Accepted Manuscript
Type of manuscript: Regular article

Title: Effects of Two Types of Distractions on the Ratings of Perceived Exertionand Affective Responses during Acute High-intensity Cycling Exercise for faircardiorespiratory fitness level men.

Authors: Shun Wakatabe * 1), Yoichi Hayashi 2)

Affiliation and E-mail1) Graduate School of Sports and Health Studies, Hosei University.
4342 Aihara, Machida, Tokyo, Japan, 194-0298.
shun.wakatabe.6u@stu.hosei.ac.jp
2) Faculty of Letters, Department of Psychology, Hosei University.
2-17-1 Fujimi, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, Japan, 102-8160. y_hayash@hosei.ac.jp

Number of Tables: 6
Number of Figures: 0

Running title: Effects of Distractions on RPE and Affects during High-intensity
Exercise1

Abstract
This study examined the effects of distractions on ratings of perceived exertion (RPE)
and affective responses during acute high intensity cycling exercises. Eighteen young
males (age: 22.2±1.7 years) visited the laboratory on four sessions. Participants
performed three experimental trials following an incremental maximal test. During the．
three trials, participants performed cycling exercises at 70% VO2max for 20 min under
three conditions: control, active distraction, and involuntary distraction. The participants
rated their overall and peripheral RPE at 5 min intervals during the 20 min cycling
period. Participants’ affective responses were assessed before and after cycling
including positive engagement (PE), negative affect (N-affect), and tranquility. There
were no significant differences in RPEs among the three conditions. For affective
responses, a significant main effect of condition was seen only for N-affect. This study
suggested that active and involuntary distractions do not influence perceived exertion
when participants perform 20-min vigorous-intensity exercises. One possible reason for
the result is that inadequate method used as active distraction. Further research is
required to examine the appropriate methods that promote distraction from bodily
sensations during high-intensity exercise.

Keywords: active distraction, involuntary distraction, RPE, Waseda Affect Scale of
Exercise and Durable Activity2

日本語タイトル：2 種類の分離的方略の使用が，一過性の高強度サイクリング運動に伴う自覚的運動強度と感情反応に及ぼす影響．
著者：若田部舜 1)，林

容市 1, 2)所属：
1）法政大学大学院スポーツ健康学研究科，東京都町田市相原町 4342，194-0298
2）法政大学文学部心理学科，東京都千代田区富士見 2-17-1，102-8160.
日本語抄録：本研究は，外部注意方略が一過性の高強度サイクリング運動中の自覚的運動強度（RPE）と感情反応に及ぼす影響について検討することを目的とした．18 人の健常男性（年齢：22.2±1.7 歳）を対象とした．対象者は，漸増負荷試験実施後，3回の実験試行を行った．3 回の実験試行では，対象者は，コントロール条件，能動的．

外部注意条件，非能動的外部注意条件の 3 つの条件下で，70% VO2max のサイクリング
運動を 20 分間行った．20 分間のサイクリング運動中，対象者は 5 分間隔で全体的なRPE，脚部の RPE を評価した．また，サイクリング運動実施前後に感情反応（高揚感，否定的感情，落ち着き感）を評価した．統計解析の結果，3 つの条件間で両 RPEに有意な差は認められなかった．感情反応については，否定的感情において有意な条
件の主効果が認められたが，高揚感，落ち着き感には有意な条件の主効果は認められなかった．今回の結果は，20 分間の高強度運動を実施する際には，能動的外部注意，
受動的外部注意のどちらを用いても自覚的運動強度が変化しないことを示唆している．今後，高強度運動において身体感覚から注意を逸らす適切な方法を検討する必要
がある．

3

1

Introduction2

Adequate exercise volume is required to promote and maintain health; however,3

excessive perceived exertion inhibits exercise behavior. Perceived exertion and positive4

affective responses are influenced by attentional focus 1-2). However, several studies on

5attentional focus during aerobic exercise did not include adequate exercise volume6

required to promote health. To demonstrate the effectiveness of attentional focus,

7

research should be conducted using sufficient exercise volume to promote health.

8

Exercise intensity above moderate and of adequate duration is important for

9

improving and maintaining health status. The American College of Sports Medicine 3)

10．
recommends moderate-intensity (46–63% maximal oxygen uptake [VO2max]) aerobic

11．
exercise for a minimum of 30-min or vigorous-intensity (64–90% VO2max) aerobic

12

exercise for a minimum of 20-min to promote and maintain health. Moderate-to-

13

vigorous intensity exercises have been shown to be effective in improving

14

cardiorespiratory fitness for cardiac rehabilitation 4). Both 20-min and 40-min moderate

15(60% heart rate reserve [HRR]) and vigorous (80% HRR) exercise increases brain-

16

derived neurotrophic factor 5). Therefore, adequate exercise volume is needed to17

improve and maintain health. However, increasing the exercise intensity and longer

18

exercise duration leads to enhanced perceived exertion.

19
20

Several studies have suggested that focusing on bodily sensations increases ratings ofperceived exertion (RPE), whereas distracting attention from bodily sensations4

1

decreases RPE and increases positive affective responses 1-2). A pioneering study by

2

Morgan and Pollock 6) introduced an elite distance runner’s cognition of association and3

dissociation. Association refers to paying attention to bodily sensations, while4

dissociation refers to distracting attention from bodily sensations. Stevinson and Biddle

5

7)

6

inward distraction, and outward distraction. In addition, Brick et al. 2) proposed a new7model of attentional focus of internal sensory monitoring, active self-regulation,

8

outward monitoring, active distraction, and involuntary distraction. Internal sensory

9monitoring may cause an increase in perceived exertion 8-10), whereas active and10

involuntary distraction may cause a decrease in perceived exertion 8, 10-11). Moreover,11

involuntary distraction may positively influence mood changes 12-13) and exercise

12

adherence 14). Based on the parallel processing model 15), intentional distraction from13

bodily sensations might decrease perceived exertion more than non-intentional

14

distraction. Therefore, active distraction during aerobic exercise may result in lower

15

perceived exertion than involuntary distraction. However, no studies have examined the16effects of distraction (active/involuntary) on perceived exertion or affective responses.

17

Moderate-to-vigorous exercise intensity and adequate exercise duration are required18

to demonstrate the effectiveness of active and involuntary distractions during exercise

19

for improving health. For example, Schücker et al. 16) and Neumann and Piercy 17)

20

adopted a 6-min run, but this exercise duration was too short for the time recommended

proposed two-dimensional classification of inward monitoring, outward monitoring,5

1by the ASCM 3). Johnson and Siegel 9) reported that participants in the dissociation2

group rated lower RPE than in the association group during a 15-min cycling task at

3．
．
60%VO2max. Furthermore, RPE during a 10-min cycling task at 75%VO2max was

4

significantly lower in the dissociation than in the association 10). Even in studies

5

suggesting the effect of distraction on RPE 9-10), the exercise duration was insufficient to6maintain or improve health. Therefore, an adequate exercise duration is necessary to

7examine the effectiveness of distraction on perceived exertion.

8

An exercise intensity that allows a clear perception of physical exertion is necessary

9

to examine the effect of distraction on perceived exertion during exercise. Perceived

10exertion increases exponentially with increasing exercise intensity 18), i.e., changes in

11

subjective bodily sensations such as fatigue and pain, may be perceived less at lower

12

exercise intensity than at moderate and higher exercise intensity. Given the nature of the13

perception of exercise intensity, high intensity exercise, in which participants can

14clearly perceive their exertion, should be performed to examine the effect of distraction

15

on perceived exertion. Hayashi et al. 19) suggested that perception of exercise intensity

16．
may be more precise after performing 5-min cycling at 70%VO2max. Robertson 20)

17．
proposed that exercise above 70%VO2max may incur a painful or unpleasant sensation.

18

Therefore, the perception of physical exertion may be inaccurate when the exercise

19．
intensity is below 70%VO2max.

6

1

Given the afore-mentioned findings, our study aimed to examine the effects of2

distractions (active and involuntary) on perceived exertion during a 20-min exercise at

3．
70%VO2max. This exercise duration is adequate to maintain and improve health, and the4exercise intensity is assumed to clearly indicate physical exertion. Our study also aimed

5

to examine the effects of the distractions (active and involuntary) on affective

6

responses. Some studies have reported that involuntary distraction evokes positive

7

mood change 12-13). Examining the effects of differential distraction on perceived

8exertion and affective responses during a 20-min exercise at vigorous intensity, the9effectiveness of distractions for exercise programs or exercise prescriptions might be10suggested. We hypothesized that active distraction would decrease the RPE more than

11

involuntary distraction (H1). We also hypothesized that involuntary distraction would

12

have a more positive effect on affective responses than active distraction (H2).

1314Material and Methods

15

Participants

16

Eighteen healthy males (age: 22.2 ± 1.7 years, height: 170.8 ± 6.0 cm, weight: 67.3 ±17．
9.9 kg, %fat: 16.7 ± 6.5 %, VO2max: 42.5 ± 7.0 mL/min/kg) participated in this study.

18

According to the questionnaire about the physical activity stages of change 21), 4

19

participants were in the preparation stage, 2 in the action stage, and 12 in the20

maintenance stage. In a previous study examining the standard values of7

1．
cardiorespiratory fitness in 367 men aged 20-29 years 22), a VO2peak of 42.8 mLO2/kg/min

2

belonged to the 40-50 percentiles. Therefore, the aerobic capacity of the participants in3

this study can be considered as being of ‘fair level’. All participants provided informed

4

consent before participation. This study was approved by the Research Ethics

5

Committee of the Graduate School of Sports and Health Studies, Hosei University

6(approval number: 2022–12).

7
8
9

Measurements
In our study, two types of perceived exertion (overall and peripheral RPE), affective

10

responses, respiratory parameters, and heart rate (HR) were measured. Overall and11

peripheral perceived exertion (RPEover and RPEperi) were assessed using the Japanese

12

scale for Rating Perceived Exertion 20). For RPEover, the experimenter asked the13participants to honestly indicate the overall physical exertion. For RPEperi, the14participants were asked to honestly indicate the perceived exertion of their legs.

15

Affective responses were measured using the Waseda Affect Scale of Exercise and16

Durable Activity (WASEDA) 21). It consists of 12 items that measure positive

17

engagement (PE), negative affect (N-affect), and tranquility.

18
19

Procedures81

The participants visited the laboratory for four sessions. In the first session, the2participants provided informed consent and their body composition and height were3

measured. After these measurements, the participants completed an incremental

4cycling test (ICT) to volitional exhaustion to assess their aerobic capacity. In the5following three sessions, the participants performed experimental trials under three6

different conditions: control (no specific instructions), active distraction, and7

involuntary distraction.

8
9
10

Incremental cycling test protocol
The participants completed an ICT to volitional exhaustion on an

11electromagnetically stationary cycle ergometer (AEROBIKE 75XLⅡ, COMBI) to

12

assess their aerobic capacity. The workload was increased by 14 or 16 Watt (W) every

13

minute (30 W every 2-min) after a 1-min warm-up at 30 W. The workload could only

14

be changed manually by 2 W; therefore, the workload was calibrated by 2 W.

15

Respiratory data and HR were measured using a respiratory gas analyzer

16(POWERMETS, AT-1100A, ANIMA) and a chest HR monitor (T31C, Polar)

17

throughout the ICT.

18．
Participants VO2max was determined based on two out of the following three criteria

19．
being met 25): 1) a plateau in VO2 (< 150mL/min) despite exercise intensity increase, 2)20

respiratory exchange ratio more than 1.10, and 3) HR reaching 90% of maximal HR
91(HRmax; 206.9 − (0.67 × age)). The HRmax was calculated using the method2．
．
described by Gellish et al. 26). VO2peak was used as the VO2max if none of the criteria were3．
met. Eight participants did not meet the above criteria; therefore, VO2peak was used as

4

．
．
．
VO2max. From the VO2max data, the workloads corresponding to 35% and 70% VO2max

5(35% and 70% Wmax) for each participant were calculated and used for the subsequent

6

experimental trials.

78

Experimental trials

9

After ICT, three experimental cycling tasks were conducted as follows. The cycling

10

task comprised a 5-min warm-up at 35% Wmax, 20-min cycling at 70% Wmax (main task),11

and 5-min cool down. This exercise volume fulfills the ACSM-recommended exercise

12．
volume and improves glucose utilization 27) and VO2max 28). Participants were told the13attentional instructions before each trial and asked to maintain their attention as

14

instructed during the task. The respiratory data and HR were measured during the task

15

using the same ICT apparatus. The RPEover and RPEperi were measured every 5-min

16

during the main task. Affective responses were measured using WASEDA before and17

after cycling. The participants could freely determine their cadence in the range of 55 to18

65 rpm during the task. The bicycle ergometer used in the experiment automatically19

adjusted the resistance such that the workload remained constant, even when the10

1pedaling rate changed. The order of the conditions was random and all sessions were2

separated by at least 24h.

3

We tried to minimize participants attention to the pedaling rate to prevent

4

interference with the intended attentional focus in each condition. Previous studies

5

have reported that pedaling rate changes oxygen uptake 29-31) and perceived exertion 29,

632, 33)7

rate may interfere with the intended attentional focus in each condition. In a previous

8

study comparing oxygen uptake during a 5-min cycling exercise in non-cyclists at five9

pedaling speeds (45, 60, 75, 90, and 105 rpm) at 150 W and 200 W, no significant

10

differences were found in oxygen uptake at 45, 60, and 75 rpm under both loads 31).

11

Further, no significant differences were found in oxygen uptake during 5-min cycling

12．
at 70% VO2max between 40 and 60rpm, and 60 and 80rpm 29). Further, no significant

13

differences were found in the oxygen uptake during 15-min of cycling at constant14

loads between 40, 50, 60 rpm, and 60 and 70rpm 30). Considering these studies on

15．
oxygen uptake, VO2 may not change significantly for differences below 10 rpm. For

16

perceived exertion, a significant difference was found in RPE during 5-min cycling at

17．
70% VO2max between 40 and 60rpm 29). Significant differences were found in leg RPE,

18

chest RPE, and overall RPE at 40 and 60 rpm, and 40 and 80 rpm under 140 W 6-min

19

cycling 32). Given the results of these studies on RPE, a 20 rpm difference in pedaling

20

rate may affect RPE during cycling exercise. Given the influence of pedaling, and the pedaling rate should not be changed. However, attention to the pedaling

11

1

．
frequency on VO2 and perceived exertion during cycling, the pedaling rate of the2experimental trials was freely selected within a range of 55 to 65 rpm, as changes in3．
the pedaling rate within 10 rpm were judged to have no effect on VO2 or perceived

4exertion. In this manner, we attempted to minimize the participants’ attention to the5pedaling rate.

6
7

Attentional Instruction

8

In our study, based on Brick et al., two types of distractions were selected 2). That9

study introduced a new categorization of attentional focus including internal sensory

10

monitoring, outward monitoring, active self-regulation, and active and involuntary

11

distractions. In our study, we focused on the effects of two types of distractions.

12

Active distraction (AD): In the AD condition, participants were asked to listen to four

13

songs and count the number of times specific words were heard. The specific words

14

were “BOKU” and “KIMI” (which means “I” and “You” in English). The participants

15

answered the sum of these words immediately after RPE measurement. The durations of16

the songs were 3:55, 4:48, 5:00, and 4:36 min. The songs were played randomly every

17

5-min during the main task. The words “BOKU” and “KIMI” appeared a total of 11

18

times during the main task. Participants could intentionally distract their attention from19

bodily sensations by counting words.

121Involuntary distraction (ID): In the ID condition, participants were asked to cycle as2they usually do while playing songs. Unlike the AD condition, in the ID condition

3

participants were not given specific instructions regarding songs; therefore, they were4

not asked to count specific words. The songs were identical to those used in the AD

5condition.

6
7
8

Statistical analysis．
% VO2max and % HRmax in every minute during main task were calculated to confirm

9．
the exercise intensity in each condition. Given that VE and respiratory rate (RR) both

10variables may influence RPE 34), both variables were calculated for every minute during

11

the main task. Two-way (condition × time) repeated-measures ANOVA was

12．
conducted to analyze % VO2max and % HRmax under the three conditions. The time13

measured in the analysis was 20-min, excluding the warm-up time. A linear mixed

14

model with compound symmetry was used to examine the effect of the conditions on

15．
VE, RR, RPEover, RPEperi, and each affective response (PE, N-affect, and tranquility).

16

Each condition, measurement time, and interaction were set as fixed effects and17

individual differences were set as random effect. All statistical analyses were performed

18

using IBM SPSS Statistics ver. 29.0 (IBM, Armonk, NY, USA). A post hoc analysis

19

was conducted using Bonferroni adjustment if significant main effects and interactions

13

1

were observed. The significance level for all comparisons was set at P < 0.05. Data are2

presented as means and standard deviations.

3
4

Results

5

The accuracy of word count in AD condition

6

Regarding the number of occurrences of the words “BOKU” and “KIMI”, one

7participant each answered 5, 6, 8, and 10 times, four each answered 12 and 13 times,

8

five answered 14 times, and one answered 15 times. None of the participants answered9

it correctly as 11 times.

10
11
12

．
% VO2max and % HRmax
No significant main effect of condition (F [2, 34] = 1.75, P = 0.19) or interaction (F13．
[38, 646] = 1.25, P = 0.07) was observed for % VO2max; however, a significant main

14

effect of time was observed (F [19, 323] = 145.95, P < 0.01). Oxygen uptake increased15with time until 6 min after the start of the main exercise, and then stabilized.

16．
Similar to % VO2max, no significant main effects of condition (F [2, 34] = 0.47, P =170.63) and interaction (F [38, 646] = 0.86, P = 0.71) were observed for % HRmax;

18

however, a significant main effect of time was observed (F [19, 323] = 208.25, P <190.01). The HR increased with time until the end of the 20-min cycling exercise. ※20

Table 1, 2 insertion.
14

1
2

．
VE and RR

3．
No significant interaction (F [38, 1003] = 0.25, P = 1.00) was observed for VE,

4however, significant main effects of condition (F [2, 1003] = 17.15, P < 0.01) and time5．
(F [19, 1003] = 123.90, P < 0.01) were observed. VE in the control condition was

6

significantly lower than that in the AD and ID conditions. For RR, no significant

7interaction (F [38, 1003] = 0.39, P = 1.00) was observed; however, significant main8effects of condition (F [2, 1003] = 71.16, P < 0.01) and time (F [19, 1003] = 57.28, P <90.01) were observed. RR in the control condition was significantly lower than that in the10．
AD and ID conditions. The VE and RR increased during cycling exercise under all

11

conditions. ※ Table 3, 4 insertion.

12
13

RPEover and RPEperi

14

No significant main effect of condition (F [2, 187] = 0.23, P = 0.79) or interaction (F15[6, 187] = 0.36, P = 0.91) was observed for RPEover; however, a significant main effect16

of time was observed (F [3, 187] = 32.39, P < 0.01). Similar to RPEover, no significant

17main effect of condition (F [2, 187] = 0.93, P = 0.40) or interaction (F [6, 187] = 0.85,

18

P = 0.53) was observed for RPEperi; however, a significant main effect of time was19

observed (F [3, 187] = 29.22, P < 0.01). Both RPEs increased during cycling under all

20

conditions. (Table 5). ※Tables 5 insertion.
15

1
2
3

Affective responses
No significant main effects of condition (F [2, 85] = 0.52, P = 0.60) or interaction (F4[2, 85] = 0.07, P = 0.93) were observed for PE; however, a significant main effect of

5time was observed (F [1, 85] = 38.53, P < 0.01). PE significantly increased after the6task. For the N-affect, significant main effects of condition (F [2, 85] = 4.19, P = 0.02)

7

and time (F [1, 85] = 26.15, P < 0.01) were observed, but no significant interaction was

8observed (F [2, 85] = 0.30, P = 0.74). The N-affect in the AD condition was higher than

9that in the ID condition. In addition, N-affect significantly decreased after the task under10

all conditions. Unlike PE and N-affect, no significant main effect of condition (F [2, 85]11= 0.80, P = 0.45), time (F [1, 85] = 1.66, P = 0.20), or interaction (F [2, 85] = 0.09, P =120.91) were observed for tranquility (Table 6). ※Table 6 insertion

13
14

Discussion

15

The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of active and involuntary

16

distractions on perceived exertion and affective responses during 20-min cycling at

17．
70%VO2max. Our results suggest that both distractions may change the respiratory18

responses. On the other hand, our results suggest that both distractions do not influence

19

perceived exertion and affective responses. One possible reason for these RPE results is16

1that the method used for active distraction may have been inadequate. Our study has2some limitations that warrant further investigation.

3

Our hypothesis (H1) was rejected because there were no significant main effects or

4interaction effects for RPE. A previous study had reported that external focus was used5．
more frequently than internal focus during a 50% VO2max cycling, whereas external

6．
focus was used less frequently than internal focus during a 70% VO2max cycling 35).

7．
Further, exercise intensity above 70% VO2max could be painful or unpleasant 20).

8．
Collectively the above findings along with the experimental condition of mean % VO2max

9．
over 70% VO2max in our study (Table 1), it can be suggested that the participants

10

attention in the control condition might be associative. Therefore, RPEover and RPEperi

11were expected to be lower in the AD and ID conditions than in the control condition.

12

The use of distractions during high intensity exercises may alter the respiratory

13

response. Schücker et al. 36) reported that respiratory rate during 30-min treadmill

14．
running at 85% VO2max was significantly lower when focusing on breathing (internal

15．
focus) than when focusing on video (external focus), whereas VE did not differ among

16

internal focus, external focus, and control. Schücker et al. 37) and Schücker and17

Parrington 38) reported that the RR was lower when focusing on breathing (internal

18．
focus) than when focusing on the surroundings 37) and video, 38) whereas VE did not

19

differ in both conditions. Our finding that the RR was higher in both distractions is

20

consistent with previous findings considering that participants attention is more internal17

1

in the control condition. Therefore, the participant’s attention in control condition in our

2study might be internal focus. And, previous studies have reported that the respiratory

3

volume was higher with internal focus than with external focus and control 36-38).

4

Assuming that in our study, participants’ attention may be more internal in the control

5．
condition, the increase in VE in both distraction conditions could have been caused by

6changes in respiratory volume and RR due to the use of distraction.

7

In our study, RPEover and RPEperi did not change, despite the RR and ventilation

8

rate changed in both distraction conditions. A previous study examined factors

9．
influencing RPE during 30-min of cycling exercise at 48, 60, and 68% VO2max and

10．
indicated that VE contributed significantly to RPE at 5- and 15-min, whereas RR

11contributed significantly to RPE at 30-min 34). Another study by Nicolo et al. 39)

12examined the relationship between respiratory data and perceived exertion using time to13

exhaustion cycling test at 75 and 90% peak power output and suggested that RR was a14

good marker of perceived effort as measured by Borg’s RPE 6-20 scale. Given these15

reports, it is expected that the changes in RR and ventilation during exercise may lead to

16change perceived exertion during exercise.

17

One possible reason for the non-significant main effect of condition on RPE is that18

the method used for active distraction may be inadequate or insufficient to reduce RPE.

19

Based on the parallel processing model 15), the greater the distraction from bodily

20

sensations, the lesser the perceived exertion might be. In our study, participants in the18

1

active distraction group heard four songs and counted specific words. Chow and Etnier

2

40)

3

music and video combined condition was lower than that in music only and video only

4

condition. And, RPE during running at ±10% VT in music and video condition was

5lowest compared to music condition and control condition 41). Given that these studies

6

used both auditory and visual stimuli, the participants’ attention might have been more

7

distracted from their bodily sensations compared to using only music or video as a8

distraction. In our study, participants in the active distraction condition listened only to

9music. Therefore, the method used for active distraction in our study might have been

10

insufficient for distracting bodily sensations. And, none of the participants answered the11correct number of times that specific words heard. It was suggested that the participants

12

in AD condition could not pay attention to songs adequately. Presumably, it was

13

difficult for the participants to focus on counting the specific words during high14

intensity exercise.

reported that RPE during 20-min cycling at 125% ventilatory threshold (VT) in

15

Similar to RPE, our study suggests that active and involuntary distraction did not

16

influence affective responses. Although there was a significant main effect of condition

17

for N-affect, the values of change before and after the experimental trial in the AD and18

ID conditions were 2.34. We concluded that the effect of distraction on N-affect might19

be equivalent because the values of change before and after the experimental trial in the20

AD and ID conditions were the same. A previous study suggested that distraction during
19

1

10-min cycling at RPE 13 was preferable for exercising with a sense of comfort 42). A

2study by Arai et al. 43) suggested that the influence of distraction favored post-walking

3emotions when participants walked below the RPE 13 level. In our study, the RPEover

4

was > 13 at the end of the exercise (Table 5). Collectively these results along with the5results of our study suggest that the effect of distraction on affective responses

6

associated with exercise might be smaller for an exercise intensity above RPE 13.

7

Therefore, higher perceived exertion could lead to a disappearance of the effect of

8

distractions on affective responses. Tranquility increased more during the recovery

9

period than immediately after self-paced exercise 24). In this study, tranquility was

10measured immediately after the task. Therefore, the measurement timing could have11

also influenced the tranquility results. Future studies should examine the influence of12the measurement timing on tranquility and distraction.

13

Our study has some limitations. First, it is unclear whether the same results would be

14

obtained in women because the participants were healthy young male adults. Similar to15

our study, previous studies examining the effect of attentional focus on RPE using

16

constant load cycling exercise reported that RPE was lower in external focus than in

17．
．
internal focus when the participants cycled at 60% VO2max 9) and 75% VO2max 10).

18

Additionally, Aghdaei et al. 44) reported that RPE in dissociative-external focus was

19

lower than that in associative attentional focus when the participants ran at 70 %20

maximum velocity. The participants in these three studies were all females. Considering
20

1

the results of these studies and those of our study, the effect of distraction on the RPE

2

may be more pronounced in women. On the other hand, Hatfields et al. 45) examined the3effects of external focus on RPE during 12-min running at below VT in men. However,4

no other study has examined the effect of attentional focus on the RPE during constant-5

load exercise in men. Therefore, future studies should examine the influence of gender6on the effects of distraction on RPE.

7

Second, other methods may be effective in treating active distractions. In our study,8

we asked participants to count specific words in the music played in the AD condition.

9

Based on the parallel processing model 15), counting the specific words would dissociate

10

participants attention than in the ID condition because participants attention might be11

greatly distracted from bodily sensations. If participants attention is greatly distracted by

12

bodily sensations, perceived exertion would decrease. However, the RPEs values for the13

two distractions in the present study did not differ. Therefore, the distraction levels of

14bodily sensations in the AD and ID conditions may be equivalent. Previous studies have15

used various methods such as counting specific words 11), paying attention to the16environment 10), and watching a video 36) corresponding to active distraction. The RPE

17

in AD and ID conditions might be lower than that in controls using the methods such as

18

paying attention to the environment and watching a video. However, the appropriate

19

methods for active distraction are unclear. Future studies should examine what methods

21

1

are most appropriate for distracting the participant’s attention from their bodily

2sensations.

3

Third, the measurement of RPE and respiratory parameters during the main task may

4

have influenced the RPE results. Corbett et al. 46) reported that measurement frequency

5

influences RPE during submaximal treadmill running. Therefore, the measurement

6frequency in our study could have influenced the RPEover and RPEperi results.

7

Moreover, wearing masks to collect respiratory data during cycling was expected to8

increase breathing focus, and can decrease the attention level of distraction. Future9

studies should examine the effect of distraction on RPE and affective responses in

10

situations in which factors that cause discomfort and inhibit attentional distraction from11

bodily sensations.

12

In conclusion, our results suggested that active and involuntary distractions did not

13．
influence perceived exertion during 20-min cycling at 70% VO2max. Furthermore,

14

distraction may not enhance positive affective responses. One possible reason for these15

results is that the method used as distractions may be inadequate to change perceived

16

exertion and affective responses. On the other hand, both distractions may influence

17．
respiratory responses during 20-min cycling at 70% VO2max. Further studies are required18

to examine how the effects of distraction on perceived exertion and affective responses

19change according to gender and distraction methods. In addition, further studies are22

1

required to examine appropriate methods that promote distraction from bodily

2sensations during high-intensity exercise.

3
4

Contributions: Experiment conception and design: S.W., Y.H. Experiment5

implementation: S. W. Data analysis: S. W. Paper composition: S. W. Analyzing and6

writing advisory: Y.H. All authors approved the final version of the manuscript.

7
8

Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest.

910

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30

．
Table 1. % VO2max during 20-min main cycling in each condition.

1
2

Time
1min

2min

3min

4min

5min

6min

7min

8min

9min

10min

C

49.16 ± 4.79

66.50 ± 4.23

70.37 ± 4.60

71.17 ± 5.46

71.39 ± 6.31

73.50 ± 6.67

73.48 ± 7.02

73.85 ± 6.90

74.11 ± 7.66

73.74 ± 7.19

AD

50.95 ± 4.46

66.75 ± 4.29

69.46 ± 4.97

71.28 ± 5.26

71.58 ± 5.79

73.89 ± 5.81

73.59 ± 6.06

73.55 ± 6.61

73.98 ± 6.61

74.09 ± 7.21

ID

49.74 ± 3.67

66.30 ± 3.13

69.15 ± 4.06

70.64 ± 4.57

71.17 ± 5.29

72.16 ± 5.09

72.41 ± 5.70

72.55 ± 5.89

73.54 ± 6.36

73.18 ± 7.00

Total

49.95 ± 4.32

66.51 ± 3.85

69.66 ± 4.50

71.03 ± 5.02

71.38 ± 5.70

73.18 ± 5.83

73.16 ± 6.19

73.32 ± 6.38

73.88 ± 6.77

73.88 ± 7.01

3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Time

10
11
12
13
14

11min

12min

13min

14min

15min

16min

17min

18min

19min

20min

C

74.31 ± 7.33

74.20 ± 7.03

74.41 ± 7.10

75.05 ± 7.34

74.04 ± 6.90

74.89 ± 6.78

74.12 ± 6.73

75.12 ± 6.63

74.93 ± 6.67

74.80 ± 6.84

AD75.61 ±6.8875.15 ± 6.64

75.21 ± 7.00

75.54 ± 6.93

75.18 ± 7.25

76.40 ± 7.36

76.09 ± 7.65

75.93 ± 7.58

76.06 ± 7.60

75.86 ± 8.30

ID

73.70 ± 6.45

73.91 ± 7.09

74.37 ± 6.43

74.02 ± 6.57

74.14 ± 6.57

74.42 ± 6.47

74.71 ± 7.47

74.50 ± 7.30

75.13 ± 7.45

75.23 ± 7.43

Total

74.54 ± 6.81

74.42 ± 6.81

74.66 ± 6.73

74.87 ± 6.85

74.45 ± 6.80

75.23 ± 6.80

74.97 ± 7.20

75.19 ± 7.06

75.37 ± 7.13

75.30 ± 7.41

15
16
17

．
Note. This table represents the % VO2max during 20-min main cycling in each condition. Mean value and standard deviation were described. C = control condition, AD

18= active distraction condition; ID = involuntary distraction condition. No significant main effect of condition and interaction. Oxygen consumption increased over time19

in all conditions.

20
31

1

Table 2. % HRmax during 20-min main cycling in each condition.

2

Time
1min

2min

3min

4min

5min

6min

7min

8min

9min

10min

C

59.60 ± 5.76

69.20 ± 6.28

72.07 ± 6.11

73.31 ± 6.34

74.76 ± 6.47

76.05 ± 6.40

77.33 ± 6.54

78.22 ± 6.67

79.26 ± 6.69

79.61 ± 6.73

AD

61.78 ± 4.51

69.40 ± 4.99

71.86 ± 4.95

74.20 ± 4.85

75.19 ± 5.18

76.75 ± 4.96

78.47 ± 5.22

79.28 ± 5.22

79.97 ± 5.41

80.01 ± 5.53

ID

61.07 ± 3.99

69.51 ± 4.71

72.44 ± 5.04

73.81 ± 5.63

75.27 ± 5.89

76.56 ± 5.92

78.11 ± 6.38

78.90 ± 6.53

79.79 ± 6.84

80.33 ± 7.04

Total

60.82 ± 4.81

69.37 ± 5.27

72.12 ± 5.29

73.77 ± 5.55

75.07 ± 5.76

76.45 ± 5.69

77.97 ± 5.98

78.80 ± 6.07

79.68 ± 6.23

79.98 ± 6.35

3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Time

10
11
12
13
14
15

11min

12min

13min

14min

15min

16min

17min

18min

19min

20min

C

80.33 ± 6.65

80.85 ± 6.89

81.28 ± 6.55

81.86 ± 6.62

82.21 ± 6.54

82.39 ± 6.48

82.84 ± 6.33

83.54 ± 6.31

83.82 ± 6.37

83.97 ± 6.41

AD

81.17 ± 5.44

81.63 ± 6.05

82.15 ± 5.79

82.76 ± 5.69

83.06 ± 5.90

83.03 ± 5.69

83.89 ± 5.90

84.22 ± 5.66

84.51 ± 5.38

84.56 ± 5.55

ID

80.85 ± 6.93

81.54 ± 7.22

82.03 ± 7.21

82.31 ± 7.32

82.58 ± 7.33

82.87 ± 7.36

83.30 ± 7.05

83.68 ± 7.56

84.14 ± 7.31

84.17 ± 7.58

Total

80.78 ± 6.26

81.34 ± 6.62

81.82 ± 6.43

82.31 ± 6.46

82.62 ± 6.50

82.76 ± 6.43

83.35 ± 6.34

83.81 ± 6.44

84.16 ± 6.29

84.23 ± 6.45

16Note. This table represents the % HRmax during 20-min main cycling in each condition. Mean value and standard deviation were described. C = control condition, AD

17= active distraction condition; ID = involuntary distraction condition. No significant main effect of condition and interaction. HR increased over time in all conditions.

18
19
32

1

．
Table 3. VE during 20-min main cycling in each condition.

2

Time
1min

2min

3min

4min

5min

6min

7min

8min

9min

10min

C

59.60 ± 5.76

69.20 ± 6.28

72.07 ± 6.11

73.31 ± 6.34

74.76 ± 6.47

76.05 ± 6.40

77.33 ± 6.54

78.22 ± 6.67

79.26 ± 6.69

79.61 ± 6.73

AD

61.78 ± 4.51

69.40 ± 4.99

71.86 ± 4.95

74.20 ± 4.85

75.19 ± 5.18

76.75 ± 4.96

78.47 ± 5.22

79.28 ± 5.22

79.97 ± 5.41

80.01 ± 5.53

ID

61.07 ± 3.99

69.51 ± 4.71

72.44 ± 5.04

73.81 ± 5.63

75.27 ± 5.89

76.56 ± 5.92

78.11 ± 6.38

78.90 ± 6.53

79.79 ± 6.84

80.33 ± 7.04

Total

60.82 ± 4.81

69.37 ± 5.27

72.12 ± 5.29

73.77 ± 5.55

75.07 ± 5.76

76.45 ± 5.69

77.97 ± 5.98

78.80 ± 6.07

79.68 ± 6.23

79.98 ± 6.35

3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Time

10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18

11min

12min

13min

14min

15min

16min

17min

18min

19min

20min

C

80.33 ± 6.65

80.85 ± 6.89

81.28 ± 6.55

81.86 ± 6.62

82.21 ± 6.54

82.39 ± 6.48

82.84 ± 6.33

83.54 ± 6.31

83.82 ± 6.37

83.97 ± 6.41

AD

81.17 ± 5.44

81.63 ± 6.05

82.15 ± 5.79

82.76 ± 5.69

83.06 ± 5.90

83.03 ± 5.69

83.89 ± 5.90

84.22 ± 5.66

84.51 ± 5.38

84.56 ± 5.55

ID

80.85 ± 6.93

81.54 ± 7.22

82.03 ± 7.21

82.31 ± 7.32

82.58 ± 7.33

82.87 ± 7.36

83.30 ± 7.05

83.68 ± 7.56

84.14 ± 7.31

84.17 ± 7.58

Total

80.78 ± 6.26

81.34 ± 6.62

81.82 ± 6.43

82.31 ± 6.46

82.62 ± 6.50

82.76 ± 6.43

83.35 ± 6.34

83.81 ± 6.44

84.16 ± 6.29

84.23 ± 6.45．
Note. This table represents the minute ventilation (VE) during 20-min main cycling in each condition. Mean value and standard deviation were described. C = control．
condition, AD = active distraction condition; ID = involuntary distraction condition. Significant main effects of condition and time were observed. VE in control．
condition was lower than that in AD and ID condition. And VE increased over time in all conditions.

19
33

1

Table 4. RR during 20-min main cycling in each condition.

2

Time
1min

2min

3min

4min

5min

6min

7min

8min

9min

10min

C

24.07 ± 4.63

26.74 ± 5.40

28.75 ± 4.76

29.70 ± 5.32

30.55 ± 4.53

31.04 ± 4.53

31.55 ± 4.72

31.92 ± 5.00

32.09 ± 4.66

32.40 ± 4.55

AD

25.76 ± 3.06

29.11 ± 3.73

31.11 ± 3.52

32.17 ± 3.65

32.79 ± 3.65

33.55 ± 3.93

34.59 ± 4.25

35.39 ± 4.59

36.20 ± 5.27

35.41 ± 5.91

ID

25.31 ± 4.37

28.08 ± 4.21

29.89 ± 4.73

31.15 ± 4.79

31.86 ± 4.41

32.83 ± 5.25

33.43 ± 5.30

33.83 ± 5.74

34.76 ± 5.26

34.89 ± 5.43

Total

25.05 ± 4.06

27.98 ± 4.52

29.91 ± 4.40

31.01 ± 4.67

31.73 ± 4.24

32.47 ± 4.64

33.19 ± 4.85

33.71 ± 5.23

34.35 ± 5.26

34.23 ± 5.39

3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Time

10
11
12
13
14
15

11min

12min

13min

14min

15min

16min

17min

18min

19min

20min

C

33.12 ± 5.42

33.70 ± 5.06

33.99 ± 5.85

35.20 ± 6.35

35.92 ± 6.55

35.90 ± 7.51

36.34 ± 7.77

36.35 ± 7.69

36.69 ± 7.61

37.31 ±7.64

AD36.98 ± 5.56

38.16 ± 6.14

38.37 ± 5.58

38.64 ± 6.14

38.08 ± 6.77

39.04 ± 7.00

39.79 ± 6.87

40.24 ± 6.48

40.88 ± 6.23

40.94 ± 6.53

ID

35.13 ± 5.38

35.19 ± 5.32

35.58 ± 5.69

36.58 ± 6.12

36.38 ± 6.54

37.26 ± 6.78

37.05 ± 6.67

37.25 ± 7.69

37.84 ± 7.87

39.20 ± 8.68

Total

35.08 ± 5.58

35.68 ± 5.74

35.98 ± 5.89

36.81 ± 6.25

36.79 ± 6.56

37.40 ± 7.09

37.73 ± 7.14

37.95 ± 7.36

38.47 ± 7.35

39.15 ± 7.67

16

Note. This table represents the respiratory rate (RR) during 20-min main cycling in each condition. Mean value and standard deviation were described. C = control

17

condition, AD = active distraction condition; ID = involuntary distraction condition. Significant main effects of condition and time were observed. RR in control

18

condition was lower than that in AD and ID condition. And RR increased over time in all conditions.

19
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1

Table 5. Mean RPE in each condition and statistical analysis.
Condition

ANOVAControl

ActiveDistraction

Involuntary
Distraction

12.67(1.33)
13.61(1.38)
14.39(1.46)
14.67(1.14)
13.83(1.52)

12.72(1.60)
13.78(1.59)
14.50(1.72)
14.78(1.83)
13.94(1.84)

13.11(1.08)
13.67(1.14)
14.39(1.46)
14.56(1.42)
13.93(1.39)

13.67(1.14)
14.56(1.82)
15.22(1.90)
15.83(1.58)
14.82(1.79)

13.67(1.81)
15.00(1.61)
15.56(2.01)
15.94(2.10)
15.04(2.04)

14.28(1.41)
15.00(1.41)
15.22(1.48)
15.67(1.81)
15.04(1.59)

EffectF ratio

P value

C

0.23

0.79

T

32.39

< 0.01

C×T

0.36

0.91

C

0.93

0.40

T

29.22

< 0.01

C×T

0.85

0.53

RPE overall
5min
10min
15min
20min
Total
RPE peripheral
5min
10min
15min
20min
Total

2

Note. Standard deviations are presented in parentheses. In the ANOVA columns, C represents the3

condition effect, T represents the measurement time effect, and C ×T represents the condition and4measurement time interaction.

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1

Table 6. Descriptive statistics for affective responses and the results of statistical analysis.
Time

ANOVA

Pre

Post

EffectF ratio

P value

Control

9.67(3.09)

12.72(3.30)

C

0.52

0.60

ActiveDistraction

9.00(2.43)

12.28(3.37)

T

38.53< 0.01

Involuntary
Distraction

9.11(2.03)

12.22(2.92)

C ×T

0.07

0.93

Control

7.28(2.99)

5.50(1.92)

C

4.19

0.02

ActiveDistraction

8.28(2.78)

5.94(1.70)

T

26.15< 0.01

Involuntary
Distraction

7.06(3.11)

4.72(0.89)

C ×T

0.30

0.74

Control

12.78(2.88)

13.11(3.80)

C

0.80

0.45

ActiveDistraction

13.11(2.03)

13.89(3.68)

T

1.66

0.20

Involuntary
Distraction

13.06(2.71)

14.11(3.43)

C ×T

0.09

0.91

Positive engagement

Negative affectTranquility

2Note. Means and standard deviations were shown. Standard deviations are presented in parentheses. In ANOVA

3columns, C represents condition effect, T represents measurement time effect, C ×T represents condition and4time interaction.

36