２．Comprehensive Approach to Nature Restoration
Appropriate goal setting is crucial for comprehensive approaches in naturerestoration.
2.1 Planning of nature restoration strategies in coastal areas(1) Strategic planning in nature restoration
The nature restoration project in coastal areas should be strategically planned,
incorporating goal setting, designs, construction and management, with a firm
grasp of present environmental conditions.
There are many uncertainties in the process of planning, such as; changes in social
needs, variation in environmental factors scientifically unraveled and ecologicalresponses to such factors, as well as technological challenges in managing
ecosystems or environments. This indicates the needs for the strategic planning ofa project, with the consensus being built among stakeholders. The strategicplanning includes; the formulation of concepts where project goals are set; theintroduction of the approaches using the self-designing of nature; adaptive
approaches in the processes of planning, designs and construction; and themanagement systems that incorporate a long-term monitoring and feedback of theresults.
1) Strategic planning
Strategic planning is a systematic process where decision makers and stakeholders
share the information and conduct a series of procedures;
understanding of the current situations – planning (goal setting) – designs –implementation/construction – management (evaluation).

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Strategic planning
Understanding current state

Decision-makers
Stakeholders

Goal setting

Parties concerned
Experts

Planning / designs
Construction
Management

Monitoring

Adaptive management
Figure 2-1 Example of strategic planning
The strategic planning is based on the following concepts : applying comprehensive
strategies to each stage of the project (including the sharing of information
between parties concerned), expanding discussion on the neighboring stages if
needed, and modifying the project based on the evaluations made at certain
intervals after project completion. In the process of proceeding with strategicplanning, adaptive management (2. 4. Significant role of adaptive management
and its application) is an effective approach to be considered. In addition, it isparamount to conduct ample studies and discussion on the goal setting (2. 3Formulation of the restoration philosophy (image of the goal) and the space
utilization plan), as well as on the correct understanding of the current situations,in order to develop the shared views of nature among the parties concerned. All
this will lead to improved decision-making.

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2.2 Understanding the relationships between
environments(1) People’s lives and coastal environments

people’slives

andcoastal

Understanding the relationships between people’s lives and coastal environmentsfrom past to the present, as well as its transition, is critical for developing a sharedview of nature.
In the process of goal setting, understanding how people have related their lives tothe surrounding nature in the past, or what kind of nature existed, will be helpful
in discussing the objectives of the project, or in making decisions based on theshared sense of values and views of nature.
1) Understanding the coastal environment in the past
The former conditions of the target environment for example whether it
experienced topographic modifications, can be learned with the aid of old
topographic charts or aerial photos. These materials illustrate the coastline
configuration, types of coasts, sand sedimentation, as well as landscapes andvegetation. The information obtained in such materials is probably based on theyears when the Japanese economy was enjoying high growth and thus large-scalelandscape modifications were made. Some areas were reclaimed to create
farmland in the Edo Period, and further information on this could be obtained byconsulting local history museums.
2) Relationships between man and coastal areas in the past.
The next step is to understand how people related their lives to the coastal
environment in the past. In this process, it is necessary to pay attention not only tothe coasts and surrounding areas, but also to the relationships between the lives ininland communities and coastal areas. Thereby we can learn about the roles playedby coastal areas in people’s lives in the past and how it may have differed to thehere and now.
Such information can be found in waka poems, illustrations of tourist spots, oldlocal photos or the materials in the local museums, as well as stories from elderly
people, literature and school songs. The old topographic charts also show thegeological relationships of villages and coasts, as well as place names, locations ofshrines, and cultural events, all of which can be useful in helping us to understandthe relationships.
One of the examples is the cultural event called “Hamakudari (descending to the27

shore)”, in which a Mikoshi (portable shrine) is carried into the sea. This festival isbased on the belief that God came from the sea, and it portrays the close
relationship between inland communities and coastal areas. Even in areas where“Hamakudari” is not a living tradition, shrine branches along the coast may imply
the previous existence of such events.
On March 3rd in the lunar calendar, the events called, “Hama-asobi” “Hamakudari”,
and “Iso-asobi” were held. On these days, people in the villages along the coast,gathered to the shore for the day. These events were said to be based on the belief
that the sea had a purifying power (Fig.2-2).
School songs can also help us understand how people perceived and valued thecoast at the time that the song was written, as lyrics often portray the natural
beauty of the region.
Listening to the elderly telling their stories about how often, when and for whatreasons they visited the sea could also enhance our knowledge on how coastal
areas may have been utilized. (Fig.2-3).

Figure 2-2 Clam digging (Sightseeing spots in Wakayama Prefecture)
From old times, there was a custom among the people in the villages along thecoast to gather to the shore and enjoy whole day there on March 3rd in the lunar
calendar.

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Figure 2-3

Relationships between coasts and their hinterland(2)Relationships between people’s lives and coastal areas today
The present relationships between people’s lives and coastal areas can be learned
from field surveys, questionnaires, hearing and recognition maps.
In the process of project planning, it is important to understand the relationships
between people’s lives and the natural environment. Such relationships will be
specified by studying; what kind of natural environments exist and what could bedeveloped and where and how people in turn relate their lives to such naturalenvironments.
1) Understanding present situations
The present conditions of the natural environment can be learned from fieldsurveys and aerial photos. Taking advantage of large-scale maps (scales of 1:2500
to 1:500), which offer microtopographic features, would be helpful in order to gain
an understanding of the relationship between people’s lives and the environment.

292) Understanding present relationships between people’s lives and coastal areas
The research by field surveys, hearing and psychometric tests such as recognition
maps, provide information on how people utilize whatever kind of space be it for
leisure activities, work, communication or any other kinds of activities. How people
refer to the coast by segment also portrays their perceptions towards the coast. In
field surveys, visitors to the coasts are monitored by observation and videotaping,
and analyzed for their profile, activity locations and purposes.
A recognition map is a good means to understand how a person recognizes thecoastal space by the picture he/she draws of it.
3)Understanding the relationship between coastal space and its functions.
With an understanding of the relationships between the people’s lifestyles and thecoastal environment and its subsequent transition from past to the present, it isalso necessary to gain an insight into how a selected coastal space andmicrotopography have functioned from a coastal engineering and ecological point ofview.
The results of field surveys, questionnaires and recognition maps can be plotted ona blank map to learn about the activities conducted in each segmented space ortopography. Comparing such data on the utilization patterns and space andmicrotopography with the results from other analyses, would provide an insight
into the ways in which a given coastal space or microtopography has been used,and how it may have changed, as well as the functions such usage and changes
have brought with them in terms of coastal engineering and ecological aspects (Fig.
2-4).

Figure 2-4 Diagram of an old fishing ground
Over the area from shore to the offing, distinctive topography and sediments werenamed respectively and they used to be utilized in the old fishing ground.

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2.3 Formulation of the restoration philosophy (image of the goal) and the space
utilization plan
Sharing a philosophy of nature restoration, along with the exploration on the space
utilization for the project area, will assist in the process of restoration planning.
Given the fact that nature restoration involves not only physical ecologicalregeneration but also the rebirth, alteration and even creation of the relationships
between local people and the environment, it is paramount to afford consideration
to such relationships in the local community during the process of planning. Thisshould incorporate not just the methodological approaches to the physicalrestoration of nature, but also the philosophy by which the relationships between
local residents and nature are to be designed. The exploration of the space
utilization will also be helpful to analyze such relationships.
This chapter deals with the ideas regarding the conceptual vision and the space
utilization, however, the following ideas should flexibly applied according to theproject area.
1) Sharing the conceptual vision (restoration philosophy)
It is advisable that the conceptual vision of the restoration project be discussed
among the parties concerned, and the same recognition be shared.
People’s stances or views towards nature may vary considerably. This sometimes
makes it challenging to gain a general consensus among parties with diverse
values on environmental conservation and development approaches, and thesedifferences in values often result in conflict.
As described in Chapter 1.-2, the environmental conservation approaches can be
categorized into the following: “restoration”- with the assistance of humans;“restoration” in this book which encompasses rehabilitation and creation besides
the above “restoration”; and “preservation” – without the involvement of assistancefrom human beings. The former two approaches are based on the idea that nature
be treated as a valuable resource for human beings, while the third one is based onthe concept that nature itself possesses significant values.
In the cases of Osawa Kuzure in Mt. Fuji and Amano Hashidate (Picture 1 & 2), forexample, human assistance is needed for the current environmental conditions tobe maintained. Whether to maintain the current condition of the environment withman’s assistance or to leave it to the devices of nature and accept any changes

31could lead to controversy. A typical example of the latter, which is based on thephilosophy of intrinsic values of nature, is seen in the management strategies
adopted by U.S. National Parks.
Whereas the white sandy beach with green pines or the forest as shown in Picture
2-2, for example, is in a transient stage of flora, and thus devoid of humanintervention such as the pruning of the branches or the gathering of fallen leaves,its features, would disappear and swiftly move towards the final stage of plant
succession. These are good examples of the creation of a system where production,
life, disaster prevention and the environment are well interconnected. But from theviewpoint of respecting the intrinsic values of nature, this may also be undesirable.
It is hard to tell which philosophy is right. It should go down to how the local
residents have related their lives to the surrounding nature over the past centuries.
Based on the local characteristics, the decision will be made through discussions
among the parties concerned, including residents. When conflicts in opinion occur,
giving a thought to the concept they stand for would help us to know the cause.
Whatever the answer may be, recognizing people’s diverse views on nature, andgetting insight into the bases of their ideas, is paramount for an effective
coordination and convergence of opinion.

Osawa Kuzure in Mt. Fuji
Osawa Kuzure in Mt. Fuji will change theappearance of the mountain if no measures
are taken. There has been an argument
about the adequacy of human intervention
to the devices of nature for the purpose ofmaintaining the current condition, however,
erosion control work for preservation is now
in course of implementation.
(source / Narusawa Mura Home Page:
http://www.vill.narusawa.yamanashi.jp/)

Amano Hashidate
Coastal erosion in Amano Hashidate willaffect the current environment andcondition as observed in the case of Mt.
Fuji. Therefore, human intervention to
the devices of nature was applied, anderosion control work has been put into
execution for the purpose of preservation.
(source / Ministry of Land, Infrastructureand Transport. “Coasts and Ports inJapan”)

Picture 2-1 Natural landscapes maintained with the assistance of human beings

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Amano Hashidate

Preservation utilizing fake rocks

The white sandy beach with green pines is
the secondary forest which connects withpeople’s lives closely. Consequently, it willturn into a thick forest without humanassistance. From the viewpoint of denying
human intervention, it would be
impossible to maintain its current
condition. (photo: Ushio Saito)

In course of implementing such artificial
measures to preserve and restore current
environmental
condition,
artificial
materials are often fixed in the devices ofnature without having relation to its
connection with people’s lives. This
problem needs more argument.
(source: Sabo Publicity Center, “Media Sabo
1997-10”)

Picture 2-2 Natural landscapes maintained with the assistance of human beings
2) Exploration of the space utilization
Having acquired a firm grasp of the relationships between people’s lives and theenvironment, the future directions of such relationships (the directions of theproject) should also be set up.
The facts are learned by the attempts described in Chapter 2-2. The next step isto evaluate the findings to develop a space utilization plan. This includes theanalysis of ; what has been important in forming relationships between residents
and the environment, out of which, what has disappeared or altered, or whatshould be protected for the benefit of their relationships. With this information, thedesign of the future relationship between residents and the environment is to bedrawn up, or more specifically, the concepts for the space utilization of the project
area should be set up.
Whether regenerating the relationship that once existed between man and thecoastal environment, or the building up of a new relationship, it should be left in
the capable hands of local communities.
With respect to the designs of space, the relationships found between the coasts
and local communities along them, would help provide certain outlines ordirections.

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This classification above indicates the outline of the directions of the space utilization. In actual fact,
we should examine carefully to find out what is important on each coast and what direction is appropriate
to promote the space utilization plan. 23 ) Ueshima et al.

Figure 2-5 Directions of the space utilization tailored to the relationships between
coasts and adjacent communities
2.4 Significant role of adaptive management and its application
Application of adaptive management is integral to the successful implementationof a strategic plan
(1) Significant role of adaptive management
In the project undertaking to restore nature, it is critical to prepare measures that
could respond to the possible environmental or ecological changes on the site. For
this, the effective use of evaluation methods for ecosystems and prediction methods
for environmental factors are necessary. For instance, the prediction on thesubsidence trends of a developed area of soft ground a few years down the line, cannow be made with a high degree of accuracy. The numeric calculations for physicalfactors such as wave and currents are also being established. However, the precise
prediction on the horizontal sediment transport or the changes in component
species of an ecosystem as yet, still remains a challenge.
Because of these uncertainties, along with the drastic change in the environmental
conditions including the impact posed by the surrounding area, the project may
face situations unpredictable in the planning process. This is why adaptivemanagement is necessary and important. Adaptive management comes into playduring the whole process of the project, in which project mangers respond to thechanges in environmental and societal backgrounds, access the achievement by the34use of the latest information and technologies available (monitoring), and provide
modification to the project when necessary.
The adaptive management can allow project managers to learn throughexperience; respond to the changes of parameters that influence the characteristicsof the target site; continuously develop and refine management strategies; anddemonstrate that the management being addressed is appropriate.
(2) Application of adaptive management
Monitoring and feedback are essential for adaptive management.
The process of adaptive management is as follows (Fig.2-6)
・

Setting goals・Introducing clearly defined success criteria (evaluation methods) based on newand optimum information

・Conducting monitoring programs to evaluate whether the goals or objectives
are being met.

Examining the success criteria if the goals are not being met. Modifying thesuccess criteria. Modifying the goals if necessary.
These approaches must be applied at predetermined intervals.
The elements of the technological framework of adaptive management are asfollows:
1) Monitoring program for accessing primary performance indicators and present
conditions
2) Direct response system (feedback) that enables the improvement of primaryperformance indicators (Hilborn et al.,1988)
・Figure 2-6 Adaptive management351) Monitoring
For systematic monitoring, it is imperative that the goals of the environmental
restoration project be presented as success criteria with specific data on thecomponent species and habitat areas, and thereby be linked to the monitoring
parameters and methods. The need for the involvement of administrators or
judicial officials in the evaluation process is also indicated.
In some examples in the U.S., success criteria and their evaluation methods, aswell as evaluation periods are provided in detail from the early stages of theproject, enabling necessary evaluation in the monitoring system along with proper
feedback.
Monitoring should be conducted with appropriate selection of frequency, intervals
and methods, in consideration for local characteristics, predictable process in therestoration or rebuilding of ecosystems, and the magnitude of natural changes.
For example, monitoring at five-year intervals has been used in past programs,
and this may be used as a guide. Some projects, however, need a longer time spanfor evaluating their success, which may require a flexible system for thecontinuance or termination of monitoring.
Another issue to be considered is budgeting. In order to refine the goals more
specifically, the securing of several reference sites and reviewing of a great amountof material and data is inevitable. This indicates that a substantial amount ofmoney would be required in the development of successful criteria and pre- andpost implementation studies. In some projects carried out in the U.S., the cost formonitoring was considered in the process of determining survey items. With this
aspect in mind, one of the keys to a successful adaptive management inenvironmental restoration and creation projects is; how to develop concrete,
rational and cost-efficient success criteria; how to evaluate them; and how todisseminate the results to the public and to lead on to the continuation ofmonitoring.
2) Feedback
Feedback systems are indispensable in adaptive management. When confirmingthat the conditions are different from the anticipated outcome or they are notmeeting the success criteria, the causes behind them must be clarified andalternative appropriate measures should be taken. The feedback systems, therefore,
must function effectively, by evaluating the results through monitoring programs

36set up at predetermined periods, and if needs be, making adjustments to theproject scheme.
3) Application examples
The success criteria and feedback examples in the Sonoma Baylands Restoration
Projects are shown at the end of this book, “Example projects for coastal
restoration: International cases 2”. In the U.S., most of the projects are scheduled
for completion within five years, whereas the Sonoma Baylands Project is expectedto span over a lengthier period of twenty years. This is probably due to the factthat that the restoration of the ecosystems in this site would be expected to require
more than 10 years. As seen in the monitoring programs in the Sonoma Baylands
Restoration Project, monitoring parameters are designed and strategically plannedin the project so that success criteria can be evaluated based on an anticipatedoutcome.

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