` was the least employed preposition, and `in` was
the most frequently chosen preposition. However, this
preposition exhibited a proportionally lower error countin comparison among sixteen types of recorded
prepositions. A detailed analysis of the data scripts
revealed the omission of `to`, frequently in the form of
to-infinitives in adverbial clauses, saw the highest
frequency count in this category. In examples 4 and 5
from the sample scripts, the to-infinitives were
frequently omitted in these adverbial clauses. The
preposition `for` is the second most frequent
prepositional error observed for omission while `of` was
the third most common prepositional error.

Mechanical errors accounted for close to half of total
error types (44.6%) made by students. Inaccurate formof verb usage is the most frequent mechanicalinaccuracy and is the second highest error count in theentire corpus. As evident in table 8, slightly more than athird of mechanical errors concerned punctuations whileclose to a fifth were related to incorrect use ofcapitalizations.

Table 6

Table 8

Common Prepositional Errors by Japanese EFL writers

Mechanical Category

Prepositions

ErrorsTotal attempts

Rank

from

11

32

4

at

2

by
duringErrorsFrequency

Percent

Rank

Wrong verb forms

137

47.7

1

55

Wrong usage of punctuations

100

34.9

2

3

62

3

2

Inappropriate use ofcapitalizations

50

17.4

3

before

1

3

Total

287

100

upon

1

1

of

13

354

3

for

30

148

2

on

6

97

These verb form errors relate to omission of copula
verbs and auxiliaries. The examples in Table 9 typifies
the recurring mechanical errors that were found in thedata set. In general, students seem to lack knowledge

PanSIG Journal 2023

88
in the use of the copula verb, ‘be’ in noun phrases andan effective use of auxiliaries in independent clauses.

Table 11
Errors Relating to Wrong Usage of Punctuations

Table 9Errors Relating to Wrong Forms of Verb and their Corresponding
Correct Forms
Wrong forms of verb use

Right forms of verb use

7.

However, I think volunteers*have to invite.

However, I think volunteers
have to be invited.

8.

Secondly, Olympic *will
held 2020 in Japan.

Secondly, the Olympics will
be held in 2020 in Japan.

9.

In contrast, if we are tochoose our clothes every
day, it *takes time.

In contrast, if we are tochoose our clothes every
day, it would take time.

There were many instances of capitalization errors
among students` scripts. Many students would
capitalize the first letter of the second word in their topic
sentences after a sequential or causal discourse marker
at sentence initials (example 10). These learners areunaware of spoken and written registries. Writers pen
their thoughts as though they were delivering speeches
and potentially misconstruing sequential discourse
markers as part of numerating a list of points; and uppercasing the first letter of the first content word without
differentiating between the beginning of a sentence
versus the start of an idea formulation. Another notableerror is the addition of capitalizations to general nouns
such as `school uniforms` and its omission in the caseof proper nouns in example 11.
Table 10Errors Relating to Wrong Forms of Verb and their Corresponding
Correct Forms

10.

11.

12.

Inappropriate use ofcapitalizations

Appropriate use

First, *Many people areinterested in volunteer work.

First, many people areinterested in volunteer work.

In conclusion, *The numberof volunteers won’t increase.

In conclusion, the numberof volunteers won’t
increase.

People who show interest to
volunteer are little [sic]among *south tofu highschool.

People who show interest
to volunteer are little [sic]among South Tofu HighSchool.

I think *School Uniforms
are necessary for students.

I think school uniforms
are necessary forstudents.

Inappropriate punctuations were a fairly common
occurrence with participants failing to include commas
after sentence initial discourse markers.

Inappropriate use ofpunctuations

Appropriate use ofpunctuations

13.

*Third volunteer work helps
people think about their
future jobs.

Third, volunteer work helps
people think about their
future jobs.

14.

It’s difficult to administer
without *volunteer’s help.

It’s difficult to administer
without volunteers’ help.

Table 12 provides a general overview of structural
errors found in students’ scripts. Out of the total 831
errors identified, only 97 (11.7%) relates to structural
category with fragments being the dominant error typein this category followed by ambiguity. Fragments areincomplete sentences with either a subject, verb orother parts of speech which have not been included tocomplete an idea. Ambiguity refers to a sentence which
has more than one interpretation assigned to one sign
as a result of not being explicitly defined (Elena, 2019).
Table 12Structural Category
ErrorsFrequency

Percentage

Rank

Fragments

73

75.2

1

Ambiguity

24

24.8

2

Total

97

100

In the context where the students were arguing for the
benefits of donning school uniforms and promoting
volunteerism among Japanese people, the controlling
ideas in the sentences, in examples 15 and 16, arewritten in point form as opposed to being fully expressed
as complete thoughts.
Table 13
Errors Relating to Wrong Usage of Fragments
Fragments

Complete grammaticalconstructions

15.

Second, *save money.

Second, we can save money.

16.

First, Tokyo Olympics*will be held.

First, the Tokyo Olympics will
be held in 2020.

Examples 17 and 18 are instances of ambiguous
sentences that concerns expressions with dangling
modifiers. These were scripts in which senior highstudents modified words that were not clearly stated.
The bold portion of the above sentences indicate
dangling modifiers. In example 17, the dangling modifier,“To have more volunteers for the Olympics” does nothave any explicit word that it modifies in the sentence.
It behaves as though it is modifying the head noun,“volunteers” of the main clause. Adding a subject within
the dangling modifier would potentially avoid ambiguity.
PanSIG Journal 2023

89
Alternatively, a new subject (we) which logically relates
to the modifier could replace the former subject(volunteer) in the main clause.
Table 14
Errors Relating to Ambiguity

17.

Ambiguous sentences

Disambiguated sentences*To have morevolunteers for the
Olympics, volunteers
should be paid.

For Japan to have morevolunteers for the Olympics,
volunteers should be paid.
or
To have more volunteers for
the Olympics, we should pay
volunteers

18.

*When addressing
people, news wasmade to get morevolunteers.

When the prime minister wasaddressing the people, news
was made to get morevolunteers.
orNews was made to get morevolunteers when the prime
minister addressed the people.
or
The prime minister addressed
the people and called for morevolunteers.

Discussion and Conclusion
As grammatical errors recorded the highest error countamong the three linguistic categories in this study, we
argue the grammatical section requires the mostattention in terms of focused teaching for pre-college
Japanese EFL expository writing. This study provides
some suggestions to curb these errors from frequent
occurrence.
First, classroom teachers should revise and devise
more targeted instructional materials to make teaching
and learning of grammar in expository writing more
effective with added emphasis on the teaching ofconcord and prepositions, so student writers would be
conversant with their applications. This can be done in
the form of noticing practices using true/false grammar
misconception worksheets with samples of accurate
and inaccurate sentences for explicit comparisons.
Second, during high-school vocabulary acquisition
classes, a new vocabulary word should be presented in
the form of a noun, an adverbial or a prepositional
phrase to enable learners to observe their collocative
use in prose. Learners can be tasked to construct theirown sentences in a notebook as post-class extensive
practices upon learning a set of eight to ten new
vocabulary; in addition, to the current routine classroom
vocabulary practices of rote memorization and testing
word meanings. Future state supplementary textbooks
would do well to invoke the use of comparison exercises
and practices of these common errors.

Additionally, language instructors can incorporate
extensive writing practices which use prepositional
phrases and complex sentences with targeted
dependent clauses that focuses on the following
prepositions: `to`, `of` and `for`. Dependent clauses
exercises which discriminate between two prepositionsin usage with a focus on grammar in the context of
expository language would be an appropriate remedy.
Lastly, our findings indicate less knowledge in what
constitutes a complete sentence in written expositions,making the case that pre-college EFL student writers
require further support in the use of capitalizations andpunctuations in cases of possessive nouns. Learners
should formulate their own construction of these words
and phrases to strengthen the form-meaning
connection from a word in silo to its use in a
sentence. This would promote within-sentencegrammaticality (i.e., the removal of potential errors due
to verb forms, omitted articles, fragments andinappropriate collocational forms) and registerawareness between spoken and written genres.
In sum, it is important to support learners with numerous
samples of written texts and practise extensive
sentence constructions after a vocabulary input has
been taught, so that the L1 equivalent input duringgrammar-translation dominant classes recedes as thetarget language words and their accompanying
syntactic structures are repeatedly encountered indifferent expository proses. Future research could
explore longitudinal studies on the impact of grammartranslation pedagogy and translanguaging pedagogy onerror frequency count in EFL written proses in similar
contexts.

References
Alhaisoni, E., Gaudel, D. R., & Al-Zuoud, K. M. (2017).
Article errors in the English writing of Saudi EFL
preparatory year students. Advances in
Language and Literary Studies, 8(1), 72-78.
https://doi.org/10.7575/aiac.alls.v.8n.1p.72
Anakampun, R. A., & Fithriani, R. (2023). An error
analysis of English recount texts written byIndonesian senior high schools’
students. Language Literacy: Journal of
Linguistics, Literature, and Language
Teaching, 7(1), 177-185.
https://doi.org/10.30743/ll.v7i1.7149

PanSIG Journal 2023

90
Brown, H. D. (2007). Principles of language learningand teaching. Pearson Education.

Ishikawa, S., Nakanishi, N., Hawkes, J.P., Isobe, T.,
Sanada, H., Masumi, A., Hataya, R., Aota, Y., &Nishioka, S. (2011). Big Dipper English

Darus, S., & Subramaniam, K. (2009). Error analysis ofCommunication II. Suken Shuppan.

the written English essays of secondary school
students in Malaysia: A case study. European
Journal of Social Sciences, 8(3), 483-495.

Kato, A. (2006). Error analysis of high school student
essays. Accents Asia, 1(2), 1-13.
https://www.accentsasia.org/previous-issues/

Dulay, H. L., Burt, M., & Krashen, S. (1982). Language
two. Oxford University Press.

Kobayakawa, M. (2011). Analyzing writing tasks inJapanese high school English textbooks:

Elena, B. (2019). Ambiguity matters in linguistics andtranslation. Slovo.Ru: Baltiĭskiĭ Akt͡sent [Baltic

English I, II, and Writing. JALT Journal, 33(1),27-48. https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTJJ33.1-2

Accent], 10(3), 81-93.
https://doi.org/10.5922/2225-5346-2019-3-6

Kotera, S., Hawkes, P. J., Kogata, T., Mimura, K.,
Herder, S.D., Iwamoto, M., Date, H., & Nagao,

Ellis, R. (1994). The study of second language
acquisition. Oxford University.
Gorsuch, G. (2001). Japanese EFL teachers'

Y. (2017). Dualscope English Expression II.
Suken Shuppan.
Lockley, T., Hirschel, R., & Slobodniuk, A. (2012).

perceptions of communicative, audiolingual andAssessing the action plan: Reform in Japanese

yakudoku activities. Education Policy Analysis

high school EFL. Electronic Journal of Foreign

Archives, 9, 10.

Language Teaching, 9(2). https://e-https://doi.org/10.14507/epaa.v9n10.2001

flt.nus.edu.sg/archive/v9n22012/

Hosoki, Y. (2011). English language education in

Manokaran, J., Ramalingam, C., & Adriana, K. (2013).

Japan: Transitions and challenges. Kyushu

A corpus-based study on the use of past tenseInternational University, 6, 199-215.

auxiliary "be" in argumentative essays of

https://kiu.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/272

Malaysian ESL learners. English Language

Hussain, Z., Saeed, M., & Zeb, S. (2021). An error
analysis of L2 writing of O-Level students in

Teaching, 6(10), 111-119.
https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v6n10p111

Pakistan. Asian EFL Journal, 28(1.3), 185-205.

Nishimuro, M., & Borg, S. (2013). Teacher cognition

https://www.asian-efl-journal.com/20212813

and grammar teaching in a Japanese highIkeguchi, C.; Cook, T., Grow, D., Takagi, N., Ochiai,N., & Otsu, R. (2023, Nov. 24-27). Towards aneffective implementation of EFL education inschool. JALT Journal, 35(1), 29-50.
https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTJJ35.1-2
Okada, T. (2005). A corpus-based study of spellingJapan [Panel presentation]. 49th JALT

errors of Japanese EFL writers with reference toInternational Conference on Language

errors occurring in word-initial and word-final

Teaching and Learning, Tsukuba, Japan.

positions. In V. Cook & B. Bassetti (Eds.),

http://tinyurl.com/4t72w96k

Second language writing systems. (pp. 164183). Multilingual Matters.
PanSIG Journal 2023

91
Sasahara, T. (2011). Vivid English communication II.
Daiichi Gakushusha.
Shimozaki, M. (2011). Crown English communication
II. Sanseido.
Tseng, C. C. (2016). Subsumable relationship amongerror types of EFL writers: A learner corpusbased study of expository writing at theintermediate. English Teaching & Learning,
40(1), 113-151.
https://doi.org/10.6330/ETL.2016.40.1.05
Watanabe, A. (2010). 2010 nendo koukou kyoukashosaitaku jyoukyou: Monkashou matome [Theselection of the textbooks for Japanese upper
secondary schools in 2010: The compilation by
MEXT]. Naigai Kyoiku, 5967, 4-11.
Watanabe, H. (2016). Genre analysis of writing tasks
in Japanese university entrance examinations.
Language Testing in Asia, 6(1), 1-14.
https://doi.org/10.1186/s40468-016-0026-8
Yosef, M. (2018, Nov. 23-27). Error Analysis inJapanese Students EFL Writing [Paper
presentation]. 44th JALT international
Conference on Language Teaching and
Learning, Shizuoka, Japan.

PanSIG Journal 2023

92

Critical Thinking Through Comparisons: Strategies From An EMI Course
Cecilia Smith Fujishima
Shirayuri University

Adrienne Johnson
Shirayuri University
This practice-oriented paper introduces strategies to develop critical thinking through comparison based on the authors’ teachingexperiences in an EMI course in a Tokyo university. The strategies are informed by an international movement to globalize
education, which has been adopted by the Japanese government and emphasizes using education to develop transferable or"generic" skills to facilitate international collaboration in an increasingly dynamic and uncertain future. Educators face novel
challenges in creating and adapting materials that develop these skills in addition to other requirements of the curricula. In light ofthis challenge, this paper aims to stimulate further research and dialogue about practical strategies that can meet the multi-leveled
challenges and requirements of shifting Japanese higher education. The paper focuses on the use of comparisons as one method
to improve conceptual development, media literacy, and activate higher order thinking skills.

日本語概要 この実践論文では、東京に所在する大学の EMI コースにおける著者らの指導経験に基づき、比較を通して批判的思考を育成するための戦略を紹介する。このストラテジーは、日本政府も採用している教育のグローバル化の動きから得たものであり、ダイナミックで不確実な未来において国際的な協力を促進するために、「ジェネリック・スキル（汎用的技能）」を育成するための教育である。教育者は、カリキュラムの他の要件に加えて、これらのスキルを開発する教材を作成し、カリキ
ュラムに適応させるという新たな課題に直面している。この課題に鑑み、本稿は、日本の高等教育が直面する多次元的な課題や要求に対応するための実践的な戦略について、さらなる研究と対話を促すことを目的とする。本稿では、概念的発展、メディア・リテラシーを向上させ、高次の思考スキルを活性化させる方法の一つとして、比較の活用に焦点を当てる。

As Japan adapts its higher education system to aninternationalizing world, English-medium instruction(EMI) is being adopted as one strategy to prepare its
students. 1 Despite compulsory English education
throughout the schooling system, many students havedifficulty taking content classes in English. Additionally,
government policy now expects universities to help
students develop transferable skills. This practiceoriented report is thus situated in an emerging space
where teaching conceptually demanding content
overlaps with the need to both scaffold students’language and facilitate skill development. First, we
provide background for Japan’s shift to globalized
higher education, in particular EMI classes and theacquisition of transferable skills. We then address
specific challenges for educators working in EMI in
Japan, especially at universities outside the “global
elite.” Next, we provide our rationale for and illustrate
1

Brown and Bradford (2017) distinguished EMI from Content Language
Integrated learning (CLIL) on the basis of pedagogy and whether language

using comparisons as a strategy to develop students'
language, content, and transferable skills with concrete
examples. We use various contemporary examples thatare familiar to Japanese students, from the personal to
the global, to engage and develop their critical thinking
skills. Our purpose is to provide concrete ideas foreducators working in similar contexts and develop
conversation on student-centered EMI courses,
particularly in the humanities and social sciences.

Background
EMI in Japanese Higher Education
Education in Japanese universities has been evolving
to meet the challenges of the 21st century. Since theearly 1980s, the Japanese government and businesses
have recognized the need to shift from a manufacturingbased to an information-based economy. Education too
was assessable. The ideas in this paper apply to EMI and CLIL
classes equally.
PanSIG Journal 2023

93
is shifting from “rote learning” to learning that helps
children “develop flexible and independent mindsets”(Yamanaka & Suzuki 2020, p. 82). Rather than simply
educating students in specific academic fields, theeducation system is now tasked with creating “global
human resources” who have the necessary skills toengage on the global stage, “the ability to step forward,”“think well,” and “work in a team” (Yonezawa 2014, p.
38). This reflects international goals set by UNESCO,
which call for an “open system of higher education tobuild bridges and promote partnerships around theworld” (O’Malley & Warden, 2022, para. 10).
In line with the trend towards internationalization, an
increasing number of institutions have begun offering
EMI courses, with 309 universities offering someEnglish-medium classes and 43 offering students thepossibility to graduate with only English-mediumclasses as of 2020 (MEXT, 2020, p. vii). Many initiatives
to promote EMI have been focused on elite universities
that can “lead the internationalization of Japanesesociety” (Rose & McKinley, 2018, p. 111).
However, research shows there is a significant gap
between the expected English levels of EMI students
and the English levels of the majority of Japanese
students entering university (c.f. Bradford, 2016;
Graham-Marr & Pellowe, 2016; MEXT, 2022). This
creates a struggle both for content teachers, whotypically lack training in language acquisition, as well as
for language acquisition teachers, who can be assigned
content classes in which they have no background or
qualifications. However, lack of English is not the only
barrier to successful EMI classes, a point we haveaddressed in previous research (Fujishima & Johnson2023) see also Bradford, (2019, p. 715). The obstaclethat is central to this paper is students’ lack of academic
skills.
In the EMI classes that we teach, irrespective of thelanguage being used, without scaffolding many
students have difficulty with academic skills; forexample, speaking out in class (communication); asking
questions, questioning information, and recognizing
bias (independent thinking); and supporting arguments
and presenting evidence (logical thinking). Although it isgovernment policy to have students develop these skills,
the onus is on universities and teachers to write
curricula that do so. In other words, EMI teachers are
not only dealing with content and language, but alsowith skill development. While there is considerable
literature addressing the difficulties of EMI, there
remains a gap in the literature about how to tackle thethree challenges simultaneously, particularly in East
Asian universities, and especially where students’English levels pose an obstacle to understanding. What
we have been attempting, therefore, is going beyond
the integration of language and content to explicitly

incorporate transferable skills into the curriculum. In theremainder of this paper, we illustrate one example of aconcrete strategy to this end. We introduce
comparisons as a way to develop students’ criticalthinking skills and ability to engage constructively in aninternationalized society.

Introducing Comparisons
The initial teaching of comparisons may not intuitively
seem like a step towards critical thinking. When
comparatives are introduced in Japanese junior highschool English textbooks, the context of the grammar
point tends to be used to express objective facts, withthe focus on the linguistic form and how to employ it.
For example, “The Amazon River is longer than the
Shinano River,” or “In our class, English is more popularthan science” (New Crown 2, 2021, p. 72). Alternatively,
comparatives are introduced as a way to express
preferences and trends: “This movie is older than thatone” (New Horizon 2, 2021, p. 85). Furthermore,comparison is located in the second lowest domain of
the 2001 revised Bloom’s taxonomy (Krathwohl 2002,
p.228), far removed from the top-level “create.”
However, systematic use of comparisons has richpotential for developing critical thinking, a skill that is nota goal in itself but rather a continuous process ofengaging actively with information (Scriven & Paul,
1987). Comparing serves as a crucial bridge,
connecting “lower- and higher-order skills” (Gerns, 2023,
p. 164), moving from simple accumulation of information
to “transfer,” or being able to make practical use of
information learned (looking forward, building upon
what was learned to create something new), an
indication of “meaningful learning” (Krathwohl 2002, p.
212). This aligns too with bridging the two proposedcomponents of critical thinking by Scriven and Paul,
namely the “information and … skills” and “the habit …
of using those skills to guide behavior” (1987, para. 1).
Comparisons further have been found to facilitate thedevelopment of “abstract and relational thinking” and“flexible habits of mind” (Gerns 2023, p. 164), thus
promoting skills required of contemporary, international
citizens.
More concretely, tasks comparing opinions provide an
opportunity for disagreeing constructively whereby
students can recognize and understand different
experiences, ideas, and perspectives, serving as afoundation for engaging internationally. Being able toengage with people with different backgrounds andvalues is particularly important in the Japanese context,
where differences and resulting disagreement cancause problems. This may have origins in the education
system, where students have reported a lack ofopportunity (or encouragement) to share opinions, ask
questions, or demonstrate independent thinking (Okada
2017).
PanSIG Journal 2023

94
Discomfort with disagreement potentially hinders bothstudents’ in-class learning and their ability to engage
constructively with society. For example, Kobayashi and
Viswat (2010) found that Japanese students in America
struggled to express their disagreements effectively,
even remaining silent rather than disagree out loud.
Harumi (2011) similarly found reticence among
Japanese EFL students towards expressing opinions,finding that the fear of difference was one possible
factor behind silence in the classroom. In the context ofreceiving study abroad students, Yamaguchi andKobayashi found Japanese student respondents(n=117) demonstrated a tendency to be “unable toaccept different cultures” (2020, p. 133). Classroomtasks that provide the opportunity to ‘normalize’
differences and stimulate curiosity can potentially help
to provide a firmer foundation from which students candevelop their international understanding andcommunication abilities, as well as their capacity forcritical thinking more generally.
The following examples, developed over the course of
more than four years of pedagogical collaboration,
introduce an incremental approach to using
comparisons to develop critical thinking skills.

Comparison Strategies
Comparisons at the Individual Level
In communicative classes, getting-to-know-you warmup questions are a common starting point. Questions
like “What train line do you live on?” “What is yourfavorite class?” help build rapport, provide an
opportunity to use meaningful English, and increase
student motivation. In junior high school, thesequestions are commonly used as grammar pattern
practice. In university classes, these questions can berevitalized by stressing that the purpose is not simply
answering the question, but to help students learn about
their classmates, broaden their perspectives, anddevelop English communication skills. Familiar
questions provide opportunities to notice similarities anddifferences.
Based on our years of experience teaching EMI classes,
students perform this kind of qualitative task better ifthey first think about their own answer and write it down
(usually for homework) before group discussion.
Designing class materials that explicitly provide spacefor both students’ own and their group mates’ answers
fosters a culture that is accepting of difference andencourages gathering diverse perspectives. This isparticularly pertinent in Japan, where interculturalcommunication consultants caution about disagreeing,
noting that “direct disagreement with someone caneasily be interpreted as not liking or not respecting him”
(Japan Intercultural Consulting, n.d.). Being able tooperate internationally, however, requires the ability todisagree.
Figure 1 shows how materials can be designed tofacilitate a constructive attitude to having different ideas.
Having students add detail to their answers, such as an
example,explanation,or
anecdote,enablescomparison beyond the answer itself. In exit cards,
students often reported interest in classmates having
the same idea but for different reasons.
Figure 1
Getting-to-Know-You Activity

As a follow-up activity to build upon the skills developedin simple getting-to-know-you activities, students canwork together to determine group answers to a new setof questions (Figure 2). This activity is more openended and students are required to develop their own
questions, discussing until consensus is reached. While
comparisons are more implicit in this case, it helps
students to build a bridge from similarities to differences
and increases students' level of comfort with differences.
Students have reported being motivated by discussions
where their classmates share different experiences andopinions.
Figure 2
Getting-to-Know-You Activity Expansion

In addition to filling in tables, students can use different
visualizations to compare. For example, graphicorganizers have been demonstrated to help students
process information (Praveen & Rajan 2013). For
comparisons, Venn diagrams can be useful to makesimilarities and differences more apparent. Figure 3
follows a task where students mind-map aspects of theiridentities.
PanSIG Journal 2023

95
Figure 3
Identity Venn Diagram

which centers on two competing and mutually exclusive
points of view, identifying the perspectives of
stakeholders provides students with an opportunity toidentify similarities, differences, and make decisions
that consider a range of perspectives.
Identifying and investigating the perspectives of various
stakeholders is a strategy that can be used to deepen
the understanding of issues in broader society,including the international sphere.

Comparisons for International Understanding

Recognizing individual differences helps create a baseto engage constructively with people from different
backgrounds and experiences. Moving beyond this,comparisons can also be used to focus on society,which we will explore in the next section.

Comparisons for Analyzing Society
Expanding comparisons of common features from theindividual level to the societal level provides anopportunity to progress from differences in people’s
preferences and experiences to differences inperspectives and standpoints. For example, students
utilize comparison to consider their own future as
members of the workforce, making personalconnections to broader society. In one assignment,
students are tasked with finding companies they arepotentially interested in working for in the future.
Students compare their own values, the values
emphasized in the EMI course, and the values statedon the company’s website. They then analyze possible
reasons for similarities and differences and assess theircompatibility. More recently, the authors have begun
assigning students to research lists of desirable skills for
new graduates and compare the findings with their own
skills and experiences.
Students also need to be able to engage with andconsider issues beyond the individual level. Making thisshift while maintaining a bridge to their own experiences
is a useful scaffolding tool. Comparing stakeholders’perspectives in familiar contexts, such as the university,
helps to train students to consider multiple perspectives,
encouraging them to de-center their own experiences.
For example, in an introductory class, students
identified different stakeholders at their university
including current students, teachers, ground staff, office
staff, cleaners, parents, and alumni, among others.
Despite potential similarities, their relative standpoints
are different. This was illustrated to students withhypothetical examples on-campus; for example, aproposal to change the university from single-sex to coed. The students chose four stakeholders and identified
possible perspectives of each group. Unlike debating,

Most students are limited by the news and media
around them, and thus view international events from aJapanese perspective. This is not necessarily a badthing; however, it is insufficient if students are to
become “global human resources” and develop a broad
perspective and capacity for critical thinking. Target 7 of
the Third Basic Plan for the Promotion of Education
specifies that the education system should cultivate
students who show “respect for other countries” with a“mindset to contribute to world peace and thedevelopment of the international community” (MEXT,
2018). Comparing Japan’s perspective to international
perspectives increases students' awareness of theircomplexity, helping them maintain a broader
perspective when studying international issues andinteracting with people from other countries.
One such activity is comparing government websites
about territorial disputes. Students were shown pages
from the websites of both the Japanese Ministry ofForeign Affairs and the South Korean Ministry ofForeign Affairs. The Japanese page features the title“Japanese Territory, Takeshima” and asserts that
“Takeshima is indisputably an inherent territory of Japan,
in light of historical facts and based in international law”
(MOFA Japan, n.d.). In contrast, the Korean site states“Dokdo, Beautiful Island of Korea” and explains that
“Dokdo is an integral part of Korea’s territory historically,geographically and under international law” (MOFA,
Republic of Korea, n.d.). After identifying the sources,
scaffolding the information through summarizing
sentences can help make the comparison clear (Figure
4).
Figure 4
Scaffolding Comparisons with Summaries

The goal of the task is not to establish the legitimacy ofeither claim, although students are encouraged to readthe details and supporting evidence for each. It instead
PanSIG Journal 2023

96
highlights the importance of researching widely andinterrogating issues from different standpoints. It also
encourages students to (re)consider established ideas
about the unshakeable reliability of information
published on the Internet, including official government
websites.

Comparisons for Domestic Understanding
Comparing differences in international perspectives canbe confronting for students; however, it is not usuallydifficult to grasp that different countries have different
perspectives. Moreover, without context, highlighting
differences between countries also runs the risk ofreinforcing negative stereotypes. Thus, in addition toshowing differences between Japan and other countries,
we also use comparisons to highlight the range ofperspectives within Japan. There are numerous politicalissues with distinct differences in Japanese domestic
political positions, such as nuclear power, United Statesbases in Japan, and changing Article 9 of theconstitution. Although Japan is often stereotyped as aplace where people gravitate to similar opinions, there
is no shortage of controversial issues which students
can explore through the use of comparisons.
In the same introductory class discussed above,
students were asked to look at the front page of six
different domestic newspapers reporting on the state
funeral of former Prime Minister Abe: the Yomiuri, Asahi,
Mainichi, Nihon Keizai, Sankei, and Akahata. The first
three newspapers were chosen as the major
newspapers read in Tokyo, where our university is
located. Nihon Keizai was chosen as the major
economics newspaper, and the Sankei and Akahata
were chosen as representing the right and left sides ofthe political spectrum, respectively. In the task, students
identify information in the newspapers using a grid(Figure 5) and then rank the articles in order from mostcritical of the state funeral to the most supportive using
evidence from the sources. Comparison tables can also
focus on other aspects such as who reported andpublished the information, when it was published, or
where it was published.
Figure 5
Newspaper Comparison Grid

Again, the goal of the task is not to assess the suitabilityof the state funeral, nor to make determinations about
Abe, his cabinet, or politics more generally. Rather, it is
to raise awareness of the diversity of opinions throughcomparison, highlight the need for using a variety ofsources, and pay attention to the differences therein.
This task also trains students to base their opinions onevidence. Although the English component of this task
is limited due to the use of Japanese-language
newspapers, at higher levels comparisons withinternational sources such as The Guardian, China
Daily (global), and Al Jazeera can be used to further
broaden perspectives. This also provides anopportunity to introduce students to English-language
news media resources.
To extend this task and consolidate the importance ofusing different sources, homework can be assigned
where students find the same news story reported indifferent publications and compare, either in students’first language or English. Understanding similarities anddifferences in accounts is a starting point for developing
media literacy.

Comparisons for Problem Solving
Developing critical thinking through comparison also
provides an inroad into problem solving, and comparing
and contrasting assumes greater importance whenapplied to real-life situations. In a class that compares
Japanese and Korean perceptions of history, students
were given a news story about the Japanese men’s
hockey team from the 2014 Asia Games. Although notrecent, the problem provides an accessible opportunity
for students to devise solutions for an international
problem. The Japanese national hockey team made a
goodwill visit to a South Korean school in conjunction
with the Asia Games. However, the players caused aninternational incident when they handed out Japan
Hockey Association badges that displayed a rising sun
flag, a symbol seen by many Koreans as a reminder ofJapanese occupation (AFP/Jiji, 2014).
The comparison task involves students thinking about
the goals of the Asia Games expressed in 1951 by the
President of India, Dr. Rajendra Prasad: “understanding
and friendship among all nations … will start a process
which … will go on cementing the friendly ties between
the peoples of Asia” (1st Asian Games 1951, n.d.).
Students consider the motivations of the Japanesehockey players giving out rising sun flags and comparethem to the reaction of Korean teachers who lodged acomplaint with the Japanese Olympic Committee. By
comparing the actions and intentions of both sides,
students can evaluate the suitability of the team’s
actions and develop alternative ‘win-win’ strategies thatcan develop friendly connections in line with theobjectives of the Asia Games. Moreover, the ability tothink critically and from various perspectives and look
PanSIG Journal 2023

97
for mutually agreeable solutions to international
problems is a key target of MEXT education reforms.

Bradford, A. (2019). It's not all about English! The
problem of language foregrounding in English-

Conclusion

medium programmes in Japan., Journal of

Expectations for Japanese higher education havechanged, aiming to prepare students for a world withcomplex problems requiring international cooperation tosolve. To meet these demands, educators, particularly
in EMI classes, need to develop strategies wherestudents simultaneously improve knowledge, thinking
skills, social skills, and language. Comparisons are one
strategy that can be used to help students developthese competencies. To date, comments from
graduating students support our belief that they are
improving through these interventions. However,
objective assessment of improvement in generic skills
remains elusive.

Multilingual and Multicultural Development,

The strategies introduced in this paper are the result ofan ongoing, collaborative process developed throughour own experiences teaching and engaging withstudents through systematic feedback, some of whichhave been covered in previous papers. Although what
we have presented are still works in progress, student
feedback, including exit cards, suggests these are
effective examples of engaging students throughcomparisons to develop their thinking andcommunicative abilities in an EMI course in a way thataligns with the MEXT goals for university students in the
21st century. We hope that this inspires further workand experimentation, and that these strategies help
contribute to future student and educator success.

40(8), 707-720.
doi:10.1080/01434632.2018.1551402
Brown, H., & Bradford, A. (2017). EMI, CLIL, & CBI:
Differing Approaches and Goals. In P.
Clements, A. Krause, & H. Brown (Eds.),
Transformation in language education (pp. 328334). Tokyo: JALT. https://jaltpublications.org/sites/default/files/pdfarticle/jalt2016-pcp-042.pdf
1st Asian Games 1951. (n.d.). Ministry of Youth Affairs
and Sports, India. Retrieved February 20, 2024,
from https://yas.nic.in/sites/default/files/
3881395440.pdf
Fujishima, C. S., & Johnson, A. (2023). A practicalpedagogical framework for internationalizing thecurriculum: Preparing students for aninternational society in an EMI course. Shirayuri
joshi daigaku kenkyū kiyō =The fleur-de-lis

References
AFP/Jiji. (2014, September 20). Handing out of Rising
Sun flag badges doesn’t go down well in S.
Korea. The Japan Times.
http://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2014/09/20/na
tional/handing-rising-sun-flag-badges-doesntgo-well-s-kore
Bradford, A. (2016). Teaching Content Through theMedium of English: Faculty Perspectives. In P.
Clements, A. Krause, & H. Brown (Eds.), Focus
on the learner (pp. 433-438). JALT. https://jaltpublications.org/node/4/articles/5420-teachingcontent-through-medium-english-facultyperspectives

review, 59, 127-158.
Gerns, P. (2023). Qualitative insights and a firstevaluation tool for teaching with cognitive
discourse function: “comparing” in the CLIL
science classroom. Porta Linguarum, 40(June),161-179. doi:10.30827/portalin.vi40.26619
Graham-Marr, A., & Pellowe, W. (2016). Taking aliterature circles approach to teach Academic
English. Journal of Language and Culture
Education, 4(1), 133-139. doi:10.1515/jolace2016-0011
Harumi, S. (2011). Classroom silence: voices fromJapanese EFL learners. ELT Journal, 65(3),260-269. doi:10.1093/elt/ccq046

PanSIG Journal 2023

98
Japan Intercultural Consulting. (n.d.). Beg to Disagree

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and– Handling Differences of Opinion. Japan

Technology (MEXT). (2022, October 2). Reiwa 4Intercultural Consulting: Japanese Businessnendo ‘eigo kyōiku jisshi jōkyō chōsa' gaiyō

Etiquette Guide. Retrieved February 14, 2024,[Overview of the FY2020 “English educationfrom https://japanintercultural.com/free-

implementation status survey”]. Retrieved

resources/japanese-business-etiquette-

February 14, 2024, fromguide/beg-to-disagree-handling-differences-of-

https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20230516-

opinion/mxt_kyoiku01-00029835_1.pdf

Kobayashi, J., & Viswat, L. (2010). Cultural

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andExpectations in Expressing Disagreement:

Technology (MEXT). (n.d.). Improvement ofDifferences between Japan and the United

Academic Abilities (Courses of Study).

States. Asian EFL Journal, 48, 4-12.

Retrieved February 16, 2024, fromhttps://www.asian-efl-

https://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/elsec

journal.com/PTA/Nov_2010_Kobayashi.pdf/title02/detail02/1373859.htm

Krathwohl, D. R. (2002). A Revision of Bloom's

Ministry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA) of Japan. (n.d.).

Taxonomy: An Overview. Theory into Practice,Takeshima. Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan.

41(4), 212-218.

Retrieved February 20, 2024, fromhttps://www.depauw.edu/files/resources/krathwo

https://www.mofa.go.jp/region/asia-

hl.pdfpaci/takeshima/index.html

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andMinistry of Foreign Affairs (MOFA), Republic of Korea.

Technology (MEXT). (2018, June 15). 4. Basic(n.d.). Dokdo, Beautiful Island of Korea. MOFA

Policy for Future Educational Policies. The Third

Republic of Korea. Retrieved February 20, 2024,

Basic Plan for the Promotion of Educationfrom https://dokdo.mofa.go.kr/eng/（Provisional translation). Retrieved February
20, 2024, fromhttps://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/lawa
ndplan/title01/detail01/sdetail01/1373820.html

Negishi, M., Takeuchi, U., Takahashi, S., Horita, T.,
Ikeno, O., Kudo, Y., Sannomiya, H., Sugimoto,K., Tanaka, T., Tsuda, M., Mochizuki, M., Hidai,
S., Imai, H., Hardy, T., Aoyagi, Y., Oshima, K.,

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andSakamoto, R., Shiina, K., Suzuki, S., Tanabe,Technology (MEXT). (2020). Reiwa 2-nendo noY., Nakamura, K. …Wada, T. (2020). NEWdaigaku ni okeru kyōiku naiyō-tō no kaikaku

CROWN English Series 2. Sanseido.

jōkyō ni tsuite (gaiyō). [Regarding the reform
status of educational content, etc. at universities
in 2020 (overview)].Retrieved February 14,
2024, fromhttps://www.mext.go.jp/content/20230117mxt_daigakuc01-000025974_1r.pdf

Okada, R. (2017). Conflict between Critical Thinking
and Cultural Values: Difficulty Asking Questions
and Expressing Opinions in Japan. Asian
Education Studies, 2(1), 91-98.
doi:10.20849/aes.v2i1.122
O’Malley, B. & Warden, R. (2022, May 25). Global‘Roadmap to 2023’ for higher education
PanSIG Journal 2023

99
announced. University World News.

Review of Japan University of Economics, 50(1),https://www.universityworldnews.com/post.php?

121-134. https://jue.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/1747

story=20220525095453173
Yamanaka, S., & Suzuki, H. K. (2020). Japanese
Praveen, S. D., & Rajan, P. (2013). Using Graphic

Education Reform Towards Twenty-First

Organizers to Improve Reading Comprehension

Century Education. In F. M. Reimers (Ed.),

Skills for the Middle School ESL Students.

Audacious Education Purposes: How

English language teaching, 6(2), 155-170.

Governments Transform the Goals of Education

doi:10.5539/elt.v6n2p155

Systems (pp. 81-103). Springer.
doi:10.1007/978-3-030-41882-3

Rose, H., & McKinley, J. (2018). Japan’s Englishmedium instruction initiatives and theglobalization of higher education. Higher
Education, 75, 111-129. doi:10.1007/s10734017-0125-1
Sasajima, J., Anno, K., Aakashi T., Arai T., Allen
Tamai M., Iizuka, K., Igarashi, H., Ikeda M.,
Ishinabe, H., Izumi, S., Isobe, F., Ichijou, A.,
Unno, K., Oi, K., Ouchi, Y., Osato, H., Oshita K.,
Oshima, H., Oshita, S., Ota K., …Peck, Brian(2021)…New Horizon English Series 2. Tokyo
Shoseki.
Scriven, M., & Paul, R. (1987). A statement presented
at the 8th Annual International Conference on
Critical Thinking and Education Reform,
Summer 1987. Foundation for Critical Thinking.
Retrieved February 15, 2024, fromhttps://www.criticalthinking.org/pages/definingcritical-thinking/766
Yamaguchi, Y., & Kobayashi, R. (2020). Nihonjin
gakusei to ryūgakusei no kōryū ni okeru ninchi
no zure ni kansuru kenkyū. [A study on the gap
in cognition in interactions between Japaneseand international students.] The Economic

PanSIG Journal 2023

100

Finding Meaning in Paintings: Promoting Critical Thinking Through Art
Mark Swanson
Yamaguchi Prefectural University
Art is under-utilized in the foreign language classroom and can be used to foster critical thinking (CT). Art has the power to elicit
deep thought and encourage the types of thinking that are essential for CT, such as asking thoughtful questions, exploring new
perspectives, and making connections. For this study a three-step process for analyzing artworks was created. For cultural
reasons, some Japanese students may feel reluctant to think independently, ask questions, and express their opinions in class.
This paper explores the use of art to develop students’ disposition to think independently, formulate questions, and share theirideas with classmates. The findings from student surveys that were carried out at the beginning and end of the semester will be
discussed.
アートは外国語の授業で十分に活用されていない。外国語の授業の中でアートはクリティカル・シンキングの育成にも活用できる。 アートには深い思考を引き出す力があり、クリティカル・シンキングに不可欠な、思慮深い質問、新しい視点の探求、
関連づけといった思考を促す。この研究では、美術作品を分析するための 3 つのステップを考案した。文化的な理由から、日本の学生の中には、授業中に主体的に考えたり、質問したり、意見を述べたりすることに抵抗を感じる生徒もいるが、本論文では、学生が主体的に考え、問いをもち、クラスメートと意見を交換する態度を養うために、アートを活用する方法を提案する。また、学期始めと終わりに実施した学生アンケートから得られた結果についても考察する。

Universities must prepare students for success in aworld that is being rapidly transformed by the forces ofglobalization and technological advancements. Against
this backdrop of accelerating change, critical thinking(CT) has been identified as an essential 21st century
skill (DiCerbo, 2014) that is crucial for success in the
global workforce (Liu et al., 2014), and is one of themost sought-after skills by employers (Pearson, 2021).
In 2013 the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology proclaimed, “What istruly needed in Japan is independent-minded learning
by individuals in order to realize independence,collaboration, and creativity” (MEXT, 2013, para. 1).
Kan Suzuki, a Special Advisor to MEXT, advises
educators to develop students’ abilities to think, makejudgements and express themselves in order to
respond to unfamiliar situations (Suzuki, 2018). In
recent years, many universities in Japan and overseas
are increasingly emphasizing CT as a core feature of
their curriculums. Natsumi Ikoma, Associate Dean of
the College of Liberal Arts at International Christian
University, describes CT as the foundation of liberal arts
education but cautions that critical thinking skills (CTS)
are only acquired through great effort and training(Ikoma, 2022).
The term CT is broad in scope, leaving many educators
unsure how to incorporate it into their courses. One

educational planning tool utilized by educators is
Bloom’s Revised Taxonomy (Anderson et al., 2001),
which classifies six different levels of thinking that canbe used to teach CT (Westbrook, 2014), particularly thehigher-order thinking skills (analyze, evaluate, create).
CT is difficult to teach (Persky et al., 2019), but it can beadvanced by a learning environment that encourages
students to engage in questioning, probing, applying,
analyzing, synthesizing, and evaluating (Brookfield,
2012, as cited in Zapalska et al., 2018).
Due to an educational system that often prioritizes rotelearning—in part to prepare students for university
entrance tests—many Japanese students may lackexperience using English in communicative tasks that
require higher-order thinking (Haga, 2018). Moreover,cultural forces can also play a role, such as a desire to
maintain group harmony, fear of standing out—or
ostracization—from the group, and strict hierarchicalrelationships. Whereas westerners in general highly
regard being different and possessing unique ideas,
Japanese may prefer to emphasize their similarities andseek to blend in with the group (Haga, 2018). Okada(2017) explains that some Japanese students may bereluctant to express ideas and ask questions in classbecause these activities clash with values that they
have been raised with, and adds that students are often
willing to accept what they are told by authority figures,such as teachers, rather than thinking for themselves.
PanSIG Journal 2023

101
Therefore, given that language and culture are
inextricably linked, Japanese students may feel freer to
ask questions and express opinions in Englishlanguage classes (Okada, 2017).

Art and Critical Thinking
Researchers in Japan (Mertens, 2019) and overseas(Bowen et al., 2013; Lampert, 2006; Tishman & Palmer,2006) have examined the use of art to develop CT.
Tishman and Palmer (2006) describe a number ofreasons why art is an effective classroom tool fordeveloping CT: 1) Art is complex, just like the real world;
2) Artists generally have a message to convey; and 3)
Art is open to multiple interpretations. Therefore, art
may be well suited for encouraging students to form avariety of ideas and interpretations to share withclassmates. Moreover, art provides a lessconfrontational context in which students can discuss
their ideas and opinions in comparison to more
emotionally charged topics such as social and politicalissues. Given that some students may feel uneasy
about sharing their ideas and opinions (for the reasonsdescribed above), it may be advantageous for students
to first build up their confidence by engaging in topics
that are intellectually stimulating yet comparatively
uncontroversial.
This study is intended as a preliminary phase in a multiyear research project to explore the use of art to develop
CT in the EFL classroom and seeks to obtain feedback
from students that can be used to modify and improvethe classroom activities for the subsequent academic
year. Furthermore, it examines students’ anxiety andattitudes towards discussing their ideas and opinions inEnglish with classmates. The primary researchquestions of this study are:
1. Will students feel more comfortable toexchange their ideas and opinions in English
with classmates after repeated engagementswith the art analysis activity?
2. Is the art analysis activity effective fordeveloping students’ disposition to formulatequestions?
3. Is the art analysis activity effective forencouraging students to think independently?

Art Analysis Activity Design
For this study, a three-step process (see Appendix A)
for analyzing artworks was created:•

Step 1: Observe: students objectively describe
what they see and what details they notice.

•

Step 2: Investigate: students write questions
about aspects of the artwork whose meaning
they wonder about.

•

Step 3: Interpret: students interpret themeaning of the artwork and their reasons forthinking so.

In addition to encouraging independent thought, thisactivity seeks to develop students’ disposition toformulate questions. The asking of questions propels
the thinking process forward and is thought to be aprecondition of being an effective thinker (Paul & Elder,2005). Moreover, this activity involves higher-order
thinking skills (analyze, evaluate) of Bloom’s Revised
Taxonomy as students must examine and question
various elements of the artwork in order to interpret themeaning as well as justify their interpretation with clear
reasons.
It is important to bear in mind that learners who possessparticular thinking abilities may not be disposed to usethem (Perkins & Tishman, 2022). Thinking abilities area necessary but insufficient condition for CT to occur
and it is useful to distinguish between thinking abilities
and thinking dispositions (Tishman & Palmer, 2006).
The latter is a, “tendency toward a particular pattern ofintellectual behavior” (Perkins & Tishman, 2022, para.
3) and are formed by routinely engaging in patterns of
behavior and thinking (Tishman & Palmer, 2006).

Methods
This study involved 59 first-year university students
from the Department of Intercultural Studies at
Yamaguchi Prefectural University (49 females and 10
males), with one exception being a second-year student.
These students are enrolled in the mandatory first-year
course titled Advanced English, which convenes twice
weekly for 90 minutes per session throughout the spring
and fall semesters. This research was conducted during
the fall semester, wherein students were divided into
three proficiency levels (A, B, and C) according to their
TOEIC scores from July. Placement into levels ranged
from highest scorers in Class A, to next in Class B, andfinally to Class C, with most participants scoring
between 400-700 on the TOEIC. The study’s
intervention, an art analysis activity, involved students
from the A and B levels, while the C level students
served as the control group.
The survey, conducted in Japanese, was distributed toboth the experimental and control groups at the start of
the fall semester, and again at the semester’s end, withextra questions added for the experimental group. In theexperimental group, 46 students responded to the initial
survey, and 47 to the final one. Notably, 41 students
completed both surveys. In the control group, 18
students participated in the initial survey, and 15 to thefinal one. Only 12 students completed both surveys.

PanSIG Journal 2023

102

Classroom Procedure
Students analyzed six different artworks throughout thesemester by completing the three-step worksheet andsharing their ideas with classmates in English. The six
teacher-selected artworks used for the activity were
“Separation” by Edvard Munch (1896), “New Kids in the
Neighborhood” by Norman Rockwell (1967), “At the
Crossroads” by Hugo Simberg (1896), “Girl Before a
Mirror” by Pablo Picasso (1932), “Beauty Viewing
Cherry Blossoms at Night” by Katsushika Oi (1850), and“The Therapist” by Rene Magritte (1937).
During the in-class procedure, each student received acolor printout of the artwork and the art analysis
worksheet, with approximately five minutes allocated tocomplete Step 1. During this step, students noted down
the objects and details observed in the artwork. The
teacher emphasized to students that for Step 1 theyshould not include their subjective thoughts, feelings orinterpretations but rather just focus on objectively
describing what they see in the picture. Next, students
were asked to share what they wrote with theirclassmate sitting next to them. Finally, the teacher
called on a number of students to tell the class one ofthe details that they noticed in the artwork.
For Step 2, students were instructed to formulatequestions regarding aspects of the artwork whose
meanings sparked their curiosity. First, the teacher
shared a couple model questions to help guide thestudents (e.g., Why is the bird cage door open; Why
doesn’t the bird fly out of the open bird cage?), and thenstudents were given time (approximately 5 minutes) towrite down at least four questions. Next, students
shared ideas with the classmate sitting next to them,and then the teacher called on a number of students toshare one of their questions with the class.

Next, students were instructed to discuss the threequestions with the classmate sitting next to them. After
having students discuss for a few minutes, the teacher
had students change partners so that they could
exchange their ideas with another classmate. This
process was repeated, and in total, students discussedwith approximately three or four classmates before
being asked to return to their seats. Next, the teacher
had the students ask their partner, “Who told you
something interesting?”, which gave the students anopportunity to share one of the interesting ideas ofinterpretation that a classmate had told them. Finally,
the teacher called on a number of students to share theirown ideas they wrote down for Step 3 with the class.

Results
Three of the survey questions are particularly relevantto this study’s examination of students’ anxiety andattitudes towards exchanging ideas and opinions withclassmates. Figure 1 shows students’ perceived anxiety
level when exchanging ideas and opinions withclassmates in English. In October, 75.6%, and in
February, 70.7%, of the students in the experimentalgroup answered ‘Yes’ or ‘Somewhat yes’ to feelingnervous when exchanging ideas and opinions in English.
Due to the wording of the question, it is unclear if
students who answered affirmatively to feeling nervous
did so primarily because the act of exchanging ideas
and opinions makes them feel nervous or whether theact of communicating in English makes them feel
nervous.
Figure 1
Student anxiety level when exchanging ideas with classmates inEnglishFor Step 3, students were given time (approximately 10
minutes) to write down their ideas about the meaning or
message of the artwork and their reasons for thinking
so. The teacher emphasized to students that there areno right or wrong answers and that there are often
multiple ways to interpret the meaning or message, sothey should feel free to write down more than one ideaof interpretation. While students were writing down theirideas for Step 3, the teacher wrote the following threequestions on the whiteboard:•

What do you think the meaning or message ofthe artwork is and why?

•

How does the artwork make you feel and why?

•

What do you like and dislike about the artwork
and why?

Next, Figure 2 shows students’ perceived feelings ofuncomfortableness about having ideas or opinions thatare different than their classmates. In the experimentalgroup, the most common answer in October was‘Somewhat no’, and in February it was ‘No’. In addition,in October 29.3% of students in the experimental groupanswered ‘Yes’ or ‘Somewhat yes’, and in February only
17.1%, indicating a slight shift.
PanSIG Journal 2023

103
Figure 2
Students’ level of uncomfortableness when having different ideas oropinions than classmates

Finally, Figure 3 shows student preference for having
the same or different ideas and opinions as theirclassmates. In the experimental group, in October
14.6% of students answered that they prefer it when
their classmates’ ideas and opinions are different thantheir own, and in February it rose to 51.2%. This
represents a notable shift from October to February.
Figure 3
Students’ preference for having the same or different ideas andopinions than classmates

Table 1 shows responses from the 47 students who
answered the extra survey questions that were added
for the experimental group. Notably, all of the students
perceived the art analysis activity as being valuable for
their learning. Moreover, 97.9% of students perceived
the activity as being effective for developing their ability
to formulate questions or to think more deeply. In
addition, 93.6% of students perceived the activity as
being helpful for improving their English ability.

Questions

Yes

Somewhat
Yes

Somewhat
No

No

Was the art activity in thisclass valuable for yourlearning?

51.1%

48.9%

0%

0%

Did the art activity in thisclass help you to improveyour English ability?

38.3%

55.3%

6.4%

0%

Was your interest in art
deepened through theactivities in this class?

53.2%

36.2%

6.4%

4.2%

If you have the chance inanother class to study
through art in a similar way,
would you like to do soagain?

48.9%

36.2%

10.6%

4.2%

Discussion
Regarding the first research question–whether students
would feel more comfortable sharing their ideas andopinions in English with classmates after repeatedparticipation in the art analysis activity–the data present
a nuanced picture. Figure 1 indicates minimal change instudents’ self-reported nervousness levels when
exchanging ideas and opinions in English. However,
Figure 2 reveals a shift in comfort levels with divergent
opinions: at the start, in October, 29.3% of students
reported feeling ‘Yes’ or ‘Somewhat yes’ to discomfort
with differing views from classmates, which dropped to
17.1% by February. Additionally, the percentage ofstudents confidently saying ‘No’ to discomfort rose from
24.4% in October to 53.6% in February. This trend
toward greater openness is further supported by Figure
3, where only 14.6% of students initially preferred whenclassmates had different ideas or opinions, a figure thatsignificantly increased to 51.2% by February.
These results suggest that through repeatedengagement with the art activities, some students may
have come to enjoy or appreciate it when theirclassmates had ideas different than their own. This iscorroborated by a number of the student survey
comments (paraphrased from Japanese into English),including:●

It was fun to listen to points of view that are
different from my own, and listening to myclassmates’ rich and stimulating ideas mademe think that they are so wonderful. It remindedme that I like to hear each other’s ideas and thateveryone has interesting ideas.

●

At first, I didn’t have interest in studying art andI assumed that everyone would have the sameideas as me and it wouldn’t be interesting, but
it reminded me that we all have different ideas
and opinions and that made the experienceenjoyable and meaningful.

Table 1Student Responses to Survey Questions that were Given only to theExperimental Group
Questions

Yes

Somewhat
Yes

SomewhatNoNo

Did you enjoy studying
through art this semester?

46.8%

42.5%

10.6%

0%

Did the art activity in thisclass develop your ability toformulate questions or tothink more deeply?

46.8%

51.1%

2.1%

0%

PanSIG Journal 2023

104●

Hearing various ideas from my classmates
broadened my perspective.

As to the second research question on whether the art
analysis activity was effective for developing students’ability to formulate questions, 97.9% of students
perceived the art activity as helping them think deeply
or formulate questions. However, the double-barreledsurvey question makes it impossible to interpret theseresults. Moreover, the students’ perceptions may notreflect any actual change. However, survey commentssuggest that the art activity may have been effective fordeveloping some students’ disposition to formulatequestions. Student comments include:●●

I could practice the act of finding things toquestion.
Because each classmate had different opinions,
it was rewarding to ask them many questions
and actively exchange opinions.

As to the third research question on whether the art
analysis activity was effective for encouraging students
to think independently, student survey commentssuggest that the art analysis activity may haveencouraged some students to think independently andto try to come up with their own ideas. Student survey
comments include:●

There is no correct answer, so it is easy to comeup with my own ideas.

●

Because there is more than one possible
answer, it forces me to think deeply.

●

I got in the habit of paying attention to small
details.

Rather than just looking at things in a straight-forward
way, it was fun to try to consider from various
perspectives and vantage points. My classmatesinspired me with their ideas which led me to think
deeper and deeper so I could also come up withinteresting ideas to share.

Conclusion
This study explores the use of art to help students
become more comfortable to exchange ideas andopinions with classmates, and to encourage students’
independent thinking and disposition to ask questions.
Due to limitations and shortcomings of the research
design, it is difficult to make definitive conclusions about
the effectiveness of the classroom activities. One
limitation is the small sample size, in particular thecontrol group. Secondly, the survey data is ordinal
which limits the analysis to descriptive statistics. Thirdly,
the survey included questions that were poorly worded.
In spite of these, and other, significant shortcomings,
the data obtained in this study can still perhaps reveal

useful insights. Overall, the students enjoyed the art
analysis activity, with a number of students specificallymentioning that they were impressed by the various
interesting ideas of interpretation that their classmatesshared with them. Furthermore, the survey commentssuggest that the activity may have been effective forhelping students to pay closer attention to details anddevelop the habit of asking probing questions. In
addition, some comments suggested that there being
no correct answer helped students to feel more
confident to share their unique ideas with classmates.
Finally, some students believed that studying throughart helped to improve their English proficiency by forcing
them to use vocabulary that they do not typically use,
including vocabulary for expressing emotions.
Based upon the student feedback, the author isconsidering new ways to further develop the classroom
activities for the next academic year. One change being
considered is to have the students (including theteacher) create their own original artwork to bring in toshare and discuss with classmates. Also, it may be
useful to develop follow-up activities that can broaden
and deepen the level of art analysis such as
supplemental materials that provide information about
the artist and the historical and social background inwhich the artwork was created, including its critical
reception at the time. Lastly, the author would like torefine the research design in order to investigate if
students’ ability or disposition to think critically wasdeveloped in a measurable way rather than simply
reporting the students’ perceptions. One idea being
considered is to design a task in which students are
asked to formulate critical questions about a news storyor current event. With this task, the author would like toexamine if students’ ability or inclination to ask criticalquestions is altered through repeated engagementswith the art analysis activity, as well as to test the claim
by Tishman and Palmer (2006) that CTS developed in
the context of analyzing art can transfer to non-art
contexts.

References
Anderson, L., Krathwohl, R., Airasian, P., Cruikshank,K., Mayer, R., Pintrich, P., Raths, J., & Wittrock,M. (2001). A taxonomy for learning, teaching,
and assessing: A revision of Bloom’s taxonomyof educational objectives. New York, NY:
Longman.
Bowen, D. H., Greene, J. P., & Kisida B. (2013).
Learning to think critically: A visual art
experiment. Educational Researcher, 43(1), 3744. doi:10.310 2/0013189X13512675
PanSIG Journal 2023

105
DiCerbo, K. (2014). Assessment and teaching of 21stPaul, R., & Elder, L. (2005). The miniature guide to the

century skills. Assessment in Education

art of asking essential questions. The

Principles Policy and Practice 21(4).

Foundation for Critical Thinking.

https://doi.org/1080/0969594X.2014.931836

https://criticalthinking.org/files/SAMQuestions2005.pdf

Haga, S. (2018). Critical thinking and discussions in a
Japanese university EFL setting. Language

Pearson (2021, January 8). Critical thinking: A lifelong

Teaching in a Global Age: Shaping theskill for success in an ever-changing world.

Classroom, Shaping the World. Tokyo: JALT

Pearson.
https://www.pearson.com/asia/insights-and-Ikoma, N. (2022). Critical thinking can lead to positive

ideas/english-and-employability/2021/01/critical-

appraisal of ideas. International Christian

thinking--a-lifelong-skill-for-success-in-an-ever-

University.

chang.html

https://www.icu.ac.jp/en/news/2201281 500.html
Perkins, D., & Tishman, S. (2022). Patterns of thinking:Lampert, N. (2006). Critical thinking dispositions as an

An investigation into the nature of critical andoutcome of art education. Studies in Art

creative thinking. Project Zero, Harvard

Education, 47(3), 215-228.

Graduate School of Education.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00393541.2006.1165008

https://pz.harvard.edu/ projects/patterns-of-

3

thinking

Liu, O. L., Frankel, L., & Roohr, K.C. (2014). Assessing

Persky, A. M., Medina, M. S., & Castleberry, A. N.

critical thinking in higher education: Current(2019). Developing critical thinking skills instate and directions for next-generation

pharmacy students. American Journal ofassessment. ETS Research Report Series,

Pharmaceutical Education, 83(2): 7033.

2014(1), 1-23.

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6

https://doi.org./10.1002/ets2.12009

448513/Mertens, C. (2019). Critical thinking skills in an EFL

Suzuki, K. H. (2018). Japan’s educational policy aimed

task at a self-access learning center. Journal of

at 2030. Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,

the Institute for Language and Culture, Konan

Science and Technology, Japan.

University, 23, 101-111.

https://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/othe

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andr/detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2018/09/11/1407998_02.pdf

Technology, Japan. (2013). The second basic
plan for the promotion of education. MEXT.

Tishman, S., & Palmer, P. (2006). Artful thinking:https://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/lawa

Stronger thinking and learning through thendplan/ title01/detail01/sdetail01/1373800.htm

power of art. Project Zero, Harvard Graduate

Okada, R. (2017). Conflict between critical thinking
and cultural values: Difficulty asking questions
and expressing opinions in Japan. Asian
Education Studies 2(1), 91-98.
https://doi.org/10.20849/aes. V2i1.122

School of Education.
https://pz.harvard.edu/sites/default/default/files/
ArtfulThinkingFinalReport-1.pdf
Westbrook, C. (2014). Using bloom’s taxonomy toteach critical thinking in unlock. Cambridge
PanSIG Journal 2023

106
University Press & Assessment.
https://www.cambridge.org/elt/blog/2014/05/07/u
sing-blooms-taxonomy-teach-critical-thinkingunlock/
Zapalska, A. M., McCarthy, M. D., Young-McLear, K.,& White, J. (2018). Design of assignments using
21st century bloom’s revised taxonomy model fordevelopment of critical thinking skills. Problems
and Perspectives in Management, 16(2), 291305.
http://dx.doi.org/10.21511/ppm.16(2).2018.27

PanSIG Journal 2023

107

Appendices
Appendix A: Three Step Process for Analyzing Art
Step 1
Observe: Describe what you see in the painting and what details you notice（観察： 絵に見えるものや気づいたことを書きましょう）

Step 2
Investigate: Write questions about things in the painting that you are wondering about（掘り下げ： 絵の中で疑問に思うことを質問形式で書きましょう）
A)
B)
C)
D)
Step 3
Interpret: Give your opinion about the meaning of this painting and your reasons why（解釈： この絵の意味について、あなたの意見とその理由を書きましょう）

Appendix B: Survey Questions in Japanese
Questions for both the experimental and control groups:
1. 絵画鑑賞が好きですか。
2. 美術館へ行くことが好きですか
3. 物事について深く考えることが好きですか。
4. 意味が曖昧なものや様々な解釈ができるものについて考えることが好きですか
5. クラスメートと英語で意見や考えを交換するとき緊張すると思いますか。
6. クラスメートと考えや意見を交換する時、クラスメートの考えや意見が自分の考えや意見と違うと気まずく感じると思いますか。
7. クラスメートと絵画について英語で考えを伝えたり意見交換をしたりするための十分な英語力があると思いますか。
8. 自分とクラスメートが同じ考えや意見を持っている方が好きですか、それとも違う考えや意見を持っている方が好きですか。
9. 英語の授業では、簡単な話題と難しい話題のどちらについてクラスメートと話し合うことが好きですか。
10. 日本語の授業では、簡単な話題と難しい話題のどちらについてクラスメートと話し合うことが好きですか。
Questions for the experimental group only:
11. この授業で絵画を用いた学習が自分自身にとって楽しかったと思いますか。
12. この授業で絵画を用いた学習を通して物事に対してより深く考える力や質問する力を身につけたと思いますか。
13. この授業で絵画を用いた学習は有意義だったと思いますか。
PanSIG Journal 2023

108
14. この授業で絵画を用いた学種が英語力を伸ばすことに役に立ったと思いますか。
15. 絵画をお用いた学習をすることによって、アートや絵画に関する興味が深まったと思いますか。
16. 今後の授業でアートや絵画を用いた学習をする機会があれば、また学習したいと思いますか。
17. 先生が指導の仕方をどのように変えれば、絵画を用いた学習がもっと役に立ったり、楽しみに思えたりすることができると思いますか。
18. 絵画を用いた学習について、他に先生に伝えたいことはありますか。

Appendix C: Survey Questions translated into English by the Researcher
Questions for both the experimental and control groups:
1. Do you like to look at fine arts?
2. Do you like to go to art museums?
3. Do you like to think deeply about things?
4. Do you like to think about things in which the meaning is vague or can have multiple interpretations?
5. Do you feel nervous when exchanging your ideas and opinions with your classmates in English?
6. Does it make you feel uncomfortable to share your ideas and opinions with classmates when your ideas and opinions are different from yourclassmates’?
7. Do you think that your English ability is sufficient to discuss about art with your classmates?
8. Do you prefer when your classmates have the same ideas and opinions or different ideas and opinions?
9. In English class do you prefer to discuss about easy or difficult topics with your classmates?
10. In a class in which Japanese is the language of instruction, do you prefer to discuss about easy or difficult topics?
Questions for the experimental group only:
11. Did you enjoy studying through art this semester?
12. Did the art activity in this class develop your ability to formulate questions or to think more deeply?
13. Was the art activity in this class valuable for your learning?
14. Did the art activity in this class help you to improve your English ability?
15. Was your interest in art deepened through the activities in this class?
16. If you have the chance in another class to study through art in a similar way, would you like to do so again?
17. What could the teacher do differently to make the art activity more effective or enjoyable?
18. Is there anything else you would like to tell the teacher about the art activity this semester?

PanSIG Journal 2023

109

Japanese High School Students’ Engagement in Online Global PBL
Mari Nakamura
MELEP (Mari’s English Language Education Port)

Student engagement is argued to be crucial for learning to occur, and research on student engagement has been attracting
attention in the field of foreign language education in recent years. This practice-oriented paper reports on how an online global
project-based learning project conducted at a private English language school affected the engagement levels of the participating
Japanese students. In the project examined in this study, a group of Japanese high school students engaged in project-basedlearning with a group of high school students at a national high school in Moldova for five months using online platforms. Throughanalysis of classroom observations, learning outcomes, a student questionnaire, and interviews, it was revealed that appropriate
theme selection, the presence of near peer role models, and delegation of responsibility to students had a positive impact on
student engagement. This study also shows the influence of students' self-efficacy and values on their levels of engagement.

学習者エンゲージメントは学びの実現に必須であると言われており、外国語教育研究においても近年注目を集めている。この実践報告では筆者の民間英語スクールで実施されたオンライン国際協働学習プロジェクトが日本の生徒のエンゲージメントに与えた影響を考察する。研究対象となったプロジェクトでは日本人高校生が 5 カ月に渡ってモルドバの国立高校の生徒とオン
ライン・プラットフォームを通してプロジェクト型学習に取り組んだ。授業観察記録、学習成果物、アンケート、インタビュ
ーの分析からは、適切なテーマ選択、ロール・モデルとなる仲間の存在、生徒への責任譲渡が生徒エンゲージメントに肯定的な影響を及ぼしたことが明らかとなった。また、生徒の自己効力感、価値観がその生徒のエンゲージメントに影響することも示唆された。

The role of student engagement in learning has been
discussed in the field of educational psychology andlearning theory since the 2000s (Fredricks, Blumenfeld& Paris, 2004; Mercer & Dörnyei, 2020). Recent
research suggests that high learner engagement has apositive impact on learning, with Sinatra, et al. (2015,p.1) describing student engagement as "the holy grail oflearning" and Ellis (2019, p.48) calling it "the major forceof learning."
Mercer and Dörnyei, researchers of motivation inlanguage learning, define student engagement as"active participation and involvement in certain
behaviors . . . in school-related activities and academic
tasks" (2020, p.2) and list two compelling rationales forteachers to prioritize student engagement in modern
second language learning.
The first reason is the accelerated proliferation of social
media and the vast amount of information andcommunication opportunities that distract students fromtheir studies. Mercer and Dörnyei (2020) argue thatsuch an environment makes it challenging for teachers
to increase and maintain student engagement and that

educators should carefully monitor their students’ leveland nature of engagement to ensure their learning
occurs.
Also, the characteristics embedded in foreign language
learning rationalize the teacher’s close scrutiny ofstudent engagement. Proficiency in a foreign language
demands active participation in purposeful interactions
in which learners must adeptly navigate linguistic gaps,
for example, by paraphrasing and asking for clarification.
Since the realization of high communicativecompetence requires students’ enduring commitment totheir own learning, teachers need to consistently
implement engaging tasks.
Furthermore, the Course of Study (Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2017a,
2017b, 2018), applied to public education in Japan
since 2020 advocates active learning in which students
engage in learning proactively, interactively, and deeply
to adapt to a rapidly changing society. This educational
policy makes it vital for educators in Japan to deepen
their understanding of student engagement and tocreate learning environments and tasks that enhance it.
PanSIG Journal 2023

110
Student engagement consists of four core elements thatinteract organically with each other: behavior, cognition,society, and affection (Philip & Duchesne, 2016; Sang
& Hiver, 2021). Behavioral engagement denotes theamount of time and participation in tasks. In foreign
language learning, behavioral engagement is thevoluntary involvement in utterances and initiatives inverbal exchange (Sang & Hiver, 2021). Cognitive
engagement refers to the students' mental effort inlearning which manifests itself in interactions such as
suggestions, hesitation, and repetition (Reschly &Christenson, 2012). Cognitive engagement is also
found in collaborative learning, such as exchanging
opinions, explaining, evaluating opinions, and providing
detailed information (Helme & Clarke, 2001). Social
engagement represents the interaction with others andis considered a key element of engagement in language
learning, which requires verbal exchange and mutual
support (Svalberg, 2009). Affective engagement
manifests itself in the form of student enjoyment,
enthusiasm, and anticipation, and is reinforced bypositive interactions between students and positive
relationships with teachers and peers (Sang & Hiver,2021). This affective aspect has been reported toincrease behavioral, cognitive, and social engagement(Baralt, et al., 2016). Of the above four factors, thesocial and affective features are particularly importantfor young and adolescent learners who have a strong
sense of belonging to the community and whose peers
have a significant impact on their learning (Philip &Duchesne, 2016).
Global project-based learning (PBL), which is examinedin this paper, involves a project in which “students
consider issues both globally and locally throughdialogue and collaboration” (Kurita, 2019, p.5). In theseprojects, each student investigates issues relevant totheir lives and forms new perspectives, while thinking
critically and communicating over an extended period oftime with both classmates and students from othercountries with different cultural backgrounds. In addition,
they face several problems arising from geographicaland physical limitations that can be resolved throughconstructive
discussions.
Becauseof
thesecharacteristics of global PBL projects, it could beconcluded that they have the potential to stimulate
students’ behavioral, cognitive, affective, and social
engagement. Therefore, I embarked on this study to
examine how one of such projects at my private English
language school has affected the Japanese students’
engagement.
In this article, I first describe the online global PBL
project between high school students in Japan andMoldova. The description is followed by my data-basedreflection as a teacher about what impact this project
had on Japanese students’ engagement. This paper

concludes with a discussion of the limitations of thisstudy and future implications.

Overview of the Online Global PBL Project
The online global PBL project reported in this paper isorganized by the International Education and Resource
Network (iEARN). It is called One Day in the Life inwhich “students exchange photographs/images
describing days in their lives, and then make crosscultural comparisons" (iEARN, n.d.). The participants
were eight 1st-year and 2nd-year high school students
at my private online language school in Kanazawa City,
Japan, and nine 3rd-year high school students
attending a national school in Nisporeni Town, Moldova.
The exchange period was from October 2021 to
February 2022 during which the students researchedand discussed four themes: (a) love, (b) family, (c)school, and (d) the balance between freedom and order.
They exchanged their opinions asynchronously on the
online bulletin board Padlet (see Appendix A) and also
had two real-time virtual meetups on the online videoconferencing platform Zoom for further discussions.
An English teacher at the high school in Moldova and I
started to plan the project one month prior to the launchof the project via email. We agreed to allocate one
month to each theme mentioned above to make thecontent of this project in line with the English study
curriculum at the Moldovan school. Although the choiceof themes was constrained by the prescribed curriculumat the high school, we attempted to foster learnerautonomy by providing them with as many opportunities
as possible to make decisions by themselves while on
this project.
After a one-month self-introduction phase, the students
engaged in research and discussions on the main
themes in each school while interacting with theirinternational peers through essays, photos, videos, andcomments on the online exchange bulletin board. In fivemonths, there were 49 submissions from Japan and 33
from Moldova. During this period, Japanese students
had online classes every other week and engaged inresearch and discussions about the four themes. They
also had opportunities to exchange their researchfindings and opinions on a separate online bulletinboard that was set up for in-class collaboration. Hourlong virtual meetups between Moldovan and Japanese
students were held on Zoom at the end of November
and February. The first session was planned andmoderated by the Moldovan students, whereparticipants from both countries delivered detailed
presentations on the topics of love and family, which led
to thorough discussions. In the second session, theJapanese students took charge of the planning andmoderation, engaging the whole group in conversations
about the topics of school life and the balance between
PanSIG Journal 2023

111
freedom and order, proceeding in a similar fashion to
the first.

Teacher Reflection
To gain insights into how this online global PBL project
has affected the Japanese students’ engagement, I
analyzed the video recordings and teacher reflection
notes of Japanese students’ in-class behaviors,interactions among students on the online bulletinboards, the video recordings of virtual meetups, thepost-project questionnaire of eight Japanese students,
and post-project interviews with four of them. Both thequestionnaire and interviews were conducted inJapanese, the native language of the students.
The questionnaire conducted anonymously consists of
12 multiple-choice questions, each followed by acomment section. One separate section for any further
comments was also provided. The multiple-choicequestions covered the elements that affect thestimulation and retention of student engagement(Mercer & Dörnyei, 2020): task level (Question 1),
interest (Question 2), boredom (Question 3), surprise(Question 4), value (Question 5), cognitive load
(Question 6), collaboration (Question 7: in-class andQuestion 8: with international peers), opportunities for
active participation (Question 9), growth-mindset(Question 10), opportunities for reflection (Question 11),and teacher interventions (Question 12). In Question 13,
students were given the opportunity to write theirreflections freely. Finally, they were asked if they would
be willing to participate in the interview based on thequestionnaire responses, to which six students agreed.
The anonymity of these students in the questionnaire
was thus lost.
The permission to use the data for this study was given
in written forms by the partner country’s teacher, theJapanese students, and their guardians. The option of
not participating in the survey was also given to theJapanese students.
Throughout the project, students were observed to be
actively involved in their tasks. The data gathered fromboth the post-project questionnaire (see Appendix B)
and interviews revealed that they themselves assessed
this project as engaging: matching their needs, interests,
and values, thus offering abundant opportunities fordeep thinking and collaboration. The following are four
noteworthy findings from the analysis of in-classobservations, students’ work, the questionnaire, andinterviews.

Appropriate Theme Selection
As mentioned above, we selected the collaboration
themes in line with the English curriculum of the partner
school. Based on the data collected during the project
and from survey results, it became clear that the degreeof engagement of Japanese students differeddepending on the theme. Regarding the school theme,
Japanese students expressed strong affective andcognitive engagement (e.g., I hate ..., ... so Japanese
schools should...) and offered their own uniqueinterpretations of the school culture in Japan on the
online in-class bulletin board. Additionally, on the online
exchange bulletin board, all the students extensively
contributed detailed comments analyzing andcomparing the school cultures between the twocountries. Through their language choices (e.g., I wasparticularly impressed with …, I’m envious of you that…, I think … because …), it is apparent that they wereactively engaged in the discussions on this topic
behaviorally, cognitively, affectively, and socially.
Also, in the virtual meetup, some students leaned inwhile listening to the presentations of the Moldovan
students and raised their hands to ask questions
voluntarily, showing a high level of behavioral and social
engagement. In the comment section of the post-projectquestionnaire, seven students mentioned that the unit
theme of school life was of particular interest to them(Question 2), and one student added a short essay tothe survey response to express his critical view on
Japanese school culture in comparison with that of
Moldova. This indicates the student's deep cognitive
engagement in this unit of study.
While all the students said that the themes matched orsomewhat matched their interests (Question 2) in thequestionnaire, it was observed that there was low
engagement for the theme of love. They discussed theinterpretation of the lyrics of a love song, but in the classdiscussion, there were comments such as "I haven't
thought about it, so I don't know," and "I can't imagine."
The students’ posts on the online exchange bulletinboard and their comments to their Moldovan partners’
posts were short, and none of the students hadcomments or questions during the presentations madeby their international peers at the virtual meetup. Being
asked about the choice of themes in the interview,
Student B, who chose “somewhat agree” for Question2, said, "I think I would have been able to exchange
opinions more actively if my classmates and I had
chosen the themes of our interests," and Student C,
who also chose “somewhat agree” for Question 2, said,"I felt that I was just following the instructions given by
my teacher while on the themes that I was not interested
in."
Mercer and Dörnyei (2020) assert the critical role ofreal-life relevance in maintaining student engagementwith learning content. They argue that learners
demonstrate greater curiosity towards topics they
already have some familiarity with, while showing lessinterest in unfamiliar ones. The variation in engagementlevels observed across different themes in this study
underscores the significance of selecting relevant
themes for global project-based learning.

Near Peer Role Model
As mentioned earlier, the first virtual meetup between
the two schools was planned and moderated by
Moldovan students and the second, by Japanese
PanSIG Journal 2023

112
students. The Japanese students were surprised by the
positive attitude and communication skills of the
Moldovan students during the first meetup. During awhole-class discussion in their reflection lesson after
this meetup, six of them stated that they wanted toemulate them. The Japanese students prepared for andmoderated the second meetup collaboratively without
my intervention, and all of them were willing to makesuggestions and ask questions, showing higher levelsof behavioral, cognitive, and social engagement than
before. Student A, who ran for the role of the moderatorof the second meetup and worked enthusiastically, left
the following feedback in the reflective essay after the
first meetup:
The Moldovan students were not only eager tocommunicate but also prepared for the meetingvery carefully to make our exchange meaningful.
At the next meetup, I want to be prepared tohave more discussions about school so that I
can relax and express my opinions more
actively. It's okay to make mistakes because we
can learn something new from our mistakes.
Student D, who volunteered to be the moderator of thecultural exchange lesson with a Ukrainian student held
after this project, explained in the post-project interview
that he wanted to try it himself because Student A wassuccessful in this project. At the post-project interview
Student C said that he worked hard at the exchange
lesson with the Ukrainian student to contribute as muchas Moldovan students did during the global PBL project.
Student E said that seeing the Moldovan students
engaging in critical thinking made a positive impact on
her essay writing studies in her Japanese class.
Murphey (1998) argues that witnessing a respectable
near peer role model from a similar cultural backgroundand age experiencing success in English language
learning leads to increased motivation, and several
empirical studies in second language acquisition haveconfirmed this effect (e.g., Dörnyei & Murphey, 2003;
Murphey & Arao, 2001). Furthermore, Mercer andDörnyei (2020) argue that simply observing their peers’
successful learning promotes student engagement. The
findings of this study strongly suggest that exemplary
students in the partner country as well as in the sameclass have exerted a notable positive impact on theJapanese students’ engagement during the project aswell as on their subsequent learning.

Teacher Intervention and Group CohesivenessIn the questionnaire, all the students gave positive
evaluations of teacher intervention (Question 12). From
the reflective essays, responses to the questionnaire,
and the interviews, it became clear that the students
found it particularly effective that I gave the students
autonomy over the second virtual meetup; they
independently handled both the planning session andthe event itself. In the planning session, the students
were responsible for deciding on the content of themeeting, taking into account the Moldovan students’English skills, interests, and wishes, as well as their own,
and the time and technical constraints. In the interview,
Student E revealed that being the moderator at theplanning session pushed her to think in new ways,
which suggests her high level of cognitive engagement.
Regarding the virtual meetup, Student F stated that "ourteacher was able to create more opportunities for us to
speak freely than usual at the meetup by notencouraging us to ask questions or make comments,"
and Student G wrote, "we were able to take the initiative
because the teacher entrusted us with the moderator
and the timekeeper" in the comment section of thequestionnaire. It can be thought that this task requiring
independent action under pressure aroused their
willingness to engage. In the post-meetup reflection
essay, Student A, who served as the moderator, wrote:
What a great time we had! We did everything
well from preparation to discussion. Everyonein the classroom was active from start to finish!
Without you all, I wouldn't have had such a
special experience. Let's learn not only English
but also about society by imagining that we willmeet our friends in Moldova again!
Seven other students also used the collective pronoun"we" in their reflective essays expressing their gratitude
to their classmates. However, similar expressions were
not observed in the essays after the first virtual meetup,
which was prepared and moderated by the Moldovan
students.
The above findings indicate that tackling the challenging
tasks of preparing and facilitating the second meetup
and solving problems through collaboration played an
important role in heightening their cognitive and social
engagement. Furthermore, this, in turn, promoted groupcohesiveness which has been posited to bolster overall
engagement (Fredericks, 2014; Mercer & Dörnyei,2020).

Self-Efficacy and Values
Even though Japanese students’ positive attitudes wereobserved throughout this project, the post-projectreflections and questionnaire revealed that individuals’
self-efficacy and values influenced their self-evaluationof engagement in the project. Student H, who chose“somewhat disagree” for Question 9 (active
involvement) in the survey, wrote the following in thecomment section: "I was not confident in myself, and I
thought that it would be better for others to saysomething, not me. I thought my classmates would
learn more that way." He chose the option, "not sure,"for Questions 1 (task level), 5 (value), and 10 (growthmindset). In response for Question 1, he stated, "I don't
know if this project was good for me because there werewords I could not understand.” For Question 5, he wrote"I don't want to get a job where I have the opportunity totalk with native speakers in the future." Although thisstudent is as proficient in English as other students,
approximately at the CEFR B1 level, in his post-project
PanSIG Journal 2023

113
reflective essay he wrote, "I think I need to be more
confident in English. I'm not good at English.”Research suggests that student engagement is
influenced not only by the learning context but also by
the individual's self-efficacy and the value they find inlearning tasks (Bandura, 1984; Bong, 2001; Schunk &Mullen, 2012; Wang & Mercer, 2021). It can beassumed that Student H's low self-efficacy and low
perceived value of learning English negatively affected
his engagement in this project.

Conclusion
This paper examined the impact of an online global PBL
project on the engagement of Japanese high school
students. Teacher reflection, informed by the collected
data, revealed that this project had a positive effect on
student engagement. It provided students with ample
opportunities for autonomous learning, where they
could think critically and solve problems throughcollaboration, which aligns with my initial hypothesis. In
particular, the discussion of themes relevant to
students' lives and the interaction with peers exhibiting
positive attitudes and strong communication skills wereobserved to be effective in promoting all thefundamental aspects of student engagement,
encompassing behavioral, cognitive, social, andaffective dimensions. Moreover, empowering students
with responsibilities such as task design and virtual
meetup facilitation promoted cognitive and social
engagement while fostering group cohesion. Although
this project yielded positive outcomes in terms of overall
student engagement, it was suggested that students’low self-efficacy and lack of perceived value in English
language learning could negatively affect their
engagement. This observation underscores theinherent limitations that teachers face in influencing
students' commitment to their own learning.
Since the above conclusions are based on the analysis
by the practitioner-researcher who was involved in thepresent project, subjective interpretations of datacannot be disregarded. Additionally, it should be notedthat the findings in this report based on the study
conducted at a private language school do notnecessarily apply to other learning contexts.
Regarding the importance of student engagement,
Sang and Hiver (2021, p.17) state that "language
learning is a long sometimes arduous journey that
requires devoted effort to the process of learning.” As
the pandemic that began in 2020 has accelerated online
learning and the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology of Japan promotes exploratory
learning using project-based learning and digital tools(2017a, 2017b, 2018), my hope is that research on theimpact of online global PBL on student engagement will

be conducted in public school classroom settings inJapan.

References
Bandura, A. (1984). Recycling misconceptions ofperceived self-efficacy. Cognitive Therapy andResearch 8, 231–255.
doi.org/10.1007/BF01172995
Baralt, M., Gurzynski-Weiss, L., & Kim, Y. (2016)Engagement with language: How examining
learners’ affective and social engagement
explains successful learner-generated attention
to form. In M. Sato and S. Ballinger (Eds.), Peer
interaction and second language learning:
Pedagogical potential and research agenda (pp.
209–240). John Benjamins.
doi.org/10.1075/lllt.45.09bar
Bong, M. (2001). Role of self-efficacy and task-value inpredicting college students' course performanceand future enrollment intentions. Contemporary
Educational Psychology 26(4), 553-570.
doi.org/10.1006/ceps.2000.1048
Dörnyei, Z., & Murphey, T. (2003). Group dynamics inthe language classroom. Cambridge University
Press. doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511667138
Ellis, N.C. (2019). Essentials of a theory of language
cognition. The Modern Language Journal 103(S1), 39–60. doi.org/10.1111/modl.12532
Fredricks, J.A. (2014). Eight myths of student
disengagement: Creating classrooms of deeplearning (2nd ed.) Corwin Press.
doi.org/10.4135/9781483394534
Fredricks, J.A., Blumenfeld, P.C., & Paris, A. H.
(2004). School engagement: Potential of theconcept, state of the evidence. Review of
Educational Research, 74(1), 59–109.
doi.org/10.3102/00346543074001059

PanSIG Journal 2023

114
Helme, S., & Clarke, D. (2001). Identifying cognitive
engagement in the mathematics

https://www.mext.go.jp/content/1384661_6_1_3.
pdf

classroom. Mathematical Education Research
Journal, 13, 133–153.
doi.org/10.1007/BF03217103

Murphey, T. (1998). Motivating with near peer rolemodels. In B. Visgatis (Ed.), JALT ‘97: Trends
and Transitions, 201–205. JALT.

International Education and Resource Network. (n.d.)
One day in the life. iEARN.
https://www.iearn.org/cc/space-2/group-6

Murphey, T., & Arao, H. (2001). Reported beliefchanges through near peer role modeling. TeslEj, 5(3), 1–15.

Kurita, T. (2019). iEarn no kokusai kyoudou gakushu
towa nanika - kokusai kyoudou, project

Philip, J., & Duchesne, S. (2016). Exploring

gakushuu, shutai teki, taiwateki de fukai manabi,engagement in tasks in the language classroom.

global competence no shiten kara [What is

Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 36, 50–

global PBL learning of iEARN: from the

72. doi.org/10.1017/s0267190515000094

viewpoint of global collaboration, project-basedlearning, agentic, interactive, deep learning, andglobal competency]. jEARN Report, 2019, 2–7

Reschly, A.L., & Christenson, S.L. (2012). Jingle,
jangle, and conceptual haziness: evolution andfuture directions of the engagement construct. In

Mercer, S., & Dörnyei, Z. (2020). Engaging language

S. L. Christenson, A. L. Reschly, and C. Wylie

learners in contemporary classrooms.

(Eds.), Handbook of research on student

Cambridge University Press.

engagement (pp.3–20). Springer.

doi.org/10.1017/9781009024563

doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-7_1

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andSang, Y., & Hiver, P. (2021). Engagement andTechnology. (2017a). Shogakkou gakushuu

companion constructs in language learning:

shidou youryou heisei 29 nen kokuji kaisetsu

Conceptualizing learners’ involvement in the L2[Elementary School Course of Studyclassroom. In P. Hiver, A.H. Al-Hoorie & S.

Guidelines] .

Mercer (Eds.) Student engagement in the

http://www.mext.go.jp/content/1413522_001.pdf

language classroom (pp.17–37). Bilingual
Matters. doi.org/10.21832/9781788923613

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology. (2017b). Chugakkou gakushuu

Schunk, D. H., & Mullen, C. A. (2012). Self-efficacy as

shidou youryou heisei 29 nen kokuji kaisetsu

an engaged learner. In S. L. Christenson, A. L.

[Junior High School Course of StudyReschly & C. Wylie. (Eds.) Handbook of

Guidelines].

research on student engagement (pp. 219–235).

https://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/edu

Springer. doi.org/10.1007/978-1-4614-2018-

cation/micro_detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2018/05/

7_10

07/1384661_5_4.pdf
Sinatra, G.M., Heddy, B.C., & Lombardi, D. (2015).
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and

The challenges of defining and measuring

Technology. (2018). Koutougakkou gakushuu

student engagement in science. Educational

shidou youryou heisei 30 nen kokuji kaisetsu

Psychology 50, 1–13.

[High School Course of Study Guidelines].

https://doi.org/10.1080/00461520.2014.1002924

PanSIG Journal 2023

115
Svalberg, A. (2009). Engagement with language:
Interrogating a construct. Language Awareness,18(3–4), 242–258.
doi.org/10.1080/09658410903197264
Wang, I. K. H., & Mercer, S. (2020). 14
Conceptualizing willingness to engage in L2
learning beyond the classroom. In P. Hiver, A.
H. Al-Hoorie & S. Mercer. (Eds), Student
engagement in the language classroom.
(pp.260–279). Multilingual Matters.
doi.org/10.21832/9781788923613

PanSIG Journal 2023

116

Appendices
Appendix A: A Sample of the Online Exchange Bulletin Board on Padlet

Appendix B: Post-Project Questionnaire Result - Students’ Perception of Engagement
Questions
1. The project matched my knowledge and ability.
2. The themes in this project matched my interests.
3. There were some occasions when I felt bored.
4. There were some occasions when I was surprised.
5. I felt this project was valuable for me.

agreed6(75%)

somewhatagreedsomewhatdisagreeddisagreed

not
sure

1

0

0

1

(12.5%)

(0%)

(0%)

(12.5%)

5

3

0

0

0

(62.5%)(37.5%)

(0%)

(0%)

(0%)

1

1

5

1

0

(12.5%)(12.5%)(62.5%)(12.5%)

(0%)

1

4
(50%)

2

1

0

(12.5%)(25%)(12.5%)(0%)

7(87.5%)

0

0

0

1

(0%)

(0%)

(0%)

(12.5%)

6. There were opportunities for deep thinking such ascomparison and problem solving.

5

3

0

0

0

(62.5%)(37.5%)

(0%)

(0%)

(0%)

7. There were opportunities to collaborate with myclassmates.

5

2
(25%)

1

0

0

(62.5%)(12.5%)

(0%)

(0%)

8. There were opportunities to collaborate with Moldovan
students.

1(12.5%)

000(87.5%)

(0%)

(0%)

(0%)

1
(12.5%)

2
(25%)

0
(0%)

(0%)

1
(12.5%)

2

0

(25%)

(0%)

3
(37.5%)

1(12.5%)(0%)

9. I participated in the tasks actively.

75(62.5%)

10. I felt I could grow through my efforts during this project.

2
(25%)

11. There were opportunities for reflection.
12. My teacher’s intervention was appropriate.

0

4

2

1

(50%)

(25%)

(12.5%)

0

6
(75%)

2
(25%)

0

0

0

(0%)

(0%)

(0%)

Note. n=8
PanSIG Journal 2023

117

Do Textbook Dialogues Represent Pragmatically Appropriate Language Use?
Chie Kawashima
Oyama Johnan High School

This study explores the most recently published ministry approved EFL textbooks used in Japanese high schools to determine
the representativeness of pragmatic language use in the model conversations. These model conversations are examined
regarding the interactional features of dialogues and contextual factors such as speaker-hearer power relations, social distance,
and intensity of the situation alongside the information about language use. The findings reveal missing features of these model
conversations along with the potential in providing learners with the opportunities to practise pragmatically appropriate languageuse. The study also discusses the challenges of solely relying on textbook information to develop learners’ pragmatic competence.
Consequently, bridging the gap between language use in textbook conversations and authentic interactions is suggested asnecessary for improving learners’ pragmatic language skills in their target language.

本研究では、最近出版された日本国内の高等学校で使用されている英語の検定教科書に紹介されているモデル会話を調査し、学習者がどの程度語用論的適切な言葉遣いを練習することができるかを明らかにした。この調査は、言葉のやり取りの特徴ならびに話し手と聞き手の関係や対話の状況を含むコンテクストや言葉遣いに関する説明の有無に焦点を合わせて実施をした。
結果として本研究は、学習者が語用論的適切な言葉遣いを練習するうえで、教科書のモデル会話が欠如している点及びその可能性とを明らかにした。しかし、教科書に記されている情報に依存するのみでは学習者の語用論的な言語能力の改善は困難であるという考察もなされた。最後に、学習者が語用論的適切な言葉遣いを習得するためには、教科書の言語情報とオーセンテ
ィックな会話との隔たりを埋める必要性が示唆された。

Pragmatics is a study of speaker meaning andcontextual meaning or communicative action in its
social context, and pragmatic knowledge is helpful for
successful communication in everyday interaction in an
L2 (Kasper, 1997; Yule, 1996). Developing pragmaticability is one of the most significant goals for learners ofEnglish as a foreign language (EFL). Pragmaticcompetence appears in theoretical models ofcommunicative competence, involving both knowledgeof L2 grammar and the ability to use this system in
actual communication (Taguchi, 2012).
In Japan, the instructional goals of foreign language
learning at the secondary education level set by the
Ministry of Education and Science (MEXT) are to
improve the students’ ability to use, not just to know
about, the target language. The overall objectives of the
English section of the Course of Study in Japan haveemphasised “communication abilities,” and the goal isfor the students to achieve the level where they canappropriately communicate information and ideas.
Recently, substantial revision of authorised EFL
textbooks has been made based on the guideline of the
new Course of Study (2018), which was implemented in

2022. In these textbooks, detailed linguistic information
has been replaced with model conversations includinginteractive activities. This study explores the mostrecently published Japanese high school EFL textbookswith regards to representation of pragmatic knowledge
in the model conversations.
Although textbooks play a key role for pedagogical input
and to practice the language use in foreign language
instruction (McGroarty & Taguchi, 2005; Sheldon, 1988),
there are a number of difficulties for teaching pragmatic
language use. Most published textbooks for language
learning are written according to the authors’ intuitions
and are not designed to incorporate pragmatics intoclassroom instruction (Ishihara, 2022; Nguyen, 2011).
Grant and Starks (2001) argued that textbook materials
rarely present natural spoken discourse, wherestudents can acquire pragmatic competence. Morerecently, Rover (2022) also noted a gap between atextbook dialogue and an authentic conversation,
stating the necessity of the models of appropriate
language use in different contexts for EFL learners topractise. Nevertheless, textbooks may be the only
source for language instruction, especially in EFL
PanSIG Journal 2023

118
contexts, and textbook evaluation helps language
teachers to select appropriate materials providing ideason the way to identify the strengths and weaknesses ofa particular textbook (McGroarthy & Taguchi, 2005;
Nguyen, 2011).

EFL textbooks may lead learners to short and direct
answers. They suggested the necessity that classroom
instruction should provide learners with the opportunity
to interact more naturally and appropriately without
turning their interaction into an interview.

A textbook dialogue typically includes a model for a new
language feature and a simple sequential organisation
can be used for instructing social actions to novice-level
EFL learners, although it may not be completely
appropriate for instructing pragmatic language use(Rover, 2022). Sequence organisation involves the way
social actions are initiated and how the participants
respond to them, e.g., the use of delay or mitigation for
dispreferred actions, and thus learners need to beaware of how to initiate/terminate or to shift the topic
within a conversation (Nguyen & Canh, 2019). In
addition, topic management as such is frequently madewith the use of pragmatic markers (Wong & Waring,2010). The use of pragmatic markers is grammatically
optional but pragmatically essential (Brinton, 1996).

In addition to interactional features of model
conversations, contextual information may be an
important element for the choice of language use interms of politeness, formality, and (in)directness.
Contextual factors such as speaker-hearer power
relations, social distance, and the degree of intensity ofthe situation have an influence on language use(Ishihara, 2022). However, numerous studies haveobserved the dearth of contextual factors in dialogues
presented in ELT textbooks. Shimizu et al. (2007) found
an absence of information regarding politeness inJapanese high school EFL textbooks. Similarly, Tranand Yeh (2020) observed the underrepresentation ofinterlocutors’ relations in conversational samples inVietnamese EFL textbooks for the pragmatic effect.
Mizushima (2016) found the lists of decontextualized
example sentences for instructing social actions inJapanese high school EFL textbooks titled “English
Expression”. The outcomes of these studies implied the
difficulty in developing EFL learners’ pragmaticcompetence without providing contextual information.

However, in many cases, model conversations in EFL
textbooks are not authentic enough for learners topractise everyday interactions. Pitaksuksan and
Sinwangsuwat (2020) investigated the interactionalfeatures of Thai secondary school English textbooks
and noticed the sequential structures were mostly goal
driven oriented with conversations terminated abruptly.
At the same time, they found lack of dispreferred
responses, opening/closing sequences, and repair
structures, which are prevalent in naturally-occurring
conversations. They suggested that more examples of
those structures in different contexts could be provided
to develop learners’ pragmatic competence.
Interactive practice of language instruction may
sometimes focus on exercising grammar structures.
Bartlett (2021) found the EFL instruction their
participants received in high school was heavily focusedon grammar translation methods in spite of the MEXT
guideline of improving learners’ communicative skills intheir target language. Glasgow and Paller (2019)
observed over 50 percent of the tasks in English
Expression I textbooks used in Japanese high schools
were mechanical practices with limited opportunities forlearners to practise impromptu speaking skills. Similarly,
Carroll (2016) pointed out the purpose of practicing
grammar structure in the dialogue may cause ateachers’ requirement for a full-sentence response to
the question in a conversation practice even when the
responses with lexical or phrasal units are more
preferable to answer wh-questions. Oda-Sheehan(2020) stated that learners’ simple answers to polar
questions such as “yes, I do. / No, I don’t” may be rooted
in EFL textbooks’ grammar focused exercises.
Furthermore, Bury (2020) pointed out the problem that
predominates question-answer format conversations in

Additionally, contextualised explanation of language
use is often included in metapragmatic information,
which is a necessity of formal instruction (Ishihara,2022). Metapragmatic awareness allows learners tomake an appropriate choice of language use (Glasgow,
2008; Ishihara, 2022). Ishihara (2022) argued learners
are unlikely to develop pragmatic awareness merely
exposed to authentic use of language without
metapragmatic information. Nevertheless, information
about appropriate language use in context has been
underrepresented in EFL materials. Shimizu et al.
(2007) found a lack of metapragmatic information as tothe degree of formality in Japanese high school EFL
textbooks although different linguistic forms for speechacts were present. Nu (2018) also found a paucity of
metapragmatic information in upper-secondary level
EFL textbooks used in Vietnam, and stated that thesetextbooks were designed solely to practise language
functions. Similarly, Tran and Yeh (2020) pointed outthat information about language use in Vietnamese EFL
textbooks focused mainly on semantic or syntactic
features of English, which was summarised indecontextualised boxes without details of language use
situations. Moreover, Ren and Han (2016) observed
limited information about pragmatic language use inuniversity level EFL textbooks used in China and statedthat teachers should be aware of a wide gap between
the real needs for EFL learners and what was provided
in the textbooks.

PanSIG Journal 2023

119
As mentioned above, the dearth of pragmatic input in
EFL textbooks has been observed in numerous studies
and developing learners’ pragmatic competence might
be difficult solely relying on these materials. This study
investigates model conversations presented in two
recently published Japanese secondary-level EFL
textbooks with regards to interactional features and how
contextual factors alongside information about
language use are represented. The aim of this study is
to determine missing features relevant to teachers andpotentials for developing learners’ pragmaticcompetence in the materials. The paper will seek toanswer the following three research questions:
Q1. What are the features of model conversations
presented in the selected textbooks?
Q2. Are contextual factors s as speaker-hearer relations
alongside the degree of the intensity provided inthese model conversations?
Q3. What information about language use is provided ineach model conversation?

MethodData collection
The data used in this study were model conversations
presented in two most recently published Japanesehigh school EFL textbooks authorised by MEXT, Vista(Textbook A) and All Aboard (Textbook B), as shown in
the Appendix. The target users of these textbooks aremainly vocational high school students, who mostly
begin work after graduation. For these students, highschool English classes may be the last opportunity toundergo formal instruction of foreign language. The
textbook selection was made based on the informationon the top-selling EFL textbooks provided by sales
representatives from textbook publishers.

Data analysis
To conduct the analysis of the interactional features
within the model conversations, several key aspects
were examined. These included: a) Quantifying thenumber of turns within each conversation; b) Assessing
the frequency of questionless initiations; c) Categorising
the types of responses to questions, such as whether
they comprised full sentences or extended answers,
and d) Scrutinizing the utilization of pragmatic markers.
This preliminary investigation took into account several
considerations: a) The question-answer format
prevalent in textbooks often elicits concise and direct
responses (Bury, 2019); b) Conversational grammar
exercises commonly mandate full sentence responses(Carroll, 2016); c) Recognising the intent of a question
and responding with more extensive answers, even to
closed questions, may align more closely withpragmatic appropriateness and politeness (Oda-

Sheehan, 2020). d) The strategic deployment of
pragmatic markers is instrumental in maintaining
coherence in speech and fostering effective interlocutor
relationships (Archer et al., 2012).
Subsequently, the focus of the investigation shifted
towards contextual factors. Specifically, an examination
was conducted to ascertain whether the model
conversations provided indications of the interlocutors'
relative power dynamics, social proximity, and theintensity of the situation. These factors were deemed
influential in shaping linguistic choices concerning
politeness, directness, and formality. Simultaneously,
the nature of the interlocutors’ relations was categorised
into distinct types: a) Close-Equal, akin to thosebetween friends or siblings, b) Close-Unequal such as
those between parent and child, c) Distant-Equal
primarily observed in service encounters, and d)Distant-Unequal typical of interactions between teacher
and student or doctor and patient.
Finally, the study examined whether the model
conversations provided explicit information regarding
language use. Any identified linguistic cues wereclassified into various types based on the keywords
employed. Ultimately, a comparative observation
between the two textbooks was made, highlighting theirrespective strengths and weaknesses in representing
pragmatic features of language use.

Results
Interactional features of model conversations
The total number of 35 model conversations in textbook
A and 27 in textbook B were identified respectively.
Table 1 shows the number of turns of each model
conversation in each textbook. Overall, these model
conversations were short without opening/closing
sequences and repair mechanisms. The majority of
those presented in textbook A involve five turns (19/35)
whereas those in textbook B included only two turns(16/27). Interestingly, the number of turns of those in
textbook A was mostly an odd number with the first
speaker’ initiation and closure. In textbook B, on theother hand, the number of turns was an even number ineach model conversation.
Table 1The Number of Turns involved in each model conversation
No. of Turns

Textbook A (35)

Textbook B (27)

2

4

16

3

9

0

4

1

6

5

19

0

6

2

5

PanSIG Journal 2023

120
A limited number of questionless initiations in model
conversations in each textbook were present. The total
number was four out of 35 in textbook A and one out of
27 in textbook B. Question-answer format was
predominantly used in these two textbooks. Moreover,preferences for the use of full-sentence responses wereobserved. The number of full-sentence responses
identified in textbook A was 26 out of 35 and that in
textbook B was 25 out of 27. As for giving longer
answers to closed questions, which is pragmaticallymore appropriate, the responses in 13 out of 35 model
conversations in textbook A involve longer answers
whereas the number of those in textbook B was only 7
out of 35. Some of them overlapped with full-sentence
responses. Additionally, 14 out of 35 model
conversations in textbook A used pragmatic markers
while a pragmatic marker was used only in a single
model conversation in textbook B.
The following examples display typical interactionalfeatures of model conversations presented in these two
textbooks. The conversation in Example 1 wasextracted from textbook A. The first speaker made aquestionless initiation, and ended the interaction with areaction to the second speaker’s response, where theresponse/reaction marker of oh was used. “Your turn” inthe parenthesis was prepared for textbook users topractise a conversation.

Example 1 (Vista, p.31)
Mike: I called you at eight last night but you didn’t
answer.
(Your turn): Sorry I was watching TV.
Mike:

Oh, were you?

Another model conversation extracted from textbook A
is shown in Example 2. The first speaker initiated theinteraction with a closed question. The second speakercan choose one of the responses in the parentheses.
Both responses were consisted of longer answers not
simply “Yes, I do / No, I don’t” and a full-sentence
response to the second question followed. This
interaction ended with the first speaker’s assessment of
the second speaker’s response.

Example 2 (Vista, p.73)
Mr. Brown: Do you have a cleaning robot at home?
(Your turn): (Yes. It’s convenient. / No, I don’t need one).
Mr. Brown: What kind of robot would you like to have?
(Your turn):

I’d like to have a robot for (doing myhomework / taking my tests / practicing
English).

Mr. Brown: What a good idea!

Example 3 is a typical example of model conversationsin textbook B. This model conversation may be
prepared to practise the syntax structure of past tense.
The first speaker initiated the interaction with a whquestion and the second speaker’s response was a fullsentence answer using past tense.

Example 3 (All Aboard, p.27)
A: What did you do last night?
B: I watched TV.
A typical interview-like model conversation in textbook
B is shown in Example 4. The first speaker kept asking
wh-questions and the second speaker was using a full
sentence to respond to each of the first speaker’squestions. At the same time, this model conversation
might be provided to practise to-infinitives such as “wantto.”
Example 4
Jun: Where do you want to go next summer?
Sam: I want to go to Okinawa.
Jun: Why do you want to go to Okinawa?
Sam: Because I like _____.
Jun: What do you want to do there?
Sam: I want to _____in the _____.

Contextual factors
The number of model conversations with contextual
factors in Textbook A was 34 out of 35 and that in
textbook B was 8 out of 27. Table 2 displays the numberof those provided with the speaker-hearer relations ineach textbook. Almost all the model conversations in
textbook A were provided with contextual factors of
speaker-hearer relations. In textbook B, on the other
hand, such information was included only in a limited
number of model conversations. They were all CloseEqual relations such as friends, which also prevailed in
textbook A. In addition, Distant-Equal relations inservice encounters were identified in four model
conversations, and the remaining eight model
conversations included Distant-Unequal speakerhearer relations of teacher-student. None of thesemodel conversations in either of the textbooks provided
a high degree of intensity, where polite/indirect
language use is required.
Table 2
Speaker-hearer Relations Provided in Model Conversations
Speaker-hearer relations
Close-Equal

Textbook A (34)

Textbook B (8)22

8PanSIG Journal 2023

121
Close-Unequal

00Distant-Equal

40Distant-Unequal

80Note: The number in each parenthesis shows the number ofconversations with contextual factors.

Information about Language Use
Slightly more than half of model conversations in
textbook A were provided with information about
language use while such information was completely
absent in textbook B. In Textbook A, information about
language use was shown in a small box next to eachmodel conversation. The types of information with thenumber of model conversations are summarised inTable 3. Language use information related toexpressing opinions as agreement, disagreement, andasking for opinions was predominant. Slightly more thanhalf of model conversations provided such information.
Table 3
Information about Language Use in Textbook A
Information about Language Use

Number of Conversations

Agreement

4

Strong agreement

2

Asking for opinions

1

Complimenting

2

Disagreement

1

Weak disagreement

2

Weak negation1

Not particularly good or bad

1

Pragmatic marker (backchannelling)2

Politeness

1

Service encounters2Softening

2

Discussion
Overall, the model conversations featured in theseselected EFL textbooks were short with a questionanswer format. Responses to wh-questions primarily
consisted of full-sentences, while closed questions
typically elicited simple replies like “Yes, I do” or “No, I
don’t.” Additionally, the use of pragmatic markers wasnotably scarce. These findings suggest that
instructional focus may lean heavily towards practisingsyntax structures or vocabulary in dialogues, potentiallyleading learners to use their target language unnaturally.

This tendency was more pronounced in textbook B
despite each grammar item introduced in the unit being
practicable in the model conversations. In contrast,
textbook A displayed some efforts to enhance
conversational naturalness, incorporating questionlessinitiations, occasional longer responses to closed
questions, and the use of pragmatic markers. However,deficits in authenticity remained in these model
conversations. The role of the first speaker and thesecond speaker was evident. The first speaker initiates
a conversation followed by the second speaker’s
response.
In textbook A, speaker-hearer relations were provided
for almost all model conversations, whereas suchinformation was sparse in textbook B. A set ofcharacters primarily in a school setting was introduced
at the onset of the textbook. The majority of model
conversations in both textbooks depicted Close-Equal
speaker-hearer relations. Although other types of
speaker-hearer relations were present in textbook A,
these contextual factors were not explicitly linked tolanguage use despite information on polite languageuse. Moreover, although the significance of intensity ofa situation has been acknowledged as a determinant of
to determine politeness levels, since a high imposition
request costs the hearer
trouble or inconvenience(Rover, 2022), no examples illustrating language use incontexts of high intensity were found in either textbook.
According to Ishihara (2022), contextual factors such as
interlocutors’ power dynamics, social distance, andintensity ofsituation or gravity of imposition may
influence levels of politeness, directness, and formality.
Therefore, these factors should be consistently
integrated into instructional contexts at all proficiency
levels.
Language use information was present only in textbook
A. Although numerous studies have highlighted a dearthof metapragmatic information in pedagogical materials,
more than half of model conversations in this textbook
included such information. This primarily pertained toexpressing opinions such as mitigating negation ordisagreement, thereby allowing learners to becomeaware of specific language use nuances. However,there was no accompanying information linking
language use to contextual factors. According to
Glasgow (2008) and Ishihara (2022), metapragmaticawareness aids learners in selecting appropriate
language use. Even though language use information
was provided, without the explanation regarding when,
where or to whom certain language should be used,learners’pragmatic
awarenessmay
remainunderdeveloped. Ishihara (2022) emphasised thenecessity of incorporating metapragmatic information informal language instruction to foster learners’ pragmaticcompetence.

PanSIG Journal 2023

122

Conclusion
This study revealed a notable lack of emphasis on
pragmatic language use within the model conversations
presented in Japanese high school EFL textbooks
despite offering some potential avenues for enhancing
learners' pragmatic awareness. While there wereendeavours to make model conversations more natural,relying solely on textbook materials proved insufficientfor cultivating learners’ pragmatic competence.
Considering pragmatic competence as integral tocommunicative competence, it is evident that theobjectives outlined in the Course of Study for seniorhigh school foreign language education—aimed at
equipping students with the ability to communicate
effectively
intheirtargetlanguage—remain
unaddressed by these textbooks despite providing
thorough linguistic information.
Consequently, educators need to bridge the divide
between pedagogical materials and real-world
language use. One approach could involve augmenting
existing pragmatic information in these textbooks withtask-based modifications. By incorporating such tasks,
educators can create opportunities for learners toactively engage with and apply pragmatic language
skills, thereby facilitating a more comprehensive
development of pragmatic competence.

References

Bury, J. (2020). Finding another way. In J. Talandis, J.
Ronald, D. Fujimoto, & N. Ishihara (Eds.),
Pragmatics undercover: The search for natural
talk in EFL textbooks (pp. 74-78). The Japan
Association for Language Teaching Pragmatics
Special Interest Group.
Carroll, D. (2016). Natural responses: Breaking thegrammar mirror. In D. Tatsuki & D. Fujimoto(Eds.), Back to basics: Filling the gap inpragmatics teaching materials (pp. 23-35). The
Japan Association for Language Teaching
Pragmatics Special Interest Group.
Glasgow, G. (2008). Language awareness,
metapragmatics and the L2 teacher. Accents
Asia, 2(2), 1-16.
Glasgow, G. P., & Paller, D. L. (2019). Agents ofchange or products of compromise? HowJapanese senior high school EFL textbooks(mis) represent foreign language curriculum
reform? Journal of Research Institute, 59, 55-77.

Archer, D., Aijmer, K., & Wichmann, A. (2012).
Pragmatics: An advanced resource book for

Grant, L., & Starks, D. (2001). Screening appropriate

students. Routledge.

teaching materials closings from textbooks andhttps://doi.org/10.1017/s004740451300078x

television soap operas. International Review ofApplied Linguistics, 39, 39-50.

Bartlett, K. (2021). An analysis of students'

https://doi.org/10.1515/iral.39.1.39

experiences under the "Communicative Courseof Study Guidelines" in Japan. Tottori University
Education Center Bulletin (17), 43-63.

Ishihara, N. (2022). Teaching and learning pragmatics:
Where language and culture meet. Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003168188

Brinton, L. (1996). Pragmatic markers in English.
Grammaticalization and discourse functions.

Kasper, G. (1997). Can pragmatic competence be

Mouton de Gruyter.

taught? Retrieved September 19, 2010, fromhttps://doi.org/10.1515/9783110907582

http://www.nflrc.hawaii.edu/NetWorks/NW06/

Bury, J. (2019). The effects of different discourse

McGroarty, M., & Taguchi, N. (2005). Evaluating the

moves on students' oral output. The Language

communicativeness of EFL textbooks for

Teacher, 43(23), 3-7.

Japanese secondary schools. In J. Frodesen &https://doi.org/10.37546/jalttlt43.3-1

C. Holten (Eds.), The power of context in

PanSIG Journal 2023

123
language teaching and learning (pp. 211-224).

English Language Teaching, 13(7), 140-151.

Thompson Heinle.

https://doi.org/10.5539/elt.v13n7p140

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andRen, W., & Han, Z. (2016). The representation ofTechnology (MEXT). (2018). Course of Study for

pragmatic knowledge in recent ELT textbooks.

senior high school foreign language (English).

ELT Journal, 70(4), 424-434.
https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccw010

Mizushima, R. (2016). Investigation on pragmatic
instructions in English textbooks for Japanese

Rover, C. (2022). Teaching and testing secondhigh school students: The case of English

language pragmatics and interaction. Routledge.

Expression I. Journal of the Society ofhttps://doi.org/10.4324/9780429260766

Humanities, Sapporo Gakuin University, 99, 4159.

Sheldon, L. (1988). Evaluating ELT textbooks andmaterials. ELT Journal, 42(4), 237-246.

Nguyen, T.T.M. (2011). Learning to communicate in a

https://doi.org/10.1093/elt/42.4.237

globalized world: To what extent do school
textbooks facilitate the development of

Shimizu, T., Fukasawa, E., & Yonekura, S. (2007).

intercultural pragmatic competence? RELC

Introductions and practices of speech acts in

Journal, 42(1), 17-30.

Oral Communication 1 textbooks: From a

https://doi.org/10.1177/0033688210390265

viewpoint of interlanguage pragmatics. Sophia
Linguistica, 55, 143-163.

Nguyen, T. T. M., & Canh, L. V. (2019). Teaching
pragmatics in English as a foreign language

Taguchi, N. (2012). Context, individual differences andclassrooms. TEFLIN Publication Division.

pragmatic competence. Multilingual matters.
https://doi.org/10.21832/9781847696106

Nu, A. T. T. (2018). How EFL textbooks accommodate
pragmatics: An investigation into newly

Tran, T. M. T., & Yeh, A. (2019). Keeping it real:published textbook series for Vietnamese upper-

Vietnamese-English pragmatic representations

secondary school students. English Australia

in EFL textbooks. International Journal of

Journal, 33(2), 37-42.

Language and Literacy Studies, 2(1), 1-20.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.36892/ijlls.v2il.1

Oda-Sheehan, S. (2020). Do you know...? Giving

05

longer answers to closed questions. In J.
Talandis, J. Ronald, D. Fujimoto, & N. Ishihara

Wong, J., & Waring, H. Z. (2010). Conversation(Eds.), Pragmatics undercover: The search foranalysis and second language pedagogy.

natural talk in EFL textbooks (pp. 91-95). The

Routledge.

Japan Association for Language Teaching.

https://doi.org/10.4324/9780203852347

Pitaksuksan, N., & Sinwongsuwat, K. (2020). CA-

Yule, G. (1996). Pragmatics. Oxford University Press.

informed interactional feature analysis ofconversations in textbooks used for teaching
English speaking in Thai secondary schools.

PanSIG Journal 2023

124

Appendix
Textbooks Investigated in the Study●

Tokyo Shoseki (2021) All Aboard English Communication I●

Sanseido (2021) Vista English Communication I

PanSIG Journal 2023

125

Developing the Reading Anxiety Questionnaire for Japanese Beginner-level
College Students
Sachi Oshima
Chuo Gakuin University
Since the Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) (Saito et al., 1999) was created, many researchers have employed
it to measure participants’ reading anxiety. However, the FLRAS has two issues when administered to Japanese EFL college
students, especially those at the beginner level. First, the 20-item FLRAS includes many different adjectives to assess one
construct, anxiety. Second, the FLRAS employs a five-point Likert scale which includes the neutral option, “Neither agree nor
disagree.” This neutral option is controversial because it does not describe a midpoint on a scale and students would easily choose
it, which interferes with accurate data collection. To address these two issues, I adapted Kimura’s (2011) listening anxiety
questionnaire targeting Japanese students and piloted the modified version to examine whether the items function properly. In
this paper, I explain how I adapted and modified the questionnaire and how I assessed the validity of the questionnaire items.

The Foreign Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) (Saito ほか, 1999)が発表されて以来、FLRAS は多くの先行研究において、学習者のリーディングに対する不安（Anxiety）測定に活用されてきた。しかし、日本人大学生、特に初級レベルの学生に
FLRAS を使用する場合、2 点を考慮する必要がある。1 点目に、FLRAS は 20 の質問項目から成るが、「不安（Anxiety）」を表現するために様々な異なる形容詞が混在している。2 点目に、FLRAS には 5 段階のリッカート尺度が使用されているが、中間選択肢（5 段階中の 3「どちらともいえない」）は、尺度の中間に位置する選択肢なのかという疑問と共に、学生が容易に選択する可能性が高く、正確なデータ収集の点で懸念がある。これら 2 点を考慮し、Kimura (2011)が日本の学生向けに作成したリスニングに対する不安アンケート（Listening Anxiety Questionnaire）をもとに、リーディングに対する不安アンケートを作成し、検証を行った。本稿では、アンケート作成の手順、およびアンケートの質問項目の妥当性検証について論ずる。

Among individual difference variables concerning
reading, previous researchers have pointed out theimportance of reading anxiety because of its
hypothesized influence on foreign language (FL)learners’ reading performance. Saito et al. (1999)
proposed the construct, foreign language reading
anxiety (FLRA), which is defined as skill-specific anxiety
that FL learners experience during reading, and theysuggested that FLRA might negatively impact FL
readers’ reading comprehension. Chen et al. (2022)
noted that researchers have only recently begun giving
FLRA attention and that much remains to be discovered
about this construct. To measure FL learners’ reading
anxiety, many researchers have employed the Foreign
Language Reading Anxiety Scale (FLRAS) (Saito et al.,1999) and investigated the impact of reading anxiety on
FL learners’ reading performances.

inconsistency of adjective use to express anxiety andthe neutral option used in a five-point Likert scale. The
purpose of this paper is to address these two issues. I
aimed to develop a reading anxiety questionnaire
suitable for Japanese EFL college students, especiallythose at the beginner level. I adapted and modified
Kimura’s (2011) listening anxiety questionnaire, which
had been created for Japanese EFL college students,
and piloted the modified questionnaire to examine
whether the items function properly. In this paper, I
explain how I adapted and modified the questionnaire,
how I assessed the validity of the questionnaire items,
and whether these items were evaluated as appropriate.

However, two issues need to be addressed when the
FLRAS is administered to Japanese college students
who study English as a foreign language (EFL): theSince the FLRAS was released (Saito et al., 1999),
many researchers have employed the FLRAS to gauge
participants’ reading anxiety. Some researchers, suchas Ghaith (2020), Lu and Liu (2015), and Khatib andLiterature Review
The FLRAS in Previous Studies

PanSIG Journal 2023

126
Jannati (2015), employed the FLRAS to investigate therelationship between reading anxiety and reading
strategies. For example, Ghaith (2020) targeted 103
native speakers of Arabic (aged 17 to 28) learning EFL
in a private university in Lebanon. A path analysis wasused to examine the influence of FLRA and reading
strategies on reading comprehension. Global reading
strategies such as activating background knowledge (β= .23, p < .05) and problem-solving reading strategies
such as guessing the meaning of unfamiliar words (β= .22, p < .05) positively contributed to the prediction ofreading comprehension. On the other hand, FLRA
negatively impacted reading comprehension (β = -.31,
p < .01). Ghaith concluded that FLRA negatively affects
EFL readers’ comprehension because high levels of
reading anxiety can lead readers to rely on bottom-up
processing, for example, translating to their first
language (L1) and “going back and forth in the text toensure literal comprehension” (p. 1320). This situation
limits their ability to utilize top-down reading strategies
such as reading between the lines, inferring impliedmeanings, assessing information in the text, andengaging in problem-solving.
Other researchers who employed the FLRAS haveexamined variables that can lead to different results inreading anxiety studies. For example, Chen et al. (2022)
focused on learners’ L1 backgrounds and their use ofreading strategies by employing a cross-sectional
design. The researchers analyzed responses from twogroups of EFL students with intermediate English
proficiency (aged 18 to 23): L1 Chinese (n = 35) from a
Chinese university and L1 Spanish (n = 37) from a
Spanish university. Chen et al. showed that theparticipants’ L1 backgrounds influenced the relationshipbetween reading strategies and reading anxiety; more
specifically, Spanish students who had used morestrategies had a lower level of reading anxiety (r = -.51,
p < .01), whereas strategies did not significantly affect
the Chinese students’ EFL reading anxiety (r = -.34, p> .05). For another example, Bahmani and Farvardin(2017) focused on the effects of text difficulty on FLRA
and reading comprehension. Two groups of Iranian EFL
learners aged 18 to 26 (n = 25 each) were provided withtexts at different levels for four months, and a reading
comprehension test and a version of the FLRAS,
adapted to the Iranian context, were administered
before and after the treatment. Paired-samples t-tests
showed that the difficult-text group’s FLRA significantly
increased (t = -3.08, p = .005, d = 0.615), whereas thatof the easier-text group significantly decreased (t = 6.52,
p < .01, d = 1.303).

Two Issues Found in the FLRASPrevious researchers, such as those described above,
have employed the FLRAS; however, at least two
issues need to be considered when the FLRAS isadministeredstudents.

tolow-proficiency

Japanese

EFL

First, the 20-item FLRAS includes too many different
adjectives, all of which are used to assess one construct,reading anxiety. For instance, the following is the firstseven items of the FLRAS (bolding added):
1. I get upset when I’m not sure whether I
understand what I am reading in [language].
2. When reading [language], I often understandthe words but still can’t quite understand what
the author is saying.
3. When I’m reading [language], I get so
confused I can’t remember what I’m reading.
4. I feel intimidated whenever I see a whole pageof [language] in front of me.
5. I am nervous when I am reading a passage in[language] when I am not familiar with.
6. I get upset whenever I encounter unknown
grammar when reading [language].
7. When reading [language], I get nervous andconfused when I don’t understand every word.
Different adjectives were used to express anxiety initems 1, 3, 4, 5, 6, and 7. When I translated the 20
English items into Japanese, I needed to clarify thenuance of each word (e.g., the difference between
upset and intimidated) and how to translate themappropriately. These different adjectives can confuse
low-proficiency students, which should be avoided toensure the reliability of their responses. Moreover, item
7 can be regarded as a so-called double-barreledquestion because this item includes two feelings, getnervous and get confused. Nemoto and Beglar (2014)
suggested that, when designing questionnaire items,"conjunctions, such as and, or, and but should not be
used, as they generally indicate the presence of two
ideas” (p. 3). Some students might not get nervous but
get confused, or vice versa; in that case, students’
responses to item 7 can vary depending on theirinterpretation of the item. In addition, item 2 is about
reading comprehension and does not include any termsuggesting anxiety, which casts doubt on whether thisitem is appropriate to measure reading anxiety.
Second, the FLRAS uses a five-point Likert scale: (1)Strongly agree, (2) Agree, (3) Neither agree nor
disagree, (4) Disagree, and (5) Strongly disagree. The
neutral option (3) is controversial because researchers
have pointed out that a neutral option or a midpointinterferes with accurate data collection (Krosnick &Fabriger, 1997; Nemoto & Beglar, 2014). Nemoto andBeglar (2014) explicitly recommended not to use neutral
PanSIG Journal 2023

127
categories or midpoints because “neutral categories are
inherently illogical in that they do not conform to thefundamental continuum of the scale” (p. 5). In addition,
Krosnick and Fabriger (1997) pointed out that many
people “might select an offered midpoint because it
provides an easy choice that requires little effort and iseasy to justify” (p. 147). Especially for low-proficiency
university students, who tend to have low motivation to
study English (e.g., Dunn & Iwaniec, 2022), the neutral
option (3) would be an easy option, and many of themwould select it without considering each item carefully.
To address the above-mentioned issues caused byneutral categories or midpoints, Nemoto and Beglar(2014) proposed a six-point Likert scale to “permit thepossibility of increased measurement precision” (p. 5).
Moreover, contrary to FLRAS scales from (1) Strongly
agree to (5) Strongly disagree, Nemoto and Beglar
suggested that the scale should move from a weakerendorsement to a stronger endorsement of the item,
such as from Strongly disagree to Strongly agree.

MethodAs described above, the FLRAS has two issues thatneed to be addressed; therefore, I aimed to develop areading anxiety questionnaire more suitable forJapanese EFL college students using the following four
steps.

Step 1: Modifying Kimura’s (2011) Questionnaire
I adapted Kimura’s (2011) listening anxiety
questionnaire into a reading questionnaire. Although
Kimura’s study concerned listening anxiety, eachquestionnaire item was focused on anxiety, and thequestionnaire was created for Japanese EFL college
students, which fits the current context. Kimura’s (2011)
listening anxiety questionnaire consists of two sections:
Section I: Self-Focused Apprehension (14 items) andSection II: Task-Focused Apprehension (13 items). In
each section, I first omitted the questions irrelevant toreading (e.g., “I am not confident in listening to English
without a chance to read the transcription of speech”[Section I, Item 3]) and then modified the listening
anxiety questionnaire items to reading items.
Considering the two issues found in the FLRAS, I used
the same adjectives consistently in each section: “It isdifficult to…” and “confused” in Section I, and “worry(feel worried)” in Section II. I also changed the five-point
Likert scale into a six-point Likert scale without a neutral
option, based on the above-mentioned suggestions by
Nemoto and Beglar (2014): (1) Strongly disagree, (2)Disagree, (3) Slightly Disagree, (4) Slightly Agree, (5)Agree, and (6) Strongly agree.

Step 2: Translating English Version into Japanese
I decided to administer the questionnaire in the students’
L1, Japanese, because of their low English proficiency,
following Nemoto and Beglar’s (2014) suggestion thatthe questionnaire items should be written either in alanguage the respondents understand well or in their L1.
A Japanese translation was first produced by me andchecked by two native Japanese speakers teaching
English in Japanese universities. I also asked these twonative Japanese teachers to check for any items thatmight be unclear for Japanese EFL college students.
Both teachers confirmed that all items would be clearly
understood by Japanese students.

Step 3: Piloting to Japanese College Students
Japanese EFL college students (N = 100) voluntarily
participated in the piloting of this reading anxiety
questionnaire. They were all enrolled in an elective
English course to prepare for the TOEIC exam for one
14-week (100-minute lessons × 14 weeks) academic
semester. Because it was an elective course, students
from the first to fourth year (aged 18 to 22) were
included. Initially, I collected data from 114 students.
The questionnaire was administered outside of lesson
time as a paper-based survey under my supervision ina classroom. Among these 114 students, I focused onJapanese L1 students, so I excluded the responses
given by international students whose L1s were not
Japanese. I also excluded the responses from students
who did not answer all questions. All the students were
non-English majors, and the majority had TOEIC scores
ranging from 400 to 600. All participants provided
written informed consent for me to use their data.

Step 4: Validating Using Rasch Analyses
Construct validity refers to whether the instruments
reflect a particular construct interested in the study, andBond et al. (2021) argued that “we must keep validity
forefront in our minds at every stage of any testconstruction process” (p. 222). As Baghaei (2008)
suggested that “Rasch analysis is a powerful tool forevaluating construct validity” (p. 1145), Rasch fit
statistics are indications of construct irrelevant variance,
and the items that do not fit the Rasch model are
candidates for modification or for being discarded. In
other words, Rasch analysis can be used to examine
whether the items function properly. The data obtained
from the reading anxiety questionnaire were enteredinto a Microsoft Excel spreadsheet, exported to
WINSTEPS 4.4.7 (Linacre, 2022), and calibrated using
the Rasch rating scale model.

The newly developed reading anxiety questionnaire,based on Kimura (2011), is included in the Appendix.

PanSIG Journal 2023

128

Results and Discussion
Section I: Self-Focused Apprehension
First, the Rasch analysis indicated that item reliability(separation) was .97 (5.88). According to Fisher’s(2007) criteria for interpreting reliability and separation
coefficients, both the item reliability estimate and theseparation statistic were excellent.
Second, unidimensionality, which means that a set ofitems measures a single construct, was inspected. The
differences between the actual observed item values
and the expected values are called residuals, and theprincipal components analysis (PCA) of Rasch
residuals reports eigenvalues and indicates whether
there is any evidence for the presence of secondary
variables (Bond et al., 2021). According to Linacre(2020), an eigenvalue of < 3.0 for the residual contrasts
in a Rasch PCA of item residuals analysis suggests
unidimensionality. The eigenvalue of unexplained
variance in the first residual contrast, or “first PCA

component in the correlation matrix of residuals” (Bondet al., 2021, p. 255), was 1.80, showing that the items
formed a fundamentally unidimensional construct.
Next, the fit of each item to the Rasch model was
inspected. According to Fisher (2007), item model fit
mean-square (MNSQ) values are evaluated as follows:
excellent (0.77–1.30), very good (0.71–1.40), good
(0.50–2.00), and fair (0.34–2.90). In addition, Bond et al.
(2021) explained that items with infit MNSQ higher than
2.00 indicate more noise or random irregularity thaninformation and should be investigated. As Table 1
shows, infit MNSQ values ranged from 0.76 to 1.35,
which was within the 0.71–1.40 range and consideredvery good (Fisher, 2007). The point-measure correlation
values were all greater than .30, which also indicatedgood fit to the Rasch model.
Based on the above results, the questionnaire items for
Section I, Self-Focused Apprehension, functioned
appropriately.

Table 1Rasch Descriptive Statistics for Section I: Self-Focused Apprehension
RaschmeasureSE

Infit MNSQ

Infit ZSTD

Outfit MNSQ

2

1.06

0.13

1.35

2.34

1.38

2.50

.57

4

-0.10

0.12

1.30

2.12

1.31

2.16

.60

9

0.42

0.12

1.19

1.41

1.21

1.50

.68

10

0.38

0.12

0.93

-0.47

0.94

-0.41

.72

6

0.67

0.12

0.91

-0.65

0.92

-0.59

.73

8

-1.15

0.13

0.92

-0.53

0.90

-0.68

.71

7

-0.56

0.12

0.88

-0.83

0.89

-0.78

.67

3

0.96

0.12

0.84

-1.19

0.80

-1.50

.73

5

-0.91

0.13

0.80

-1.49

0.82

-1.35

.73

1

-0.78

0.13

0.76

-1.84

0.72

-2.13

.75

Question item

Section II: Task-Focused Apprehension
Similar to Section I above, first, item reliability andunidimensionality were inspected. Item reliability(separation) was .88 (2.72), indicating that item
reliability was good, and the separation statistic was fair
(Fisher, 2007). The eigenvalue of the first residual
contrast was 2.39, which is less than 3.00 (Linacre,2020), indicating that the items formed a fundamentally
unidimensional construct.

Outfit ZSTD

Point-measurecorrelation

Next, item fit to the Rasch model was evaluated. As
Table 2 shows, infit MNSQ values ranged from 0.70 to
1.39, which were nearly within the 0.71–1.40 range(Fisher, 2007). The point-measure correlation values
were all greater than .30. Both values indicatedacceptable fit to the Rasch model.
Together these results indicate that the questionnaire
items in Section II also functioned appropriately.

PanSIG Journal 2023

129
Table 2Rasch Descriptive Statistics for Section II: Task-Focused Apprehension
RaschmeasureSE

Infit MNSQ

Infit ZSTD

Outfit MNSQ

Outfit ZSTD

Point-measurecorrelation

5

0.24

0.11

1.39

2.68

1.47

3.06

.61

1

-0.04

0.11

1.07

0.55

1.25

1.70

.67

2

-0.22

0.11

1.11

0.83

1.13

0.95

.60

7

-0.05

0.11

1.09

0.72

1.10

0.73

.71

9

-0.67

0.12

1.01

0.15

1.00

0.03

.73

8

0.15

0.11

0.98

-0.07

0.97

-0.20

.71

10

0.08

0.11

0.89

-0.81

0.95

-0.36

.69

4

-0.09

0.11

0.90

-0.76

0.87

-0.97

.74

3

-0.14

0.11

0.81

-1.50

0.77

-1.78

.74

6

0.74

0.12

0.70

-2.40

0.73

-2.13

.74

Question item

Conclusion
The purpose of this paper was to describe the processof developing a reading anxiety questionnaire suitable
for Japanese EFL college students, especially those at
the beginner level. I addressed two issues found in the
FLRAS (Saito et al., 1999): the inconsistency of
adjective use and the neutral option used in a five-point
Likert scale. I adapted and modified Kimura’s (2011)
listening anxiety questionnaire into a reading
questionnaire, used the same adjectives consistently to
express one construct, anxiety, and change from a fivepoint Likert scale to a six-point Likert scale based on thesuggestions of previous literature (Krosnick & Fabriger,
1997; Nemoto & Beglar, 2014). After obtaining a checkof the Japanese translation, I piloted the reading anxiety
questionnaire to examine whether the items functioned
properly with 100 Japanese EFL college students. The
Rasch analyses showed that the 20 items thatcomprised Sections I and II were reliable, fundamentally
unidimensional, and they displayed adequate fit to the
Rasch model. In other words, the 20 items were
evaluated as appropriate, and the results of theanalyses provided evidence for construct validity.
It cannot be denied that there are limitations in this study.
First, this questionnaire was piloted only once with one
sample population (N = 100) attending the same
institution. Further studies, especially those targeting
students with different backgrounds, such as institutions,majors, and academic levels, are expected to enhance
this instrument’s generalizability, applicability, andvalidity. Secondly, qualitative data collection, such as
follow-up interviews with some of the participants, could
have been done to examine whether they understoodquestionnaire items as I expected them to do. Theselimitations should be addressed in future studies.

Ensuring the validity of an instrument is easy to say but
difficult to do. Bond et al. (2021) described the worst
case—researchers give their participants “surveys withnot enough response options, too many options,ambiguous options, or questions we [researchers] don’teven understand” (p. 223). Researchers such as Ghaith(2020) and Khatib and Jannati (2015) have suggested
that English teachers should facilitate positive
emotional states and help students lower their reading
anxiety because reading anxiety can negatively affecttheir reading performance. To do so, a validated
instrument to gauge how learners feel toward reading isessential. This paper partially addresses this need.
Through the process of instrument development andvalidation, described in this paper, I expect this reading
anxiety questionnaire will contribute to assessing
learners’ reading anxiety more accurately.

Acknowledgements
I want to thank David Beglar for his helpful suggestions
and guidance in conducting the whole process of this
instrument development, validation, and writing thispaper. I also thank the attendees of my presentation at
the PanSIG 2023 and the anonymous reviewers of thispaper for their insightful comments and feedback.

References
Baghaei, P. (2008). The Rasch model as a constructvalidation tool. Rasch Measurement
Transactions, 22(1), 1145–6.
https://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt221a.htm
Bahmani, R., & Farvardin, M. T. (2017). Effects ofdifferent text difficulty levels on EFL learners’
PanSIG Journal 2023

130
foreign language reading anxiety and reading

3477769). [Doctorial dissertation, Temple

comprehension. Reading in a Foreign

University]. ProQuest Dissertations and Theses

Language, 29(2), 185–202.

Global. https://www.proquest.com/dissertations-

https://nflrc.hawaii.edu/rfl/item/375

theses/self-presentational-perspective-onforeign/docview/901113479/se-2

Bond, T. G., Yan, Z., & Heene, M. (2020). Applying the
Rasch model: Fundamental measurement in thehuman sciences (4th ed.). Routledge.

Krosnick, J. A., & Fabrigar, L. R. (1997). Designing
rating scales for effective measurement insurveys. In L. Lyberg, P. Biemer, M. Collins, E.

Chen, S., Du, H., Wang, S., & Yang L. (2022).

de Leeuw, C. Dippo, N. Schwarz, & D. Trewin

Understanding EFL reading anxiety in relation to(Eds.), Survey measurement and processlearning motivation, attitudes and strategies for

quality (pp. 141–164). John Wiley & Sons.

Chinese and Spanish undergraduates. System,
108, 1–13.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2022.102842
Dunn, K., & Iwaniec, J. (2022). Exploring the

Linacre, J. M. (2020). Winsteps® Rasch measurement
computer program. Winsteps.com
Linacre, J. M. (2022). Winsteps® (Version 4.4.7)

relationship between second language learning[Computer Software]. Winsteps.com. Available

motivation and proficiency: A latent profilingfrom https://www.winsteps.com/

approach. Studies in Second Language
Acquisition, 44(4), 967–997.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0272263121000759

Lu, Z., & Liu, M. (2015). An investigation of Chinese
university EFL learner’s foreign language
reading anxiety, reading strategy use andFisher Jr., W. P. (2007). Rating scale instrument

reading comprehension performance. Studies inquality criteria. Rasch Measurement

Second Language Learning and Teaching, 5(1),Transaction, 21(1), 1095.

65–85. https://doi.org/10.14746/ssllt.2015.5.1.4

https://www.rasch.org/rmt/rmt211m.htm
Nemoto, T., & Beglar, D. (2014). Developing LikertGhaith, G. M. (2020). Foreign language reading

scale questionnaires. In N. Sonda & A. Krauseanxiety and metacognitive strategies in(Eds.), JALT2013 Conference Proceedings (pp.

undergraduates’ reading comprehension. Issues

1–8). JALT.

in Educational Research, 30(4), 1310–1328.
http://www.iier.org.au/iier30/ghaith.pdf

Saito, Y., Horwitz, E., & Garza, J. (1999). Foreign
language reading anxiety. The Modern

Khatib, M., & Jannati, S. (2015). Comprehension
strategy instruction and Iranian high school EFL

Language Journal, 83(2), 202–218.
https://doi.org/10.1111/0026-7902.00016

learners’ reading anxiety and reading
comprehension. Issues in Language Teaching,
4(2), 57–79.
https://doi.org/10.22054/ilt.2015.7226
Kimura, H. (2011). A self-presentational perspective on
foreign language listening anxiety (Order No.
PanSIG Journal 2023

131

Appendix
The Reading Anxiety Questionnaire
1 = Strongly disagree

全くそう思わない

2 = Disagree

思わない

3 = Slightly disagree

どちらかといえばそう思わない

4 = Slightly agree

どちらかといえばそう思う

5 = Agree

そう思う

6 = Strongly agree

とてもそう思う

Section I: Self-Focused Apprehension セクション I：自身に関すること
1. When reading English, it is difficult to guess the meaning of parts I cannot understand.
英文を読んでいるとき、自分が理解できない部分の意味を推測することが難しい。
2. It is difficult to understand instructions written in English in my English textbooks.
英語の教科書の中の、英語で書かれている指示を理解することが難しい。
3. I often feel confused when reading short passages in English.
英語で書かれた短い文章を読んでいるとき、混乱することが頻繁にある。
4. I often cannot remember what I have read in English.
英語で読んだ内容を、覚えていないことが頻繁にある。
5. I often feel confused when reading long passages in English.
英語で書かれた長い文章を読んでいるとき、混乱することが頻繁にある。
6. When reading English, I often feel confused even when I translate word by word.
英文を読んでいるとき、一語一語訳しても、混乱することが頻繁にある。

7. I get confused when reading new information in English.
英語で新しい情報について読んでいるとき、混乱することがある。
8. When reading English, it is difficult to guess the meaning of new words.
英文を読んでいるとき、新出単語の意味を推測するのが難しい。
9. English spelling is confusing.
英語の綴りのせいで、混乱することがある。

10. I often do not understand what English texts say even when I know the words.
英単語を知っていても、英文が何を言っているか理解できないことが頻繁にある。

Section II: Task-Focused Apprehension セクション II：タスクに関すること
1. When reading English, I feel worried when I come across one or two unfamiliar words.
英文を読んでいるとき、知らない単語が１つか２つ出てくると不安になる。

PanSIG Journal 2023

132
2. When reading English, I feel worried if I only read a passage once.
英文を読んでいるとき、文章を一回読むだけでは、不安になる。
3. When reading English, I feel worried when I’m not familiar with the topic.
英文を読んでいるとき、そのトピックに馴染みが無いと、不安になる。
4. When reading English, I worry that I might have missed important information.
英文を読んでいるとき、自分が大切な情報を見落としてしまっているのではないかと不安になる。
5. When reading English, I feel worried when I don’t understand every word.
英文を読んでいるとき、全ての単語が理解できないと不安になる。
6. When reading English, I worry I might have inadequate knowledge about the topic.
英文を読んでいるとき、自分にそのトピックに対して十分な知識がないかもしれないのではないかと不安になる。
7. I feel worried when I have little time to think about what I have read in English.
自分が英語で読んだことについて、考える時間がほとんど無いと不安になる。
8. I feel worried when I cannot read English at a comfortable pace.
自分にとって心地良いペースで英文が読めないと、不安になる。

9. I feel worried when I’m not sure whether I have understood what reading texts say.
英文が何を言っているかを、自分が理解できているかどうか分からないとき、不安になる。
10. When reading English, I worry that I may be missing key words.
英文を読んでいるとき、キーワードを見落としているかもしれないと不安になる。

PanSIG Journal 2023

133

Enhancing IELTS Prep with Phrasal Verb Analysis:
A Corpus-Based Study
Aya Shiiba
University of Kitakyushu

Joseph Oliver
Doshisha University
The International English Language Testing System (IELTS) is widely utilized as an indicator of language proficiency for
employment and academic purposes in countries like Australia, Canada, and New Zealand. However, there is a lack ofcomprehensive corpus analyses examining its content. Thus, this study aimed to analyze the frequency and usage of phrasal
verbs (PVs) in the IELTS Academic practice test books 14-17 published by Cambridge Assessment English. The texts were
scanned and transcribed, allowing for linguistic analysis using AntConc software to identify collocates of adverbial particles andprepositions, such as “on” and “up.” The findings found a 0.37% higher PV frequency, surpassing Gardner and Davies' (2007)
predictions. These findings indicate that PVs are highly prevalent in IELTS examinations and highlight the importance ofincorporating PVs into vocabulary instruction for IELTS preparation. Additionally, vocabulary study decks were created on
platforms like Anki and Memrise and shared with participants of the presentation.

International English Language Testing System（IELTS）は、オーストラリア、カナダ、ニュージーランドなどの国々で、就職や学業を目的とした語学力の指標として広く活用されている。しかし、その内容を包括的に分析したコーパス研究はまだ不十分である。そこで、本研究では Cambridge Assessment English から出版されている IELTS アカデミック模擬試験問題集の14 から 17 版における句動詞の頻度を分析することを目的とした。問題集をスキャンおよび転写し、AntConc ソフトウェアを用いて、「on」や「up」といった副助詞や前置詞と結びつく句動詞を特定するため言語分析を行った。その結果、問題集上の
句動詞の頻度は Gardner and Davies（2007）の推定を 0.37%上回ることがわかった。これは、句動詞が IELTS 試験でも広く使用されていることを示しており、IELTS 試験学習のための語彙指導に句動詞を取り入れることの重要性を強調している。また、Anki や Memrise などのプラットフォームで語彙学習デッキを作成し、プレゼンテーションの参加者と共有した。

The International English Language Testing System(IELTS) serves as a crucial benchmark for assessing
language proficiency, particularly for individuals seeking
work and study opportunities in English-speaking
countries like Australia, Canada, and New Zealand.
With over 4 million test takers in 2024 alone, it is evident
that IELTS plays a significant role in evaluating foreign
language competence (British Council, 2024). Despite
its widespread use, limited research has been
conducted to analyze the content of the IELTS examthrough corpus-based investigations.
In this study we aimed to address this gap by utilizing
AntConc (Anthony, 2022) to delve into a corpus of
IELTS exams. Our primary focus lies in exploring thefrequency of phrasal verbs (PVs) within the test
material. Phrasal verbs, characterized by their verb-

particle combinations, present unique challenges forEnglish language learners. Native speakers effortlessly
employ these expressions in their daily communication,leaving non-native speakers perplexed by theirseemingly endless variations and idiomatic usage.
The motivation for this study stems from personal
experiences as a language learner, struggling tocomprehend and utilize PVs effectively, even in
relatively informal interactions with native speakers.
Common PVs like hash out and roll out are frequently
employed by native speakers, but learners often findthem puzzling due to their figurative meanings orcontextual variations. The discrepancy in PV usage
between native speakers and non-native learners
prompted the exploration of how frequently and how
prominently PVs are featured in the IELTS exams.

PanSIG Journal 2023

134
What is the frequency of PVs in the books of IELTS
Academic practice tests 14-17 published by Cambridge
Assessment English?

Phrasal Verbs
PVs belong to a category of language known as
formulaic sequences (FSs), which play a crucial role inboth spoken and written discourse (Gyllstad & Schmitt,2018). PVs consist of a verb combined with an adverbial
particle (e.g., on, off, in, out, up, down), and theinclusion of the particle significantly alters the meaningof the verb (Gardner & Davies, 2007; Liu, 2011). For
example, the verb “put” has different meanings whencombined with “up” (put up) versus “out” (put out). Dueto their intricate nature, PVs present challenges forlanguage learners in terms of acquisition and usage.
PVs hold great importance for learners as they areprevalent in everyday spoken language, informal
contexts, and even in academic settings, although they
are relatively less common in written registers such asmagazines, newspapers, and academic writing (Liu,
2011). Gardner and Davies (2007) note that learners
encounter PVs at an average rate of one PV per every
150 English words. PVs are just a subset of the vast
number of FSs present in English, which may exceed
the number of individual words in the lexicon(Jackendoff, 1995; Pawley & Syder, 1983). Thus, PVs
are considered fundamental and essential componentsof verbal expressions, alongside single words, despite
their complex multi-word structure (Gardner & Davies,
2007; Liu, 2011; Rudzka-Ostyn, 2003).
It is important to note that many PVs have lexicalequivalents or counterparts. For example, “postpone”
can be seen as a lexical equivalent of put off, “execute”
of carry out, and “occur” of take place. However, PVs
possess distinct meanings that differentiate them fromtheir lexical verb counterparts. “Postpone” often implies
the rescheduling of a formal or planned event, while “putoff” conveys a sense of procrastination or avoidance.
Due to these nuanced meanings and the varied usage
patterns of PVs, learners often encounter difficulties incomprehending and acquiring them.

Definitions of Phrasal Verbs
PVs are a complex linguistic phenomenon that havegarnered attention from researchers, yet there is noconsensus on their precise definition. There are various
definitions proposed by different researchers,
highlighting the divergent perspectives on PVs.
Biber et al. (1999, p.403) define PVs as “multi-word
units consisting of a verb followed by an adverbial
particle (e.g., carry out, find out, and pick up).” Moreover,they note that prepositional verbs usually express single
semantic units that cannot be inferred from themeanings of their individual components, similar to PVs(e.g. “look up” means “observe”) (p.403). On the other
hand, Gardner and Davies (2007, p. 341) focus on PVs
found in the British National Corpus and define them as“two-part verbs consisting of a lexical verb followed byan adverbial particle.” They specify that the particle canbe either contiguous (adjacent) or noncontiguous to theverb. The disparity between these definitions highlights
the variation in approaches to understanding PVs. Biberet al.'s definition encompasses a broader range of multiword units, including both adverbial particles andprepositions, while Gardner and Davies' (2007)
definition narrows the focus to two-part verbs withadverbial particles.
In this study, the decision was made to adopt bothdefinitions. PVs are defined as: verb-particle or verbpreposition combinations that cannot be inferred fromthe individual word meanings. It is important to consider
the implications of this definition for learners of English.
Prepositions are taught in the early stages of EFL
learning and a multi-word unit such as "go up(increase)" might be readily understood by anyone withelementary lexical knowledge, but that cannot beassumed. By identifying PV like “catch up (reach),” wehope to provide useful insight into how PVs are used in
IELTS exams. It is reasonable to believe that both
authors' definitions are pedagogically valuable.

Corpus Analysis of Phrasal Verbs
Gardner and Davies (2007) compiled a list of the top
100 common PVs by analyzing the British National
Corpus (BNC). Their findings revealed that the top 20
lexical verbs in PV constructions (e.g., go, come, andtake) accounted for 53.7% of all PV occurrences in the
BNC. Another list, developed by Liu (2011), expanded
the scope by incorporating data from both the BNC andthe BYU Corpus of Contemporary American English(COCA) across different registers. Liu (2011) found that
PVs are commonly used in everyday spoken language,
informal situations, and even in academic contexts.
However, it is worth noting that PVs are used lessfrequently in writing-oriented registers such asmagazines, newspapers, and academic writing.
Following Liu, Garnier and Schmitt (2015) created the
PHaVE List, consisting of the 150 most frequent PVs.
They conducted a corpus search based on Liu’s list to
identify the most common senses, which accounted forover 70% of the occurrences. Less common senses
were also included if their frequency was at least 10%,along with corresponding percentages for eachmeaning. This information helps learners and teachers
prioritize meanings in PV instruction.
It is important to note that there may be dialectal
variations in PV usage. Comparing American English
and British English PVs, corpus analyses have
PanSIG Journal 2023

135
identified differences in frequency between the COCA
and the BNC (Liu, 2011). The observed frequency of the
150 PVs in COCA is 1,424,836, while in the BNC, it is322,517. However, temporal differences should beconsidered, as the COCA covers a more recent timespan (1990-2020) compared to the BNC (1980s-1993).
Consequently, PVs that emerged or gained prominence
after the BNC's data collection may exhibit higher
frequencies in the COCA. Furthermore, shifts in culturaland societal norms over time may influence theprevalence and contextual usage of certain PVs,
contributing to the observed differences between
American and British English.
Moreover, specific PVs may exhibit distinct usage
patterns in different varieties of English. For example,
the frequency disparity of “shut down” between the BNC
and COCA can be attributed to differences in British andAmerican English usage. In British English, temporarily
closing a business is often expressed as “shut up,”whereas in American English, “shut down” ispredominantly used. These usage variations
underscore the importance of considering both overallfrequencies and specific contexts and meanings
associated with PVs in different varieties of Englishes.

Flashcard Learning
Flashcard learning has become a widely-adopted
strategy for self-regulated study, enabling learners toeffectively acquire vocabulary (Kornell & Bjork, 2007).
When coupled with spaced retrieval practice, flashcard
learning has been recognized as an effective method
for vocabulary acquisition (Baddeley, 1997; Kornell,2009). Retrieval is essential for long-term memory
retention; without it, memories fade and are easily
forgotten (Ebbinghaus, 1993). Previous studies havehighlighted the importance of flashcard learning infacilitating the retention of vocabulary in short-term
studies (Fitzpatrick et al., 2008; Nation, 2001).
For instance, Fitzpatrick et al. (2008) conducted a study
where a linguistics instructor was tasked with learning
300 high-frequency Arabic vocabulary words over 20days using flashcards. Through repeated learning
sessions and subsequent tests, it was found that the
instructor retained a significant number of correct
responses even after a 10-week period. Nakata (2008)
further emphasized the benefits of flashcard learning bycomparing different methods among high school
students. The results indicated that learners using
computer-based flashcards outperformed those using
printed word lists, highlighting the effectiveness of
retrieval practice.
By incorporating flashcard learning with spaced
repetition into vocabulary programs, educators canprovide learners with an effective and efficient approachto vocabulary acquisition and retention. Thus, in thisstudy, we created flashcard decks to offer educatorsand learners a valuable resource for reinforcing theirunderstanding of possible PVs found in IELTS exampractice books.

Methods
Choosing Texts
In order to analyze the PVs in this study, we selected
texts from the recent IELTS Academic practice test
books 14-17, which were published by Cambridge
Assessment English between 2019 and 2022 as part ofan annual series. There are two types of IELTS exams:
General Training and Academic. In this study, theAcademic version of the IELTS exams was specificallyanalyzed because this version is commonly required bylanguage schools and for overseas university
admissions.
The IELTS Academic practice test books provide
preparatory materials for individuals planning to take the
IELTS Academic exam. These books typically contain avariety of reading passages, listening recordings,
writing prompts, and speaking tasks designed tosimulate the format and content of the actual IELTS
exam. The texts included in these practice test books
also include a range of genres commonly encounteredin academic settings, such as academic articles,
research reports, essays, and editorials. The word
counts for the passages may vary depending on thespecific tasks and sections within each book, but theygenerally contain texts of varying lengths to provide acomprehensive preparation experience for test takers.
The rationale for selecting the texts of practice test
books 14-17 is grounded in several factors. These may
include the recent publication dates, ensuring that thelanguage and content are reflective of contemporary
academic English usage. Additionally, the decision to
sample from multiple editions allows for a broader
representation of topics, styles, and language featuresencountered in the IELTS Academic exam. Thisapproach aims to provide a diverse and comprehensive
dataset for the analysis of PVs in the context of IELTS
preparation. As past IELTS exams are generally not
openly accessible to the public, these authentic
examination papers published by Cambridge
Assessment English serve as a reliable alternative,
because they are specifically created to simulate theformat and content of authentic IELTS exams. Whilethey are designed to replicate the structure and difficultylevel of the actual exams, they are not past exam papers
administered during official testing sessions. By
choosing these texts, we ensured that our analysis was
based on materials closely aligned with the actual
IELTS exams, allowing us to gain insights into thefrequency of PVs in the context of IELTS preparation.

PanSIG Journal 2023

136
To obtain the texts for analysis, an iPhone was used toscan the pages, and any errors in the scanned texts
were manually corrected. Afterward, the scanned texts
were converted into a text file, which enabled theconvenient loading of the texts into AntConc (Anthony,2022), a powerful linguistic analysis software. The texts
encompassed all the sentences found in the Listening,
Reading, Writing, and Listening Audioscripts sections of
the IELTS Academic practice test books.

Finding Phrasal Verbs
There were eight steps to identify particles andprepositions associated with potential PVs using
AntConc:
1.

Search for two- and three-word clusters: The
analysis began by searching for two- and threeword clusters within the corpus data, focusing on
verb-particle combinations that indicate potential
PVs.

2.

Specify right side: To refine the search, particularattention was given to the right side of the two-wordclusters, as it typically contains the adverbial
particle or preposition associated with PVs.

3.

Query a particle: The identified clusters were thenqueried using the particle as a search term to isolate
instances of potential PVs.

4.

Scan results: The search results were thoroughly
scanned to identify and extract the instances ofgenuine PVs based on the context in which they
appeared.

5.

6.

7.

8.

Find Phrasal Verbs: Through this scanning process,genuine PVs were identified and separated fromother linguistic constructions or false positives.
Search as a Wildcard in Key Word in Context(KWIC): To gain further insights into the usage andcontexts of the identified PVs, a KWIC analysis was
conducted, using the PV as a wildcard to retrievesentences or phrases containing the specific PV
construction. This ensured that all forms of the verb,
such as past and progressive, were located. At thisstage, wildcard markers (*) were added between
the verb and the particle to produce separable PVs
which were in the data. As an example, the term
“devot* * * * * * to” produces results of the PV
separated by up to five words, which was thelongest found.
Subtract Non-PV Tokens: In order to ensure
accuracy, any non-PV tokens or irrelevant linguistic
units were subtracted from the collected data,
leaving only the relevant PV instances. Non-PV
tokens include word constructions that are literal inmeaning.
Input PV and Token Count into Excel: The final step
involved recording the identified PVs and theircorresponding token counts into a spreadsheet

software such as Excel, allowing for further
quantitative analysis and comparison.

Recording Phrasal Verbs
In recording PVs for the study, the tense of the PVs wasrecorded in their root form in principle. However, if thevast majority of tokens of a PV with a regular verb werein the past tense, that PV was recorded as past tense.
Examples of this include based on, where 26 tokens arein the past tense and only three are in the present tense,and carried out, where 20 tokens are in the past andonly four are in the present tense. Irregular past formsof PVs were recorded separately. This ensured that theirregularity of the past form was captured in the data
analysis.

Learning the Phrasal Verbs
Two flashcard learning tools are recommended, Ankiand Memrise, to facilitate the study of PVs found in theanalysis. These tools utilize a spaced repetition system,
which has been shown to be highly effective for longterm retention of learned material. By utilizing Anki and
Memrise, learners are provided with a systematic
approach to review and reinforce their understanding of
PVs over time. The tools are freely and readily available
on the web, making them easily accessible to a wide
range of learners.
Results
The results of the AntConc analysis (Table 1) revealed
the top three frequently occurring PVs in the analyzed
text:
Table 1Frequently Occurring PVs
Phrasalverbs

Example sentences46

look at… got much information, haveyou? No. We'll need to look atsome websites. Shouldn't take too
long.

41

focus
on

... it is a relatively easy read.
Chapters eight and nine focus on
the birth of Midtown and thebuilding boom …

3

29

based
on

… AI has to offer. Trust in otherpeople is often based on our
understanding of how others thinkand having …

3

29

set up… the mid-90s, two Danes asked
for his help to set up a system in
Copenhagen. The result was the
…

Rank

1

2

Observed
times

Additionally, the analysis identified PVs with the lowest
frequency in the analyzed text. Look up and conjure up
PanSIG Journal 2023

137
appeared only once each in the analyzed text, althoughlook up is commonly used in everyday language. In one
instance, “Oh don't worry - I can look them up. I've also
been surfing in County Mayo, which…,” and in anothercontext, “...collection of marine debris in the northern
Pacific Ocean - might conjure up a vast, floating trashisland.” Look up was used to describe locating
information, while conjure up was used to describe thecreation of a mental image or idea.
Furthermore, the analysis revealed several commonlyused but infrequent PVs that appeared only once in thetext, come back, look up, come around, look forward,
stress out, get over, and meet up. Some of these PVs
are recognized in the PHaVE List by Garnier andSchmitt (2015), with come back ranking 3rd out of 150
PVs, get back ranking 19th, look up ranking 20th, andcome around ranking 140th.
The frequency distribution of PVs in the analyzed text
revealed that the majority of PVs appeared once or
twice, with fewer PVs occurring more frequently.
Specifically, there were 176 PVs that appeared once,
66 PVs that appeared twice, 33 PVs that appeared
three times, 20 PVs that appeared four times, sevenPVs that appeared five times, four PVs that appeared
six times, seven PVs that appeared seven times, fivePVs that appeared eight or nine times.
Despite their relatively infrequent occurrence in theanalyzed text, these PVs hold significant meaning anddeserve attention in vocabulary learning. The usage of
PVs in the analyzed text reflects their significance inconveying specific meanings and nuances withinvarious contexts. For instance, PVs such as "look up"
and "conjure up" are employed to express actions andconcepts that may not be adequately conveyed bysingle-word verbs. It is also important to note that out of
the 111,711 tokens in the analyzed text, a total of 1,165
PVs were identified, resulting in a frequency of 1.04%.
This frequency slightly exceeds the rate proposed by
Gardner and Davies (2007), who suggested that PVs
are encountered at an average rate of one PV per every
150 English words (0.67%). The frequency figure of
1.04% was calculated directly by counting the total
number of phrasal verbs (PVs) in the four books anddividing it by the total number of words in those books.
This percentage represents the proportion of PVs to thetotal text content. While the figure was not adjusted or
standardized specifically for comparison with Gardnerand Davies (2007), it provides an indication of theprevalence of PVs in the analyzed texts. Consequently,
these findings show the prevalence and importance of
PVs in the text, underscoring the need to consider andstudy PVs as an integral part of English language
learning and comprehension (see the appendix for all
PVs found in the texts in this study).

Conclusions and Implications
The analysis of PVs in the corpus revealed interesting
patterns and frequencies. The most frequentlyoccurring PVs were look at, focus on, and based on,
and set up. These PVs appeared multiple times
throughout the text, indicating their prevalence andimportance.
In contrast, the frequency distribution demonstrated thatmost PVs appeared once or twice. PVs such as look up
and conjure up had the lowest frequency, appearing
only once each. It is interesting to note that look up,
which ranks 20th on PHaVE List by Garnier and Schmitt(2015), is commonly encountered in everyday life, but
appeared only once in the analyzed texts. Thesefindings suggest that the usage and distribution of PVs
in the IELTS Academic practice books may differ fromgeneral language usage as represented in corpora suchas the BNC.
Although the sample size is small, our findings suggest
a higher frequency than Gardner and Davies (2007)
predicted is possible. Liu (2011) suggests that
academic writing, specifically in the context of IELTS
reading, as well as British English, would have fewer
PVs compared to spoken language and American
English. However, the results of this study challenge
those expectations.
Furthermore, it was discovered that incorporating PVs
with particles and prepositions positioned more than two
words away from the verb has the potential to further
elevate the frequency of PVs within the remaining
sample. This suggests that considering a broader rangeof PV constructions can contribute to a morecomprehensive understanding of their prevalence. Thisapproach recognizes the diverse usage patterns of PVs
and prepares learners for the complexities of everyday
English.
The results of this study underscore the significance ofincorporating PVs into vocabulary instruction materials
and resources for IELTS preparation. Learners canbenefit from targeted study decks designed to address
PVs; such decks can be created and utilized on
platforms like Anki and Memrise. By focusing on PVs,
learners can enhance their comprehension and usageof commonly-encountered two-word parts, thereby
improving their overall language proficiency andperformance on the IELTS examination.

Future Directions / Next Steps
Future studies could examine the usage of PVs incontexts where their meaning is figurative because
there are differences in frequency between literal andnon-literal (figurative) meanings of PVs. By investigating
how PVs are used in figurative senses, the study could
PanSIG Journal 2023

138
provide insight into the varied and nuanced ways inwhich these PVs are employed in language. This
analysis could contribute to a deeper understanding of
the usage patterns and semantic flexibility of PVs inlanguage. In our analysis, we refer to 'semantic
flexibility' to describe the capacity of PVs to convey
various meanings and interpretations depending oncontext. This term underscores the dynamic nature oflanguage, where words and phrases can adapt todifferent contexts to express nuanced meanings.
Moreover, it would be valuable to conduct acomprehensive comparison of PV usage acrossdifferent language skills, specifically reading andlistening. By examining each skill individually, we could
gain a deeper understanding of how PVs are employedin various language domains and their impact on learnercomprehension.
Lastly, a comparison could be made between PVs andacademic words to assess their relative frequency andimportance in vocabulary learning for IELTS. This
investigation could provide insights into the distinct roles
and significance of PVs and academic vocabulary,
contributing to a comprehensive understanding of
vocabulary acquisition and usage in academic contexts.

Acknowledgement

British Council. (2024 January 11).Trusted around theworld. IELTS. https://ielts.org/news-andinsights/ielts-trusted-by-millions-in-2023
Biber, D., Johansson, S., Leech, G., Conrad, S., &Finegan, E. (1999). Longman grammar of
spoken and written English. London, England:
Longman.
Cambridge Assessment English. (2019). IELTS 14
academic with answers: Authentic practice tests.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cambridge Assessment English. (2020). IELTS 15
academic with answers: Authentic practice tests.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Cambridge Assessment English. (2021). IELTS 16
academic with answers: Authentic practice tests.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

The first author would like to acknowledge the generous
support received from the PanSIG 2023 Conference
Grants. This support was instrumental in enabling thepresentation of our study at the PanSIG 2023
Conference.

Cambridge Assessment English. (2022). IELTS 17

Materials

Ebbinghaus, H. (1993). Memory: A contribution of

The flashcard decks of Anki and Memrise that wecreated for this study are available upon request. We
welcome individuals who are interested in accessingthese decks to contact us and request them.

References
Anthony, L. (2022). AntConc (Version 4.2.0)[Computer Software]. Tokyo, Japan: Waseda
University. Available fromhttps://www.laurenceanthony.net/software
Baddeley, A. D. (1997). Human memory: Theory andpractice. (Revised Edition). East Sussex, UK:
Psychology Press.

academic with answers: Authentic practice tests.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

experiential psychology. (H. A. Ruger, & C. E.
Bussenius, Trans.). New York, NY: Teachers
College, Columbia University. (Original work
published 1885).
Fitzpatrick, T., Al-Qarni, I., & Meara, P. (2008).
Intensive vocabulary learning: A case study.
Language Learning Journal, 36(2), 239-248.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09571730802390759
Gardner, D., & Davies, M. (2007). Pointing out
frequent phrasal verbs: A corpus-based
analysis. TESOL Quarterly, 41(2), 339-359.
https://doi.org/10.1002/j.15457249.2007.tb00062.x

PanSIG Journal 2023

139
Garnier, M., & Schmitt, N. (2015). The phase list: A

Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning vocabulary in anotherpedagogical list of phrasal verbs and their mostlanguage. Cambridge: Cambridge University

frequent meaning senses. Language Teaching

Press.

Research, 19(6), 645-666.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168814559798

Pawley, A., & Syder, F. H. (1983). Two puzzles:
Nativelike selection and nativelike fluency. In J.

Gyllstad H., & Schmitt, N. (2018). Understanding

C. Richards & R. W. Schmidt (Eds.), Language

formulaic language: A second language

and Communication (pp. 191-225). New York:acquisition perspective. In A. Siyanova-

Longman.

Chanturia & A. Pellicer-Sánchez (Eds.),
Understanding formulaic language a second
language acquisition perspective (2nd ed., pp.

Rudzka-Ostyn, B. (2003). Word power: Phrasal verbs
and compounds. Berlin: De Gruyter.

174-191). London, UK: Routledge.
Jackendoff, R. (1995). The boundaries of the lexicon.
In M. Everaert, E. van der Linden, A. Schenk &R. Schreuder (Eds.), Idioms: Structural andpsychological perspectives (pp. 133-166).
Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
Kornell, N. (2009). Optimising learning using
flashcards: Spacing is more effective thancramming. Applied Cognitive Psychology, 23(9).
1297-1317. https://doi.org/10.1002/acp.1537
Kornell, N., & Bjork, R. A. (2007). The promise andperils of self-regulated study. Psychonomic
Bulletin & Review, 14(2), 219-224.
https://doi.org/10.3758/BF03194055
Liu, D. (2011). The most frequently used English
phrasal verbs in American and British English: A
multicorpus examination. TESOL Quarterly,
45(4), 661-688.
https://doi.org/10.5054/tq.2011.247707
Nakata, T. (2008). English vocabulary learning withword lists, word cards, and computers:
Implications from cognitive psychology researchfor optimal spaced learning. ReCALL, 20(1), 320. https://doi.org/10.1017/S0958344008000219

PanSIG Journal 2023

140

Appendix
Phrasal Verbs in IELTS Practice Tests 14-17
Count
46
41
29
29
24
23
21
21
22
18
17
17
16
16
15
15
14
14
13
13
13
13
13
12
10
9
9
9
9
9
8
8
8
8
8
7
7
7
7
7
7
7
6
6
6
6
5
5
5
5
5
5
5
4
4
4
Count
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
1

Phrasal Verb
look atfocus onbased onset upcarried out
depend on
result inlead totend todeal with
rely onled togo on
associated withbe involved in
do withfind out
relate toturn into
consist of
belong to
get torefer towork out
work onbring backlook fortake into
point out
add todate backcome fromwent into
move oncome tolook afterbe aimed at
go back
invest inlook out
came toend up (with)account for
decide onput onpick upcall fordate fromcome inget on (with)passed onturned out
happen tothought about
go aheadkeep away

Count
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
4
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
3
2
2
2
2
2
2

Phrasal Verb
move away
look backsit downcare forderived fromresult frombelieve indispose ofconcentrate on
take onfigure out
get out
run throughbe limited todress upgave upmake upgo about
brought backheld backleft behindbreak down
cut down
wrote down
go forcame fromkeep fromcall injoin income into
go intoput off
feed ondie out
help out
set out
take overtook overgo throughdevote tobuild upget upgive upgrow upmade up of
open uptake uptook upcome up withfill withcame about
wander aroundtake away
turn away
step backtake backPhrasal Verb
confronted withengage withlive withwork withcome about
bring about
cut acrossstumbled acrossnamed after

Count
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Phrasal Verb
crept intodelve into
fallen into
get into
grew into
melt into
move into
put into
venturing into

Count
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
2
Count
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

Phrasal Verb
went down
knock down
put down
settle down
slow down
write down
go forward
put forwarddrawn frombe caught inengage infall ingo instay intake inbe built into 30
looking into
fenced off
fight offhead off
ran off
start off
switch off
built onlook onmodelled onfell out (of)handed out
run out
seek out
stand out
wipe out
be given over (to)talk overgo roundcome throughtalk throughattend tocatering to
kept tostick tobe suited toturn toget together
put together
add upbreak upclear updrawn upground up
hold up (to)mixed uppop upthink upuse upwake upPhrasal Verb
play outroll out
send out
sorted out
stress outtake out
thaw outbe tired out
try out
PanSIG Journal 2023

141
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

think aheadbring along
take along
come around
get aroundlook around
revolve aroundsetting aside
aim atarrive atpull atclear away
drain away
run awaythrew away
thrown away
took away
wash away
coming backfight backget back
got back
report backstretch backthink backturned backleave behind
abide byblown down
keep downlying down
marked down
passed down
pulled downturned down
wash downallow forcater forstand in forstand up forlook forward
kept fromstem frombreathe ingave inget ingot inlock insend inbring into
creep into

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

make oftire ofblock off 30
broke off
closing off
cut off
dying off
fall off
get off
head off (back)let off
pulling off
rush off
send off
set off
taken off
wash off
act onbuild oncame oncarry oncaught on
draw onfeast onfed onget oninsisted on
keep onlive onpreying onreflect onopen onto
bear out
be borne out
be breathed out
broke out
built out
burned out
come out
cross out
cut out (of)dying out
fallen out (of)filtered out
found out
hit out
laid out
leading out (onto)
leave out
locked out (of)miss out

1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1
1

come over
get overknocking overwalk roundcome through (to)cut throughtake throughwent throughgot tolook tomeaning toresort tobe subjected tobring togethercome together
go together
pieced together
fell underboil upcatch upclean upconjure up
dug upfill upheld uphook upleading up (to)look upmet upmeet uppack up
put upput up withring upspeed upstock upbe tied up
top uptouch upwarmed up
work upcame up withexpand uponinsist upon
rely upon
go withdid with
interfere withmess withbe stuck withteem withPanSIG Journal 2023

142

A Survey of Diversity, Equity, and Inclusion in TESOL
Bradford J. Lee
Fukui University of Technology

Dale C. Jeffery
Fukui University of Technology
The TESOL (Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages) Organization launched an initiative in June 2021 with the goalof increasing DEI (diversity, equity, and inclusion) across all aspects of the field. To investigate the current state of affairs, thisstudy surveyed 101 present and former instructors, representing a wide range of genders, ages, working locations, and ethnicities.
Experiences were found to vary widely, with 57.4% indicating they felt some form of discrimination while applying for TESOL jobs,
and 60.4% reporting continued discrimination once on the job. Participants also reflected on how these experiences influenced
how they felt about themselves, the industry, and their teaching practices.
TESOL（Teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages）機構は 2021 年 6 月、この分野のあらゆる側面で DEI（多様性、公平性、包摂性）を高めることを目的としたイニシアチブを開始した。その現状を調査するため、本研究では、性別、年齢、勤務地、民族など幅広い顔ぶれの 101 人の現・元講師を対象に調査を行った。その結果、57.4％が TESOL の求人に応募する
際に何らかの差別を感じたと回答し、60.4％が就職後も差別を受け続けたと報告するなど、体験はさまざまであることがわかった。参加者はまた、こうした経験が、自分自身やこの業界、教育実践についてどのように感じているかに影響を与えたかについても振り返った。

TESOL strongly opposes discrimination against
nonnative English speakers in the field ofEnglish language teaching. Rather, English
language proficiency, teaching experience, andprofessionalism should be assessed along on acontinuum of professional preparation. (TESOL,
2006).
Above is the official position statement of TESOL(Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages),
the global authority which seeks to advance the field of
second language (L2) English instruction. This hasremained the public stance of the association for morethan 16 years, strongly opposing discrimination against
nonnative speakers as teachers of English. While thisparticular form of discrimination (native speakerism) has
been well-documented in the field of English as a
Foreign/Second Language (EFL/ESL) in the past
(Holliday, 2006; Jenkins, 2017), it is not the only metricby which people can find themselves unfairly excluded
from employment opportunities. Findings from our
precursor studies indicate that the preference for certain
types of English teachers is still prevalent in the field,
either from students or employers (Lee & Bailey, 2020,2021). We will thus briefly recount recent findings on
discriminatory practices to see how these compare withTESOL’s stated goals of diversity, equity, and inclusion(DEI).

Native-Nonnative Bias
The native speaker still has a privileged position
in English language teaching, representing
both the model speaker and the ideal teacher.
Non-native-speaker teachers of English areoften perceived as having a lower status thantheir native-speaking counterparts and havebeen shown to face discriminatory attitudes
when applying for teaching jobs. (Clark & Paran,
2007, p. 407).
English is the most widely spoken language in the world(Kachru & Nelson, 2006) and remains the primarylanguage of international communication around theworld. English has official status or is widely used inover 75 territories in the world (Crystal, 2003) and yet,most of these people are not considered to be native
speakers (NS) of English. Instead, the definition of a NS
is usually narrowly restricted to a few countries–theUnited Kingdom, the United States, Australia, New
Zealand, Ireland, and anglophone Canada–which
Kachru (1990) termed the inner circle. Post-colonial
countries (e.g., India, Singapore, Jamaica and South
Africa) are not afforded NS status, despite using English
as an official language. Kachru labeled these countries
as the outer circle. Finally, countries where English
does not have official status are referred to as
PanSIG Journal 2023

143
expanding circle countries, irrespective of how
predominantly (or proficiently) individuals from thesenations speak the language.

upper age limit of 39. Other Asian countries have similar
guidelines, with ads in China stating that successful
candidates must be 55 or younger.

However, these views which base NS status onnationality breakdown immediately upon inspection. In
the United States alone, American English is comprisedof an estimated 30 regional dialects (FluencyCorp,
2020), with varying degrees of mutual intelligibility. In
addition, a child born to American parents overseas canclaim US citizenship without ever setting foot in the
country and grow up not speaking English at all.
Therefore, while the concept of a NS at first appears to
be a common-sense idea, many scholars point to its
theoretical ambiguity (Davies, 2003), concluding that
NS and NNS (nonnative speaker) are inadequate labelsthat should be replaced by more precise definitions (Lee,2005; Tiina, 2019).

Gender imbalances in TESOL have also drawn
significant attention, with literature focusing on theunbalanced portrayal of women and their capacity tolead. Yphantides (2019) reported that women havebeen stereotyped as weak, ill-suited for leadership, andprimarily caregivers who belong in the private sphere.
Women in Japan, for example, constitute a mere 15.8%
of positions in higher education (12% Japanese; 3.8%
foreign women in Japan), 20% of which are TESOL(Japanese Ministry of Education, 2012). This area
perhaps has shown the clearest efforts towards
improvement worldwide, with Japan explicitly stating
their desire to increase women in the workforce(Japanese Ministry of Education, 2016), including
higher education. This trend is echoed in several
countries, with reports from several global bodies
tracking the progress of gender equality showing trends
towards correcting the imbalance, particularly since the
MeToo movement of 2017 (e.g., European Commission,2022). This movement is credited with highlighting
sexual violence within the United States and across theworld, while calling for accountability and examining
power structures in the workplace. Its purpose has
expanded to factor in gender equality in the workplace
and legal reforms to eliminate barriers that prohibited
victims from coming forward (Murphy, 2019).

Unfortunately, despite near universal rejection of the
NS/NNS dichotomy, Mahboob and Golden’s (2013)
investigation of TESOL job advertisements found that“nativeness was the single most frequent criterion
mentioned in the advertisements across two regions” (p.
73), the rationale appearing to stem from theassumption that a NS would make a better teacher.
It is usually assumed that native speakers haveprivileged access to their mother tongue: they
do not produce errors as non-native speakers
do, and if they do, they can identify and correct
them themselves while non-native speakers areincapable of this feat (Piller, 2001, p. 2).
At other times employers have explicitly stated that theywould rather hire unqualified NS than qualified NNS(Braine, 1999)–the reason being that they felt theirstudents would prefer NS instructors. However, our
precursor research has provided counterevidence on
this point. Students in Japan reported no statisticaldifference in their preference for NS vs. Japanese
instructors (Lee & Bailey, 2020). Reasons given werethat they would feel less anxious and be able tocommunicate more freely with a Japanese instructor,
who would also be able to advise them on learning
strategies as they, themselves, had once gone throughthe same processes (Lee & Bailey, 2021).

Other Forms of Discrimination
Though discrimination based on nativeness is the mostwell-documented, other forms of bias have also beenreported. Country of birth, cultural background, andethnicity have also been cited (Fang, 2018), along withage discrimination (Walsh, 2012). Some European
recruitment campaigns have asked for candidates aged
30 or less, as schools claim to seek youthful teachers.
Walsh continues that, in Japan, the JET Programme (agovernment-sponsored recruiting program) has an

The current study asked the following researchquestions (RQs):
1. To what degree do TESOL professionals feel they
have faced discrimination while searching for a job
in TESOL?
2. To what degree do TESOL professionals feel they
have faced discrimination while working in TESOL?
3. What kinds of specific forms of discrimination do
TESOL professionals report to have experienced?
4. How have discriminatory experiences affected theway in which TESOL professionals see themselves
and the field as a whole?

Methods
Data Collection Instrument
An original questionnaire was created by the authors,
beginning with an Informed Consent statement andbiographical data section, followed by three sections
totaling nine items (see Appendix). Section One asked
participants about their experiences with hiring
practices. Section Two elicited feedback on working
conditions. Finally, the third section gathered
participants’ feelings regarding other aspects of working
PanSIG Journal 2023

144
within TESOL and asked participants to reflect on how
any discriminatory acts they encountered affected their
feelings about themselves, their teaching practices, orthe field of TESOL in general.
The survey was created in English and delivered
electronically via Google Forms. All items weremandatory except for the open-ended ones, which
asked participants to expand on their answers in thecase that they answered yes, indicating that they had
experienced discrimination.

Of the 101 respondents, n = 39 (38.6%) reported being
discriminated against and n = 19 (18.8%) suspected
they had been while searching for employment in the
TESOL field. This is compared to the 42.6% ofrespondents who said they were not (n = 11; 10.9%) or
were not aware of being (n = 32; 31.7%) subject todiscrimination.

Table 1

Item Two asked participants who responded to Item
One in the affirmative to provide more details as to why
they felt they were subjected to bias in the hiring
process. The themes that emerged, and their relative
frequencies, are reported below in Table 3.

Overview of Participants’ Biographical Data

Table 3Item Two: Emergent Qualitative Themes and Number of ResponsesnEthnicitynGeographicallocation of
TESOL work

North
America

39

White

54

Asia

95

Asia

18

Asian

20

European Union

20

European
Union

15

Black

14

North America

13

The
Caribbean

9

Mixed
race

6

Middle East

8

Oceania

7

Hispanic /
Latin

4

Oceania6

Africa4

Indian2South America

5

EasternEurope4MiddleEastern

1

Eastern Europe

5

South
America4Africa4

Middle East

1

Central America

3

Area oforiginnNote: Multiple responses were accepted for geographical locationof TESOL work, resulting in a higher number of responses than N= 101.

Participants
Invitations were posted on TESOL listservs and social
media sites over a period of 14 days. In total, 101 people
responded to the survey. Table 1 outlines the
biographical details of the participants.

Results
Research Questions 1 & 2
The quantitative results of Item One are reported inTable 2.
Table 2
Responses to Item One: Have You Ever Been Discriminated Against
While Trying to Find a Job in TESOL?
Yes (%)

I think so, but I
have no proof (%)

Not that I amaware of (%)

No (%)

39 (38.6)

19 (18.8)

32 (31.7)

11 (10.9)

Positive Effectn

Negative EffectnEthnicity2

Native-speakerism

20

Appearance

1

Ethnicity

19

Marital Status

1

Nationality

12

Gender12Age

6Appearance

3

Marital / Parental Status

3

Education Level / Certificates3

Residential Status

1

Political Affiliation

1

Religion1

As shown in Table 3, the two largest sources of
discrimination cited were ethnicity (n = 19) and nativespeakerism (n = 17), followed closely by nationality andgender (both n = 12). While these factors are often
conflated, the current study highlights that they are, infact, disparate. For example, several respondents
commented that despite being American citizens, they
faced ethnic discrimination and doubts as to the“nativeness” of their English as in the following excerpt:
I had several companies be nice and cordial …
once they saw my photo, the position was
magically filled. They actually doubted that
English was my first language, although therecruiters tried defending me. (Black, North
America)
Gender issues were brought up by several respondents,
though interestingly, being female was noted in both apositive and negative light. While one candidate
reported the following:
I was told by an interviewer that they were sorry,
but their ideal candidate was a Caucasianfemale (I am an Asian male) (Asian, North
America),PanSIG Journal 2023

145
Another reported the opposite:

Table 5

I was told that I was too much of a risk as amarried woman. They said I would just get
pregnant and quit, so my qualifications didn’t
matter. (White, North America)

Item Five: Emergent Qualitative Themes and Number of Responses
Positive EffectnAppearance
Ethnicity
AccentNote that the second response was coded as one
instance of both gender and marital status.
Item Three of the survey asked participants to report
how often they felt they were experiencing
discriminatory treatment during the hiring process(Figure 1).
Figure 1
Responses to: How Often Have You Faced Discriminatory Practices
While Applying for TESOL Jobs?

Negative Effectn2Ethnicity

29

1

Native-speakerism

21

1

Appearance

16

Nationality

15

Gender14

Marital / Parental Status

3

Sexual Orientation2

Education Level /Certificates

1

Age

1

The top responses were related to ethnicity (n = 29) andnative-speakerism (n = 21), however, appearance wasmentioned much more predominantly in this section.
Some excerpts of the responses received are as
follows:
Ethnicity: My own students called me “monkey”
and “gorilla” many times (Black, Africa).
Native-speakerism: I was told my ‘English’ is
not the correct English because I do not havean American accent (Black, Caribbean).
Appearance: I used to be overweight, andstudents made fun of me by drawing me or
name-calling (Asian, Asia).

Note: 1 = Never; 10 = Every TimePart Two of the survey sought to address RQ2: to what
degree do TESOL professionals feel they have faced
discrimination while working in TESOL? The
quantitative results of Item Four are reported in Table 4.

Parental Status: I was strongly discouraged
from applying for a position because it would
involve travel or after-hours meetings after thecontact person learned I had children (White,
North America).

Table 4
Responses to Item Four: Have You Ever Been Discriminated Against
While Working Within TESOL
Yes (%)

I think so, but I
have no proof (%)

Not that I amaware of (%)

No (%)

Item Five of the survey (Figure 2) asked participants
who responded affirmatively to Item Four to report how
often they felt these discriminatory acts.

43 (42.6)

18 (17.8)

26 (25.7)

14 (13.9)

Figure 2

Responses mirror those of Item One, with the pluralityof participants indicating that they had experienced
some form of discrimination even after having beensuccessfully employed, n = 43 (42.6%), with a further n= 18 (17.8%) feeling like they had been but without
concrete proof. The remaining 39.6% of participants
reported to have had no problems regarding
discrimination.
With Item Five, participants were asked to recountepisodes which could provide insight into theirquantitative responses. Table 5 shows the themes andrelative frequencies that emerged.

Responses to: If You Answered ‘Yes’, can You Tell Us How Often
These Discriminatory Acts Happened?

25
20
15
10
5
0
Once

A few times Several times More than I
can count

PanSIG Journal 2023

146

Research Question 3
The elaborations provided in response to Items Twoand Five (Tables 3 & 5) already form the basis of ouranswer to RQ3: what kinds of specific forms of
discrimination do TESOL professional report to haveexperienced? However, we also included a discrete
item which was intended to explicitly address thisparticular RQ (Table 6).

Limited opportunities refer to acts which hindered theparticipant from engaging in activities which would aid
in professional development:
Females are treated as lesser. But that’s aworldwide problem. I was not allowed to be
photographed or asked to do presentations
despite being the most educated /seniorteacher due to my gender (White, Oceania)

Table 6

Research Question 4

Forms of Perceived Discrimination and Number of Responses
Positive Effectn

Negative EffectnReceiving Preferential
Treatment

2

Offensive Comments(other)23

Not Asked to Do Extra
Work

2

Passed Over for
Promotion / Jobs

20

Receiving Highly
Visible Roles

1

Isolation / Exclusion

15

Limited Opportunities

10

Offensive Comments(sexual)8

Opinions Not Valued

7

Extra Work

2

Used Only asEntertainment2

Losing a Job

Finally, with RQ4, we asked, how have discriminatory
experiences affected the way in which TESOL
professionals see themselves and the field on the whole(Table 7)?
Table 7
How Did These Discriminatory Acts Influence How You Feel About
Yourself?
Positive Effectn

Negative EffectnConfident

5

Angry / Disgusted / Vengeful

17

Invigorated3

Sad / Depressed / Suicidal

13Powerful

1

Inferior / Fake

8

Reassess Choices

7

Paranoid / Self-conscious

62Demotivated5

Physical Violence1

Self-conscious

3

Not Receiving Credit

1

Ignored3

Ashamed / Humiliated3

Victimized

2

Confused1

The most common form of discrimination reported wasoffensive comments (n = 23):
I’ve always been told how articulate I am,
stemming from a general lack of an expectationthat I would be educated and capable of
speaking standard English, because I’m black
AND from the Caribbean (Black, Caribbean).
The second most commonly cited form of discrimination
was being passed over or promotion / jobs (n = 20), as
in the following:
I worked in hiring (for a company in Asia) andwas told that I cannot hire males, people of
Korean descent, or people with Indian accents(Asian, Asia).
Participants also reported being subject to social
isolation and exclusion (n = 15):
I am routinely excluded from decision-making
processes and treated like a permanent guest(White, North America).

No Change

45

Forty-five respondents reported having no significant
changes in their cognition or emotive states. On thenegative side, anger/disgust/vengefulness (n = 17) was
followed by sad/depressed/suicidal (n = 13). Note thatmany of the responses touched upon multiple emotions
and are therefore coded under multiple categories.
Also of note is that while the majority of the responses
were negative, some reported feeling more confident (n= 5) or invigorated (n = 3) as a result of their experiences,either due to their being on the benefitting end of
discriminatory practices or born from a desire to prove
themselves to those around them.
Finally, participants were asked how their experienceswith discrimination have affected their feelings toward
the field of TESOL in general, and their teachingpractices (Table 8).

PanSIG Journal 2023

147
Table 8How Did These Discriminatory Acts Influence Your Perception of the
TESOL Profession and Your Teaching Practice?
Positive Effectn

Negative EffectnPrivileged

2

Demotivated102

Considering Quitting

9

3

TESOL is an Elitist/Imperialist
Club

8

1

Teaching is Just a Performance

6

Needs More Diversity

5

TESOL is Full of Ignorance

3

TESOL Reinforces Stereotypes

2

Lack of Professionalism

1

Strive to out-do
peers
Stive to educate
othersMore self-reliant

No Change

49

Forty-nine people reported no significant changes intheir feelings. Of the remainder, the largest two negative
results reported were becoming demotivated (n = 10)
and considering quitting (n = 9). One exasperated
participant summarized his feelings with the following:
It is hypocritical to say you value inclusion yet
have been silent about this issue. Our stories
can be used by researchers but we’re not reallysure if it’ll make a difference. We’re still paidless and discriminated against more. What we
can get from this? Who could help us? (Asian,Asia).

Discussion and Implications
Our findings revealed a general belief that biases areprevalent in TESOL, both at the recruiting stage andonce employed. Of note is that some reported feelingthey were the beneficiaries of bias (i.e., favoritism),noting that they experienced preferential treatment
merely due to their ethnicity, gender, or other suchfactors (Table 6). Though many participants did notreport feeling subject to discrimination, the presence ofsuch a large body of TESOL professionals attesting to
its existence is compelling, regardless if the bias isagainst skin color, weight, gender, or overall perceived
attractiveness. Our findings also highlighted issues ofbias based on age, gender, marital status, parental
status, or sexual orientation - issues that are not only
limited to the field of TESOL. The increased visibility ofthese issues has resulted in great progress being madeon achieving DEI in these areas, and the current study
hopes to similarly bring to light these issues in our own
field.
Finally, the impact on teachers, and thus, the quality ofeducation they can provide, is a major aspect of ourstudy. The toll on our participants’ mental health is clear,with common responses of anger, depression, and (insome cases) contemplation of suicide (Table 7). Thisshould be a major concern for all, as teachers are in
daily close contact with young, impressionable students,
and teachers’ mental health matters. A recent study of
TESOL teacher motivation showed that while helping
students was the most driving motivator, being treatedfairly by their organizations was a very close second(Lee et al., 2022). These findings are in congruence withthe current study, as it highlights the position of teachersat the very center of the educational structure. It thus
benefits stakeholders to be cognizant of teachers’
mental health, as stated in the following:…the teacher’s level of enthusiasm andcommitment is one of the most importantfactors that can affect learners’ motivation tolearn. Broadly speaking, if a teacher ismotivated to teach, there is a good chance that
his or her students will be motivated to learn.
(Dörnyei & Ushioda, 2011, p. 158).

Limitations and Future Directions
While extensive care was put into the construction of thequestion items, it was difficult to account for sampling or
non-response biases. Responses came from 10
geographic regions, eight ethnicities, and referenced
nine global work locations. However, the majority were
Caucasians who had sought employment in Asia. Of
course, Asia is one of the most popular TESOL centers,
and the majority of TESOL professionals are indeed
White. Nevertheless, the relatively small sample limits
generalizability.
Less clear is the impact of non-response bias. Typically,
people who are interested in a topic are more likely torespond, resulting in bias. However, a large portion of
our sample gave null responses (42.6%, Table 2; 39.6%,
Table 4, respectively). We interpret this number of null
responses to be an indicator of a successful
implementation of our testing instrument. In fact, thishelped elucidate the unexpected finding that many had
not experienced disadvantageous discrimination, but
had possibly received an unfair advantage or witnesseddiscrimination against their peers.

References
Braine, G. (1999). Non-native educators in English
language teaching. Routledge.
Clark, E., & Paran, A. (2007). The employability of
non-native-speaker teachers of EFL: A UK
survey. System, 35(2007), 407-430.

PanSIG Journal 2023

148
Crystal, D. (2003). English as a global language(second edition). Cambridge University Press.

https://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/highered/title02/detail02/sdetail02/sdetail02/1395492.htm

Davies, A. (2003). The native speaker: Myth andreality. Multilingual Matters.

Jenkins, J. (2017). The elephant in the room:
Discriminatory hiring practices in ELT. ELT

Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2011). Teaching and

Journal, 71(3), 373-376.

researching motivation (2nd ed.). Pearson
Education Limited.

Kachru, B. B. (1990). World Englishes and applied
linguistics. World Englishes,9(1), 3-20.

European Commission. (2022). 2022 report on genderequality in the EU.
https://ec.europa.eu/info/sites/default/files/aid_d

Kachru, Y., & Nelson, C. L. (2006). World Englishes in
Asian Contexts. Hong Kong University Press.

evelopment_cooperation_fundamental_rights/20
22_report_on_gender_equality_in_the_eu_en.pdf
Fang, F. (2018). Native-speakerism revisited: Global

Lee, J. J. (2005). The native speaker: An achievablemodel? Asian EFL Journal, 7(2), 152-163.
Lee, B. J., & Bailey, J. L. (2020). Japanese tertiary-

Englishes, ELT and intercultural communication.

level students’ cognition of World Englishes.

Indonesian Journal of English Language

Memoirs of Fukui University of Technology, 50,

Teaching, 13(2), 115-129.

243-253.

Fluency Corp. (2020, April 29). American English

Lee, B. J. & Bailey, J. L. (2021). Rural Japanese

Dialects. FluencyCorp.

students’ sentiments regarding Japanese

https://fluencycorp.com/american-english-

teachers of English. In P. Clements, R. Derrah,

dialects/& P. Ferguson (Eds.), Communities of teachers& learners (pp. 145-151) JALT.

Holliday, A. (2006). Native-speakerism. ELT Journal,

https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTPCP2020-18

60(4), 385-387.
Lee, B. J., Broadbridge, J., Park, H., Shimada, M., &Japanese Ministry of Education (MEXT) (2012).

Freeman, R. F. (2022). Does TESOL teacher

Selection for the FY2012 “Re-Inventing Japan

motivation matter? Values vs. rewards. In. D.

Project”. Retrieved January 6, 2022, from

Shaffer (Ed.)., More than words: Teaching for a

https://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/highbetter world, (pp. 21-33). KOTESOL.

ered/title02/detail02/sdetail02/sdetail02/1374092

https://koreatesol.org/content/kotesol-.htm

proceedings-2022

Japanese Ministry of Education (MEXT) (2016).

Mahboob, A., & Golden, R. (2013). Looking for native

Selection for the FY2016 “Inter-university

speakers of English: Discrimination in English

exchange project (Re-inventing Japan project);language teaching job advertisements. Voices in

Support for the formation of collaborative

Asia Journal,1(1), 72-81.

programs with universities in Asia. Retrieved
January 6, 2022, fromPanSIG Journal 2023

149
Murphy, M. (2019). Introduction to “#MeToo
Movement”. Journal of Feminist Family Therapy,3(2-3), 63-65,
http://doi.org/10.1080/08952833.2019.1637088
Piller, I. (2001). Who, if anyone, is a native speaker?
Anglistik. Mitteilungen des Verbandes Deutscher
Anglisten, 12(2), 109-121.
Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages,
Inc. (March, 2006). Position statement against
discrimination of nonnative speakers of English
in the field of TESOL.
https://www.tesol.org/docs/defaultsource/advocacy/position-statement-againstnnest-discrimination-march2006.pdf?sfvrsn=6ff103dc_2
Tiina, M. (2019). Moving past native-speakerism inEnglish language teaching (ELT) in Japan. Keio
SFC Journal, 19(2), 102-113.
Walsh, L. (2012, March 5th). Age bias in TESOL jobs?
Global English. https://www.globalenglish.com/blog/age-bias-in-tefl-jobs/
Yphantides, J. (2019). Women in TESOL leadershiproles in higher education in Japan. Asian EFL
Journal, 23(6.3), 1-25.

PanSIG Journal 2023

150

AppendixResearch Instrument

Regarding Hiring Practices:
Q1: Have you ever been discriminated against while trying to FIND A JOB in TESOL? (e.g., age, gender, nationality, ethnicity, accent,appearance, first language, education, etc.)
a. Yesb. I think so, but I have no proof

c. Not that I am aware ofd. No

Q2: If you answered "yes", can you describe why you felt discriminated against while trying to find a job in TESOL?
Q3: How often have you faced discriminatory practices while applying for TESOL jobs?
(Never)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

(Every time)

Regarding Working Conditions:
Q4: Have you ever experienced discriminatory practices initiated against you WHILE WORKING within TESOL? (e.g., age, gender,
nationality, ethnicity, appearance, accent, first language, education, etc.)
a. Yesb. I think so, but I have no proof

c. Not that I am aware ofd. No

Q5: If you answered ‘yes’, can you tell us how often these discriminatory acts happened?
a. Onceb. A few timesc. Several times

d. More than I can countQ6: Can you provide more information about the discriminatory acts that you experienced?
Other:
Q7: What kind of discriminatory acts have you experienced within the field of TESOL in general? (e.g., With regard to presentations,publications, social settings, etc.)
Q8: How did these discriminatory acts influence how you feel about yourself?
Q9: How did these discriminatory acts influence your perception of the TESOL profession and your teaching practice?

PanSIG Journal 2023

151

Student Debates: Scaffolding for Success in Task-based Learning
Martyn John McGettigan
Hiroshima City University
One of the most discussed and debated issues related to task-based language teaching (TBLT) is the very definition of “task”
itself. There are, however, certain key features that are generally accepted, such as the need for a task to be meaning-focused(Ellis & Shintani, 2014). This practice-based paper describes the implementation of student debates into English classes following
an approach designed to integrate task-based learning at every stage. After justifying regarding these debates as “tasks”, thesteps taken in implementing them and their rationale are explained. In particular, the ways in which an attempt was made toprovide scaffolding to allow the students to move towards spontaneous and meaning-focused use of language are highlighted.
The results of the final implementation of the debates are then discussed. Finally, there is a reflection on this implementation,
including ways in which it could be improved and some suggestions for future research.

タスクに基づく言語教育（TBLT）に関連して最も議論されている問題の一つは、「タスク」の定義そのものである。しかし一般的に受け入れられている重要な特徴、例えばタスクの意味に焦点をあてる必要がある（Ellis & Shintani, 2014）。この実践に基づく論文は、タスク・ベースの学習をあらゆる段階で統合するようにデザインされたアプローチに従って、英語の授業に生
徒ディベートを導入したことについて述べている。ディベートを「タスク」と位置づけることを正当化した上で、その実施手順と根拠を説明する。特に、生徒が自発的に意味を重視した言語使用に移行できるよう、場を提供しようとした方法が強調されている。そして、ディベートの最終的な実施結果が論じられる。最後に改善可能な方法を含め、実施内容を振り返り、今後の研究に対するいくつかの提案を行う。

Task-based language teaching (TBLT) is well supported
in the literature as an effective means of facilitating
second language acquisition (SLA) (Bryfonski & McKay,
2017; Ellis et al., 2019). Nonetheless, its implementation,
especially in Japanese and other Asian contexts, hasoften been seen as extremely difficult, if not impossible,
due to factors such as cultural differences and more
traditional expectations (Luo & Xing, 2015; Sato, 2009).
In spite of this, many teachers in Japanese contexts do
implement TBLT in their classrooms in a variety of ways
(Harris, 2018). This paper describes an attempt to
implement TBLT into university English communication
classes by means of student debates.
Student group or whole-class presentations are acommon feature of English curriculums at many
Japanese universities. However, as Toland et al. (2016)
note:
More often than not, university learners find thisactivity creates a tremendous amount of anxiety
and discomfort. In addition, students often
memorize scripts or read text-heavy slides,
which not only defeats the purpose ofenhancing their public speaking abilities, but isalso a boring experience for the audience (p.
180).
While there are certainly many ways of addressingthese concerns, one solution seemed to be to replace
one of the planned presentations in my first-and secondyear English communication skills courses with student
debates. Debates have a number of advantages overpresentations. As Nur (2018, p. 6) explains, because
students cannot be fully prepared for debates inadvance, they are required to use English “in ameaningfulway”
and“spontaneously”.
Thisspontaneous and meaning-focused use of language not
only seemed to overcome the limitations ofpresentations noted above, but also suggested an
opportunity for implementing TBLT in the classroom.
However, this would first require ensuring the debates
implemented corresponded satisfactorily to a widely
accepted definition of “task”.
The definition of “task” in TBLT remains contentious.
Van der Branden (2006, p. 3) gives an overview ofdefinitions from a variety of authors and contexts, andstates that “almost anything related to educational
activity can now be called a 'task'.” Ellis et al. (2019, p.
9) argue for a single definition that can be “applicable
PanSIG Journal 2023

152
across contexts and purposes.” They go on to give fourmain criteria which a class workplan should conform to
if it is to be considered a true “task” (Ellis et al., 2019, p.
10). The first of these is a “primary focus on meaning”,
i.e. that the learners should primarily be focused oncommunicating or understanding meaningful language,
rather that producing correct forms. The second
criterion is that there should be a “gap” which creates “aneed to covey information, to reason or to express an
opinion.” Thirdly, the learners should rely on their “ownlinguistic and non-linguistic resources”, without theteacher providing model forms and vocabulary. Finally,
there should be a “clearly defined communicative
outcome”, i.e. whether the task has been accomplishedshould be decided based on a goal requiring successfulcommunication, rather than on the correct use of certain
grammatical forms. It will be argued that the student
debates discussed in this paper satisfactorily conform to
all four criteria.
I would argue that student debates meet the above
criteria, or, at least, can be made to meet them provided
certain decisions are taken at the task design stage.
That debates are meaning-focused should be quite
clear; they are certainly not focused on practisingcertain forms or creating grammatically correctsentences, but rather on actually debating the topic at
hand. The existence of a gap would also seem to beuncontentious, provided the debates are designed sothat students do not know their counterparts' arguments
in advance. Ensuring students rely on their own
resources requires the task designer not to give them aset of general-purpose forms which they can use bysimply filling in the blanks, and I was careful not to do
so in this case. The required clearly defined outcome
could easily be identified as winning the debate.
However, this would be problematic since it would
suggest the losing party had failed to reach the goal.
Instead, I would argue that students striving to deliver
the best arguments they can and attempting to rebut
those of those of their counterparts can be regarded asa sufficiently clear outcome. It is an outcome thatcertainly requires effective communication, and one that
obviously does not involve the use of language as amere end in itself.
Finally, there are previous studies which approached
the implementation of debates from the perspective of
TBLT. Smith (2022) describes the design andimplementation of debates in which various preparatory
practice exercises were designed to fit the definition of“task” (p. 142). Similar opinion-gap tasks to help
students develop debate skills were also proposed by
Arulselvi (2017). The following section will describe thetask design process, keeping in mind the points raised
above as well as other factors that were more
fundamental.

Task Design and Preparation
While the above-mentioned issues were certainly
important, there were more fundamental considerations
that occurred when approaching the design stage of thisdebate task. In order to explain these fundamental
concerns, it will first be necessary to give more detailabout the context in which this task was to be
implemented. As already stated, the students belonged
to two classes, one first year and the other second year.
The course, titled English Communication Skills, was afour-skills course with greater emphasis placed on
speaking and listening. The students were not English
majors but were studying in the department ofinternational studies. Their CEFR levels ranged fromhigh A2 to low B1 (according to placement tests not
administered by the university), though they tended toperform much more strongly in written tasks thanspoken, and their speaking level, if taken in isolation,
would likely fall somewhat lower in most cases.
The obvious difficulty with implementing a debate task
in this context is that the students would seem unlikely
to have the necessary resources for the spontaneous,meaning-focused use of English that the task required.
Supplying such resources in the form of easily reusable
sentence patterns that could be memorised would
obviously contradict the third criterion in the above
definition of task. The best way forward seemed to behelping the students build up their ability and confidence
in using language in this way in carefully planned andhighly scaffolded steps. Scaffolding has been proposedby a number of researchers as an effective means ofenabling students new to TBLT, or lacking resources forit, to engage with it successfully (Fang et al., 2021;
Harris, 2018; Widodo, 2015).
Before describing the task design process in more detail,it will be necessary first to attempt to define what ismeant by the term “scaffolding”. Buitrago (2019, p. 22)
defines scaffolding as “a process of providing
assistance that allows beginner learners to be able todo certain tasks, solve problems, or achieve certain
goals that cannot be done alone without the help ofothers”. Verity (2005, p. 4) defines it as “the cognitive
support given to a novice learner to reduce the cognitive
load of the task”. However, these are very broad
definitions and, as Hamidi and Bagherzadeh (2018)
point out, definitions of this sort could be applied toalmost anything that takes place in a classroom. A full
treatment of the controversy surrounding the definitionof scaffolding is beyond the scope of this paper. In thispaper, scaffolding will be understood in terms that
address the problems identified above (i.e. student lackof ability to produce spontaneous, meaning-focusedlanguage when first attempting debate tasks). As such,for the purposes of this paper, the term will be
understood as teaching and learning events that fulfil
PanSIG Journal 2023

153
the three conditions described by Mercer and Fisher(1993, in Wells 1999), viz., events that “a) enable thelearners to carry out the task which they would not havebeen able to manage on their own; b) be intended tobring the learner to a state of competence which will
enable them eventually to complete such a task on theirown; and c) be followed by evidence of the learners
having achieved some greater level of independentcompetence as a result of the scaffolding experience”(Wells 1999, p. 221).
One of the teachers interviewed by Harris (2018, p. 144)
explains her use of scaffolding in terms that would
appear to meet these criteria, starting with very
structured “grammar-centered” tasks, and gradually
reducing the scaffolding until students are able tocomplete the tasks independently.
In implementing these class debates, it was decided tofollow a similar method, starting with very structured
activities in which a lot of content and language is given
to students, and then gradually moving in the directionof more reliance on students' own resources.
The first necessary step was to design a template thatwould be used by students when planning their debates.
Space was given for three arguments in support of thestudents' position, as well as space for the students towrite down three possible arguments that theircounterparts might use, as well as rebuttals of those
three arguments. This template was adapted for eachpractice stage leading up to the final debate, with lessbeing already filled in for the students each time.
The first practice stage served as an introduction to theconcept of debates as well as the first time the students
saw the template. They were put into pairs and would
stay with the same partner for every stage including thefinal debates. In the first practice stage, everything was
given to the students. A simple topic (dogs vs. cats) waschosen, and all three arguments, counterarguments
and rebuttals were already filled in. The pairs ofstudents only had to get together with another pair that
had sheets in support of the opposite argument andread everything out at the right time, although they were
given encouragement and assistance with natural
pronunciation and intonation. Once this stage wascomplete, it was explained to the students that in thenext practice, although the topic would remain the same,
they would have to use some of their own arguments.
New templates were given to students, but with only one
argument, one possible counterargument and one
rebuttal filled in. Working in their pairs, and withguidance and support from the teacher, the students
were required to compose two arguments of their own,
predict two possible counterarguments, and compose
rebuttals to those possible counterarguments.

It was at this stage that students would first encounter
an element of unpredictability and be required torespond spontaneously. It was predicted that in cases
where students had failed to correctly predict anargument by their counterparts, putting together arebuttal would prove extremely difficult and teacher
support would be needed. When it came to
implementing this stage, this prediction proved to betrue in both classes. In fact, there was not a single
instance in which a pair managed to make a rebuttal ina reasonable amount of time and without teacher
support after encountering an argument they had notprepared for. In a class discussion after the activity,
students identified this need to compose rebuttals in realtime as their chief difficulty. It was then explained to
students that the next practice stage would be aimed at
helping them improve this skill.
Since this stage focused on rebuttals, students were
given sheets similar to those they had used in previous
stages, but only consisting of the counterargument andrebuttal sections. These were already filled in with threepossible counterarguments and three rebuttals. It was
explained to the students that they would hear anotherargument different from the arguments on their sheets
but in favour of the same proposition. Working in theirpairs, they would have to identify which of thearguments on their sheet was most similar to the one
they had just heard and alter its rebuttal so that it applied
to the new argument. This practice became regular, witha different topic each time, in the lead-up to the final
debates. The teacher was able to support the students
while observing their improvement. It was found that thestudents overall became much faster at adapting
rebuttals, and responding to unexpected arguments inreal time, as a result of this practice.
An example will now be given of one of the rebuttal
practice activities. Students were given the practice
sheet in which three arguments for the mountains being
better than the sea are given and rebutted. The teacher
then read out a fourth argument: “The mountains are
better than the sea because we can go camping in themountains.” The student pairs then worked as fast as
possible to adapt one of the rebuttals they already had
to the new argument. In both classes, the majority ofpairs chose to adapt the rebuttal to the second
argument, related to the trouble caused by insects when
hiking. Some pairs made creative efforts at adapting
one of the other two rebuttals, and the pros and cons ofthese attempts were also discussed by the class. As thisregular practice at adapting rebuttals progressed, ageneral improvement could be seen, on a week-byweek basis, both in terms of the speed at which pairs
were able to adapt rebuttals and in their ability to choose
the rebuttal most suited to adaptation.

PanSIG Journal 2023

154
While continuing with the regular practice describedabove, students began to prepare for the final debates.
They chose topics out of a hat containing four pairs of
opposing topics, and were given their final, blank copiesof the preparation sheet. Teacher support was available
to help the students improve their arguments, and they
were encouraged to practise delivering their arguments
as well as adapting their rebuttals to other possible
arguments beyond the three they had already predicted.

Implementation and Results
When it came time to hold the final debates, students
had received a great deal of support and time forpractice, as described above, and a majority of themhad shown significant improvement compared with theirfirst attempt at debating. Nonetheless, there was still a
degree of tension owing to the fact that students had
obviously not seen their counterparts' preparedarguments and were going into the debate blind. Their
success or otherwise in accomplishing the task chiefly
rested on their ability to adapt rebuttals to arguments
they had not anticipated. This was something they had
found themselves unable to do on their first attempt, butalso something they had been working on for several
weeks.
Since this paper is purely practice-oriented, noquantitative data was collected which can be described
here. In spite of this, the notes I made during the debate
sessions are sufficient to answer one key question:
whether or not the students' successfully completed thetask. As stated above, successful task completion will
be defined as students having given logical arguments
for their own position, as well as having logically
rebutted arguments from their counterparts together
with any necessary adaptation. All 16 pairs succeededon the first point. Also, all pairs managed at least one
successful adaptation of a rebuttal (with no pairs being
lucky enough to have anticipated all three of theiropponents’ arguments). There were only three pairs thateach made a single, rather unsuccessful adaptation (inthat I judged their adaptation not to have been logicallyconsistent with the argument they were attempting to
rebut). Each of these pairs managed at least one
successful adaptation of another rebuttal, however.
Furthermore, there was not a single instance in whichsilence prevailed and a group gave up altogether in theirattempts to rebut an argument. This is a remarkable
outcome, considering this sort of total shutdown was acommon occurrence on the first occasion students
encountered arguments for which they were
unprepared. There were certainly tense periods ofsilence on occasion, but these always gave way tosudden, whispered discussion followed by a (usually)
successful deployment of an adapted argument.
An illustrative example, based on student written workand my own notes, will now be described. One pair of

second year students was tasked with defending the
proposition that “aliens probably exist, and we will likely
have contact with them in the future” against anotherpair tasked with preparing arguments for the opposite
position. The students prepared three arguments
supporting their stance, the specifics of which are notnecessary to detail here. Additionally, they anticipatedthree arguments the opposing pair might present,
crafting a rebuttal for each. The latter set of arguments
and their corresponding rebuttals are as follows:
1. The chance is very low for aliens to evolve to be asadvanced as people
Even so, it doesn’t mean that they don’t exist. Even
simple creatures on other planets are aliens.
2. People who say they saw UFOs are lying obviously.
Some of them may be lying, but it is difficult to come up
something without precedent. So, somebody must haveseen aliens in the past.
3. Earth is a unique planet that can support life.
Actually, astronomers already found 20 planets that can
support life.
When it came to the debate, the first argument made by
the opposing team was very similar to the third
anticipated argument above, and was thus easily
answered. However, the opposing team's second
argument was as follows: “If aliens exist, they would betrying to find us. But there is no evidence they are trying
to find us.” This led to a pause, some whispered
discussion, and another pause. However, just when I
was about to step in and help, one of the students
expressed the following rebuttal (paraphrased based on
my notes): “Even simple life that can't contact us is still
life, so there can still be aliens.” Clearly the team had
been successful at thinking on the spot and had adapted
their first planned rebuttal to answer and unexpectedargument from their opponents. This is one of manysuch examples of students attempting to adapt theirrebuttals. Some attempts where, of course, more
successful than others, but overall, the students were
far more successful at this process of adapting
arguments in real time than they had been when we firstbegan to practice debates.
From my perspective, as the classroom teacher, themarked difference between the students' first attempt at
debating and their final performance on the day was
more than sufficient evidence for the overall success ofthe project. Student feedback (collected by means of an
online survey) was similarly positive, with many
students commenting on their own perceived
improvement and how they went from believing theywould never be able to achieve success in such debates
to finding they were able to do so confidently.
Comments included “It was a great way to practice myability to think about sentences on the spot.” and “I
growed up my English skills, and could speak English
PanSIG Journal 2023

155smoothly in this debate.” The only critical comments
referred to the need for more thinking time, though since
a time limit on student thinking time was not imposed, I
am unsure exactly what was meant by this. While
implementing such a specific time limit could be
beneficial, it would seem it could also increase thepressure on students. Nonetheless, it is something tobear in mind in future iterations of these debate tasks.

Discussion
In the implementation of the work plan described above,
my goal was to utilize a task-based learning approach,focusing on harnessing the inherent communicativeadvantages of debates over presentations. By working
through several stages, each slightly less scaffolded
than the last, students were ultimately able to engage inmeaning-focused debates which, I would argue, met thedefinition of TBLT given above (Ellis et al., 2019). The
key element to the scaffolding process was without adoubt the focus on adapting rebuttals in real time inorder to answer unexpected arguments from thestudents' counterparts. This ultimately enabled students
to engage in spontaneous and meaning-focused use ofEnglish, in a way they were unable to achieve at theoutset of this project. There are various ways this could
be extended and built upon. For example, in a following
stage, students could be encouraged to work on
responding to rebuttals and defending their original
arguments. The ultimate aim could be to have students
continue to engage in such back-and-forth discussion ofa single argument for as long as they are able.
Ultimately, once students realise they are able torespond meaningfully without having everything preplanned, many possibilities for meaningful use of thelanguage present themselves.
Regarding future research, I am working on replicating
the process outlined above while also incorporating thecollection of quantitative data. This approachnecessitates addressing specific challenges, including
the precise definition of what constitutes a successful
rebuttal adaptation, among others. Plans are in place tocollect data during the debates and throughout the
preparatory stages (such as turns taken and successful
adaptations). Furthermore, the possibility of gathering
data from both pre- and post-task group discussions isbeing explored. The aim is to determine whether
successful engagement in task-based learning
significantly impacts students' overall speaking abilities.
I also intend to collect a greater amount of qualitative
data, not only looking at student feedback at the end of
the task, but also aiming at shedding light on students'changing perceptions of their own and their peers'
performance at various stages of the process. Finally,
for those not interested in implementing debates in theirclasses, a similar form of scaffolding based on
adaptation of pre-planned language could conceivably

be applied to a plethora of different tasks, provided theyrequire spontaneous, meaning-focused production.

Conclusion
Implementing Task-Based Language Teaching (TBLT)
in English language learning classes in Japan ischallenging. The approach described above is an
example of successfully applying this method. Hopefully,
this marks a starting point for further productive
research and practice in this area.

References
Arulselvi, E. (2017). Task-based language teaching in
the English classroom. The ELT Practitioner,
4(4). https://shorturl.at/8U8yg
Buitrago, H. (2019). Task-Based Language Teaching
and Socio Cultural Theory Basis for Effective
Scaffolding in a Communicative Approach
Class: Context Matters. Revista Palabra, 7, 1828.
Bryfonski, L., & McKay, T. H. (2019). TBLT
implementation and evaluation: A meta-analysis.
Language Teaching Research, 23(5), 603–632.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168817744389
Ellis, R., & Shintani, N. (2014). Exploring language
pedagogy through second language acquisition
research. Routledge.
Ellis, R., Skehan, P., Li, S., Shintani, N., & Lambert, C.
(2019). Task-based language teaching: Theory
and practice. Cambridge University Press.
Fang, W., Yeh, H., Luo, B., & Chen, N. (2021). Effects
of mobile-supported task-based language
teaching on EFL students’ linguistic
achievement and conversational interaction.
ReCALL, 33(1), 71-87.
doi:10.1017/S0958344020000208
Harris, J. (2018). Responding to the critics:
Implementation of TBLT in Japan. Indonesian

PanSIG Journal 2023

156
Journal of Applied Linguistics, 8(1), 139-148.
doi: 10.17509/ijal.v8i1.11473

Wells, G. (1999). Dialogic Inquiry: Towards a
Sociocultural Practice and Theory of Education.
Cambridge University Press.

Hamidi, E., & Bagherzadeh, R. (2018). The logicalproblem of scaffolding in second language

Widodo, H. P. (2015). Designing and implementing

acquisition. Asian-Pacific Journal of Second andtask-based vocational English materials: Text,

Foreign Language Education, 3.

language task, and context in Indonesia. In M.

https://doi.org/10.1186/s40862-018-0059-x

Thomas and H. Reinders (Eds.), Contemporarytask-based language teaching in Asia (pp. 291-

Luo, S., & Xing, J. (2015). Teachers’ perceived

312). Bloomsbury.

difficulty in implementing TBLT in China. In M.
Thomas and H. Reinders (Eds.), Contemporarytask-based language teaching in Asia (pp. 139155). Bloomsbury.
Nur, A. (2018). Using debate in the EFL/ESL
classroom. tinyurl.com/mwdx7u2m
Sato, R. (2009). Suggestion for creating approaches
suitable to the Japanese EFL environment. The
Language Teacher, 33(9), 11-14.
Smith, R. A. (2022). Debate planning and practiceusing argument diagrams. Journal of multilingual
pedagogy and practice, 2, 141-149.
Toland, S. H., Mills, D. J., & Kohyama, M. (2016).
Enhancing Japanese university students'
English-Language presentation skills withmobile-video recordings. JALT CALL Journal,
12(3), 179-201.
Van den Branden, K. (2006). Task-based language
teaching: from theory to practice. Cambridge
University Press.
Verity, D. (2005). Vygotskyan concepts for teacher
education. Pan-SIG Conference “Lifelong
learning” proceedings.
http://jalt.org/pansig/2005/HTML/Verity.htm

PanSIG Journal 2023

157

Making Monsters: Sociocultural Creativity and Language Classroom Tasks
Cameron Smith
Aichi Gakuin University
Creativity has long been framed as a property of an individual, by researchers, educators, and as a subject of neoliberal education
policy. However, recent developments in creativity theory have looked to resolve the problems that arise out of this perspective.
In particular, the challenge of how we can be creative together. This paper uses the sociocultural approach of Glaveanu to outline
how language teachers can manage creative tasks better in the classroom. In particular, the creation of a common
representational space – an area of shared knowledge and understanding – is key to helping the exchange of ideas and advice.
It thus emphasizes the importance of EFL teachers having content knowledge as well as language teaching skills.

創造性は長い間、研究者や教育者、そして新自由主義的な教育政策の対象として、個人の性質とみなされてきた。しかし、近年の創造性理論の発展において、この視点から生じる問題の解決に目を向けられるようになった。特に、人と人が関わる中で、どうすれば共に創造的になれるかという課題である。本稿では、Glăveanu の社会文化的アプローチを用いて、外国語教師
が教室で創造的な課題をよりよく展開させていく方法を概説する。特に、共通の表象空間（知識や理解を共有する領域）を作ることが、アイデアやアドバイスの交換を助ける鍵となる。そのため、EFL 教師が言語教授スキルだけでなく、題材に関する知識を持つことの重要性を強調している。

Language teachers are interested in creativity forseveral reasons. Some are directly associated withsecond language acquisition narrowly understood: that
language production is a creative act, that learning
languages may be a (constructivist) creative act, andthat creative students are more likely to produce fluent,more extensive output. The implication is that morecreative students (innately or because of supportive
environments) make better language learners. Other
reasons are more connected to our general
responsibility as educators: the promotion of critical andcreative thinking, the use of creative tasks to boost
student motivation, workplace interpersonal skills, andthe ability to engage in language play and creative
expression to support real-world relationship building.
Whether or not innately more creative people are betterat language learning is unclear. Research typicallycompares creative traits (originality, fluency, etc.) as
measured by psychometric tests with second language
test scores or task performance (Albert & Kormos,
2004; McDonough, Crawford & Mackey, 2015; Ottó,
1998). Although some positive relationships have beenfound, they tend to be weak, inconsistent, and also
accompanied by some negative relationships,
particularly with assessed student originality(Fernández-Fontecha, 2021). There is stronger
evidence for a reverse relationship: multilingual skills
and experiences likely enhance creativity (Kharkhurin etal., 2023). However, such research in general suffersfrom problems with the predictive validity of creativity
psychometrics, discussed later.
In a previous paper (Smith, 2021), I outlined how
developments in creativity theory might be applied to amodel of foreign language learning. This current paper
focuses on helping students succeed in creative foreign
language tasks, and how the sociocultural approach
outlined here reflects those theoretical developments
and global changes to educational policy goals.
Crucially, it focuses on how students and teachers cancollaborate in being creative together, a specificchallenge that recent innovations in creativity research
address.

Defining creativity
The robust basic definition of creativity found in theliterature has two aspects: the production of somethingthat is in some respect new and in some respect useful(Mumford, 2003; Walia, 2019). Each of these aspects
can be unpacked to produce a range of what counts ascreative. Something can be new to an individual (but inno way historically original), new to their professional
community, or new to the world. “Useful” can meanvaluable, beautiful, effective, etc. depending on thecontext, audience, and how and by whom the degree of
usefulness is assessed. The definition thus captures
both everyday individual creativity and creativity on a
PanSIG Journal 2023

158
world historic level, and also creativity in all domains(arts, sciences, technology, sports, etc). In the EFL
context, the usefulness of language is the purpose in
speaking (pragmatic, aesthetic, etc), and the novelty
can be in the learner’s assembly of new combinationsof language (whether individual phrase or whole text).
In this particular paper, the definition is applied to a task
where students create texts to describe their own new
yokai, mythical creatures in a Japanese tradition.
However, the basic definition’s robustness is not thesame as completeness. Recent influential work has
focused on inserting a human element into the definition,such as Walia (2019) looking at intentionality, andsensitivity and response to needs and problems, whileGlăveanu and Beghetto (2021) considered the humanto-world interactive experience of creativity. There arealso attempts to integrate the product-oriented definition
given above with accounts of creativity as a dynamic,
open-ended process in search of (but not always
achieving) novel value (Corazza, 2016).
Of specific interest to this paper is not so much what
creativity is, but how it occurs and how we canencourage it in language classrooms. The next three
sections of this paper put forward the proposition thatchanges in how education policy makers approachcreativity parallel developments in creativity theory, inparticular, the sociocultural approach of creativity put
forward most prominently by Glăveanu (2014).

The evolution of creativity as educational
priority
The advent of globalization and the information
revolution has propelled creativity as a priority in
education systems around the world (Patston et al.,2021; Rojanapanich & Pimpa, 2011). In the first decadeof the 2000s when policy makers tended to see thefuture more optimistically, it was listed as one of 15
OECD “21st century skills” (Ananiadou & Claro, 2009)
necessary for individuals to thrive in the knowledge
economy:Developments in society and economy requirethat educational systems equip young people
with new skills and competencies, which allow
them to benefit from the emerging new forms ofsocialisation and to contribute actively toeconomic development under a system where
the main asset is knowledge. (p. 5)
By contrast, ten years later, the OECD position paper
The future of education and skills: Education 2030
(OECD, 2018) sees the future as one of collective,
collaborative challenges and crises as well as individual
opportunities:

Children entering school in 2018 will need toabandon the notion that resources are limitless
and are there to be exploited; they will need tovalue common prosperity, sustainability andwell-being. They will need to be responsible
and empowered, placing collaboration above
division, and sustainability above short-term
gain. (p. 3)
They identify three “transformative competencies”:
creating new value, reconciling tensions and dilemmas,
and taking responsibility. Of the first, they say:
To prepare for 2030, people should be able tothink creatively, develop new products andservices, new jobs, new processes andmethods, new ways of thinking and living, newenterprises, new sectors, new business models
and new social models. Increasingly,
innovation springs not from individuals thinking
and working alone, but through co-operationand collaboration with others to draw on
existing knowledge to create new knowledge.
The constructs that underpin the competency
include adaptability, creativity, curiosity, andopen-mindedness. (p. 5)
There is, therefore, not only an increasing priority
placed on creativity, but also a shift from the creativity
as an individual skill to a collaborative one, and fromone where individuals need to justify their worth to one
with greater awareness of collective needs. This shift in
focus to creativity as cooperation rather than individual
advantage in the labour market parallels changes in
how researchers think about creativity.

Understanding creativity
Perhaps because of its origins in psychology, creativity
research has largely focused on individuals: on thenature of creative cognition and on identifying thoseindividual and environmental characteristics that makeone person more creative than another. This approachis exemplified by the use of psychometric creativity tests.
These tests are used particularly in gifted childeducation policies, to identify students whose talents
recommend them for extra support (Kim, 2006), as wellas in creativity training in business (Zeng et al.,2011). Such tests and training typically focus ondivergent thinking: the ability of an individual to produce
responses to prompts with fluency, flexibility, originality
and elaboration. (Plucker et al., 2019).
However, confidence among researchers in thepredictive value of divergent thinking tests is limited: theevidence is not strong that higher scorers are more
likely to be creatively successful, and it is not clear how
much these tests are effectively measuring general fluid
intelligence. (Batey et al., 2010; Plucker et al., 2019).
PanSIG Journal 2023

159
These tests are commonly used in research into
individual creativity and second language acquisition;such research should be treated with caution.
Research suggests there is a need for educators torecognise that general divergent thinking skills inthemselves are far from the whole picture of humancreativity. One survey of research shows teacher’s
understandings of creativity are often incomplete andpoorly articulated, with a focus on imagination andoriginality at the expense of usefulness, and a bias
towards viewing creativity as an expressive, arts subject
activity (Mulleta et al., 2016). The focus on an “inner”
creative skill can also crowd out appreciation of theexternal social and material aspects of creativity(Glaveanu et al., 2013).
A fuller model of creativity should also include elements
such as problem sensitivity and framing, knowledge
review, and convergent thinking (Kim et al., 2011;
Mumford, 2001). It should take account of how
individuals are encouraged to be creative: clear goal
setting and support are superior both tomicromanagement and to goal-free tasks, while aplayful atmosphere is better than one organized aroundmaterial incentives, at least for non-professional
creatives (Amabile, 1998). For equity and motivation, aclassroom model of creativity should de-emphasise theprejudice that some are just more creative than others(Clapp, 2017)
However, three particular research findings are relevant
for how we can (and in the real world do) collaborate
creatively together, not just alone/as individuals. The
first is that group divergent thinking – groupbrainstorming – tends to inhibit rather than encourage
creativity, a repeated finding that contradicts a common
prejudice not only in language teaching but in the world
generally (Rietzschel et al., 2006). It transpires thatverbalising ideas in front of others leads to inhibition,
free-riding and group-think. Our model of creativity thus
needs to account for how originality and innovation
occur when people work together, so goes beyond“inner” models of individuals sharing the creative outputof their several minds (Glăveanu, 2011). The second
finding is that creativity is in large part domain specific(Baer, 2016). That is, on the one hand, domain
knowledge, training, and expertise helps people to be
more creative in that domain (arts, physics, history, etc.),
while on the other, that someone is creative in one area
does not mean they will be creative in other areas. Put
bluntly: knowing stuff matters. Language teachers may
have experienced this obstacle in class: for example,
school and university students struggle to be creative inbusiness topics because they simply have noexperience or knowledge of the area. The third finding–better understood as a theoretical development – isthe insight that the individual model of creativity fails to

encapsulate real-world interaction between creatorsand between creators and their audience. Iconic figuresof creativity include Leonardo da Vinci, Mozart, Picasso,
Einstein and so on. They represent individual genius
breaking boundaries, people who “own” their creative
products. However, for most people, creativity occurs
collaboratively in organisations, between people withlong-term relationships, and with an audience or
customer base they interact with. No one person
creatively owns the product. That is the kind of creativity
that the OECD educational policy calls for. The
competence to take part in that process is somethingeducators should foster.

The sociocultural model of creativity andclassroom tasks
A classic categorisation of the factors effecting creativity
is the four P model (Rhodes, 1961): Person (individual
creative potential), Place (environment, including
incentives), Process (how creativity occurs), andProduct (what objects are considered creative). A
weakness in this model is that it merely organises
disparate findings without tying them together in amodel of how creativity occurs. Glǎveanu (2013, 2014)
proposed an alternative “Five A’s” sociocultural modelthat embeds creativity in the world as a social
phenomenon. Creativity is an “action engaged with byvarious actors… in relation to multiple audiences…
exploiting the affordances of the cultural world (symbolicand material) and leading to the generation of artefacts”(Glăveanu, 2014, p. 27). This formulation integrates
domain knowledge (affordances), the social value ofcreativity (audiences and actors), as well as decentres
the individual (actor) without simultaneously dismissing
the importance of the creative experience (action).
Instead of individual geniuses, the model for everyday
creative action is the craftsperson in a workshop,
exchanging ideas with individuals with greater ordifferent expertise and experiences but nevertheless ashared representational space, working with thematerials available, while engaging with and reflecting
upon the needs of the audience.
In the language classroom, this turns the teacher into
one of the craftspeople – most often, the master – andstudents into apprentices. The implication for classroomtasks is that the teacher should have skills andknowledge in executing that task that they can sharewith students. This expectation is accepted in standard
language tasks such as essay writing. EFL teachers
should be able to write A grade essays in response to
the sorts of prompts they give students. Their task is
helping students to become more competent at thegenre, and with peer editing, become better at helping
each other improve over the long term. We know thatstudent topic selection helps motivation and writing
success, and that students tend to choose topics they
PanSIG Journal 2023

160
know more about (Bonyadi, 2014). The model here
frames that finding as students operating from theirrepresentational space i.e., what they know and arecompetent to speak about. Teachers and classmates
who share some of that representational space are also
in a better position to help each other improve output.
This paper argues that such principles should apply tocreative tasks in the classroom. Teachers should be ina position of expertise to help students with theirprojects, not only as language experts, but as people
with shareable knowledge in the genre/content area.
This is already a principle understood by EFL teachersof creative writing who invest time in teaching the “craft”
of plot, characterization, etc. (e.g., Maloney, 2022). For
the remainder of this paper, I will give an example ofwhat a teacher should know for the creative task ofmaking a new yokai, a traditional Japanese mythicalcreature, and describing it in English.

The task as craft
A naive approach to the task of creating a yokai (thenature of which is detailed below) would emphasise theimportance of not limiting the students’ imagination.
Teachers should allow the students to express
themselves without being bound by rules. However, this
supposedly liberating approach faces two problems.
One is the so-called “fear of the blank canvas”: where
does one start? Students will almost certainly havenever undertaken such a task before, let alone in theirsecond language. The other problem is that it
undermines the ability of students and teachers to work
together. Without first establishing what a yokai is, there
is no established common representational space
through which people can communicate. If we cannot
evaluate the yokai-ness of someone’s creation, how can
we help each other improve it? How can we bringstudents’ various knowledge about yokai together tobenefit from the class’s diversity of experience? So, toprepare for this task, as an instructor, I had to researchwhat yokai were. I needed to be able to describe the key
elements of a yokai, including identifying thepossibilities available to students to innovate in theircreations.

What is a yokai?
Yokai imagery is everywhere in Japan. A leading sushi
chain is named after the popular river yokai kappa; thelong nosed, red-faced tengu is commonplace inanimation, films and video games; many izakayas(Japanese pubs) have outside statues of bake-danuki,a fun-loving and mischief-making yokai version of theJapanese raccoon-dog or tanuki. Yokai are, therefore,a good topic for Japanese students to learn how to
explain in English. For my research, I consulted anumber of texts: The Book of Yokai (Foster, 2015), An
Introduction to Yokai Culture (Komatsu & Yoda, 2018),

Japandemonium Illustrated (Toriyama, 2017), and abook aimed at younger readers, Yokai Attack! (Yoda &Alt, 2012). I used these to assemble key points thatstudents should consider when creating a yokai:•

Yokai are shapeshifting creatures that are
essentially mysterious: they cannot be explainedcompletely.

•

They are often used to explain natural phenomena.
For example, kappa are said to be responsible forriver drownings. The long-tongued tenjin-nameexplains damp spots on the ceilings of houses.
Transparent Beto-beto-san explains that feeling of
being followed at night when no one is there.

•

They have a huge variety of forms. For example, theroku-roku-bi is a frightening long-necked woman,
while the kasa-obake is in the form of an umbrella.

•

One particular class of yokai, tsukumogami areobject-yokai. They are part of the traditional belief
that objects, like living things, contain spirits. Old
objects that had been mistreated could become
vengeful yokai, driving the idea that tools should betreated with respect.

•

There are modern as well as traditional yokai.
Japanese schoolchildren typically know the urban
legend of toire-no-Hanako-san, the spirit of a young
girl who possibly had a violent death who now
haunts school toilets. In the 1970s, rumours spreadof the kuchisake-onna, a woman in a mask who
would, depending on the conversation, reveal her
face to show her mouth cut open from ear to ear.

•

Yokai are often regional in origin; a feature of postunification Edo-period Japan was the hyaku
monogatari (100 stories) tradition. Traders fromdifferent parts of Japan who had travelled Edo(modern-day Tokyo) would sit in a room with ahundred candles lit. Each would tell a story of a yokai
from their home region then extinguish a candle.
When the last candle went out, it was said, all the
yokai would appear simultaneously. Thus, the storyof a yokai often makes the listener shiver.

This information is presented to students as a shortlecture. In my experience, although students know whatyokai are, they have never had that implicit knowledgeorganized and systematized. The presentation isfollowed by exercises in how to describe creatures inEnglish, including vocabulary such as paws, scaly,
cat/dog/bird-like, etc.

Task setting and execution
Students are given a set of questions to guide yokai
design. As alluded to above, the lecture is designed to
explore the possibilities of answers.
PanSIG Journal 2023

161•

What is its name? What does the name mean?

•

Where does it come from?

•

What does it look like?

•

What places do you see it?

•

How does it interact with people?

•

Does it explain any natural phenomena?

Students are also given an example of the task
(appendix A). Note that the sample drawing isdeliberately poor quality: from experience, for time
constraint reasons, one needs to discourage students
from spending too long on initial illustrations.
Students draw a picture of their yokai and draft an
explanatory text, with the teacher monitoring, andproblem-solving where needed. They then work with apartner to improve the content of their text according to
the task questions before presenting their yokai to agroup of students who can ask free questions to help
develop the creation further. It is emphasized that the
purpose of the task questions is to improve the yokai. If
something feels amiss, consult the “rules” of what a
yokai should be. However, if the yokai feels right anddetailed enough, it doesn’t matter if the rules haven’t all
been followed. After class, students work with theteacher to correct the text for language errors. They also
have the opportunity to improve their illustrations.
The success of the task can be seen in two ways. First,
in the output of the students, who average TOEIC
scores of between 300 to 600 (See appendix B for
samples). They were able to create yokai in some detailthat feel like yokai. That is, they featured successful
combinations of the characteristics described in theprevious section, such as the variety of forms and theuse of yokai to explain everyday phenomena. Secondly,in the feedback, which showed how students valued theopportunity to interact. This lesson took place during athree-day on-campus summer English immersion
course with 18 students (12 first years, 5 second years
and 1 third year). At the end of each day, the students
wrote a reflection in English 100-150 words long on how
they felt about that day’s activities. Thus, students had
the opportunity to give unguided comments about the
yokai activity. Four categories of comments emerged.
First, that the activity of creating was itself fun (“fun”;“the best activity”) given by 61% of students; 44% thatthey learned something new (“I’m Japanese, but I didn’tknow about yokai”; “I learned about yokai and it wasinteresting”), and 89% commented on the enjoyment ofinteracting with other students as they reviewed eachother’s creations (“the monsters my friends made werevery distinctive and interesting to watch”; “It was themost fun to create original yokai and discuss them witheveryone. Everyone has a lot of imagination”; ”I was

glad everyone said [my yokai] was awesome”). Finally,
33% said they found creating their own yokai difficult (“Itwas difficult to think about how I wanted the look andcharacter to be”; “It was very difficult to make my own
original yokai”) although two of these six students
expressed satisfaction at how they achieved the task
despite this difficulty.
While one must take into account the issue of reflexivity
in analysing these comments (students will
understandably not want to offend teachers by being too
critical of the tasks they are given), it is striking thatnearly all chose specifically to mention the value ofinteracting with classmates in discussing and sharing
their creations. This result is consistent with theargument of this paper that creating a shared
representational space—in this case, the history andnature of yokai—helps to foster creative interactions
between students as well as support teachers inshowing students how to undertake a creative task. In
terms of Glǎveanu’s Five A’s model, students havebeen empowered both as actors and as audience by
establishing a common understanding of theaffordances (the yokai tradition; the in-class deadline tocomplete the task) they face in producing their artefacts(their new yokai). The diversity and originality of the
yokai created indicate that students were able to exploit
the possibilities the tradition afforded them. That is,
guiding students in the nature of their task as if it is a
specific craft to master, far from limiting what they cando, can help to promote more creative output.

Conclusion
Developments in creativity theory show how better tosupport students in creative tasks. In particular, it isimportant to establish a common representational
space of knowledge and understanding between
students, and between students and teachers, thatenables them to share and respond to creative ideas.
To do this, language teachers need to establish acertain degree of content expertise or mastery of thetasks and topics in which they would have student
creativity take place. Gaining such expertise takes timeand resources but is worthwhile.

References
Albert, A., & Kormos, J. (2004). Creativity andnarrative task performance: An exploratory
study. Language Learning, 54, 277-310.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.14679922.2004.00256.x

PanSIG Journal 2023

162
Amabile, T. M. (1998). How to kill creativity. Harvard
Business Review, September-October, 77–87.

Glăveanu, V. P. (2011). How are we creative together?
Comparing sociocognitive and socioculturalanswers. Theory & Psychology, 21(4), 473–492.

Ananiadou, K., & Claro, M. (2009). 21st century skills

https://doi.org/10.1177/0959354310372152

and competences for new millennium learners inOECD countries. OECD Education Working
Paper 41.

Glǎveanu, V. P. (2013). Rewriting the language ofcreativity: The five A’s framework. Review ofGeneral Psychology 17(1), 69–81.

Baer, J. (2016). Domain specificity of creativity.

https://doi.org/10.1037/a0029528

Academic Press. https://doi.org/10.1016/B9780-12-799962-3.00005-7

Glăveanu, V. P. (2014). Distributed creativity: Thinking
outside the box of the creative individual.

Batey, M., Furnham, A., & Safiullina, X. (2010).
Intelligence, general knowledge and personality

Springer International Publishing.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3-319-05434-6

as predictors of creativity. Learning andIndividual Differences, 20(5), 532–535.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.lindif.2010.04.008

Glăveanu, V. P., & Beghetto, R. A. (2021). Creative
experience: A non-standard definition ofcreativity. Creativity Research Journal, 33(2),Bonyadi, A. (2014). The Effect of Topic Selection on
EFL students’ writing performance. SAGE Open,

75–80.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2020.1827606

4(3), 2158244014547176.
https://doi.org/10.1177/2158244014547176

Glǎveanu, V. P., Lubart, T., Bonnardel, N., Botella, M.,
de Biaisi, P.-M., Desainte-Catherine, M.,

Clapp, E. P. (2017). Participatory creativity: Introducing

Georgsdottir, A., Guillou, K., Kurtag, G.,access and equity in the creative classroom.

Mouchiroud, C., Storme, M., Wojtczuk, A., &Routledge.

Zenasni, F. (2013). Creativity as action: findings

Corazza, G. E. (2016). Potential originality andeffectiveness: The dynamic definition ofcreativity. Creativity Research Journal, 28(3),258–267.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2016.1195627
Fernández-Fontecha, A. (2021). The role of learnercreativity in L2 semantic fluency. An exploratory
study. System, 103(102658).
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2021.102658
Foster, M. D. (2015). The book of yokai: Mysterious
creatures of Japanese folklore. University ofCalifornia Press.

from five creative domains. Frontiers in
Psychology, 4, 176.
https://doi.org/10.3389/fpsyg.2013.00176
Kharkhurin, A. V., Koncha, V., & Charkhabi, M. (2023).
The effects of multilingual and multicultural
practices on divergent thinking. Implications for
plurilingual creativity paradigm. Bilingualism:
Language and Cognition, 26(3), 592–609.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S1366728922000864
Kim, K. H. (2006). Can we trust creativity tests? A
review of the Torrance Tests of Creative
Thinking (TTCT). Creativity Research Journal,
18(1), 3–14.
https://doi.org/10.1207/s15326934crj1801_2

PanSIG Journal 2023

163
Kim, Y. S., Shin, J., & Shin, Y. K. (2011). Conceptual

Ottó, I. (1998). The relationship between individual

design and cognitive elements of creativity:

differences in learner creativity and language

Toward personalized learning supports forlearning success. TESOL Quarterly, 32, 763-

design creativity. In T. Taura & Y. Nagai (Eds.),

773. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588011

Design creativity (pp. 105–111). Springer.
https://doi.org/10.1007/978-0-85729-224-7

Patston, T. J., Kaufman, J. C., Cropley, A. J., &Marrone, R. (2021). What is creativity in

Komatsu, K., & Yoda, H. (2018). An introduction toeducation? A qualitative study of international

yokai culture: monsters, ghosts, and outsiders incurricula. Journal of Advanced Academics,

Japanese history. Japan Publishing Industry

32(2), 207–230.

Foundation for Culture.

https://doi.org/10.1177/1932202X20978356

Maloney, I. (2022). The impact of creative writing on

Plucker, J. A., Makel, M. C., & Qian, M. (2019).

L2 writer confidence. International Journal ofAssessment of creativity. In J. C. Kaufman & R.

TESOL Studies.

J. Sternberg (Eds.), The Cambridge handbook

https://doi.org/10.46451/ijts.2022.04.03

of creativity (2nd ed., pp. 44–68). Cambridge
University Press.

McDonough, K., Crawford, W. J., & Mackey, A. (2015).
Creativity and EFL students’ language use
during a group probem-solving task.TESOL

Rhodes, M. (1961). An analysis of creativity. Phi Delta
Kappan, 42(7), 305–310.

Qaurterly, 49(1), 188-199.
https://doi.org/10.1002/tesq.211

Rietzschel, E. F., Nijstad, B. A., & Stroebe, W. (2006).
Productivity is not enough: A comparison of

Mulleta, D. R., Willerson, A., Lamba, K. N., & Kettler,interactive and nominal brainstorming groups on

T. (2016). Examining teacher perceptions ofidea generation and selection. Journal of

creativity: A systematic review of the literature.

Experimental Social Psychology, 42(2), 244–

Thinking Skills and Creativity, 21, 9–30.

251. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2005.04.005

Mumford, M. D. (2001). Something old, something

Rojanapanich, P., & Pimpa, N. (2011). Creative

new: revisiting Guilford’s conception of creativeeducation, globalization and social imaginary.

problem solving. Creativity Research Journal,

Creative Education, 2(4), 327–332.

13(3–4), 267–276.

https://doi.org/10.4236/ce.2011.24046

https://doi.org/10.1207/S15326934CRJ1334_04
Smith, C. A. (2021). Distributed creativity: Language
Mumford, M. D. (2003). Where have we been, wherelearning and the craft approach to creativity. In

are we going? Taking stock in creativity

Communities of teachers & learners (Vol. 2020,

research. Creativity Research Journal, 15(2–3),

pp. 12–19). JALT.

107–120.

https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTPCP2020-02

OECD (2018). The future of education and skills:

Toriyama, S. (2017). Japandemonium illustrated: The

Education 2030. OECD Education Working

yokai encyclopedias of Toriyama Sekien (M. Alt,

Papers.

Trans.). Dover Publications.

https://www.voced.edu.au/content/ngv:79286
PanSIG Journal 2023

164
Walia, C. (2019). A dynamic definition of creativity.
Creativity Research Journal, 31(3), 237–247.
https://doi.org/10.1080/10400419.2019.1641787
Yoda, H., & Alt, M. (2012). Yokai attack!: The
Japanese monster survival guide. Tuttle
Publishing.
Zeng, L., Proctor, R. W., & Salvendy, G. (2011). Can
traditional divergent thinking tests be trusted inmeasuring and predicting real-world creativity?
Creativity Research Journal, 23(1), 24–37.

PanSIG Journal 2023

165

Appendices
Appendix A: Example of the task

PanSIG Journal 2023

166

Appendix B: Student samples

PanSIG Journal 2023

167

PanSIG Journal 2023

168

Photos vs Drawings: Effect on Vocabulary Retention
Craig Armstrong
Kumamoto Health Science University
The value of images in communicating words and ideas has long been understood by language teachers. But are some pictures
worth more? Less, perhaps? With a wide variety of imagery and multimedia available, it is appropriate to ask whether some forms
are more effective than others in helping learners retain vocabulary and teachers maintain students’ attention. Are illustrations abetter tool than photos, considering the excessive detail that the latter often contain? Or does photographic realism accomplish
this better? This study undertakes to measure the vocabulary retention of different groups of university students one week after
being given textual representations supplemented by either photos or simple drawings which aim to convey the same basic
message.

言葉やアイデアを伝えるための画像の価値は、長らく言語教師によって理解されてきた。しかし、一部の画像は他よりも価値があるのだろうか？そうでないかもしれない。多種多様な画像やマルチメディアが利用可能な中で、学習者が語彙を定着させるのに特定の形式が他よりも効果的か、また教師が生徒の注意を引き続けるのにある形式が他よりも有効かどうかを問うのは、当然のことである。イラストは写真よりも優れたツールなのだろうか？それとも写真のリアリズムの方がより効果的なのだろうか？本研究では、同じ基本的なメッセージを伝えることを目的とした、写真または簡単な絵で補足されたテキスト表現を与えられた 1 週間後の、異なるグループの大学生の語彙保持率を測定する。

The acquisition of vocabulary is even more important
than grammar in language learning, for little can beconveyed if one does not know grammar, but without
vocabulary, nothing at all can be conveyed (Wilkins,
1972, p.110-111). How to best teach vocabulary is stilla question that has not yet been definitively answered.
One of the defining features of the Direct Method was
the use of realia and pictures in language learning as analternative to more mentally taxing approaches such as
the grammar translation method (Bolulu, 2019). Mayer
expanded on this, observing that students’ retention of
vocabulary is improved when they are presented withinformation in both visual and textual forms. To
supplement textual representations, the use of imagery,whether photographic, drawn, or computer generated:
a. allows the viewer to move more quickly through theinitial steps of the cognitive learning process(observing → perception → interpreting) and intomeaning construction, andb. creates a larger number of strong cognitive
associations for a given concept.
Central to Mayer’s multimedia learning is that “In theprocess of trying to build connections between words
and pictures, learners are able to create a deeper
understanding than from words or pictures alone.”(2009, p.27)

Although he advocates the use of a full range of modern
multimedia in education – e-courses, slideshows, andthe like, specifically which media tends to produce what
effect on vocabulary retention is not described, and istherefore a legitimate avenue for research. This study
does not cover the full range of possible classroom
media. Given the successive failures over the past 100
years of educational technologies (radio, movies,
television, and computers) to, as was variously
predicted, revolutionise education, supplant textbooks,
or replace teachers (Cuban, 1986), it is useful to
examine the relative merits of humbler forms of media
which have stood the test of time and remain available
to every instructor. This study will focus more narrowly
on the lower end of the technological scale photographs versus the straightforward illustrations
described decades ago by Horsburgh (1967).

MethodIn 2022, as part of the English language study
curriculum at two Japanese universities, one class of
2nd-year undergraduate rehabilitation and two classes of
2nd-year medical technology students were taught ashort list of six hospital-related words. No hard data
regarding the students’ English proficiency ranges wasavailable. Based on in-class observations, however,their overall level was thought to be in the lowintermediate range. The number of participants in the
PanSIG Journal 2023

169
classes were 24, 62, and 41. Under the universities'
COVID-19 prevention regime, the use of masks was
required at all times by students and teacher.

required greater processing and paring of theinformation within to extract the intended message. The
illustrations did not contain these extra details.

The 24 rehabilitation students, hereafter referred to as
Class A, were presented with a PowerPoint slideshowof six simple illustrations, all structured as the sample
image on the left half of Figure 1. A large drawing
appeared on the left, with Japanese and English
translations on the right, and an example sentence.

In this experiment, six high-relevancy words werechosen from a medical English textbook at the
beginning of the semester, and were therefore likely yet
unknown to the participants. Six was selected as it falls
within the recognised range of the number of new words
an average person can learn in a day (Nagy & Anderson,1984), and it was considered sufficient to gather
meaningful data within a reasonable duration ofclassroom time. To the exclusion of other grammaticalforms, nouns and verbs were selected because they are
the standard building blocks of a clause (Webb, 2005,p.37), and they lend themselves more easily to visual
representation. Care was taken to select words whichhave a simple Japanese-to-English x=y relationship(Campbell-Larsen & Romney, 2016) and are free ofcultural and socio-economic connotation (Hack, 2014)
so as to minimise confusion, reduce the possible
number of answers to one, and produce the clearest
data set. The six target words, chosen to be at or slightly
above the learners’ current level (Lightbrown & Spada,2013), were: appetite, crutches, inject, stethoscope,
thermometer, and wheelchair. L1 (Japanese)
equivalents were given for two reasons, (1) a number of
researchers argue for the benefits of using L1 incontrastive analysis and translation activities (James,
2005 and Laufer & Girsai, 2008), and (2) in thequestionnaire to follow, participants would be asked towrite English translations of the target vocabulary after
being
provided
the
same
words
in
Japanese. Furthermore, in view of Oxford andScarcella’s (1994) contention that de-contextualised
language is better suited to short-term than long-term
memory, an example sentence was given to help
contextualise each word’s meaning and use. This would
thereby help provide a platform for the target vocabulary
to remain in the participants’ memory until theadministration of the questionnaire seven days later.
Presenting the photographs and illustrations,
respectively, with the above considerations andsupporting structures in place was done to more closely
replicate a real-world teaching environment and to
produce a greater number of correct responses from theparticipants.

Figure 1
Slide with illustration (Class A) & slide with photograph (Class B)

Hailing from the same university as Class A, one classof 62 medical technology students, hereafter dubbed
Class B, received a similar six-image PowerPoint
slideshow, except photos were substituted forillustrations. The reason for this unusually large number
was that it was in fact two classes combined into one by
the university for purposes of infection control. One of
the slides they were shown is on the right in Figure 1:
the text is the same, but a photo substituted for theillustration.
In Class C, made up of 41 medical technology students,
vocabulary was written and illustrations which adhered
to Horsburgh’s four central guidelines (described in the
Discussion) were done on the spot using blackboard
and chalk. This was to test whether witnessing the actof drawing had any effect on learner engagement andvocabulary retention.
Photographs were found online using Google, andillustrations were then drawn of them to mimic as closely
as possible the positioning and angle of the objects andpeople within. This was done to make the photographsand drawings similar so that the data sets gathered fromthem could be more validly compared. Drawings weredone to replicate the simplicity and low stroke countrecommended by Horsburgh in How to Use theBlackboard in Teaching English. “… (A) simple picture,with very little detail, can give us all we want for
language teaching” (1967. p.6). The photos themselves
were of sundry types; some were little more than a given
object against a featureless background, while others
contained people, other objects, and backgrounds ofvarying complexity which may or may not have been
related to the target vocabulary. These photos had
higher information density, and therefore presumably

The questionnaires provided the target vocabulary inboth textual and visual forms. For Classes A & C, theillustrations which had been shown in class appearedon the questionnaire. Class B received a questionnairefeaturing photos. To the immediate right of the images,
the L1 (Japanese) equivalent of the target vocabulary
was given. To the right of that was a blank space for
their response. This format was chosen to check
whether the participants could recall the words with the

PanSIG Journal 2023

170
assistance of the prompts they had viewed the week
before.
Figure 2
Sample question from questionnaire

To measure questionnaire engagement among theparticipants, the number of blank responses was tallied.
Table 1
Questionnaire Response Data
Correct
responses

Incorrect
responses

A (PowerPointdrawings)

64(44.4%)

63(43.8%)

144(55.5%)B (Power
Pointphotos)131(34.1%)

253(65.9%)

222(57.8%)384

C (live
drawings)

96(44.4%)

120(55.5%)

98(45.4%)

216

Class

80

BlanksTotal
responses

Classes A and C had similar results, while Class B’s rateof blank responses was greater. To answer the question,“Was there a significantly better response rate among
the classes who viewed illustrations?”, a one-sided ttest was done. Any response, whether correct or not,was given a score of 1. Blanks were scored as 0. The
test yielded a p value of 0.0002. Student engagementwith the questionnaire – that is, their willingness orability to provide responses – was significantly higher
among Classes A & C, suggesting that the drawings
created a more inviting environment than did thephotographs.
Not only was the response rate better among thestudents who had been shown the illustrations, but the
number of correct responses was also higher. Classes
A & C had 160 correct responses out of 360, or 44.4%.
For Class B, which had viewed the photos, it was 131
correct out of 384, or 34.1%. To answer the question,“Were there significantly more correct answers among
the students who had seen the drawings?”, a one-sided
t-test was done. Correct answers were scored as 1 andincorrect answers and blanks scored as 0. The p value
was 1.979 x 10-3, showing that results from Classes A &C were significantly better.

There was, however, no significant difference in thenumber of correct responses between Class A, who had
seen the PowerPoint illustrations, and Class C, who had
observed the live drawing and writing of text on theblackboard. In fact, there was no difference at all.
Interestingly, both classes answered correctly 44.4% of
the time. This was contrary to pre-study expectations
which had anticipated superior results among Class C.
The small sample size represented by Class A’s 24participants may have been a factor contributing to thisresult.
Perfect responses, or those which contained small
mistakes in spelling, especially regarding near misseswith vowels (e.g., wheelchear) were counted as correct.
These words often contained incorrect vowels
substituted for correct ones in schwa syllables (e.g.,“appitite” instead of “appetite”), and therefore posed no
major obstacle to comprehension on the part of thelistener or reader. More serious spelling mistakes, but
still phonetically understandable (e.g., surmometer)
were categorised as correct. Where the participants
made an attempt to answer, but were unfortunately notunderstandable (e.g., sticks instead of crutches, orheart instead of thermometer), their response wasplaced in the incorrect category. These criteria wereeven-handedly applied to questionnaires from everyclass.

Discussion and Conclussions
In line with Mayer’s contention that vocabulary should
be presented to learners in both visual and textual forms,
Liu writes that “Knowledge without any deep processing,e.g., learning words from lists, will be easily forgotten”(Liu, 2011, p.16). Thornbury observes “The moredecisions the learner makes about a word, and the morecognitively demanding these decisions, the better theword is remembered.” (2002, p.25) The necessary deep
processing here is decisions made about a word, notdecisions made about extraneous information
unconnected to the word. Processing colourful or
texture-laden backgrounds, facial features, and clothingstyles is cognitively demanding, but has little or nothing
to do with the memorisation process involving the word
at hand. The decisions Thornbury describes must be
directed toward scaffolding around and processing of
the word itself, and the foundations for the cognitively
demanding part are laid out in the lines of the illustration
provided by the teacher. The stripped-down intensity ofa visual style simplified toward a purpose enables theviewer to travel into another realm, where the great
power locked in a few simple lines is releasable only by
the mind (McCloud, 1993).
Photos containing nonessential information are lessable to accurately communicate a simple idea.
Peripheral data create barriers between the viewer andthe intended message which must be overcome, waded
PanSIG Journal 2023

171
through, and filtered before learning can take place.
Nonessential information in imagery, whether inphotography or illustration, can distract the viewer andlead them down irrelevant pathways toward unintended
interpretations, making learning outcomes lesspredictable and, as the results of this study suggest,
less effective. As a visual fait accompli, the message
contained in data-rich imagery must be extracted rather
than constructed. This mandates a subtractive process
where the learner sorts, ignores, and deletescomponents of an image down to what one hopes is its
essential meaning.
When absorbing information in the short-term which will
be processed later on into long-term memories, thebrain draws a sort of visuospatial sketch which focuses
more closely on some details over others. Quicklyrendered, data-light sketches by the instructor mimic
this, and thereby perform three vital functions:
1. They allow the viewer to make this mental
sketch more quickly. Horsburgh’s clean lines
act as cognitive frameworks which aid in theorganising and interpreting of the information.
2. They provide a template around which theviewer’s imagination can fill in details.
Illustrations contain less information thanphotographs, and thus compel the viewer toconstruct the remainder of the image forthemselves in a mental information-gap
exercise, elevating them from passive
observers to active ones.
3. They eliminate distractions in the form ofgratuitous elements, and prevent one frombecoming overwhelmed or distracted by excess
or non-relevant stimuli frequently found inphotographs.
Horsburgh describes the criteria drawings should
adhere to if they are to be a successful aid to language
learning:
1. They are symbolic rather than realistic.
2. They must obviously be what they aresupposed to be.

participants’ vocabulary retention. Nevertheless,whether drawn on the spot or not, these strokes act as
an uncomplicated framework which not only delivers theintended message to the receiver by limiting the rangeof possible interpretations, their crude charm and lackof detail provides an inviting arena for their minds to play,consider, and construct meaning. With abstract,
simplified drawings, the teacher obliges the learner tobegin by adding detail, which seems a much morepositive and forward-looking stance. Moreover, byfollowing Horsburgh’s 4 principles, a teacher need not
be a natural artist, for the shapes he describes andshows are simple enough for anyone to draw. Those
who lack confidence in their drawing ability need only
spend a short time practicing the images in Horsburgh’s
book before minimal competence, which is all that isrequired, can be achieved.
Digital illustrations prepared before the lesson are
acceptable, but students are denied the opportunity togradually construct the image in their minds while theinstructor is drawing. If AI art is done extemporaneously
using current technology, a prompt must first be typed,
which is followed by a dry interlude of up to 20 seconds
where the image is generated. Here, the lesson may
stall. To complicate matters, the AI image may notaccurately represent what the teacher wants.
Although this experiment is replicable, it measures nonobservable behaviours of the mediation process, so its
conclusions are open to challenge. There is little doubtthat further practice and review using a variety oftechniques such as generating output, whether spoken
or written, over a period of weeks or months would lead
to better longer-term results. Not only in the long term
but also short-term distributed practice – presentation of
two or three vocabulary items, review, presentation of afew more – would likely have produced more accurate
results among the participants. However, this wasintentionally not done. The focus of this study was toattempt to isolate, free from the influence of othermethods, the effect of drawings versus photography on
the students’ shorter term vocabulary acquisition after
only a single presentation.

References

3. They are drawn boldly, with fairly thick strokes.
4. They are drawn with speed: no more than 1520 seconds. (1967, p.4)
All four of these points are surely intended to minimise
distractions for the viewer and increase their active
participation in the construction of the intended
meaning. The bold strokes capture their attention, while
the speed of the rendering does not allow it to stray;
unfortunately, this study was not able to support thecontention that the act of drawing itself affected

Armstrong, Craig (2022). Simplified Imagery, Amplified
Message: Effect of Illustrations on Engagement& Phrase Retention, The 2022 PanSIG Journal,210-220. https://pansig.org/publications/2022/
PanSIG_2022_Journal.pdf
Bolulu, Zeynepnur (2019). Methods in Foreign
Language Teaching: Direct Method and
PanSIG Journal 2023

172
Grammar-translation Method. Warsaw

Learning: A Case for Contrastive Analysis andUniversity

Translation. Applied Linguistics 29(4), 694-716.

Bowers, C. A. (1988). The Cultural Dimensions of
Educational Computing: Understanding the Non-

Lightbrown, Patsy M., & Spada, Nina (2013). How
Languages are Learned. Oxford University.

Neutrality of Technology. New York: Teachers
College Press

Liu, Y. (2011). Vocabulary Recognition andMemorization: A Comparison of Two Methods.

Campbell-Larsen, J. & Romney, C. (2016). Visualizing

Kristianstad University Sweden.

Vocabulary Using Google Images, The 2016
PanSIG Journal, 38-39.

Mayer, R. E. (Ed.). (2009). Multimedia Learning (2ndhttps://www.pansig.org/publications/2016/2016_ed.). Cambridge University Press

PanSIG_Journal.pdf

http://molwave.chem.auth.gr/sigalas_edu/files/M
ultimedia_Learning.pdf

Chandler, D. (1994). The transmission model ofcommunication. Retrieved from http://visualmemory.co.uk/daniel/Documents/short/trans.htm

McCloud, Scott (1993). Understanding Comics: The
Invisible Art. Harper PerenniallNagy, W., & Anderson, R. C. (1984). How many words
Cuban, L. (1986). Teachers and machines: The

are there in printed school English? Readingclassroom use of technology since 1920.

Research Quarterly 19, 304-330, International

Teachers College Press.

Literacy Association.

Hack, B. (2014). Teaching (with) visuals: Some

Oxford, R. L., & Scarcella, R. C. (1994). Second

thoughts on images and the EFL classroom.

Language Vocabulary Learning among Adults:

Kotoba no sekai: Aichi Kenritsu Daigaku kōtō

State of the Art in Vocabulary instruction.

gengo kyōikukenkyūsho nenpō [The World ofSystem 22 (2), 231-243.

Words: Annual report of Aichi Prefectural
University Higher Education Institute] 7, pp. 4954.

Reddy, Michael J. (1979): 'The Conduit Metaphor: A
Case of Frame Conflict in our Language about
Language'. In Andrew Ortony (Ed.): Metaphor

Horsburgh, David (1967). How to Use the Blackboard
in Teaching English. Orient Longman
James, C. (2005). Contrastive analysis and thelanguage learner: A new lease of life?

and Thought, 290, Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press.
Thornbury, S. (2002). How to Teach Vocabulary.
Pearson Education Limited

Linguistics, Language Learning and Language
Teaching: The International Cooper Series on

Webb, Stuart (2005). Receptive and Productive

English Language and Literature (ICSELL) 10.

Vocabulary Learning: The Effect of Reading and

1–20.

Writing on Word Knowledge, Studies in Second
Language Acquisition 27(1), 33-52.

Laufer, Batia, & Girsai, Nany (2008). Form-Focused
Instruction in Second Language Vocabulary

Wilkins, D.A. (1972). Linguistics in Language
Teaching. Cambridge: MFT Press.

PanSIG Journal 2023

173

Collaborative Writing - A Report About Integrating Technology as a VirtualPartnerMarina Goto
Marina English School

Daniel Dusza
Hosei University
Writing is generally perceived as a solitary, individual endeavor, and technology-integrated collaborative writing (CW) is aninnovative idea. However, it is not yet widely accepted in classrooms. This paper reports the effectiveness of incorporating
technology as a partner in CW. Data were collected from Japanese EFL university students (n = 11) individual writings over the
final 4 weeks of CW during their second semester in year two. Student writing was assessed using content analysis against arubric and language analysis of word-and-sentence count, CEFR level, and text complexity using online writing assessment tools.
The results indicate that most students wrote longer essays after the CW experience, although the complexity and CEFR levels
had decreased marginally. The results suggest that CW is beneficial in improving students' writing in terms of content richness
and does not increase its complexity. The framework is provided for writing instructors to integrate CW into their writing curriculums.

一般的に、ライティングは孤独な個人の取り組みと見なされており、テクノロジーを統合した協働的ライティング（CW）は革新的である。しかし、CW は広く受け入れられていない。本論は、テクノロジーを共同執筆のパートナーとして組み込む効果を報告する。データは、日本人大学生（n = 11）の、2 年次の後半の 4 週間において作成された個別の英作文から集められた。
学生の英作文は、コンテンツ分析と、オンラインライテイング評価ツールを通して得られた単語数と文数、CEFR レベル、及びテキストの複雑さの言語分析を用いて評価された。その結果、CW を体験したほとんどの学生がより長く、内容的に豊かな
英作文を書くことができるようになったことが分かった。しかし、複雑さと CEFR レベルは僅かに低下していたことから、ライティングの複雑さには貢献しないことが示唆された。本論では、カリキュラムに CW を取り込むための枠組みも提供する。

Writing is commonly perceived as an individual
endeavor, but collaborating on writing tasks is aninnovative approach (Li, 2018). Collaboration is broadly
defined as when two or more people attempt to learnsomething together (Dillenbourg, 1999), andcollaborative writing (CW) is defined as the joint
production of a single text by two or more writers (Ede& Lunsford, 1985).
CW is a distinct process and product where students
interact and work with a “peer” during all stages of thewriting process. In the CW process, students usuallywork in groups of two or more, mutually searching forunderstanding, solutions, meaning, and producing
some artifact (Smith & MacGregor, 1992). The
collaborative process includes planning, generatingideas, thinking about text structures, editing, andrevising (Storch, 2011). The product of CW, on the other
hand, is a jointly produced and shared text, where eachindividual's effort cannot be distinguished, and the final

written product becomes the collective property of all thewriters involved (Storch, 2019).
The collective effort causes some to question how toassess CW. There is a prevailing belief that writing
development thrives in solitary settings, reinforced bytraditional assessment methods that prioritize individual
achievements (McDonough, 2004). Even when CW has
positive impacts on teamwork, communication, andproblem-solving skills, concerns remain regarding
fairness in teamwork contribution and assessment(Eren & Atay, 2021). There are also problems withresolving co-ownership and unequal participation fromgroup members (Arnold et al., 2012).
Other influences on the effectiveness of CW have also
been investigated. Teachers (McDonough, 2004) andstudents (Peretz, 2005) often favor individual writing
over CW because of the negative influence of peer
dynamics. In group dynamics, one notable concern isthat collaboration could be more efficient because it is
PanSIG Journal 2023

174
time-consuming (Krause, 2007). Collaboration iscomplicated by conflict resolution issues anddominance within groups (Yong, 2011). Individual
concerns include students' difficulties managing time
constraints while merging different opinions (Bikowski &Vithanage, 2016). Some students may question thevalue of their contribution due to concerns about
language proficiency and, therefore, be reluctant toengage with others (Lee, 2010).
CW has received growing attention over the past few
decades despite these challenges. Students benefit
from opportunities to develop autonomy throughcollaborative writing (Kessler & Bikowski, 2010). CW
provides students with space to collaborate with peers,
instructors, and new technology, which encourages asense of ownership (Chang & Windeatt, 2016). CW has
received growing attention over the past few decades
since the development of Web 2.0 tools such as Wikis
and Google Docs (Brodahl et al., 2011). Furthermore,
Ortega (2007) argued that in today's tech-driven
landscape, integrating computer-mediated activities inlanguage classes is not just beneficial but essential.
Therefore, the exploration of tech integration with theadvantages of CW in language learning is important tothe advancement of efficient and effective education.

Technology-Integrated Collaborative
WritingPrevious studies have demonstrated that techintegrated CW can enhance linguistic knowledge andwriting skills that can be transferred to individual writing
tasks. For example, Jiang and Eslami (2022) examinedthe effects of task type, dyadic arrangement, andlanguage proficiency on writing complexity, accuracy,
fluency, and overall individual writing performance
among Chinese EFL learners. Through a pre-and posttest design, they found positive gains in overall writing
proficiency and fluency, particularly among intermediate
learners. However, possibly due to the short duration,accuracy and complexity had yet to develop enough toyield substantial gains.
In a similar pre-and post-test design, Bikowski andVithanage (2016) compared various writing aspects
between groups engaged in collaborative web-based
writing and those involved in individual web-based
writing in an EAP class. Despite both groups improving
in the post-writing test, statistically significant
enhancements were observed in the collaborative webbased writing group, suggesting the efficacy ofcollaborative approaches in bolstering writing skills
across various dimensions, including content,
organization, academic style, and grammar.
Cahyono et al. (2021) offered further insights into the
dynamics of CW by showing its role in fostering theindependent production of more precise and complex

texts. Participation in collaborative tasks creates
opportunities for Language Related Episodes, whichfacilitate the exchange of language knowledge among
students (Cahyono et al., 2021). Through collaboration,
students combine their knowledge, enhancing theirexperience with and comprehension of various linguistic
structures, consequently fostering a deeper mastery oflanguage.
These studies suggest that CW and CW with technology
have the potential as a pedagogical tool to enhance
language learning and writing instruction whenintroduced in an appropriate framework.

Theoretical Framework
CW finds its justification within the theoreticalframeworks
ofsocial-constructivist
learning.
Collaborative learning theories, rooted in socioconstructivism, emphasize the communal creation ofknowledge in social settings or communities, whichaligns with Vygotsky's belief in learning withinknowledge communities (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978). In
this framework, learning is perceived as an interactive
and social process where learners actively constructknowledge by engaging with their environment.
In educational settings, collaborative learning includes
peer interaction under teacher guidance. By their very
nature, these social settings provide scaffolding within
individuals' Zone of Proximal Development (ZPD),
facilitating the transition between current and potential
abilities for learners. Collaborative learning enables
learners to exceed their individual capacities (Vygotsky& Cole, 1978). The integration of technology as a
scaffolding tool and collaborative partner has become
increasingly prevalent, prompting further exploration in
the next section.

Technology as a Collaborative Partner
Technological advancements have transformed writing
practices over the past few decades, offering tools andresources to support writers (Rimmershaw, 1992). Web
2.0 technologies and CW tools like wikis, blogs, Google
Docs, and Microsoft Teams have become ubiquitous inresearch and classrooms in enhancing CW experiences(Parker & Chao, 2007). These platforms facilitate
knowledge exchange, critical discussions, andcollaboration within learning communities.
Moreover, technology has become interactive and,recently, an intelligent collaborative partner in CW(Hewett & Robidoux, 2010). While current technology
assists in the writing process, future advancements likegenerative AI have the potential to act as a virtual writing
partner, interacting with writers and generating texts
independently. Despite concerns about generative AI's
reliability, its efficiency in providing synchronous and
PanSIG Journal 2023

175
asynchronous support without human limitations isevident (Hewett & Robidoux, 2010).
However, leveraging technology as a collaborative
partner is challenging. Students' limited confidence inusing CW tools, organizing work, and tracking edits caninitially be daunting and impede collaboration efforts(Brodahl et al., 2011), particularly for novices. As
technology evolves, its role in the writing process as acollaborative partner is expected to grow, justifying ourinterest in studying technology integration in the CW
process.
This paper reports the effectiveness of technologyintegrated CW on university students through an
exploratory study. The study investigated how CW
sessions influence individual writing. Over 4 weeks,
students engaged in CW sessions under the guidanceof their teacher, using course and online materials,
collaborating with peers, and ChatGPT (under
instruction) for additional points of view. Following eachweek's sessions, students reflected on these verbal andtextual interactions, and each compiled and produced
an individual essay for assessment. To understand theeffectiveness of technology-integrated CW, thefollowing research questions are investigated:
1. How does CW influence the content quality of
individual writing regarding the inclusion of pros,cons, and opinions?
2. Does CW significantly impact (p = .01) individual
writing in terms of word and sentence counts, text
complexity, and the CEFR level?

through various forms of interaction with peers andtechnology. By the end of this course, students wereassessed on how they could research and discuss
information from multiple sources, critically evaluate
information, understand cultural differences, andpresent their opinions to small and large groups. The
aim was to develop skills that will be useful beyond theclassroom in the international English-speaking
community, assessed in the production of a short final
essay.
Table 1
Writing Topics on Each Module From Week 10 to Week 15
Week

ModuleTopic Title

Collaboration

1-9

M1-3

Course Material and Skill
Preparation

No

10

M3

Essay Structure & First Essay(Choose 1 of the following)
Pros and Cons of Medical
Marijuana?
Is Vaping with E-Cigarettes
Safe?

Yes

11

M4

Should Vaccines be Required
for Children?

Yes

12

M4

Pros and Cons of Milk? / Do
Dairy Foods Reach Bones?

Yes

13

M4

Pros and Cons ofVegetarianism?

Yes

14

Final
Essay

Rewrite any previous essay
incorporating feedback

No

Methods

Procedure

Course and Participants

The CW research period spanned 4 weeks (Weeks 1013). Classes were held once a week for 100 minutes. In
the 14th week, students utilized feedback from the
instructor to revise their previous essays and submit
them as the final assignment. Consequently, data fromthe 14th week were not included in this study.

Participants in this study (N=11, Males=6, Females=5)
were all Japanese undergraduate students (19 to 21
years old) enrolled in the researcher’s second term, 2year university English course in Tokyo in 2022. This
opportunity sample was ideal because their maturity,
language and communication ability, and overall
competence with technology (e.g., Grammarly, Google
Docs, Online Searches, and with instruction, how to
train and query ChatGPT) were conducive to techintegrated collaborative writing.
Participants were assessed using an English Language
Proficiency Assessment, ELPA® placement test (Level
4, TOEIC 380-440) as CEFR A2 by the university at the
beginning of this course. Therefore, a CEFR text
analyzer was used to gauge the pre-and post-test
essays.
The 14-week course (Table 1) provided students withthe skills to communicate ideas and opinions about
Japan in the global community while communicating

A task-based learning approach was used withscaffolded task repetition, facilitating skill acquisitionand language focus (Harvey & Chickie-Wolfe, 2007).
The source material was from debate topics because
these debate discussions focus on foreign issues thatinterest students. Furthermore, these debates give atleast two sides of an argument, thus providing anothervoice from within the text.
Students were permitted to search the internet for
information as another source of knowledge and trainedon using the collected information in providing Chat
GPT with context to get a virtual partner's intellectual
opinion; in 11th and 12th week, this use was monitored.
Samples of ChatGPT are not the focus of this study andare therefore considered mere discussions in building
PanSIG Journal 2023

176
students' knowledge, similar to how the human peers
and the teacher were not reported. A detailed
explanation of the procedure for each week is includedin Appendix A.

Data Collection and Results
Data were collected from each student’s writing in the
CW practice’s first (Week 10) and final weeks (Week 13).
The text data were first checked and “cleaned” toremove comments and teacher notes. Two experienced
independent raters analyzed the student writings interms of content and language, and inconsistencies
were discussed until a consensus was reached.

Content Analysis and Results
Figure 1
Results of Each Student’s Writing Based on Content Analysis Rubric

Content was graded against a rubric (Appendix B). The
rubric is based on the English course requirements andgauges the writing skills of summarizing, contrasting, orsynthesizing the information gathered during their CW
experience. A score of 0 represents no relevant content,
and 5 represents outstanding engagement with the topic.
The scores assigned to each essay were then used to
calculate each student's mean and standard deviationand identify any trends or changes in writing
performance over the 4-week CW period (Figure 1).
The results from each participant indicate a general
improvement over the 4-week period. The averagescore increased from Week 10 (x̄10 = 2.83, σ10 = 1.24)
to Week 13 (x̄13 = 3.57, σ13 = 0.84), which is amoderate effect size (Cohen's d = 0.698). Additionally,
the coefficient of determination (R² = 0.108) indicatesthat about 10.87% of the variance in the content
average score can be explained by the change over the
4-week period. Overall, these results suggest that the
improvement in the content average from Week 10 to
Week 13 is statistically significant (α = 0.01, p-value <0.01).
Each participant's results are indicated with a uniquecolor, and the thick black line indicates the classaverage. Overall, the average increases gradually from
Week 10 to Week 13. While most participants showed
improvement from week to week, Student 5 had little
interest in repeating the CW process, explaining thedrop in their content after Week 11 (indicated by athicker orange line with square markers). A writing
sample of content improvement (Figure 2) illustrates
how writing content improved over this short 4-weekperiod.

Figure 2
Student 9 Written Samples From Week 1 and Week 13 of the CW Period

PanSIG Journal 2023

177
This writing sample from Student 9 illustrates how much
more information can be gathered, processed, andrecorded in a CW class of only 100 minutes after just 4
weeks. Student 9 shared their opinion in both samples(final green paragraphs). In Week 10, the introduction
and the negative aspects of the vaccine were neglected,
probably because the student could only concentrate on
one part of the argument and neglected the othermechanics of writing a report. By the end of Week 13,
however, the negative aspects of the discussion were
included in the third paragraph (in blue), and theintroduction was included (first green box in Week 13).
The text became considerably more comprehensive in
only 4 weeks, yielding increased word-and-sentence
count. This evidence supports the claim that thecollaborative writing process aids individual writing.

increased even with the teacher withdrawing directintervention as the weeks progressed.

Language Analysis and Results

Discussion

Language in student writings was analyzed using online
analysis tools, Cathoven AI text analyzer andCharactercalculator.com, which are used in theuniversity to provide word-and-sentence count, text
complexity, CEFR level based on written text, and theFlesch Kincaid index. Word-and-sentence counts wereused to indicate complexity. CEFR was used to monitor
any effect during the CW period, and the Flesch Kincaid
index was chosen as an indicator because it shows how
easy the text is to read (cf. used by Hamada, 2016 to
analyze shadowing texts).

In the 4-week CW period, students in the study learned
how to integrate various elements of information frommultiple sources through collaboration with peers andby receiving feedback from other students and theteacher, either face-to-face or through Google Docs.
The writing product was gathered from the stimulus
material (debate topics and readings), internet searches,and discussions with humans and a virtual partner(ChatGPT). Throughout this CW period, students
acquired the skill of sourcing, sharing, and incorporating
feedback from communication across all areas.

All the scores were normalized for ease of comparison(Figure 3). Normalization is a scientific method ofmaking the maximum score equal to one, whichindicates the relativity of other results and is useful invisual analysis only (Figure 3).

The most remarkable observation was watching thestudents transition from collaborative writing with aheavy dependence on approval and salient information
to trusting their ability and becoming more independent.
This transition was observed in the writing evidence andin how students incorporated technology into theirreasoning. This evidence suggests that collaboration isan effective scaffold for independent writing (Jiang &Eslami, 2022), aligning with the findings thatcollaborative writing enhances linguistic knowledge andwriting skills that can be transferred to independentwriting tasks (Cahyono et al., 2021).

Figure 3
Average Class Results (Normalized) From Text Analysis Using
Cathoven AI Text Analyzer to Measure FKI, SC, CEFR Level, andWord-and-sentence CountThe average word-and-sentence counts increased over
the weeks because students incorporated the pros andcons of a topic, integrating the information they havelearned in collaborative experiences. These counts

The average Flesch Kincaid reading index and CEFR
level decreased by the end of Week 13. In Week 10,
students initially used words directly from the readingmaterials, not fully understanding the pragmatics orcontent. These words included some difficult words thatwere not used appropriately (e.g., “dissenting” and“fortified”). However, as writing skills improved, students
became more aware of using words appropriately while
incorporating ideas from peers, teacher feedback, andonline sources. This development in writing skills
resulted in students using words that they were morefamiliar with, which tended to lower the Flesch-Kinkaidindex and the measured CEFR level.

Collaborative writing offers unique advantages,
particularly in facilitating an understanding of theteacher's expectations, curriculum objectives, andassignment requirements within students' Zone of
Proximal Development (Vygotsky & Cole, 1978). In
larger classes where personalized feedback ischallenging due to class size, collaborative writingpresents a viable alternative, especially when supported
by technology, as highlighted by previous researchemphasizing the pedagogical value of tech-integrated
collaborative writing (Parker & Chao, 2007).
Feedback in the form of discussions was provided insmaller classes, enabling the teacher to closely monitor
progress and offer assistance as needed, in line with the
PanSIG Journal 2023

178
findings that collaborative tasks create opportunities for
Language Related Episodes, facilitating the exchangeof language knowledge among students (Cahyono et al.,2021). However, in larger classes, students must
adeptly use technology to fully benefit, echoing
concerns from literature about their willingness to use
collaborative writing tools (Brodahl et al., 2011).
In summary, while collaborative writing should beassessed based on participation and progress rather
than solely on the final output, the ultimate test lies instudents' ability to apply collaborative learning
experiences to their independent writing endeavors,echoing the call for a comprehensive approach thatconsiders both technological and human aspects ofcollaboration (Brodahl et al., 2011). Recognizing thevalue of programming AI-based tools effectively andframing queries intelligently to maximize their utility inthe learning process is crucial, underscoring theimportance of further research and development in thisarea (Hewett & Robidoux, 2010).

Conclusion
This paper examines the effectiveness of CW as amethod to improve lower-level second-year university
students’ independent writing skills. CW was assessed
as a process and a product using pre-and post-test
designs similar to previous research. While CW did notincrease text complexity and CEFR level, it notablyenhanced content, structure, and word-and-sentence
counts. The results support the claim that techintegrated CW can enhance linguistic knowledge andwriting skills that can be transferred to individual writing
tasks. Qualitative analysis of student writing suggeststhat this reduction in text complexity and CEFR levelstemmed from a heightened awareness of pragmatics
and a shift towards a more concise writing style in linewith skill acquisition and experience. These results
challenge the notion that CW is impractical or ineffectivein Japanese classrooms and supports, where
discussions generally converge on socially accepted
common ground. This study underscores the pivotal roleof teachers and technology in facilitating effective CW.
However, limitations include a small sample size andlack of a control group, warranting further research.

References

Bikowski, D., & Vithanage, R. (2016). Effects of webbased collaborative writing on individual L2
writing development. Language Learning &Technology, 20, 79-99.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.ijhydene.2013.06.042
Brodahl, C., Hadjerrouit, S., & Hansen, N. K. (2011).
Collaborative writing with web 2.0 technologies:
education students' perceptions. Journal of
Information Technology Education, 10, 73-103.
http://dx.doi.org/10.28945/1373
Cahyono, B. Y., Mukminatien, N., & El Khoiri, N.
(2021). Collaborative writing using process
writing approach: The effect of group size andpersonality types. International Journal of
Instruction, 14(4), 391-410.
https://doi.org/10.29333iji.2021.14423a
Chang, H., & Windeatt, S. (2016). Developing
collaborative learning practices in an online
language course. Computer Assisted Language
Learning, 29(8), 1271-1286.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2016.1274331
Dillenbourg, P. (1999). What do you mean bycollaborative learning? In P. Dillenbourg (Ed.),
Collaborative-learning: Cognitive andcomputational approaches (pp. 1-19). Elsevier.
https://chess.wisc.edu/niatx/toolkits/system/Dille
nbourg_CollaborativeLearning.pdf
Ede, L., & Lunsford, A. (1985). Let Them Write
Together. English Quarterly, 18(4), 119-127.
Eren, E. U., & Atay, D. (2021). Students’ Perceptions

Arnold, N., Ducate, L., & Kost, C. (2012). Collaborationand the Potential Impact of Web 2.0 Tools inor cooperation? Analyzing group dynamics andCollaborative Writing Classes. English as arevision process in wikis. CALICO Journal,

Foreign Language International Journal, 1(3),29(3), 431-448.

27-45. http://dx.doi.org/10.56498/812562021

http://dx.doi.org/10.11139/cj.29.3.431-448
Hamada, Y. (2016). Teaching EFL learners shadowing
for listening: Developing learners' bottom-up
PanSIG Journal 2023

179
skills (1st ed.). Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781315677118

McDonough, K. (2004). Learner-learner interaction
during pair and small group activities in a Thai
EFL context. System, 32, 207-224.

Harvey, V. S., & Chickie-Wolfe, L. A. (2007). Fostering
independent learning: Practical strategies topromote student success. Guilford Press.

Ortega, L. (2007). Meaning L2 practice in foreign
language classrooms: A cognitive interactionist
SLA perspective. In R. M. DeKeyser (Ed.),

Hewett, B. L., & Robidoux, C. (Eds.). (2010). Virtual

Practice in second language: Perspectives fromcollaborative writing in the workplace: Computer-applied linguistics and cognitive psychology (pp.

mediated communication technologies and180-207). Cambridge University Press.

processes. IGI Global.
https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-60566-994-6

Parker, K. R., & Chao, J. T. (2007). Wiki as a teachingtool. Interdisciplinary Journal of Knowledge andJiang, W., & Eslami, Z. R. (2022). Effects of computermediated collaborative writing on individual EFL

Learning Objects, 3, 57-72.
https://doi.org/10.28945/3131

writing performance. Computer Assisted
Language Learning, 35(9), 2701-2730.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2021.1893753

Peretz, A. (2005). Teaching scientific/academic writing:A place for new technologies. Electronic Journalof e-Learning, 3, 55-66.

Kessler, G., & Bikowski, D. (2010). Developing

https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ1099124.pdf

collaborative autonomous learning abilities incomputer mediated language learning: attention

Rimmershaw, R. (1992). Collaborative writing practices

to meaning among students in wiki space.

and writing support technologies. Instructional

Computer Assisted Language Learning, 23(1),Science, 21(1-3), 15-28.

41-58.

https://doi.org/10.1007/BF00119653

https://doi.org/10.1080/09588220903467335
Smith, B. L., & MacGregor, J. T. (1992). What isKrause, S. D. (2007). The process of research writing

collaborative learning? In A. Goodsell, M.

chapter four, “How to collaborate and write with

Maher, & V. Tinto (Eds.), Collaborative learning:others”. http://www.stevendkrause.com/tprw/

A sourcebook for higher education (pp. 10-36).
National Center on Post-Secondary Teaching,

Lee, L. (2010). Exploring wiki-media collaborative
writing: A case study in an elementary Spanish

Learning, and Assessment.
https://eric.ed.gov/?id=ED357705

course. CALICO Journal, 27(2), 260-276.
Storch, N. (2011). Collaborative writing in L2 contexts:
Li, M. (2018). Computer-mediated collaborative writing

Processes, outcomes, and future directions.

in L2 contexts: An analysis of empirical

Annual Review of Applied Linguistics, 31, 275-

research. Computer Assisted Language

288.

Learning, 31(8), 882-904.

https://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190511000079

https://doi.org/10.1080/09588221.2018.1465981
Storch, N. (2019). Collaborative writing. Language
Teaching, 52(1), 40-59.
https://doi.org/10.1017/S0261444818000320
PanSIG Journal 2023

180
Vygotsky, L. S., & Cole, M. (1978). Mind in society:
Development of higher psychological processes.
Harvard University Press.
Yong, M. F. (2011). Improving ESL learners’ academic
text construction through a collaborative task.
Pertanika Journal of Social Science &Humanities, 19(2), 475-485.

PanSIG Journal 2023

181

Appendices
Appendix A: Details of the Lesson Procedure Between Week 10 and Week 14

Week 10 Instructed CW (Pre-test data)
This phase introduced students to collaborate, a step-by-step guide encouraging them to explore topics, identify information gaps, seek
opinions, and initiate basic research. Given their second-year status, the focus was on laying foundational writing skills (100 mins + homework).
Week 11 Guided CW
Students engaged in reconstructing the process practiced in the previous week using teacher-selected debate topics linked to available
resources. Students were tasked with extracting information from provided and self-selected sources. The writing was structured (100 mins +homework).
Week 12 Independent Monitored CW
At this stage, students could initiate the CW process independently, forming teams, discussing topics, and composing individual essays. The
collaboration continued, albeit with reduced instructor intervention.
Week 13 Assessed CW (Post-test Data Collection)
The instructor provided guidance throughout each stage, initially focusing on formative aspects and gradually emphasizing overall improvement.
Suggestions on writing style, content, and word usage were provided, either by the instructor or through technology (e.g., Grammarly, ChatGPT,
and comments in Google Docs).
Week 14 Evaluated CW
Evaluation encompassed monitoring participation across the writing process, engagement with feedback at each stage, and ipsative
assessment (i.e., measuring progress against a previous baseline or model). In this case, the overall effect of this approach was evaluated bycomparing the first writing attempt against all subsequent essay submissions. Week 14 results are not included in the CW data analysis due tointernal inconsistency in the type of teacher feedback provided at this stage; teacher feedback is provided on text written previously during
weeks 10 to 13.

Appendix B: Writing Content Analysis Rubric

Writing Content Analysis Rubric
Score

Description0

Irrelevant: The essay contains no relevant content.

1

Ineffective: The essay inadequately integrates pros and cons from various readings and fails to incorporate the student's own viewpoints.
Writing lacks coherence and depth.

2Adequate: The essay somewhat integrates pros and cons from various readings but may lack depth or clarity. Students attempt toincorporate their own viewpoints but with limited success.

3

Satisfactory: The essay effectively integrates pros and cons from various readings and incorporates the student's own viewpoints to asatisfactory degree. Writing demonstrates some level of coherence and organization.

4

Effective: The essay proficiently integrates pros and cons from various readings and effectively incorporates the student's own viewpoints.
Writing demonstrates coherence, organization, and insight.

5

Outstanding: The essay outstandingly integrates pros and cons from various readings and masterfully incorporates the student's own
viewpoints. Writing demonstrates exceptional coherence, organization, and insight, engaging deeply with the topic.

PanSIG Journal 2023

182

Exploring Student Engagement in an Online Environment
Mizuka Tsukamoto
Ryukoku University
This paper discusses the second cycle of an action research study that examined students’ engagement with provided tasks andwith peers in groups as they completed them in an online learning environment. The paper begins by discussing the first cycle ofthe study and describes the revisions made in the second cycle. These revisions include the introduction of weekly reflective
questions, which were used to understand students’ experiences working in groups, along with an in-group peer evaluation form
used also in the previous cycle. The paper concludes by raising questions about how much guidance students may need in selfregulated learning, and the need to find better connections between students’ interests and course material as a way to engender
more valuable learning experiences.
本稿では、オンライン学習環境において、学生がグループ課題に取り組む姿勢やグループ内の他の学生との関わりを調査した
アクション・リサーチの Cycle 2 について論じる。まず、Cycle 1 についておよび Cycle 2 に加えた修正について述べる。この修正には Cycle 1 で使用したグループ内相互評価をに加えて、振り返り質問を各週導入することでグループ内での各学生の経験を把握することを試みた。本稿では、自己調整学習を支援する際に学生にどの程度のガイダンスが必要なのか、また、より価値のある学習経験を生み出す方法として、学生の興味と指定教材との間に、より良いつながりを見い出す必要があるのではないか、という疑問を提起している。

This paper discusses an action research project
attempted to investigate the level of student
engagement with assigned tasks, as well as theirinteractions with peers with group settings during thetask completion. As part of their coursework, students
formed groups to complete online self-directed projects.
These projects were designed to provide students withchoice in their learning, and to avoid them becoming
passive and bored in the online environment. The major
reason for adopting a learner-centred approach in thecourse was to provide students with the opportunity to
pursue their own interests and skills needed bythemselves. Dresel et al. (2015) note that this is a movefrom teacher-directed learning in secondary education
towards self-regulated learning, which may be a big
jump for some students. At Japanese universities,
English language skills-based courses are often
compulsory for students to fulfil their graduation
requirements. For a variety of reasons, students often
lack interest in these courses and it can be difficult tomotivate them. Compounding this, course objectives
and schedules are often decided by each university’s
English Language Programme (ELP), which limits how
instructors can tailor courses to address their students'
interests. The course discussed in this paper differedfrom this pattern in being semi-coordinated, so that only
some, not all, materials and assessment components
were decided by the ELP. This afforded some flexibility
in the course design, and to address these motivation
problems and to encourage self-regulated learning, theinstructor decided to include group projects that allowed

the students to make choices about how to pursue theirown learning.
The study focused on ways to monitor the engagementof students in their tasks and interactions with otherstudents. Its purpose was to explore the following two
points:1.

How might an instructor
engagement with set tasks?

evaluatestudents’

2. How might an instructor help students maintainengagement with other students to improve thequality of their work?
To explore these points, students were given weekly
reflection questions to solicit their feedback on theirproject throughout the semester.

Student Engagement
Engagement, as I employ the term in this paper, refers
simply to whether students are actively involved in tasks,
during class time but also after class, and perhaps until
the following week throughout the semester. In this, I
follow Oga-Baldwin (2019), who cautions against
confusing engagement with confounding constructs
such as motivation and intended effort andrecommends understanding engagement as “a flexible
set of constructs with many measurement possibilities”(p. 2; see also Mercer, 2011; Adelman & Taylor, 2012).

PanSIG Journal 2023

183
Oga-Baldwin’s definition is helpful insofar as it allows toobserve that the amount of motivation and the intention
to achieve good results that students had at the
beginning of the semester may gradually fade and notlast until the end of the semester.

Action Research
Burns (2010) notes that Action Research (AR) is a “selfreflective, inquiry-oriented and critical process” (p.196)
that enables practical improvements. AR is accordingly
understood as a “cyclical activity” (Lomax, 2002, p.123),
in which a plan is formulated, carried out, monitored,
and scrutinized in order to move critically forward.
Though AR is context-based, McNiff and Whitehead(2006) mention that AR not only enables teachers toreflect upon their practices but also to link theory topractice. In Tsukamoto (2022), the author critiques her
attempt to improve students' engagement and thequality of their group work submissions. The current
study represents a continuation of the AR initiatedpreviously.

Context and Participants
The class examined in this study was held via Zoom forthe entire 15-week semester, which was determined byuniversity policies in the English Language Programme(ELP). In this semi-coordinated course, aside fromrequired components (such as including the use of atextbook and completion of online programmes), therest of the course design was left to each instructor. I
decided to have the students work on a group project.
The theme of the project was world heritage sites,
related to the content of the textbook to maintain course
integrity, but each group could decide their own topic.
The class comprised 18 first-year students and threesecond-year students (retakers). 19 of these students(all 18 first-year students and one second-year student)
were enrolled in another course taught by the same
instructor. This course met in person for the first fourweeks and last four weeks of the semester, and via
Zoom for all other classes. Therefore, albeit in anothercourse, I was able to meet with 19 of the 21 enrolled
students in person at least eight times throughout thesemester.

The Group ProjectStudents worked on the project in groups of three to four.
The project had two main components: (i) a midterm
submission in which each group had to provide somebasic information on the topic they chose with areference list, and (ii) a final submission consisting of aset of presentation slides. In addition, students wererequired to submit individual weekly reflections on theirgroup work experience throughout the project. They
were also required to evaluate the final presentations

submitted by the other groups, and to submit a final peer
evaluation of their group members’ contributions to theproject.
This group project was structured incorporating insightsfrom Liu (2008) and Godwin-Jones (2011) and Ashcroft(2019). Liu reports that students’ motivation levels
increase when everyone involved in a project
cooperates, leading to a good environment andimproved social interaction. Godwin-Jones (2011)
found that the development of effective learnerautonomy involves maintaining a peer network. Finally,
Ashcroft (2019) presented the idea of having students
in each group evaluate each other at the end of a groupproject in order to avoid any “social loafing”. The
participation evaluation sheet asked students to explain
the reasons for their evaluations. My hope was that in
the long run working in groups and reflecting on theircontributions would prove a good learning experience
for the students. As the first pre-cycle in Tsukamoto(2022) revealed, even if the classes were held in person,
the instructors cannot always know how the students
proceed with their group work, or who is doing how
much work. Although it may not be perfect, thisparticipation evaluation sheet is a way to give thestudents an opportunity to inform the instructors of how
much they contributed and how others in the group
evaluated them.

Research Design
The action research proceeded in two cycles, thesecond of which is the main focus of this paper. The firstcycle was, however, preceded by two pre-cycles which
provided the basis for this research (Figure 1).
Tsukamoto (2022) describes the first pre-cycle, which
was her first attempt to facilitate a semesterlong student-centred learning course that revolved
around project-based learning. As the classes were
held in-person, it was possible to monitor students atwork in the classroom, it did not seem necessary tosolicit their reactions to their learning each week. The
second pre-cycle, (unpublished), took place in acompletely online-environment, similar to Cycle 1 andCycle 2. However, the use of Zoom was not available inthis second pre-cycle, and students’ communication
with each other and the instructor was limited to emails
or the learning management system (LMS). This took
place in the first year that university courses weremoved online due to the outbreak of Covid-19, andinstructors were told not to overburden students. My
notes from this time mention my decision to not include
students’ individual reports to avoid them having tospend extra time on their computer devices. However,
the absence of formal student progress reports
prevented me from closely observing their engagementwith group work, particularly tasks they conducted
outside of classroom hours. As a result, in Cycle 1, I
PanSIG Journal 2023

184
recognized the necessity to try and implement methods
that would allow for a more detailed examination of
students' ongoing progress.
Figure 1
Action Research Cycles
Pre-cycle 1(Tsukamoto,2022)
Pre-cycle 2(unpublished)

Cycle 1
(unpublished

Cycle 2
(present study)

Cycle 1For the group project part of the class time, students
worked in Zoom breakout rooms for 30-45 minutes each
week, depending on their progress on textbook work,with the instructor visiting breakout rooms throughout
the class to monitor progress and see if students were
having any issues. At the end of each class, each group
was required to submit a progress report detailing (i)what they had planned to work on during the class, (ii)whether they had been able to meet their goals for theday, (iii) what each member needed to finish for thefollowing class, and (iv) any issues or questions they
had regarding the group work. These reports wereintended to keep the students on track, and for the
instructor to see if the students were having any
problems or difficulties proceeding with the project.
Sometimes, students asked how to do certain things orfor clarification of project instructions. When similar
questions seemed likely to be asked by other groups, I
prepared short workshops to be conducted the following
week. Though the midterm submissions were notoutstanding, they included the required content and did
not show issues that needed to be addressed.
Nevertheless, a short feedback session was conductedin the following class, in anticipation of possible issues
that might arise with the final submission. When the final
submissions were received, it was thus unfortunate thatthey did not meet expectations. For example, of theseven groups, only two groups revised and added moredetails to their project based on midterm feedback
provided. Four groups made only very minor changes
and one group made no changes at all. This raised
concerns regarding the level of student engagementwith the project This made me question the students’
engagement with the project, the quality of thesubmissions and their weekly reports. The students
were assessed based on the final group project, butalso on an in-group participation evaluation derived
from Ashcroft (2019).

Cycle 2
When planning the course for the new academic year, I
looked back at the lesson plans and notes that I had

kept in Cycle 1 and identified the major issues to beaddressed in Cycle 2, namely the inconsistency
between the content of the weekly progress reports andthe quality of the final submissions. My solution was toaddress these issues in two ways. First, the weekly
progress reports completed by each group were
replaced with individual responses to questions aboutgroup progress or how time was spent in the breakout
rooms. Students were told that the content of these
responses would not be assessed, but that submitting
responses would count as their participation grade foreach class. My hope was that through this change I
would receive a more honest picture of how students
used time in the breakout room sessions, as well as how
the group work was progressing. Second, the quality of
final submissions was addressed by redesigning theentire course schedule. Instead of following the course
design suggested by the ELP (which was to spend thefirst half of each class on the textbook, and the second
half on other assignments), I redesigned the course sothat the students would work on the textbook and thegroup projects on alternate weeks. On group projectdays, I would prepare workshops for the first half of theclass to address problems that students had faced in
Cycle 1. These workshops were on such topics as citing
and referencing, summarising, preparing visual aids,
and writing academic paragraphs. After giving a shortlecture, students would discuss questions I gave themor complete practice exercises, and I would give
feedback on their responses. The idea behind thischange was that students would be able to focus moreon course tasks. In Cycle 1, before the class structurechange, students needed to shift their focus every weekfrom the textbook to their group project. The revised
structure, however, allowed students to focus on
textbook work entirely for a class, and the following
week to focus entirely on their group projects. Table 1
shows the summary of the context.
Table 1
Summary of the Research Context
Cycle 1

Cycle 2 (the current study)

Students in 1st-4th year ata university in Japan

1st and 2nd year students
at a university in Japan(22 1st years, 5 2nd years +)(19 1st years, 2 2nd years)

Students’
proficiency
levelIntermediate (by theuniversity’s standards)

Intermediate (by theuniversity’s standards)

Coursedetails

90 mins/week

90 mins /week(30-45 mins on group
work every week)(- 60 mins on group workon alternate weeks)

15 weeks

15 weeks

All classes on Zoom.

All classes on Zoom.

22 students in-personfor 8 weeks for anothercourse.

19 students in-person forweeks 1-4 and 11-15 foranother course.

Students’
profileAdditional
information

PanSIG Journal 2023

185

Data Collection
The data for this study comprised (i) the students’
responses to the weekly questions, (ii) the students’group participation evaluation sheets, and (iii) the notes
kept during and after each class.
Regarding the students’ responses to weekly reflection
questions, it was important for students to know that thecontent of their responses did not matter for their final
grade and that they could express their honest feelings.
This was made clear to them, as the main purpose wasto gain some understanding of the students’experiences in the breakout rooms. After the midterm
submission, students were asked to give a score toeach of their group members. This gave them a chance
to reflect on and improve their contributions to the groupon the final submission. Another purpose of the weekly
questions was to have the students take a moment toreflect on their contribution or the work that they did so
as to improve it for the following week. It was hoped thatthe significance of the submission would encourage
students to provide more honest opinions, regardless ofthe content of their responses.
The second source of data was the participation
evaluation sheets that all students submitted on the final
day of class. In their groups, each student evaluated allother group members, and explained the reasons forthe evaluation. No student knew how they were
evaluated by their peers. With these evaluation sheets,
I was able to see how students assessed thecontribution of each group member, as per Ashcroft(2019), and could use them to judge the integrity of the
responses to the weekly reflection questions. If
students' self-reflections suggested one thing, but theirpeers' evaluations another, then I had reasons toquestion the sincerity of the student's response or thetransparency of the group dynamics.
The third source of data was the notes taken during andafter each class. After each class, my notes included
students’ reactions to the workshops and the questions
they sent me. I also examined the students’ responses
to the weekly questions and made notes accordingly.
After marking the midterm submissions, my notes werelonger than usual, as they included what specificfeedback I had to give to some groups, and what
instruction I felt all students needed to be told. Afterevaluating the midterm submissions, my notes weremore detailed than usual, outlining specific feedback forcertain groups as well as instructions that I deemednecessary for all students. Table 2 shows a briefsummary of the data source for the study.

Table 2
Data for the Study
Data source

Evaluator

Subject evaluatedWeekly reflective
questionsEachstudent

Themselves

Midterm/final submission

Instructor

Student groups

Participation evaluation

Eachstudent

Self and students in
the group

Reflective notes

Instructor

Student engagement
and progress

Discussion
Students’ Engagement with the Tasks
Although some students were clearly comfortable
sharing negative feedback on fellow group members,
the overall positive responses from students and thelack of concerns or questions raised during class gaveme little reason to suspect any problems or issues withthe progress of student projects. Instead, students
shared what they appreciated about working with otherstudents, and discussed what information they wereable to exchange with others. They also commented on
how it was helpful to work with other students as well as
being able to learn from them. However, as in Cycle 1,
the positive responses did not correspond with the work
they submitted. Of the seven groups, six groups wererequired to resubmit the midterm assignment as it did
not meet instruction requirements or reflect content
covered in the workshops. Following Dam’s (2019) ideaof ‘letting go’ of students and Oga-Baldwin’s (2019) ideaof engagement, I had anticipated that students would beengaged with their project outside the classroom if they
were able to choose how to complete it during classhours. Although the framework of the group project was
decided by the instructor, it was each group that
decided which topic to explore, and the members who
decided the project’s content and completion timeline.
The use of participation evaluation submitted by thestudents was partially intended for the instructor to see
the work that the students had put into the group project.
In evaluating their own and others’ group contributions,
my presumption was that students who brought morework to each meeting would receive higher contribution
scores from other students. Although they were
provided with an example on how to complete the groupcontribution sheet, very few students provided
examples to justify their scores. It is possible theyneeded to be more directed in how they were to explain
their group members’ contributions.

Students’ Engagement with the Group Members
Whilst Cycle 1 took place when students were attending
all courses either on Zoom or on-demand, Cycle 2 took
PanSIG Journal 2023

186
place when most courses had returned to in-person
instruction. Thus, although the course in this study was
conducted via Zoom, the students interacted in-personin their other courses. My presumption as such was thatcompared to Cycle 1, the students would be better atcommunicating with each other, especially since theychose which other members to work with. However,after assessing the quality of the midterm and final
submissions, I had reason to question their in-groupengagement. Storch (2005, 2007) and Tanaka (2021)
report the positive effects of collaboration and howgroup environment affects learners’ motivation.
Throughout the course, not many students asked
questions about the group project. The rather
disappointing quality of their work thus raised questions
the nature of their group dynamics. To address this,after the midterm submissions, I began to ask about
how time was spent in the breakout rooms in the weekly
reflection questions. Their responses made me realisethat Zoom breakout rooms were not functioning well for
all groups. For example, in response to a weekly
question, “Describe your group work time in the
breakout rooms in one word,” students in the samegroup responded in incompatible ways: while one
student wrote “good” and another “productive”, others
wrote “silent” or “not sure”. The participation evaluationthat students submitted at the end of the semester (andwhich was reflected in their course grades) confirmedthat some group members failed to contribute to thecollective work, either in the breakout rooms duringclass or through working on tasks outside of class hours.

Students’ Engagement with the Instructor
The reflective notes revealed an interesting observation.
Throughout the semester, only a few students asked
questions about the group project, and always from thesame groups. However, they asked these questions notduring class time on Zoom, but after class in anothercourse I was teaching in-person that they took with me.
Accordingly, not only the quality but also the accuracyof the student submissions seems to be influenced bywhether the course was held online or in person. The
study discussed in Tsukamoto (2022) took place at adifferent university and in a different course design, but
because the classes were held in person, I was able tosee how groups were progressing with their projects,
spot any issues, and conduct impromptu workshops asnecessary. It seemed that there was no need for the
students to reach out for assistance, as I was able toreach out to them. Perhaps it was easier for them toengage with the instructor in person rather than online
via email or Zoom chat, which then affected theirsubmissions.

Improving the Quality of Students’ Submissions
In Cycle 1, groups provided weekly progress reports
detailing their intentions for each meeting and theiraccomplishments, and their planned preparations fortheir next meeting. This, however, proved problematic
because of the mismatch between self-reported
progress and the final product, and because individual
students were unable to communicate any difficulties
they were having while working in their groups. To
address this, Cycle 2 revisions were intended to allow
students to report on their own weekly contributions, toimprove overall progress throughout the course. Thiswas in accordance with Storch (2005, 2007) andTanaka (2021) who suggest that improving group work
dynamics leads to higher quality submissions.
However, so far as the result of this action researchshows, it has proven that the issue needs to beaddressed separately. When classes are conducted inperson in the classroom, it is easier for instructors to see
the progress of the students’ work, and to point out
issues or provide suggestions as to how improve thequality of work. It is also possible to conduct shortworkshops to address those issues with the whole classas in Tsukamoto (2022). When classes are held online,
however, spotting these issues is not as easy. Joining
students in their breakout rooms is generally awkward,
and not usually conducive to seeing what they are
working on.

Conclusion
In concluding the study, the results of Cycle 2 remind usof the question that Dam (2019) raises of when to ‘letgo’ and when to ‘hold on’ to students. When should
students be free to self-regulate, and when do theyneed to be guided? Despite the possible benefits of selfregulated learning, the study seemed to reveal a
disconnect between students’ motivations and theirachievement, suggesting that self-regulation may best
take place within certain parameters. The difficulty withsetting parameters, however, is that they mightundermine the very purpose of self-regulated learning.
To demonstrate, a possible solution to some of the
problems the students experienced would have been toprovide them with case examples of what to expect asa final submission. This may help the students in theirearly planning to avoid some of the problems that beset
their midterm submissions. At the same time, illustratinga sample end product might have encouraged its
replication and thus compromised students’ innovationin conceiving their own project. If such examples were
provided, then, would this affect how students’ work
should be assessed? If students replicated the model
should that replication be rewarded, or should it bepenalized as failing to show autonomous engagement?
Reeve & Jang (2006) have found that teachers’
controlling students’ behaviours removes their agency
and thwarts their autonomy. However, it may be difficult
to distinguish between controlling and guiding
behaviour. Indeed, when does guidance constitute
PanSIG Journal 2023

187
control? Does giving students’ an example to follow
thwart their autonomy? Or, is it possible for students tofollow a model yet still be meaningfully autonomous? If
not, how else can students be guided to better
performance recognising that guidance is sometimes
necessary? Further reflection on these questions isneeded, since just opposing self-guided to instructorguided instruction appears to be far too simple.
The findings of the action research discussed above
suggest difficulties with self-directed group projects inonline classes. However, perhaps whether classes areheld in-person or online is in the end not the main issue.
As Tsukamoto (2022) concluded, unless students seevalue in their assignments, they seem to find it difficult
to motivate themselves and to proceed with their tasks.
Students in the current study did not ask questions,which precluded the instructor determining if tasks were
too challenging. However, given that not all the students
in the class were interested in improving their English
language skills, but were attending courses to fulfil
graduation requirements, perhaps motivation must be
found by other means. If connections can thus be foundbetween these mandatory courses and the courses
students choose for their major, then regardless ofcourse delivery method, their self-directed learning canbe valuably pursued as informed by their interests fromoutside the course.

learners actively involved (pp.89–107). Candlin
and Mynard.
Dresel, M., Schmitz,B., Schober,B., Spiel,C.,
Ziegler,A., Engelschalk,T., Jöstl, G., Klug,J.,
Roth,A., Wimmer, B. & Steue,G. (2015).
Competencies for successful self–regulated
learning in higher education: structural modeland indications drawn from expert interviews,
Studies in Higher Education, 40(3), 454–
470. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2015.10
04236
Godwin-Jones, R. (2011). Emerging technologies
autonomous language learning, Language
learning & Technology, 15(3), 4–11.
Lomax, P. (2002). Action research. In Coleman, M. &Briggs, A. (Eds.), Research Methods in
Educational Leadership and Management (122–140). SAGE Publications.

References
McNiff, J. & Whitehead, J. (2006). All you Need toAdelman, H. & Taylor, L. (2012). Student engagement
and learning climate. In S. L. Christenson, A. L.

Know about Action Research. London: SAGE
Publications.

Reschly, & C. Wylie (Eds.), Handbook of
research on student engagement (pp. 545–560).
Boston, MA: Springer US.

Mercer, S. (2011). Dispelling the myth of the naturalborn linguist. ELT Journal, 66(1), 22–29.
http://doi.org/10.1093/elt/ccr022.

Ashcroft, B. (2019, January 27). Using Game Theory
to Improve Project-based Learning Course

Oga–Baldwin, W. L. Q. (2019). Acting, thinking,

Design [Conference presentation], JALT

feeling, making, collaborating: The engagement

Hokkaido 2019 Winter Language Teachingprocess in foreign language learning. System,

Conference, Sapporo, Japan.

86, 102–128.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2019.102128

Burns, A. (2010) Doing action research in English
language teaching: A guide for practitioners.
New York: Routledge.

Reeve, J., & Jang, H. (2006). What teachers say anddo to support students’ autonomy during alearning activity. Journal of EducationalDam, L. (2019). Developing learner autonomy: From
theory to classroom practice. In M. Menegale

Psychology, 98(1), 209–218.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0022–0663.98.1.209(Ed.), Autonomy in language learning: Getting

PanSIG Journal 2023

188
Storch, N. (2005). Collaborative writing: Product,
process, and students’ reflections. Journal of
Second Language Writing 14(3), 153–173.
Storch, N. (2007). Investigating the merits of pairwork on a text editing task in ESL classes.
Language Teaching Research, 11(2), 43–159.
Tanaka, M. (2021). Individual perceptions of group
work environment, motivation, and achievement.
International Review of Applied Linguistics inLanguage Teaching, 60, 1201–1225.
doi:10.1515/iral–2020.0183
Tsukamoto, M. (2022). Some thoughts on
implementing a new teaching approach: A
review of Clarke’s “Exploring autonomous
learning…” The Learner Development Journal,
6, 114–120.

PanSIG Journal 2023

189

Pairing Contemporary Issues and Poetry
Mary Hillis
Ritsumeikan University
This paper describes the development of a university course to engage language learners with contemporary social issues andpoetry. Designed using Fink’s Taxonomy of Significant Learning (2003), the course objectives include reading and analyzing texts,
as well as developing English communication skills. Thematic units, including migration, urban development, and the environment,
address current issues and are related to Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). By pairing academic and journalistic articles
with poetry by diverse authors, students have access to information from different perspectives. Many of the poems utilized in thecourse were written for digital spaces or shared on social media sites, and through writing their own poems, students have an
opportunity to convey their own thoughts and experiences related to current events. Teacher and student reflections suggest thatengaging with different forms of expression can provide learners with multiple points of view on complex social issues.

本稿では、現代の社会問題や詩を語学学習者に取り上げるための大学コースの開発について述べる。Fink の Taxonomy of
Significant Learning (2003)を用いて設計されたこのコースの目標は、テキストの読解と分析、そして英語でのコミュニケーシ
ョン能力の育成である。テーマ別ユニットでは、移民、都市開発、環境など、持続可能な開発目標（SDGs）に関連する時事問
題を取り上げる。学術論文やジャーナリスティックな記事と多様な作者の詩を組み合わせることで、生徒は異なる視点からの情報に触れることができる。このコースで使用された詩の多くは、デジタルスペース用に書かれたり、ソーシャルメディアサ
イトで共有されたりしており、生徒たちは自分で詩を書くことで、時事問題に関連する自分の考えや経験を伝える機会を得ている。教師と生徒の振り返りから、さまざまな表現形式を取り入れることで、複雑な社会問題に対する多角的な視点を学習者に提供できることが示唆された。

Using literature in the language classroom can offer
several advantages. Carter and Long (1991) outlined
three models of use for literature: the cultural model, thelanguage model, and the personal growth model. Whilesome educators may choose to focus on one of theseareas, many have opted for an integrated approach(Savvidou, 2004; Healy, 2010), using literature to foster
intercultural awareness, learn about the English
language, and discuss ideas from the text. While printed
forms of novels, short stories, and poems havetraditionally been used for these purposes in theclassroom, to address changing literacy skills andstudent interests (see Thompson and McIlnay, 2019),
the use of digital or multimodal forms has been gainingsome momentum. This may be due, in part, to overall
trends in publishing and reading (see Thaler, 2019), andto the desire to consume content online or throughstreaming services (e.g., websites, social media, song
lyrics, movies or shows) in another language. To readand listen to this content, students need to develop
language and literacy skills in the target language.
According to Warner and Dupuy (2017), “Given theubiquity of digital and new media communications …,
learners’ first encounter with new languages andcultures is increasingly often mediated through literacy
practices.”

The literary texts selected for classroom use should bemeaningful and relevant, as well as level appropriate,
and when considering both learner interest and theeducational context, it was determined that internet
poetry would likely be engaging for university students
due to language, content, and length. In terms of thecontext, internet poetry often deals with issues related
to global risks (e.g., climate change, migration, conflict),
so it is relevant to a course with social issues content.
Internet poetry can be defined simply as “… poems of
all sorts that have circulated widely on the internet”(Ardam, 2022). Using this definition, internet poetry can
include poems which were originally published in books
or other print media and then shared online, poems
published in online journals, or poems which have beenshared to social media platforms, such as Tumblr, X(formerly Twitter), Instagram, or TikTok.
In fact, poetry has been widely shared on social media
in response to a variety of current events and social
issues, with the following being just a few of thepoignant examples from 2022. After the Uvalde school
shooting in Texas, the first Youth Poet Laureate
Amanda Gorman (2022) posted her poem to Twitter (theplatform’s name at the time) which begins “Schools
scared to death. / The truth is, one education under
PanSIG Journal 2023

190
desks, / Stooped low from bullets …”. It is not just writers,
but also netizens worldwide who share poems via social
media. Ukrainian American poet Ilya Kaminsky’s 2013
poem “We lived happily during the war” went semi-viral
online after the Russian invasion of Ukraine in 2022
(Kois, 2022). These show the power of poetry to convey
emotions surrounding pivotal events in society.
Moreover, more people are reading or listening to poetry
online: according to the National Endowment for theArts’ 2022 Survey of Public Participation in the Arts,
22.4 million people in the United States read poetry in
the past year, with approximately 11.5 percent of adults
reading poetry on social media or listening to it on
podcasts or other audio recordings (Iyengar, 2023).
This juncture of digital literature and social issues
inspired the integration of internet poetry into theEnglish language classroom. While traditional literary
forms still have a role in language education, new formsof poetry are easily accessible and offer a different lensfor students to engage with language, culture, andissues, thereby fostering engagement and motivation.
This article explores the potential of specific poems from
Instagram and YouTube, emphasizing their role in acurriculum designed to create opportunities for
significant learning experiences.

The Taxonomy of Significant Learning
The social issues and poetry course described in thisarticle is a content and language integrated learning(CLIL) university course (see Coyle, Hood & Marsh,2010) while applying Fink’s Taxonomy of Significant
Learning. Unlike Bloom’s Taxonomy (see Anderson &Krathwohl, 2001) which is a hierarchical model with six
levels of cognition (remembering, understanding,applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating), theTaxonomy of Significant Learning is represented by acircle with six interacting and converging areas. These
are cognitive areas (knowledge, application, integration),
affective areas (human dimension, caring), and metacognition (learning how to learn), with significant
learning occurring at the nexus (Fink, 2003; see Figure1). To design a course for significant learning, it isnecessary to consider and then integrate situational
factors, learning goals, feedback and assessment, andteaching and learning activities.
Figure 1
The Interactive Nature of Significant Learning (Reprinted from Fink,
n.d., p. 6)

Situational factors
The course is offered within a university department,
and it is open to students enrolled in its English minor
program. The class size varies but usually has from 15
to 20 students with a high intermediate level of English
who are in their second year or higher of university
studies. The class is offered for the full academic year,
and students can take part one in the spring semesterand part two of in the fall semester, with each semester
consisting of fifteen 90-minute classes. Because of therelatively small class size, it is feasible to conduct small
group and whole class discussions, as well as individual
presentations.
The first iteration of the course was taught in the 2020
academic year, and because of the COVID-19
pandemic, classes have been conducted online, inperson, or some combination thereof, with the classformat shifting according to government and university
guidelines. During emergency remote teaching in
Spring 2020, the course was conducted asynchronously
through the learning management system, and thefollowing semester a percentage of classes were
offered synchronously through video conferencing
software, although most classes were still conductedasynchronously. Gradually, the students returned to theclassroom for face-to-face instruction, with somestudents continuing to attend online until the 2023
school year when in-person classes became the norm
again. These situational factors affected the course
design, especially the choice of reading texts, as there
was a desire to make them as accessible as possible
for students studying in changing learning
environments.

Learning goals
The overall course theme of social issues is guided byinstitutional expectations, and the specific course
objectives are to read and analyze texts on social issues(e.g., academic, journalistic, literary), improve speaking
skills (e.g., discussion, presentation), and demonstrateunderstanding of social issues (e.g., presentations,written assessments). Throughout the course, students
engaged in activities corresponding with Fink’s model:
the acquisition of “foundational knowledge” throughreading about social issues; the “application” ofknowledge through critical and creative thinking
activities; the “integration” of knowledge thoughconnecting information from various sources in apresentation; the “human dimension” by exploring theopinions of the self and others through discussion; and“caring” by cultivating feelings and interests throughout
the semester.
The course is divided into three thematic units which areeach five weeks in length. The unit topics vary slightly
and are revised annually according to student feedback
PanSIG Journal 2023

191
and relevance to current events, but urban development,
migration, and the environment have been consistently
included. These topics are also linked to the United
Nations Sustainable Development Goals (United
Nations, 2015). In the first three weeks of the unit cycle,
the course materials revolve around readings (newsarticles and poems), which are accompanied by
vocabulary exercises, comprehension questions, anddiscussion topics. The reading passages are primarily
from English news sources, with three journalistic
articles included in each unit, and at least one poem.
Regardless of text type, the academic word list andimportant topic vocabulary are included in the
vocabulary exercises. Furthermore, the readings arescaffolded with graphic organizers, visual aids, oradditional teacher and peer explanations to help
learners link their previous knowledge with new
information (Lang, 2016). Discussion questions aredesigned to engage higher order thinking skills,
specifically critical and creative thinking.

As previously mentioned, because of the changing classformat due to the global pandemic, providing students
with readings that were available online was animportant consideration as was the desire to assign
poems which were short and accessible. As a result,internet poetry complemented academic and journalistic
articles, and served as a basis for teaching and learning
activities. One feature of internet poetry is that it is often
multimodal (e.g., text, images, music) and therefore
encourages the development of modern literacy skills.
Multiliteracies (see New London Group, 1996) widens
the traditional definition of literacy, which was previously
restricted to the written word, to include new forms andways of using language that span people’s professional,
public, and private lives. This section focuses on theapplication of multiliteracies through classroom
activities related to multimodal poetry which is available
on social media sites.

Feedback and assessment procedures

Instapoetry: Poems on Instagram

Continuous assessment is used, and class participation
is based on the completion of homework and in-classtasks, especially contributing to small group discussions.
Throughout the semester, regular opportunities for selfmonitoring of groupwork skills (e.g., listening,
contributing, encouraging others, staying on task) areprovided (see Bean, 2001). Writing short reflections on
their experiences encourages metacognition or“learning how to learn”.

One engaging type of internet poetry is Instapoetry,
which is defined as “short, free verse poems that areoften paired with a symbolic sketch or shared on animage that represents the poem” (Gray, 2019). Literarytexts such as Instapoetry can be an effective way not
only to explore the issue of migration and exile which isrelated to SDG 10: Reduce Inequity, but also to build
learner intercultural competence (Eide, Skalle, &Gjesdel, 2022). The following examples of poems andclassroom activities are taken from a unit focusing on
immigration and refugee issues.

In addition, at the end of each unit, students take awritten quiz which includes both closed and open-ended
questions. The latter requires students to use thevocabulary in context to answer questions related tocourse content, with some of these being “forwardlooking assessment questions” (Fink, 2003); in otherwords, these questions ask students to apply
information to a future real-life context. For example, ina unit on migration, students have been asked toimagine themselves in working overseas in the future
and to predict what kinds of support they would need indaily life or to imagine themselves in a position to give
recommendations to the government on whether toaccept more refugees to the country.
At the end of the course, students undertake an analysis
of authentic materials based on one of the unit themes
and deliver a short presentation to the class. For thisproject, students choose a research topic and thenindependently choose and read articles to synthesize
for their presentation. For instance, student-chosen
topics related to migration ranged from Ukrainian
refugees, the foreign technical trainee program in Japan,
to the physical borders between the United States and
Mexico.

Teaching and learning activities

Rupi Kaur is one of the most well-known Instapoets, andwhen she was young, she moved from India to Canada,
so one theme of her poetry is immigration. Three of her
poems, which shed light on the emotions experienced
by immigrants, were used in class. Kaur’s poem
“immigrant” conveys the experience and isaccompanied by a line drawing of a boat. Two otherpoems on the topic do not have titles: one begins“leaving her country / was not easy for my mother …”
with a drawing of the ingredients for a meal pictured,and the another begins “perhaps we are all immigrants/ trading one home for another …” with a drawing ofpeople moving on the globe (Kaur, 2017). The poems
are read aloud by the teacher, and then the students
read the poems aloud again with a partner. After taking
some time to think about the poems, students discuss
ideas with a partner before asking questions to theteacher. As students understanding of the poem
develops, they discuss how it connects to what they
have learned in class about the unit theme of migration.
One common objection to using literature in theclassroom is its difficulty level (see Boldireff and Bober,2022); however, Instapoetry may be more
PanSIG Journal 2023

192
approachable for students because it is often short inlength and includes a visual artifact. Of a poetry class in
the United States, Alfano (2023) said, “Kaur taught mystudents that they were already poetry critics.” Thesame was true in this class: when students were asked
what they thought of pairing a poem and an image, they
were able to answer the question without hesitation.
Some students responded that it is easier to understandpoems which are accompanied by illustrations,especially those that refer to abstract emotions or
expressions. On the other hand, some students
responded that the illustration took away from thepleasure of imagining or interpreting the poem on an
individual basis.
As an extension to reading poems, students cancompose their own Instapoetry. For this activity,
students were asked to choose any social issue thatthey were passionate about, whether it was covered in
the class or not. One student said that they wanted totell others about poverty through a poem and picturesthat they had taken themselves during an overseas
volunteer trip. Another student said they would like towrite a poem about microaggressions experienced by
women in daily life. In both examples, students
connected their personal experience with social issues
and appealed to readers through their poems.

YouTube: Poetry videos
This section explores the use of YouTube as a medium
for poetry readings, enhancing students’ reading
experiences and promoting meaningful discussions.
Students are guided through the initial reading of thepoem, then they watch the corresponding video: thismultimodal approach not only cultivates language
comprehension
but
also
supports
readingcomprehension. Below are three examples of poetry
readings from YouTube that have been effectively
integrated into the course.
The first example is a poem "Allowables" by Nikki
Giovanni. It has been shared on social media in
response to incidents of police brutality because it
revolves around the killing of a harmless spider out offear. After reading the text, students watch a video of
Tabia Yapp reading the poem (Ours Poetica, 2020). In
class, students have mentioned that they think that thepoem also resonates with the societal concern ofbullying in Japan. Engaging students in criticalconversations related to these themes aligns with
Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) 16: Peace andJustice. Combining textual and auditory elements, thevideo enhances students’ overall comprehension of thepoem.
Maya Angelou's "Still I Rise" addresses issues of raceand gender, fostering discussions around SDG 5:
Gender Equality and SDG 10: Reduced Inequalities.

The poem has been presented in class using two
different videos. One features Angelou reading thepoem herself (Literature Today, 2014) and the othershows Serena Williams reading the poem accompanied
by video footage of her playing tennis (Berwouts, 2016).
While the former has garnered positive responses dueto the author's emotional expression, the latter's
effectiveness was tempered by students' lack offamiliarity with Serena Williams. This underscores theimportance of choosing materials that resonate withstudents' background knowledge.
The final example is a video of a poem titled "Asibuyele
kuyo imvelo: Let's go back to the Environment" (Poets
for the planet, 2021) by Sindiswa Zulu. In contrast to
Giovanni and Angelou, Zulu’s poem is not originally
written in English, but is translated from isiZulu one ofthe official languages of South Africa, and she pairs her
poem with music. The poem is about the environment,aligning with various SDG’s, including SDG 13: Climate
Action and SDG 3: Good Health and Well-being. The
poem was inspired by a collaboration between poetsand climate researchers for The UN Climate Change
Conference in Glasgow (COP26) called “Poets for thePlanet.” According to the Grantham Institute (2022),
many of the poems resulting from this project were “…
reflections on the exchange, or the emotions it broughtup.” This reflects the “caring” aspect of Fink’s Taxonomyof Significant Learning; additionally, it underscores the
dynamic interplay between science and art and thepotential of poetry to engage students in crossdisciplinary discussions.
As a class activity, students can create their own poetry
videos, thereby fostering creativity and collaborative
learning. These videos can be shared in class or
throughthelearning
management
system.
Incorporating poetry readings from YouTube harnesses
the power of multimedia to deepen language learners'
engagement with poetic texts, fostering critical
discussions and enabling them to view poetry as adynamic means of communication beyond borders.

Student and teacher reflections
To evaluate the course and its effectiveness, it isimportant to collect feedback from students throughvarious means and reflect on the teaching experience.
During a wrap-up task at the end of the course, students
are asked about their impressions of reading articles
and poems to understand social issues. In response,
some stated the articles were more effective for them tounderstand issues because statistics and graphs areaccurate and easy to verify. Students mentioned thatnews articles are generally easier for them tounderstand because of their familiarity with thegenre. On the other hand, some students replied that
poems allow readers to see various sides of issues, andby evoking feelings, people can develop a deeper
PanSIG Journal 2023

193
interest in these issues and be moved to take action
within their communities.

teaching would benefit those who are seeking to
implement a similar approach in the classroom.

Furthermore, at the end of the semester, students
informally discuss which specific readings andclassroom activities they found most useful, meaningful,and relevant. Although their responses vary according
to personal preferences and interests, in general,
students respond favorably to poems from Instagramand YouTube and find the combination of text andimages memorable. Having the opportunity to discuss
the readings in small groups and individually choose
topics for in-class presentations are also usually viewed
favorably by students because they are actively
involved in the learning process.

References

Based on informal in-class responses and ratingsreceived in course evaluations, adjustments will bemade for the next iteration of the course. Articles might
be updated with new information or scaffolded throughadditional means. Different poems might be trialed tosee if they are more accessible or relatable to students.
In the future, developing a questionnaire with closed
and open-ended questions to measure learnerperceptions of poems and comparing them over time
could lead to a more detailed understanding of theirexperience of the literary texts within the course
curriculum.
Another point to consider when evaluating the course is
the classroom environment. This includes looking at
student-teacher interaction and student-student
interaction to gauge the degree to which students feel
comfortable discussing ideas and opinions. Whenlistening to student discussions or reading written
assignments, for example, the expression of multiple
points of views is one way to ensure that students feel
comfortable expressing themselves. Former UnitedStates Poet Laureate, Joy Harjo said, “Poetry is an art
form … and can be interpreted however the person
experiencing it wants to understand it as.” (as cited in
Wilson, 2022). Students should be encouraged todevelop and support their own interpretations of poems
and opinions about social issues and how to approachthem.

Conclusion
This article has described an approach to teaching an
English language course based on both social issues
and poetry. The development of the course was guided
by the Taxonomy of Significant Learning (Fink, 2003).
Although the overall response to the course has been
positive, there are limitations to implementing such acourse. One is the amount of time required to findresources and develop teaching materials. Another isthe linguistic challenge of using authentic materials inthelanguagelearningclassroom.
Materials
development initiatives (commercial textbooks or open
educational resources) related to literature in language

Alfano, V. (2023). Viral verse: How Instapoets are
reinventing the art. The Lighthouse.
https://lighthouse.mq.edu.au/article/march2023/viral-verse-how-instapoets-are-reinventingthe-art
Anderson, L.W. & Krathwohl, D. (eds.) (2001). A
taxonomy for learning, teaching and assessing:A revision of Bloom’s educational objectives.
Longman.
Ardam, J. (2022). Avidly reads poetry. New York
University Press.
Bean, J. C. (2001). Engaging ideas: The professor’s
guide to integrating writing, critical thinking, andactive learning in the classroom. Jossey-Bass.
Berwouts, A. (2016, July 10). Serena Williams reads“Still I Rise”. [Video]. YouTube.
https://youtu.be/TZO08C5vL2A?si=yL8pvVAHx
w6GtRDv
Boldireff, A., & Bober, C. (2022). Reconsidering
poetry’s difficulty and value in English as asecond language and English as a foreign
language education: A systematic
review. Pedagogical Linguistics, 3(1), 57-83.
Carter, R., & Long, M. (1991). Teaching literature.
Longman.
Coyle, D., Hood, P. & Marsh, D. (2010). CLIL: Content
and language integrated learning. Cambridge
University Press.
Eide, L., Skalle, C., & Gjesdal, A.M. (2022).
Intercultural competence in the foreign language
classroom. Pedagogical applications of literary
PanSIG Journal 2023

194
texts on migration and exile. Scandinavian
Journal of Educational Research.

Kaur, R. (2017). The sun and her flowers. Andrews
McMeel Publishing.

https://doi.org/10.1080/00313831.2022.2042842
Kois, D. (2022, March 4). The poem is a warning.
Fink, D. (2003). A self-directed guide to designingcourses for significant learning. Jossey-Bass.

Slate.
https://slate.com/culture/2022/03/interview-ilyakaminsky-poet-ukraine.html

Fink, D. (n.d). What is “significant learning”?
https://www.wcu.edu/webfiles/pdfs/facultycenter_significantlearning.pdf

Lang, J. M. (2016). Small teaching: Everyday lessons
from the science of learning. Jossey-Bass.

Gorman, A. [@TheAmandaGorman]. (2022, May 25).

Literature Today – and Yesterday … (2014, June 10).

Schools scared to death. [Tweet.] Twitter.

“Still I Rise” by Maya Angelou (1987, Livehttps://twitter.com/TheAmandaGorman/status/15

performance). [Video]. YouTube.

29218037974732800?s=20

https://youtu.be/qviM_GnJbOM?si=wTByK9E8q
VsRQ0Sx

Grantham Institute. (2022, January 27). Reflections on
Earthsong: Science-inspired poetry at COP26.

New London Group. (1996). A pedagogy of

Climate & Environment at Imperial.

multiliteracies: Designing social futures. Harvard

https://granthaminstitute.com/2022/01/27/reflecti

Educational Review, 66. 60-92.

ons-on-earthsong-science-inspired-poetry-atcop26/

Ours Poetica. (2020, February 10). Tabia Yapp reads“Allowables”. [Video]. YouTube.

Gray, K. (2023, July 8). Using Instagram to teachpoetry. Edutopia.

https://youtu.be/xX65aKk5P5o?si=NNovIS84WUH5Ai-

https://www.edutopia.org/article/usinginstagram-teach-poetry

Poets for the planet. (2021, November 17). Asibuyele
kuyo imvelo: Let's go back to the environment

Healy, S. (2010). Literature in the EFL classroom:[Video]. YouTube.

From theory to practice. 京都産業大学論集. 人文

https://youtu.be/2AtueTc1VLQ?si=PZwp59SfIpv

科学系列 [Kyoto Sangyo University collection.

ofOHI

Series in Humanities], 42, 178-191.
https://ksu.repo.nii.ac.jp/record/1330/files/AHSU
SK_HS_42_178.pdf
Iyengar, S. (2023, April 6.) New survey reports size of
poetry’s audience—streaming included. National
Endowment for the Arts.
https://www.arts.gov/stories/blog/2023/newsurvey-reports-size-poetrys-audience-streamingincluded

Savvidou, C. (2004). An integrated approach toteaching literature in the EFL classroom. The
Internet TESL Journal. 10(12).
http://iteslj.org/Techniques/SavvidouLiterature.html
Thaler, E. (2019). Lit 21–Teaching Post-Millennial
Literature. In E. Thaler (Ed.), Lit 21: New Literary
Genres in the Language Classroom. (pp. 13-28).
Narr Francke Attempto Verlag GmbH+Co.

PanSIG Journal 2023

195
Thompson, R. and McIlnay, M. (2019). Nobody wants
to read anymore! Using a multimodal approachto make literature engaging. CLELE Journal.
7(1): 61-80.
United Nations. (2015). Transforming Our World: The
2030 Agenda for Sustainable
Development. Resolution Adopted by theGeneral Assembly on 25 September 2015,
A/RES/70/1.
https://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/generalassembly/docs/globalcom
pact/A_RES_70_1_E.pdf
Warner C. & Dupuy, B. (2018). Moving toward
multiliteracies in foreign language teaching: Past
and present perspectives ... and beyond.
Foreign Language Annals. 51:116–128.
https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12316
Wilson, U. (2022, February 3). Joy Harjo’s poetry
sparks discussions on environment. Wake
Forest University Old Gold & Black.
https://wfuogb.com/15058/features/joy-harjospoetry-sparks-discussions-on-environment/

PanSIG Journal 2023

196

Classroom Ideas for Teaching Circumlocution to False Beginners
David Shimamoto
National Institute of Technology, Niihama College
For language learners, trying to express oneself without the necessary vocabulary can be an anxiety-provoking experience. Whilelearners who are unaccustomed to speaking may often abandon their message in such an instance, more competent speakers
can adeptly use various communicative strategies to overcome gaps in their vocabulary. One such strategy is calledcircumlocution, in which a speaker attempts to describe, illustrate, or exemplify the properties of an unknown or forgotten lexical
item. This practice-oriented paper will detail a rationale behind teaching circumlocution, especially at the false beginner level and,most importantly, will propose some classroom ideas for introducing and practicing this skill. The activities and teaching techniquespresented are based on guidelines from the SLA literature, incorporating well-established pedagogical goals, such as
consciousness-raising, providing L2 models of strategy use, fluency development, and metacognitive strategy training.

言語学習者にとって、必要な語彙を持たずに自己表現しようとすることは、不安を煽る経験になりかねない。話すことに慣れていない学習者は、このような場合、しばしば言いたいことを放棄してしまうかもしれないが、より有能な話し手は、語彙の不足を克服するために様々なコミュニケーション戦略を巧みに使うことができる。そのようなストラテジーのひとつがcircumlocution と呼ばれるもので、話し手が未知の語彙や忘れてしまった語彙の特性を説明、又は例示しようとするものである。この実践志向の論文では、特に疑似初級レベルで circumlocution を教える根拠を説明し、最も重要なこととして、このコ
ミュニケーション戦略を導入し実践するための教室でのアイデアを提案する。提示される活動や教授法は、SLA 文献のガイド
ラインに基づいており、意識化指導、ストラテジー使用の L2 モデルの提供、流暢性の発達、メタ認知ストラテジーの訓練などの教授目標が組み込まれている。

In a recent class of high school English in Japan, I asked
a student why he wanted to visit Hokkaido. The student
responded by saying, “I want to try…,” but no words
followed. The student gazed downward and began togrow noticeably more anxious, as he was not able tocome up with the English word for “scallop.” While thisstudent was not able to circumlocute the missing word,a student with a higher level of strategic competence
may have been able to utter something like, “It’s in theocean. It’s in a shell. It’s white and soft.” This process ofdescribing, illustrating, or exemplifying the properties of
unknown or forgotten lexical item(s) is circumlocution.
This common classroom occurrence speaks strongly to
Canale and Swain’s (1980) notion of communicativecompetence, which has been a lens through which
researchers and practitioners have examined secondand foreign language output. Their model consists offour core competencies: grammatical competence,sociolinguistic competence, discourse competence,and strategic competence. The first and last of the fourare particularly relevant for word searches involving
circumlocution. Although it is typical for vocabulary andgrammar to take center stage in the beginning years of
traditional EFL instruction, what happens when gaps in

one’s lexical knowledge inevitably arise? This is wherestrategic competence plays a key role in determining
the success of communication. By attending to
breakdowns
incommunication
andapplying
appropriate solutions, learners can overcome
deficiencies in their grammatical competence.
This paper will highlight circumlocution as one particular
tool that comprises strategic competence. To begin, theimportance of teaching circumlocution will be discussed.
The next section will detail some guidelines that havebeen put forward regarding the teaching ofcommunication strategies (CSs). Finally, based onthese guidelines, a few classroom ideas for
implementing circumlocution instruction will besuggested.

Literature Review
Why Teach Circumlocution?
Circumlocution is one of many CSs that learners canuse to overcome obstacles in their interactions. Dörnyei(1995) groups these strategies into two main varieties.
One of the groups is what he refers to as achievement
strategies. Circumlocution falls into this category, along
PanSIG Journal 2023

197
with a handful of others, such as approximation, wordcoinage, use of non-linguistic means, code-switching,
and appealing for help. The second of the two groups isless desirable and, therefore, referred to as avoidance
strategies. These include message abandonment andtopic avoidance. A common tendency for novice
learners is to favor avoidance strategies whencontinuing to speak becomes overly challenging.
If, however, learners are able to capitalize more
frequently
onachievement
strategies
likecircumlocution, it affords several advantages forlanguage acquisition. First, from an interactionist
perspective, circumlocution is a way for learners toextend their participation in an interaction, providing
more opportunities for comprehensible input and forced
output (Scullen & Joudain, 2000). Circumlocution, also
being a result of joint and coordinated action by speaker
and addressee(s) (Fernandez Dobao, 2007), canfacilitate negotiation of meaning, which has been acentral theory in the SLA literature (Pica, 1996). From a
vocabulary learning point of view, circumlocution
presents a meaningful, self-constructed context inwhich a word is needed and searched for and thus
supplies a fertile learning environment for vocabularyacquisition to take place (Folse, 2004). Finally, a sociocognitive position argues that increased strategiccompetence relieves L2 learning anxiety and enables
more dynamic interaction to unfold during cooperative
learning (Bejarano et al., 1997).
It should be noted that not all proficiency levels may
benefit to the same degree from strategic instruction(Lam, 2010). Intermediate and advanced learners arelikely to be strategically competent enough to self-solve,
and true beginners may find it demanding to carry out
more complicated strategies. This brings us to a prime
candidate for explicit strategy instruction: the false
beginner. This level is characterized by learners who,
despite having years of language learning experience,struggle to produce even simple sentences of selfexpression. When interacting in their L2, these learners
have a baseline of language knowledge to perform
rudimentary circumlocution, for instance stringing
together simple lexical items and syntactic structures,
accompanied by sounds, gestures, and other nonlinguistic means. However, their lack of experienceinteracting in their L2 is reflected in their inability toinstinctively mobilize strategic resources when theirgrammatical competence proves to be insufficient. It isprecisely these learners that stand to gain the most fromcircumlocution instruction. Ultimately, maximizing thegrammatical competence these learners do possess by
elevating their awareness of and fluency in using
communication strategies is vital to their language
development.

Some Guidelines for Explicit CS Instruction
Research has suggested that explicit training in CSs
has a positive impact on the language use and task
performance of low-proficiency learners (Lam, 2010). If
so, how can effective strategy training be realized in thelanguage classroom? Dörnyei (1995; 63-64) proposes
five guidelines that apply to the teaching of
circumlocution:
1. Raising learner awareness about the nature andcommunicative potential of CSs
2. Encouraging students to be willing to take risks
and use CSs
3. Providing L2 models of CSs
4. Teaching CSs directly
5. Providing opportunities for practice in strategy
use
A few explications are in order. Corroborating the firstguideline, Nakatani (2005) urges for metacognitive
strategy training when teaching CSs. If learners are able
to
form
a
connection
betweensuccessfulcommunication and their use of CSs, it will encouragethem to continue using these strategies as part of theircommunicative repertoire. Therefore, it is critical to not
only teach, how, when, and why to use circumlocution,
but also to set aside time for learners to self-evaluate
their performance as it pertains to repairing
communication
breakdowns.
Second,Dörnyeiemphasizes the need to view CSs as fully functional
devices only once their use has reached automatization.
Thus, a vital phase of circumlocution training is
proceduralizing the use of circumlocution so it can be
fluently employed outside the context of controlled skill
practice.
Heeding these suggestions, the following section will
detail some tasks and teaching techniques forcircumlocution.

Classroom Ideas
The author implemented the following teaching
techniques in 3rd-year and 5th-year classes at a technicalcollege in Japan. The lessons for both courses wereheavily oral communication based, and often centeredon a task-based language teaching approach that
aimed to develop students’ interactional competence.
The following ideas, however, can be adjusted to meetthe needs and interests of a wide range of learners.

Explaining the Importance of Circumlocution
This first task incorporates the first three guidelines that
Dörnyei outlines: building awareness of circumlocution,encouraging students to take risks, and providing L2
PanSIG Journal 2023

198
models of circumlocution. The first issue is how to makelearners conscious of the practicality of circumlocution
in language learning. To achieve this, it is helpful toshow students examples of other English learners
making use of circumlocution while highlighting theoutcomes of their interactions. In my classes, I show
students video clips of Tetsuro Degawa (Komeo, 2021),
a Japanese comedian famous for his extremely low
grammatical competence in English. Mr. Degawa is an
ideal model because he uses CSs unabashedly toaccomplish the communicative missions that his
producers assign to him. In one example, he is at the
National Space Museum in Washington D.C. and istasked with finding the location where he can try space
food. Although he does not know how to say “space,”
Mr. Degawa still communicates his intent throughcircumlocution. He uses similar words, such as “up” and“sky,” accompanied by gestures and changes in gaze.
He even attempts to associate “space” by singing thetheme song of the movie “E.T.” In class, I instruct
students to identify the strategies that Mr. Degawa uses
to achieve successful communication. It is also helpful
to show these clips next to examples of other speakers
who fail to communicate because they elect to use
abandonment strategies rather than achievement
strategies.
Mr. Degawa is not only a fitting model for circumlocution,
but his name can also serve as a verbal cue to replace
the lengthy and forgettable term, “circumlocution.”
Instructing students to “circumlocute” may not registerwith many students. On the other hand, telling students
to use “Degawa skills” is more likely to bring about its
intended effect. A notable hurdle in teachingcircumlocution is that learners can circumlocute in acontrolled task, but once the task focus shifts from using
CSs to one more meaning-based, students’ wherewithal
to use circumlocution suddenly declines. For this reason,quickly reminding learners to use circumlocution in a
way that will not distract from the task at hand isparamount to any training regimen. Another advantage
of using the term “Degawa skills” is that it canconveniently pack meaning that “circumlocution” cannot.
“Degawa skills,” of course, is a cue to circumlocute
unknown words but, if introduced appropriately, canalso remind learners of the risk-taking mindset that isneeded to communicate in an L2. It may be easy forstudents who lack oral communication experience toview circumlocution as an undesirable, desperatemeans of interaction. Thus, a reminder that CSs are
critical for interaction should be regularly present.

Practicing Circumlocution
Before circumlocution practice can get underway, it isnecessary to think about the linguistic building blocks
students will need to verbalize their circumlocutions.
Simple syntactic structures should be taught in tandemwith the CS itself to ensure a more efficient delivery. An
example would be a sentence with a main clause todefine a general property of the searched-for word,
followed by a relative clause to describe a more detailed
characteristic. When circumlocuting “scallop,” forinstance, students can be trained to say something like,“It is a seafood that comes from a shell.” For students
who struggle to fluently employ these grammaticalstructures, it may be necessary to provide some
supplementary materials for them to reference during
the activities introduced below.

Describing Pictures
Once students have reviewed the necessary underlying
syntactic structure, instruction can move into thepracticing stage. Three activities will be introduced forthis. The first task is called “Describing Pictures.” Itbegins by separating students into small groups. The
teacher distributes a card containing four pictures to theleader of the group. The card may have, for instance, apicture of a hot air balloon, tongs, a thief, and a dragon.
The leader then attempts to circumlocute the first
picture he/she sees on the card. As the leader
circumlocutes, the other students should be
encouraged to offer guesses and ask questions toclarify any misunderstandings. This is an essential partof the task, as it emphasizes to students thatcircumlocution is not strictly a skill in an individual’s
possession, but it is something that is jointly managed
and interactionally achieved. Nonetheless, leaders
should be instructed to continue circumlocuting until
they have completed all four pictures on the card. A newleader for each group is then selected and the processrepeats. The activity ends once each student in thegroup has had a chance to be the leader. This activity,
and those to follow, can be slightly altered to target
fluency development by imposing a time restriction.

Heads Up
Another iteration of the same task concept is a gamecalled “Heads Up”. In this activity, the teacher
distributes a set of four cards to each group. Each card
has a word written on it. For example, the set may
include cards with the words “DAISO,” “belt,” “penguin,”and “fork.” Words that are familiar to all students in thegroup should be carefully selected in advance. One
student (the cardholder) holds the top card in the set tohis/her forehead so that it can be seen by the rest of thegroup but not by the cardholder. The other students
then work together to circumlocute the pictures they seeon the card. Then, the cardholder displays the next card,and the process repeats until students havecircumlocted all of the cards in the set. The task
concludes once each student in the group has had achance to be the cardholder. One notable difference
between this activity and “Describing Pictures” is thelevel of difficulty. Because “Heads Up” allows students
PanSIG Journal 2023

199
to work as a team to circumlocute, it may be moresuitable for less confident learners or as a precursor to“Describing Pictures”.

Telling Stories
The two previously introduced tasks have focused on
helping students circumlocute for single lexical items.
However, students may elect avoidance strategies not
because of one unknown vocabulary word, but a wholephrase, sentence, or idea that is difficult to express. In
this case, students would benefit from circumlocution
practice that targets longer utterances. By replacing theindividual words with whole sentences, the previous
activity can accomplish such a purpose. Another activity
is called “Telling Stories.” Students are divided into pairs.
One main student is selected to sit with his/her backfacing the video monitor at the front of the classroom.
The monitor shows a short story in Japanese. The otherstudent must circumlocute the story until the main
student can grasp its overall meaning. After this,another short story is shown, and the process repeats
for several stories. The students then switch roles, anda new set of stories are successively displayed on thescreen.
Of course, the order and the content of the stories canbe adjusted according to the particular needs of thestudents. It is highly recommended to order the stories
so that they gradually increase in length and complexity.
In this way, less confident students can slowly build up
their ability to circumlocute longer messages.
Regarding content, familiar stories (from popular
movies, TV shows, books, etc.) may be suitable, at least
initially, for younger and/or less proficient students.
Otherwise, stories that are unpredictable and(somewhat) unrealistic are a fun challenge because
students are less dependent on their schemata when
deciphering the meaning of the circumlocuted parts ofthe stories. Here is an example of a story: A brother getsannoyed with his sister because she always leaves
caps half open on containers around the house. One
day, the brother shakes the salad dressing bottle. The
cap flies off and dressing splatters into his eye. He goesto the hospital, and the doctor tells him that he has towear an eye patch because he has an eye infection. The
brother is upset only to realize that next week is
Halloween, so he can dress as a pirate.

Modeling Circumlocution for Students
One final comment is needed regarding the practicing
stage of circumlocution training. While students should
be given ample opportunity for practice, the importanceof consistently providing students with models of
circumlocution use should not be overlooked. Of course,
this can happen by way of videos and other types of
media as previously suggested; however, this can also
be achieved by teachers themselves. As Cervantes andRodríguez (2012) urge, language teachers too often do
not use the strategies they preach as models forstudents. Although circumlocuting for already-known
words may not be a teacher’s first instinct, such input
becomes a constant reminder of how the teacher
expects learners to practice using their strategiccompetence. These models can also be easily
embedded within the flow of any teacher-fronted talk.

Metacognitive Strategy Training
As previously alluded to, when novice learners firstlearn to use CSs, it can be a struggle for them to apply
their newly acquired skills to meaning-based tasks andreal-world communication. To facilitate this, it isbeneficial to have students analyze and reflect on theirown classroom interactions. Students can be asked torecord their interactions with classmates and selfassess the types of communication problems that
occurred, along with how they attempted to deal withthese issues. Students who were not able to resolve
their issues should be encouraged to think about how
they might have been able to address thosecircumstances differently. This is a pivotal final stage inthe training cycle because it is an opportunity forlearners to form a connection between successfulcommunication and the strategies they use. This kind ofrealization may spur students into using the samecommunication strategies in their future interactions.
As it relates to the practical concerns of this reflectiontask, one student in a group/pair can use theirsmartphone to record any classroom task. Alternatively,teachers can provide voice recorders. To begin, it may
be helpful for students to work together to analyze
instances of communication breakdowns. Oncestudents learn how to identify these occurrences, thistask can be assigned outside of class, and may even be
extrapolated as part of a larger project wherein students
longitudinally record their interactions and self-asses
how their communication strategies have evolved.

Conclusion
The teaching suggestions in this paper have been
inspired by the author’s own experiences teaching
novice learners. Seeing learners who try to express
themselves but give up is frustrating for both educatorsand learners themselves. While educators understandthat a shortage of vocabulary can be compensated forthrough various strategic means, novice learners too
often see these very same situations as primarily a needto acquire more vocabulary. This gap in understanding
how successful communication can be achieved limits
the language practice opportunities that learners would
otherwise be able to create for themselves. The
activities and techniques presented in this paper
attempt to bridge this gap by empowering learners to

PanSIG Journal 2023

200
become more self-sufficient in tackling obstacles thatcome in the way of their self-expression.

References

Lam, W. Y. (2010). Implementing communication
strategy instruction in the ESL oral classroom:
What do low-proficiency learners tell us?. TESLCanada Journal, 27(2), 11-30.

Bejarano, Y., Levine, T., Olshtain, E., & Steiner, J.

https://doi.org/10.18806/tesl.v27i2.1056(1997). The skilled use of interaction strategies:
Creating a framework for improved small-group

Nakatani, Y. (2005), The effects of awareness-raisingcommunicative interaction in the language

training on oral communication strategy use.

classroom. System, 25(2), 203-214.

The Modern Language Journal, 89, 76-91.

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0346-251X(97)00009-2

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.00267902.2005.00266.x

Canale, M., & Swain, M. (1980). Theoretical Bases ofCommunicative Approaches to Second

Pica, T. (1996). Second language learning through

Language Teaching and Testing. Appliedinteraction: Multiple perspectives. Working

Linguistics, 1, 1-47.

Papers in Educational Linguistics, 12(1), 1-22.

http://dx.doi.org/10.1093/applin/I.1.1
Scullen, M. E., & Jourdian, S. (2000). The effect of
Cervantes, C. A., & Rodríguez, R. R. (2012). The use

explicit training on successful circumlocution: Aof communication strategies in the beginner EFL

classroom study. In J. Lee & A. Valdman (Eds.),

classroom. Gist Education and Learning

Form and meaning: Multiple perspectives (pp.

Research Journal, 6, 111-128.

231-253). Boston, MA: Heinle.

Dörnyei, Z. (1995). On the Teachability ofCommunication Strategies. TESOL
Quarterly, 29(1), 55–85.
https://doi.org/10.2307/3587805
Fernández Dobao, A. (2007). The use of
circumlocution strategies in foreign language
interaction: A collaborative creation of meaning
process. Proceedings of the 30th International
AEDEAN Conference.
Folse, K. (2004). Vocabulary myths: Applying second
language research to classroom teaching. Ann
Arbor: University of Michigan Press.
https://doi.org/10.3998/mpub.23925[Komeo]. (2021, August 8). Degawa ingurishu
omoshiro [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=y_O8v5PLz
Ug&list=PL1uHGpZOHxDAAVexvDCcoCPnIcA
CoteZSPanSIG Journal 2023

201

Investigating Homeroom Teacher Influence on Student Self-Efficacy inElementary Schools
Michael Andrew Kuziw
Jin-ai University
Homeroom teachers (HRTs) are a contributing factor in students’ ability to achieve self-efficacy, where the student believes thathe or she can achieve a goal. Since HRTs play such a pivotal role in the classroom, their expertise should not go unnoticed,
despite the 2020 MEXT reform to mandate English as a foreign language (EFL) a compulsory subject in elementary schools for
fifth and six graders. It is important to gain a full understanding of the impact that HRTs have on students as they learn English intheir formative years, and what role they can play in the future of EFL education at the elementary school level. This qualitative
research study implements the research proposal of achieving student self-efficacy by HRTs within Japanese elementary school
EFL classrooms (Kuziw, 2022).

担任の先生（HRT）は、子どもが「自分は目標を達成できる」という自己効力感を獲得するための一因である。2020 年の文部
科学省改革により、小学校 5・6 年生で英語が必修化されるにもかかわらず、HRT は教室で極めて重要な役割を担っている。
HRT が児童の形成期にどのような影響を与えるのか、また、今後の小学校 EFL 教育において HRT がどのような役割を果たすことができるのか、HRT の専門性を十分に理解することが重要である。この質的研究は、日本の小学校 EFL 教室におけるHRT による子どもの自己効力感の達成という研究提案を実践するものである（Kuziw, 2022）。

As a response to rapid globalization, the Ministry of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology(MEXT) (2014) has mandated that English be taught asa subject for all fifth and sixth grade students acrossJapan which started in April 2020. Kuziw (2022)
proposed a qualitative phenomenological study toassess the effects on students’ self-efficacy in the
English classroom where homeroom teachers (HRTshenceforth) are teaching the subject area. The proposal
focused specifically on HRTs at the elementary schoollevel that do not have any formal qualifications or
licensure in teaching English. This study is theimplementation of that proposal.
MEXT (2014) states that, “schools should verify andadopt an evaluation method, etc. which covers various
aspects including students' motivation and attitude foractive learning”, achieved by focusing on students’interests,
motivation,
andattitudetowards
communication equitably through an egalitarian
approach. From the impetus of English language
activities in elementary schools in the 1990s, theresponsibility of conducting effective classroom lessons
starting from the third grade was placed on the HRTs.
Even to this day, the effectiveness of HRT-led
classrooms, as it applies to MEXT’s outline seems toindicate a complicated experience among those HRTs
(Butler, 2007; Kambaru, 2016). However, HRTs are

advocates to help students align one’s learning towards
their goals. Self-efficacy is at the focal point of thispotential, which is determined by an individual’s
motivation. Understanding the ways self-efficacy andmotivation are built within the classroom creates a
dynamic which promotes the current and future successof EFL.
The aim of this study is summarized through threeresearch questions stated below. These questions are
based on the assumptions that the HRT is a current
elementary school teacher, without an English-teaching
license, with one or more years of experience teaching
English to students in or throughout grades three to six.
The following research questions were explored:
Q1.What role does the HRT play in supporting students’
overall self-efficacy when teaching English?
Q2. To what extent can HRTs support students inbuilding their self-efficacy?
Q3. What benefits does an HRT have in teaching their
homeroom students English?

PanSIG Journal 2023

202

Literature Review
Teacher Self-efficacy and Attitudes
The theoretical framework underlying teacher selfefficacy is Bandura’s (1993) cognitive theory, which
describes that individuals are viewed as agents ofchange who both influence and are influenced by thecontexts in which they operate. Self-efficacy, he states,“is people’s beliefs about their capabilities to exercise
control over their own level of functioning and over
events that affect their lives” (p.118). In a quantitative
study exploring teacher motivation at a Japanese
university, Tsutsumi (2014) found that five factors,
including stress, restricted autonomy, insufficient selfefficacy, lack of intellectual challenges and inadequate
career structure appear to affect teacher motivation. By
recognizing these factors, instructors can be madeaware of their proclivities towards their own students’motivation, attitudes, and skill levels, suggesting aninterrelationship present between teacher and student
motivation (p.125).

Motivation in EFL
In Japan, “motivated learning behaviour [in EFL] is
considered to be a crucial factor in promoting learnerautonomy” (Ueki & Takeuchi, 2013, p.249) which likens
Tsutumi’s (2014) research to teacher motivation.
Furthermore, Zoltan Dörnyei, a prominent expert in thefield of motivation in foreign language studies suggests,“self-regulatory strategies directly influence motivation,
as they both concern the antecedents of increased
learner achievement” (Dörnyei & Skehan, 2003, p.612).
Meanwhile, researchers Madrid et al. (1993) concluded
that, “attitudes and motivation are the most important
determinant factors in the learning or acquisition of
second languages” (p.19). To understand the main
sources of motivation in EFL, the researchers asked
various cohorts to rank in order of influence six different
factors and found that the youngest cohort rated“academic training of their EFL teacher” as very
important. In a study titled “Research and Study on
Learning Motivation”, conducted by the National
Institute of Educational Policy Research (as cited in
MEXT, 2002), it was revealed that children tend toincrease their motivation when they better understoodclasses, felt them interesting, and grew concerned
about their future career.

Metacognitive AwarenessWerner and Kobayashi (2015) conducted a study which
revealed that teachers in a Tokyo district elementary
school were giving students an opportunity to “learn
how to learn” (p.402) when it came to studying EFL.
“[Teachers] emphasized the fact that English is anacademic subject, and while learning can be fun, it isalso a serious part of the day” (p.404), which somestudents described as the reason for their added
motivation towards EFL. Through a qualitative analysis
based on the grounded theory approach, theresearchers were able to collect data, “via observation
notes and interview transcripts through the year [which]where categorized and coded according to an emergent
framework” (p.404). Saito et al. (2015) determined thatstudents should be made aware of specific behavioural
objectives, employing models such as the Common
European Framework of Reference for Language(CEFR) to determine which skills have been individuallyachieved based on pre-prescribed objective needs.
Students who are invested in their individual
development have greater self-efficacy and thus greater
motivation in their effort to learn English.

Learning Environment and EFL Training
The learning environment considers the relationshipteachers have with their students. Gorsuch (2000)
argues that certain characteristics brought upon by the
HRT have an influence on Japanese learners including
their learning environment, which could inhibit effective
learning. One of the methods of assuring quality EFL
programming, Hosoki (2010) suggests, is through the“upgrading of the teaching abilities of English language
teachers” (p.211). Reducing anxiety in teaching aforeign language appears to be a significant outcome
achieved through training, according to Machida (2016,p.44). However, teaching EFL pedagogy throughprofessional development is determined by the local
governments, which cannot be guaranteed on aperiodic basis. Thus, teachers cannot rely on frequent
training and instead manage their language classrooms
themselves, which is not an ideal situation.
To date, there is no regulatory standard on preparing
elementary school pre-service or in-service teachers toteach EFL, leaving many underqualified. Thus, as
previously mentioned, since EFL has become a subject
area for 5th and 6th graders, some local governments
have begun placing licensed junior high school English
teachers into elementary schools.

Limitations of Literature Review
Studies which specifically look at the perspectives of the
HRTs and their propensity to promote student selfefficacy in English as a subject are limited. Machida(2016) highlights HRTs’ potential reluctance and anxiety
towards EFL in the classroom, however, the study
overlooks the realistic efforts taken on by HRTs. This isfurther characterized by the lack of understanding
regarding classroom strategies that have beensuccessful, and which can be developed to increase
students’ self-efficacy.
Also, research in the understanding of teacher selfefficacy as it applies to students’ own self-efficacy in the
EFL elementary classroom is also lacking. While
PanSIG Journal 2023

203
teacher self-efficacy has been researched at thesecondary and post-secondary school levels (Tsutsumi,
2014; Henry & Thorsen, 2018), it is not clear how
teachers perceive themselves and their ability to
conduct effective lessons at the elementary level.

Methods
Data Collection and Procedures
The primary source of data was collected using
investigative
questionnaires
whichparticipants
completed through an online form using Microsoft
Forms. To access the questionnaire, potential
participants received a personalized letter including a
QR code. The entirety of the questionnaire wasconducted online, accessed only through this QR code.
This method also secures proper data collection, which
was compiled neatly and accurately, preventing privacy
issues and any loss of data.
Participants were required to answer two sets ofstatements using a Likert-scale. The first set ofstatements focused on the teacher’s own capacity toinstill self-efficacy among students, while the second setof statements looked at self-efficacy of the students
from the viewpoint of the teacher. A third set ofstatements were optional open-ended questions giving
participants an opportunity to freely express their
feelings about their experience teaching EFL to theirown students. This was followed by a choice to becontacted directly for in-depth interviews and classroom
observation.
As mentioned above, participants had the option tohave their classrooms observed to gain insight into theclassroom environment during English lessons and tocompare the HRTs’ answers in the questionnaire to theactual teaching situation. An observer-as-participant
approach took place, where the participants know the
research goals of the observer, who plays a neutral role
throughout the observation. An interpretive approach
was used where, “knowledge takes the form of
explanations of how others interpret and make sense of
their day-to-day life and interactions” (Edwards &Holland, 2013, p.16). As a supplement to the classroom
observation, consented interviews with the participants
themselves were conducted (Tilley, 2016, p.54),
clarifying the participants’ thoughts, feelings, actions
and attitudes towards both teacher and student selfefficacy. Given that the context is cross-cultural, special
consideration was taken to understand whether, “theknowledge and skills to conduct…research ininternational and/or cross-cultural contexts [exits]
before deciding to do so” (Tilley, 2016, p.53). Thismeans that the observer had to be sensitive to culturaldifferences, including language. Participants could
choose whether to answer questions or take part in aninterview in either English or Japanese.

Participant Recruitment
The sampling strategy used to recruit participants
included purposive and snowball sampling methods(Kuziw, 2022). The pool of participants includes at least
10 in-service HRTs teaching English as a subject totheir homeroom students, and must have had at least
one year of experience teaching EFL. While thecurriculum and frequency of lessons differs between
third and four grades and fifth and sixth grades, thelatter being compulsory, the scope of the participants is
not limited to only one grade. One potential barrier was
to determine exactly which teachers are both HRTs andteach English to their classroom students.
The local municipal board of education, which overseas
English education at the elementary school level, wasinformed of the study to ensure teacher cooperation
across all schools. Per their request, and with the helpof elementary school assistant language teachers(ALTs) 20 schools were contacted to identify potential
participants. Of the pool of suitable candidates identified,more than the expected 10 participants was achieved(n=19). Two participants, both working at the sameschool, chose the option to open their classrooms toobservation and participate in a post-observationinterview.
Informed consent was acquired from everyone after
being fully informed of the research process and datacollection through a Japanese explanation of the study(Tilley, 2016, p.82). It is important to note thatparticipation was completely voluntary, which predicts alow harm risk level (p.82). Given that the study takes
place in a non-English speaking environment, materials
were provided in both English and Japanese, to ensure
clear information and to avoid any potential
misunderstandings (p.82).

Data Analysis
Data from question sets one and two were collectedfrom the online questionnaires and divided by question
and results from the Likert scale. Analyzing responses
collectively was the chosen method used to determine
how relatively strong the respondents felt about eachquestion. Each question was then analyzed separately
with participants’ names concealed, guaranteeing
anonymity to their responses on other questions. Given
the number of responses received, this paper does notinclude the optional open-ended questions.

Results
Figure 1 shows that 13 teachers (68%) perceived
themselves as able to create strong bonds with theirstudents. Without having to compare HRTs’ bond withstudents in other subjects, the general disposition of theteacher and their relationship with students, it is evident
that those surveyed had positive experiences in the EFL
PanSIG Journal 2023

204classroom. This supports Bandura’s (1993) suggestionthat individuals, in this case, the HRTs, are positive
agents of change.
Figure 1
HRT Ability to Create a Bond with Students in English Class

Through the classroom observation, it became evident
that even though an HRTs may lack a high English levelproficiency, speaking (either L1 or L2) can create abond with students. Some examples of how this wasachieved included students’ ability to follow the HRT’s
instructions, general interaction with the teacher,making use of their common L1 (Japanese) whennecessary and recognizing that the teacher is also an
active participant in the lesson.
Figure 2 indicates that 17 teachers (90%) want to learn
and speak English to better communicate with students
despite already indicating strong bonds between
students and teacher. This suggests that the HRTs
have a vested interest in bettering themselves for the
benefit of their students by better preparing for EFL
lessons. By being able to learn and speak English
themselves, teachers can perceive their ability to
conduct EFL lessons more adequately. As output
increases among students, teachers must be prepared
to not only interact with students as they would in othersubject areas, but expect to communicate their thoughts
to one another. This is a positive indication that teachers
believe interactive communication between student andteacher is vital.
Figure 2
HRT Initiative to Communicate with Students in English

At the same time, as shown in Figure 3, 63% (n=12) ofteachers perceive that students also enjoy interactingwith their teacher when using English. Upon further
inquiry, the use of English in these cases was not limited
to the English used during EFL lessons, but rather
holistically throughout the day. This suggests thatstudents are not bothered by the ability of their teacher(a non-licensed English teacher) and are simply using
English without hesitation in an enjoyable way. As aresult of the interactions with their students, HRTs areable to build their own self-efficacy towards English,
recognizing Tsutsumi’s (2014) elements of teacherstudent motivation.
By conducting post-questionnaire observations of the
EFL classroom, it was evident that HRTs created apositive and encouraging atmosphere to speak English.
While teachers followed materials created by MEXT,
supplementary activities were created, catering tostudents’ interest and needs. Part of the hidden
curriculum here was that these activities were essential
for students to communicate using English.
Furthermore, evidence of praise in English was offered
to students post-activity, answering questions or doing
short presentations. English was overwhelmingly the
expected method of communication during EFL lessons.
Figure 3
Positive Student Interaction with HRTs in English

Figure 4 shows that 17 HRTs (90%) encourage
students to use English when they chose to do so. This
attitude leads to suggest that HRTs are aware of the
impact they have on their students’ English learning
abilities, the output they show in class and the safe
environment of the classroom to study English. Simply
knowing these facts is enough to suggest that teachers
are a positive motivational factor for their students,
creating an environment where students can receive theappropriate education and are meeting the standards
and expectations set forth by the school and by MEXT
(2014) despite not having licensure to teach English as
a subject.

PanSIG Journal 2023

205
Figure 4
HRT Agreement with English Usage for Expression

Discussion
Of the data sample collected through the questionnaire,
four distinct data points were chosen to be analyzed: (1)HRT ability to create a bond with students in English
class; (2) HRT initiative to communicate with students
in English; (3) Positive student interaction with HRTs in
English; and (4) HRT agreement with English usage forexpression. Based on the results of the data gathered,
HRTs conduct lessons that aim to achieve self-efficacy
among students. Furthermore, the results show that the
HRT plays a positive role in supporting students’ overall
self-efficacy when teaching English, acting as agents ofchange, as related to Bandura’s (1993) cognitive theory.
Since motivation is a key factor in gaining self-efficacy,
it supports the findings by MEXT (2002), that children
tend to increase their motivation when they better
understood classes and felt them interesting. This isbeing achieved through a variety of teaching strategies
which were noted during classroom observations andpost-observation interviews.

Implications
The results of this study can support Municipal Boardsof Education to assign responsibilities of teaching
English to HRTs in grades three through six knowingthat positive self-efficacy is leading to motivational
outcomes in the classroom. Currently, HRTs acrossJapan are responsible for conducting their own English
lessons for their students and while there are further
contributing factors that can improve the outcomes of
EFL at elementary school, the capabilities of HRTs asEnglish teachers are justifiable.

Study Limitations
The process of data collection and participant
recruitment highlighted certain challenges, including a
reluctance on the part of the Board of Education toprovide detailed information about teachers’ teachingbackgrounds. This presented a potential bias and wasa notable constraint of the study. Alternativeinterpretations of these challenges exist, but these were
not within the study’s scope. Instead, a more targeted

approach was adopted, which entailed contacting
schools directly to recruit participants. However, thisapproach was considerably time-intensive and required
substantial effort, which may be a consideration for
future research replication or design.
As issue emerged during the questionnaire phase due
to a lack of explicit criteria in the participant recruitment
information, leading to an inadvertent inclusion of aqualified English teacher in the sample intended
exclusively for HRTs without an English-teaching
license. This occurrence highlighted a potential
oversight in the recruitment process, raising questions
about the specificity of the sample. It is therefore,
unclear how many participants outside the targeted
demographic may have been included in the study.
While this does not necessarily invalidate the findings,
it introduces a level of uncertainly that must be
considered when interpreting the results. Future
research should incorporate more stringent verification
measures to ensure the sample strictly adheres to thedefined participant criteria.
Finally, while the focus of the study was to gain insights
in the promotion of self-efficacy among students, theimpact by HRTs qualified to teach EFL should not be
undervalued. This is especially true of qualified HRTs
who teach their own classroom students, which as
mentioned above is sometimes the case. Their
effectiveness compared to a non-licensed HRT becameout of scope for this study. While the number of qualified
English HRTs at the elementary school level ischanging year by year, the information is still limited.

Future Research
Based on the results of this study, a comparative study
promoting self-efficacy in elementary school students
by both qualified and unqualified HRTs would be aunique and enlightening study, especially when othersubjects such as math, physical education, music,
among others are already being taught by qualified
teachers. By conducting a comparative study tomeasure the achieved self-efficacy among students
would indicate a trend that could potentially besignificant and be applied to the management of English
as a subject in elementary schools.
Teachers’ reluctance to be observed and interviewed(in-person) should be strongly considered when
conducting future studies related to the role of HRTs inthe classroom. To mitigate this issue, more time shouldbe allotted to become more familiar with the HRTs andcreate a strong bond with them, which may require asignificant amount of time. However, if time is of theessence and strong bonds cannot be created, thisshould be better reflected in the questionnaire (SeeAppendix) itself, knowing that the HRTs will be hesitant

PanSIG Journal 2023

206
to allow access to the classroom or to being
interviewed.

Conclusion
Achieving self-efficacy among students at theelementary school level is not yet well understood. Thisis further compounded by the lack of studies looking at
the attainment of self-efficacy in English as a subject
among elementary school teachers. For this reason,
this study was conceived with the hope to enlighten
researchers and in-service teachers of the current state
and the potentials of unlicensed HRTs teaching English.
This investigation was conducted with Bandura’s
cognitive theory (1993) at its roots, suggesting thatchange can occur despite any formal EFL training on
the part of the HRTs.
Based on the results of the study, HRTs conduct
lessons that aim to achieve self-efficacy among
students, which is connected to the teacher-student
bonds created in the classroom, a willingness on thepart of the HRT to learn English, positive teacherstudent interaction, and building an environment where
using English is encouraged. It can be stated withconfidence that research questions 1, 2 and 3 havebeen explored and are reasonably justified. The resultsof this study can be used by Municipal Boards ofEducation to assign English teaching responsibilities to
HRTs. HRTs across Japan are already being given this
responsibility and while other contributing factors that
can improve the outcomes of EFL at elementary school
should be considered, the current HRTs conducting
their own English lessons is commendable. Moving
forward, it is suggested that further studies be
conducted to include a broader analysis and investigate
the factors that allow HRTs to achieve their goals in the
EFL classroom.

Dörnyei, Z., & Skehan, P. (2003). Individual
differences in second language learning. In
Doughty, C.J., & Long, M.H. (Eds.), The
Handbook of Second Language Acquisition(pp.589-630). Oxford, UK: Blackwell PublishingLtd.
Edwards, R., & Holland, J. (2013). What is Qualitative
Interviewing? London: Bloomsbury.
Gorsuch, G.J. (2000). EFL educational policies andeducational cultures: Influence on teachers’
approval of communicative activities. TESOL
Quarterly, 34(4), 675-710.
Henry, A. & Thorsen, C. (2018). Teacher-student
relationships and L2 motivation. The Modern
Language Journal, 102(1), 218-241.
Hosoki, Y. (2010). English language education in
Japan: Transitions and challenges. Kyushu
International University International Studies
Proceedings, 6(1,2), 199-215.
Kambaru, A. (2016). Japanese elementary school
teachers’ perceptions about English teaching.
The Tsuru University Review, 83, 11-20.
Kuziw, M. (2022). Achieving student self-efficacy by

References
Bandura, A. (1993). Perceived self-efficacy in cognitive
development and functioning. Educational
Psychology, 28, 117-148.
Butler, Y.G. (2007). Foreign language education atelementary schools in Japan: Searching forsolutions amidst growing diversification. AsiaPacific Education, Language Minorities andhomeroom teachers within Japaneseelementary EFL classrooms: A research
proposal. Research Journal of Jin-ai University,
21, 101-107.
Machida, T. (2016). Japanese elementary school
teachers and English language anxiety. TESOLJournal, 7(1), 40-66.
Madrid, D., Ortega, J.L. Jimenez, S., Perez, M.C.,

Migration (ELMM) Network Working Paper

Hidalgo, E., Fernandez, J., Perez, M.B., Garcia,

Series 3.

M.M., Gomis, A., Verdejo, M.M., & Robinson, B.
(1993). Source of motivation in the EFL

PanSIG Journal 2023

207
classroom. VIII Journadas Pedagógicas para laEnseñanza del Inglés, 18-36.

Werner, R.J., & Kobayashi, Y. (2015). Self-access andmetacognitive awareness in young learners:
How Japanese sixth graders learn how to learn

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT). (2002). Towards

English. Studies in Self-Access Learning
Journal, 6(4), 399-412.

advancement of “academic ability”. Retrieved
from
http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/hp
ac200201/hpac200201_2_015.html
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT). (2014). Report on the
future improvement and enhancement ofEnglish education (outline): Fiverecommendations on the English education
reform plan responding to rapid globalization.
Retrieved fromhttp://www.mext.go.jp/en/news/topics/detail/137
2625.htm
Saito, Y., Nagasawa, Y., & Ishikawa, S. (2015).
Curriculum development of English classes in
the fifth grade of elementary school. In P.
Clements, A. Krause, & H. Brown (Eds.),
JALT2014 Conference Proceedings. Tokyo:
JALT.
Tilley, S.A. (2016). Doing Respectful Research: Power,
Privilege and Passion. Halifax: Fernwood
Publishing.
Tsutsumi, R. (2014). Exploring Japanese university
EFL teacher motivation. Journal of Pan-Pacific
Association of Applied Linguistics, 18(1), 121143.
Ueki, M., & Takeuchi, O. (2013). Forming a clearer
image of the ideal L2 self: the L2 Motivational
Self System and learner autonomy in a
Japanese EFL context. Innovation in Language
Learning and Teaching, 7(3), 238-252.

PanSIG Journal 2023

208

Appendices
Appendix A: Questionnaire for Non-Certified EFL Teachers in Elementary Schools I

PanSIG Journal 2023

209

Appendix B: Questionnaire for Non-Certified EFL Teachers in Elementary Schools II

PanSIG Journal 2023

210

Self-Stimulated Recall for Continuing Professional Development in Advising
André Parsons
Hokkaido University of Education
In this practice-oriented paper, I discuss how I engage with continuing professional development for my practice of advising inlanguage learning as the only language learning advisor at my university. I begin by describing what advising is and the various
ways that others may take part in continuing professional development opportunities offered in their advising contexts. I then turnto my own advising practice and how reflective practice (Farrell, 2015; Gibbs, 1988; Schön, 1983) facilitated by an adapted versionof the introspective method of stimulated recall (Bloom, 1953; Gass & Mackey, 2005) assists me in my own professional
development. Finally, I provide an example to illustrate how I employ this method for my reflective practice and conclude with boththe benefits and challenges of this method.

この論文では、私が所属する大学で唯一の言語学習アドバイザーとして、言語学習におけるアドバイジングの実践のために、どのように継続的専門能力開発に取り組んでいるかについて述べる。まず、アドバイジングとは何か、そして他の人がアドバ
イジングの場面で提供される継続的専門能力開発の機会に参加する様々な方法について説明する。次に、私自身のアドバイジ
ングの実践と、内観法である再生刺激法（Bloom, 1953; Gass & Mackey, 2005）の適応版によって促進される反省的実践（Farrell, 2015; Gibbs, 1988; Schön, 1983）が私自身の専門能力開発をどのように支援しているかについて述べる。最後に、この方法を私の反省的実践にどのように採用しているかを例示し、この方法の利点と課題の両方について結論を述べる。

Advising in language learning has grown in recent years
as one of the ways to assist learners in becoming moreautonomous in their language learning. Universities
such as Kanda Institute of Foreign Languages, Kanda
University of International Studies, Sojo University andHiroshima Bunkyo Women’s University just to name afew have language learning advising programs that
employ full-time language learning advisors. At places
like these, advisors may not only receive initial training
but also opportunities for continuing professional
development. However, at other institutions, like myuniversity, there may be no established program with afull-time staff. Instead, there may be a teacher like me
who decided to offer such a service voluntarily on theirown in order to offer a different way of supporting theirstudents’ language learning. In such a situation, beyond
initial training programs available online, there may not
be onsite follow-up support for continuing professional
development.
In such a context, therefore, how can one engage with
continuing professional development? One possible
way is through reflective practice (Farrell, 2015; Gibbs,
1988; Schön, 1983) and one aid to facilitate this can bein a modified form of stimulated recall (Bloom, 1953;
Mackey & Gass, 2005) or what will be called selfstimulated recall.

What is advising in language learning?
Kato and Mynard (2016) define advising in language
learning as the “the process of helping someone tobecome an effective, aware, and reflective language
learner. Dialogue between an advisor and a learner iscentral to the process of helping learners to reflect” (p.
1). This dialogue, which Kato (2012) calls intentionalreflective dialogue, is a type of dialogue that is
intentionally structured in a way to encourage thelearner to reflect more deeply on their learning. For Katoand Mynard (2016), an advisor “supports a learner ingoing beyond improving language proficiency. The
learner’s existing beliefs are challenged in order to raiseawareness of learning, translate the learner’sawareness into action, and finally, make a fundamental
change in the nature of learning” (p. 9). According to
Carson and Mynard (2012), the goal of a learning
advisor “is the development of learner autonomy which
includes fostering the ability in learners to identify
language needs and personalize the learning
experience by selecting appropriate resources,
planning, monitoring and evaluating ongoing language
learning” (p. 14). This differs from a teacher’s aim sincea teacher’s goal is likely to help their students “develop
mastery in the language-related areas for the purposesof completing a pre-determined syllabus” (p. 14).
Crucial to offering successful language learning
advising is following the three principles of focusing on

PanSIG Journal 2023

211
the learner, keeping an open mind and taking a neutral
position (Kato & Mynard, 2016). In other words, alanguage learning advisor is someone who supports alearner to become more self-directed in their language
learning journey by encouraging the learner to takecontrol of their own learning and not depend completelyon another to do so. The key is not to show the learner
the answers to their language learning questions butallow them the opportunity through dialogue to find theirown answers thereby ultimately supporting them inbecoming more autonomous in their language learning.

Advising at HUE
After being introduced to the concept of advising inlanguage learning at a JALT conference, andunderstanding its potential for enhancing students’autonomy, language learning advising services were
initiated voluntarily at the university. Later, suchservices were developed further via the enrollment in aformal training program offered online by the ResearchInstitute for Learner Autonomy Education. Sincecompletion of the program, language learning advising
has been offered during the spring and fall semesters
with both online and face-to-face sessions available
upon request. It is reservation-based on a first-come,first-served basis utilizing a Google Form with eachsession lasting about 30 minutes and can be conductedin either English or Japanese based on the learner’s
preference.

Continuing professional development
for advising
As with many professional practices, once initial training
is over, in order to maintain one’s level of expertise or
to become better at it, continuing professional
development becomes essential. In the field of
language learning advising in Japan, some examples ofcontinuing professional development have included
participating in peer observation and workshops (Inoue,2017), building and encouraging engagement with acommunity of practice (Kodate & Foale, 2012; See also
Wenger, 1998), and experiencing intentional reflective
dialogue themselves (Kato, 2012). These examples
show the importance of belonging to a team with both
beginning and experienced language learning advisors
because in such environments, advisors can have many
opportunities for sharing, discussing and learning fromone another’s experiences on a regular basis.

Continuing professional development when one is
the sole advisor
The aforementioned opportunities for continuing
professional development have many benefits.
However, depending on one’s context, physical andtime constraints may prevent one from engaging in suchopportunities. Furthermore, if one is the sole language

learning advisor on their campus, then there is most
likely no onsite community of practice that is often foundat the universities mentioned earlier to foster such
sharing and development of practice.
Therefore, in such a context, continuing professional
development may entail attending conferences,
keeping up on current research and reviewing suchresearch, and most importantly, and the focus of thispaper, engaging in reflective practice (Farrell, 2015;
Gibbs, 1988; Schön, 1983). In education, Farrell (2015)
defines reflective practice as “a cognitive processaccompanied by a set of attitudes in which teacherssystematically collect data about their practice, and,while engaging in dialogue with others, use the data to
make informed decisions about their practice” (p. 123).
It should be noted that while this definition highlights theimportance of working with someone, it is in factpossible for reflective practice to be implemented
individually (Farrell, 2023) thereby offering a potential
means for continuing professional development when
one is the only practicing advisor.
There is much research on reflective practice andvarious ways to conduct it (Farrell, 2015; Gibbs, 1988;
Schön, 1983). Among these, I have chosen Gibbs’(1988) framework for its simplicity as the stages therein
provide a clear guide for facilitating such reflective
practice. Gibbs (1988) includes questions to consider
for each stage to which the University of Edinburgh(2020) has added further questions for guidance. Basedon both of these, I have developed an adapted version
to ensure that the reflective practice I engage in remains
straightforward and time efficient. Therefore, the stages
incorporated into the reflective practice approach, alongwith the guiding questions for each stage, are as
follows:

Stage 1: Description
Q1. What happened during this particular time during
the advising?

Stage 2: Feelings, Evaluation and Analysis
Q2. How did I feel about my advising at that time?
Q3. Why did I feel that way?

Stage 3: Conclusions and Future Action Plan
Q4. Was there anything I could/should have said/done
differently?
Q5. What can I do next time in a similar situation?

Self-stimulated recall for reflective
practice
To facilitate my reflective practice, stimulated recall
could be an appropriate aid as it is an introspective
PanSIG Journal 2023

212
method used to understand better one’s “thoughtprocesses or strategies” (Mackey & Gass, 2005, p. 78)
during an activity or experience. According to Bloom(1953):The basic idea underlying the method of
stimulated recall is that a subject may beenabled to relive an original situation withvividness and accuracy if he [sic] is presented
with a large number of the cues of stimuli which
occurred during the original situation. (p. 161)
While stimulated recall has been around for some time,
it was McCarthy’s (2012) paper that first employed themethod for encouraging an advisor’s continuing
professional development since “…recording thoughtsthat came to mind during a session would possibly offer
the learning advisor greater insight into her/his cognitive
processes while engaged in advising” (p. 110).
Stimulated recall typically requires two parties for it tobe carried out for research purposes. However, given
the unique position of being the sole advisor at myinstitution and the use of the method as an aid forreflective practice within professional development, amodified version of this method, referred to as selfstimulated recall, could hold significant potential.

Self-stimulated recall – Procedure
For self-stimulated recall to be most effective, it should
be conducted as soon as the advising session is oversince one’s memories of the event will be easiest toaccess at this time (Ericsson & Simon, 1987; Mackey &Gass, 2005). It is possible, however, to conduct it later
if necessary (Dörnyei, 2007; Henderson & Tallman,
2006), but one needs to keep in mind that by doing so,
there is that risk of forgetting one’s reasons for theiractions. Therefore, even if it cannot be done
immediately after, doing it that day is highly
recommended.
To facilitate self-stimulated recall, either video or audio
recordings can be used. I offer both online and face-toface advising and have access to both kinds of stimuli.
However, most of my sessions are conducted face-toface and during such sessions only audio recordings
are kept. It is important to note though that using video
recordings has great potential as it can offer
opportunities for multi-modal analysis of such sessions
which may further one’s reflective practice.
The audio recordings of sessions are uploaded to acomputer for ease of playback. During the review ofthese recordings, pauses are made at moments
deemedimportantforpotential
professional
development to engage in reflective questioning. The
entire session may be replayed to ensurecomprehensive reflection and avoid overlooking
significant insights. In instances where time isconstrained, maintaining notes during the session andusing them to guide the self-stimulated recall processserves as an alternative method. With stimulated recall,the researcher often transcribes the discourse for theparticipant (Dörnyei, 2007; Mackey & Gass, 2005).
However, due to the time required to transcribe, and insome cases translate the sessions prior to saidtranscription, unless it is deemed essential for reflective
practice, for self-stimulated recall, this stage can beomitted with the audio recording alone being anappropriate stimulus.

Example of self-stimulated recall for reflective
practice
To provide a clearer picture of how self-stimulated recall
is used to support my reflective practice as part of mycontinuing professional development in advising, onepart of an advising session will be used (See Appendix).
As with all of my advising sessions, I (A) always ask thelearner (L) which language they would like to use andthen request permission to record the session
explaining that the data may be used either for
professional development or for research, and that ineither case, all personal information will be removed.

Stage 1. What happened during this particular time
during the advising?
This is the initial exchange of our advising session. Afterfinding out what the learner wanted, I began by asking
the reason for TOEIC. The learner wanted to check theirlevel of English but was finding it hard to study for thelistening section. After confirming this, I moved on to
IELTS to which the learner said that they needed it
because they wanted to study abroad but that they had
not yet taken the test. This particular exchange ended
with me asking about the learner’s TOEIC experience.

Stage 2. How did I feel about my advising at thattime?
I felt that there were things that I did well, but overall, I
felt that I could have done better.

Stage 2. Why did I feel that way?
Starting with the positive points, I believe I usedstrategies such as repetition and restating well (SeeKato & Mynard, 2016). Regarding areas for
improvement, I believe I changed too quickly to IELTS.
I think I did this because I felt I needed to help with bothin this session. I was also letting my teacher identity andmy feelings toward TOEIC and IELTS lead the session
because the two tests are quite different and are often
taken for different purposes, so I was trying tounderstand why the learner wanted to do both at thesame time. In the end, what I was doing actually went
against the three principles of advising mentioned
above.
PanSIG Journal 2023

213

Stage 3. Was there anything I could/should havesaid/done differently?
There were probably many different paths I
could/should have taken, but I could have asked thelearner which test they wanted to focus on more for thatsession. I could have also asked for more information
about why they wanted to use TOEIC to check theirlevel, or I could have asked the learner more about why
they were having difficulty with listening. I should nothave worried about covering everything in one session.
Most importantly though, I should have kept more of anopen mind and focused more on them and not let myfeelings toward TOEIC and IELTS get in the way.

Stage 3. What can I do next time in a similar
situation?
As with the previous question, there are many ways I
can try to deal with similar cases better. For example, I
can recommend limiting the discussion to one test andencourage them to come back for another session totalk about the other one. If that is not possible, I can try
spending more time on one test and then talk about theother one if there is enough time, or I can encourage thelearner to consider ways to study for both tests at thesame time. Another option altogether is to ask thelearner about how they have been preparing for thetests. Finally, going back to the three principles, I needto try to stay neutral, keep an open mind and make surethe focus is on the learner and not my feelings about
English tests.

Benefits and challenges of self-stimulated
recall
Self-stimulated recall can be rather effective forreflective practice as it can be done without the need ofothers. It also does not require too much time tocomplete. While it is possible to transcribe the wholesession or parts of it for reflective practice, the audio
recording itself is usually enough for doing selfstimulated recall. Finally, it facilitates deeper reflection
as the advisor is able to stand back and relive theexperience as the participant thereby allowing
themselves the possibility of noticing things that may be
missed otherwise.
While there are benefits, the challenges cannot beignored. As the sole advisor on campus, and asadvising is my secondary role with teaching being the
primary one, doing self-stimulated recall regularly canbe difficult since one does need motivation to continue
doing it. One possible way to overcome this challengethough is to limit the number of the sessions used for
self-stimulated recall. For example, choosing to use one
session a week or every other week could make such
reflective practice more feasible and thus easier tocontinue over time.

Another challenge is that it may not always be possible
to do it immediately after the session has finished. I
usually have my advising during the lunchbreak andthen may have a class immediately afterward. Of course,
it is possible to do it after the class, but that may notalways be possible either, and the longer one waits, theharder it becomes to access the memories. Therefore,scheduling such reflective practice for a time when one
does not have other obligations after the advisingsession could resolve this issue.
Finally, what may be the biggest challenge to using selfstimulated recall for reflective practice is that since it isultimately an individual endeavor, there is a risk of being
too critical or not critical enough of your own practice.
While it is important for the advisor to make sure theylook at both the positive and negative aspects of thesession and try to stay objective in their reflections of
the experience, this may not always be so simple. As
one can easily be overcritical of their practice, one canalso have blind spots to their practice, something that acolleague or a critical friend (Costa & Kallick, 1993) who
is also an advisor may be able to point out.

Conclusion
This paper has described how continuing professional
development for language learning advising can be
carried out through reflective practice facilitated by selfstimulated recall. While such continuing professional
development may be best conducted within a support
network allowing dialogues to take place with potential
critical friends, in contexts such as my own, that is notpossible at present. In such a situation, rather than
avoiding such development altogether, there arebenefits with using such a tool for reflective practice.
Therefore, I would encourage anyone in a similar
working environment to consider implementing such amethod in their own continuing professional
development.

References
Bloom, B. S. (1953). Thought-processes in lecturesand discussions. The Journal of General
Education, 7(3), 160-169.
http://www.jstor.org/stable/27795429
Carson, L. & Mynard, J. (2012). Introduction. In J.
Mynard & L. Carson (Eds.), Advising inlanguage learning: Dialogue, tools and context(pp. 3-25). Harlow, UK: Pearson.

PanSIG Journal 2023

214
Costa, A. L., & Kallick, B. (1993). Through the lens of a
critical friend. Educational Leadership, 51(2), 49-

Journal, 3(1), 74-92.
https://doi.org/10.37237/030106

51. https://www.ascd.org/el/articles/through-thelens-of-a-critical-friend

Kato, S. & Mynard, J. (2016). Reflective dialogue:
Advising in language learning. New York, NY:

Dörnyei, Z. (2007). Research methods in applied

Routledge.

linguistics: Quantitative, qualitative and mixed
methodologies. Oxford, UK: Oxford University
Press.

Kodate, A., & Foale, C. (2012). Communities ofpractice as a source of professional
development in advising for language learning.

Ericsson, K. A., & Simon, H. A. (1987). Verbal reports

In J. Mynard & L. Carson (Eds.), Advising inon thinking. In C. Faerch & G. Kasper (Eds.),

language learning: Dialogue, tools and context

Introspection in second language research (pp.

(pp. 279-295). Harlow, UK: Pearson.

24-53). Clevedon, UK: Multilingual Matters.
Mackey, A., & Gass, S. M. (2005). Second language
Farrell, T. S. C. (2015). Promoting teacher reflection insecond language education: A framework forresearch: Methodology and design. Mahwah,
New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

TESOL professionals. New York, NY:
Routledge.

McCarthy, T. (2012). Advising-in-action: Exploring theinner dialogue of the learning advisor. In J.

Farrell, T. S. C. (2023). Reflective practice for TESOL

Mynard & L. Carson (Eds.), Advising inteachers: “What, why, when and how”. JALT

language learning: Dialogue, tools and context

Journal, 45(1), 122-137.

(pp. 105-126). Harlow, UK: Pearson.

https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTJJ45.1
Schön, D.A. (1983). The reflective practitioner: How
Gibbs, G. (1988). Learning by doing: A guide toteaching and learning methods. Oxford, UK:professionals think in action. New York, NY:
Basic Books.

Further Education Unit.
The University of Edinburgh. (2020, November 11).
Henderson, L., & Tallman, J. (2006). Stimulated recall

Gibbs’ reflective cycle.

and mental models: Tools for teaching andhttps://www.ed.ac.uk/reflection/reflectors-

learning computer information literacy. Lanham,

toolkit/reflecting-on-experience/gibbs-reflective-

Maryland: Scarecrow Press.

cycle

Inoue, S. (2017). Professional development for

Wenger, E. (1998). Communities of practice: Learning,

language learning advisors. Studies in Self-

meaning and identity. Cambridge, UK:

Access Learning Journal, 8(3), 268-273.

Cambridge University Press.

https://doi.org/10.37237/080307
Kato, S. (2012). Professional development for learning
advisors: Facilitating the intentional reflective
dialogue. Studies in Self-Access Learning

PanSIG Journal 2023

215

Appendix
Advising session extract used for self-stimulated recall for reflective practice
A: How can I help you today?
L: Uh, I want to know how to study TOEIC and IELTS
A: OK. TOEIC…OK. So, my first question uhm is why TOEIC?
L: Uh TOEIC um I want to know my English level so I want to take it.
A: OK.
L: But um I don’t know how to study for especially listening so yeah
A: OK. Now so you are looking at TOEIC um you want to check your English level WITH TOEIC, right?
L: Yes.
A: OK. And you’re having some difficulty with how to study for the listening
L: Yes.
A: OK. Um how about IELTS? So why are you Why do you want to take IELTS?
L: Uh I want to study abroad and I need to take IELTS maybe so I haven’t taken yet but yeah, I have to take IELTS
A: OK so um so you have no experience with the IELTS. How about TOEIC? Do you have any experience with TOEIC?

PanSIG Journal 2023

216

Likert Scale Survey of Team Teaching Communication Challenges in Japan
Terry R. Tuttle
Moriguchi City Board of Education

Aquanna Ishii
Temple University Japan
There are multiple barriers to communication between Japanese Teachers of English (JTEs) and Assistant Language Teachers(ALTs) who are team teaching (TT) in Japan (Hiratsuka, 2022). This study was conducted through a Likert scale survey regarding
three different categories of potential difficulty: language proficiency (LP), interpersonal and intercultural differences (II), andworkplace logistics considerations (WL). Forty-seven EFL teachers responded to our survey: 26 JTEs and 21 ALTs. Participants
were also asked to select the category of communication barrier they perceived as the most challenging. The majority of ALTs
selected WL as the most challenging area of workplace communication, while JTE responses were more balanced between WL
and LP. Responses to Likert scale items, however, showed that both ALTs and JTEs rated items in the WL category as highest
on average. These results indicate a possible mismatch between JTE and ALT perceptions of communication difficulties and thereasons they occur.

日本では、英語教師（JTE）と外国語指導助手（ALT）がチームティーチングを 行う際、コミュニケーションに関する複数の問題が存在する（Hiratsuka, 2022）。本稿では、コミュニケーションにおける潜在的な困難の３つの異なる分野：言語能力（LP）、対人関係や文化の違い（II）、職場運営への配慮（WL）に関する要素についてリッカート尺度式アンケート調査をした。調査には JTE26 名と ALT21 名の計 47 人の外国語教師が回答した。また、参加者は、３つの分野のうち最も困難であると感じるものを選ぶよう求められた。ALT の大多数は、最も困難な分野として WL を選んだが、JTE は、WL と LP に大きな偏りなく回答が集中した。しかし、リッカート尺度式アンケートの項目に対する回答は、ALT と JTE ともに、平均的に WL の分野に含まれる項目を最も多く選択していた。これらの結果は、JTE と ALT が感じるコミュニケーション上の困難と、その原因の認識の間に不一致が生じている可能性を示している。

Team teaching in English education in Japan has
become prevalent throughout the country, especially inthe last decade. As Japan endeavors to sustain its
economic growth amidst ongoing globalization andinternationalization, policies towards English education
have shifted gradually to place emphasis on creating
future citizens who can accommodate its global
economic goals (Barrett & Miyashita, 2016; Fritz &Sandu, 2020; MEXT, 2012). With the intention of theJapanese Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science, and Technology (MEXT) to cultivate linguistic
and social communicative English abilities to thenational population of learners in schools, one of thepolicies put in place is the utilization of L1 English users
in the form of assistant language teachers (ALTs) toassist in the EFL classroom (MEXT, 2003). Thus began
the team teaching (TT) style of Japanese teachers ofEnglish (JTEs) and ALTs teaching English classes intandem. Since elementary schools were required toprovide English lessons to the 5th and 6th grade levels
as of 2011, with oral communication as the main
objective (MEXT, 2008), TT was also implemented.
Currently, the provision of English lessons has started
as early as grade 3 for most schools, and ALTs arepresent for those lessons as much as circumstances
allow. Therefore, TT is now a component of the English
curriculum in Japan from elementary grade 3 all the way
through the last year of high school.
Receiving English education through a lesson taught
using TT while having exposure to different styles of
spoken English and various insights into distinct
cultures through an ALT within the English learning
environment is undoubtedly beneficial to the learners(Nunan, 2003).
However, TT has its own challenges. Issues such aslack of L2 proficiency for JTEs and an inability tocomprehend what the ALT has said to them, as well as
PanSIG Journal 2023

217
the inability to respond or express their thoughts,
creates anxiety and also possible resentment toward
ALTs for being the root cause of the unease they feel
(Aspinall, 2013). Other issues such as the
misinterpretation of the role of the ALTs by both JTEs
and ALTs lead to ALTs feeling underutilized and inferior
in the workplace (Glasgow & Paller, 2016). On the other
hand, there is also a noticeable discrepancy of expectededucational qualification between JTEs and ALTs, giventhat ALTs do not need a teaching license or any
experience in English pedagogy to apply for the position(Machida & Walsh, 2015), though ALT hiring
qualifications at multiple dispatch companies andprograms now include teaching experience and/or
credentials as "preferred,' "desired," or "look[ed] for"
(Altia Central, n.d.; Borderlink, n.d.; Heart Corporation,n.d.; Link Interac, n.d.), and as of 2024, the Japan
Exchange and Teaching Programme (JET) states that
"ALT applicants must…[b]e qualified as a language
teacher or be strongly motivated to take part in theteaching of foreign languages," with language and/or
generalteachingskillsmeriting"additional
consideration" (Council of Local Authorities forInternational Relations, n.d.). In other words, formal
credentials remain optional for ALTs and, when present,
are typically earned outside the Japanese education
system; moreover, ALTs who have extensive
experience teaching in Japan often lack accreditationcommensurate with that experience. As such, thecaliber of ALTs’ teaching abilities vary widely dependingon the individual, causing frustrations and worry for
JTEs. Further, some ALTs also struggle withacclimation to ideologies and expectations held byothers in the classroom and workplace, which often leadto grappling with their identity (Takeda, 2022). These
are only a few of the challenges which can beexperienced in TT.
We believe that many of the challenges mentioned
above have realistic solutions and protocols that can be
put in place to avoid such issues. To do so, it is firstnecessary to filter through many of the challenges andissues that arise in TT and understand which of themany issues might be most common. Thus, wedeveloped a survey asking about three areas ofcommunication in TT that we thought might generatevarious issues and challenges for the teachers.
Firstly, the survey was created to specifically examine
the root causes of communication breakdowns between
team teachers and what affects their willingness tocommunicate (WTC). WTC is a construct related to thepredisposition of learners towards or away from
communication in a second/foreign language; social,individual, situational, and motivational factors can allcontribute to WTC both short- and long-term (MacIntyre
et al., 1998). We note that the theory based on WTC in
L2 (L2 WTC) typically refers to the willingness of L2

communication from a learner communicating to aninterlocutor, who is usually a teacher or a fellow learner(Cao, 2011; MacIntyre & Charos, 1996; MacIntyre et al.,
1998; McIntyre & Legatto, 2011; Morita, 2004; Yashima,2002). However, many of the factors mentioned within
L2 WTC can be analogized directly to the teacher-toteacher L2 communication required for TT. The survey
divides TT communication into three categories that we
believe affect TT and affect teachers' L2 WTC:
language proficiency (LP), interpersonal/interculturaldifferences (II), and workplace logistics (LP).
Language proficiency difficulties can greatly affect TT
dynamics as well as TT success (Hiratsuka, 2022). Its
impact can be direct (due to actual proficiency levels) orindirect (due to JTEs' anxieties about self-perceived low
linguistic competence). These difficulties are a salient
barrier to communication in many contexts, but
especially at the elementary school level, where recentchanges in the curriculum have left JTEs feeling illprepared to teach English (Kano et al., 2016; Hougham
et al., 2017). Thus, we asked JTEs and ALTs questions
regarding perceptions of their language proficiency aswell as their anxieties towards them.
Interpersonal/intercultural differences can refer tochallenges arising from anything from individual
personality incompatibility to the influence of culturalstereotypes. A straightforward example of aninterpersonal factor would be if a teacher does not liketheir team teacher, and thus has no (or negative)
emotional incentive to talk to them. An example of anintercultural barrier to communication would be one TT
avoiding certain topics with the other that they would
normally address, due to their perception that culturaldifferences would make it difficult to communicate
effectively about that topic. For this area, JTEs and
ALTs were asked about any cultural challenges or
misunderstandings that they experienced during TT.
Additionally, questions were asked regarding personal
compatibility as well as issues such as harassment.
The logistics and workplace information factor covers
challenges that tend to arise as a result of working in a
specific school, or department, with specific colleagues.
It extends to administrative factors as well as how
communication, workload, and scheduling is handledwithin the school. For this area, questions were asked
regarding administrative communications and logisticalproblems in the workplace that might makecommunication in the workplace more difficult. For
example, teachers were asked if they were able toreceive reliable information or forewarning of upcoming
school events or days off consistently.
Based on this model, a survey was created to explore
and observe some of the common issues andchallenges ALTs and JTEs have. Our current analysis

PanSIG Journal 2023

218
of the results of this survey aims to answer the following
questions:

1. Do ALT and JTE perceptions of greatest
communication challenges differ?

2. Do these perceptions match TT experiences asreported in the Likert scale survey items?

3. What

specific items caused
challenges for respondents?

thegreatest

Methods
Our research used a mixed methodology (Mackey &Bryfonski, 2018) to gather data on ALT and JTE
perceptions of TT communication challenges. The focusof the current study is the quantitative portions,specifically, one multiple-choice item of interest as wellas the 38 Likert scale items.

Participants
The study involved 47 individuals who participated in
the surveys. These participants were Japanese
Teacher of English (JTEs) and Assistant Language
Teachers (ALTs), all of whom were presently teamteaching or had prior experience in such environments.
Out of the total, 26 were JTEs, and the remaining 21
were ALTs. The teachers' instructional levels spanned
from elementary to high school. Additionally, theeducators possessed a range of expertise, ranging fromnew instructors who had yet to gain experience andbuild their ability and style in teaching, to highly
seasoned instructors who were self-regulatory andefficient in their teaching. Furthermore, their proficiency
in the second language (L2) varied, with some facing
challenges in maintaining everyday conversations andbasic interactions, while others encountered no suchdifficulties.

Surveys
The survey was created based on the guidelines
mentioned by Nemoto and Beglar (2014), with the aimof minimizing ambiguity and creating a scale ofresponses that was comfortable for respondents andwould provide informative results. Once produced, thesurveys themselves were conducted either in paper
form (in Japanese) or via Google Forms (in Japaneseand in English). Aside from the consent and interview
opt-in sections, it was divided into five parts. First, an
introductory section composed of 7 multiple-choicequestions regarding the teacher’s background including
teaching context and some demographic informationsuch as frequency of teaching days in one or multiple
locations and the grade level at which they taught. The
next section included 38 Likert scale items separated
into three parts for each of the three identified challengeareas in communication; language proficiency,

interpersonal/intercultural factors, and workplacelogistics. It was then followed by a closing section where
9 open-ended questions were given asking instructors
for further elaboration on memorable or difficult
moments in their team teaching thus far, what specificstrategies they implemented when faced with thosechallenges, and asking participants to select the area
they found most challenging overall. For this section,
feedback was optional for the participants as eachteacher’s experience of team teaching varies vastly andsome of the questions might not have been relative intheir teaching context. Including the end of the survey
as well as throughout, a total of 4 feed-back requests
were established where survey takers could commenton or provide feedback regarding the survey or survey
questions themselves. All survey questions were firstcreated in English and its contents and wordings were
examined by (a researcher and practitioner well versed
in SLA and pedagogy as well as the English education
system in Japan). The questions were then translated
into Japanese and the translations were checked andapproved by an L1 Japanese speaker who had abackground in Japanese education.
A list of survey items (including all Likert scale items)
can be found in the Appendix.

Data Collection
The participants were gathered through word-of-mouthand online snowball data collection techniques in which
the majority of the participants were made up ofteachers within the Kansai region. For the JTEs (n = 26),
most participants preferred the paper form of the survey,
and thus direct visitations of each school was necessary,
as well as acquiring permission from the principal ordivision head. JTEs primarily taught at schools thatwere visited by one researcher, and they filled out
physical versions of the Japanese-language survey thatwere later converted into digital form. ALTs (n = 21)
were gathered using the snowball data collection
method: the researchers asked acquaintances andrespondents to introduce ALT acquaintances of theirown to the survey. Therefore, the ALT respondents
were dispersed across a wider area.

Results
The data we consider in this analysis comes in two parts.
The first is a single multiple-choice item in which
respondents were asked which area (LP, II, or WL) they
personally perceived as the greatest challenge to TT
communication. The second part is the 38-item Likert
scale items, which are analyzed by group (ALT and
JTE) as well as compositely. The averages in individual
categories for each group show some specificchallenges, and possible inconsistencies between
overall perception and specific issues.

PanSIG Journal 2023

219

Perceptions and Reports of TT Communication
Challenges
Our first research question was, "Do ALT and JTE
perceptions of greatest communication challenges
differ?" When asked directly whether they found LP, II,or WD issues the most challenging in the workplace,there was a marked difference between JTE and ALT
respondents' selections. Table 1 shows the response
rates of ALTs and JTEs to this item. The majority of
ALTs selected WL issues as the greatest
communication challenge, with 67% of respondents
identifying it as the area of greatest communicative
difficulty. JTEs were more evenly split between
identifying WL and LP as the greatest problem, at 42%
and 38% respectively. Relatively few participants ineither group (10% of ALTs and 19% of JTEs) selected
II as the predominant communication issue with theirTTs. The Likert scale responses, however, provide
some additional nuance to the responses selected forthis overarching survey item, which is explored further
in the discussion section.
Table 1
Perceptions of Greatest TT Communication DifficultyALTs(n = 21)JTEs(n = 26)

Combined(n = 47)

Language proficiency (LP)

24%

38%

32%

Interpersonal andintercultural differences (II)

10%

19%

15%

Workplace logistics (WL)

67%

42%

53%

Likert Scale Responses Versus Perceptions
Our second research question, "Do these perceptions[of areas of greatest TT difficulty] match TT experiences
as reported in the Likert scale survey items?" Theanswer to this question differs for ALTs and JTEs. Table
2 shows the average response to items in eachcategory (LP, II, and WL) for JTEs and ALTs
respectively. While nearly the same proportions of JTEs
selected WL and LP when asked directly, items in the
WL section of the survey had the highest average scoreamong both ALTs and JTEs. LP was the only section inwhich JTEs, on average, rated challenges as being
greater than ALTs, who rated both II and WL as greater
issues compared to the JTE averages. However, eventhe highest-scoring section, that of WL, only had an
average slightly over 2 for JTEs and ALTs, indicatingthat the majority of respondents disagreed that the area
was a significant challenge overall.

Table 2Average Likert Scale Item Responses for Each TT Communication
Area
ALT average

JTE average

Language proficiency (LP)

1.52

1.87

Interpersonal and interculturaldifferences (II)

1.8

1.72

Workplace logistics (WL)

2.24

2.1

Combined average

1.85

1.9

Notes. 1 indicates least reported challenge, while 4 indicatesgreatest.

Specific Areas of Difficulty
The average response to Likert items across all three
categories for both groups scored below 2.00, indicating
an average response between "strongly disagree" and"slightly disagree" (Table 2). This indicates that,generally speaking, the issue raised in each Likert scale
item was not a significant problem for the majority of TT
respondents. However, certain specific items received
a high enough score to indicate some specific problems
that commonly arose for respondents. These items are
the focus of our third and final research question: "Whatspecific items caused the greatest challenges forrespondents?"
For the purpose of this analysis, an average responseof 2.5 (the halfway point of the survey) or greater seems
to indicate that a significant number of respondents
identified the problem described as a challenge they
had experienced; (i.e., on average, respondents
selected an 3 or 4 in response to statements indicatinga challenge, or 2 or 1 to reverse-coded items. Threesuch items emerged among the 38 items describedwhen JTEs and ALTs responses were separated.
For ALTs, all three items scoring over 2.5 were in the
WL section: "I regularly receive the information I needto perform my job satisfactorily" (2.52, reverse-coded),"I regularly receive information about workplace events
before the day they occur" (2.50, reverse-coded), and "I
am informed about changes in school schedule in atimely manner" (2.70, reverse-coded). JTEs had only
one statement that approached the cutoff, with "My TT
is easy to talk to, even about embarrassing topics" at an
average of 2.48 (reverse-coded). Notably, all the items
scoring near or over this threshold were reverse-coded,
the implications of which will be addressed below.

Discussion
There are a few indications of interest to be found in thisdata. First, fully two-thirds of ALT respondents rated WL
as the greatest area of TT communication challenge forthem; they also rated it as a greater area of difficultythan JTEs, and all ALT responses to specific items in
PanSIG Journal 2023

220
which the average indicated greatest difficulty were
included in the WL section. They also rated II as agreater challenge, on average, than JTE respondents(Table 2), despite fewer ALTs than JTEs selecting it as
their area of greatest difficulty (Table 1). These results
all indicate ALT respondents can be particularly
sensitive to WL communication issues. This is likely
aggravated by their status as a minority of (or, in somecases, only) L2 Japanese speakers in L1-Japanesecontexts. However, JTEs also reported WL issues,
indicating that this might not be limited to ALTs alone.
Some of the logistical details that ALTs are missing
might also be difficult for JTEs to acquire in a timely
manner, due to the chaos and busyness that is at times
inherent to primary and secondary education.
The way that these categories relate to one another issignificant when interpreting these results. One possible
reason for the difference in JTE and ALT responses on
the topic of LP could be that while LP causes
communication problems directly, it is a salient root
cause of other communication issues in some cases.
This cause-and-effect relationship may havecontributed to the split between the selection of LP and
WL in the JTE group, though there are many otherpossible contributing factors.
A more in-depth explanation for this difference inperception might be the amount and quality of
information that ALTs and JTEs regularly receive in theworkplace. In a primary Japanese-language workplace,
only ALTs with high Japanese proficiency would expect
to receive all the information around them, with most
focusing by necessity on receiving the bare minimum oflogistical information needed to do their jobs. Thus,
ALTs would be most aware of communications related
to the most salient of concerns, seeing the trees of
crucial information like time and place, whereas JTEs,
with more access to contextual information that ALTs
are unaware of, see the forest of missed informationand perceive the language barrier as its root cause.
In general, to improve the quality of this data, a greater
sample size of respondents and a more generalized
sampling method are of course desirable. However,there are some possible inconsistencies within our
survey that could have also affected the results. For
instance, while the questions were created withreadability in mind, certain elements may havecontributed to respondent confusion or influenced
responses. Further development of the survey
instrument itself is also needed. Specific survey item
response patterns as well as free-response andinterview responses elsewhere in our data indicate thatcertain questions may not have been interpreted
consistently across groups. Further collection andanalysis of qualitative data may shed light on ways toimprove our survey instrument, and more advanced

quantitative analysis techniques can also be used toseek out inconsistencies in survey responses.
Another possible issue with the survey itself is the
distribution of reverse-coded questions across the three
categories. The focus on clarity in item development led
to most of the LP section identifying problems via"agree" responses, while the WL section was mostly
reverse-coded questions in which "disagree" indicatedthe presence of communication challenges; the II
section was a fairly even mix of these types. The highrate of JTE response to LP items, as well as the low
rating of items in II by both groups regardless of reverse
coding, indicates that this imbalance of normal- andreverse-coded items did not fully skew results; however,an even spread of reverse-coded questions might
contribute to a different result in the future.

Conclusion
Every pair (or more) of educators involved in a TT
relationship experiences a microcosm of interlanguage
and intercultural social interaction. This relationship isitself a foundation for the teaching experience that TTs
provide for their students. The aim of our survey was tobetter understand ways in which TT perceptions ofcommunication with each other might differ, rather thanfocusing on teaching practices or communication
challenges between teachers and students. While agreat deal of research has covered TT practices in theclassroom, and identity is also explored, the influenceof specific challenges for dynamics of TTs as coworkers
seemed worthy of further exploration.
The highly individualized nature of TT working
relationships makes it difficult to generalize aboutproblems as broad as communication challenges. Thatsaid, our current research, while incomplete, indicates apossible trend of mismatches between JTE and ALT
understandings of difficulties in TT communication.
ALTs may be most aware of specific, actionable
information they do not receive, whereas JTEs may befocused on the more holistic challenge of keeping an
L2-Japanese employee informed in an L1-Japanese
workplace. A good first step to improve communication(and associated TT satisfaction) might be building ashared understanding of issues that have arisen andtheir possible causes, so that solutions can be devised.
There is little to be done about the L1 and L2 proficiency
levels of ALTs and JTEs, for instance, but solutions that
focus on finding ways to quickly and easily circumventthe language barrier could help to convey concrete
information and instructions. This would be helpful insome cases to alleviate ALT frustration with workplacecommunication difficulties.

PanSIG Journal 2023

221

References
Altia Central. (n.d.). The application process. Retrieved
March 26, 2024, fromhttps://recruiting.altmoot.com/applicationprocess/Aspinall, R. W. (2013). International education policy inJapan in an age of globalisation and risk. In
International Education Policy in Japan in an
Age of Globalisation and Risk. Brill.
https://doi.org/10.1163/9789004243729
Barrett, T., & Miyashita, H. (2016). The pervasivenessof the neoliberal agenda and linguistic
instrumentalism in Japan’s English education

Glasgow, G. P., & Paller, D. L. (2016). English
language education policy in Japan: At acrossroads. English language education policyin Asia, 153–180. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-3319-22464-0_7
Heart Corporation. (n.d.). Qualifications. Retrieved
March 26, 2024, from https://heartschool.jp/en/japan/qualifications/
Hiratsuka, T. (2022). Narrative inquiry into language
teacher identity: ALTs in the JET program.
Routledge.
https://doi.org/10.4324/9781003248729
Hougham, D. G. C., Walter, B. R., & Sponseller, A. C.,

policy “English education reform plan(2017). Practicalities of team teaching: Recent

corresponding to globalization”. The Journal ofresearch and experience in Japan. In P.

English as an International language, 11(1), 50–

Clements, A. Krause, & H. Brown (Eds.),

70.

Transformation in language education. Tokyo:

Borderlink. (n.d.). Applying from overseas. Retrieved
March 26, 2024, from

JALT.
Kano, A., Sonoda, A., Schultz, D., Usukura, A., Suga,

https://www.borderlink.co.jp/alt/applying_from_oK., & Yasu, Y., (2016). Barriers to effective teamverseas.html

teaching with ALTs. In P. Clements, A. Krause,Cao, Y. (2011). Investigating situational willingness tocommunicate within second language
classrooms from an ecological perspective.

& H. Brown (Eds.), Focus on the learner. Tokyo:
JALT.
Link Interac. (n.d.). Qualifications & requirements to

System, 39(4), 468–479.

teach English in Japan. Interac: Enrich throughhttps://doi.org/10.1016/j.system.2011.10.016

Education. Retrieved March 26, 2024, fromCouncil of Local Authorities for International Relations.
(n.d.). Eligibility. The Japan Exchange andTeaching Programme. Retrieved March 26,

https://interacnetwork.com/how-toapply/requirements/
Machida, T., & Walsh, D. J. (2015). Implementing EFL

2024, frompolicy reform in elementary schools in Japan: A

https://jetprogramme.org/en/eligibility/case study. Current Issues in Language

Fritz, R., & Sandu, R. (2020). Foreign language andintercultural development in the Japanese

Planning, 16(3), 221–237.
MacIntyre, P. D., & Charos, C. (1996). Personality,

context–a case study. Language andattitudes, and affect as predictors of second

Intercultural Communication, 20(6), 600–620.

language communication. Journal of language

https://doi.org/10.1080/14708477.2020.1766480
PanSIG Journal 2023

222
and social psychology, 15(1), 3–26.

education]. Retrieved fromhttps://doi.org/10.1177/0261927X960151001

https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/shotou/newcs/youryou/syokaisetsu/ on July 27th, 2023.

MacIntyre, P. D., Clément, R., Dörnyei, Z., & Noels, K.
A. (1998). Conceptualizing willingness to

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, andcommunicate in a L2: A situational model of L2

Technology, Japan. (2012). Project for

confidence and affiliation. The Modern

promotion of global human resource

Language Journal, 82(4), 545–562.

development. Retrieved from MEXT: Project for

https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1540-

Promotion of Global Human Resource

4781.1998.tb05543.x

Development July 28th, 2023.

MacIntyre, P. D., & Legatto, J. J. (2011). A dynamic

Morita, N. (2004). Negotiating participation and identity

system approach to willingness to communicate:in second language academic communities.

Developing an idiodynamic method to capture

TESOL Quarterly, 38(4), 573–

rapidly changing affect. Applied Linguistics,

603. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588281

32(2), 149–171.
https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amq037

Nemoto, T., & Beglar, D. (2014). Likert-scalequestionnaires. In JALT 2013 conference

Mackey, A., & Bryfonski, L. (2018). Mixed

proceedings (pp. 1–8). https://jalt-

methodology. In The Palgrave handbook of

publications.org/sites/default/files/pdf-

applied linguistics research methodology (pp.

article/jalt2013_001.pdf

103–121). Palgrave Macmillan.
https://doi.org/10.1057/978-1-137-59900-1_5

Nunan, D. (2003). The impact of English as a global
language on educational policies and practices

MacIntyre, P. D., & Legatto, J. J. (2011). A dynamic
system approach to willingness to communicate:in the Asian-Pacific region. TESOL Quarterly,
37, 589–613. https://doi.org/10.2307/3588214

Developing an idiodynamic method to capture
rapidly changing affect. Applied Linguistics,

Takeda, Y. (2022). Mobilising dilemmatic subject

32(2), 149–171.

positions: a discourse analysis of an Asian

https://doi.org/10.1093/applin/amq037

Canadian assistant language teacher’snarrative. Language, Culture and Curriculum,

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, andTechnology (2002). Developing a strategic plan

36(1), 7–20.
https://doi.org/10.1080/07908318.2022.2048003

to cultivate "Japanese with English abilities".
Retrieved from

Yashima, T. (2002). Willingness to communicate in a

https://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/hakusho/html/h

second language: The Japanese EFL context.

pac200201/hpac200201_2_015.html on JulyThe Modern Language Journal, 86(1), 54–66.

27th, 2023.

https://doi.org/10.1111/1540-4781.00136

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, andTechnology, Japan. (2008). 小学校学習指導要領

解説 [Course of study for elementary school
PanSIG Journal 2023

223

Appendix
Survey Items (English Version)
Below is the complete list of survey items included in the current analysis:

Multiple Choice Item
Overall, which aspect of communicating with your TT do you find most challenging?

•

Language proficiency (Japanese and/or English)•

Interpersonal and/or intercultural differences•

Workplace and/or logistical issues
Likert Scale Items

Note: An (R) after an item indicates that responses for that item were reverse-coded in the data analysis.

Language proficiency (LP)1.

My Japanese speaking proficiency is inadequate for my professional needs.

2.

I avoid communicating with coworkers in Japanese because of anxiety about my Japanese proficiency.

3.

Anxiety about my Japanese proficiency stops me from using Japanese while teaching.

4.

Anxiety about my Japanese proficiency stops me from using Japanese outside of class.

5.

I avoid communicating with my TT in Japanese during class because they may not understand me.

6.

I avoid communicating with my TT in Japanese outside of class because they may not understand me.

7.

I avoid communicating with students in Japanese because they may not understand me.

8.

I avoid communicating with coworkers and staff in Japanese because they may not understand me.

9.

I have trouble understanding my TT's spoken Japanese, even when they use vocabulary and grammar I am familiar with.

10. I fear losing the respect of students because of my poor Japanese.
11. I fear losing the respect of my TT because of my poor Japanese.

Interpersonal and Intercultural Differences (II)12. I have treated been unfairly by my TT in the past.
13. I or my TT have been treated unfairly by coworkers in the past.
14. I or my TT have experienced ostracization and/or hostility from staff at my school.
15. I feel like an outsider in my workplace because of my identity (age, sex, LGBT+, disability, etc.).
16. I hide parts of my identity to avoid facing discrimination at work.
17. I like my TT's personality. (R)
18. I would enjoy spending time with my TT outside of work. (R)19. My TT is easy to talk to, even about embarrassing topics. (R)20. My TT's communication style sometimes confuses me.
21. I can trust my TT's judgment. (R)
22. My TT and I have incompatible personalities.
23. I have trouble understanding my TT's perspective on life.
24. I see myself as an outsider in most social situations, regardless of culture.
25. My TT understands my cultural background. (R)

PanSIG Journal 2023

224
26. I understand my TT's cultural background. (R)27. My TT and I often clash because of our different cultural backgrounds.
28. I lack information about bridging cultural gaps with my TT.

Workplace Logistics (WL)
29. I regularly receive the information I need to perform my job satisfactorily. (R)
30. I understand the expectations related to my work duties. (R)
31. I am able to use my knowledge of teaching in my workplace. (R)
32. I know how to access the information I need to perform my work duties. (R)
33. I know the rules and expectations my school holds for students. (R)
34. I regularly receive information about workplace events before the day they occur. (R)
35. I am informed about changes of school schedule in a timely manner. (R)36. My co-workers and I help each other stay informed of new information, such as schedule changes. (R)37. My co-workers seem generally aware of school policy, schedule changes, etc. (R)38. Staff will attempt to share information with me if necessary. (R)

PanSIG Journal 2023

225

Responding to MEXT: Pre-Entry Programs at Japanese Universities
Hiroyo Nakagawa
Osaka Jogakuin University

Kaori Hakone
Osaka Jogakuin University

Tamara Swenson
Osaka Jogakuin University
This paper reports on a comprehensive survey conducted across 60 Japanese university to examine their pre-entry programs,
accompanied by insights from pilot study interviews. The study explores the potential impact of core curricula emphasizing
pragmatic communication, the dissemination of 'best practices' among institutions, and the universal availability of pre-entry
schooling on students' subsequent academic experiences. The findings contribute to a deeper understanding of the efficacy ofpre-entry programs and inform modifications to the study protocols for the next phase of research at tertiary institutions.
本稿では、日本の大学 60 校を対象に実施した入学前プログラムに関する包括的な調査と、パイロット・スタディによるインタ
ビューから得た知見について報告する。本研究では、語用論的なコミュニケーションを重視したコア・カリキュラム、教育機
関間の「ベスト・プラクティス」の普及、入学前教育の普遍的な利用の可能性が、学生の入学後の学術的経験に及ぼす潜在的影響を探る。得られた知見は、入学前教育の有効性をより深く理解することに貢献し、高等教育機関における次の段階の研究
プロトコルの現行の改訂案に役立つものである。

In 2015, the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science, and Technology (MEXT) issued adirective to universities recommending adoption of preentry education for early admission students (MEXT,
2015), i.e. students accepted through alternative routes
such as interviews and selective exams known as
Gakko Suisen-gata Senbatsu [学校推薦型選抜] (MEXT,
2020). The usual route for admission in Japan is forstudents to sit for the common test for university
admissions in January or sit for an exam created by theuniversity. The MEXT Directive 3-5-1 indicateduniversities and high schools should jointly ensure thatstudents remain motivated after acceptance to auniversity in their last few months of high school. MEXT
outlined a system of pre-entry education (nyuugaku
mae kyou iku, 入学前教育) for implementation. The
directive reads:
From the perspective of maintaining a desire tolearn after students pass early stage entrance
exams, MEXT is promoting the following points
for university education:(1) Proactively provide pre-entry education,
especially for those who complete admission
procedures before December.

(2) High schools should cooperate with
universities and strive to provide the necessary
guidance to maintain students’ motivation tolearn.
(3) In the case of school-recommendation-typeadmission, the high school-university effort
should be made under the guidance of the highschool even after the student has made adecision to enter a university. (For example, thehigh school might require that students make astudy plan before entering a university andhave them report the progress of their pre-entry
education to the university through their seniorhigh school, and similar measures). (MEXT,
2015, translation by authors)
Guidelines for implementation are notably absent fromthe directive and the subsequent MEXT guidance. Thisomission has led to diverse approaches by universities
and colleges in Japan in implementing pre-entry
education programs, which is explored by this study.
Rationale for directive
MEXT (2015) indicated that linking secondary andtertiary education was critical to Japan’s globalization.
Filling gaps in what students covered during high school

PanSIG Journal 2023

226
and what was needed at university has been noted.
Kawai, 2018) indicated that Japanese curricula at highschools and universities must focus on education rather
than test preparation. MEXT (2008) suggestions for preentry education provided a starting point. However, theactual knowledge students need and ways to provide
this have not been outlined by MEXT. At Englishmedium institutions, Taguchi (2014), noting thedisregard politeness and poor pragmatic competence ofincoming
students,suggestedtheyneededsociocultural language awareness. All communication
environments (face-to-face, text, online) require thiscompetence. For instance, if students are expected toemail professors, they need to use appropriate
language (Usó-Juan, 2022). Taguchi (2014) alsosuggested that first-language (L1) speakers needed thiscompetence. This is supported by research in L1
literacy. Students lacking L1 literacy, especiallysentence-level reading skills, find subject matterclasses difficult (e.g., Quezada & Westmacott, 2019).
Thus, one suggestion for pre-entry education is toprovide practical and academic skills (e.g., Hendry et al.,2023; Leadley-Meade & Goodwin, 2019). Secondlanguage (L2) speakers of Japanese need similar
pragmatic training. In short, the lack of thoroughexploration in pragmatic competence (González-Lloret,
2019; Taguchi, 2020) indicates the need for pre-entry
programs to incorporate pragmatic skills.
Furthermore, it is essential to consider how pre-entry
education is being provided. Before the COVID-19
pandemic, most programs were conducted on campus
or by mail. During the pandemic, pre-entry programs
adopted a flipped-learning approach, where content isprovided through online and print materials for homestudy (Teachthought, 2014). (The effectiveness andimplementation of flipped learning classrooms,
particularly
thoseutilizing
information
andcommunication technologies (ICTs), have been thesubject of various studies (Chen & Yamashita, 2020;
Evseeva & Solozhenko, 2015; Hao, 2016; Khoza, 2020).
During the pandemic, all education was flipped, withpre-entry education provided in multiple formats: mail,email, asynchronous (on demand), and synchronous(online via online meeting apps). Once safety
restrictions eased, many institutions maintained online
programs, with some also re-instituting programs on
campus. (Further discussion of pre-entry programs
appears in the Examination of University Websites
section below.)
To date, however, we have not located research
regarding how pre-entry programs address MEXT’s(2015) directive. If the goal is to prepare incoming
students for university, understanding how pre-entry
programs are organized and whether they help prepare
incoming students for university study is essential.

Aim of the study and research questions
Given the lack of information provided to universities orhigh schools from MEXT (2008, 2015), the researchers
decided that further investigation into how Japanese
universities are implementing pre-entry programs forthe students they accepted using alternative routes iswarranted. A limited amount of information is available
on university websites. Therefore, with pre-entry
program administrators and faculty were needed, withthis supplemented by a survey of websites, to identify
the “best practices” for the implementation of pre-entry
programs. With this in mind, our research questions are:
1. How are pre-entry programs managed at Japanesetertiary institutions in terms of their types,
organization, determination of eligibility, andexpectations?
2. What do university pre-entry program administrators
think about the pre-entry program?
3. How might Japanese universities best implement
pre-entry education?

Methodology
Examination of University Websites
Our initial examination was to survey websites todetermine how universities discuss pre-entry programs.
In April 2023, we conducted a keyword search inJapanese using the terms nyugaku mae kyoiku (preentry education) and “daigaku” (university) so that bothprivate and public college and university programs
appeared in the search results. Initially, more than
50,000 results were returned but duplicates, specialty
programs, and high school websites were eliminated,leaving 60 university or college websites. We thentranslated the information into English and coded thesite in both Japanese and the English translation, with
the Japanese interpretation preferred when our
opinions differed. We determined that these institutions
had adopted a variety of approaches to implementationof MEXT’s 2015 directive (see Table 1), with someorganizing the programs by department and others notproviding this information.
Table 1
Japanese Universities Approaches to Pre-Entry Education (N = 60)
Institutional organization of program
Department

Unspecified

In person

1

3

In person & on demand47

On demand

20

24

Not specified

1

Total

26

34

PanSIG Journal 2023

227
The examination found that five pre-entry programs
specifically mentioned using a cram school (juku) or
provided the name of a cram school regarding thedevelopment of the university’s pre-entry program. We
identified 11 other programs as potentially using a cramschool based on the wording, which was nearly identicalin these cases. Two institutions provided graduationcredits for completion of pre-entry programs, awarding
1 and 4 credits, respectively. Three institutions charged
for pre-entry courses, with fees ranging from ¥3,000 to¥20,000. One institution had optional courses that preentry schooling students could pay to attend. Pre-entry
program developers included (a) faculty, who created
and taught courses, (b) university centers employing
staff members to monitor the students, and (c) use of
subcontractors such as cram schools to set up andmanage programs.

Pilot interviews with pre-entry programadministrators
This section discusses the pilot study of pre-entry Two
pre-entry program administrators working in the generalaffairs section at one private university in western Japan
participated together in an audio-recorded 90-minutesemi-structured interview in September 2022. Theinterview with these L1-Japanese speakers wastranscribed, entered into an Excel spreadsheet foranalysis, and translated into English. The data werecoded in either Japanese or English, with the L1Japanese researchers coding the original text and theL1-English research coding the English translation.
The three coders first read portions independently andthen met to share initial codings before establishing acoding scheme following the steps outlined by Saldaña(2021). Once all data were coded, the researchers
returned to the coding scheme to identify themes in thedata. Only quotes from one participant, P1, are includedin this paper as those from P2 were restatements oragreements of P1’s comments.
The interview followed a semi-structured approach
designed to check the question wording. The types ofquestions, asked in Japanese, included:

Results
Three main themes emerged from the pilot study
interview data: (a) academic considerations, (b) student
considerations, and (c) institutional considerations.
Comments were then categorized as positive, negative,
or neutral. Comments unrelated to pre-entry programs
were ignored. This paper focuses on positive andnegative comments.

Academic considerations
The data suggest three positive
considerations of the pre-entry programs:

academic

1) Literacy skills: Interviewees noted improved
technological and media literacy skills sinceincoming students received training from elementary
school.
2) Communicative skills: An emphasis on language
needed at the start of their tertiary education led toincreased awareness of communication pragmatics
and prepared students to participate in the cultural
life of the university. This included opportunities todevelop skills such as note-taking needed during
their studies.
3) Self-discovery: The pre-entry program provided anearly start to self-discovery and development of life
goals.
The first academic consideration, literacy skills, is foundin comments such as “They have already been seeing[using] computers since they were very young and whensmartphones arrived. In this way, they will already havebeen using computers since they were in elementary
school” (P1). Comments such as this might indicate thatpre-entry programs help students bridge the academic
expectations of ICT literacy needs for high school tothose needed for university success.
Communicative skill development is seen in comments
such as2) How many times does A university conduct a year?

I think it would be better if students knew thevocabulary necessary for university life from thepoint of view of pragmatics. I was also aware of
the cultural life of the university. Well, [theyshould receive] an assignment on this in any
case. (P1)

3) How do you make sure that these first-year students
acquire academic skills?

These suggest that programs might move students into
the cultural life of the university.

4) How would you like to work on pre-entry education
as a center?

Regarding self-discovery, program administrators
comments included reference to specific skills:5) What are the future plans for pre-entry education andfirst-year education?

The Learning Support Center offers note-taking
first, then four about designing four years oflearning. The fifth one is self-discovery and life

1) What kinds of pre-entry education does A university
provide?

PanSIG Journal 2023

228
approach and the sixth is goal-setting and time
management in the middle of the university.
Well, we are providing those things, plus, well,
the other departments are giving lessons on
how to use the library, and so on. (P1)
I'm going to make sure that they [the incoming
students] thoroughly develop the kind oflearning skills that are necessary for the college.
More like, well, you know, focusing on somekind of awareness or mental orientation,
including making friends? (P1)
These comments indicate a view of pre-entry programs
as helping students transition to university.
However, negative comments related to academic
considerations include computer skills, language skills,
and subject mastery. While the pandemic gave students
a crash course in computers for education, lack ofaccess to a computer remains an issue. For many, theirdigital device is a smartphone. While people cancommunicate with them, they are insufficient foruniversity work, a concern voiced by programadministrators. One such comment was “Also, I wonder
if there are children who don't have access to acomputer. That was the only thing that everyone wasworried about” (P1.) The students’ lack of computer
access meant that administrators had to contact
students using both digital and traditional means.
But if we didn't know whose email address it
was, then it would probably be something
related to the parents, something related toadmissions procedures, right? So instead ofemail, I said I would mail it and contact them byphone. (P1)This was also seen in comments like, “But not all highschool students have Google accounts. I was not sureif all high school students have a Google account or not,and I was not sure if they would want to join ours” (P1),and “But I couldn't tell whether they were the e-mailaddresses of the parents or the e-mail addresses of thestudents themselves” (P1).
Moreover, regarding language skills, many of thesecomments related to the difficulty that L2 speakers ofJapanese had keeping up with classes taught in theirsecond language. “In the case of our university, there
are many cases where students have difficulty inkeeping up with the Japanese classes” (P1). There
were also comments regarding the ability of firstlanguage (L1) speakers of Japanese, such as “Or, as
for reading and writing, how about their report writing
skills? Inability to write logically” (P1). This was also
seen earlier in the discussion: “I think, well, I think that
it is true that the ability of the students, including theirlanguage skills, has deteriorated” (P1).

Comments also referred to how a lack of basic
knowledge might cause some students to drop out as
weak reading and writing skills hinder both L1- and L2speakers of Japanese. “There are also cases wherestudents are unable to master the subject matter or stopcoming to the university” (P1). Additionally, negative
comments were found regarding pragmatic ability,
especially in email and letter writing:For example, there were cases where thestamps were not affixed, or there wasinsufficient postage, etc. High school students
are not really used to sending out such mail or
letters . . . I think that many of them don't evenaddress their letters properly, and it's quite a big
problem when there is no sender. (P1)Student considerations
A second set of comments was coded for student
considerations, particularly motivation and social
integration. While it might be argued that these overlap
with the academic considerations of learning and selfdiscovery, we treated them separately, viewing them as
addressing behaviors or perceived deficiencies by the
program administrators. Motivation-related positive
comments included:
Well, you get accepted [to a university] early,
and then you have to wait for almost six months,
a long time [from acceptance to entry] . . . . How
do you ensure that the students are aware thatthey have to make good use of time? How do
you keep them motivated to make the best useof their time? I think that is the key to keeping
them motivated. (P1)
Program administrators are aware that early
acceptance might negatively impact students’motivation to study during their last few months of highschool. Therefore, maintaining students’ motivation wasconsidered essential prior to entry.
Furthermore, administrators hope that opportunities tomeet future classmates might ease their social
integration into university life.
Making friends is an important function of preentrance learning. It is usually considered to be
an important function, but since it is only forstudents who entered the school in the fall, it is
not a good idea to make friends in this way.
(P1)
This suggests that the goals for pre-entry programs arebroader than bridging gaps in the students’ academic
knowledge. Within this comment, there are both positive
and negative reactions.

PanSIG Journal 2023

229
There were also comments connected to theadministrators’ perception that students’ ability to makefriends had declined, possibly due to the pandemic. A
representative comment is “The evaluation of
usefulness has not changed. While the evaluation ofsuch areas has not changed, there has been asignificant decline in the area of making friends online”(P1).
Moreover, negative comments regarding social
considerations included lack of awareness of standard
social practices and even the importance of showing up:“From the admissions center, I asked the guidancecounselor at the high school to make sure that thestudents attend the campus study” (P1).
Regardless, there is an awareness that the program canhelp prepare students to participate in university life.
“I'm going to make sure that they thoroughly develop thekind of learning skills that are necessary for that college.
More like, well, you know, ‘what about focusing on somekind of awareness or mental orientation, including
making friends?’” (P1).

Institutional considerations
A third set of comments was in terms of the institutional
considerations, particularly such as school programs
and pre-entry policies. Positive comments focus on theinstitutional concerns such as securing enrollment, as in“Well, I think it is a part of orientation to be aware of. I
think it will be a strategy to secure students as early as
possible” (P1). Participants also considered theorganization of the programs:
Some departments dare to include the mealtime in the program, and have students
communicate with each other there. Some
departments have interactive classes wherestudents can communicate with each other, orin places like the breakout room in Zoom, butthere are still limitations. The results of thesurvey clearly show this. This is the point, isn'tit? (P1)
Comments were also found in the Internal views of the
program:There are many voices, and I have received
compliments from some professors, but otheruniversities outsource the work, so I really feelthat we are doing the best we can, and that is
why we are getting a lot of compliments fromthe teachers. (P1)
Administrators also spoke about program expansion.
“The number of students who are eligible for thisprogram has been increasing every year due to the startof various high school entrance examinations” (P1). A
bit later in the discussion, the participant mentioned theuse of the university’s learning management system*LMS): “Well, we are just now considering whether or
not to use moodle as a labor-saving tool. But in the end,
I think we will probably continue with this style [email
and paper-based] for this year” (P1).
On the other hand, negative comments focus on
declining first-year enrollment, such as “on average, thenumber of students is definitely declining” (P1) as amajor issue forcing them to hold pre-entry education.
The willingness of high schools to support pre-entry
programs was another concern:
We hope that they will go on to our university inthe future, but, well, maybe the high school side
might think that such a thing is a nuisance. If
you go to another university and think you havea good system, you may not want to tell them
about our university all the time. (P1)
Limiting the program to early entry students is also
viewed negatively as students who enter through thegeneral examinations are ineligible. Scheduling is also
viewed negatively, particularly as there are other eventsin high school students’ lives:
There were times when school events
conflicted with each other, and there were also
times when the university's schedule was not
set up properly. In such cases, we received alarge number of notices saying that students
could not attend. Well, for example, there were
March graduation ceremonies and entrance
examinations. (P1)
Online programs received particular attention as they do
not provide for a full experience.

Discussion
The results from the pilot study indicate that further
exploration of pre-entry programs is warranted for us toaddress our research questions, but the data collected
does provide some insights. Furthermore, the pilot
study findings suggest that much needs to be done tohelp reduce the frustration found in the implementationof MEXT’s 2015 directive.
Moving forward, pre-entry programs need to address
two issues: maintaining motivation and building
programs that work with high schools. MEXT's (2015)
unvoiced concern for pre-entry education is to maintainstudents’ motivation in high school after they are
accepted into a university (Kawai, 2018). One
suggestion is to move motivation to study back to thehigh schools and make university acceptancecontingent on the students’ final grades at the end of
their last term of study.

PanSIG Journal 2023

230
Similarly, the concern expressed about students’
computer literacy and its potential impact upon their
university studies, as raised by Chen & Yamashita (202),
also need to be addressed. Access during high school
to the tools needed at the college and university level,
particularly computers, might warrant MEXT attention.
While this was not related to the pre-entry program itself,
the importance of technological literacy is clear given
the rapid changes we are seeing in education, whichsuggests that universities and high schools should findways to build these skills.
One concern kept coming up in the interview regarding
pre-entry programs that was unrelated to the programs
themselves. This is the need for universities to improve
the quality of education in Japan while being pressured
to accept students with lower entry-level skills, which
was coded as an academic consideration. The
suggestions emerging from the interviews, which will
require further exploration as we move forward, focus
on linking successful completion of the final term of highschool, not simply graduation, to university enrollment.
In effect, university admittance would be contingent
upon the final evaluation of competence in specificsubjects at high school. The results from the pilot study
indicate that further exploration of pre-entry programs iswarranted for us to address our research questions.
However, the data collected indicates that changes tothe current system of early entry might be warranted.
This could include extending provisional acceptancebased on successful completion of high school courses
as is done in the U.S. and other countries. Alternatively,
Japan might adopt a national matriculation exam similar
to the A-level exams in the U.K. to raise the level ofJapanese universities on international rankings, which
MEXT advocates. In short, rigor at the secondary level,
for all years, is more likely to have an impact on students
than one or two pre-entry sessions.
Related to this is the need to maintain economic viability
beyond the top-tier schools. An unfortunate outcome of
the falling number of high school graduates is
acceptance of students who might not be ready foruniversity education (Kawai, 2018). When faced withthe disconnect between their current abilities and what
they need to know and do upon entry, it is not surprisingthat students lose motivation to study. This showed up
as one of the institutional considerations but overlaps
with student considerations. This suggests that
researchers need to explore the issue of fallingenrollment at Japanese high schools on university
admissions and the impact of pre-entry programs onenrollment.
Another institutional consideration is the demands of
MEXT, high schools, students, and society on
universities. Currently, each university must either
develop a pre-entry program or contract withpreparatory institutions to create one (Hendry et al.,2023; Leadley-Meade & Goodwin, 2019). This hascreated a situation where high schools are requested tomonitor students from multiple universities following
different pre-entry curriculums, as determined by thedata from the website examination.
On a positive note, through pre-entry education,
students have an opportunity to interact with futureclassmates. This was noted as a major reason that preentry programs are considered successful in the initialinterviews. Improved communication between students
was noted as helping them transition to university withfriends.

Conclusion
Although the data are only from the website
examination and the pilot study interview for this project,which was conducted to evaluate the procedures andmake changes to the interview protocols, five points
stand out. First, MEXT officials need to clarify their
expectations for pre-entry programs, with an integrated
approach used by all tertiary institutions suggested as it
would be the most likely to be implemented with thecooperation of high schools.
Secondly, universities should share best practices forpre-entry schooling programs across multiple
disciplines. Third, universities must make clear to highschools the skills they are expected to have prior toentry, including linguistic and pragmatic L1 and L2
abilities. Next, students need to understand theinstitution’s expectations in order to develop autonomy,
which means that high schools and universities mustcooperate to help those planning to enter tertiary
education participate fully in academic life.
Finally, and perhaps most importantly, university entry
must be meaningfully connected to high school
completion, with satisfactory performance in the final
months considered essential for actual admission. Thismight address the unstated concern in the MEXT (2008,2015) directives: keep students engaged in their highschool studies after they have been admitted to auniversity or college.

References
Chen, N., & Yamashita, Y. (2020, September). A study
on the applicable methods of flipped classrooms
for cross-border education. 2020 9th
International Congress on Advanced Applied
Informatics (IIAI-AAI), Kitakyushu, Japan (pp.
322-327). https://doi.org/10.1109/IIAIAAI50415.2020.00072
PanSIG Journal 2023

231
Evseeva, A., & Solozhenko, A. (2015). Use of flippedclassroom technology in language learning.

Education, 1(11), 4-13.
https://openresearch.lsbu.ac.uk/item/88xq8

Procedia - Social and Behavioral Sciences, 206,
205-209.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.10.006

Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology (MEXT). (2008). List of preparatory
education courses designated by the Minister ofGonzález-Lloret, M. (2019). Technology and L2

Education, Culture, Sports, Science andpragmatics learning. Annual Review of Applied

Technology.

Linguistics, 39, 113-127.

https://www.mext.go.jp/en/policy/education/highhttps://doi.org/10.1017/S0267190519000047

ered/title02/detail02/sdetail02/1395421.html

Hao, Y. (2016). Exploring undergraduates'

Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andperspectives and flipped learning readiness inTechnology (MEXT). (2015). 3-5-1: What kind of

their flipped classrooms. Computers in Human

measures will be taken to improve pre-Behavior, 59(1), 82-92.

enrollment education?

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.chb.2016.01.032

https://www.mext.go.jp/a_menu/koutou/koudai/detail/1402211.htm

Hendry, G., Brodie, Z. P., Wilson, C., & McKechnie, J.
(2023). Reflecting on students’ perspectives of a

Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andpre-entry psychology course in academic skills

Technology (MEXT). (2020). School(2017-2021). Psychology Teaching Review,recommendation type selection.

29(1), 5-12.

https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20200619-

https://doi.org/10.53841/bpsptr.2023.29.1.5

mxt_daigakuc02-000010813_4.pdfd

Kawai, H. (2018). Transitions and future prospects ofQuezada, C., & Westmacott, A. (2019). Reflections oflinking secondary and higher education in

L1 reading comprehension skills in university

Japan. The Journal of Economic Education, 37,

academic grades for an undergraduate

20-26.

translation programme. The Interpreter andhttps://www.jstage.jst.go.jp/article/ecoedu/37/37/

Translator Trainer, 13(4), 426-441.

37_20/_pdf

https://doi.org/10.1080/1750399X.2019.1603135

Khoza, S. B. (2020). Academics "Why" of knowledgebuilding for the fourth industrial revolution and
COVID-19 era. International Journal of Higher

Saldaña, J. (2021). The coding manual for qualitative
researchers. Sage.

Education, 9(6), 247-258.
https://doi.org/10.5430/ijhe.v9n6p247

Taguchi, N. (2014). Pragmatic socialization in an
English-medium university in Japan.

Leadley-Meade, Z., & Goodwin, R. (2019). Pre-entry

International Review of Applied Linguistics in

self-assessment and mapping to relevant

Language Teaching, 52(2), 157-181.

services as a means of developing learnerhttps://doi.org/10.1515/iral-2014-0007

autonomy in undergraduates. The Journal of
Inclusive Practice in Further and Higher

PanSIG Journal 2023

232
Taguchi, N. (2020). Digitally mediated remote learningof pragmatics. Foreign Language Annals, 53(2),353-358. https://doi.org/10.1111/flan.12455
Teachthought (2014) The definition of the flippedclassroom.
https://www.teachthought.com/learning/definition-flipped-classroom/
Usó-Juan, E. (2022). Exploring the role of strategy
instruction on learners’ ability to write authentic
email requests to faculty. Language Teaching
Research, 26(2), 213-237.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1362168821106699

PanSIG Journal 2023

233

Examining Student Perspectives on Improving Online Self-Access Learning
Victoria Thomas
University of Shimane
Due to the pandemic, the shift towards online access has accelerated. In addition to open education resource (OER) expansion,
research from many disciplines shows that students increasingly seek information online and self-access centers need to radicallytransform to remain current. This project analyzed the website for a university self-access center and presented the results of astructured qualitative opinion survey distributed to the university’s students. The bilingual English/Japanese survey gathered
student opinions on the website’s visual and linguistic accessibility, subject relevance, diversity of content and cultural/linguistic
representation, and aesthetic appeal. The survey was distributed in late January to early February 2023 using Google Forms.
Results indicated most students were satisfied, though recommended changes included fonts, coloring, images, menu links,
advertisements, Japanese language access, and text quantity. Although survey results at one institution are not fully generalizable
to all university students, readers can gather ideas for their own educational contexts.

世界的流行の影響で、オンライン・アクセスへのシフトが加速している。多くの分野の調査から、学生がますますオンライン
で情報を求めるようになっており、セルフアクセス・センターが最新の状態を維持するためには、抜本的な変革が必要である
ことが示されている。このプロジェクトでは、ある大学のセルフアクセス・センターのウェブサイトを分析し、同大学の学生に配布した構造化質的意見調査の結果を発表した。英語と日本語による調査では、ウェブサイトに関する学生の意見を収集した。調査は 2022 の秋学期末に Google フォームを使って配布された。その結果、ほとんどの学生が満足していることがわかったが、美的魅力、メニューリンク、広告、日本語へのアクセス、テキスト量などの変更が推奨された。ある大学での調査結果
は、すべての大学生に完全に一般化できるものではないが、読者はそれぞれの教育の文脈に合ったアイデアを集めることができる。

Online self-access language learning is an establishedconcept in tertiary education, though some faculty andadministrators may approach it with trepidation. Even
before COVID-19, some self-access centers invested increating an online presence for students to engage with
content (see Shucart et al., 2008). However, thepandemic has accelerated the transition to web-based
university self-access language learning across theglobe (Davies et al., 2020; Mynard et al., 2022; Telfer etal., 2022), uncovering a variety of new challenges for
institutions of higher learning. This forced expansion
has broadened the conversation about modernizing
integrated self-access language centers (SALC) andcomputer-assisted language learning (CALL) in online
spaces as faculty and administrators with diverse
proficiencies and priorities engage with the increasing
digitalization of education.

A Brief History of CALL and SALC
There has been a shift towards online learning, content,
and engagement in education for decades. CALL
became an emergent topic in the 1960s (Butler-Pascoe,
2011) and has expanded rapidly with the increasing
accessibility and use of the internet. Although CALL is

not a new area, its constant self-reinvention through its
ties to current technological trends lends it currency. In
recent years, the field has arguably seen the highest
growth and fastest evolution in EFL, thanks to industry
partnerships, societal changes, an educational
narrative of embracing the future, and other trends.
Meanwhile, SALC grew out of the gaps left byabandoned audiolingual-method language laboratories(Mach, 2015) and is tapping into evolving trends ofgenerational learning needs and expectations. What
started as an effort to reuse language labs and foster acommunicative space has become an entire disciplineof research combining sociocultural SLA theories suchas learner autonomy, learner motivation, and the zoneof proximal development (Armstrong, 2016; Mach,
2015; Mynard et al., 2022). It is also a developing areain that some institutions are still questioning the utility of
SALCs for learners’ proficiency; for example, Takahashi(2017) compared learners’ increases in proficiency andmotivation after SALC usage for institutional validation.
SALC administrators, much like technologicalinnovators in CALL, have been compelled within thepast decade to justify their existence to budgetPanSIG Journal 2023

234
conscious administrations (Armstrong, 2016; Mach,
2015; Takahashi, 2017). Modern universities that do notembrace online resources for students may be
abandoned as irrelevant (Armstrong, 2016). Inevitably,
these two developing fields have started collaboratingto create truly on-demand self-access content (Rubesch& Barrs, 2014) and are now considered to be “closely
associated” (Mynard et al., 2022, p. 34) because online
access for students is an increasingly essential way toachieve a core SALC goal of fostering autonomy(Castellano et al., 2011) and is a socioeconomic
equalizer for working students (Mynard et al., 2022).
Before 2020, online self-access services in Japan were
scarcely researched (Davies et al., 2020). Spurred onby the pandemic, institutions in Japan are expanding
online SALCs, as discussed below.

The Evolution of Online SALC
Online SALC has existed in different forms for decades,enabling students to practice on-demand (Davies et al.,2020). Lázaro & Reinders (2006) found Internet-based
resources were already prevalent in three-quarters ofsurveyed SALCs in 2006 (cited in Castellano et al.,2011), though many digital materials were purchased
computer software like Rosetta Stone (Shearon, 2010).
Although innovative SALC administrators quickly
explored creative ways of providing online accessthrough LMS-integrated online self-access learningspaces (Shucart et al., 2008), most materials werecreated within the SALC as specialized practiceactivities.
However,internet
resources
had
expanded
exponentially by the time the pandemic led to the rapid
creation of many online SALC spaces, such as the
emergency remote support established at the selfaccess center at Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University(Ohara & Ishimura, 2020), the LMS-integrated selfaccess learning lab in Indonesia (Anas et al., 2020), andthe online writing support center at the University ofTechnology in Jamaica (Telfer et al., 2022). (Foradditional examples, see Mynard et al., 2020.)
Nowadays, free resources can easily be linked to amodern SALC website, i.e., one that is mobile-optimized(Castellano et al., 2011).
Though the historical challenge was resource scarcity,
the modern challenge is sifting through masses of
online content to find appropriate activities andpresenting them in an accessible and appealing manner(Mach, 2015). Indeed, students may have become
overloaded with content during the pandemic as SALC
coordinators felt pressure to do more in response to theuncertain learning environment (Davies et al., 2020). As
Armstrong (2016) remarked, it is not access that is thechallenge for today’s students; it is discernment.

Learner Motivation and SALC Design
Keeping students’ interest and attention can bechallenging, especially during a global crisis. Online
resources provide an opportunity for a greater variety ofactivities in an on-demand setting. However, they caneasily become overwhelming in number or hard tonavigate, leading to calls for greater simplicity, training
for students, and more selective offerings for online
SALC materials (Armstrong, 2016; Mach, 2015).
One limitation of online SALC use is that usage patterns
and obstacles can be hard to identify, so administratorsand faculty must actively collect feedback from students.
It is especially difficult to quantify online SALC spaces’
proficiency benefits, since the starting proficiency ofstudents and their quantity and quality of SALC use allvary (Morrison, 2005). However, as Rubesch and Barrs(2014) observed, maintaining a web presence is now as
essential to a SALC as to any other vendor or service
organization in the modern age. Users will seek out
information online such as opening hours, availability,
available products or resources, contact information,
and FAQs. Furthermore, there is evidence that adultlearners like using technology to study language
independently, both on computers and on mobile
phones (see Castellano et al., 2011). Gamification is
also popular with students (Telfer et al., 2022). However,
online resources cannot unilaterally provide a complete
language education. Research also clearly indicatesmost students require guidance and a sense ofcommunity to adopt these systems (Armstrong, 2016;
Castellano et al., 2011), a role which the SALC can fill.

The SALC and Learner Autonomy
As Rubesch and Barrs (2014) observed, the purpose of
self-access learning is to allow students to
independently direct their learning process by giving
them the tools to utilize language outside of the teacherdirected classroom environment, encouraging learnerautonomy. However, a traditional SALC is a physically
restricted space (whether a room or a building) withlimited availability, just like the classroom. This limitation
is “paradoxical” and may even contradict the principle of“self-access” (Rubesch & Barrs, 2014, p. 42). In
acknowledging self-access language learning’s close
ties to CALL, administrators may design self-access
content according to the principles of “Big Data” byaiming for a large “volume, velocity, and variety ofresources” (p. 43). However, Rubesch and Barrs (2014)
also cautioned against overwhelming learners withmyriad options and no guidance; in other words, it isimportant to moderate the volume and variety.
How much is too much? Ultimately, self-accessmaterials should serve the actual needs and interests of
the intended population, not just administrators’

PanSIG Journal 2023

235
theories and predictions. After all, the latter may beinaccurate (Fukuda & Sakata, 2012). SALC researchoften treats learner feedback as uninformed data to beinterpreted through theoretical lenses, showing
researchers’ lack of belief in students’ self-assessment.
But students know what interests or confuses them, andpart of cultivating learner autonomy is showing students
that their perspectives will be included.

The Research Setting:
A Detailed Look at the University's SALCThe context for this study is a prefectural university inJapan serving approximately 2,000 undergraduate and
40 graduate students. The satellite campuses
specialize in nursing/nutrition and early childhood
education/regional cultures, respectively, while themain campus specializes in regional/international
studies and offers language courses in English, Korean,
Russian, and Chinese. The self-access center at themain campus is designed to serve that campus’s
students; however, the addition of online resources andappointments makes it accessible to students at othercampuses. All first-year students on the main campus
are required to complete teacher-appointed SALC
activities at the Language Learning Support Room
(LLSR) as part of their English courses, and they must
use the SALC website to schedule appointments.
Nevertheless, many students may be unaware of theself-access center’s online resources.
In past years, the SALC staff included approachable
graduate students who could assist with Russian,
Korean, or Chinese. Unfortunately, the limited staffing
does not currently include student employees, which
are highly recommended for SALCs (Armstrong, 2016;
Mach, 2015), and the sole administrator is proficient inEnglish but not the languages above. As Thornton(2023) found in her study of self-access centers, thisEnglish-centric gap between languages offered asclasses and languages supported at the self-accesscenter is not unusual, but it is concerning. In addition,
spotlighting multiple languages is a way to promote
inclusion of students with non-Japanese language
identities (Mynard et al., 2022). Online resources are an
opportunity to fill this gap.
The website provides a home page with a photo banner,a summary of reasons to visit the SALC, the mission
statement, and a Google Maps shortcut showing the
SALC’s location. On the menu bar, there are pages for(1) information about the current SALC administrator,(2) posts announcing upcoming events or changes (alsoserving as a monthly culture blog), (3) appointments
scheduling, (4) links to 27 online language resource
pages, and (5) a basic privacy policy. Page viewershipindicated students rarely visited the online language
learning resources, and some students complained ofdifficulties when asked to use the site, so this study
served as a preliminary step to seek students’perspectives on the website and attempt to identify
barriers.
The survey was based on seven research questions:
1. Is the website welcoming (aesthetically pleasing)?
2. Can students understand the SALC website’sgraphical user interface (GUI) in terms of layout andlanguage level?
3. Are the provided topics useful and relevant for
students’ learning experience?
4. Do students want more content on the website? Whatkind?
5. Are students overwhelmed by too much content forthem to navigate effectively?
6. How do the students feel about the diversity ofcontent and cultural/linguistic representation?
7. Do the students have an overall positive association
with the website?

MethodA two-section online qualitative survey was created on
Google Forms to gather students’ opinions about thewebsite (Appendix A). To ensure anonymity, the survey
did not collect students’ personal data. All instructions
and questions were provided in English and Japanese
to ensure accessibility. A Japanese colleague checked
the Japanese translations of the questions.
The first section included three screening questions,confirming participants were students at the institution,
at least 18 years old, and consensual participants.
Students who answered no to any of these questions
were redirected to the submission page. The second
section included nine open-response questions (sevenrequired, two optional), which elicited students’ opinions
and knowledge of the SALC website. Questions were
designed to elicit multiple facets of a topic to stimulate
recollections and discourage simple yes/no answers,
and all were coded positively to avoid confusion.
The survey was distributed by QR code in class andthrough bilingual posters online and on the main
campus. Nine English faculty (excluding the researcher)on the main and one satellite campus were emailed alink to the survey and were asked to distribute thesurvey to their students. No faculty on the other satellite
campus were known to the researcher, so it is unlikelythat those students were informed or participated.
Two teachers offered extra credit in their English
classes if students completed a secondary survey link

PanSIG Journal 2023

236with their name, class name, and teacher name. Thirtyfive students replied to the secondary survey.

Table 1
Themes in Responses to Survey Question 1 (Aesthetics)

Results
There were 97 surveys submitted. All were students at
the institution and at least 18 years old. There were 91
completed surveys; however, this count was reduced to
89 when it was discovered mid-survey that the survey’s
login settings had reset and students were not required
to sign into Google, a measure meant to restrict thesurvey to one answer per participant. After this
discovery, the results were checked carefully for
duplicates, and two responses were eliminated.
Most students replied in Japanese, so answers weretranslated using machine translation (cross-verified
between DeepL, Google Translate, and sometimes
WordReference for individual words). Because all thequestions allowed for open-ended answers, theresponses were analyzed and coded into four
categories: yes/positive, no/negative, mixed, and don’t
know. Unclear responses were sent to the Japanesecolleague who had helped prepare the Japanesetranslation of the survey and was familiar with thequestions. In cases of coding ambiguity, given
Japanese cultural tendencies towards acquiescence
response behavior (Tasaki & Shin, 2017), it waspresumed students would hedge towards more positive
answers than they truly felt, so borderline cases werecoded more negatively.

Website Style/Design (Aesthetics)
The first question in the survey addressed style anddesign (Figure 1). Of the 89 respondents, 77 (86.5%)
claimed to like the website’s style and design. Positive
comments included “It’s colorful and very attractive”(Table 1). Eight students (9.0%) said they did not likethe style and design, two students (2.2%) replied with
mixed sentiments such as “you can get a fun
atmosphere, but it’s hard to tell where something is,”and two students indicated no knowledge (2.2%).
Overall, the website was considered aestheticallypleasing.

Positive
Attractive

29

Easy to see/understand

20

Yes

14

Good content

9I think so

7

Colorful

5

I like it3

Not attractive/appealing

Negative

Don’t know

3

Useful2

Fun

2

Very good

1Works well1

I don’t know

1

I have never seen it

1

Comprehensibility of GUI
Research question 2 was addressed by survey
questions 2 (layout) and 3 (language).

Website organization/layout
The second survey question addressed the website’sorganization and layout (Figure 2). In total, 67 students(75.3%) said they understood the website’sorganization and layout. Thirteen respondents (14.6%)
claimed not to understand it. Negative comments
included several complaints about the difficulty ofbooking appointments. Meanwhile, five participants(5.6%) gave mixed responses, such as “I understand,but it is difficult because there is a lot of information,”and four participants (4.5%) said they did not know
(Table 2). The responses to question 2 were lesspositive than to question 1, but the majority claimed tounderstand the layout.
Figure 2
Coded answers to "do you understand the organization/layout of thewebsite?

Figure 1
Coded answers to “do you like the style/design of the website?”

PanSIG Journal 2023

237
Table 2
Themes in Responses to Survey Question 2 (Website Layout)
Positive
I understand

43

Yes

15

Nothing difficult

6

Negative

Don’t know

rate here was higher than expected, given thecomments for question 2, so other students may haveanswered affirmatively based on translation as well.
Nevertheless,overthree-quartersofsurveyrespondents answered Questions 2 and 3 affirmatively,
indicating most students can understand the website interms of layout and language level.

Difficulty with appointment
screen6

Table 3Can’t find content(excluding appointments)

4

Themes in Responses
Comprehensibility)

Hard to understand4

I don’t know

toSurveyPositive

Mixed

3

Negative

3

Straightforward2

I (can) understand39

Nice layout

11Nothing (in particular)[is difficult]14

Perfect
I can do it

1

Yes

14

Easy to see

1Easy to understand

9+2
(Q6)

Too much information

1

Change font1

Letters are too small

1

I have never seen it

Question

Can understand alittle bit/some
1

Linguistic accessibility
There were 74 students (83.1%) who indicated they
could understand the words and phrases on the website– specifically menus, page titles, headings, andresource lists, i.e., the functional language necessary tonavigate the website (Figure 3). In addition, one student
claimed to mostly understand, but said the Japanesetranslation was strange.

3

No

2

Use automatictranslation tounderstand2

1

Would be better with asearch field
I don’t know

Don’t
know

4

The word are a little
difficult

I can do it(Language

1
1

1

I have never seen it

1

Figure 3
Coded answers to "do you understand the words and phrases on thewebsite? (menus, page titles, headings, and resource lists)?”

Useful Topics
Survey question 4 (Figure 4) provided answers toresearch questions 3 and 4. This section will address
research question 3: Are the provided topics useful andrelevant for students’ learning experience? Seventyeight responses (87.6%) indicated the topics on thewebsite were useful to respondents.
Figure 4
Coded answers to “are the topics on the website useful to you?”That statement indicated the student was relying on thebrowser’s automatic translation software to understandterms rather than their English proficiency, so the
response was coded as negative (Table 3). In total,seven students (7.9%) reported not understanding thelanguage of the website, six students (6.7%) gave
mixed replies such as “Almost I get it,” and two students
indicated their lack of knowledge (2.2%). The positive
PanSIG Journal 2023

238
Comments mostly included “it’s useful” or “there areuseful activities,” but several insightful comments
appeared, including “You can easily learn about
overseas culture, and it is easy to understand because
it introduces overseas events that match the time when
the post was made” (Table 4). This comment and a few
others were positive reinforcement for the utility of themonthly culture posts, which have no method of formal
engagement on the website.

requests not also involved an existing feature. Overall,these survey responses reflect a similar resource
awareness problem as the respondents in Castellano etal.’s (2011) study.
Table 5
Themes in Responses to Survey Question 7 (Requests - OPTIONAL)
Positive

Table 4

No/nothing/not in
particular/[no answer]

83

Themes in Responses to Survey Question 4 (Utility of Resources)

That’s enough1

Positive
It is useful

40

There are useful activities

17

Yes

14

Can learn ablut foreigncultures5[Requests]

Negative

Don’t know

Negative

I want lighter colors

1

I want a personal
appointment reservation
form

1

Please simplify menu

1

I want less text

1

I want advertisements

1

Don’t know

4

I don’t know

3

Easy to understand2

I use it for class

2

I have never seen it

2

Because of concerns that question 4 would not be direct
enough in eliciting student requests while also gathering
judgment on current topics, an optional question wasadded (Figure 5).

I learned and became
knowledgeable

1

Figure 5

Interesting/amusing (面白い)1

Coded answers to "is there anything that you would like to request to
have added to the website?”

Fine/okay (大丈夫)1

Easy to find1

Rarely used1

Three responses (3.4%) were mixed, including “usefulin class, but rarely used.” Three additional responses(3.4%) included requests, addressed in the next section.
Lastly, five responses (5.6%) included some iteration of
I don’t know, including “I know very few other features
besides reservations” and “never seen it. Not very
interested.” These responses reflect the nature of mostfirst-year students’ interactions with the SALC:
mandatory appointments for teacher-assigned activities.
However, most students felt the topics were useful tothem, answering research question 3 affirmatively.

Requests for Additional Content
Survey question 4 yielded the following requests:“overseas cultural information,” available on the
Anglophone Cultural Information page; “game topics,”
available on the Games for English Learning page; and“I would like you to post a video that shows theatmosphere of the LLSR” (Table 5). In addition, one
mixed answer was positive but requested foreign news,
which is available through links to foreign news sites on
the reading and listening pages and references to thenews in the monthly culture posts. Since the requested
information was already available, this answer would
have been interpreted as positive had most of the

There were 65 responses (73%) to this optionalquestion, 60 of which (67.4% of total, 92.3% of
responses) provided no requests. The remaining five
requests (5.6% of total, 7.7% of responses) were as
follows:
1. Advertisements
2. A reservation form for personal visits (i.e., notrequired for class; already permitted on the regularform)
3. Simplified menu links
4. Lightened colors on the website
5. Reduced amount of text for easier reading
One of these requests came from a student who madea different request in survey question 4, so eight

PanSIG Journal 2023

239
students (9.0%) in total made requests, indicating thatmost students do not want more content.

Variety of Content

Figure 7
Coded answers to "do you think that the website shows enoughlinguistic and cultural diversity?”

Eighty-one replies (91.0%) indicated the website had agood variety of content (Figure 6). Most respondents
replied: “It’s enough” or “just right.” Only five students(5.6%) stated there was too much content. No one
indicated there was not enough variety of content
overall, notwithstanding requests in the previous andfuture questions.
Figure 6
Coded answers to "is there enough variety of content?”

However, four students (4.5%) gave negative answers,
including one who wanted a Japanese translation site,
one who felt it would be easier to use if it could betranslated naturally into other languages (presumably
including Japanese), one who wanted to interact withmore cultures, and one who said: “I think it’s getting
worse. I think it would be nice to have a photo of people
from different countries” (Table 7).
Table 7
Themes in Responses to Survey Question 6 (Linguistic and Cultural
Diversity)
Positive

Lastly, three students said they didn’t know, with one
person stating: “I would like to know where I can findcontent” (Table 6). Unfortunately, this survey wasanonymous, so assistance could not be provided in thismatter. Overall, most students do not indicate being
overwhelmed, but some students are.
Table 6
Themes in Responses to Survey Question 5 (Variety of Content)
Positive
It’s enough54

Just right

11

Yes

8

Too many/too much

Negative

Don’t know

5

I don’t know

3

Appropriate

2Good amount2

Good variety

2

Convenient2

Nothing in particular [torequest]2

Better to have it

1

Linguistic and Cultural Diversity
Eighty students (89.9%) stated there was enoughlinguistic and cultural diversity on the website (Figure 7).

It’s enough/shows enoughdiversity

44

Yes

16

I think so

9

It mentions various
countries

5

It has resources forvarious languages

4

It has photos of people

4

It mentions
minority/indigenous/
multinational cultures

3

It is easy for people frommany countries tounderstand2

I want site translation

Negative

Don’t know

2

I don’t know

2

I don’t understand1

I want more cultures

1

It’s getting worse: I wantphotos of people fromdifferent countries

1

Three replies (3.4%) indicated uncertainty or apathy.
Lastly, two students answered a different question, so
their responses to this question were merged with their
responses to the corresponding questions. Researchquestion 6 (How do the students feel about the diversityof content and cultural/linguistic representation?) can

PanSIG Journal 2023

240
be answered positively; most students believe thediversity on the site is good.

Other Comments or Concerns (Optional)
When asked if they had any other comments orconcerns (Figure 8), 60 participants (67.4%) replied “no”
or “nothing,” 28 (31.4%) didn’t reply, and one student
replied, “I would like to continue using it in my studies.”
No issues were raised in regard to the other questions.
Although the absence of critical feedback in responseto this question indicates a general lack of time orinterest, the positive comment supports an overall
positive association with the website.

Combined with the results of survey question 8, theseresults indicate students have an overall positive
impression of the website (Figure 9).
Figure 9
Coded answers to "overall, what is your opinion of the website?”

Figure 8
Coded answers to "do you have any other comments or concerns?”

Discussion & Conclusion

Overall Opinions
Of the 89 participants, 80 (89.9%) gave positive overall
comments, including “good” (38, 42.7%), “easy to see”
or “easy to use” (15, 16.9%), “useful” (13, 14.6%), and“should be shared” (2, 2.2%). Four responses (4.5%)
gave negative feedback, namely “hard to see,” “hard tounderstand,” and two requests to have the main photobanner changed. Additionally, one person replied (asthey had through the entire survey), “I don’t know”(Table 8).
Table 8Themes in Responses to Survey Question 9 (Overall Opinions)
Positive
Good/very good/nice43

Easy to see/read/understand/use

16

Useful/great tool

14

Excellent/the best

2

Tell more people about it

2

Negative

Change cover photo2

Hard to understand1

Just a part of the universal
data world, I’m afraid

1

I don’t know

Don’t know

1

The survey results indicated a positive view of the SALC
website and some willingness to express negative
sentiments or criticism when asked. Although this study
is novel in eliciting student feedback on a SALC website,
students’ overall mildly positive responses aligned withother SALC student surveys about in-person SALC
features (Yasuda & Bankier, 2023). Many of thecriticisms
andsuggestions
confirmed
theadministrator’s suspicions, but some were surprising.
Enough information was gathered to plan substantial
improvements to the website, and all students’comments were addressed as outlined below.

Post-Survey Website Updates
Since two students mentioned in the general commentsthat the homepage image should be changed, replacing
this image was the first change implemented after
reviewing the survey results. The website now has an
automatic rotation of header images.
Student responses indicated an awareness ofaccessible user interface (UI) design, such as high color
contrasts, changeable font size and style, andadjustable backgrounds. Fortunately, Burke (2023)
showed that these features can easily be added to a
WordPress site using a plugin designed for students
with learning disabilities. This plugin has been added to
the website, with instructions for its use provided on the
homepage.
Students’ requests for more diversity, more photos, andless text were reflected in subsequent monthly culture
posts, and a tutorial video was created and uploaded tothe appointments calendar page, along with clearer
language and design indicating that the calendar is also
for self-interest appointments. The Online Language
Learning page (the first menu item of the 27) was
PanSIG Journal 2023

241
updated to include links to all pages so that students onmobile devices can simply visit that page instead ofscrolling through the menu. In response to students’request for lighter backgrounds and stronger color
contrasts, an ongoing project involves lightening theblock backgrounds of the 27 language research pages.
The request for advertisements was unclear and was
not acted upon.

Limitations
This study had various limitations in scope and ability.
Question 5 was not clearly articulated, which posed
challenges to interpreting the responses. Since thesurvey was distributed near final exams, students were
not generally inclined to generate deep, reflective
answers. Reverse coding, though initially avoided
because of concerns about confusion among
participants, may have prevented such cursory analysis.
Additionally, many students knew the researcher
personally or were the researcher’s students; they may
have avoided negative feedback. Finally, due to theresearcher’s low Japanese proficiency, machinetranslation was utilized, and some short answers may
have been misinterpreted due to a lack of context clues.

questions and providing clarifying interpretations ofsome Japanese replies. The author would also like toacknowledge Alexandra Burke for her invaluableguidance in identifying a compatible accessibility plugin
for the self-access center website. Her recommended
plugin addressed nearly all of the students’ requests.

References
Anas, I., Amansyah, F., Musdariah, A., & Irmawati(2020). Technological and pedagogicalconsiderations in supporting electronic selfaccess language learning (e-SALL): In-person
learning practice in the time of crisis. Studies in
Self-Access Learning Journal, 11(3), 128–134.
https://doi.org/10.37237/110303
Armstrong, T. (2016). Considerations whenestablishing self-access learning centers. 立正大

学文学部論叢, 139, 137–145.

Recommendations for Future Studies
Future studies on self-access center websites should
continue investigating students’ levels of comfort andfamiliarity with technology (especially user interface[UX]), interests and needs, and barriers to access.
Although independent survey questionnaires elicit
direct opinions from both users and non-users within thetarget population, surveys focusing on users could be
distributed on the SALC website itself. Potential
research directions include accessibility, mobile devicecompatibility, content requests and recommendations,and general UX design. Including closed questions infuture surveys would yield clearer data, though there isan equally clear need to continue collecting qualitative,
exploratory data. For example, this study was not
specifically designed to uncover accessibility concerns,
but the open-ended nature of the survey allowed theseconcerns to surface. To allow for freer responses, SALC
advisors, whose job involves forming relationships withall students on campus, might consider collaboratingwith SALC advisors at other institutions. Performing
cross-institutional studies ensures that each researcher
is not at the institution that they examine. Especially in
self-access research, collecting exploratory data fromstudents gives them the space to develop autonomy,
which is a fundamental goal of this field.

Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge Professor Mariko
Eguchi (江口 真理子) for her generous assistance inchecking the Japanese translations of the research

Burke, A. (2023, June 2). Using immersive reader andother text-to-speech tools to bring text to life forreaders of all levels. [Conference presentation].
JALT CALL 2023 Conference, Kumamoto,Japan.
Butler-Pascoe, M. E. (2011). The history of CALL: Theintertwining paths of technology andsecond/foreign language teaching. International
Journal of Computer-Assisted Language
Learning and Teaching, 1(1), 16-32.
https://doi.org/10.4018/ijcallt.2011010102
Castellano, J., Mynard, J., & Rubesch, T. (2011).
Student technology use in a self-access center.
Language Learning & Technology, 15(3), 12–27.
Davies, H., Wongsarnpigoon, I., Watkins, S., Vola
Ambinintsoa, D., Terao, R., Stevenson, R.,
Imamura, Y., Edlin, C., & Bennett, P. A. (2020).
A self-access center’s response to COVID-19:
Maintaining stability, connectivity, well-being,
and development during a time of great change.

PanSIG Journal 2023

242
Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 11(3),135-147. https://doi.org/10.37237/110304

Rubesch, T. & Barrs, K (2014). Supporting a physicalself-access center with a virtual presence.
Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 5(1),Fukuda, S. T., & Sakata, H. (2012). Improving learning

42–49. https://doi.org/10.37237/050104

environments from the student perspective: An
exploration with users of a self-access center. 大
学教育研究ジャーナル、9, 114−122.

Shearon, B. (2010). Report on independent learning:Self-access language centers at two Japanese
universities, student attitudes and habits, andMach, T. (2015). Promoting learner autonomy throughlessons for Tohoku University. 東北大学高等教

a self-access center at Konan University: From

育開発推進センター紀要, 5, 153–163.

theory to proposal. 甲南大学国際言語文化セン

http://hdl.handle.net/10097/57532

ター, 19, 3–29. https://www.konanu.ac.jp/hp/mach/cv/MACHkiyo2015_SALC_and_autonomy.pdf

Shucart, S. A., Mishina, T., Takahashi, M., &Enokizono, T. (2008). The CALL lab as a
facilitator for autonomous learning. In F. Zhang

Morrison, B. (2005). Evaluating learning gain in a self-& B. Barber (Eds.), Handbook of Research on

access language learning center. Language

Computer-Enhanced Language Acquisition andTeaching Research, 9(3), 267-293.

Learning (pp. 483–495). IGI Global.

https://doi.org/10.1191/1362168805lr167oa

https://doi.org/10.4018/978-1-59904-8956.ch028

Mynard, J., Peña Clavel, A., Liu, H., & Uzun, T. (Eds.).
(2020). Special Issue on Self-Access and the

Takahashi, E. (2017). Self-access language learning

Coronavirus Pandemic. Studies in Self-Accessの有効性について. 『地域政策研究』(高崎経済

Learning Journal, 11(3). https://doi.org/10.37237

大学地域政策学会), 19(4), 123–134.

Mynard, J., Vola Ambinintsoa, D., Bennett, P. A.,

https://tcue.repo.nii.ac.jp/records/845

Castro, E., Curry, N., Davies, H., Imamura, Y.,

Tasaki, K., & Shin, J. (2017). Japanese response bias:

Kato, S., Shelton-Strong, S. J., Stevenson, R.,

Cross-level and cross-national comparisons on

Ubukata, H., Watkins, S., Wongsarnpigoon, I., &response styles. Shinrigaku kenkyu : The

Yarwood, A. (2022). Reframing self-access:Japanese journal of psychology, 88(1), 32–42.

Reviewing the literature and updating a mission

https://doi.org/10.4992/jjpsy.88.15065

statement for a new era. Studies in Self-Access
Learning Journal, 13(1), 31-59.

Telfer, D., Stewart-McKoy, M., Burris-Melville, T., &https://doi.org/10.37237/130103

Alao, M. (2022). “Our voices matter”: The
learner profile of UTech, Jamaica students andOhara, T., & Ishimura, F. (2020). Emergency remote

implications for a virtual self-access center.

support at the self-access learning center:

Studies in Self-Access Learning Journal, 13(1),Successes and limitations. Studies in Self-

77-107. https://doi.org/10.37237/130105

Access Learning Journal, 11(3), 235–249.
https://doi.org/10.37237/110310

Thornton, K. (2023). Linguistic diversity in self-accesslearning spaces in Japan: A growing role for
languages other than English? Studies in SelfPanSIG Journal 2023

243
Access Learning Journal, 14(2), 201-231.
https://doi.org/1037237/140206
Yasuda, R., & Bankier, J. (2023, May 12-14). Selfaccess centre assessment to identify areas for
improvement [Conference presentation]. JALTPanSIG 2023 Conference, Kyoto, Japan.

PanSIG Journal 2023

244

Appendix
Survey Questions
Section 1 - Demographics
1. Are you currently a student at the University of Shimane?
現在、島根県立大学の学生さんですか？
2. Are you at least 18 years old?
18 歳以上ですか？
3. Do you agree to participate in this research?
この研究に参加することに同意しますか？
Section 2 - Opinions
1. Do you like the style/design of the LLSR website? Why/why not?
LLSR のウェブサイトは、視覚的に魅力的だと思いますか？ 説明してください 。
2. Do you understand the organization/layout of the website? If not, what is difficult to find?
ウェブサイトの構成/レイアウトを理解していますか? そうでない場合、見つけにくいものは何ですか?
3. Do you understand the words and phrases on the website? (menus, page titles, headings, and resource lists)? If not, what is confusing?
LLSR ウェブサイト上の単語やフレーズを理解できますか? (メニュー、ページ タイトル、見出し、資源リスト) そうでない場合、わかりにくい所はありますか？
4. Are the topics on the LLSR website useful to you? If not, what topics would you like to see?
LLSR のウェブサイトのトピックは、あなたにとって有用ですか？そうでない場合、どのようなトピックをご覧になりたいですか？
5. Is there enough variety of content? Is there too much variety? What should be different?
コンテンツの種類は十分ですか？ 種類が多すぎますか？何か別のものがあった方がいいですか？
6. Thinking about linguistic and cultural diversity, do you think that the LLSR website shows enough diversity? Please explain.
言語と文化の多様性について考えた場合、LLSR のウェブサイトは十分な多様性を示していると思いますか? 説明してください。
7. Is there anything that you would like to request to have added to the website?
ウェブサイト何かリクエストしたいことはありますか?
8. Do you have any other comments or concerns?
他にコメントや懸念事項はありますか？
9. Overall, what is your opinion of the LLSR website?
全体として、LLSR Web サイトについてどう思いますか

PanSIG Journal 2023

245

The Good Life: Foreign Teachers and Retirement
Gregory Strong
Aoyama Gakuin University
Very little has been written about retired educators, the so-called “Third Age Professionals” (Barnes, 2011; Carr & Gunderson,2016). Babic (2022) describes their wellbeing as affected by various individual physical, psychological, and social resources. In
Japan, in terms of physical resources, retired foreign teachers who worked full-time subsist on modest national and employee
pension plans and their taishokukin, cash payment for years of service. Part-time teachers survive even more precariously on thenational pension plan alone. Socially, and psychologically, these retirees also seek new social connections and the sense of
purpose that they found in teaching. This exploratory study looks at what 26 retired or semi-retired teachers, aged 62 to 83, would
advise younger teachers regarding financial planning, and how these 26 subjects now find purpose and connection and describe
other aspects of their lifestyles. The study will interest foreign teachers, whether preparing for retirement or experiencing it.

定年退職後の教育者、いわゆる「サードエイジ・プロフェッショナル」について書かれた論文はほとんど存在しない（Barnes,
2011; Carr &amp; Gunderson, 2016）。Babic (2022)は、彼らのウェルビーイングは、個人の様々な身体的、心理的、社会的資源に影響されると述べている。日本の定年後の資源は、フルタイムで働く退職外国人教師の場合、ささやかな国民年金と厚生年金、そして勤続年数に応じた退職金である、また非常勤講師は国民年金だけが支給され不安定な生活が強いられる。しかし、これらの退職者は新たな社会的、心理的つながりや、教師時代に見出した目的意識を求めている。この論文は 62 歳から
83 歳の定年退職、またはセミリタイアした 26 人の教師が述べた内容を探索的に研究したものである。この 26 人は若い教師に向けた経済的な計画のアドバイス、現在の生きがいや、社会的心理的なつながり、さらに他のライフスタイルについて述べている。この研究は、定年退職を迎えた教師だけでなく、これから定年退職を迎える外国人教師の興味を引くだろう。

The foremost challenge for retired foreign teachers inJapan in achieving “The Good Life” is subsisting on amodest pension income. Other challenges are to find
new social connections and the sense of purpose thatthese retirees enjoyed while teaching.
Much research has been conducted on language
teachers during their pre-service and early careerdevelopment. Very little has been written about retired
educators, the so-called “Third Age Professionals,”following “The First Age,” childhood; “The Second Age,”work and parenting; with the Third Age covering
retirement, around age 60 to ages 80 to 85 when agerelated limitations become more pronounced (Barnes,2011). For some, this period chiefly involves caring forparents or relatives, even children and grandchildren,
but individuals may also possess the financial, social,
and psychological resources, and physical health thatenables them to pursue other goals (Barnes, 2011; Carr
& Gunderson, 2016).

of whom lived in Japan) to describe their “wellbeing.” In
contemporary use, “wellbeing” is a term from thepositive psychology movement of Seligman andCsikszentmihalyi (2000) and others which seeks to
identify the traits that improve an individual’s quality oflife, enhance their experiences, and support better
citizenship.
Babic’s use of wellbeing for Third Age Professionals
refers to such attributes as an individual’s sense of
meaning and accomplishment, their social ties andrelationships, levels of engagement as well as their
physical health with higher wellbeing improving one’s
health, longevity, productivity and social relations.
Among Babic’s findings are the importance that her
subjects placed on continuing to work in education, theiraccess of social networks, and their physical, social,
and psychological resources or “capital.” This paper will
explore the financial and social capital of retired foreignteachers in Japan.

In one of the few studies of these individuals, Babic(2022) examined eight retired or retiring teachers (three

PanSIG Journal 2023

246

Calculating Financial Resources

Kosei Nenkin or the Employee Pension

The limited income of retired teachers in Japan is theirbiggest challenge. Retired teachers must live on themodest pensions provided by the national pension plan,
kokumin nenkin, and an employee pension plan, 厚生年
金, or kosei nenkin. There is a one-time payment as well,
退職金, taishokukin, severance or retirement money, acash payment based on a full-time employee’s years ofservice. Anecdotal remarks by subjects in this study
suggest that the two pensions combined, yielded only
20-25% of their fulltime university teachers’ salaries.

The second pillar, kosei nenkin, the employee pension,
forms the bulk of fulltime teachers’ retirement funds. At
private universities, the premiums are paid to thePromotion and Mutual Aid Corporation for Private
Schools of Japan (PMAC). With its headquarters inTokyo, PMAC offers information and support by
telephone and email.

However, calculations are complex, contingent onlength of service, lump sum payments, birthdate,average monthly salary, and number of dependents. In
a comparison of pension data, El-Agraa (2008)
calculated that a Japanese academic would receive
28.07 percent of their pre-retirement income and pay 30
percent of their medical expenses versus a British
academic (with similar years of service) receiving 57.86
percent of their salary as well as free medical benefits.
The Organization for Economic Cooperation andDevelopment (OECD, 2019) notes that 60 percent of allacademic positions in Japan are taught by part-timeteachers. Their financial position is very precarious.
Their one defined benefit consists of kokumin nenkin,
the national pension plan.

Kokumin Nenkin or the National Pension
Sometimes referred to as the first pillar of Japanese
retirement, kokumin nenkin is available to everyone who
has paid the small monthly premiums of ¥16,520 (Japan
Pension Service, 2024). Contributions are automaticallywithdrawn from the monthly pay of full-time faculty.
Part-time teachers must register at a JPS office, thenpay their premiums at post offices or convenience
stores. Legally, everyone in Japan between ages 20
and 59 is supposed to pay the premiums. These
premiums which are tax-deductible not only grant apension later, but also provide disability insurance andsurvivors’ benefits.
According to the JPS website, a fully vested government
pension, 40 years (480 months) of contributions pays
¥795,000 annually. Using the formula from the website,
the 25 years (300 months) that many teachers work attheir universities would bring in .625 of a full pension, or¥496,875 each year. Since 2017, even a teacher with
only 10 years of contributions (120 months), canclaim .25 of a full pension or ¥198,750 annually (JPS,2024). If a teacher leaves Japan earlier than ten years,
they can recover a maximum three years ofcontributions.

This pension is harder to calculate than kokumin nenkinbecause the premiums depend on one’s salary andbonuses. Appendix A shows one teacher’s pension
contributions before retirement. This is calculated at¥620 each month, multiplied by 12 months each year,
plus ¥1,500 x 4 for two bonuses (two months’ salary).
When the form was issued, the teacher had contributed
a total of ¥14,289,675.
The teacher lists 291 months of contributions over 24
years. Columns under 1a leave space to list thepensioner’s other employers and any additional
insurable earnings. This same teacher worked full-time
for a single employer, so at 25 years, 300 months, thepension would be ¥1,608,000 annually or ¥134,000
monthly.
As with any pension, withdrawing it earlier, for instance,at age 60, means a smaller amount. In a blog posting
about pensions, Tanaka (2023) notes that deferring apension “until the age of 70 increases it by 42% anddeferring it to 75 will increase it by 84%.”

Taishokukin or Severance Money
Like full-time employees of other Japanese companies,
retiring tenured university faculty are also eligible for 退
職金, taishokukin, a cash payment for years of service.
Universities calculate it from the number of years one
has been tenured. They start with a base amount,adding increments each year, larger ones at 20 years,
25 years, and so forth, depending on a school’s size andfinances. A teacher can inquire about their taishokukinfrom their university administration.

Foreign Pensions
Financial resources for a pensioner may include
pensions from other countries if the pensioner lived andworked in another place long enough to qualify. A
common misconception is that Japan’s internationalsocial security treaties mean that people can swap their
Japanese pensions for more generous pensions fromtheir country of origin. However, these treaties only
affect eligibility. One can “borrow” a few years from one
system to qualify for benefits in the country where one
has made most of their pension contributions.

PanSIG Journal 2023

247

Investing, NISA and iDeCo
Teachers are often intimidated by the idea of making
their own investments. Much information is available on
the Internet and elsewhere. The website Retire Japan is
an excellent resource for foreign teachers in Japan(https://www.retirejapan.com/) and Andrew Hallam’sMillionaire Teacher (2017) serves as a good generalreference on investing easily and effectively. However,as with any investment, past performance is no
guarantee of future results.
Presently, the Japanese government encourages
people to save more for their retirement, creating the
Nippon Individual Savings Account (NISA) in 2014, andthe “Tsumitate NISA,” (2018). Recently, the government
introduced higher limits, beginning in 2024. The
maximum amount for a NISA account will be ¥1.2 million
yen annually and ¥2.4 million in "growth investment"
accounts for individual stocks. Investors can hold bothaccounts and the lifetime investment limit for a NISA
account will soon be ¥18 million (Japan Times, 2023).
These plans are similar to tax-free savings in othercountries, notably the 401K in the U.S., but the accounts
in Japan have a limit on contributions.
For younger teachers, planning to retire in Japan, there
is 個⼈型確定拠出年⾦, an iDeCo account (National
Pension Fund Association, 2024). It can be opened atbanks and other financial institutions, and contributors
can invest in Japanese mutual funds, save cash, or buy
insurance. One can invest pre-tax income until age 60
and cash out tax-free (a maximum of ¥22 million after
40 years); this latter feature makes this plan superior tothose in other countries.

Methods: Foreign Teachers on Retirement
Thirty-two retired or semi-retired teachers, aged 62 to
83, were contacted by email and asked what financial
advice they would offer to younger teachers, and how
the 32 subjects would find connection and purpose in
their retirements (Appendix B). The questions were
derived from the literature on ageing which describes
the impact of financial preparation, physical and mental
activity, and meaningful activities and relationships (e.g.
Urtamo et al. 2019; Silva et al. 2022).
The group was a sample of convenience drawn from theauthor’s professional networks. Three people declined
to comment and three never replied despite follow-up.
Twenty-six teachers from the U.S., the U.K., Canada,
Australia, and New Zealand participated, providing a
response rate of 81%. Answers were summarized, thencollated, and common themes were noted. Responses
were also used to create a Table of Retired and Semiretired Teacher Profiles, using pseudonyms and listingteachers from youngest to oldest, and noting domicile,previous employment status, years of teaching andcurrent activities (Appendix C).

Financial Advice to Younger Teachers
The teachers suggested that their younger colleagues
should learn as much as possible about their pensions
well in advance of their retirements. These retirees
warned of the difficulty of living on pension incomes,
particularly during their first year of retirements with theadded expenses of healthcare and long-term healthinsurance. Several mentioned their fear of poverty. Most
were retired at the mandatory retirement ages at their
universities but continued teaching, editing, and writing.
Gina, 67, a retired full-time teacher, now working parttime, cautioned younger teachers about staying in thefield, given the few full-time positions available. Many ofher friends had only ever held part-time positions. She
observed, “They are teaching privately to supplement
their pensions and feeling a lot more pressure to keep
going.” One of only three part-time teachers in the study,
Henry, reported, that at 69, he hoped to work for anotherthree years to avoid drawing from his savings and taking
his pension too early.
Denise, 66, another retired full-time teacher, felt
fortunate to find nine part-time classes. She remarked,“There might be a lot of very poor gaijin in Japan as theyage. I've met a lot of people who said they have to keep
working. But sometimes that's not possible for healthreasons or the jobs dry up.”
One teacher described the additional challenge ofdivorce. Depending when the divorce occurs, some or
all of a teacher’s pension has to be shared. Anotherconsideration exists for pensioners living overseas, their
Kosei Nenkin benefits are subject to a 20% Japanese
withholding tax.
Most teachers emphasized saving money. Several hadbought life annuities when they were younger and were
benefiting from the payments now. Some mentioned thevalue of a good financial advisor but also describedmediocre ones who received their fees regardless of theresults. Uriah, 76, divided his time between his
properties in Japan, New Zealand, and Thailand. He
suggested, “Squirrel away savings in CDs [fixed term
deposits that earn interest], shares, and property, muchof it outside Japan,” and recommended occasionallymeeting with friends to discuss financial strategies.
Frank was forced to retire from his full-time position at
62, but stayed for two more years at a reduced salary.
At 66, he moved to another city and took several parttime jobs. He advised:
Put aside a certain amount and never touch it.
If you are into investing or owning property to

PanSIG Journal 2023

248
rent out, all the better, although not everyone
can do those things. Just keep your eyes open
to opportunities down the road…in your 30s or
40s, you may not have the view of retirement of
someone in their 50s or 60s, but it's still
important to visualize where you see yourself inthe next 10-20 years (here in Japan, teachingelsewhere, or working at another type of job).
The teachers who owned their own homes noted the
security they felt with home ownership and theadvantage that they avoided paying rent. Several
described their efforts to pay off their mortgages quickly.
They hoped to stay in their homes and “age in place.”
None of them proposed property ownership in Japan asa good investment except in prime urban areas.
Perry, 73, commented, “My tiny, one-person condo in
downtown Yokohama, which I rent out for extra income,has increased its value and is worth more than my large
3-bedroom, 2-bath home one hour away in the suburbs,
which has dramatically lost value.”
Finding Connection and Purpose
Besides the financial challenge of subsisting on apension, the retirees in this study faced the challenge ofmaking new social connections and finding a sense of
purpose. Most described some form of teaching as theirmain activity and reported that they still enjoyed doing it.
Yvette, 79, remarked: “A teacher is always a teacher.”
Aside from the money from teaching (if they were paid),
the respondents liked interacting with students andpreparing for their classes gave them a sense of
purpose, too.
Ethan was retired at 65, then “lucky enough” to be reappointed as a 特別特任教授, tokubetsu tokunin kyōju,
a special project professor, with the same teaching load
and responsibilities as before but with a 24 percent
salary cut. He still felt grateful:
I appreciate my colleagues and administratorsmuch more than ever before, and I have asteady admiration for my students who are filledwith youthful energy, who persevere despitedifficulties, who respect their teachers (rightly or
wrongly), and who are open to learning.
Perry teaches two private discussion classes of adults,
one online and one in person, centering on current
events, intercultural topics, and personal experiences.
He noted:
I charge a modest fee, but I teach these classes
primarily to keep my mind sharp and makeworthwhile use of my knowledge andexperience. The discussions are stimulating,

and we share a lot of practical information on all
kinds of topics.
Thea, 77, enjoys the private school where she stillteaches, some years after retiring. She commented, “Ifeel lucky there is no retirement age for these adultclasses. Some in their 80s still teach there -- and somestudents are likewise no spring chickens. I lost one of
my best students when he turned 90.”
The teachers in the study also found purposeful activity
in conducting academic research as well as writing
poetry and fiction; the latter, interests that they had held
before retiring. Vincent, 76, started his own literarypress where he acts as editor and sometimes translator.
Since 2013, he has produced more than 40 poetry
books. He observed, “I’d always been fascinated byliterature, especially poetry, so when I retired I decided
to go for that 100 percent.” Xavier, also 76, felt glad at
leaving behind an academic environment to concentrateon his lifelong interests in writing and performing.
Notably, several respondents moved in different
directions to find purposeful activities. Bea, 64, retired
early to teach well-being and meditation workshops.
She declared, “I am now living the life of my dreams.”
Liam, 70, moved to his sister’s ranch. He stated, “Timefor something new and different” although he still writes
academic papers.
Volunteering formed a purposeful activity for some.
They helped with educational associations, engaged
with municipalities over local issues, staffed urban
environmental campaigns to save Tokyo’s greenspaces,
organized women’s retreats, assisted elderly neighbors,helped with teaching and tutoring, and engaged withsocial problems. Ted, 74, spends Saturday mornings
with an outreach program for the homeless in Tokyo’s
Yoyogi Park. He commented:
There are often close to 100 men and women
waiting there, rain or shine. It's a really different
look at life and I feel somewhat helpless. Yet it
seems to have some meaning all around. “Saltof the earth” folks—both the “homeless”—or“rough sleepers”—and the folks who help out.
Developing new social networks challenged most
respondents. They struggled to replace the networks ofcolleagues and students that they had enjoyed before
retirement. Some described how playing music in aband, acting, singing in a choir, or participating in writing
or research groups helped them to form new friendships.
This challenge proved especially difficult for teachers
who had moved to find new work, live closer to otherfamily members, or had left Japan.

PanSIG Journal 2023

249

Physical HealthIn addition to these challenges is another aspect ofretirement which Babic (2022) observes, the resourceof physical health. When exercise was noted by the
subjects in the study, their principal exercise waswalking. A few teachers also cycled, gardened, and oneeven did carpentry (renovations to a home).
Of the three who described regular, vigorous and varied
workouts (which are recommended for seniors andadults of all ages), Ted works out daily and jogs fourtimes weekly, and sometimes hikes, remarking that with“getting older, the saying, “use it or lose it,” gets more
and more true.” Perry described how he gave up goingto the gym due to medical issues, but manages “aweekly routine of low-impact aerobics, aqua walking,stretching, and muscle training,” adding that whatever
happens, “there is always some way to adapt.”

The Impact of Domicile
Where to live turned out to be the teachers’ mostimportant choice as it impacted their finances, social
networks, and sense of purpose. The majority choseJapan. With the exception of two subjects, the teachers
all had a Japanese partner. That influenced theirdecision as did the state of their finances, the domicileof their children and extended family, their comfort withliving in Japan, and their access to good, inexpensive
medical care in Japan, too. Ethan, struggled to choose
between three different countries. He commented:
My home is Oregon, my wife’s home is Seoul,
and our two adult daughters were born andgrew up in Japan. Issues such as quality andfuture cost of healthcare weigh heavily in thedecision, as does closeness to extended family
in the US (and to a lesser extent, Korea) andthe majority of our friends live in Japan.
Three teachers who left Japan cited concerns for theirchildren’s education. They believed their children would
get better high school or university education elsewhere.
Subsequently, they experienced the convenience ofliving in an English-speaking culture and sometimes thebenefits of extended family. However, they also notedthat it proved harder to adjust than they had anticipated,
and that they missed aspects of their life in Japan. Ian,
69, wrote:
Moving back to the US disrupted my social andacademic life ‘big time’ though I am still doingsome things that I like, such as producing amagazine. Reading is better in the US becauseof great libraries. Socializing harder. Writing apleasure.

The difficulty of repatriation often began with finding aplace to live. Calvin, 65, returned to Australia with his
Japanese wife. He observed:
Our initial lifestyle plans (including reading,writing, socializing, volunteering, and hobbies)
went up in smoke from our first month back as
we have been confronted with a seemingly
never-ending string of problems--house repairs,
dealing with a variety of ‘professionals’ and thebureaucracy of various government agencies,
the cost of health care, and living expenses.

The Factor of Citizenship
Another major step for some teachers was to become
Japanese citizens, a decision frequently taken to avoid
U.S. taxes that might affect their children’s inheritances.
This involved considerable effort, documentation, andJapanese ability. In addition, the teachers had torenounce any other citizenships and prove that they
were financially self-sufficient. Yvette recently
undertook that step and wished she had done it years
earlier because it was a huge commitment of time andeffort and stressful. She remarked:
The whole procedure took more than a year,
and for me was “scary”--The interviews werevery tiring, individually (each separately) and asa couple. I had to write an essay inJapanese. Mine was eight pages long and a
resume of my life and work in Japan.
Yvette and Zack, 83, the two oldest teachers in thisgroup remained in Japan and expressed contentment
with that choice. They take satisfaction in walks in theircommunity, following their interests, and in interactingwith their neighbours and friends as they prepare for theend of their lives. Zack urged other teachers to thinkahead, to make a will, and to prepare “an ending note,”the latter a widespread practice in Japan. In an ending
note, a person reflects on their life and personal history;
provides recollections and memories, conveys
information about their assets, and expresses theirfuneral wishes. Commercial end note books areavailable with prompts for bank accounts, location of
documents, internet and device IDs and passwords, andpeople to be notified.

Discussion
The comments and concerns of the teachers in thecurrent study are not generalizable to a broader
population, but of value in illuminating potential areas
for future research. Among the current study’s
limitations is the construct of wellbeing in the lives ofThird Age Professionals (Babic, 2022). Values such asa sense of meaning and accomplishment, social ties
and relationships, and physical, social, and
PanSIG Journal 2023

250
psychological capital need more clarification throughfurther research. Over time, this process has occurredin other areas of positive psychology so that there are
now happiness inventories, self-rating scales for
optimism, and questionnaires for quality of life.
Furthermore, these instruments have been used very
extensively, and now have a high degree of validity.
As noted earlier, the 26 teachers in this study compriseda sample of convenience; all were foreign teachers,
native speakers, and 23 of them had worked in full-time
positions. There are other foreign teachers in Japan andmany more part-time ones. Future research should lookat these groups, particularly in terms of pensions andtheir limited economic resources.
Furthermore, the participants in this study expressed apositively-skewed perspective; comfortable enoughabout their retirements to share their feelings andobservations. In contrast, one teacher who did not reply
to the author, was destitute and living on public
assistance in a seniors’ residence. A much larger andmore representative group should be surveyed about
their retirements, and the challenges that they face. This
research could lead to useful generalizations about
foreign teachers retiring in Japan.

Conclusion
Although more research needs to be done on foreignteachers in Japan, some challenges are clear.
Financially, teachers of all ages need to better calibrate
their employment choices, contribute to more robust
personal savings and investments, and learn about theirpensions. Educational institutions and teachers’
associations like JACET and JALT should do much
more to prepare full-time and part-time teachers.
In terms of social and psychological resources, teachers
nearing retirement should develop new social networks,
and explore interests and activities besides teaching.
Self-help and social groups abound on the Internet
throughwebsitessuchasMeetup.com(https://www.meetup.com/). There are some excellent
free online tools for self-assessment, particularly at the
Authentic
Happiness
website(https://www.authentichappiness.sas.upenn.edu/)
atpsychologist Martin Seligman’s Positive Psychology
Center at the University of Pennsylvania that enable
users to nurture their capacity for happiness. Teachers
also should prepare for such significant choices as
where they will live, and the pursuits that they hope toenjoy.

References
Babic, S. (2022). The psychological capital of third-age
university language professionals: Positive

resources supporting wellbeing (Unpublished
PhD dissertation). Institut für Anglistik KarlFranzens-Universität Graz, Graz, Austria.
Barnes, S. (2011). Third-age: Golden yearsof adulthood. San Diego, CA: San Diego State
University Interwork Institute. Retrieved fromhttp://calbooming.sdsu.edu/documents/TheThird
Age.pdf
Carr, D. C., & Gunderson, J. A. (2016). The third ageof life: Leveraging the mutual benefits ofintergenerational engagement. Public Policy &Aging Report, 26(3), 83-87.
https://doi.org/10.1093/ppar/prw013
El-Agraa, A. (2008). Public pension provision:
A comparison of the British and Japanesesystems, based on their university
arrangements. Pensions: An International
Journal, 13, 25-48.
https://doi.org/10.1057/pm.2008.5
Hallam, A. (2017). Millionaire teacher: The nine rulesof wealth you should have learned in school (2nded.). Hoboken, New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons.
Japan Pension Service. (2024). Japan
Pension Service. Retrieved fromhttps://www.nenkin.go.jp/international/japanesesystem/nationalpension/nationalpension.html
The Japan Times. (August 22, 2023). Japan renews
efforts to push shift from savings to investments.
The Japan Times. Retrieved fromhttps://www.japantimes.co.jp/news/2023/04/25/b
usiness/economy-business/savings-toinvestments-japan/
National Pension Fund Association. (2024). National
Pension Fund Association. Retrieved fromhttps://www.ideco-koushiki.jp/english/

PanSIG Journal 2023

251
OECD. (2019). Part-time academic staff. In Higher
education: Benchmarking higher education

https://www.retirejapan.com/blog/anothernenkin-case-study/

system performance (Section 4.3.3). Paris,
France: OECD Publishing. https://www.oecd-

Urtamo, A., Jyväkorpi, S., & Strandberg, T. (2019).

ilibrary.org/sites/b150d324-

Definitions of successful ageing: A brief review

en/index.html?itemId=/content/component/b150

of a multidimensional concept. Acta Biomedica,d324-en#section-d1e2189

90(2), 359-363.
https://doi.org/10.23750/abm.v90i2.8376

Seligman, M. E., & Csikszentmihalyi, M. (2000).
Positive psychology: An introduction. American
Psychologist, 55(1), 5-14.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.5
Silva, I., Marquete, V., Lino, I., Batista, V.,
Magnabosco, G., Hadad, M., & Marcon, S.
(2022). Factors associated with quality of life inretirement: A systematic review. Revista
Brasileira de Medicina do Trabalho: Publicacao
Oficial da Associacao Nacional de Medicina do
Trabalho-anamt, 20(4), 676-684.
https://doi.org/10.47626/1679-4435-2022-876
Tanaka, B. (2023, August 22). Another Nenkin Case
Study. Retire Japan.

PanSIG Journal 2023

252

Appendices
Appendix A: Pension Contributions

Appendix B: Questions for Retired and Semi-retired Teachers
Questions:(Please indicate your age, where you live, your years of teaching, and whether full-time or part-time)
1.

What financial advice would you offer to younger teachers?

2.

In terms of lifestyle, what are your daily routines, paid work if any, exercise, and the social networks in your life?

3.

What life choices have you made in your retirement in terms of where to live, whether or not to stay in Japan, and the pursuit ofprofessional, academic, literary, activist, or other interests?

PanSIG Journal 2023

253

Appendix C: Retired and Semi-retired Teacher Profiles
With pseudonyms, from youngest to oldest, their age is noted as well as their domicile, previous employment (full-timeor part-time), total years of teaching (from primary to tertiary education), and their current activities.
NAME

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

13
14
15
16

17
18
19
20

21
22
23
24
25
26

AGE

DOMICILE

PREVIOUSSTATUSYEARSALBERT
62
CanadaPart-time24
Part-time teaching, volunteering, engagement with municipal politics
BEA
64
Japan
Full-time30
Mindfulness/meditation teacher; gym, weightlifting several times weekly
CALVIN
65
Australia
Full-time
42
House repairs, reading, writing
DENISE
66
Japan
Full-time34
Part-time teaching, creative writing, textbook writing and editing, proofreading, occasionally examining
ETHAN
66
Japan
Full-time
36
Semi-full-time teaching, writing
FRANK
67
Japan
Full-time25
Part-time teaching, blogging, educational research, proof-reading
GINA
67
Japan
Full-time30
Part-time teaching, fiction writing, some foreign travel
HENRY
69
Japan
Part-time46
Part-time teaching, editing, photography, healthy eating; cycling daily
IAN
69
USA
Full-time
45
Producing a magazine, reading, writing
JANA
70
Japan
Full-time46
Teaching at her own school, playing music, taking language lessons; visiting the gym several times weekly
KEN
70
CanadaFull-time
41.5
Volunteer teaching, reading, gardening, language study, travelling; seasonally; skating, cycling, swimming and canoeing
LIAM
70
USA
Full-time
50
Working on a ranch, writing and editing; mountain biking, 3 or 4 hours of farm chores daily (e.g. feeding a dozen horses, changing water pipes on hay
fields in summer)
MILES
70
Japan
Full-time
43
Reading, writing, participating in academic meetings, cooking; exercising
NAT
71
UK
Full-time
40
Acting, textbook writing; walking
OLIVER73
Japan
Full-time
30
Some part-time teaching, music lessons, singing, weaving
PERRY
73
Japan
Full-time
41
Part-time teaching, presenting, writing educational materials, language studies, dining out, cultural activities, domestic travel; aerobics, aqua walking,stretching, muscle training
QUINN
73
Japan
Full-time22
Part-time teaching, writing textbooks, learning code writing, carpentry, gardening, guitar, photography; cycling
ROB
73
Japan
Full-time38
Part-time teaching, presenting, writing and publishing; exercising
SIMONE
74
Japan
Full-time34
Part-time teaching, activist in social and environmental causes, traveling, theatre; pilates weekly, yoga classes bi-monthly
TED
74
Japan
Full-time
40
Literary translating, writing, playing music, volunteering; exercising 40 minutes daily including stretching and weight training, jogging 4 days weekly;
hiking
URIAH
76
Japan, New Zealand, Thailand
Full-time48
Occasional teaching, running a media company, consulting, reading, writing, volunteering, house building and maintenance, travel; exercising
VINCENT76
Japan
Full-time
32
Writing and editing, running a literary press; walking
WYATT
76
Japan
Part-time48
Some part-time teaching, writing, publishing, and editing, playing music, domestic travel; walking
XAVIER
76
Japan
Full-time
32
Some lecturing, directing, translating, writing, diction coaching, acting; walking
YVETTE
79
Japan
Part-time
31
Letter-writing, reading, volunteering
ZACK
83
Japan
Full-time
43
Proof-reading, translating, reading, watching old movies; walking, making temple pilgrimages

PanSIG Journal 2023

254

At Play: Drama for Language Education
Gregory Strong
Aoyama Gakuin University

Joseph Dias
Aoyama Gakuin University

Michiyo Okawa
Aoyama Gakuin University

Miki Tanaka
Kanagawa University
Many language educators are interested in using drama but reluctant to try it. This paper outlines four approaches that areaccessible even to instructors with limited previous experience using drama. The first of these is role play through the Performed
Culture Approach (PCA), a structured way to learn language by examining intercultural communication through role play. The
second approach has students rehearse and perform lines from such materials as plays, TV, and film scripts. A task-based
syllabus illustrates how a variety of script-based materials can be sequenced into Pre-Task, Performance, and Post-Task activities.
In the next approach, students, in small groups, create plays based on current social issues. Over a term, they generate a
production concept, a plot and flowchart of events, and a script which they rehearse and perform. The last approach involves
bringing students to see live theatrical productions, preparing beforehand through such means as reading adaptations in class,comparing online versions, and performing their interpretations of key scenes.

多くの語学教育者は、ドラマを使うことに興味はあるが、なかなか試してみようとしない。本稿では、ドラマを使った経験の少ない指導者でも利用しやすい 4 つのアプローチについて概説する。その 1 つ目は、ロールプレイを通して異文化間のコミュ
ニケーションを考察し、言語を学ぶ構造化された方法であるパフォームド・カルチャー・アプローチ（PCA）によるロールプ
レイである。もう 1 つは、演劇やテレビ、映画の台本などのセリフをリハーサルして演じる方法である。タスク・ベースのシラバスは、台本に基づくさまざまな教材を、プレタスク、パフォーマンス、ポストタスクのアクティビティにどのように順序立てていくかを示している。次のアプローチでは、生徒は小グループに分かれ、現在の社会問題を題材に劇を創作する。学期
を通じ、生徒たちは作品のコンセプト、筋書き、出来事のフローチャート、台本を作成し、リハーサルと上演を行う。最後のアプローチでは、生徒を生の演劇作品に参加させ、クラスで翻案作品を読んだり、オンライン版を比較したり、重要なシーンの解釈を上演したりするなど、事前に準備をさせる。

Drama can provide many opportunities for language
learning and for creative expression. It was first
applied in the L1 context, particularly in the UK,
notably with the efforts of Heathcote (cited by
Wagoner, 1976) in negotiating classroom role playswith students, and Bolton (1984) advocating for theapplication of drama, curriculum-wide. Descriptions of
its classroom use with language learners followed with
Maley and Duff (1978), and Smith (1984).

More recently, educators have renewed calls for its
widespread application. Charles and Kusanagi (2007),in reviewing the literature, characterized its value as
making students aware of different communication
modes;
improvingcommunicative
behaviors;developing abilities such as pronunciation, intonationand discourse strategies; and providing a genuine
context for communication. Boudreault (2010) argued
that in addition to facilitating learning in acontextualized and interactional fashion, drama

PanSIG Journal 2023

255
improves students’ confidence and relieves thetension of learning in a foreign language.
Cahnmann-Taylor and McGovernor (2021) list morethan 80 different activities and games for language
learners, demonstrating varied techniques andapproaches. Many individual activities could serve as
instructional interventions, and some of them havebeen researched. Kung (2013) found using jazz
chants with college students improved their speaking
fluency, listening comprehension, and theirconfidence and interest. Gorjian et al. (2010) foundthat university students preparing for roles in two
English plays scored higher on comprehension andmotivation than students pursuing traditional textbased studies. Alasmari and Alshaa’el (2020) foundthat role play and simulations with young learners
developed their confidence, motivation, and speaking
fluency. A meta-analysis of the effect of drama on
language skills by Ulubey (2018) found that it
positively affected learner skills, however, he notedthat
research
participants
werefrequently
heterogenous in age and language ability, among
other factors, and the researcher was often theclassroom teacher. Overall, research findings fordrama interventions indicate positive effects forlanguage learners.
Despite these arguments and the longstanding
interest of many educators, teachers do not use
drama often due to challenges that have been outlined
by Alasmari and Alshaa’el (2020, p.63). They include
classroom management issues, teacher unfamiliarity
with drama techniques, the open-ended andunpredictable aspect of using it, the perception that
drama is frivolous, teacher discomfort with their own
English proficiency, and difficulties in assessing
success. There might also be the perception that
drama activities are less effective for improving
students’ English skills compared to othercommunicative activities, and some may conclude
that there is a poor benefit-cost ratio. Angelianawati(2019) points out that shy students, and students withcertain developmental disorders or social phobias,
may find drama frustrating, while Royka (2002)
contends that the fear of looking or feeling foolish islikely to be more common among adult learners who
are asked to take part in drama.
This paper will outline four key approaches to using
drama in language teaching. These consist of roleplay through the Performed Culture Approach (PCA),
structured drama through script reading, playmaking
in a performance studies course, and bringing plays tostudents.

Role play and the Performed Culture
Approach
Language teachers in Japan are now putting greater
emphasis on authentic language use and the social
aspects of language. Role play, which Kumaran(2017) defines as “an activity centered on imagining
being in a real-life situation and using language incontext to communicate” (p.73) can play a significant
role. Role play through the Performed Culture
Approach (PCA) goes a step further in offering a
structured approach to intercultural communication.
One of the authors of this paper encountered PCA
during her Japanese teacher training in the U.S. andfound that it increased her confidence in using roleplay. Her students there not only liked the interactions,but they provided a vehicle for introducing grammar
and culture. She later applied it in Japan whenteaching English to Japanese students. Using theapproach may help other Japanese teachers
overcome their reluctance to use drama.
PCA was designed to teach cultural aspects ofcommunication to students in Chinese and Japanese
language classes in North America, helping them tobetter interact with native speakers. PCA provides
instruction in the linguistic aspects of an utterance aswell as teaching about the target culture through“performing culture.” As Yu et al. (2020) explain,pedagogical materials should elicit “appropriate
cultural performances” from students, and help themconstruct a “second culture (C2) worldview as distinct
from their base culture (C1) worldview” (p.156).
For example, Japanese students need to understandhow to modify their language according to theoccasions where they use it. Although Japanesehonorifics might not exist in English, English speakers
use different language to invite friends to join them inan activity than they do when inviting business clientsor superiors, as these examples illustrate:
John (to classmate): Hey, Cindy, how about catching“Wonka” at the Bijou theater?
vs.
John (to his boss): Sorry to disturb you, Mr. Garcia,
but I wonder if you might be able
to join the sales team for lunch
today. We have some ideas wewould like to run by you.
Without understanding this integral part of interculturalcommunication, English language students might
become marginalized in the target culture.

PanSIG Journal 2023

256
When used in class, PCA consists of two parts. First,
students learn target expressions to use in dialogues
based on functional, context-specific situations.
Secondly, linguistic features of the dialogue, andcultural aspects of the target culture, are taught. Then
students interact in a role play, incorporating their new
knowledge. By employing carefully planned curriculathat place learners in authentic linguistic and culturalsituations, PCA enables language learners to more
effectively communicate. This in turn impacts
positively on students’ self-esteem and selfconfidence.
Role play activities with PCA can be designed around
specific cultural scenarios such as asking for
directions or making small talk with strangers.
Variations can be gradually introduced into scenarios
such as ordering in fast food versus high-end
restaurants, asking people their food preferences, andinteracting with different people (e.g., friends,
business associates, or strangers). Similarly, role playcan involve asking directions from people in authority,
such as a police officer, or from shop attendants,
acquaintances, or passersby. Role plays featuring
small talk with strangers are important to ensure thatlearners make their intentions clearly understood byusing appropriate utterances and gestures.
In conclusion, using PCA can help students gain thecultural knowledge required of speakers in a given
language. This enables them to choose appropriate
expressions and behave in culturally-appropriate
ways, while gaining confidence in the process.

Structured Drama Through Script
Reading
Script reading with language students offers astructured approach to using drama in the classroom.
This is a form of Readers Theatre (Coger & White,
1973; Young & Rasinski, 2009) in which students
rehearse lines from plays, TV, films, or scripts adapted
for oral reading from essays, stories, or novels.
Through script reading, students learn to speak more
fluently and accurately as well as improve theirlanguage comprehension and cultural knowledge. In
addition, the scripts provide a structure for teachers.
The “scripts” described below are not confined tothose of plays, films, or TV programs, but areconceived more broadly to include public service
announcements (PSAs), broadcast news stories, andeven speeches.
Highly motivating TV and movie scenes can be foundfor every curriculum or theme. Most students enjoy
watching videos and are interested in how movies are
made. Among numerous sites offering scripts is
Drew’s Script-o-rama (http://www.script-o-rama.com/).

Teachers can find videos for these scripts throughstreaming video services, DVDs, or clips from
YouTube (https://www.youtube.com/). Teachers playthe video sequences, providing students with a model
before they rehearse, noting such features aspronunciation, prosody, even emotional registers.
A framework using Willis’ (1996) task-based
syllabus—employing a variety of script-basedmaterials, from short movie trailers and commercials
to news broadcasts, and scenes from TV and film—
includes a sequence of Pre-Task, Performance, andPost-Task activities (see Appendix A). Task materials
range from shorter, easier scripts such as those formovie trailers and commercials, to longer, morechallenging readings such as speeches and TV andmovie scenes that involve multiple characters and anemotional subtext. All three phases facilitate language
and content learning.
The framework of Pre-Task, Task Performance, andPost-Task phases works as follows. In explaining amovie trailer to students during the Pre-Task phase, ateacher might describe such dramatic terms as
character, conflict, situation, climax, and resolution ofcentral conflict. Then the teacher could illustrate using
movie trailers. News scripts and documentaries offer
insights into news-gathering and journalism, while
helping students identify key elements such as “whoor what the story is about,” “where it takes place,”“when the event occurred,” and “how it happened.”
Different parts of a news broadcast and theinterviewer’s role could also be introduced.
To help students understand speeches, the teacher
can explain the historical/social/political context of the
speech, or students can conduct their own research
online. For example, Barak Obama in his farewellspeech in 2017—available at American Rhetoric(https://www.americanrhetoric.com/),awebsitearchiving presidential addresses and otherspeeches—described how America continues to be
deeply divided by the issue of race: “After my election,
there was talk of a ‘post-racial America.’ And such avision, however well-intended, was never realistic.
Race remains a potent and often divisive force in oursociety.” After presenting the speech, the class candiscuss Obama’s goals for the speech and thetechniques employed, with students in groups working
collaboratively to decode key words and phrases, anddraw on their pre-existing knowledge.
In the Performance Task phase, students plan theirperformance, possibly choose their characters,
rehearse, then provide feedback to one another.
During this part of the cycle, students may review thevideo they viewed earlier. Finally, they perform thescript before the class, a performance that Willis and

PanSIG Journal 2023

257
Willis (1996) argue pushes learners toward greater
fluency and accuracy than pair work can.
During the Post Task Phase, students react to eachother’s efforts, and the teacher responds with a moreformal assessment. The teacher might also add
activities to recycle the vocabulary and phrases.
Production information on most contemporary English
movies, and their trailers, can be found on The
Internet Movie Database (https://www.imdb.com/).

Commercial Scripts
Commercials, easily accessed on YouTube, canprovide short scripts, offer cultural insights andknowledge about advertising techniques such as false
comparison, flattery, exaggeration, and pseudoscientific claims. After students perform these scripts,
the teacher might ask them to create their own
products, name them, then act out these newcommercials for the class.

News Announcing
Viewed on YouTube, many news broadcasts offerclosed captioning which can be used as a learning aid.
Sources for contemporary news that provide bothtranscripts and video include NHK World and CNN.
Like real news announcers, students do not memorize
a script to perform it, they just familiarize themselveswith how to deliver it effectively, reading it smoothly,with accurate pronunciation, while trying to convey a
news announcer’s authority.

Famous Speeches
Speech transcripts can expose more advanced
learners to rhetorical devices and, as described earlier,lessons about culture and history. Speeches, or
portions of them—after rehearsal with a partner
offering feedback—can be performed as monologues
for the class.

Scenes from TV and Movies
Among other sites, TV and film scripts can be
downloaded from Drew’s Script-o-rama. Reading thescript of contemporary movies could even be
combined with a trip to the cinema.
Students listen to commercials, news broadcasts, andmovie scenes all the time outside of class. Using
scripts for reading in class is an easy and effectivemeans of introducing drama as well as authentic
materials into a variety of courses.

Playmaking in a Performance Studies
CourseBrazilian theatre activist, Augusto Boal (Theatre of the
Oppressed, 1979) promoted performance for socialchange. Stucky (2006) explains that “performancestudies participates in an ongoing experiment in social
awareness and illuminates possibilities for socialchange” (p. 262). In describing his syllabus for an“Empowerment
Through
Theatre”
course,McConachie (2002) writes: “By exploring the politicaland theatrical ideas and techniques of Augusto Boal,
students will learn ways of empowering themselves
and others” (p. 247).
These approaches of Boal and McConachie havebeen applied by one of the authors of this paper in a
Performance Studies seminar where students writeand produce plays based on current social issues.
Some thirty students, mostly female, some of whom
have lived overseas in English-speaking countries,
take the Performance Studies seminar in the English
Department of a Japanese private university. Students
use both English and Japanese to develop an English
play for an end-of-term festival. Each step in theprocess described below takes several classes.

Generating a Production Concept
In small groups, students generate a production
concept for their play. This is equivalent to the thesis
statement of a persuasive speech, and, in the past,
students have covered such issues as cell-phone
addiction, child abuse, drug addiction on campus,
depression, eating disorders, and sexually transmitted
diseases. Each student also keeps a journal of theirexperience of the play-making process.

Creating a Script
Next, students discuss a plot and create a flowchart ofevents. Based on the flowchart, each student
composes a part of the script at home and brings it to
the next class. The following week, students read thescript aloud in groups and combine the stories into ameaningful unit. Students bring their laptops to classand edit the story while reading aloud. They complete
the script and submit it as an interim report.

Translation and Effects
After scripts have been perfected through multiple
stages of redrafting and peer review, students begin
work on “special effects.” These consist partly ofPowerPoint slides for captions, which may serve as
substitutes for sets. Background music and soundeffects are also prepared. Students begin doing runthroughs of their plays before the class, comment oneach other’s work, and revise their plays and effects.
PanSIG Journal 2023

258

Rehearsals, Blocking, and Adjustment
Now, students rehearse in the room or lecture hallwhere the festival will be held. During this part of theprocess, they block their movements and experimentwith stage props. They finalize the timing for theirPowerPoint slides and other effects including lighting.
In groups, they comment on each other’s acting—noting characterization, voice and movement—andrevise their work accordingly. At this point, all castmembers must fully memorize their lines. The teacher
gives feedback on acting and directing and thestudents have a final dress rehearsal.

Performance at a Festival
The students’ playmaking culminates in a
performance before the Literary Society of the English
Department, or sometimes at a performance festival
sponsored by JACET’s Oral Communication SIG.
Student performances are also recorded for future
discussion. The audience includes past seminar
students, other English Department undergraduates,
faculty members, alumni, and the general public.
Afterward, several faculty members adjudicate theperformances. Audience members are asked to write
feedback on the following items: “Did you understandthe theme?”; “What comes to mind while watching?”;and “Please select a scene or other point that
impressed you and give detailed comments.”

Critique Session
The teacher facilitates a critique session by showing avideo of the adjudicators’ comments and reads aloudthe audience's reaction papers. This generates
student discussion and they try to evaluate theirperformances objectively.

Term Paper Assignment
Recorded performances are put onto DVDs and left at
the university’s media library for the performers toview. Students submit a term paper which includes
peer evaluations, self-evaluations, and a summary of
the project. It also includes rehearsal logs whichreference the cast members’ diaries and details theprocess of selecting the group’s theme, creating theirscript, and their experiments with staging possibilities.
The paper also describes conflicts among castmembers and how these were resolved.
In conclusion, through playmaking, students
challenge themselves and expand their capacity for
self-expression. Through the process, they learn how
to develop their ideas cooperatively, and throughperformance they better understand the power of live
theatre.

Bringing Students to Plays and Plays toStudents
Live English theatre is hard to find outside Tokyo. But
in cities such as Kobe, Kyoto, Nagoya, Okinawa,
Osaka, and Sendai, some international schools thatteach in English sometimes host theatre productions
and open them to the general public. A trip to see alive performance at one of these schools is also anintercultural experience. English-medium theatre
troupes sometimes tour Japan, or students might
attend a Japanese production of a well-known English
play or musical, then watch scenes from it in English
on DVD, YouTube, or specialty streaming websites
such as the National Theatre in the UK(https://www.nationaltheatre.org.uk/). Such videos are
more comprehensible than ever with the availability ofclosed captioning.

Preparations
In Tokyo, plays performed in English by community
drama groups such as the Tokyo International Players(TIP) (https://www.tokyoplayers.org), founded in 1896,
can be incorporated into lesson plans. This helps
make dramatic performances, even those that havenot been adapted for L2 learners, both accessible andenjoyable. Students also can be prepared for
excursions to see a play in English through theprovision of scripts which are read in class, as
described earlier in this article. This helps familiarize
learners with characters, plots, and what to anticipate
in key scenes. In addition, matinee performances ofEnglish plays are sometimes preceded by a “talk back.”
These feature the director and selected actors
discussing the play, its staging, and answering theaudience’s questions. Alternately, a role play of a “talkback” might be arranged in class.
Other useful preparations include having students
watch versions that were adapted for film, or theatrical
productions available through online streaming.
Graded reader adaptations of plays are available
along with sites that advise teachers and learners on
how to use them (e.g., How to make Shakespeare
easy for English language learners, n.d.). Other aids
include novels that have become plays (e.g., Prideand Prejudice), historical accounts that plays arederived from (e.g., “The Elephant Man”), or related
newspaper or magazine articles.
Many universities have site licenses or contract withcompanies that offer exposure to extensive reading,suchas
Xreading(https://xreading.com/
login/index.php) or extensive listening, throughEnglishCentral(https://www.englishcentral.com/
browse/videos). Sites/apps like these often havemultiple simplified versions of novels made into plays
PanSIG Journal 2023

259
or brief excerpts of dramatic performances (seeAppendix B).

Performances on Campus
Theater groups may also be invited to perform forassembled classes of students at universities andother institutions if the funding is available. In Tokyo,
Black Stripe Theater (http://blackstripetheater.com/)has staged adaptations of such classics as Charles
Dickens’ A Christmas Carol and Arthur Conan Doyle’s
The Hound of the Baskervilles for students atinternational schools and universities. Such groups
have expertise in staging existing adaptations or in
adapting novels into plays for language learners suchas The Hound of the Baskervilles. An excerpt from thescript (Appendix C) shows how accessible anadaptation can be.
Bringing students to these plays or plays to students
is yet another means of introducing drama into thecurriculum. Furthermore, adaptions may be a bridge
to more challenging offerings for L2 learners. Black
Stripe Theater company, for example, has staged 20
modern, contemporary and classic plays, including theworks of Ionesco, Pinter, and Mamet.

Conclusion
In conclusion, drama in education offers highly
motivating activities for the language classroom. Overthe years, there have been numerous arguments
made for its inclusion in a curriculum. The new
approach to using role play to “perform culture” is oneof many possibilities. Scripts for different types ofdramatic genres such as commercials, movie trailers,
speeches, and movie scenes are an exciting andstructured means of introducing drama activities into acourse. Students can use drama as a way of
expressing their ideas and concerns, and even attend
professionally produced dramatic performances.

References
Alasmari, N., Alshae’el, A. (2020). The Effect ofUsing Drama in English Language Learning
among Young Learners: A Case Study of 6th
Grade Female Pupils in Sakaka City.

Ates, M. (2015). The Reduction of Speaking Anxiety
in EFL Learners through Drama Techniques.
Procedia - Social and Behavioral
Sciences.176, 961–969.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.sbspro.2015.01.565
Boal, Augusto. (1979). Theatre of the Oppressed.
1974. Trans. C.A.McBride, & M.L.McBride.
Theatre Communications Group.
Bolton, G. (1984). Drama As Education: An
Argument for Placing Drama at the Centre of
the Curriculum. Longman.
Boudreault, C. (2010). The benefits of using drama in
the ESL/EFL classroom. The Internet TESLJournal, 16(1), 1-5.
British Council. (n.d.). How to make Shakespeare
easy for English language learners.
https://www.britishcouncil.org/voicesmagazine/how-make-shakespeare-easyenglish-language-learners
Cahnmann-Taylor, M., McGovern, K. (2021).
Enlivening instruction with drama and improv:
A guide for second language and world
language teachers. Routledge.
Charles, D., Kusanagi, Y. (2007). Using drama to
motivate EFL students: Building classroom
communities and student identities. In K.
Bradford-Watts (Ed.), JALT 2006 Conference
Proceedings. Tokyo: JALT.
Coger, L., White, M. (1973). (Rev. ed). ReadersInternational Journal of Education & Literacy

Theatre Handbook: A Dramatic Approach toStudies, 8(1), 61-63. DOI:

Literature. Revised Edition. Scott, Foresman.

10.7575/aiac.ijels.v.8n.1p.61
EnglishCentral. Macbeth. (n.d.). EnglishCentral.
Angelianawati, L. (2019). Using Drama in EFLClassroom. Journal of English Teaching, 5(2),Retrieved August 7, 2023, fromhttps://www.englishcentral.com/support/faq

125-134.
PanSIG Journal 2023

260
Francis, B. (2017). Dramatic Adaptation of Conan
Doyle’s “The Hound of the Baskervilles.”2015 from http://iteslj.org/Articles/RoykaDrama.html

Sharing Resources Across AGU Faculties andDepartments. Retrieved August 7, 2023, fromhttps://www.agu4u.org/wpcontent/uploads/2018/11/SHERLOCKHOLMES.docx
Gorjian, B., Moosavinia, S., Jabripour, A. (2010).

Smith, S. (1984). The theater arts and the teaching of
second languages. Addison-Wesley.
Strong, G. (2009). Lights, Camera, Action: Scripts for
Language Learning. In S. Rilling, M. DantasWhitney (Eds.) Authenticity in the Language

Dramatic Performance in Teaching Drama inClassroom and Beyond: Adult Learners.

EFL Contexts. TESL-EJ, 13(4), 1-13.

Alexandria, Virginia: Teachers of English to
Speakers of Other Languages, 169-180.

How to make Shakespeare easy for English
language learners. (n.d.). British

Stucky, N. (2006). “Fieldwork in the Performance

Council. https://www.britishcouncil.org/voices-

Studies Classroom: Learning Objectives andmagazine/how-make-shakespeare-easy-

the Activist Curriculum.” In S. Madison, & J.

english-language-learners

Hamera (Eds.), The sage handbook of
performance studies. Sage, 261-277.

Kumaran, S. (2010). Benefits and shortcomings ofrole-play as a speaking activity in english

Ulubey, Ö. (2018). The effect of creative drama as alanguage classrooms. The English Teacher,method on skills: A meta-analysis study.

39, 72-93.

Journal of Training and Education Studies, 6(4), 63-78.

Kung, F. (2013). Rhythm and pronunciation ofAmerican English: Jazzing up EFL teaching
through Jazz Chants. Asian EFL Journal, 70,
4-26.
Maley, A., Duff, A. (1978). Drama Techniques in
Language Learning. Cambridge University
Press.
McConachie, B. (2002). “Theatre of the Oppressed

Wagoner, B.J. (1976). Drama as a Learning Medium.
National Education Association.
Willis, J. (1996). A Framework for Task-based
Learning. Longman.
Young, C., & Rasinski, T. (2009). Implementing
readers theatre as an approach to classroom
fluency instruction. The Readingwith Students of Privilege: Practicing Boal in

Teacher, 63(1), 4-13.

the American College Classroom.” In N.

https://doi.org/10.1598/RT.63.1.1

Stucky, & C. Wimmer (Eds.), Teaching
performance studies. Carbondale, IL: Southern
Illinois University Press, 247-260.
Royka, J.G. (2002). Overcoming the Fear of Using

Yu, L., Walker, G., Noda, M., Meng, N., & Chai, D.
(2020). The Performed Culture Approach:
A Humanistic Way of Helping Learners
Communicate in the Culture. American Journal

Drama in English Language Teaching. The

of Chinese Studies, 27(2), 139–165. DOI:Internet TESL Journal, 8(6). Retrieved March

http://www.jstor.org/stable/45295304

PanSIG Journal 2023

261

Appendices
Appendix A: A Task Framework for Script Reading (Strong, 2009; adapted from Willis,1996)
MOVIE TRAILERS &COMMERCIALSNEWS BROADCASTSSPEECHESTV AND FILM

Pre-Task
1. Activating pre-task knowledge of the product, subject, or situation.
2. Identifying characters and situation.
3. Viewing and discussion of the video/DVD with the teacher
What questions does thetrailer pose?
Compare several types ofcommercial appeals.

Listen for key facts in a
broadcast and read the script toconfirm them.
Differentiate the types of news
broadcasts.

Find key words and phrases in aspeech.

Determine the conflict, climax, andresolution.

Determine the rhetorical devices
used and the persuasive goal.

Task Performance
1. Choice of characters or roles
2. Rehearsal with peer feedback to achieve a fluent reading
3. Additional viewings of the video/DVD
4. Teacher monitoring of group and individual progress
5. Student performance for the class
Memorize script roles.

Try to achieve an authoritative
tone of voice.

Try persuasive tones and bodylanguage.

Try to convey character.

Use the same language andrhetorical devices to make a speechfrom the opposing viewpoint.

Create another scene with thesame characters or make adifferent ending to the earlier
scene.

Post-Task
1. Peer assessment
2. Teacher assessment
3. Extension activities and recycling language
Create commercials in
similar styles.
Create new lines for the
trailers.

Predict outcomes for the news
items, then write follow-up
stories.

Appendix B: Dramatic content from EnglishCentral app.

PanSIG Journal 2023

262

Appendix C: Act 1, Scene 1 of the adaptation of The Hound of the Baskervilles, (Francis, 2017)PanSIG Journal 2023

263

GALE SIG Forum: Gender-Friendly Practices in Language Classrooms
Amy Toms
Fukuoka Women’s University

Elisabeth (Libby) Ann Williams
Kobe Women’s University

Chelanna White
Reitaku University‘Gender’ and ‘gender equality’ have become more commonplace topics in many societies, including Japan. As a result,discussions concerning gender and related subjects have gradually increased in frequency within the context of Japanese higher
education. This article is based on the content from three speakers of GALE’s 2023 PanSIG forum which centered on the themeof "gender-friendly practices in language classrooms.” It discusses the imperative of incorporating conversations related togendered identity and gender equality into university classrooms in Japan. However, the authors of this paper acknowledge that
not all educators are comfortable discussing these topics or are aware of practical ways to integrate ‘gender’ into their classroom
content. Consequently, this article provides an argument in favour of the teaching of gender in Japanese higher education, alongwith practical examples of how to effectively teach about these timely and significant subjects.

「ジェンダー」と「ジェンダー平等」は、日本を含む多くの社会で一般的な話題となっている。その結果、ジェンダーに関する議論や関連するテーマは、日本の高等教育の文脈において 徐々に頻度を増やしている。本論文は、GALE の 2023 年 PanSIG フ
ォーラムの 3 人のスピーカーの発表内容に基づいている。ジェンダーのアイデンティティやジェンダー平等に関連する対話を日
本の大学の教室に取り込むことの必要性について議論している。ただし、本論文の著者は、すべての教育者がこれらのテーマについて快適に議論できるわけではないと感じている。また、実際的な方法で「ジェンダー」を教室の内容に統合する知識も必ずしも持ち合わせているとは限らないことを認識している。そのため、本論文は、日本の高等教育におけるジェンダー教育の 必要性についての議論と、これらの時事的かつ重要なテーマについて効果的に教えるための実践的な例を提供している。

The goals of the Gender Awareness in Language
Education (GALE) SIG include researching gender andits implications for language learning, teaching, andtraining, improving pedagogical practices, raisingawareness of workplace and human rights issues
related to gender for language professionals andincreasing networking opportunities among language
professionals interested in teaching, researching and/or
discussing issues related to gender and language
education. The GALE PanSIG forum was a chance forpresenters to showcase activities and resources under
this year's theme of “gender-friendly practices inlanguage classrooms.” Educators shared examples ofclassroom practices that had already been implemented
and reflected upon related to this theme.
The three speakers shared experiences and resources
used in their classes to address gender-related topics.

Elisabeth Ann Williams described her experiences andreflections on teaching seminar classes that criticallyexamined the theoretical concept of 'hegemonic
masculinity' and then delved into exploring the diverse
manifestationsofmasculinity
withinvariouscommunities and cultural contexts. During her
presentation, she began by outlining the theoreticalfoundation for her approach to masculinity in her
seminar. Similarly, in this paper, she establishes abroad theoretically informed argument for discussing
gender within the context of Japanese higher education.
Amy Toms introduced Assembly, a Malala Fund
publication featuring articles written by young people
about themes of gender equality, girls’ education andactivism. Amy's section outlines how Assembly articles
were incorporated into English communication lessons
to discuss gendered themes. Chelanna White shared
her insights from teaching a high-level discussion classPanSIG Journal 2023

264
centered around student-generated topics, during which
LGBTQ+ issues, women’s rights and men's rights were
three topics selected for class discussions. The
theoretical argument provided by Elisabeth serves as afoundational
structureforunderstandingthepedagogical examples presented by Amy and Chelanna.
We expect that this will allow the reader to imagine how
gender awareness might progress within educationalsettings in the future, while offering some practicalteaching ideas.

A case for gender awareness in theJapanese university classroom
In many Western societies, discussions about genderand gendered relations have become commonplace inpolitics, education, and media. Contemporary
pioneering gender theorists like Connell (2021) andButler (1999) argue that our perceptions of gender moldour daily lives, influencing societal perceptions and selfimage. Moreover, the concept of gender itself isrelational; it is usually understood through comparisonswith others. For instance, the concept of masculinity
rarely exists in isolation, often juxtaposed with femininity,
and similarly, ideas of femininity are frequently
intertwined with contrasting notions of masculinity(Connell, 2005). These gendered relations, deeply
entwined with power dynamics, shape our societies andinstitutions.
Just as these concepts have found their way into the‘mainstream’ Western world, Japan too has seen asurge in gender dialogues in the media and politicalarena. Discussions often center around the nation's low
rank on the World Economic Forum’s Gender Gap Index,
the declining birthrate, and growing domestic andinternational pressure to enhance LGBTQ+ rights.
Conversations frequently draw comparisons withcountries abroad or delve into the essentialist
perspective of Japan's supposedly unique genderedand social hierarchies.
Likewise, not only academics and activists, but also thegeneral Japanese populace are increasingly vocal
about societal issues. For instance, courageous womenlike Shiori Ito and Rina Gonoi have gone public withaccusations of sexual assault, despite fierce public
backlash and victim blaming. The same can be said forthe men who have alleged that the deceased media
mogul Johnny Kitagawa committed horrific sexual
abuse against them when they were minors. Moreover,while feminist movements such as the #Metoo
movement have not developed the same momentum as
in some other countries, there no doubt has been an
increase in public discussions on sexual harassment
and assault (Hasunama & Shin, 2020).

As briefly mentioned above, another recent event thatbrought 'gender' into the public spotlight is Japan's fallfrom 116 to 125 out of 146 countries in the World
Economic Forum Global Gender Gap's 2023 report(WEF, 2023). In the same year, Japan dropped to 21 in
the ranking for countries' performance in achieving theUnited Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs),
losing its place among the top 20 nations (Hokugo,2023). In regards to gender, the significance of Japan's
low rank is highlighted by the dedicated goal of 'Gender
Equality' in SDG 5. Moreover, the SDGs have become
an integral part of the discourse surrounding
educational initiatives from Japan's Ministry of
Education (Fredriksson et al., 2020; Okubo et al., 2021),
suggesting that the theme of gender equality is
becoming increasingly prominent in Japanese
education.
Another official Japanese educational initiative thatreflects gender considerations is Education for
Sustainable Development (ESD), which involves
educational activities aimed at creating a sustainable
society for future generations. In the Implementation
Plan for ESD in Japan, prioritized action areas include
focusing on the concepts of the SDGs and ESD inteacher training and mobilizing young people to express
opinions and take action on global issues (MEXT, 2021).
In other words, there are political and institutional efforts
towards incorporating SDG-based concepts such as
gender in education to foster globally-minded youth inJapan (Fredriksson et al., 2020).
Japanese scholars have not shied away from critiquing
the gender bias and roles subtly instilled through the‘hidden curriculum’ (kakureta karikyuramu) of schools
from an early age (e.g., Kimura, 1999). The hidden
curriculum forms through the everyday rituals of school
life, as well as the content of students’ studies. For
instance, research has identified gender stereotypes
prevalent in textbooks, including English language
textbooks (Kimura, 2019; Lee, 2016; Otlowski, 2003),
and Japanese language textbooks (Mizumoto, 2014;
Nakamura & Ikeda, 2021). As a result, it is clear thatcreating space for dialogue around gender issues is avital part of education, including language education. Of
course, this may be easier said than done.
Since entering the teaching profession in Japan, I havefrequently encountered two contrasting views on
addressing gender in the classroom. One argument
posits that ‘outsiders’ (i.e., non-Japanese teachers)
should refrain from challenging Japan's social inequities,
claiming criticism through a non-Japanese lens is an
infringement of the country's cultural and intellectual
traditions. This stance often reinforces essentialist ideasof Japan and Japanese people, not to mention denying
a Japanese identity to so-called outsiders. I also believe

PanSIG Journal 2023

265
it links to nationalist sentiments that protect traditional
power structures.
Alternatively, some teaching practices attempt totranspose contemporary Western social structures
directly onto the Japanese classroom—an approachthat is inherently ethnocentric. Researchers like
Moosavi (2022) and Rivers (2019) contend that
uncritically imposing Western academic understandingsof social hierarchies and privilege onto Japanesesociety risks misrepresenting personal experience,
marginalization, and the identities of residents in Japan.
As always, nuance and context are essential in thisconversation.
Reflecting on the past and present Japanese feminist
movements also helps us think about teaching genderin the language classroom. Ignoring the dissatisfactionof feminist activists in Japan with the current state ofgender relations overlooks their efforts to support, uplift,and demand recognition for marginalized groups. At thesame time, drawing solely from dominant Western
feminist concepts without considering Japanese
feminist movements' priorities is reductive.
The question then arises: How should we proceed as
educators? As my students show growing interest in
gender and its societal and personal implications, I
constantly ponder the importance of gender awarenessin teaching. How should teachers broach these often
uncomfortable and confusing topics? Are teachers
without a background in gender studies equipped tohandle these discussions? The answers varydepending on the classroom context, students, and theteachers themselves. Yet, there is something to be said
about embracing teachable moments and having frank
discussions in the classroom.
While the above discussion might not offer practicalsolutions, I hope that it lays the groundwork forunderstanding the theoretical concepts of gender andsome of the current issues in gender and education in
Japan. This understanding is crucial for us as educators
working in this context. In the following sections,however, my colleagues will share their personal
experiences of engaging with gender-related topics intheir classrooms, and provide concrete examples ofpractical activities they have used in the past.

Introducing Assembly as a gender-friendly
resource
In 2013, Malala Yousafzai and her father founded
Malala Fund, which is an organization that invests in
education activists around the world. Malala Fundcreated Assembly, a digital newsletter and publication,
as a place for girls to share their opinions, experiences,
and achievements. Assembly defines itself as aninclusive platform for “people who identify and/or aresocialized as girls, and genderqueer and non-binary
young people.” It publishes articles written by young
people about their experiences of leading the climate
movement, challenging the barriers to girls’ education,
racial discrimination, or the effect of the Covid-19
pandemic on their lives. The articles offer insight into thegendered challenges that exist in different countries andcultures and the action being taken to address thesechallenges through activism. Collectively, the articles
express perspectives on current global concerns
through the narratives of young people from around theworld, offering a platform where people interested in
advocating for equality can learn from and be inspiredby one another. Therefore, the articles in Assembly
provide valuable resources for promoting dialogue
around gender issues and social activism, which are
discussed by authors from a variety of different culturaland socio-political backgrounds.
I have used articles from Assembly to introduce topics
related to gender whilst teaching speaking or summary
writing skills. I will outline two lesson plans that I haveused in communication lessons which feature articles
about education and activism. All articles were adapted
to grade the language according to the student’s levelby reducing the content and simplifying the language. In
addition, each adapted article was voice recorded by me
to provide students with listening materials for theircommunication class. Full references and web links
were provided for each article.

Education
Four Assembly articles on education were used in thefollowing lesson plan (see below). Each article argued
that a certain subject was important for girls’ education,in terms of teaching them valuable skills for future
employment, enabling them to make informed andhealthy decisions regarding their sexual health, ordeveloping the necessary skills to moderate the effects
of climate change. This lesson focused on the language
function of giving opinions, and agreeing or
disagreeing.

1. What girls aren’t learning about personal finance inschool

2. We’re calling on leaders to prioritize quality climate
education at COP26

3. Why every girl in Haiti should learn to code
4. I wish more girls in El Salvador learned sex ed inschoolAs a warm-up activity, students discussed what theywould have liked to study at high school to encouragethem to reflect on their previous education. The
PanSIG Journal 2023

266
language function was introduced and students
practiced giving opinions, agreeing and disagreeing
with topics like homework, school uniforms andentrance examinations. Students organized themselves
into four groups and each group listened to one of theaudio recordings about a subject that Assembly writers
believed should be taught in schools. Students
answered questions designed to structure note-taking
on the main ideas about why it was important for girls tolearn that particular subject at school before giving theiropinions on whether it would be beneficial to include that
subject in the high school curriculum.
Groups were rearranged, so that each group had astudent that listened to each of the four different audio
recordings. Each student shared what they had learnt
about their allocated subject and its relevance to girls at
school. In this way, the group had a lot of material toconsider and had many opportunities to practice thelanguage function before their discussion. Finally,
students discussed the question: What do you think
students should learn at high school? Why? They wereencouraged to discuss the ideas introduced in the
Assembly articles, as well as their own views and ideason their education. This lesson plan introduced gaps inschool curriculums and how they are negatively
impacting the future of young women, and students
enjoyed the opportunity to express their opinions on
their own education.

Activism
The following lesson plan used the Assembly article
entitled “What is the best form of activism for you?” andfocused on language to discuss advantages anddisadvantages. Students began the lesson with alistening activity which oriented them to the theme of thelesson. At the Generation Equality forum in 2021, former
Finnish Prime Minister Sanna Marin referred to womenas “powerful agents of change” and described young
people as the “force for change in all societies” (Finnish
Government, 2021). This listening activity was followedby discussion questions exploring how young people
can contribute to change in society and what they knew
about well-publicized movements led by young people
like Greta Thunberg or Malala Yousafzai.
Synonyms and phrases to talk about advantages anddisadvantages were presented and students practiced
using the language to talk about topics such as eco
bags, iPhones, and club activities at university. The term
activism was introduced and explained before students
were divided into groups and each group was allocated
one type of activism. Audio recordings were inserted
into a PowerPoint to include some visual aids tofacilitate students’ understanding of the material.
Students were asked to take notes, including adescription of their allocated form of activism, examples

and any advantages and disadvantages outlined by theauthor. Groups were rearranged, so that new groups
were composed of students that listened to different
audio recordings. Next, each student verbally shared
their notes from the audio recording, so that all groupmembers were familiar with the different types ofactivism. The lesson ended with a group discussion of
the advantages and disadvantages of different types ofactivism, incorporating the language focus andstudents' own ideas. This lesson introduced students tofemale activists from around the world and young
people’s role in creating social change whilst utilizing
the language function of discussing advantages anddisadvantages.
When using articles from Assembly, instructors must
consider students' existing knowledge about a topic
based upon content previously taught in the English
program and an awareness of the wider university
curriculum. This consideration allows educators toincorporate additional definitions or contextual materials
to the lesson plan to support students’ comprehensionof new topics. Similarly, having a clear understanding ofstudents' proficiency in English in order to adapt thematerials accordingly is crucial. In the future, I will
provide a vocabulary list or use a vocabulary activity todefine specific terms used in the articles beforehand to
make the materials more accessible for students
learning an additional language. Consequently, thiswould deepen students' understanding of the content
and further enhance their engagement with thematerials. The lesson plans outlined above were written
to meet the course aims of the English program at a
women’s university whilst incorporating gender-related
themes in the curriculum. There are many ways in which
Assembly materials can be used in English lessons topromote dialogue around gender and social activism.

Explorations of gender in a high-level
discussion class
Recently, I taught a student-generated content,
discussion-based elective course, designed to give
students with a high level of English proficiency theopportunity to use English extensively in class. The
course is offered each semester and students may takeit multiple times. In the first semester, students worked
in groups of about three to lead class discussions andactivities on any topic of the group’s choosing. Topics
included books, fashion, war, and the environment. The
following semester, significantly fewer students joined
the class, and instead of a small group of students
developing discussion questions and activities on atheme for the other students, each week all students
prepared discussion questions or activities on apredetermined theme. I gave them examples of topics
from the previous semester, and we brainstormed

PanSIG Journal 2023

267
potential topics. The final selections were Food,
Education, Art and Music, LGBTQ+ Issues, Robots andAI, Women's Rights, Animal Rights, Emotions,Immigration, The Environment, Men's Rights, and finally,
Culture and Cultural Exchange. Of the twelve selected
topics, three were explicitly related to issues of genderand identity: LGBTQ+ Issues, Women’s Rights, andMen’s Rights. The students were eager to discuss
gender in class, and chose to do so when given theopportunity to choose any topic. This indicates thatstudents want to talk about these topics, and as
educators we should be supporting such discussions inclass, not shying away from them.
The students were given the schedule of topics inadvance, and each week were required to research anissue related to the topic and come up with a few
discussion questions on their issue related to the main
topic. For example, for the topic of Women’s Rights, one
student focused on women-only cars on trains andanother focused on inequality in the workplace. To
ensure each student chose a different sub-issue anddiscussion questions, students posted their questions
on Google Classroom before each class. This also gaveme the opportunity to give feedback before the students
introduced their issues and questions in class. Thispreparation was worth 20% of their final grade.
In addition to the preparation for each discussion topic,
students completed a reflective journal after each classfor 10% of their final grade. The goal was to havestudents develop critical thinking skills by comparing
previously-held knowledge or assumptions with what
they had discovered during their own research andclass discussions. I had also hoped to inspire students
to continue learning about the topics on their own.
Students answered the following questions:•

What did I know, or think I knew, about this topic
before?

•What did I learn about this topic from preparing forclass and the in-class discussions?

•

What do I still want to know about this topic?

•

What mark would I give myself for participation thisweek (out of 10)?

•How can I improve, or what do I want to try nexttime?

Selected examples of questions students developed foreach gender topic are below.
LGBTQ+ Issues:•

Should Japan legislate same-sex marriage? How
can we make it happen?

•

Should we expand gender options on passports?

•

Would your feelings toward a friend change if theycame out as a gender minority to you?

Women’s Rights:•

Should stay-at-home mothers
compensated by their spouses?

•

What do you think about the stereotype of patientand enduring Asian women?

•

What do you think about women-only trains?

befinancially

Men’s Rights:•

How can we change the idea that cosmetics are justfor women?

•

Why is it more acceptable for girls to be boyish thanfor boys to be girlish?

•

What do you think about men taking parental leave?

In class, students took turns introducing their specificissue and posing one of their prepared questions to theclass, along with sharing any material for more context
such as a video or news article. As the class was small,there was no need to break into smaller groups.
Throughout the discussions, it became clear that thestudents cared about social issues, particularly issues
relating to gender, identity, and sexuality. The majorityof the class were women, and as young women about
to enter the workforce, they were particularly concerned
about workplace discrimination based on their genderand their safety while commuting on crowded trains.
They also were concerned for transgender and nonbinary people, and wanted to see their rights protectedby law. While they wanted to see changes in theseareas, they were unsure of what they could do to effectchange in Japan. Some were skeptical that change waseven possible, believing that the structures of Japanesesociety were too ingrained to be changed. As educators,
we should be aware of what avenues are available forall students to express their civic rights – including, andespecially, our non-Japanese students, who may beless aware of their rights in Japan than their classmateswith Japanese citizenship.
If I am given the opportunity to teach this class again, I
would push the students to think even deeper about theissues by helping them refine their discussion questions
before class and challenging their responses in class. I
would include an individual action project that allows
students to take concrete steps toward effecting change
in one area discussed in class. For example, a student
could petition the school or their workplace to designate
one washroom as gender-neutral. I would also weight

PanSIG Journal 2023

268
the components differently, with 10% for preparation,
25% for reflections, 30% for the action project, and 35%
for class discussions. The grade value assigned to thereflection was originally too low, perhaps leading somestudents to not complete the reflection assignments.
This new weighting would emphasize the importance ofthe reflective aspect of the course, while maintaining the
focus as a discussion-based class, and give students
the opportunity to take ideas generated from theirresearch and discussions into the world outside of theclassroom.

Conclusion
As demonstrated above, gender-friendly classroom
practices can take various forms, offering either morestructured or unconstrained approaches for students.
These practices can also engage students in developing
all four language skills. Yet, the classroom activities
discussed in this paper do not provide explicit steps forassessing these skills but instead, focus on student
growth in different ways. Amy's Assembly example
demonstrates the advantages of using youth-created
content to facilitate English learning while introducing
contemporary topics related to gender activism.
Conversely, Chelanna's discussion class exemplifies
how empowering students to choose their own topics
can lead to lively conversations that enhance thereflective learning process.
Another compelling point highlighted in this paper is thestudent interest in gender-related topics that we have all
witnessed in our classrooms. Many of Amy’s andChelanna’s students were engaged and interested in
discussing these topics, though the themes weresometimes challenging. We encourage language
educators in Japan, regardless of their background or
specialization, to familiarize themselves with social
movements related to gender equality in the country.
These movements advocate not only for women's
equality but also address the damaging effects ofgendered societal expectations on the health andpersonal relationships of men, and the growing
recognition of the challenges and experiences ofindividuals with other gender identities. Moreover,understanding social activism in Japan is key torecognizing LGBTQ+ people's legal rights, challenges,
and identities. These reasons, coupled with the broader
educational drives behind SDGs and ESD, provide astrong argument for creating a space for discussing
gender-related themes in the classroom. Throughopportunities like the GALE PanSIG panel and thecurrent paper, we may be able to increase not only
gender awareness in language education but also
exchange practical ideas for bringing the topic of gender
into our classrooms.

References
Baptiste, B.E.J. (2019, March 28). Why every girl in
Haiti should learn to code. Assembly.org
https://assembly.malala.org/stories/haitiancoding-student
Butler, J. (1999). Gender trouble. New York, NY:
Routledge.
Connell, R. (2005). Masculinities (2nd ed.). Berkeley,
CA: University of California Press.
Connell, R. (2021). Gender: In world perspective (4thed.). Cambridge, UK: Polity.
Finnish Government (2021, March 29). Prime Minister
Sanna Marin's speech at the Generation
Equality Forum 29.3.2021. [Video]. YouTube.
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=TurdQ21dOg
M
Fredriksson, U., Kusanagi, K. N., Gougoulakis, P.,
Matsuda, Y., & Kitamura, Y. (2020). A
comparative study of curriculums for Educationfor Sustainable Development (ESD) in Sweden
and Japan. Sustainability, 12, 1123,
https://doi.org/10.3390/su12031123
Hasunuma, L. & Shin, K. (2019). #Metoo in Japan andSouth Korea: #Wetoo and #Withyou. Journal of
Women, Politics and Policy, 40(1), 99–111.
https://doi.org/10.1080/1554477X.2019.1563416

Hokugo, M. (2023, June 22). Japan drops out of top 20
nations in ranking for achieving SDGs.
Asahi.com.
https://www.asahi.com/ajw/articles/14938994

PanSIG Journal 2023

269
Kimura, K. (2019). 道徳科教科書にみるジェンダー・メ

Nakamura, J. & Ikeda, M. (2021). 小学校国語教科書にッセージ ―教材「ブラッドレーのせいきゅう

潜むジェンダー観 －平成 31 年検定版教科書に書」に着目して― [Gender messages in morality

おける文学的文章教材の分析－[An Analysis of

textbooks: Focusing on the teaching material

Japanese Language Textbook for Elementary“Bradley’s Bill”]. 広島修大論集 [Hiroshima Shudo

School from Gender Perspective: Focus on the

University Journal] 60(2),57–69.

Literary Teaching Materials in Textbooks
Approved in 2019]. 兵庫教育大学学校教育学研

Kimura, R. (1999). 学校文化とジェンダー[School
culture and gender]. Tokyo: 勁草書房 [Keiso

究 [Hyogo University of Teacher Education
School Education Studies], 34, 73–82.

Shobo].
Namaggwa, J. & Nassanga, C. (2021, October 11).
Lee, J. F. K., (2016). Gender representation in

We’re calling on leaders to prioritize quality

Japanese EFL textbooks – a corpus study.

climate education at COP26. Assembly.org

Gender in Education, 30(3), 379–395.

https://assembly.malala.org/stories/we-are-https://doi.org/10.1080/09540253.2016.1214690

calling-on-leaders-to-prioritize-quality-climateeducation-at-cop26

MEXT (2021). Implementation Plan for Education for
Sustainable Development in Japan (The Second

Okubo, K., Yu, J., Osanai, S., & Serrona, K. R. B.

ESD Implementation Plan) (Provisional(2021). Present issues and efforts to integratetranslation). Inter-ministerial liaison committee

sustainable development goals in a local senior

on ESD.

high school in Japan: A case study. Journal of

https://www.mext.go.jp/en/content/20211208-

Urban Management, 10, 57–68.

mxt_koktou01-1373244_1.pdf
Onyekwere, C. (2022, January 19). What is the best
Moosavi, L. (2022). ‘But you’re white’: Anform of activism for you? Assembly.org

autoethnography of whiteness and white

https://assembly.malala.org/stories/what-is-the-privilege in East Asian universities. Research inbest-form-of-activism-for-you

Comparative and International Education, 17(1),107–123.
https://doi.org/10.1177/17454999211067123

Onyekwere, C. (2022, March 02). What girls aren’t
learning about personal finance in school.
Assembly.org

Mizumoto, T. (2014). 日本語教科書におけるジェンダ
ー：現代社会の実情と教える側の認識 [Genderin Japanese language textbooks: The reality ofmodern society and the perceptions of the sideof teaching]. 日本語とジェンダー [Japanese andGender], 14. https://gender.jp/wp/wpcontent/uploads/2019/01/NGG_journal_14_mizu
moto_j.pdf

https://assembly.malala.org/stories/what-girlsarent-learning-about-personal-finance-inschool
Otlowski, M. (2003). Ethnic diversity and Gender bias
in EFL textbooks. Asian EFL Journal, 5(2), 1–
15.
Rivers, D. J. (2019). Walking on broken glass:
Reconciling experience and expectation within

PanSIG Journal 2023

270
Japan. Journal of Language, Identity and
Education, 18(6), 377–388.
https://doi.org/10.1080/15348458.2019.1674149
Trueba, L. (2022, December 14). I wish more girls in El
Salvador learned sex ed in school.
Assembly.org
https://assembly.malala.org/stories/i-wish-moregirls-in-el-salvador-learned-sex-ed-in-school
World Economic Forum (WEF) (2023, June 20). Global
Gender Gap Report 2023. World Economic
Forum. https://www.weforum.org/reports/globalgender-gap-report-2023/infull/benchmarkinggender-gaps-2023/

PanSIG Journal 2023

271

Exploiting Textbook Conversations for Pragmatic Lesson Resources
John Campbell-Larsen
Kyoto Women’s University
Supplementing textbooks for additional lesson content is a common practice for teachers. Textbook conversations generally
illustrate a lexical or grammatical point, and the pragmatic aspects are often sidelined. In addition, conversations may notaccurately reflect actual English use. Furthermore, students may be habituated to approaching textbook conversations from alexical and grammatical perspective and may not think about the pragmatic aspects of the conversations. This paper examines
examples of conversations from commercially available English language textbooks. I will suggest some ways in which teachers
can exploit textbook conversations to support teaching of pragmatic points of language use. I will refer to such items as turntaking, repair, backchannel, self-disclosure, maintaining progressivity and speech acts among others. This will be of assistanceto teachers who are looking for additional ideas to expand lesson content and help raise awareness of some of the pragmatic
aspects of spoken language.

授業内容を追加するために教科書を補足することは、教師にとって一般的な習慣である。教科書の会話は一般的に語彙や文法的なポイントを説明するものであり、語用論的な側面は軽視されがちである。さらに、会話は実際の英語使用を正確に反映していないこともある。さらに、生徒は教科書の会話を語彙や文法的な観点からアプローチすることに慣れてしまい、会話の語用論的な側面について考えないこともある。本稿では、市販の英語教科書の会話例を検証する。言語使用の語用論的ポイントを教えるために、教師が教科書の会話を活用する方法をいくつか提案する。例えば、ターンテーキング、リペア、バックチャ
ンネル、自己開示、進行性の維持、発話行為などである。授業内容を充実させ、話し言葉の語用論的側面に対する意識を高めるための新たなアイデアを探している教師にとって、参考になるはずである。

The four language skills, speaking, listening, reading,
and writing are a fundamental organizing principle for
institutional language learning. Although the four skills
are often viewed as equal components of a language
learning program, the skills are not equally represented
in the daily language use of humans in all societies. The
importance of spoken interaction for human society ingeneral was noted by Schegloff (2006, p.70), and for
language learning in particular by Wong and Waring(2020, p.1). Speaking, and more particularly, spoken
interaction holds a special place in any second/foreign
language learning endeavor.
Despite the identification of the importance andcentrality of spoken interaction, there remains a bias inmany language programs towards the written forms of
the language (Linnel, 2004). Students are often
encouraged to attempt to speak in grammatically perfectsentences that would match the standards of the written
form of the language, even though any accurate
recording of native speaker use (in any language) will
reveal many examples of utterances that would notmeet such rigorous standards. In the context ofJapanese learners of English studying in an institutionalsetting, the focus on the written forms of the language

and the importance of standardized written tests wasnoted by Green, (2016).
University entrance tests continue toemphasize the written language. Because they
control access to opportunities, entrance tests
tend to dominate teaching and learning. They
are widely believed to encourage traditional
forms of teaching and to inhibit speaking andlistening activities in the classroom. (p. 135)
The issues that Japanese learners of English havewhen trying to engage in spoken interaction in the target
language are widely attested in the literature. The
review by Ellis, (1991), although written three decadesago, is still relevant, and many of the same points were
described in a more recent overview by Ducker (2020)
indicating an ongoing issue with communicative
language teaching in Japan. It is fair to say that there
seem to be persistent and widespread speaking
practices among Japanese learners of English that go
beyond mere idiosyncratic epiphenomena andcontribute to an interactional style that is not closely
calibrated to interactional norms of the L2. Several ofthese practices were outlined by Campbell-Larsen(2019a, 2019b), who lists the following points:
PanSIG Journal 2023

272•

Discourse management carried out in L1 –especially discourse marking, repair andbackchanneling.

•

Reliance on ‘current selects next’ as the default
turn transition strategy.

•

Reliance on the formulaic utterance ‘How about
you?’ as a turn transition resource.

•

Reliance on a question-and-answer format forextended stretches of conversation.

•

Use of minimized answers to questions.

•

Delayed onset of turn, violating the ‘no gap, nooverlap’ default for turn transition.

This list is not exhaustive but gives some sense of thepragmatic aspects of Japanese learners’ speaking
styles. The causes of these phenomena are probably a
mixture of linguistic and cultural influences, such as(perceived or actual) insufficiency of target language
grammar and vocabulary, expectations of how one
should behave and interact in a classroom setting, andlack of overt instruction in pragmatic aspects of the L2(or the L1 for that matter). It is to this point that I will now
turn.
As mentioned above, the centrality of standardized
written tests in Japanese language education places aheavy focus on declarative knowledge of vocabulary
and grammar, often to the detriment of the interactional
abilities of the learners. Robust findings into the natureof spoken interaction are available in the academic
literature (See Schegloff, 2007 for a comprehensive
overview of over forty years of research in the field of
conversation analysis). However, many of themechanisms for ordering spoken interaction (e.g., turntaking systems, self- and other- repair procedures,
adjacency pairs, preferred and dispreferred turns andthe like) remain off the radar for many language
teachers and syllabus designers. The same is also true
for some of the concrete linguistic items thatcharacterize interactional talk, such as discourse
markers, (Campbell-Larsen, 2017; Schiffrin, 1987),
general extenders and vague language (Evison et al.,2007; Overstreet,1999), and upgrade assessments(Campbell-Larsen, 2016; Pomerantz, 1984).
Even though a syllabus may be designated as being
communicative, the reality may be very different. The
speaking tasks may be activities such as reading aloudfrom a text, performing memorized pair scripts, or
picture description in response to teacher questions,these activities seen as an adequate method of teaching
speaking. The marginalization of speaking within thesyllabus and then the tendency to teach speaking thatis more performative than interactive probably
contributes to the difficulties that many students face in
actualizing their knowledge to engage in spontaneous
spoken interaction.

Extracting Pragmatic Teachables from a
Sample Text
A common feature of many language learning texts is
the inclusion of sample dialogues, usually printed in the
textbook and with an accompanying audio component
that students can listen to, either in class or privately.
Wong (2002, p. 54) noted the ways in which sample
conversations differ from naturalistic language andreferred to the insufficiency of native speaker intuition
and the need for meticulous analysis of naturally
occurring data. Wong was referring to telephone
conversations but I suggest here that it is not only
telephone conversations that need such principled andmeticulous analysis, but every kind of mundane social
interaction needs to be understood to arrive at an
accurate description of how the language works in asocial/interactive sense–as opposed to the propositionbased, sentence-level sense that has been the
traditional basis of linguistics as a subject. Now, acaveat must be made here. Beginner or lower-level
learners are not ready to deal with samples of truly
authentic language, which will probably be replete withidiomatic and idiosyncratic terms, partial utterances,references to insider knowledge, as well as advanced
and complex grammatical structures and instances ofabstract or specialist vocabulary. Textbook dialogues
must be of a simplified nature in order to make themaccessible to learners, but by simplified, I mean mostly
in terms of vocabulary, grammar, and etic (external
observer) coherence, rather than an interaction that has
emic coherence (that is, having meaning that iscomprehensible to the participants but may be opaqueto any outsider). Nevertheless, even such pared down
conversations may contain important pragmatic points–
points that may lie outside of the overt target of the
textbook exercise and, indeed may have been only
subconsciously included by the writer. I will examine asample conversation for its pragmatic and socio-cultural
aspects in the next section.

Sample Text Dialogue (1)The following conversation appears in the popular,
mass-market EFL textbook Touchstone 2 (McCarthy etal., 2014, p.6) The description of the unit in the “contents
and learning” outcomes section focuses on making
small talk, starting a conversation with someone you
don’t know, using “actually” to introduce new or
surprising information, and using responses with “too”
or “either” to show what you have in common. Here is
the dialogue as presented in the text:

PanSIG Journal 2023

273
Eve:

Oh, it’s cold tonight.

Chris: Yeah, it is. But actually, I kind of like cold
weather.
Eve:

You do? Really?...Boy, there are a lot of people
out here tonight.

Chris: Yea, it gets pretty crowded on weekends.
Eve:

Do you come here a lot?

Chris: Yeah, I do actually.
Eve:So, are you a big hip-hop fan?

Chris: Yeah, I am. Are you?
Eve:

Actually, no, but my brother’s in the band tonight.

Chris: Oh, really? Cool….By the way, my name’s Chris.
Eve:

Nice to meet you. I’m Eve.

There are several points in this conversation that could
be expanded on to give some insight into pragmatic andcultural points of interaction. I will outline some of themore salient ones below.
The conversation opens with a statement by Eve
concerning the weather. It might be pointed out tostudents that this conversation does not open with aquestion. In my data of student interactions, a default
practice is to open interactions with a question. Not only
are openings performed by means of a question, but the
Q&A sequence often extends over many, or even all, ofthe subsequent turns. Breaking out of the habitualquestion and answer adjacency pair sequence issomething that students should be encouraged to do.
The opening moves of this conversation arestatement/response pairs, rather than question andanswer sequences.
The exchange of names contains several importantpragmatic aspects. Instead of initiating this importantsocial move with a direct question, Chris engages inself-initiated self-disclosure. That is, he does not
ask “What is your name?” but offers his own name asa prompt for Eve to reciprocate. The differences
between expectations of self-disclosure between
Japanese and Americans was noted by Iwata (2010),
with Japanese generally oriented to a lower level of selfdisclosure in initial meetings than Americans. Noticealso that the name exchange sequence occurs after a
few other moves have taken place, thus establishing aframework for the interaction, rather than starting with aname enquiry.
In addition to this aspect of name exchange sequences,it may be pointed out to students that only given names
are exchanged. Sometimes Japanese students ofEnglish engage in practices that differ from the L2
system, such as offering given and family name incasual social encounters, saying their name at a speed
well above the surrounding discourse making the namehard to catch, and engaging in the establishment of
naming expectations such as, My name is Tomomi,
please call me Tomo and the like. To vary this practice,students can be taught that rather than the
directive/permissive move of you can call me X, you
could either just give the shortened version of yourname or indicate that your name is a shortened version
by explaining something like, “Actually, my name is
Tomomi, but everyone just calls me Tomo.” (Of course,“My name is Tomomi, please call me Tomomi” is arather unusual practice, but one that is not unheard of in
the author’s experience.)
A further aspect of this name exchange sequence is theintroduction of the names by the formulaic expression“By the way.” For many Japanese students, this fixed
expression is part of their English repertoire. However,
it is often used to effect sudden topic transitions,indicating that the previous topic is closed and that a
new topic will be forthcoming. In this case it should benoticed that the expression introduces a short sequencethat can be described as mostly observing a social
nicety rather than initiating a new topic that will be
developed and expanded. The name exchange
sequence is merely a brief aside before further talkprogresses. The appreciation of the nuanced function ofby the way, the introduction of a temporary aside, canbe of benefit to learners.
The opening move by Eve and the response by Chrisalso yields some possibilities for teaching and learning.
Eve’s utterance takes the form of an assessment of theweather, specifically the temperature. In the literature ofconversation analysis an assessment is seen as the firstpair part of an adjacency pair (Pomerantz, 1984). In
coarse terms, failure to respond with a next turn thatsomehow addresses the assessment is a face
threatening act. More narrowly, the response move caneither be preferred (i.e., an agreement), or dispreferred(i.e., a disagreement). Normative practice describes
preferred turns as being quick, direct, clear and to thepoint, whilst dispreferred turns tend to be delayed,hedged, subject to restarts and so on. Such is the casehere. Eve’s assessment is stated in such a way as toinvite agreement that it is indeed cold tonight, with thesupposed inference that standing in line on a cold
evening is a less than desirable situation. Chris agrees
with the assessment of coldness, to which he has
shared epistemic access. But crucially he does not alignwith Eve’s inference that it is an unpleasant situation.
Rather, using the discourse marker “actually” he offersa mildly disaffiliative observation that he likes cold. The
function of “actually” in prefacing new or unexpected
PanSIG Journal 2023

274
information is dealt with on the subsequent page of the
textbook. What is also noteworthy is that Chris, possibly
realizing the face threatening act of his non-alignment
with Eve’s tacit judgment of unpleasantness, chooses
first to offer what seems like an agreement (“yeah, it is”)
followed by disjunctive “but” and then goes on to hedge
his positive view of cold weather with the hedging
expression “kind of.” Not only is this a vital lexical phrase
for offering negative, critical or disaffiliative statements,
the prosody of this item, (/kaɪnə/) is also a possible
teaching point. The sequence of partial agreement,
disjunctive word, and hedged counter-assessment in adisagreeing turn is an eminently teachable pragmatic
point.
A final aspect of the interaction is connected to the audio
component. It is likely that teachers will play the audioof the interaction in class, possibly focusing on somecomprehension issue. What is also relevant is the timingof the turn-taking. It can be pointed out to students thatthe turns follow on from each other in a timely fashion.
That is, the participants align with the universal principle,“that turn-taking in informal conversation is universallyorganized so as to minimize gap and overlap” (Stivers
et al., 2009, p. 10591). This may be important because
in many teacher-fronted question and answer
sequences in the classroom, a teacher may allow sometime for the student to formulate the answer. This may
accustom the student to the acceptability of prolonged
pauses at turn boundaries when speaking the L2.
Normative turn-taking practices require rapid uptake ofthe turn at the transition point, as demonstrated in thisconversation. Rapid turn uptake is a key interactional
skill.
As noted above, textbook conversations are often
simplified, and many of the features that characterize
spoken interaction are absent from these conversations,perhaps out of necessity for lower-level learners, butalso perhaps out of a misplaced concept of what atextbook conversation should (and by implication,
should not) look like on the part of publishers andteachers. So, in addition to analyzing a textbook
conversation for the pragmatic components that arepresent, but not overtly attended to in the textbook,
teachers may wish to set students the task of re-working
a text conversation to introduce some elements that are
not present but could well be. Prime examples of these
aspects would be things like inclusion of discourse
markers, use of general extenders and vague categorymarkers, introduction of three-part lists, inclusion of
purposeful repetition and rephrasing, and asking ofcomplex telling questions rather than direct interrogative
styles of interaction.

Sample Text Dialogue (2)The above conversation was already quite dense inpragmatic aspects. Many textbook conversations,especially for lower-level learners are much morerudimentary exchanges and tilt heavily to loading theinteraction with target language. Here is an example ofsuch a target-structure oriented conversation. (Vincent,et al., 2020, p.76)
Kumi:

What do you do in your free time, Ken?

Ken:

Well, I rarely have free time on weekdays. And
I work part-time in a restaurant twice a week.
But I spend a lot of time online on weekends.

Kumi:

Oh, yeah, what do you do online?

Ken:

I often watch music video and text my friends.

The target language is frequency adverbs and adverbial
expressions, although the desire to include as manytarget terms as possible leads to a slightly unnatural feelto the interaction. Students might be encouraged torework this conversation to include things like discourse
markers, general extenders and expanded answers toquestions that do a better job of maintaining
progressivity. Here is one reworked version:.
Kumi: So, what do you do in your free time, Ken? Do
you have any hobbies or anything?
Ken:Well, I don’t really have much free time on
weekdays. Like, I work part-time in a restaurant
twice a week. But I spend a lot of time online on
weekends. I mean, I watch music videos andtext my friends, stuff like that.

Notice that Kumi’s initial topic proffering question isprefaced with the marker “so” to indicate a new topic
departure. The question is then asked in a complex
manner, firstly with a general “wh- question” which isfollowed by a binary Y/N question that supplies an
exemplar of the kinds of things which may appear in theanswer. This is appended with the general extender “oranything” indicating that the topic of hobbies is not
exhaustive, and that Ken has some latitude in his
answer. Ken’s response is correctly initiated with themarker “well” as it indicates that the upcoming turn is notexactly aligned with the perceived intent of the prior turnand “will privilege its speaker’s perspectives, interests
or projects in the ensuing talk” (Heritage, 2015, p.89).
Ken here prefaces his answer to the posed question
with a claim of not having much free time on weekdays.
The original frequency adverb “rarely” has been
replaced with the more conversational phrase “don’t
really have much free time.” Ken expands his turn withthe word “like” which has several important discourse
functions such as focusing, listing and exemplifying.
After introducing the topic of online activities, Ken does
PanSIG Journal 2023

275
not finish his turn, as he did in the first instance (which
was somewhat incomplete in discourse terms). Rather,he maintains progressivity by expanding on his new
topic and giving concrete examples. In this case hegives his examples as two items in a three-part list
(Jefferson, 1990), with the third part being a generalextender “stuff like that.” McCarthy (2010) described thefunctions of these extenders in both drawing on sharedsocial understanding (in this case the other online
activities are deemed to be understood and thus not
expressed) and also the function of extenders insignaling turn closure and preparing the interlocutor toself-select to take the next turn–as opposed to the overt
current selects next strategy of “How about you?” that isa default for many lower students. (See CampbellLarsen, 2019c for more on “How about you?”)
It must be stressed here that no blame is attached to thewriters of the original conversation. As a pedagogic aid
to teaching frequency terms, it succeeds on its own
terms. The reworking of the conversation is intended tohighlight some items that may aid in progression
towards more developed interactional competence.
Although the propositional content of the two versions is
identical, the use of the new items is more in line withthe emic interactional awareness of participant roles
and stances that are characteristic of mundaneinteractions in daily life. It is vital that learners bear inmind the need to adequately fulfil participatory roles aswell as produce grammatically well-formed utterancesin the L2, even at the earliest stages of language
learning.

Conclusion
The ability to communicate in the target language isbased on so much more than knowledge of lexis andgrammar. Spoken interaction relies on constant work byparticipants to manage turns, signal stances, achieve
mutual understanding, repair trouble sources and so on.
Any language program that disattends to these matters
is severely lacking. In this paper I have suggested thatteachers need to be aware of the nature and importanceof interactional norms and constantly bring thesematters to the learners’ attention. Principledexamination of textbook conversations can reveal
aspects of interaction that may be taken for granted byteachers, but which will probably lie outside theconsciousness of learners unless addressed explicitly.
Whatever the overt target of such textbook
conversations may be, there is always insight to begained by examining the pragmatic aspects–even if it is
to highlight how the idealized textbook conversations
depart from interactional norms.
In addition to examining the textbook conversations forextant pragmatic aspects, students can also be
encouraged to apply their knowledge of interactional

resources. Features such as discourse markers,
general extenders, interactive question styles and so on
can be included in a rewrite of the conversations. In
these rewrites the propositional content is unchanged,
but the conversation includes more of the interactional
linguistic resources that characterize daily social talk in
the target language. It must be stressed that there is no
single correct way to rewrite a conversation. This
demonstrates the fluidity and locally managed nature of
spoken interaction and I suggest that these
supplemental lesson activities, in concert with otherpragmatically focused lessons and ample opportunities
to engage in interaction in the L2, will help learners tomove towards more naturalistic interactions.

References
Campbell-Larsen, J. (2016). I think so too:
Assessments and agreements. In P. Clements,
A. Krause, & H. Brown (Eds.), Focus on thelearner (pp. 225–231). JALT.
Campbell-Larsen, J. (2017). Discourse markers in theclassroom. In P. Clements, A. Krause, & H.
Brown (Eds.), Transformation in language
education (pp. 227–234). JALT.
Campbell-Larsen, J. (2019a). From needs analysis toemergent pragmatic competence: A longitudinalmicro analytic study of learner talk in Japanese
EFL university classes. In L.U. Takeda and M.
Okuguri (Eds.), A pragmatic approach to English
language teaching and production (pp. 169–
197). Kazama Shobo.
Campbell-Larsen, J. (2019b). Interactions in L2: Somefeatures of Japanese learner talk. In P.
Clements, A. Krause, & P. Bennett (Eds.),
Diversity and inclusion (pp. 183–188). JALT.
Campbell-Larsen, J. (2019c). Formulaic language: Thecase of How about you? English and American
Studies. Journal of the Graduate School, Kyoto
Women’s University 18, 1–28.
Ducker, N. (2020). Crossing the Rubicon: An
idiodynamic investigation into the relationship

PanSIG Journal 2023

276
between willingness to communicate and learner
talk (Doctoral dissertation, Aston University).

Pomerantz, A. (1984). Agreeing and disagreeing withassessments: Some features ofpreferred/dispreferred turn shapes. In J. M.

Ellis, R. (1991). Communicative competence and theJapanese learner. JALT Journal, 13(2), 103–

Atkinson & J. Heritage (Eds.), Structures ofsocial action (pp. 57–101). Cambridge.

129.
Schegloff, E. A. (2006). Interaction: The infrastructure
Evison, J., McCarthy, M., & O’Keeffe, A. (2007).

for social institutions, the natural ecological‘Looking out for love and all the rest of it’: Vague

niche for language, and the arena in which

category markers as shared social space. In J.

culture is enacted. In N. J. Enfield & S.C.

Cutting (Ed.), Vague language explored

Levinson (Eds.), Roots of human sociality:(pp.138–157). Palgrave Macmillan

Culture, cognition and interaction (pp. 70–96).
Routledge.

Green, A. (2016). Testing Four Skills in Japan. British
Council New Directions in Language

Schegloff, E. A. (2007). Sequence organization in

Assessment. JASELE Journal Special Edition,interaction: A primer in conversation analysis.

135–144. Retrieved from https://core.ac.uk/

Cambridge.

download/pdf/77038094.pdf
Schiffrin, D. (1987). Discourse markers. Cambridge
Heritage, J. (2015). Well-prefaced turns in English

University Press.

conversation: A conversation analytic
perspective. Journal of Pragmatics, 88, 88–104.

Stivers, T., Enfield, N. J., Brown, P., Englert, C.,
Hayashi, M., Heinemann, T., Hoymann, G.,

Iwata, Y. (2010). Pragmatic failure in topic choice, topic

Rossano, F, de Ruiter, J.P., Yoon, K., &development, and self-disclosure by Japanese

Levinson, S. C. (2009). Universals and cultural

EFL speakers. Intercultural Communication

variation in turn-taking in conversation.

Studies, 19(2), 145–158.

Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 106(26), 10587-10592.

Jefferson, G. (1990). List construction as a task andhttps://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.0903616106

interactional resource. In G. Psathas, (Ed.),Interactional competence (pp. 63–92). University
Press of America.
Linell, P. (2004). The written language bias inVincent, P., Nakazoto, N. & Meadows, A. (2020).
Speaking of people. Nan’un-do.
Wong, J. (2002). Applying conversation analysis inlinguistics: Its nature, origins andapplied linguistics: Evaluating dialogue intransformations. Routledge.

English as a second language textbooks. IRAL.
International Review of Applied Linguistics in

McCarthy, M. (2010). Spoken fluency revisited. English

Language Teaching, 40(1), 37–60.

Profile Journal, 1(1), 1–15.
Wong, J., & Waring, H. Z. (2020). Conversation
Overstreet, M. (1999). Whales, candlelight, and stuff
like that: General extenders in English

analysis and second language pedagogy: A
guide for ESL/EFL teachers. Routledge.

discourse. Oxford University Press.

PanSIG Journal 2023

277

Students' Sense of Accomplishment in a University Business English Course
Brent Alden Wright
Kanazawa Institute of Technology
As teachers, we want to help our students sustain their desire to learn. One way to do this is to ensure they feel like they
accomplished something worthwhile in their English classes. In positive psychology, the PERMA model (positive emotion,
engagement, relationships, meaning, and accomplishment) is often used to talk about wellbeing. When students feel like they
accomplished something, it affects their overall wellbeing and positively impacts their English learning. This paper will report on
the findings of a study of 1st and 2nd year students in a Japanese university taking a one-semester Business English course.
Students reported on the sense of accomplishment they felt from the various activities they took part in during the course. In
addition, they were asked to consider their sense of accomplishment in other courses. Results of which activities yielded thehighest sense of accomplishment will be summarized as well suggestions for EFL teachers.

教師の課題の一つはどうやって学習者の学習意欲の維持を促せるかのことである。一つの方法は授業で達成感を感じてもらうことである。ポジティブ心理学では、PERMA モデル (P:ポジティブ感情、E:何かに没頭する、R:他者との関係、M：人生の意
味、A:達成感)でウェルビーイングが定義づけられている。学生が達成感を感じると、ウェルビーイングに良い影響を及ぼし、英語学習にも良い影響がある。この論文は一学期のビジネス英語科目を受講する大学１，２年生の学生を対象とした調査の報告である。学期を通して様々な活動に対する達成感を報告してもらった。他に受講している科目についての達成感度も尋ねた。どの活動が一番高い達成感を感じさせたかに加え、その結果が英語科目の活動にどう影響すべきかについて述べる。

The foreign language classroom is evolving in terms ofthe content that is covered and how teachers can help
students develop as human beings. Psychologicalelements of the learner, such as motivation, emotions,and communication goals are taking a more prominentrole in education. Currently, among the many things weneed to address as language teachers, two important
areas are the content and the student. Teachers decide(with varying degrees of freedom) what content to teachand how to teach that content. The “what” and “how”
can be instrumental for teachers to focus on in order tohelp students grow. With this in mind, my question is:“How can we help our students sustain their desire tolearn English?” One possible answer is to give them theopportunity to feel a sense of accomplishment in what
they do in the classroom.
This idea of accomplishment comes from the field ofpositive psychology. Gable and Haidt (2005) define
positive psychology as an area of research whichinvestigates the things that contribute to people andgroups’ flourishing and their optimal functioning. When
students are functioning in an optimal manner, theylearn better. This is supported by the broaden-and-build
theory of positive emotions proposed by Fredrickson(2004). A sense of accomplishment can help students
feel good about themselves and thus positively impact

their English learning. This paper seeks to take a closer
look at how the concept of accomplishment plays animportant role in a university EFL course in Japan.
The following two research questions guided this study.
1. Do students feel a sense of accomplishment in auniversity Business English class?
2. Which activities provide a greater sense ofaccomplishment for students?

Literature Review
What does positive psychology have to do with learning
English? Using language is about communication,
expressing our own thoughts and feelings andunderstanding others’. There is a lot of overlap between
these two areas of study. Most teachers, regardless ofsubject and level, probably already use positive
psychology concepts in their teaching. Positive
psychology is concerned with improving wellbeing,
which can mean helping relatively content people
become happier and also helping miserable people
become less so. In terms of motivation, if we think about
it on a scale of -10 to +10, we can help our somewhat
motivated students move from a +2 to a +4, or our lessmotivated ones from a -4 to a -2. Both instances are an
PanSIG Journal 2023

278
improvement. Positive psychology gives us targeted
tools (theory and practical methods) for addressing
students’ psychological side and can thus be useful for
motivating them to learn and helping them to improvetheir English skills.
A prominent topic in positive psychology is the conceptof wellbeing. In general, higher wellbeing means aricher life. It is difficult to discuss one’s wellbeing in a
concrete way because it is such a subjective topic andvaries greatly depending on the individual and theircircumstances. Many models have been proposed for
how to think about wellbeing (see Forgeard et al., 2011
for a review of this topic). Of the many models, the
PERMA model proposed by Seligman (2011) gives us
a concrete way to talk about wellbeing. Each letter of
PERMA stands for a different domain of wellbeing: P(positive emotion), E (engagement), R (relationships),
M (meaning), A (accomplishment). This working
definition of wellbeing provides a tangible way of
thinking about this somewhat abstract concept as
researchers are able to discuss and research thespecific domains. Butler and Kern (2016) created andvalidated a test called the PERMA-Profiler which isrelatively easy to administer and is useful for learning
more about the domains of wellbeing. Each domain of
this model of wellbeing is distinct and yet can influence
the other domains. This can make it difficult to givedefinitive cause-response explanations, but throughinterventions and studies based on the PERMA model,
we can start to get a clearer picture of a person’s
wellbeing.
Wellbeing plays a prominent role in learning in general,and particularly in language learning. We can say thatthe higher our students’ wellbeing, the better they learn.
For example, Fredrickson’s (2004) broaden and build
theory of positive emotions suggests that when people
are in a positive state of mind, they are more open to
new ideas and growth than when they feel stressed or
are worried about something. Another example is theself-determination theory (Ryan & Deci, 2000) whichstates that people have three basic psychological needs
for personal growth: relatedness, autonomy, and asense of competence. As for accomplishment, when
students feel like they accomplish something, they feelcompetent about their ability. Accomplishments are apart of the PERMA model, so we can infer that
improving this can contribute to students’ wellbeing andthus positively impact their learning.
Positive psychology’s impact on language teaching cancome in two forms – as a perspective and as a discipline.
As a perspective, it takes prominent positive psychology
theories that have empirical support in non-classroom(i.e. regular life) settings and applies them to thelanguage classroom. The positive psychology
perspective offers many activity ideas for English

learners. For example, the “three good things” positive
intervention, in which students write down good things
that happened during the day in order to raise theirpositive emotion (Helgesen, 2016 & Seligman et al.
2005), is an activity that is easy to implement and canbe done in all levels of English classes. Another way theperspective can be helpful for teachers is that it offers
methods for how to make a positive learning
environment (Fresacher, 2016).
The discipline aspect of positive psychology is based on
research yielding quantitative and qualitative data. One
example of this is a study conducted by Czimmermann
and Piniel, (2016) which investigated how a group of
Hungarian English major students experience flow in
the English classroom, which is closely related to theengagement domain of PERMA. Questionnaires asking
the students to rate their level of flow during English
class in general and for a specific task wereadministered. The authors found that the majority ofstudents experienced moderate to high levels of flow
during class and that the balance of task challenge andlearners’ skill level played an important role inexperiencing flow. This type of result stemming fromquantitative data is how positive psychology as adiscipline can be useful for improving the language
learning experience for students.
Positive psychology as a perspective and discipline areboth important in furthering our knowledge of how best
to teach our students. One goal of the current study is
to take an important concept from the perspective ofpositive psychology and gather and analyze data to
make empirically-supported suggestions for teaching
English learners at the university level in Japan.
The accomplishment domain of PERMA can becharacterized as a person having a sense of working
toward and reaching goals and feeling competentenough that they can complete tasks (Butler & Kern,2016). Japanese university students are enrolled inseveral different courses during a single semester. If allgoes well, they will receive university credits forcompleting the assignments required of them. Many
students consider obtaining these credits their ultimate
goal and this alone provides them with enoughmotivation to work hard. But what about the content of
those courses? Specifically, with English, do they feellike they accomplish something besides simply earning
credits for their effort? Students engage in a variety ofactivities and tasks in their English classes. Do some
activities provide better satisfaction in terms of feelingaccomplishment than others? If teachers can determine
which types of activities students find worthwhile, they
can use this information to tailor class planning tomaximize students’ sense of accomplishment.

PanSIG Journal 2023

279

Methods
ParticipantsParticipants for this study (N=75) were a conveniencesample of students in the author’s Business English
courses taught during the Fall 2022 semester at a 4year technical university in the Hokuriku region of Japan.
There is no English major at this university and all
students are required to take four English courses
during their first two years. The course was centeredaround task-based group work with two culminatingpresentation activities during the 15-week term.
Students were encouraged to use English for group
discussions. However, due to their low English level (themajority of students have the equivalent of TOEIC
scores below 360), group discussions occurred mostly
in Japanese while presenting opinions and findings tothe entire class was done in English. There were 96
students in total enrolled in the author’s courses, ofwhich nine students stopped attending class at somepoint during the term. Of the remaining 87 students, 75
completed the questionnaire given on the final day ofclass. 12 students were absent for the final day of class.

Data Collection and Analysis
A questionnaire (see Appendix) was given to students
on the final class of the 15-week term. The
questionnaire and permission to gather data fromstudents were approved by the university’s internal
review board. Students were instructed verbally and inwriting that their responses would remain anonymousand not impact their grade in the course or theirrelationship with the university in any way.
The questionnaire contained discrete and free response
items. The discrete items asked students to circle anumber from 1 (no sense of accomplishment) to 10 (felta sense of accomplishment) to represent their feelingabout the different activities undertaken during the term.
A 10-point scale was used instead of a Likert-scale withfewer choices in order for respondents to make a finer
distinction between activities. For example, if they foundthat two different activities gave a similar sense ofaccomplishment, they could give one a score of “8” andanother a “9” to show this difference. If a Likert-scale
was used, these answers may have resulted in thesame score.
Six discrete response items were about specificactivities from their English class. Three additional
discrete response items asked about their overall senseof accomplishment in this English course, other general
required courses, and major-specific courses. Free
response items asked students to give details about
when they felt the most sense of accomplishment in thiscourse and also in their overall university life (including

club or other activities). All items were written in
Japanese and students gave their responses inJapanese. This was done in order for them to be able toexpress their thoughts more freely than having to do itin their second language.
The discrete items were tallied and analyzed using
basic statistics. Mean, median, and standard deviation
were calculated for each item. Free responses wereread through and given general category labels such as“received credit” or “group presentation” so the data
could be organized more efficiently. Both discrete andfree response items were ranked to find out which
activities provided the most sense of accomplishment.

Results
Results of the discrete response items are given in
Table 1 and Table 2.
Table 1Discrete Item Responses – Activities
M

SD

Group presentation

8.76

1.28

Elevator pitch (individual presentation)

8.63

1.45

Group activities (no grade given)

8.59

1.20

Homework (10 assignments during term)

8.11

1.47

Enjoy English (free choice assignment)

7.97

1.58

Daily reflection

7.95

1.70

Table 2Discrete Item Responses – Overall Sense of Accomplishment
M

SD

Business Communication English

8.48

1.28

Major-specific courses

7.96

1.49

Other required courses

7.69

1.60

For the free-response items, there were 66 responses(9 chose not to respond). The first item asked, “Whendid you feel the most sense of accomplishment in thecourse? (Give specific details about the activity andcircumstances.)” Three general categories emerged
from the responses: presentations (44); group activities(15); and homework (2). The remaining five responses
were unrelated to any other responses. This item also
asked for students to elaborate on their answers. For
the presentations, responses that had similar themes
had to do with working hard together as a group, reliefof completing the task, and working hard individually on
the preparation.

PanSIG Journal 2023

280

Individual Activities

the discrete response list had the highest score selected.
The second was to gain some insight as to why students
felt a sense of accomplishment.

The range of the means of all six items was 7.95 to 8.76.
A score of 1 is “no sense of accomplishment” while ascore of 10 is “felt a sense of accomplishment.”
Standard deviations ranged from 1.2 to 1.7 implying thatthe vast majority of students gave the activities (taken
in aggregate) a favorable score. This indicates that theintention of providing meaningful activities was matchedby the sense of accomplishment students felt. It cansometimes be difficult to gauge how students,
particularly the quiet ones, feel about class activities.
These results help confirm that the activity choices wereappropriate.

In 44 of the 66 responses, students indicated that
presentations (individual or group) provided the mostsense of accomplishment. This is encouraging as thiscategory of activity made up 30%, which is the largest
part, of students’ final grades. It also backs up theresults of the discrete item section as the highest means(8.76 and 8.63) were for the two presentations. We cansay that the weighting of assessment activities (which
represents which activities the teacher feels are mostimportant for students in order to achieve the course
objectives) was matched by what students got out of thecourse in terms of a sense of achievement.

Group Presentation and Elevator Pitch (individual
presentation) were given the highest scores, 8.76 and
8.63, respectively. These were also the two activities
with the highest points attached to them for the course(30% of total grade; 15% for each) and involved themost preparation time and effort to complete. These two
culmination activities gave the course direction, as all
activities were meant to feed into the two presentations.
They also served the purpose of giving students thehighest sense of accomplishment of all activities done
during the course. These presentation activities (orother culmination activities) should remain in place toact as anchors for course preparation.

There were three main categories for the reasonsstudents gave for their choice of presentations as theactivity that gave them the most sense ofaccomplishment: 1) relief of giving and finishing thepresentation; 2) satisfaction of personal effort; and 3)
gratification of working as a team to prepare and givethe presentation. Even though the reasons given varied,the end result of feeling a sense of accomplishment was
the same for all of these students. The same way thatwellbeing varies from person to person, the reason one
experiences a sense of achievement also varied
between people. For some it was overcoming a large
obstacle and for others it was being released from a
stressful situation.

Discussion

Group activities (M=8.59) ranked above other pointbearing activities and almost as high as the presentation
activities. This could be related to the “feeling connected”
part of the self-determination theory (Ryan & Deci,
2000). They played an important role in terms of senseof accomplishment and should play a central role in EFL
courses.
The three items with the lowest scores (Homework =8.11; Enjoy English = 7.97; Daily reflection = 7.95) had
a high degree of individuality embedded in them. Each
item required students to express their opinions aboutsomething. This touches on the “individuality” portion ofself-determination theory, yet they ranked the lowest. In
this course, homework played the important role ofhelping students prepare for class, which is where thegroup activities took place. Students may have seen the
homework assignments as stand-alone activities. It may
be useful to explain to students that the homeworkcontributes to the other cumulative activities and group
work.

Free Response
There were two reasons for having these free response
items on the questionnaire. The first was to find out
which activity provided the most sense ofaccomplishment in the case that more than one item on

Overall Sense of Accomplishment
Three
items
addressed
overallsenseofaccomplishment in the current English course (M = 8.48,
SD = 1.28), other required courses (M = 7.69, SD =1.60), and major-specific courses (M = 7.96, SD = 1.49).
The difference in means was statistically significant
between the English course and other required courses,t(74) = 4.84, p <.01, as well as between the English
course and major-specific courses, t(74) = 3.16, p < .01.
Based on these results we can say that students had an
overall greater sense of accomplishment in this English
course compared to the other courses they were taking
at that time.

Research Questions Revisited
Returning to the research questions guiding this study,
the first question, “Do students feel a sense ofaccomplishment in a university Business English class?”
was supported by the survey results. The mean ofstudent responses was 8.48 out of 10, implying that ingeneral, they felt a sense of accomplishment. Also,
comparing this to the means for accomplishment in theirmajor-specific and other general classes, 7.96 and 7.69
respectively, we can say that compared to other

PanSIG Journal 2023

281
courses students are taking, that English gives higher
sense of accomplishment.
The second question “Which activities provide a greater
sense of accomplishment for students?” gave us a clear
answer of individual and group presentations. The
reasons given for choosing presentations fell into three
general categories of feeling relief of being finished,satisfaction of individual work, and satisfaction ofworking as a group. Though the reasons varied, the end
result of feeling a sense of accomplishment was thesame.

Limitations and Additional Thoughts
This study was intended to try and answer some basic
questions about students’ sense of accomplishment. It
did that and also provided new questions for further
inquiry. For future studies, the following considerations
could be addressed to give more useful data for
analysis.

survey outside of the classroom after all of the courses
were completed. A similar case could be made if thesurvey was administered by a researcher who did nothave these students in their class. A power imbalanceor a desire to give higher scores to please the teacher
may have had an impact on the results.
Positive psychology has many things to offer for English
teachers in Japan as they seek to motivate English
learners and help them improve their language skills.
This study focused on just one aspect, sense ofaccomplishment, and there are many other areas toexplore for how to help enrich our students’ learning. It
is my hope that more teachers will use the theories of
positive psychology in lesson planning and also in
research in order to add to our knowledge of how tobetter motivate our students in the university setting inJapan.

References

Follow-up interviews could be included to gain further
insight into students’ responses. It would be useful to
ask specifically what it is about the English course thatgives a higher sense of accomplishment than othermajor-specific and general courses. Interviews could
provide valuable opportunities to expand upon andclarify students’ answers.

Butler, J., & Kern, M. L. (2016). The PERMA-Profiler: A

This survey was conducted at the end of the term, so
students had accomplished everything for the term(including receiving their final grade). Accomplishment
is necessarily built into the structure of the final day’s
activities. It would be useful, but perhaps difficult, togather data from students who dropped out during theterm about whether they felt any sense ofaccomplishment before dropping out. We could
hypothesize that not feeling any sense ofaccomplishment influenced their decision to stopcoming to class.

language learners’ experiences of flow in the

It would also be interesting to conduct this type of survey
at several points throughout the term to see if there is adifference in sense of accomplishment just after
completing an activity and reflecting on it at a later time.
Another limitation of this study is that people are
typically not accustomed to attaching scores to their
feelings. One person’s 6 out of 10 could be anotherperson’s 9 out of 10. Repeating this survey insubsequent courses could help bolster its validity. Also,
students may have been inclined to give higher scoresfor the English course since they were experiencing theaccomplishment (or relief) at that particular moment. It
is possible that there would not have been as much of adifference in scores between the sense ofaccomplishment in the English course and othergeneral and specialty courses if students completed thebrief multidimensional measure of flourishing.
International Journal of Wellbeing, 6(3) 1–
48. https://dx.doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v6i3.526
Czimmermann, E., & Piniel, K. (2016). Advanced
Hungarian EFL classroom. In P.D. MacIntyre, T.
Gregersen, & S. Mercer (eds) Positive
Psychology in SLA (pp. 193–214). Bristol:Multilingual Matters.
Forgeard, M. J. C., Jayawickreme, E., Kern, M. L., &Seligman, M. E. P. (2011). Doing the right thing:
Measuring well-being for public policy.
International Journal of Wellbeing, 1(1), 79–106.
https://dx.doi.org/10.5502/ijw.v1i1.15
Fredrickson, B. L. (2004). The broaden-and-build
theory of positive emotions. PhilosophicalTransactions of the Royal Society B: Biological
Sciences, 359 (1449): 1367–1378.
https://doi.org/10.1098/rstb.2004.1512
Fresacher, C. (2016) Why and how to use positive
psychology activities in the second language
classroom. In P.D. MacIntyre, T. Gregersen, &PanSIG Journal 2023

282
S. Mercer (eds) Positive Psychology in SLA (pp.
344 –358). Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Gable, S. L., & Haidt, J. (2005). What (and why) is
positive psychology? Review of General
Psychology, 9(2), 103–110.
https://doi.org/10.1037/1089-2680.9.2.103
Hegelsen, M. (2016) Happiness in ESL/EFL: Bringing
positive psychology to the classroom. In P.D.
MacIntyre, T. Gregersen, & S. Mercer (eds)
Positive Psychology in SLA (pp. 305–323).
Bristol: Multilingual Matters.
Kern, M. L., & Wehmeyer, M. L. (Eds.). (2021).
Palgrave handbook on positive education.
Palgrave Macmillan.
https://link.springer.com/book/10.1007/978-3030-64537-3
Ryan, R.M., & Deci, E.L. (2000). Self-determination
theory and the facilitation of intrinsic motivation,social development, and well-being. American
Psychologist, 55(1), 68–78.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.55.1.68
Seligman, M. E. P., Steen, T. A., Park, N., & Peterson,
C. (2005). Positive Psychology Progress:
Empirical Validation of Interventions. American
Psychologist, 60(5), 410–421.
https://doi.org/10.1037/0003-066X.60.5.410
Seligman, M. E. (2011). Flourish: A visionary new
understanding of happiness and well-being.
Atria Paperback.

PanSIG Journal 2023

283

Appendix
Questionnaire
Business Communication の授業で以下の活動をしました。それぞれについてどの程度達成感を感じたかをあらわす数字に丸を付けてください：（１）達成感を感じなかった（１０）達成感を感じた。もし、リスト内の活動をしなかった場合、点数をつけないでください。
達成感を感じなかった

達成感を感じた

授業中のグループ活動： Group Activities

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

課題：HW

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

授業の振り返り：Activity Points

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

個人発表：Elevator Pitch

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

グループ発表: Group Presentation

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

課題：Enjoy English

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

全般的に Business Communication 1 の授業

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

全般的にこの大学で受講した他の必須科目

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

全般的にこの大学で受講した専門の科目

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

自由回答
Business Communication 1 の授業で一番達成感を感じたのはどんな時でしたか？（活動の内容や状況などをできるだけ具体的に教えてください。）
今学期中、学生生活の中で一番達成感を感じたのはどんな時でしたか？（活動の内容や状況などをできるだけ具体的に教えてくだ
さい。）

PanSIG Journal 2023

284

Literary Texts and Their Writers: An Examination of Gender andRepresentation in Secondary Textbooks in the Philippines
Leilani de Vera
Doshisha University

Gender representation in popular culture and in educational/learning materials have been closely scrutinized since the end of thetwentieth century until today. Visibility of women and the way they are represented are investigated in many studies exposing an
imbalance in gender representation. As a result, popular culture and educational materials are being created now in a more
mindful way. However, in school textbooks where literary texts used are a smorgasbord of written works from different times anddifferent genres, the attention to the ratio of men and women writers has not been well explored yet. Since looking forward entails
a more equitable representation of genders in the educational system, an examination of this difference would be helpful. Using
the public-school Filipino textbooks for Grade 7 used in secondary schools in the Philippines as the research subject, this study
will examine the difference in the number of men and women writers featured in books and how this difference might have
implications in the way genders are represented.

大衆文化や教育/学習教材におけるジェンダー表現は、20 世紀末から今日に至るまで綿密に精査されてきました。 女性の可視性と女性の表現方法は、ジェンダー表現の不均衡を明らかにする多くの研究で調査されています。 その結果、大衆文化や教育
教材は、より意識的な方法で作成されるようになりました。 しかし、さまざまな時代やさまざまなジャンルの文学作品が混在して使用される学校の教科書では、作家の男女比についてはまだ十分に検討されていません。 将来を見据えるには、教育シス
テムにおけるジェンダーのより公平な代表が必要となるため、この違いを検討することが役立つでしょう。 この研究は、フィリピンの中等学校で使用されている 7 年生のフィリピン語公立教科書を研究対象として、書籍に登場する男性作家と女性作家の数の違いと、この違いがジェンダーのあり方にどのような影響を与えるかを調査します。 が表されています。

Textbooks in many countries in the world, especially indeveloping nations like the Philippines, remain one of
the most important sources of learning and instructional
information. In this digital age when information is justwithin a click of a button, students from developing
countries still rely on textbooks to receive informationand learn different skills. Public schools, especially in
the Philippines where most of the budget is coming fromthe government, have many budgetary restrictions andlimitations due to numerous rules and practices likegovernment policies, financial misallocations andcorruption (Bantilan et al., 2023). Therefore, theresources that could be used to purchase technologythat can help students and teachers are not given
priority. As such, textbooks are still the unfailing tool in
information acquisition in public schools. For this reason,
textbooks, among all the other educational learningmaterials, have the biggest impact on students. They
have the potential to shape and influence not just the
information that students would acquire, but also tomold the learner ideologies and identities of students(Blumberg, 2015).
Much research has been done in the hope to know more
about the efficacy of these learning tools and how tofurther improve them. Some of these studies are“Textbook Policies in Asia” (Smart & Jagannathan,2018) and Textbook Development in Low Income
Countries: A Guide for Policy and Practice (Crabbe &Nyingi,2014). These studies were funded andconducted by international organizations such as AsianDevelopment Bank and the World Bank. In thesestudies, guidelines and policies are laid out to help in
the production of textbooks so that they can be effective
tools in education. Although these guidelines cover
more than curricular aspects of the textbooks, theirfocus is still largely on the educational content of thetexts.
However, there are also studies done on textbooks thatinvestigate more than the efficacy and accuracy of thecontent or information of textbooks. These studies look
PanSIG Journal 2023

285
at how the information could impact students andultimately, society, because textbooks can facilitate
more than just curricular learning. One such study,
conducted by Vitz (1986) in the United States, looked atelementary and secondary textbooks to investigate
religion and traditional values and found thatconventional family groups are rarely featured, and that
religious faith has disappeared from the accounts of U.S.
history after the period of the American Revolution.
Another study, done in the Philippines (Tarrayo, 2014),
looked at preschool English language textbooks toinvestigate gender stereotypes. It found that female
characters in the textbooks are depicted doing morehousehold chores like sewing, and cooking, while malecharacters do more active chores like gardening, fixing
cars, and other outdoor activities. Textbooks directly
and indirectly transmit models of social behaviours,
norms and values (Brugeiles & Cromer, 2009). If thesetransmissions are not equal for all, then holistic
development might not be achieved, both for the
students and society in general.

Why Gender Representation?
Representation in any material culture is very important.
However, why is it important to focus on gender
representation in learning materials like textbooks?
Gender representation in material culture has been afocus of discussion among educators, academics, andfeminists because it has an important influence onreaders as subjects (Mills, & Mustapha, 2015). Judith
Butler’s concept of interpellation, as coined by Althusser,
is discussed by Mills and Mustapha (2015). This
process is one whereby bombarded by a range ofimages and messages about what individuals can be,
through advertising on television, in magazines, on
billboards and in books. These images and messages
act as a constraint on what one can feasibly be as anindividual and mark the limits of one’s subjectivity. Thisis particularly the case, argues Butler, as discussed byMills and Mustapha (2015) in relation to the genderingof the individual, where the images in popular culture
inform and to an extent determine the sort of women ormen, one thinks one can be. Individuals negotiate asense of self and identity through engagement withrepresentations. One works out what one can achieve
as women and men and what is consideredappropriate.
Another reason to focus on gender representation isthat gender equal education, a result than can beachieved from equal gender representation in education,
is usually connected to development. This connection
can be explained by a few theoretical frameworks suchas the theory of Gender and Development. Thisapproach looks at the role of gender in development andclaims that unequal relations between sexes hinders
development and female participation (Raju, 2019).

Gender equality in education is a means to fightunderdevelopment
andguarantee
sustainable
development. Therefore, examination of representationin textbooks and how they transmit gender equality is an
important inquiry since it is tantamount to progress andsustainable development.
Several studies show that unequal representation ofgenders in textbooks is a problem that is nearly
universal, with differences in frequency and intensityfrom low and high-income nations alike. One example
is comparative research done on the English textbooks
in Australia and Hong Kong (Lee & Collins, 2010). In thisstudy, the researchers found out that in both countries,
the textbooks used for English show a heavily biased
ratio of male to female characters. This study also foundout that the women characters in the textbooks continue
to be stereotypical in the way that they associated withdomestic roles and more passive activities. The study
by Curaming and Curaming (2020) on English textbooksin the Philippines corroborates these findings. In theirinvestigation of English textbooks used in primaryschools, they found out that male characters are still
favorably portrayed, in terms of visibility. Males accountfor 60% of the characters in the stories featured in the
textbooks used. This pattern can also be seen in theillustrations used in the textbooks, too. In the study ofJava and Parcon (2016), they found out that illustrations
are still heavily stereotypical, associating women withreproductive roles of raising children and performing
household chores.
Blumberg’s (2015) background paper for the Education
for All Global Monitoring Report 2015 also supports thefindings of the studies above. The paper states thatgender bias in textbooks remains an almost invisible
obstacle for females’ equality in education and beyond.
Gender inequality contained in textbooks may constrain
girls from realizing their full potential. When girls cannot
reach their full potential, neither can their family,communities and nations (Bertini, 2011; Sadker et al.,2009).

Kinds of Representation
There are different ways that gender representation in
textbooks can be investigated and analyzed. Porreca(1984), in her article “Sexism in Current ESL Textbooks”(1984) proposes five categories in analyzing gender
representation in texts: visibility, firstness, occupationalroles, activities, and character traits. The first category,visibility, looks at which gender is more visible orappears more frequently than other genders. The
visibility or omission of one gender in educational
materials like textbooks could also signify the lack ofattention, and worth given the said gender as humanbeings or members of the society (Flores & Arunduque,2022). Visibility is usually associated with textbook
PanSIG Journal 2023

286
characters, literary or otherwise; however, Bhattacharya(2017) expanded this category to include authors andtopic/theme focus. This study draws inspiration from thiskind of gender representation in textbook: visibility of
male and female authors in literary textbooks.

Research Questions and Methodology
This study looks at the difference in the occurrence of
women and men authors of literary texts included in theGrade 7 Filipino textbook used in public schools in thePhilippines. These textbook contains literary texts which
are used in teaching grammar and literature.
The two questions explored are: (1) What is thedifference in the number of women and men authors
included in the textbook? (2) In what ways can the
difference impact equal gender representation inlearning materials like a textbook?
The process of finding the difference between thenumber of female and male authors included in the
textbook was collected manually. Further, the literaryworks were read and analyzed to investigate if
characters of the narratives are men-dominated,
women-dominated, or even. After the extraction of thisdata from the narratives, qualitative analysis of thegender focus of the literary texts was done. Content
analysis was used to determine how the men or womencharacters in the narratives are shown: are they playing
central focus, do they have agency or are they treatedas minor characters? These data were also manually
collected.

Results
After manually counting the number of male and female
authors included in the textbook, the result shows amassive gender difference in the number of men andwomen authors. As seen in Table 1, out of all the 38
literary texts included in the textbook, 31 of them havebeen written by men. This makes up 82% of the whole
textbook. Only four of the literary texts are written by
women authors and three texts are oral literature withno known authors.
Table 1
Gender of Literary Text Writers
Gender of the Author

Number of Literary Texts

Female

4

Male

31

Unknown3

Total number of literary texts

38

Looking closely at the literary texts written by eachauthor, three out of the four women writers used female

lead characters, while one featured a male leadcharacter.
Table 2
Literary Texts by Female Writers
Gender of Lead Character

Number of Literary Texts

Female3

Male

1

On the other hand, in Table 3, out of the 31 literary textsof the male writers, 17 of them featured male leadcharacters, while seven others featured female leads,
and one had both male and female as leads. The
remaining four male authors wrote texts with nocharacters (opinion and non-fiction pieces); and two
male writers featured vague lead characters (characters
whose gender can’t be identified due to the genderneutral pronouns used).
Table 3
Literary Texts by Male Writers
Gender of Lead Character

Number of Literary Texts

Female

7

Male

17

Female and Male

1

Vague

2

Texts with no characters

4

Based on the first set of data (Table 1), the number offemale and male writers included in the textbook, one
can clearly see that the textbook is heavily dominatedby the latter. One of the reasons why this textbook has
been the subject of this study is its theme concerning
national and regional literature. This means, that all the
literary texts included in this textbook are all written by
local Filipino writers. This lessens the influence ofwestern literature who are also dominated by malewriters. However, as seen by the sheer difference
between the chosen authors, it is safe to say that evenin the national and local literature context, male writers
also dominate over the female writers in terms ofinclusion in learning materials.
Upon a closer look at the gender of the literarycharacters and gender focus of the narratives, the dataalso show that writers tend to highlight characters of
their own gender. For example, for the women writers,
three out of four featured female lead characters in theirstories. The same is true for the 17 men writers who
wrote literary texts with male lead characters.
Furthermore, female writers have a stronger tendency
to write about their own gender (75%: three out of four

PanSIG Journal 2023

287
texts) compared to male writers with only 55% (17 outof 31 texts).

chances of the students’ being exposed to these issues
would be lesser.

What are the possible implications of these findings?
One implication is that having literary textbooks with
unbalanced ratio of male to female authors could senda message that the Philippine Literature is mainly
dominated by male writers. Although the dominance ofmale writers could be perceived during the early yearsof Philippine literature (Bayot, 2006), contemporary
writing is already seeing a rise in the number of female
writers already (Chin & Daud, 2017). However, thisprogress is not represented well in the textbook.
Therefore, students might think that the Philippine
literary canon is male dominated. Unlike the more set
Western literary canon, Philippine literary canon is not
yet well-established (Santos, 1997). Literary textbooks
can be considered the introduction to the canon, and assuch, whoever is included in the textbooks are very
important. Also, since the Grade 7 Filipino textbook is acompilation of critically acclaimed literary works bynative writers, students perhaps may think that malewriters are better than female writers.

The highlight of this study is the finding that the textbook
used in this research has many more men writers whofeatured mostly male lead characters in their stories.
Although I strongly pointed out that there is a strong
tendency of for writers to feature their own gender intheir works, it is also possible that other things might
influence why writers choose to feature their own
gender in their writings. Some could be personal, some
could be for literary reasons, and some might not have
any reason at all except for some specific effect of thegender on the story. However, as true as this might be,
it is still undeniable that the gender of the writer has astrong effect on the gender of the literary characters thatwould be presented in the literary creations.
Subsequently, it is important that the number of female,
male, and other genders be more equitable, rather thanheavily skewed to the advantage of male as seen in the
textbook used in this study.

Another thing that can emerge from the big disparity
between male and female writers is students missingout on learning from the gendered lived experiences of
the authors. As Janssen and Murachver (2004) claim,
gender is difficult to hide from. It pervades in our
behavior, conspicuously and in subtler yet influential
ways. One of these ways is in creative output such as
literary texts. Feminist writer, Emily Kuhn, also holds thisview. In her book Family Secrets: Acts of Memory andImagination, she states that writers constructthemselves or become textually produced, as belonging
to a particular gender group or social class or generation
or nationality or ethnic group (Kuhn, 2002, p. 149). The
act of writing is always one of writing the self (Pullen,2006).

This study aims to investigate if there is a genderimbalance in the representation of writers in the Grade
7 Filipino textbook. Based on closer inspection of theliterary texts included in the book, it has been found outthat this textbook is heavily dominated by male writers.
The majority of men writers wrote about male charactersand focused on male leads in their writings. This
imbalance in the representation is concerning as it canhave effect on the students who read them. Continuous
exposure to male dominated literary texts that arechosen to be a positive representation of Filipino
national and regional literature could send an
imbalanced message to students. It could makestudents think that male writers are more valued andcapable than women writers. there are more literarytexts featuring them. As textbooks have a bigger reachin developing countries like the Philippines, in terms ofthe number of students who read them, and length oftime the learners are exposed to them, it is important tocritically review their contents as these contents could
reinforce and strengthen biased gender ideologies.

The disparity between the male and female writers canalso cause students to miss out on social and culturalissues that are tied with gender. Feminist writers, forexample, mostly feature their own genders in theirnarratives to highlight the plight, cause, or experiencesof their gender. As Yaeger argues in her book HoneyMad Women: Emancipatory Strategies in Women’s
Writing, discussed by Kaplan (1990), feminist writers
use different writing modes to resist domination, breaksilence, protest, and reinvent and transform myths,
traditions and forms. They do this, Yaeger reasons out
as discussed by Kaplan, to escape the masculine’s
word authority contained in literary language. Writers
like Jane Austen, Emily Bronte, Virginia Woolf, and bell
hooks are some examples of feminist writers who
employ literature as such. Although some male writers
can also write about gender inequality, if there were only
a few female writers featured in the textbook, theConclusion

This is to help guide the making of the new version of
the textbook. With the result of this study and inconsideration of the discussions done here, it is hopedthat some major revisions will be done in the making
and writing of the next textbook. It is hoped that a morebalanced representation of all genders, not just maleand female writers, will be considered.

References
Bayot, D. J. Y. (2006). Bienvenido L. Lumbera on
Revaluation: The National Stages of Philippine
PanSIG Journal 2023

288
Literature and Its History. IDEYA: Journal of

Gender and Sexuality in Asia and the

Humanities, 8(1), 1-1.

Pacific, 48.

Bertini, C. (2011). Girls grow: a vital force in rural

Janssen, A., & Murachver, T. (2004). The role ofeconomies. Chicago: Chicago Council on Global

gender in New Zealand literature: ComparisonsAffairs.

across periods and styles of writing. Journal of
Language and Social Psychology, 23(2), 180-

Blumberg, R. L. (2015). Eliminating gender bias in203.

textbooks: Pushing for policy reforms that
promote gender equity in education. Background
paper for EFA Global Monitoring Report.

Java, J. R. B., & Parcon, C. R. F. (2016). Genderedillustrations in Philippine textbooks. Asia PacificHigher Education Research Journal

Brugeilles, C., & Cromer, S. (2009). Promoting gender(APHERJ), 3(1).

equality through textbooks: A methodological
guide. United Nations Educational, Scientific and

Kaplan, C. (1990). Women's writing and feminist

Cultural Organisation.

strategy. American Literary History, 2(2), 339-

https:/unesdoc.unesco.org/ark:/48223/pf000015

357.

8897_eng
Kuhn, A. (2002). Family secrets: Acts of memory andBhattacharya, S. (2017). Gender Representations inimagination. Verso.

English Textbooks used in Grade Eight under
National and State Boards, India. Language inIndia, 17(6).

Lee, J. F., & Collins, P. (2010). Construction of gender:
A comparison of Australian and Hong Kong
English language textbooks. Journal of Gender

Chin, G. V., & Daud, K. M. (Eds.). (2017). The

Studies, 19(2), 121-137.

Southeast Asian woman writes back: Gender,
Identity and nation in the literatures of Brunei

Mills, S., & Mustapha, A. (2015). Gender

Darussalam, Malaysia, Singapore, Indonesia

representation in learningand the Philippines (Vol. 6). Springer.

materials. International Perspectives.

Crabbe, R. A., Nyingi, M., & Abadzi, H. (2014).
Textbook development in low-income countries:
A guide for policy and practice. The World Bank.
http://hdl.handle.net/10986/18667
Curaming, E. M., & Curaming, R. A. (2020). Gender(in) equality in English textbooks in thePhilippines: A critical discourse
analysis. Sexuality & Culture, 24(4), 1167-1188.
Flores, E., & Aranduque, C. (2022). Gender Bias in
Philippine English Textbooks. Intersections:

Porreca, K. L. (1984). Sexism in current ESL
textbooks. TESOL quarterly, 18(4), 705-724.
Pullen, A. (2006). Gendering the research self: Social
practice and corporeal multiplicity in the writingof organizational research. Gender, Work &Organization, 13(3), 277-298.
Raju, E. S. (2019). Gender Equality and Education for
Sustainable Development. Organized by, 162.
Sadker, D., & Zittleman, Sadker, M. & Zittleman, K. R.
(2009). Still failing at fairness: How gender bias
PanSIG Journal 2023

289
cheats girls and boys in school and what we cando about it. Simon and Schuster.
https://doi.org/10.1080/09540250903464773
Santos, A. L. (1997). A Tradition Behind Bars:
Philippine Epics and the Evolving Philippine
Literary Canon. Journal of English Studies andComparative Literature, 2(1).
Smart, A., & Jagannathan, S. (2018). Textbook policies
in Asia: Development, publishing, printing,
distribution, and future implications. AsianDevelopment Bank.
http://dx.doi.org/10.22617/TCS189651-2
Tarrayo, V. N. (2014). Gendered Word (Or World):
Sexism in Philippine Preschool English
Language Textbooks. Journal on English
Language Teaching, 4(2), 25-32.
Vitz, P. C. (1986). Religion and traditional values inpublic school textbooks. The Public Interest, 84,
79.

PanSIG Journal 2023

290

JALT Special Interest Groups and the
PanSIG Conference
Accessibility in Language Learning
The Accessibility in Language Learning SIG became a new forming SIG in February 2021. This SIG aims to create a community oflanguage teachers to better understand learners with special needs to improve learners’ overall learning experiences with diverse learningneeds.

Bilingualism
Our group provides support to families who are bringing up children in two or more languages in Japanese contexts. Our newsletter,
Bilingual Japan, includes practical information about bilingual parenting, as well as academic and theoretical issues. The SIG’s annual
forum and banquet at the national conference provide an opportunity for members to network with other bilingual families. Further
information can be found at www.bsig.org.

Business Communication
The JALT Business Communication (BizCom or BC) SIG represents a group of like-minded teachers intended to develop the disciplineof teaching English conducive to participation in the world business community in Japan. To facilitate this, we aim to provide instructors
in this field with a means of collaboration and sharing best teaching practices.

CEFR and Language Portfolio
CEFR & LP SIG wants to discuss the Common European Framework of Reference (CEFR) and European Language Portfolio (ELP), andother similar frameworks andtheir relevance for Japan. There is an emphasis on developing materials to support educators who would
like to use these pedagogic tools; the bilingual Language Portfolio for Japanese University is available on the SIG website.

College and University Educators
Our goal is to provide a forum for the presentation and discussion of educational activities, ideas and research of broad interest to college
and university educators in Japan. If you are involved in tertiary education and are committed to professional development, you are CUE
too.

Computer Assisted Language Learning
The CALL SIG serves the interests of language teaching professionals who are interested in bringing together knowledge and skills oftechnology and language learning. CALL practitioners work in a variety of educational settings: private language schools, elementary andsecondary schools as well as colleges and universities.

Critical Thinking
The Critical Thinking (CT) SIG was established for the purpose of providing a clear but ever-reforming definition of critical thinking; toprovide a forum for the discussion of critical thinking and praxis; to provide research opportunities to language educators interested inpromoting critical thinking; and to provide an area where language teachers can enjoy friendly, professional and engaging examination of
the rationale, validity and, furthermore, the critical importance of its instruction in various environments.

Extensive Reading
The ER SIG exists to help promote extensive reading (ER) in Japan. Through our website, our newsletter, the ERJ Journal, andpresentations throughout Japan we aim to help teachers set up and make the most of their ER programmes.

Gender Awareness in Language Education
The purpose of the GALE SIG is to research gender and its implications for language learning, teaching, and training. We welcome
submissions for our newsletter (spring, summer, and fall issues) on topics, both theoretical and practical, related to the SIG's aims. Book

291
reviews, lesson plans, think pieces, poetry -- basically anything related to gender and language teaching is welcomed. To see our past
newsletters, please visit our website at www.gale-sig.org.

Global Issues in Language Education
GILE aims to promote global awareness, international understanding, and action to solve world problems through content-based language
teaching, drawing from fields such as global education, peace education, environmental education, and human rights education. The SIG
produces a quarterly newsletter, organizes presentations for local, national, and international conferences, and maintains contacts withgroups ranging from Amnesty International to Educators for Social Responsibility to UNESCO.

Intercultural Communication in Language Education
This SIG aims to explore various ways language teachers could help shape their students’ intercultural minds, raise their students’ cultural
self-awareness, and educate for intercultural understanding. It promotes discussion about various approaches to teaching interculturalcommunication in a language classroom, allowing educators to become better informed about language intercultural education theory.
We also promote the development of resources appropriate to a foreign language teaching environment while considering the practicalchallenges of taking culture into account in the language classroom.

Japanese as a Second Language
日本語教育研究部会（JSL SIG）の役割は、第二言語としての日本語指導、日本語学習、日本語教育研究の向上を目指し、指導、学習、研究のための資料や情報を与えることです。日本語の指導者、学習者、研究者の皆様加入大歓迎です。発表の援助をし、ニュースレタ
ーと論文集を発行するので論文・記事の寄稿を歓迎します。
The mission of the Japanese as a Second Language (JSL) SIG is to serve as a resource for promoting JSL teaching, learning and research.
We welcome JSL teachers, learners, and researchers to join and take an active role in our SIG.

Learner Development
The Learner Development SIG is an active and supportive community of individuals with a broad range of personal and professional
experiences, all sharing an interest in exploring learner (and educator) development. We encourage anyone with similar interests to join
us. To find out more, please visit our SIG's website, ld-sig.org.

Lifelong Language Learning
We offer a bright future to our aging society. The energy of older learners who wish to lead active lives is flowing all over Japan. LLL (LifeLong Learning) is willing to help these older learners enrich their lives through language learning. LLL also provides resources andinformation for teachers who teach English to older learners by holding events and publishing online newsletters.

Listening
The Listening Special Interest Group (Listening SIG) provides a forum for focused listening research and discussion in specific regard toteaching and learning. The group offers both teachers and researchers a place to connect, collaborate and share practice and research
regarding how teachers teach listening and assess their learners, how learners improve their listening and use it to improve theirknowledge, and finally how theoretical aspects connect to classroom practice.

Literature in Language Teaching
Hi! A hearty welcome to the Literature in Language Teaching SIG. We started up this group to encourage and promote the use of literaturein the language classroom. Literature provides real content to engage and to motivate our EFL students.

Materials Writers
The MW SIG was established for the purpose of helping members to turn fresh teaching ideas into useful classroom materials. We try to
be a mutual assistance network, offering information regarding copyright law, sharing practical advice on publishing practices, including
self-publication, and suggesting ways to create better language learning materials for general consumption or for individual classroom
use.

292
教材開発研究部会 (MW) は、メンバーが日々の教育の場で得た新しいアイディアを教材にしていく助けとなることを目的に設立されました。著作権に関すること、自費出版を含めた出版に関する実践的なアドバイス、広く一般学習者または特定の授業のためにどうしたらより良い語学教材が作れるか、といったことに関するアイディアを共有しお互いを高め合える部会であることが願いです。教材開発についてもっと知りたい、自分のアイディアを形にしたいという方、入会大歓迎です。一緒に活動しませんか。

Mind, Brain, and Education
The Mind, Brain, and Education SIG is a forum for language educators and researchers to share insights in neuroscience. We hope to bea driving force in bringing relevant new discoveries in psychology, cognitive neuroscience and neurolinguistics into language teaching inJapan.

Mixed, Augmented, and Virtual Realities
Mixed, Augmented and Virtual Realities (MAVR) is not a new concept or area of study, but it an area that is beginning to be implemented
at a larger scale in many other fields. There are those of us working in this area connected to education here in Japan and more specificallylanguage education in Japan. Our SIG is not just about the technology, it is also looking into what these technologies mean for how wecommunicate and learn as we create and augment our own reality.

Other Language Educators
Hello; dobr denj; kalimera; ni hao; guten tag; anyong hashimnikka; bonjour, buenos dias; hyvää päivää; bom dia; haisai; konnichiwa!
In a time when we can easily understand where and how other people live, there is still only one surefire way to find out what they think
individually or as a culture: to learn their language. As every culture contains specific patterns of thought and mindsets which cannot
always be put into English or translated easily from one language to another, learning its language opens the door to that culture and thecountries using it. The purpose of the OLE SIG is to serve the special needs of such learners and teachers.

Performance in Education
The mission of the Performance in Education (PIE) SIG is to provide a forum for teachers and academics to discuss, research, andimplement oral interpretation, speech, debate, and drama in language education. The main activities are creation of a newsletter andsponsoring a National Speech, Drama, and Debate Contest. Future activities may be the sponsoring of workshops and conferences, andsupporting local and regional speech, drama, and debate contests or festivals.

Pragmatics
The Pragmatics SIG welcomes members who are interested in both research and practical teaching issues related to "how people dothings with words." The group's newsletter, Pragmatic Matters, is published electronically three times a year. Our Pragmatics Resources
series offers practical and theoretical papers on language in use. If you do anything with language, you are using pragmatics! So, comejoin us!

School Owners
Language School owners have always played a significant role in JALT both at national & local levels. The SO SIG is where owners canshare ideas, experiences, and solutions to the academic and commercial challenges they face which cannot be addressed through other
SIGs. If you have questions or would like to learn more about what the SIG provides, please contact us at so@jalt.org or visit our website
at https://jaltsosig.wixsite.com/home.

Study Abroad
The Study Abroad SIG welcomes anyone interested into its wide membership, domestically and overseas. The aim is to facilitate an active
and working network of faculty, staff, and students who can share and exchange experiences, knowledge, and knowhow on how to plan,
prepare, implement, and evaluate different study abroad programs/experiences. Study abroad includes all categories of inbound andoutbound, one-way study abroad, exchange, internships, experience, and cultural programs. The goal for many SIG members is to network,
to collect and share data and information for future collaboration, research, presentations, and papers in the area of study abroad.

293
Task-Based Learning
The JALT Task-Based Learning (TBL) SIG is a Special Interest Group aimed at teachers who currently use, or are interested in using,task-based approaches in the classroom. The SIG focuses in particular on issues related to Task-Based Language teaching and learningin the Asian EFL context, where TBLT has yet to enter the mainstream of language pedagogy. We hope that the SIG will serve as a usefulforum for the exchange of practical teaching ideas, theoretical discussion, and academic studies of TBLT issues.

Teacher Development
The Teacher Development SIG is a group committed to helping ourselves and our peers to become more effective language teachers inorder to better serve learners. As such, our varied activities and interests include forums, conferences, and journals about professional
development, practitioner research, and reflective practice. Our SIG offers opportunities for teachers from different educational settings
to come together for careful and critical reflections and explorations of their practice, with a view to developing as professionals. The TD
SIG is a flexible group, open to new ideas and potential collaborations.

Teachers Helping Teachers
The THT SIG began from the charity work of the late Bill Balsamo and we organize 4 overseas conferences in Laos (Feb/Mar), Vietnam(Early August), Kyrygystan and Bangladesh (Sept, date depends on Ramadan) as well as work to develop overseas volunteer
opportunities. Participants pay their own way, and are asked to prepare 2-3 presentations (practical presentations are most welcome) thatthey may present multiple times to organize and fill out the conference schedule. For more information, please contact thtjalt@gmail.com.

Teaching Younger Learners
The TYL SIG is for teachers of younger learners. This SIG was formed by the merger of the JALT Teaching Children SIG and the Junior
Senior High SIG in February 2015. The goal of the TYL SIG is to support those involved with or simply interested in the teaching of
languages to learners aged 0-18. We publish a bilingual newsletter with columns by many of the leading teachers in the field.

Testing and Evaluation
The Testing and Evaluation SIG aims to provide avenues for research, information, and discussion related to foreign language testingand evaluation both from within JALT membership and with other professional organizations which have common interests and goals.
Please visit our website at www.jalt.org/test.

Vocabulary
The Vocabulary Special Interest Group (Vocab SIG) provides a forum for focused research and discussion in specific regard to vocabularyacquisition. We offer both teachers and researchers a place to connect regarding how learners improve vocabulary knowledge, how totest their knowledge, and how these theoretical aspects connect to classroom practice. The Vocabulary SIG aims to be a driving force forboth current and future research in the field of how vocabulary can be taught, learned, and tested in an increasingly global context.

294

PanSIG Journal 2023
ISBN# 978-4-901352-72-7
Edited by the PanSIG Journal Editorial Team
Editor-in-Chief: Miguel Campos
Associate Editor: Allyson MacKenzie
Assistant Editor: Ezra Vasquez
Assistant Editor: Duncan Iske
Assistant Editor: Annie Minami
Assistant Editor: Shanique Hutchinson

PanSIG Journal 2023

ISBN# 978-4-901352-72-7
Created and Edited by
PanSIG Journal 2023 Editorial Team
Miguel Campos, Allyson MacKenzie, Ezra Vasquez, Duncan Iske, Annie Minami
and Shanique Hutchinson

PanSIG is a yearly conference held by the Special Interest Groups in
the Japan Association of Language Teachers.