Estimating the Sources of Stone Tools Made of Tuﬃtes
during the Yayoi Period and Their ArchaeologicalSigniﬁcance
MORI Takanori1, YUHARA Masaki2, UMEZAKI Keiji3, &KAWANO Yoshinobu4
ABSTRACTIn the northern Kyushu region, various woodworking adzes and polished stone daggers from theﬁrst half of the Yayoi period were made of a characteristic sedimentary rock type, known commonly
as tuﬃte. However, the source of this stone material remains unclear. Thus, this study compares thewhole-rock chemical composition of tuﬃtes from the Lower Cretaceous Wakino Subgroup and Mt.
Uibong-san, Korea, to estimate the source of materials for stone tools. The results demonstrated
that four ternary diagrams using trace element and total rare earth element contents can distinguisheﬀectively between the two stone sources. A geochemical analysis of the stone adzes excavatedfrom the Shimohieda site and an investigation of the sources of the stone materials using theseﬁgures revealed that the chemical composition of the stone tools was within the range of tuﬃtes
from Mt. Uibong-san, Korea. Therefore, this study presumed that the stone tools excavated fromthe Shimohieda site are composed of tuﬃtes from Korea. In the ﬁrst half of the Yayoi period, when
tuﬃte stone tools were widely used, metal tools, such as cast iron reworked tools were used in theJapanese archipelago. The results suggest cultural contact between groups across the straits during
this period.
KEYWORDS: Yayoi period of protohistoric Japan, northern Kyushu island, Japan-Korea
interactions, stone sources, whole-rock chemical compositions, Shimohieda site

1.

Introduction

In the northern Kyushu region, sedimentary rocks commonly known as tuﬃte (層灰岩 sōkaigan) were used for various woodworking adzes (especially ﬂat-shaped stoneadzes) and polished stone daggers in the ﬁrst half of the Yayoi period. Previous scholars
1 c/o Center for Transdisciplinary Research, Institute for Research Promotion, Niigata University, 2–8050

Ikarashi, Nishi-ku, Niigata City, Niigata 950–2181, Japan (tmori@human.niigata-u.ac.jp)
2 Department of Earth System Science, Faculty of Science, Fukuoka University, 8–19–1 Nanakuma, Jonanku, Fukuoka City, Fukuoka 814–0180, Japan (yuhara@fukuoka-u.ac.jp)
3 3–25–25 Nakao, Yahatahigashi-ku, Kitakyushu City, Fukuoka 805–0025, Japan (ume15620@yahoo.co.jp)
4 Department of Environment Systems, Faculty of Geo-environmental Science, Rissho University, 1700
Magechi, Kumagaya City, Saitama 360–0194, Japan (kawanoy@ris.ac.jp)
Category: Original Article Received: 12 July 2021; Accepted: 10 December 2021

JAPANESE JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 9 (2022): 117–140

MORI Takanori, YUHARA Masaki, UMEZAKI Keiji, & KAWANO Yoshinobu

pointed out, mainly through visual observations, that these tuﬃte stone tools were similar
to those from the south-eastern part of the Korean Peninsula in terms of form and stone
characteristics. This notion suggests that these stone tools may have been brought tonorthern Kyushu, in the Japanese archipelago, during the ﬁrst half of the Yayoi period.
Tuﬃte is an extremely important stone tool material and is indispensable for understanding
the exchange between Japan and Korea during the Yayoi period, the production anddistribution of tools and the acceptance of early ironware culture.
However, the stone source of the tuﬃte used for tools remains unclear because of thepresentation of various views. The reason underlying this notion is that this stone tool
material is geologically widespread, ranging from the Mesozoic Cretaceous Wakino
Subgroup in north-eastern Kyushu (Kitakyushu City area) to the Nakdong group in thesouth-eastern part of the Korean Peninsula across the Tsushima Strait, which makes
narrowing down its source extremely diﬃcult.
Thus, this study compares the whole-rock chemical compositions of tuﬃtes of the
Wakino Subgroup in Kitakyushu City and those of Mt. Uibong-san in Korea. The chemicalcomposition of the tuﬃte stone tools excavated from the Shimohieda site in Yukuhashi
City, Fukuoka Prefecture, is similar to those of the two regions. The study estimates thesource of the stone materials using the content ratios of the constituent elements.

2.

Previous studies and issues

2-1.

Previous studies

In this study, tuﬃte is “a rock in which volcaniclastic and sedimentary clastic materials
are mixed and solidiﬁed, especially volcanic ash and ﬁne-grained clastic materials”(Suzuki 2005, p.419), with characteristics intermediate between shale and tuff. This rockwas widely used as a material for stone adzes and polished stone daggers in northern
Kyushu during the Yayoi period. Tuﬃte stone adzes are widely distributed mainly in the
Fukuoka plain, Futsukaichi area, and Saga plain (Mori 2013) of northern Kyushu and arescattered along the coast of the Sea of Japan and elsewhere as far east as the Yōkaichi
Jikata site in Komatsu City, Ishikawa Prefecture (Sato & Miyada 2018). Conversely,
polished stone daggers composed of tuﬃte are distributed mainly in northern Kyushu,
such as a polished stone dagger with a handle excavated from wooden coﬃn tomb no. 15
at the Zasshonokuma site in Fukuoka City, and the fragment of a polished stone dagger
excavated from the Ishigo site in Matsumoto City, Nagano Prefecture, which is presumed
to be made of the same stone material (Shitara 1995) (Figure 1, 2).
Geologically, tuﬃte is a weakly thermally metamorphosed hornfels of tuﬀaceous
mudstone and shale, which occur in the lower part of the Wakino Subgroup of the KanmonGroup during the Mesozoic Cretaceous. The Wakino Subgroup is a freshwater stratum© Japanese Archaeological Association

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ESTIMATING THE SOURCES OF STONE TOOLS MADE OF TUFFITES DURING THE YAYOI PERIOD AND THEIR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Figure 1.

Distribution of tuﬃte stone tools

widely distributed from the upper reaches of the Yakiyama River in Miyawaka City,
Fukuoka Prefecture (which is considered a stone extraction site of Tateiwa stone harvesting
knives) to the western part of Yamaguchi Prefecture (where the Ayaragi-go site is located)(Figure 3). The Wakino Subgroup is contrasted with the Nakdong Group of the lower partof the Gyeongsang Supergroup in Korea across the Tsushima Strait (Inoue 1981; Geologyof Japan “Kyushu Region” Editorial Committee 1992). Figure 3 shows the location of theJapanese Islands and the Korean Peninsula during the Cretaceous and the locations whererock samples were collected. The Kanmon Group and the Gyeongsang Supergroup are
considered to be non-marine strata deposited in lakes and marshes formed on the margins
of Eurasia at that time. The vertical variation of the lithology is similar, such that a layerby-layer comparison can be performed. Moreover, many species are common between thefossil assemblages of the two groups (Ota 1960).
The outer surface of the tuﬃte stone tools display the following characteristics: (1)the colour tone is greyish-yellowish-brown and blackish-grey, and the fresh surface is jet
black; (2) the lamina is well developed, and the stripes (grain-like patterns) are relatively
clear; (3) the grain size of the stone is dense and has a sense of weight. The polishedsurface is smooth and oftentimes shiny (Mori 2013).
In northern Kyushu during the Yayoi period, geological conditions suggest that tuﬃtes
from the Wakino Subgroup in the Kitakyushu area were used for polished stone tools(Umezaki 1999, 2005). Conversely, Mori (2013) examined the sizes and production© Japanese Archaeological Association

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MORI Takanori, YUHARA Masaki, UMEZAKI Keiji, & KAWANO Yoshinobu

Figure 2.
pointsSite locations excavated tuﬃte stone tools in northern Kyushu region and samplingtechniques of stone adzes made of tuﬃtes and rejected the abovementioned theory, that is,
tuﬃtes from the Wakino Subgroup in the Kitakyushu area were used. Mori also pointed out
the possibility that the source of the stone material could be found in the Taishu Group in
the southern part of Tsushima Island or the Nakdong Group in the southeastern part of the
Korean Peninsula. Furthermore, Mori proposed that the stone materials were brought tothe Harunotsuji site and that the stone tools produced were distributed to northern Kyushu.
The author based these proposals on the fact that the Harunotsuji site in Iki City, Nagasaki
Prefecture, is the only site from which a large number of uncompleted stone adzes made of© Japanese Archaeological Association

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ESTIMATING THE SOURCES OF STONE TOOLS MADE OF TUFFITES DURING THE YAYOI PERIOD AND THEIR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Figure 3. Position of the Korean peninsula and Kyusyu island during the Cretacous anddistribution of Cretaceous non-marine deposits, Gyeongsang Supergroup and Kanmon Group, andsampling points (modiﬁed from Chough & Sohn 2010)

tuﬃtes and materials related to their production process have been excavated. Conversely,
Sato (2017) analysed the speciﬁc gravity of stone adzes made of tuﬃtes and distinguishedits sources. The most frequent diﬀerence in speciﬁc gravity between tuﬃte stone adzes
excavated in northern Kyushu, tuﬃte stone tools (spherical stone hammers used for stone
tool making) from the Kitakyushu area and tuﬃte stone adzes from the Harunotsuji site
pointed out the possibility of the existence of an unknown source in northern Kyushu.
Alternatively, Whang (2011) conducted a study on the Korean side and examined thegeology of hornfels, which was used as the stone material for the polished stone daggersof the Bronze Age in Korea. Furthermore, the author conducted a ﬁeld survey of stonesources and the distribution of the production sites of stone tools. The only place where
hornfels, that match the shape of polished stone daggers, can be collected is the Mt.
Uibong-san area in Goryeong-gun, Gyeongsangbuk-do (Figure 3). In Goryeong-gun,previous scholars (Whang 2020) conﬁrmed large-scale stone tool production sites using
hornfels at the Bongpyeong-ri site, located approximately 4 km southwest of Mt. Uibongsan. Other production sites were identiﬁed at the Daeheung-ri and Kwaebin-ri sites. Thisﬁnding suggests that Mt. Uibong-san was the source of the stone tools.
The present study conducted a petrological examination of the Wakino Subgroup in the© Japanese Archaeological Association

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MORI Takanori, YUHARA Masaki, UMEZAKI Keiji, & KAWANO Yoshinobu

Kitakyushu City area to perform a basic analysis to estimate the source of stone tools madeof tuﬃtes. Umezaki and Yuhara (2016) found that the tuﬃtes are composed of tuﬀaceous
mudstone and sandstone intercalations and are andesitic in SiO2 content but rich in CaO.
Moreover, Yuhara et al. (2020) conducted major and trace element measurements andrare earth element (REE) analyses of tuﬃtes in the Wakino Subgroup of the KanmonGroup (Figure 3). Their results suggested that the total rock chemical compositions of
the tuﬃtes in the Murasaki River and the Kurokawa River basins were similar. However,tuﬃtes in the Yakiyama River basin exhibited lower TiO2 and Al2O3 contents and slightly
lower Cr, Ga, Nb, Th, and Zr contents. These diﬀerences in content are considered toreﬂect diﬀerences in the stratigraphic level of production. This study predicted that theseelements can be used to verify diﬀerences in the sources of tuﬃtes. However, the questionof whether tuﬃtes are tuﬀaceous or not remains unanswered based on their lithology andchemical composition. This is one of the biggest problems in understanding the origin of
tuﬃtes.

2-2.

Issues3.

Samples and methods of analyses

The source of the tuﬃte stone tools excavated in northern Kyushu during the Yayoi period
remains unclear, with three theories, namely, Kitakyushu City area, an unknown stonesource in the northern Kyushu region, and outside Kyushu Island (the Taishu or Nakdong
Group in Korea). Furthermore, studies discussed the source of stone materials basedon visual observations and speciﬁc gravity analyses. However, studies that conducted
petrological and geochemical analyses of the stone materials or the stone tools themselves
or veriﬁed each region of Japan and Korea, are lacking.
Thus, this study compares the whole-rock chemical composition of the tuﬃtes of the
Wakino Subgroup (i.e., the Murasaki River, Kurokawa River and Yakiyama River basins)in the Kitakyushu area, which is a candidate site for the source of stone materials, and the
tuﬃtes of Mt. Uibong-san in Korea, to obtain a marker to distinguish the stone source. The
chemical composition of the tuﬃte tools excavated from the Shimohieda site is similar tothat of the other region, and the source of the stone materials is estimated by comparing thecontent ratios of the constituent elements.

Tuﬃte boulders (Figure 4) collected from Mt. Uibong-san (Figure 3), Goryeong-gun,
Gyeongsangbuk-do, Korea, were used as samples for analyses. The area of Mt. Uibongsan is considered to be about 120 km away from the Kitakyushu city area when the tuﬃte
was deposited (Figure 3). Similar to the stone tools excavated from the archaeologicalsites, the weathered surface of the tuﬃte boulders are brownish to bluish-grey (Figure 4c).
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ESTIMATING THE SOURCES OF STONE TOOLS MADE OF TUFFITES DURING THE YAYOI PERIOD AND THEIR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Figure 4. Photographs showing ﬁeld occurrence of rolling stones of tuﬃte at Mt. Uibong-san. a:
Slope condition of Mt. Uibong-san, b: Enlarged photo of the slope, c: Tuﬃte boulders are composedof angular gravels and reach a maximum length of 40 cm, d: Tuﬃte boulders deposited in a rainﬁssure on the slope

The tuﬃte boulders are composed of alternating dark and light layers, and the thicknessof a single layer ranges from 0.5 to 50 mm (Figure 5). The dark layer consists of black todark grey mudstone to ﬁne-grained sandstone and dark green to greenish-grey mudstone toﬁne-grained sandstone. The light layer consists of light greenish-grey to white mudstone
to ﬁne-grained sandstone. In many cases, calcite veins are visible. These characteristics are
similar to those of the tuﬃte of the Kanmon Group (Yuhara et al. 2020).
The stone artefacts are a pillar-shaped stone adze (Shimohieda 1, sample no. 2422) anda ﬂat-shaped stone adze (Shimohieda 2, sample no. 2253) excavated from the Shimohiedasite in Yukuhashi City, Fukuoka Prefecture (Figure 6). The two stone artefacts were cut at
the red line in Figure 7a, c, and the smaller one was used as the analysis samples. It waspolished with a grinder to remove weathered areas up to 1 mm thick and to eliminate iron
© Japanese Archaeological Association

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MORI Takanori, YUHARA Masaki, UMEZAKI Keiji, & KAWANO Yoshinobu

Figure 5.

Photographs of polished slabs of representative tuﬃte at Mt. Uibong-san© Japanese Archaeological Association

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ESTIMATING THE SOURCES OF STONE TOOLS MADE OF TUFFITES DURING THE YAYOI PERIOD AND THEIR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

contamination on the cut surface. The samples were then cleaned with ion-exchange waterusing an ultrasonic cleaner in the same way as the rock samples. The samples were driedat 110°C and powdered by vibration sample mill (CMT TI-100). For details of sample
preparation, please refer to Yuhara and Taguchi (2003a). The masses of Shimohieda 1(2422) and Shimohieda 2 (2253) before powdering were 19.65 g and 4.33 g, respectively.
The major and trace element concentrations of the whole-rock samples of tuﬃtes andstone tools were analysed using X-ray ﬂuorescence (RIGAKU ZSX100e) at Fukuoka
University, following the methods outlined by Yuhara and Taguchi (2003a, 2003b, 2006),
Yuhara et al. (2004), and Takamoto et al. (2005) using 1 : 5 glass bead and 1 : 1 pressedpellet. The total iron content is denoted as Fe2O3*.
In addition, the contents of REEs and trace elements of ﬁve rock samples (Ktuf03,
Ktuf09, Ktuf10, Ktuf13, Ktuf16) and one stone artefact sample were determined withlaser ablation-inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (LA-ICP-MS: PerkinElmer
NexION2000) with Nd-YAG laser system (New Wave Research UP-213) at the Rissho
University using 1 : 2 glass beads. After introducing the sample aerosolized from the beads
by laser into ICP-MS, it is decomposed by plasma and the intensity is measured for eachelement, and it is compared with the standard sample to measure the rare earth element.
(Shindo et al. 2009; Kawano and Shimizu 2017).
At least 5 g of powder sample is required to perform all the analyses. Therefore, 1 : 1
pressed pellet and 1 : 2 glass bead fabrication were not possible for Shimohieda 2 (2253),
and REE and some trace elements could not be measured.

4.

Results

4-1.
site

Overview of stone tools made of tuﬃtes excavated from the Shimohieda

Two stone adzes, one pillar-shaped stone adze and one ﬂat-shaped stone adze, which wereexcavated from the Shimohieda site, were analysed (Figure 6, 7).
Shimohieda 1 is the base fragment of a pillar-shaped stone adze excavated from storage
pit no. 21 in district H. It measures 6.6 cm in length, 2.5 cm in width, 3.3 cm in thickness(Figure 6) and 81.99 g in weight. The transverse cross-sectional shape is an oblique
trapezoid, and the direction of the lamina is slightly oblique and longitudinal (Figure 7b).
It slopes down from the inner surface to the base, whereas the upper end of the base isrounded. A few traces of what appears to be the upper edge of the gouge used to secure it
to the handle were noted. The surface is severely weathered and contains a light yellow
coloration (Figure 7a). Indistinct polishing marks are visible on all surfaces.
Shimohieda 2 is a fragment from the base to the centre of the ﬂat-shaped stone adzeexcavated from storage pit no. 156 in district F. It measures 4.7 cm in length, 2.5 cm in© Japanese Archaeological Association

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MORI Takanori, YUHARA Masaki, UMEZAKI Keiji, & KAWANO Yoshinobu

Figure 6. Drawings of stone tools excavated from the Shimohieda site as analysis samples. Data
sources: The drawings were made by the author (Mori). The sample numbers are based on thereport (Nagamine & Suenaga (ed.) 1985).

Figure 7. Photographs of stone tools. a: photograph of Shimohieda 1 (2422), b: photograph ofpolished surface of Shimohieda 1 (2422), c: photograph of Shimohieda 2 (2253), d: photograph ofpolished surface of Shimohieda 2 (2253). The red lines in these photos are the cut lines.

width, 0.95 cm in thickness (Figure 6) and is 21.03 g in weight. The planar and transverse
shapes are rectangular, whereas the direction of the lamina is slightly oblique andlongitudinal (Figure 7d). The outer and inner surfaces are ﬂat, and the longitudinal crosssectional shapes are parallel from the centre to the top of the base. The surface is severely
weathered and exhibits a light yellow coloration (Figure 7c). Indistinct polishing marks arevisible on all surfaces.
Based on pottery types and chronological studies of stone adzes (Shimojo 1996, 1997),© Japanese Archaeological Association

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ESTIMATING THE SOURCES OF STONE TOOLS MADE OF TUFFITES DURING THE YAYOI PERIOD AND THEIR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Shimohieda 1 and 2 are inferred to have been produced in the late-early to early-middle
Yayoi period.

4-2.

Chemical composition of tuﬃtes

5.

Discussion

5-1.

Estimation of stone sources using the chemical composition of tuﬃtes

Table 1 presents the results of the chemical analyses of the tuﬃtes. The SiO2 content of
tuﬃtes of the Mt. Uibong-san ranges from 50.0 to 65.9 wt%, which nearly overlaps withthe compositional ranges of the tuﬃtes in the Murasaki River and Kuro River basins(46.2–64.8 wt%: 43 data from 24 samples; Umezaki and Yuhara 2016; Yuhara et al. 2020).
In the variation diagram of the major elements (Figure 8), the compositional ranges oftuﬃtes of the Murasaki River and Kuro River basins overlap with those of the tuﬃtes of
Mt. Uibong-san. Meanwhile, in the variation diagram of trace elements (Figure 9), many
elements overlap with the compositional range of tuﬃtes in the Murasaki River and Kuro
River basins. The contents of Cr, Nb, Ni, Th, and Zr tend to be higher than these, althougha few overlaps were noted. In contrast, the Sr content tends to be lower, and the V content
tends to be slightly lower, although they also overlap. The chemical composition of thestone tools excavated from the Shimohieda site is nearly within the composition range ofthe tuﬃtes from Mt. Uibong-san, Korea.
Table 2 provides the results of the analyses of REEs. The REE patterns of tuﬃtes
normalised by C-1 chondrites (Anders & Grevesse 1989) (Figure 10) all demonstratea decreasing rightward pattern rich in light REEs and poor in heavy REEs. Although
diﬀerences were noted in the elemental content, distinguishing the stone sources remains
diﬃcult because of the absence of a clear pattern of diﬀerences.

The elemental content variation diagrams in Figure 8 and 9 illustrate the whole-rockchemical compositions of the tuﬃtes of the Murasaki River, Kuro River basins and of
Mt. Uibong-san, which displayed overlapping compositional ranges. The Cr, Nb, Ni, Th,
and Zr contents of the tuﬃtes of Mt. Uibong-san were higher than those of the tuﬃtes ofthe Murasaki River and Kuro River basins, whereas the Sr and V contents were lower.
However, distinguishing the tuﬃtes of the two regions using these variation diagrams
alone is diﬃcult. Therefore, this study intended to classify them using a ternary diagramthat can be compared using the ratio of the content of the three elements. In this regard, the
Cr–V–Rb, Sr–V–10Th, Ga–Th–Pb, and 10Ni–10Th–Sr diagrams were relatively eﬀective(Figure 11). However, using a combination of the four diagrams proved more eﬀective
because determining each ternary diagram by itself is diﬃcult.
The tuﬃte stone tools excavated from the Shimohieda site are plotted within the© Japanese Archaeological Association

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MORI Takanori, YUHARA Masaki, UMEZAKI Keiji, & KAWANO Yoshinobu

Table 1.

Whole-rock chemical compositions of tuﬃtes and stone tools
Tuﬃte from Mt. Uibong-san

Sample No.

Ktuf01

Ktuf02

Ktuf03

Ktuf04

Ktuf05

Ktuf06

Ktuf07

Ktuf08

SiO2 (wt%)
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3*

59.89
0.76
15.63

51.88
0.65
12.86

57.55
0.70
13.63

52.12
0.67
13.43

57.09
0.81
14.91

56.21
0.66
13.48

49.96
0.44
9.78

55.63
0.67
13.63

MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K 2O
P2O5
L.O.I.
Total

5.32
0.08
3.65
9.12
1.46
2.81
0.18
1.14
100.04

5.33
0.19
3.26
15.49
1.36
2.42
0.16
5.99
99.59

4.84
0.15
3.45
11.40
1.54
4.06
0.17
2.79
100.28

5.19
0.18
3.20
16.30
1.25
2.22
0.17
4.91
99.64

7.82
0.09
4.33
9.16
1.14
2.71
0.18
1.60
99.84

5.39
0.17
3.39
12.46
1.25
3.40
0.16
3.87
100.44

2.81
0.33
1.79
19.12
1.90
2.31
0.10
10.85
99.39

5.68
0.18
3.65
12.25
1.24
3.32
0.17
4.03
100.45As (ppm)
Ba
Cr
Cu
Ga
Nb
Ni
Pb
Rb
S
Sr
Th
V
Y
Zn
Zr

29
644
99
<4
20
19
59
16
113
n.d.
352
18
106
34
71
208

<4
303
86
23
17
16
55
13
152
215
361
13
86
35
160
172

12
625
95
<4
15
17
55
15
172
16
396
13
88
32
64
208

5
401
82
41
16
16
51
12
98
85
323
14
87
32
109
194

5
583
111
27
19
20
72
17
103
9
320
17
97
33
99
250

<4
487
86
<4
16
16
44
10
188
56
343
14
89
34
82
177

20
532
53
<4
11
11
27
21
72
42
394
7
54
20
43
151

<4
470
81
<4
17
16
47
9
182
54
336
14
87
34
82
181

*: total iron as Fe 2O3, L.O.I.: loss on ignition, n.d.: not detected.

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Table 1.

Continued
Tuﬃte from Mt. Uibong-san

Sample No.

Ktuf09

Ktuf10

Ktuf11

Ktuf12

Ktuf13

Ktuf14

Ktuf15

Ktuf16

SiO2 (wt%)
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3*

57.13
0.69
13.81

50.84
0.64
12.51

57.43
0.67
13.45

62.47
0.72
15.80

61.85
0.69
15.41

63.09
0.69
15.39

63.38
0.54
15.23

63.11
0.54
13.69

MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
L.O.I.
Total

4.98
0.15
3.54
10.50
1.70
4.08
0.17
2.79
99.54

5.23
0.20
3.19
16.44
1.36
2.18
0.16
7.03
99.78

4.91
0.17
3.60
10.60
1.64
4.43
0.16
2.28
99.34

5.54
0.09
3.02
4.54
3.32
2.81
0.14
1.24
99.69

5.20
0.05
2.95
3.73
3.28
3.94
0.20
1.86
99.16

5.53
0.08
2.95
4.37
3.35
2.56
0.14
1.10
99.25

4.49
0.06
3.03
3.90
4.69
2.56
0.14
1.09
99.11

4.44
0.13
4.01
4.22
5.29
3.22
0.15
0.70
99.50

As (ppm)
Ba
Cr
Cu
Ga
Nb
Ni
Pb
Rb
S
Sr
Th
V
Y
Zn
Zr

12
658
96
n.d.
15
17
56
16
162
15
398
14
86
31
52
209

<4
248
88
15
17
17
52
12
142
165
361
13
82
34
109
178

11
675
92
16
15
18
55
14
183
14
387
14
89
32
57
211

12
355
90
20
19
16
43
23
114
n.d.
144
14
105
28
79
154

12
505
65
18
18
16
29
19
181
268
226
13
94
27
70
206

12
324
83
9
20
15
45
19
116
n.d.
137
13
102
27
81
150

7
324
83
9
15
15
45
7
82
n.d.
499
11
74
22
51
140

5
361
67
<4
11
12
27
15
165
n.d.
132
12
64
23
76
204

*: total iron as Fe 2O3, L.O.I.: loss on ignition, n.d.: not detected.

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MORI Takanori, YUHARA Masaki, UMEZAKI Keiji, & KAWANO Yoshinobu

Table 1.

Continued
Tuﬃte from Mt. Uibong-san

Shimohieda Site

Sample No.

Ktuf17

Ktuf18

Ktuf19Ktuf202253

2422

SiO2 (wt%)
TiO2
Al2O3
Fe2O3*

65.86
0.54
14.07

55.68
0.66
15.62

60.67
0.57
13.55

65.84
0.72
15.58

56.26
0.75
15.50

52.15
0.73
17.18

MnO
MgO
CaO
Na2O
K2O
P2O5
L.O.I.
Total

3.74
0.06
3.31
3.45
3.61
3.25
0.13
1.42
99.44

5.34
0.08
3.75
6.50
3.13
3.80
0.13
4.37
99.06

4.57
0.08
3.15
4.69
4.24
1.98
0.20
5.69
99.39

5.27
0.05
1.91
2.42
3.11
3.10
0.13
1.24
99.37

7.27
0.10
3.86
9.92
0.82
3.79
0.18
0.95
99.40

7.15
0.11
4.14
10.85
0.80
3.44
0.18
2.71
99.44

As (ppm)
Ba
Cr
Cu
Ga
Nb
Ni
Pb
Rb
S
Sr
Th
V
Y
Zn
Zr

<4
460
77
<4
16
12
34
11
129
n.d.
295
10
70
20
54
190

9
683
72
4
19
15
43
18
163
35
356
14
98
27
76
182

14
396
70
20
15
11
28
8
59
48
201
9
74
19
63
171

<4
355
85
20
19
17
41
20
150
9
136
14
85
35
71
219

—
743
84
52
—
19
61
—
132
366
443
—
106
35
98
171

7
596
111
24
21
18
90
19
132
508
447
19
125
34
56
138

*: total iron as Fe2O3, L.O.I.: loss on ignition, n.d.: not detected.

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ESTIMATING THE SOURCES OF STONE TOOLS MADE OF TUFFITES DURING THE YAYOI PERIOD AND THEIR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Figure 8. Diagrams showing major element variation in SiO2 content for samples of tuﬃte andstone tool. Data sources: Umezaki & Yuhara (2016), Yuhara et al. (2020) and this study. Light grey:
range of tuﬃtes from the Murasaki River and Kuro River basins (43 data from 24 samples). Dark
grey: range of tuﬃtes from the Yakiyama River (5 data from 2 samples)compositional ranges of the tuﬃtes of Mt. Uibong-san in the abovementioned ternary
diagrams (Figure 11).
Therefore, the stone source of these stone tools is estimated to be Mt. Uibong-san in
Korea.
The REE patterns of the tuﬃtes indicate a similar downward pattern, with light REErich and heavy REE-poor elements (Figure 10). Therefore, classifying the stone sources
using the diﬀerence in patterns is impossible. In this regard, the patterns are similar, but
the elemental contents are diﬀerent; therefore, this study compared the total REE content.
The REE contents are 133.97–167.01 ppm in the Murasaki River and Kuro River basins,© Japanese Archaeological Association

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MORI Takanori, YUHARA Masaki, UMEZAKI Keiji, & KAWANO Yoshinobu

Figure 9. Diagrams showing minor element variation in SiO2 content for samples of tuﬃte andstone tool. Symbols are the same as those in Figure 8. Data sources: Umezaki & Yuhara (2016),
Yuhara et al. (2020) and this study. Light grey: range of tuﬃtes from the Murasaki River and Kuro
River basins (43 data from 24 samples). Dark grey: range of tuﬃtes from the Yakiyama River (5data from 2 samples)© Japanese Archaeological Association

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ESTIMATING THE SOURCES OF STONE TOOLS MADE OF TUFFITES DURING THE YAYOI PERIOD AND THEIR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Table 2.

Rare earth element (REE) compositions of tuﬃtes and stone tool

Sample No.

Ktuf03

Ktuf09

Ktuf10

Ktuf13

Ktuf162422

La (ppm)
Ce
Pr
Nd
Sm
Eu
Gd
Tb
Dy
Ho
Er
Tm
Yb
Lu
Total REE
Hf
Ta
U

44.57
85.14
11.16
38.27
6.83
1.57
6.36
0.92
4.51
0.82
2.48
0.34
2.45
0.38
205.80
5.10
1.20
2.42

48.97
89.53
11.69
40.40
7.31
1.54
5.53
0.94
4.82
0.85
2.64
0.37
2.63
0.43
217.65
5.90
1.29
2.36

49.66
91.76
12.04
42.66
7.91
1.86
6.11
1.07
5.27
0.94
2.87
0.39
2.71
0.44
225.69
4.83
1.17
2.53

36.22
67.09
9.04
32.51
6.05
1.39
4.82
0.80
4.03
0.71
2.15
0.30
2.11
0.35
167.57
5.01
1.05
2.28

30.44
59.79
7.57
26.32
4.90
1.02
3.92
0.68
3.49
0.62
1.89
0.27
1.86
0.28
143.05
4.99
1.05
2.53

50.84
101.88
12.88
44.24
8.01
1.70
6.91
1.00
4.96
0.88
2.66
0.37
2.68
0.41
239.42
3.68
1.21
3.16

114.39 ppm in the Yakiyama River basin and 143.05–225.69 ppm in Mt. Uibong-san;however, tuﬃtes in Mt. Uibong-san tend to display higher values. The variation of thetotal REE contents with SiO2 contents (Figure 12) indicates that the total REE contentsof the tuﬃtes of Mt. Uibong-san tend to decrease with the increase in SiO2 contents.
Furthermore, the rate of decrease seems to increase with SiO2 contents at approximately 60
wt. %. Moreover, reading the trend on the side of high SiO2 contents is diﬃcult because of
the small number of samples from the Murasaki River, Kuro River, and Yakiyama Riverbasins. However, the results clearly indicate total REE contents lower than those of Mt.
Uibong-san. Therefore, a possibility exists that this ﬁgure can also be used to classify stonesources. The tuﬃte stone tool (Shimohieda 1) excavated from the Shimohieda site show ahigh total REE content of 239.42 ppm and are plotted on the Mt. Uibong-san side. Thus,
REE analyses of a larger number of rock samples are required to verify the validity of thisﬁgure.

© Japanese Archaeological Association

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MORI Takanori, YUHARA Masaki, UMEZAKI Keiji, & KAWANO Yoshinobu

Figure 10. C-1 chondrite-normalized rare earth element (REE) abundances of tuﬃtes and stone
tool. Normalization values are quoted after from Anders & Grevesse (1989). Data sources: Yuhara
et al. (2020) and this study. Light grey line: Murasaki River and Kuro River basins. Dark grey line:
Yakiyama River

5-2. Archaeological signiﬁcance of estimating the sources of tuﬃte stone tools

According to previous studies, the production and distribution of stone tools during the
Yayoi period were generally considered a result of the development of high-quality stone
production sites in Kyushu Island during the ﬁrst half of the Yayoi period. Furthermore,they pointed to the emergence of stone tools that could be distributed over a wide area as aresult of the division of labour among small regions (e.g., Shimojo 1989; Teramae 2011).
However, the results of our analyses demonstrated that tuﬃte stone tools were sought
outside Kyushu Island and that the products were distributed over a wide area, whichsuggested that the production and consumption systems of stone tools were multilayered.
This ﬁnding is in contrast to those of previous studies. Especially during the late-early
to early-middle Yayoi period, the distribution of stone tools may have been establishedand developed as a result of external inﬂuences, such as the arrival of people from thesouthern part of the Korean Peninsula. At present, the Harunotsuji site in Iki City, Nagasaki© Japanese Archaeological Association

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ESTIMATING THE SOURCES OF STONE TOOLS MADE OF TUFFITES DURING THE YAYOI PERIOD AND THEIR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

Figure 11. Ternary diagrams for presumption place of production of tuﬃte stone tool. Data
sources: Umezaki & Yuhara (2016), Yuhara et al. (2020) and this study. a: Cr-V-Rb diagram, b: SrV-10Th diagram, c: Ga-Th-Pb diagram, d: 10Ni-10Th-Sr diagram. Light grey: range of tuﬃtes from
the Murasaki River and Kuro River basins (43 data from 24 samples). Dark grey: range of tuﬃtes
from the Yakiyama River (5 data from 2 samples)

Figure 12. Diagrams showing total rare earth element (REE) variation in SiO2 content for
samples of tuﬃte and stone tool. Data sources: Yuhara et al. (2020) and this study

Prefecture, is the only site from which a large number of uncompleted stone adzes madeof tuﬃtes and materials related to their production process have been excavated. This
raises the probability of the hypothesis that tuﬃte stone adzes were distributed using theHarunotsuji site as a production base and transit point (Mori 2013). However, petrologicaland geochemical analyses of stone tools excavated from the Harunotsuji site is a futureissue.
Moreover, many sites, where tuﬃte stone adzes were excavated, were well known tohave reworked cast iron axes (Mori 2013). This notion suggests that reworked cast ironaxes were included in the distribution of stone adzes in the late-early to early-middle
Yayoi period. Moreover, reworked cast iron axes may have been included in the category© Japanese Archaeological Association

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MORI Takanori, YUHARA Masaki, UMEZAKI Keiji, & KAWANO Yoshinobu

of tools related to woodworking activities. Although the majority of the tuﬃte stone adzes
were excavated from the northern Kyushu region, they were also distributed sporadicallythroughout western Japan in the late-early to early-middle Yayoi period, including the
Nakakuwano site in Kōge Town, Fukuoka Prefecture; the Ōkubo site in Saijō City, Ehime
Prefecture; the Nishikawazu site in Matsue City, Shimane Prefecture; and the Yōkaichi
Jikata site in Komatsu City, Ishikawa Prefecture. Although whether the tuﬃte stone adzes
and cast iron axe fragments were distributed in a set relationship remains unknown,
visualising that they were distributed in entirely diﬀerent contexts is diﬃcult because of
their similar distribution.
Furthermore, a trend was noted in the consumption patterns, with many of the tuﬃtestone adzes being highly used and shrunken. This tendency indicates that the use value of
tuﬃte stone adzes was higher than those made of other stone materials. The stone adzes
for woodworking were a foreign cultural element that originated from the Mumun cultureof the southern Korean Peninsula. Moreover, the fact that it was obtained from outside therange of everyday communication adds a new faraway value, which may have resulted inits prolonged use.
The ﬁrst half of the Yayoi period, when tuﬃte stone tools were actively used, was theperiod when metal tools, such as reworked cast iron tools, began to be used in the Japanesearchipelago. The results of the estimation of the sources of the tuﬃte stone tools presented
in this study reﬂect the cultural contact between groups across the straits during thetransition from stone to iron tools.

6.

Conclusion

This paper compares the whole-rock chemical composition of tuﬃtes from the Lower
Cretaceous Wakino Subgroup and Mt. Uibong-san in Korea to estimate the source ofmaterials for tuﬃte stone tools. The results demonstrated that four ternary diagrams using
trace element content and total REE content were eﬀective in distinguishing between
the two stone sources. A geochemical analysis of the stone adzes excavated from the
Shimohieda site and an investigation of the sources of the stone materials using theseﬁgures revealed that the chemical composition of the stone tools was within the chemicalcomposition range of tuﬃtes from Mt. Uibong-san, Korea. Therefore, this study presumes
that the stone tools excavated from the Shimohieda site are made of tuﬃtes from Korea.
In the ﬁrst half of the Yayoi period, when tuﬃte stone tools were widely used, metal tools,
such as cast iron reworked tools began to be used in the Japanese archipelago. These
results suggest cultural contact between groups across the straits during this period.
The stone tools of the Yayoi period are characterised by the extensive use of sedimentaryrocks, such as tuﬃte, as agricultural tools and weapon-shaped stone tools, such as polished© Japanese Archaeological Association

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ESTIMATING THE SOURCES OF STONE TOOLS MADE OF TUFFITES DURING THE YAYOI PERIOD AND THEIR ARCHAEOLOGICAL SIGNIFICANCE

stone daggers. Analyses of the sources of stone tools over a wide area in Japan and Korea
are important in examining the historical process of how cultural elements of the Mumun
pottery culture, which originated from the southern part of the Korean Peninsula, became
accepted and localised in the Japanese archipelago. Moreover, the study highlights theactual conditions of the bearers of this culture.
Nevertheless, only one lithic material could be analysed for Ga, Th, Pb, and REEs
because of the low mass of the samples. Moreover, the investigation was limited by thenature of the material as a cultural property because the analysis required destruction. To
increase the accuracy of the estimation of the stone sources, future studies should increase
the number of materials analysed.

Acknowledgements
This study was conducted with the cooperation of Yuhei Yamaguchi and Takuya Kasagi
and with the permission of the Board of Education of Yukuhashi City. Assistance wasreceived from Dr. Whang Chang-Han of the Ulsan Research Institute of Cultural Heritage
for the ﬁeld survey in Korea. This study was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant
Numbers JP18K12555 and JP21K00970.

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rocks using powder pellets by RIGAKU ZSX100e]. Fukuoka University science
reports 34(1): 43–49. 柚原雅樹・古川直道・田口幸洋 2004「粉末ペレット法による珪酸塩・炭酸塩岩石の微量元素の蛍光 X 線分析」
『福岡大学理学集報』第 34 巻 1 号、pp. 43–49.
YUHARA Masaki and TAGUCHI Sachihiro 2003a. Keikō Xsen bunsekisōchi ZSX100eniyoru keisannenganseki no syuseibun oyobi biryō genso no teiryō bunseki [Major
and trace element analyses of silicate rocks using X-ray ﬂuorescence spectrometer
ZSX100e]. Fukuoka University science reports 33(1): 25–34. 柚原雅樹・田口幸洋 2003a「蛍光 X 線分析装置 ZSX100e による珪酸塩岩石の主成分および微量元素の定量分析 」『福岡大学理学集報』第 33 巻 1 号、pp. 25–34.
YUHARA Masaki and TAGUCHI Sachihiro 2003b. Garasubi-dohō ni-yoru keisannenganseki
no Co oyobi S no keikō Xsen bunseki [X-ray ﬂuorescence analysis of Co and S ofsilicate rocks using glass beads by ZSX100e]. Fukuoka University science reports 33(2):77–81. 柚原雅樹・田口幸洋 2003b「ガラスビード法による珪酸塩岩石の Co および Sの蛍光 X 線分析」
『福岡大学理学集報』第 33 巻 2 号、pp. 77–81.
YUHARA Masaki and TAGUCHI Sachihiro 2006. Garasubi-dohō ni-yoru tansannenganseki
no syuseibun oyobi biryō genso no keikō Xsen bunseki [X-ray ﬂuorescence analysis
of major and trace elements of glass beads made from carbonate rocks using RIGAKUZSX100e analyzer]. Fukuoka University science reports 36(2): 29–35. 柚原雅樹・田口幸洋 2006「ガラスビード法による炭酸塩岩石の主成分および微量元素の蛍光 X 線分
析」
『福岡大学理学集報』第 36 巻 2 号、pp. 29–35.
YUHARA Masaki, UMEZAKI Keiji, MORI Takanori and KAWANO Yoshinobu
2020. Hokubu Kyushu, kabu hakuakei Wakinoasōgun no iwayuru sōkaigan no
zengankagakusosei [Whole-rock chemical compositions of “tuﬃtes” from the lower
Cretaceous Wakino Subgroup, Kanmon Group in northern Kyushu]. Earth Science(Chikyū Kagaku) 74: 157–170. 柚原雅樹・梅﨑惠司・森貴教・川野良信 2020「北部
九州，下部白亜系脇野亜層群のいわゆる層灰岩の全岩化学組成」『地球科学』第 40 巻、pp. 157–170.
漢© Japanese Archaeological Association

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