4. Minerals: rock’s elementary building block4.1. What is a mineral?
A mineral is a naturally occurring solid inorganic substance composed of a regular 3D
arrangement of atoms repeating in all directions (crystal structure). Each mineral can be
identified with a chemical formula. A mineral growing freely form crystals whose external
geometrical shape reflects the internal regular arrangement of atoms. The crystal structure of amineral depends on its chemical composition. It also depends on the temperature and pressure atwhich it formed. For example, graphite and diamond have the same chemical composition(carbon) but they formed in very different conditions of pressure and temperature and therefore arecharacterized by very different crystal structures. Since diamond forms at very high pressure deep
inside the Earth’s crust, the atoms of carbon in diamond are more densely packed than in graphite.
Minerals with the same chemical composition but different crystal structures like diamond andgraphite are called polymorphs.
Examples of minerals and their chemical formula:
Quartz: SiO2, Olivine: (Fe, Mg)2SiO4, Halite: NaCl, Calcite: CaCO3, Pyrite: FeS2, Hematite : Fe2O3

4.2. Structure of matter and chemical bonds
Minerals are made of atoms. The simplest way to represent an atom is a nucleus composed ofprotons and neutrons surrounded by electrons occupying different orbits or shells. There is a
specific number of electrons that can occupy each shells. Since atoms are electrically neutral, thenumber of protons in the nucleus is equal to the number of electrons. Each element ischaracterized by a specific number of proton(s)/electron(s) called the atomic number: H (1), C (6),N (7), O (8). Atoms of a given element characterized by different numbers of neutrons are different
isotopes of that element. For example, the notation for an isotope of carbon that has 6 protons
and 6 neutrons is carbon-12 or 12C. Two other isotopes of carbon are 13C (6 protons and 7
neutrons) and 14C (6 protons and 8 neutrons). There are two types of isotopes: stable isotopes
and radioactive isotopes (or radioisotopes). The latter decay into stable or radioactive isotopes
over time while emitting radiations. For example, 14C is radioactive and decays into the stable
isotope 14N.
Since a neutron has a certain mass, different isotopes of a same element have a different mass.
The mass of an atom can be approximated to the sum of masses of the protons and neutrons in
the nucleus. By convention, the mass of the isotope of carbon 12C (6 protons and 6 neutrons) is 12
atomic mass units. The atomic mass of an isotope is the sum of the number of protons andneutrons in the nucleus. The atomic mass of an element depends on the relative abundances of its
isotopes (e.g. the atomic mass of carbon is 12.011 because 12C is by far the most abundantisotope of carbon, i.e. 98.9% of all carbon).

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The electrons participating in chemical bonds are usually those of the outermost shell. Chemicalbonds allow the atoms to achieve a more stable electronic configuration. There is an optimal
number of electrons on the outermost shell which can be achieved through chemical bonds. For
example, the optimal configuration for C, N and O is to have 8 electrons occupying the outermost
shell. In minerals, three types of chemical bonds exist: the covalent bond, the ionic bond and themetallic bond.
In Covalent bonds, an atom shares one or more electrons with another atom. The electrons of
one atom are attracted by the positively charged nucleus of the other atom and vice versa. Thisconfiguration results in very strong chemical bonds.
Example: diamond in which each atom of carbon is surrounded by 4 atoms and each atom shares
4 electrons with its neighbors. Note that another mineral has the same chemical composition:
graphite. However, graphite has a very different crystal structure. In graphite, the atoms of carbon
are arranged in sheets in which atoms are held together by covalent bonds but the sheets are held
together by a much weaker type of chemical bond (similar to the metallic bond described below).
This makes graphite much less hard than diamond. The softness of graphite can be observed
every time one uses a pencil to write or to draw. Pencil cores are made of graphite.
In Ionic bonds, an atom gains one or more electrons from another atom (transfer of electron(s)).
An atom that has lost one or more electrons is called a cation (positively charged ion). An atomthat has gained one or more electrons is called an anion (negatively charged ion). The ionic bondresults from the attraction between ions of opposite charges.
Example: halite NaCl (table salt) in which each atom of chlorine “takes” one electron from an atomof sodium. The atom of chlorine that has gained one electron is negatively charged (anion) andattracted by the positively charged sodium (cation).
In Metallic bonds, atoms which have a strong tendency to lose electrons (cations) are surroundedby free-moving electrons (delocalized electrons). The cations are held together by their attraction
to the surrounding electrons.
Example: copper which has one electron on the outermost shell that is only weakly attracted by the
nucleus. In the metal copper, these outer electrons are not bounded to the nuclei and move freely.
The cations Cu+ are held together by their attraction to the free electrons surrounding them.
The most common mineral family on Earth is the family of silicate minerals. Silicate minerals areoften characterized by a combination of covalent and ionic bonds. The basic structural unit ofsilicate minerals is the silicon-oxygen tetrahedron or [SiO4]4- (silicate anion) in which one atom ofsilicon is surrounded by 4 atoms of oxygen and shares one electron with each oxygen. Each atomof oxygen can share one electron with another atom of silicon (covalent bond) or bind withpositively charged ions (ionic bonds).
Examples:(1) Quartz (SiO2) is one of the most common silicate minerals of the continental crust. Quartz iscomposed of a juxtaposition of silicon-oxygen tetrahedra. Each atom of oxygen is linked to 218

silicon atoms by electron sharing. There is only one type of chemical bond in this mineral: covalentbonds.
(2) Olivine is a silicate rich in Mg and/or Fe ((Fe, Mg)2SiO4) very abundant in the upper mantle andcommon in the oceanic crust. In olivine, the silicon-oxygen tetrahedra are linked to the metallic
cations Fe2+ or Mg2+ by ionic bonds. The -4 charge of each silicate anions is balanced by the +2
charge of two metallic cations. There are two types of chemical bond in this mineral: covalent andionic bonds.
There are many other combinations of silicate anions and other elements which produce a broad
variety of crystal structures in the family of silicate minerals (e.g. single-chain silicates,
double-chain silicates, sheet silicates…).

4.3. Crystallization processes
Crystallization is the process by which atoms in a gas or a liquid assemble in an orderly 3D
pattern (crystal lattice) to form a solid substance (mineral crystal).
Crystallization occurs typically in the following three contexts:(1) Saturation: When dissolved anions and cations in an aqueous solution reach a certain
concentration, they become saturated and if water is removed by evaporation or if more ions areadded to the solution the anions and cations combine to form crystals. One example is theprecipitation of salt (NaCl = halite = table salt) when seawater evaporates in a pond, lake orembayment. The rock produced by accumulation of minerals precipitated from saturated brines iscalled evaporite (see chapter on sedimentary rocks).
(2) Phase change (liquid-solid, gas-solid): Crystals can form when the temperature of a liquiddrops and the liquid solidifies into a solid － solidification. This happens when water freezes toform ice. It also happens when magma (molten rock) cools and minerals crystallize to form a solidrock, i.e. igneous rock (see chapter on igneous rocks). The transformation of a gas into a solid
without transiting by the liquid phase is called deposition.
(3) Biomineralization: Many organisms are capable of precipitating minerals to form a skeleton orshell. Our bones and teeth are mineralized structures. In the marine world, the most common
biomineral is calcium carbonate (CaCO3). It is produced by diverse organisms such as reef corals,
coralline algae, mollusks, urchins, sea stars, and foraminifera (one kind of large single-celledorganism). Another common biomineral is silica (SiO2) and is produced by several groups ofmarine microorganisms such as radiolarians and diatoms.

4.4. Common families (or classes) of minerals
The most common minerals are the silicate minerals. They form most of the Earth’s mantle andcrust. I already provided some details about their structure.

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Another class of minerals comprises the carbonates. The most common carbonate mineral is
CaCO3 already mentioned above in relation with biological mineralization. The basic structural unitof carbonates is the carbonate anion (CO3)2-. In carbonate minerals, carbonate anions arearranged in sheets and are bound to cations located between the sheets. In the case of CaCO3,
the cations are Ca2+. Calcium carbonate can also precipitate abiologically in seawater saturated in
Ca2+ and (CO3)2- or even (in relatively rare cases) crystallize out of a cooling magma.
Other minerals that can form in the context of saturated brines leading to the formation of
evaporites include the halides and sulfates. The most common halide mineral is halite (NaCl).
Another common mineral that can form during evaporation of seawater is gypsum, a calcium
sulfate. The basic structural unit of sulfates is the sulfur-oxygen tetrahedron, i.e. an atom of sulfur
surrounded by four atoms of oxygen (SO42-). In the case of gypsum, water is also present in the
crystal lattice and the chemical formula of gypsum is CaSO4.2H2O. When gypsum is buried underyounger layers of sedimentary rocks, the increasing pressure and temperature squeeze out thewater molecules and gypsum becomes anhydrite (CaSO4).
Another common class of minerals includes the sulfides. In sulfides, the sulfide anion (S2-) isbonded to metallic cations (e.g. Fe2+, Mg2+, Cu2+). An example of sulfide is pyrite (FeS2). Sulfides
are important because they represent a major source of metals for the industry (metal ores). A
geological setting in which sulfides commonly form is the ocean floor near mid-ocean ridges.
Seawater percolates through cracks in the ocean crust where it is heated near spreading centers.
The hot seawater reacts with the rock of the ocean crust (basalt) and dissolves iron, zinc, copperand sulfur. When this hot water returns to the ocean and meets the cold seawater, the sudden dropof temperature triggers the precipitation of sulfides which accumulate around the hot spring andbuilds a chimney called a black smoker. Black smokers are of huge interest not only because they
are formed of metal sulfides but also because they shelter a diverse ecosystem whose primarysource of energy is not sunlight (photosynthesis) but chemical reactions (chemosynthesis, e.g.
CO2 + 4H2S + O2 → CH2O + 4S + 3H2O). Chemosynthesis can be performed by specializedbacteria and can sustain a diverse ecosystem in the deep ocean without any sunlight.
Another common class of minerals is called oxide. In oxides the oxygen is bound to other atoms,
usually metallic cations, through ionic bonds. One very common oxide and major source of iron for
the industry (iron ore) is the iron oxide called hematite (Fe2O3). If the anion is not O2- but OH-, themineral is called a hydroxide. Another iron ore is the iron hydroxide goethite (FeO(OH)). Amongthe most famous rocks rich in iron oxide are the banded iron formations which are composed ofthin layers of sediments rich in iron oxide. These rocks are usually Precambrian in age (older than
500 x 106 years) and they probably formed when the oxygen produced by photosynthesis reactedwith the dissolved iron in the ocean. Their study is important to understand the history of theatmospheric oxygen of our planet (see the chapter on the evolution of life for further explanations).

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Native elements are minerals composed of a single element. Sometimes they can be combined inalloys like the iron-nickel alloy of metallic meteorites. Other examples of native element minerals
are native gold, native copper, graphite and diamond.

4.5. Physical properties of minerals
Minerals can be characterized by their physical properties. Some of the properties that can beused to characterize and identify minerals are listed below.
Hardness: harder minerals are able to scratch softer minerals. The hardest mineral is diamondwhich is able to scratch all the others. On the Mohs scale of hardness, diamond has a hardness of
10. The softest mineral is talc and has a hardness of 1. The hardness of a mineral depends on its
structure and chemical bonds.
Cleavage: it is the tendency of minerals to split along specific planes. Chemical bonds along thesecleavage planes tend to be weaker and thus break more easily.
Fracture: a mineral may be broken along surfaces that are not cleavage planes. These surfaces
are called fractures. The quality (shape and texture) of the broken surface is one criteria used to
identify minerals (e.g. the conchoidal fracture of quartz, the splintery fracture of fibrous minerals
like asbestos).
Luster: it is the way the surface of a mineral reflects light. Different terms are used to qualify
mineral luster (e.g. metallic, vitreous…).
Color: the color of a mineral is not always a good identification criterion because it may depend on
the presence of tiny amounts of particular elements. For instance, quartz is colorless but amethyst,
a variety of quartz with trace amounts of Fe3+, is violet. Citrine, another variety of quartz, is yellow
and can be obtain by heating amethyst. Streak refers to the color of the mark left by a mineralwhen it is scratched on an abrasive surface such as a plate of unglazed porcelain (e.g. the reddish
brown streak of hematite).
Density: the density of a mineral (g/cm3) depends on the way atoms are packed and on the massof individual atoms. Diamond and graphite are both composed of carbon but diamond is denser
because the atoms of carbon in diamond are packed more closely. Fe-olivine (Fe2SiO4) andMg-olivine (Mg2SiO4) have a similar structure but Fe-olivine is denser than Mg-olivine because theatomic mass of iron is much greater than that of magnesium. The density of minerals is commonly
expressed in terms of specific gravity which is the ratio of the weight of a volume of a mineral to
the weight of an equal volume of water at a temperature and pressure of reference. The specificgravity of water is 1. The specific gravity of halite is 2.16 and that of pyrite is 5.
Crystal habit: it is the shape of an individual crystal or an aggregate of crystals of a given mineral.
The crystal habit of a mineral reflects the internal arrangement of atoms as well as the speed anddirection of crystal growth.

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