1. Coastal restoration and its Development
1.1 Pathway to nature restoration(1) Japan and its coasts
Japan is an island nation blessed with a surround of diverse natural marine
environments. In order to utilize such waters in sophisticated and effective ways, itis crucial to properly address environmental issues such as seawatercontamination and pollution as well as the degradation of the naturalenvironment.
The Japanese archipelago stretches 3,000km from north to south, spanning thesubtropical climate zone to the tropical zone. It’s also fringed with lengthy
coastlines, some as long as approximately 35,000km, far exceeding the lengths ofthe coastlines of the United Kingdom both in length per square kilometer and per
capita. These geographic characteristics of Japan provide coastal areas withvarious topographic features that include sandy beaches, reed communities, tidal
flats, rocky shores and coral reefs, which are home to a diverse range of livingorganisms.
As mountains and hills cover approximately 70% of the nation, economic
functions concerning population and production are concentrated in the coastal flat
areas, with these areas being the most vital zones for various sorts of humanactivities. Among all, waterfront areas, which are centered around ports, have highpopulation densities, and thus have been intensively and highly developed for landuse. Major towns are located by the sea, and industries that support our daily life,
such as fisheries, manufacturing and commerce are also concentrated in coastal
areas. The bigger cities of Japan fronting busy waters such as Tokyo Bay, Osaka
Bay, Ise Bay and Seto Inland Sea, are among the world’s most intensively utilized
bay areas.
As described above, diverse activities in our lives are based on the sea and thecoasts. This also indicates that the coastal areas have undergone a
rapid-development during and after postwar reconstruction, and thus turned into
the zones for industrial and distribution purposes. The remarkable economic
growth has come at a cost, wherein coastal areas have come to encounterenvironmental problems as witnessed in water pollution triggered by the industrial
waste water discharge, as well as the disappearance of sandy beaches and tidal
flats by reclamation projects. The concerns over the marine environment werehighlighted by pollution-related illnesses represented by Minamata disease, whichcame to light during a high-growth period of the Japanese economy. The seawater1

contamination by poisonous substances posed serious concerns to society.
Concerted efforts by the government, municipalities and residents along the coast,
however, managed to thwart this contamination by such poisonous substances, andby the early 1970’s no longer posed a major threat.
Instead, the wastewater from households has raised major water pollution
concerns. Problems including the occurrence of red tide, caused by the excessive
organic matter in discharged domestic wastewaters known as eutrophication, as
well as the water quality deterioration induced by organic sediment deposition on
the sea floor, have drawn attention in enclosed coastal waters. To tackle these
problems, efforts have been made both onshore and inshore, including an attempt
to reduce the pollution load in terrestrial runoff or remove organic sediment fromthe sea.
In recent years, people’s awareness of environment issues has shown asubstantial change, as can be seen in a wide variety of environmental conservation
and restoration efforts in place around the nation, and not forgetting to mention
the voluntary involvement of residents in local clean-up programs.
This chapter features various movements in environmental efforts undertaken
during the past decade, as well as natural and societal backgrounds for theincreasing demand to restore natural ecosystems, including the sea.
In other words, the pathway to nature restoration is hereby presented.
(2) Environmental measures taken at home and abroad
Various measures and efforts for environmental conservation and sustainable
development have been taken at home and abroad in an attempt to preserve
ecosystems and biological diversity.
In recent years, people’s attention to the environment and measures for it has
increased significantly, both domestically and internationally. The need for global,
environmental conservation as well as affording consideration to the environment,
have become a shared awareness around the world since the Earth Summit in1992.
In 1992, the U.N. Conference on Environment and Development (Earth Summit)
was held in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, with approximately 20,000 participants fromabout 180 nations, including NGOs and media staff. This summit was designed to
explore the concrete measures needed for global environmental conservation andsustainable development. The discussion was focused on how to pursue both2

environmental preservation and economic development. In the conference, theRio Declaration on Environment and Development was adopted, which states,“Human beings are at the center of concerns for sustainable development. In
order to achieve sustainable development, environmental protection shallconstitute an integral part of the development”. Agenda 21, which laid down thecomprehensive plan of action for sustainable development, was also adopted.
Such international movements also activated the efforts in Japan towards theestablishment of a system that enables the coexistence of environmental protection
and development, which in turn saw the introduction of the Basic Environment
Law in 1993.
The Basic Environment Law states our responsibility for future generations,stipulating the framework for environmental policies which ensure the benefit of asound and rich natural environment for both present and future generations. The
Law also highlights the needs for a social structural transformation that would
reduce as much as possible the load of socio-economic activities on the environment.
Also of paramount importance is the need for international collaboration to attainthese goals. The focus is also directed towards the need for economic measures, thepromotion of recycling programs, the designation of a public national holiday(Environment Day), the support for environmental education, and the importanceof cooperation with private organizations. Based on this Law, the Basic
Environment Plan was introduced in 1994 and further revised in 2000.
Along with the attempts regarding environmental issues, global efforts towards
conservation of ecosystems and protection of rare species have been made throughinternational treaties on ecological conservation.
Wetlands and tidal flats are important habitats and stopovers for birds migrating
globally, including water birds. With this view in mind, the International
Conference on the Conservation of Wetlands and Waterfowl was held in Ramsar,
Iran in 1971 and The Convention on Wetlands of International Importance
Especially as Waterfowl Habitat (Ramsar Convention) was concluded. The missionof this convention is to promote the conservation of wetlands of international
importance as waterfowl habitats as well as the plants and animals inhabiting
them. The Convention requires contracting parties to make a commitment todesignate at least one wetland site in the nation that meets the Ramsar Criteria
and register it at the convention secretariat and thereby protect the listed sites inaccordance with the guidelines stipulated in the Convention.
In 2002, there were 133 contracting parties to the Convention with 1,229 sites

3having been designated, spanning approximately 10,590,000 ha.
In Japan, Kushiro Wetland was the first area nationwide to be designated as
wetland. There are now 13 designated sites, including Yatsu Wetland (Chiba
Prefecture) and Fujimae Wetland (Aichi Prefecture).
In Europe, the Conservation of Wild Birds (1979) and the Conservation of Natural
Habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora (1992) were put into effect, designating 8%
and 14% part of Europe, respectively.
The Convention on Biological Diversity was also adopted at the time of the Earth
Summit in Rio. Contracting nations must formulate strategies for biologicaldiversity, promote the conversation of diverse species and ecosystems, and conduct
monitoring for evaluation. As of February 2002, there were 182 contracting parties.
In Japan, the National Strategies on Biological Diversity of Japan was formulated
in 1995, and revised in 2002 in accordance with an article stipulated in it. The newstrategy, the National Biodiversity Strategy of Japan, was authorized at a cabinet
meeting in 2002.
Among such movements, the Europe meeting has set up more concrete goals,
represented by the 2001’s Swedish resolution on “reverse the decline in biologicaldiversity by 2010”.
(3) Environmental measures taken in the sea (coastal areas)
Environmental measures in port and harbor policies have begun to focus theirattention on more comprehensive approaches, in the wake of the development ofstrategies including; designation of Eco-port, revision of the Harbor Law, as well as
the conservation and creation of tidal flats and seaweed and seagrass beds.
The environmental improvement in coastal areas has been undertaken by various
entities incorporating a wide range of measures (Fig.1-1). In port and harbor
policies, for example, efforts to conserve marine environment include anenvironmental improvement project represented by the recovery of garbage and oil(1974), and the Sea Blue Project to improve seawater quality (1988). The
following measures have also been subsequently introduced:
・

Proposal for the designation of Eco-ports that portray an ideal coexistence of
nature and humans (1994)

・

Revision of the Port and Harbor Law, which clearly expressed the commitmentof the administration to the environment (2000)

・

Conservation and creation of tidal flats and seaweed and seagrass beds.

4

Comprehensive and collaborative approaches have now been undertaken byvarious organizations engaged in coastal restoration.
Table 1-1 Movements in Nature Restoration Efforts
Environmental measures in ports andOther domestic movements
harbors
Formulation of the policy "the creation a1900 healthy and productive environment onwaterfronts"
1991
1992

International movements

Earth Summit in Rio
Adoption of Convention on Biological
Diversity

Conclusion of Convention on Biological
Diversify

1993

Introduction of Basic Environment Law
1994

1995

Formulation of a new environmental port Basic Environment Plan was authorized Effectuation of Convention on Biologicaland harbor policy, "Eco-port"
in the cabinet
Diversity
Eco-port model project startedExperiments on tidal flats started in Port National Strategy on Biological Diversity Establishment of International Coraland Harbor Research Instituteof Japan
Reef Initiative

Formulation of the policy" Ports and1996 harbors supporting mass transport andinteraction

Asia-Pacific Migratory Waterbird
Conservation Strategy

Environmental Impact Assessment Law
was enacted

1997

Adoption of Kyoto Protocol to theUnited Nations Framework Convention
on Climate Change

Revision of River Law"Grand Design for the 21st Century"
was formulated

1998

Conference of contracting parties to theRamsar Convention

1999 Revision of Coast Law

2000 Revision of Port and Harbor Law

Adoption of Cartagena Protocol on
Six laws concerning waste management
Biosafety to the Convention ofand recycling was formulated
Boilogical Diversity

Modification to the basic policies
regarding port and harbor development

Conference of contracting parties to theConvention on Biodiversity

A new port and harbor policy for the
21st century "Minato Vision connecting
our lives to the sea and the world"
2001 Ministerial reform

Prime Minister Kozumi's policy speech "2nd Asia-Pacific Migratory Waterbird
Creation of a society with harmonious
Conservation Strategy
coexistence of nature and humans"

Creation of the center of greenery along
coastal areas
2002

Millennium Ecosystem Assessment"Restoration of the sea" was included in National Biodiversity Strategy of Japan
Earth Summit, Johannesburg
urban redevelopment projects
was formulated
Law Concerning Special Measures forrestoring Ariake and Yatsushiro Seas
Law for the Promotion of Nature
Restoration was introduced51) Establishment of Eco-ports
The Ports and Harbors Bureau of the Ministry of Transport (now as of the Portsand Harbors Bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, and Transport),
announced the introduction of the creation of ports with a harmonious coexistencewith nature (Eco-Port) in 1994, and has since been working on it.
The development of this policy was in response to the following factors:
・Growing needs for the protection of favorable environments and sustainable
development on a global scale

・

Increasing recognition of the loss of a favorable natural environment that can
support diverse life forms, while gaining a life of convenience and affluence・

Rising demand for environmental conservation/restoration as well as for thecreation of a society that cherishes coexistence with nature

Table 1-2 Goals of Eco-Porta) A nature-friendly port that fits in well with the surrounding natureb) A port creating a favorable natural environmentc) A port well equipped with high amenities where people can find enjoyment andcomfortd) An environmentally friendly port under sufficient environmental control

Figure 1-1 Eco-Port6

2) Revision of the Port and Harbor Law
The Port and Harbor Law revised in March 2002 clarified the governmental
commitment to environmental conservation in the port and harbor administration,
stipulating that environmental considerations must be incorporated in port andharbor development. In response to this, the basic policies (basis of a port
development plan) were modified in December 2000, adding descriptions about thepreservation, the restoration and the creation of favorable port environments aswell as the interaction between human beings and nature, which are referred to as“basic matters to consider regarding environmental conservation in thedevelopment, utilization and improvement of ports and harbors, along with thedevelopment of sea routes requiring development and conservation work”.
The policies for coasts were also modified by the revision of the Coast Law in 1999,
adding coastal management measures from a comprehensive perspective. These
include: coastline protection, which is the fundamental objective of the old law; theimprovement and conservation of coastal environments; and an appropriate use ofcoasts by the public. The Law was therefore designed to further promotecomprehensive coastal conservation approaches with well-balanced views onprotection, environment and utilization. The government also laid down the Basic
Policy for Coastal Protection for better implementation of the coastal management,
which has led to the formulation of the Basic Coastal Protection Plan on 71 coasts
in the nation.
3) Conservation and restoration of tidal flats and seaweed and seagrass beds
In an effort to respond to the needs for environmental conservation and restorationin ports and harbor policies, greenbelts have been created along the waterfront inorder to provide comfort for people and animals. Also, the improvement of tidal
flats, seaweed and seagrass beds, and beaches as well as the sand capping oferoded areas have helped to improve the water and sediment quality in enclosed
coastal waters, and in doing so created a marine environment not only friendly tohumans and other forms of life, but added to that, increased accessibility. Suchprojects have been conducted in 51 sites around the nation, with full completion of
the improvement work in 24 sites.

7

Figure 1-2 Conservation and restoration of tidal flats and seaweed and seagrassbeds84) Comprehensive measures
These undertakings in marine environmental improvement will attain better
results when implemented in a comprehensive manner, in cooperation with various
parties concerned and with shared goals. Such inter-organizational approach has
recently been accelerated as shown in the following.
z Efforts to restore Tokyo Bay
The Plan of Action to restore Tokyo Bay was enacted in March 2003, based on thethird-stage decisions of the Restoration of the Sea, the Urban Regeneration Project
for Tokyo. To this end, the municipal and public organizations will work hand inhand to achieve the shared goal of restoring an accessible and beautiful sea which
serves as a place for pleasant marine activities and as a home to various aquatic
life, thus creating a bay appropriate for the Tokyo metropolitan area.

Figure 1-3 Efforts to restore Tokyo Bay

9z

Law Concerning Special Measures for Restoring Ariake and Yatsushiro Seas

Ariake Sea and Yatsuhiro Sea have been well known as precious seas of natural
resources, especially for fisheries. The Law Concerning the Special Measures for
Restoring Ariake and Yatsushiro Seas was enacted in November 2002, to restore
these valuable assets. The government therein formulated the basic policies for the
restoration measures for Ariake and Yatsushiro Seas, followed by the formulationof action plans for each related prefecture. Based on this, the project shall becomprehensively implemented.
(4) Pathway to nature restoration
Nature restoration should be promoted in order to improve marine environments
and achieve a harmonious coexistence between nature and humans.
The promotion of creating a harmonious coexistence with nature has frequently
been referred to by the members of the whole government (Table 1-3). This has inturn led to a change in governmental approach towards nature conservation, in
which ecological restoration and regeneration shall be actively promoted rather
than just having its current status preserved. It may also include humanassistance for the process of natural regeneration.
In order to make such a commitment to nature restoration to be handed down tofuture generations, there also is the need to establish procedures and a frameworkthat can support the growing commitment of local residents to social activities,
along with their awareness of the environment.
Under such circumstances, the Law for the Promotion of Nature Restoration wasenacted in January 2003. This law stipulates the basic guidelines for nature
restoration, and the procedures and framework for promoting nature restoration
involving various entities in the region. As shown in Figure 1-4, efforts for nature
restoration shall be promoted in a comprehensive strategy, the goal being to createa society consisting of a harmonious coexistence of humans and nature, throughthe securing of biological diversity. It shall be positioned as the new form ofcommitment that involves participation of various local entities, as well as callingupon the initiatives of local communities.

10Table 1-3 Remarks by governmental officials regarding nature restoration
May 2001:

in Prime Minister Kozumi's policy speech○ Declaration on " Creation of a society with the harmonious coexistence of
nature and humans"
June 10th, 2002: in a report on the “Conference on the Creation of “Wa-no-kuni” inthe 21st Century”○ Promotion of public works for nature restoration involving the cooperation of
the public
Ecosystems in our country are facing unprecedented degradation. In order torestore them into a sound and healthy state, it is inevitable not only to review past
projects and policies from an environmental point of view, but also to implement a
new type of public works aimed at actively restoring natural resources throughadaptive ecosystem management. Such public works, referred to as, “Public works
for nature restoration” should be promoted in urban, agricultural and fishingcommunities.
December 11th, 2001: in the initial report on the "Council for Regulatory Reform"○ Harmonious coexistence between nature and humans
One of the most promising approaches to the restoration or rehabilitation of nature
is a nature restoration project involving the participation of a diverse combinationof entities including local residents and NPOs. Such a project can be effectively andefficiently promoted by governmental collaboration beyond ministries andagencies. This would involve the coordination and sharing of roles among
ministries, together with the joint implementation of the project by related
ministries, in conjunction with the development of appropriate conditions and a
setting needed to make such cooperation possible.
March 27, 2002 “National Biodiversity Strategies of Japan” was compiled.
○ Three directions
The directions of the policies with overriding priority:
1.Reinforcement of conservation

2. Nature restoration

3.Sustainable use

11自然再生推進法フロー図
NPO を始めとする多様な主体の参画と創意による地域主導の新たな形の事業－自然再生事業－を推進

自然再生基本方針
第７条

自然再生を総合的に推進するための基本方針……政府が策定（環境大臣が、農林水産大臣及び国土交通大臣と協議して案を作成し、閣議決定）～概ね５年ごとに見直し～（各地域）
行政機関／意欲ある NPO 等

例：A 県 P 湿地

関係地方公共団体／関係行政機関
呼びかけ／協議会立ち上げ

相談窓口の整備、情報提供や助言

実施計画③の維持管理や環境学習

例 きめ細かな除草など

例 上流部の荒廃地での

実施計画②

｢

広葉樹植栽」

実施計画①｢

周辺湿原の復元

例 河川の再蛇行化と｣｣自然再生協議会 …「Ｐ湿地再生協議会」
メンバー 実施者を含む()○再生事業に参画する地域住民 /NPO/
専門家 土/地所有者等など○行政：関係地方公共団体 関/係行政機関

全 体 構 想（協議会が作成）
｢

第８条

送付

主務大臣

第９条

助言

［協議会での協議結果に基づき実施者が作成］
実施者①

実施者②

実施者③

(○○省)

(△△町)

(NPO)

実施計画（全体構想含む）公表

意見

連絡
調整

自然再生事業の実施
自然再生
専門家会議

地元団体等による維持管理…土地所有者等との協定など…

第１０条
意見

第１７条

自然再生推進会議
自然再生の総合的、効果的かつ効率的な推進を図るための連絡調整（環境省、農林水産省、国土交通省その他の関係行政機関で構成）

1

Figure 1-4 the Law for the Promotion of Nature Restoration

12

1.2 Handbook of Coastal Restoration(1) What is nature restoration?
The term “nature restoration” used in this Handbook of Coastal Restorationencompasses a wide range of ecological restoration approaches including
conservation, restoration and creation, and is defined as action taken to create
more desirable, natural environments incorporating the active involvement of
human beings.
Natural restoration has become a major theme for the realization of a society witha harmonious coexistence of humans and nature. Nature restoration is the way toregenerate the vanishing natural environment through active commitment of
human beings. The term, “nature restoration”, is defined slightly differently in thefield of ecology (Bradshow, 1987; Okada et al, 1999), in port and harbordevelopment (PIANC,2003; Furukawa, 2003) and in nature conservation (Ramsar,
2003; Development, 2003). In the Law for the Promotion of Nature Restoration, it
is defined as “ with the objectives of restoring ecosystems that have been damaged
or destroyed in the past…..(snip)…….to make efforts to conserve, restore or create
the environment, or upkeep current favorable conditions.”
In this handbook, therefore, the terms are defined as shown in Table 1-4 andFigure 1-5.
Table 1-4 Outline of the Law for the Promotion of Nature Restoration
The term “Restoration” implies improvement, creation and change occurred in theenvironment of wetlands, and it is used as a concept which includes suchoperations as follows:
Reclamation: altering submerged areas into land higher than an average waterlevel with the assistance of human beings
Creation: altering land (not marshy areas) into wetland with the assistance ofhuman beings
Restoration: bringing back an area to a former, original or normal condition, or
close to it
Remediation: cleansing contaminants from a contaminated wetland
Rehabilitation: restoring functions of damaged or restricted/reserved ecosystems
with the assistance of human beings
Conservation: managing a target ecosystem to maintain its sound and healthy state
Protection: maintaining a current status by controlling natural process including
succession
Preservation: leaving an area to natural processes and no human assistance is
given

13

グループ Ｉ
高い

再生（修復、改善、強化、創造)
強化

生態系の
持続性

グループ ＩＩ
創造
改変
無計画な

低い

現状
類似

元の生態系からの変化

改変

自己修復能力が発揮されている
自然の回復力をを管理により援助
管理することによって持続している
ほうっておくと荒廃してしまう状態

相違

Figure 1-5 Concepts of goals for ecological restoration
With these definitions, measures for nature restoration can be taken in
combination and comprehensively rather than simply limiting them to one method
alone.
Moreover, the upkeep of restored nature is also a major part of nature restoration.
Then, how can we ensure the existence of these three approaches (conservation,
restoration and creation)? One of the groups who has been working on theconservation through formulating the Conservation of Wild Birds (1979) and theConservation of natural habitats and of Wild Fauna and Flora, as well as thestudies on the development in such areas concerned, has advocated that: in order
to expand the protected areas and disseminate the philosophy of nature
conservation, the measures for conservation and restoration must be discussed at
an early stage and incorporated into the development plan, thereby reducing therisk of delays in the project, and leading to the gain of support from society. Thisidea appears as a philosophy of “wise use” in the Ramsar Conference.
When launching a nature restoration project, therefore, it is important to set goals
appropriate for the area, and formulate the plan for nature restoration(conservation, restoration and creation) best suited for the project goals.
The goal must have a clear and specific vision, objectives that necessitate the14

project, and clearly defined success criteria to evaluate the achievement.
Furthermore, the planning of nature restoration strategies must reflect suchaspects of the goal. In the process of goal setting, it is also critical to incorporate
the following three factors: 1. participation of various entities, 2. project
implementation based on scientific knowledge and 3. adaptive management.
Each of the above will be dealt with in a later section.
(2) Ecosystems in the sea – important roles of tidal flats, seaweed and seagrassbeds, and coral reefs in coastal areas
Tidal flats, seaweed and seagrass beds and coral reefs play important roles.
Tidal flats, seaweed and seagrass beds, beaches and coral reefs seen along thecoasts where terrestrial and aquatic environments meet, are known to havevarious functions represented by wildlife habitat, reproduction, and seawater
purification. They are also the showcase of a wide range of marine life. The
following are the summaries in turn of each of these marine topographies alongwith their functions.
1) Tidal flat and its functions
Tidal flats are gently declining shoreline areas of sand or mud sediment thatare submerged or exposed by tide. They are categorized into three types;
foreshore tidal flat, river mouth tidal flat and lagoon tidal flat. The area covered bytidal flats stood at 54,443ha according to the 4th Basic Environmental Survey on
natural tidal flats (1992), but had decreased by 4% in the survey of 1996. Projects
to regenerate the lost tidal flats have been implemented around the nation.
Tidal flats feature complex environments with various factors intertwined, suchas flooding and exposure by tide, salinity change by river water inflow, andtopographic change by waves and currents. Tidal flats are also home to a diverse
range of marine organisms and wildlife, including clams, fish, plankton, aquaticplants and birds. Osaka Nanko Bird Sanctuary, an artificially developed tidal flat,for example, has witnessed the arrival of around 250 bird species.
Tidal flats also boast a high water purification function (Kuwae et al.,2002;
Aoyam et al., 1996; Sasaki,1989). In the process of the flooding or the exposure of aflat, the seawater covering the flat is filtered by sandy mud layers sufficiently
aerated by oxygen to decompose organic matter in the water.
In addition, as tidal flats are created at the heads of inland bays or aroundestuaries and often found close to urban areas, they provide waterfront space forthe locals to enjoy coastal activities such as clam digging or bird watching.

152) Seaweed and seagrass beds and its functions
Seaweed and seagrass beds are found along the coast at depths ranging fromseveral dozen centimeters to ten to twenty meters, and boast lush communities oflarge-sized seaweeds or other marine plants. Some species of fish and squid, likeflying fish, spawn on such seagrass. These seaweed and seagrass beds not only
serve as settlement substrata for eggs, but also provide breeding areas for fishlarvae and juveniles as wave strength is lessened by seagrass. A study has
indicated that the number of species found in seaweed and seagrass beds was twicethat of the amount recorded in the surrounding area.
Furthermore, seaweed and seagrass beds also serve as feeding grounds for somemarine animals, an example being where seaweeds and seagrasses provide food forherbivore species such as abalone and turban shells, or where rock fish and rocktrout feed on small marine organisms on them.
On the topic of water purification, seaweeds and seagrasses contribute to thepurification of water by absorbing nitrogen and phosphate, the main substances
involved in causing eutrophication. They also release oxygen by photosynthesis,
contributing to the increase in dissolved oxygen in water as well as to theabsorption and the fixation of atmospheric CO2.
3) Coral reef and its functions
Coral reefs are the topography built by reef-building animals represented bycorals. A coral reef refers to the area where corals settle and build assemblages.
Ryukyu Islands (South-west Islands) and Ogasawara Islands are well-renowned
for their coral reefs.
The biological productivity of coral reefs has been indicated as being quite high,rivaling or even exceeding that of rainforests. Coral reefs are also home to many
commercially important fish. They are the cities of corals and the habitats fordiverse aquatic life forms, including seaweeds, shellfish, fish, plankton, andmicroorganisms.
Coral reefs also play an important role in the function of water purification.
The organic substances being transferred to coral reefs are reduced by either
ingestion by marine animals or microbial decomposition, thus contributing to thepurification of water and sediment.
In addition, coral reefs are excellent in aesthetic landscape creation and water
accessibility, which plays a significant role in the tourism industry of tropical16

regions.
4) The importance of coasts
Coasts are the interface of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems, thus providing
diverse habitat environments for living organisms on sand beaches, rocky shores
and tidal flats. They are the areas where we often find endemic species that
depend on a specific environment for their survival. Coasts are also conducive tothe scenic beauty of natural landscapes, such as coastlines possessing white sandand green pines.
Although coasts are terrains very confined by the sea, they are considered toaffect both terrestrial and aquatic environments, thus requiring special
consideration to avoid minimal disturbance to the surrounding environment. In
places of scenic beauty, or on coasts inhabited by valuable species, due attention
must be paid to the conservation and restoration of such environments.
(3) Promotion of nature restoration
In the process of nature restoration, a comprehensive approach, scientificknowledge, and partnerships are essential.
The following are the crucial points of view in launching nature restoration
projects:
1)
A comprehensive approach to the project encompassing planning,
designing, implementation/construction, and management, as well as theapplication of adaptive management
2)
The implementation of the project based on characteristics of the targeted
environment and scientific knowledge
3)
The participation of various entities and partnerships
1) Comprehensive approach
In recent environmental management in North America and Europe, the use ofadaptive management has become increasingly popular for ecological management
in forests and rivers. Adaptive management is comprised of systematic strategies
that give first priority to a long-term sustainability of a natural environment,
placing emphasis on the expansion and interconnections of ecosystems with theparticipation of various entities, while in turn recognizing uncertainties of naturalprocess. The development of such methods result from the dissemination ofstrategic planning, in which project schemes, deigns, implementation as well as17management are comprehensively discussed.
In nature restoration projects in Japan, a systematic approach incorporating
adaptive management is also being required, which allows for sufficient
discussions on the project before its launching, monitoring of key indicators that
can access the performance of the restoration, and the reflection of the results onto
the project methods. In one case, for example, it would be desirable to conduct
long-term monitoring from both civil engineering and ecological perspectives, suchas on landscape stability and habitat environment, and then feed back the results
to the designs and construction plans.
Furthermore, in an individual project, the planning should include discussions
envisioning the post-project monitoring, so that these adaptive management
approaches can be systematically incorporated. In a nutshell, it is paramount thatthe plan be comprehensively developed when proceeding with nature restoration
projects.
As described above, the formulation of comprehensive plans and adaptive approach
are relatively new concepts. Some definitions about adaptive approach are listed inTable 1-5. A detailed description is shown in Chapter 2 on Comprehensive
Approach to Nature Restoration.

18

Table 1-5 Some definitions of adaptive management
1) Ecology of Biological Conservation (Izumi Washiya)
Adaptive management is a new policy framework of system management thatrecognizes the uncertainty of the target, while pursuing implementation of policy
measures with the participation of stakeholders.
In adaptive management, regional development and ecological management
policies are treated as experiments. A strategy is a hypothesis, and a project is anexperiment. The results of monitoring are examined for a better hypothesis. Basedon the results, a new strategy (equal to hypothesis) is formulated in order to“improve” the project to gain a better outcome. In such an approach, it is critical todevelop consensus-building systems that can yield an agreement among a wide
variety of stakeholders, including those having scientific perspectives.

2) Definition by PIANC
Investors must recognize in their nature restoration projects that they may
encounter uncontrollable situations, for example the diffusion of an impact posed by
an off site area. (area outside the target site). This is where adaptive management
comes into play. As the project progresses, it needs modifications using the latest
information and technologies to respond to the changes in its background.
The procedures of adaptive management are as follows:・

Setting goals・Introducing management strategies based on new and optimum information

・Conducting monitoring programs to access whether the goals are being met

・Modifying management strategies if the goals are not being met. Modifying thegoals if needs be.

These approaches must be applied at predetermined intervals.
Adaptive management can allow managers to learn through experience; respond tothe changes of parameters that influence the characteristics of the target site;
continuously develop and refine management strategies; and demonstrate that the
management being addressed is appropriate.

193) Definition by the Ramsar Convention
In order to safeguard sites and their features, managers must adopt a flexible approach thatwill allow them to respond to the legitimate interests of others, adapt to the ever-changing
political climate, accommodate uncertain and variable resources, and survive the vagaries of
the natural world.
The adaptable management process as incorporated in the Ramsar planning approach is asfollows:i) A decision is made on what should be achieved.
ii) Appropriate management best available for the site is implementediii) The features are monitored to determine the extent to which they meet
objectives.
iv) If objectives are not being met, management is modified.
v) Monitoring is continued to determine if the modified management is meetingthe objectives
In exceptional circumstances, it may be necessary to modify the objectives.
The adaptive management cycle is usually repeated at predetermined intervals.
The interval should be established to take into account the nature and in particular
the fragility and rate of change of the site features. However, many countries andorganizations will impose a mandatory cycle. In all cases, the cycle should be
repeated at any time when emergencies or unforeseen threats become apparent.
This adaptable approach enables wetland managers to:i) learn through experience;ii) take account of, and respond to,changing factors that affect the features;iii) continually develop or refine management
processes; andiv) demonstrate that management is appropriate
and effective.

20

2) Scientific knowledge
In the process of natural restoration, it is imperative that strategies based on
scientific knowledge are discussed. This suggests the importance of basic
research in which objective scientific data on current and temporal changes in themarine environment be collected and analyzed; the need for accumulation ofknowledge on inhabiting life forms; and the significance of basic studies to clarify
the structural and functional mechanisms of ecosystems. The development of
information systems that enable such data and knowledge to be accessible to the
public is also crucial.
With regards to nature restoration efforts in coastal zones, various advanced
studies have been conducted in governmental institutions related to the port andharbor administration, having accumulated a great amount of knowledge. In the
Port and Airport Research Institute, for example, studies have been conducted on
how tidal ecosystems are developed, using an artificially created tidal flat called“ Higata Mesocosm”, one of the world’s largest experimental facilities of artificial
marine environment (Kuwae et al.,2002). In addition, the ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, and Transport has also been promoting the collection and analysisof data on coastal environments, in parallel with the development of information
service systems.
The details on this matter will appear in Chapter 3. on “Characteristics of Nature
Restoration Technologies and their Trends”.
3) Partnerships
In the project for restoring nature, it is critical to develop the systems of close
cooperation and participation of various entities including the government, local
authorities, the public, businesses, NGOs, NPOs, private organizations, scientists,and experts. Among all, efforts to develop the strategies and the implementation ofa plan best suited to the characteristics of the region are paramount. To this end,
the government is required to actively support the efforts of local communities,
through various measures including institutional designing and project
implementation, formulation of policy guidelines, environmental monitoring
programs and dissemination of the result, as well as information services on
domestic and international restoration projects. This will thereby establish acollaborative partnership between local organizations and the government. It isadvisable that all stages of the project, from the development of a vision, surveys
and designs right through to the project implementation and post-project21

management, should involve the participation and collaboration of a wide
spectrum of local entities. The details of this will be described in Chapter 4. on“Partnerships in Nature Restoration Projects”.
(4) Components of Handbook of Coastal Restoration
Handbook of Coastal Restoration deals with the ideas and concepts to solve coastal
environmental problems. Application of the approaches discussed in the series of
the handbooks, however, must afford consideration for the characteristics of thenatural and societal environment in the region.
This handbook was compiled by reviewing the existing manuals for coastal
development and creation of ecosystems issued by the Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, and Transport, and rewritten to focus on the approaches applicableto nature restoration projects. It incorporates numerous reexaminations andreviews on the existing approaches.
This tile is written in four volumes. Volume One, titled Introduction features theconcepts of a strategic approach in the process of planning a nature restoration
project. In the planning of each individual project however, methods should betailored and adaptively applied to fit the characteristics of the target environment
and the region.
1) The development of Handbook of Coastal Restoration
The guidance manual, titled Guideline for the Conservation and Creation of
Ecosystems in relation to Coastal Development was issued in 1998 and 1999. ( Itconsists of four volumes with the following titles. Volume One - Guideline for theConservation and Creation of Ecosystems in relation to Coastal Development,
Volume Two - Technologies for the Conservation and Creation of Tidal Flats (1998),
Volume Three - Technologies for the Conservation and Creation of Seaweed andSeagrass Beds (1988), and Volume Four - Technologies for the Conservation andCreation of Coral Reefs (1999). They include technical assistance and necessary
steps in each process of the restoration projects (research, planning, designs,
implementation, monitoring etc.) for tidal flats, seaweed and seagrass beds, andcoral reefs in ports and coasts, and have been widely used as systematicallycompiled manuals in coastal restoration efforts.
The new edited manual, titled Handbook of Coastal Restoration is based on these22manuals; however, additional revision is being required from the following pointsof view.
a) A new nature restoration project should subsume environmentally friendly
efforts needed to achieve a harmonious coexistence of man and nature,recognize a wide spectrum of ecosystems, and proceed with the processes ofresearch, planning and adaptable management in accordance with such
recognition.
b) In each process of project implementation, it is essential to have theparticipation of various entities. We believe that this Handbook should be
consulted by such entities as a reference in their efforts to restore nature.
Although former manuals were mainly targeted at personnel engaged in port
and harbor developments, this Handbook we think should be made readily
available to local residents actively involved in restoration of the sea or those
who are interested in such activities.
b) The ecological and technological knowledge on coastal restoration has been
evolving by the day. Many more examples have been reported on theconservation and creation of tidal flats, seagrass beds and coral reefs, as well ason the restoration projects in which monitoring results were scientificallyevaluated and flexibly reflected on management. There is a need to revise thecontents with new data obtained from such recent knowledge and updated
information.
c) It is essential to have a view that each tidal flat ecocystem, seagrass bed, andcoral reef is not independent but interactively connected, establishing a wholecomplex of ecosystems.
2) The composition of Handbook of Costal Restoration
Handbook of Coastal Restoration consists of four volumes:
Vol.1 Introduction (an edition dealing with the movements and technologies fornature restoration)
Vol. 2 Tidal Flats (enlarged and revised edition)
Vol. 3 Seaweed and Seagrass Beds (enlarged and revised edition)
Vol. 4 Coral Reefs (enlarged and revised edition)
Handbook of Coastal Restoration Volume One includes: 1. Restoration of the Sea
and its Development; 2. Comprehensive Approach to Nature Restoration; 3.
Characteristics of Nature Restoration Technologies and their Trends; and 4.

23

Partnerships in Nature Restoration Projects. Each chapter was designed to beclear and self explanatory.
Volumes No.2, No.3 and No.4 offer concrete approaches and technologies developed
for the restoration of tidal flats, seaweed and seagrass beds and coral reefs,
respectively. Each volume provides description of functions and environmental
conditions for the target ecosystem, procedures in each stage of the project(planning, designs, construction and management), and attention needed during
the implementation, based on the latest information and knowledge.
3) How to use Handbook of Coastal Restoration
The approaches and techniques presented in this four-volume handbook are typical
procedures in restoration efforts. In nature restoration efforts, therefore, it isimportant to take into account the natural, societal and historical conditions
unique to the region. This guidance handbook offers key ideas for suchconsideration. The restoration approaches, therefore, should not necessarily follow
the procedures presented here, but should be applied effectively and adaptively,
with the aid of this handbook as a reference.
Several examples are shown to help readers have a clear understanding of therestoration project. As these cases have their own historical and geographicalbackgrounds as well as environmental conditions, special attention should be paid
to the application of the methods exemplified here.

24