LATEX for authors — historic version© Copyright 1995–2023, LATEX Project Team.
All rights reserved.∗
09 November 2023

Contents
1 Introduction
1.1 LATEX 2ε —The new LATEX release . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 LATEX3—The long-term future of LATEX . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Further information . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

2
2
3
4
4

2 Classes and packages
2.1 What are classes and packages? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Class and package options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3 Standard classes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Standard packages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 Related software . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

5
5
6
7
7
8

3 Commands
10
3.1 Preamble commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
3.2 Environments to write out support files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
3.3 Document structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.4 Definitions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
3.5 Boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
3.6 Measuring things . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.7 Line endings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
3.8 Controlling page breaks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.9 Floats . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.10 Font changing: text . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
3.11 Font changing: math . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.12 Ensuring math mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.13 Setting text superscripts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.14 Text commands: all encodings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.15 Text commands: the T1 encoding . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.16 Logos . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
∗ This file may be distributed and/or modified under the conditions of the L
AT X ProjectE
Public License, either version 1.3c of this license or (at your option) any later version. See
the source usrguide-historic.tex for full details.

13.17 Picture commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.18 Old commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

23
24

4 LATEX 2.09 documents
24
4.1 Warning . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.2 Font selection problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
4.3 Native mode . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
5 Local modifications

27

6 Problems
27
6.1 New error messages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
6.2 Old internal commands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
6.3 Old files . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
6.4 Where to go for more help . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
7 Enjoy!

131

Introduction

Welcome to LATEX 2ε , the new standard version of the LATEX Document Preparation System.
This document describes how to take advantage of the new features of LATEX,
and how to process your old LATEX documents with LATEX 2ε . However, thisdocument is only a brief introduction to the new facilities and is intended forauthors who are already familiar with the old version of LATEX. It is not areference manual for LATEX 2ε nor is it a complete introduction to LATEX.
It is somewhat of an historical document now, since LATEX 2ε came into existence
in 1994.

1.1

LATEX 2ε —The new LATEX release(well, for more than 10 years now)

The previous version of LATEX was known as LATEX 2.09. Over the years manyextensions have been developed for LATEX. This is, of course, a sure sign of its
continuing popularity but it has had one unfortunate result: incompatible LATEX
formats came into use at different sites. This included ‘standard LATEX 2.09’,
LATEX built with the New Font Selection Scheme (NFSS), SliTEX, AMS-LATEX,
and so on. Thus, to process documents from various places, a site maintainer
was forced to keep multiple versions of the LATEX program. In addition, whenlooking at a source file it was not always clear for which format the document
was written.
To put an end to this unsatisfactory situation, LATEX 2ε has been produced; itbrings all such extensions back under a single format and thus prevents the proliferation of mutually incompatible dialects of LATEX 2.09. With LATEX 2ε the‘new font selection scheme’ is standard and, for example, amsmath (formerly2the AMS-LATEX format) or slides (formerly the SliTEX format) are simply extensions, which may be loaded by documents using the same base format.
The introduction of a new release also made it possible to add a small number
of often-requested features and to make the task of writing packages and classes
simpler.

1.2

LATEX3—The long-term future of LATEXLATEX 2ε is the consolidation step in a comprehensive reimplementation of the
LATEX system. The next major release of LATEX will be LATEX3, which will
include a radical overhaul of the document designers’ and package writers’ interface to LATEX.
LATEX3 is a long-term research project but, until it is completed, the project
team are committed to the active maintenance of LATEX 2ε . Thus the experience gained from the production and maintenance of LATEX 2ε will be a major
influence on the design of LATEX3. A brief description of the project can befound in the document ltx3info.tex.
If you would like to support the project then you are welcome to send donations
to the LATEX Project Fund; this has been set up to help the research team byfinancing various expenses associated with this voluntary work of maintaining
the current LATEX and developing LATEX further.
The fund is administered by The TEX Users Group and by various local usergroups. Information about making donations and joining these groups is available from:http://www.tug.org/lugs.html

The LATEX3 project has its home page on the World Wide Web at:
http://www.latex-project.org/

This page describes LATEX and the LATEX3 project, and contains pointers to other
LATEX resources, such as the user guides, the TEX Frequently Asked Questions,and the LATEX bugs database.
Older articles covering aspects of the LATEX3 project are also available for anonymous ftp from the Comprehensive TEX Archive, in the directory:ctan:info/ltx3pub

The file ltx3pub.bib in that directory contains an abstract of each of the files.

3

1.3

Overview

This document contains an overview of the new structure and features of LATEX.
It is not a self-contained document, as it contains only the features of LATEX
which have changed since version 2.09. You should read this document in conjunction with an introduction to LATEX.
Section 2 contains an overview of the new structure of LATEX documents. It
describes how classes and packages work and how class and package options can be used. It lists the standard packages and classes which comewith LATEX.
Section 3 describes the new commands available to authors in LATEX 2ε .
Section 4 shows how to process old LATEX documents with LATEX 2ε .
Section 6 contains advice on dealing with problems you may encounter in running LATEX 2ε . It lists some error messages which are new in LATEX 2ε andit describes some of the more common problems and how to cure them,or where to find further information.

1.4

Further information

For a general introduction to LATEX, including the new features of LATEX 2ε , you
should read LATEX: A Document Preparation System by Leslie Lamport [4].
A more detailed description of the new features of LATEX, including an overview
of more than 200 packages and nearly 1000 ready to run examples, is to befound in The LATEX Companionsecond edition by Frank Mittelbach and Michel
Goossens [5].
Packages and programs for producing and manipulating graphics are discussed
at length in The LATEX Graphics Companion by Michel Goossens, SebastianRahtz and Frank Mittelbach [1].
Solutions for publishing with LATEX on the World Wide Web are given in The
LATEX Web Companion by Michel Goossens and Sebastian Rahtz [2].
For more information about the many new LATEX packages you should read the
package documentation, which should be available from the same source as yourcopy of LATEX.
There are a number of documentation files which accompany every copy of
LATEX. A copy of LATEX News will come out with each six-monthly release of
LATEX; it will be found in the files ltnews*.tex. The class- and package-writer’s
guide LATEX 2ε for Class and Package Writers describes the new LATEX features
for writers of document classes and packages; it is in clsguide.tex. The guide
LATEX 2ε Font Selection describes the LATEX font selection scheme for class- andpackage-writers; it is in fntguide.tex. Support for Cyrillic languages in LATEX
is described in Cyrillic languages support in LATEX.
The documented source code (from the files used to produce the kernel format
via latex.ltx) is now available as The LATEX 2ε Sources. ] This very large
4document also includes an index of LATEX commands. It can be typeset fromthe LATEX file source2e.tex in the base directory, using the source files andthe class file ltxdoc.cls from this directory.
For more information about TEX and LATEX, please contact your local TEX Users
Group, or the international TEX Users Group (see page 3).

2Classes and packages

This section describes the new structure of LATEX documents and the new typesof file: classes and packages.

2.1

What are classes and packages?

The main difference between LATEX 2.09 and LATEX 2ε is in the commands before\begin{document}.
In LATEX 2.09, documents had styles, such as article or book, and options, suchas twoside or epsfig. These were indicated by the \documentstyle command:\documentstyle[⟨options⟩]{⟨style⟩}
For example, to specify a two-sided article with encapsulated PostScript figures,
you said:\documentstyle[twoside,epsfig]{article}

However, there were two different types of document style option: built-in options such as twoside; and packages such as epsfig.sty. These were very
different, since any LATEX document style could use the epsfig package but only
document styles which declared the twoside option could use that option.
To avoid this confusion, LATEX 2ε differentiates between built-in options andpackages. These are given by the new \documentclass and \usepackage commands:\documentclass[⟨options⟩]{⟨class⟩}\usepackage[⟨options⟩]{⟨packages⟩}
For example, to specify a two-sided article with encapsulated PostScript figures,
you now write:\documentclass[twoside]{article}\usepackage{epsfig}

You can load more than one package with a single \usepackage command; forexample, rather than writing:5\usepackage{epsfig}\usepackage{multicol}

you can specify:\usepackage{epsfig,multicol}

Note that LATEX 2ε still understands the LATEX 2.09 \documentstyle command.
This command causes LATEX 2ε to enter LATEX 2.09 compatibility mode, which
is described in Section 4.
You should not, however, use the \documentstyle command for new documents
because this compatibility mode is very slow and the new features of LATEX 2εare not available in this mode.
To help differentiate between classes and packages, document classes now end
with .cls rather than .sty. Packages still end with .sty, since most LATEX 2.09
packages work well with LATEX 2ε .

2.2Class and package options

In LATEX 2.09, only document styles could have options such as twoside or
draft. In LATEX 2ε , both classes and packages are allowed to have options. For
example, to specify a two-sided article with graphics using the dvips driver,you write:\documentclass[twoside]{article}\usepackage[dvips]{graphics}

It is possible for packages to share common options. For example, you could, in
addition, load the color package by specifying:\documentclass[twoside]{article}\usepackage[dvips]{graphics}\usepackage[dvips]{color}

But because \usepackage allows more than one package to be listed, this canbe shortened to:\documentclass[twoside]{article}\usepackage[dvips]{graphics,color}

In addition, packages will also use each option given to the \documentclasscommand (if they know what to do with it), so you could also write:\documentclass[twoside,dvips]{article}\usepackage{graphics,color}

Class and package options are covered in more detail in The LATEX Companion
and in LATEX 2ε for Class and Package Writers.
6

2.3

Standard classes

The following classes are distributed with LATEX:
article The article class described in LATEX: A Document Preparation System.
book The book class described in LATEX: A Document Preparation System.
report The report class described in LATEX: A Document Preparation System.
letter The letter class described in LATEX: A Document Preparation System.
slides The slides class described in LATEX: A Document Preparation System,
formerly SliTEX.
proc A document class for proceedings, based on article. Formerly the proc
package.
ltxdoc The document class for documenting the LATEX program, based on
article.
ltxguide The document class for LATEX 2ε for Authors and LATEX 2ε for Classand Package Writers, based on article. The document you are reading
now uses the ltxguide class. The layout for this class is likely to change
in future releases of LATEX.
ltnews The document class for the LATEX News information sheet, based on
article. The layout for this class is likely to change in future releases of
LATEX.
minimal This class is the bare minimum (3 lines) that is needed in a LATEX classfile. It just sets the text width and height, and defines \normalsize. It
is principally intended for debugging and testing LATEX code in situations
where you do not need to load a ‘full’ class such as article. If, however,
you are designing a completely new class that is aimed for documentswith structure radically different from the structure supplied by the article
class, then it may make sense to use this as a base and add to it code
implementing the required structure, rather than starting from article
and modifying the code there.

2.4

New feature
1995/12/01

Standard packages

The following packages are distributed with LATEX:
alltt This package provides the alltt environment, which is like the verbatim
environment except that \, {, and } have their usual meanings. It is
described in alltt.dtx and LATEX: A Document Preparation System.
doc This is the basic package for typesetting the documentation of LATEX programs. It is described in doc.dtx and in The LATEX Companion.

7

New feature
1994/12/01

exscale This provides scaled versions of the math extension font. It is describedin exscale.dtx and The LATEX Companion.
fontenc This is used to specify which font encoding LATEX should use. It is
described in ltoutenc.dtx.
graphpap This package defines the \graphpaper command; this can be used
in a picture environment.

New feature
1994/12/01

ifthen Provides commands of the form ‘if. . . then do. . . otherwise do. . . ’. It is
described in ifthen.dtx and The LATEX Companion.
inputenc This is used to specify which input encoding LATEX should use. It is
described in inputenc.dtx.

New feature
1994/12/01

latexsym LATEX 2ε no longer loads the LATEX symbol font by default. To accessit, you should use the latexsym package. It is described in latexsym.dtx
and in The LATEX Companion; see also Section 6.
makeidx This provides commands for producing indexes. It is described in
LATEX: A Document Preparation System and in The LATEX Companion.
newlfont This is used to emulate the font commands of LATEX 2.09 with the
New Font Selection Scheme. It is described in The LATEX Companion.
oldlfont This is used to emulate the font commands of LATEX 2.09. It is described in The LATEX Companion.
showidx This causes the argument of each \index command to be printed on
the page where it occurs. It is described in LATEX: A Document Preparation System.
syntonly This is used to process a document without typesetting it. It is
described in syntonly.dtx and in The LATEX Companion.
tracefnt This allows you to control how much information about LATEX’s fontloading is displayed. It is described in The LATEX Companion.

2.5

Related software

The following software should be available from the same distributor as yourcopy of LATEX 2ε . You should obtain at least the graphics and tools collections inorder to have all the files described in LATEX: A Document Preparation System.
The amsmath package (part of amslatex and formerly known as amstex) andbabel are also mentioned in the list of ‘standard packages’ in section C.5.2 ofthat book.
amslatex Advanced mathematical typesetting from the American Mathematical Society. This includes the amsmath package; it provides many commands for typesetting mathematical formulas of higher complexity. It is
produced and supported by the American Mathematical Society and it isdescribed in The LATEX Companion.

8

New
description
1998/12/01

babel This package and related files support typesetting in many languages.
It is described in The LATEX Companion.
cyrillic Everything you need (except the fonts themselves) for typesetting with
Cyrillic fonts.

New feature
1998/12/01

graphics This includes the graphics package which provides support for the
inclusion and transformation of graphics, including files produced by othersoftware. Also included, is the color package which provides support for
typesetting in colour. Both these packages are described in LATEX: A
Document Preparation System.
psnfss Everything you need (except the fonts themselves) for typesetting witha large range of Type 1 (PostScript) fonts.
tools Miscellaneous packages written by the LATEX3 project team.
These packages come with documentation and each of them is also describedin at least one of the books The LATEX Companion and LATEX: A Document
Preparation System.
2.5.1

Tools

This collection of packages includes, at least, the following (some files may haveslightly different names on certain systems):
array Extended versions of the environments array, tabular and tabular*,with many extra features.
calc Enables the use of certain algebraic notation when specifying values forlengths and counters.
dcolumn Alignment on ‘decimal points’ in tabular entries. Requires the arraypackage.
delarray Adds ‘large delimiters’ around arrays. Requires array.
hhline Finer control over horizontal rules in tables. Requires array.
longtable Multi-page tables. (Does not require array, but it uses the extendedfeatures if both are loaded.)tabularx Defines a tabularx environment that is similar to tabular* but it
modifies the column widths, rather than the inter-column space, to achieve
the desired table width.
afterpage Place text after the current page.
bm Access bold math symbols.
enumerate Extended version of the enumerate environment.
fontsmpl Package and test file for producing ‘font samples’.

9

New feature
1996/12/01

ftnright Place all footnotes in the right-hand column in two-column mode.
indentfirst Indent the first paragraph of sections, etc.
layout Show the page layout defined by the current document class.
multicol Typeset text in columns, with the length of the columns ‘balanced’.
rawfonts Preload fonts using the old internal font names of LATEX 2.09. See
Section 6.2.
somedefs Selective handling of package options. (Used by the rawfonts package.)showkeys Prints the ‘keys’ used by \label, \ref, \cite etc.; useful whilst
drafting.
theorem Flexible declaration of ‘theorem-like’ environments.
varioref ‘Smart’ handling of page references.
verbatim Flexible extension of the verbatim environment.
xr Cross reference other ‘external’ documents.
xspace ‘Smart space’ command that helps you to avoid the common mistakeof missing spaces after command names.

3

Commands

This section describes the new commands available in LATEX 2ε . They are covered in more detail in LATEX: A Document Preparation System and in The LATEXCompanion.

3.1

Preamble commands

The changes to the preamble commands are intentionally designed to make
LATEX 2ε documents look clearly different from old documents. The commands
should be used only before \begin{document}.
\documentclass [⟨option-list⟩] {⟨class-name⟩} [⟨release-date⟩]

This command replaces the LATEX 2.09 command \documentstyle.
There must be exactly one \documentclass command in a document; and it
should normally come before any other command. (There are some exceptions,e.g., you can have filecontents environments before it or \RequirePackage
but these should be only used in special scenarios as discussed elsewhere.)The ⟨option-list⟩ is a list of options, each of which may modify the formattingof elements which are defined in the ⟨class-name⟩ file, as well as those in all
following \usepackage commands (see below).
10The optional argument ⟨release-date⟩ can be used to specify the earliest desired release date of the class file; it should contain a date in the format
yyyy/mm/dd. If a version of the class older than this date is found, a warning
is issued.
For example, to specify a two-column article, using a version of article.cls
released after June 1994, you specify:\documentclass[twocolumn]{article}[1994/06/01]\documentstyle [⟨option-list⟩] {⟨class-name⟩}

This command is still supported for compatibility with old files. It is essentiallythe same as \documentclass except that it invokes LATEX 2.09 compatibility
mode. It also causes any options in the ⟨option-list⟩ that are not processedby the class file to be loaded as packages after the class has been loaded. See
Section 4 for more details on LATEX 2.09 compatibility mode.
\usepackage [⟨option-list⟩] {⟨package-name⟩} [⟨release-date⟩]

Any number of \usepackage commands is allowed. Each package file (as denoted by ⟨package-name⟩) defines new elements (or modifies those defined in
the class file loaded by the ⟨class-name⟩ argument of the \documentclass command). A package file thus extends the range of documents which can be processed.
The ⟨option-list⟩ argument can contain a list of options, each of which canmodify the formatting of elements which are defined in this ⟨package-name⟩file.
As above, ⟨release-date⟩ can contain the earliest desired release date of the
package file in the format yyyy/mm/dd; if an older version of the package isfound, a warning is issued.
For example, to load the graphics package for the dvips driver, using a versionof graphics.sty released after June 1994, you write:\usepackage[dvips]{graphics}[1994/06/01]

Each package is loaded only once. If the same package is requested more thanonce, nothing happens in the second or following attempt unless the package has
been requested with options that were not given in the original \usepackage. Ifsuch extra options are specified then an error message is produced. See Section 6
how to resolve this problem.
As well as processing the options given in the ⟨option-list⟩ of the \usepackagecommand, each package processes the ⟨option-list⟩ of the \documentclass command as well. This means that any option which should be processed by every
package (to be precise, by every package that specifies an action for it) canbe specified just once, in the \documentclass command, rather than being
repeated for each package that needs it.

11\listfiles

If this command is placed in the preamble then a list of the files read in (as aresult of processing the document) will be displayed on the terminal (and in thelog file) at the end of the run. Where possible, a short description will also be
produced.
Warning: this command will list only files which were read using LATEX commands such as \input{⟨file⟩} or \include{⟨file⟩}. If the file was read using theprimitive TEX syntax \input file (without { } braces around the file name)then it will not be listed; failure to use the LATEX form with the braces cancause more severe problems, possibly leading to overwriting important files, so
always put in the braces.

New
description
1995/12/01\setcounter{errorcontextlines} {⟨num⟩}

TEX 3 introduced a new primitive \errorcontextlines which controls the format of error messages. LATEX 2ε provides an interface to this through the standard \setcounter command. As most LATEX users do not want to see theinternal definitions of LATEX commands each time they make an error, LATEX 2εsets this to −1 by default.

3.2

Environments to write out support files

Until the LATEX release in 2019 the filecontents environment was restricted
to a place before the \documentclass command. These days it can be usedanywhere, though we still think that in most cases it is best to only use it a the
top of your document or in the preamble.
\begin{filecontents} [⟨option-list⟩] {⟨file-name⟩}⟨file-contents⟩\end{filecontents}

The filecontents environment is intended for bundling within a single document file the contents of packages, options, or other files. When the document
file is run through LATEX 2ε the body of this environment is written verbatim(preceded by a comment line) to a file whose name is given as the environment’s
only argument. However, if that file already exists then nothing happens except
for an information message.
These days most UTF-8 text characters can be used in a filecontents environment—they will be written unchanged to the output file. However, tabs andform feeds produce a warning, explaining that they are turned into spaces or
blank lines, respectively.
By default the environment does not overwrite an existing file and it even refuses
to write out the data if there exists a file that is anywhere in the path that TEX
searches when inputting files. With the option nosearch you can ask it tolook only into the current directory and with the option overwrite (or force)
you can request it to write the file regardless. It will, however, never write to\jobname.tex to avoid overwriting itself.
12

New feature
2019

The filecontents environment is used for including LATEX files. For otherplain text files (such as Encapsulated PostScript files), you should use thefilecontents* environment which does not add a comment line.

3.3

Document structure

The book document class introduces new commands to indicate document structure.
\frontmatter\mainmatter\backmatter

These commands indicate the beginning of the front matter (title page, table ofcontents and prefaces), main matter (main text) and back matter (bibliography,
indexes and colophon).

3.4

Definitions

In LATEX, commands can have both mandatory and optional arguments, forexample in:\documentclass[11pt]{article}

the 11pt argument is optional, whereas the article class name is mandatory.
In LATEX 2.09 users could define commands with arguments, but these had to
be mandatory arguments. With LATEX 2ε , users can now define commands andenvironments which also have one optional argument.
\newcommand {⟨cmd ⟩} [⟨num⟩] [⟨default⟩] {⟨definition⟩}\newcommand* {⟨cmd ⟩} [⟨num⟩] [⟨default⟩] {⟨definition⟩}\renewcommand {⟨cmd ⟩} [⟨num⟩] [⟨default⟩] {⟨definition⟩}\renewcommand* {⟨cmd ⟩} [⟨num⟩] [⟨default⟩] {⟨definition⟩}

These commands have a new, second, optional argument; this is used for defining
commands which themselves take one optional argument. This new argument
is best introduced by means of a simple (and hence not very practical) example:\newcommand{\example}[2][YYY]{Mandatory arg: #2;
Optional arg: #1.}

This defines \example to be a command with two arguments, referred to as#1 and #2 in the {⟨definition⟩}—nothing new so far. But by adding a second
optional argument to this \newcommand (the [YYY]) the first argument (#1) of
the newly defined command \example is made optional with its default value
being YYY.
Thus the usage of \example is either:13\example{BBB}

which prints:
Mandatory arg: BBB; Optional arg: YYY.
or:\example[XXX]{AAA}which prints:
Mandatory arg: AAA; Optional arg: XXX.
The default value of the optional argument is YYY. This value is specified as the[⟨default⟩] argument of the \newcommand that created \example.
As another more useful example, the definition:\newcommand{\seq}[2][n]{\lbrace #2_{0},\ldots,\,#2_{#1} \rbrace}means that the input $\seq{a}$ produces the formula {a0 , . . . , an }, whereas
the input $\seq[k]{x}$ produces the formula {x0 , . . . , xk }.
In summary, the command:\newcommand {⟨cmd ⟩} [⟨num⟩] [⟨default⟩] {⟨definition⟩}defines ⟨cmd ⟩ to be a command with ⟨num⟩ arguments, the first of which is
optional and has default value ⟨default⟩.
Note that there can only be one optional argument but, as before, there can be
up to nine arguments in total.
\newenvironment {⟨cmd ⟩} [⟨num⟩] [⟨default⟩] {⟨beg-def ⟩} {⟨end-def ⟩}\newenvironment* {⟨cmd ⟩} [⟨num⟩] [⟨default⟩] {⟨beg-def ⟩} {⟨end-def ⟩}\renewenvironment {⟨cmd ⟩} [⟨num⟩] [⟨default⟩] {⟨beg-def ⟩} {⟨end-def ⟩}\renewenvironment* {⟨cmd ⟩} [⟨num⟩] [⟨default⟩] {⟨beg-def ⟩} {⟨end-def ⟩}LATEX 2ε also supports the creation of environments that have one optional
argument. Thus the syntax of these two commands has been extended in thesame way as that of \newcommand.
\providecommand {⟨cmd ⟩} [⟨num⟩] [⟨default⟩] {⟨definition⟩}\providecommand* {⟨cmd ⟩} [⟨num⟩] [⟨default⟩] {⟨definition⟩}

This takes the same arguments as \newcommand. If ⟨cmd ⟩ is already definedthen the existing definition is kept; but if it is currently undefined then theeffect of \providecommand is to define ⟨cmd ⟩ just as if \newcommand had been
used.
14

All the above five ‘defining commands’ now have *-forms that are usually thebetter form to use when defining commands with arguments, unless any of thesearguments is intended to contain whole paragraphs of text. Moreover, if you everdo find yourself needing to use the non-star form then you should ask whether
that argument would not better be treated as the contents of a suitably definedenvironment.

New feature
1994/12/01

The commands produced by the above five ‘defining commands’ are now robust.

New feature
1995/12/01

3.5

Boxes

These next three commands for making LR-boxes all existed in LATEX 2.09.
They have been enhanced in two ways.
\makebox [⟨width⟩] [⟨pos⟩] {⟨text⟩}\framebox [⟨width⟩] [⟨pos⟩] {⟨text⟩}\savebox {⟨cmd ⟩} [⟨width⟩] [⟨pos⟩] {⟨text⟩}

One small but far-reaching change for LATEX 2ε is that, within the ⟨width⟩ argument only, four special lengths can be used. These are all dimensions of thebox that would be produced by using simply \mbox{⟨text⟩}:\height its height above the baseline;\depth its depth below the baseline;\totalheight the sum of \height and \depth;\width its width.
Thus, to put ‘hello’ in the centre of a box of twice its natural width, you woulduse:\makebox[2\width]{hello}

Or you could put f into a square box, like this: f\framebox{\makebox[\totalheight]{\itshape f\/}}

Note that it is the total width of the framed box, including the frame, which is
set to \totalheight.
The other change is a new possibility for ⟨pos⟩: s has been added to l and r.
If ⟨pos⟩ is s then the text is stretched the full length of the box, making useof any ‘rubber lengths’ (including any inter-word spaces) in the contents of thebox. If no such ‘rubber length’ is present, an ‘underfull box’ will probably be
produced.

15

\parbox [⟨pos⟩] [⟨height⟩] [⟨inner-pos⟩] {⟨width⟩} {⟨text⟩}\begin{minipage} [⟨pos⟩] [⟨height⟩] [⟨inner-pos⟩] {⟨width⟩}⟨text⟩\end{minipage}

As for the box commands above, \height, \width, etc. may be used in the[⟨height⟩] argument to denote the natural dimensions of the box.
The ⟨inner-pos⟩ argument is new in LATEX 2ε . It is the vertical equivalent tothe ⟨pos⟩ argument for \makebox, etc, determining the position of ⟨text⟩ within
the box. The ⟨inner-pos⟩ may be any one of t, b, c, or s, denoting top, bottom,
centered, or ‘stretched’ alignment respectively. When the ⟨inner-pos⟩ argument
is not specified, LATEX gives it same value as ⟨pos⟩ (this could be the latter’s
default value).
\begin{lrbox} {⟨cmd ⟩}⟨text⟩\end{lrbox}

This is an environment which does not directly print anything. Its effect is tosave the typeset ⟨text⟩ in the bin ⟨cmd ⟩. Thus it is like \sbox {⟨cmd ⟩} {⟨text⟩},
except that any white space before or after the contents ⟨text⟩ is ignored.
This is very useful as it enables both the \verb command and the verbatim
environment to be used within ⟨text⟩.
It also makes it possible to define, for example, a ‘framed box’ environment.
This is done by first using this environment to save some text in a bin ⟨cmd ⟩and then calling \fbox{\usebox{⟨cmd ⟩}}.
The following example defines an environment, called fmpage, that is a framed
version of minipage.
\newsavebox{\fmbox}\newenvironment{fmpage}[1]{\begin{lrbox}{\fmbox}\begin{minipage}{#1}}{\end{minipage}\end{lrbox}\fbox{\usebox{\fmbox}}}3.6

Measuring things

The first of these next commands was in LATEX 2.09. The two new commands
are the obvious analogues.
\settowidth {⟨length-cmd ⟩} {⟨lr text⟩}\settoheight {⟨length-cmd ⟩} {⟨lr text⟩}\settodepth {⟨length-cmd ⟩} {⟨lr text⟩}

3.7

Line endings

The command \\, which is used to indicate a line-end in various places, is now
16

New
description
1994/12/01

a robust command when used within arguments such as section titles.
Also, because it is often necessary to distinguish which type of line is to be ended,
we have introduced the following new command; it has the same argument
syntax as that of \\.
New feature
1994/12/01\tabularnewline [⟨vertical-space⟩]

One example of its use is when the text in the last column of a tabular environment is set with \raggedright; then \tabularnewline can be used toindicate the end of a row of the tabular, whilst \\ will indicate the end of aline of text in a paragraph within the column. This command can be used in thearray environment as well as tabular, and also the extended versions of theseenvironments offered by the array and longtable packages in the tools collection.

3.8

Controlling page breaks

Sometimes it is necessary, for a final version of a document, to ‘help’ LATEX
break the pages in the best way. LATEX 2.09 had a variety of commands forthis situation: \clearpage, \pagebreak etc. LATEX 2ε provides, in addition,commands which can produce longer pages as well as shorter ones.
\enlargethispage {⟨size⟩}\enlargethispage* {⟨size⟩}

These commands increase the height of a page (from its normal value of\textheight) by the specified amount ⟨size⟩, a rigid length. This change affects
only the current page.
This can be used, for example, to allow an extra line to be fitted onto the pageor, with a negative length, to produce a page shorter than normal.
The star form also shrinks any vertical white space on the page as much as
possible, so as to fit the maximum amount of text on the page.
These commands do not change the position of the footer text; thus, if a pageis lengthened too far, the main text may overprint the footer.

3.9

FloatsThere is a new command, \suppressfloats, and a new ‘float specifier’. These
will enable people to gain better control of LATEX’s float placement algorithm.
\suppressfloats [⟨placement⟩]

This command stops any further floating environments from being placed on
the current page. With an optional argument, which should be either t or b(not both), this restriction applies only to putting further floats at the top or at
the bottom. Any floats which would normally be placed on this page are placedon the next page instead.
17

New
description
1995/12/01

The extra float location specifier: !

This can be used, along with at least one of h, t, b and p, in the location
optional argument of a float.
If a ! is present then, just for this particular float, whenever it is processed by
the float mechanism the following are ignored:• all restrictions on the number of floats which can appear;• all explicit restrictions on the amount of space on a text page which may
be occupied by floats or must be occupied by text.
The mechanism will, however, still attempt to ensure that pages are not overfull
and that floats of the same type are printed in the correct order.
Note that its presence has no effect on the production of float pages.
A ! specifier overrides the effect of any \suppressfloats command for thisparticular float.

3.10

Font changing: text

The font selection scheme used in LATEX 2ε differs a lot from that used in
LATEX 2.09. In this section, we give a brief description of the new commands.
A more detailed description with examples is given in The LATEX Companion,
and the interface for class- and package-writers is described in LATEX 2ε Font
Selection.
\normalfont\rmfamily\sffamily\ttfamily\mdseries\bfseries\upshape\itshape\slshape\scshape

These are font commands whose use is the same as the commands \rm, \bf, etc.
The difference is that each command changes just one attribute of the font (theattribute changed is part of the name). One result of this is that, for example,\bfseries\itshape produces both a change of series and a change of shape, togive a bold italic font.

18\textnormal{⟨text⟩}\textrm{⟨text⟩}\textsf{⟨text⟩}\texttt{⟨text⟩}\textmd{⟨text⟩}\textbf{⟨text⟩}\textup{⟨text⟩}\textit{⟨text⟩}\textsl{⟨text⟩}\textsc{⟨text⟩}\emph{⟨text⟩}

These are one-argument commands; they take as an argument the text whichis to be typeset in the particular font. They also automatically insert italic
corrections where appropriate; if you do not like the result, you can add an italic
correction with \/ or remove it with \nocorr. The \nocorr should always be
the first or last thing within the {⟨text⟩} argument.

3.11

Font changing: math

Most of the fonts used within math mode do not need to be explicitly invoked;
but to use letters from a range of fonts, the following class of commands isprovided.
\mathrm {⟨letters⟩}\mathnormal {⟨letters⟩}\mathcal {⟨letters⟩}\mathbf {⟨letters⟩}\mathsf {⟨letters⟩}\mathtt {⟨letters⟩}\mathit {⟨letters⟩}

These are also one-argument commands which take as an argument the letterswhich are to be typeset in the particular font. The argument is processed inmath mode so spaces within it will be ignored. Only letters, digits and accents
have their font changed, for example $\mathbf{\tilde A \times 1}$ producesÃ × 1.

3.12

Ensuring math mode

\ensuremath {⟨math commands⟩}

In LATEX 2.09, if you wanted a command to work both in math mode and in
text mode, the suggested method was to define something like:\newcommand{\Gp}{\mbox{$G_p$}}

Unfortunately, the \mbox stops \Gp changing size correctly in (for instance)
subscripts or a fraction.
In LATEX 2ε you can define it thus:19

\newcommand{\Gp}{\ensuremath{G_p}}

Now \Gp will work correctly in all contexts.
This is because the \ensuremath does nothing, producing simply G_p, when
\Gp is used within math mode; but it ensures that math mode is entered (andexited) as required when \Gp is used in text mode.

3.13

Setting text superscripts\textsuperscript {⟨text⟩}

In LATEX 2.09 textual superscripts such as footnote markers were produced byinternally entering math mode and typesetting the number as a math superscript. This normally looked fine since the digits in math fonts are the same as
those in text fonts when Computer Modern fonts are used. But when a different
document font (such as Times) is selected, the results look rather strange. For
this reason the command \textsuperscript has been introduced which typesets its argument in the current text font, in a superscript position and in thecorrect size.

3.14

New feature
1995/06/01

Text commands: all encodings

One of the main differences between LATEX 2ε and LATEX 2.09 is that LATEX 2εcan deal with fonts in arbitrary encodings. (A font encoding is the sequenceof characters in the font—for example a Cyrillic font would have a different
encoding from a Greek font.)New
description
1994/12/01

The two major font encodings that are used for Latin languages such as English
or German are OT1 (Donald Knuth’s 7-bit encoding, which has been used during
most of TEX’s lifetime) and T1 (the new 8-bit ‘Cork’ encoding).
LATEX 2.09 only supported the OT1 encoding, whereas LATEX 2ε has support
for both OT1 and T1 built-in. The next section will cover the new commands
which are available if you have T1-encoded fonts. This section describes newcommands which are available in all encodings.
Most of these commands provide characters which were available in LATEX 2.09
already. For example \textemdash gives an ‘em dash’, which was available in
LATEX 2.09 by typing ---. However, some fonts (for example a Greek font) may
not have the --- ligature, but you will still be able to access an em dash by
typing \textemdash.
New feature
1994/12/01\r{⟨text⟩}

This command gives a ‘ring’ accent, for example ‘o̊’ can be typed \r{o}.
New feature
1994/12/01

\SS

20

This command produces a German ‘SS’, that is a capital ‘ß’. This letter canhyphenate differently from ‘SS’, so is needed for entering all-caps German.
New feature
1994/12/01\textcircled{⟨text⟩}

This command is used to build ‘circled characters’ such as \copyright. Foraexample \textcircled{a} produces ○.
New feature
1994/12/01\textcompwordmark

This command is used to separate letters which would normally ligature. For
example ‘f‌i’ is produced with f\textcompwordmark i. Note that the ‘f’ and‘i’ have not ligatured to produce ‘fi’. This is rarely useful in English (‘shelf‌ful’
is a rare example of where it might be used) but is used in languages such as
German.
New feature
1994/12/01\textvisiblespace

This command produces a ‘visible space’ character ‘ ’. This is sometimes usedin computer listings, for example ‘type hello world’.
\textemdash \textendash \textexclamdown \textquestiondown\textquotedblleft \textquotedblright \textquoteleft \textquoteright

New feature
1994/12/01

These commands produce characters which would otherwise be accessed via
ligatures:
ligature
---!‘
?‘
‘‘
’’
‘
’

character
—
–
¡
¿
“
”
‘
’

command\textemdash\textendash\textexclamdown\textquestiondown\textquotedblleft\textquotedblright\textquoteleft\textquoteright

The reason for making these characters directly accessible is so that they will
work in encodings which do not have these characters.
New feature
1994/12/01\textbullet \textperiodcentered

These commands allow access to characters which were previously only available
in math mode:
math command\bullet\cdot

character•·21

text command\textbullet\textperiodcenteredNew feature
1995/12/01\textbackslash \textbar \textless \textgreater

These commands allow access to ASCII characters which were only available inverbatim or math mode:
math command\backslash
\mid
<
>

character\|<>text command\textbackslash\textbar\textless\textgreater
New feature
1995/12/01\textasciicircum \textasciitilde

These commands allow access to ASCII characters which were previously only
available in verbatim:
verbatim^~

text command\textasciicircum\textasciitilde
New feature
1995/12/01\textregistered \texttrademark

These commands provide the ‘registered trademark’ (R) and ‘trademark’ (TM)symbols.

3.15

Text commands: the T1 encoding

The OT1 font encoding is fine for typesetting in English, but has problems whentypesetting other languages. The T1 encoding solves some of these problems,by providing extra characters (such as ‘eth’ and ‘thorn’), and it allows words
containing accented letters to be hyphenated (as long as you have a package likebabel which allows for non-American hyphenation).
This section describes the commands you can use if you have the T1 fonts. To usethem, you need to get the ‘ec fonts’, or the T1-encoded PostScript fonts, as usedby psnfss. All these fonts are available by anonymous ftp in the Comprehensive
TEX Archive, and are also available on the CD-ROMs 4all TEX and TEX Live(both available from the TEX Users Group).
You can then select the T1 fonts by saying:\usepackage[T1]{fontenc}

This will allow you to use the commands in this section.
Note: Since this document must be processable on any site running an upto-date LATEX, it does not contain any characters that are present only in T1encoded fonts. This means that this document cannot show you what theseglyphs look like! If you want to see them then run LATEX on the document
fontsmpl and respond ‘cmr’ when it prompts you for a family name.
22

New
description
1994/12/01

New feature
1994/12/01\k{⟨text⟩}

This command produces an ‘ogonek’ accent.
New feature
1994/12/01\DH \DJ \NG \TH \dh \dj \ng \thThese commands produce characters ‘eth’, ‘dbar’, ‘eng’, and ‘thorn’.
\guillemotleft \guillemotright \guilsinglleft \guilsinglright\quotedblbase \quotesinglbase \textquotedbl

New feature
1994/12/01

These commands produce various sorts of quotation mark. Rough representations of them are: ≪a≫ <a> ,,a“ ,a‘ and "a".
There are therefore some extra short-form ligatures available for use in documents that will only be used with T1-encoded fonts.
The guillemets \guillemotleft and \guillemotright1 can be obtained bytyping << and >> and \quotedblbase by typing ,, .
Also, unlike the unexpected results with OT1-encoded fonts, < and > will produce< and >.
Note also that the single character " will no longer produce ” but rather\textquotedbl.

3.16

Logos

\LaTeX\LaTeXe\LaTeX (producing ‘LATEX’) is still the ‘main’ logo command, but if you need torefer to the new features, you can write \LaTeXe (producing ‘LATEX 2ε ’).

3.17

Picture commands\qbezier[⟨N ⟩](⟨AX ⟩,⟨AY ⟩)(⟨BX ⟩,⟨BY ⟩)(⟨CX ⟩,⟨CY ⟩)\bezier{⟨N ⟩}(⟨AX ⟩,⟨AY ⟩)(⟨BX ⟩,⟨BY ⟩)(⟨CX ⟩,⟨CY ⟩)The \qbezier command can be used in picture mode to draw a quadratic
Bezier curve from position (⟨AX ⟩,⟨AY ⟩) to (⟨CX ⟩,⟨CY ⟩) with control point(⟨BX ⟩,⟨BY ⟩). The optional argument ⟨N ⟩ gives the number of points on the
curve.
For example, the diagram:

1 We apologise once again for maintaining Adobe’s enormous solipsism (sic) of confusing a
diving bird with punctuation marks!

23

New
description
2001/06/01

is drawn with:\begin{picture}(50,50)\thicklines\qbezier(0,0)(0,50)(50,50)\qbezier[20](0,0)(50,0)(50,50)\thinlines\put(0,0){\line(1,1){50}}\end{picture}

The \bezier command is the same, except that the argument ⟨N ⟩ is not optional. It is provided for compatibility with the LATEX 2.09 bezier document
style option.

3.18

Old commands\samepageThe \samepage command still exists but is no longer being maintained. This isbecause it only ever worked erratically; it does not guarantee that there will be
no page-breaks within its scope; and it can cause footnotes and marginals to be
wrongly placed.
We recommend using \enlargethispage in conjunction with page-break commands such as \newpage and \pagebreak to help control page breaks.
\SLiTeX

Since SliTEX no longer exists, the logo is no longer defined in the LATEX kernel.
A suitable replacement is \textsc{Sli\TeX}. The SliTEX logo is defined in
LATEX 2.09 compatibility mode.
\mho \Join \Box \Diamond \leadsto\sqsubset \sqsupset \lhd \unlhd \rhd \unrhd

These symbols are contained in the LATEX symbol font, which was automaticallyloaded by LATEX 2.09. However, TEX has room for only sixteen math fontfamilies; thus many users discovered that they ran out. Because of this, LATEX
does not load the LATEX symbol font unless you use the latexsym package.
These symbols are also made available, using different fonts, by the amsfonts
package, which also defines a large number of other symbols. It is supplied by
the American Mathematical Society.
The latexsym package is loaded automatically in LATEX 2.09 compatibility mode.

4

LATEX 2.09 documents

LATEX 2ε can process (almost) any LATEX 2.09 document, by entering LATEX 2.09
compatibility mode. Nothing has changed, you run LATEX in the same way you
always did, and you will get much the same results.
24

The reason for the ‘almost’ is that some LATEX 2.09 packages made use of lowlevel unsupported features of LATEX. If you discover such a package, you shouldfind out if it has been updated to work with LATEX 2ε . Most packages will stillwork with LATEX 2ε —the easiest way to find out whether a package still works
is to try it!
LATEX 2.09 compatibility mode is a comprehensive emulation of LATEX 2.09, but
at the cost of time. Documents can run up to 50% slower in compatibility
mode than they did under LATEX 2.09. In addition, many of the new features of
LATEX 2ε are not available in LATEX 2.09 compatibility mode.

4.1

Warning

This LATEX 2.09 compatibility mode is provided solely to allow you to process
2.09 documents, i.e. documents that were written (we hope, a long time ago) fora very old system and therefore could be processed by using a genuine antique
LATEX 2.09 system.

New
description
1995/12/01

This mode is therefore not intended to provide access to the enhanced features of
LATEX 2ε . Thus it must not be used to process new documents which masquerade
as 2.09 documents (i.e. they begin with \documentstyle) but which could not
be processed using that genuine antique LATEX 2.09 system because they containsome new, LATEX 2ε -only, commands or environments.
To prevent such misuse of the system, and the consequent trouble it causes
when such misleadingly encoded documents are distributed, the LATEX 2.09
compatibility mode turns off most of these new features and commands. Any
attempt to use them will give you an error message and, moreover, many ofthem simply will not work, whilst others will produce unpredictable results. So
don’t bother sending us any bug reports about such occurrences since they areintentional.

4.2

Font selection problems

When using compatibility mode, it is possible that you will find problems with
font-changing commands in some old documents. These problems are of two
types:• producing error messages;• not producing the font changes you expected.
In case of error messages it is possible that the document (or an old style fileused therein) contains references to old internal commands which are no longer
defined, see Section 6.2 for more information if this is the case.
One example of the unexpected is if you use one of the new style of math-mode
font changing command as follows:$ \mathbf{xy} A $25

New
description
1995/12/01

You may well find that this behaves as if you had put:
$ \bf {xy} A $everything including the A coming out bold.
LATEX 2.09 allowed sites to customize their LATEX installation, which resulted in
documents producing different results on different LATEX installations. LATEX 2εno longer allows so much customization but, for compatibility with old documents, the local configuration file latex209.cfg is loaded every time LATEX 2εenters LATEX 2.09 compatibility mode.
For example, if your site was customized to use the New Font Selection Scheme(NFSS) with the oldlfont option, then you can make LATEX 2ε emulate this bycreating a latex209.cfg file containing the commands:\ExecuteOptions{oldlfont}\RequirePackage{oldlfont}

Similarly, to emulate NFSS with the newlfont option, you can create alatex209.cfg file containing:\ExecuteOptions{newlfont}\RequirePackage{newlfont}

4.3

Native mode

To run an old document faster, and use the new features of LATEX 2ε , you should
try using LATEX 2ε native mode. This is done by replacing the command:\documentstyle[⟨options⟩,⟨packages⟩]{⟨class⟩}with:\documentclass[⟨options⟩]{⟨class⟩}\usepackage{latexsym,⟨packages⟩}
However, some documents which can be processed in LATEX 2.09 compatibility
mode may not work in native mode. Some LATEX 2.09 packages will only workwith LATEX 2ε in 2.09 compatibility mode. Some documents will cause errors
because of LATEX 2ε ’s improved error detection abilities.
But most LATEX 2.09 documents can be processed by LATEX 2ε ’s native modewith the above change. Again, the easiest way to find out whether your documents can be processed in native mode is to try it!

26

5

Local modifications

There are two common types of local modifications that can be done very simply.
Do not forget that documents produced using such modifications will not be
usable at other places (such documents are called ‘non-portable’).

New
description
1995/12/01

One type of modification is the use of personal commands for commonly used
symbols or constructions. These should be put into a package file (for example,
one called mymacros.sty) and loaded by putting \usepackage{mymacros} inthe document preamble.
Another type is a local document class that is very similar to one of the standard
classes but contains some straightforward modifications such as extra environments, different values for some parameters, etc. These should be put into aclass file; here we shall describe a simple method of constructing such a fileusing, as an example, a class called larticle that is very similar to the article
class.
The class file called larticle.cls should (after the preliminary identificationcommands) start as follows:\LoadClassWithOptions{article}

This command should be followed by whatever additions and changes you wish
to make to the results of reading in the file article.sty.
The effect of using the above \LoadClassWithOptions command is to load thestandard class file article with whatever options are asked for by the document.
Thus a document using your larticle class can specify any option that could bespecified when using the standard article class; for example:\documentclass[a4paper,twocolumn,dvips]{larticle}

6

Problems

This section describes some of the things which may go wrong when using
LATEX 2ε , and what you can do about it.

6.1

New error messages

LATEX 2ε has a number of new error messages. Please also note that many error
messages now produce further helpful information if you press h in response to
the error prompt.
Option clash for package ⟨package⟩.

The named package has been loaded twice with different options. If you enter h
you will be told what the options were, for example, if your document contained:27

New feature
1995/12/01

\usepackage[foo]{fred}\usepackage[baz]{fred}then you will get the error message:
Option clash for package fred.

and typing h at the ? prompt will give you:
The package fred has already been loaded with options:[foo]
There has now been an attempt to load it with options:[baz]
Adding the line:\usepackage[foo,baz]{fred}
to your document may fix this.
Try typing <return> to proceed.

The cure is, as suggested, to load the package with both sets of options. Notethat since LATEX packages can call other packages, it is possible to get a package
option clash without explicitly requesting the same package twice.
Command ⟨command ⟩ not provided in base NFSS.

The ⟨command ⟩ is not provided by default in LATEX 2ε . This error is generated
by using one of the commands:\mho \Join \Box \Diamond \leadsto\sqsubset \sqsupset \lhd \unlhd \rhd \unrhd

which are now part of the latexsym package. The cure is to add:
\usepackage{latexsym}

in the preamble of your document.
LaTeX2e command ⟨command ⟩ in LaTeX 2.09 document.

The ⟨command ⟩ is a LATEX 2ε command but this is a LATEX 2.09 document. The
cure is to replace the command by a LATEX 2.09 command, or to run documentin native mode, as described in Section 4.3.
NFSS release 1 command \newmathalphabet found.

The command \newmathalphabet was used by the New Font Selection Scheme
Release 1 but it has now been replaced by \DeclareMathAlphabet, the use ofwhich is described in LATEX 2ε Font Selection.

28

The best cure is to update the package which contained the \newmathalphabet
command. Find out if there is a new release of the package, or (if you wrote
the package yourself) consult LATEX 2ε Font Selection for the new syntax of fontcommands.
If there is no updated version of the package then you can cure this error
by using the newlfont or oldlfont package, which tells LATEX which version of\newmathalphabet should be emulated.
You should use oldlfont if the document selects math fonts with syntax such as
this:{\cal A}, etc.
Use newlfont if the document’s syntax is like this:\cal{A}, etc.
Text for \verb command ended by end of line.

The \verb command has been begun but not ended on that line. This usually means that you have forgotten to put in the end-character of the \verbcommand.
Illegal use of \verb command.

The \verb command has been used inside the argument of another command.
This has never been allowed in LATEX—often producing incorrect output without
any warning—and so LATEX 2ε produces an error message.

6.2

Old internal commands

A number of LATEX 2.09 internal commands have been removed, since theirfunctionality is now provided in a different way. See LATEX 2ε for Class andPackage Writers for more details of the new, supported interface for class andpackage writers.
\tenrm \elvrm \twlrm . . .
\tenbf \elvbf \twlbf . . .
\tensf \elvsf \twlsf . . .
..
.

These commands provided access to the seventy fonts preloaded by LATEX 2.09.
In contrast, LATEX 2ε normally preloads at most fourteen fonts, which saves a
lot of font memory; but a consequence is that any LATEX file which used theabove commands to directly access fonts will no longer work.
Their use will usually produce an error message such as:29

! Undefined control sequence.
l.5 \tenrm

The cure for this is to update the document to use the new font-changing commands provided by LATEX 2ε ; these are described in LATEX 2ε Font Selection.
If this is not possible then, as a last resort, you can use the rawfonts package,
which loads the seventy LATEX 2.09 fonts and provides direct access to themusing the old commands. This takes both time and memory. If you do not wish
to load all seventy fonts, you can select some of them by using the only option
to rawfonts. For example, to load only tenrm and tenbf you write:\usepackage[only,tenrm,tenbf]{rawfonts}

The rawfonts package is distributed as part of the LATEX tools software, see
Section 2.4.

6.3

Old files

One of the more common mistakes in running LATEX is to read in old versionsof packages instead of the new versions. If you get an incomprehensible error
message from a standard package, make sure you are loading the most recent
version of the package. You can find out which version of the package has been
loaded by looking in the log file for a line like:
Package: fred 1994/06/01 v0.01 Fred’s package.

You can use the ⟨release-date⟩ options to \documentclass and \usepackage tomake sure that you are getting a suitably recent copy of the document class or
package. This is useful when sending a document to another site, which may
have out-of-date software.

6.4

Where to go for more help

If you can’t find the answer for your problem here, try looking in LATEX: A
Document Preparation System or The LATEX Companion. If you have a problem
with installing LATEX, look in the installation guide files which come with the
distribution.
If this doesn’t help, contact your local LATEX guru or local LATEX mailing list.
If you think you’ve discovered a bug then please report it! First, you shouldfind out if the problem is with a third-party package or class. If the problem
is caused by a package or class other than those listed in Section 2 then please
report the problem to the author of the package or class, not to the LATEX3
project team.
If the bug really is with core LATEX then you should create a short, self-contained
document which exhibits the problem. You should run a recent (less than a yearold) version of LATEX on the file and then run LATEX on latexbug.tex. This
will create an error report which you should send, together with the sample
document and log file, to the LATEX bugs address which can be found in the filelatexbug.tex or bugs.txt.
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7

Enjoy!

We certainly hope you will enjoy using the new standard LATEX but, if this is
not possible, we hope that you will enjoy success and fulfillment as a result of
the documents which it will help you to create.
If you find that the contribution of LATEX to your life is such that you would
like to support the work of the project team, then please read Section 1.2 anddiscover practical ways to do this.

References[1] Michel Goossens, Sebastian Rahtz and Frank Mittelbach. The LATEX Graphics Companion. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1997.
[2] Michel Goossens and Sebastian Rahtz. The LATEX Web Companion.
Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 1999.
[3] Donald E. Knuth. The TEXbook. Addison-Wesley, Reading, Massachusetts,
1986. Revised to cover TEX3, 1991.
[4] Leslie Lamport. LATEX: A Document Preparation System. Addison-Wesley,
Reading, Massachusetts, second edition, 1994.
[5] Frank Mittelbach and Michel Goossens. The LATEX Companion second edition. With Johannes Braams, David Carlisle, and Chris Rowley. AddisonWesley, Reading, Massachusetts, 2004.

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