Towards Understanding of Environmental
Impacts on the Zambian Copperbelt and Kabwe

Prof. Imasiku A. Nyambe
UNZA IWRM Centre/Geology Dept. School of Mines, Universityof Zambia, Box 32379, Lusaka, Zambia
SYMPOSIUM
6th November 2017, Hokkaido University – Academic Lounge 1-2,
Japan

Acknowledgement: Prof. Bohdan Kribek – Czech Geol. Survey

1. INTRODUCTION

The Mining WorldOver 7,000 mines in theworld developed
providing the raw
materials for industries
and the energy minerals
on which our society is so
dependent e.g. Even thestrengthening agent for thepaper we are currently
using.

Significant
minerals
exploited in the
SADC region

2. HISTORICAL BACKGROUNDTO ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
Past 90 years Zambia’s economy and the healthof its citizens dependent on copper and cobalt
miningMining activities were focussed on profit making
with no regard to the ecosystem health andbiodiversity.

 In Zambia Copperbelt Geology

Figure 3:
Distribution ofcopper-cobalt
deposits in the
Zambian Copperbelt.
Names on the
map include
1 Konkola,
2 Chililabombwe,
3 Nchanga,
4 Chingola
Orebodies,
5 Chambeshi,
6 Chambeshi South
East,
7 Mindolo,
8 Nkana,
9 Nkana South Limb,
10 Chibuluma,
11 Chibuluma West,
12 Chibuluma South,
13 Muliashi,
14 Baluba,
15 Baluba East,
16 Mufulira,17 Mbwana Mkubwa.

Exploitation
Underground
Mining
Methods:
Examples usedon theCopperbelt

Exploitation - Ore Processing
Mineral Dressing:1.

Ore Crushing

2.Concentrating Concentrators
3.Smelting –smelters
4.Refining Refineries

(i) Large-scale Mining

Ownership of Copper Mines in Zambia.
Note that ownership is truly global

Zambian Company

LocationControlling Company

Country

Mopani Copper Mines Plc(MCM), Nkana andMufulira Mines

Kitwe andMufulira

Glencore (Swiss73%)/Xstrata/First
Quantum (13%) /ZCCM (GRZ)

Switzerland/CanadaAustralia /ZambiaKonkola Copper Mines Plc(KCM), Konkola, Konkola
Deep and North, Nchanga
Tailings, Nchanga

Chililabombwe

Vedanta / ZCCM (GRZ)

India / UK /ZambiaBwana Mkubwa Mining Ltd(BMML) Bwana Mkumbwa/ Lonshi

Ndola

First Quantum Minerals
Ltd (FQM)/ ZCCM
(GRZ)

CanadaAustralia/
ZambiaChibuluma Mines Ltd.
Chibuluma South and West

Kalulushi

Metorex / ZCCM (GRZ)

South Africa /ZambiaNon Ferrous Metals Africa
Mining plc (NFC).
Chambishi Mine

Chambishi

NFC / ZCCM (GRZ)

China / Zambia

China Luanshya/Baluba

Luanshya

Chinese / ZCCM (GRZ)

China/Zambia

andChingola

Mining industry contribution of 8% - 11.8% to GDP(2000-2006) compared to an average of 35% (19651970) (Source: Central Statistics Office)2016- 15%
11.8%

2006

Mining Employment The trends in the total number employed in the mining industry
from 1995 to 2011(note: data excludes Small-scale mining sub-sector)

Privatisation in 2000

Minerals Dependent Economy (Cont’d)Figure 6b: Copper production 1971-2010 (adapted from Ngandu 2011)

In 2011 – Zambia aimed to be the 4th World Largest copper
producer by 2014 with over 1Mt of Copper Production

Minerals Dependent Economy (Cont’d)
However, due to demand in the far east, particularly China, after
2002, copper prices picked to over $8,000/tonne by 2010 (Figure 9).
Copper Prices, High Grade
10,000

9,000

8,000

7,000

US$/TonneGraphshowingthevariationsof copper
prices per
tonne sincethe 1900s
to 20126,000

2016-2017

5,000

4,000

3,000

2,000

1,000

0
1890

1900

1910

1920

1930

1940

1950

1960

1970

1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

Minerals Dependent Economy (Cont’d)
Copper production 1914-2012 (data to 2002 supplied by Bonel)
800,000 tonnes in 2012
755,193 tonnes in 1969
Privatisationin 2000

Government Hands

Private Hands

With these huge tonnages ofcopper and cobalt for almost
80 years of mining, ZCCM had
to discharge waste & held e.g:

7 licences to operate domestic waste disposal sites,
8 licences to transport tailings to tailings dams
9 licences, to discharge tailings effluent into publicstreams.

45 Tailings
dams / dumps 791million
tonnes oftailings
occupying 9125
hectares.

• 9 slag dumps - 40
million tonnes of slag
occupying 279 ha;

32 overburden dumps with 1,899
million tonnes covering an
area of about 206,465ha;
21 waste rock dumps – 77
million tonnes of waste rock= 388ha; Total 216,257 ha

AIR POLLUTION

CLOSED(a) Nkana Smelter
showing air emissions;

EMISSIONSNOT THEREb) Effect of Sulphur Dioxide
emissions on buildings in Kankoyo
Township in Mufulira.

3. WHAT DID WE DO
Development Cooperation Programme of the Czech Republic to
the Republic of Zambia in years 2003-2006 and 2008 in Kabwe
Under UNESCO in 2013

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF ZAMBIA
27°30'

Geological sketch map of Zambian
Copperbelt and the extent of theenvironmental-geochemical survey

12°15'
Map Sheet 1227B4
KonkolaChililabombwe
Surveyed in 2005

Map Sheet 1228A3
Nsato
Surveyed in 2004

29°

Map Sheet 1228A4
Mokambo
Surveyed in 2004

Chililabombwe

N

Surveyed area
Nchanga

Chingola

Map Sheet 1228C1
Mufulira
Surveyed in 2002

Mufulira

Chambishi

Map Sheet 1228C2
Mufulira-East
Surveyed in 2006

Map Sheet 1227D2
Chingola
Surveyed in 2005
MindolaChibuluma

Kitwe
Nkana

Kalulushi

NDOLA

Large-scale mining in the Zambian
Copperbelt commenced in the late
1920s. Therefore, to assess thepossible environmental impacts ofmining and ore processing, theenvironmental-geochemical
surveying was carried out in thisMap Sheet 1228C3
Kitwe
Surveyed in 2004

Map Sheet 1228C4
Kitwe-East
Surveyed in 2006

Map Sheet
1226C1
Surv 2008

Luanshya

Map Sheet 1328A
Surveyed in 2009

Map Sheet
1226C2
Surv 2008

GEOLOGICAL MAP OF THE AREA COVERED BY ENVIRONMENTAL-GEOCHEMICAL MAPPING

Zambia: Geochemical-environmentalatlas of the Copperbelt Province, Zambia
W IN D R O S E

W ind velocity (m /s)

1.9

2.6

Central-northern part of
the Zambian Copperbelt(Kitwe, Mufulira,Chambishi, Chingola,
Chililabombwe Mining
Districts)
MAPPING- 1223 composite samples of
surface soil
- 266 samples of subsurface soils- 337 samples of stream sediments- 120 samples of surface waters- 282 samples of vegetation
SPECIAL STUDIES- Gaseous and dust emissions
monitoring- Dust gastric availability- Dietary assessment- Hazardous properties of mining
wastesMETHODS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL GEOCHEMICAL SAMPLING & ANALYSIS

Sampling followed Salminen, R. et. al (1998). FOREGS geochemical
mapping field manual. Geological Survey of Finland, Guide 47. Espoo

Analysis: Except for those measurements required immediately in the fielde.g. pH, drying & sieving – Rest were done at Czech Laboratories

Topsoilsampling,
surface ofabandoned
tailings
impoundment
in Kitwe

Soil profile

SOIL SAMPLES:
Topsoil horizon

Lower soil horizon( 80-90 cm depth)

Lower soil horizon samplingGroundwater = 23 S

In KABWE
Stream Sediment = 11 S

Vegetation = 36 S

In KABWE
Rhizosphere at vegetation roots = 9 S

Precipitate = 1 S
Total = 109 Samples

Zambian Copperbelt
SOURCES OF ANTHROPOGENIC CONTAMINATION

Soils and Plants:
Gaseous and solid emissions from smelters
Dust from dry parts of tailing impoundments
 Dust from mining operations, processing plants and slag
deposits
Transport of concentrate and products

Surface Waters and Stream Sediments
 Industrial water discharged into the watercourse
Seepage and owerflow from tailing impoundments
 Erosion and washout of fine-grained particles from spoilbanks and tailing impoundments (siltation)

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION
Sulphur dioxide emissions fromsmelters – Nkana Smelter - 1998(a) Nkana Smelter showing air emissions;b) Effect of sulphur sioxide emissions on buildings in Kankoyo
Township in Mufulira.

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION

Airborne dust particles from slag
deposits and from crushers

Dust particles contain:
As, Be, Co, Cr, Cu, Hg,
Mo, Se, Va Zn
Fine-grained airborne particles
from the Nkana Smelter slag
Magnification: 2000x

Slag particles Magn. 800x

Slag deposits, the Nkana Smelter

Dust particles, Nkana crushers
Magnification 600x

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION
Gaseous emissions and airborne dust particles the Nkana Smelter -2006
Sulphur dioxide emissions:
up to 511 μg SO2 /m3
Zambia Guideline limit: 50 μg/m3
SO2 /m3

Total suspended particles:
up to 250 μg/m3
Zambia Guideline limit:
120 μg/m3

W IN D R O S E

W ind velocity (m /s)

1.9

2.6

Voluntary collaborator
in the dust falout monitoring,
Mrs. Jean Chokwe,
Mukuba Secondary School

Concentrations of sulphur dioxide in
air around the Nkana Smelter

Concentrations of Cu, Co and Pb in
dust fall-out from the Nkana Smelter

Volunteers in dust fallout
monitoring, Mrs. Malama Mable
and Mrs. Lilian Namukoko, Wusakile
Basic School

SOURCES OF ANTHROPOGENIC CONTAMINATION
Airborne particles from dry beaches oftailing impoundments – Mindolo 2009

Dust particles from the
Mindolo Tailings
Impoundment contain up to:
22 ppm As; 3 090 ppm Co;
9 350 ppm Cu; 0.02 ppm Hg;
88 ppm Mo; 124 ppm Ni;
95 ppm Pb; 21 ppm Se and74 ppm Zn

Sandstorm over a dry beach of the
Mindolo Impoundment

Sandstorm over the Mufulira Impoundment

SOURCES OF CONTAMINATION
Technological waters frommines, smelters andchemical leaching plants

Chibuluma- South II Open Pit

Chambeshi River, whitish
precipitates of carbonates andgypsum, efluentsfrom the Chambishi Smelter

Technological water from the Nkana
Smelter and Processing Plant

SOURCES OF ANTHROPOGENIC CONTAMINATION
Seepages through tailing
impoundment damsTailings Dam

Iron hydrooxide precipitates
contain up to: 0.035% As;
0.0001% Be; 0.19% Co;
0.004% Cr; 0.257% Cu;
0.006% Mo; 0.005% Ni;
0.003% Pb; 0.027% Se
and 0.021% Zn.

Iron hydrooxide precipitates (ochres)

Erosion and washout of fine-grained particles from spoil banks and tailing impoundments (siltation)

Water erosion of the Uchi Slimes, Kitwe
Washing of old flotation tailings, Chingola

Kafue River, Chingola Water Plant

Siltation of the Mushishima River, Chingola

ARSENIC IN SOILSARSENIC IN SURFACE SOIL
W IN D R O S E

W ind velocity (m /s)

1.9

2.6

ARSENIC IN SUBSURFACE SOIL

ARSENIC IN SOILSDIFERENCE: SURFACE TO SUBSURFACE SOIL
W IN D R O S E

W ind velocity (m /s)

1.9

2.6

GEOLOGICAL MAP

COBALT IN SOILSDIFERENCE: SURFACE TO SUBSURFACE SOIL
W IN D R O S E

W ind velocity (m /s)

1.9

2.6

GEOLOGICAL MAP

COEFFICIENT OF INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION (SURFACE SOIL)
W IN D R O S E

W ind velocity (m /s)

1.9

2.6

Close-up: Mufulira area

Explanation:
Coefficient of Industrial
Pollution















mX – value of the metal concentration






Metals in crop plants
Sampled media:
Plant rhizosphere,
Cassava (Manihot esculenta sp.), leaves and tubers,
Sweet potato (Ipomoela batatas sp.), leaves and bulbs,
Maize (Zea mays ssp. mays), grains

Cu 11.7; 8.5ppm
As 0.43; 0.8ppm
Special studies:

Distribution of metals &metalloids in plant partsin relation to plant age

Distribution of metals and metalloids
in diferent parts of cassava plantAge of plant: 14 months

Close up:
Chlorisis ofcassava leaves

Cassavafield
in theCassavafield
near
southern part of
Nkana
Smelter.
Map sheet 1228C3
Areanotstrongly
affected byaffectedby pollution.
pollution

METALS IN PLANTS
CONCENTRATION OF ARSENIC AND COPPER IN CASSAVA
Provide Informed Decisions to Authorities: Cassava in Contaminated areas

High concentrationin roots and leaves

High concentrationin roots and leaves

COEFFICIENT OF INDUSTRIAL POLLUTION - STREAM SEDIMENTS

Lubengele

Kafue
Kafue
Mufulira
ChangaMushishima
Musakashi

Muntimpa

Chambeshi

Mindolo
Kitwe
Uchi

Chibuluma

Lwanshimba

Wusakile
Kafue

Stream sediments,
Wusakile River, Kitwe:- As: 1296 ppm- Co 3660 ppm- Cu 65 465 ppm- Hg 6.4 ppm- Mo 48 ppm- Ni 360 ppm- Pb 1370 ppm- Zn 3590 ppm- S tot 2.1 %Explanation:
Coefficient of Industrial
Contamination















mX – value of the metal concentration






RESULTS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL-GEOCHEMICAL MAPPINGSURFACE WATER CHEMISTRYRiver water exceeding Czech and European Union effluent limits shown in red colour

Mushishima – Co, Cu, Mn

Musakashi – Mn

Muntimpa – Co, Mn
Chambeshi – Co, Cu, Mn, Pb, Mn, pH

Uchi – Co, Cu

Wusakile –As, Co, Cu, Pb, pH
Kafue - outflow– Co, CuRESULTS OF THE ENVIRONMENTAL-GEOCHEMICAL MAPPINGSURFACE WATER CHEMISTRY

Kafue River chemistry: Inflow and outflow from the industrial part of the Zambian Copperbelt)pH
EU limit E
Kafue River inflow
Kafue Riveroutflow

6-8

Al
µg/L
1500

Ca
mg/l
250

Cd
µg/L
1

Co
µg/L
10

Cu
µg/L
30

Mn
µg/L
500

Ni
µg/L
50

Pb
µg/L
15

SO4
mg/L
300

Se
µg/L
5

U
µg/L
50

Zn
µg/L
200

7.1

8

14

0.03

0.4

6

17

0.1

0.5

1

0.25

0.04

6.7

7.2

20

34

0.03

19.0

66

152

1.1

0.4

76

0.25

1.4

4.6

Accidental acid spikes in the Kafue River tributaries(probably leakage of sulfuric acid from chemical plants)
pH

Al

Ca

Cd

Co

Cu

Mn

Ni

Pb

SO4

Se

U

Zn

µg/L

mg/l

µg/L

µg/L

µg/L

µg/L

µg/L

µg/L

mg/L

µg/L

µg/L

µg/L

EU limit E

6-8

1500

250

1

10

30

500

50

15

300

5

50

200

Chambeshi 2006

3.6

6 929

709

500

1 000

16 442

8 673

1 776

317

2 617

38

99

1 741

Busakile 2006

2.1

2 115

197

7.02

909

7 405

466

51.5

161

1 396

13

5.2

346

Changes Seen:

NEW SMELTERS)
Konkola Deep
Shaft, New
Nchanga
Smelter,HoweverTailing Dams
Still exist

Mufulira Tailing Pond, Zambia

Chambishi waste heap, Zambia

PATHWAYS OF CONTAMINATION SPREADING SILTATIONWINDSEEPAGEWATERCOURSESTREAM SEDIMENTS
WEGETATION

Collapse of the Luanshya tailings
dam, Copperbelt, Zambia
Siltation of the Chingola river,Chingola, Zambia

REVISITED – JULY
2017:

N

CHINGOLAMUFULIRA

D. R. C.

CHAMBISHI

Mwambashi RiverKALULUSHI

KITWE

Kafue RiverZAMBIANDOLA

LUANSHYA

Kafubu RiverKabweIGCP / Sida Projects 594 and 6006 CLOSING
WORKSHOP, Praha, Czech Republic
26-28th May, 2014

Kabwe is capital Central Province ofZambiaTotal Population – 250,000

Background History• Lead – Zinc Mine opened in 1904.
• Over the years mining included
open cast & underground, mineralprocessing, smelting and refining withsulphide orebodies, pyrite, sphalerite,
galena – minor covellite, chalcopyrite,
chalcocite, bornite & tetrahedrite• Mine officially closed in 1994
• Rehabilitation and Decommissioning
Plan in 1995

Substantial informal setting of 35% of Kabwe’s total population livein unplanned settlement

Kabwe Old Mine Location

2008 PROJECT OBJECTIVES
Project of the Dev. Assist. Programmeof the Czech Republic to the Republic ofZambia for the years 2008-2010

Determination of the extent
and magnitude ofcontamination by lead and Zincother metals Kabwe
environment

2013 Study
Assessment of impacts ofabandoned mines on theenvironment and human health inAfrica as a follow-up to
IGCP/SIDA Projects 594 /606
Worked on Kabwe Old Mine
where previous mining activities
still exist such as tailings, as well
as new activities by undertaking:(i) Survey mapping following the work
carried out by Czech – Zambia
Geological surveys (2007 -2008),
ZCCM- IH (2006-2009) and Hokkaido
U. (2012) – to add to the existing data:(ii) Collecting more samples – including
Groundwater ; and(iii)Outreach and educational activities tocommunities and mining companies.

IMPACTS ON THE ENVIRONMENT – EXAMPLE – KABWE
WASTES, ZAMBIAResidues after
chemical leaching:Total metal content:
Pb: 6.9 wt.%
Zn: 3.1 wt.%
Cu: 0.2 wt%
As: 0.14 wt.%
Cd: 0.003 wt.%

Flotation tailings and wastes
from thickeners

Total metal content:
Pb: 0.2 wt.%
Zn: 14.8 wt.%
Cu: 0.002 wt%
As: 0.001 wt.%
Cd: 0.008 wt.%

Residuum from chemical leaching of leadand zinc ores and decant drain
precipitates, Kabwe, Zambia

Flotation tailings after treatment oflead and zinc ores, Kabwe, Zambia

Pb: 6.9wt.%

Harmful properties:
Conductivity: 2490 (limit: 2000 mS/m)
Cadmium: 5.15 (limit 0.5 ppm)

Total metal content:
Pb: 3.1 wt.%
Zn: 13.1 wt.%
Cr: 0.3%
Cu: 0.1 wt%
As: 0.001 wt.%
Cd: 0.001 wt.%Dust fallout from the ferromanganese smelter in operation (Chiman
Manufacturing Company Ltd.) and,
Dust fallout from stone crushers (Kabwe Earth Movers Plc.)
Chemicalcomposition of dust

Not tested

Fe: 19%
Mn: 14.5%

Zn : 6.5%

Zn: 0.6%

Pb: 1.7 %Pb: 0.4%

Cu: 0.06%

As: 0.02%

Ba: 0.24%

Cd: 0.001%

As: 0.008%
Cd: 0.008%

Degree of soil contamination with depth
Non-contaminated profile,
MakululuContaminated profile, Katondo

Contaminatedprofile 1

Non-contaminatedprofile 2

ASSESSMENT OF STREAM SEDIMENTS CONTAMINATION

Dambo

Mine Canal

Dambo

HARMFUL PROPERTIES OF WASTES –KABWE AREA
OLD WASTES Dam of residues from chemical leaching of ores
 Wastes from roasting of ores (Waelz-Kiln residual) Granulated wastes after smelting of ores
 Flotation tailings and wastes from thickeners
CURRENT SOURCES Dust fallout from the ferromanganese smelter in operation (Chiman
Manufacturing Company Ltd.) Dust fallout from stone crushers (Kabwe Earth Movers Plc.)
 Wastes from chemical leaching of copper and cobalt (Sable Zinc
Plc.)

2013 Assessment of Soil Contamination
Pb = 23 - > 10 000ppm
Zn = 53.6 (P1) - >10 000ppm
Cu = 9.72 - 3744.71ppm (P2)

Levels of metals
along a soil profile
from SE to NW

and 500 – 3500ppm around Mine
Cd ~ 20 - 200ppm around theold mine
Cu

Pb

Zn

Ni

Co

Cd

Cr

12000.00

Sampling locations fromthe 2008 and 2013
study

Amounts (ppm)

10000.00
8000.00
6000.00

4000.00
2000.00
0.00(SE)P1

P2

P3

P4
P7
P5
Sampling Locations

P10

P9(NW)Stream Sediment Assessment
Lead = 553.87 > 10,000ppm
Zinc = 3343.5 > 10, 000 ppm
Copper = 21.36 - 10 000 ppm.

Cu

Pb

Zn

Ni

Co

Cd

Cr

12000.00

10000.00
Amounts (ppm)

For example, Heavy
metal concentrations
in stream sediments
along the Canal SE
to NW

8000.00
6000.00

4000.00
2000.00
0.00(SE)W2W5

W8
Sampling Locations

W9

W18(NW)

Vegetation Contamination
Zinc
ppm

Lead
ppm

Copperppm

Locality

Cassava Leaves

273.6

34.40

14.40

P1

Resp. Rhizosphere Soil

102.3

86.31

12.88

P1

Cassava Tubers
Resp. Rhizosphere Soil

59.7
53.60

6.49
23.95

11.15
16.84

P1
P1

Cassava Tuber Peels
Sweet Potatoes
Resp. Rhizosphere Soil

41.00
26.3
94.8

10.87
7.55
74.07

7.28
-

P1
P1
P1

Tomato Leaves
Resp. Rhizosphere Soil

158.9
1516.9P6
P6

These crops take up heavy metals from polluted and disrupted
agricultural land but below WHO and ZABS standards in thesampled vegetation.

Vegetation Contamination
Zinc
ppm

BlurushResp. Rhizosphere Soil
Lemon Grass
Resp. Rhizosphere Soil

Lead
ppm

Copperppm

Local.

5550.20 2771.85 2084.78
10,000 10,000 560.70>10,000 1075.68 176.07
1783.10 1596.20
46.11

P4
P4
P4
P4

Such plants could be used to clean both the canals and thedisrupted agricultural land of Kabwe.

CONCLUSION
Overall, despite the Government clean-up of the
Kabwe area, concentration values for metals (lead,zinc, copper, iron and manganese) are either at thesame levels or increasing due to continued
processing of metal ores by the new operations who
still use the same facilities for disposal .
It is recommended this issue is addressed by all
stakeholders through enforcement of existinglegislation and re-introduction of rehabilitation
programmes.

Extent and magnitude of soil contamination in the Kabwe area
Lead is particularly harmful to thebrain, nervous system and kidney.
Children are especially vulnerable.

Canadian soil quality
guideline value

Lead(mg/kg)Industrial land use

600

Commercial land use

260

Residential land use

140

Agricultural land use

70Formulation of appropriate measures for the reduction ofhuman health risk: long-term goals
Environmental subdivision of the Kabwe area
EXPLANATION
Zone I
Area of mining andmineral processing
activities, including
waste disposal sites
Zone II
Extremely contaminated and densely
populated areas
Zone III
Strongly contaminated and densely
populated areas

Dambo

Zone IV
Contaminatedarea

1

MAKULULUKASANDAMAKANCLANYAMA

Kabwe Earth Movers
aggregate plantPrůmyslový
Industrial
areal
area

RAILWAY

Sable Zinc Plc.
tailings damPrůmyslové
Industrial
odpadywastesMutwe Wansofu

Mi
ne
Ca
na
l

Fe-Mn smelter(active)

Dambo

Pb-Zn smelter(abandoned)1. Outreach programmes to raise public awareness inlocal schools, municipalities and communities should
be encouraged

2. Encourage
Research
Uptake by
Govt & Policy
Markers

INVITATION TO
THE
7th ZAMBIAWATER FORUM& EXHIBITION
11-13TH JUNE,
2. Kabwe Mine
2018

water infrastructure
for Job creation andIndustrialisation

Pollution
Amelioration
Initiative (Kampai) –JICA – Conference in
2018
CALL FOR PAPERSNOW OPEN

Despite these impacts, we still enjoy