COMMON EUROPEAN FRAMEWORKOF REFERENCE FOR LANGUAGES:LEARNING, TEACHING, ASSESSMENT

Language Policy Unit, Strasbourg
www.coe.int/lang-CEFR

CONTENTS
Prefatory Note
Notes for the user
Synopsis
Chapter 1: The Common European Framework in its political and educational context
Chapter 2: Approach adopted
Chapter 3: Common Reference Levels
Chapter 4: Language use and the language user/learner
Chapter 5: The user/learner’s competences
Chapter 6: Language learning and teaching
Chapter 7: Tasks and their role in language teaching
Chapter 8: Linguistic diversification and the curriculum
Chapter 9: Assessment
General Bibliography
Appendix A: developing proficiency descriptors
Appendix B: The illustrative scales of descriptors
Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
Appendix D: The ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements
Index

PREFATORY NOTEThis restructured version of the Common European Framework of reference for language
learning, teaching and assessment represents the latest stage in a process which has been actively
pursued since 1971 and owes much to the collaboration of many members of the teachingprofession across Europe and beyond.
The Council of Europe therefore acknowledges with gratitude the contribution made by:•

The Project Group Language Learning for European Citizenship, representing all member
countries of the Council for Cultural Co-operation with Canada as a participating observer,
for their general oversight of its development.

•

The Working Party set up by the Project Group, with twenty representatives from member
countries representing the different professional interests concerned, as well as
representatives of the European Commission and its LINGUA programme, for theirinvaluable advice and supervision of the project;•

The Authoring Group set up by the Working Party, consisting of Dr. J.L.M. Trim (Project
Director), Professor D. Coste (Ecole Normale Supérieure de Fontenay/Saint Cloud, CREDIF,France), Dr. B. North (Eurocentres Foundation, Switzerland) together with Mr. J. Sheils(Secretariat). The Council of Europe expresses its thanks to the institutions mentioned formaking it possible for the experts concerned to contribute to this important work.

•

The Swiss National Science Foundation for their support of the work by Dr B. North andProfessor G. Schneider (University of Fribourg) to develop and scale descriptors of language
proficiency for the Common Reference Levels.

•

The Eurocentres Foundation for making available their experience in defining and scalinglevels of language proficiency.

•

The U. S. National Foreign Languages Center for providing Mellon Fellowships to Dr Trimand Dr North which facilitated their contribution.

•

The many colleagues and institutions across Europe, who responded, often with great careand in concrete detail, to the request for feedback on earlier drafts.

The feedback received has been taken into account in revising the Framework and User Guides prior
to their adoption on a Europe-wide basis. This revision was carried out by Dr J.L.M. Trim and Dr B.
North.

NOTES FOR THE USER
The aim of these notes is to help you to use the Common European Framework for language
learning, teaching and assessment more effectively, either as a language learner or as a member of
one of the professions concerned with language teaching and assessment. They will not be
concerned with specific ways in which teachers, examiners, textbook writers, teacher trainers,
educational administrators, etc. may use the Framework. These are the subject of special guidance
addressed to the particular category of user concerned, contained in a fuller User Guide available
from the Council of Europe, which can also be consulted on its website. These notes are meant as afirst introduction to the Framework for all its users.
You may, of course, use the Framework document in any way you wish, as with any otherpublication. Indeed, we hope that some readers may be stimulated to use it in ways we have notforeseen. However, it has been written with two main aims in mind:
1. To encourage practitioners of all kinds in the language field, including language learners
themselves, to reflect on such questions as:• what do we actually do when we speak (or write) to each other?
• what enables us to act in this way?
• how much of this do we need to learn when we try to use a new language?
• how do we set our objectives and mark our progress along the path from total ignorance
to effective mastery?
• how does language learning take place?
• what can we do to help ourselves and other people to learn a language better?
2. To make it easier for practitioners to tell each other and their clientèle what they wish to help
learners to achieve, and how they attempt to do so.
One thing should be made clear right away. We have NOT set out to tell practitioners what to do, or
how to do it. We are raising questions, not answering them. It is not the function of the Common
European Framework to lay down the objectives that users should pursue or the methods theyshould employ.
This does not mean that the Council of Europe is indifferent to these issues. Indeed, a great deal ofthought and work has been put into the principles and practice of language learning, teaching andassessment over the years by colleagues in our member countries working together in the Council ofEurope's Modern Languages Projects. You will find the basic principles and their practicalconsequences set out in Chapter 1. You will see that the Council is concerned to improve the qualityof communication among Europeans of different language and cultural backgrounds. This is because
better communication leads to freer mobility and more direct contact, which in turn leads to better
understanding and closer co-operation. The Council also supports methods of learning and teachingwhich help young people and indeed older learners to build up the attitudes, knowledge and skills
they need to become more independent in thought and action, and also more responsible and cooperative in relation to other people. In this way the work contributes to the promotion of
democratic citizenship.
Given these fundamental aims, the Council encourages all those concerned with the organisation of
language learning to base their work on the needs, motivations, characteristics and resources oflearners. This means answering questions such as:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

What will l earners need to do with the language?
What do they need to learn in order to be able to use the language to achieve those ends?
What makes them want to learn?
What sort of people are they (age, sex, social and educational background, etc.)
What knowledge, skills and experiences do their teachers possess?
What access do they have to course books, works of reference (dictionaries, grammars, etc.),
audio-visual aids, computer hard - and software, etc.?
How much time can they afford (or are willing, or able) to spend?

On the basis of this analysis of the learning/teaching situation, it is seen as fundamentally important
to define, clearly and explicitly, objectives which are at once worthwhile in terms of learner needs
and realistic in terms of their characteristics and resources. Many parties are concerned withorganised language learning, not only the teachers and learners in the classroom, but also
educational authorities, examiners, textbook writers and publishers, etc. If they agree on objectives,
they can work coherently, even if quite separately, to help learners achieve them. They are also in aposition to make their own objectives and methods clear and explicit for the benefit of those who use
the products of their work.
As explained in Chapter 1, it is for this purpose that the Common European Framework of reference
has been developed. To perform its function it must satisfy certain criteria. It must becomprehensive, transparent and coherent.
These criteria are also set out and explained in Chapter 1. A further word may be useful in respect of'comprehensive'. This means simply that you should find in it all you need to describe yourobjectives, methods and products. The scheme of parameters, categories and examples explained in
Chapter 2 (most compactly in the boxed text at the beginning) and presented in some detail in
Chapters 4 and 5 is intended to give a clear picture of the competences (knowledge, skills, attitudes)
which language users build up in the course of their experience of language use and which enable
them to meet the challenges of communication across language and cultural boundaries (i.e. to carryout communicative tasks and activities in the various contexts of social life with their conditions andconstraints). The common reference levels introduced in Chapter 3 offer a means to map progress as
learners build up their proficiency across the parameters of the descriptive scheme.

On the assumption that the aim of language teaching is to make learners competent and proficient in
the language concerned, the scheme should enable you to define and describe your objectives clearlyand comprehensively. You may well find that this scheme contains more than you yourself need.
From Chapter 4 onwards you will find sets of questions at the end of each section, which invite you
to consider whether the section is relevant to your objectives and concerns, and if so how. You may
decide that it is not relevant, perhaps because it is not appropriate to the learners you have in mind,or that, while it would be useful to them, it is not a priority given limited time and other resources. In
that case you can ignore the section. If however it is relevant (and perhaps seeing it in context may
draw it to your attention), Chapters 4 and 5 of the Framework will supply names for major
parameters and categories for your use, with some examples.
Neither the categories nor the examples claim to be exhaustive. If you want to describe a specialisedarea, you may well need to sub-categorise further than the present classification goes. The examples
are suggestive only. You may well wish to keep some, reject others and add some of your own. You
should feel quite free to do so, since it must be for you to decide on your objectives and yourproduct. Remember that what you find unnecessary has its place in the Framework because someone
else, with a different background, working in a different situation and responsible for a different setof learners, may find it essential. In the case of ‘conditions and constraints’ for instance, a school
teacher may find it quite unnecessary to take noise levels into account, but a teacher of airline pilots
who fails to train them to recognise digits 100 % in appallingly noisy ground-to-air communication
may condemn them and their passengers to death! On the other hand, the additional categories andexponents you find it necessary to add may well be found useful by other users. For this reason, thetaxonomic scheme presented in Chapters 4 and 5 of the Framework is not seen as a closed system,
but one which is open to further development in the light of experience.
This principle also applies to the description of levels of proficiency. Chapter 3 explains clearly thatthe number of levels which a particular user wishes to distinguish is determined by the reason formaking the distinction, the use to be made of the resulting information. Levels, like entities, should
not be multiplied beyond necessity! The 'hypertext' branching principle, set out in section 3.4,
enables practitioners to establish broad- or narrow-band levels in accordance with their need to makefiner or coarser distinctions among a population of learners. It is also, of course, possible (evenusual) to distinguish between objectives in terms of levels, and the achievement of those objectives
in terms of grades.
The six-level frame used throughout is based on the normal practice of a number of public
examining bodies. The descriptors proposed are based on those which "have been found transparent,
useful and relevant by groups of non-native and native-speaker teachers from a variety ofeducational sectors with very different profiles in terms of linguistic training and teachingexperience" (p. 30). They are nevertheless presented as recommendations and are not in any way
mandatory, “as a basis for reflection, discussion and further action... The aim of the examples is toopen new possibilities, not to pre-empt decisions” (ibid). It is already clear, however, that a set ofcommon reference levels as a calibrating instrument is particularly welcomed by practitioners of all
kinds who, as in many other fields, find it advantageous to work with stable, accepted standards ofmeasurement and format.
As a user, you are invited to use the scaling system and associated descriptors critically. The Modern
Languages Section of the Council of Europe will be glad to receive a report of your experience inputting them into use. Please note also that scales are provided not only for a global proficiency, but
for many of the parameters of language proficiency detailed in Chapters 4 and 5. This makes it
possible to specify differentiated profiles for particular learners or groups of learners.
In Chapter 6, attention turns to questions of method. How is a new language acquired or learnt?
What can we do to facilitate that learning or acquisition process? Here again, the aim of the
Framework is not to prescribe or even recommend a particular method, but to present options,inviting you to reflect on your current practice, to take decisions accordingly and to describe what
you actually do. Of course, when considering your aims and objectives we would encourage you totake into consideration the Recommendations of the Committee of Ministers, but the aim of the
Framework is to assist you in your own decision-taking. Chapter 7 is devoted to a closer
examination of the role of tasks in language learning and teaching, as one of the main areas ofadvance in recent years.
Chapter 8 discusses the principles of curriculum design involving the differentiation of language
learning objectives, especially in the context of building an individual's plurilingual and pluriculturalcompetence in order to deal with the communicative challenges posed by living in a multilingualand multicultural Europe. The chapter deserves close study by those who are devising curricula
covering a number of languages and considering the options open to them in seeking the best way to
distribute resources for various categories of learners.
Chapter 9 passes finally to questions of assessment, explaining the relevance of the Framework to
the assessment of language proficiency and achievement, and then with assessment criteria anddifferent approaches to the assessment process.
The appendices deal with some further aspects of scaling which interested users may find useful.
Appendix A deals with some general and theoretical concerns for the benefit of users who wish todevelop scales specifically geared to a particular population of learners. Appendix B gives
information concerning the Swiss project which developed the scaling descriptors used in thisFramework. Appendices C and D present scales developed by other agencies, namely the
DIALANG Language Assessment System and the ‘Can-do’ scales of the Association of Language
Testers in Europe (ALTE).

SYNOPSIS
Chapter 1 defines the aims, objectives and functions of the proposed Framework in the light ofthe overall language policy of the Council of Europe and in particular the promotion ofplurilingualism in response to European linguistic and cultural diversity. It then sets out thecriteria which the Framework should satisfy
Chapter 2 explains the approach adopted. The descriptive scheme is based on an analysis oflanguage use in terms of the strategies used by learners to activate general and communicativecompetences in order to carry out the activities and processes involved in the production andreception of texts and the construction of discourse dealing with particular themes, which enable
them to fulfil the tasks facing them under the given conditions and constraints in the situations
which arise in the various domains of social existence. The words underlined designate theparameters for the description of language use and the user/learner's ability to use language.
Chapter 3 introduces the common reference levels. Progress in language learning with regard to
the parameters of the descriptive scheme can be calibrated in terms of a flexible series of levels of
attainment defined by appropriate descriptors. This apparatus should be rich enough toaccommodate the full range of learner needs and thus the objectives pursued by different
providers, or required of candidates for language qualifications.
Chapter 4 establishes in some (but not exhaustive or definitive) detail the categories (scaled
where possible) needed for the description of language use and the language user/learneraccording to the parameters identified, covering in turn: the domains and situations providing thecontext for language use; the themes, tasks and purposes of communication; communicative
activities, strategies and processes; and text; especially in relation to activities and media.
Chapter 5 categorises in detail the user/learner's general and communicative competences, scaled
where possible.
Chapter 6 considers the processes of language learning and teaching, dealing with the relation
between acquisition and learning and with the nature and development of plurilingualcompetence, as well as with methodological options of a general or more specific kind, in relation
to the categories set out in Chapters 3 & 4.
Chapter 7 examines in greater detail the role of tasks in language learning and teaching
Chapter 8 is concerned with the implications of linguistic diversification for curriculum designand considers such issues as: plurilingualism and pluriculturalism; differentiated learning
objectives; principles of curriculum design; curricular scenarios; life-long language learning;
modularity and partial competences.
Chapter 9 discusses the various purposes of assessment and corresponding assessment types, inthe light of the need to reconcile the competing criteria of comprehensiveness, precision andoperational feasibility. The General Bibliography contains a selection of books and articles whichusers of the Framework may wish to consult in order to go into greater depth with regard to theissues raised. The bibliography contains relevant Council of Europe documents as well as works
published elsewhere.
Appendix A discusses development of descriptors of language proficiency. Methods of andcriteria for, scaling and the requirements for formulating descriptors for the parameters andcategories presented elsewhere. are explained.
Appendix B gives an overview of the project in Switzerland which developed and scaled theillustrative descriptors. The illustrative scales in the text are listed with page references.
Appendix C contains the descriptors for self-assessment at series of levels adopted by the
DIALANG Project of the European Commission for use on the Internet.
Appendix D contains the "Can Do" descriptors at the series of levels developed by the
Association of Language Testers in Europe (ALTE)

1 The Common European Framework in its politicaland educational context

1.1 What is the Common European Framework?
The Common European Framework provides a common basis for the elaboration of language syllabuses, curriculum guidelines, examinations, textbooks, etc. across Europe. It
describes in a comprehensive way what language learners have to learn to do in order to
use a language for communication and what knowledge and skills they have to develop
so as to be able to act effectively. The description also covers the cultural context in which
language is set. The Framework also deﬁnes levels of proﬁciency which allow learners’
progress to be measured at each stage of learning and on a life-long basis.
The Common European Framework is intended to overcome the barriers to communication among professionals working in the ﬁeld of modern languages arising from thedifferent educational systems in Europe. It provides the means for educational administrators, course designers, teachers, teacher trainers, examining bodies, etc., to reﬂect on
their current practice, with a view to situating and co-ordinating their efforts and toensuring that they meet the real needs of the learners for whom they are responsible.
By providing a common basis for the explicit description of objectives, content andmethods, the Framework will enhance the transparency of courses, syllabuses and qualiﬁcations, thus promoting international co-operation in the ﬁeld of modern languages.
The provision of objective criteria for describing language proﬁciency will facilitate themutual recognition of qualiﬁcations gained in different learning contexts, and accordingly will aid European mobility.
The taxonomic nature of the Framework inevitably means trying to handle the greatcomplexity of human language by breaking language competence down into separate
components. This confronts us with psychological and pedagogical problems of somedepth. Communication calls upon the whole human being. The competences separated
and classiﬁed below interact in complex ways in the development of each unique humanpersonality. As a social agent, each individual forms relationships with a widening
cluster of overlapping social groups, which together deﬁne identity. In an intercultural
approach, it is a central objective of language education to promote the favourable development of the learner’s whole personality and sense of identity in response to the enriching experience of otherness in language and culture. It must be left to teachers and thelearners themselves to reintegrate the many parts into a healthily developing whole.
The Framework includes the description of ‘partial’ qualiﬁcations, appropriate when
only a more restricted knowledge of a language is required (e.g. for understanding
rather than speaking), or when a limited amount of time is available for the learning ofa third or fourth language and more useful results can perhaps be attained by aiming
1

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
at, say, recognition rather than recall skills. Giving formal recognition to such abilities
will help to promote plurilingualism through the learning of a wider variety ofEuropean languages.

1.2 The aims and objectives of Council of Europe language policy
CEF serves the overall aim of the Council of Europe as deﬁned in Recommendations R (82)
18 and R (98) 6 of the Committee of Ministers: ‘to achieve greater unity among its
members’ and to pursue this aim ‘by the adoption of common action in the cultural ﬁeld’.
The work of the Council for Cultural Co-operation of the Council of Europe with regard
to modern languages, organised since its foundation in a series of medium-term projects,
has derived its coherence and continuity from adherence to three basic principles set
down in the preamble to Recommendation R (82) 18 of the Committee of Ministers of theCouncil of Europe:• that the rich heritage of diverse languages and cultures in Europe is a valuable common resource to be protected and developed, and that a major educational effort is needed to convert that diversity from a barrier tocommunication into a source of mutual enrichment and understanding;• that it is only through a better knowledge of European modern languages
that it will be possible to facilitate communication and interaction among
Europeans of different mother tongues in order to promote European mobility, mutual understanding and co-operation, and overcome prejudice and discrimination;• that member states, when adopting or developing national policies in theﬁeld of modern language learning and teaching, may achieve greater convergence at the European level by means of appropriate arrangements forongoing co-operation and co-ordination of policies.
In the pursuit of these principles, the Committee of Ministers called upon member
governments(F14) To promote the national and international collaboration of governmental
and non-governmental institutions engaged in the development of methods ofteaching and evaluation in the ﬁeld of modern language learning and in the production and use of materials, including institutions engaged in the production
and use of multi-media materials.
(F17) To take such steps as are necessary to complete the establishment of an effective European system of information exchange covering all aspects of language
learning, teaching and research, and making full use of information technology.
Consequently, the activities of the CDCC (Council for Cultural Co-operation), its
Committee for Education and its Modern Languages Section, have been concerned toencourage, support and co-ordinate the efforts of member governments and nongovernmental institutions to improve language learning in accordance with these funda2

The Common European Framework in its political and educational context
mental principles and in particular the steps which they take to implement the generalmeasures set out in the Appendix to R(82)18:
A. General measures
1. To ensure, as far as possible, that all sections of their populations have accessto effective means of acquiring a knowledge of the languages of othermember states (or of other communities within their own country) as well as
the skills in the use of those languages that will enable them to satisfy theircommunicative needs and in particular:. 1.1 to deal with the business of everyday life in another country, and to help
foreigners staying in their own country to do so;. 1.2 to exchange information and ideas with young people and adults who
speak a different language and to communicate their thoughts and feelings to them;. 1.3 to achieve a wider and deeper understanding of the way of life andforms of thought of other peoples and of their cultural heritage.
2. To promote, encourage and support the efforts of teachers and learners at alllevels to apply in their own situation the principles of the construction of
language-learning systems (as these are progressively developed within theCouncil of Europe ‘Modern languages’ programme):. 2.1 by basing language teaching and learning on the needs, motivations,characteristics and resources of learners;. 2.2 by deﬁning worthwhile and realistic objectives as explicitly as possible;. 2.3 by developing appropriate methods and materials;. 2.4 by developing suitable forms and instruments for the evaluating oflearning programmes.
3. To promote research and development programmes leading to the introduction, at all educational levels, of methods and materials best suited to enabling different classes and types of student to acquire a communicative
proﬁciency appropriate to their speciﬁc needs.
The preamble to R(98)6 reafﬁrms the political objectives of its actions in the ﬁeld ofmodern languages:• To equip all Europeans for the challenges of intensiﬁed international mobility and closer co-operation not only in education, culture and science but also
in trade and industry.
• To promote mutual understanding and tolerance, respect for identities andcultural diversity through more effective international communication.
• To maintain and further develop the richness and diversity of European cultural life through greater mutual knowledge of national and regional languages, including those less widely taught.
• To meet the needs of a multilingual and multicultural Europe by appreciably
developing the ability of Europeans to communicate with each other acrosslinguistic and cultural boundaries, which requires a sustained, lifelong effort
to be encouraged, put on an organised footing and ﬁnanced at all levels of
education by the competent bodies.
3

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment• To avert the dangers that might result from the marginalisation of thoselacking the skills necessary to communicate in an interactive Europe.
Particular urgency was attached to these objectives by the First Summit of Heads of State,
which identiﬁed xenophobia and ultra-nationalist backlashes as a primary obstacle toEuropean mobility and integration, and as a major threat to European stability and tothe healthy functioning of democracy. The second summit made preparation for democratic citizenship a priority educational objective, thus giving added importance to afurther objective pursued in recent projects, namely:
To promote methods of modern language teaching which will strengthen independence of thought, judgement and action, combined with social skills andresponsibility.
In the light of these objectives, the Committee of Ministers stressed ‘the political importance at the present time and in the future of developing speciﬁc ﬁelds of action, suchas strategies for diversifying and intensifying language learning in order to promote plurilingualism in a pan-European context’ and drew attention to the value of further developing educational links and exchanges and of exploiting the full potential of newcommunication and information technologies.

1.3

What is ‘plurilingualism’?

In recent years, the concept of plurilingualism has grown in importance in the Councilof Europe’s approach to language learning. Plurilingualism differs from multilingualism, which is the knowledge of a number of languages, or the co-existence of different
languages in a given society. Multilingualism may be attained by simply diversifying thelanguages on offer in a particular school or educational system, or by encouraging pupils
to learn more than one foreign language, or reducing the dominant position of English
in international communication. Beyond this, the plurilingual approach emphasises thefact that as an individual person’s experience of language in its cultural contexts
expands, from the language of the home to that of society at large and then to the languages of other peoples (whether learnt at school or college, or by direct experience), heor she does not keep these languages and cultures in strictly separated mental compartments, but rather builds up a communicative competence to which all knowledge andexperience of language contributes and in which languages interrelate and interact. In
different situations, a person can call ﬂexibly upon different parts of this competence toachieve effective communication with a particular interlocutor. For instance, partners
may switch from one language or dialect to another, exploiting the ability of each toexpress themselves in one language and to understand the other; or a person may callupon the knowledge of a number of languages to make sense of a text, written or evenspoken, in a previously ‘unknown’ language, recognising words from a common international store in a new guise. Those with some knowledge, even slight, may use it to help
those with none to communicate by mediating between individuals with no common
language. In the absence of a mediator, such individuals may nevertheless achieve somedegree of communication by bringing the whole of their linguistic equipment into play,4

The Common European Framework in its political and educational context
experimenting with alternative forms of expression in different languages or dialects,
exploiting paralinguistics (mime, gesture, facial expression, etc.) and radically simplifying their use of language.
From this perspective, the aim of language education is profoundly modiﬁed. It is nolonger seen as simply to achieve ‘mastery’ of one or two, or even three languages, eachtaken in isolation, with the ‘ideal native speaker’ as the ultimate model. Instead, the aim
is to develop a linguistic repertory, in which all linguistic abilities have a place. Thisimplies, of course, that the languages offered in educational institutions should be diversiﬁed and students given the opportunity to develop a plurilingual competence.
Furthermore, once it is recognised that language learning is a lifelong task, the development of a young person’s motivation, skill and conﬁdence in facing new language experience out of school comes to be of central importance. The responsibilities of
educational authorities, qualifying examining bodies and teachers cannot simply be
conﬁned to the attainment of a given level of proﬁciency in a particular language at aparticular moment in time, important though that undoubtedly is.
The full implications of such a paradigm shift have yet to be worked out and translated
into action. The recent developments in the Council of Europe’s language programme
have been designed to produce tools for use by all members of the language teaching profession in the promotion of plurilingualism. In particular, The European Language
Portfolio (ELP) provides a format in which language learning and intercultural experiences of the most diverse kinds can be recorded and formally recognised. For this purpose,
CEF not only provides a scaling of overall language proﬁciency in a given language, butalso a breakdown of language use and language competences which will make it easierfor practitioners to specify objectives and describe achievements of the most diverse kinds
in accordance with the varying needs, characteristics and resources of learners.

1.4

Why is CEF needed?

In the words of the Intergovernmental Symposium held in Rüschlikon, Switzerland
November 1991, on the initiative of the Swiss Federal Government, on: ‘Transparency and
Coherence in Language Learning in Europe: Objectives, Evaluation, Certiﬁcation’:
1. A further intensiﬁcation of language learning and teaching in member countries is necessary in the interests of greater mobility, more effective international communication combined with respect for identity and cultural
diversity, better access to information, more intensive personal interaction,
improved working relations and a deeper mutual understanding.
2. To achieve these aims language learning is necessarily a life-long task to bepromoted and facilitated throughout educational systems, from pre-school
through to adult education.
3. It is desirable to develop a Common European Framework of reference for
language learning at all levels, in order to:. • promote and facilitate co-operation among educational institutions indifferent countries;. • provide a sound basis for the mutual recognition of language qualiﬁcations;5Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment. • assist learners, teachers, course designers, examining bodies and educational administrators to situate and co-ordinate their efforts.
Plurilingualism has itself to be seen in the context of pluriculturalism. Language is not
only a major aspect of culture, but also a means of access to cultural manifestations.
Much of what is said above applies equally in the more general ﬁeld: in a person’s cultural competence, the various cultures (national, regional, social) to which that person has
gained access do not simply co-exist side by side; they are compared, contrasted andactively interact to produce an enriched, integrated pluricultural competence, of which
plurilingual competence is one component, again interacting with other components.

1.5 For what uses is CEF intended?
The uses of the Framework include:
The planning of language learning programmes in terms of:• their assumptions regarding prior knowledge, and their articulation with earlier
learning, particularly at interfaces between primary, lower secondary, upper secondary and higher/further education;• their objectives;• their content.
The planning of language certiﬁcation in terms of:• the content syllabus of examinations;• assessment criteria, in terms of positive achievement rather than negative deﬁciencies.
The planning of self-directed learning, including:••••raising the learner’s awareness of his or her present state of knowledge;
self-setting of feasible and worthwhile objectives;
selection of materials;
self-assessment.

Learning programmes and certiﬁcation can be:• global, bringing a learner forward in all dimensions of language proﬁciency and communicative competence;• modular, improving the learner’s proﬁciency in a restricted area for a particularpurpose;• weighted, emphasising learning in certain directions and producing a ‘proﬁle’ inwhich a higher level is attained in some areas of knowledge and skill than others;• partial, taking responsibility only for certain activities and skills (e.g. reception) andleaving others aside.
6The Common European Framework in its political and educational context
The Common European Framework is constructed so as to accommodate these various
forms.
In considering the role of a common framework at more advanced stages of language
learning it is necessary to take into account changes in the nature of needs of learners
and the context in which they live, study and work. There is a need for general qualiﬁcations at a level beyond threshold, which may be situated with reference to the CEF. They
have, of course, to be well deﬁned, properly adapted to national situations and embrace
new areas, particularly in the cultural ﬁeld and more specialised domains. In addition,a considerable role may be played by modules or clusters of modules geared to thespeciﬁc needs, characteristics and resources of learners.

1.6 What criteria must CEF meet?
In order to fulﬁl its functions, such a Common European Framework must be comprehensive, transparent and coherent.
By ‘comprehensive’ is meant that the Common European Framework should attempt tospecify as full a range of language knowledge, skills and use as possible (without of course
attempting to forecast a priori all possible uses of language in all situations – an impossibletask), and that all users should be able to describe their objectives, etc., by reference to it.
CEF should differentiate the various dimensions in which language proﬁciency is
described, and provide a series of reference points (levels or steps) by which progress inlearning can be calibrated. It should be borne in mind that the development of communicative proﬁciency involves other dimensions than the strictly linguistic (e.g. socioculturalawareness, imaginative experience, affective relations, learning to learn, etc.).
By ‘transparent’ is meant that information must be clearly formulated and explicit,
available and readily comprehensible to users.
By ‘coherent’ is meant that the description is free from internal contradictions. With
regard to educational systems, coherence requires that there is a harmonious relation
among their components:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

the identiﬁcation of needs;
the determination of objectives;the deﬁnition of content;
the selection or creation of material;
the establishment of teaching/learning programmes;
the teaching and learning methods employed;
evaluation, testing and assessment.

The construction of a comprehensive, transparent and coherent framework for language
learning and teaching does not imply the imposition of one single uniform system. On
the contrary, the framework should be open and ﬂexible, so that it can be applied, withsuch adaptations as prove necessary, to particular situations. CEF should be:• multi-purpose: usable for the full variety of purposes involved in the planning and provision of facilities for language learning• ﬂexible: adaptable for use in different circumstances
7

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment• open: capable of further extension and reﬁnement• dynamic: in continuous evolution in response to experience in its use• user-friendly: presented in a form readily understandable and usable by those to whom
it is addressed• non-dogmatic: not irrevocably and exclusively attached to any one of a number of competing linguistic or educational theories or practices.

8

2 Approach adopted

2.1

An action-oriented approach

A comprehensive, transparent and coherent frame of reference for language learning,teaching and assessment must relate to a very general view of language use and learning. The approach adopted here, generally speaking, is an action-oriented one in so far
as it views users and learners of a language primarily as ‘social agents’, i.e. members ofsociety who have tasks (not exclusively language-related) to accomplish in a given set ofcircumstances, in a speciﬁc environment and within a particular ﬁeld of action. Whileacts of speech occur within language activities, these activities form part of a widersocial context, which alone is able to give them their full meaning. We speak of ‘tasks’in so far as the actions are performed by one or more individuals strategically using theirown speciﬁc competences to achieve a given result. The action-based approach therefore
also takes into account the cognitive, emotional and volitional resources and the fullrange of abilities speciﬁc to and applied by the individual as a social agent.
Accordingly, any form of language use and learning could be described as follows:
Language use, embracing language learning, comprises the actions performed bypersons who as individuals and as social agents develop a range of competences,both general and in particular communicative language competences. They draw
on the competences at their disposal in various contexts under various conditions
and under various constraints to engage in language activities involving language
processes to produce and/or receive texts in relation to themes in speciﬁc domains,activating those strategies which seem most appropriate for carrying out the tasks
to be accomplished. The monitoring of these actions by the participants leads to thereinforcement or modiﬁcation of their competences.
• Competences are the sum of knowledge, skills and characteristics that allow a person
to perform actions.
• General competences are those not speciﬁc to language, but which are called upon foractions of all kinds, including language activities.
• Communicative language competences are those which empower a person to act using
speciﬁcally linguistic means.
• Context refers to the constellation of events and situational factors (physical andothers), both internal and external to a person, in which acts of communication areembedded.
9

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment• Language activities involve the exercise of one’s communicative language competence
in a speciﬁc domain in processing (receptively and/or productively) one or more texts
in order to carry out a task.
• Language processes refer to the chain of events, neurological and physiological,
involved in the production and reception of speech and writing.
• Text is any sequence or discourse (spoken and/or written) related to a speciﬁc domain
and which in the course of carrying out a task becomes the occasion of a language
activity, whether as a support or as a goal, as product or process.
• Domain refers to the broad sectors of social life in which social agents operate. A
higher order categorisation has been adopted here limiting these to major categories
relevant to language learning/teaching and use: the educational, occupational,
public and personal domains.
• A strategy is any organised, purposeful and regulated line of action chosen by an individual to carry out a task which he or she sets for himself or herself or with which heor she is confronted.
• A task is deﬁned as any purposeful action considered by an individual as necessary inorder to achieve a given result in the context of a problem to be solved, an obligation
to fulﬁl or an objective to be achieved. This deﬁnition would cover a wide range ofactions such as moving a wardrobe, writing a book, obtaining certain conditions in
the negotiation of a contract, playing a game of cards, ordering a meal in a restaurant, translating a foreign language text or preparing a class newspaper throughgroup work.
If it is accepted that the different dimensions highlighted above are interrelated in all
forms of language use and learning, then any act of language learning or teaching is insome way concerned with each of these dimensions: strategies, tasks, texts, an individual’s general competences, communicative language competence, language activities,
language processes, contexts and domains.
At the same time, it is also possible in learning and teaching that the objective, andtherefore assessment, may be focused on a particular component or sub-component (theother components then being considered as means to an end, or as aspects to be given
more emphasis at other times, or as not being relevant to the circumstances). Learners,
teachers, course designers, authors of teaching material and test designers are inevitably involved in this process of focusing on a particular dimension and deciding on theextent to which other dimensions should be considered and ways of taking account ofthese: this is illustrated with examples below. It is immediately clear, however, that
although the often stated aim of a teaching/learning programme is to develop communication skills (possibly because this is most representative of a methodologicalapproach?), certain programmes in reality strive to achieve a qualitative or quantitative
development of language activities in a foreign language, others stress performance in aparticular domain, yet others the development of certain general competences, whileothers are primarily concerned with reﬁning strategies. The claim that ‘everything isconnected’ does not mean that the objectives cannot be differentiated.
Each of the main categories outlined above can be divided into sub-categories, still very
generic, which will be looked at in the following chapters. Here, we are looking only at
the various components of general competences, communicative competence, language
activities and domains.
10Approach adopted
2.1.1 The general competences of an individual
The general competences of language learners or users (see section 5.1.) consist in particular of their knowledge, skills and existential competence and also their ability to learn:
Knowledge, i.e. declarative knowledge (savoir, see 5.1.1.), is understood as knowledge resulting from experience (empirical knowledge) and from more formal learning (academic
knowledge). All human communication depends on a shared knowledge of the world. As
far as language use and learning are concerned, the knowledge which comes into play is
not directly related exclusively to language and culture. Academic knowledge in a scientiﬁc or technical educational ﬁeld, and academic or empirical knowledge in a professional ﬁeld clearly have an important part to play in the reception and understanding oftexts in a foreign language relating to those ﬁelds. Empirical knowledge relating to dayto-day living (organisation of the day, mealtimes, means of transport, communicationand information), in the public or private domains is, however, just as essential for the
management of language activities in a foreign language. Knowledge of the sharedvalues and beliefs held by social groups in other countries and regions, such as religious
beliefs, taboos, assumed common history, etc., are essential to intercultural communication. These multiple areas of knowledge vary from individual to individual. They may be
culture-speciﬁc, but nevertheless also relate to more universal parameters and constants.
Any new knowledge is not simply added onto the knowledge one had before but is conditioned by the nature, richness and structure of one’s previous knowledge and, furthermore, serves to modify and restructure the latter, however partially. Clearly, theknowledge which an individual has already acquired is directly relevant to language
learning. In many cases, methods of teaching and learning pre-suppose this awarenessof the world. However, in certain contexts (e.g. immersion, attending school or university where the language of tuition is not one’s mother tongue), there is simultaneous andcorrelated enrichment of linguistic and other knowledge. Careful consideration mustthen be given to the relationship between knowledge and communicative competence.
Skills and know-how (savoir-faire, see section 5.1.2.), whether it be a matter of driving acar, playing the violin or chairing a meeting, depend more on the ability to carry out procedures than on declarative knowledge, but this skill may be facilitated by the acquisition of ‘forgettable’ knowledge and be accompanied by forms of existential competence(for example relaxed attitude or tension in carrying out a task). Thus, in the example
quoted above, driving a car, which through repetition and experience becomes a seriesof almost automatic processes (declutching, changing gear, etc.), initially requires an
explicit break-down of conscious and verbalisable operations (‘Slowly release the clutch
pedal, slip into third gear, etc.’) and the acquisition of certain facts (there are three pedals
in a manual car set out as follows, etc.) which one does not have to consciously think
about once one ‘knows how to drive’. When one is learning to drive, one generally needs
a high level of concentration and heightened self-awareness since one’s own self-image
is particularly vulnerable (risk of failure, of appearing incompetent). Once the skills havebeen mastered, the driver can be expected to be much more at ease and self-conﬁdent;
otherwise this would be disconcerting for passengers and other motorists. Clearly, it
would not be difﬁcult to draw parallels with certain aspects of language learning (e.g.
pronunciation and some parts of grammar, such as inﬂexional morphology).
Existential competence (savoir-être, see 5.1.3.) may be considered as the sum of the individual characteristics, personality traits and attitudes which concern, for example, self-image
11

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessmentand one’s view of others and willingness to engage with other people in social interaction.
This type of competence is not seen simply as resulting from immutable personality characteristics. It includes factors which are the product of various kinds of acculturation andmay be modiﬁed.
These personality traits, attitudes and temperaments are parameters which have to betaken into account in language learning and teaching. Accordingly, even though they
may be difﬁcult to deﬁne, they should be included in a framework of reference. They are
considered to be part of an individual’s general competences and therefore an aspect of
his or her abilities. In so far as they are capable of being acquired or modiﬁed in use andthrough learning (for example, of one or more languages), attitude formation may be an
objective. As has frequently been noted, existential competences are culture-related andtherefore sensitive areas for inter-cultural perceptions and relations: the way one
member of a speciﬁc culture expresses friendliness and interest may be perceived bysomeone from another culture as aggressive or offensive.
Ability to learn (savoir apprendre, see 5.1.4.) mobilises existential competence, declarativeknowledge and skills, and draws on various types of competence. Ability to learn may
also be conceived as ‘knowing how, or being disposed, to discover “otherness”’ – whether
the other is another language, another culture, other people or new areas of knowledge.
Whilst the notion of ability to learn is of general application, it is particularly relevant
to language learning. Depending on the learners in question, the ability to learn may
involve varying degrees and combinations of such aspects of existential competence,
declarative knowledge and skills and know-how as:• Existential competence: e.g. a willingness to take initiatives or even risks in face-toface communication, so as to afford oneself the opportunity to speak, to prompt assistance from the people with whom one is speaking, such as asking them to rephrase
what they have said in simpler terms, etc; also listening skills, attention to what issaid, heightened awareness of the risks of cultural misunderstanding in relations
with others.
• Declarative knowledge: e.g. knowledge of what morpho-syntactical relations correspond to given declension patterns for a particular language; or, awareness that
there may be a taboo or particular rituals associated with dietary or sexual practices
in certain cultures or that they may have religious connotations.
• Skills and know-how: e.g. facility in using a dictionary or being able to ﬁnd one’s way
easily around a documentation centre; knowing how to manipulate audiovisual orcomputer media (e.g. the Internet) as learning resources.
For the same individual there can be many variations in the use of skills and know-how
and the ability to deal with the unknown:• Variations according to the event, depending on whether the individual is dealing
with new people, a totally unknown area of knowledge, an unfamiliar culture, aforeign language.
• Variations according to context: faced with the same event (e.g. parent/child relationships in a given community), the processes of discovery and seeking meaning will
doubtless be different for an ethnologist, tourist, missionary, journalist, educator or
doctor, each acting according to his or her own discipline or outlook.
12

Approach adopted• Variations according to the prevailing circumstances and past experience: it is quite
probable that the skills applied in learning a ﬁfth foreign language will be different
from those applied in learning the ﬁrst.
Such variations should be considered alongside concepts such as ‘learning styles’ or‘learner proﬁles’ as long as the latter are not regarded as being immutably ﬁxed once andfor all.
For learning purposes, the strategies selected by the individual in order to accomplish
a given task will depend on the diversity of the various abilities to learn at his/her disposal. But it is also through the diversity of learning experiences, provided they are notcompartmentalised nor strictly repetitive, that the individual extends his/her ability tolearn.

2.1.2 Communicative language competenceCommunicative language competence can be considered as comprising several components: linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic. Each of these components is postulated ascomprising, in particular, knowledge and skills and know-how. Linguistic competences
include lexical, phonological, syntactical knowledge and skills and other dimensions oflanguage as system, independently of the sociolinguistic value of its variations and thepragmatic functions of its realisations. This component, considered here from the pointof view of a given individual’s communicative language competence, relates not only tothe range and quality of knowledge (e.g. in terms of phonetic distinctions made or theextent and precision of vocabulary) but also to cognitive organisation and the way thisknowledge is stored (e.g. the various associative networks in which the speaker places alexical item) and to its accessibility (activation, recall and availability). Knowledge may
be conscious and readily expressible or may not (e.g. once again in relation to masteryof a phonetic system). Its organisation and accessibility will vary from one individual toanother and vary also within the same individual (e.g. for a plurilingual person depending on the varieties inherent in his or her plurilingual competence). It can also be heldthat the cognitive organisation of vocabulary and the storing of expressions, etc.
depend, amongst other things, on the cultural features of the community or communities in which the individual has been socialised and where his or her learning has
occurred.
Sociolinguistic competences refer to the sociocultural conditions of language use.
Through its sensitivity to social conventions (rules of politeness, norms governing relations between generations, sexes, classes and social groups, linguistic codiﬁcation ofcertain fundamental rituals in the functioning of a community), the sociolinguistic component strictly affects all language communication between representatives of different
cultures, even though participants may often be unaware of its inﬂuence.
Pragmatic competences are concerned with the functional use of linguistic resources(production of language functions, speech acts), drawing on scenarios or scripts of interactional exchanges. It also concerns the mastery of discourse, cohesion and coherence,
the identiﬁcation of text types and forms, irony, and parody. For this component evenmore than the linguistic component, it is hardly necessary to stress the major impact ofinteractions and cultural environments in which such abilities are constructed.
13

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
All the categories used here are intended to characterise areas and types of competences internalised by a social agent, i.e. internal representations, mechanisms andcapacities, the cognitive existence of which can be considered to account for observablebehaviour and performance. At the same time, any learning process will help to develop
or transform these same internal representations, mechanisms and capacities.
Each of these components will be examined in more detail in Chapter 5.

2.1.3 Language activities
The language learner/user’s communicative language competence is activated in the performance of the various language activities, involving reception, production, interaction
or mediation (in particular interpreting or translating). Each of these types of activity ispossible in relation to texts in oral or written form, or both.
As processes, reception and production (oral and/or written) are obviously primary,since both are required for interaction. In this Framework, however, the use of theseterms for language activities is conﬁned to the role they play in isolation. Receptive
activities include silent reading and following the media. They are also of importance in many forms of learning (understanding course content, consulting textbooks, works of reference and documents). Productive activities have an importantfunction in many academic and professional ﬁelds (oral presentations, written
studies and reports) and particular social value is attached to them (judgements
made of what has been submitted in writing or of ﬂuency in speaking and delivering oral presentations).
In interaction at least two individuals participate in an oral and/or written exchange inwhich production and reception alternate and may in fact overlap in oral communication. Not only may two interlocutors be speaking and yet listening to each other simultaneously. Even where turn-taking is strictly respected, the listener is generally alreadyforecasting the remainder of the speaker’s message and preparing a response. Learning
to interact thus involves more than learning to receive and to produce utterances. High
importance is generally attributed to interaction in language use and learning in viewof its central role in communication.
In both the receptive and productive modes, the written and/or oral activities of mediation make communication possible between persons who are unable, for whateverreason, to communicate with each other directly. Translation or interpretation, a paraphrase, summary or record, provides for a third party a (re)formulation of a source text
to which this third party does not have direct access. Mediating language activities –(re)processing an existing text – occupy an important place in the normal linguistic functioning of our societies.

2.1.4 Domains
Language activities are contextualised within domains. These may themselves be very
diverse, but for most practical purposes in relation to language learning they may bebroadly classiﬁed as fourfold: the public domain, the personal domain, the educational
domain and the occupational domain.
14

Approach adopted
The public domain refers to everything connected with ordinary social interaction (business and administrative bodies, public services, cultural and leisure activities of a public
nature, relations with the media, etc.). Complementarily, the personal domain comprises
family relations and individual social practices.
The occupational domain embraces everything concerned with a person’s activities andrelations in the exercise of his or her occupation. The educational domain is concernedwith the learning/training context (generally of an institutional nature) where the aim
is to acquire speciﬁc knowledge or skills.

2.1.5 Tasks, strategies and texts
Communication and learning involve the performance of tasks which are not solely language tasks even though they involve language activities and make demands upon theindividual’s communicative competence. To the extent that these tasks are neither
routine nor automatic, they require the use of strategies in communicating and learning.
In so far as carrying out these tasks involves language activities, they necessitate the processing (through reception, production, interaction or mediation) of oral or written texts.
The overall approach outlined above is distinctly action-oriented. It is centred on therelationship between, on the one hand, the agents’ use of strategies linked to their competences and how they perceive or imagine the situation to be and on the other, the task
or tasks to be accomplished in a speciﬁc context under particular conditions.
Thus someone who has to move a wardrobe (task) may try to push it, take it to pieces
so as to carry it more easily and then reassemble it, call on outside labour or give up andconvince himself or herself that it can wait until tomorrow, etc. (all strategies).
Depending on the strategy adopted, the performance (or avoidance, postponement or
redeﬁnition) of the task may or may not involve a language activity and text processing(reading instructions for dismantling, making a telephone call, etc.). Similarly, a learnerat school who has to translate a text from a foreign language (task) may look to see if atranslation already exists, ask another learner to show what he or she has done, use a dictionary, try to work out some kind of meaning on the basis of the few words or structures
he or she knows, think of a good excuse for not handing in this exercise, etc. (all possible
strategies). For all the cases envisaged here there will necessarily be language activity andtext processing (translation/mediation, verbal negotiation with a classmate, letter orverbal excuses to the teacher, etc.).
The relationship between strategies, task and text depends on the nature of the task.
This may be primarily language-related, i.e. it may require largely language activities andthe strategies applied relate primarily to these language activities (e.g. reading and commenting on a text, completing a ‘ﬁll in the gaps’-type exercise, giving a lecture, taking
notes during a presentation). It may include a language component, i.e. where language
activities form only part of what is required and where the strategies applied relate alsoor primarily to other activities (e.g. cooking by following a recipe). It is possible to carryout many tasks without recourse to a language activity. In these cases, the activities
involved are not necessarily language-related at all and the strategies applied relate toother types of activity. For instance, erecting a tent can be carried out in silence by several
people who know what they are doing. They may perhaps engage in a few oral exchanges
relating to technique, or they may at the same time hold a conversation having nothing
15

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
at all to do with the task, or they may carry out the task while one of them is humminga tune. The use of language becomes necessary when one of the group does not knowwhat to do next, or when for some reason the established routine does not work.
In this type of analysis communication strategies and learning strategies are but strategies among others, just as communicative tasks and learning tasks are but tasks among
others. Similarly, ‘authentic’ texts or texts specially designed for teaching purposes, texts
in textbooks or texts produced by learners are but texts among others.
In the following chapters a detailed account is offered for each dimension and subcategory in turn, with examples and scaling where appropriate. Chapter 4 deals with thedimension of language use – what a language user or learner is required to do, whilst
Chapter 5 deals with the competences that enable a language user to act.

2.2 Common reference levels of language proficiency
In addition to the descriptive scheme glossed above, Chapter 3 provides a ‘vertical dimension’ and outlines an ascending series of common reference levels for describing learnerproﬁciency. The set of descriptive categories introduced in Chapters 4 and 5 map out a‘horizontal dimension’ made up of parameters of communicative activity and communicative language competence. It is quite common to present a series of levels in a seriesof parameters as a proﬁling grid with a horizontal and a vertical dimension. This is, ofcourse, a considerable simpliﬁcation since just the addition of domain, for example,
would give a third dimension turning such a grid into a notional cube. A full diagrammatic representation of the degree of multidimensionality involved would in fact be very
challenging, if not impossible.
The addition of a vertical dimension to the Framework nevertheless enables learningspace to be mapped or proﬁled, even if simply, and this is useful for a number of reasons:• The development of deﬁnitions of learner proﬁciency related to categories used in
the Framework may assist in making more concrete what it may be appropriate to
expect at different levels of achievement in terms of those categories. This in turn
may aid the development of transparent and realistic statements of overall learning
objectives.
• Learning which takes place over a period of time needs to be organised into units
which take account of progression and can provide continuity. Syllabuses and materials need to be situated in relation to one another. A framework of levels may help
in this process.
• Learning efforts in relation to those objectives and those units need also to be situated on this vertical dimension of progress, i.e. assessed in relation to gains in proﬁciency. The provision of proﬁciency statements may help in this process.
• Such assessment should take account of incidental learning, of out-of-school experience, of the kind of lateral enrichment outlined above. The provision of a set of proﬁciency statements going beyond the scope of a particular syllabus may be helpful inthis respect.
• The provision of a common set of proﬁciency statements will facilitate comparisonsof objectives, levels, materials, tests and achievement in different systems and situations.
16

Approach adopted• A framework including both horizontal and vertical dimensions facilitates the deﬁnition of partial objectives and the recognition of uneven proﬁles, partial competencies.
• A framework of levels and categories facilitating proﬁling of objectives for particularpurposes may aid inspectors. Such a framework may help to assess whether learners
are working at an appropriate level in different areas. It may inform decisions onwhether performance in those areas represents a standard appropriate to the stageof learning, immediate future goals and wider longer-term goals of effective language proﬁciency and personal development.
• Finally, in their learning career students of the language will pass through a numberof educational sectors and institutions offering language services, and the provisionof a common set of levels may facilitate collaboration between those sectors. With
increased personal mobility, it is more and more common for learners to switch
between educational systems at the end of or even in the middle of their period in aparticular educational sector, making the provision of a common scale on which todescribe their achievement an issue of ever wider concern.
In considering the vertical dimension of the Framework, one should not forget that theprocess of language learning is continuous and individual. No two users of a language,
whether native speakers or foreign learners, have exactly the same competences ordevelop them in the same way. Any attempt to establish ‘levels’ of proﬁciency is to someextent arbitrary, as it is in any area of knowledge or skill. However, for practical purposes
it is useful to set up a scale of deﬁned levels to segment the learning process for the purposes of curriculum design, qualifying examinations, etc. Their number and height will
depend largely on how a particular educational system is organised and for which purposes scales are established. It is possible to set down procedures and criteria for scaling
and for the formulation of the descriptors used to characterise successive levels of proﬁciency. The issues and options concerned are discussed in depth in Appendix A. Users of
this framework are strongly advised to consult that section and the supporting bibliography before taking independent policy decisions on scaling.
One also needs to remember that levels only reﬂect a vertical dimension. They can takeonly limited account of the fact that learning a language is a matter of horizontal as wellas vertical progress as learners acquire the proﬁciency to perform in a wider range ofcommunicative activities. Progress is not merely a question of moving up a vertical scale.
There is no particular logical requirement for a learner to pass through all the lower
levels on a sub-scale. They may make lateral progress (from a neighbouring category) bybroadening their performance capabilities rather than increasing their proﬁciency interms of the same category. Conversely, the expression ‘deepening one’s knowledge’ recognises that one may well feel the need at some point to underpin such pragmatic gains
by having a look at ‘the basics’ (that is: lower level skills) in an area into which one has
moved laterally.
Finally, one should be careful about interpreting sets of levels and scales of language
proﬁciency as if they were a linear measurement scale like a ruler. No existing scale or
set of levels can claim to be linear in this way. Talking in terms of the series of Councilof Europe content speciﬁcations, even if Waystage is situated halfway to Threshold Level ona scale of levels, and Threshold half way to Vantage Level, experience with existing scales
suggests that many learners will take more than twice as long to reach Threshold Level
17

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
from Waystage than they needed to reach Waystage. They will then probably need morethan twice as long to reach Vantage Level from Threshold Level than they needed to reachThreshold Level from Waystage, even if the levels appear to be equidistant on the scale. Thisis because of the necessary broadening of the range of activities, skills and language
involved. This fact of life is reﬂected in the frequent presentation of a scale of levels witha diagram like an ice cream cornet – a three-dimensional cone which broadens towards
the top. Extreme caution should be exercised in using any scale of levels to calculate the‘mean seat time’ necessary to meet particular objectives.

2.3 Language learning and teaching
2.3.1 Such statements of learning objectives say nothing about the processes by whichlearners come to be able to act in the required ways, or the processes by which they
develop/build up the competences that make the actions possible. They say nothing
about the ways in which teachers facilitate the processes of language acquisition andlearning. Yet, since it is one of the principal functions of the Framework to encourage
and enable all the different partners to the language teaching and learning processes toinform others as transparently as possible not only of their aims and objectives but alsoof the methods they use and the results actually achieved, it seems clear that the
Framework cannot conﬁne itself to the knowledge, skills and attitudes learners will needto develop in order to act as competent language users, but must also deal with the processes of language acquisition and learning, as well as with the teaching methodology.
These matters are dealt with in Chapter 6.

2.3.2 The role of the Framework in respect of language acquisition, learning and teaching must however be made clear once more. In accordance with the basic principles ofpluralist democracy, the Framework aims to be not only comprehensive, transparent andcoherent, but also open, dynamic and non-dogmatic. For that reason it cannot take up a
position on one side or another of current theoretical disputes on the nature of language
acquisition and its relation to language learning, nor should it embody any one particular approach to language teaching to the exclusion of all others. Its proper role is toencourage all those involved as partners to the language learning/teaching process tostate as explicitly and transparently as possible their own theoretical basis and their practical procedures. In order to fulﬁl this role it sets out parameters, categories, criteria andscales which users may draw upon and which may possibly stimulate them to consider
a wider range of options than previously or to question the previously unexaminedassumptions of the tradition in which they are working. This is not to say that suchassumptions are wrong, but only that all those responsible for planning should beneﬁt
from a re-examination of theory and practice in which they can take into account decisions other practitioners have taken in their own and, particularly, in other European
countries.
An open, ‘neutral’ framework of reference does not of course imply an absence ofpolicy. In providing such a framework the Council of Europe is not in any way retreatingfrom the principles set out in Chapter 1 above as well as in Recommendations R (82) 18
and R (98) 6 of the Committee of Ministers addressed to member governments.
18

Approach adopted
2.3.3 Chapters 4 and 5 are mainly concerned with the actions and competences
required of a language user/learner in respect of any one language in order to communicate with other users of that language. Much of Chapter 6 relates to ways in which thenecessary abilities can be developed and how that development can be facilitated.
Chapter 7 takes a closer look at the role of tasks in language use and language learning.
However, the full implications of adopting a plurilingual and pluricultural approach
have yet to be explored. Chapter 6 therefore also examines the nature and developmentof plurilingual competence. Its implications for the diversiﬁcation of language teachingand educational policies are then explored in some detail in Chapter 8.

2.4

Language assessment

The CEF is ‘A common European framework for language learning, teaching and assessment’. Up to this point, the focus has been upon the nature of language use and the language user and the implications for learning and teaching.
In Chapter 9, the ﬁnal chapter, attention is concentrated on the functions of the
Framework in relation to the assessment of language proﬁciency. The chapter outlines
three main ways in which the Framework can be used:
1. for the speciﬁcation of the content of tests and examinations.
2. for stating the criteria for the attainment of a learning objective, both in relation to
the assessment of a particular spoken or written performance, and in relation to continuous teacher-, peer- or self-assessment.
3. for describing the levels of proﬁciency in existing tests and examinations thus enabling comparisons to be made across different systems of qualiﬁcations.
The chapter then lays out in some detail the choices that have to be made by those conducting assessment procedures. The choices are presented in the form of contrastingpairs. In each case the terms used are clearly deﬁned and the relative advantages and disadvantages are discussed in relation to the purpose of the assessment in its educational
context. The implications of exercising one or another of the alternative options are also
stated.
The chapter proceeds to consider questions of feasibility in assessment. The approachis based on the observation that a practical scheme of assessment cannot be over elaborate. Judgement must be used as to the amount of detail to be included, for instance, ina published examination syllabus, in relation to the very detailed decisions that have to
be made in setting an actual examination paper or establishing a test bank. Assessors, particularly of oral performance, have to work under considerable time pressure and can
only handle a strictly limited number of criteria. Learners who wish to assess their own
proﬁciency, say as a guide to what they should tackle next, have more time, but will need
to be selective concerning the components of overall communicative competence relevant to them. This illustrates the more general principle that the Framework must be comprehensive, but all its users must be selective. Selectivity may well involve the use of asimpler classiﬁcatory scheme which, as we have seen in relation to ‘communicative activities’ may well collapse categories separated in the general scheme. On the other hand,the user’s purposes may well mean expanding some categories and their exponents in
19

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
areas of special relevance. The chapter discusses the issues raised and illustrates the discussion by presenting the schemes adopted by a number of examining bodies for proﬁciency assessment criteria.
For many users, Chapter 9 will enable them to approach public examination syllabusesin a more insightful and critical manner, raising their expectations of what information
examining bodies should provide concerning the objectives, content, criteria and procedures for qualifying examinations at national and international level (e.g. ALTE, ICC).
Teacher trainers will ﬁnd it useful for raising awareness of assessment issues among
teachers in initial and in-service training. However, teachers are becoming increasingly
responsible for the assessment of their pupils and students at all levels, both formativeand summative. Learners, too, are increasingly called upon to carry out self-assessment,
whether to chart and plan their learning or to report their ability to communicate in languages which they have not been formally taught, but which contribute to their plurilingual development.
The introduction of a European Language Portfolio with international currency is now
under consideration. The Portfolio would make it possible for learners to document theirprogress towards plurilingual competence by recording learning experiences of all kinds
over a wide range of languages, much of which would otherwise be unattested and unrecognised. It is intended that the Portfolio will encourage learners to include a regularly
updated statement of their self-assessed proﬁciency in each language. It will be of great
importance for the credibility of the document for entries to be made responsibly andtransparently. Here reference to CEF will be particularly valuable.
Those professionally involved in test development as well as in the administration andconduct of public examinations may wish to consult Chapter 9 in conjunction with themore specialised Guide for Examiners (document CC-Lang(96)10 rev). This guide, which
deals in detail with test development and evaluation is complementary to Chapter 9. It
also contains suggestions for further reading, an appendix on item analysis and a glossary of terms.

20

3 Common Reference Levels

3.1 Criteria for descriptors for Common Reference Levels
One of the aims of the Framework is to help partners to describe the levels of proﬁciency
required by existing standards, tests and examinations in order to facilitate comparisons
between different systems of qualiﬁcations. For this purpose the Descriptive Scheme andthe Common Reference Levels have been developed. Between them they provide a conceptual grid which users can exploit to describe their system. Ideally a scale of reference
levels in a common framework should meet the following four criteria. Two relate todescription issues, and two relate to measurement issues:
Description Issues• A common framework scale should be context-free in order to accommodate generalisable results from different speciﬁc contexts. That is to say that a common scale
should not be produced specifically for, let us say, the school context and thenapplied to adults, or vice-versa. Yet at the same time the descriptors in a common
Framework scale need to be context-relevant, relatable to or translatable into each andevery relevant context – and appropriate for the function they are used for in that
context. This means that the categories used to describe what learners can do in different contexts of use must be relatable to the target contexts of use of the different
groups of learners within the overall target population.
• The description also needs to be based on theories of language competence. This is difﬁcult to achieve because the available theory and research is inadequate to provide
a basis for such a description. Nevertheless, the categorisation and description needs
to be theoretically grounded. In addition, whilst relating to theory, the description
must also remain user-friendly – accessible to practitioners. It should encourage themto think further about what competence means in their context.
Measurement Issues• The points on the scale at which particular activities and competences are situatedin a common framework scale should be objectively determined in that they are basedon a theory of measurement. This is in order to avoid systematising error throughadopting unfounded conventions and ‘rules of thumb’ from the authors, particulargroups of practitioners or existing scales that are consulted.
• The number of levels adopted should be adequate to show progression in different
sectors, but, in any particular context, should not exceed the number of levels
between which people are capable of making reasonably consistent distinctions. Thismay mean adopting different sizes of scale step for different dimensions, or a21

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
two-tier approach between broader (common, conventional) and narrower (local,
pedagogic) levels.
These criteria are very difﬁcult to meet, but are useful as a point of orientation. They canin fact be met by a combination of intuitive, qualitative and quantitative methods. This is
in contrast to the purely intuitive ways in which scales of language proﬁciency are normally developed. Intuitive, committee authorship may work well for the development ofsystems for particular contexts, but have certain limitations in relation to the developmentof a common framework scale. The main weakness of reliance on intuition is that theplacement of a particular wording at a particular level is subjective. Secondly there is also
the possibility that users from different sectors may have valid differences of perspective
due to the needs of their learners. A scale, like a test, has validity in relation to contexts inwhich it has been shown to work. Validation – which involves some quantitative analysis– is an ongoing and, theoretically never-ending, process. The methodology used in developing the Common Reference Levels, and their illustrative descriptors, has therefore been
fairly rigorous. A systematic combination of intuitive, qualitative and quantitative
methods was employed. First, the content of existing scales was analysed in relation to categories of description used in the Framework. Then, in an intuitive phase, this material
was edited, new descriptors were formulated, and the set discussed by experts. Next avariety of qualitative methods were used to check that teachers could relate to the descriptive categories selected, and that descriptors actually described the categories they wereintended to describe. Finally, the best descriptors in the set were scaled using quantitative
methods. The accuracy of this scaling has since been checked in replication studies.
Technical issues connected with the development and scaling of descriptions of language proﬁciency are considered in the appendices. Appendix A gives an introduction toscales and scaling plus methodologies which can be adopted in development. Appendix
B gives a brief overview of the Swiss National Science Research Council project whichdeveloped the Common Reference Levels, and their illustrative descriptors, in a project
covering different educational sectors. Appendices C and D then introduce two related
European projects which have since used a similar methodology to develop and validate
such descriptors in relation to young adults. In Appendix C the DIALANG project is
described. As part of a wider assessment instrument, DIALANG has extended andadapted for self-assessment descriptors from the CEF. In Appendix D the ALTE
(Association of Language Testers in Europe) ‘Can Do’ project is described. This project hasdeveloped and validated a large set of descriptors, which can also be related to the
Common Reference Levels. These descriptors complement those in the Framework itself
in that they are organised in relation to domains of use which are relevant to adults.
The projects described in the appendices demonstrate a very considerable degree ofcommunality with regard both to the Common Reference Levels themselves and to theconcepts scaled to different levels in the illustrative descriptors. That is to say that there
is already a growing body of evidence to suggest that the criteria outlined above are atleast partially fulﬁlled.
3.2 The Common Reference Levels
There does appear in practice to be a wide, though by no means universal, consensus on
the number and nature of levels appropriate to the organisation of language learning
22

Common Reference Levels
and the public recognition of achievement. It seems that an outline framework of six
broad levels gives an adequate coverage of the learning space relevant to European language learners for these purposes.
• Breakthrough, corresponding to what Wilkins in his 1978 proposal labelled ‘Formulaic
Proﬁciency’, and Trim in the same publication1 ‘Introductory’.
• Waystage, reﬂecting the Council of Europe content speciﬁcation.
• Threshold, reﬂecting the Council of Europe content speciﬁcation.
• Vantage, reﬂecting the third Council of Europe content speciﬁcation, a leveldescribed as ‘Limited Operational Proﬁciency’ by Wilkins, and ‘adequate response to situations normally encountered’ by Trim.
• Effective Operational Proﬁciency which was called ‘Effective Proﬁciency’ by Trim, ‘Adequate
Operational Proﬁciency’ by Wilkins, and represents an advanced level of competence
suitable for more complex work and study tasks.
• Mastery (Trim: ‘comprehensive mastery’; Wilkins: ‘Comprehensive Operational Proﬁciency’),corresponds to the top examination objective in the scheme adopted by ALTE
(Association of Language Testers in Europe). It could be extended to include the moredeveloped intercultural competence above that level which is achieved by many language professionals.
When one looks at these six levels, however, one sees that they are respectively higher andlower interpretations of the classic division into basic, intermediate and advanced. Also,
some of the names given to Council of Europe speciﬁcations for levels have proved resistant to translation (e.g. Waystage, Vantage). The scheme therefore proposed adopts a ‘hypertext’ branching principle, starting from an initial division into three broad levels – A, B
and C:A
Basic User

A1
A2
(Breakthrough) (Waystage)

B
Independent User

B1
(Threshold)

B2(Vantage)CProﬁcient User

C1
(Effective
Operational
Proﬁciency)

C2(Mastery)Figure 1

3.3 Presentation of Common Reference Levels
The establishment of a set of common reference points in no way limits how different
sectors in different pedagogic cultures may choose to organise or describe their systemof levels and modules. It is also to be expected that the precise formulation of the set ofcommon reference points, the wording of the descriptors, will develop over time as the1Trim, J. L. M. 1978 Some Possible Lines of Development of an Overall Structure for a European Unit Credit Scheme for Foreign
Language Learning by Adults, Council of Europe.

23

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
experience of member states and of institutions with related expertise is incorporated
into the description.
It is also desirable that the common reference points are presented in different ways
for different purposes. For some purposes it will be appropriate to summarise the set of
proposed Common Reference Levels in single holistic paragraphs, as shown in Table 1.
Such a simple ‘global’ representation will make it easier to communicate the system tonon-specialist users and will also provide teachers and curriculum planners with orientation points:
Table 1. Common Reference Levels: global scaleProﬁcient
User

C2

Can understand with ease virtually everything heard or read. Can summarise
information from different spoken and written sources, reconstructing
arguments and accounts in a coherent presentation. Can express him/herself
spontaneously, very ﬂuently and precisely, differentiating ﬁner shades ofmeaning even in more complex situations.

C1

Can understand a wide range of demanding, longer texts, and recognise
implicit meaning. Can express him/herself ﬂuently and spontaneously
without much obvious searching for expressions. Can use language ﬂexibly
and effectively for social, academic and professional purposes. Can produce
clear, well-structured, detailed text on complex subjects, showing controlled
use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.

B2

Can understand the main ideas of complex text on both concrete andabstract topics, including technical discussions in his/her ﬁeld ofspecialisation. Can interact with a degree of ﬂuency and spontaneity thatmakes regular interaction with native speakers quite possible without strain
for either party. Can produce clear, detailed text on a wide range of subjects
and explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages anddisadvantages of various options.

B1

Can understand the main points of clear standard input on familiar mattersregularly encountered in work, school, leisure, etc. Can deal with mostsituations likely to arise whilst travelling in an area where the language isspoken. Can produce simple connected text on topics which are familiar or of
personal interest. Can describe experiences and events, dreams, hopes andambitions and brieﬂy give reasons and explanations for opinions and plans.

A2

Can understand sentences and frequently used expressions related to areas of
most immediate relevance (e.g. very basic personal and family information,
shopping, local geography, employment). Can communicate in simple androutine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on
familiar and routine matters. Can describe in simple terms aspects of his/herbackground, immediate environment and matters in areas of immediate
need.

A1

Can understand and use familiar everyday expressions and very basic phrases
aimed at the satisfaction of needs of a concrete type. Can introduce
him/herself and others and can ask and answer questions about personal
details such as where he/she lives, people he/she knows and things he/shehas. Can interact in a simple way provided the other person talks slowly andclearly and is prepared to help.

Independent
User

Basic
User

24

Common Reference Levels
In order to orient learners, teachers and other users within the educational system forsome practical purpose, however, a more detailed overview is likely to be necessary. Suchan overview can be presented in the form of a grid showing major categories of language
use at each of the six levels. The example in Table 2 (on the next two pages) is a draft fora self-assessment orientation tool based on the six levels. It is intended to help learners
to proﬁle their main language skills, and decide at which level they might look at achecklist of more detailed descriptors in order to self-assess their level of proﬁciency.
For other purposes, it may be desirable to focus on a particular spectrum of levels, anda particular set of categories. By restricting the range of levels and categories covered tothose relevant to a particular purpose, it will be possible to add more detail: ﬁner levels
and categories. Such detail would enable a set of modules to be ‘mapped’ relative to one
another – and also to be situated in relation to the Common Framework.
Alternatively, rather than proﬁling categories of communicative activities, one may
wish to assess a performance on the basis of the aspects of communicative language competence one can deduce from it. The chart in Table 3 was designed to assess spoken performances. It focuses on different qualitative aspects of language use.

3.4 Illustrative descriptors
The three tables used to introduce the Common Reference Levels (Tables 1, 2 and 3) aresummarised from a bank of ‘illustrative descriptors’ developed and validated for the CEF
in the research project described in Appendix B. These formulations have been mathematically scaled to these levels by analysing the way in which they have been interpreted
in the assessment of large numbers of learners.
For ease of consultation, scales of descriptors are juxtaposed to the relevant categoriesof the descriptive scheme in Chapters 4 and 5. The descriptors refer to the following threemetacategories in the descriptive scheme:

Communicative activities‘Can Do’ descriptors are provided for reception, interaction and production. There may
not be descriptors for all sub-categories for every level, since some activities cannot be
undertaken until a certain level of competence has been reached, whilst others may
cease to be an objective at higher levels.

Strategies‘Can Do’ descriptors are provided for some of the strategies employed in performing communicative activities. Strategies are seen as a hinge between the learner’s resources (competences) and what he/she can do with them (communicative activities). The principles
of a) planning action, b) balancing resources and compensating for deﬁciencies duringexecution and c) monitoring results and undertaking repair as necessary are describedin the sections dealing with interaction and production strategies in Chapter 4.

25Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Table 2. Common Reference Levels: self-assessment grid

U
N
D
E
R
S
T
A
N
D
I
N
G

S
P
E
A
K
I
N
G

W
R
I
T
I
N
G

26

A1

A2

B1

Listening

I can recognise familiar
words and very basic
phrases concerning
myself, my family and
immediate concretesurroundings whenpeople speak slowly
and clearly.

I can understand phrases
and the highest frequency
vocabulary related to areasof most immediate personal
relevance (e.g. very basic
personal and family
information, shopping,local area, employment).
I can catch the main point inshort, clear, simple messages
and announcements.

I can understand the main
points of clear standard
speech on familiar mattersregularly encountered inwork, school, leisure, etc. I
can understand the main
point of many radio or TV
programmes on current
affairs or topics of personalor professional interest when
the delivery is relatively slow
and clear.

Reading

I can understandfamiliar names, words
and very simple
sentences, for example
on notices and posters
or in catalogues.

I can read very short, simple
texts. I can ﬁnd speciﬁc,predictable information in
simple everyday material
such as advertisements,
prospectuses, menus andtimetables and I canunderstand short simple
personal letters.

I can understand texts thatconsist mainly of highfrequency everyday or jobrelated language. I canunderstand the description of
events, feelings and wishes inpersonal letters.

SpokenInteraction

I can interact in a simple
way provided the otherperson is prepared torepeat or rephrase things
at a slower rate of speechand help me formulate
what I’m trying to say. I
can ask and answer simple
questions in areas of
immediate need or onvery familiar topics.

I can communicate in simple
and routine tasks requiring asimple and direct exchange of
information on familiar topics
and activities. I can handle
very short social exchanges,
even though I can’t usually
understand enough to keep
the conversation going myself.

I can deal with most situations
likely to arise whilst travellingin an area where the languageis spoken. I can enter
unprepared into conversation
on topics that are familiar, of
personal interest or pertinent
to everyday life (e.g. family,
hobbies, work, travel andcurrent events).

SpokenProduction

I can use simple phrases
and sentences to describe
where I live and people Iknow.

I can use a series of phrases
and sentences to describe insimple terms my family andother people, living
conditions, my educational
background and my present
or most recent job.

I can connect phrases in a
simple way in order to describe
experiences and events, mydreams, hopes and ambitions.
I can brieﬂy give reasons andexplanations for opinions andplans. I can narrate a story or
relate the plot of a book or
ﬁlm and describe my reactions.

Writing

I can write a short, simple
postcard, for example
sending holiday greetings.
I can ﬁll in forms withpersonal details, forexample entering my
name, nationality andaddress on a hotel
registration form.

I can write short, simple notes
and messages relating tomatters in areas of immediateneed. I can write a very simple
personal letter, for example
thanking someone forsomething.

I can write simple connected
text on topics which arefamiliar or of personal interest.
I can write personal lettersdescribing experiences andimpressions.

Common Reference Levels

B2

C1

C2

I can understand extended speech
and lectures and follow evencomplex lines of argument provided
the topic is reasonably familiar. I
can understand most TV news andcurrent affairs programmes. I canunderstand the majority of ﬁlms instandard dialect.

I can understand extended speecheven when it is not clearlystructured and when relationships
are only implied and not signalled
explicitly. I can understandtelevision programmes and ﬁlms
without too much effort.

I have no difﬁculty in understanding
any kind of spoken language,
whether live or broadcast, even when
delivered at fast native speed,provided I have some time to getfamiliar with the accent.

I can read articles and reports
concerned with contemporary
problems in which the writers adopt
particular attitudes or viewpoints. I
can understand contemporary
literary prose.

I can understand long andcomplex factual and literarytexts, appreciating distinctions ofstyle. I can understand specialised
articles and longer technicalinstructions, even when they do
not relate to my ﬁeld.

I can read with ease virtually all
forms of the written language,
including abstract, structurally or
linguistically complex texts such as
manuals, specialised articles andliterary works.

I can interact with a degree of
ﬂuency and spontaneity that makes
regular interaction with native
speakers quite possible. I can take anactive part in discussion in familiar
contexts, accounting for andsustaining my views.

I can express myself ﬂuently andspontaneously without much
obvious searching for expressions.
I can use language ﬂexibly andeffectively for social andprofessional purposes. I canformulate ideas and opinions with
precision and relate mycontribution skilfully to those ofother speakers.

I can take part effortlessly in any
conversation or discussion and have agood familiarity with idiomatic
expressions and colloquialisms. I can
express myself ﬂuently and convey
ﬁner shades of meaning precisely. If I
do have a problem I can backtrack
and restructure around the difﬁculty
so smoothly that other people are
hardly aware of it.

I can present clear, detailed
descriptions on a wide range ofsubjects related to my ﬁeld ofinterest. I can explain a viewpoint on
a topical issue giving the advantages
and disadvantages of various options.

I can present clear, detailed
descriptions of complex subjects
integrating sub-themes, developing
particular points and rounding off
with an appropriate conclusion.

I can present a clear, smoothly
ﬂowing description or argument in astyle appropriate to the context andwith an effective logical structure
which helps the recipient to noticeand remember signiﬁcant points.

I can write clear, detailed text on awide range of subjects related to myinterests. I can write an essay orreport, passing on information or
giving reasons in support of oragainst a particular point of view. I
can write letters highlighting thepersonal signiﬁcance of events andexperiences.

I can express myself in clear, wellstructured text, expressing pointsof view at some length. I can write
about complex subjects in a
letter, an essay or a report,
underlining what I consider to be
the salient issues. I can selectstyle appropriate to the reader
in mind.

I can write clear, smoothly ﬂowing
text in an appropriate style. I canwrite complex letters, reports orarticles which present a case with aneffective logical structure whichhelps the recipient to notice andremember signiﬁcant points. I canwrite summaries and reviews ofprofessional or literary works.

27

B2

Has a sufﬁcient range oflanguage to be able to give
clear descriptions, express
viewpoints on most general
topics, without muchconspicuous searching forwords, using some complex
sentence forms to do so.

Shows a relatively highdegree of grammaticalcontrol. Does not makeerrors which cause misunderstanding, and cancorrect most of his/her
mistakes.

Has a good command of aConsistently maintains a
broad range of language
high degree of grammaticalallowing him/her to select a accuracy; errors are rare,
formulation to express him/ difﬁcult to spot andherself clearly in an
generally corrected whenappropriate style on a wide they do occur.
range of general, academic,
professional or leisure
topics without having to
restrict what he/she wants
to say.

C1

B2+

Shows great ﬂexibility
Maintains consistent
reformulating ideas ingrammatical control ofdiffering linguistic forms
complex language, evento convey ﬁner shades ofwhile attention is otherwise
meaning precisely, to giveengaged (e.g. in forwardemphasis, to differentiate
planning, in monitoring
and to eliminate ambiguity. others’ reactions).
Also has a good commandof idiomatic expressions
and colloquialisms.

ACCURACY

C2

RANGE

INTERACTION

COHERENCE

Can produce stretches oflanguage with a fairly eventempo; although he/she canbe hesitant as he/shesearches for patterns andexpressions. There are few
noticeably long pauses.

Can express him/herself
ﬂuently and spontaneously,
almost effortlessly. Only aconceptually difﬁcult
subject can hinder a natural,
smooth ﬂow of language.

Can initiate discourse, take Can use a limited number
his/her turn whenof cohesive devices to link
appropriate and end
his/her utterances into
conversation when he/she clear, coherent discourse,
needs to, though he/shethough there may be
may not always do thissome ‘jumpiness’ in aelegantly. Can help thelong contribution.
discussion along onfamiliar ground conﬁrming
comprehension, inviting
others in, etc.

Can select a suitable phrase Can produce clear,from a readily available
smoothly ﬂowing, wellrange of discourse
structured speech,functions to preface his
showing controlled use ofremarks in order to get or organisational patterns,
to keep the ﬂoor and toconnectors and cohesive
relate his/her own
devices.
contributions skilfully tothose of other speakers.

Can express him/herself
Can interact with ease and Can create coherent andspontaneously at length with skill, picking up and using cohesive discourse
a natural colloquial ﬂow,
non-verbal and intonamaking full and appropriavoiding or backtracking
tional cues apparently
ate use of a variety ofeffortlessly. Can interweave organisational patterns
around any difﬁculty sosmoothly that thehis/her contribution into
and a wide range ofinterlocutor is hardly
the joint discourse withconnectors and otheraware of it.
fully natural turntaking,cohesive devices.
referencing, allusion
making, etc.

FLUENCY

Table 3. Common Reference Levels: qualitative aspects of spoken language use

Uses basic sentence patterns
with memorised phrases,
groups of a few words andformulae in order tocommunicate limited
information in simple
everyday situations.

Has a very basic repertoire Shows only limited control
of words and simple phrases of a few simple grammatical
related to personal details structures and sentence
and particular concrete
patterns in a memorised
situations.
repertoire.

A1

Uses some simple structures
correctly, but still
systematically makes basic
mistakes.

Has enough language to get Uses reasonably accurately aby, with sufﬁcientrepertoire of frequently usedvocabulary to express him/ ‘routines’ and patterns
herself with some hesitation associated with moreand circumlocutions on
predictable situations.
topics such as family,
hobbies and interests, work,
travel, and current events.

A2

A2+

B1

B1+

Can link words or groups
of words with very basic
linear connectors like‘and’ or ‘then’.

Can answer questions and Can link groups of words
respond to simple
with simple connectors
statements. Can indicate
like ‘and’, ‘but’ andwhen he/she is following‘because’.
but is rarely able tounderstand enough to keep
conversation going of
his/her own accord.

Can manage very short,
Can ask and answer
isolated, mainly prequestions about personal
packaged utterances, withdetails. Can interact in amuch pausing to search for simple way but
expressions, to articulate less communication is totallyfamiliar words, and to repair dependent on repetition,communication.
rephrasing and repair.

Can make him/herself
understood in very shortutterances, even thoughpauses, false starts andreformulation are very
evident.

Can keep going
Can initiate, maintain and Can link a series ofcomprehensibly, even though close simple face-to-face
shorter, discrete simple
pausing for grammatical and conversation on topics that elements into alexical planning and repair is are familiar or of personal connected, linear
very evident, especially ininterest. Can repeat backsequence of points.
longer stretches of freepart of what someone has
production.
said to conﬁrm mutual
understanding.

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Communicative language competences
Scaled descriptors are provided for aspects of linguistic competence and pragmatic competence, and for sociolinguistic competence. Certain aspects of competence do not seemto be amenable to deﬁnition at all levels; distinctions have been made where they havebeen shown to be meaningful.
Descriptors need to remain holistic in order to give an overview; detailed lists of microfunctions, grammatical forms and vocabulary are presented in language speciﬁcations
for particular languages (e.g. Threshold Level 1990). An analysis of the functions, notions,grammar and vocabulary necessary to perform the communicative tasks described on
the scales could be part of the process of developing new sets of language speciﬁcations.
General competences implied by such a module (e.g. Knowledge of the World, Cognitive
skills) could be listed in similar fashion.
The descriptors juxtaposed with the text in Chapters 4 and 5:• Draw, in their formulation, upon the experience of many bodies active in the ﬁeld of
deﬁning levels of proﬁciency.
• Have been developed in tandem with the development of the model presented in
Chapters 4 and 5 through an interaction between (a) the theoretical work of theauthoring group, (b) the analysis of existing scales of proﬁciency and (c) the practicalworkshops with teachers. Whilst not providing fully comprehensive coverage of thecategories presented in Chapters 4 and 5, the set gives an indication of the possible
appearance of a set of descriptors which would do so.
• Have been matched to the set of Common Reference Levels: A1 (Breakthrough), A2(Waystage), B1 (Threshold), B2 (Vantage), C1 (Effective Operational Proﬁciency) and C2(Mastery).
• Meet the criteria outlined in Appendix A for effective descriptors in that each is brief,
is clear and transparent, is positively formulated, describes something deﬁnite andhas independent, stand-alone integrity – not relying on the formulation of otherdescriptors for its interpretation.
• Have been found transparent, useful and relevant by groups of non-native and nativespeaker teachers from a variety of educational sectors with very different proﬁles interms of linguistic training and teaching experience. Teachers appear to understandthe descriptors in the set, which has been reﬁned in workshops with them from an
initial pool of some thousands of examples.
• Are relevant to the description of actual learner achievement in lower and upper secondary, vocational and adult education, and could thus represent realistic objectives.
• Have been (with noted exceptions) ‘objectively calibrated’ to a common scale. Thismeans that the position of the vast majority of the descriptors on the scale is the
product of the way in which they have been interpreted to assess the achievement oflearners, and not just on the basis of the opinion of the authors.
• Provide a bank of criterion statements about the continuum of foreign language proﬁciency which can be exploited ﬂexibly for the development of criterion-referenced
assessment. They can be matched to existing local systems, elaborated by local experience and/or used to develop new sets of objectives.
30

Common Reference Levels
The set as a whole, whilst not being fully comprehensive and having been scaled in one(admittedly multi-lingual, multi-sector) context of foreign language learning in instructional settings:• is ﬂexible. The same set of descriptors can be organised – as here – into the set ofbroad ‘conventional levels’ identiﬁed at the Rüschlikon Symposium, used by theEuropean Commission’s DIALANG Project (see Appendix C), as well as by ALTE (The
Association of Language Testers in Europe) (see Appendix D). They can also be presented as narrower ‘pedagogic levels’.
• is coherent from the point of view of content. Similar or identical elements whichwere included in different descriptors proved to have very similar scale values. These
scale values also, to a very large extent, conﬁrm the intentions of authors of the scalesof language proﬁciency used as sources. They also appear to relate coherently to thecontent of Council of Europe speciﬁcations, as well as the levels being proposed by
DIALANG and ALTE.

3.5

Flexibility in a branching approach

Level A1 (Breakthrough) is probably the lowest ‘level’ of generative language proﬁciency
which can be identiﬁed. Before this stage is reached, however, there may be a range of
speciﬁc tasks which learners can perform effectively using a very restricted range of language and which are relevant to the needs of the learners concerned. The 1994–5 Swiss
National Science Research Council Survey, which developed and scaled the illustrativedescriptors, identiﬁed a band of language use, limited to the performance of isolated
tasks, which can be presupposed in the deﬁnition of Level A1. In certain contexts, forexample with young learners, it may be appropriate to elaborate such a ‘milestone’. The
following descriptors relate to simple, general tasks, which were scaled below Level A1,
but can constitute useful objectives for beginners:• can make simple purchases where pointing or other gesture can support the verbal
reference;• can ask and tell day, time of day and date;• can use some basic greetings;• can say yes, no, excuse me, please, thank you, sorry;• can ﬁll in uncomplicated forms with personal details, name, address, nationality,
marital status;• can write a short, simple postcard.
The descriptors above concern ‘real life’ tasks of a tourist nature. In a school learning
context, one could imagine a separate list of ‘pedagogic tasks’, including ludic aspects oflanguage – especially in primary schools.
Secondly, the Swiss empirical results suggest a scale of 9 more or less equally sized, coherent levels as shown in Figure 2. This scale has steps between A2 (Waystage) and B1 (Threshold),
between B1 (Threshold) and B2 (Vantage), and between B2 (Vantage) and C1 (Effective Operational
Proﬁciency). The possible existence of such narrower levels may be of interest in learning contexts, but can still be related to the broader levels conventional in examining contexts.
31Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
A
Basic User
A1

B
Independent User

A2

B1
A2+

C
Proﬁcient User

B2
B1+

C1

C2

B2+

Figure 2

In the illustrative descriptors a distinction is made between the ‘criterion levels’ (e.g. A2
or A2.1) and the ‘plus levels’ (e.g. A2+ or A2.2). The latter are distinguished from theformer by a horizontal line, as in this example for overall listening comprehension.
Table 4. Levels A2.1 and A2.2 (A2+): listening comprehension
Can understand enough to be able to meet needs of a concrete type provided speech is clearlyand slowly articulated.
A2

Can understand phrases and expressions related to areas of most immediate priority (e.g.
very basic personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment) provided speech is clearly and slowly articulated.

Establishing cut-off points between levels is always a subjective procedure; some institutions prefer broad levels, others prefer narrow ones. The advantage of a branchingapproach is that a common set of levels and/or descriptors can be ‘cut’ into practical local
levels at different points by different users to suit local needs and yet still relate back to
a common system. The numbering allows further subdivisions to be made without losing
the reference to the main objective being referred to. With a ﬂexible branching schemesuch as that proposed, institutions can develop the branches relevant to them to theappropriate degree of delicacy in order to situate the levels used in their system in termsof the common framework.
Example 1:
A primary to lower secondary school system, for example, or system for adultevening classes in which the provision of visible progress at low levels is felt necessary, could develop the Basic User stem to produce a set of perhaps six milestones with ﬁner differentiation at A2 (Waystage) where large numbers of learners
would be found.
A
Basic User
A1

B
Independent User

A2

B1

6
A1.1

A1.2

1

2

A2.1

A2.2

5

A2.1.1 A2.1.2

3
Figure 3324Common Reference Levels
Example 2:
In an environment for learning the language in the area where it is spoken one
might tend to develop the Independence branch, adding a further layer of delicacy
by subdividing the levels in the middle of the scale:A
Basic User
A1

1

B
Independent User

A2

B1

C
Proﬁcient User

B2

C1

C2

A2.1

A2.2

B1.1

B1.2

B2.1

B2.2

C1.1

C1.2

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

Figure 4

Example 3:
Frameworks for encouraging higher level language skills for professional needs
would probably develop the Proﬁcient User branch:
B
Independent UserC
Proﬁcient User

B1

B2

C1

1

2

3

C2
C2.1

C2.2

4

5

Figure 5

3.6 Content coherence in Common Reference Levels
An analysis of the functions, notions, grammar and vocabulary necessary to perform thecommunicative tasks described on the scales could be part of the process of developing
new sets of language speciﬁcations.
• Level A1 (Breakthrough) – is considered the lowest level of generative language use– the point at which the learner can interact in a simple way, ask and answer simple
questions about themselves, where they live, people they know, and things they have, initiate
and respond to simple statements in areas of immediate need or on very familiar topics,
rather than relying purely on a very ﬁnite rehearsed, lexically organised repertoireof situation-speciﬁc phrases.
• Level A2 does appear to reﬂect the level referred to by the Waystage speciﬁcation. It
is at this level that the majority of descriptors stating social functions are to be found,like use simple everyday polite forms of greeting and address; greet people, ask how they are
and react to news; handle very short social exchanges; ask and answer questions about what
they do at work and in free time; make and respond to invitations; discuss what to do, where to
go and make arrangements to meet; make and accept offers. Here too are to be found33

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
descriptors on getting out and about: the simpliﬁed cut-down version of the full setof transactional speciﬁcations in ‘The Threshold Level’ for adults living abroad, like:make simple transactions in shops, post ofﬁces or banks; get simple information about travel;
use public transport: buses, trains, and taxis, ask for basic information, ask and give directions,and buy tickets; ask for and provide everyday goods and services.
• The next band represents a strong Waystage (A2+) performance. What is noticeable
here is more active participation in conversation given some assistance and certain
limitations, for example: initiate, maintain and close simple, restricted face-to-face conversation; understand enough to manage simple, routine exchanges without undue effort; makehim/herself understood and exchange ideas and information on familiar topics in predictableeveryday situations, provided the other person helps if necessary; communicate successfully on
basic themes if he/she can ask for help to express what he wants to; deal with everyday situations with predictable content, though he/she will generally have to compromise the message andsearch for words; interact with reasonable ease in structured situations, given some help, butparticipation in open discussion is fairly restricted; plus signiﬁcantly more ability tosustain monologues, for example: express how he/she feels in simple terms; give an extended
description of everyday aspects of his/her environment e.g. people, places, a job or study experience; describe past activities and personal experiences; describe habits and routines; describeplans and arrangements; explain what he/she likes or dislikes about something; give short, basic
descriptions of events and activities; describe pets and possessions; use simple descriptive language to make brief statements about and compare objects and possessions.
• Level B1 reﬂects the Threshold Level speciﬁcation for a visitor to a foreign country
and is perhaps most categorised by two features. The ﬁrst feature is the ability tomaintain interaction and get across what you want to, in a range of contexts, forexample: generally follow the main points of extended discussion around him/her, provided
speech is clearly articulated in standard dialect; give or seek personal views and opinions in
an informal discussion with friends; express the main point he/she wants to make comprehensibly; exploit a wide range of simple language ﬂexibly to express much of what he or she wants
to; maintain a conversation or discussion but may sometimes be difﬁcult to follow when trying
to say exactly what he/she would like to; keep going comprehensibly, even though pausing forgrammatical and lexical planning and repair is very evident, especially in longer stretches offree production. The second feature is the ability to cope ﬂexibly with problems ineveryday life, for example cope with less routine situations on public transport; deal withmost situations likely to arise when making travel arrangements through an agent or when
actually travelling; enter unprepared into conversations on familiar topics; make a complaint;
take some initiatives in an interview/consultation (e.g. to bring up a new subject) but is very
dependent on interviewer in the interaction; ask someone to clarify or elaborate what they havejust said.
• The subsequent band seems to be a Strong Threshold (B1+). The same two main features continue to be present, with the addition of a number of descriptors which
focus on the exchange of quantities of information, for example: take messages communicating enquiries, explaining problems; provide concrete information required in an interview/consultation (e.g. describe symptoms to a doctor) but does so with limited precision; explain
why something is a problem; summarise and give his or her opinion about a short story, article,
talk, discussion, interview, or documentary and answer further questions of detail; carry out aprepared interview, checking and conﬁrming information, though he/she may occasionally haveto ask for repetition if the other person’s response is rapid or extended; describe how to do some34

Common Reference Levels
thing, giving detailed instructions; exchange accumulated factual information on familiar
routine and non-routine matters within his/her ﬁeld with some conﬁdence.
• Level B2 represents a new level as far above B1 (Threshold) as A2 (Waystage) is below
it. It is intended to reﬂect the Vantage Level speciﬁcation. The metaphor is that,having been progressing slowly but steadily across the intermediate plateau, thelearner ﬁnds he has arrived somewhere, things look different, he/she acquires a newperspective, can look around him/her in a new way. This concept does seem to beborne out to a considerable extent by the descriptors calibrated at this level. They represent quite a break with the content so far. For example at the lower end of the band
there is a focus on effective argument: account for and sustain his opinions in discussion
by providing relevant explanations, arguments and comments; explain a viewpoint on a topicalissue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options; construct a chain of reasonedargument; develop an argument giving reasons in support of or against a particular point ofview; explain a problem and make it clear that his/her counterpart in a negotiation must makea concession; speculate about causes, consequences, hypothetical situations; take an active partin informal discussion in familiar contexts, commenting, putting point of view clearly, evaluating alternative proposals and making and responding to hypotheses. Secondly, runningright through the level there are two new focuses. The ﬁrst is being able to more thanhold your own in social discourse: e.g. converse naturally, ﬂuently and effectively; understand in detail what is said to him/her in the standard spoken language even in a noisy environment; initiate discourse, take his/her turn when appropriate and end conversation when
he/she needs to, though he/she may not always do this elegantly; use stock phrases (e.g. ‘That’s a
difﬁcult question to answer’) to gain time and keep the turn whilst formulating what to say;interact with a degree of ﬂuency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native
speakers quite possible without imposing strain on either party; adjust to the changes of direction, style and emphasis normally found in conversation; sustain relationships with native
speakers without unintentionally amusing or irritating them or requiring them to behave otherthan they would with a native speaker. The second new focus is a new degree of language
awareness: correct mistakes if they have led to misunderstandings; make a note of ‘favourite
mistakes’ and consciously monitor speech for it/them; generally correct slips and errors if he/she
becomes conscious of them; plan what is to be said and the means to say it, considering the effecton the recipient/s. In all, this does seem to be a new threshold for a language learner tocross.
• At the next band – representing a Strong Vantage (B2+) performance – the focus onargument, effective social discourse and on language awareness which appears at B2(Vantage) continues. However, the focus on argument and social discourse can also
be interpreted as a new focus on discourse skills. This new degree of discourse competence shows itself in conversational management (co-operating strategies): give
feedback on and follow up statements and inferences by other speakers and so help the development of the discussion; relate own contribution skilfully to those of other speakers. It is also
apparent in relation to coherence/cohesion: use a limited number of cohesive devices tolink sentences together smoothly into clear, connected discourse; use a variety of linking words
efﬁciently to mark clearly the relationships between ideas; develop an argument systematicallywith appropriate highlighting of signiﬁcant points, and relevant supporting detail. Finally, it
is at this band that there is a concentration of items on negotiating: outline a case forcompensation, using persuasive language and simple arguments to demand satisfaction; stateclearly the limits to a concession.
35

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment• Level C1, the next band, was labelled Effective Operational Proﬁciency. What seems tocharacterise this level is good access to a broad range of language, which allows
ﬂuent, spontaneous communication, as illustrated by the following examples: Can
express him/herself ﬂuently and spontaneously, almost effortlessly. Has a good command of abroad lexical repertoire allowing gaps to be readily overcome with circumlocutions. There is little
obvious searching for expressions or avoidance strategies; only a conceptually difﬁcult subject
can hinder a natural, smooth ﬂow of language. The discourse skills characterising the previous band continue to be evident at Level C1, with an emphasis on more ﬂuency, forexample: select a suitable phrase from a ﬂuent repertoire of discourse functions to preface hisremarks in order to get the ﬂoor, or to gain time and keep it whilst thinking; produce clear,smoothly ﬂowing, well-structured speech, showing controlled use of organisational patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.
• Level C2, whilst it has been termed ‘Mastery’, is not intended to imply native-speakeror near native-speaker competence. What is intended is to characterise the degree ofprecision, appropriateness and ease with the language which typiﬁes the speech of
those who have been highly successful learners. Descriptors calibrated here include:
convey ﬁner shades of meaning precisely by using, with reasonable accuracy, a wide range of
modiﬁcation devices; has a good command of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms withawareness of connotative level of meaning; backtrack and restructure around a difﬁculty sosmoothly the interlocutor is hardly aware of it.
The Common Reference Levels can be presented and exploited in a number of different
formats, in varying degrees of detail. Yet the existence of ﬁxed points of common reference offers transparency and coherence, a tool for future planning and a basis for further
development. The intention of providing a concrete illustrative set of descriptors,
together with criteria and methodologies for the further development of descriptors, isto help decision-makers design applications to suit their contexts.

3.7 How to read the scales of illustrative descriptors
The levels used are the six main levels introduced in Chapter 3: A1 (Breakthrough), A2(Waystage), B1 (Threshold), B2 (Vantage), C1 (Effective Operational Proﬁciency) and C2 (Mastery).
The levels in the middle part of the scale – Waystage, Threshold and Vantage – often have a
subdivision represented by a thin line, as mentioned above. Where this is the case,descriptors below the thin line represent the criterion level concerned. Descriptors
placed above the line deﬁne a level of proﬁciency which is signiﬁcantly higher than that
represented by the criterion level, but which does not achieve the standard for the following level. The basis for this distinction is the empirical calibration. Where there is no
subdivision of A2 (Waystage), B1 (Threshold) or B2 (Vantage), the descriptor represents thecriterion level. In those cases no formulation was found to fall between the two criterion
levels concerned.
Some people prefer to read a scale of descriptors from the lowest to the highest levels;
some prefer the reverse. For consistency all scales are presented with C2 (Mastery) at thetop, and A1 (Breakthrough) at the bottom.
Each level should be taken to subsume the levels below it on the scale. That is to say,someone at B1 (Threshold) is considered also to be able to do whatever is stated at A2
36

Common Reference Levels(Waystage), to be better than what is stated at A2 (Waystage). That means that provisos
attached to a performance placed at A2 (Waystage) for example ‘provided speech is clearlyand slowly articulated’ will have less force, or be non-applicable to a performance at B1(Threshold).
Not every element or aspect in a descriptor is repeated at the following level. That is to
say that entries at each level describe selectively what is seen as salient or new at thatlevel. They do not systematically repeat all the elements mentioned at the level below
with a minor change of formulation to indicate increased difﬁculty.
Not every level is described on all scales. It is difﬁcult to draw conclusions from theabsence of a particular area at a particular level, since this could be due to one of several
different reasons, or to a combination of them:• The area exists at this level: some descriptors were included in the research project,
but were dropped in quality control;• The area probably exists at this level: descriptors could presumably be written, buthaven’t been;• The area may exist at this level: but formulation seems to be very difﬁcult if not
impossible;• The area doesn’t exist or isn’t relevant at this level; a distinction cannot be made here.
If users of the Framework wish to exploit the descriptor bank they will need to take aview on the question of what to do about gaps in the descriptors provided. It may well be
the case that gaps can be plugged by further elaboration in the context concerned,
and/or by merging material from the user’s own system. On the other hand some gaps
may still – rightly – remain. It might be the case that a particular category is not relevant
towards the top or bottom of the set of levels. A gap in the middle of a scale may, on theother hand, indicate that a meaningful distinction cannot easily be formulated.

3.8 How to use scales of descriptors of language proficiency
The Common Reference Levels exempliﬁed in Tables 1, 2 and 3 constitute a verbal scaleof proﬁciency. Technical issues concerned with the development of such a scale are discussed in Appendix A. Chapter 9 on assessment describes ways in which the scale ofCommon Reference Levels can be used as a resource in relation to the assessment of language proﬁciency.
However, a very important issue in discussing scales of language proﬁciency is theaccurate identiﬁcation of the purpose the scale is to serve, and an appropriate matchingof the formulation of scale descriptors to that purpose.
A functional distinction has been made between three types of scales of proﬁciency:(a) user-oriented, (b) assessor-oriented and (c) constructor-oriented scales (Alderson 1991).
Problems can arise when a scale designed for one function is used for another – unlessthe formulation can be shown to be adequate.
(a) user-oriented scales report typical or likely behaviours of learners at any given level.
Statements tend to talk about what the learner can do and to be positively worded, even at
low levels:
37

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Can understand simple English spoken slowly and carefully to him/her and catchthe main points in short, clear, simple messages and announcements.
Eurocentres Certiﬁcate Scale of Language Proﬁciency 1993: Listening: Level 22though limitations may also be expressed:
Manages to communicate in simple and routine tasks and situations. With thehelp of a dictionary can understand simple written messages and without one
can get the gist. Limited language proﬁciency causes frequent breakdowns andmisunderstandings in non-routine situations.
Finnish Nine Level Scale of Language Proﬁciency 1993: Level 2
User-oriented scales are often holistic, offering one descriptor per level. The Finnish scalereferred to is of this type. Table 1, shown earlier in this chapter in order to introduce theCommon Reference Levels, also offers users a holistic summary of typical proﬁciency ateach level. User scales may also report the four skills, as in the Eurocentres scale referred
to above, but simplicity is a major characteristic of scales with this purpose.
(b) assessor-oriented scales guide the rating process. Statements are typically expressed interms of aspects of the quality of the performance expected. Here assessment in the senseof summative, proﬁciency assessment of a particular performance is meant. Such scales
concentrate on how well the learner performs and are often negatively worded even at highlevels, particularly when the formulation is norm-referenced around a pass grade for an
examination:
Disconnected speech and/or frequent hesitations impeded communication andconstantly strain the listener.
Certiﬁcate in Advanced English 1991 (University of Cambridge Local Examinations
Syndicate), Paper 5 (Oral) Criteria for Assessment: Fluency: Band 1–2 (bottom of 4 bands)
Negative formulation can, however, be to a great extent avoided if a qualitative development approach is used in which informants analyse and describe features of key performance samples.
Some assessor-oriented scales are holistic scales, offering one descriptor per level. Otherson the other hand are analytic scales, focusing on different aspects of the performancesuch as Range, Accuracy, Fluency, Pronunciation. Table 3, presented earlier in thischapter, is an example of a positively worded analytic assessor-oriented scale drawn fromthe CEF illustrative descriptors.
Some analytic scales have a large number of categories in order to proﬁle achievement.
Such approaches have been argued to be less appropriate for assessment because assessors tend to ﬁnd it difﬁcult to cope with more than 3–5 categories. Analytic scales like
Table 3 have been therefore described as diagnosis-oriented since one of their purposes isto proﬁle current position, proﬁle target needs in relevant categories and provide a diagnosis of what needs to be covered to get there.
2

All the scales mentioned in this chapter are reviewed in detail with full references in North, B. (1994) Scales of language proﬁciency: a survey of some existing systems, Strasbourg, Council of Europe CC-LANG (94) 24.

38

Common Reference Levels(c) constructor-oriented scales guide the construction of tests at appropriate levels.
Statements are typically expressed in terms of speciﬁc communication tasks the learnermight be asked to perform in tests. These types of scales, or lists of speciﬁcations, also
concentrate on what the learner can do.
Can give detailed information about own family, living conditions, educational
background; can describe and converse on everyday things in his environment(e.g., his suburb, the weather); can describe present or most recent job or activity; can communicate on the spot with fellow workers or immediate superior(e.g., ask questions about job, make complaints about work conditions, time off,etc.); can give simple messages over the telephone; can give directions andinstructions for simple tasks in his everyday life (e.g., to tradesmen). Has tentative use of polite request forms (e.g., involving could, would). May sometimes
offend by unintended blandness or aggressiveness or irritate by over-deference
where native speakers expect informality.
Australian Second Language Proﬁciency Ratings 1982; Speaking; Level 2: Examples ofSpeciﬁc ESL tasks (one of three columns)
This holistic descriptor could be deconstructed into short, constituent descriptors for the
categories Information Exchange (Personal Domain; Work Domain), Description, Conversation,
Telephoning, Directing/Instructing, Sociocultural.
Finally, checklists or scales of descriptors used for continuous teacher-assessment – orself-assessment – work best when the descriptors say not only what the learners can do but
also how well they can do it. The failure to include adequate information on how well learners should perform tasks caused problems with earlier versions of both the English
National Curriculum attainment targets and the Australian curriculum proﬁles. Teachers
appear to prefer some detail, related to curriculum tasks (a link to constructor-orientation)on the one hand, and related to qualitative criteria (a link to diagnosis-oriented) on theother hand. Descriptors for self-assessment will also typically be more effective if they
indicate how well one should be able to perform tasks at different levels.
To summarise, scales of language proﬁciency can thus be seen as having one or moreof the following orientations:user-oriented(simpler)
WHAT the learner can doconstructor-oriented(more complex)
teacher-oriented

learner-oriented

diagnostic-oriented(more complex)
HOW WELL he/she performs
assessor-oriented(simpler)

Figure 6

All these orientations can be considered relevant to a common framework.
39

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Another way of looking at the orientations discussed above is to say that a useroriented scale is a less detailed version of a constructor-oriented scale which is intended
to give an overview. Similarly, an assessor-oriented scale is a less detailed version of adiagnostic-oriented scale which helps an assessor to arrive at an overview. Some useroriented scales take this process of reducing detail into an overview to its logical conclusion and present a ‘global’ scale describing typical achievement at each level. In somecases this is instead of reporting detail (e.g. the Finnish scale cited above). In some cases
it is to give meaning to a proﬁle of numbers reported for particular skills (e.g. IELTS:
International English Language Testing System). In other cases it is to give an entry point
or overview to a more detailed speciﬁcation (e.g. Eurocentres). In all these cases, the view
taken is similar to that in hypertext computer presentations. The user is presented withan information pyramid and can get an overview by considering the top layer of the hierarchy (here the ‘global’ scale). More detail can be presented by going down layers of thesystem, but at any one point, what is being looked at is conﬁned to one or two screens –or pieces of paper. In this way complexity can be presented without blinding people withirrelevant detail, or simplifying to the point of banality. Detail is there – if it is required.
Hypertext is a very useful analogy in thinking of a descriptive system. It is the approachtaken in the ESU (English-speaking Union) Framework scale for examinations in English
as a Foreign Language. In the scales presented in Chapters 4 and 5 the approach is developed further. For example, in relation to communicative activities, a scale for Interaction
is a summary of sub-scales in this category.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• to what extent their interest in levels relates to learning objectives, syllabus content,
teacher guidelines and continuous assessment tasks (constructor-oriented);• to what extent their interest in levels relates to increasing consistency of assessment by
providing deﬁned criteria for degree of skill (assessor-oriented);• to what extent their interest in levels relates to reporting results to employers, othereducational sectors, parents and learners themselves (user-oriented), providing deﬁned
criteria for degrees of skill (assessor-oriented);• to what extent their interest in levels relates to reporting results to employers, othereducational sectors, parents and learners themselves (user-oriented).

3.9

Proficiency levels and achievement grades

An important distinction in relation to scaling can be made between the deﬁnition oflevels of proﬁciency, as in a scale of Common Reference Levels, and the assessment ofdegrees of achievement in relation to an objective at one particular level. A proﬁciency
scale, like the Common Reference Levels, deﬁnes a series of ascending bands of proﬁciency. It may cover the whole conceptual range of learner proﬁciency, or it may justcover the range of proﬁciency relevant to the sector or institution concerned. Beingassessed as Level B2 may represent a tremendous achievement for one learner (assessedas Level B1 only two months previously), but a mediocre performance for another(already assessed as Level B2 two years previously).
40

Common Reference Levels
Proﬁciency
Scale

9
8
7
Exam ‘Y’ Grades

6

5(DISTINCTION)

4(CREDIT)

5
Examination‘Y’
4

3 (PASS)
2 (FAIL)312
1

Figure 7

A particular objective may be situated at a certain level. In Figure 7, examination ‘Y’aims to cover the band of proﬁciency represented by Levels 4 and 5 on the proﬁciency
scale. There may be other examinations aimed at different levels, and the proﬁciency
scale may be used to help make transparent the relationship between them. This is theidea behind the English-speaking Union (ESU) Framework project for examinations inEnglish as a Foreign Language, and of the ALTE scheme to relate examinations for different European languages to each other.
Achievement in examination ‘Y’ may be assessed in terms of a grading scale, let us say
1–5, in which a ‘3’ is the norm representing a Pass. Such a grading scale may be used for
direct assessment of performance in subjectively marked papers – typically for Speaking
and for Writing – and/or may be used to report the examination result. Examination ‘Y’
may be part of a suite of examinations ‘X’, ‘Y’ and ‘Z’. Each examination may well have a
grading scale in a similar style. But it is obvious that a Grade 4 in Examination X does notmean the same thing as a Grade 4 in Examination Y in terms of proﬁciency in the language.
If Examinations ‘X’, ‘Y’, and ‘Z’ have all been situated onto a common proﬁciency scale,then it should be possible, over a period of time, to establish the relationship between
the grades on one examination in the series with the grades on the others. This can beachieved through a process of pooling expertise, analysing speciﬁcations, comparing
ofﬁcial samples and scaling candidates’ results.
41

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
It is possible to establish the relationship between examination grades and proﬁciency
levels in this way because examinations have, by deﬁnition, a standard and a group of
trained assessors capable of interpreting that standard. It is necessary to make thecommon standards explicit and transparent, provide examples which operationalise thestandards, and then scale them.
Assessment of achievement in schools in many countries is through achievement
grades (notes, Noten), sometimes 1–6, with 4 as the Pass, norm or ‘satisfactory’ grade. Whatis meant by the various grades is internalised by the teachers in the context concerned,
but rarely deﬁned. The nature of the relationship between teacher assessment gradesand proﬁciency levels is in principle the same as that between examination grades andproﬁciency levels. But the issue is further complicated by the fact that there will be a
myriad of standards involved. This is because, apart from the question of the form ofassessment used and degree of common interpretation of grades by teachers in any one
context, each school year in each type of school in each educationally distinct region will
naturally constitute a different standard. A ‘4’ at the end of the fourth year obviously
does not mean the same as a ‘4’ at the end of the third year in the same secondary school.
Nor will a ‘4’ for the end of the fourth year mean the same thing in two different kindsof school.
Nevertheless, it is possible to establish an approximate relationship between the rangeof standards in use in a particular sector and proﬁciency levels. This can be achieved
through a cumulative process employing such techniques as the following. Standard deﬁnitions can be provided for different grades of achievement of the same objective.
Teachers can be asked to proﬁle average achievement onto an existing proﬁciency scaleor grid such as Table 1 and Table 2. Representative samples of performance can be collected and calibrated to a scale in joint rating sessions. Teachers can be asked to rate previously standardised videos with the grades they normally give their students.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• to what extent their concern relates to the establishment of a set of proﬁling levels torecord progress in proﬁciency within their system as a whole• to what extent their concern relates to the provision of transparent criteria for the award
of grades of achievement in the objectives set for a particular proﬁciency level, perhaps
operationalised by an examination, perhaps assessed by teachers• to what extent their concern relates to the development of a common framework toestablish coherent relationships between a range of educational sectors, proﬁciency levels,and assessment types within their system.

42

4 Language use and the language user/learner

Following the ﬁrst three introductory and explanatory chapters, Chapters 4 and 5 now
present a fairly detailed scheme of categories for the description of language use and thelanguage user. In accordance with the action-oriented approach taken, it is assumed thatthe language learner is in the process of becoming a language user, so that the same setof categories will apply. There is, however, an important modiﬁcation which must be
made. The learner of a second or foreign language and culture does not cease to be competent in his or her mother tongue and the associated culture. Nor is the new competence kept entirely separate from the old. The learner does not simply acquire two
distinct, unrelated ways of acting and communicating. The language learner becomesplurilingual and develops interculturality. The linguistic and cultural competences inrespect of each language are modiﬁed by knowledge of the other and contribute to intercultural awareness, skills and know-how. They enable the individual to develop an
enriched, more complex personality and an enhanced capacity for further language
learning and greater openness to new cultural experiences. Learners are also enabled tomediate, through interpretation and translation, between speakers of the two languages
concerned who cannot communicate directly. A place is of course given to these activities (section 4.4.4) and competences (sections 5.1.1.3, 5.1.2.2 and 5.1.4), which differentiate the language learner from the monolingual native speaker.
Question boxes. Readers will see that from this point on, each section is followed by abox in which the Framework user is invited: ‘to consider and where appropriate state’ theanswers to one or more questions that follow. The alternatives in the phrase ‘need/beequipped/be required’ relate to learning, teaching and assessment respectively. The
content of the box is phrased as an invitation rather than as an instruction in order toemphasise the non-directive character of the Framework enterprise. If a user decides thata whole area is not of concern, there is no need to consider each section within that area
in detail. In most cases, however, we expect that the Framework user will reﬂect on thequestion posed in each box and take a decision one way or another. If the decision taken
is of signiﬁcance, it can be formulated using the categories and examples supplied, supplemented as may be found necessary for the purpose in hand.
The analysis of language use and the language user contained in Chapter 4 is fundamental to the use of the Framework, since it offers a structure of parameters and categories which should enable all those involved in language learning, teaching and assessment
to consider and state in concrete terms and in whatever degree of detail they wish, what
they expect the learners towards whom they undertake responsibilities to be able to dowith a language, and what they should know in order to be able to act. Its aim is to becomprehensive in its coverage, but not of course exhaustive. Course designers, textbook
43

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
writers, teachers and examiners will have to make very detailed concrete decisions on
the content of texts, exercises, activities, tests, etc. This process can never be reduced
simply to choosing from a pre-determined menu. That level of decision must, and should,
be in the hands of the practitioners concerned, calling on their judgement and creativity. They should, however, ﬁnd represented here all the major aspects of language use andcompetence they need to take into consideration. The overall structure of Chapter 4 isthus a kind of checklist and for this reason is presented at the beginning of the chapter.
Users are recommended to familiarise themselves with this overall structure and to refer
to it when asking themselves such questions as:• Can I predict the domains in which my learners will operate and the situations which
they will have to deal with? If so, what roles will they have to play?
• What sort of people will they have to deal with?
• What will be their personal or professional relations in what institutional frameworks?
• What objects will they need to refer to?
• What tasks will they have to accomplish?
• What themes will they need to handle?
• Will they have to speak, or simply listen and read with understanding?
• What sort of things will they be listening to or reading?
• Under what conditions will they have to act?
• What knowledge of the world or of another culture will they need to call on?
• What skills will they need to have developed? How can they still be themselves
without being misinterpreted?
• For how much of this can I take responsibility?
• If I cannot predict the situations in which the learners will use the language, how canI best prepare them to use the language for communication without over-training
them for situations that may never arise?
• What can I give them that will be of lasting value, in whatever different ways theircareers may later diverge?
• How can language learning best contribute to their personal and cultural development as responsible citizens in a pluralist democratic society?
Clearly, the Framework cannot give the answers to these questions. Indeed, it is precisely
because the answers depend entirely upon a full appreciation of the learning/teachingsituation and above all upon the needs, motivations, characteristics and resources of thelearners and other parties concerned that the diversiﬁcation of provision is necessary.
The role of the following chapters is to articulate the problem in such a way that theissues can be considered and if need be debated in a transparent and rational way andthe decisions communicated to all those affected in a clear and concrete manner.
Where possible, reference is made at the end of each section to relevant items in the
General Bibliography for further reading.

4.1

The context of language use

It has long been recognised that language in use varies greatly according to the requirements of the context in which it is used. In this respect, language is not a neutral instru44

Language use and the language user/learnerment of thought like, say, mathematics. The need and the desire to communicate arise
in a particular situation and the form as well as the content of the communication is a
response to that situation. The ﬁrst section of Chapter 4 is therefore devoted to different
aspects of context.

4.1.1 Domains
Each act of language use is set in the context of a particular situation within one of thedomains (spheres of action or areas of concern) in which social life is organised. The choiceof the domains in which learners are being prepared to operate has far-reaching implications for the selection of situations, purposes, tasks, themes and texts for teaching andtesting materials and activities. Users may have to bear in mind the motivational effects
of choosing domains of present relevance in relation to their future utility. For instance,children may be better motivated by a concentration on their present centres of interest,
which may then leave them ill-prepared to communicate later in an adult environment.
In adult education, conﬂicts of interest can arise between employers, who may befunding courses and who look for concentration on the occupational domain, and students who may be mostly interested in developing personal relations.
The number of possible domains is indeterminate, since any deﬁnable sphere of activity or area of concern may constitute the domain of concern to a particular user or courseof instruction. For general purposes of language learning and teaching it may be useful
to distinguish at least the following:• the personal domain, in which the person concerned lives as a private individual,
centred on home life with family and friends, and engages in individual practices
such as reading for pleasure, keeping a personal diary, pursuing a special interest or
hobby, etc.;• the public domain, in which the person concerned acts as a member of the generalpublic, or of some organisation, and is engaged in transactions of various kinds for avariety of purposes;• the occupational domain, in which the person concerned is engaged in his or her job
or profession;• the educational domain, in which the person concerned is engaged in organised learning, especially (but not necessarily) within an educational institution.
It should be noted that in many situations more than one domain may be involved. Fora teacher, the occupational and educational domains largely coincide. The publicdomain, with that which is involved in terms of social and administrative interactions
and transactions, and contact with the media, opens up to the other domains. In boththe educational and professional domains, many interactions and language activities
fall under the ordinary social functioning of a group rather than reﬂect a connection
with occupational or learning tasks; similarly, the personal domain should by no means
be considered as a sphere apart (media penetration into family and personal life, distribution of various ‘public’ documents in ‘private’ letter-boxes, advertising, public texts on
the packaging of products used in private daily life, etc.).
On the other hand, the personal domain individualises or personalises actions in the45

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
other domains. Without ceasing to be social agents, the persons involved situate themselves as individuals; a technical report, a class presentation, a purchase made can – fortunately – enable a ‘personality’ to be expressed other than solely in relation to theprofessional, educational or public domain of which, in a speciﬁc time and place, its language activity forms part.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:•in which domains the learner will need/be equipped/be required to operate.

4.1.2 Situations
In each domain, the external situations which arise may be described in terms of:• the locations in which, and the times at which, they occur;• the institutions or organisations – the structure and procedures of which control muchof what can normally occur;• the persons involved, especially in their relevant social roles in relation to the user/
learner;• the objects (animate and inanimate) in the environment;• the events that take place;• the operations performed by the persons involved;• the texts encountered within the situation.
Table 5 (on pages 48–49) gives some examples of the above situational categories, classiﬁed according to domains, likely to be met in most European countries. The table ispurely illustrative and suggestive. It makes no claim to be exhaustive. In particular it
cannot deal with the dynamic aspects of interactive situations, in which the participants
identify the relevant features of the situation as it develops and are concerned to change
rather than to describe it. More is said regarding the relations between partners in actsof communication in sections 4.1.4 and 4.1.5. On the internal structure of communicative interaction, see 5.2.3.2. On sociocultural aspects, see 5.1.1.2, for user strategies, 4.4.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• the situations which the learner will need/be equipped/be required to handle;• the locations, institutions/organisations, persons, objects, events and actions with which
the learner will be concerned.

4.1.3 Conditions and constraints
The external conditions under which communication occurs impose various constraints
on the user/learner and his/her interlocutors, e.g.:46

Language use and the language user/learner• Physical conditions:• a) for speech:• clarity of pronunciation;• ambient noise (trains, aircraft, ‘static’, etc.);• interference (crowded street, markets, pubs, parties, discos, etc.);• distortions (poor telephone lines, radio reception, public address systems);• weather conditions (wind, extreme cold, etc.).
• b) for writing:• poor reproduction of print;• difﬁcult handwriting;• poor lighting, etc.
• Social conditions:• • number and familiarity of interlocutors;• • relative status of participants (power and solidarity, etc.);• • presence/absence of audience or eavesdroppers;• • social relationships between participants (e.g. friendliness/hostility, co-operativeness).
• Time pressures:• • different pressures for speaker/listener (real time) and writer/reader (moreﬂexible);• • preparation time (e.g. improvised vs routinised vs prepared in advance) for
speeches, reports, etc.;• • limitations on time allowed (e.g. by rules, expense, competing events and commitments, etc.) for turns and interactions;• • other pressures: ﬁnancial; anxiety-producing situations (e.g. examinations),
etc.
The ability of all speakers, especially learners, to put their language competence into
action depends greatly on the physical conditions under which communication takes
place. Speech recognition is made much more difﬁcult by noise, interference and distortion, examples of which are given. The ability to function efﬁciently and reliably
under difﬁcult conditions may be of crucial importance, say for airline pilots receiving
landing instructions, where there is no margin of error. Those learning to make publicannouncements in foreign languages need to use a particularly clear pronunciation, to
repeat key words, etc., to ensure understanding. Language laboratories have often
employed tapes copied from copies in which noise and distortion are at levels which
would be rejected as unacceptable in a visual channel and seriously impede language
learning.
Care has to be taken to ensure that all candidates in listening comprehension tests enjoy
equal conditions. Similar considerations may apply, mutatis mutandis, to reading comprehension and written production. Teachers and testers need also to be aware of the effectof social conditions and time pressures upon the processes of learning, classroom interaction and their effect upon a learner’s competence and his or her ability to perform on
a particular occasion.
47

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Table 5. External context of use: descriptive categories
DomainLocations

Institutions

Persons

Personal

Home: house, rooms, garden
own
of familyof friendsof strangers
Own space in hostel, hotel
The countryside, seaside

The familySocial networks(Grand)Parents, offspring,
siblings, aunts, uncles,
cousins, in-laws, spouses,
intimates, friends,
acquaintances

PublicPublic spaces:
street, square, park
Public transport
Shops (super)markets
Hospitals, surgeries, clinics
Sports stadia, ﬁelds, halls
Theatre, cinema, entertainment
Restaurant, pub, hotel
Places of worship

Public authorities
Political bodies
The law
Public healthServices clubs
Societies
Political parties
Denominations

Members of the public
Ofﬁcials
Shop personnel
Police, army, security
Drivers, conductors
Passengers
Players, fans, spectators
Actors, audiences
Waiters, barpersons
Receptionists
Priests, congregation

Occupational

Ofﬁces
Factories
Workshops
Ports, railways
Farms
Airports
Stores, shops
Service industries
Hotels
Civil Service

Firms
Multinational
corporations
Nationalised
industries
Trade unions

Employers/ees
Managers
Colleagues
Subordinates
Workmates
Clients
Customers
Receptionists, secretaries
Cleaners

Educational

Schools: hallclassrooms, playground,Sports ﬁelds, corridors
Colleges
Universities
Lecture theatres
Seminar rooms
Student Union
Halls of residence
Laboratories
CanteenSchoolCollege
University
Learned societies
Professional
Institutions
Adult education
bodiesClass teachers
Teaching staff
Caretakers
Assistant staff
Parents
Classmates
Professors, lecturers(Fellow) students
Library and laboratory staff
Refectory staff, cleaners
Porters, secretaries

48

Language use and the language user/learner

Objects

EventsOperations

Texts

Furnishing and furniture
Clothing
Household equipment
Toys, tools, personal hygiene
Objets d’art, books,
Wild/domestic animals, pets
Trees, plants, lawn, ponds
Household goods
Handbags
Leisure/sports equipment

Family occasions
Encounters
Incidents, accidents
Natural phenomena
Parties, visits
Walking, cycling
motoring
Holidays, excursions
Sports events

Living routines:
dressing, undressing
cooking, eating,washing
DIY, gardening
Reading, radio and TV
Entertaining
Hobbies
Games and sports

Teletext
Guarantees
Recipes
Instructional material
Novels, magazines
Newspapers
Junk mailBrochures
Personal letters
Broadcast and recorded
spoken texts

Money, purse, wallet
Forms
Goods
Weapons
Rucksacks
Cases, grips
Balls
Programmes
Meals, drinks, snacks
Passports, licences

Incidents
Accidents, illnesses
Public meetings
Law-suits, court trials
Rag-days, ﬁnes, arrests
Matches, contests
Performances
Weddings, funerals

Buying and obtaining
public services
Using medical services
Journeys by road/rails/ship/air
Public entertainment
and leisure activities
Religious services

Public announcements
and notices
Labels and packaging
Leaﬂets, grafﬁti
Tickets, timetables
Notices, regulations
Programmes
Contracts
Menus
Sacred texts,
sermons, hymns

Business machinery
Industrial machinery
Industrial and craft tools

Meetings
Interviews
Receptions
Conferences
Trade fairs
Consultations
Seasonal sales
Industrial accidents
Industrial disputes

Business admin.
Industrial management
Production operations
Ofﬁce procedures
Trucking
Sales operations
Selling, marketing
Computer operation
Ofﬁce maintenanceBusiness letter
Report memorandum
Life and safety notices
Instructional manuals
Regulations
Advertising material
Labelling andpackagingJob description
Sign posting
Visiting cards

Writing material
School uniforms
Games equipment
and clothing
Food
Audio-visual equipment
Blackboard & chalkComputers
Briefcases and school bags

Return to school / entry
Breaking up
Visits and exchanges
Parents’ days / evenings
Sports days, matches
Disciplinary problems

Assembly
Lessons
Games
Playtime
Clubs and societies
Lectures, essay writing
Laboratory work
Library work
Seminars and tutorials
Homework
Debates anddiscussions

Authentic texts (asabove)
Textbooks, readers
Reference books
Blackboard text
OP text
Computer screen text
Videotext
Exercise materials
Journal articles
Abstracts
Dictionaries

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• how the physical conditions under which the learner will have to communicate will affectwhat he/she is required to do;• how the number and nature of the interlocutors will affect what the learner is required todo;• under what time pressure the learner will have to operate.

4.1.4 The user/learner’s mental context
The external context is highly organised independently of the individual. This organisation is extremely rich. It provides a very ﬁne articulation of the world, closely reﬂected in
the language of the community concerned and acquired by its speakers in the course of
their maturation, education and experience, at least in so far as it is seen to be relevantto them. As a factor in the participation of a communicative event, however, we must distinguish between this external context, which is far too rich to be acted upon or even perceived in its full complexity by any individual, and the user/learner’s mental context.
The external context is ﬁltered and interpreted through the user’s:
perceptual apparatus;
attention mechanisms;
long-term experience, affecting memory, associations and connotations;practical classiﬁcation of objects, events, etc.;
linguistic categorisation.
These factors inﬂuence the user’s observation of the context. The extent to which theobserved context provides the mental context for the communicative event is further
determined by considerations of relevance in the light of the user’s
intentions in entering into communication;line of thought: the stream of thoughts, ideas, feelings, sense, impressions, etc., attended
to in consciousness;
expectations in the light of previous experience;reﬂection: the operation of thought processes upon experience (e.g. deduction, induction);needs, drives, motivations, interests, which lead to a decision to act;
conditions and constraints, limiting and controlling the choices of action;state of mind (fatigue, excitement, etc.), health and personal qualities (see section 5.1.3).
The mental context is thus not limited to reducing the information content of the immediately observable external context. Line of thought may be more powerfully inﬂuenced
by memory, stored knowledge, imagination and other internal cognitive (and emotive)
processes. In that case the language produced is only marginally related to the observable external context. Consider, for example, an examinee in a featureless hall, or a mathematician or poet in his or her study.
External conditions and constraints are also relevant mainly in so far as the user/learner
50

Language use and the language user/learnerrecognises, accepts and adjusts to them (or fails to do so). This is very much a matter of theindividual’s interpretation of the situation in the light of his or her general competences(see section 5.1) such as prior knowledge, values and beliefs.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what assumptions are made about the learner’s ability to observe and identify relevant
features of the external contexts of communication;• how communicative and learning activities relate to the learner’s drives, motivations andinterests;• how far the learner is required to reﬂect on experience;• in what ways the mental characteristics of the learner condition and constrain
communication.

4.1.5 The mental context of the interlocutor(s)In a communicative event we have also to consider the user’s interlocutor. The need forcommunication presupposes a ‘communication gap’, which can however be bridged
because of the overlap, or partial congruence, between the mental context of the user infocus and the mental context of the interlocutor(s).
In face-to-face interaction, user and interlocutor(s) share the same external context(except, crucially, for the presence of the other), but for the reasons given above theirobservation and interpretation of the context differ. The effect – and often all or part of
the function – of a communicative act is to increase the area of congruence in the understanding of the situation in the interest of effective communication so as to serve thepurposes of the participants. This may be a matter of an exchange of factual information.
More difﬁcult to bridge are differences in values and beliefs, politeness conventions,social expectations, etc., in terms of which the parties interpret the interaction, unlessthey have acquired the relevant intercultural awareness.
The interlocutor(s) may be subject to partially or wholly different conditions and constraints from the user/learner, and react to them in different ways. For instance, an
employee using a public address system may be unaware how poor its output is. One
partner to a telephone conversation may have time to kill whilst the other has a client
waiting, etc. These differences greatly affect the pressures upon the user.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• to what extent the learners will need to adjust to the interlocutor’s mental context;• how learners can best be prepared to make the necessary adjustments.

4.2

Communication themes

Within the various domains we may distinguish themes, the topics which are the subjects of discourse, conversation, reﬂection or composition, as the focus of attention in51

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
particular communicative acts. Thematic categories can be classiﬁed in many different
ways. One inﬂuential classiﬁcation, into themes, sub-themes and ‘speciﬁc notions’ isthat presented in Threshold Level 1990, Chapter 7:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.

personal identiﬁcation
house and home, environment
daily life
free time, entertainment
travelrelations with other people
health and body careeducation
shopping
food and drink
services
placeslanguageweather

In each of these thematic areas, subcategories are established. For example, area 4, ‘freetime and entertainment’, is subcategorised in the following way:
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8

leisurehobbies and interests
radio and TV
cinema, theatre, concert, etc.
exhibitions, museums, etc.
intellectual and artistic pursuits
sportspress

For each sub-theme, ‘speciﬁc notions’ are identiﬁed. In this respect, the categories represented in Table 5, covering the locations, institutions etc. to be treated, are particularly
relevant. For instance, under 4.7. ‘sports’, Threshold Level 1990 speciﬁes:
1. locations: ﬁeld, ground, stadium
2. institutions and organisations: sport, team, club
3. persons: player
4. objects: cards, ball
5. events: race, game
6. actions: to watch, to play (+name of sport), to race, to win, to lose, to draw
Clearly, this particular selection and organisation of themes, sub-themes and speciﬁc
notions is not deﬁnitive. It results from the authors’ decisions in the light of their assessment of the communicative needs of the learners concerned. It will be seen that theabove themes relate mostly to the personal and public domains, as is appropriate to temporary visitors who are unlikely to enter into the vocational and educational life of the52

Language use and the language user/learnercountry. Some (e.g. area 4) are partly in the personal and partly in the public domain.
Users of the Framework, including where possible the actual learners concerned, will ofcourse make their own decisions based on their assessment of learner needs, motivations, characteristics and resources in the relevant domain or domains with which they
are concerned For example, vocationally-oriented language learning (VOLL) may develop
themes in the occupational area relevant to the students concerned. Students in upper
secondary education may explore scientiﬁc, technological, economic, etc. themes insome depth. The use of a foreign language as medium of instruction will necessarily
entail a close concern with the thematic content of the subject area taught.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• which themes learners will need/be equipped/be required to handle in the selecteddomains;• which sub-themes they will handle with respect to each theme;• which speciﬁc notions relating to locations, institutions/organisations, persons, objects,
events and operations they will need/be equipped/be required to handle in order to deal
with each (sub)theme.

4.3 Communicative tasks and purposes
4.3.1 Acts of communication with one or more interlocutors are generally undertaken
by a language user in pursuance of his or her needs in a given situation. In the personaldomain, the intention may be to entertain a visitor by exchanging information on families, friends, likes and dislikes, to compare experiences and attitudes, etc. In the publicdomain, it will usually be to transact business, say to buy clothes of good quality at a reasonable price. In the occupational domain, it may be to understand new regulations andtheir implications for a client. In the educational domain it may be to contribute to aroleplay or a seminar, or write a paper on a specialised topic for a conference or for publication, etc.

4.3.2 Over the years, needs analyses and language audits have produced an extensive
literature on the language-using tasks a learner may be equipped or required to tackle
in order to deal with the exigencies of the situations which arise in the various domains.
As examples among many others, the following tasks in the vocational domain fromThreshold Level 1990 (Chapter 2, section 1.12) may be helpful.
Communicating at work:
As temporary residents learners should be able to:• seek work permits etc. as required;• enquire (e.g. from employment agencies) about the nature, availability andconditions of employment (e.g. job description, pay, laws of work, free timeand holidays, length of notice);
53

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment• read employment advertisements;• write letters of application and attend interviews giving written or spoken
information about own personal data, qualiﬁcations and experience andanswer questions about them;• understand and follow joining procedures;• understand and ask questions concerning the tasks to be performed on starting work;• understand safety and security regulations and instructions;• report an accident and make an insurance claim;• make use of welfare facilities;• communicate appropriately with superiors, colleagues and subordinates;• participate in the social life of the enterprise or institution (e.g. canteen,
sports and social clubs, etc.).
As a member of the host community, a learner should be able to assist an English-speaking(native or non-native) person with the tasks listed above.
Threshold Level 1990, Chapter 7, Section 1 gives examples of tasks in the personal domain.
Personal identiﬁcation
The learners can say who they are, spell their name, state their address, give theirtelephone number, say when and where they were born, state their age, sex, state
whether they are married or not, state their nationality, say where they are from,what they do for a living, describe their family, state their religion, if any, state
their likes and dislikes, say what other people are like; elicit/understand similar
information from others.
Practitioners (teachers, course-writers, examiners, curriculum designers, etc.) and users(parents, school governors, employers, etc.) as well as learners themselves have foundthese highly concrete task speciﬁcations very meaningful and motivating as learning
objectives. Tasks are, however, indeﬁnitely large in number. It is not possible for ageneral framework to specify in extenso all the communicative tasks that may berequired in real-life situations. It is for practitioners to reﬂect upon the communicativeneeds of the learners with whom they are concerned and then, using as appropriate thefull resources of the Framework model (e.g. as detailed in Chapter 7), to specify the communicative tasks they should be equipped to face. Learners should also be brought toreﬂect on their own communicative needs as one aspect of awareness-raising and selfdirection.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• the communicative tasks in the personal, public, occupational and/or educational domainsthat the learner will need/be equipped/be required to tackle;• the assessment of learner needs on which the choice of tasks is based.
54

Language use and the language user/learner
4.3.3 In the educational domain it may be helpful to distinguish between the tasks
which learners are equipped/required to tackle as language users and those in which they
engage as part of the language learning process itself.
With regard to tasks as vehicles for planning, carrying out and reporting on language
learning and teaching, information can be given as appropriate concerning:• Types of task, e.g. simulations, roleplay, classroom interaction etc.;• Goals, e.g. the group-based learning goals in relation to the differing, less predictablegoals of participants;• Input, e.g. instructions, materials, etc. selected or produced by teachers and/or learners;• Outcomes, e.g. output artefacts such as texts, summaries, tables, presentations, etc.
and learning outcomes such as improved competences, awareness, insights, strategies, experience in decision-making and negotiation, etc.;• Activities, e.g. cognitive/affective, physical/reﬂective, group/pair/individual, processes:
receptive and productive, etc. (see section 4.5);• Roles, the roles of participants both in the tasks themselves and in task planning andmanagement;• Monitoring and evaluation of the relative success of the task conceived and as carriedout using such criteria as relevance, difﬁculty expectations and constraints, andappropriateness.
A fuller account of the role of tasks in language learning and teaching is given in
Chapter 7.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:•

the tasks that learners will need/be equipped/be required to undertake in the
educational domain, a) as participants in guided, goal-oriented interactions, projects,
simulations, roleplays, etc., b) in other ways when the L2 (second language) is used as themedium of instruction in teaching of i) the language itself ii) other curricular subjects,
etc.

4.3.4 Ludic uses of language
The use of language for playful purposes often plays an important part in language learning and development, but is not conﬁned to the educational domain. Examples of ludic
activities include:
Social language games:• oral (story with mistakes; how, when, where, etc.);• written (consequences, hangman, etc.);• audio-visual (picture lotto, snap, etc.);
55

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment• board and card games (Scrabble, Lexicon, Diplomacy, etc.);• charades, miming, etc.
Individual activities:• puzzles (crossword, rebus, anagram, etc.);• media games (TV and radio: chiffres et lettres, Catchword, etc.).
Verbal joking (punning, etc.) e.g. in:• advertisements e.g. (for a car) ‘Make your money go a long way’;• newspaper headlines e.g. ‘Feminism or bust!’;• grafﬁti e.g. ‘Grammar rules – O.K.?’.

4.3.5 Aesthetic uses of language
Imaginative and artistic uses of language are important both educationally and in theirown right. Aesthetic activities may be productive, receptive, interactive or mediating (see4.4.4 below), and may be oral or written. They include such activities as:• singing (nursery rhymes, folk songs, pop songs, etc.)• retelling and rewriting stories, etc.
• listening to, reading, writing and speaking imaginative texts (stories, rhymes, etc.)
including audio-visual texts, cartoons, picture stories, etc.
• performing scripted or unscripted plays, etc.
• the production, reception and performance of literary texts, e.g.: reading and writing
texts (short stories, novels, poetry, etc.) and performing and watching/listening torecitals, drama, opera, etc.
This summary treatment of what has traditionally been a major, often dominant, aspectof modern language studies in upper secondary and higher education may appear dismissive. It is not intended to be so. National and regional literatures make a major contribution to the European cultural heritage, which the Council of Europe sees as ‘avaluable common resource to be protected and developed’. Literary studies serve many
more educational purposes – intellectual, moral and emotional, linguistic and cultural– than the purely aesthetic. It is much to be hoped that teachers of literature at all levels
may ﬁnd many sections of the Framework relevant to their concerns and useful inmaking their aims and methods more transparent.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• which ludic and aesthetic uses of language the learner will need/be equipped/be required
to make.

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Language use and the language user/learner
4.4 Communicative language activities and strategies
To carry out communicative tasks, users have to engage in communicative language
activities and operate communication strategies.
Many communicative activities, such as conversation and correspondence, are interactive, that is to say, the participants alternate as producers and receivers, often with several
turns.
In other cases, as when speech is recorded or broadcast or written texts are sent out or
published, producers are separated from receivers, whom they may not even know andwho are unable to respond. In these cases the communicative event can be regarded as
the speaking, writing, listening to or reading of a text.
In most cases, the user as speaker or writer is producing his own text to express his
own meanings. In others, he/she is acting as a channel of communication (often, but notnecessarily, in different languages) between two or more persons who for one reason or
another cannot communicate directly. This process, mediation, may be interactive or not.
Many if not most situations involve a mixture of activity types. In a school language
class, for instance, a learner may be required to listen to a teacher’s exposition, to read atextbook, silently or aloud, to interact with fellow pupils in group or project work, towrite exercises or an essay, and even to mediate, whether as an educational activity or inorder to assist another pupil.
Strategies are a means the language user exploits to mobilise and balance his or her
resources, to activate skills and procedures, in order to fulﬁl the demands of communication in context and successfully complete the task in question in the most comprehensive or most economical way feasible depending on his or her precise purpose.
Communication strategies should therefore not be viewed simply with a disability model– as a way of making up for a language deﬁcit or a miscommunication. Native speakers
regularly employ communication strategies of all kinds (which will be discussed below)
when the strategy is appropriate to the communicative demands placed upon them.
The use of communication strategies can be seen as the application of the metacognitive principles: Pre-planning, Execution, Monitoring, and Repair Action to the different kindsof communicative activity: Reception, Interaction, Production and Mediation. The word
‘strategies’ has been used in different ways. Here what is meant is the adoption of a particular line of action in order to maximise effectiveness. Skills that are an inevitable partof the process of understanding or articulating the spoken and written word (e.g. chunking a stream of sound in order to decode it into a string of words carrying propositional
meaning) are treated as lower-level skills, in relation to the appropriate communicative
process (see section 4.5).
Progress in language learning is most clearly evidenced in the learner’s ability toengage in observable language activities and to operate communication strategies. They
are therefore a convenient basis for the scaling of language ability. A suggested scaling
is given in this chapter for various aspects of the activities and strategies discussed.

4.4.1 Productive activities and strategies
Productive activities and strategies include both speaking and writing activities.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
4.4.1.1 In oral production (speaking) activities the language user produces an oral text
which is received by an audience of one or more listeners. Examples of speaking activities include:• public address (information, instructions, etc.)• addressing audiences (speeches at public meetings, university lectures, sermons,entertainment, sports commentaries, sales presentations, etc.).
They may involve, for example:• reading a written text aloud;• speaking from notes, or from a written text or visual aids (diagrams, pictures, charts,etc.);• acting out a rehearsed role;• speaking spontaneously;• singing.
Illustrative scales are provided for:
•
•
•
•
•

Overall spoken production;
Sustained monologue: describing experience;
Sustained monologue: putting a case (e.g. in debate);
Public announcements;
Addressing audiences.
OVERALL ORAL PRODUCTION

C2

Can produce clear, smoothly ﬂowing well-structured speech with an effective logical structure whichhelps the recipient to notice and remember signiﬁcant points.

C1

Can give clear, detailed descriptions and presentations on complex subjects, integrating sub-themes,
developing particular points and rounding off with an appropriate conclusion.
Can give clear, systematically developed descriptions and presentations, with appropriate highlightingof signiﬁcant points, and relevant supporting detail.

B2

Can give clear, detailed descriptions and presentations on a wide range of subjects related to his/her ﬁeldof interest, expanding and supporting ideas with subsidiary points and relevant examples.

B1

Can reasonably ﬂuently sustain a straightforward description of one of a variety of subjects within
his/her ﬁeld of interest, presenting it as a linear sequence of points.

A2

Can give a simple description or presentation of people, living or working conditions, daily routines,
likes/dislikes, etc. as a short series of simple phrases and sentences linked into a list.

A1

Can produce simple mainly isolated phrases about people and places.

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Language use and the language user/learner
SUSTAINED MONOLOGUE: Describing experience
C2

Can give clear, smoothly ﬂowing, elaborate and often memorable descriptions.

C1

Can give clear, detailed descriptions of complex subjects.
Can give elaborate descriptions and narratives, integrating sub-themes, developing particular points
and rounding off with an appropriate conclusion.

B2

Can give clear, detailed descriptions on a wide range of subjects related to his/her ﬁeld of interest.

B1

A2

Can give straightforward descriptions on a variety of familiar subjects within his/her ﬁeld of interest.
Can reasonably ﬂuently relate a straightforward narrative or description as a linear sequence of points.
Can give detailed accounts of experiences, describing feelings and reactions.
Can relate details of unpredictable occurrences, e.g. an accident.
Can relate the plot of a book or ﬁlm and describe his/her reactions.
Can describe dreams, hopes and ambitions.
Can describe events, real or imagined.
Can narrate a story.
Can tell a story or describe something in a simple list of points. Can describe everyday aspects of his/her
environment e.g. people, places, a job or study experience.
Can give short, basic descriptions of events and activities.
Can describe plans and arrangements, habits and routines, past activities and personal experiences.
Can use simple descriptive language to make brief statements about and compare objects andpossessions.
Can explain what he/she likes or dislikes about something.
Can describe his/her family, living conditions, educational background, present or most recent job.
Can describe people, places and possessions in simple terms.

A1

Can describe him/herself, what he/she does and where he/she lives.

SUSTAINED MONOLOGUE: Putting a case (e.g. in a debate)
C2

No descriptor available

C1

No descriptor available
Can develop an argument systematically with appropriate highlighting of signiﬁcant points, andrelevant supporting detail.

B2

Can develop a clear argument, expanding and supporting his/her points of view at some length withsubsidiary points and relevant examples.
Can construct a chain of reasoned argument:
Can explain a viewpoint on a topical issue giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options.
Can develop an argument well enough to be followed without difﬁculty most of the time.

B1

Can brieﬂy give reasons and explanations for opinions, plans and actions.

A2

No descriptor available

A1

No descriptor available

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
PUBLIC ANNOUNCEMENTS
C2

No descriptor available

C1

Can deliver announcements ﬂuently, almost effortlessly, using stress and intonation to convey ﬁner
shades of meaning precisely.

B2

Can deliver announcements on most general topics with a degree of clarity, ﬂuency and spontaneity
which causes no strain or inconvenience to the listener.

B1

Can deliver short, rehearsed announcements on a topic pertinent to everyday occurrences in his/her ﬁeld
which, despite possibly very foreign stress and intonation, are nevertheless clearly intelligible.

A2

Can deliver very short, rehearsed announcements of predictable, learnt content which are intelligible tolisteners who are prepared to concentrate.

A1

No descriptor available

Note: The descriptors on this sub-scale have not been empirically calibrated.
ADDRESSING AUDIENCES
C2

Can present a complex topic conﬁdently and articulately to an audience unfamiliar with it, structuring
and adapting the talk ﬂexibly to meet the audience’s needs.
Can handle difﬁcult and even hostile questioning.

C1

Can give a clear, well-structured presentation of a complex subject, expanding and supporting points ofview at some length with subsidiary points, reasons and relevant examples.
Can handle interjections well, responding spontaneously and almost effortlessly.
Can give a clear, systematically developed presentation, with highlighting of signiﬁcant points, andrelevant supporting detail.
Can depart spontaneously from a prepared text and follow up interesting points raised by members of
the audience, often showing remarkable ﬂuency and ease of expression.

B2

B1

Can give a clear, prepared presentation, giving reasons in support of or against a particular point ofview and giving the advantages and disadvantages of various options.
Can take a series of follow up questions with a degree of ﬂuency and spontaneity which poses no strain
for either him/herself or the audience.
Can give a prepared straightforward presentation on a familiar topic within his/her ﬁeld which is clear
enough to be followed without difﬁculty most of the time, and in which the main points are explainedwith reasonable precision.
Can take follow up questions, but may have to ask for repetition if the speech was rapid.
Can give a short, rehearsed presentation on a topic pertinent to his/her everyday life, brieﬂy give reasonsand explanations for opinions, plans and actions.
Can cope with a limited number of straightforward follow up questions.

A2

A1

Can give a short, rehearsed, basic presentation on a familiar subject.
Can answer straightforward follow up questions if he/she can ask for repetition and if some help withthe formulation of his/her reply is possible.
Can read a very short, rehearsed statement – e.g. to introduce a speaker, propose a toast.

Note: The descriptors on this sub-scale have been created by recombining elements of descriptors
from other scales.

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Language use and the language user/learner
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• in what range of oral production (speaking) activities the learner will need/be equipped/berequired to engage.

4.4.1.2 In written production (writing) activities the language user as writer produces a
written text which is received by a readership of one or more readers.
Examples of writing activities include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

completing forms and questionnaires;
writing articles for magazines, newspapers, newsletters, etc.;
producing posters for display;writing reports, memoranda, etc.;
making notes for future reference;taking down messages from dictation, etc.;
creative and imaginative writing;writing personal or business letters, etc.

Illustrative scales are provided for:• Overall written production;• Creative writing;• Reports and essays.
OVERALL WRITTEN PRODUCTION
C2

Can write clear, smoothly ﬂowing, complex texts in an appropriate and effective style and a logicalstructure which helps the reader to ﬁnd signiﬁcant points.

C1

Can write clear, well-structured texts of complex subjects, underlining the relevant salient issues,
expanding and supporting points of view at some length with subsidiary points, reasons and relevant
examples, and rounding off with an appropriate conclusion.

B2

Can write clear, detailed texts on a variety of subjects related to his/her ﬁeld of interest, synthesising andevaluating information and arguments from a number of sources.

B1

Can write straightforward connected texts on a range of familiar subjects within his ﬁeld of interest, by
linking a series of shorter discrete elements into a linear sequence.

A2

Can write a series of simple phrases and sentences linked with simple connectors like ‘and’, ‘but’ and‘because’.

A1

Can write simple isolated phrases and sentences.

Note: The descriptors on this scale and on the two sub-scales which follow (Creative Writing;
Reports and Essays) have not been empirically calibrated with the measurement model. The
descriptors for these three scales have therefore been created by recombining elements ofdescriptors from other scales.

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
CREATIVE WRITING
C2

Can write clear, smoothly ﬂowing, and fully engrossing stories and descriptions of experience in a style
appropriate to the genre adopted.

C1

Can write clear, detailed, well-structured and developed descriptions and imaginative texts in anassured, personal, natural style appropriate to the reader in mind.
Can write clear, detailed descriptions of real or imaginary events and experiences, marking the relationshipbetween ideas in clear connected text, and following established conventions of the genre concerned.

B2

B1

Can write clear, detailed descriptions on a variety of subjects related to his/her ﬁeld of interest.
Can write a review of a ﬁlm, book or play.
Can write straightforward, detailed descriptions on a range of familiar subjects within his/her ﬁeld ofinterest.
Can write accounts of experiences, describing feelings and reactions in simple connected text.
Can write a description of an event, a recent trip – real or imagined.
Can narrate a story.
Can write about everyday aspects of his/her environment, e.g. people, places, a job or study experience inlinked sentences.
Can write very short, basic descriptions of events, past activities and personal experiences.

A2

A1

Can write a series of simple phrases and sentences about their family, living conditions, educational
background, present or most recent job.
Can write short, simple imaginary biographies and simple poems about people.
Can write simple phrases and sentences about themselves and imaginary people, where they live andwhat they do.

REPORTS AND ESSAYS

C2

C1

Can produce clear, smoothly ﬂowing, complex reports, articles or essays which present a case, or givecritical appreciation of proposals or literary works.
Can provide an appropriate and effective logical structure which helps the reader to ﬁnd signiﬁcant points.
Can write clear, well-structured expositions of complex subjects, underlining the relevant salient issues.
Can expand and support points of view at some length with subsidiary points, reasons and relevant
examples.
Can write an essay or report which develops an argument systematically with appropriate highlightingof signiﬁcant points and relevant supporting detail.
Can evaluate different ideas or solutions to a problem.

B2

B1

Can write an essay or report which develops an argument, giving reasons in support of or against aparticular point of view and explaining the advantages and disadvantages of various options.
Can synthesise information and arguments from a number of sources.
Can write short, simple essays on topics of interest.
Can summarise, report and give his/her opinion about accumulated factual information on familiar
routine and non-routine matters within his/her ﬁeld with some conﬁdence.
Can write very brief reports to a standard conventionalised format, which pass on routine factual
information and state reasons for actions.

A2

No descriptor available

A1

No descriptor available

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Language use and the language user/learner
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• for what purposes the learner will need/be equipped/be required to engage in which
writing activities.

4.4.1.3 Production strategies involve mobilising resources, balancing between different competences – exploiting strengths and underplaying weaknesses – in order tomatch the available potential to the nature of the task. Internal resources will be activated, possibly involving conscious preparation (Rehearsing), possibly calculating theeffect of different styles, discourse structures or formulations (Considering audience), possibly looking things up or obtaining assistance when dealing with a deﬁcit (Locating
resources). When adequate resources have not been mobilised or located the language user
may ﬁnd it advisable to go for a more modest version of the task and, for example, write
a postcard rather than a letter; on the other hand, having located appropriate support,
he or she may choose to do the reverse – scaling up the task (Task adjustment). In a similarway, without sufﬁcient resources the learner/user may have to compromise what he or
she would really like to express in order to match the linguistic means available; conversely, additional linguistic support, perhaps available later during re-drafting, may
enable him or her to be more ambitious in forming and expressing his or her thoughts(Message adjustment).
Ways of scaling down ambitions to ﬁt resources in order to ensure success in a more
limited area have been described as Avoidance strategies; scaling up and ﬁnding ways tocope have been described as Achievement strategies. In using achievement strategies thelanguage user adopts a positive approach with what resources he or she has: approximating and overgeneralising with simpler language, paraphrasing or describing aspects ofwhat he or she wants to say, even ‘foreignising’ L1 (ﬁrst language) expressions(Compensating); using highly accessible pre-fabricated language he or she feels sure of –‘islands of reliability’ – to create stepping stones through what for the user is a novel situation or concept he or she wants to express (Building on previous knowledge), or just having
a go with what he or she can half remember and thinks might work (Trying out). Whether
or not the language user is aware of compensating, skating over thin ice or using language tentatively, feedback in terms of facial expression, gesture and subsequent moves
in the conversation offer him or her the opportunity to monitor the success of the communication (Monitoring success). In addition, particularly in non-interactive activities (e.g.
giving a presentation, writing a report) the language user may consciously monitor linguistically as well as communicatively, spot slips and ‘favourite’ mistakes and correct
them (Self-correction).
• Planning

Rehearsing;
Locating resources;
Considering audience;
Task adjustment;
Message adjustment.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment• Execution• Evaluation• RepairCompensating;
Building on previous knowledge;
Trying out.
Monitoring success.
Self-correction.

Illustrative scales are provided for:• Planning;• Compensating;• Monitoring and repair.
PLANNING
C2

As B2

C1

As B2

B2

Can plan what is to be said and the means to say it, considering the effect on the recipient/s.
Can rehearse and try out new combinations and expressions, inviting feedback.

B1

Can work out how to communicate the main point(s) he/she wants to get across, exploiting any resources
available and limiting the message to what he/she can recall or ﬁnd the means to express.

A2

Can recall and rehearse an appropriate set of phrases from his/her repertoire.

A1

No descriptor available

COMPENSATING
C2

Can substitute an equivalent term for a word he/she can’t recall so smoothly that it is scarcely noticeable.

C1

As B2+B2

Can use circumlocution and paraphrase to cover gaps in vocabulary and structure.
Can deﬁne the features of something concrete for which he/she can’t remember the word.
Can convey meaning by qualifying a word meaning something similar (e.g. a truck for people = bus).

B1

A2

Can use a simple word meaning something similar to the concept he/she wants to convey and invites‘correction’.
Can foreignise a mother tongue word and ask for conﬁrmation.
Can use an inadequate word from his/her repertoire and use gesture to clarify what he/she wants to say.
Can identify what he/she means by pointing to it (e.g. ‘I’d like this, please’).

A1

64

No descriptor available

Language use and the language user/learner
MONITORING AND REPAIR
C2Can backtrack and restructure around a difﬁculty so smoothly the interlocutor is hardly aware of it.

C1

Can backtrack when he/she encounters a difﬁculty and reformulate what he/she wants to say without
fully interrupting the ﬂow of speech.

B2

Can correct slips and errors if he/she becomes conscious of them or if they have led tomisunderstandings.
Can make a note of ‘favourite mistakes’ and consciously monitor speech for it/them.
Can correct mix-ups with tenses or expressions that lead to misunderstandings provided the interlocutor
indicates there is a problem.

B1

Can ask for conﬁrmation that a form used is correct.
Can start again using a different tactic when communication breaks down.

A2

No descriptor available

A1

No descriptor available

4.4.2 Receptive activities and strategies
These include listening and reading activities.

4.4.2.1 In aural reception (listening) activities the language user as listener receives andprocesses a spoken input produced by one or more speakers. Listening activities include:• listening to public announcements (information, instructions, warnings, etc.);• listening to media (radio, TV, recordings, cinema);• listening as a member of a live audience (theatre, public meetings, public lectures,
entertainments, etc.);• listening to overheard conversations, etc.
In each case the user may be listening:••••for gist;
for speciﬁc information;
for detailed understanding;for implications, etc.

Illustrative scales are provided for:
•
•
•
•
•

Overall listening comprehension;
Understanding interaction between native speakers;
Listening as a member of a live audience;
Listening to announcements and instructions;
Listening to audio media and recordings.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
OVERALL LISTENING COMPREHENSION
C2

Has no difﬁculty in understanding any kind of spoken language, whether live or broadcast, delivered at
fast native speed.

C1

Can understand enough to follow extended speech on abstract and complex topics beyond his/her own
ﬁeld, though he/she may need to conﬁrm occasional details, especially if the accent is unfamiliar.
Can recognise a wide range of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms, appreciating register shifts.
Can follow extended speech even when it is not clearly structured and when relationships are only
implied and not signalled explicitly.
Can understand standard spoken language, live or broadcast, on both familiar and unfamiliar topics
normally encountered in personal, social, academic or vocational life. Only extreme background noise,
inadequate discourse structure and/or idiomatic usage inﬂuences the ability to understand.

B2

B1

Can understand the main ideas of propositionally and linguistically complex speech on both concrete
and abstract topics delivered in a standard dialect, including technical discussions in his/her ﬁeld ofspecialisation.
Can follow extended speech and complex lines of argument provided the topic is reasonably familiar,
and the direction of the talk is sign-posted by explicit markers.
Can understand straightforward factual information about common everyday or job related topics,
identifying both general messages and speciﬁc details, provided speech is clearly articulated in a
generally familiar accent.
Can understand the main points of clear standard speech on familiar matters regularly encountered inwork, school, leisure etc., including short narratives.
Can understand enough to be able to meet needs of a concrete type provided speech is clearly and slowly
articulated.

A2

A1

Can understand phrases and expressions related to areas of most immediate priority (e.g. very basic
personal and family information, shopping, local geography, employment) provided speech is clearly andslowly articulated.
Can follow speech which is very slow and carefully articulated, with long pauses for him/her toassimilate meaning.

UNDERSTANDING CONVERSATION BETWEEN NATIVE SPEAKERS
C2
C1

As C1
Can easily follow complex interactions between third parties in group discussion and debate, even on
abstract, complex unfamiliar topics.
Can keep up with an animated conversation between native speakers.

B2

Can with some effort catch much of what is said around him/her, but may ﬁnd it difﬁcult to participate
effectively in discussion with several native speakers who do not modify their language in any way.

B1

Can generally follow the main points of extended discussion around him/her, provided speech is clearly
articulated in standard dialect.

A2

Can generally identify the topic of discussion around him/her, when it is conducted slowly and clearly.

A1

No descriptor available

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Language use and the language user/learner
LISTENING AS A MEMBER OF A LIVE AUDIENCE
C2

Can follow specialised lectures and presentations employing a high degree of colloquialism, regional
usage or unfamiliar terminology.

C1

Can follow most lectures, discussions and debates with relative ease.

B2

Can follow the essentials of lectures, talks and reports and other forms of academic/professionalpresentation which are propositionally and linguistically complex.
Can follow a lecture or talk within his/her own ﬁeld, provided the subject matter is familiar and thepresentation straightforward and clearly structured.

B1

Can follow in outline straightforward short talks on familiar topics provided these are delivered inclearly articulated standard speech.

A2

No descriptor available

A1

No descriptor available

LISTENING TO ANNOUNCEMENTS AND INSTRUCTIONS
C2

As C1

C1

Can extract speciﬁc information from poor quality, audibly distorted public announcements, e.g. in astation, sports stadium etc.
Can understand complex technical information, such as operating instructions, speciﬁcations forfamiliar products and services.

B2

Can understand announcements and messages on concrete and abstract topics spoken in standard
dialect at normal speed.

B1

Can understand simple technical information, such as operating instructions for everyday equipment.
Can follow detailed directions.

A2

Can catch the main point in short, clear, simple messages and announcements.
Can understand simple directions relating to how to get from X to Y, by foot or public transport.

A1

Can understand instructions addressed carefully and slowly to him/her and follow short, simple
directions.

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
LISTENING TO AUDIO MEDIA AND RECORDINGS
C2

As C1

C1

Can understand a wide range of recorded and broadcast audio material, including some non-standard
usage, and identify ﬁner points of detail including implicit attitudes and relationships between
speakers.

B2

Can understand recordings in standard dialect likely to be encountered in social, professional or
academic life and identify speaker viewpoints and attitudes as well as the information content.
Can understand most radio documentaries and most other recorded or broadcast audio materialdelivered in standard dialect and can identify the speaker’s mood, tone etc.
Can understand the information content of the majority of recorded or broadcast audio material on
topics of personal interest delivered in clear standard speech.

B1

A2

Can understand the main points of radio news bulletins and simpler recorded material about familiar
subjects delivered relatively slowly and clearly.
Can understand and extract the essential information from short, recorded passages dealing withpredictable everyday matters which are delivered slowly and clearly.

A1

No descriptor available

Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• to what range of inputs the learner will need/be equipped/be required to listen;• for what purposes the learner will listen to the input;• in what mode of listening the learner will engage.

4.4.2.2 In visual reception (reading) activities the user as reader receives and processes as
input written texts produced by one or more writers. Examples of reading activities include:••••

reading for general orientation;
reading for information, e.g. using reference works;
reading and following instructions;reading for pleasure.

The language user may read:••••for gist;
for speciﬁc information;
for detailed understanding;for implications, etc.

Illustrative scales are provided for:• Overall reading comprehension;• Reading correspondence;68Language use and the language user/learner• Reading for orientation;• Reading for information and argument;• Reading instructions.
OVERALL READING COMPREHENSIONC2

Can understand and interpret critically virtually all forms of the written language including abstract,
structurally complex, or highly colloquial literary and non-literary writings.
Can understand a wide range of long and complex texts, appreciating subtle distinctions of style andimplicit as well as explicit meaning.

C1

Can understand in detail lengthy, complex texts, whether or not they relate to his/her own area ofspeciality, provided he/she can reread difﬁcult sections.

B2

Can read with a large degree of independence, adapting style and speed of reading to different texts andpurposes, and using appropriate reference sources selectively. Has a broad active reading vocabulary, but
may experience some difﬁculty with low frequency idioms.

B1

Can read straightforward factual texts on subjects related to his/her ﬁeld and interest with asatisfactory level of comprehension.
Can understand short, simple texts on familiar matters of a concrete type which consist of highfrequency everyday or job-related language.

A2

A1

Can understand short, simple texts containing the highest frequency vocabulary, including a proportionof shared international vocabulary items.
Can understand very short, simple texts a single phrase at a time, picking up familiar names, words
and basic phrases and rereading as required.

READING CORRESPONDENCE
C2

As C1

C1

Can understand any correspondence given the occasional use of a dictionary.

B2

Can read correspondence relating to his/her ﬁeld of interest and readily grasp the essential meaning.

B1

Can understand the description of events, feelings and wishes in personal letters well enough tocorrespond regularly with a pen friend.

A2

Can understand basic types of standard routine letters and faxes (enquiries, orders, letters of
conﬁrmation etc.) on familiar topics.
Can understand short simple personal letters.

A1

Can understand short, simple messages on postcards.

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
READING FOR ORIENTATION
C2

As B2

C1

As B2

B2

Can scan quickly through long and complex texts, locating relevant details.
Can quickly identify the content and relevance of news items, articles and reports on a wide range ofprofessional topics, deciding whether closer study is worthwhile.
Can scan longer texts in order to locate desired information, and gather information from different
parts of a text, or from different texts in order to fulﬁl a speciﬁc task.

B1

Can ﬁnd and understand relevant information in everyday material, such as letters, brochures andshort ofﬁcial documents.

A2

Can ﬁnd speciﬁc, predictable information in simple everyday material such as advertisements,
prospectuses, menus, reference lists and timetables.
Can locate speciﬁc information in lists and isolate the information required (e.g. use the ‘Yellow Pages’ toﬁnd a service or tradesman).
Can understand everyday signs and notices: in public places, such as streets, restaurants, railway
stations; in workplaces, such as directions, instructions, hazard warnings.

A1

Can recognise familiar names, words and very basic phrases on simple notices in the most common
everyday situations.

READING FOR INFORMATION AND ARGUMENT
C2

As C1

C1

Can understand in detail a wide range of lengthy, complex texts likely to be encountered in social,professional or academic life, identifying ﬁner points of detail including attitudes and implied as well asstated opinions.

B2

Can obtain information, ideas and opinions from highly specialised sources within his/her ﬁeld.
Can understand specialised articles outside his/her ﬁeld, provided he/she can use a dictionary
occasionally to conﬁrm his/her interpretation of terminology.
Can understand articles and reports concerned with contemporary problems in which the writers adopt
particular stances or viewpoints.

B1

Can identify the main conclusions in clearly signalled argumentative texts.
Can recognise the line of argument in the treatment of the issue presented, though not necessarily indetail.
Can recognise signiﬁcant points in straightforward newspaper articles on familiar subjects.

A2

Can identify speciﬁc information in simpler written material he/she encounters such as letters, brochuresand short newspaper articles describing events.

A1

Can get an idea of the content of simpler informational material and short simple descriptions,especially if there is visual support.

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Language use and the language user/learner
READING INSTRUCTIONS
C2

As C1

C1

Can understand in detail lengthy, complex instructions on a new machine or procedure, whether or not
the instructions relate to his/her own area of speciality, provided he/she can reread difﬁcult sections.

B2

Can understand lengthy, complex instructions in his ﬁeld, including details on conditions and warnings,
provided he/she can reread difﬁcult sections.

B1

Can understand clearly written, straightforward instructions for a piece of equipment.
Can understand regulations, for example safety, when expressed in simple language.

A2

Can understand simple instructions on equipment encountered in everyday life – such as a public telephone.

A1

Can follow short, simple written directions (e.g. to go from X to Y).

Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• for what purposes the learner will need, or wish/be equipped/be required to read;• in which modes the learner will need or wish/be equipped/be required to read.
4.4.2.3 In audio-visual reception the user simultaneously receives an auditory and avisual input. Such activities include:• following a text as it is read aloud;• watching TV, video, or a ﬁlm with subtitles;• using new technologies (multi-media, CD ROM, etc.).
An illustrative scale is provided for watching TV and ﬁlm:
WATCHING TV AND FILM
C2

As C1

C1

Can follow ﬁlms employing a considerable degree of slang and idiomatic usage.

B2

Can understand most TV news and current affairs programmes.
Can understand documentaries, live interviews, talk shows, plays and the majority of ﬁlms in standard
dialect.
Can understand a large part of many TV programmes on topics of personal interest such as interviews,
short lectures, and news reports when the delivery is relatively slow and clear.

B1

A2

Can follow many ﬁlms in which visuals and action carry much of the storyline, and which are delivered
clearly in straightforward language.
Can catch the main points in TV programmes on familiar topics when the delivery is relatively slow andclear.
Can identify the main point of TV news items reporting events, accidents etc. where the visual supports
the commentary.
Can follow changes of topic of factual TV news items, and form an idea of the main content.

A1

No descriptor available

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
4.4.2.4 Reception strategies involve identifying the context and knowledge of the world
relevant to it, activating in the process what are thought to be appropriate schemata.
These in turn set up expectations about the organisation and content of what is to come(Framing). During the process of receptive activity cues identiﬁed in the total context (linguistic and non-linguistic) and the expectations in relation to that context set up by therelevant schemata are used to build up a representation of the meaning being expressed
and a hypothesis as to the communicative intention behind it. Through a process of successive approximation, apparent and possible gaps in the message are ﬁlled in order toﬂesh out the representation of meaning, and the signiﬁcance of the message and of its
constituent parts are worked out (Inferring). The gaps ﬁlled through inference may becaused by linguistic restrictions, difﬁcult receptive conditions, lack of associated knowledge, or by assumed familiarity, obliqueness, understatement or phonetic reduction on
the part of the speaker/writer. The viability of the current model arrived at through thisprocess is checked against the evidence of the incoming co-textual and contextual cues
to see if they ‘ﬁt’ the activated schema – the way one is interpreting the situation(Hypothesis testing). An identiﬁed mismatch leads to a return to step one (Framing) in the
search for an alternative schema which would better explain the incoming cues (Revising
Hypotheses).
• Planning: Framing (selecting mental set, activating schemata, setting up expectations).
• Execution: Identifying cues and inferring from them.
• Evaluation: Hypothesis testing: matching cues to schemata.
• Repair: Revising hypotheses.
An illustrative scale is provided:
IDENTIFYING CUES AND INFERRING (Spoken & Written)
C2

As C1

C1

Is skilled at using contextual, grammatical and lexical cues to infer attitude, mood and intentions andanticipate what will come next.

B2

Can use a variety of strategies to achieve comprehension, including listening for main points; checking
comprehension by using contextual clues.

B1

Can identify unfamiliar words from the context on topics related to his/her ﬁeld and interests.
Can extrapolate the meaning of occasional unknown words from the context and deduce sentence
meaning provided the topic discussed is familiar.

A2

Can use an idea of the overall meaning of short texts and utterances on everyday topics of a concrete
type to derive the probable meaning of unknown words from the context.

A1

72

No descriptor available

Language use and the language user/learner
4.4.3 Interactive activities and strategies
4.4.3.1

Spoken interaction

In interactive activities the language user acts alternately as speaker and listener with
one or more interlocutors so as to construct conjointly, through the negotiation of
meaning following the co-operative principle, conversational discourse.
Reception and production strategies are employed constantly during interaction.
There are also classes of cognitive and collaborative strategies (also called discourse strategies and co-operation strategies) concerned with managing co-operation and interaction such as turntaking and turngiving, framing the issue and establishing a line ofapproach, proposing and evaluating solutions, recapping and summarising the point
reached, and mediating in a conﬂict.
Examples of interactive activities include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

transactions
casual conversation
informal discussion
formal discussion
debateinterviewnegotiation
co-planning
practical goal-oriented co-operation

Illustrative scales are provided for:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Overall spoken interaction
Understanding a native speaker interlocutor
Conversation
Informal discussion
Formal discussion and meetings
Goal-oriented co-operation
Transactions to obtain goods and services
Information exchangeInterviewing and being interviewed

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
OVERALL SPOKEN INTERACTION

C2

Has a good command of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms with awareness of connotative levelsof meaning. Can convey ﬁner shades of meaning precisely by using, with reasonable accuracy, a wide
range of modiﬁcation devices. Can backtrack and restructure around a difﬁculty so smoothly theinterlocutor is hardly aware of it.

C1

Can express him/herself ﬂuently and spontaneously, almost effortlessly. Has a good command of a broad
lexical repertoire allowing gaps to be readily overcome with circumlocutions. There is little obvious
searching for expressions or avoidance strategies; only a conceptually difﬁcult subject can hinder anatural, smooth ﬂow of language.
Can use the language ﬂuently, accurately and effectively on a wide range of general, academic,
vocational or leisure topics, marking clearly the relationships between ideas. Can communicate
spontaneously with good grammatical control without much sign of having to restrict what he/shewants to say, adopting a level of formality appropriate to the circumstances.

B2
Can interact with a degree of ﬂuency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction, and sustained
relationships with native speakers quite possible without imposing strain on either party. Can highlightthe personal signiﬁcance of events and experiences, account for and sustain views clearly by providing
relevant explanations and arguments.
Can communicate with some conﬁdence on familiar routine and non-routine matters related to his/herinterests and professional ﬁeld. Can exchange, check and conﬁrm information, deal with less routine
situations and explain why something is a problem. Can express thoughts on more abstract, cultural
topics such as ﬁlms, books, music etc.
B1

A2

Can exploit a wide range of simple language to deal with most situations likely to arise whilst
travelling. Can enter unprepared into conversation on familiar topics, express personal opinions andexchange information on topics that are familiar, of personal interest or pertinent to everyday life (e.g.
family, hobbies, work, travel and current events).
Can interact with reasonable ease in structured situations and short conversations, provided the otherperson helps if necessary. Can manage simple, routine exchanges without undue effort; can ask andanswer questions and exchange ideas and information on familiar topics in predictable everyday
situations.
Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information on
familiar and routine matters to do with work and free time. Can handle very short social exchanges but
is rarely able to understand enough to keep conversation going of his/her own accord.

A1

74

Can interact in a simple way but communication is totally dependent on repetition at a slower rate ofspeech, rephrasing and repair. Can ask and answer simple questions, initiate and respond to simple
statements in areas of immediate need or on very familiar topics.

Language use and the language user/learner
UNDERSTANDING A NATIVE SPEAKER INTERLOCUTOR
C2

Can understand any native speaker interlocutor, even on abstract and complex topics of a specialist
nature beyond his/her own ﬁeld, given an opportunity to adjust to a non-standard accent or dialect.

C1

Can understand in detail speech on abstract and complex topics of a specialist nature beyond his/herown ﬁeld, though he/she may need to conﬁrm occasional details, especially if the accent is unfamiliar.

B2

Can understand in detail what is said to him/her in the standard spoken language even in a noisy
environment.

B1

Can follow clearly articulated speech directed at him/her in everyday conversation, though will
sometimes have to ask for repetition of particular words and phrases.

A2

Can understand enough to manage simple, routine exchanges without undue effort.
Can generally understand clear, standard speech on familiar matters directed at him/her, provided
he/she can ask for repetition or reformulation from time to time.
Can understand what is said clearly, slowly and directly to him/her in simple everyday conversation; canbe made to understand, if the speaker can take the trouble.

A1

Can understand everyday expressions aimed at the satisfaction of simple needs of a concrete type,delivered directly to him/her in clear, slow and repeated speech by a sympathetic speaker.
Can understand questions and instructions addressed carefully and slowly to him/her and follow short,
simple directions.

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
CONVERSATIONC2

Can converse comfortably and appropriately, unhampered by any linguistic limitations in conducting afull social and personal life.

C1

Can use language ﬂexibly and effectively for social purposes, including emotional, allusive and joking
usage.

B2

Can engage in extended conversation on most general topics in a clearly participatory fashion, even in anoisy environment.
Can sustain relationships with native speakers without unintentionally amusing or irritating them or
requiring them to behave other than they would with a native speaker.
Can convey degrees of emotion and highlight the personal signiﬁcance of events and experiences.

B1

Can enter unprepared into conversations on familiar topics.
Can follow clearly articulated speech directed at him/her in everyday conversation, though will
sometimes have to ask for repetition of particular words and phrases.
Can maintain a conversation or discussion but may sometimes be difﬁcult to follow when trying to say
exactly what he/she would like to.
Can express and respond to feelings such as surprise, happiness, sadness, interest and indifference.
Can establish social contact: greetings and farewells; introductions; giving thanks.
Can generally understand clear, standard speech on familiar matters directed at him/her, provided
he/she can ask for repetition or reformulation from time to time.
Can participate in short conversations in routine contexts on topics of interest.
Can express how he/she feels in simple terms, and express thanks.

A2

A1

76

Can handle very short social exchanges but is rarely able to understand enough to keep conversation
going of his/her own accord, though he/she can be made to understand if the speaker will take thetrouble.
Can use simple everyday polite forms of greeting and address.
Can make and respond to invitations, suggestions and apologies.
Can say what he/she likes and dislikes.
Can make an introduction and use basic greeting and leave-taking expressions.
Can ask how people are and react to news.
Can understand everyday expressions aimed at the satisfaction of simple needs of a concrete type,delivered directly to him/her in clear, slow and repeated speech by a sympathetic speaker.

Language use and the language user/learner
INFORMAL DISCUSSION (WITH FRIENDS)
C2

As C1

C1

Can easily follow and contribute to complex interactions between third parties in group discussion evenon abstract, complex unfamiliar topics.
Can keep up with an animated discussion between native speakers.
Can express his/her ideas and opinions with precision, and present and respond to complex lines ofargument convincingly.

B2

Can take an active part in informal discussion in familiar contexts, commenting, putting point of view
clearly, evaluating alternative proposals and making and responding to hypotheses.
Can with some effort catch much of what is said around him/her in discussion, but may ﬁnd it difﬁcult
to participate effectively in discussion with several native speakers who do not modify their language inany way.
Can account for and sustain his/her opinions in discussion by providing relevant explanations,arguments and comments.
Can follow much of what is said around him/her on general topics provided interlocutors avoid very
idiomatic usage and articulate clearly.
Can express his/her thoughts about abstract or cultural topics such as music, ﬁlms. Can explain why
something is a problem.
Can give brief comments on the views of others.
Can compare and contrast alternatives, discussing what to do, where to go, who or which to choose, etc.

B1

A2

Can generally follow the main points in an informal discussion with friends provided speech is clearly
articulated in standard dialect.
Can give or seek personal views and opinions in discussing topics of interest.
Can make his/her opinions and reactions understood as regards solutions to problems or practicalquestions of where to go, what to do, how to organise an event (e.g. an outing).
Can express belief, opinion, agreement and disagreement politely.
Can generally identify the topic of discussion around him/her when it is conducted slowly and clearly.
Can discuss what to do in the evening, at the weekend.
Can make and respond to suggestions.
Can agree and disagree with others.
Can discuss everyday practical issues in a simple way when addressed clearly, slowly and directly.
Can discuss what to do, where to go and make arrangements to meet.

A1

No descriptors available

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
FORMAL DISCUSSION AND MEETINGS
C2

Can hold his/her own in formal discussion of complex issues, putting an articulate and persuasive
argument, at no disadvantage to native speakers.

C1

Can easily keep up with the debate, even on abstract, complex unfamiliar topics.
Can argue a formal position convincingly, responding to questions and comments and answering
complex lines of counter argument ﬂuently, spontaneously and appropriately.
Can keep up with an animated discussion, identifying accurately arguments supporting and opposing
points of view.
Can express his/her ideas and opinions with precision, present and respond to complex lines of argument
convincingly.

B2

B1

A2

Can participate actively in routine and non-routine formal discussion.
Can follow the discussion on matters related to his/her ﬁeld, understand in detail the points given
prominence by the speaker.
Can contribute, account for and sustain his/her opinion, evaluate alternative proposals and make andrespond to hypotheses.
Can follow much of what is said that is related to his/her ﬁeld, provided interlocutors avoid very
idiomatic usage and articulate clearly.
Can put over a point of view clearly, but has difﬁculty engaging in debate.
Can take part in routine formal discussion of familiar subjects which is conducted in clearly articulated
speech in the standard dialect and which involves the exchange of factual information, receiving
instructions or the discussion of solutions to practical problems.
Can generally follow changes of topic in formal discussion related to his/her ﬁeld which is conductedslowly and clearly.
Can exchange relevant information and give his/her opinion on practical problems when asked directly,
provided he/she receives some help with formulation and can ask for repetition of key points if necessary.
Can say what he/she thinks about things when addressed directly in a formal meeting, provided he/she
can ask for repetition of key points if necessary.

A1

No descriptor available

Note: The descriptors on this sub-scale have not been empirically calibrated with the measurement
model.

78

Language use and the language user/learner
GOAL-ORIENTED CO-OPERATION(e.g. Repairing a car, discussing a document, organising an event)
C2

As B2

C1

As B2

B2

Can understand detailed instructions reliably.
Can help along the progress of the work by inviting others to join in, say what they think, etc.
Can outline an issue or a problem clearly, speculating about causes or consequences, and weighing
advantages and disadvantages of different approaches.
Can follow what is said, though he/she may occasionally have to ask for repetition or clariﬁcation if theother people’s talk is rapid or extended.
Can explain why something is a problem, discuss what to do next, compare and contrast alternatives.
Can give brief comments on the views of others.

B1

Can generally follow what is said and, when necessary, can repeat back part of what someone has said
to conﬁrm mutual understanding.
Can make his/her opinions and reactions understood as regards possible solutions or the question ofwhat to do next, giving brief reasons and explanations.
Can invite others to give their views on how to proceed.
Can understand enough to manage simple, routine tasks without undue effort, asking very simply for
repetition when he/she does not understand.
Can discuss what to do next, making and responding to suggestions, asking for and giving directions.

A2

A1

Can indicate when he/she is following and can be made to understand what is necessary, if the speakertakes the trouble.
Can communicate in simple and routine tasks using simple phrases to ask for and provide things, to get
simple information and to discuss what to do next.
Can understand questions and instructions addressed carefully and slowly to him/her and follow short,
simple directions.
Can ask people for things, and give people things.

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
TRANSACTIONS TO OBTAIN GOODS AND SERVICES
C2

As B2

C1

As B2

B2

Can cope linguistically to negotiate a solution to a dispute like an undeserved trafﬁc ticket, ﬁnancial
responsibility for damage in a ﬂat, for blame regarding an accident.
Can outline a case for compensation, using persuasive language to demand satisfaction and state clearly
the limits to any concession he/she is prepared to make.
Can explain a problem which has arisen and make it clear that the provider of the service/customer
must make a concession.

B1

Can deal with most transactions likely to arise whilst travelling, arranging travel or accommodation, or
dealing with authorities during a foreign visit.
Can cope with less routine situations in shops, post ofﬁces, banks, e.g. returning an unsatisfactory
purchase. Can make a complaint.
Can deal with most situations likely to arise when making travel arrangements through an agent orwhen actually travelling, e.g. asking passenger where to get off for an unfamiliar destination.
Can deal with common aspects of everyday living such as travel, lodgings, eating and shopping.
Can get all the information needed from a tourist ofﬁce, as long as it is of a straightforward, nonspecialised nature.

A2

A1

80

Can ask for and provide everyday goods and services.
Can get simple information about travel, use public transport: buses, trains, and taxis, ask and give
directions, and buy tickets.
Can ask about things and make simple transactions in shops, post ofﬁces or banks.
Can give and receive information about quantities, numbers, prices, etc.
Can make simple purchases by stating what is wanted and asking the price.
Can order a meal.
Can ask people for things and give people things.
Can handle numbers, quantities, cost and time.

Language use and the language user/learner
INFORMATION EXCHANGE
C2

As B2

C1

As B2
Can understand and exchange complex information and advice on the full range of matters related to
his/her occupational role.

B2

B1

Can pass on detailed information reliably.
Can give a clear, detailed description of how to carry out a procedure.
Can synthesise and report information and arguments from a number of sources.
Can exchange, check and conﬁrm accumulated factual information on familiar routine and non-routine
matters within his/her ﬁeld with some conﬁdence.
Can describe how to do something, giving detailed instructions.
Can summarise and give his or her opinion about a short story, article, talk, discussion, interview, or
documentary and answer further questions of detail.
Can ﬁnd out and pass on straightforward factual information.
Can ask for and follow detailed directions.
Can obtain more detailed information.

A2

Can understand enough to manage simple, routine exchanges without undue effort.
Can deal with practical everyday demands: ﬁnding out and passing on straightforward factual
information.
Can ask and answer questions about habits and routines.
Can ask and answer questions about pastimes and past activities.
Can give and follow simple directions and instructions, e.g. explain how to get somewhere.
Can communicate in simple and routine tasks requiring a simple and direct exchange of information.
Can exchange limited information on familiar and routine operational matters.
Can ask and answer questions about what they do at work and in free time.
Can ask for and give directions referring to a map or plan.
Can ask for and provide personal information.

A1

Can understand questions and instructions addressed carefully and slowly to him/her and follow short,
simple directions.
Can ask and answer simple questions, initiate and respond to simple statements in areas of immediateneed or on very familiar topics.
Can ask and answer questions about themselves and other people, where they live, people they know,
things they have.
Can indicate time by such phrases as next week, last Friday, in November, three o’clock.

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
INTERVIEWING AND BEING INTERVIEWEDC2Can keep up his/her side of the dialogue extremely well, structuring the talk and interacting
authoritatively with complete ﬂuency as interviewer or interviewee, at no disadvantage to a native
speaker.

C1

Can participate fully in an interview, as either interviewer or interviewee, expanding and developing thepoint being discussed ﬂuently without any support, and handling interjections well.
Can carry out an effective, ﬂuent interview, departing spontaneously from prepared questions, following
up and probing interesting replies.

B2

Can take initiatives in an interview, expand and develop ideas with little help or prodding from aninterviewer.
Can provide concrete information required in an interview/consultation (e.g. describe symptoms to adoctor) but does so with limited precision.
Can carry out a prepared interview, checking and conﬁrming information, though he/she may
occasionally have to ask for repetition if the other person’s response is rapid or extended.

B1

A2

Can take some initiatives in an interview/consultation (e.g. to bring up a new subject) but is very
dependent on interviewer in the interaction.
Can use a prepared questionnaire to carry out a structured interview, with some spontaneous follow up
questions.
Can make him/herself understood in an interview and communicate ideas and information on familiar
topics, provided he/she can ask for clariﬁcation occasionally, and is given some help to express whathe/she wants to.
Can answer simple questions and respond to simple statements in an interview.

A1

Can reply in an interview to simple direct questions spoken very slowly and clearly in direct nonidiomatic speech about personal details.

4.4.3.2 Written interaction
Interaction through the medium of written language includes such activities as:• passing and exchanging notes, memos, etc. when spoken interaction is impossible
and inappropriate;• correspondence by letter, fax, e-mail, etc.;• negotiating the text of agreements, contracts, communiqués, etc. by reformulatingand exchanging drafts, amendments, proof corrections, etc.;• participating in on-line or off-line computer conferences.

4.4.3.3 Face-to-face interaction may of course involve a mixture of media: spoken,
written, audio-visual, paralinguistic (see section 4.4.5.2) and paratextual (see 4.4.5.3).

4.4.3.4 With the increasing sophistication of computer software, interactive manmachine communication is coming to play an ever more important part in the public,
occupational, educational and even personal domains.
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Language use and the language user/learner
Illustrative scales are provided for:• overall written interaction• correspondence• notes, messages and forms
OVERALL WRITTEN INTERACTION
C2

As C1

C1

Can express him/herself with clarity and precision, relating to the addressee ﬂexibly and effectively.

B2

Can express news and views effectively in writing, and relate to those of others.

B1

Can convey information and ideas on abstract as well as concrete topics, check information and ask
about or explain problems with reasonable precision.
Can write personal letters and notes asking for or conveying simple information of immediate relevance,
getting across the point he/she feels to be important.

A2

Can write short, simple formulaic notes relating to matters in areas of immediate need.

A1

Can ask for or pass on personal details in written form.

CORRESPONDENCE
C2

As C1

C1

Can express him/herself with clarity and precision in personal correspondence, using language ﬂexibly
and effectively, including emotional, allusive and joking usage.

B2

Can write letters conveying degrees of emotion and highlighting the personal signiﬁcance of events andexperiences and commenting on the correspondent’s news and views.

B1

Can write personal letters giving news and expressing thoughts about abstract or cultural topics such asmusic, ﬁlms.
Can write personal letters describing experiences, feelings and events in some detail.

A2

Can write very simple personal letters expressing thanks and apology.

A1

Can write a short simple postcard.

83Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
NOTES, MESSAGES & FORMS
C2

As B1

C1

As B1

B2

As B1
Can take messages communicating enquiries, explaining problems.

B1

Can write notes conveying simple information of immediate relevance to friends, service people, teachersand others who feature in his/her everyday life, getting across comprehensibly the points he/she feels areimportant.

A2

Can take a short, simple message provided he/she can ask for repetition and reformulation.
Can write short, simple notes and messages relating to matters in areas of immediate need.

A1

Can write numbers and dates, own name, nationality, address, age, date of birth or arrival in the
country, etc. such as on a hotel registration form.

Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• in which kinds of communicative interaction the learner will need/be equipped/be required
to engage;• which roles the learner will need/be equipped/be required to play in the interaction.

4.4.3.5 Interaction strategies
Interaction encompasses both receptive and productive activity as well as activity uniqueto the construction of joint discourse and therefore all reception strategies and all production strategies mentioned above are also involved in interaction. However, the factthat spoken interaction entails the collective creation of meaning by the establishmentof some degree of common mental context, deﬁning what can be taken as given, working
out where people are coming from, converging towards each other or deﬁning and maintaining a comfortable distance, usually in real time, means that in addition to receptive
and productive strategies there is a class of strategies exclusive to interaction concernedwith the management of this process. In addition, the fact that interaction is primarily
face to face tends to provide far greater redundancy both in textual, linguistic terms andwith regard to paralinguistic features, contextual cues, all of which can be made moreor less elaborate, more or less explicit to the extent that the constant monitoring of theprocess by the participants indicates that this is appropriate.
Planning for spoken interaction involves the activation of schemata or a ‘praxeogram’(i.e. a diagram representing the structure of a communicative interaction) of theexchanges possible and probable in the forthcoming activity (Framing) and considerationof the communicative distance from other interlocutors (Identifying information/opinion
gap; Judging what can be taken as given) in order to decide on options and prepare possible
moves in those exchanges (Planning moves). During the activity itself, language users
adopt turntaking strategies in order to obtain the discourse initiative (Taking the ﬂoor), tocement the collaboration in the task and keep the discussion on course (Co-operating:84

Language use and the language user/learnerinterpersonal), to help mutual understanding and maintain a focused approach to the task
at hand (Co-operating: ideational), and so that they themselves can ask for assistance in formulating something (Asking for Help). As with Planning, Evaluation takes place at a communicative level: judging the ‘ﬁt’ between the schemata thought to apply, and what is
actually happening (Monitoring: schemata, praxeogram) and the extent to which things aregoing the way one wants them to go (Monitoring: effect, success); miscomprehension or
intolerable ambiguity leads to requests for clariﬁcation which may be on a communicative or linguistic level (Asking for, giving clariﬁcation), and to active intervention to re-establish communication and clear up misunderstandings when necessary (Communication
Repair).
Planning• framing (selecting praxeogram)• identifying information/opinion gap (felicity conditions)• judging what can be presupposed• planning moves
Execution• taking the ﬂoor
• co-operating (interpersonal)• co-operating (ideational)• dealing with the unexpected• asking for help
Evaluation• monitoring (schema, praxeogram)• monitoring (effect, success)Repair• asking for clariﬁcation• giving clariﬁcation• communication repair
Illustrative scales are provided for:• taking the ﬂoor;• co-operating;• asking for clariﬁcation.

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
TAKING THE FLOOR (TURNTAKING)
C2

As C1

C1

Can select a suitable phrase from a readily available range of discourse functions to preface his/her
remarks appropriately in order to get the ﬂoor, or to gain time and keep the ﬂoor whilst thinking.

B2

Can intervene appropriately in discussion, exploiting appropriate language to do so.
Can initiate, maintain and end discourse appropriately with effective turntaking.
Can initiate discourse, take his/her turn when appropriate and end conversation when he/she needs to,though he/she may not always do this elegantly.
Can use stock phrases (e.g. ‘That’s a difﬁcult question to answer’) to gain time and keep the turn whilst
formulating what to say.
Can intervene in a discussion on a familiar topic, using a suitable phrase to get the ﬂoor.

B1

A2

Can initiate, maintain and close simple, face-to-face conversation on topics that are familiar or of
personal interest.
Can use simple techniques to start, maintain, or end a short conversation.
Can initiate, maintain and close simple, face-to-face conversation.
Can ask for attention.

A1

No descriptor available

CO-OPERATING
C2

As C1

C1

Can relate own contribution skilfully to those of other speakers.

B2

Can give feedback on and follow up statements and inferences and so help the development of the
discussion.
Can help the discussion along on familiar ground, conﬁrming comprehension, inviting others in, etc.

B1

Can exploit a basic repertoire of language and strategies to help keep a conversation or discussion
going.
Can summarise the point reached in a discussion and so help focus the talk.
Can repeat back part of what someone has said to conﬁrm mutual understanding and help keep thedevelopment of ideas on course. Can invite others into the discussion.

A2
A1

86

Can indicate when he/she is following.
No descriptor available

Language use and the language user/learner
ASKING FOR CLARIFICATION
C2

As B2

C1

As B2

B2

Can ask follow-up questions to check that he/she has understood what a speaker intended to say, and get
clariﬁcation of ambiguous points.

B1

Can ask someone to clarify or elaborate what they have just said.

A2

Can ask very simply for repetition when he/she does not understand.
Can ask for clariﬁcation about key words or phrases not understood using stock phrases.
Can say he/she didn’t follow.

A1

No descriptor available

4.4.4 Mediating activities and strategies
In mediating activities, the language user is not concerned to express his/her own meanings, but simply to act as an intermediary between interlocutors who are unable tounderstand each other directly – normally (but not exclusively) speakers of different languages. Examples of mediating activities include spoken interpretation and writtentranslation as well as summarising and paraphrasing texts in the same language, when
the language of the original text is not understandable to the intended recipient e.g.:

4.4.4.1 oral mediation:• simultaneous interpretation (conferences, meetings, formal speeches, etc.);• consecutive interpretation (speeches of welcome, guided tours, etc.);• informal interpretation:• • of foreign visitors in own country• • of native speakers when abroad• • in social and transactional situations for friends, family, clients, foreign guests,etc.
• • of signs, menus, notices, etc.

4.4.4.2 written mediation:• exact translation (e.g. of contracts, legal and scientiﬁc texts, etc.);• literary translation (novels, drama, poetry, libretti, etc.);• summarising gist (newspaper and magazine articles, etc.) within L2 or between L1and L2;• paraphrasing (specialised texts for lay persons, etc.).

4.4.4.3 Mediation strategies reﬂect ways of coping with the demands of using ﬁnite
resources to process information and establish equivalent meaning. The process may
87Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
involve some pre-planning to organise and maximise resources (Developing backgroundknowledge; Locating supports; Preparing a glossary) as well as consideration of how to tackle
the task at hand (Considering the interlocutors’ needs; Selecting the size of interpretation unit).
During the process of interpretation, glossing, or translation, the mediator needs to lookahead at what is coming next whilst formulating what has just been said, generally juggling with two different ‘chunks’ or interpretation units simultaneously (Previewing). Heor she needs to note ways of expressing things to extend his or her glossary (Noting possibilities, equivalences), and to construct islands of reliability, (prefabricated chunks) which
free up processing capacity for previewing. On the other hand he or she also needs to use
techniques to skate over uncertainty and avoid breakdown – whilst maintaining previewing (Bridging gaps). Evaluation takes place at a communicative level (Checking congruence)
and at a linguistic level (Checking consistency of usage) and, certainly with written translation, leads to repair through consultation of reference works and people knowledgeable
in the ﬁeld concerned (reﬁning by consulting dictionaries, thesaurus; consulting experts, sources).
• Planning• Execution• Evaluation• RepairDeveloping background knowledge;
Locating supports;
Preparing a glossary;
Considering interlocutors’ needs;
Selecting unit of interpretation.
Previewing: processing input and formulating the last chunk simultaneously in real time;
Noting possibilities, equivalences;
Bridging gaps.
Checking congruence of two versions;
Checking consistency of usage.
Reﬁning by consulting dictionaries, thesaurus;
Consulting experts, sources.

No illustrative scales are yet available.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• the mediating activities in which the learner will need/be equipped/be required to engage.

4.4.5 Non-verbal communication
4.4.5.1 Practical actions accompanying language activities (normally face-to-face oral
activities) include:• pointing, e.g. by ﬁnger, hand, glance, nod. These actions are used with deictics for theidentiﬁcation of objects, persons, etc., such as, ‘Can I have that one? No, not that one,that one’;• demonstration, accompanying deictics and simple present verbs and pro-verbs, suchas, ‘I take this and ﬁx it here, like this. Now you do the same!’;88

Language use and the language user/learner• clearly observable actions, which can be assumed as known in narrative, comment,
orders, etc., such as, ‘Don’t do that!’, ‘Well done there!’, ‘Oh no, he’s dropped it!’. In
all these cases, the utterance is uninterpretable unless the action is perceived.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• how skilled learners will need/be equipped/be required to be in matching actions to words
and vice-versa;• in which situations they will need/be equipped/be required to do so.

4.4.5.2 Paralinguistics includes:
Body language. Paralinguistic body language differs from practical actions accompaniedby language in that it carries conventionalised meanings, which may well differ fromone culture to another. For example, the following are used in many European countries:
•
•
•
•
•
•

gesture (e.g. shaken ﬁst for ‘protest’);facial expression (e.g. smile or scowl);
posture (e.g. slump for ‘despair’ or sitting forward for ‘keen interest’);eye contact (e.g. a conspiratorial wink or a disbelieving stare);body contact (e.g. kiss or handshake);proxemics (e.g. standing close or aloof).

use of extra-linguistic speech-sounds. Such sounds (or syllables) are paralinguistic in thatthey carry conventionalised meanings but lie outside the regular phonological system ofa language, for example, (in English):‘sh’‘s-s-s’‘ugh’‘humph’‘tut, tut’requesting silence
expressing public disapproval
expressing disgust
expressing disgruntlement
expressing polite disapprovalprosodic qualities. The use of these qualities is paralinguistic if they carry conventionalised meanings (e.g. related to attitudes and states of mind), but fall outside the regularphonological system in which prosodic features of length, tone, stress may play a part,for example:
voice quality
pitch
loudnesslength(gruff, breathy, piercing, etc.)(growling, whining, screaming, etc.)(whispering, murmuring, shouting, etc.)(e.g. ve-e-e-ery good!)

Many paralinguistic effects are produced by combinations of pitch, length, loudness andvoice quality.
89Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Paralinguistic communication should be carefully distinguished from developed sign
languages, which fall outside the present scope of CEF, though experts in that ﬁeld may
ﬁnd many of its concepts and categories relevant to their concerns.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• which target paralinguistic behaviours the learner will need/be equipped/be required toa) recognise and understand b) use.

4.4.5.3 Paratextual features: a similarly ‘paralinguistic’ role is played in relation to
written texts by such devices as:• illustrations (photographs, drawings, etc.)• charts, tables, diagrams, ﬁgures, etc.
• typographic features (fonts, pitch, spacing, underlining, layout, etc.)
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• which paratextual features the learner will need/be equipped/be required to a) recognise
and respond to and b) use.

4.5 Communicative language processes
To act as a speaker, writer, listener or reader, the learner must be able to carry out a sequence of skilled actions.
To speak, the learner must be able to:• plan and organise a message (cognitive skills);• formulate a linguistic utterance (linguistic skills);• articulate the utterance (phonetic skills).
To write, the learner must be able to:• organise and formulate the message (cognitive and linguistic skills);• hand-write or type the text (manual skills) or otherwise transfer the text to writing.
To listen, the learner must be able to:
•
•
•
•
90

perceive the utterance (auditory phonetic skills);
identify the linguistic message (linguistic skills);
understand the message (semantic skills);
interpret the message (cognitive skills).

Language use and the language user/learner
To read, the reader must be able to:
•
•
•
•
•

perceive the written text (visual skills);
recognise the script (orthographic skills);
identify the message (linguistic skills);
understand the message (semantic skills);
interpret the message (cognitive skills).

The observable stages of these processes are well understood. Others – events in thecentral nervous system – are not. The following analysis is intended only to identify someparts of the process relevant to the development of language proﬁciency.
4.5.1 Planning
The selection, interrelation and co-ordination of components of general and communicative language competences (see Chapter 5) to be brought to bear on the communicative event in order to accomplish the user/learner’s communicative intentions.
4.5.2 Execution
4.5.2.1 Production
The production process involves two components:
The formulation component takes the output from the planning component and assembles it into linguistic form. This involves lexical, grammatical, phonological (and in thecase of writing, orthographic) processes which are distinguishable and appear (e.g. incases of dysphasia) to have some degree of independence but whose exact interrelation
is not fully understood.
The articulation component organises the motor innervation of the vocal apparatus toconvert the output of the phonological processes into co-ordinated movements of the
speech organs to produce a train of speech waves constituting the spoken utterance, oralternatively the motor innervation of the musculature of the hand to produce handwritten or typewritten text.
4.5.2.2 Reception
The receptive process involves four steps which, while they take place in linear sequence(bottom-up), are constantly updated and reinterpreted (top-down) in the light of realworld knowledge, schematic expectations and new textual understanding in a subconscious interactive process.
• the perception of speech and writing: sound/character and word recognition (cursive
and print);• the identiﬁcation of the text, complete or partial, as relevant;• the semantic and cognitive understanding of the text as a linguistic entity;• the interpretation of the message in context.
91Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
The skills involved include:• perceptual skills;• memory;• decoding skills;• inferencing;• predicting;• imagination;• rapid scanning;• referring back and forth.
Comprehension, especially of written texts, can be assisted by the proper use of aids,
including reference materials such as:• dictionaries (monolingual and bilingual);• thesauruses;• pronunciation dictionaries;• electronic dictionaries, grammars, spell-checkers and other aids;• reference grammars.

4.5.2.3 Interaction
The processes involved in spoken interaction differ from a simple succession of speaking
and listening activities in a number of ways:• productive and receptive processes overlap. Whilst the interlocutor’s utterance, still
incomplete, is being processed, the planning of the user’s response is initiated – on
the basis of a hypothesis as to its nature, meaning and interpretation.
• discourse is cumulative. As an interaction proceeds, the participants converge intheir readings of a situation, develop expectations and focus on relevant issues. These
processes are reﬂected in the form of the utterances produced.
In written interaction (e.g. a correspondence by letter, fax, e-mail, etc.) the processes ofreception and production remain distinct (though electronic interaction, e.g. via theInternet, is becoming ever closer to ‘real time’ interaction). The effects of cumulative discourse are similar to those for spoken interaction.

4.5.3 Monitoring
The strategic component deals with updating of mental activities and competences in
the course of communication. This applies equally to the productive and receptive processes. It should be noted that an important factor in the control of the productive processes is the feedback the speaker/writer receives at each stage: formulation, articulation
and acoustic.
In a wider sense, the strategic component is also concerned with the monitoring of thecommunicative process as it proceeds, and with ways of managing the process accordingly, e.g.:92Language use and the language user/learner• dealing with the unexpected, such as changes of domain, theme schema, etc.;• dealing with communication breakdown in interaction or production as a result ofsuch factors as memory lapses;• inadequate communicative competence for the task in hand by using compensating
strategies like restructuring, circumlocution, substitution, asking for help;• misunderstandings and misinterpretation (by asking for clariﬁcation);• slips of the tongue, mishearings (by using repair strategies).
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• to what degree which skills are required for the satisfactory accomplishment of thecommunicative tasks the learner is expected to undertake;• which skills can be presupposed and which will need to be developed;• which reference aids the learner will need/be equipped/be required to use effectively.

4.6

Texts

As explained in Chapter 2, ‘text’ is used to cover any piece of language, whether a spoken
utterance or a piece of writing, which users/learners receive, produce or exchange. There
can thus be no act of communication through language without a text; language activities and processes are all analysed and classiﬁed in terms of the relation of theuser/learner and any interlocutor(s) to the text whether viewed as a ﬁnished product, anartefact, or as an objective or as a product in process of elaboration. These activities andprocesses are dealt with in some detail in section 4.4 and 4.5. Texts have many different
functions in social life and result in corresponding differences in form and substance.
Different media are used for different purposes. Differences of medium and purpose andfunction lead to corresponding differences not only in the context of messages, but also
in their organisation and presentation. Accordingly, texts may be classiﬁed into different text types belonging to different genres. See also Section 5.2.3.2 (macrofunctions).

4.6.1 Texts and media
Every text is carried by a particular medium, normally by sound waves or written artefacts. Subcategories can be established according to physical properties of the medium
which affect the processes of production and reception, e.g. for speech, direct close-up
speech as against public address or telephone, or for writing print as against cursive
writing, or different scripts. To communicate using a particular medium, users/learners
must have the necessary sensory/motor equipment. In the case of speech, they must beable to hear well under the given conditions and have ﬁne control of the organs of phonation and articulation. In the case of normal writing, they must be able to see with thenecessary visual acuity and have control of their hands. They must then have the knowledge and skills described elsewhere, on the one hand to identify, understand and interpret the text or on the other to organise, formulate and produce it. This will be true forany text, whatever its nature.
93

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
The above must not discourage people who have learning difﬁculties or sensory/motor
disabilities from learning or using foreign languages. Devices ranging from simple hearing
aids to eye-operated computer speech synthesisers have been developed to overcome eventhe most severe sensory and motor difﬁculties, whilst the use of appropriate methods andstrategies have enabled young people with learning difﬁculties to achieve worthwhile
foreign language learning objectives with remarkable success. Lip-reading, the exploitation of residual hearing and phonetic training have enabled the severely deaf to achieve ahigh level of speech communication in a second or foreign language. Given the necessary
determination and encouragement, human beings have an extraordinary capacity to overcome obstacles to communication and the production and understanding of texts.
In principle, any text can be carried by any medium. However, in practice medium andtext are more closely related. Scripts do not generally carry the full meaningful phonetic
information carried by speech. Alphabetic scripts do not generally carry prosodic information systematically (e.g. stress, intonation, pausing, stylistic reduction, etc.).
Consonantal and logographic scripts carry less. Paralinguistic features are usually unrepresented in any script, though they may of course be referred to in the text of a novel,
play, etc. In compensation, paratextual features are employed in writing, which are tied
to the spatial medium and not available to speech. Moreover, the nature of the medium
exercises a strong pressure on the nature of the text and vice-versa. As extreme examples,a stone inscription is difﬁcult and expensive to produce and is very durable and immovable. An air-letter is cheap and easy to use, easily transported, but light and fragile.
Electronic communication using a VDU need not produce a permanent artefact at all.
The texts they typically carry are correspondingly contrasted: in the one case, a carefully
composed, frugal text preserving monumental information for future generations andinducing reverence for the place and person(s) celebrated, and in the other, a hastily
scribbled personal note of topical but ephemeral interest to the correspondents. A
similar ambiguity of classiﬁcation thus arises between text-types and media to thatbetween text-types and activities. Books, magazines and newspapers are, from their physical nature and appearance, different media. From the nature and structure of their contents they are different text-types. Medium and text-type are closely related and both arederivative from the function they perform.

4.6.2 Media include:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
94

voice (viva voce);telephone, videophone, teleconference;
public address systems;
radio broadcasts;
TV;cinema ﬁlms;
computer (e-mail, CD Rom, etc.);videotape, -cassette, -disc;audiotape, -cassette, -disc;
print;
manuscript;etc.

Language use and the language user/learner
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• which media the learner will need/be equipped/be required to handle a) receptivelyb) productively c) interactively d) in mediation.

4.6.3 Text-types include:
Spoken, e.g.:
public announcements and instructions;public speeches, lectures, presentations, sermons;
rituals (ceremonies, formal religious services);
entertainment (drama, shows, readings, songs);
sports commentaries (football, cricket, boxing, horse-racing, etc.);
news broadcasts;
public debates and discussion;inter-personal dialogues and conversations;
telephone conversations;job interviews.
Written, e.g.:books, ﬁction and non-ﬁction, including literary journals;
magazines;
newspapers;
instruction manuals (DIY, cookbooks, etc.);
textbooks;
comic strips;
brochures, prospectuses;
leaﬂets;
advertising material;
public signs and notices;supermarket, shop, market stall signs;
packaging and labelling on goods;
tickets, etc.;
forms and questionnaires;
dictionaries (monolingual and bilingual), thesauri;business and professional letters, faxes;
personal letters;
essays and exercises;
memoranda, reports and papers;
notes and messages, etc.;
databases (news, literature, general information, etc.).
The following scales, based upon those developed in the Swiss projects described inAppendix B, give examples of activities involving a written text output produced in
response to, respectively, a spoken or written input. Only the higher levels of these95

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
activities can enable a learner to meet the requirements of university studies or professional training, though some ability to deal with simple input text and to produce awritten response is feasible at more modest levels.
NOTE-TAKING (LECTURES, SEMINARS, ETC.)
C2

Is aware of the implications and allusions of what is said and can make notes on them as well as on theactual words used by the speaker.

C1

Can take detailed notes during a lecture on topics in his/her ﬁeld of interest, recording the informationso accurately and so close to the original that the notes could also be useful to other people.

B2

Can understand a clearly structured lecture on a familiar subject, and can take notes on points which
strike him/her as important, even though he/she tends to concentrate on the words themselves andtherefore to miss some information.
Can take notes during a lecture which are precise enough for his/her own use at a later date, provided
the topic is within his/her ﬁeld of interest and the talk is clear and well-structured.

B1

Can take notes as a list of key points during a straightforward lecture, provided the topic is familiar,
and the talk is both formulated in simple language and delivered in clearly articulated standard speech.

A2

No descriptor available

A1

No descriptor available

PROCESSING TEXT
C2

Can summarise information from different sources, reconstructing arguments and accounts in a
coherent presentation of the overall result.

C1

Can summarise long, demanding texts.

B2

Can summarise a wide range of factual and imaginative texts, commenting on and discussing
contrasting points of view and the main themes.
Can summarise extracts from news items, interviews or documentaries containing opinions, argument
and discussion.
Can summarise the plot and sequence of events in a ﬁlm or play.

B1

Can collate short pieces of information from several sources and summarise them for somebody else.
Can paraphrase short written passages in a simple fashion, using the original text wording andordering.

A2

Can pick out and reproduce key words and phrases or short sentences from a short text within thelearner’s limited competence and experience.
Can copy out short texts in printed or clearly handwritten format.

A1

Can copy out single words and short texts presented in standard printed format.

Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• with which text types the learner will need/be equipped/be required to deal
• a) receptively, b) productively, c) interactively, d) in mediation.
96

Language use and the language user/learner
Sections 4.6.1 to 4.6.3 conﬁne themselves to text types and the media which carry them.
Matters often dealt with under ‘genre’ are treated in this Framework in 5.2.3 ‘pragmaticcompetences’.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:•whether and, if so, how, the differences in the medium and in the psycholinguistic
processes involved in speaking, listening, reading and writing in productive, receptive
and interactive activities are taken into account a) in the selection, adaptation or composition of the spoken and written texts presented to learners, b) in the way that the learners are expected to handle the texts, and c) in the evaluation of the texts which learners
produce;• whether and, if so, how learners and teachers are made critically aware of the textual characteristics of a) classroom discourse b) testing and examination rubrics and answers, andc) instructional and reference materials;• whether and, if so, how learners are brought to make the texts they produce more appropriate to: a) their communicative purposes, b) the contexts of use (domains, situations,
recipients, constraints), c) the media employed.

4.6.4 Texts and activities
The output of the process of language production is a text, which once it is uttered or
written becomes an artefact carried by a particular medium and independent of its producer. The text then functions as the input to the process of language reception.
Written artefacts are concrete objects, whether carved in stone, handwritten, typed,
printed or electronically generated. They allow communication to take place despite
the complete separation of producer and receiver in space and/or time – a property on
which human society largely depends. In face-to-face oral interaction the medium isacoustic, sound waves which are normally ephemeral and irrecoverable. Indeed, few
speakers are able to reproduce in exact detail a text they have just uttered in the courseof conversation. Once it has served its communicative purposes it is discarded frommemory – if indeed it has ever lodged there as a complete entity. However, as a resultof modern technology, sound waves can be recorded and broadcast or stored in anothermedium and later reconverted into speech-waves. In this way, the temporo-spatial separation of producer and receiver is made possible. Furthermore, recordings of spontaneous discourse and conversation can be transcribed and analysed at leisure as texts.
There is necessarily a close correlation between the categories proposed for the description of language activities and the texts resulting from those activities. Indeed thesame word may be used for both. ‘Translation’ may denote either the act of translatingor the text produced. Similarly, ‘conversation’, ‘debate’ or ‘interview’ may denote thecommunicative interaction of the participants, but equally the sequence of theirexchanged utterances, which constitutes a text of a particular type belonging to a corresponding genre.
All the activities of production, reception, interaction and mediation take place intime. The real-time nature of speech is apparent, both in the activities of speaking and97

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
listening and in the medium itself. ‘Before’ and ‘after’ in a spoken text are to be taken
quite literally. In a written text, which is usually (excluding ‘scrolled’ texts) a static spatialartefact, this is not necessarily so. In production, a written text can be edited, passages
inserted or deleted. We cannot tell in what order the elements have been produced,
though they are presented in a linear order as a string of symbols. Receptively, thereader’s eye is free to move over the text in any way, possibly following the linear
sequence in strict order, as a child learning to read will generally do. Skilled, mature
readers are much more likely to scan a text for highly information-bearing elements inorder to establish an overall structure of meaning and then return to read more closely– and if need be to re-read a number of times – such words, phrases, sentences and paragraphs as are of particular relevance to their needs and purposes. An author or editor
may well use paratextual features (see section 4.4.5.3) to steer this process and, indeed,plan the text in accordance with the way in which it is expected to be read by the audience for which it is intended. Similarly, a spoken text may be carefully planned inadvance so as to appear to be spontaneous, yet to ensure that an essential message iseffectively conveyed under the different conditions that constrain the reception of
speech. Process and product are indissolubly linked.
The text is central to any act of linguistic communication, the external, objective link
between producer and receiver, whether they are communicating face to face or at a distance. The diagrams below show in a schematic form the relation between theuser/learner, on whom the Framework is focused, the interlocutor(s), activities and texts.
1. Production. The user/learner produces a spoken or written text, received, often at a distance, by one
or more listeners or readers, who are not called upon to reply.
1.1.

Speaking(listener)
USER → sound waves → Listener(listener)

1.2. Writing(reader)
USER → written text → Reader
(reader)
2. Reception. The user/learner receives a text from one or more speakers or writers, again often at a distance, and is not called upon to reply.
2.1. Listening(speaker)Speaker → sound waves → USER

(speaker)
2.2. Reading(writer)
Writer → written text → USER(writer)98

Language use and the language user/learner
3. Interaction. The user/learner enters into a face-to-face dialogue with an interlocutor. The text of the
dialogue consists of utterances respectively produced and received by each party in alternation.
USER↔

discourse↔

Interlocutor

USER

→

Text 1.

→interlocutor

USER

←

Text 2.

←interlocutor

USER

→

Text 3.

→interlocutor

USER

←

Text 4.

←interlocutoretc.
4. Mediation covers two activities.
4.1. Translation. The user/learner receives a text from a speaker or writer, who is not present, in one
language or code (Lx) and produces a parallel text in a different language or code (Ly) to be received byanother person as listener or reader at a distance.
Writer (Lx) → text (in Lx) → USER → text (in Ly) → Reader (Ly)
4.2. Interpretation. The user/learner acts as an intermediary in a face-to-face interaction between two
interlocutors who do not share the same language or code, receiving a text in one language (Lx) andproducing a corresponding text in the other (Ly).
Interlocutor (Lx) ↔ discourse (Lx)

↔ USER ↔ discourse (Ly)↔ Interlocutor (Ly)Interlocutor (Lx) → Text (Lx1)→ USER → Text (Ly1)→ Interlocutor (Ly)Interlocutor (Lx) ← Text (Lx2)← USER ← Text (Ly2)← Interlocutor (Ly)Interlucutor (Lx) → Text (Lx3)→ USER → Text (Ly3)→ Interlocutor (Ly)Interlocutor (Lx) ← Text (Lx4)← USER ← Text (Ly4)← Interlocutor (Ly)etc.

In addition to interaction and mediation activities as deﬁned above, there are many activities in which the user/learner is required to produce a textual response to a textual stimulus. The textual stimulus may be an oral question, a set of written instructions (e.g. an
examination rubric), a discursive text, authentic or composed, etc. or some combinationof these. The required textual response may be anything from a single word to a threehour essay. Both input and output texts may be spoken or written and in L1 or L2. The
relation between the two texts may be meaning-preserving or not. Accordingly, even if
we overlook the part which may be played in the teaching/learning of modern languages
by activities in which the learner produces an L1 text in response to an L1 stimulus (asmay often be the case with regard to the sociocultural component), some 24 activity types
may be distinguished. For example, the following cases (Table 6) in which both input andoutput are in the target language.
Whilst such text-to-text activities have a place in everyday language use, they are particularly frequent in language learning/teaching and testing. The more mechanicalmeaning-preserving activities (repetition, dictation, reading aloud, phonetic transcription) are currently out of favour in communication-oriented language teaching owing totheir artiﬁciality and what are seen as undesirable backwash effects. A case can perhaps
be made for them as testing devices for the technical reason that performance depends
99Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Table 6. Text-to-text activities
Input text

Output text

MediumLanguage

MediumLanguagepreserving

Meaningpreserving

Activity type(examples)

spokenL2

spokenL2

Yesrepetition

spokenL2

written

L2

Yes

dictationspokenL2

spoken

L2

No

oral
question/answerspokenL2

written

L2

No

writtenanswers tooral L2
questionswritten

L2

spokenL2

Yesreading aloudwrittenL2

written

L2

Yes

copying,transcription

written

L2

spokenL2

No

spokenresponse to
written L2
rubricwrittenL2

written

L2

No

writing in
response to
written L2
rubricclosely on the ability to use linguistic competences to reduce the information content of
the text. In any case, the advantage of examining all possible combinations of categories
in taxonomic sets is not only that it enables experience to be ordered, but also that it
reveals gaps and suggests new possibilities.

1005 The user/learner’s competences

In order to carry out the tasks and activities required to deal with the communicative
situations in which they are involved, users and learners draw upon a number of competences developed in the course of their previous experience. In return, participation incommunicative events (including, of course, those events speciﬁcally designed topromote language learning) results in the further development of the learner’s competences, for both immediate and long-term use.
All human competences contribute in one way or another to the language user’s
ability to communicate and may be regarded as aspects of communicative competence.
It may however be useful to distinguish those less closely related to language from linguistic competences more narrowly deﬁned.

5.1 General competences
5.1.1 Declarative knowledge (savoir)
5.1.1.1 Knowledge of the world
Mature human beings have a highly developed and ﬁnely articulated model of theworld and its workings, closely correlated with the vocabulary and grammar of theirmother tongue. Indeed, both develop in relation to each other. The question, ‘What isthat?’ may ask for the name of a newly observed phenomenon or for the meaning (referent) of a new word. The basic features of this model are fully developed during earlychildhood, but it is further developed through education and experience during adolescence and indeed throughout adult life. Communication depends on the congruence of the models of the world and of language which have been internalised by the
persons taking part. One aim of scientiﬁc endeavour is to discover the structure andworkings of the universe and to provide a standardised terminology to describe andrefer to them. Ordinary language has developed in a more organic way and the relation
between the categories of form and meaning varies somewhat from one language toanother, though within fairly narrow limits imposed by the actual nature of reality.
Divergence is wider in the social sphere than in relation to the physical environment,
though there, too, languages differentiate natural phenomena very much in relation
to their signiﬁcance for the life of the community. Second and foreign language teaching is often able to assume that learners have already acquired a knowledge of theworld sufﬁcient for the purpose. This is, however, not by any means always the case (see2.1.1).
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Knowledge of the world (whether it derives from experience, education or from information sources, etc.) embraces:• The locations, institutions and organisations, persons, objects, events, processes andoperations in different domains as exempliﬁed in Table 5 (section 4.1.2). Of considerable importance to the learner of a particular language is factual knowledge concerning the country or countries in which the language is spoken, such as its major
geographical, environmental, demographic, economic and political features.
• Classes of entities (concrete/abstract, animate/inanimate, etc.) and their properties
and relations (temporo-spatial, associative, analytic, logical, cause/effect, etc.) as setout, for instance, in Threshold Level 1990, Chapter 6.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what knowledge of the world the language learner will be assumed/required to possess;• what new knowledge of the world, particularly in respect of the country in which thelanguage is spoken the learner will need/be equipped to acquire in the course of language
learning.

5.1.1.2 Sociocultural knowledge
Strictly speaking, knowledge of the society and culture of the community or communities in which a language is spoken is one aspect of knowledge of the world. It is,however, of sufﬁcient importance to the language learner to merit special attention, especially since unlike many other aspects of knowledge it is likely to lie outside thelearner’s previous experience and may well be distorted by stereotypes.
The features distinctively characteristic of a particular European society and its
culture may relate, for example, to:
1. Everyday living, e.g.:• food and drink, meal times, table manners;• public holidays;• working hours and practices;• leisure activities (hobbies, sports, reading habits, media).
2. Living conditions, e.g.:• living standards (with regional, class and ethnic variations);• housing conditions;• welfare arrangements.
3. Interpersonal relations (including relations of power and solidarity) e.g. with respect to:• class structure of society and relations between classes;• relations between sexes (gender, intimacy);• family structures and relations;• relations between generations;• relations in work situations;• relations between public and police, ofﬁcials, etc.;
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The user/learner’s competences• race and community relations;• relations among political and religious groupings.
4. Values, beliefs and attitudes in relation to such factors as:• social class;• occupational groups (academic, management, public service, skilled and manual
workforces);• wealth (income and inherited);• regional cultures;• security;• institutions;• tradition and social change;• history, especially iconic historical personages and events;• minorities (ethnic, religious);• national identity;• foreign countries, states, peoples;• politics;• arts (music, visual arts, literature, drama, popular music and song);• religion;• humour.
5. Body language (see section 4.4.5). Knowledge of the conventions governing such behaviour form part of the user/learner’s sociocultural competence.
6. Social conventions, e.g. with regard to giving and receiving hospitality, such as:• punctuality;• presents;• dress;• refreshments, drinks, meals;• behavioural and conversational conventions and taboos;• length of stay;• leave-taking.
7.

Ritual behaviour in such areas as:• religious observances and rites;• birth, marriage, death;• audience and spectator behaviour at public performances and ceremonies;• celebrations, festivals, dances, discos, etc.

5.1.1.3 Intercultural awarenessKnowledge, awareness and understanding of the relation (similarities and distinctive differences) between the ‘world of origin’ and the ‘world of the target community’ produce
an intercultural awareness. It is, of course, important to note that intercultural awareness includes an awareness of regional and social diversity in both worlds. It is alsoenriched by awareness of a wider range of cultures than those carried by the learner’s L1and L2. This wider awareness helps to place both in context. In addition to objective
knowledge, intercultural awareness covers an awareness of how each community
appears from the perspective of the other, often in the form of national stereotypes.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what prior sociocultural experience and knowledge the learner is assumed/required tohave;• what new experience and knowledge of social life in his/her community as well as in thetarget community the learner will need to acquire in order to meet the requirements of L2
communication;• what awareness of the relation between home and target cultures the learner will need so
as to develop an appropriate intercultural competence.

5.1.2 Skills and know-how (savoir-faire)
5.1.2.1

Practical skills and know-how include:• Social skills: the ability to act in accordance with the types of convention set out in
5.1.1.2 above and to perform the expected routines, in so far as it is considered appropriate for outsiders and particularly foreigners to do so.
• Living skills: the ability to carry out effectively the routine actions required for daily
life (bathing, dressing, walking, cooking, eating, etc.); maintenance and repair ofhousehold equipment, etc.
• Vocational and professional skills: the ability to perform specialised actions (mental andphysical) required to carry out the duties of (self-)employment.
• Leisure skills: the ability to carry out effectively the actions required for leisure activities, e.g.:• arts (painting, sculpture, playing musical instruments, etc.);• crafts (knitting, embroidery, weaving, basketry, carpentry, etc.);• sports (team games, athletics, jogging, climbing, swimming, etc.);• hobbies (photography, gardening, etc.).
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what practical skills and know-how the learner will need/be required to possess in order tocommunicate effectively in an area of concern.

5.1.2.2 Intercultural skills and know-how
These include:• the ability to bring the culture of origin and the foreign culture into relation witheach other;• cultural sensitivity and the ability to identify and use a variety of strategies forcontact with those from other cultures;
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The user/learner’s competences• the capacity to fulﬁl the role of cultural intermediary between one’s own culture andthe foreign culture and to deal effectively with intercultural misunderstanding andconﬂict situations;• the ability to overcome stereotyped relationships.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what cultural intermediary roles and functions the learner will need/be equipped/berequired to fulﬁl;• what features of the home and target culture the learner will need/be enabled/required to
distinguish;• what provision is expected to be made for the learner to experience the target culture;• what opportunities the learner will have of acting as a cultural intermediary.

5.1.3 ‘Existential’ competence (savoir-être)The communicative activity of users/learners is affected not only by their knowledge,
understanding and skills, but also by selfhood factors connected with their individual
personalities, characterised by the attitudes, motivations, values, beliefs, cognitive styles
and personality types which contribute to their personal identity. These include:
1. attitudes, such as the user/learner’s degree of:• openness towards, and interest in, new experiences, other persons, ideas,
peoples, societies and cultures;• willingness to relativise one’s own cultural viewpoint and cultural value-system;• willingness and ability to distance oneself from conventional attitudes to cultural difference.
2. motivations:• intrinsic/extrinsic;• instrumental/integrative;• communicative drive, the human need to communicate.
3. values, e.g. ethical and moral.
4. beliefs, e.g. religious, ideological, philosophical.
5. cognitive styles, e.g.:• convergent/divergent;• holistic/analytic/synthetic.
6. personality factors, e.g.:• loquacity/taciturnity;• enterprise/timidity;• optimism/pessimism;• introversion/extroversion;• proactivity/reactivity;
105Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

intropunitive/extrapunitive/impunitive personality (guilt);(freedom from) fear or embarrassment;
rigidity/ﬂexibility;
open-mindedness/closed-mindedness;
spontaneity/self-monitoring;
intelligence;
meticulousness/carelessness;memorising ability;
industry/laziness;
ambition/(lack of) ambition;(lack of) self-awareness;(lack of) self-reliance;(lack of) self-conﬁdence;(lack of) self-esteem.

Attitudes and personality factors greatly affect not only the language users’/learners’roles in communicative acts but also their ability to learn. The development of an ‘intercultural personality’ involving both attitudes and awareness is seen by many as an important educational goal in its own right. Important ethical and pedagogic issues are raised,such as:• the extent to which personality development can be an explicit educational objective;• how cultural relativism is to be reconciled with ethical and moral integrity;• which personality factors a) facilitate b) impede foreign or second language learningand acquisition;• how learners can be helped to exploit strengths and overcome weaknesses;• how the diversity of personalities can be reconciled with the constraints imposed on
and by educational systems.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• whether, and if so which personality features learners will need/be encouraged/equipped/
required to develop/display;• whether, and if so in what ways, learner characteristics are taken into account inprovisions for language learning, teaching and assessment.

5.1.4 Ability to learn (savoir-apprendre)
In its most general sense, savoir-apprendre is the ability to observe and participate in newexperiences and to incorporate new knowledge into existing knowledge, modifying thelatter where necessary. Language learning abilities are developed in the course of theexperience of learning. They enable the learner to deal more effectively and independently with new language learning challenges, to see what options exist and to makebetter use of opportunities. Ability to learn has several components, such as language
106The user/learner’s competences
and communication awareness; general phonetic skills; study skills; and heuristic
skills.
5.1.4.1 Language and communication awarenessSensitivity to language and language use, involving knowledge and understanding of theprinciples according to which languages are organised and used, enables new experience
to be assimilated into an ordered framework and welcomed as an enrichment. The associated new language may then be more readily learnt and used, rather than resisted asa threat to the learner’s already established linguistic system, which is often believed to
be normal and ‘natural’.
5.1.4.2 General phonetic awareness and skills
Many learners, particularly mature students, will ﬁnd their ability to pronounce new languages facilitated by:• an ability to distinguish and produce unfamiliar sounds and prosodic patterns;• an ability to perceive and catenate unfamiliar sound sequences;• an ability, as a listener, to resolve (i.e. divide into distinct and signiﬁcant parts) a continuous stream of sound into a meaningful structured string of phonological elements;• an understanding/mastery of the processes of sound perception and production
applicable to new language learning.
These general phonetic skills are distinct from the ability to pronounce a particular language.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what steps if any are taken to develop the learner’s language and communication
awareness;• what auditory discrimination and articulatory skills the learner will need/be assumed/
equipped/required to possess.

5.1.4.3 Study skills
These include:• ability to make effective use of the learning opportunities created by teaching situations, e.g.:
•
•
•
•
•

to maintain attention to the presented information;
to grasp the intention of the task set;
to co-operate effectively in pair and group work;
to make rapid and frequent active use of the language learnt;
ability to use available materials for independent learning;107

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment• ability to organise and use materials for self-directed learning;• ability to learn effectively (both linguistically and socioculturally) from direct
observation of and participation in communication events by the cultivation ofperceptual, analytical and heuristic skills;• awareness of one’s own strengths and weaknesses as a learner;• ability to identify one’s own needs and goals;• ability to organise one’s own strategies and procedures to pursue these goals, inaccordance with one’s own characteristics and resources.

5.1.4.4 Heuristic skills
These include:• the ability of the learner to come to terms with new experience (new language, newpeople, new ways of behaving, etc.) and to bring other competences to bear (e.g. byobserving, grasping the signiﬁcance of what is observed, analysing, inferencing,memorising, etc.) in the speciﬁc learning situation;• the ability of the learner (particularly in using target language reference sources) toﬁnd, understand and if necessary convey new information;• the ability to use new technologies (e.g. by searching for information in databases,
hypertexts, etc.).
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what study skills learners are encouraged/enabled to use and develop;• what heuristic abilities learners are encouraged/enabled to use and develop;• what provision is made for learners to become increasingly independent in their learningand use of language.

5.2

Communicative language competences

For the realisation of communicative intentions, users/learners bring to bear theirgeneral capacities as detailed above together with a more speciﬁcally language-related
communicative competence. Communicative competence in this narrower sense has thefollowing components:• linguistic competences;• sociolinguistic competences;• pragmatic competences.

5.2.1 Linguistic competences
No complete, exhaustive description of any language as a formal system for the expression of meaning has ever been produced. Language systems are of great complexity and108

The user/learner’s competences
the language of a large, diversiﬁed, advanced society is never completely mastered byany of its users. Nor could it be, since every language is in continuous evolution in
response to the exigencies of its use in communication. Most nation states haveattempted to establish a standard form of the language, though never in exhaustive
detail. For its presentation, the model of linguistic description in use for teaching the
corpus is still the same model as was employed for the long-dead classical languages.
This ‘traditional’ model was, however, repudiated over 100 years ago by most professional linguists, who insisted that languages should be described as they exist in use
rather than as some authority thinks they should be and that the traditional model,
having been developed for languages of a particular type, was inappropriate for thedescription of language systems with a very different organisation. However, none of themany proposals for alternative models has gained general acceptance. Indeed, the possibility of one universal model of description for all languages has been denied. Recent
work on linguistic universals has not as yet produced results which can be used directly
to facilitate language learning, teaching and assessment. Most descriptive linguists are
now content to codify practice, relating form and meaning, using terminology which
diverges from traditional practice only where it is necessary to deal with phenomena
outside the range of traditional models of description. This is the approach adopted in
Section 4.2. It attempts to identify and classify the main components of linguistic competence deﬁned as knowledge of, and ability to use, the formal resources from which
well-formed, meaningful messages may be assembled and formulated. The scheme that
follows aims only to offer as classiﬁcatory tools some parameters and categories which
may be found useful for the description of linguistic content and as a basis for reﬂection. Those practitioners who prefer to use a different frame of reference are free, here
as elsewhere, to do so. They should then identify the theory, tradition or practice they
are following. Here, we distinguish:
5.2.1.1
5.2.1.2
5.2.1.3
5.2.1.4
5.2.1.5
5.2.1.6

lexical competence;grammatical competence;
semantic competence;phonological competence;
Orthographic competence;
Orthoepic competence.

Progress in the development of a learner’s ability to use linguistic resources can be scaled
and is presented in that form below as appropriate.

109Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
GENERAL LINGUISTIC RANGECan exploit a comprehensive and reliable mastery of a very wide range of language to formulate
thoughts precisely, give emphasis, differentiate and eliminate ambiguity . . . No signs of having to
restrict what he/she wants to say.

C2
C1

Can select an appropriate formulation from a broad range of language to express him/herself clearly,
without having to restrict what he/she wants to say.
Can express him/herself clearly and without much sign of having to restrict what he/she wants to say.

B2

Has a sufﬁcient range of language to be able to give clear descriptions, express viewpoints and develop
arguments without much conspicuous searching for words, using some complex sentence forms to do so.
Has a sufﬁcient range of language to describe unpredictable situations, explain the main points in an
idea or problem with reasonable precision and express thoughts on abstract or cultural topics such asmusic and ﬁlms.

B1

Has enough language to get by, with sufﬁcient vocabulary to express him/herself with some hesitationand circumlocutions on topics such as family, hobbies and interests, work, travel, and current events, but
lexical limitations cause repetition and even difﬁculty with formulation at times.
Has a repertoire of basic language which enables him/her to deal with everyday situations withpredictable content, though he/she will generally have to compromise the message and search for words.
Can produce brief everyday expressions in order to satisfy simple needs of a concrete type: personal
details, daily routines, wants and needs, requests for information.
Can use basic sentence patterns and communicate with memorised phrases, groups of a few words andformulae about themselves and other people, what they do, places, possessions etc.
Has a limited repertoire of short memorised phrases covering predictable survival situations; frequent
breakdowns and misunderstandings occur in non-routine situations.

A2

A1

Has a very basic range of simple expressions about personal details and needs of a concrete type.

5.2.1.1 Lexical competence, knowledge of, and ability to use, the vocabulary of a language, consists of lexical elements and grammatical elements.
Lexical elements include:a) Fixed expressions, consisting of several words, which are used and learnt as wholes.
Fixed expressions include:•

sentential formulae, including:
direct exponents of language functions (see section 5.2.3.2) such as greetings, e.g.
How do you do? Good morning! etc.
proverbs, etc. (see section 5.2.2.3)
relict archaisms, e.g. Be off with you!

•phrasal idioms, often:
semantically opaque, frozen metaphors, e.g.:
He kicked the bucket (i.e. he died).
It’s a long shot (= unlikely to succeed).

110The user/learner’s competences
He drove hell for leather (i.e. very fast).
intensiﬁers. Their use is often contextually and stylistically restricted, e.g. as white
as snow (= ‘pure’), as against as white as a sheet (= ‘pallid’).
•

ﬁxed frames, learnt and used as unanalysed wholes, into which words or phrases
are inserted to form meaningful sentences, e.g.: ‘Please may I have . . .’.

•other ﬁxed phrases, such as:phrasal verbs, e.g. to put up with, to make do (with);
compound prepositions, e.g. in front of.

•ﬁxed collocations, consisting of words regularly used together, e.g. to make aspeech/mistake.

b) Single word forms. A particular single word form may have several distinct meanings(polysemy), e.g. tank, a liquid container or an armoured armed vehicle. Single wordforms include members of the open word classes: noun, verb, adjective, adverb,
though these may include closed lexical sets (e.g. days of the week, months of theyear, weights and measures, etc.). Other lexical sets may also be established for grammatical and semantic purposes (see below).
Grammatical elements belong to closed word classes, e.g. (in English):articlesquantiﬁers
demonstratives
personal pronouns
question words andrelatives
possessives
prepositions
auxiliary verbs
conjunctions
particles(a, the)(some, all, many, etc.)(this, that, these, those)(I, we, he, she, it, they, me, you, etc.)(who, what, which, where, how, etc.)(my, your, his, her, its, etc.)(in, at, by, with, of, etc.)(be, do, have, modals)(and, but, if, although)(e.g. in German: ja, wohl, aber, doch, etc.)

Illustrative scales are available for the range of vocabulary knowledge, and the ability tocontrol that knowledge.

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
VOCABULARY RANGE
C2

Has a good command of a very broad lexical repertoire including idiomatic expressions andcolloquialisms; shows awareness of connotative levels of meaning.

C1

Has a good command of a broad lexical repertoire allowing gaps to be readily overcome withcircumlocutions; little obvious searching for expressions or avoidance strategies. Good command of
idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms.

B2

B1

Has a good range of vocabulary for matters connected to his/her ﬁeld and most general topics. Can
vary formulation to avoid frequent repetition, but lexical gaps can still cause hesitation andcircumlocution.
Has a sufﬁcient vocabulary to express him/herself with some circumlocutions on most topics pertinent tohis/her everyday life such as family, hobbies and interests, work, travel, and current events.
Has sufﬁcient vocabulary to conduct routine, everyday transactions involving familiar situations andtopics.

A2
Has a sufﬁcient vocabulary for the expression of basic communicative needs.
Has a sufﬁcient vocabulary for coping with simple survival needs.
A1

Has a basic vocabulary repertoire of isolated words and phrases related to particular concrete
situations.

VOCABULARY CONTROL
C2Consistently correct and appropriate use of vocabulary.

C1

Occasional minor slips, but no signiﬁcant vocabulary errors.

B2

Lexical accuracy is generally high, though some confusion and incorrect word choice does occur withouthindering communication.

B1

Shows good control of elementary vocabulary but major errors still occur when expressing more complex
thoughts or handling unfamiliar topics and situations.

A2

Can control a narrow repertoire dealing with concrete everyday needs.

A1

No descriptor available

Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• which lexical elements (ﬁxed expressions and single word forms) the learner will need/beequipped/be required to recognise and/or use;
• how they are selected and ordered.

5.2.1.2 Grammatical competence
Grammatical competence may be deﬁned as knowledge of, and ability to use, the grammatical resources of a language.
Formally, the grammar of a language may be seen as the set of principles governing
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The user/learner’s competences
the assembly of elements into meaningful labelled and bracketed strings (sentences).
Grammatical competence is the ability to understand and express meaning by producing and recognising well-formed phrases and sentences in accordance with these principles (as opposed to memorising and reproducing them as ﬁxed formulae). The grammarof any language in this sense is highly complex and so far deﬁes deﬁnitive or exhaustive
treatment. There are a number of competing theories and models for the organisationof words into sentences. It is not the function of the Framework to judge between themor to advocate the use of any one, but rather to encourage users to state which they havechosen to follow and what consequences their choice has for their practice. Here we limit
ourselves to identifying some parameters and categories which have been widely used ingrammatical description.
The description of grammatical organisation involves the speciﬁcation of:• elements, e.g.:morphsmorphemes-roots and afﬁxes
words• categories, e.g.:number, case, genderconcrete/abstract, countable/uncountable(in)transitive, active/passive voicepast/present/future tense
progressive, (im)perfect aspect• classes, e.g.:

conjugations
declensions
open word classes: nouns, verbs, adjectives, adverbs, closed wordclasses (grammatical elements – see section 5.2.1.1)• structures, e.g.:

compound and complex words
phrases: (noun phrase, verb phrase, etc.)
clauses: (main, subordinate, co-ordinate)
sentences: (simple, compound, complex)• processes (descriptive), e.g.:
nominalisation
afﬁxation
suppletion
gradationtranspositiontransformation• relations, e.g.:

government
concordvalency

An illustrative scale is available for grammatical accuracy. This scale should be seen in
relation to the scale for general linguistic range shown at the beginning of this section.
It is not considered possible to produce a scale for progression in respect of grammaticalstructure which would be applicable across all languages.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
GRAMMATICAL ACCURACY
C2

Maintains consistent grammatical control of complex language, even while attention is otherwise
engaged (e.g. in forward planning, in monitoring others’ reactions).

C1

Consistently maintains a high degree of grammatical accuracy; errors are rare and difﬁcult to
spot.
Good grammatical control; occasional ‘slips’ or non-systematic errors and minor ﬂaws in sentence
structure may still occur, but they are rare and can often be corrected in retrospect.

B2

Shows a relatively high degree of grammatical control. Does not make mistakes which lead tomisunderstanding.
Communicates with reasonable accuracy in familiar contexts; generally good control though with
noticeable mother tongue inﬂuence. Errors occur, but it is clear what he/she is trying to express.

B1
Uses reasonably accurately a repertoire of frequently used ‘routines’ and patterns associated with morepredictable situations.
A2

A1

Uses some simple structures correctly, but still systematically makes basic mistakes – for example tends
to mix up tenses and forget to mark agreement; nevertheless, it is usually clear what he/she is trying tosay.
Shows only limited control of a few simple grammatical structures and sentence patterns in a learnt
repertoire.

Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• on which theory of grammar they have based their work;• which grammatical elements, categories, classes, structures, processes and relations arelearners, etc. equipped/required to handle.

A distinction is traditionally drawn between morphology and syntax.
Morphology deals with the internal organisation of words. Words may be analysed intomorphemes, classed as:• roots, or stems;• afﬁxes (preﬁxes, sufﬁxes, inﬁxes), including:word-forming afﬁxes (e.g. re-, un-, -ly, -ness);
inﬂexional afﬁxes (e.g. s, -ed, -ing).
Word-formation:
Words may be classiﬁed into:• simple words (root only, e.g. six, tree, break);• complex words (root + afﬁxes, e.g. unbrokenly, sixes);• compound words (containing more than one root, e.g. sixpence, breakdown, oak-tree,
evening dress).
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The user/learner’s competences
Morphology also deals with other ways of modifying word forms, e.g.:
•
•
•
•
•

vowel alteration
consonant modiﬁcation
irregular forms
suppletion
zero forms(sing/sang/sung, mouse/mice)(lend/lent)(bring/brought, catch/caught)(go/went)(sheep/sheep, cut/cut/cut)

Morphophonology deals with the phonetically conditioned variation of morphemes(e.g. English s/z/iz in walks, lies, rises; t/d/id in laughed, cried, shouted), and their morphologically conditioned phonetic variation (e.g. i:/e in creep/crept, mean/meant, weep/wept).
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what morphological elements and processes the learner will need/be equipped/required tohandle.
Syntax deals with the organisation of words into sentences in terms of the categories,
elements, classes, structures, processes and relations involved, often presented in theform of a set of rules. The syntax of the language of a mature native speaker is highly
complex and largely unconscious. The ability to organise sentences to convey meaning
is a central aspect of communicative competence.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what grammatical elements, categories, classes, structures, processes and relations
learners will need/be equipped/required to handle.

5.2.1.3 Semantic competence
deals with the learner’s awareness and control of the organisation of meaning.
Lexical semantics deals with questions of word meaning, e.g.:• relation of word to general context:
reference;
connotation;
exponence of general speciﬁc notions;• interlexical relations, such as:synonymy/antonymy;
hyponymy;
collocation;
part-whole relations;componential analysis;translation equivalence.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Grammatical semantics deals with the meaning of grammatical elements, categories,
structures and processes (see section 5.2.1.2).
Pragmatic semantics deals with logical relations such as entailment, presupposition,
implicature, etc.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what kinds of semantic relation learners are equipped/required to build up/demonstrate.
Questions of meaning are of course central to communication and are treated passim in
this Framework (see particularly section 5.1.1.1).
Linguistic competence is treated here in a formal sense. From the point of view oftheoretical or descriptive linguistics, a language is a highly complex symbolic system.
When an attempt is made, as here, to separate out the many different components of communicative competence, knowledge (largely unconscious) of and ability to handle formal
structure is legitimately identiﬁable as one of those components. How much, if indeed
any, of this formal analysis should enter into language learning or teaching is a different
matter. The functional/notional approach adopted in the Council of Europe publications
Waystage 1990, Threshold Level 1990 and Vantage Level offers an alternative to the treatmentof linguistic competence in Section 5.2.1–3. Instead of starting from language forms andtheir meanings, it starts from a systematic classiﬁcation of communicative functions andof notions, divided into general and speciﬁc, and secondarily deals with forms, lexical andgrammatical, as their exponents. The approaches are complementary ways of dealing
with the ‘double articulation’ of language. Languages are based on an organisation ofform and an organisation of meaning. The two kinds of organisation cut across each otherin a largely arbitrary fashion. A description based on the organisation of the forms ofexpression atomises meaning, and that based on the organisation of meaning atomises
form. Which is to be preferred by the user will depend on the purpose for which thedescription is produced. The success of the Threshold Level approach indicates that many
practitioners ﬁnd it more advantageous to go from meaning to form rather than the more
traditional practice of organising progression in purely formal terms. On the other hand,some may prefer to use a ‘communicative grammar’, as for example, in Un niveau-seuil.
What is clear is that a language learner has to acquire both forms and meanings.

5.2.1.4 Phonological competence
involves a knowledge of, and skill in the perception and production of:• the sound-units (phonemes) of the language and their realisation in particular contexts (allophones);• the phonetic features which distinguish phonemes (distinctive features, e.g. voicing,rounding, nasality, plosion);• the phonetic composition of words (syllable structure, the sequence of phonemes, word
stress, word tones);• sentence phonetics (prosody)• sentence stress and rhythm• intonation;
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The user/learner’s competences• phonetic reduction• vowel reduction• strong and weak forms• assimilation• elision.
PHONOLOGICAL CONTROL
C2

As C1

C1

Can vary intonation and place sentence stress correctly in order to express ﬁner shades of meaning.

B2

Has acquired a clear, natural, pronunciation and intonation.

B1

Pronunciation is clearly intelligible even if a foreign accent is sometimes evident and occasional
mispronunciations occur.

A2

Pronunciation is generally clear enough to be understood despite a noticeable foreign accent, butconversational partners will need to ask for repetition from time to time.

A1

Pronunciation of a very limited repertoire of learnt words and phrases can be understood with someeffort by native speakers used to dealing with speakers of his/her language group.

Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what new phonological skills are required of the learner;• what is the relative importance of sounds and prosody;• whether phonetic accuracy and ﬂuency are an early learning objective or developed as alonger term objective.

5.2.1.5 Orthographic competence
involves a knowledge of and skill in the perception and production of the symbols of
which written texts are composed. The writing systems of all European languages are
based on the alphabetic principle, though those of some other languages follow an ideographic (logographic) principle (e.g. Chinese) or a consonantal principle (e.g. Arabic).
For alphabetic systems, learners should know and be able to perceive and produce:
•
•
•
•
•

the form of letters in printed and cursive forms in both upper and lower casethe proper spelling of words, including recognised contracted forms
punctuation marks and their conventions of use
typographical conventions and varieties of font, etc.
logographic signs in common use (e.g. @, &, $, etc.)

5.2.1.6 Orthoepic competence
Conversely, users required to read aloud a prepared text, or to use in speech words ﬁrst
encountered in their written form, need to be able to produce a correct pronunciationfrom the written form. This may involve:
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment• knowledge of spelling conventions• ability to consult a dictionary and a knowledge of the conventions used there for the
representation of pronunciation• knowledge of the implications of written forms, particularly punctuation marks, forphrasing and intonation• ability to resolve ambiguity (homonyms, syntactic ambiguities, etc.) in the light ofthe context
ORTHOGRAPHIC CONTROL
C2

Writing is orthographically free of error.

C1

Layout, paragraphing and punctuation are consistent and helpful.
Spelling is accurate, apart from occasional slips of the pen.

B2

Can produce clearly intelligible continuous writing which follows standard layout and paragraphing
conventions.
Spelling and punctuation are reasonably accurate but may show signs of mother tongue inﬂuence.

B1

Can produce continuous writing which is generally intelligible throughout.
Spelling, punctuation and layout are accurate enough to be followed most of the time.

A2

Can copy short sentences on everyday subjects – e.g. directions how to get somewhere.
Can write with reasonable phonetic accuracy (but not necessarily fully standard spelling) short words
that are in his/her oral vocabulary.

A1

Can copy familiar words and short phrases e.g. simple signs or instructions, names of everyday objects,
names of shops and set phrases used regularly.
Can spell his/her address, nationality and other personal details.

Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• the orthographic and orthoepic needs of learners in relation to their use of spoken andwritten varieties of language, and their need to convert text from spoken to written form
and vice versa.

5.2.2 Sociolinguistic competenceSociolinguistic competence is concerned with the knowledge and skills required to deal
with the social dimension of language use. As was remarked with regard to sociocultural competence, since language is a sociocultural phenomenon, much of what is contained in the Framework, particularly in respect of the sociocultural, is of relevance tosociolinguistic competence. The matters treated here are those speciﬁcally relating tolanguage use and not dealt with elsewhere: linguistic markers of social relations; politeness conventions; expressions of folk-wisdom; register differences; and dialect andaccent.

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The user/learner’s competences
5.2.2.1 Linguistic markers of social relations
These are of course widely divergent in different languages and cultures, depending onsuch factors as a) relative status, b) closeness of relation, c) register of discourse, etc. The
examples given below for English are not universally applicable and may or may not haveequivalence in other languages.
• use and choice of greetings:
on arrival, e.g. Hello! Good morning!
introductions, e.g. How do you do?
leave-taking, e.g. Good-bye . . . See you later• use and choice of address forms:
frozen, e.g. My Lord, Your Grace
formal, e.g. Sir, Madam, Miss, Dr, Professor (+ surname)informal, e.g. ﬁrst name only, such as John! Susan!
informal, e.g. no address form
familiar, e.g. dear, darling; (popular) mate, love
peremptory, e.g. surname only, such as Smith! You (there)!
ritual insult, e.g. you stupid idiot! (often affectionate)• conventions for turntaking• use and choice of expletives (e.g. Dear, dear!, My God!, Bloody Hell!, etc.)

5.2.2.2 Politeness conventions
Politeness conventions provide one of the most important reasons for departing from thestraightforward application of the ‘co-operative principle’ (see section 5.2.3.1). They varyfrom one culture to another and are a frequent source of inter-ethnic misunderstanding,especially when polite expressions are literally interpreted.
1. ‘positive’ politeness, e.g.:• showing interest in a person’s well being;• sharing experiences and concerns, ‘troubles talk’;• expressing admiration, affection, gratitude;• offering gifts, promising future favours, hospitality;
2. ‘negative’ politeness, e.g.:• avoiding face-threatening behaviour (dogmatism, direct orders, etc.);• expressing regret, apologising for face-threatening behaviour (correction, contradiction, prohibitions, etc.);• using hedges, etc. (e.g. ‘ I think’, tag questions, etc.);
3. appropriate use of ‘please’, ‘thank you’, etc.;
4. impoliteness (deliberate ﬂouting of politeness conventions), e.g.:• bluntness, frankness;• expressing contempt, dislike;119Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment• strong complaint and reprimand;• venting anger, impatience;• asserting superiority.

5.2.2.3 Expressions of folk wisdom
These ﬁxed formulae, which both incorporate and reinforce common attitudes, make asigniﬁcant contribution to popular culture. They are frequently used, or perhaps more
often referred to or played upon, for instance in newspaper headlines. A knowledge ofthis accumulated folk wisdom, expressed in language assumed to be known to all, is asigniﬁcant component of the linguistic aspect of sociocultural competence.
••••

proverbs, e.g. a stitch in time saves nine
idioms, e.g. a sprat to catch a mackerelfamiliar quotations, e.g. a man’s a man for a’ that
expressions of:belief, such as – weathersaws, e.g. Fine before seven, rain by elevenattitudes, such as – clichés, e.g. It takes all sorts to make a world
values, e.g. It’s not cricket.

Grafﬁti, T-shirt slogans, TV catch phrases, work-place cards and posters now often havethis function.

5.2.2.4 Register differences
The term ‘register’ is used to refer to systematic differences between varieties of language
used in different contexts. This is a very broad concept, which could cover what is here
dealt with under ‘tasks’ (section 4.3), ‘text-types’ (4.6.4) and ‘macrofunctions’(5.2.3.2). In
this section we deal with differences in level of formality:
•
•
•
•
•
•

frozen, e.g. Pray silence for His Worship the Mayor!
formal, e.g. May we now come to order, please.
neutral, e.g. Shall we begin?
informal, e.g. Right. What about making a start?
familiar, e.g. O.K. Let’s get going.
intimate, e.g. Ready dear?

In early learning (say up to level B1), a relatively neutral register is appropriate, unlessthere are compelling reasons otherwise. It is this register that native speakers are likely
to use towards and expect from foreigners and strangers generally. Acquaintance withmore formal or more familiar registers is likely to come over a period of time, perhaps
through the reading of different text-types, particularly novels, at ﬁrst as a receptive competence. Some caution should be exercised in using more formal or more familiar registers, since their inappropriate use may well lead to misinterpretation and ridicule.

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5.2.2.5 Dialect and accent
Sociolinguistic competence also includes the ability to recognise the linguistic markers
of, for example:
•
•
•
•
•

social classregional provenancenational origin
ethnicity
occupational group

Such markers include:• lexicon, e.g. Scottish wee for ‘small’• grammar, e.g. Cockney I ain’t seen nothing for ‘I haven’t seen anything’• phonology, e.g. New York boid for ‘bird’• vocal characteristics (rhythm, loudness, etc.)• paralinguistics• body language
No European language communities are entirely homogenous. Different regions havetheir peculiarities in language and culture. These are usually most marked in those wholive purely local lives and therefore correlate with social class, occupation and educational level. Recognition of such dialectal features therefore gives signiﬁcant clues as tothe interlocutor’s characteristics. Stereotyping plays a large role in this process. It can be
reduced by the development of intercultural skills (see section 5.1.2.2). Learners will in
the course of time also come into contact with speakers of various provenances. Before
themselves adopting dialect forms they should be aware of their social connotations andof the need for coherence and consistency.
The scaling of items for aspects of sociolinguistic competence proved problematic (seeAppendix B). Items successfully scaled are shown in the illustrative scale below. As canbe seen, the bottom part of the scale concerns only markers of social relations and politeness conventions. From Level B2, users are then found able to express themselves adequately in language which is sociolinguistically appropriate to the situations andpersons involved, and begin to acquire an ability to cope with variation of speech, plus agreater degree of control over register and idiom.

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
SOCIOLINGUISTIC APPROPRIATENESS

C2

Has a good command of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms with awareness of connotative levelsof meaning.
Appreciates fully the sociolinguistic and sociocultural implications of language used by native speakers
and can react accordingly.
Can mediate effectively between speakers of the target language and that of his/her community of origin
taking account of sociocultural and sociolinguistic differences.

C1

Can recognise a wide range of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms, appreciating register shifts;
may, however, need to conﬁrm occasional details, especially if the accent is unfamiliar.
Can follow ﬁlms employing a considerable degree of slang and idiomatic usage.
Can use language ﬂexibly and effectively for social purposes, including emotional, allusive and joking
usage.
Can express him or herself conﬁdently, clearly and politely in a formal or informal register, appropriate
to the situation and person(s) concerned.

B2

B1

A2

Can with some effort keep up with and contribute to group discussions even when speech is fast andcolloquial.
Can sustain relationships with native speakers without unintentionally amusing or irritating them or
requiring them to behave other than they would with a native speaker.
Can express him or herself appropriately in situations and avoid crass errors of formulation.
Can perform and respond to a wide range of language functions, using their most common exponents ina neutral register.
Is aware of the salient politeness conventions and acts appropriately.
Is aware of, and looks out for signs of, the most signiﬁcant differences between the customs, usages,
attitudes, values and beliefs prevalent in the community concerned and those of his or her own.
Can perform and respond to basic language functions, such as information exchange and requests andexpress opinions and attitudes in a simple way.
Can socialise simply but effectively using the simplest common expressions and following basic routines.
Can handle very short social exchanges, using everyday polite forms of greeting and address. Can makeand respond to invitations, suggestions, apologies, etc.

A1

Can establish basic social contact by using the simplest everyday polite forms of: greetings and farewells;
introductions; saying please, thank you, sorry, etc.

Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what range of greetings, address forms and expletives learners should need/be equipped/berequired to a) recognise b) evaluate sociologically c) use themselves;• which politeness conventions learners should need/be equipped/be required to a) recognise
and understand b) use themselves;• which forms of impoliteness learners should need/be equipped/be required to a) recognise
and understand b) use themselves and in which situations to do so;• which proverbs, clichés and folk idioms learners should need/be equipped/be required to a)recognise and understand b) use themselves;• which registers learners should need/be equipped/be required to a) recognise b) use;
• which social groups in the target community and, perhaps, in the international community
the learner should need/be equipped/be required to recognise by their use of language.
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The user/learner’s competences
5.2.3 Pragmatic competences
Pragmatic competences are concerned with the user/learner’s knowledge of the principles according to which messages are:a) organised, structured and arranged (‘discourse competence’);b) used to perform communicative functions (‘functional competence’);c) sequenced according to interactional and transactional schemata (‘design competence’).
5.2.3.1 Discourse competence is the ability of a user/learner to arrange sentences insequence so as to produce coherent stretches of language. It includes knowledge of andability to control the ordering of sentences in terms of:• topic/focus;• given/new;• ‘natural’ sequencing: e.g. temporal:‘natural’ sequencing: e.g. • He fell over and I hit him, as against‘natural’ sequencing: e.g. e.g. • I hit him and he fell over.
• cause/effect (invertible) – prices are rising – people want higher wages.
• ability to structure and manage discourse in terms of:thematic organisation;
coherence and cohesion;
logical ordering;style and register;rhetorical effectiveness;the ‘co-operative principle’ (Grice 1975): ‘make your contribution such as is required, atthe stage at which it occurs, by the accepted purpose or direction of the talk exchange
in which you are engaged, by observing the following maxims:• quality (try to make your contribution one that is true);• quantity (make your contribution as informative as necessary, but not more);• relevance (do not say what is not relevant);• manner (be brief and orderly, avoid obscurity and ambiguity)’.
Departure from these criteria for straightforward and efﬁcient communication should
be for a speciﬁc purpose rather than because of inability to meet them.
• Text design: knowledge of the design conventions in the community concerning, e.g.:
how information is structured in realising the various macrofunctions (description,
narrative, exposition, etc.);
how stories, anecdotes, jokes, etc. are told;
how a case is built up (in law, debate, etc.);
how written texts (essays, formal letters, etc.) are laid out, signposted and sequenced.
A good deal of mother tongue education is devoted to building a young person’s discourse skills. In learning a foreign language, a learner is likely to start with short turns,
usually of single sentence length. At higher levels of proﬁciency, the development of discourse competence, the components of which are indicated in the section, becomes ofincreasing importance.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Illustrative scales are available for the following aspects of discourse competence:••••

Flexibility to circumstances;
Turntaking (also presented under interaction strategies);
Thematic development;
Coherence and cohesion.
FLEXIBILITY

C2

Shows great ﬂexibility reformulating ideas in differing linguistic forms to give emphasis, to differentiate
according to the situation, interlocutor, etc. and to eliminate ambiguity.

C1

As B2+Can adjust what he/she says and the means of expressing it to the situation and the recipient and adopt
a level of formality appropriate to the circumstances.

B2

Can adjust to the changes of direction, style and emphasis normally found in conversation.
Can vary formulation of what he/she wants to say.
Can adapt his/her expression to deal with less routine, even difﬁcult, situations.

B1

A2

Can exploit a wide range of simple language ﬂexibly to express much of what he/she wants.
Can adapt well rehearsed memorised simple phrases to particular circumstances through limited lexical
substitution.
Can expand learned phrases through simple recombinations of their elements.

A1

No descriptor available

TURNTAKING
C2
C1

B2

As C1
Can select a suitable phrase from a readily available range of discourse functions to preface his/her
remarks appropriately in order to get the ﬂoor, or to gain time and keep the ﬂoor whilst thinking.
Can intervene appropriately in discussion, exploiting appropriate language to do so.
Can initiate, maintain and end discourse appropriately with effective turntaking.
Can initiate discourse, take his/her turn when appropriate and end conversation when he/she needs to,though he/she may not always do this elegantly.
Can use stock phrases (e.g. ‘That’s a difﬁcult question to answer’) to gain time and keep the turn whilst
formulating what to say.
Can intervene in a discussion on a familiar topic, using a suitable phrase to get the ﬂoor.

B1

A2

Can initiate, maintain and close simple face-to-face conversation on topics that are familiar or of
personal interest.
Can use simple techniques to start, maintain, or end a short conversation.
Can initiate, maintain and close simple, face-to-face conversation.
Can ask for attention.

A1

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No descriptor available

The user/learner’s competences
THEMATIC DEVELOPMENT
C2

As C1

C1

Can give elaborate descriptions and narratives, integrating sub-themes, developing particular points
and rounding off with an appropriate conclusion.

B2

Can develop a clear description or narrative, expanding and supporting his/her main points with
relevant supporting detail and examples.

B1

Can reasonably ﬂuently relate a straightforward narrative or description as a linear sequence of points.

A2

Can tell a story or describe something in a simple list of points.

A1

No descriptor available

COHERENCE AND COHESIONC2

Can create coherent and cohesive text making full and appropriate use of a variety of organisational
patterns and a wide range of cohesive devices.

C1

Can produce clear, smoothly ﬂowing, well-structured speech, showing controlled use of organisational
patterns, connectors and cohesive devices.
Can use a variety of linking words efﬁciently to mark clearly the relationships between ideas.

B2

Can use a limited number of cohesive devices to link his/her utterances into clear, coherent discourse,
though there may be some ‘jumpiness’ in a long contribution.

B1

Can link a series of shorter, discrete simple elements into a connected, linear sequence of points.

A2

Can use the most frequently occurring connectors to link simple sentences in order to tell a story or
describe something as a simple list of points.
Can link groups of words with simple connectors like ‘and’, ‘but’ and ‘because’.

A1

Can link words or groups of words with very basic linear connectors like ‘and’ or ‘then’.

5.2.3.2 Functional competenceThis component is concerned with the use of spoken discourse and written texts in communication for particular functional purposes (see section 4.2). Conversational competence is not simply a matter of knowing which particular functions (microfunctions) are
expressed by which language forms. Participants are engaged in an interaction, in which
each initiative leads to a response and moves the interaction further on, according to its
purpose, through a succession of stages from opening exchanges to its ﬁnal conclusion.
Competent speakers have an understanding of the process and skills in operating it. A
macrofunction is characterised by its interactional structure. More complex situations
may well have an internal structure involving sequences of macrofunctions, which in manycases are ordered according to formal or informal patterns of social interaction (schemata).
1. Microfunctions are categories for the functional use of single (usually short) utterances, usually as turns in an interaction. Microfunctions are categorised in some detail(but not exhaustively) in Threshold Level 1990, Chapter 5:125Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
1.1 imparting and seeking factual information:• identifying• reporting• correcting• asking• answering
1.2 expressing and ﬁnding out attitudes:• factual (agreement/disagreement)• knowledge (knowledge/ignorance, remembering, forgetting, probability, certainty)• modality (obligations, necessity, ability, permission)• volition (wants, desires, intentions, preference)• emotions (pleasure/displeasure, likes/dislikes, satisfaction, interest, surprise,
hope, disappointment, fear, worry, gratitude)• moral (apologies, approval, regret, sympathy)
1.3 suasion:• suggestions, requests, warnings, advice, encouragement, asking help, invitations, offers
1.4 socialising:• attracting attention, addressing, greetings, introductions, toasting, leave-taking
1.5 structuring discourse:• (28 microfunctions, opening, turntaking, closing, etc.)
1.6 communication repair• (16 microfunctions)
2. Macrofunctions are categories for the functional use of spoken discourse or written
text consisting of a (sometimes extended) sequence of sentences, e.g.:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

description
narrationcommentary
exposition
exegesis
explanation
demonstration
instruction
argumentation
persuasion
etc.

3.

Interaction schemata

Functional competence also includes knowledge of and ability to use the schemata (patterns of social interaction) which underlie communication, such as verbal exchange pat126

The user/learner’s competences
terns. The interactive communicative activities set out in section 4.4.3 involve structured
sequences of actions by the parties in turns. At their simplest, they form pairs such as:question:statement:
request/offer/apology:
greeting/toast:answeragreement/disagreement
acceptance/non-acceptance
response

Triplets, in which the ﬁrst speaker acknowledges or responds to the interlocutor’s reply,
are common. Pairs and triplets are usually embedded in longer transactions and interactions. For instance, in more complex goal-oriented co-operative transactions, language isused as necessary to:• form the working group and establish relations among participants;• establish common knowledge of the relevant features of the current situation andarrive at a common reading;• identify what could and ought to be changed;• establish common agreement on goals and on the action required to meet them;• agree roles in carrying out the action;• manage the practical actions involved by e.g.:
identifying and dealing with problems which arise;co-ordinating and sequencing contributions;mutual encouragement;
recognising the achievement of sub-goals;• recognise the ﬁnal achievement of the task;• evaluate the transaction;• complete and terminate the transaction.
The total process can be represented schematically. An example is the general schema
offered for the purchase of goods or services in Threshold Level 1990, Chapter 8:General Schema for purchase of goods or services
1. Moving to place of transaction
1.1 Finding the way to the shop, store, supermarket, restaurant, station, hotel, etc.
1.2 Finding the way to the counter, department, table, ticket ofﬁce, reception, etc.
2. Establishing contact
2.1 Exchanging greetings with the shopkeeper/assistant/waiter/receptionist, etc.
2.1.1 assistant greets
2.1.2 customer greets
3. Selecting goods/services
3.1 identifying category of goods/services required
3.1.1 seeking information
3.1.2 giving information
3.2 identifying options
3.3 discussing pros and cons of options (e.g. quality, price, colour, size of goods)
3.3.1 seeking information
3.3.2 giving information
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
3.3.3 seeking advice
3.3.4 giving advice
3.3.5 asking for preference
3.3.6 expressing preference, etc.
3.4 identifying particular goods required
3.5 examining goods
3.6 agreeing to purchase
4. Exchanging goods for payment
4.1 agreeing prices of items
4.2 agreeing addition of total
4.3 receiving/handing over payment
4.4 receiving/handing over goods (and receipt)
4.5 exchanging thanks
4.5.1 assistant thanks
4.5.2 customer thanks
5. Leave-taking
5.1 expressing (mutual) satisfaction
5.1.1 assistant expresses satisfaction
5.1.2 customer expresses satisfaction
5.2 exchanging interpersonal comment (e.g. weather, local gossip)
5.3 exchanging parting greetings
5.3.1 assistant greets
5.3.2 customer greets
NB It should be noted that, as with similar schemata, the availability of this schema to
shoppers and shop assistants does not mean that on every occasion this form is used.
Especially under modern conditions, language is often used more sparingly, particularly
to deal with problems that arise in an otherwise depersonalised and semi-automatedtransaction, or to humanise it (see section 4.1.1).
It is not feasible to develop illustrative scales for all the areas of competence implied
when one talks of functional ability. Certain microfunctional activities are in fact scaledin the illustrative scales for interactive and productive communicative activities.
Two generic qualitative factors which determine the functional success of the learner/
user are:a) ﬂuency, the ability to articulate, to keep going, and to cope when one lands in a deadendb) propositional precision, the ability to formulate thoughts and propositions so as tomake one’s meaning clear.

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The user/learner’s competences
Illustrative scales are available for these two qualitative aspects:
SPOKEN FLUENCYC2Can express him/herself at length with a natural, effortless, unhesitating ﬂow. Pauses only to reﬂect on
precisely the right words to express his/her thoughts or to ﬁnd an appropriate example or explanation.

C1

Can express him/herself ﬂuently and spontaneously, almost effortlessly. Only a conceptually difﬁcult
subject can hinder a natural, smooth ﬂow of language.
Can communicate spontaneously, often showing remarkable ﬂuency and ease of expression in evenlonger complex stretches of speech.

B2

Can produce stretches of language with a fairly even tempo; although he/she can be hesitant as he/shesearches for patterns and expressions, there are few noticeably long pauses.
Can interact with a degree of ﬂuency and spontaneity that makes regular interaction with native
speakers quite possible without imposing strain on either party.
Can express him/herself with relative ease. Despite some problems with formulation resulting in pausesand ‘cul-de-sacs’, he/she is able to keep going effectively without help.

B1

Can keep going comprehensibly, even though pausing for grammatical and lexical planning and repair
is very evident, especially in longer stretches of free production.
Can make him/herself understood in short contributions, even though pauses, false starts andreformulation are very evident.

A2

A1

Can construct phrases on familiar topics with sufﬁcient ease to handle short exchanges, despite very
noticeable hesitation and false starts.
Can manage very short, isolated, mainly pre-packaged utterances, with much pausing to search forexpressions, to articulate less familiar words, and to repair communication.

PROPOSITIONAL PRECISIONC2

Can convey ﬁner shades of meaning precisely by using, with reasonable accuracy, a wide range of
qualifying devices (e.g. adverbs expressing degree, clauses expressing limitations).
Can give emphasis, differentiate and eliminate ambiguity.

C1

Can qualify opinions and statements precisely in relation to degrees of, for example, certainty/
uncertainty, belief/doubt, likelihood, etc.

B2

Can pass on detailed information reliably.
Can explain the main points in an idea or problem with reasonable precision.

B1

Can convey simple, straightforward information of immediate relevance, getting across which point
he/she feels is most important.
Can express the main point he/she wants to make comprehensibly.

A2

Can communicate what he/she wants to say in a simple and direct exchange of limited information on
familiar and routine matters, but in other situations he/she generally has to compromise the message.

A1

No descriptor available

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Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

130

what discourse features the learner is equipped/required to control;
which macrofunctions the learner is equipped/required to produce;
which microfunctions the learner is equipped/required to produce;
what interaction schemata are needed by/required of the learner;
which he/she is assumed to control and which are to be taught;
according to what principles macro- and microfunctions are selected and ordered;
how qualitative progress in the pragmatic component can be characterised.

6 Language learning and teaching

In the body of this chapter we ask:
In what ways does the learner come to be able to carry out the tasks, activities and processes and build up the competences necessary for communication?
How can teachers, assisted by their various support services, facilitate these processes?
How can education authorities and other decision-makers best plan curricula formodern languages?
First, however, we should give some further consideration to learning objectives.

6.1

What is it that learners have to learn or acquire?

6.1.1 Statements of the aims and objectives of language learning and teaching should
be based on an appreciation of the needs of learners and of society, on the tasks, activities and processes that the learners need to carry out in order to satisfy those needs, andon the competences and strategies they need to develop/build up in order to do so.
Accordingly, Chapters 4 and 5 attempt to set out what a fully competent user of a language is able to do and what knowledge, skills and attitudes make these activities possible. They do as comprehensively as possible since we cannot know which activities will
be of importance to a particular learner. They indicate that, in order to participate withfull effectiveness in communicative events, learners must have learnt or acquired:• the necessary competences, as detailed in Chapter 5;• the ability to put these competences into action, as detailed in Chapter 4;• the ability to employ the strategies necessary to bring the competences into action.

6.1.2 For the purposes of representing or steering the progress of language learners, it
is useful to describe their abilities at a series of successive levels. Such scales have beenoffered where appropriate in Chapters 4 and 5. When charting the progress of students
through the earlier stages of their general education, at a time when their future careerneeds cannot be foreseen, or indeed whenever an overall assessment has to be made of alearner’s language proﬁciency, it may be most useful and practical to combine a numberof these categories into a single summary characterisation of language ability, as, forinstance, in Table 1 presented in Chapter 3.
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Greater ﬂexibility is afforded by a scheme, such as that in Table 2 in Chapter 3, intended
for the purposes of learner self-assessment, in which the various language activities are
scaled separately, though each again holistically. This presentation allows a proﬁle to beestablished in cases where skills development is uneven. Even greater ﬂexibility is ofcourse provided by the detailed and separate scaling of sub-categories as in Chapters 4 and
5. Whilst all the abilities set out in those chapters have to be deployed by a language user
to deal effectively with the full range of communicative events, not all learners will wish,
or need, to acquire them all in a non-native language. For instance, some learners will
have no requirement for written language. Others may be concerned only with the understanding of written texts. However, there is no strict implication that such learners should
conﬁne themselves to the spoken and written forms of the language respectively.
It may be, according to the learner’s cognitive style, that the memorisation of spoken
forms is greatly facilitated by association with the corresponding written forms. Viceversa, the perception of written forms may be facilitated, or even necessitated, by associating them with the corresponding oral utterances. If this is so, the sense modality not
required for use – and consequently not stated as an objective – may nevertheless be
involved in language learning as a means to an end. It is a matter for decision (conscious
or not) which competence, tasks, activities and strategies should be given a role in thedevelopment of a particular learner as objective or means.
It is also not a logical necessity for a competence, task, activity or strategy which is
identiﬁed as an objective as being necessary to the satisfaction of the learner’s communicative needs, to be included in a learning programme. For instance, much of what isincluded as ‘knowledge of the world’ may be assumed as prior knowledge, already within
the learner’s general competence as a result of previous experience of life or instruction
given in the mother tongue. The problem may then be simply ﬁnding the proper exponence in L2 for a notional category in L1. It will be a matter for decision what new knowledge must be learnt and what can be assumed. A problem arises when a particularconceptual ﬁeld is differently organised in L1 and L2, as is frequently the case, so that
correspondence of word-meanings is partial or inexact. How serious is the mismatch? To
what misunderstandings may it lead? Accordingly, what priority should it be given at aparticular stage of learning? At what level should mastery of the distinction be required
or attended to? Can the problem be left to sort itself out with experience?
Similar issues arise with respect to pronunciation. Many phonemes can be transferredfrom L1 to L2 unproblematically. In some cases the sounds used in particular contexts
may be noticeably different. Other phonemes in L2 may not be present in L1. If they are
not acquired or learnt, some loss of information is entailed and misunderstandings may
occur. How frequent and signiﬁcant are they likely to be? What priority should they begiven? Here, the question of the age or the stage of learning at which they are best learnt
is complicated by the fact that habituation is strongest at the phonetic level. To raise phonetic errors into consciousness and unlearn the automatised behaviours only once a
close approximation to native norms becomes fully appropriate, may be much more
expensive (in time and effort) than it would have been in the initial phase of learning,
especially at an early age.
Such considerations mean that the appropriate objectives for a particular stage oflearning for a particular learner, or class of learner at a particular age, cannot necessarily be derived by a straightforward across-the-board reading of the scales proposed foreach parameter. Decisions have to be made in each case.
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6.1.3 Plurilingual competence and pluricultural competence
The fact that the Framework does not conﬁne itself to providing ‘overview’ scaling ofcommunicative abilities, but breaks down global categories into their components andprovides scaling for them, is of particular importance when considering the development of plurilingual and pluricultural competences.

6.1.3.1 An uneven and changing competence
Plurilingual and pluricultural competence is generally uneven in one or more ways:• Learners generally attain greater proﬁciency in one language than in the others;• The proﬁle of competences in one language is different from that in others (forexample, excellent speaking competence in two languages, but good writing competence in only one of them);• The pluricultural proﬁle differs from the plurilingual proﬁle (for example: goodknowledge of the culture of a community but a poor knowledge of its language, orpoor knowledge of a community whose dominant language is nevertheless well mastered).
Such imbalances are entirely normal. If the concept of plurilingualism and pluriculturalism is extended to take into account the situation of all those who in their native language and culture are exposed to different dialects and to the cultural variation inherent
in any complex society, it is clear that here again imbalances (or, if preferred, different
types of balance) are the norm.
This imbalance is also linked to the changing nature of plurilingual and pluriculturalcompetence. Whereas the traditional view of ‘monolingual’ communicative competencein the ‘mother tongue’ suggests it is quickly stabilised, a plurilingual and pluriculturalcompetence presents a transitory proﬁle and a changing conﬁguration. Depending on
the career path, family history, travel experience, reading and hobbies of the individualin question, signiﬁcant changes take place in his/her linguistic and cultural biography,
altering the forms of imbalance in his/her plurilingualism, and rendering more complex
his/her experience of the plurality of cultures. This does not by any means imply instability, uncertainty or lack of balance on the part of the person in question, but rather contributes, in the majority of cases, to improved awareness of identity.

6.1.3.2 Differentiated competence allowing for language switching
Because of this imbalance, one of the features of a plurilingual and pluricultural competence is that in applying this competence, the individual in question draws upon both
his/her general and language skills and knowledge (see Chapters 4 and 5) in different
ways. For example the strategies used in carrying out tasks involving language use mayvary according to the language in question. Savoir-être (existential competence demonstrating openness, conviviality and good will (e.g. by the use of gestures, mime, proxemics) may, in the case of a language in which the individual has poorly mastered the
linguistic component, make up for this deﬁciency in the course of interaction with anative speaker, whereas in a language he or she knows better, this same individual may
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adopt a more distant or reserved attitude. The task may also be redeﬁned, the linguistic
message reshaped or redistributed, according to the resources available for expression or
the individual’s perception of these resources.
A further characteristic of plurilingual and pluricultural competence is that it does
not consist of the simple addition of monolingual competences but permits combinations and alternations of different kinds. It is possible to code switch during the message,
to resort to bilingual forms of speech. A single, richer repertoire of this kind thus allows
choice concerning strategies for task accomplishment, drawing where appropriate on aninterlinguistic variation and language switching.

6.1.3.3 Development of awareness and the process of use and learning
Plurilingual and pluricultural competence also promotes the development of linguistic
and communication awareness, and even metacognitive strategies which enable thesocial agent to become more aware of and control his or her own ‘spontaneous’ ways ofhandling tasks and in particular their linguistic dimension. In addition, this experienceof plurilingualism and pluriculturalism:• exploits pre-existing sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences which in turn develops
them further;• leads to a better perception of what is general and what is speciﬁc concerning the linguistic organisation of different languages (form of metalinguistic, interlinguistic or
so to speak ‘hyperlinguistic’ awareness);• by its nature reﬁnes knowledge of how to learn and the capacity to enter into relations with others and new situations.
It may, therefore, to some degree accelerate subsequent learning in the linguistic andcultural areas. This is the case even if plurilingual and pluricultural competence is‘uneven’ and if proﬁciency in a particular language remains ‘partial’.
It can be claimed, moreover, that while the knowledge of one foreign language andculture does not always lead to going beyond what may be ethnocentric in relation tothe ‘native’ language and culture, and may even have the opposite effect (it is not uncommon for the learning of one language and contact with one foreign culture to reinforce
stereotypes and preconceived ideas rather than reduce them), a knowledge of several languages is more likely to achieve this, while at the same time enriching the potential forlearning.
In this context the promotion of respect for the diversity of languages and of learning more than one foreign language in school is signiﬁcant. It is not simply a linguistic policy choice at an important point in the history of Europe, for example, nor even
– however important this may be – a matter of increasing future opportunities foryoung people competent in more than two languages. It is also a matter of helping
learners:• to construct their linguistic and cultural identity through integrating into it a diversiﬁed experience of otherness;• to develop their ability to learn through this same diversiﬁed experience of relating
to several languages and cultures.
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6.1.3.4 Partial competence and plurilingual and pluricultural competence
It is in this perspective also that the concept of partial competence in a particular language
is meaningful: it is not a matter of being satisﬁed, for reasons of principle or pragmatism, with the development of a limited or compartmentalised mastery of a foreign language by a learner, but rather of seeing this proﬁciency, imperfect at a given moment, as
forming part of a plurilingual competence which it enriches. It should also be pointed
out that this ‘partial’ competence, which is part of a multiple competence, is at the sametime a functional competence with respect to a speciﬁc limited objective.
The partial competence in a given language may concern receptive language activities(for example with the emphasis on oral or written comprehension); it may concern a particular domain and speciﬁc tasks (for example, to allow a post ofﬁce clerk to give information on the most usual post ofﬁce operations to foreign clients speaking a particularlanguage). But it may also involve general competences (for example non-linguistic knowledge about the characteristics of other languages and cultures and their communities),
so long as there is a functional role to this complementary development of one or otherdimension of the speciﬁed competences. In other words, in the framework of reference
proposed here, the notion of partial competence is to be viewed in relation to the different components of the model (see Chapter 3) and variation in objectives.

6.1.4 Variation in objectives in relation to the Framework
Curriculum design in language learning (no doubt even more so than in other disciplines and other types of learning) implies choices between kinds and levels of objectives.
The present proposal for a framework of reference takes particular account of this situation. Each of the major components of the model presented may provide a focus forlearning objectives and become a speciﬁc entry point for the use of the Framework.

6.1.4.1 Types of objectives in relation to the Framework
Teaching/learning objectives may in fact be conceived:a) In terms of the development of the learner’s general competences (see section 5.1) andthus be a matter of declarative knowledge (savoir), skills and know-how (savoir-faire), personality
traits, attitudes, etc. (savoir-être) or ability to learn, or more particularly one or other of these
dimensions. In some cases, the learning of a foreign language aims above all at imparting declarative knowledge to the learner (for example, of the grammar or literature or
certain cultural characteristics of the foreign country). In other instances, language
learning will be seen as a way for the learner to develop his or her personality (forexample greater assurance or self-conﬁdence, greater willingness to speak in a group) or
to develop his or her knowledge of how to learn (greater openness to what is new, awareness of otherness, curiosity about the unknown). There is every reason to consider thatthese particular objectives relating at any given time to a speciﬁc sector or type of competence, or the development of a partial competence, can in an across-the-board way contribute to the establishment or reinforcement of a plurilingual and pluriculturalcompetence. In other terms, the pursuit of a partial objective may be part of an overall
learning project.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessmentb) In terms of the extension and diversiﬁcation of communicative language competence(see section 5.2) and is then concerned with the linguistic component, or the pragmatic component or the sociolinguistic component, or all of these. The main aim of learning a foreign
language may be mastery of the linguistic component of a language (knowledge of its
phonetic system, its vocabulary and syntax) without any concern for sociolinguistic
ﬁnesse or pragmatic effectiveness. In other instances the objective may be primarily of apragmatic nature and seek to develop a capacity to act in the foreign language with thelimited linguistic resources available and without any particular concern for the sociolinguistic aspect. The options are of course never so exclusive as this and harmonious
progress in the different components is generally aimed at, but there is no shortage ofexamples, past and present, of a particular concentration on one or other of the components of communicative competence. Communicative language competence, considered
as a plurilingual and pluricultural competence, being a whole (i.e. including varieties of
the native language and varieties of one or more foreign languages), it is equally possible
to claim that, at certain times and in certain contexts, the main objective of teaching aforeign language (even though not made apparent) was reﬁnement of knowledge andmastery of the native language (e.g. by resorting to translation, work on registers and theappropriateness of vocabulary in translating into the native language, forms of comparative stylistics and semantics).
c) In terms of the better performance in one or more speciﬁc language activities (seesection 4.4) and is then a matter of reception, production, interaction or mediation. It may bethat the main stated objective of learning a foreign language is to have effective results
in receptive activities (reading or listening) or mediation (translating or interpreting) or
face-to-face interaction. Here again, it goes without saying that such polarisation cannever be total or be pursued independently of any other aim. However, in deﬁning objectives it is possible to attach signiﬁcantly greater importance to one aspect above others,
and this major focus, if it is consistent, will affect the entire process: choice of content
and learning tasks, deciding on and structuring progression and possible remedialaction, selection of type of texts, etc.
It will be seen that generally speaking the notion of partial competence has been primarily introduced and used in respect of some of these choices (e.g. insistence on learningthat emphasises in its objectives receptive activities and written and/or oral comprehension). But what is proposed here is an extension of this use:
• on the one hand by intimating that other partial competence-related objectives may
be identiﬁed (as has been referred to in a or b or d) in relation to the reference framework;• on the other hand by pointing out that this same reference framework allows for any
so-called ‘partial’ competence to be incorporated within a more general series of communicative and learning competences.
d) In terms of optimal functional operation in a given domain (see section 4.1.1) andthus concerns the public domain, the occupational domain, the educational domain or the
personal domain. The main aim of learning a foreign language may be to perform a job
better, or to help with studies or to facilitate life in a foreign country. As with the other136

Language learning and teachingmajor components of the model proposed, such aims are explicitly reﬂected in course
descriptions, in proposals and requests for language services, and learning/teachingmaterials. It is in this area that it has been possible to speak of ‘speciﬁc objectives’, ‘specialised courses’, ‘vocational language’, ‘preparation for a period of residence abroad’,‘linguistic reception of migrant workers’. This does not mean that consideration given
to the speciﬁc needs of a particular target group which has to adapt its plurilingual andpluricultural competence to a particular social ﬁeld of activity must always require an
educational approach appropriate to this aim. But, as with the other components, formulating an objective under this heading and with this focus normally has consequences for other aspects and stages of curriculum design and the provision of teaching
and learning.
It should be noted that this type of objective involving functional adaptation for agiven domain also corresponds to situations of bilingual education, immersion (asunderstood by the experiments carried out in Canada) and schooling where the languageof tuition is different from that spoken in the family environment (e.g. an education
exclusively in French in some multilingual former colonies in Africa). From this point ofview, and this is not incompatible with the main thrust of this analysis, these situationsof immersion, whatever the linguistic results they may lead to, are aimed at developing
partial competences: those relating to the educational domain and the acquisition ofknowledge other than linguistic. It will be recalled that in many experiments of total
immersion at a young age in Canada, despite the fact that the language of education was
French, initially no speciﬁc provision was made in the timetable for teaching French to
the English-speaking children concerned.
e) In terms of the enrichment or diversiﬁcation of strategies or in terms of the fulﬁlmentof tasks (see sections 4.5 and Chapter 7) and thus relates to the management of actions
linked to the learning and use of one or more languages, and the discovery or experienceof other cultures.
In many learning experiences it may seem preferable, at one time or another, to focus
attention on the development of strategies that will enable one or other type of task
having a linguistic dimension to be carried out. Accordingly, the objective is to improve
the strategies traditionally used by the learner by rendering them more sophisticated,
more extensive and more conscious, by seeking to adapt them to tasks for which they
had not originally been used. Whether these are communication or learning strategies,
if one takes the view that they enable an individual to mobilise his or her own competences in order to implement and possibly improve or extend them, it is worthwhile
ensuring that such strategies are indeed cultivated as an objective, even though they may
not form an end in themselves.
Tasks are normally focused within a given domain and considered as objectives to beachieved in relation to that domain, ﬁtting in with point d above. But there are cases
where the learning objective is limited to the more or less stereotyped carrying out ofcertain tasks that may involve limited linguistic elements in one or more foreign languages: an often quoted example is that of a switchboard operator where the ‘plurilingual’ performance expected, based on a decision taken locally in a given company, islimited to the production of a few ﬁxed formulations relating to routine operations. Such
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examples are more a case of semi-automated behaviour than partial competences but
there can be no denying that the carrying out of well-deﬁned repetitive tasks in suchcases can also constitute the primary focus of a learning objective.
More generally, formulating objectives in terms of tasks has the advantage, for thelearner too, of identifying in practical terms what the expected results are, and can also
play a short-term motivating role throughout the learning process. To quote a simple
example, telling children that the activity they are about to undertake will enable
them to play ‘Happy Families’ in the foreign language (the objective being the possible
carrying out of a ‘task’) can also be a motivating way of learning the vocabulary for thevarious family members (part of the linguistic component of a broader communicative
objective). In this sense, too, the so-called project-based approach, global simulationsand various role-playing games establish what are basically transitory objectives
deﬁned in terms of tasks to be carried out but the major interest of which as far as
learning is concerned resides either in the language resources and activities that sucha task (or sequence of tasks) requires or in the strategies employed or applied. In otherterms, although in the rationale adopted for the conception of the framework of reference plurilingual and pluricultural competence becomes apparent and is developed
through the carrying out of tasks, in the approach to learning adapted, these tasks are
only presented as apparent objectives or as a step towards the achievement of otherobjectives.

6.1.4.2 The complementarity of partial objectives
Deﬁning language teaching/learning objectives in this manner, in terms of the major
components of a general reference model, or of each of the sub-components of these, is
not a mere stylistic exercise. It illustrates the possible diversity of learning aims and thevariety to be found in the provision of teaching. Obviously, a great many types of provision, in and out of school, cover several of these objectives at the same time. And equally
obviously (but it is worth repeating) pursuing a speciﬁcally designated objective alsomeans, with respect to the coherence of the model illustrated here, that the achievementof the stated objective will lead to other results which were not speciﬁcally aimed at or
which were not the main concern.
If, for example, it is presumed that the objective is essentially concerned with adomain, and is focused on the demands of a given job, for example that of waiter in a restaurant, then to achieve this objective language activities will be developed which areconcerned with oral interaction; in relation to communicative competence attention
will be focused on certain lexical ﬁelds of the linguistic component (presentation anddescription of dishes, for example), and certain sociolinguistic norms (forms of address
to use with customers, possible request for assistance from a third party, etc.); and there
will no doubt be an insistence on certain aspects of savoir-être (discretion, politeness,smiling affably, patience, etc.), or on knowledge concerned with the cuisine and eating
habits of the particular foreign culture. It is possible to develop other examples in which
other components would be chosen as the main objective, but this particular example
will no doubt sufﬁce to complete what was said above concerning the concept of partial
competence (see the comments made on the relativisation of what may be understood bypartial knowledge of a language).
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6.2 The processes of language learning
6.2.1 Acquisition or learning?
The terms ‘language acquisition’ and ‘language learning’ are currently used in a numberof different ways. Many use them interchangeably. Others use one or the other as thegeneral term, using the other in a more restricted sense. Thus ‘language acquisition’ may
be used either as the general term or conﬁned:a)to interpretations of the language of non-native speakers in terms of current
theories of universal grammar (e.g. parameter setting). This work is almost
always a branch of theoretical psycholinguistics of little or no direct concern
to practitioners, especially since grammar is considered to be far removed
from accessibility to consciousness.
b) to untutored knowledge and ability to use a non-native language resulting
either from direct exposure to text or from direct participation in communicative events.

‘Language learning’ may be used as the general term, or conﬁned to the process whereby
language ability is gained as the result of a planned process, especially by formal study
in an institutional setting.
At the present time it does not seem possible to impose a standardised terminology,
especially since there is no obvious super-ordinate term covering ‘learning’ and ‘acquisition’ in their restricted senses.
Users of the Framework are asked to consider and if possible state in which sense they use theterms and to avoid using them in ways counter to current speciﬁc usage.
They may also wish to consider and where appropriate state:• how opportunities for language acquisition in the sense of (b) above can be provided andexploited.

6.2.2 How do learners learn?
6.2.2.1 There is at present no sufﬁciently strong research-based consensus on how learners learn for the Framework to base itself on any one learning theory. Some theorists
believe that the human information-processing abilities are strong enough for it to be sufﬁcient for a human being to be exposed to sufﬁcient understandable language for him/herto acquire the language and be able to use it both for understanding and for production.
They believe the ‘acquisition’ process to be inaccessible to observation or intuition andthat it cannot be facilitated by conscious manipulation, whether by teaching or by study
methods. For them, the most important thing a teacher can do is provide the richest possible linguistic environment in which learning can take place without formal teaching.
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6.2.2.2 Others believe that in addition to exposure to comprehensible input, active participation in communicative interaction is a necessary and sufﬁcient condition for language development. They, too, consider that explicit teaching or study of the language
is irrelevant. At the other extreme, some believe that students who have learnt the necessary rules of grammar and learnt a vocabulary will be able to understand and use thelanguage in the light of their previous experience and common sense without any needto rehearse. Between these polar extremes, most ‘mainstream’ learners, teachers andtheir support services will follow more eclectic practices, recognising that learners do
not necessarily learn what teachers teach and that they require substantial contextualised and intelligible language input as well as opportunities to use the language interactively, but that learning is facilitated, especially under artiﬁcial classroom conditions, by
a combination of conscious learning and sufﬁcient practice to reduce or eliminate theconscious attention paid to low-level physical skills of speaking and writing as well as tomorphological and syntactic accuracy, thus freeing the mind for higher-level strategies
of communication. Some (many fewer than previously) believe that this aim may beachieved by drilling to the point of over learning.

6.2.2.3 There is of course considerable variation among learners of different ages, types
and backgrounds as to which of these elements they respond to most fruitfully, andamong teachers, course-writers, etc. as to the balance of elements provided in courses
according to the importance they attach to production vs. reception, accuracy vs. ﬂuency,
etc.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state the assumptions
concerning language learning on which their work is based and their methodologicalconsequences.

6.3

What can each kind of Framework user do to facilitate language learning?

The language teaching profession forms a ‘partnership for learning’ made up of many
specialists in addition to the teachers and learners most immediately concerned at the
point of learning. This section considers the respective roles of each of the parties.

6.3.1 Those concerned with examinations and qualiﬁcations will have to consider
which learning parameters are relevant to the qualiﬁcations concerned, and the level
required. They will have to make concrete decisions on which particular tasks andactivities to include, which themes to handle, which formulae, idioms and lexical
items to require candidates to recognise or recall, what sociocultural knowledge andskills to test, etc. They may not need to be concerned with the processes by which thelanguage proﬁciency tested has been learnt or acquired, except in so far as their own
testing procedures may have a positive or negative ‘wash back’ effect on language
learning.
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6.3.2 Authorities, when drawing up curricular guidelines or formulating syllabuses,
may concentrate on the speciﬁcation of learning objectives. In doing so, they may specify
only higher-level objectives in terms of tasks, themes, competence, etc. They are notobliged, though they may wish to do so, to specify in detail the vocabulary, grammar andfunctional/notional repertoires which will enable learners to perform the tasks and treat
the themes. They are not obliged, but may wish, to lay down guidelines or make suggestions as to the classroom methods to be employed and the stages through which learners are expected to progress.

6.3.3 Textbook writers and course designers are not obliged, though they may wellwish to do so, to formulate their objectives in terms of the tasks they wish to equip learners to perform or the competence and strategies they are to develop. They are obliged tomake concrete, detailed decisions on the selection and ordering of texts, activities, vocabulary and grammar to be presented to the learner. They are expected to provide detailed
instructions for the classroom and/or individual tasks and activities to be undertaken bylearners in response to the material presented. Their products greatly inﬂuence thelearning/teaching process and must inevitably be based on strong assumptions (rarely
stated and often unexamined, even unconscious) as to the nature of the learning process.

6.3.4 Teachers are generally called upon to respect any ofﬁcial guidelines, use textbooks and course materials (which they may or may not be in a position to analyse, evaluate, select and supplement), devise and administer tests and prepare pupils andstudents for qualifying examinations. They have to make minute-to-minute decisions
about classroom activities, which they can prepare in outline beforehand, but must
adjust ﬂexibly in the light of pupil/student responses. They are expected to monitor the
progress of pupils/students and ﬁnd ways of recognising, analysing and overcoming theirlearning problems, as well as developing their individual learning abilities. It is necessary for them to understand learning processes in their great variety, though this understanding may well be an unconscious product of experience rather than a clearly
formulated product of theoretical reﬂection, which is the proper contribution to thepartnership for learning to be made by educational researchers and teacher trainers.

6.3.5 Learners are, of course, the persons ultimately concerned with language acquisition and learning processes. It is they who have to develop the competences and strategies (in so far as they have not already done so) and carry out the tasks, activities andprocesses needed to participate effectively in communicative events. However, relatively
few learn proactively, taking initiatives to plan, structure and execute their own learning processes. Most learn reactively, following the instructions and carrying out theactivities prescribed for them by teachers and by textbooks. However, once teachingstops, further learning has to be autonomous. Autonomous learning can be promoted if‘learning to learn’ is regarded as an integral part of language learning, so that learners
become increasingly aware of the way they learn, the options open to them and theoptions that best suit them. Even within the given institutional system they can then be
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brought increasingly to make choices in respect of objectives, materials and working
methods in the light of their own needs, motivations, characteristics and resources. We
hope that the Framework, together with the series of specialised user guides, will be ofuse not only to teachers and their support services, but also directly to learners in
helping to make them, too, more aware of the options open to them and articulate concerning the choices they make.

6.4

Some methodological options for modern language learning and teaching

Up to this point, the Framework has been concerned with the construction of a comprehensive model of language use and the language user, drawing attention along the way
to the relevance of the different components of the model to language learning, teaching and assessment. That relevance has been seen predominantly in terms of the content
and objectives of language learning. These are brieﬂy summarised in sections 6.1 and 6.2.
However, a framework of reference for language learning, teaching and assessment mustalso deal with methodology, since its users will undoubtedly wish to reﬂect on and communicate their methodological decisions within a general framework. Chapter 6 sets out
to provide such a framework.
It has, of course, to be emphasised that the same criteria apply to this chapter as toothers. The approach to the methodology of learning and teaching has to be comprehensive, presenting all options in an explicit and transparent way and avoiding advocacy ordogmatism. It has been a fundamental methodological principle of the Council ofEurope that the methods to be employed in language learning, teaching and research arethose considered to be most effective in reaching the objectives agreed in the light of theneeds of the individual learners in their social context. Effectiveness is contingent on the
motivations and characteristics of the learners as well as the nature of the human andmaterial resources which can be brought into play. Following this fundamental principle through necessarily results in a great diversity of objectives and an even greater diversity of methods and materials.
There are many ways in which modern languages are currently learnt and taught.
For many years the Council of Europe has promoted an approach based on the communicative needs of learners and the use of materials and methods that will enable
learners to satisfy these needs and which are appropriate to their characteristics as
learners. However, as has been made clear in section 2.3.2 and passim, it is not the function of the Framework to promote one particular language teaching methodology, butinstead to present options. A full exchange of information on these options and ofexperience with them must come from the ﬁeld. At this stage it is possible only to indicate some of the options derived from existing practice and to ask users of the
Framework to ﬁll in gaps from their own knowledge and experience. A User Guide isavailable.
If there are practitioners who upon reﬂection are convinced that the objectives
appropriate to the learners towards whom they have responsibilities are most effectively pursued by methods other than those advocated elsewhere by the Council ofEurope, then we should like them to say so, to tell us and others of the methods they
use and the objectives they pursue. This might lead to a wider understanding of thecomplex diversity of the world of language education, or to lively debate, which is142

Language learning and teachingalways preferable to simple acceptance of a current orthodoxy merely because it is anorthodoxy.

6.4.1 General approaches
In general, how are learners expected to learn a second or foreign language (L2)? Is it in
one or more of the following ways?
a)by direct exposure to authentic use of language in L2 in one or more of the following ways:
face to face with native speaker(s);overhearing conversation;
listening to radio, recordings, etc.;
watching and listening to TV, video, etc.;
reading unmodiﬁed, ungraded, authentic written texts (newspapers, magazines,
stories, novels, public signs and notices, etc.);using computer programmes, CD ROM, etc.;
participating in computer conferences on- or off-line;
participating in courses in other curriculum subjects which employ L2 as a medium
of instruction;b)by direct exposure to specially selected (e.g. graded) spoken utterances and written
texts in L2 (‘intelligible input’);c)by direct participation in authentic communicative interaction in L2, e.g. as a conversation partner with a competent interlocutor;d) by direct participation in specially devised and constructed tasks in L2 (‘comprehensible output’);e)

autodidactically, by (guided) self-study, pursuing negotiated self-directed objectives
and using available instructional media;f)by a combination of presentations, explanations, (drill) exercises and exploitation
activities, but with L1 as the language of classroom management, explanation, etc.;g)by a combination of activities as in f), but using L2 only for all classroom purposes;h) by some combination of the above activities, starting perhaps with f), but progressively reducing the use of L1 and including more tasks and authentic texts, spoken
and written, and an increasing self-study component;i)by combining the above with group and individual planning, implementation andevaluation of classroom activity with teacher support, negotiating interaction tosatisfy different learner needs, etc.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and state which approaches, in general, they
follow, whether one of the above, or some other.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
6.4.2 Consideration should be given to the relative roles of teachers, learners and media.
6.4.2.1 What different proportions of class time may be (expected to be) spent:a)b)by the teacher expounding, explaining, etc. to the whole class?
in whole-class question/answer sessions (distinguishing between referential, display
and test questions)?
c) in group or pair working?
d) in individual working?

6.4.2.2 Teachers should realise that their actions, reﬂecting their attitudes and abilities,
are a most important part of the environment for language learning/acquisition. They
present role-models which students may follow in their future use of the language andtheir practice as future teachers. What importance is attached to their:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
i)

teaching skills?
classroom management skills?
ability to engage in action research and to reﬂect on experience?
teaching styles?
understanding of and ability to handle testing, assessment and evaluation?
knowledge of and ability to teach sociocultural background information?
inter-cultural attitudes and skills?
knowledge of and ability to develop students’ aesthetic appreciation of literature?
ability to deal with individualisation within classes containing diverse learner types
and abilities?

How are the relevant qualities and abilities best developed?
During individual, pair or group working, should the teacher:
a)
b)
c)
d)

simply supervise and maintain order?
circulate to monitor work?
be available for individual counselling?
adopt the role of supervisor and facilitator, accepting and reacting to students’remarks on their learning and co-ordinating student activities, in addition to monitoring and counselling?

6.4.2.3 How far should learners be expected or required to:
a)
b)

144

follow all and only the teacher’s instructions in a disciplined, orderly way, speaking
only when called upon to do so?
participate actively in the learning process in co-operation with the teacher andother students to reach agreement on objectives and methods, accepting compromise, and engaging in peer teaching and peer assessment so as to progress steadily
towards autonomy?

Language learning and teachingc) work independently with self-study materials including self-assessment?
d) compete with each other?
6.4.2.4 What use can and should be made of instructional media (audio and video cassettes, computers, etc.)?
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)

none;
for whole-class demonstrations, repetitions, etc.;
in a language/video/computer laboratory mode;in an individual self-instructional mode;
as a basis for group work (discussion, negotiation, co-operative and competitive
games, etc.);
in international computer networking of schools, classes and individual students.

Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what are the relative roles and responsibilities of teachers and learners in theorganisation, management, conduct and evaluation of the language-learning process;• what use is made of instructional media.

6.4.3 What part should be played by texts in language learning and teaching?
6.4.3.1 How may learners be expected or required to learn from spoken and written
texts (see section 4.6)?
a)by simple exposure;b)

by simple exposure, but ensuring that new material is intelligible by inferencing
from verbal context, visual support, etc.;c)by exposure, with comprehension monitored and ensured by L2 question andanswer, multiple choice, picture matching, etc.;d) as c), but with one or more of the following:
comprehension tests in L1;
explanations in L1;
explanations (including any necessary ad hoc translation), in L2;
systematic pupil/student translation of text into L1;
pre-listening and/or group listening activities, pre-reading activities, etc.

6.4.3.2 How far should the written or spoken texts presented to learners be:a)‘authentic’, i.e. produced for communicative purposes with no language teachingintent, e.g.:
145Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
untreated authentic texts that the learner encounters in the course of direct experience of the language in use (daily newspapers, magazines, broadcasts, etc.);
authentic texts selected, graded and/or edited so as to be judged appropriate to thelearner’s experience, interests and characteristics.
b)

specially composed for use in language teaching, e.g.:texts composed to resemble authentic texts as (ii) above (e.g. specially written listening comprehension materials recorded by actors)
texts composed to give contextualised examples of the linguistic content to betaught (e.g. in a particular course unit)
isolated sentences for exercise purposes (phonetic, grammatical, etc.)
textbook instruction, explanations etc., test and examination rubrics, teacher’sclassroom language (instructions, explanations, classroom management etc.).
These may be regarded as special text-types. Are they ‘learner-friendly’? What consideration is given to their content, formulation and presentation to ensure thatthey are?

6.4.3.3 How far should learners have not only to process, but also to produce texts? Thesemay be:a)spoken:written texts read aloud;oral answers to exercise questions;reproduction of memorised texts (plays, poems, etc.);
pair and group work exercises;
contributions to formal and informal discussion;
free conversation (in class or during pupil exchanges);presentations.

b)written:dictated passages;
written exercises;
essays;translations;written reports;
project work;
letters to penfriends;
contributions to class links using fax or e-mail.

6.4.3.4 In receptive, productive and interactive modes, how far may learners be
expected and helped to differentiate text types and to develop different styles of listening, reading, speaking and writing as appropriate, acting both as individuals and as
members of groups (e.g. by sharing ideas and interpretations in the processes of comprehension and formulation)?
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Language learning and teaching
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state the place of texts(spoken and written) in their learning/teaching programme and exploitation activities: e.g.
• according to what principles texts are selected, adapted or composed, ordered andpresented;• whether texts are graded;• whether learners are a) expected b) helped to differentiate text types and to develop
different listening and reading styles as appropriate to text type and to listen or read in
detail or for gist, for speciﬁc points, etc.

6.4.4 How far should learners be expected or required to learn from tasks and activities(see sections 4.3 and 4.4):a)b)by simple participation in spontaneous activities?
by simple participation in tasks and activities planned as to type, goals, input, outcomes, participant roles and activities, etc.?
c) by participation not only in the task but in pre-planning as well as post-mortem analysis and evaluation?
d) as c) but also with explicit awareness-raising as to goals, the nature and structure oftasks, requirements of participant roles, etc.?

6.4.5 Should the development of the learner’s ability to use communicative strategies (seesection 4.4) be:a)b)

assumed to be transferable from the learner’s L1 usage or facilitated;by creating situation and setting tasks (e.g. role play and simulations) which require
the operation of planning, execution, evaluation and repair strategies;c) as b), but using awareness-raising techniques (e.g. recording and analysis of roleplays
and simulations);d) as b), but encouraging or requiring learners to focus on and follow explicit strategic
procedures as the need arises.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state the place ofactivities, tasks and strategies in their language learning/teaching programme.

6.4.6 General competences (see section 5.1) may be developed in various ways.
6.4.6.1 With regard to knowledge of the world, learning a new language does notmean starting afresh. Much if not most of the knowledge that is needed can be taken
for granted. However, it is not simply a question of learning new words for old ideas,
though it is remarkable to what extent the framework of general and speciﬁc notions
proposed in the Threshold Level has proved appropriate and adequate for twenty
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
European languages, even from different language families. Judgement is needed indeciding such questions as: Does the language to be taught or tested involve a knowledge of the world which in fact is beyond the learners’ state of maturation, or outside
their adult experience? If so, it cannot be taken for granted. The problem should not be
avoided; in the case of the use of a non-native language as the medium of instruction inschools or universities (and indeed in mother tongue education itself) both the subject
content and the language used are new. In the past many language textbooks, such as
the Orbis pictus of the celebrated 17th century Czech educationist Comenius, haveattempted to structure language learning in a way explicitly designed to give young
people a structured world-view.

6.4.6.2 The position with regard to sociocultural knowledge and intercultural skills
development is somewhat different. In some respects European peoples appear to share
a common culture. In other respects there is considerable diversity, not simply between
one nation and another but also between regions, classes, ethnic communities, genders
and so on. Careful consideration has to be given to the representation of the target
culture and the choice of the social group or groups to be focused on. Is there any place
for the picturesque, generally archaic, folkloristic stereotypes of the sort found in children’s picture books (Dutch clogs and windmills, English thatched cottages with roses
round the door)? They capture the imagination and can be motivating particularly foryounger children. They often correspond in some ways to the self-image of the country
concerned and are preserved and promoted in festivals. If so, they can be presented inthat light. They bear very little relation to the everyday lives of the vast majority of the
population. A balance has to be struck in the light of the over-arching educational goalof developing the learners’ pluricultural competence.

6.4.6.3 How then should the general, non-language-speciﬁc competences be treated inlanguage courses?
a)assumed to exist already, or be developed elsewhere (e.g. in other curricular subjects
conducted in L1) sufﬁciently to be taken for granted in L2 teaching;b) treated ad hoc as and when problems arise;c) by selecting or constructing texts that illustrate new areas and items of knowledged) by special courses or textbooks dealing with area studies (Landeskunde, civilisation,etc.) i) in L1, ii) in L2;e) through an intercultural component designed to raise awareness of the relevant
experiential, cognitive and sociocultural backgrounds of learners and native speakers respectively;f) through role-play and simulations;g) through subject teaching using L2 as the medium of instruction;h) through direct contact with native speakers and authentic texts.

6.4.6.4 With regard to existential competence, the learner’s personality features, motivations, attitudes, beliefs, etc. (see section 5.1.3) may be:148

Language learning and teaching
a)
b)
c)

ignored as the learner’s personal concern
taken into account in planning and monitoring the learning processincluded as an objective of the learning programme

Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state• which of the above (or other) means they use to develop general competences;• what differences arise if practical skills are a) talked about as themes, b) exercised,c) demonstrated through actions accompanied by language or d) taught using the target
language as the medium of instruction.

6.4.6.5 With regard to ability to learn, learners may (be expected/required to) develop
their study skills and heuristic skills and their acceptance of responsibility for their own learning (see section 5.1.4):a)simply as ‘spin-off’ from language learning and teaching, without any special planning or provision;b) by progressively transferring responsibility for learning from the teacher to thepupils/students and encouraging them to reﬂect on their learning and to share thisexperience with other learners;c) by systematically raising the learners’ awareness of the learning/teaching processes
in which they are participating;d) by engaging learners as participants in experimentation with different methodological options;e) by getting learners to recognise their own cognitive style and to develop their own
learning strategies accordingly.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state the steps they taketo promote the development of pupils/students as responsibly independent language learners
and users.

6.4.7 The development of the learner’s linguistic competences is a central, indispensable
aspect of language learning. How may it best be facilitated in relation to vocabulary,grammar, pronunciation and orthography?

6.4.7.1 In which of the following ways should learners be expected or required todevelop their vocabulary?
a)b)by simple exposure to words and ﬁxed expressions used in authentic spoken andwritten texts?
by learner elicitation or dictionary, etc. look-up as needed for speciﬁc tasks and activities?
149Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessmentc)through inclusion in context, e.g. in course-book texts and subsequent recycling in
exercises, exploitation activities, etc.?
d) by presenting words accompanied by visuals (pictures, gestures and miming, demonstrative actions, realia, etc.)?
e) by the memorisation of word-lists, etc. with translation equivalents?
f) by exploring semantic ﬁelds and constructing ‘mind-maps’, etc.?
g) by training in the use of monolingual and bilingual dictionaries, thesauruses andother works of reference?
h) by explanation and training in the application of lexical structure (e.g. word formation, compounding, collocations, phrasal verbs, idioms, etc.)?
i) by a more or less systematic study of the different distribution of semantic featuresin L1 and L2 (contrastive semantics)?
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state the ways in which
vocabulary items (form and meaning) are presented to and learned by pupils and students.

6.4.7.2 Size, range and control of vocabulary are major parameters of language acquisition and hence for the assessment of a learner’s language proﬁciency and for the planning of language learning and teaching.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• what size of vocabulary (i.e. the number of words and ﬁxed expressions) the learner willneed/be equipped/be required to control;• what range of vocabulary (i.e. the domains, themes etc. covered) the learner will need/beequipped/be required to control;• what control over vocabulary the learner will need/be equipped/be required to exert;• what distinction, if any, is made between learning for recognition and understanding,and learning for recall and productive use?;• what use is made of inferencing techniques? How is their development promoted?

6.4.7.3 Lexical selection
Constructors of testing and textbook materials are obliged to choose which words toinclude. Curriculum and syllabus designers are not obliged to do so, but may wish toprovide guidelines in the interests of transparency and coherence in educational provision. There are a number of options:• to select key words and phrases a) in thematic areas required for the achievement ofcommunicative tasks relevant to learner needs, b) which embody cultural difference
and/or signiﬁcant values and beliefs shared by the social group(s) whose language isbeing learnt;
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Language learning and teaching• to follow lexico-statistical principles selecting the highest frequency words in large
general word-counts or those undertaken for restricted thematic areas;• to select (authentic) spoken and written texts and learn/teach whatever words they
contain;• not to pre-plan vocabulary development, but to allow it to develop organically inresponse to learner demand when engaged in communicative tasks.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• according to which principle(s) lexical selection has been made.

6.4.7.4 Grammatical competence, the ability to organise sentences to convey meaning,is clearly central to communicative competence and most (though not all) of thoseconcerned with language planning, teaching and testing pay close attention to the management of the process of learning to do so. This usually involves a selection, orderingand step-by-step presentation and drilling of new material, starting with short sentences
consisting of a single clause with its constituent phrases represented by single words(e.g. Jane is happy) and ﬁnishing with multiclause complex sentences – their number,
length and structure being of course unbounded. This does not preclude the early introduction of analytically complex material as a ﬁxed formula (i.e. a vocabulary item) or asa ﬁxed frame for lexical insertion (please may I have a . . .), or as the globally learnt words
of a song (In Dublin’s fair city, where the girls are so pretty, I ﬁrst set my eyes on sweet Molly
Malone, as she wheeled her wheelbarrow through streets broad and narrow, crying ‘Cockles andMussels alive alive-oh’).

6.4.7.5 Inherent complexity is not the only ordering principle to be considered.
1. The communicative yield of grammatical categories has to be taken into account, i.e.
their role as exponents of general notions. For instance, should learners follow a progression which leaves them unable, after two years’ study, to speak of past experience?
2. Contrastive factors are of great importance in assessing learning load and hencecost-effectiveness of competing orderings. For instance, subordinate clauses inGerman involve greater word-order problems for English and French learners thanfor Dutch learners. However, speakers of closely-related languages, e.g. Dutch/
German, Czech/Slovak, may be prone to fall into mechanical word-for-word translation.
3. Authentic discourse and written texts may to some extent be graded for grammatical difﬁculty, but are likely to present a learner with new structures and perhaps categories, which adept learners may well acquire for active use before others
nominally more basic.
4. The ‘natural’ acquisition order observed in L1 child language development mightalso perhaps be taken into account in planning L2 development.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
The Framework cannot replace reference grammars or provide a strict ordering (thoughscaling may involve selection and hence some ordering in global terms) but provides aframework for the decisions of practitioners to be made known.

6.4.7.6 The sentence is generally regarded as the domain of grammatical description.
However, some intersentential relations (e.g. anaphora: pronoun and pro-verb usage andthe use of sentence adverbs) may be treated as part of linguistic rather than pragmaticcompetence (e.g. We didn’t expect John to fail. However, he did).
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• the basis on which grammatical elements, categories, structures, processes and relations
are selected and ordered;• how their meaning is conveyed to learners;• the role of contrastive grammar in language teaching and learning;• the relative importance attached to range, ﬂuency and accuracy in relation to thegrammatical construction of sentences;• the extent to which learners are to be made aware of the grammar of (a) the mothertongue (b) the target language (c) their contrastive relations.

6.4.7.7 Learners may (be expected/required to) develop their grammatical competence:a)inductively, by exposure to new grammatical material in authentic texts asencountered;b) inductively, by incorporating new grammatical elements, categories, classes,
structures, rules, etc. in texts specially composed to demonstrate their form, function and meaning;c) as b), but followed by explanations and formal exercises;d) by the presentation of formal paradigms, tables of forms, etc. followed by explanations using an appropriate metalanguage in L2 or L1 and formal exercises;e) by elicitation and, where necessary, reformulation of learners’ hypotheses, etc.

6.4.7.8 If formal exercises are used, some or all of the following types may be employed:
a)
b)
c)
d)
e)
f)
g)
h)
152

gap-ﬁlling
sentence construction on a given model
multiple choicecategory substitution exercises (e.g. singular/plural, present/past, active/passive, etc.)
sentence merging (e.g. relativisation, adverbial and noun clauses, etc.)
translation of example sentences from L1 to L2question and answer involving use of particular structures
grammar-focused ﬂuency exercises

Language learning and teaching
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• how grammatical structure is a) analysed, ordered and presented to learners and (b)mastered by them.
• how and according to what principles lexical, grammatical and pragmatic meaning in L2
is conveyed to/elicited from learners, e.g.:• by translation from/into L1• by L2 deﬁnition, explanation, etc.
• by induction from context.

6.4.7.9 Pronunciation
How should learners be expected/required to develop their ability to pronounce a
language?
a)b)

simply by exposure to authentic spoken utterances;by chorused imitation of i)ii the teacher;ii)i audio-recorded native speakers;iii) video-recorded native speakers;c) by individualised language laboratory work;d) by reading aloud phonetically weighted textual material;e) by ear-training and phonetic drilling;f) as d) and e) but with the use of phonetically transcribed texts;g) by explicit phonetic training (see section 5.2.1.4);h) by learning orthoepic conventions (i.e. how to pronounce written forms);i) by some combination of the above.

6.4.7.10 Orthography
How should learners be expected/required to develop their ability to handle the writing
system of a language?
a)b)by simple transfer from L1;
by exposure to authentic written texts:i)ii printedii)i typewritteniii) handwrittenc) by memorisation of the alphabet concerned with associated phonetic values (e.g.
Roman, Cyrillic or Greek script where another is used for L1), together with diacritics and punctuation marks;d) by practising cursive writing (including Cyrillic or ‘Gothic’ scripts, etc.) and noting
the characteristic national handwriting conventions;e) by memorising word-forms (individually or by applying spelling conventions) andpunctuation conventions;f) by the practice of dictation.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state how the phonetic
and orthographic forms of words, sentences, etc. are conveyed to and mastered by learners.

6.4.8 Should the development of the learner’s sociolinguistic competence (see section
5.2.2) be assumed to be transferable from the learner’s experience of social life or facilitated:a)b)

by exposure to authentic language used appropriately in its social setting?
by selecting or constructing texts that exemplify sociolinguistic contrasts between
the society of origin and the target society?
c) by drawing attention to sociolinguistic contrasts as they are encountered, explaining and discussing them?
d) by waiting for errors to be made, then marking, analysing and explaining them andgiving the correct usage?
e) as part of the explicit teaching of a sociocultural component in the study of amodern language?

6.4.9 Should the development of the learner’s pragmatic competences (see section 5.2.3)
be:a)assumed to be transferable from education and general experience in the mothertongue (L1)?

or facilitated:b)by progressively increasing the complexity of discourse structure and the functional
range of the texts presented to the learner?
c) by requiring the learner to produce texts of increasing complexity by translatingtexts of increasing complexity from L1 to L2?
d) by setting tasks that require a wider functional range and adherence to verbal
exchange patterns?
e) by awareness-raising (analysis, explanation, terminology, etc.) in addition to practical activities?
f) by explicit teaching and exercising of functions, verbal exchange patterns and discourse structure?
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• to what extent sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences can be assumed or left todevelop naturally;• what methods and techniques should be employed to facilitate their development where itis felt to be necessary or advisable to do so.

154Language learning and teaching
6.5 Errors and mistakes
Errors are due to an ‘interlanguage’, a simpliﬁed or distorted representation of the target
competence. When the learner makes errors, his performance truly accords with hiscompetence, which has developed characteristics different from those of L2 norms.
Mistakes, on the other hand, occur in performance when a user/learner (as might be thecase with a native speaker) does not bring his competences properly into action.

6.5.1 Different attitudes may be taken to learner errors, e.g.:
a)
b)
c)

errors and mistakes are evidence of failure to learn;
errors and mistakes are evidence of inefﬁcient teaching;errors and mistakes are evidence of the learner’s willingness to communicate
despite risks;d) errors are an inevitable, transient product of the learner’s developing interlanguage.
e) Mistakes are inevitable in all language use, including that of native speakers.

6.5.2 The action to be taken with regard to learner mistakes and errors may be:
a)
b)
c)

all errors and mistakes should be immediately corrected by the teacher;
immediate peer-correction should be systematically encouraged to eradicate errors;
all errors should be noted and corrected at a time when doing so does not interferewith communication (e.g. by separating the development of accuracy from the development of ﬂuency);d) errors should not be simply corrected, but also analysed and explained at an appropriate time;e) mistakes which are mere slips should be passed over, but systematic errors should be
eradicated;f ) errors should be corrected only when they interfere with communication;g) errors should be accepted as ‘transitional interlanguage’ and ignored.

6.5.3 What use is made of the observation and analysis of learner errors:
a)
b)
c)

in planning future learning and teaching on an individual or group basis?
in course planning and materials development?
in the evaluation and assessment of learning and teaching, e.g.
are students assessed primarily in terms of their errors and mistakes in performing
the tasks set?
if not, what other criteria of linguistic achievement are employed?
are errors and mistakes weighted and if so according to what criteria?
what relative importance is attached to errors and mistakes in:pronunciation
spelling
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
vocabularymorphology
syntaxusage
sociocultural content?
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state their attitude to
and action in response to learner errors and mistakes and whether the same or different
criteria apply to:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

156

phonetic errors and mistakes;
orthographic errors and mistakes;
vocabulary errors and mistakes;
morphological errors and mistakes;
syntactic errors and mistakes;
sociolinguistic and sociocultural errors and mistakes;
pragmatic errors and mistakes.

7 Tasks and their role in language teaching

7.1 Task description
Tasks are a feature of everyday life in the personal, public, educational or occupational
domains. Task accomplishment by an individual involves the strategic activation of
speciﬁc competences in order to carry out a set of purposeful actions in a particulardomain with a clearly deﬁned goal and a speciﬁc outcome (see section 4.1). Tasks can be
extremely varied in nature, and may involve language activities to a greater or lesser
extent, for example: creative (painting, story writing), skills based (repairing or assembling something), problem solving (jigsaw, crossword), routine transactions, interpretinga role in a play, taking part in a discussion, giving a presentation, planning a course ofaction, reading and replying to (an e-mail) message, etc. A task may be quite simple orextremely complex (e.g. studying a number of related diagrams and instructions andassembling an unfamiliar and intricate apparatus). A particular task may involve agreater or lesser number of steps or embedded sub-tasks and consequently the boundaries of any one task may be difﬁcult to deﬁne.
Communication is an integral part of tasks where participants engage in interaction,
production, reception or mediation, or a combination of two or more of these, forexample: interacting with a public service ofﬁcial and completing a form; reading areport and discussing it with colleagues in order to arrive at a decision on a course ofaction; following written instructions while assembling something, and if an
observer/helper is present, asking for help or describing/commenting on the process; preparing (in written form) and delivering a public lecture, interpreting informally for avisitor, etc.
Similar kinds of tasks are a central unit in many syllabuses, textbooks, classroom
learning experiences and tests, although often in a modiﬁed form for learning or testing
purposes. These ‘real-life’, ‘target’ or ‘rehearsal’ tasks are chosen on the basis of learners’
needs outside the classroom, whether in the personal and public domains, or related tomore speciﬁc occupational or educational needs.
Other kinds of classroom tasks are speciﬁcally ‘pedagogic’ in nature and have theirbasis in the social and interactive nature and immediacy of the classroom situation
where learners engage in a ‘willing suspension of disbelief’ and accept the use of thetarget language rather than the easier and more natural mother tongue to carry out
meaning-focused tasks. These pedagogic tasks are only indirectly related to real-life tasks
and learner needs, and aim to develop communicative competence based on what isbelieved or known about learning processes in general and language acquisition in particular. Communicative pedagogic tasks (as opposed to exercises focusing speciﬁcally on
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decontextualised practice of forms) aim to actively involve learners in meaningful communication, are relevant (here and now in the formal learning context), are challenging
but feasible (with task manipulation where appropriate), and have identiﬁable (and possibly less immediately evident) outcomes. Such tasks may involve ‘metacommunicative’(sub)tasks, i.e. communication around task implementation and the language used incarrying out the task. This includes learner contributions to task selection, management, and evaluation, which in a language learning context may often become integral
parts of the tasks themselves.
Classroom tasks, whether reﬂecting ‘real-life’ use or essentially ‘pedagogic’ in nature,
are communicative to the extent that they require learners to comprehend, negotiate andexpress meaning in order to achieve a communicative goal. The emphasis in a communicative task is on successful task completion and consequently the primary focus is on
meaning as learners realise their communicative intentions. However, in the case of tasks
designed for language learning or teaching purposes, performance is concerned both withmeaning and the way meanings are comprehended, expressed and negotiated. A changing
balance needs to be established between attention to meaning and form, ﬂuency and accuracy, in the overall selection and sequencing of tasks so that both task performance andlanguage learning progress can be facilitated and appropriately acknowledged.

7.2

Task performance

In considering task performance in pedagogical contexts it is necessary to take into
account both the learner’s competences and the conditions and constraints speciﬁc to aparticular task (which may be manipulated in order to modify the level of difﬁculty ofclassroom tasks), and the strategic interplay of learner competences and task parametersin carrying out a task.

7.2.1 Competences
Tasks of any kind require the activation of a range of appropriate general competences,for example: knowledge and experience of the world; sociocultural knowledge (concerning life in the target community and essential differences between practices, values andbeliefs in that community and the learner’s own society); skills such as intercultural
skills (mediating between the two cultures), learning skills, and everyday practical skills
and know-how (see section 5.1). In order to accomplish a communicative task, whether
in a real-life or a learning/examination setting, the language user or learner draws also
on communicative language competences (linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic
knowledge and skills – see section 5.2). In addition, individual personality and attitudinal characteristics affect the user or learner’s task performance.
Successful task accomplishment may be facilitated by the prior activation of thelearner’s competences, for example, in the initial problem-posing or goal-setting phaseof a task by providing or raising awareness of necessary linguistic elements, by drawing
on prior knowledge and experience to activate appropriate schemata, and by encouraging task planning or rehearsal. In this way the processing load during task execution andmonitoring is reduced and the learner’s attention is freer to deal with any unexpected158

Tasks and their role in language teachingcontent and/or form-related problems that may arise, thereby increasing the likelihoodof successful task completion in both quantitative and qualitative terms.

7.2.2 Conditions and constraints
In addition to user/learner competences and characteristics, performance is affected bycertain task-related conditions and constraints which can vary from task to task, and theteacher or textbook writer can control a number of elements in order to adjust the levelof task difﬁculty upwards or downwards.
Comprehension tasks may be designed so that the same input may be available to alllearners but different outcomes may be envisaged quantitatively (amount of information
required) or qualitatively (standard of performance expected). Alternatively, the input
text may contain differing amounts of information or degrees of cognitive and/or organisational complexity, or different amounts of support (visuals, key words, prompts,
charts, diagrams, etc.) may be made available to help learners. Input may be chosen for
its relevance to the learner (motivation) or for reasons extrinsic to the learner. A text may
be listened to or read as often as necessary or limits may be imposed. The type of response
required can be quite simple (raise your hand) or demanding (create a new text). In thecase of interaction and production tasks, performance conditions can be manipulated inorder to make a task more or less demanding, for example by varying: the amount of timeallowed for planning and for realisation; the duration of the interaction or production;
the degree of (un)predictability, amount and kind of support provided, etc.

7.2.3 Strategies
Task performance is a complex process, therefore, involving the strategic interplay of arange of learner competences and task-related factors. In responding to the demands of atask the language user or learner activates those general and communicative strategies
which are most efﬁcient for accomplishing the particular task. The user or learner naturally adapts, adjusts and ﬁlters task inputs, goals, conditions and constraints to ﬁt his or
her own resources, purposes and (in a language learning context) particular learning style.
In carrying out a communication task, an individual selects, balances, activates andco-ordinates the appropriate components of those competences necessary for task planning, execution, monitoring/evaluation, and (where necessary) repair, with a view to theeffective achievement of his or her intended communicative purpose. Strategies (generaland communicative) provide a vital link between the different competences that thelearner has (innate or acquired) and successful task completion (see sections 4.4 and 4.5).

7.3

Task difficulty

Individuals may differ considerably in their approach to the same task. Consequently the
difﬁculty of any particular task for an individual, and the strategies which he or she
adopts to cope with the demands of the task, are the result of a number of interrelated
factors arising from his or her competences (general and communicative) and individual
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characteristics, and the speciﬁc conditions and constraints under which the task iscarried out. For these reasons the ease or difﬁculty of tasks cannot be predicted with certainty, least of all for individual learners, and in language learning contexts consideration needs to be given to ways of building ﬂexibility and differentiation into task design
and implementation.
In spite of the problems associated with establishing task difﬁculty, the effective useof classroom learning experiences requires a principled and coherent approach to task
selection and sequencing. This means taking into account the speciﬁc competences ofthe learner and factors that affect task difﬁculty, and manipulating task parameters inorder to modify the task according to the needs and capabilities of the learner.
In considering levels of task difﬁculty, therefore, it is necessary to take into account:• user/learner’s competences and characteristics, including the learner’s own purposes and learning style;• task conditions and constraints which may affect the language user/learner’s performance in carrying out speciﬁc tasks, and which, in learning contexts, may be
adjusted to accommodate learner competences and characteristics.

7.3.1 Learner competences and learner characteristics
The learner’s different competences are closely related to individual characteristics of a
cognitive, affective and linguistic nature which need to be taken into account in establishing the potential difﬁculty of a given task for a particular learner.

7.3.1.1 Cognitive factors
Task familiarity: cognitive load may be lessened and successful task completion facilitatedaccording to the extent of the learner’s familiarity with:••••the type of task and operations involved;
the theme(s);type of text (genre);interactional schemata (scripts and frames) involved as the availability to the learnerof unconscious or ‘routinised’ schemata can free the learner to deal with otheraspects of performance, or assists in anticipating text content and organisation;• necessary background knowledge (assumed by the speaker or writer);• relevant sociocultural knowledge, e.g. knowledge of social norms and variations,social conventions and rules, language forms appropriate to the context, references
connected with national or cultural identity, and distinctive differences between thelearner’s culture and the target culture (see section 5.1.1.2) and intercultural awareness (see 5.1.1.3).
Skills: task completion depends on the learner’s ability to exercise, inter alia:• the organisational and interpersonal skills necessary to carry out the different stepsof the task;
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Tasks and their role in language teaching• the learning skills and strategies that facilitate task completion, including coping
when linguistic resources are inadequate, discovering for oneself, planning and monitoring task implementation;• intercultural skills (see section 5.1.2.2), including the ability to cope with what is
implicit in the discourse of native speakers.
Ability to cope with processing demands: a task is likely to make greater or lesser demands
depending on the learner’s capacity to:• handle the number of steps or ‘cognitive operations’ involved, and their concrete or
abstract nature;• attend to the processing demands of the task (amount of ‘on-line thinking’) and to
relating different steps of the task to one another (or to combining different but
related tasks).

7.3.1.2 Affective factors
Self-esteem: a positive self-image and lack of inhibition is likely to contribute to successful
task completion where the learner has the necessary self-conﬁdence to persist in carrying out the task; for example, assuming control of interaction when necessary (e.g. intervening to obtain clariﬁcation, to check understanding, willingness to take risks, or, when
faced with comprehension difﬁculties, continuing to read or listen and making inferences etc.); the degree of inhibition may be inﬂuenced by the particular situation or task.
Involvement and motivation: successful task performance is more likely where thelearner is fully involved; a high level of intrinsic motivation to carry out the task – due
to interest in the task or because of its perceived relevance, for example to real life needs
or to the completion of another linked task (task interdependence) – will promote greater
learner involvement; extrinsic motivation may also play a role, for example where there
are external pressures to complete the task successfully (e.g. to earn praise or in order
not to lose face, or for competitive reasons).
State: performance is inﬂuenced by the learner’s physical and emotional state (analert and relaxed learner is more likely to learn and to succeed than a tired and anxious
one).
Attitude: the difﬁculty of a task which introduces new sociocultural knowledge andexperiences will be affected by, for example: the learner’s interest in and openness to otherness; willingness to relativise his or her own cultural viewpoint and value system; willingness to assume the role of ‘cultural intermediary’ between his or her own and theforeign culture and to resolve intercultural misunderstanding and conﬂict.

7.3.1.3 Linguistic factors
The stage of development of the learner’s linguistic resources is a primary factor to beconsidered in establishing the suitability of a particular task or in manipulating task
parameters: level of knowledge and control of grammar, vocabulary and phonology ororthography required to carry out the task, i.e. language resources such as range, grammatical and lexical accuracy, and aspects of language use such as ﬂuency, ﬂexibility,
coherence, appropriacy, precision.
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A task may be linguistically demanding but cognitively simple, or vice versa, andconsequently one factor may be offset against the other in task selection for pedagogic
purposes (although an appropriate response to a cognitively demanding task may be
linguistically challenging in a real life context). In carrying out a task learners have tohandle both content and form. Where they do not need to devote undue attention toformal aspects, then more resources are available to attend to cognitive aspects, andvice versa. The availability of routinised schematic knowledge frees the learner to deal
with content and, in the case of interaction and spontaneous production activities, toconcentrate on more accurate use of less well established forms. The learner’s ability
to compensate for ‘gaps’ in his or her linguistic competence is an important factor insuccessful task completion for all activities (see communication strategies, section
4.4).

7.3.2 Task conditions and constraints
A range of factors may be manipulated with regard to conditions and constraints in classroom tasks involving:• interaction and production;• reception.

7.3.2.1 Interaction and production
Conditions and constraints affecting the difﬁculty of interaction and production
tasks:••••••

SupportTime
Goal
Predictability
Physical conditions
Participants• Support:
The provision of adequate information concerning contextual features and the availability of language assistance can help reduce task difﬁculty.
• amount of contextualisation provided: task accomplishment may be facilitated by theprovision of sufﬁcient and relevant information about participants, roles, content,
goals, setting (including visuals) and relevant, clear and adequate instructions or
guidelines for carrying out the task;• extent to which language assistance is provided: in interaction activities, task rehearsal or carrying out a parallel task in a preparatory phase, and the provision of language support (key words, etc.) helps to create expectations and to activate priorknowledge or experience and acquired schemata; non-immediate production activ162

Tasks and their role in language teachingities will obviously be facilitated by the availability of resources such as reference
works, relevant models, and assistance from others.
• Time:The less time available for task preparation and performance, the more demanding thetask is likely to be. Temporal aspects to be considered include:• time available for preparation, i.e. the extent to which planning or rehearsal is possible: in spontaneous communication intentional planning is not possible and consequently a highly developed and subconscious use of strategies is required forsuccessful task completion; in other instances the learner may be under less severetime pressure and can exercise relevant strategies at a more conscious level, forexample where communication schemata are fairly predictable or determined inadvance as in routine transactions, or where there is adequate time for planning, executing, evaluating, and editing text as is normally the case with interaction tasks
which do not require an immediate response (corresponding by letter) or nonimmediate spoken or written production tasks;• time available for execution: the greater the degree of urgency inherent in the communicative event, or the shorter the time allowed for learners to complete the task,
the greater the pressure in carrying out the task in spontaneous communication;
however, non-spontaneous interaction or production tasks may also create time pressure, for example, to meet a deadline for completing a text, which in turn reduces
the time available for planning, execution, evaluation and repair;• duration of turns: longer turns in spontaneous interaction (e.g. recounting an anecdote) are normally more demanding than short turns;• duration of the task: where cognitive factors and performance conditions are constant,a lengthy spontaneous interaction, a (complex) task with many steps, or the planningand execution of a lengthy spoken or written text is likely to be more demanding
than a corresponding task of a shorter duration.
• Goal:The greater the amount of negotiation required to achieve the task goal(s) the moredemanding the task is likely to be. In addition, the extent to which expectations withregard to task outcomes are shared by the teacher and learners will facilitate the acceptance of diversiﬁed but acceptable task accomplishment.
• convergence or divergence of task goal(s): in an interaction task a convergent goal normally involves more ‘communicative stress’ than a divergent goal, i.e. the former
requires participants to arrive at a single, agreed outcome (such as reaching a consensus on a course of action to be followed) which may involve considerable negotiation as speciﬁc information which is essential for successful task completion is
exchanged, whereas the latter has no single, speciﬁc intended outcome (e.g. a simple
exchange of views);• learner and teacher attitudes to goal(s): teacher and learner awareness of the possibility
and acceptability of different outcomes (as opposed to learners’ (perhaps subconscious) striving for a single ‘correct’ outcome) may inﬂuence task execution.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment• Predictability:
Regular changes in task parameters during task execution are likely to increase demands
on interlocutors.
• in an interaction task, the introduction of an unexpected element (event, circumstances, information, participant) obliges the learner to activate relevant strategies
to cope with the dynamics of the new and more complex situation; in a production
task the development of a ‘dynamic’ text (e.g. a story involving regular changes ofcharacters, scenes and with time shifts) is likely to be more demanding than producing a ‘static’ text (e.g. describing a lost or stolen object).
• Physical conditions:
Noise can add to the processing demands in interaction:• interference: background noise or a poor telephone line, for example, may require participants to draw on prior experience, schematic knowledge, inferencing skills, etc.
to compensate for ‘gaps’ in the message.
• Participants:
In addition to the above parameters, a variety of participant-related factors, although
they cannot normally be manipulated, need to be taken into account when considering
conditions inﬂuencing the ease of difﬁculty of real life tasks involving interaction.
• co-operativeness of interlocutor(s): a sympathetic interlocutor will facilitate successfulcommunication by ceding a degree of control over the interaction to the user/learner,
e.g. in negotiating and accepting modiﬁcation of goals, and in facilitating comprehension, for example by responding positively to requests to speak more slowly, torepeat, to clarify;• features of speech of interlocutors, e.g. rate, accent, clarity, coherence;• visibility of interlocutors (accessibility of paralinguistic features in face to face communication facilitates communication);• general and communicative competences of interlocutors, including behaviour (degree offamiliarity with norms in a particular speech community), and knowledge of thesubject matter.

7.3.2.2 Reception
Conditions and constraints affecting the difﬁculty of comprehension tasks:• Task support• Text characteristics• Type of response required• Task support
The introduction of various forms of support can reduce the possible difﬁculty of texts,
for example, a preparatory phase can provide orientation and activate prior knowledge,
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Tasks and their role in language teachingclear task instructions help to avoid possible confusion, and work arrangements involving small group settings offer possibilities for learner co-operation and mutual assistance.
• preparatory phase: creating expectations, providing necessary background knowledge, activating schematic knowledge, and ﬁltering speciﬁc linguistic difﬁculties
during a pre-listening/viewing or pre-reading phase reduce the processing load andconsequently task demands; contextual assistance may be provided also by studying
questions accompanying a text (and therefore ideally placed before a written text),
and from clues such as visuals, layout, headings, etc.;• task instructions: uncomplicated, relevant and sufﬁcient task instructions (neither too
much nor too little information) lessen the possibility of confusion about task procedures and goals;• small group setting: for certain learners, and particularly but not exclusively for slower
learners, a small group work arrangement involving co-operative listening/reading ismore likely to result in successful task completion than individual work, as learners
can share the processing load and obtain assistance and feedback on their understanding from one another.
• Text characteristics
In evaluating a text for use with a particular learner or group of learners, factors such as
linguistic complexity, text type, discourse structure, physical presentation, length of thetext and its relevance for the learner(s), need to be considered.
• linguistic complexity: particularly complex syntax consumes attentional resources thatmight otherwise be available for dealing with content; for example, long sentenceswith a number of subordinate clauses, non-continuous constituents, multiple negation, scope ambiguity, use of anaphorics and deictics without clear antecedents orreference. Syntactic over-simpliﬁcation of authentic texts, however, may actually
have the effect of increasing the level of difﬁculty (because of the elimination of
redundancies, clues to meaning etc.);• text type: familiarity with the genre and domain (and with assumed background andsociocultural knowledge) helps the learner in anticipating and comprehending text
structure and content; the concrete or abstract nature of the text is also likely to playa role; for example, concrete description, instructions or narratives (particularly withadequate visual supports), for example, are likely to be less demanding than abstract
argumentation or explanation;• discourse structure: textual coherence and clear organisation (for example, temporalsequencing, main points clearly signalled and presented before illustration of thepoints), the explicit rather than implicit nature of information presented, theabsence of conﬂicting or surprising information, all contribute to reducing information processing complexity;• physical presentation: written and spoken texts obviously make differing demands
because of the need to process information in spoken text in real time. In addition,
noise, distortion and interference (e.g. weak radio/television reception, or
untidy/smudged handwriting) increase the difﬁculty of comprehension; in the case165

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessmentof spoken (audio) text the greater the number of speakers and the less distinct their
voices, the more difﬁcult it is to identify and understand individual speakers; otherfactors which increase difﬁculty in listening/viewing include overlapping speech,
phonetic reduction, unfamiliar accents, speed of delivery, monotony, low volume,etc.;• length of text: in general a short text is less demanding than a long text on a similar
topic as a longer text requires more processing and there is an additional memory
load, risk of fatigue and distraction (especially in the case of younger learners).
However, a long text which is not too dense and contains considerable redundancy
may be easier than a short dense text presenting the same information;• relevance to the learner: a high level of motivation to understand due to personal interest in the content will help to sustain the learner’s efforts to understand (although
it will not necessarily assist comprehension directly); while the occurrence of low frequency vocabulary may be expected to increase the difﬁculty of a text in general, atext containing quite speciﬁc vocabulary on a familiar and relevant topic is likely tobe less demanding for a specialist in the ﬁeld than a text containing wide-ranging
vocabulary of a more general nature, and it may be approached with greater conﬁdence.
Encouraging learners to express their personal knowledge, ideas and opinions within acomprehension task may increase motivation and conﬁdence, and activate linguisticcompetence related to the text. Embedding a comprehension task within another task
may also help to make it inherently purposeful and increase learner involvement.
• Type of response required
While a text may be relatively difﬁcult the type of response required by the task which
is set may be manipulated in order to accommodate the learner’s competences and characteristics. Task design may also depend on whether the aim is to develop comprehension skills or to check understanding. Accordingly, the type of response demanded mayvary considerably, as numerous typologies of comprehension tasks illustrate.
A comprehension task may require global or selective comprehension, or understanding of important points of detail. Certain tasks may require the reader/listenerto show understanding of the main information clearly stated in a text, while others
may require the use of inferencing skills. A task may be summative (to be completed
on the basis of the complete text), or may be structured so as to relate to manageable
units (e.g. accompanying each section of a text) and thus making less demands on
memory.
The response may be non-verbal (no overt response or a simple action such as ticking
a picture) or a verbal response (spoken or written) may be required. The latter may, forinstance, involve identifying and reproducing information from a text for a particularpurpose or may, for example, require the learner to complete the text or to produce a newtext through related interaction or production tasks.
The time allowed for the response may be varied so as to decrease or increase task difﬁculty. The more time a listener or reader has to replay or reread a text, the more he or
she is likely to understand and the greater the opportunity to apply a range of strategies
for coping with difﬁculties in understanding the text.
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Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• principles for the selection and weighting of ‘real life’ and ‘pedagogic’ tasks for their
purposes, including the appropriateness of different types of tasks in particular learning
contexts;• the criteria for selecting tasks which are purposeful and meaningful for the learner, andprovide a challenging but realistic and attainable goal, involving the learner as fully as
possible, and allowing for differing learner interpretations and outcomes;• the relationship between tasks that are primarily meaning-oriented and learning
experiences speciﬁcally focused on form so that the learner’s attention might be focused ina regular and useful manner on both aspects in a balanced approach to the developmentof accuracy and ﬂuency;• ways of taking into account the pivotal role of the learner’s strategies in relatingcompetences and performance in the successful accomplishment of challenging tasks undervarying conditions and constraints (see section 4.4); ways of facilitating successful task
accomplishment and learning (including activation of the learner’s prior competences in a
preparatory phase);• criteria and options for selecting tasks, and where appropriate manipulating task
parameters in order to modify the level of task difﬁculty so as to accommodate learners’
differing and developing competences, and diversity in learner characteristics (ability,
motivation, needs, interests);• how the perceived level of difﬁculty of a task might be taken into account in the evaluationof successful task completion and in (self) assessment of the learner’s communicativecompetence (Chapter 9).

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8 Linguistic diversification and the curriculum

8.1

Definition and initial approach

Plurilingual and pluricultural competence refers to the ability to use languages for the purposes of communication and to take part in intercultural interaction, where a person,
viewed as a social agent has proﬁciency, of varying degrees, in several languages andexperience of several cultures. This is not seen as the superposition or juxtaposition of
distinct competences, but rather as the existence of a complex or even composite competence on which the user may draw.
The customary approach is to present learning a foreign language as an addition, in acompartmentalised way, of a competence to communicate in a foreign language to thecompetence to communicate in the mother tongue. The concept of plurilingual and pluricultural competence tends to:• move away from the supposed balanced dichotomy established by the customary
L1/L2 pairing by stressing plurilingualism where bilingualism is just one particularcase;• consider that a given individual does not have a collection of distinct and separate
competences to communicate depending on the languages he/she knows, but rather
a plurilingual and pluricultural competence encompassing the full range of the languages available to him/her;• stress the pluricultural dimensions of this multiple competence but without necessarily suggesting links between the development of abilities concerned with relating
to other cultures and the development of linguistic communicative proﬁciency.
A general observation can nevertheless be made, linking different distinct language
learning components and paths. It is generally the case that language teaching inschools has to a large extent tended to stress objectives concerned with either the individual’s general competence (especially at primary school level) or communicative language
competence (particularly for those aged between 11 and 16), while courses for adults (students or people already working) formulate objectives in terms of speciﬁc language activities or functional ability in a particular domain. This emphasis, in the case of the former
on the construction and development of competences, and in the latter case on optimal
preparation for activities concerned with functioning in a speciﬁc context, corresponds no doubt to the distinct roles of general initial education on the one hand, andspecialised and continuing education on the other. In this context, rather than treating these as opposites, the common framework of reference can help to relate these dif168

Linguistic diversiﬁcation and the curriculum
ferent practices with respect to one another and show that they should in fact be complementary.

8.2 Options for curricular design
8.2.1 Diversification within an overall concept
Discussion about curricula in relation to the Framework may be guided by three mainprinciples.
The ﬁrst is that discussion on curricula should be in line with the overall objective ofpromoting plurilingualism and linguistic diversity. This means that the teaching andlearning of any one language should also be examined in conjunction with the provision
for other languages in the education system and the paths which learners might choose
to follow in the long term in their efforts to develop a variety of language skills.
The second principle is that this diversiﬁcation is only possible, particularly in schools,
if the cost efﬁciency of the system is considered, so as to avoid unnecessary repetition
and to promote the economies of scale and the transfer of skills which linguistic diversity facilitates. If, for example, the education system allows pupils to begin learning two
foreign languages at a pre-determined stage in their studies, and provides for optional
learning of a third language, the objectives or kinds of progression in each of the chosen
languages need not necessarily be the same (e.g. the starting point need not always be
preparation for functional interaction satisfying the same communicative needs nor
would one necessarily continue to emphasise learning strategies).
The third principle is, therefore, that considerations and measures relating to curricula
should not just be limited to a curriculum for each language taken in isolation, nor evenan integrated curriculum for several languages. They should also be approached in termsof their role in a general language education, in which linguistic knowledge (savoir) andskills (savoir-faire), along with the ability to learn (savoir-apprendre), play not only a speciﬁcrole in a given language but also a transversal or transferable role across languages.

8.2.2 From the partial to the transversal
Between ‘related’ languages in particular – though not just between these – knowledge
and skills may be transferred by a kind of osmosis. And, with reference to curricula, it
should be stressed that:• all knowledge of a language is partial, however much of a ‘mother tongue’ or ‘native
language’ it seems to be. It is always incomplete, never as developed or perfect in an
ordinary individual as it would be for the utopian, ‘ideal native speaker’. In addition,
a given individual never has equal mastery of the different component parts of thelanguage in question (for example of oral and written skills, or of comprehension andinterpretation compared to production skills);• any partial knowledge is also more than it might seem. For instance, in order toachieve the ‘limited’ goal of increasing understanding of specialised texts in a given
foreign language on very familiar subjects it is necessary to acquire knowledge and169

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
skills which can also be used for many other purposes. Such ‘spin-off’ value ishowever a matter for the learner rather than the responsibility of the curriculum
planner;• those who have learnt one language also know a great deal about many other languages without necessarily realising that they do. The learning of further languages
generally facilitates the activation of this knowledge and increases awareness of it,which is a factor to be taken into account rather than proceeding as if it did not exist.
Although leaving a very broad freedom of choice in drawing up curricula and progression, these different principles and observations also aim to encourage efforts to adopt
a transparent and coherent approach when identifying options and making decisions. It
is in this process that a framework of reference will be of particular value.

8.3

Towards curriculum scenarios

8.3.1 Curriculum and variation of objectives
From the above, it can be seen that each of the major components and sub-componentsof the proposed model may, if selected as a main learning objective, result in various
choices in relation to content approaches and means to facilitate successful learning. For
example, whether it is a matter of ‘skills’ (general competences of the individual
learner/language user) or the ‘sociolinguistic component’ (within communicative language competence) or strategies, or comprehension (under the heading of language
activities), in each case it is a question of components (and for quite distinct elements ofthe taxonomy proposed in the Framework) upon which a curriculum might or might notplace emphasis and which might be considered in different instances as an objective, ameans or a prerequisite. And for each of these components the question of the internal
structure adopted (for example, which sub-components to select in the sociolinguistic
component? how to sub-categorise strategies?) and the criteria for any system of progression over time (e.g. linear ranking of different types of comprehension activities?) couldat least be identiﬁed and considered, if not treated in detail. This is the direction in which
the other sections of this document invite the reader to approach the questions and consider the options appropriate to his or her own particular situation.
This ‘exploded’ view is all the more appropriate in the light of the generally accepted
notion that the selection and ordering of objectives on which to base language learning
may vary enormously depending on the context, the target group and the level in question. Furthermore, it should be stressed that objectives for the same type of public in thesame context and at the same level could also vary regardless of the weight of tradition
and the constraints imposed by the education system.
The discussion surrounding modern language teaching in primary schools illustrates
this in that there is a great deal of variety and controversy – at national or even regional
level within a country – concerning the deﬁnition of the initial, inevitably ‘partial’ aims
to be set for this type of teaching. Should pupils: learn some basic rudiments of theforeign language system (linguistic component)?; develop linguistic awareness (moregeneral linguistic knowledge (savoir), skills (savoir-faire) and savoir-être?; become moreobjective with regard to their native language and culture or be made to feel more at
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home in it?; be given conﬁdence from the realisation and conﬁrmation that they arecapable of learning another language?; learn how to learn?; acquire a minimum of oral
comprehension skills?; play with a foreign language and become familiar with it (in particular some of its phonetic and rhythmic characteristics) through counting-rhymes andsongs? It goes without saying that it is possible to keep several irons in the ﬁre and thatmany objectives could be combined or accommodated with others. However, it should beemphasised that in drawing up a curriculum the selection and balancing of objectives,content, ordering and means of assessment are closely linked to the analysis which has
been made for each of the speciﬁed components.
These considerations imply that:• throughout the language learning period – and this is equally applicable to schools– there may be continuity with regard to objectives or they may be modiﬁed and theirorder of priority adjusted;• in a language curriculum accommodating several languages, the objectives and syllabuses of the different languages may either be similar or different;• quite radically different approaches are possible and each can have its own transparency and coherence with regard to options chosen, and each can be explainedwith reference to the Framework;• reﬂection on the curriculum may therefore involve the consideration of possible scenarios for the development of plurilingual and pluricultural competences and therole of the school in this process.

8.3.2 Some examples of differentiated curriculum scenarios
In the following brief illustration of what might be envisaged by scenario options or variations, two types of organisation and curriculum decisions for a particular school system areoutlined, to include, as suggested above, two modern languages other than the language of
instruction (conventionally, but mistakenly, referred to below as the native language, since
everybody knows that the teaching language, even in Europe, is often not the native language of the pupils): one language starting in primary school (foreign language 1, hereafterFL1) and the other in lower secondary school (foreign language 2, hereafter FL2), with athird (FL3) being introduced as an optional subject at upper secondary level.
In these examples of scenarios a distinction is made between primary, lower secondary
and upper secondary which does not correspond to all national education systems.
However, these illustrative programmes can easily be transposed and adapted, even incontexts where the range of languages on offer is narrower or where the ﬁrst institutional learning of a foreign language comes later than primary level. He who can do more
can do less. The alternatives offered here include forms of learning for three foreign languages (two out of several on offer forming part of the compulsory programme and thethird, which can also be chosen, being offered as an optional extra or in lieu of otheroptional subjects) because this seems to be the most realistic in the majority of cases andrepresents a useful basis to illustrate this point. The central argument is that for a given
context various scenarios can be conceived and there can be local diversiﬁcation, provided that in each case due attention is paid to the overall coherence and structure ofany particular option.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessmenta)First scenario:
Primary school:
The ﬁrst foreign language (FL1) begins in primary school with the main aim of developing ‘language awareness’, a general consciousness of linguistic phenomena (relationship with the native language or other languages present in the classroom
environment). The focus here is on partial objectives concerned above all with an individual’s general competences – (discovery or recognition by the school of the plurality of languages and cultures, preparation for moving away from ethnocentrism,
relativisation but also conﬁrmation of the learner’s own linguistic and cultural identity; attention paid to body language and gestures, sound aspects, music and rhythm,
experience of the physical and aesthetic dimensions of certain elements of anotherlanguage) – and their relationship with communicative competence, but without
there being a structured and explicit attempt to develop this speciﬁc competence.
Lower secondary school:• FL1 continues with the emphasis from now on placed on a gradual developmentof communicative competence (in its linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic
dimensions) but taking full account of achievements at primary level in the areaof language awareness.
• The second foreign language (FL2, not taught at primary school) would not startfrom scratch either; it too would take account of what had been covered atprimary school on the basis of and in relation to FL1, whilst at the same time pursuing slightly different objectives from those now pursued in FL1 (for instance,by giving priority to comprehension activities over production activities).
Upper secondary level:
Continuing the example in this scenario, consideration should now be given to:• reducing the formal teaching of FL1 and using the language instead on a regularor occasional basis for teaching another subject (a form of domain-related learning and ‘bilingual education’);• maintaining the emphasis with regard to FL2 on comprehension, concentratingin particular on different text types and the organisation of discourse, and relating this work to what is being done or has already been done in the mothertongue, whilst also using skills learnt in FL1;• inviting pupils who choose to study the optional third foreign language (FL3) initially to take part in discussions and activities relating to types of learning andlearning strategies that they have already experienced; they are then encouraged
to work more autonomously, using a resource centre and contributing to thedrawing up of a group or individual work programme designed to achieve theobjectives set by the group or the institution.

b)Second scenario:
Primary school:
The ﬁrst foreign language (FL1) starts at primary school with the emphasis on basic
oral communication and a clearly predetermined linguistic content (with the aim of172

Linguistic diversiﬁcation and the curriculum
establishing the beginnings of a basic linguistic component, primarily phonetic andsyntactic aspects, while promoting elementary oral interaction in class).
Lower secondary school:
For FL1, FL2 (when this second foreign language is introduced) and the native language, time is spent going over the learning methods and techniques encounteredin primary school for FL1 and, separately, for the native language: the aim at thisstage would be to promote sensitivity to and increase awareness of the learner’s
approach to languages and learning activities.
• For FL1 a ‘regular’ programme designed to develop the different skills continues
until the end of secondary school but, at various intervals, this is supplemented
with revision and discussion sessions relating to the resources and methods used
for teaching and learning so as to accommodate an increasing differentiation
between the proﬁles of different pupils and their expectations and interests.
• For FL2 at this stage particular emphasis could be placed on the sociocultural andsociolinguistic elements as perceived through increasing familiarity with themedia (popular press, radio and television) and possibly linked with the native
language course and beneﬁting from what has been covered in FL1. In this curriculum model, FL2, which continues until the end of secondary school, is themain forum for cultural and intercultural discussion fuelled through contact
with the other languages in the curriculum and taking media-related texts as its
main focus. It could also incorporate the experience of an international
exchange with the focus on intercultural relations. Consideration should also begiven to using other subjects (e.g. history or geography) to help initiate a wellthought-out approach to pluriculturalism.
Upper secondary level:• FL1 and FL2 each continue in the same direction but at a more complex anddemanding level. Learners who opt for a third foreign language (FL3) do so primarily for ‘vocational’ purposes and relate their language learning to a more
professionally-oriented or other academic branch of their studies (for example
orientation towards the language of commerce, economics or technology).
It should be stressed that in this second scenario, as in the ﬁrst, the ﬁnal plurilingual and pluricultural proﬁle of the learners may be ‘uneven’ to the extent that:• the level of proﬁciency in the languages making up plurilingual competence
varies;• the cultural aspects are unequally developed for the different languages;• it is not necessarily the case that for the languages in which linguistic aspects
received most attention the cultural aspect is also the most developed;• ‘partial’ competences, as described above, are integrated.
To these brief indications it may be added that in all cases time should be allowed at somepoint or other, in the case of all languages, for considering the approaches and learning
paths to which learners, in their respective development, are exposed or for which they
opt. This implies building into curriculum design at school scope for explicitness, the173Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
progressive development of ‘learning awareness’ and the introduction of general language education which helps learners establish metacognitive control over their own
competences and strategies. Learners situate these in relation to other possible competences and strategies and with regard to the language activities in which they are appliedin order to accomplish tasks within speciﬁc domains.
In other words, one of the aims of curriculum design, whatever the particular curriculum, is to make learners aware of categories and their dynamic interrelationship as proposed in the model adopted for the reference framework.

8.4

Assessment and school, out-of-school and post-school learning

If the curriculum is deﬁned, as suggested by its primary meaning, in terms of the pathtravelled by a learner through a sequence of educational experiences, whether under thecontrol of an institution or not, then a curriculum does not end with leaving school, but
continues in some way or other thereafter in a process of life-long learning.
In this perspective, therefore, the curriculum of the school as institution has the aimof developing in the learner a plurilingual and pluricultural competence which at theend of school studies may take the form of differentiated proﬁles depending on individuals and the paths they have followed. It is clear that the form of this competence is not
immutable and the subsequent personal and professional experiences of each social
agent, the direction of his or her life, will cause it to evolve and change its balancethrough further development, reduction and reshaping. It is here that adult educationand continuing training, among other things, play a role. Three complementary aspects
may be considered in relation to this.

8.4.1 The place of the school curriculum
To accept the notion that the educational curriculum is not limited to school and does
not end with it is also to accept that plurilingual and pluricultural competence may
begin before school and continue to develop out of school in ways which proceed parallelwith its development in school. This may happen through family experience and learning, history and contacts between generations, travel, expatriation, emigration, andmore generally belonging to a multilingual and multicultural environment or movingfrom one environment to another, but also through reading and through the media.
While this is stating the obvious, it is also clear that the school is a long way fromalways taking this into account. It is therefore useful to think of the school curriculumas part of a much broader curriculum, but a part which also has the function of giving
learners:• an initial differentiated plurilingual and pluricultural repertoire (with some possible ways being suggested in the two scenarios outlined above);• a better awareness of, knowledge of and conﬁdence in their competences and thecapacities and resources available to them, inside and outside the school, so that they
may extend and reﬁne these competences and use them effectively in particulardomains.
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Linguistic diversiﬁcation and the curriculum
8.4.2 Portfolio and profiling
It follows, therefore, that the recognition and assessment of knowledge and skills should
be such as to take account of the circumstances and experiences through which thesecompetences and skills are developed. The development of a European Language Portfolio(ELP) enabling an individual to record and present different aspects of his or her language
biography represents a step in this direction. It is designed to include not only any ofﬁcially awarded recognition obtained in the course of learning a particular language but
also a record of more informal experiences involving contacts with languages and othercultures.
However, in order to stress the relationship between the school curriculum and theout-of-school curriculum, when language learning is assessed on the completion of secondary education, it would be valuable to try to provide formal recognition for plurilingual and pluricultural competence as such, perhaps by specifying an exit proﬁle which
can accommodate varying combinations rather than using as a basis a single predetermined level in a given language, or languages, as the case may be.
‘Ofﬁcial’ recognition of partial competences may be a step in this direction (and it
would be helpful if the major international qualiﬁcations were to show the way by adopting such an approach, for example by acknowledging separately the four skills coveredby comprehension/expression and written/spoken, and not necessarily all of themgrouped together). But it would be helpful if the ability to cope with several languages
or cultures could also be taken into account and recognised. Translating (or summarising) a second foreign language into a ﬁrst foreign language, participating in an oral discussion involving several languages, interpreting a cultural phenomenon in relation toanother culture, are examples of mediation (as deﬁned in this document) which havetheir place to play in assessing and rewarding the ability to manage a plurilingual andpluricultural repertoire.

8.4.3 A multidimensional and modular approachThis chapter aims to draw attention generally to the shift in focus or at least the increasing complexity of curriculum design, and the implications for assessment and certiﬁcation. It is clearly important to deﬁne stages in relation to content and progression. Thismay be done in terms of one primary component (linguistic or notional/functional, forexample) or in terms of promoting progress in all dimensions for a particular language.
It is equally important to distinguish clearly the components of a multidimensional curriculum (taking account in particular of the different dimensions of the reference framework) and to differentiate methods of evaluation, working towards modular learning andcertiﬁcation arrangements. This would permit, synchronically (i.e. at a given moment in
the learning path) or diachronically (i.e. through differentiated stages along this path),the development and recognition of plurilingual and pluricultural competences with‘variable geometry’ (i.e. the components and structure of which vary from one individual to another and change over time for a given individual).
At certain times in the learner’s school career, following the school curriculum and thescenarios outlined brieﬂy above, short cross-curricular modules involving the various languages might be introduced. Such ‘translanguage’ modules could encompass the various
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
learning approaches and resources, ways of using the out-of-school environment, anddealing with misunderstandings in intercultural relations. They would give greater overall
coherence and transparency to the underlying curricular choices and would improve thegeneral structure without upsetting the programmes devised for other subjects.
Furthermore, a modular approach to qualiﬁcations would enable a speciﬁc assessment
to be made, in an ad hoc module, of the plurilingual and pluricultural management abilities referred to above.
Multidimensionality and modularity thus appear as key concepts in developing asound basis for linguistic diversiﬁcation in the curriculum and in assessment. The reference framework is structured in a manner that allows it, through the categories it offers,
to indicate the directions for such a modular or multidimensional organisation.
However, the way forward is clearly to implement projects and experimental work in theschool environment and in a variety of contexts.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• whether the learners concerned already have some experience of linguistic and cultural
plurality, and the nature of this experience;• whether learners are already able, even if only at a very basic level, to function in several
linguistic and/or cultural communities, and how this competence is distributed anddifferentiated according to the contexts of language use and activities;• what experience of linguistic and cultural diversity learners may have at the time of theirlearning (for example parallel to and outside their attendance at a learning institution);• how this experience might be built on in the learning process;• what types of objectives appear best suited to learners (see section 1.2) at a particularpoint in the development of a plurilingual and pluricultural competence, taking accountof their characteristics, expectations, interests, plans and needs as well as their previous
learning path and their existing resources;• how to encourage, for the learners concerned, the decompartmentalisation andestablishment of an effective relationship between the different components of plurilingualand pluricultural competence in the process of being developed; in particular, how to focus
attention on and draw on the learners’ existing transferable and transversal knowledge
and skills;• which partial competences (of what kind and for what purposes) might enrich, complexify
and differentiate learners’ existing competences;• how to ﬁt learning concerned with a particular language or culture coherently into an
overall curriculum in which the experience of several languages and several cultures isdeveloped:• what options or what forms of differentiation in curriculum scenarios exist for managing
the development of a diversiﬁed competence for particular learners; what economies ofscale can be envisaged and achieved, if appropriate;• what forms of organisation of learning (a modular approach, for example) are likely tofavour management of the learning path in the case of the learners in question;• what approach to evaluation or assessment will make it possible to take account of andaccord proper recognition to the partial competences and the diversiﬁed plurilingual andpluricultural competence of learners.
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9 Assessment

9.1

Introduction

Assessment is used in this chapter in the sense of the assessment of the proﬁciency ofthe language user. All language tests are a form of assessment, but there are also many
forms of assessment (e.g. checklists used in continuous assessment; informal teacher
observation) which would not be described as tests. Evaluation is a term which is again
broader than assessment. All assessment is a form of evaluation, but in a language programme a number of things are evaluated other than learner proﬁciency. These may
include the effectiveness of particular methods or materials, the kind and quality of discourse actually produced in the programme, learner/teacher satisfaction, teaching effectiveness, etc. This chapter is concerned with assessment, and not with broader issues ofprogramme evaluation.
There are three concepts that are traditionally seen as fundamental to any discussionof assessment: validity, reliability and feasibility. It is useful in relation to the discussion
in this chapter to have an overview of what is meant by these terms, how they relate to
one another, and how they are relevant to the Framework.
Validity is the concept with which the Framework is concerned. A test or assessment
procedure can be said to have validity to the degree that it can be demonstrated thatwhat is actually assessed (the construct) is what, in the context concerned, should beassessed, and that the information gained is an accurate representation of the proﬁciency of the candidates(s) concerned.
Reliability, on the other hand, is a technical term. It is basically the extent to which thesame rank order of candidates is replicated in two separate (real or simulated) administrations of the same assessment.
What is in fact more important than reliability is the accuracy of decisions made in relation to a standard. If the assessment reports results as pass/fail or Levels A2+/B1/B1+, howaccurate are these decisions? The accuracy of the decisions will depend on the validityof the particular standard (e.g. Level B1) for the context. It will also depend on the validity of the criteria used to reach the decision and the validity of the procedures withwhich those criteria were developed.
If two different organisations or regions use criteria related to the same standards inorder to inform their assessment decisions for the same skill, if the standards themselves
are valid and appropriate for the two contexts concerned, and if the standards are interpreted consistently in the design of the assessment tasks and the interpretation of theperformances, the results in the two systems will correlate. Traditionally the correlation
between two tests thought to assess the same construct is known as ‘concurrent validity’.
177Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
This concept is obviously related to reliability, since unreliable tests will not correlate.
However, what is more central is the extent of communality between the two tests regarding what is assessed, and how performance is interpreted.
It is with these two questions that the Common European Framework is concerned.
The next section outlines three main ways in which the Framework can be used:
1. For the speciﬁcation of the content of tests andexaminations:
2. For stating the criteria to determine the attainmentof a learning objective:
3. For describing the levels of proﬁciency in existing
tests and examinations thus enabling comparisons
to be made across different systems of qualiﬁcations:what is assessed
how performance is interpreted
how comparisons can be made

These issues relate to different kinds of assessment in different ways. There are many different kinds and traditions of assessment. It is a mistake to assume that one approach(e.g. a public examination) is necessarily superior in its educational effects to anotherapproach (e.g. teacher assessment). It is indeed a major advantage of a set of common
standards – such as the Common Reference Levels of the Framework – that they make itpossible to relate different forms of assessment to one another.
The third section of the chapter lays out choices between different types of assessment.
The choices are presented in the form of contrasting pairs. In each case the terms used
are deﬁned and the relative advantages and disadvantages are discussed in relation to
the purpose of the assessment in its educational context. The implications of exercising
one or another of the alternative options are also stated. The relevance of the Framework
to the type of assessment concerned is then pointed out.
An assessment procedure also needs to be practical, to be feasible. Feasibility is particularly an issue with performance testing. Assessors operate under time pressure. They
are only seeing a limited sample of performance and there are deﬁnite limits to the typeand number of categories they can handle as criteria. The Framework seeks to provide a
point of reference, not a practical assessment tool. The Framework must be comprehensive, but all its users must be selective. Selectivity may well involve the use of a simpler
operational scheme, which collapses categories separated in the Framework. For
instance, the categories used in the illustrative scales of descriptors juxtaposed to thetext in Chapters 4 and 5 are frequently considerably simpler than the categories andexponents discussed in the text itself. The ﬁnal section of this chapter discusses thisissue, with examples.

9.2

The Framework as a resource for assessment

9.2.1 The specification of the content of tests and examinations
The description of ‘Language Use and the Language User’, in Chapter 4 and in particularsection 4.4 on ‘Communicative Language Activities’, can be consulted when drawing up
a task speciﬁcation for a communicative assessment. It is increasingly recognised thatvalid assessment requires the sampling of a range of relevant types of discourse. For
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example, in relation to the testing of speaking, a recently developed test illustrates thispoint. First, there is a simulated Conversation which functions as a warm up; then there
is an Informal Discussion of topical issues in which the candidate declares an interest. Thisis followed by a Transaction phase, which takes the form either of a face-to-face or simulated telephone information seeking activity. This is followed by a Production phase, based
upon a written Report in which the candidate gives a Description of his/her academic ﬁeld
and plans. Finally there is a Goal-orientated Co-operation, a consensus task between candidates.
To summarise, the Framework categories for communicative activities employed are:Spoken:Written:Interaction(Spontaneous, short turns)

Production(Prepared, long turns)

Conversation
Informal discussion
Goal-orientated co-operation

Description of his/her academic ﬁeld

Report/Description of his/her academic ﬁeld

In constructing the detail of the task speciﬁcations the user may wish to consult section
4.1, on ‘the context of language use’ (domains, conditions and constraints, mental
context), section 4.6 on ‘Texts’, and Chapter 7 on ‘Tasks and their Role in Language
Teaching’, speciﬁcally section 7.3 on ‘Task difﬁculty’.
Section 5.2 on ‘Communicative language competences’ will inform the constructionof the test items, or phases of a spoken test, in order to elicit evidence of the relevant linguistic, sociolinguistic and pragmatic competences. The set of content speciﬁcations at
Threshold Level produced by the Council of Europe for over 20 European languages (seeBibliography items listed on p. 200) and at Waystage and Vantage Level for English, plus
their equivalents when developed for other languages and levels, can be seen as ancillary
to the main Framework document. They offer examples of a further layer of detail to
inform test construction for Levels A1, A2, B1 and B2.

9.2.2 The criteria for the attainment of a learning objective
The scales provide a source for the development of rating scales for the assessment of theattainment of a particular learning objective and the descriptors may assist in the formulation of criteria. The objective may be a broad level of general language proﬁciency,
expressed as a Common Reference Level (e.g. B1). It may on the other hand be a speciﬁc
constellation of activities, skills and competences as discussed in section 6.1.4 on ‘Partial
Competences and Variation in Objectives in relation to the Framework’. Such a modular
objective might be proﬁled on a grid of categories by levels, such as that presented inTable 2.
In discussing the use of descriptors it is essential to make a distinction between:
1. Descriptors of communicative activities, which are located in Chapter 4.
2. Descriptors of aspects of proﬁciency related to particular competences, which arelocated in Chapter 5.
179Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
The former are very suitable for teacher- or self-assessment with regard to real-world
tasks. Such teacher- or self-assessments are made on the basis of a detailed picture of thelearner’s language ability built up during the course concerned. They are attractive
because they can help to focus both learners and teachers on an action-oriented approach.
However, it is not usually advisable to include descriptors of communicative activities
in the criteria for an assessor to rate performance in a particular speaking or writing test
if one is interested in reporting results in terms of a level of proﬁciency attained. This isbecause to report on proﬁciency, the assessment should not be primarily concerned withany one particular performance, but should rather seek to judge the generalisable competences evidenced by that performance. There may of course be sound educational
reasons for focusing on success at completing a given activity, especially with younger
Basic Users (Levels A1; A2). Such results will be less generalisable, but generalisability of
results is not usually the focus of attention in the earlier stages of language learning.
This reinforces the fact that assessments can have many different functions. What is
appropriate for one assessment purpose may be inappropriate for another.

9.2.2.1 Descriptors of communicative activities
Descriptors of communicative activities (Chapter 4) can be used in three separate ways
in relation to the attainment of objectives.
1. Construction: As discussed above in section 9.2.1 scales for communicative activities
help in the deﬁnition of a speciﬁcation for the design of assessment tasks.
2. Reporting: Scales for communicative activities can also be very useful for reporting
results. Users of the products of the educational system, such as employers, are often
interested in the overall outcomes rather than in a detailed proﬁle of competence.
3. Self- or teacher-assessment: Finally, descriptors for communicative activities can beused for self- and teacher-assessment in various ways, of which the following aresome examples:• Checklist: For continuous assessment or for summative assessment at the end of acourse. The descriptors at a particular level can be listed. Alternatively, thecontent of descriptors can be ‘exploded’. For example the descriptor Can ask forand provide personal information might be exploded into the implicit constituent
parts I can introduce myself; I can say where I live; I can say my address in French; I cansay how old I am, etc. and I can ask someone what their name is; I can ask someone where
they live; I can ask someone how old they are, etc.
• Grid: For continuous or summative assessment, rating a proﬁle onto a grid of
selected categories (e.g. Conversation; Discussion; Exchanging Information) deﬁned at
different levels (B1+, B2, B2+).
The use of descriptors in this way has become more common in the last 10 years.
Experience has shown that the consistency with which teachers and learners can interpret descriptors is enhanced if the descriptors describe not only WHAT the learner cando, but also HOW WELL they do it.
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Assessment
9.2.2.2

Descriptors of aspects of proficiency related to particular competences

Descriptors of aspects of proﬁciency can be used in two main ways in relation to theattainment of objectives.
1. Self- or teacher-assessment: Provided the descriptors are positive, independent statements
they can be included in checklists for self- and teacher-assessment. However, it is aweakness of the majority of existing scales that the descriptors are often negatively
worded at lower levels and norm-referenced around the middle of the scale. They also
often make purely verbal distinctions between levels by replacing one or two words
in adjacent descriptions which then have little meaning outside the co-text of thescale. Appendix A discusses ways of developing descriptors that avoid these problems.
2. Performance assessment: A more obvious use for scales of descriptors on aspects of competence from Chapter 5 is to offer starting points for the development of assessment
criteria. By guiding personal, non-systematic impressions into considered judgements, such descriptors can help develop a shared frame of reference among thegroup of assessors concerned.
There are basically three ways in which descriptors can be presented for use as assessment criteria:• Firstly, descriptors can be presented as a scale – often combining descriptors for different categories into one holistic paragraph per level. This is a very common
approach.
• Secondly, they can be presented as a checklist, usually with one checklist per relevant
level, often with descriptors grouped under headings, i.e. under categories.
Checklists are less usual for live assessment.
•

Thirdly, they can be presented as a grid of selected categories, in effect as a set of parallel scales for separate categories. This approach makes it possible to give a diagnostic proﬁle. However, there are limits to the number of categories that assessors cancope with.
There are two distinctly different ways in which one can provide a grid of sub-scales:
Proﬁciency Scale: by providing a proﬁle grid deﬁning the relevant levels forcertain categories, for example from Levels A2 to B2. Assessment is then madedirectly onto those levels, possibly using further reﬁnements like a second digit
or pluses to give greater differentiation if desired. Thus even though the performance test was aimed at Level B1, and even if none of the learners had reached
Level B2, it would still be possible for stronger learners to be credited with B1+,
B1++ or B1.8.
Examination Rating Scale: by selecting or deﬁning a descriptor for each relevant
category which describes the desired pass standard or norm for a particular
module or examination for that category. That descriptor is then named ‘Pass’ or‘3’ and the scale is norm-referenced around that standard (a very weak performance = ‘1’, an excellent performance = ‘5’). The formulation of ‘1’ & ‘5’ might be181

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
other descriptors drawn or adapted from the adjacent levels on the scale fromthe appropriate section of Chapter 5, or the descriptor may be formulated in relation to the wording of the descriptor deﬁned as ‘3’.

9.2.3 Describing the levels of proficiency in tests and examinations to aid comparison
The scales for the Common References Levels are intended to facilitate the description of
the level of proﬁciency attained in existing qualiﬁcations – and so aid comparison
between systems. The measurement literature recognises ﬁve classic ways of linking separate assessments: (1) equating; (2) calibrating; (3) statistical moderation; (4) benchmarking, and (5) social moderation.
The ﬁrst three methods are traditional: (1) producing alternative versions of the sametest (equating), (2) linking the results from different tests to a common scale (calibrating),and (3) correcting for the difﬁculty of test papers or the severity of examiners (statisticalmoderation).
The last two methods involve building up a common understanding through discussion (social moderation) and the comparison of work samples in relation to standardiseddeﬁnitions and examples (benchmarking). Supporting this process of building a common
understanding is one of the aims of the Framework. This is the reason why the scales ofdescriptors to be used for this purpose have been standardised with a rigorous development methodology. In education this approach is increasingly described as standardsoriented assessment. It is generally acknowledged that the development of astandards-oriented approach takes time, as partners acquire a feel for the meaning of thestandards through the process of exempliﬁcation and exchange of opinions.
It can be argued that this approach is potentially the strongest method of linking
because it involves the development and validation of a common view of the construct.
The fundamental reason why it is difﬁcult to link language assessments, despite the statistical wizardry of traditional techniques, is that the assessments generally test radicallydifferent things even when they are intending to cover the same domains. This is partly
due to (a) under-conceptualisation and under-operationalisation of the construct, andpartly to due to (b) related interference from the method of testing.
The Framework offers a principled attempt to provide a solution to the ﬁrst andunderlying problem in relation to modern language learning in a European context.
Chapters 4 to 7 elaborate a descriptive scheme, which tries to conceptualise languageuse, competences and the processes of teaching and learning in a practical way which
will help partners to operationalise the communicative language ability we wish topromote.
The scales of descriptors make up a conceptual grid which can be used to:a)b)

relate national and institutional frameworks to each other, through the medium of
the Common Framework;
map the objectives of particular examinations and course modules using the categories and levels of the scales.

Appendix A provides readers with an overview of methods to develop scales of descriptors, and relate them to the Framework scale.
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The User Guide for Examiners produced by ALTE (Document CC-Lang (96) 10 rev) provides detailed advice on operationalising constructs in tests, and avoiding unnecessary
distortion though test method effects.

9.3

Types of assessment

A number of important distinctions can be made in relation to assessment. The following list is by no means exhaustive. There is no signiﬁcance to whether one term in the
distinction is placed on the left or on the right.
Table 7. Types of assessment
1

Achievement assessment

Proﬁciency assessment2

Norm-referencing (NR)

Criterion-referencing (CR)3

Mastery learning CR

Continuum CR

4

Continuous assessment

Fixed assessment points

5

Formative assessment

Summative assessment

6

Direct assessment

Indirect assessment

7

Performance assessment

Knowledge assessment

8

Subjective assessment

Objective assessment

9

Checklist rating

Performance rating

10

Impression

Guided judgement

11

Holistic assessment

Analytic assessment

12

Series assessment

Category assessment

13

Assessment by others

Self-assessment

9.3.1 Achievement assessment/proficiency assessment
Achievement assessment is the assessment of the achievement of speciﬁc objectives – assessment of what has been taught. It therefore relates to the week’s/term’s work, the course
book, the syllabus. Achievement assessment is oriented to the course. It represents aninternal perspective.
Proﬁciency assessment on the other hand is assessment of what someone can do/knowsin relation to the application of the subject in the real world. It represents an external
perspective.
Teachers have a natural tendency to be more interested in achievement assessment inorder to get feedback for teaching. Employers, educational administrators and adultlearners tend to be more interested in proﬁciency assessment: assessment of outcomes,
what the person can now do. The advantage of an achievement approach is that it is close
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
to the learner’s experience. The advantage of a proﬁciency approach is that it helps everyone to see where they stand; results are transparent.
In communicative testing in a needs-oriented teaching and learning context one canargue that the distinction between achievement (oriented to the content of the course)
and proﬁciency (oriented to the continuum of real world ability) should ideally be small.
To the extent that an achievement assessment tests practical language use in relevant situations and aims to offer a balanced picture of emerging competence, it has a proﬁciency
angle. To the extent that a proﬁciency assessment consists of language and communicative tasks based on a transparent relevant syllabus, giving the learner the opportunity toshow what they have achieved, that test has an achievement element.
The scales of illustrative descriptors relate to proﬁciency assessment: the continuumof real world ability. The importance of achievement testing as a reinforcement to learning is discussed in Chapter 6.

9.3.2 Norm-referencing (NR)/criterion-referencing (CR)
Norm-referencing is the placement of learners in rank order, their assessment and ranking
in relation to their peers.
Criterion-referencing is a reaction against norm-referencing in which the learner isassessed purely in terms of his/her ability in the subject, irrespective of the ability of
his/her peers.
Norm-referencing can be undertaken in relation to the class (you are 18th) or the demographic cohort (you are 21,567th; you are in the top 14%) or the group of learners taking
a test. In the latter case, raw test scores may be adjusted to give a ‘fair’ result by plotting
the distribution curve of the test results onto the curve from previous years in order tomaintain a standard and ensure that the same percentage of learners are given ‘A’ grades
every year, irrespective of the difﬁculty of the test or the ability of the pupils. A common
use of norm-referenced assessment is in placement tests to form classes.
Criterion-referencing implies the mapping of the continuum of proﬁciency (vertical)
and range of relevant domains (horizontal) so that individual results on a test can be situated in relation to the total criterion space. This involves (a) the deﬁnition of the relevant domain(s) covered by the particular test/module, and (b) the identiﬁcation of ‘cut-off
points’: the score(s) on the test deemed necessary to meet the proﬁciency standard set.
The scales of illustrative descriptors are made up of criterion statements for categories
in the descriptive scheme. The Common Reference Levels present a set of common standards.

9.3.3 Mastery CR/continuum CR
The mastery criterion-referencing approach is one in which a single ‘minimum competence
standard’ or ‘cut-off point’ is set to divide learners into ‘masters’ and ‘non-masters’, withno degrees of quality in the achievement of the objective being recognised.
The continuum criterion-referencing approach is an approach in which an individual
ability is referenced to a deﬁned continuum of all relevant degrees of ability in the area
in question.
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Assessment
There are in fact many approaches to CR, but most of them can be identiﬁed as primarily a ‘mastery learning’ or ‘continuum’ interpretation. Much confusion is caused by
the misidentiﬁcation of criterion-referencing exclusively with the mastery approach.
The mastery approach is an achievement approach related to the content of thecourse/module. It puts less emphasis on situating that module (and so achievement in it)on the continuum of proﬁciency.
The alternative to the mastery approach is to reference results from each test to therelevant continuum of proﬁciency, usually with a series of grades. In this approach, that
continuum is the ‘criterion’, the external reality which ensures that the test resultsmean something. Referencing to this external criterion can be undertaken with a scalar
analysis (e.g. Rasch model) to relate results from all the tests to each other and so reportresults directly onto a common scale.
The Framework can be exploited with mastery or continuum approach. The scale oflevels used in a continuum approach can be matched to the Common Reference Levels;
the objective to be mastered in a mastery approach can be mapped onto the conceptual
grid of categories and levels offered by the Framework.

9.3.4 Continuous assessment/fixed point assessment
Continuous assessment is assessment by the teacher and possibly by the learner of class performances, pieces of work and projects throughout the course. The ﬁnal grade thus
reﬂects the whole course/year/semester.
Fixed point assessment is when grades are awarded and decisions made on the basis ofan examination or other assessment which takes place on a particular day, usually theend of the course or before the beginning of a course. What has happened beforehand isirrelevant; it is what the person can do now that is decisive.
Assessment is often seen as something outside the course which takes place at ﬁxed
points in order to make decisions. Continuous assessment implies assessment which is
integrated into the course and which contributes in some cumulative way to the assessment at the end of the course. Apart from marking homework and occasional or regularshort achievement tests to reinforce learning, continuous assessment may take the formof checklists/grids completed by teachers and/or learners, assessment in a series offocused tasks, formal assessment of coursework, and/or the establishment of a portfolioof samples of work, possibly in differing stages of drafting, and/or at different stages in
the course.
Both approaches have advantages and disadvantages. Fixed point assessment assuresthat people can still do things that might have been on the syllabus two years ago. But it
leads to examination traumas and favours certain types of learners. Continuous assessment allows more account to be taken of creativity and different strengths, but is verymuch dependent on the teacher’s capacity to be objective. It can, if taken to an extreme,turn life into one long never-ending test for the learner and a bureaucratic nightmare
for the teacher.
Checklists of criterion statements describing ability with regard to communicative
activities (Chapter 4) can be useful for continuous assessment. Rating scales developed
in relation to the descriptors for aspects of competence (Chapter 5) can be used to award
grades in ﬁxed point assessment.
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9.3.5 Formative assessment/summative assessment
Formative assessment is an ongoing process of gathering information on the extent oflearning, on strengths and weaknesses, which the teacher can feed back into their course
planning and the actual feedback they give learners. Formative assessment is often used
in a very broad sense so as to include non-quantiﬁable information from questionnaires
and consultations.
Summative assessment sums up attainment at the end of the course with a grade. It is
not necessarily proﬁciency assessment. Indeed a lot of summative assessment is normreferenced, ﬁxed-point, achievement assessment.
The strength of formative assessment is that it aims to improve learning. The weaknessof formative assessment is inherent in the metaphor of feedback. Feedback only works if
the recipient is in a position (a) to notice, i.e. is attentive, motivated and familiar with theform in which the information is coming, (b) to receive, i.e. is not swamped with information, has a way of recording, organising and personalising it; (c) to interpret, i.e. has sufﬁcient pre-knowledge and awareness to understand the point at issue, and not to takecounterproductive action and (d) to integrate the information, i.e. has the time, orientation and relevant resources to reﬂect on, integrate and so remember the new information. This implies self-direction, which implies training towards self-direction,
monitoring one’s own learning, and developing ways of acting on feedback.
Such learner training or awareness raising has been called évaluation formatrice. A
variety of techniques may be used for this awareness training. A basic principle is tocompare impression (e.g. what you say you can do on a checklist) with the reality, (e.g.
actually listening to material of the type mentioned in the checklist and seeing if you do
understand it). DIALANG relates self-assessment to test performance in this way. Anotherimportant technique is discussing samples of work – both neutral examples and samples
from learners and encouraging them to develop a personalised metalanguage on aspectsof quality. They can then use this metalanguage to monitor their work for strengths andweaknesses and to formulate a self-directed learning contract.
Most formative or diagnostic assessment operates at a very detailed level of the particular language points or skills recently taught or soon to be covered. For diagnostic assessment the lists of exponents given in section 5.2 are still too generalised to be of practicaluse; one would need to refer to the particular speciﬁcation which was relevant(Waystage, Threshold, etc.). Grids consisting of descriptors deﬁning different aspects ofcompetence at different levels (Chapter 4) can, however, be useful to give formative feedback from a speaking assessment.
The Common Reference Levels would appear to be most relevant to summative assessment. However, as the DIALANG Project demonstrates, feedback from even a summative
assessment can be diagnostic and so formative.

9.3.6 Direct assessment/indirect assessment
Direct assessment is assessing what the candidate is actually doing. For example, a small
group are discussing something, the assessor observes, compares with a criteria grid,matches the performances to the most appropriate categories on the grid, and gives anassessment.
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Indirect assessment, on the other hand, uses a test, usually on paper, which often assesses
enabling skills.
Direct assessment is effectively limited to speaking, writing and listening in interaction, since you can never see receptive activity directly. Reading can, for example, only
be assessed indirectly by requiring learners to demonstrate evidence of understandingby ticking boxes, ﬁnishing sentences, answering questions, etc. Linguistic range andcontrol can be assessed either directly through judging the match to criteria or indirectly
by interpreting and generalising from the responses to test questions. A classic direct test
is an interview; a classic indirect test is a cloze.
Descriptors deﬁning different aspects of competence at different levels in Chapter 5
can be used to develop assessment criteria for direct tests. The parameters in Chapter 4
can inform the selection of themes, texts and test tasks for direct tests of the productive
skills and indirect tests of listening and reading. The parameters of Chapter 5 can in addition inform the identiﬁcation of key linguistic competences to include in an indirect testof language knowledge, and of key pragmatic, sociolinguistic and linguistic competences
to focus on in the formulation of test questions for item-based tests of the four skills.

9.3.7 Performance assessment/knowledge assessment
Performance assessment requires the learner to provide a sample of language in speech or
writing in a direct test.
Knowledge assessment requires the learner to answer questions which can be of a rangeof different item types in order to provide evidence of the extent of their linguistic knowledge and control.
Unfortunately one can never test competences directly. All one ever has to go on is arange of performances, from which one seeks to generalise about proﬁciency. Proﬁciency
can be seen as competence put to use. In this sense, therefore, all tests assess only performance, though one may seek to draw inferences as to the underlying competences fromthis evidence.
However, an interview requires more of a ‘performance’ than ﬁlling gaps in sentences,and gap-ﬁlling in turn requires more ‘performance’ than multiple choice. In this sense
the word ‘performance’ is being used to mean the production of language. But the word
‘performance’ is used in a more restricted sense in the expression ‘performance tests’.
Here the word is taken to mean a relevant performance in a (relatively) authentic andoften work or study-related situation. In a slightly looser use of this term ‘performanceassessment’, oral assessment procedures could be said to be performance tests in thatthey generalise about proﬁciency from performances in a range of discourse styles considered to be relevant to the learning context and needs of the learners. Some tests
balance the performance assessment with an assessment of knowledge of the language
as a system; others do not.
This distinction is very similar to the one between direct and indirect tests. The
Framework can be exploited in a similar way. The Council of Europe speciﬁcations for different levels (Waystage, Threshold Level, Vantage Level) offer in addition appropriate
detail on target language knowledge in the languages for which they are available.

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9.3.8 Subjective assessment/objective assessment
Subjective assessment is a judgement by an assessor. What is normally meant by this is thejudgement of the quality of a performance.
Objective assessment is assessment in which subjectivity is removed. What is normallymeant by this is an indirect test in which the items have only one right answer, e.g. multiple choice.
However the issue of subjectivity/objectivity is considerably more complex.
An indirect test is often described as an ‘objective test’ when the marker consults a
deﬁnitive key to decide whether to accept or reject an answer and then counts correct
responses to give the result. Some test types take this process a stage further by only
having one possible answer to each question (e.g. multiple choice, and c-tests, which weredeveloped from cloze for this reason), and machine marking is often adopted to eliminate marker error. In fact the objectivity of tests described as ‘objective’ in this way issomewhat over-stated since someone decided to restrict the assessment to techniques
offering more control over the test situation (itself a subjective decision others may disagree with). Someone then wrote the test speciﬁcation, and someone else may havewritten the item as an attempt to operationalise a particular point in the speciﬁcation.
Finally, someone selected the item from all the other possible items for this test. Since
all those decisions involve an element of subjectivity, such tests are perhaps better
described as objectively scored tests.
In direct performance assessment grades are generally awarded on the basis of a judgement. That means that the decision as to how well the learner performs is made subjectively, taking relevant factors into account and referring to any guidelines or criteria andexperience. The advantage of a subjective approach is that language and communication
are very complex, do not lend themselves to atomisation and are greater than the sumof their parts. It is very often difﬁcult to establish what exactly a test item is testing.
Therefore to target test items on speciﬁc aspects of competence or performance is a lot
less straightforward than it sounds.
Yet, in order to be fair, all assessment should be as objective as possible. The effects ofthe personal value judgements involved in subjective decisions about the selection ofcontent and the quality of performance should be reduced as far as possible, particularly
where summative assessment is concerned. This is because test results are very often
used by third parties to make decisions about the future of the persons who have beenassessed.
Subjectivity in assessment can be reduced, and validity and reliability thus increasedby taking steps like the following:• developing a speciﬁcation for the content of the assessment, for example based upon aframework of reference common to the context involved• using pooled judgements to select content and/or to rate performances• adopting standard procedures governing how the assessments should be carriedout• providing deﬁnitive marking keys for indirect tests and basing judgements in directtests on speciﬁc deﬁned criteria• requiring multiple judgements and/or weighting of different factors• undertaking appropriate training in relation to assessment guidelines
188Assessment• checking the quality of the assessment (validity, reliability) by analysing assessment
data
As discussed at the beginning of this chapter, the ﬁrst step towards reducing the subjectivity of judgements made at all stages in the assessment process is to build a common
understanding of the construct involved, a common frame of reference. The Framework
seeks to offer such a basis for the speciﬁcation for the content and a source for the development of speciﬁc deﬁned criteria for direct tests.

9.3.9 Rating on a scale/rating on a checklist
Rating on a scale: judging that a person is at a particular level or band on a scale made up
of a number of such levels or bands.
Rating on a checklist: judging a person in relation to a list of points deemed to be relevant for a particular level or module.
In ‘rating on a scale’ the emphasis is on placing the person rated on a series of bands.
The emphasis is vertical: how far up the scale does he/she come? The meaning of the different bands/levels should be made clear by scale descriptors. There may be several scales
for different categories, and these may be presented on the same page as a grid or on different pages. There may be a deﬁnition for each band/level or for alternate ones, or forthe top, bottom and middle.
The alternative is a checklist, on which the emphasis is on showing that relevant
ground has been covered, i.e. the emphasis is horizontal: how much of the content of themodule has he/she successfully accomplished? The checklist may be presented as a list of
points like a questionnaire. It may on the other hand be presented as a wheel, or in someother shape. The response may be Yes/No. The response may be more differentiated, witha series of steps (e.g. 0–4) preferably with steps identiﬁed with labels, with deﬁnitions
explaining how the labels should be interpreted.
Because the illustrative descriptors constitute independent, criterion statements
which have been calibrated to the levels concerned, they can be used as a source toproduce both a checklist for a particular level, as in some versions of the Language
Portfolio, and rating scales or grids covering all relevant levels, as presented in Chapter
3, for self-assessment in Table 2 and for examiner assessment in Table 3.

9.3.10

Impression/guided judgement

Impression: fully subjective judgement made on the basis of experience of the learner’s
performance in class, without reference to speciﬁc criteria in relation to a speciﬁc assessment.
Guided judgement: judgement in which individual assessor subjectivity is reduced bycomplementing impression with conscious assessment in relation to speciﬁc criteria.
An ‘impression’ is here used to mean when a teacher or learner rates purely on thebasis of their experience of performance in class, homework, etc. Many forms of subjective rating, especially those used in continuous assessment, involve rating an impression on the basis of reﬂection or memory possibly focused by conscious observation of189

Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
the person concerned over a period of time. Very many school systems operate on thisbasis.
The term ‘guided judgement’ is here used to describe the situation in which that
impression is guided into a considered judgement through an assessment approach.
Such an approach implies (a) an assessment activity with some form of procedure, and/or(b) a set of deﬁned criteria which distinguish between the different scores or grades, and(c) some form of standardisation training. The advantage of the guided approach to
judging is that if a common framework of reference for the group of assessors concerned
is established in this way, the consistency of judgements can be radically increased. Thisis especially the case if ‘benchmarks’ are provided in the form of samples of performanceand ﬁxed links to other systems. The importance of such guidance is underlined by thefact that research in a number of disciplines has shown repeatedly that with untrained
judgements the differences in the severity of the assessors can account for nearly as
much of the differences in the assessment of learners as does their actual ability, leaving
results almost purely to chance.
The scales of descriptors for the common reference levels can be exploited to provide
a set of deﬁned criteria as described in (b) above, or to map the standards represented byexisting criteria in terms of the common levels. In the future, benchmark samples of performance at different common reference levels may be provided to assist in standardisation training.

9.3.11

Holistic/analytic

Holistic assessment is making a global synthetic judgement. Different aspects are weighted
intuitively by the assessor.
Analytic assessment is looking at different aspects separately.
There are two ways in which this distinction can be made: (a) in terms of what is looked
for; (b) in terms of how a band, grade or score is arrived at. Systems sometimes combine
an analytic approach at one level with a holistic approach at another.
a)

b)

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What to assess: some approaches assess a global category like ‘speaking’ or ‘interaction’, assigning one score or grade. Others, more analytic, require the assessor toassign separate results to a number of independent aspects of performance. Yetother approaches require the assessor to note a global impression, analyse by different categories and then come to a considered holistic judgement. The advantageof the separate categories of an analytic approach is that they encourage the assessor to observe closely. They provide a metalanguage for negotiation between assessors, and for feedback to learners. The disadvantage is that a wealth of evidence
suggests that assessors cannot easily keep the categories separate from a holistic
judgement. They also get cognitive overload when presented with more than fouror ﬁve categories.
Calculating the result: some approaches holistically match observed performance todescriptors on a rating scale, whether the scale is holistic (one global scale) or analytic (3–6 categories in a grid). Such approaches involve no arithmetic. Results arereported either as a single number or as a ‘telephone number’ across categories.
Other more analytical approaches require giving a certain mark for a number of dif-Assessment
ferent points and then adding them up to give a score, which may then convert intoa grade. It is characteristic of this approach that the categories are weighted, i.e. thecategories do not each account for an equal number of points.
Tables 2 and 3 in Chapter 3 provide self-assessment and examiner assessment examples
respectively of analytic scales of criteria (i.e. grids) used with a holistic rating strategy (i.e.
match what you can deduce from the performance to the deﬁnitions, and make a judgement).

9.3.12

Series assessment/category assessment

Category assessment involves a single assessment task (which may well have different
phases to generate different discourse as discussed in section 9.2.1.) in which performance is judged in relation to the categories in an assessment grid: the analytic
approach outlined in 9.3.11.
Series assessment involves a series of isolated assessment tasks (often roleplays withother learners or the teacher), which are rated with a simple holistic grade on a labelledscale of e.g. 0–3 or 1–4.
A series assessment is one way of coping with the tendency in category assessments
for results on one category to affect those on another. At lower levels the emphasis tends
to be on task achievement, the aim is to ﬁll out a checklist of what the learner can do on
the basis of teacher/learner assessment of actual performances rather than simple
impression. At higher levels, tasks may be designed to show particular aspects of proﬁciency in the performance. Results are reported as a proﬁle.
The scales for different categories of language competence juxtaposed with the text in
Chapter 5 offer a source for the development of the criteria for a category assessment.
Since assessors can only cope with a small number of categories, compromises have tomade in the process. The elaboration of relevant types of communicative activities in
section 4.4. and the list of different types of functional competence outlined in section
5.2.3.2 may inform the identiﬁcation of suitable tasks for a series assessment.

9.3.13

Assessment by others/self-assessment

Assessment by others: judgements by the teacher or examiner.
Self-assessment: judgements about your own proﬁciency.
Learners can be involved in many of the assessment techniques outlined above.
Research suggests that provided ‘high stakes’ (e.g. whether or not you will be accepted
for a course) are not involved, self-assessment can be an effective complement to tests andteacher assessment. Accuracy in self-assessment is increased (a) when assessment is inrelation to clear descriptors deﬁning standards of proﬁciency and/or (b) when assessment
is related to a speciﬁc experience. This experience may itself even be a test activity. It isalso probably made more accurate when learners receive some training. Such structured
self-assessment can achieve correlations to teachers’ assessments and tests equal to thecorrelation (level of concurrent validation) commonly reported between teachers themselves, between tests and between teacher assessment and tests.
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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
The main potential for self-assessment, however, is in its use as a tool for motivation
and awareness raising: helping learners to appreciate their strengths, recognise their
weaknesses and orient their learning more effectively.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:
•
•
•
•
•

•

•
•
•
•
•

•

•

which of the types of assessment listed above are:• more relevant to the needs of the learner in their system• more appropriate and feasible in the pedagogic culture of their system• more rewarding in terms of teacher development through ‘washback’ effectthe way in which the assessment of achievement (school-oriented; learning-oriented) andthe assessment of proﬁciency (real world-oriented; outcome-oriented) are balanced andcomplemented in their system, and the extent to which communicative performance isassessed as well as linguistic knowledge.
the extent to which the results of learning are assessed in relation to deﬁned standards
and criteria (criterion-referencing) and the extent to which grades and evaluations are
assigned on the basis of the class a learner is in (norm-referencing).
the extent to which teachers are:• informed about standards (e.g. common descriptors, samples of performance)• encouraged to become aware of a range of assessment techniques• trained in techniques and interpretation
the extent to which it is desirable and feasible to develop an integrated approach tocontinuous assessment of coursework and ﬁxed point assessment in relation to related
standards and criteria deﬁnitions
the extent to which it is desirable and feasible to involve learners in self-assessment inrelation to deﬁned descriptors of tasks and aspects of proﬁciency at different levels, andoperationalisation of those descriptors in – for example – series assessment
the relevance of the speciﬁcations and scales provided in the Framework to their context,
and the way in which they might be complemented or elaborated.

Self-assessment and examiner versions of rating grids are presented in Table 2 and in
Table 3 in Chapter 3. The most striking distinction between the two – apart from thepurely surface formulation as I can do . . . or Can do . . . is that whereas Table 2 focuses oncommunicative activities, Table 3 focuses on generic aspects of competence apparent inany spoken performance. However, a slightly simpliﬁed self-assessment version of Table
3 can easily be imagined. Experience suggests that at least adult learners are capable ofmaking such qualitative judgements about their competence.

9.4

Feasible assessment and a metasystem

The scales interspersed in Chapters 4 and 5 present an example of a set of categories
related to but simpliﬁed from the more comprehensive descriptive scheme presented in
the text of Chapters 4 and 5. It is not the intention that anyone should, in a practicalassessment approach, use all the scales at all the levels. Assessors ﬁnd it difﬁcult to cope
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Assessmentwith a large number of categories and in addition, the full range of levels presented may
not be appropriate in the context concerned. Rather, the set of scales is intended as a reference tool.
Whatever approach is being adopted, any practical assessment system needs to reduce
the number of possible categories to a feasible number. Received wisdom is that morethan 4 or 5 categories starts to cause cognitive overload and that 7 categories is psychologically an upper limit. Thus choices have to be made. In relation to oral assessment, if
interaction strategies are considered a qualitative aspect of communication relevant inoral assessment, then the illustrative scales contain 12 qualitative categories relevant tooral assessment:
Turntaking strategies
Co-operating strategies
Asking for clariﬁcation
Fluency
Flexibility
Coherence
Thematic development
Precision
Sociolinguistic competence
General range
Vocabulary range
Grammatical accuracy
Vocabulary control
Phonological control
It is obvious that, whilst descriptors on many of these features could possibly be included
in a general checklist, 12 categories are far too many for an assessment of any performance. In any practical approach, therefore, such a list of categories would beapproached selectively. Features need to be combined, renamed and reduced into asmaller set of assessment criteria appropriate to the needs of the learners concerned, tothe requirements of the assessment task concerned and to the style of the pedagogic
culture concerned. The resultant criteria might be equally weighted, or alternatively
certain factors considered more crucial to the task at hand might be more heavily
weighted.
The following four examples show ways in which this can be done. The ﬁrst three examples are brief notes on the way categories are used as test criteria in existing assessment
approaches. The fourth example shows how descriptors in scales in the Framework weremerged and reformulated in order to provide an assessment grid for a particular purpose
on a particular occasion.

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Example 1:
Cambridge Certiﬁcate in Advanced English (CAE), Paper 5: Criteria for Assessment (1991)
Test criteria

Illustrative scales

Other categories

Fluency

Fluency

Accuracy and range

General range
Vocabulary range
Grammatical accuracy
Vocabulary control

Pronunciation

Phonological control

Task achievement

Coherence
Sociolinguistic appropriacy

Task success
Need for interlocutor support

Interactive communication

Turntaking strategies
Co-operative strategies
Thematic development

Extent and ease of maintaining
contribution

Note on other categories: In the illustrative scales, statements about task success are found in relation
to the kind of activity concerned under Communicative Activities. Extent and ease of contribution is
included under Fluency in those scales. An attempt to write and calibrate descriptors on Need forInterlocutor Support to include in the illustrative set of scales was unsuccessful.

Example 2:
International Certiﬁcate Conference (ICC): Certiﬁcate in English for Business Purposes,
Test 2: Business Conversation (1987)
Test criteria

Illustrative scales

Other categories

Scale 1 (not named)

Sociolinguistic appropriacy
Grammatical accuracy
Vocabulary control

Task success

Scale 2 (Use of discoursefeatures to initiate andmaintain ﬂow ofconversation)

Turntaking strategies
Co-operative strategies
Sociolinguistic appropriacy

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Assessment
Example 3:Eurocentres – Small Group Interaction Assessment (RADIO) (1987)
Test criteria

Illustrative scales

Range

General range
Vocabulary range

Accuracy

Grammatical accuracy
Vocabulary control
Socio-linguistic appropriacy

Delivery

Fluency
Phonological control

Interaction

Turntaking strategies
Co-operating strategies

Other categories

Example 4:
Swiss National Research Council: Assessment of Video Performances
Context: The illustrative descriptors were scaled in a research project in Switzerland as
explained in Appendix A. At the conclusion of the research project, teachers who hadparticipated were invited to a conference to present the results and to launch experimentation in Switzerland with the European Language Portfolio. At the conference, two of
the subjects of discussion were (a) the need to relate continuous assessment and selfassessment checklists to an overall framework, and (b) the ways in which the descriptors
scaled in the project could be exploited in different ways in assessment. As part of thisprocess of discussion, videos of some of the learners in the survey were rated onto theassessment grid presented as Table 3 in Chapter 3. It presents a selection from the illustrative descriptors in a merged, edited form.
Test criteria

Illustrative scales

Range

General range
Vocabulary range

Accuracy

Grammatical accuracy
Vocabulary control

Fluency

FluencyInteraction

Global interaction
Turntaking
Co-operating

Coherence

Coherence

Other categories

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Common European Framework of Reference for Languages: learning, teaching, assessment
Different systems with different learners in different contexts simplify, select andcombine features in different ways for different kinds of assessment. Indeed rather thanbeing too long, the list of 12 categories is probably unable to accommodate all the variants people choose, and would need to be expanded to be fully comprehensive.
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• the way in which theoretical categories are simpliﬁed into operational approaches in theirsystem;• the extent to which the main factors used as assessment criteria in their system can besituated in the set of categories introduced in Chapter 5 for which sample scales areprovided in the Appendix, given further local elaboration to take account of speciﬁcdomains of use.

196

General Bibliography

N.B. Starred publications and documents have been produced in English and French.
The following reference works contain entries relevant to many sections of the Framework:
Bussmann, Hadumond (1996) Routledge dictionary of language and linguistics. London, Routledge.
Byram, M. (in press) The Routledge encyclopedia of language teaching and learning. London, Routledge.
Clapham, C. and Corson, D. (eds.) (1998) Encyclopedia of language and education. Dordrecht, Kluwer.
Crystal, D. (ed.) (1987) The Cambridge encyclopedia of language. Cambridge, CUP.
Foster, P. and Skehan, P. (1994) The Influence of Planning on Performance in Task-based Learning. Paper
presented at the British Association of Applied Linguistics
Galisson, R. & Coste, D. (eds.) (1976) Dictionnaire de didactique des languages. Paris, Hachette.
Johnson, K. (1997) Encyclopedic dictionary of applied linguistics. Oxford, Blackwells.
Richards, J.C., Platt, J. & Platt, H. (1993) Longman dictionary of language teaching and applied linguistics.
London, Longman.
Skehan, P. (1995) ‘A framework for the implementation of task-based instruction’, Applied
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The following works are of relevance mainly to the chapter under which they are listed:
Chapter 1*Council of Europe (1992) Transparency and coherence in language learning in Europe: objectives, evaluation, certiﬁcation. (Report edited by B. North of a Symposium held in Rüschlikon 1991). Strasbourg,
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*(1997) European language portfolio: proposals for development. Strasbourg, Council of Europe.
*(1982) ‘Recommendation no.R(82)18 of the Committee of Ministers to member States concerning modern
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*(1997) Language learning for European citizenship: ﬁnal report of the Project. Strasbourg, Council ofEurope.
*(1998) ‘Recommendation no.R(98)6 of the Committee of Ministers to member States concerning modern languages’. Strasbourg, Council of Europe.
*Girard, D. and Trim, J.L.M. (eds.) (1998) Project no.12 ‘Learning and teaching modern languages for communication’: Final Report of the Project Group (activities 1982–87). Strasbourg, Council of Europe.
Gorosch, M., Pottier, B. and Riddy, D.C. (1967) Modern languages and the world today. Modern languages
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Malmberg, P. (1989) Towards a better language teaching: a presentation of the Council of Europe’s language
projects. Uppsala, University of Uppsala In-service Training Department.
Chapter 2a) The following ‘Threshold Level’-type publications have so far appeared:
Baldegger, M., Müller, M. & Schneider, G. in Zusammenarbeit mit Näf, A. (1980) Kontaktschwelle
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Coste, D., J. Courtillon, V. Ferenczi, M. Martins-Baltar et E. Papo (1976) Un niveau-seuil. Paris, Hatier.
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Chapter 5
Allport, G. (1979) The Nature of Prejudice. Reading MA, Addison-Wesley.
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Cruttenden, A. (1986) Intonation. Cambridge, CUP.
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Levinson, S.C. (1983) Pragmatics. Cambridge, CUP.
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Mandelbaum, D.G. (1949) Selected writings of Edward Sapir. Berkeley, University of California Press.
Matthews, P.H. (1974) Morphology: an introduction to the theory of word-structure. Cambridge, CUP.
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Zarate, G. (1986) Enseigner une culture étrangère. Paris, Hachette.
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Berthoud, A.-C. (ed.) (1996) ‘Acquisition des compétences discursives dans un contexte plurilingue’.
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Berthoud, A.-C. and Py, B. (1993) Des linguistes et des enseignants. Maîtrise et acquisition des langues secondes. Bern, Lang.
Besse, H. and Porquier, R. (1984) Grammaire et didactique des langues. Collection L.A.L. Paris, Hatier.
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Göteborg, ESF.
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(1987) ‘Concepts and Categories in Language Teaching Methodology’. AILA Review 4, 25–31.
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Kramsch, C. (1993) Context and Culture in Language Teaching. Oxford, OUP.
Krashen, S.D. (1982) Principles and practice of second language acquisition. Oxford, Pergamon.
Krashen, S.D. & Terrell, T.D. (1983) The natural approach: language acquisition in the classroom. Oxford,
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Little, D., Devitt, S. & Singleton, D. (1988) Authentic texts in foreign language teaching: theory and practice. Dublin, Authentik.
MacKay, W.F. (1965) Language teaching analysis. London, Longman.
McDonough, S.H. (1981) Psychology in foreign language teaching. London, Allen & Unwin.
Melde, W. (1987) Zur Integration von Landeskunde und Kommunikation im Fremdsprachenunterricht
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Py, B. (ed.) (1994) ‘l’acquisition d’une langue seconde. Quelques développements récents’. Bulletinsuisse de linguistique appliquée. VALS/ASLA.
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Schmidt, R. W. (1990) ‘The Role of Consciousness in Second Language Learning’. Applied Linguistics
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204

Appendix A: developing proficiency descriptors

This appendix discusses technical aspects of describing levels of language attainment.
Criteria for descriptor formulation are discussed. Methodologies for scale development
are then listed, and an annotated bibliography is provided.
Descriptor formulation
Experience of scaling in language testing, the theory of scaling in the wider ﬁeld of
applied psychology, and preferences of teachers when involved in consultation
processes (e.g. UK graded objectives schemes, Swiss project) suggest the following set of
guidelines for developing descriptors:• Positiveness: It is a common characteristic of assessor-orientated proﬁciency scales
and of examination rating scales for the formulation of entries at lower levels to be
negatively worded. It is more difﬁcult to formulate proﬁciency at low levels interms of what the learner can do rather than in terms of what they can’t do. But if
levels of proﬁciency are to serve as objectives rather than just as an instrument forscreening candidates, then positive formulation is desirable. It is sometimes
possible to formulate the same point either positively or negatively, e.g. in relation
to range of language (see Table A1).
An added complication in avoiding negative formulation is that there are somefeatures of communicative language proﬁciency which are not additive. The lessthere is the better. The most obvious example is what is sometimes called
Independence, the extent to which the learner is dependent on (a) speech adjustment
on the part of the interlocutor (b) the chance to ask for clariﬁcation and (c) the
chance to get help with formulating what he/she wants to say. Often these points canbe dealt with in provisos attached to positively worded descriptors, for example:
Can generally understand clear, standard speech on familiar matters directed
at him/her, provided he/she can ask for repetition or reformulation fromtime to time.
Can understand what is said clearly, slowly and directly to him/her in simple
everyday conversation; can be made to understand, if the speaker can takethe trouble.
or:Can interact with reasonable ease in structured situations and shortconversations, provided the other person helps if necessary.
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Table A1. Assessment: positive and negative criteria
Positive• has a repertoire of basic language andstrategies which enables him or her todeal with predictable everyday situations.
(Eurocentres Level 3: certiﬁcate)• basic repertoire of language andstrategies sufﬁcient for most everyday
needs, but generally requiring
compromise of the message and searching
for words. (Eurocentres Level 3: assessor
grid)• vocabulary centres on areas such as basic
objects, places, and most common• kinship terms. (ACTFL Novice)

Negative• has a narrow language repertoire,demanding constant rephrasing andsearching for words. (ESU Level 3)• limited language proﬁciency causes
frequent breakdowns andmisunderstandings in non-routine
situations. (Finnish Level 2)• communication breaks down as language
constraints interfere with message. (ESU
Level 3)• has only a limited vocabulary. (Dutch
Level 1)• limited range of words and expressions
hinders communication of thoughts andideas. (Gothenburg U)• produces and recognises a set of words
and short phrases learnt by heart. (Trim1978 Level 1)• can produce only formulaic utterances
lists and enumerations. (ACTFL Novice)• can produce brief everyday expressions
in order to satisfy simple needs of aconcrete type (in the area of salutation,
information, etc.). (Elviri; Milan Level 1
1986)• has only the most basic language
repertoire, with little or no evidence of afunctional command of the language.
(ESU Level 1)• Deﬁniteness: Descriptors should describe concrete tasks and/or concrete degrees ofskill in performing tasks. There are two points here. Firstly, the descriptor should
avoid vagueness, like, for example ‘Can use a range of appropriate strategies’. Whatis meant by strategy? Appropriate to what? How should we interpret ‘range’? The
problem with vague descriptors is that they can read quite nicely, but an apparent
ease of acceptance can mask the fact that everyone is interpreting them differently.
Secondly, since the 1940s, it has been a principle that distinctions between steps ona scale should not be dependent on replacing a qualiﬁer like ‘some’ or ‘a few’ with‘many’ or ‘most’ or by replacing ‘fairly broad’ with ‘very broad’ or ‘moderate’ with‘good’ at the next level up. Distinctions should be real, not word-processed and thismay mean gaps where meaningful, concrete distinctions cannot be made.
•Clarity: Descriptors should be transparent, not jargon-ridden. Apart from the barrier
to understanding, it is sometimes the case that when jargon is stripped away, anapparently impressive descriptor can turn out to be saying very little. Secondly, theyshould be written in simple syntax with an explicit, logical structure.

•

Brevity: One school of thought is associated with holistic scales, particularly thoseused in America and Australia. These try to produce a lengthy paragraph which206

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comprehensibly covers what are felt to be the major features. Such scales achieve‘deﬁniteness’ by a very comprehensive listing which is intended to transmit adetailed portrait of what raters can recognise as a typical learner at the level
concerned, and are as a result very rich sources of description. There are two
disadvantages to such an approach however. Firstly, no individual is actually‘typical’. Detailed features co-occur in different ways. Secondly, a descriptor which islonger than a two clause sentence cannot realistically be referred to during theassessment process. Teachers consistently seem to prefer short descriptors. In the
project which produced the illustrative descriptors, teachers tended to reject or split
descriptors longer than about 25 words (approximately two lines of normal type).
• Independence: There are two further advantages of short descriptors. Firstly they are
more likely to describe a behaviour about which one can say ‘Yes, this person cando this’. Consequently shorter, concrete descriptors can be used as independent
criteria statements in checklists or questionnaires for teacher continuous
assessment and/or self-assessment. This kind of independent integrity is a signalthat the descriptor could serve as an objective rather than having meaning only
relative to the formulation of other descriptors on the scale. This opens up a range
of opportunities for exploitation in different forms of assessment (see Chapter 9).
Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• Which of the criteria listed are most relevant, and what other criteria are used explicitly
or implicitly in their context;• To what extent it is desirable and feasible that formations in their system meet criteriasuch as those listed.

Scale development methodologies
The existence of a series of levels presupposes that certain things can be placed at one
level rather than another and that descriptions of a particular degree of skill belong to
one level rather than another. This implies a form of scaling, consistently applied.
There are a number of possible ways in which descriptions of language proﬁciency canbe assigned to different levels. The available methods can be categorised in threegroups: intuitive methods, qualitative methods and quantitative methods. Most
existing scales of language proﬁciency and other sets of levels have been developed
through one of the three intuitive methods in the ﬁrst group. The best approaches
combine all three approaches in a complementary and cumulative process. Qualitative
methods require the intuitive preparation and selection of material and intuitive
interpretation of results. Quantitative methods should quantify qualitatively pre-tested
material, and will require intuitive interpretation of results. Therefore in developing
the Common Reference Levels, a combination of intuitive, qualitative and quantitative
approaches was used.
If qualitative and quantitative methods are used then there are two possible starting
points: descriptors or performance samples.
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Starting with descriptors: One starting point is to consider what you wish to describe, andthen write, collect or edit draft descriptors for the categories concerned as input to thequalitative phase. Methods 4 and 9, the ﬁrst and last in the qualitative group below, areexamples of this approach. It is particularly suitable for developing descriptors for
curriculum-related categories such as communicative language activities, but can also
be used to develop descriptors for aspects of competence. The advantage of startingwith categories and descriptors is that a theoretically balanced coverage can bedeﬁned.
Starting with performance samples. The alternative, which can only be used to develop
descriptors to rate performances, is to start with representative samples of
performances. Here one can ask representative raters what they see when they workwith the samples (qualitative). Methods 5–8 are variants on this idea. Alternatively, one
can just ask the raters to assess the samples and then use an appropriate statisticaltechnique to identify what key features are actually driving the raters’ decisions(quantitative). Methods 10 and 11 are examples of this approach. The advantage ofanalysing performance samples is that one can arrive at very concrete descriptions
based on data.
The last method, No 12, is the only one to actually scale the descriptors in amathematical sense. This was the method used to develop the Common Reference
Levels and illustrative descriptors, after Method 2 (intuitive) and Methods 8 and 9(qualitative). However, the same statistical technique can be also used after thedevelopment of the scale, in order to validate the use of the scale in practice, andidentify needs for revision.

Intuitive methods:
These methods do not require any structured data collection, just the principledinterpretation of experience.
No 1. Expert: Someone is asked to write the scale, which they may do by consulting
existing scales, curriculum documents and other relevant source material,
possibly after undertaking a needs analysis of the target group in question.
They may then pilot and revise the scale, possibly using informants.
No 2. Committee: As expert, but a small development team is involved, with a larger
group as consultants. Drafts would be commented on by consultants. The
consultants may operate intuitively on the basis of their experience and/or on
the basis of comparison to learners or samples of performance. Weaknesses ofcurriculum scales for secondary school modern language learning producedby committee in the UK and Australia are discussed by Gipps (1994) andScarino (1996; 1997).
No 3. Experiential: As committee, but the process lasts a considerable time within an
institution and/or speciﬁc assessment context and a ‘house consensus’
develops. A core of people come to share an understanding of the levels and208

Appendix A: developing proﬁciency descriptors
the criteria. Systematic piloting and feedback may follow in order to reﬁne thewording. Groups of raters may discuss performances in relation to thedeﬁnitions, and the deﬁnitions in relation to sample performances. This is the
traditional way proﬁciency scales have been developed (Wilds 1975; Ingram
1985; Liskin-Gasparro 1984; Lowe 1985, 1986).

Qualitative methods:
These methods all involve small workshops with groups of informants and aqualitative rather than statistical interpretation of the information obtained.
No 4. Key concepts: formulation: Once a draft scale exists, a simple technique is to chopup the scale and ask informants typical of the people who will use the scale to(a) put the deﬁnitions in what they think is the right order, (b) explain why
they think that, and then once the difference between their order and theintended order has been revealed, to (c) identify what key points were helping
them, or confusing them. A reﬁnement is to sometimes remove a level, givinga secondary task to identify where the gap between two levels indicates that alevel is missing between them. The Eurocentres certiﬁcation scales weredeveloped in this way.
No 5. Key concepts: performances: Descriptors are matched to typical performances at
those band levels to ensure a coherence between what was described and what
occurred. Some of the Cambridge examination guides take teachers throughthis process, comparing wordings on scales to grades awarded to particularscripts. The IELTS (International English Language Testing System) descriptors
were developed by asking groups of experienced raters to identify ‘key sample
scripts’ for each level, and then agree the ‘key features’ of each script. Features
felt to be characteristic of different levels are then identiﬁed in discussion andincorporated in the descriptors (Alderson 1991; Shohamy et al. 1992).
No 6. Primary trait: Performances (usually written) are sorted by individual
informants into rank order. A common rank order is then negotiated. The
principle on which the scripts have actually been sorted is then identiﬁed anddescribed at each level – taking care to highlight features salient at aparticular level. What has been described is the trait (feature, construct) which
determines the rank order (Mullis 1980). A common variant is to sort into acertain number of piles, rather than into rank order. There is also aninteresting multi-dimensional variant on the classic approach. In this version,
one ﬁrst determines through the identiﬁcation of key features (No 5 above)
what the most signiﬁcant traits are. Then one sorts the samples into order foreach trait separately. Thus at the end one has an analytic, multiple trait scalerather than a holistic, primary trait one.
No 7. Binary decisions: Another variant of the primary trait method is to ﬁrst sort
representative samples into piles by levels. Then in a discussion focusing on
the boundaries between levels, one identiﬁes key features (as in No 5 above).
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However, the feature concerned is then formulated as a short criterion
question with a Yes/No answer. A tree of binary choices is thus built up. This
offers the assessor an algorithm of decisions to follow (Upshur and Turner
1995).
No 8. Comparative judgements: Groups discuss pairs of performances stating which is
better – and why. In this way the categories in the metalanguage used by theraters is identiﬁed, as are the salient features working at each level. Thesefeatures can then be formulated into descriptors (Pollitt and Murray 1996).
No 9. Sorting tasks: Once draft descriptors exist, informants can be asked to sort theminto piles according to categories they are supposed to describe and/or
according to levels. Informants can also be asked to comment on, edit/amend
and/or reject descriptors, and to identify which are particularly clear, useful,relevant, etc. The descriptor pool on which the set of illustrative scales was
based was developed and edited in this way (Smith and Kendall 1963; North
1996/2000).

Quantitative methods:
These methods involve a considerable amount of statistical analysis and carefulinterpretation of the results.
No 10. Discriminant analysis: First, a set of performance samples which have alreadybeen rated (preferably by a team) are subjected to a detailed discourse analysis.
This qualitative analysis identiﬁes and counts the incidence of different
qualitative features. Then, multiple regression is used to determine which of
the identiﬁed features are signiﬁcant in apparently determining the rating
which the assessors gave. Those key features are then incorporated informulating descriptors for each level (Fulcher 1996).
No 11. Multidimensional scaling: Despite the name, this is a descriptive technique toidentify key features and the relationship between them. Performances are
rated with an analytic scale of several categories. The output from the analysis
technique demonstrates which categories were actually decisive indetermining level, and provides a diagram mapping the proximity or distanceof the different categories to each other. This is thus a research technique toidentify and validate salient criteria (Chaloub-Deville 1995).
No 12. Item response theory (IRT) or ‘latent trait’ analysis: IRT offers a family of
measurement or scaling models. The most straightforward and robust one is
the Rasch model named after George Rasch, the Danish mathematician. IRT isa development from probability theory and is used mainly to determine the
difﬁculty of individual test items in an item bank. If you are advanced, yourchances of answering an elementary question are very high; if you areelementary your chances of answering an advanced item are very low. This
simple fact is developed into a scaling methodology with the Rasch model,
which can be used to calibrate items to the same scale. A development of the210

Appendix A: developing proﬁciency descriptors
approach allows it to be used to scale descriptors of communicative
proﬁciency as well as test items.
In a Rasch analysis, different tests or questionnaires can be formed into an
overlapping chain through the employment of ‘anchor items’, which arecommon to adjacent forms. In the diagram below, the anchor items areshaded grey. In this way, forms can be targeted to particular groups oflearners, yet linked into a common scale. Care must, however, be taken in thisprocess, since the model distorts results for the high scores and low scores oneach form.
Test C
Test B
Test ANo 12. The advantage of a Rasch analysis is that it can provide sample-free, scale-freemeasurement, that is to say scaling that is independent of the samples or thetests/questionnaires used in the analysis. Scale values are provided which
remain constant for future groups provided those future subjects can beconsidered new groups within the same statistical population. Systematic
shifts in values over time (e.g. due to curriculum change or to assessor
training) can be quantiﬁed and adjusted for. Systematic variation between
types of learners or assessors can be quantiﬁed and adjusted for (Wright andMasters 1982; Lincare 1989).
There are a number of ways in which Rasch analysis can be employed toscale descriptors:
No 12.

(a)

No 12.

(b)

No 12.

(c)

No 12.

(d)

Data from the qualitative techniques Nos 6, 7 or 8 can be put onto anarithmetic scale with Rasch.
Tests can be carefully developed to operationalise proﬁciency descriptors
in particular test items. Those test items can then be scaled with Raschand their scale values taken to indicate the relative difﬁculty of thedescriptors (Brown et al. 1992; Carroll 1993; Masters 1994; Kirsch 1995;
Kirsch and Mosenthal 1995).
Descriptors can be used as questionnaire items for teacher assessment of
their learners (Can he/she do X?). In this way the descriptors can becalibrated directly onto an arithmetic scale in the same way that test
items are scaled in item banks.
The scales of descriptors included in Chapters 3, 4 and 5 were developedin this way. All three projects described in Appendices B, C and D haveused Rasch methodology to scale descriptors, and to equate the resulting
scales of descriptors to each other.

No 12. In addition to its usefulness in the development of a scale, Rasch can also be
used to analyse the way in which the bands on an assessment scale are
actually used. This may help to highlight loose wording, underuse of a band,or overuse of a band, and inform revision (Davidson 1992; Milanovic et al.
1996; Stansﬁeld and Kenyon 1996; Tyndall and Kenyon 1996).
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Users of the Framework may wish to consider and where appropriate state:• the extent to which grades awarded in their system are given shared meaning throughcommon deﬁnitions;• which of the methods outlined above, or which other methods, are used to develop suchdeﬁnitions.

Select annotated bibliography: language proficiency scaling
Alderson, J.C. 1991: Bands and scores. In:
Alderson, J.C. and North, B. (eds.): Language
testing in the 1990s, London: British Council/
Macmillan, Developments in ELT, 71–86.

Discusses problems caused by confusion of purposeand orientation, and development of IELTS speaking
scales.

Brindley, G. 1991: Deﬁning language ability:
the criteria for criteria. In Anivan, S. (ed.)
Current developments in language testing,Singapore, Regional Language Centre.

Principled critique of the claim of proﬁciency scales
to represent criterion-referenced assessment.

Brindley, G. 1998: Outcomes-based assessment
and reporting in language learning
programmes, a review of the issues. Language
Testing 15 (1), 45–85.

Criticises the focus on outcomes in terms of what
learners can do, rather than focusing on aspects ofemerging competence.

Brown, Annie, Elder, Cathie, Lumley, Tom,
McNamara, Tim and McQueen, J. 1992: Mapping
abilities and skill levels using Rasch techniques.
Paper presented at the 14th Language Testing
Research Colloquium, Vancouver. Reprinted in
Melbourne Papers in Applied Linguistics 1/1, 37–69.

Classic use of Rasch scaling of test items to produce
a proﬁciency scale from the reading tasks tested in
the different items.

Carroll, J.B. 1993: Test theory and behaviouralscaling of test performance. In Frederiksen, N.,
Mislevy, R.J. and Bejar, I.I. (eds.) Test theory for a
new generation of tests. Hillsdale N.J. Lawrence
Erlbaum Associates: 297–323.

Seminal article recommending the use of Rasch toscale test items and so produce a proﬁciency scale.

Chaloub-Deville M. 1995: Deriving oral
assessment scales across different tests andrater groups. Language Testing 12 (1), 16–33.

Study revealing what criteria native speakers of
Arabic relate to when judging learners. Virtually the
only application of multi-dimensional scaling tolanguage testing.

Davidson, F. 1992: Statistical support fortraining in ESL composition rating. In HampLyons (ed.): Assessing second language writing inacademic contexts. Norwood N.J. Ablex: 155–166.

Very clear account of how to validate a rating scale
in a cyclical process with Rasch analysis. Argues fora ‘semantic’ approach to scaling rather than the‘concrete’ approach taken in, e.g., the illustrativedescriptors.

Fulcher 1996: Does thick description lead tosmart tests? A data-based approach to rating
scale construction. Language Testing 13 (2),208–38.

Systematic approach to descriptor and scale
development starting by proper analysis of what is
actually happening in the performance. Very timeconsuming method.

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Gipps, C. 1994: Beyond testing. London, Falmer
Press.

Promotion of teacher ‘standards-oriented
assessment’ in relation to common reference points
built up by networking. Discussion of problems
caused by vague descriptors in the English National
Curriculum. Cross-curricula.

Kirsch, I.S. 1995: Literacy performance on threescales: deﬁnitions and results. In Literacy,
economy and society: Results of the ﬁrst
international literacy survey. Paris, Organisation
for Economic Cooperation and development(OECD): 27–53.

Simple non-technical report on a sophisticated use ofRasch to produce a scale of levels from test data.
Method developed to predict and explain the
difﬁculty of new test items from the tasks andcompetences involved – i.e. in relation to aframework.

Kirsch, I.S. and Mosenthal, P.B. 1995:
Interpreting the IEA reading literacy scales. In
Binkley, M., Rust, K. and Wingleee, M. (eds.)
Methodological issues in comparativeeducational studies: The case of the IEA
reading literacy study. Washington D.C.: US
Department of Education, National Center for
Education Statistics: 135–192.

More detailed and technical version of the above
tracing the development of the method through three
related projects.

Linacre, J. M. 1989: Multi-faceted Measurement.
Chicago: MESA Press.

Seminal breakthrough in statistics allowing theseverity of examiners to be taken into account inreporting a result from an assessment. Applied in
the project to develop the illustrative descriptors tocheck the relationship of levels to school years.

Liskin-Gasparro, J. E. 1984: The ACTFL
proﬁciency guidelines: Gateway to testing andcurriculum. In: Foreign Language Annals 17/5,
475–489.

Outline of the purposes and development of theAmerican ACTFL scale from its parent Foreign
Service Institute (FSI) scale.

Lowe, P. 1985: The ILR proﬁciency scale as asynthesising research principle: the view fromthe mountain. In: James, C.J. (ed.): Foreign
Language Proﬁciency in the Classroom and Beyond.
Lincolnwood (Ill.): National Textbook
Company.

Detailed description of the development of the US
Interagency Language Roundtable (ILR) scale fromthe FSI parent. Functions of the scale.

Lowe, P. 1986: Proﬁciency: panacea, framework,
process? A Reply to Kramsch, Schulz, andparticularly, to Bachman and Savignon. In:
Modern Language Journal 70/4, 391–397.

Defence of a system that worked well – in a speciﬁc
context – against academic criticism prompted by the
spread of the scale and its interviewing methodology
to education (with ACTFL).

Masters, G. 1994: Proﬁles and assessment.
Curriculum Perspectives 14,1: 48–52.

Brief report on the way Rasch has been used to scale
test results and teacher assessments to create acurriculum proﬁling system in Australia.

Milanovic, M., Saville, N., Pollitt, A. andCook, A. 1996: Developing rating scales for
CASE: Theoretical concerns and analyses. In
Cumming, A. and Berwick, R. Validation inlanguage testing. Clevedon, Avon, Multimedia
Matters: 15–38.

Classic account of the use of Rasch to reﬁne a rating
scale used with a speaking test – reducing thenumber of levels on the scale to the number assessors
could use effectively.

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Mullis, I.V.S. 1981: Using the primary trait systemfor evaluating writing. Manuscript No. 10-W-51.
Princeton N.J.: Educational Testing Service.

Classic account of the primary trait methodology inmother tongue writing to develop an assessment
scale.

North, B. 1993: The development of descriptors on
scales of proﬁciency: perspectives, problems, and apossible methodology. NFLC Occasional Paper,
National Foreign Language Center, Washington
D.C., April 1993.

Critique of the content and development
methodology of traditional proﬁciency scales.
Proposal for a project to develop the illustrativedescriptors with teachers and scale them with Raschfrom teacher assessments.

North, B. 1994: Scales of language proﬁciency: asurvey of some existing systems, Strasbourg,
Council of Europe CC-LANG (94) 24.

Comprehensive survey of curriculum scales andrating scales later analysed and used as the starting
point for the project to develop illustrativedescriptors.

North, B. 1996/2000: The development of acommon framework scale of language proﬁciency.
PhD thesis, Thames Valley University.
Reprinted 2000, New York, Peter Lang.

Discussion of proﬁciency scales, how models ofcompetence and language use relate to scales.
Detailed account of development steps in the project
which produced the illustrative descriptors –problems encountered, solutions found.

North, B. forthcoming: Scales for rating language
performance in language tests: descriptive models,
formulation styles and presentation formats.
TOEFL Research Paper. Princeton NJ;
Educational Testing Service.

Detailed analysis and historical survey of the typesof rating scales used with speaking and writing
tests: advantages, disadvantages, pitfalls, etc.

North, B. and Schneider, G. 1998: Scaling
descriptors for language proﬁciency scales.
Language Testing 15/2: 217–262.

Overview of the project which produced theillustrative descriptors. Discusses results andstability of scale. Examples of instruments andproducts in an appendix.

Pollitt, A. and Murray, N.L. 1996: What raters
really pay attention to. In Milanovic, M. andSaville, N. (eds.) 1996: Performance testing,cognition and assessment. Studies in Language
Testing 3. Selected papers from the 15th
Language Testing Research Colloquium,
Cambridge and Arnhem, 2–4 August 1993.
Cambridge: University of Cambridge Local
Examinations Syndicate: 74–91.

Interesting methodological article linking repertory
grid analysis to a simple scaling technique toidentify what raters focus on at different levels of
proﬁciency.

Scarino, A. 1996: Issues in planning, describing
and monitoring long-term progress inlanguage learning. In Proceedings of the
AFMLTA 10th National Languages Conference:
67–75.

Criticises the use of vague wording and lack of
information about how well learners perform intypical UK and Australian curriculum proﬁlestatements for teacher assessment.

Scarino, A. 1997: Analysing the language offrameworks of outcomes for foreign language
learning. In Proceedings of the AFMLTA 11th
National Languages Conference: 241–258.

As above.

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Schneider, G and North, B. 1999: ‘In anderen
Sprachen kann ich’ . . . Skalen zur Beschreibung,
Beurteilung und Selbsteinschätzung der
fremdsprachlichen Kommunikationsfähigkeit.
Bern/Aarau: NFP 33/SKBF (Umsetzungsbericht).

Short report on the project which produced theillustrative scales. Also introduces Swiss version of
the Portfolio (40 page A5).

Schneider, G and North, B. 2000: ‘Dans d’autres
langues, je suis capable de …’ Echelles pour ladescription, l’évaluation et l’auto-évaluation
des competences en langues étrangères. Berne/
Aarau PNR33/CSRE (rapport de valorisation)

As above.

Schneider, G and North, B. 2000:
Fremdsprachen können – was heisst das?
Skalen zur Beschreibung, Beurteilung und
Selbsteinschätzung der fremdsprachlichen
Kommunikationsfähigkeit. Chur/Zürich, Verlag
Rüegger AG.

Full report on the project which produced theillustrative scales. Straightforward chapter on
scaling in English. Also introduces Swiss version of
the Portfolio.

Skehan, P. 1984: Issues in the testing of English
for speciﬁc purposes. In: Language Testing 1/2,
202–220.

Criticises the norm-referencing and relative wordingof the ELTS scales.

Shohamy, E., Gordon, C.M. and Kraemer, R.
1992: The effect of raters’ background andtraining on the reliability of direct writing
tests. Modern Language Journal 76: 27–33.

Simple account of basic, qualitative method ofdeveloping an analytic writing scale. Led toastonishing inter-rater reliability between untrained
non-professionals.

Smith, P. C. and Kendall, J.M. 1963:
Retranslation of expectations: an approach tothe construction of unambiguous anchors for
rating scales. In: Journal of Applied Psychology,
47/2.

The ﬁrst approach to scaling descriptors rather thanjust writing scales. Seminal. Very difﬁcult to read.

Stansﬁeld C.W. and Kenyon D.M. 1996:
Comparing the scaling of speaking tasks bylanguage teachers and the ACTFL guidelines.
In Cumming, A. and Berwick, R. Validation inlanguage testing. Clevedon, Avon, Multimedia
Matters: 124–153.

Use of Rasch scaling to conﬁrm the rank order oftasks which appear in the ACTFL guidelines.
Interesting methodological study which inspired theapproach taken in the project to develop theillustrative descriptors.

Takala, S. and F. Kaftandjieva (forthcoming).
Council of Europe scales of language
proﬁciency: A validation study. In J.C. Alderson(ed.) Case studies of the use of the Common
European Framework. Council of Europe.

Report on the use of a further development of the
Rasch model to scale language self-assessments inrelation to adaptations of the illustrativedescriptors. Context: DIALANG project: trials in
relation to Finnish.

Tyndall, B. and Kenyon, D. 1996: Validation of a
new holistic rating scale using Rasch
multifaceted analysis. In Cumming, A. andBerwick, R. Validation in language testing.
Clevedon, Avon, Multimedia Matters: 9–57.

Simple account of the validation of a scale for ESL
placement interviews at university entrance. Classic
use of multi-faceted Rasch to identify training needs.

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Upshur, J. and Turner, C. 1995: Constructing
rating scales for second language tests. English
Language Teaching Journal 49 (1), 3–12.

Sophisticated further development of the primary
trait technique to produce charts of binary decisions.
Very relevant to school sector.

Wilds, C.P. 1975: The oral interview test. In:
Spolsky, B. and Jones, R. (Eds): Testing language
proﬁciency. Washington D.C.: Center for Applied
Linguistics, 29–44.

The original coming out of the original language
proﬁciency rating scale. Worth a careful read to spot
nuances lost in most interview approaches since
then.

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Appendix B: The illustrative scales of descriptors

This appendix contains a description of the Swiss project which developed theillustrative descriptors for the CEF. Categories scaled are also listed, with references tothe pages where they can be found in the main document. The descriptors in thisproject were scaled and used to create the CEF levels with Method No 12c (Raschmodelling) outlined at the end of Appendix A.

The Swiss research project
Origin and Context
The scales of descriptors included in Chapters 3, 4 and 5 have been drawn up on thebasis of the results of a Swiss National Science Research Council project which took
place between 1993 and 1996. This project was undertaken as a follow-up to the 1991
Rüschlikon Symposium. The aim was to develop transparent statements of proﬁciency
of different aspects of the CEF descriptive scheme, which might also contribute to thedevelopment of a European Language Portfolio.
A 1994 survey concentrated on Interaction and Production and was conﬁned toEnglish as a Foreign Language and to teacher assessment. A 1995 survey was a partial
replication of the 1994 study, with the addition of Reception, but French and German
proﬁciency were surveyed as well as English. Self-assessment and some examination
information (Cambridge; Goethe; DELF/DALF) were also added to the teacher
assessment.
Altogether almost 300 teachers and some 2,800 learners representing approximately
500 classes were involved in the two surveys. Learners from lower secondary, upper
secondary, vocational and adult education, were represented in the following
proportions:
Lower secondary

Upper secondary

Vocational

Adult

1994

35%

19%

15%

31%

1995

24%

31%

17%

28%

Teachers from the German- French- Italian- and Romansch-speaking language regionsof Switzerland were involved, though the numbers involved from the Italian- and217

Appendix B: The illustrative scales of descriptors
Romansch-speaking regions was very limited. In each year about a quarter of theteachers were teaching their mother tongue. Teachers completed questionnaires in thetarget language. Thus in 1994 the descriptors were used just in English, whilst in 1995
they were completed in English, French and German.

Methodology
Brieﬂy, the methodology of the project was as follows:

Intuitive phase:
1. Detailed analysis of those scales of language proﬁciency in the public domain or
obtainable through Council of Europe contacts in 1993; a list is given at the end of
this summary.
2.

Deconstruction of those scales into descriptive categories related those outlined in
Chapters 4 and 5 to create an initial pool of classiﬁed, edited descriptors.

Qualitative phase:
3. Category analysis of recordings of teachers discussing and comparing the language
proﬁciency demonstrated in video performances in order to check that themetalanguage used by practitioners was adequately represented.
4.

32 workshops with teachers (a) sorting descriptors into categories they purported
to describe; (b) making qualitative judgements about clarity, accuracy andrelevance of the description; (c) sorting descriptors into bands of proﬁciency.

Quantitative phase:
5. Teacher assessment of representative learners at the end of a school year using an
overlapping series of questionnaires made up of the descriptors found by teachers
in the workshops to be the clearest, most focused and most relevant. In the ﬁrst
year a series of 7 questionnaires each made up of 50 descriptors was used to cover
the range of proﬁciency from learners with 80 hours English to advanced speakers.
6.

In the second year a different series of ﬁve questionnaires was used. The twosurveys were linked by the fact that descriptors for spoken interaction were reusedin the second year. Learners were assessed for each descriptor on a 0–4 scale
describing the relation to performance conditions under which they could be
expected to perform as described in the descriptor. The way the descriptors wereinterpreted by teachers was analysed using the Rasch rating scale model. This
analysis had two aims:(a) to mathematically scale a ‘difﬁculty value’ for each descriptor.
(b) to identify statistically signiﬁcant variation in the interpretation of the218

Appendix B: The illustrative scales of descriptors
descriptors in relation to different educational sectors, language regions andtarget languages in order to identify descriptors with a very high stability ofvalues across different contexts to use in constructing holistic scales
summarising the Common Reference Levels.
7.

Performance assessment by all participating teachers of videos of some of thelearners in the survey. The aim of this assessment was to quantify differences inseverity of participating teachers in order to take such variation in severity into
account in identifying the range of achievement in educational sectors in
Switzerland.

Interpretation phase:
8. Identiﬁcation of ‘cut-points’ on the scale of descriptors to produce the set ofCommon Reference Levels introduced in Chapter 3. Summary of those levels in aholistic scale (Table 1), a self-assessment grid describing language activities (Table2) and a performance assessment grid describing different aspects ofcommunicative language competence (Table 3).
9.

Presentation of illustrative scales in Chapters 4 and 5 for those categories thatproved scaleable.

10. Adaptation of the descriptors to self-assessment format in order to produce a Swiss
trial version of the European Language Portfolio. This includes: (a) a selfassessment grid for Listening, Speaking, Spoken Interaction, Spoken Production,
Writing (Table 2); (b) a self-assessment checklist for each of the Common Reference
Levels.
11. A ﬁnal conference in which research results were presented, experience with thePortfolio was discussed and teachers were introduced to the Common Reference
Levels.

Results
Scaling descriptors for different skills and for different kinds of competences(linguistic, pragmatic, sociocultural) is complicated by the question of whether or notassessments of these different features will combine in a single measurement
dimension. This is not a problem caused by or exclusively associated with Raschmodelling, it applies to all statistical analysis. Rasch, however, is less forgiving if aproblem emerges. Test data, teacher assessment data and self-assessment data may
behave differently in this regard. With assessment by teachers in this project, certain
categories were less successful and had to be removed from the analysis in order tosafeguard the accuracy of the results. Categories lost from the original descriptor poolincluded the following:219

Appendix B: The illustrative scales of descriptorsa) Sociocultural competence
Those descriptors explicitly describing sociocultural and sociolinguistic competence. It
is not clear how much this problem was caused (a) by this being a separate constructfrom language proﬁciency; (b) by rather vague descriptors identiﬁed as problematic in
the workshops, or (c) by inconsistent responses by teachers lacking the necessary
knowledge of their students. This problem extended to descriptors of ability to readand appreciate ﬁction and literature.

b) Work-relatedThose descriptors asking teachers to guess about activities (generally work-related)beyond those they could observe directly in class, for example telephoning; attending
formal meetings; giving formal presentations; writing reports & essays; formal
correspondence. This was despite the fact that the adult and vocational sectors were
well represented.

c) Negative concept
Those descriptors relating to need for simpliﬁcation; need to get repetition or
clariﬁcation, which are implicitly negative concepts. Such aspects worked better as
provisos in positively worded statements, for example:
Can generally understand clear, standard speech on familiar matters directed at him/her,provided he/she can ask for repetition or reformulation from time to time.
Reading proved to be on a separate measurement dimension to spoken interaction andproduction for these teachers. However, the data collection design made it possible toscale reading separately and then to equate the reading scale to the main scale after
the event. Writing was not a major focus of the study, and the descriptors for written
production included in Chapter 4 were mainly developed from those for spoken
production. The relatively high stability of the scale values for descriptors for reading
and writing taken from the CEF being reported by both DIALANG and ALTE (seeAppendices C and D respectively), however, suggests that the approaches taken to
reading and to writing were reasonably effective.
The complications with the categories discussed above are all related to the scaling
issue of uni- as opposed to multi-dimensionality. Multi-dimensionality shows itself in asecond way in relation to the population of learners whose proﬁciency is being
described. There were a number of cases in which the difﬁculty of a descriptor wasdependent on the educational sector concerned. For example, adult beginners are
considered by their teachers to ﬁnd ‘real life’ tasks signiﬁcantly easier than 14 year
olds. This seems intuitively sensible. Such variation is known as ‘Differential Item
Function (DIF)’. In as far as this was feasible, descriptors showing DIF were avoided
when constructing the summaries of the Common Reference Levels introduced inTables 1 and 2 in Chapter 3. There were very few signiﬁcant effects by target language,
and none by mother tongue, other than a suggestion that native speaker teachers may

220

Appendix B: The illustrative scales of descriptors
have a stricter interpretation of the word ‘understand’ at advanced levels, particularly
with regard to literature.

Exploitation
The illustrative descriptors in Chapters 4 and 5 have been either (a) situated at the levelat which that actual descriptor was empirically calibrated in the study; (b) written byrecombining elements of descriptors so calibrated to that level (for a few categories like
Public Announcements which were not included in the original survey), or (c) selected on
the basis of the results of the qualitative phase (workshops), or (d) written during theinterpretative phase to plug a gap on the empirically calibrated sub-scale. This lastpoint applies almost entirely to Mastery, for which very few descriptors had been
included in the study.

Follow up
A project for the university of Basle in 1999–2000 adapted CEF descriptors for a selfassessment instrument designed for university entrance. Descriptors were also added
for sociolinguistic competence and for note taking in a university context. The new
descriptors were scaled to the CEF levels with the same methodology used in theoriginal project, and are included in this edition of the CEF. The correlation of thescale values of the CEF descriptors between their original scale values and their values
in this study was 0.899.

References
North, B. 1996/2000: The development of a common framework scale of language proﬁciency. PhD thesis,
Thames Valley University. Reprinted 2000, New York, Peter Lang.
forthcoming: Developing descriptor scales of language proﬁciency for the CEF Common
Reference Levels. In J.C. Alderson (ed.) Case studies of the use of the Common European Framework.
Council of Europe.
forthcoming: A CEF-based self-assessment tool for university entrance. In J.C. Alderson (ed.)
Case studies of the use of the Common European Framework. Council of Europe.
North, B. and Schneider, G. 1998: Scaling descriptors for language proﬁciency scales. Language
Testing 15/2: 217–262.
Schneider and North 1999: ‘In anderen Sprachen kann ich’ . . . Skalen zur Beschreibung, Beurteilung und
Selbsteinschätzung der fremdsprachlichen Kommunikationmsfähigkeit. Berne, Project Report,
National Research Programme 33, Swiss National Science Research Council.

The descriptors in the Framework
In addition to the tables used in Chapter 3 to summarise the Common Reference Levels,
illustrative descriptors are interspersed in the text of Chapters 4 and 5 as follows:

221Appendix B: The illustrative scales of descriptors
Document B1

Illustrative scales in Chapter 4: Communicative activities

Spoken
R
E
C
E
P
T
I
O
N

I
N
T
E
R
A
C
T
I
O
N

P
R
O
D
U
C
T
I
O
N

• Overall listening comprehension• Understanding Interaction between native speakers• Listening as a member of a live audience• Listening to announcements and instructions• Listening to radio & audio recordings

Audio/Visual• Watching TV & ﬁlm

Written• Overall reading comprehension• Reading correspondence• Reading for orientation• Reading for information and argument• Reading instructions

Spoken• Overall spoken interaction• Comprehension in interaction• Understanding a native speaker interlocutor• Conversation• Informal discussion• Formal discussion (Meetings)• Goal-oriented co-operation• Obtaining goods and services• Information exchange• Interviewing & being interviewed

Written• Overall written interaction• Correspondence• Notes, messages & forms

Spoken• Overall spoken production• Sustained monologue: describing experience• Sustained monologue: putting a case (e.g. debate)• Public announcements• Addressing audiences

Written• Overall written production• Creative writing• Writing reports and essays

Document B2Illustrative scales in Chapter 4: Communication strategies

RECEPTION• Identifying cues and inferring
INTERACTION• Taking the ﬂoor (turntaking)• Co-operating• Asking for clariﬁcation
PRODUCTION• Planning• Compensating• Monitoring and repair

222

Appendix B: The illustrative scales of descriptors
Document B3Illustrative scales in Chapter 4: Working with text

TEXT
• Note taking in seminars and lectures• Processing text

Document B4Illustrative scales in Chapter 5: Communicative language competence

LINGUISTIC
Range:
Control:• General range• Vocabulary range• Grammatical accuracy• Vocabulary control• Phonological control• Orthographic control

SOCIOLINGUISTIC• Sociolinguistic
PRAGMATIC• Flexibility• Taking the ﬂoor (turntaking) – repeated• Thematic development• Coherence• Propositional precision• Spoken ﬂuency

Document B5

Coherence in descriptor calibration

The position at which particular content appears on the scale demonstrates a highdegree of coherence. As an example, one can take topics. No descriptors were included
for topics, but topics were referred to in descriptors for various categories. The threemost relevant categories were Describing & narrating, Information exchange and Range.
The charts below compare the way topics are treated in those three areas. Although
the content of the three charts is not identical, comparison demonstrates aconsiderable degree of coherence, which is reﬂected throughout the set of calibrated
descriptors. Analysis of this kind has been the basis for producing descriptors for
categories not included in the original survey (e.g. Public announcements) by recombining
descriptor elements.

223

Appendix B: The illustrative scales of descriptors
DESCRIBING & NARRATING:
A1• where• they• live• people,• appearance• background,• job• places &• living• conditions

A2• objects, pets,• possessions• events &• activities• likes/dislikes• plans/• arrangements• habits/routines• personal• experience

B1

B2

C1
• clear• detailed• descrip• tion of• complex• subjects

C2

A2
B1
• simple• accumu• directions &• lated factual• instructions• info on• pastimes,• familiar• habits, routines • detailed• matters• past activities • directions• within ﬁeld

B2

C1

C2

A2
• routine• everyday• transactions• familiar• situations &• topics• everyday• situations with• predictable• content

B2

C1

C2

• plot of• book/ﬁlm• experiences• reactions to• both• dreams,• hopes,• ambitions• tell a story• basic details• of unpre• dictable• occurrences• e.g. accident

INFORMATION EXCHANGE:
A1• them- • simple,• selves & • routine,• others • direct• home • limited,• time• work &• free time
RANGE: SETTINGS:
A1• basic• common• needs• simple/• predictable• survival• simple• concrete• needs: pers.
• details, daily• routines,• info requests

Document B4

B1• most topics• pertinent to• everyday life:• family hobbies• interests, work
• travel, current• events

Scales of language proficiency used as sources

Holistic scales of overall spoken proﬁciency• Hofmann: Levels of Competence in Oral Communication 1974
• University of London School Examination Board: Certiﬁcate of Attainment –Graded Tests 1987
• Ontario ESL Oral Interaction Assessment Bands 1990
• Finnish Nine Level Scale of Language Proﬁciency 1993
• European Certiﬁcate of Attainment in Modern Languages 1993
Scales for different communicative activities• Trim: Possible Scale for a Unit/Credit Scheme: Social Skills 1978
• North: European Language Portfolio Mock-up: Interaction Scales 1991
224

Appendix B: The illustrative scales of descriptors• Eurocentres/ELTDU Scale of Business English 1991
• Association of Language Testers in Europe, Bulletin 3, 1994
Scales for the four skills• Foreign Service Institute Absolute Proﬁciency Ratings 1975
• Wilkins: Proposals for Level Deﬁnitions for a Unit/Credit Scheme: Speaking 1978
• Australian Second Language Proﬁciency Ratings 1982
• American Council on the Teaching of Foreign Languages Proﬁciency Guidelines
1986• Elviri et al.: Oral Expression 1986 (in Van Ek 1986)• Interagency Language Roundtable Language Skill Level Descriptors 1991
• English Speaking Union (ESU) Framework Project: 1989
• Australian Migrant Education Program Scale (Listening only)
Rating scales for oral assessment• Dade County ESL Functional Levels 1978
• Hebrew Oral Proﬁciency Rating Grid 1981
• Carroll B.J. and Hall P.J. Interview Scale 1985
• Carroll B.J. Oral Interaction Assessment Scale 1980
• International English Testing System (IELTS): Band Descriptors for Speaking &Writing 1990
• Goteborgs Univeritet: Oral Assessment Criteria• Fulcher: The Fluency Rating Scale 1993
Frameworks of syllabus content and assessment criteria for pedagogic stages ofattainment• University of Cambridge/Royal Society of Arts Certiﬁcates in Communicative Skills
in English 1990
• Royal Society of Arts Modern Languages Examinations: French 1989
• English National Curriculum: Modern Languages 1991
• Netherlands New Examinations Programme 1992
• Eurocentres Scale of Language Proﬁciency 1993
• British Languages Lead Body: National Language Standards 1993

225

Appendix C: The DIALANG scalesThis appendix contains a description of the DIALANG language assessment system
which is an application for diagnostic purposes of the Common European Framework(CEF). The focus here is on the self-assessment statements used in the system and on
the calibration study carried out on them as part of the development of the system.
Two related descriptive scales, which are based on the CEF and used in reporting andexplaining the diagnostic results to the learners, are also included. The descriptors inthis project were scaled and equated to the CEF levels with Method No 12c (Raschmodelling) outlined at the end of Appendix A.

The DIALANG project
The DIALANG assessment system
DIALANG is an assessment system intended for language learners who want to obtain
diagnostic information about their proﬁciency. The DIALANG project is carried out
with the ﬁnancial support of the European Commission, Directorate-General for
Education and Culture (SOCRATES Programme, LINGUA Action D).
The system consists of self-assessment, language tests and feedback, which are allavailable in fourteen European languages: Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French,
German, Greek, Icelandic, Irish, Italian, Norwegian, Portuguese, Spanish, and Swedish.
DIALANG is delivered via the Internet free of charge.
DIALANG’s Assessment Framework and the descriptive scales used for reporting theresults to the users are directly based on the Common European Framework (CEF). The
self-assessment statements used in DIALANG are also mostly taken from the CEF andadapted whenever necessary to ﬁt the speciﬁc needs of the system.

Purpose of DIALANGDIALANG is aimed at adults who want to know their level of language proﬁciency andwho want to get feedback on the strengths and weaknesses of their proﬁciency. The
system also provides the learners with advice about how to improve their language
skills and, furthermore, it attempts to raise their awareness of language learning andproﬁciency. The system does not issue certiﬁcates.
226

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
The primary users of the system will be individual learners who study languages
independently or on formal language courses. However, language teachers may also
ﬁnd many of the features of the system useful for their purposes.

Assessment procedure in DIALANGThe DIALANG assessment procedure has the following steps:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Choice of administration language (14 possible)
Registration
Choice of test language (14 possible)
Vocabulary Size Placement Test
Choice of skill (reading, listening, writing, vocabulary, structures)
Self-assessment (only in reading, listening, and writing)
System pre-estimates learner’s ability
Test of appropriate difﬁculty is administeredFeedback

On entering the system, the learners ﬁrst choose the language in which they wish toreceive instructions and feedback. After registering, users are then presented with aplacement test which also estimates the size of their vocabulary. After choosing theskill in which they then wish to be tested, users are presented with a number of selfassessment statements, before taking the test selected. These self-assessment
statements cover the skill in question, and the learner has to decide whether or nots/he can do the activity described in each statement. Self-assessment is not available
for the other two areas assessed by DIALANG, vocabulary and structures, because
source statements do not exist in the CEF. After the test, as part of the feedback, thelearners are told whether their self-assessed level of proﬁciency differs from thelevel of proﬁciency assigned to them by the system on the basis of their test
performance. Users are also offered an opportunity to explore potential reasons for amismatch between self-assessment and the test results in the Explanatory Feedback
section.

Purpose of self-assessment in DIALANG
Self-assessment (SA) statements are used for two reasons in the DIALANG system.
Firstly, self-assessment is considered an important activity in itself. It is believed toencourage autonomous learning, to give learners greater control over their learningand to enhance learner awareness of their learning process.
The second purpose of self-assessment in DIALANG is more ‘technical’: the system
uses the Vocabulary Size Placement Test and self-assessment results to pre-estimate thelearners’ ability and then directs them to the test whose difﬁculty level best matches
their ability.
227

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
The DIALANG self-assessment scales
SourceMost of the self-assessment statements used in DIALANG were taken from the English
version of the Common European Framework (Draft 2, 1996). In this respect, DIALANG
is a direct application of the Framework for assessment purposes.
Qualitative development
The DIALANG Working Group on Self-Assessment1 reviewed all CEF statements in 1998
and chose those which appeared to be the most concrete, clear and simple; North’s(1996/2000) empirical results on the statements were also consulted. More than ahundred statements were selected for reading, listening and writing. In addition,statements about speaking were chosen but as speaking is not part of the present
DIALANG system, they were not included in the validation study described below andare thus not presented in this appendix.
The wording of the statements was changed from ‘Can do’ to ‘I can’ because they were
to be used for self-assessment rather than teacher assessment purposes. Some of thestatements were modiﬁed to simplify them further to suit the intended users; a few newstatements were also developed where there was not enough material in the CEF to drawon (the new statements are in italics in the tables). All statements were audited by Dr
Brian North, the originator of the statements in the CEF, and by a group of four language
testing and teaching experts before the ﬁnal wording of the statements was agreed.
Translation
Because DIALANG is a multilingual system, the self-assessment statements were thentranslated from English into the other thirteen languages. The translation followed anagreed procedure. Guidelines for translation and negotiation were agreed;
comprehensibility to learners was a prime quality criterion. Initially, two to threeexperts per language translated the statements into their language independently andthen met to discuss differences and to agree a consensus wording. The translations
were forwarded to the Self-Assessment Group whose members had the linguistic
proﬁciency to additionally cross-check the quality of the translations in ninelanguages. The translators were contacted and any questions related to wording werediscussed and modiﬁcations agreed.
Calibration of the self-assessment statements
So far, the DIALANG project has carried out one calibration study on the selfassessment statements. (Calibration is a procedure in which the level of difﬁculty of
1

The group consisted of Alex Teasdale (chair), Neus Figueras, Ari Huhta, Fellyanka Kaftandjieva, Mats Oscarson, andSauli Takala.

228

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
items, statements, etc. is determined statistically and a scale is constructed of them.)
The calibration was based on a sample of 304 subjects (complete test design) who also
took a number of DIALANG tests in Finnish. The SA-statements were presented to themeither in Swedish (for 250 subjects whose mother tongue was Swedish) or in English. In
addition, most subjects could consult the Finnish language version of the statements.2
The data was analysed with the OPLM programme (Verhelst et al. 1985; Verhelst andGlass 1995).3 The results of the analysis were very good: over 90% of the statements
could be scaled (i.e. they ‘ﬁtted’ the statistical model used). The three self-assessment
scales which were constructed on the basis of the calibration of the statements werevery homogeneous, as indicated by the high reliability indices (Cronbach’s alpha): .91
for reading, .93 for listening and .94 for writing.4
Similar calibration studies will be carried out when the other 13 languages arepiloted, following the approach developed by the Data Analysis Group. They will show
to what extent the excellent results of the ﬁrst study can be replicated and whether
there is any tendency for some statements to be consistently better than the others, forself-assessment purposes.
Although the ﬁrst calibration study is only one study, it is important to note that it
tells about the quality of more than one language version of the SA statements in
DIALANG. This is because most of the learners studied could choose any, even all, of
the three versions (Swedish, English or Finnish) when completing the self-assessment
part, although most of them probably relied on the Swedish one. Because of the carefultranslation procedure, we can safely assume that the SA statements are largely
equivalent across the languages – an assumption which will obviously be tested as partof the other calibration studies.
Additional evidence for the quality of the DIALANG self-assessment scales – and for
the CEF scales – was obtained by Dr Kaftandjieva by correlating the difﬁculty values ofthe statements in this study with the values for the same statements obtained by
North (1996/2000) in a different context. The correlation was found to be very high(.83), or even .897, if one strangely behaving statement is excluded.
Document C1 presents the 107 self-assessment statements for reading, listening andwriting which survived the calibration study based on Finnish data. The statements ineach table are ordered in terms of difﬁculty from the easiest to the hardest. Statements
which were not taken from the Framework are in italics.

Other DIALANG scales based on the Common European Framework
In addition to the self-assessment statements, DIALANG uses two sets of descriptive
scales which are based on the CEF. The scales concern reading, writing and listening:
2

The study was conducted in the Centre for Applied Language Studies at the University of Jyväskylä, which was the
Coordinating Centre of the Project in 1996–1999, by the Working Group for Data Analysis consisting of Fellyanka
Kaftandjieva (chair), Norman Verhelst, Sauli Takala, John de Jong, and Timo Törmäkangas. The Coordinating
Centre in DIALANG Phase 2 is Freie Universität Berlin.
3
OPLM is an extension of the Rasch model, which allows items to differ in their discrimination. The difference
between it and the two-parameter model is that discrimination parameters are not estimated but inputted asknown constants.
4
The global data-model ﬁt was also quite good (p= .26) when the statements were calibrated together. The statisticalﬁt for skill-based calibration was also good (p= .10 for Reading, .84 for Writing and .78 for Listening).

229

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales• the more concise version accompanies the test score,• the more extensive version is part of Advisory Feedback.

Concise scales
DIALANG uses the concise overall scales for reading, writing and listening to report
scores on the DIALANG system. When learners get feedback on their performance, they
are given a result on the CEF scale, A1 to C2, and the meaning of this score is describedusing these reporting scales. These were validated in the DIALANG context by asking 12
expert judges to assign each statement to one of six levels. These overall reporting scales
were then used by the expert judges to assign each item in the DIALANG tests of Finnish
to a CEF level. The scale is based on Table 2 of the CEF; the descriptions were slightly
modiﬁed in the same way as SA statements. These scales are presented in Document C2.

Advisory feedback
The Advisory Feedback section of the assessment system uses scales which containmore extensive descriptions of proﬁciency in reading, writing and listening. The
section provides the users with more detailed accounts of what learners can typicallydo with the language at each of the skill levels. The learners can also compare thedescription for a particular level with the descriptions for adjacent levels. These moredetailed scales are also based on the scales on Table 2 in the CEF, but the descriptors
were elaborated further with the help of other sections of the CEF and also othersources. These scales are presented in Document C3.
Readers interested in the results of the empirical studies reported here will ﬁnd
more detailed information about them in Takala and Kaftandjieva (forthcoming); forfurther information about the system in general and the feedback it provides, consult
Huhta, Luoma, Oscarson, Sajavaara, Takala and Teasdale (forthcoming).

References
Huhta, A., S. Luoma, M. Oscarson, K. Sajavaara, S. Takala, and A. Teasdale (forthcoming).
DIALANG – A Diagnostic Language Assessment System for Learners. In J.C. Alderson (ed.)
Case Studies of the Use of the Common European Framework. Council of Europe.
North, B. (1996/2000). The Development of a Common Framework Scale of Language Proﬁciency
Based on a Theory of Measurement. PhD thesis. Thames Valley University. Reprinted 2000:
New York, Peter Lang.
Takala, S. and F. Kaftandjieva (forthcoming). Council of Europe Scales of Language Proﬁciency: A
Validation Study. In J.C. Alderson (ed.) Case Studies of the Use of the Common European
Framework. Council of Europe.
Verhelst, N., C. Glass and H. Verstralen (1985). One-Parameter Logistic Model: OPLM. Arnhem:
CITO.
Verhelst, N. and C. Glass (1995). The One-Parameter Logistic Model. In G. Fisher and I. Molenaar(eds.) Rasch Models: Foundations, Recent Developments and Applications. New York:
Springer-Verlag. 215–237.

230

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
Document C1
CEF Level
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A2
A2
A2
A2
A2
A2
A2
A2
A2
B1
B1
B1
B1
B1
B1
B1
B1
B2
B2
B2
B2
B2
B2

DIALANG self-assessment statements

READING
I can understand the general idea of simple informational texts and short simple
descriptions, especially if they contain pictures which help to explain the text.
I can understand very short, simple texts, putting together familiar names, words
and basic phrases, by for example rereading parts of the text.
I can follow short, simple written instructions, especially if they contain pictures.
I can recognise familiar names, words and very simple phrases on simple notices in
the most common everyday situations.
I can understand short, simple messages, e.g. on postcards.
I can understand short, simple texts containing the most common words, including
some shared international words.
I can understand short, simple texts written in common everyday language.
I can understand short simple texts related to my job.
I can ﬁnd speciﬁc information in simple everyday material such as advertisements,
brochures, menus and timetables.
I can identify speciﬁc information in simple written material such as letters,brochures and short newspaper articles describing events.
I can understand short simple personal letters.
I can understand standard routine letters and faxes on familiar topics.
I can understand simple instructions on equipment encountered in everyday life –such as a public telephone.
I can understand everyday signs and notices in public places, such as streets,
restaurants, railway stations and in workplaces.
I can understand straightforward texts on subjects related to my ﬁelds of interest.
I can ﬁnd and understand general information I need in everyday material, such as
letters, brochures and short ofﬁcial documents.
I can search one long or several short texts to locate speciﬁc information I need tohelp me complete a task.
I can recognise signiﬁcant points in straightforward newspaper articles on familiar
subjects.
I can identify the main conclusions in clearly written argumentative texts.
I can recognise the general line of argument in a text but not necessarily in detail.
I can understand the description of events, feelings and wishes in personal letterswell enough to correspond with a friend or acquaintance.
I can understand clearly written straightforward instructions for a piece of equipment.
I can read correspondence relating to my ﬁelds of interest and easily understand theessential meaning.
I can understand specialised articles outside my ﬁeld, provided I can use a dictionary
to conﬁrm terminology.
I can read many kinds of texts quite easily at different speeds and in different ways
according to my purpose in reading and the type of text.
I have a broad reading vocabulary, but I sometimes experience difﬁculty with lesscommon words and phrases.
I can quickly identify the content and relevance of news items, articles and reports
on a wide range of professional topics, deciding whether closer study is worthwhile.
I can understand articles and reports concerned with contemporary problems inwhich the writers adopt particular stances or viewpoints.

C1
C1

I can understand any correspondence with an occasional use of dictionary.
I can understand in detail long, complex instructions on a new machine orprocedure even outside my own area of speciality if I can reread difﬁcult sections.

C2

I can understand and interpret practically all forms of written language including
abstract, structurally complex, or highly colloquial literary and non-literary writings.

231

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
CEF Level
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1
A1

I can write simple notes to friends.
I can describe where I live.
I can ﬁll in forms with personal details.
I can write simple isolated phrases and sentences.
I can write a short simple postcard.
I can write short letters and messages with the help of a dictionary.

A2
A2
A2
A2
A2
A2
A2

I can give short, basic descriptions of events and activities.
I can write very simple personal letters expressing thanks and apology.
I can write short, simple notes and messages relating to matters of everyday life.
I can describe plans and arrangements.
I can explain what I like or dislike about something.
I can describe my family, living conditions, schooling, present or most recent job.
I can describe past activities and personal experiences.

B1
B1
B1
B1
B1
B1
B1

I can write very brief reports, which pass on routine factual information and statereasons for actions.
I can write personal letters describing experiences, feelings and events in detail.
I can describe basic details of unpredictable occurrences, e.g., an accident.
I can describe dreams, hopes and ambitions.
I can take messages describing enquiries, problems, etc.
I can describe the plot of a book or ﬁlm and describe my reactions.
I can brieﬂy give reasons and explanations for opinions, plans and actions.

B2
B2
B2
B2

I can evaluate different ideas and solutions to a problem.
I can synthesise information and arguments from a number of sources.
I can construct a chain of reasoned argument.
I can speculate about causes, consequences and hypothetical situations.

C1

I can expand and support points of view at some length with subsidiary points,
reasons and relevant examples.
I can develop an argument systematically, giving appropriate emphasis to signiﬁcant
points, and presenting relevant supporting detail.
I can give clear detailed descriptions of complex subjects.
I can usually write without consulting a dictionary.
I can write so well that my language needs to be checked only if the text is an important one.

C1
C1
(estim. C1)(estim. C1)
C2
C2(estim. C2)(estim. C2)

232

WRITING

I can provide an appropriate and effective logical structure, which helps the reader toﬁnd signiﬁcant points.
I can produce clear, smoothly ﬂowing, complex reports, articles or essays that present
a case, or give critical appreciation of proposals or literary works.
I can write so well that native speakers need not check my texts.
I can write so well that my texts cannot be improved signiﬁcantly even by teachers of writing.

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
CEF Level
A1
A1
A1
A1
A2
A2
A2
A2
A2
A2
A2
A2
A2
A2
B1
B1
B1
B1

B1
B1
B1
B1
B1
B1

LISTENING
I can understand everyday expressions dealing with simple and concrete everyday
needs, in clear, slow and repeated speech.
I can follow speech which is very slow and carefully articulated, with long pauses forme to get the meaning.
I can understand questions and instructions and follow short, simple directions.
I can understand numbers, prices and times.
I can understand enough to manage simple, routine exchanges without too much
effort.
I can generally identify the topic of discussion around me which is conducted slowly
and clearly.
I can generally understand clear, standard speech on familiar matters, although in areal life situation I might have to ask for repetition or reformulation.
I can understand enough to be able to meet concrete needs in everyday life provided
speech is clear and slow.
I can understand phrases and expressions related to immediate needs.
I can handle simple business in shops, post ofﬁces or banks.
I can understand simple directions relating to how to get from X to Y, by foot or
public transport.
I can understand the essential information from short recorded passages dealing
with predictable everyday matters which are spoken slowly and clearly.
I can identify the main point of TV news items reporting events, accidents, etc, wherethe visual material supports the commentary.
I can catch the main point in short, clear, simple messages and announcements.
I can guess the meaning of occasional unknown words from the context andunderstand sentence meaning if the topic discussed is familiar.
I can generally follow the main points of extended discussion around me, provided
speech is clear and in standard language.
I can follow clear speech in everyday conversation, though in a real life situation I
will sometimes have to ask for repetition of particular words and phrases.
I can understand straightforward factual information about common everyday or
job-related topics, identifying both general messages and speciﬁc details, provided
speech is clear and generally familiar accent is used.
I can understand the main points of clear standard speech on familiar matters which
occur regularly.
I can follow a lecture or a talk within my own ﬁeld, provided the subject matter isfamiliar and the presentation straightforward and clearly organised.
I can understand simple technical information, such as operation instructions foreveryday equipment.
I can understand the information content of the majority of recorded or broadcast
audio material about familiar subjects spoken relatively slowly and clearly.
I can follow many ﬁlms in which visuals and action carry much of the storyline, andin which the story is straightforward and the language clear.
I can catch the main points in broadcasts on familiar topics and topics of personal
interest when the language is relatively slow and clear.

233

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
CEF Level
B2
B2

B2

B2
B2
B2
B2

B2

B2
C1
C1

C1
C1
C1
C1
C1
C1

C1
C2

234

LISTENING (continued)
I can understand in detail what is said to me in the standard spoken language. I cando this even when there is some noise in the background.
I can understand standard spoken language, live or broadcast, on both familiar andunfamiliar topics normally encountered in personal, academic or vocational life.
Only extreme background noise, unclear structure and/or idiomatic usage causes
some problems.
I can understand the main ideas of complex speech on both concrete and abstract
topics delivered in a standard language including technical discussions in my ﬁeld ofspecialisation.
I can follow extended speech and complex lines of argument provided the topic isreasonably familiar, and the direction of the talk is clearly stated by the speaker.
I can follow the essentials of lectures, talks and reports and other forms ofpresentation which use complex ideas and language.
I can understand announcements and messages on concrete and abstract topics
spoken in standard language at normal speed.
I can understand most radio documentaries and most other recorded or broadcast
audio material delivered in standard language and can identify the speaker’s mood,tone, etc.
I can understand most TV news and current affairs programmes such as
documentaries, live interviews, talk shows, plays and the majority of ﬁlms instandard language.
I can follow a lecture or talk within my own ﬁeld, provided the presentation is clear.
I can keep up with an animated conversation between native speakers.
I can understand enough to follow extended speech on abstract and complex topics
beyond my own ﬁeld, though I may need to conﬁrm occasional details, especially if
the accent is unfamiliar.
I can recognise a wide range of idiomatic expressions and colloquialisms andrecognise changes in style.
I can follow extended speech even when it is not clearly structured and whenrelationships between ideas are only implied and not stated explicitly.
I can follow most lectures, discussions and debates with relative ease.
I can extract speciﬁc information from poor quality public announcements.
I can understand complex technical information, such as operating instructions,speciﬁcations for familiar products and services.
I can understand a wide range of recorded audio material, including some nonstandard language, and identify ﬁner points of detail, including implicit attitudes
and relationships between speakers.
I can follow ﬁlms which contain a considerable degree of slang and idiomatic usage.
I can follow specialised lectures and presentations which use a high degree ofcolloquialism, regional usage or unfamiliar terminology.

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
Document C2
CEF Level

The overall (concise) scales for reporting DIALANG scores

READING

A1

Your test result suggests that you are at or below level A1 in reading on the Councilof Europe scale. At this level people can understand very simple sentences, forexample on notices and posters or in catalogues.

A2Your test result suggests that you are at level A2 in reading on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level people can understand very short, simple texts. They can ﬁnd
speciﬁc information they are looking for in simple everyday texts such as
advertisements, leaﬂets, menus and timetables and they can understand short
simple personal letters.

B1

Your test result suggests that you are at level B1 in reading on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level people can understand texts that contain everyday or job-related
language. They can understand personal letters in which the writer describes events,
feelings and wishes.

B2

Your test result suggests that you are at level B2 in reading on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level people can understand articles and reports about contemporary
issues when the writer takes a particular position on a problem or expresses aparticular viewpoint. They can understand most short stories and popular novels.

C1

Your test result suggests that you are at level C1 in reading on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level people can understand long and complex factual and literary texts
as well as differences in style. They can understand “specialised” language in articles
and technical instructions, even if these are not in their ﬁeld.

C2Your test result suggests that you are at or above level C2 in reading on the Council ofEurope scale. At this level people can read, without any problems, almost all forms oftext, including texts which are abstract and contain difﬁcult words and grammar. For
example: manuals, articles on special subjects, and literary texts.

235

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
CEF Level

236

WRITING

A1

Your test result suggests that you are at level A1 in writing on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level, people can write a short simple postcard, for example sending
holiday greetings. They can ﬁll in forms with personal details, for example writing
their name, nationality and address on a hotel registration form.

A2Your test result suggests that you are at level A2 in writing on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level people can write short, simple notes and messages about everyday
matters and everyday needs. They can write a very simple personal letter, for example
thanking someone for something.

B1

Your test result suggests that you are at level B1 in writing on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level people can write simple texts on topics which are familiar or of
personal interest. They can write personal letters describing experiences andimpressions.

B2

Your test result suggests that you are at level B2 in writing on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level people can write clear detailed texts on a wide range of subjects
related to their interests. They can write an essay or report, passing on informationand presenting some arguments for or against a particular point of view. They canwrite letters highlighting the personal signiﬁcance of events and experiences.

C1

Your test result suggests that you are at level C1 in writing on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level, people can write clear and well-structured text and express theirpoints of view at some length. They can write about complex subjects in a letter, anessay or a report, underlining what they think are the most important points. They
can write different kinds of texts in an assured and personal style which isappropriate to the reader in mind.

C2

Your test result suggests that you are at level C2 in writing on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level, people can write clearly and smoothly and in an appropriate style.
They can write complex letters, reports or articles in such a way that helps the reader
to notice and remember important points. They can write summaries and reviews ofprofessional or literary texts.

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
CEF Level

LISTENING

A1Your test result suggests that you are at or below level A1 in listening on the Councilof Europe scale. At this level, people can understand very simple phrases about
themselves, people they know and things around them, when people speak slowly
and clearly.

A2Your test result suggests that you are at level A2 in listening on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level, people can understand expressions and the most common words
about things which are important to them, e.g. very basic personal and family
information, shopping, their jobs. They can get the main point in short, clear, simple
messages and announcements.

B1

Your test result suggests that you are at level B1 in listening on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level, people can understand the main points of clear ‘standard’ speech
on familiar matters connected with work, school, leisure etc. In TV and radio currentaffairs programmes or programmes of personal or professional interest, they canunderstand the main points provided the speech is relatively slow and clear.

B2

Your test result suggests that you are at level B2 in listening on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level, people can understand longer stretches of speech and lectures andfollow complex lines of argument provided the topic is reasonably familiar. They canunderstand most TV news and current affairs programmes.

C1

Your test result suggests that you are at level C1 in listening on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level, people can understand spoken language even when it is notclearly structured and when ideas and thoughts are not expressed in an explicit way.
They can understand television programmes and ﬁlms without too much effort.

C2

Your test result suggests that you are at level C2 in listening on the Council of Europe
scale. At this level, people can understand any kind of spoken language, both when
they hear it live and in the media. They also understand a native speaker who speaks
fast if they have some time to get used to the accent.

237

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
Document C3 Elaborated descriptive scales used in the advisory feedback
section of DIALANG
READING
A1

A2

B1

What typesof text I
understand

Very short, simple
texts, typically short,
simple descriptions,especially if they
contain pictures.
Short, simple written
instructions e.g. short
simple postcards,
simple notices.

Texts on familiar,
concrete matters.
Short, simple texts e.g.
routine personal andbusiness letters andfaxes, most everyday
signs and notices,
Yellow Pages,
advertisements.

Straightforward factual texts on subjects
related to my ﬁeld of interest.
Everyday material, e.g. letters, brochuresand short ofﬁcial documents.
Straightforward newspaper articles onfamiliar subjects and descriptions ofevents.
Clearly written argumentative texts.
Personal letters expressing feelings andwishes.
Clearly written, straightforward
instructions for a piece of equipment.

What I
understandFamiliar names,
words, basic phrases.

Understand short,
simple texts.
Find speciﬁc
information in simple
everyday material.

Understand straightforward factual
language.
Understand clearly written generalargumentation (but not necessarily all
details).
Understand straightforward instructions.
Find general information I need ineveryday material.
Locate speciﬁc information by searching
one long or several different texts.

Conditions
andlimitations

Single phrase at atime, re-reading partof text.

Restricted mainly to
Ability to identify main conclusions andcommon everyday
follow argument restricted tolanguage and language straightforward texts.
related to my job.

238

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales

B2

C1

C2

Correspondence relating to my ﬁeld ofinterest.
Longer texts, including specialised articles
outside my ﬁeld and highly specialised
sources within my ﬁeld.
Articles and reports on contemporary
problems with particular viewpoints.

Wide range of long, complex
texts from social,professional or academic life.
Complex instructions on a
new unfamiliar machine orprocedure outside my area.

Wide range of long andcomplex texts – practicallyall forms of written
language.
Abstract, structurally
complex, or highly colloquial
literary and non-literary
writings.

Understanding aided by broad active
reading vocabulary, difﬁculty with lesscommon phrases and idioms and withterminology.
Understand the essential meaning ofcorrespondence in my ﬁeld, and specialised
articles outside my ﬁeld (with dictionary).
Obtain information, ideas and opinionsfrom highly specialised sources within my
ﬁeld.
Locate relevant details in long texts.

Identify ﬁne points of detailincluding attitudes andopinions which are notexplicitly stated.
Understand in detailcomplex texts, including ﬁne
points of detail, attitudes
and opinions (see conditions
and limitations).

Understand subtleties ofstyle and meaning which areboth implicitly and explicitly
stated.

Range and types of text only a minor
limitation – can read different types of text
at different speeds and in different ways
according to purpose and type.
Dictionary required for more specialised or
unfamiliar texts.

Understanding of details ofcomplex texts usually only if
difﬁcult sections are re-read.
Occasional use of dictionary.

Few limitations – canunderstand and interpret
practically all forms of
written language.
Very unusual or archaic
vocabulary and phrases may
be unknown but will rarely
impair understanding.

239

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
WRITING
A1

A2

B1

What typesof text I
can write

Very short pieces ofwriting: isolated words
and very short, basic
sentences. For example,
simple messages, notes,
forms and postcards.

Usually short, simple
pieces of writing. For
example, simple personal
letters, postcards,
messages, notes, forms.

Can write a continuous,
intelligible text in whichelements are connected.

What I can
write

Numbers and dates, own
name, nationality,
address, and otherpersonal details required
to ﬁll in simple forms
when travelling.
Short, simple sentences
linked with connectors
such as ‘and’ or ‘then’.

Texts typically describe
Can convey simple
immediate needs, personal information to friends,
events, familiar places,
service people, etc. who
hobbies, work, etc.
feature in everyday life. Can
Texts typically consist of
get straightforward points
short, basic sentences.
across comprehensively.
Can use the most frequent Can give news, express
connectors (e.g. and, but,thoughts about abstract or
because) to link sentences cultural topics such as ﬁlms,
in order to write a story or music, etc.
to describe something as a Can describe experiences,list of points.
feelings and events in somedetail.

Conditions
andlimitations

Apart from the mostcommon words andexpressions, the writerneeds to consult a
dictionary.

Only on familiar androutine matters.
Writing continuous
coherent text is difﬁcult.

240

Range of texts can be limited
to more familiar and common
ones, such as describing
things and writing about
sequences of actions; but
argumention and contrasting
issues, for example, aredifﬁcult.

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales

B2

C1

C2

Can write a variety of different
texts.

Can write a variety of different
texts.
Can express oneself withclarity and precision, using
language ﬂexibly andeffectively.

Can write a variety of different
texts.
Can convey ﬁner shades ofmeaning precisely.
Can write persuasively.

Can express news and views
effectively, and relate to those ofothers.
Can use a variety of linking words
to mark clearly the relationships
between ideas.
Spelling and punctuation arereasonably accurate.

Can produce clear, smoothly
Can create coherent andﬂowing, well-structured
cohesive text making full andwriting, showing controlled
appropriate use of a variety ofuse of organisational patterns, organisational patterns and aconnectors and cohesivewide range of cohesive devices.
devices.
Writing is free of spelling
Can qualify opinions anderrors.
statements precisely in
relation to degrees of, forexample, certainty/uncertainty,
belief/doubt, likelihood.
Layout, paragraphing andpunctuation are consistent andhelpful.
Spelling is accurate apart fromoccasional slips.

Expressing subtle nuances in
Expressing subtle nuances intaking a stance or in telling about taking a stance or in telling
feelings and experiences is usually about feelings and experiences
difﬁcult.
can be difﬁcult.

No need to consult a
dictionary, except foroccasional specialist terms in
an unfamiliar area.

241

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales
LISTENING
A1

A2

B1

What typesof text I
understand

Very simple phrases
about myself, people I
know and things aroundme.
Questions, instructions
and directions.
Examples: everyday
expressions, questions,
instructions, short andsimple directions.

Simple phrases andexpressions about things
important to me.
Simple, everyday
conversations anddiscussions.
Everyday matters in the
media.
Examples: messages,
routine exchanges,
directions, TV and radio
news items.

Speech on familiar mattersand factual information.
Everyday conversations anddiscussions.
Programmes in the media andﬁlms.
Examples: operation
instructions, short lectures
and talks.

What I
understandNames and simple words.
General idea.
Enough to respond:
providing personal info,
following directions.

Common everyday
language.
Simple, everyday
conversations anddiscussions.
The main point.
Enough to follow.

The meaning of some
unknown words, by guessing.
General meaning and speciﬁc
details.

Conditions
andlimitations

Clear, slow and carefully
articulated speech.
When addressed by asympathetic speaker.

Clear and slow speech.
Will require the help of
sympathetic speakers
and/or images.
Will sometimes ask for
repetition or
reformulation.

Clear, standard speech.
Will require the help ofvisuals and action.
Will sometimes ask for
repetition of a word orphrase.

242

Appendix C: The DIALANG scales

B2

C1

C2

All kinds of speech on familiar
matters.
Lectures.
Programmes in the media andﬁlms.
Examples: technical discussions,
reports, live interviews.

Spoken language in general.
Lectures, discussions anddebates.
Public announcements.
Complex technicalinformation.
Recorded audio material andﬁlms.
Examples: native-speaker
conversations.

Any spoken language, live or
broadcast.
Specialised lectures andpresentations.

Main ideas and speciﬁc
information.
Complex ideas and language.
Speaker’s viewpoints andattitudes.

Enough to participate actively
in conversations.
Abstract and complex topics.
Implicit attitudes andrelationships between
speakers.

Global and detailed
understanding without any
difﬁculties.

Standard language and someidiomatic usage, even inreasonably noisy backgrounds.

Need to conﬁrm occasional
details when the accent is
unfamiliar.

None, provided there is time to
get used to what is unfamiliar.

243

Appendix D: The ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements

This appendix contains a description of the ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements, which form partof a long-term research project being undertaken by the Association of Language
Testers in Europe (ALTE). The purposes and nature of the ‘Can Do’ statements aredescribed. An account is then given of the way the statements were developed, related
to ALTE examinations, and anchored to the CEF. The descriptors in this project werescaled and equated to the CEF levels with method number 12c (Rasch modelling)
outlined in Appendix A.

The ALTE Framework and the ‘Can Do’ project
The ALTE Framework
The ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements constitute a central part of a long-term research
programme set by ALTE, the aim of which is to establish a framework of ‘key levels’ oflanguage performance, within which exams can be objectively described.
Much work has already been done to place the exam systems of ALTE members
within this framework, based on an analysis of exam content and task types, andcandidate proﬁles. A comprehensive introduction to these exam systems is available in
the ALTE Handbook of European Language Examinations and Examination Systems (see pages
27, 167).

The ALTE ‘Can Dos’ are user-orientated scales
The aim of the ‘Can Do’ project is to develop and validate a set of performance-related
scales, describing what learners can actually do in the foreign language.
In terms of Alderson’s (1991) distinction between constructor, assessor and userorientated scales, the ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements in their original conception are userorientated. They assist communication between stakeholders in the testing process,and in particular the interpretation of test results by non-specialists. As such they
provide:a)244

a useful tool for those involved in teaching and testing language students. They
can be used as a checklist of what language users can do and thus deﬁne the stage
they are at;

Appendix D: The ALTE ‘Can Do’ statementsb)a basis for developing diagnostic test tasks, activity-based curricula and teachingmaterials;c) a means of carrying out an activity-based linguistic audit, of use to people
concerned with language training and recruitment in companies;d) a means of comparing the objectives of courses and materials in different
languages but existing in the same context.
They will be of use to people in training and personnel management, as they provide
easily understandable descriptions of performance, which can be used in specifying
requirements to language trainers, formulating job descriptions, specifying language
requirements for new posts.

The ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements are multilingual
An important aspect of the ‘Can Do’ statements is that they are multilingual, having
been translated so far into 12 of the languages represented in ALTE. These languages
are: Catalan, Danish, Dutch, English, Finnish, French, German, Italian, Norwegian,Portuguese, Spanish, Swedish. As language-neutral descriptions of levels of language
proﬁciency they constitute a frame of reference to which different language exams at
different levels can potentially be related. They offer the chance to demonstrateequivalences between the examination systems of ALTE members, in meaningful terms
relating to the real-world language skills likely to be available to people achieving apass in these exams.

Organisation of the ‘Can Do’ statements
The ‘Can Do’ scales consist currently of about 400 statements, organised into three
general areas: Social and Tourist, Work, and Study. These are the three main areas ofinterest of most language learners. Each includes a number of more particular areas,e.g. the Social and Tourist area has sections on Shopping, Eating out, Accommodation, etc.
Each of these includes up to three scales, for the skills of Listening/speaking, Reading andWriting. Listening/speaking combines the scales relating to interaction.
Each scale includes statements covering a range of levels. Some scales cover only apart of the proﬁciency range, as there are many situations in which only basic
proﬁciency is required to achieve successful communication.

The development process
The original development process went through these stages:a)b)

describing users of ALTE language tests through questionnaires, reports fromschools, etc.;
using this information to specify range of candidate needs and identify major
concerns;
245

Appendix D: The ALTE ‘Can Do’ statementsc)using test speciﬁcations and internationally recognised levels such as Waystage
and Threshold to draw up initial statements;d) moderating statements and assessing their relevance to test takers;e) trailing statements with teachers and students with a view to evaluating relevanceand transparency;f ) correcting, revising and simplifying the language of the statements in the light of
the above.

Empirical validation of the ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements
The scales as developed above have been subjected to an extended process of empiricalvalidation. The validation process is aimed at transforming the ‘Can Do’ statementsfrom an essentially subjective set of level descriptions into a calibrated measuring
instrument. This is a long-term, ongoing process, which will continue as more data
become available across the range of languages represented by ALTE.
So far data collection has been based chieﬂy on self-report, the ‘Can Do’ scales being
presented to respondents as a set of linked questionnaires. Nearly ten thousand
respondents have completed questionnaires. For many of these respondents, additional
data are available in the form of language exam results. This is believed to be by far thebiggest collection of data ever undertaken to validate a descriptive language
proﬁciency scale.
Empirical work has started by looking at the internal coherence of the ‘Can Do’scales themselves, the aims being:
1. To check the function of individual statements within each ‘Can Do’ scale;
2. To equate the different ‘Can Do’ scales, i.e. to establish the relative difﬁculty of thescales;
3. To investigate the neutrality of the ‘Can Do’ scales with respect to language.
Questionnaires have been administered in the subjects’ own ﬁrst language, except atvery advanced levels, and mainly in European countries. Respondents have beenmatched to appropriate questionnaires – the Work scales given to people using aforeign language professionally, the Study scales to respondents engaged in a course of
study through the medium of a foreign language, or preparing to do so. The Social andTourist scales are given to other respondents, while selected scales from this area havealso been included in the Work and Study questionnaires as an ‘anchor’.
Anchor items are used in data collection for a Rasch analysis in order to linkdifferent tests or questionnaires together. As explained in Appendix A, a Rasch analysis
creates one single measurement framework by using a matrix data collection design,or a series of overlapping test forms linked together by items which are common to
adjacent forms, which are called anchor items. Such systematic use of anchor
statements is necessary in order to enable the relative difﬁculty of the areas of use, andparticular scales, to be established. The use of Social and Tourist scales as an anchor
was based on the assumption that these areas call upon a common core of language
proﬁciency and can be expected to provide the best point of reference for equating theWork and Study scales.
246

Appendix D: The ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements
Textual revision
One outcome of the ﬁrst phase has been a textual revision of the ‘Can Do’ scales. In
particular, statements with negative orientation have been removed, as they proved
problematic from a statistical point of view, and did not seem wholly appropriate todescriptions of levels of attainment. Here are two examples of the kind of changes made:1. Negative statements were rephrased positively, preserving original meaning:• Was: CANNOT answer more than simple, predictable questions.
• Changed to: CAN answer simple, predictable questions.
2. Statements used as negative qualiﬁcations to a lower level statement were changed
to positive statements intended to describe a higher level.
• Was: CANNOT describe non-visible symptoms such as different kinds of pain, for example‘dull’, ‘stabbing’, ‘throbbing’ etc.
• Changed to: CAN describe non-visible symptoms such as different kinds of pain, forexample ‘dull’, ‘stabbing’, ‘throbbing’ etc.

Relating the ‘Can Do’ statements to ALTE examinations
Following the initial calibration of the ‘Can Do’ statements, and the textual revision
described above, attention has turned to establishing the link between the ‘Can Do’scales and other indicators of language level. In particular we have started looking at
performance in ALTE examinations, and to the relation between the ‘Can Do’ scales
and the Council of Europe Framework levels.
Beginning in December 1998, data were collected to link ‘Can Do’ self-ratings to grades
achieved in UCLES (University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate) EFL exams at
different levels. A very clear relationship was found, making it possible to begin todescribe the meaning of an exam grade in terms of typical proﬁles of ‘Can Do’ ability.
However, when ‘Can Do’ ratings are based on self-report, and come from a wide
range of countries and respondent groups, we ﬁnd some variability in respondents’
overall perception of their own abilities. That is, people tend to understand ‘can do’
somewhat differently, for reasons which may relate in part to factors such as age orcultural background. For some groups of respondents this weakens the correlation
with their exam grades. Analytical approaches have been chosen to establish as clearlyas possible the relationship between ‘Can Do’ self-ratings and criterion levels of
proﬁciency as measured by exam grades. Further research based on ‘Can Do’ ratings by
experienced raters will probably be necessary to fully characterise the relationshipbetween exam grades and typical ‘Can Do’ proﬁles of ability.
A conceptual problem to be addressed in this context concerns the notion of mastery– that is, what exactly do we mean by ‘can do’? A deﬁnition is required in terms of how
likely we expect it to be that a person at a certain level can succeed at certain tasks.
Should it be certain that the person will always succeed perfectly on the task? This
would be too stringent a requirement. On the other hand, a 50 per cent chance of
succeeding would be too low to count as mastery.
247

Appendix D: The ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements
The ﬁgure of 80 per cent has been chosen, as an 80 per cent score is frequently usedin domain- or criterion-referenced testing as an indication of mastery in a given
domain. Thus, candidates achieving an ordinary pass in an ALTE exam at a given levelshould have an 80 per cent chance of succeeding on tasks identiﬁed as describing thatlevel. Data so far collected on Cambridge exam candidates indicate that this ﬁgure
accords well with their average probability of endorsing ‘Can Do’ statements at therelevant level. This relationship has been found to be fairly constant across exam levels.
By deﬁning ‘can do’ explicitly in this way we have a basis for interpreting particular
ALTE levels in terms of ‘Can Do’ skills.
While the relation to exam performance has so far been based on Cambridge exams,
data linking ‘Can Do’ statements to performance in other ALTE examinations willcontinue to be collected, allowing us to verify that these different examination systems
relate in essentially the same way to the ALTE 5-level Framework.

Anchoring to the Council of Europe Framework
In 1999 responses were collected in which anchors were provided by statements takenfrom the 1996 Council of Europe Framework document. Anchors included:
1. the descriptors in the self-assessment grid of major categories of language use bylevel presented as Table 2 in Chapter 3;
2. 16 descriptors relating to communicative aspects of Fluency, from illustrative
scales in Chapter 5.
Table 2 was chosen because in practice it is achieving wide use as a summary
description of levels. ALTE’s ability to collect response data in a large number oflanguages and countries provided an opportunity to contribute to the validation of thescales in Table 2.
The ‘Fluency’ statements had been recommended because they had been found tohave the most stable difﬁculty estimates when measured in different contexts in the
Swiss project (North 1996/2000). It was expected that they should thus enable a goodequating of the ALTE ‘Can do’ statements to the Council of Europe Framework. The
estimated difﬁculties of the ‘Fluency’ statements were found to agree very closely withthose given (North 1996/2000), showing a correlation of r= 0.97. This constitutes an
excellent anchor between the ‘Can Do’ statements and the scales used to illustrate theCouncil of Europe Framework.
However, using Rasch analysis to equate sets of statements (scales) to each other is
not straightforward. Data never ﬁt the model exactly: there are issues of dimensionality,
discrimination and differential item function (systematic variation of interpretation bydifferent groups), which must be identiﬁed and dealt with so as to allow the truest
possible relation of the scales to emerge.
Dimensionality relates to the fact that the skills of Listening/Speaking, Reading andWriting, though highly correlated, are still distinct: analyses in which they areseparated produce more coherent, discriminating distinctions of level.
Variable discrimination is evident when we compare Table 2 and the ‘Can Do’statements. Table 2 is found to produce a longer scale (to distinguish ﬁner levels) than248

Appendix D: The ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements
the ‘Can Do’ statements. It seems likely that the reason for this is that Table 2
represents the end product of an extended process of selection, analysis andreﬁnement. The result of this process is that each level description is a composite ofcarefully selected typical elements, making it easier for respondents at a given level torecognise the level which best describes them. This produces a more coherent patternof responses, which in turn produces a longer scale. This is in contrast to the present
form of the ‘Can Dos’, which are still short, atomic statements which have not yet beengrouped into such rounded, holistic descriptions of levels.
Group effects (differential item function) are evident in the fact that certain
respondent groups (i.e. respondents to the Social and Tourist, Work or Study forms of
the questionnaire) are found to discriminate levels considerably more ﬁnely on certainof the scales used as anchors, for reasons which have been difﬁcult to identify.
None of these effects are unexpected when using a Rasch modelling approach toscale equating. They indicate that a systematic, qualitative review of the texts of theindividual statements themselves remains a necessary and important stage in arriving
at a ‘ﬁnal’ equating of the scales.

Levels of proficiency in the ALTE Framework
At the time of writing the ALTE Framework is a ﬁve-level system. The validation
described above conﬁrms that these correspond broadly to levels A2 to C2 of the CE
Framework. Work on deﬁning a further initial level (Breakthrough) is in progress, andthe Can Do project is contributing to the characterisation of this level. Thus therelation of the two Frameworks can be seen as follows:
Council ofEuropeLevels

A1

A2

B1

B2

C1

C2

ALTE
Levels

ALTE
Breakthrough
Level

ALTE
Level 1

ALTE
Level 2

ALTE
Level 3

ALTE
Level 4

ALTE
Level 5The salient features of each ALTE level are as follows:
ALTE Level 5 (Good User): the capacity to deal with material which is academic or
cognitively demanding, and to use language to good effect, at a level of performance
which may in certain respects be more advanced than that of an average native
speaker.
Example: CAN scan texts for relevant information, and grasp main topic of text, reading almost
as quickly as a native speaker.
ALTE Level 4 (Competent User): an ability to communicate with the emphasis on how well
it is done, in terms of appropriacy, sensitivity and the capacity to deal with unfamiliar
topics.
249

Appendix D: The ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements
Example: CAN deal with hostile questioning conﬁdently. CAN get and hold onto his/her turn tospeak.
ALTE Level 3 (Independent User): the capacity to achieve most goals and express oneself on
a range of topics.
Example: CAN show visitors round and give a detailed description of a place.
ALTE Level 2 (Threshold User): an ability to express oneself in a limited way in familiar
situations and to deal in a general way with non-routine information.
Example: CAN ask to open an account at a bank, provided that the procedure is straightforward.
ALTE Level 1 (Waystage User): an ability to deal with simple, straightforward information
and begin to express oneself in familiar contexts.
Example: CAN take part in a routine conversation on simple predictable topics.
ALTE Breakthrough Level: a basic ability to communicate and exchange information in a
simple way.
Example: CAN ask simple questions about a menu and understand simple answers.

References
Alderson, J. C. 1991: Bands and scores. In: Alderson, J.C. and North, B. (eds.): Language testing in the
1990s. London: British Council / Macmillan, Developments in ELT, 71–86.
North, B. 1996/2000: The development of a common framework scale of language proﬁciency. PhD thesis,
Thames Valley University. Reprinted 2000, New York, Peter Lang.
ALTE Handbook of language examinations and examination systems (available from ALTE Secretariat at
UCLES).

For further information about the ALTE project, please contact Marianne Hirtzel at
Hirtzel.m@ucles.org.uk
Neil Jones, Marianne Hirtzel, University of Cambridge Local Examinations Syndicate, March 2000

250

CAN contribute effectively to meetingsand seminars within own area of workor keep up a casual conversation with agood degree of ﬂuency, coping with
abstract expressions.

CAN follow or give a talk on a familiar
topic or keep up a conversation on afairly wide range of topics.

CAN express opinions on abstract/
cultural matters in a limited way oroffer advice within a known area, andunderstand instructions or publicannouncements.

CAN express simple opinions or
requirements in a familiar context.

ALTE Level 4

ALTE Level 3

ALTE Level 2

ALTE Level 1

CAN prepare/draft professionalcorrespondence, take reasonably accurate
notes in meetings or write an essay whichshows an ability to communicate.

CAN write letters on any subject and fullnotes of meetings or seminars with good
expression and accuracy.

Writing

CAN write letters or make notes onfamiliar or predictable matters.

ALTE BreakCAN understand basic instructions or
CAN understand basic notices,
through Level take part in a basic factual conversation instructions or information.
on a predictable topic.

CAN complete basic forms, and write
notes including times, dates and places.

CAN understand straightforward
CAN complete forms and write short
information within a known area, such simple letters or postcards related toas on products and signs and simple
personal information.
textbooks or reports on familiar matters.

CAN understand routine information
and articles, and the general meaningof non-routine information within afamiliar area.

CAN scan texts for relevant information, CAN make notes while someone is talking
and understand detailed instructions or or write a letter including non-standard
advice.
requests.

CAN read quickly enough to cope withan academic course, to read the media
for information or to understand nonstandard correspondence.

CAN advise on or talk about complex or CAN understand documents,
sensitive issues, understanding
correspondence and reports, including
colloquial references and dealing
the ﬁner points of complex texts.
conﬁdently with hostile questions.

ALTE Level 5

Reading

Listening/Speaking

ALTE skill level summaries

ALTE Level

Document D1

CAN keep up a conversation on a fairly
wide range of topics, such as personal
and professional experiences, eventscurrently in the news.

CAN express opinions on abstract/
cultural matters in a limited way andpick up nuances of meaning/opinion.

CAN express likes and dislikes in
CAN understand straightforward
CAN complete most forms related tofamiliar contexts using simple language information, for example labels on food, personal information.
such as ‘I (don’t) like . . .’standard menus, road signs andmessages on automatic cash machines.

ALTE Level 3

ALTE Level 2

ALTE Level 1

ALTE BreakCAN ask simple questions of a factual
through Level nature and understand answers
expressed in simple language.

CAN keep up conversations of a casual
CAN understand complex opinions/nature for an extended period of timearguments as expressed in serious
and discuss abstract/cultural topics with newspapers.
a good degree of ﬂuency and range of
expression.

ALTE Level 4

CAN write to a hotel to ask about theavailability of services, for example
facilities for the disabled or the provisionof a special diet.

CAN understand simple notices and
CAN leave a very simple message for a
information, for example in airports,
host family or write short simple ‘thankon store guides and on menus.
you’ notes.
CAN understand simple instructions on
medicines and simple directions toplaces.

CAN understand factual articles in
CAN write letters on a limited range ofnewspapers, routine letters from hotels predictable topics related to personal
and letters expressing personal opinions. experience and express opinions in
predictable language.

CAN understand detailed information,for example a wide range of culinary
terms on a restaurant menu, and terms
and abbreviations in accommodation
advertisements.

CAN write letters on most subjects. Such
difﬁculties as the reader may experience
are likely to be at the level of vocabulary.

CAN (when looking for accommodation) CAN write letters on any subject with
understand a tenancy agreement ingood expression and accuracy.
detail, for example technical details andthe main legal implications.

CAN talk about complex or sensitive
issues without awkwardness.

Writing

ALTE Level 5

Reading

Listening/Speaking

ALTE social and tourist statements summary

ALTE Level

Document D2

Appendix D: The ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements
Document D3 ALTE social and tourist statements
Overview of concerns and activities covered
CONCERN

ACTIVITY

ENVIRONMENTLANGUAGE SKILLREQUIRED

Day-to-Day Survival

1. ShoppingSelf-service shops
Counter service shops
Market place
Restaurants
Self-service (fast food)Hotels, B & B, etc.

Listening/Speaking
Reading

2. Eating Out

Listening/Speaking
Reading
3. Hotel-type
Listening/Speaking
3. accommodation
Reading, Writing(form ﬁlling)
4. Renting temporary
Agency, private landlord Listening/Speaking
3. accommodation (ﬂat,
Reading, Writing
3. room, house)(form ﬁlling)
5. Settling into
Host families
Listening/Speaking
3. accommodation
Reading, Writing (letters)
6. Using ﬁnancial andBanks, bureaux deListening/Speaking
3. postal services
change, post ofﬁces
Reading, Writing
HealthGetting/staying well

Chemist’s
Doctor’s
Hospital
Dentist’s

Listening/Speaking
Reading

TravelArriving in a country
Touring
Getting/giving
directions
Hiring

Airport/port
Railway/bus station
Street, garage, etc.
Travel agency
Rental ﬁrms (car, boat,
etc.)

Listening/Speaking
Reading, Writing (formﬁlling)Emergencies

Dealing withemergency situations(accident, illness,
crime, car breakdown,
etc.)

Public places
Listening/Speaking
Private places, e.g. hotel Readingroom
Hospital
Police station

Sightseeing

Getting information
Tourist ofﬁce
Going on tours
Travel agency
Showing people around Tourist sights(monuments, etc.)
Towns/cities
Schools/colleges/
universities

Socialising

Casual meeting/getting on withpeopleEntertaining

Discos, parties, schools, Listening/Speaking
hotels, campsites,
restaurants, etc.
Home, away from home

The Media/Cultural
eventsWatching TV, ﬁlms,
plays etc.
Listening to the radio
Reading newspapers/
magazines

Home, car, cinema,
theatre,‘Son et Lumière’, etc.

Personal contacts(at a distance)

Writing letters,
postcards, etc.

Home, away from home Listening/Speaking(telephone) Reading,Writing

Listening/Speaking
Reading

Listening/Reading

253

CAN advise on/handle complex delicate
or contentious issues, such as legal or
ﬁnancial matters, to the extent thathe/she has the necessary specialist
knowledge.

CAN contribute effectively to meetingsand seminars within own area of workand argue for or against a case.

CAN take and pass on most messages
that are likely to require attention
during a normal working day.

CAN offer advice to clients within own
job area on simple matters.

CAN state simple requirements within
own job area, such as ‘I want to order
25 of . . .’ALTE Level 5

ALTE Level 4

ALTE Level 3

ALTE Level 2

ALTE Level 1

ALTE BreakCAN take and pass on simple messages
through Level of a routine kind, such as ‘Friday
meeting 10 a.m.’

Listening/Speaking

ALTE work statements summary

ALTE Level

Document D4

CAN write a short, comprehensible noteof request to a colleague or a known
contact in another company.

CAN make reasonably accurate notes at a
meeting or seminar where the subject
matter is familiar and predictable.

CAN deal with all routine requests forgoods or services.

CAN handle a wide range of routine andnon-routine situations in which
professional services are requested fromcolleagues or external contacts.

CAN make full and accurate notes andcontinue to participate in a meeting or
seminar.

Writing

CAN understand short reports or
CAN write a simple routine request to a
product descriptions on familiar
colleague, such as ‘Can I have 20X
matters, if these are expressed in simple please?’language and the contents are
predictable.

CAN understand most short reports or
manuals of a predictable nature within
his/her own area of expertise, provided
enough time is given.

CAN understand the general meaningof non-routine letters and theoretical
articles within own work area.

CAN understand most correspondence,
reports and factual product literature
he/she is likely to come across.

CAN understand correspondence
expressed in non-standard language.

CAN understand reports and articles
likely to be encountered during his/herwork, including complex ideas
expressed in complex language.

ReadingAppendix D: The ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements
Document D5

ALTE WORK statements

Overview of concerns and activities covered
CONCERN

ACTIVITY

ENVIRONMENTLANGUAGE SKILLREQUIRED

Work-related
services

1. Requesting workrelated services
2. Providing workrelated services

Workplace (ofﬁce,
factory, etc.)
Workplace (ofﬁce,
factory, etc.)
customer’s home

Listening/Speaking
Writing
Listening/Speaking
Writing

Meetings andseminarsParticipating in
Workplace (ofﬁce,
meetings and seminars factory, etc.),
conference centre

Listening/Speaking
Writing (notes)

Formal presentations Following and giving aand demonstrations presentation ordemonstration

Conference centre,
exhibition centre,
factory, laboratory etc.

Listening/Speaking
Writing (notes)

Correspondence

Understanding andwriting faxes, letters,
memos, e-mail, etc.

Workplace (ofﬁce,
factory, etc.)

Reading
Writing
Reading

Reports

Understanding andwriting reports (ofsubstantial length andformality)

Workplace (ofﬁce,
factory, etc.)

Reading
Writing

Publicly available
information

Getting relevant
information (from e.g.
product literature,professional/trade
journals, advertisements, web sites etc.)

Workplace (ofﬁce,
factory, etc.), home

Reading

Instructions andguidelines

Understanding notices Workplace (ofﬁce,(e.g. safety.)factory, etc.)
Understanding andwriting instructions (in,for example,
installation, operationand maintenancemanuals)

Reading
Writing

Telephone

Making outgoing calls Ofﬁce, home, hotel
Receiving incoming
room, etc.
calls (inc. taking
messages/writing notes)

Listening/Speaking /Writing (notes)

255

CAN understand instructions on classes CAN understand basic instructions and CAN write down some information at a
and assignments given by a teacher ormessages, for example computer library lecture, if this is more or less dictated.
lecturer.
catalogues, with some help.

CAN express simple opinions using
expressions such as ‘I don’t agree’.

ALTE Level 2

ALTE Level 1

ALTE BreakCAN understand basic instructions on
through Level class times, dates and room numbers,
and on assignments to be carried out.

CAN give a clear presentation on afamiliar topic, and answer predictableor factual questions.

ALTE Level 3

CAN write a very short simple narrative
or description, such as ‘My last holiday’.

CAN make simple notes that will be ofreasonable use for essay or revisionpurposes.

CAN write an essay which shows ability tocommunicate, giving few difﬁculties forthe reader.

CAN read basic notices and instructions. CAN copy times, dates and places fromnotices on classroom board or noticeboard.

CAN understand the general meaningof a simpliﬁed textbook or article,
reading very slowly.

CAN scan tests for relevant informationand grasp main point of text.

CAN read quickly enough to cope withthe demands of an academic course.

CAN follow abstract argumentation, forexample the balancing of alternatives
and the drawing of a conclusion.

ALTE Level 4

CAN make accurate and complete notes
during the course of a lecture, seminar ortutorial.

CAN understand jokes, colloquial asides CAN access all sources of informationand cultural allusions.
quickly and reliably.

Writing

ALTE Level 5

Reading

Listening/Speaking

ALTE study statements summary

ALTE Level

Document D6

Appendix D: The ALTE ‘Can Do’ statements
Document D7

ALTE STUDY statements

Overview of concerns and activities
CONCERN

ACTIVITY

ENVIRONMENTLANGUAGE SKILLREQUIRED

Lectures, talks,presentations anddemonstrations

1. Following a lecture,
Lecture hall, classroom, Listening/Speaking
talk, presentation orlaboratory, etc.
Writing (notes)
demonstration
2. Giving a lecture talk,presentation ordemonstration

Seminars andtutorials

Participating inseminars and tutorials

Classroom, study

Listening/Speaking
Writing (notes)

Textbooks, articles,
etc.

Gathering information

Study, library, etc.

Reading
Writing (notes)

EssaysWriting essays

Study, library,
Writing
examination room, etc.

Accounts

Writing up accounts(e.g. of an experiment)

Study, laboratory

Writing

Reference skills

Accessing information(e.g. from a computerbase, library,
dictionary, etc.)

Library, resource
centre, etc.

Reading
Writing (notes)

Management of
study

Making arrangements,
e.g. with college staff
on deadlines for work
to be handed in

Lecture hall, classroom
study, etc.

Listening/Speaking
Reading
Writing257

IndexThe entries in the index are not hyperlinked to the text.
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The index covers prefatory note, notes for user, chapters 1–9, bibliographies and appendices. Page references followed by t refer to tables
ability to learn 12, 106, 149
accent 121
achievement assessment 183–4
achievement grades 40–2
acknowledgements ix
acquisition 139
action-oriented approach 9–10
activities 10, 14, 147
aesthetic 56
communicative 25, 57–90, 180–1, 222
ludic 55–6
reception 65–72
speaking 58–61
text 97, 100
writing 61–3
aesthetic activities 56
ALTE (Association of Language Testers in Europe) xiv
244–57analytic assessment 190
approaches
action-oriented 9–10
branching 31–3
modular 175–6
multidimensional 175–6
assessment 19–20, 174–6, 177–95, 206
Association of Language Testers in Europe (ALTE) xiv
244–57
audio-visual reception 71
aural reception 65–8
authorities 141
Basic User Level 23
bibliographies
general 197–204
proﬁciency scaling 212–6
branching approach 31–3
Breakthrough Level 23, 31
Can Do Statements 244–57
category assessment 191
checklist rating 189
co-operative principle 123
cognitive factors 160–1
coherence 7, 33–6, 125, 223
Common European Framework 1
criteria 7–8

258

deﬁnition 1–2
rationale 5–6
role 18–19
uses 6–7
common reference levels 16–18, 22–3
content coherence 33–6
descriptor criteria 21–2
global scale 24t
self-assessment grid 26t–7t
spoken language use 28t–9t
presentation 23–5
communication awareness 107
communicative activities 25, 57–90, 180–1, 222
communicative competences 9, 13–14, 30–1, 108–30
communicative processes 90–3
communicative strategies 57–90, 147, 222
competences
communicative 9, 13–14, 30–1, 108–30
discourse 123
existential 11–12, 105–6, 148–9
functional 125–30
general 9, 11–13, 101–8, 147–8
grammatical 112, 151, 152
learner 160–2
lexical 110–11
linguistic 13, 108–9, 149
orthoepic 117–8
orthographic 117
phonological 116–7
pragmatic 13–14, 123, 154
semantic 115
sociolinguistic 13, 118–121, 154
comprehension tasks 159
content coherence 33–6
context 9, 44–51, 48t–9t
continuous assessment 185
continuum CR 184–5
Council of Europe xi, xiii, 17, 18, 248
language policy 2–4
course designers 141
criterion-referencing (CR) 184
curriculum 168–76
declarative knowledge 12, 101–4
description issues 21
descriptive categories 48t–9t

Indexdescriptors
communicative activities 180
criteria 21–2
illustrative 25, 36–7
language proﬁciency 37–40, 181, 205–11, 224t
see also scales
DIALANG xiv 226–30
dialect 121
direct assessment 186–7
discourse competence 123–5
domains 10, 14–15, 45–6
educational domain 45, 55
Effective Occupational Proﬁciency Level 23
errors 155
European Language Portfolio (ELP) 5, 20
examination rating scale 181–2
examinations 178–9, 182
examiners 140
exercises 152
existential competence 11–12, 105–6, 148–9
face-to-face interaction 82
ﬁxed point assessment 185
ﬂexibility 31–3, 124
folk-wisdom 120
formative assessment 186
functional competence 125–30
grammatical competence 112, 151, 152
Guide for Examiners 20
guided judgement 189–90
heuristic skills 108, 149
holistic assessment 190
hypertext 40
illustrative descriptors 25, 36–7
impression judgement 189–90
Independent User Level 23
indirect assessment 186–7
interaction 14, 57, 66, 73–87, 92, 99, 126–8
interculturality 43, 103–5
interlanguage 155interlocutors 51
intuitive methods 208–9
know-how 11, 12
knowledge 11
declarative 12, 101–4
sociocultural 102–3
knowledge assessment 187
knowledge of the world 101–2
language 107
language learning 18–19, 131–56
language policy 2–4
language processes 10
language proﬁciency
assessment 183–4
descriptors 37–40, 181, 205–11, 224t
levels 16–18, 40–2, 182
scales 37–40, 181, 212, 224t
language skills proﬁle 26t–7t
language switching 133–4

language teaching 18–19, 140–54
language teaching profession 140
language use
communicative activities and strategies 57–90
communicative tasks and purposes 53–7
context 44–51
qualitative aspects 28t–9t
texts 93–100
themes 51–3
language users 50
learner characteristics 160–2
learner competences 160–2
learners 141–2, 144
ability to learn 12, 106, 149
responsibility for own learning 149
lexical competence 110–11
lexical selection 150
linguistic competences 13, 108–9, 149
linguistic diversiﬁcation 168–76
listening 65–8, 233–4, 237, 242
ludic activities 55–6
macrofunctions 126
Mastery CR 184–5
Mastery Level 23
measurement issues 21–2
media 71, 93–4, 145
mediation 14, 57, 87–8, 99
mental context 50–1
metasystem 192–6
methodology 142–54
microfunctions 125–6
mistakes 155
modular approach 175–6
monitoring 92–3
multidimensional approach 175–6
multilingualism 4
non-verbal communication 88–90
norm-referencing(NR) 184
objective assessment 188–9
objectives 3, 135–8, 170–4, 179–80
oral production 58–60
orthoepic competence 117–8
orthographic competence 117
orthography 153
paralinguistics 89–90
paratextual features 90
performance assessment 181, 187
personal identiﬁcation 54
phonological competence 116–7
pluriculturalism 6, 133, 168
plurilingualism 4–5, 43, 133, 168
politeness conventions 119
political objectives 3
portfolios 5, 20, 175
pragmatic competences 13–14, 123, 154
production 14, 57–65, 91, 98
proﬁciency see language proﬁciency
Proﬁcient User Level 23
proﬁling 175
pronunciation 153

259

Indexqualitative methods 209–10
quantitative methods 210–11
reading 68–71, 235, 239
reception 14, 91–2, 98
activities/strategies 65–72
register 120
reliability 177
scale development methodologies 207–12
scale rating 189
scalesanalytic 38
assessor-oriented 38, 39
constructor-oriented 39
diagnosis-oriented 38, 39
DIALANG 226–30
holistic 38
illustrative 25, 36–7
addressing audiences 60
asking for clariﬁcation 87
coherence 125
communication strategies 222
communicative activities 222
communicative competence 223
compensating 64
cooperating 86
creative writing 62
DIALANG 231–43
discourse competence 124–5
essays 62
ﬂexibility 124
grammatical accuracy 114
interaction 66, 85–7
linguistic range 110
listening 65–8, 233–4, 237, 242
media 71
monitoring 65
monologues 59
note-taking 96
oral production 58
orthographic control 118
phonological accuracy 117
planning 64
production strategies 64–5
propositional precision 129
public announcements 60
reading 68–71, 235, 239
reception strategies 72
register 120
repair 65
reports 62
self-assessment 231
sociolinguistic appropriateness 122

260

speaking activities 58–61
spoken ﬂuency 129
spoken interaction 73–82
Swiss research project 217–25
text processing 96
thematic development 125
turntaking 86, 124
vocabulary 112
working with text 223
writing 61–3, 82–4, 231, 236, 240
language proﬁciency 37–40, 181, 224t
user-oriented 37–8, 39
see also descriptors
schools 172–4
self-assessment 126–7t, 181, 191–2, 231
semantic competence 115
series assessment 191
situations 46–9
skills 11, 12, 104–5
social relations 119
sociocultural knowledge 102–3
sociolinguistic competences 13, 118, 154
spoken interaction 73–82
strategies 10, 15–16, 25, 57–90
study skills 107–8, 149
subjective assessment 188–9
summative assessment 186
Swiss National Science Research Council 31, 217–21
tasks 10, 15–16, 53–6, 147, 157–67
teacher-assessment 181
teachers 141, 144teaching 18–19
teaching/learning objectives xii 135–8, 179–80
teaching/learning situation xii
tests 178–9, 182
textbook writers 141
texts 10, 15–16, 93–100, 145, 223
characteristics 165–7
themes 51–3
Threshold Level 17, 23, 52, 53translation 99
transparency 7
validity 177
Vantage Level 17–18, 23
variation 135, 170–4
visual reception 68–71
vocabulary 112, 149–50
Waystage 17–18, 23
workplace communication 53–4
written interaction 82–4
written production 61–2

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