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jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg – @)*!
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k|f=8f= v8\u s]=;L=						lzIffWoIf, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno;+of]hs

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k|f=8f= an/fd k|;fO{+							;b:oljefuLo k|d'v, efifflj1fg s]Gb|Lo ljefu
k|f=8f= s[i0fk|;fb Gof}kfg]							;b:oljefuLo k|d'v, g]kfnL s]Gb|Lo ljefu>L eLdaxfb'/ >]i7
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lbg k|sfzg x'bF } cfPsf] lqlj jflif{s lbj; ljz]iffª\s–-jif{ / cª\s pNn]vx'Fb} cfPsf]_ k|sfzg jif{ @)&( b]lv lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzgsf gfdaf6
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tyf Jofj;flos sfo{of]hgf M Ps ;dLIffdx]Gb| Gof}kfg], b]j/fh cfrfo{, u'?k|;fb kf}8]ndfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfosf] jt{dfg ;+/rgf / dxfljBfno -:s'n_ sf] cfwf/uf]ljGbk|;fb zdf{ -;'s'd zdf{_!%

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lagf]b hf]zL
Murky World of Predatory Publication: How to be Prudent ?

*#Averaging Variables for Long-Term Trends: A Predictive Analysis of Weather
and Market Dynamics on Nepal’s Agricultural Prices(!

Applied Education in Tribhuvan University!)&

Search and Destroy Resting Places of Dengue Mosquito Aedes aegypti
around the domestic premises!@^

Binil Aryal

Chuda Prasad Dhakal, Asmita Pokharel, Apekshya Dhaka
Deependra Parajuli

Ganga GCljifo;"rL
ljifo÷n]vs				 						 k[i7Role of College of Education in Shaping Educational System of Nepal			!#%

Anthropology Learning and Transformation of Self: Postgraduate Research Students’
Reflection on their Academic Journey!$$

Why Tribhuvan University Needs to Start Academic Program in Cognitive Science?		

!%$Cultural Connection of Border Literature in Harka Gurung’s Vignettes of Nepal!^#

Internal Quality Assurance (IQA) and External Quality Assurance (EQA)
in Higher Education Institutions: Relevance, Challenges and Opportunities
of Quality Assurance and Accreditation (QAA) System in Nepal!&@

Blockchain Technology and Smart Contracts: The Legal Implications
and Opportunities!*%

Level of Satisfaction Among Patients Attending Tribhuvan University
Ayurveda Teaching Hospital@)^

Debating Peer-review@!$

Successful Rearing of Gazalina chrysolopha larvae@@#

Assessing the Role of Roadside Vegetation in Offsetting Air Pollution in
Kathmandu Valley@@(

Jib Nath Timsina

Kapil Babu Dahal

Lekhnath Sharma Pathak
Mani Bhadra Gautam

Narayan Bhandari, Min Pun

Newal Chaudhary

Nirmal Bhusal

Pralhad Adhikari 					Pratiksha Pathak, Bhawan Pandey, Daya Ram Bhusal, Pratap Karki, Ranju Kharel Sitaula,
Madan Prasad Upadhyay

Sulakshya Bhandari, Ramesh Prasad Sapkota

lqe'jg ljZjljBfno ;~rfng / Joj:yfkg;DaGwL pks'nkltsf] ;f]rkq tyf Jofj;flos
sfo{of]hgf M Ps ;dLIffdx]Gb| Gof}kfg]*b]j/fh cfrfo{**u'?k|;fb kf}8]n***n]v;f/g]kfnsf] pRrlzIffsf] dxÎjk"0f{ lx:;f af]ss] f] lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] g]kfnsf] ;du| pRrlzIffnfO{ k|ltlglwTj
tyf dfu{bz{g ub{5 . /fi6«sf ljljw If]qsf hgzlSt pTkfbgdf ;d]t dxÎjk"0f{ lx:;f cf]u6\g] o;ljZjljBfnosf] ;kmntf;Fu /fHosf] ;d[l4 klg ufFl;Psf] 5 . ljZjljBfnosf] pks'nklt lgo'lStsf
j|mddf jt{dfg pks'nkltåf/f k|:t't ;f]rkq / Jofj;flos sfo{of]hgf ljZn]if0f ug{' o; n]vsf] p2]Zo/x]sf] 5 . pks'nkltåf/f k|:t't ;f]rkq / Jofj;flos sfo{of]hgfdf k|:t't ljrf/nfO{ ;fIosf ?kdf
k|:t't u/L ljZjljBfno ;]jfaf6 cflh{t cg'ej / lgld{t b[li6sf]0f, ljZjljBfno ;~rfngsf dfGotf /ljZjsf ljleGg ljZjljBfnon] u/]sf c;n cEof;;d]tsf cfwf/df ljZn]if0f ul/Psf] 5 . oL b:tfj]hdf
k|:t't ljZjljBfno tyf s]Gb|Lo ljefusf] k'g;+/rgf, sfo{tflnsfsf cfwf/df k7gkf7g ;~rfng,/fhgLlts cf:yfsf cfwf/df geO{ Ifdtfsf cfwf/df lgo'lSt, kf/blz{tf, ;dotflnsf;lxtsf] sfo{of]hgfsf]
k|:t'lt h:tf kIfnfO{ ;sf/fTds kIfsf ?kdf klxrfg ul/Psf] 5 . rf/j;]{ :gftsnfO{ tLgj;]{ agfpg],cg';Gwfg s]Gb|nfO{ ljefudf ufEg], hgzlSt ljsf; / Joj:yfkg, ljBfyL{ cfsif{0f / lgoldttf, k|fl1s
pGgogsf nflu kf7\oj|md / lzIf0f k4ltdf ;'wf/ h:tf uDeL/tfk"js{ cWoog ug'k{ g]{ ljifonfO{ ;d]t;fdfGo ?kdf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . uxg cWoogkl5 dfq lgSof}n{ ug'k{ g]{ tyf 5'6s
] f s}of}+ ljifo ;dfj]z
ug'k{ g]{ cfjZostf o; n]vsf] lgisif{sf ?kdf k|:t't ePsf] 5 . ;f]rkq / Jofj;flos sfo{of]hgfdf
k|:t't ;sf/fTds p2]Zosf ;fy cfPsf ljrf/nfO{ uDeL/tfk"js{ ;dLIff u/L cNksfnLg, dWosfnLg /bL3{sfnLg u/L ljefhg u/L sfof{Gjogsf] bl/nf] cfwf/ agfpg' cfjZos 5 . ljZjljBfno k|jz
] sf j|mddf
lgld{t oL b:tfj]hnfO{ cfwf/sf ?kdf lnO{ ljZjljBfnosf cj:yf / ;DefJotf klxrfg u/L cfjZos;|ft] ;fwgsf] Joj:yf / kl/rfng;d]t u/L /fHosf nflu cfjZos hgzlSt ljsf;sf] lbzfdf 7f]; /of]hgfa4 k|of; ug'{ cfjZos 5 . d"ntM cfd hg;d"xnfO{ lzIff lbg] ljZjljBfnoaf6 cg';Gwfgd'vL
ljZjljBfnodf ?kfGt/0f u/L cg';Gwfgsf k|flKtsf cfwf/df ljZjljBfnosf ;fy} ;du| /fHoJoj:yf/ cGo ljZjljBfnonfO{ ;d]t dfu{bz{g ug]{ lbzfdf bl/nf] u/L lqljnfO{ cufl8 a9fpg' cfjZos 5 .
zAbs'~hL M u'0f:t/ k|Tofog, ;f]rkq, ljZjljBfnosf] k'g;{+/rgf, Jofj;flos sfo{of]hgf, :jfoQtf .
* pk–k|fWofks, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno, lzIff ljsf; tyf cg';Gwfg s]Gb| -;]l/8_, sLlt{k'/mahendra.neupane@cerid.tu.edu.np** pk–k|fWofks, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno, lzIff ljsf; tyf cg';Gwfg s]Gb| -;]l/8_, sLlt{k'/devraj.acharya@cerid.tu.edu.np*** pk–k|fWofks, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno, lzIffzf:q s]Gb|Lo ljefu, sLlt{k'/guru.poudel@cded.tu.edu.np

1

ljifok|j]zj}olQms, cfly{s, k|fljlws / ;fdflhs ljsf;sf nflu pRrlzIffsf] dxÎjk"0f{ e"ldsf x'G5 .
dfWoldstxkl5 ljZjljBfnoaf6 k|fKt ul/g] lzIff g} pRrlzIff xf] h;nfO{ clGtd / cf}krfl/s txsf]
lzIffsf ?kdf lnOg] ul/G5 . pRrlzIffsf] lbuf] ljsf; /fli6«o, If]qLo / ljZjJofkL ljsf;sf nflu;d]t dxÎjk"0f{ x'G5 (Azeiteiro et al., 2015) . lzIffsf] k|efjsfl/tf /fHosf gLltdfly lge{/ /x]sf] x'G5h;n] /fHosf] lgdf{0fdf dxÎjk"0f{ e"ldsf lgjf{x ub{5 . To;}n] lzIff b]zsf] ljsf; / ;d[l4;Fu k|ToIf?kdf ;DalGwt /x]sf] x'gk' 5{ . pRrlzIff k|bfos ;+:yfsf ?kdf /x]sf ljZjljBfnox?n] JolSt, ;+:yf/ ;dfhsf nflu cfjZos kg]{ 1fg, l;k / ;Ifdtfo'St k];fsdL{x? pTKffbg ug{ g}lts?kdf lhDd]jf/
x'G5g\ (Bergsmann et al., 2015) . ljZjljBfnon] cg';Gwfgsf dfWodaf6 1fg pTkfbg u/L ToxL 1fgsf]
lzIf0f ug]{, k|sfzgsf dfWodaf6 lj:tf/ ug]{, ;dfhsf nflu pRr Ifdtfo'St bIf hgzlSt pTkfbgug]{, lzIffgLlt lgdf{0fsf nflu of]ubfg lbg], cfnf]rgf -lj|ml6l;hd_ sf] s]Gb|sf ?kdf /xL sfo{ ug]{
/ lhDd]jf/L jxg ug]{ h:tf bfloTj lgjf{x ub{5g\ (Ozdem, 2011) . o; vfnsf] lhDd]jf/L k"/f ug{sfnflu ljZjljBfnon] cfkm" ;Ifd ag]/ lglZrt b"/b[li6, nIo p2]Zo lgdf{0f u/L of]hgfa4 lsl;dn]e"ldsf lgjf{x ug'{ cfjZos b]lvG5 . o;sf nflu g]kfndf pRrlzIff;DaGwL ljleGg cfof]uaf6 k|fKt
k|ltj]bgnfO{ dWogh/ u/L ;dofg's"n bfloTj / lhDd]jf/Lsf] af]w ug]{ / To;} cg';f/ gLltlgdf{0f ug]{sfo{ u/]df ck]lIft pknlAw xfl;n x'g;Sg] b]lvG5 .
g]kfndf pRrlzIffsf] yfngL lj=;+= !(&^ df lqrGb| sn]hsf] :yfkgf;Fu} ePsf] xf] . t/ pRrlzIffsf]
Joj:yfkg;DaGwL sfo{ eg] ljb]zL -tTsfnLg ef/tsf]_ k6gf ljZjljBfnoaf6 x'Fb} cfPsf] lyof] .
o;} ;Gbe{df lj=;+= @))& df k|hftGqsf] k|flKtkl5 ul7t g]kfn /fli6«o lzIff cfof]u @)!! n] b]zdf/fHosf] lzIffgLlt lgdf{0f / Joj:yfkg tyf pRrlzIffnfO{ Jojl:yt ug{ ljZjljBfno :yfkgf ug'{kg]{l;kmfl/; u/]cg';f/ lj=;+= @)!^ df lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] ljlwjt\ :yfkgf ePsf] xf] . g]kfn ;+:s[tljZjljBfno -:yfkgfsfnLg dx]Gb| ;+:s[t ljZjljBfno_ sf] :yfkgf -lj=;+= @)$#_ k"j{ sl/a tLg
bzs -@& jif{_ ;Dd lqlj g} b]zsf] Psdfq ljZjljBfnosf ?kdf /x]sf] lyof] . xfn b]zdf ;ª\3Lo:t/af6 Pwf/cf]6f ljZjljBfno, kfFrcf]6f ljZjljBfno ;/xsf :jf:Yo lj1fg k|lti7fg / k|b]z :t/df;d]t ljleGg ljZjljBfno :yfkgf ePsf 5g\ . oBlk pRrlzIffsf] tLg rf}yfOeGbf a9L lx:;f lqe'jg
ljZjljBfnon] g} cf]u6]sf] 5 . ;g\ @)@!÷@@ df g]kfnsf ;ª\3Lo tyf k|fb]lzs ljZjljBfno /k|lti7fgdf u/L hDdf %,&(,$$* ljBfyL{x? egf{ ePsf lyP h;dWo] lqe'jg ljZjljBfnocGtu{tsfSofDk;df $,%$,)^% hgf -s'n ljBfyL{sf] &*=#^ k|ltzt_ ljBfyL{ cWoog/t /x]sf lyP -ljZjljBfno
cg'bfg cfof]u, ;g\ @)@#_ . o;/L /fHosf pRrlzIffsf ljBfyL{dWo] tLgrf}yfO ljBfyL{sf] ef/ lqe'jg
ljZjljBfnon] jxg u/]sf] b]lvG5 . To:t} b]zdf /x]sf pRrlzIff k|bfos !$%% ;+:yf÷SofDk;x?dWo]^@ cfª\lus, %@* ;fd'bflos / %%$ lghL u/L s'n !!$$ SofDk;;lxt b]zsf SofDk;x?sf] &*=^*
k|ltzt lx:;f lqljn] cf]u6]sf] 5 -ljZjljBfno cg'bfg cfof]u, ;g\ @)@#_ . nfdf] Oltxf; af]s]sf]o; ljZjljBfnon] cjnDag ug]{ gLlt, cEof; / sfo{of]hgf tyf o;af6 pTkflbt hgzlStb]zsf] cfly{s, k|zf;lgs, z}lIfs, ;fdflhsnufot If]qsf] ljsf;sf ;fy} cGo ljZjljBfnosf
2

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

nflu;d]t dfu{bz{s x'G5 . o;y{ ;an ;Ifd lqlj / g]kfnsf cGo ljZjljBfno ljsf;sf];d]t cfwf/ xf] .
ulj{nf] Oltxf;;lxt jt{dfg;Dd g]kfnsf] pRrlzIffsf] ldof]sf] ?kdf :yflkt lqljn] ljutsf] ;dLIff
u/L ;'Gb/ eljiosf nflu ;'ema'emk"0f{ 9ª\un] cfkm\gf] Ifdtf, cj:yf / bfloTj a'em]/ of]hgfa4 ?kdf
cufl8 a9fpg' cfjZos 5 . lqljn] ljutb]lv xfn;Dd lgjf{x u/]sf] e"ldsfsf] sf/0f o;n] lng]
gLlt, sfo{j|md / of]hgfx?df ;a}sf] rf;f], lrGtf / pT;'stf /xg' :jefljs xf] . d"ntM ;dosf]
kl/jt{g;Fu} lzIffsf] ljsf;sf ;Gbe{df ePsf cGt//fli6«o cEof;, lj1fg tyf k|ljlw / ;"rgf tyf;~rf/ k|0ffnLdf cfPsf] rfdTsfl/s kl/jt{g h:tf s'/fx? ;do;fGble{s / cBfjlws x'g g;s]sf]dx;'; ljZjljBfnoleq / aflx/af6 ;d]t x'g] u/]sf] 5 . o; ;Gbe{df k|d'vtfsf ;fy p7\g] u/]sf]
d'2fsf ?kdf kbflwsf/Lsf] lgo'lStdf x'g] u/]sf] /fhgLlts/0fnfO{ lng] ul/G5 . of]Uotf / IfdtfeGbf
klg /fhg}lts kx'Frsf cfwf/df ljZjljBfnosf kbflwsf/L lgo'lSt x'Fbf gLlt, of]hgf / sfo{j|mdk|efjsf/L aGg g;s]sf] eGg] sf]0faf6 ljutb]lv g} ljljw vfnsf l6sfl6Kk0fL x'g] u/]sf lyP .
ljZjljBfnodf /fhg}lts x:tIf]k aGb u/L v'nf k|ltikwf{ ug'{kg]{ cfjfhsf lardf kl5Nnf] k6s
ljZjljBfnoleq / aflx/af6 ;d]t pl7/x]sf] ;Gbe{df v'nf k|ltikwf{sf dfWodaf6 lqljsf] pks'nklt
lgo'lStsf nflu l;kmfl/; ug{ ul7t l;kmfl/; ;ldltn] @)*) k'; @# ut] ;"rgf k|sflzt u/L lqe'jg
ljZjljBfnosf] pks'nklt kbsf nflu ;f]rkq / Jofj;flos sfo{of]hgf;lxt cfj]bg dfu u/]sf]lyof] . 5gf]6 ;ldltn] lgdf{0f u/]sf] sfo{ljlwsf] dfkb08cg';f/ l;kmfl/;df k/]sf tLg hgfdWo]af6
s'nkltaf6 lqljsf] pks'nkltsf ?kdf k|f=8f= s]z/hª a/fn lgo'St x'g'ePsf] 5 . ljZjljBfnosf]g]t[Tj ;Dxfn];Fu} pks'nklt a/fnn] pks'nklt kbdf lgo'lStsf nflu cfj]bg k]; ug]{ ;Gbe{df cfkm\gf]of]hgf / /0fgLltnfO{ ;d]6L tof/ kfg'{ePsf] lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] ;~rfng / Joj:yfkg;DaGwL;f]rkq tyf lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] Jofj;flos sfo{ of]hgf ;fj{hlgs ePsf] 5 . pks'nkltdf
ljZjljBfnosf] k"/f ;do sfd ug]{ k|d'v kbflwsf/L x'g] ePsfn] ljZjljBfnosf ;a} sfdsf/afxLdf;fdfGo lgoGq0f /xg], ljZjljBfnosf] sfdsf/afxLdf lgb]{zg lbg / /]vb]v ug{ ;Sg], lzIffWoIf
tyf /lhi6f/ lgo'lStsf nflu l;kmfl/; ug]{ tyf sfo{sf/L kl/ifb\sf] g]t[Tj u/L sfo{sf/L k|d'vsf]e"ldsf lgjf{x ug]{ -lqe'jg ljZjljBfno P]g, @)$(_ uxg lhDd]jf/L /xG5 . pks'nkltsf] k|zf;lgsg]t[Tjdf cfufdL rf/ jif{;Dd ljZjljBfno ;~rfng x'g]5 . pks'nkltsf] ;xL gLlt, ;f]r / :ki6sfo{of]hgfn] dfq ljZjljBfnonfO{ ;xL lbzfdf cu|;/ u/fpg ;Sb5 . o; ;Gbe{df pks'nkltåf/fk|:t't oL b'O{ b:tfj]hsf] ;dLIffdf of] n]v s]lGb|t 5 .
cWoog ljlw
k|:t't n]vdf lqljsf jt{dfg pks'nkltåf/f k|:t't ;f]rkq / Jofj;flos sfo{of]hgfnfO{ cWoog;fdu|Lsf ?kdf lnO{ ;dLIff ul/Psf] 5 . o;sf nflu pks''nkltåf/f b[li6sf]0f tyf sfo{of]hgfsf?kdf k|:t't b'O{ b:tfj]hnfO{ g} d'Vo cfwf/sf ?kdf lnOPsf] 5 . o; qmddf ;fdu|Ln] cufl8;f/]sf ljifonfO{ ;fIosf ?kdf lnO{ ;]jfdf /x]/ k|fKt u/]sf cg'ej tyf b[li6sf]0f, ljZjljBfnosf]z}lIfs tyf k|zf;lgs sfo{;~rfng;DaGwL gLltut tyf k|rlnt dfGotf / ljleGg ljZjljBfnon]3u/]sf c;n cEof;h:tf s'/fnfO{ d"n cfwf/ agfOPsf] 5 . cWoogsf qmddf o; ;fdu|Ln] p7fPsf
ljifok|ltsf] ;xdlt tyf c;xdlt, To;df ;dfj]z x'g g;s]sf kIf tyf gjLg dfGotf;d]tnfO{ lglZrt
lyd lgdf{0f u/L j|mda4 ?kdf JofVof ul/Psf] 5 . cGTodf ljZjsf ;kmn ljZjljBfnox?n] u/]sfc;n cEof;nfO{ b[i6fGtsf ?kdf k|:t't ub}{ g]kfnsf] ;d;fdlos ;fdflhs / cfly{s kl/j]zsf]
cfjZostf tyf j}lZjs kl/j]zdf ljZjljBfnoLo lzIffsf] ;fGble{stf tyf pkfb]otfsf] ;fk]Iftfdf
lqljn] lng'kg]{ gLltnfO{ lgisif{sf ?kdf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 .
ljifoj:t' / 5nkmn
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf pks'nkltåf/f cufl8 ;fl/Psf] ;f]rkq / Jofj;flos sfo{of]hgfsf] ljZn]if0f
o; v08df ul/Psf] 5 . lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] ;~rfng / Joj:yfkgsf ;DaGwdf pks'nkltsf
b[li6sf]0fnfO{ ;f]rkq / Jofj;flos sfo{of]hgfsf dfWodaf6 k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . oL b'O{ b:tfj]hdf
lqljsf] kl/ro, k[i7e"ldnfO{ ;d]6\b} lqljnfO{ eljiodf s;/L ;~rfng ug]{ eGg] ;DaGwdf cfkm\gf]
a'emfOsf cfwf/df lgld{t wf/0ffnfO{ ;f]r tyf Jofj;flos of]hgfsf ?kdf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . lqljsf];~rfng / Joj:yfkg;DaGwL ;f]rkqdf k[i7e"ld, ljZjljBfnosf] u'0f:t/ clej[l4 / k|efjsfl/tf,
ljZjljBfnosf] ;DklQsf] cfh{g, pkof]u / cfTdlge{/tf, cfª\lus tyf ;DaGwg k|fKt SofDk;x?sf];'b[9Ls/0f, ljZjljBfnonfO{ k|fl1s pTs[i6tfsf] s]Gb|sf] ?kdf ljsf; ug]{, ljZjljBfnosf] kf/blz{tf/ hjfkmb]lxtf u/L 5cf]6f pkzLif{sdf ljZjljBfno;DaGwL ;f]rnfO{ k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . lqljsf]
Jofj;flos sfo{of]hgfdf ljZjljBfnosf] :yfkgf sfnb]lv xfn;Ddsf] cj:yfsf] rrf{, ;an tyfb'a{n kIf, r'gf}tL, cGo ljZjljBfnox?;Fusf] ;DaGw, /0fg}lts ;'wf/ ug'{kg]{ If]qx?sf] klxrfg tyf@)*) kmfu'gb]lv @)*$ df3;Ddsf] lqljsf] ;du| ;'wf/ sfof{of]hgf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 .
pks'nkltåf/f k|:t't b'O{ b:tfj]hdf pks'nkltåf/f cufl8 ;fl/Psf ;f]r tyf Jofj;flos of]hgfn];an kIfx?sf] rrf{ u/L ltgk|ltsf] ;xdlt tyf c;xdltnfO{ ljZn]if0ffTds 9ª\un] k|:t't ul/Psf]
5 . o;sf ;fy} ljZjljBfnosf cWoog cg';GwfgnfO{ k|efjsf/L 9ª\un] cufl8 a9fpg lng'kg]{ gLlt
tyf /0fgLlt;d]t k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . cGTodf ljZjsf ljleGg ljZjljBfnon] u/]sf c;n cEof;nfO{;d]t b[i6fGtsf ?kdf k|:tt' ul/Psf] 5 .
ljZjljBfnosf] k'g;{+/rgf
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] km}nfj6 b]zsf ;ftcf]6} k|b]z tyf lxdfn, kxf8 / t/fO{;Dd 5 . o;sf]
eLdsfo ;+/rgfsf sf/0f sfo{df k|efjsfl/tf cfpg g;s]sf] ljutb]lv g} dx;'; x'Fb} cfPsf] 5 .
o; ;Gbe{df o; ;f]rkqn] ljZjljBfnosf] u'0f:t/ / k|efjsf/Ltf j[l4 gx'g'sf] sf/0f ljZjljBfnosf]
ljzfn ;+/rgfnfO{ lnFb} o;sf] k'g;{+/rgfnfO{ dxÎjsf ;fy p7OPsf] 5 . ;f]rkqdf vf;u/L lqljsf]
lehg @)#) cg';f/ k'g;+{/rgfsf] tof/Lsf j|mddf dx]Gb| ax'd'vL SofDk;, g]kfnu~h, k[YjLgf/fo0f
SofDk; kf]v/f / dx]Gb|df]/ª cfbz{ ax'd'vL SofDk;, lj/f6gu/nfO{ pkflw lbg] ;+:yfsf] ?kdf
ljsf; u/L lqlj k|b]z ljZjljBfno :yfkgfsf] nflu k|f/lDes tof/L ul/g] pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . o:t}s]Gb|Lo ljefux?nfO{ dxfljBfno -:s'n_ sf] ;+/rgfdf kl/jt{g ug]{, ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof sd ePsf
4lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

;fd'bflos SofDk; tyf ltgsf sfo{jm| dnfO{ cfk;df dh{ ug]{ gLlt klg cjnDag ug]{ ;f]r b]lvG5 .
ljZjljBfnonfO{ k|fl1s pTs[i6tfsf] s]Gb|sf ?kdf s]Gb|Lo ljefunfO{ z}lIfs, cfly{s / k|zf;lgs:jfoQtf;lxt dxfljBfnodf k'g;{/+ rgf ug]{ tyf If]qLo k/LIff lgoGq0f sfof{nonfO{ lhDd]jf/ agfpg]-a/fn, @)*)s_ eGg] ;f]rnfO{ cufl8 ;fl/Psf] 5 . o;}u/L rf/jif]{ jflif{s k|0ffnLsf sfo{j|mdnfO{
j|mdzM x6fP/ z}lIfs jif{ @)*@÷)*# b]lv tLgjif]{ ;'? ug]{ -a/fn, @)*)v_ eGg] of]hgfnfO{ klg
cufl8 ;fl/Psf] b]lvG5 .
pko'Q{ m ;f]rsf] d"Nofª\sg ubf{ ljZjljBfnosf] ef}uf]lns km}nfj6 / ;ª\VofTds ljzfntfnfO{ ;d:ofsf?kdf eGbf klg k'FhLsf ?kdf lnO{ ljZjljBfnosf] k'g;+{/rgf ug'{ pko'Qm x'g] b]lvG5 . o;sf
nflu ljZjljBfnosf s]Gb|Lo ljefunfO{ :s'ndf kl/0ft ug]{ tyf k|fb]lzs ljZjljBfno / ljBfyL{;ª\Vof w]/} ePsf ljZjljBfnonfO{ pkflw lbg] ;+:yfsf ?kdf ljsf; ug{' pko'St x'G5 . t/ To;sf]
k|efjsf/L 9fFrf, s]Gb|;Fusf] cGt/;DaGw, ;|ft] sf] Joj:yfkg tyf ;xfotf k|0ffnLsf] :ki6 Joj:yfkglagfk'g;{+/rgf ;kmn x'g sl7gfO kg]{ b]lvG5 . o;/L k'g;{+/rgf ubf{ k|To]s lgsfo / txsf] clwsf/
tyf lhDd]jf/L / hjfkmb]lxtf :ki6 ls6fg u/L ;Ifdtf ljsf; ug'{k5{ . rf/jif]{ sfo{j|mdnfO{ tLgj;]{df emfg]{ sfo{nfO{ tTsfn} ug'{eGbf klg tLg jif{;Dd ;DalGwt ljifosf] ;}4flGts cWoog u/fpg]
clg rf}yf] jif{df k|of]ufTds cEof; tyf ;DalGwt sfo{:yndf cfwfl/t 1fg -OG6g{l;k_ lng] Joj:yf
u/L Jojxfl/s l;k;d]t ePsf hgzlSt tof/ ug]{ / rf}yf] jif{ ;lsgf;fy glthf / k|df0fkq k|bfg
u/L ljBfyL{sf] ;do v]/ gkmfNg] Joj:yf ug'{ ;fGble{s x'G5 . :gftsdf Psjif{ a9L ePs} sf/0f
cWoogdf cfsif{0f 36]sf] xf] jf xf]Og eGg] kQf gnufO{ tTsfn} kl/jt{g ubf{ sfo{j|mddf cl:y/tfl;h{gf x'gk'U5 . ljZjljBfnodf ljBfyL{sf] cfsif{0f sd x'Fb} uPsf] tyf egf{ ePsf ljBfyL{ klgtx pQL0f{ u?~h]n;Dd gl6Sg] ;d:of lqljdf ljBdfg /x]sf] b]lvG5 . o; ;d:ofnfO{ ;dfwfgsf
nflu d"ntMz}lIfs Sofn]G8/ nfu' u/L ;dod} egf{, k/LIff / glthf k|sfzg ug]{, 5fqj[lQsf] Joj:yf,
ahf/sf] cfjZostf ;Daf]wg ug]{ vfnsf sfo{j|mdx? Nofpg], lzIff;Fu} cfocfh{gd"ns sfo{j|md tyf
cg';Gwfg kl/of]hgfdf ljBfyL{nfO{ klg ;xefuL u/fpg], ljBfyL{sf] cfsif{0f a9\g] vfnsf sfo{j|mdsf]
lj:tf/ ug'{ cfjZos 5 . ljsl;t ljZjljBfnosf pTs[i6 ljZjljBfnonfO{ x]g]{ xf] eg] pgLx?n]
gjLg sfo{j|md / u'0f:t/df hf]8 lbFb} cGt/fli6«o :t/df k|rf/k|;f/nfO{ ;d]t hf]8 lbO{ ljZjel/sf
ljBfyL{nfO{ cfslif{t u/]sf] kfOG5 . o;y{ lqljn] klg cNksfnLg ?kdf g]kfnsf ljBfyL{nfO{ ljb]zcWoog ug{ hfgaf6 /f]Sg] / bL3{sfnLg ?kdf ljb]zL ljBfyL{nfO{ ;d]t cfslif{t ug]{ u/L of]hgfa4?kdf sfo{ ug{ ;s]df ljBfyL{ 36\6} uPsf] ;d:of ;dfwfg ug{ ;lsG5 .
u'0f:t/ clej[l4 / k|efjsfl/tf
u'0f:t/ clej[l4 ljZjljBfnonsf] k|d'v / dxÎjk"0f{ sfo{ xf] . ;f]rkqdf d"ntM ljZjljBfnodf
pQL0f{ b/ sd x'g', z}lIfs Sofn]G8/ lgdf{0f / sfof{Gjog gx'g', pTkflbt hgzlStsf] vkt gx'g'\,of]Uo ljBfyL{sf] k|j]z gx'g' tyf kf7\oj|md cBfjlws gx'g', lzIffzf:q ;ª\sfon] ljBfyL{df pko'St
ljlw / 1fg ljsf; ug{ g;Sg'nfO{ ljZjljBfnodf /fhg}}lts x:tIf]k x'g' -a/fn, @)*)s_ nfO{
d'Vo ;d:ofsf ?kdf lrq0f ul/Psf] 5 . o;sf] ;dfwfgsf nflu kf7\oj|md cBfjlws u/L l;kd'vL5

agfpg], lzIffzf:q ;ª\sfosf sfo{j|mdsf] k'g/fjnf]sg u/L lzIfs pTkfbg ug]{ lbzfdf pGd'v ug]{,
cfjZostfcg';f/sf] 1fg / l;ksf] ljsf; ug]{ tyf cWoog cWofkgnfO{ cg';Gwfg / Jofjxfl/s
1fg;Fu hf]8\g] z}lIfs Sofn]G8/ sfof{Gjog ug]{ h:tf ;f]r -a/fn, @)*)s_ cufl8 ;fl/Psf] 5 .
o;sf ;fy} Jofj;flos / k|fljlws ljifosf] cWoog cWofkgdf hf]8 lbg], ljljw hfthfltsf efiff,;+:s[lt, pRr kxf8L cWoog cWofkg ug]{ Joj:yf ug]{ ;f]r;d]t cufl8 cfPsf] 5 .
ljZjljBfnon] u'0f:t/Lo lzIffsf dfWodaf6 bIf hgzlSt ljsf; ug]{ d'Vo nIo lng'kg]{df To;f] x'gg;s]sf] ;Gbe{nfO{ ;f]rkqn] ;xL ?kdf d"Nofª\sg u/]sf] 5 . oBlk u'0f:t/ s]nfO{ dfGg] / o;sf
k|d'v sf/0fsf] vf]hL uxg ?kdf x'g g;s]sf] b]lvG5 . ljZjljBfnon] pTkfbg ug]{ hgzlStsf]of]hgf g} gx'g', To;sf nflu cfjZos hgzlStsf] of]hgf, ljsf; tyf tof/L ljZjljBfno;Fu gx'g'
u'0f:t/ ljsf; gx'g'sf] k|d'v sf/0f xf] . o;sf nflu ljZjljBfnon] cfjZos hgzlStsf] k|If]k0f
u/L ;f]xLcg';f/sf l;k / Ifdtfn] o'St hgzlSt pTkfbg ug'{k5{ . o; ;Gbe{df /f]huf/d'vL dfq
geO{ :j/f]huf/d'vL lzIffdf hf]8 lbg ;Sg'k5{ . ljZjljBfno / o;cGtu{tsf lgsfosf] u'0f:t/
lgwf{/0f ug{sf nflu u'0f:t/ k|Tofog dfgs -Sjfln6L P:o'/]G; :6fG88{_ lgdf{0f u/L ljZjljBfno/ o;cGtu{tsf z}lIfs ;+:yfx?nfO{ ljZjljBfno / :jod\ ;+:yfn] g} d"Nofª\sg ug]{ Joj:yf ug'{;fGble{s x'G5 .
kf7\oj|md / lzIf0f k4lt
ljZjljBfnodf u'0f:t/ clej[l4 ug]{ k|dv
' kIfsf ?kdf kf7\oj|md / lzIf0f l;sfOsf] ljlw, k|ljlw h:tf
kIfx?sf] d'Vo e"ldsf x'G5 . ahf/sf] cfjZostfcg';f/ hgzlSt pTkfbg x'g g;s]sf], pTkflbt
hgzlStdf sfl/Gbf k|j[lQ ePsf] eGb} /fli6«o / cGt/fli6«o >dahf/sf] cfjZostfcg';f/ cfjlws?kdf kf7\oj|md cBfjlws ug{ -a/fn, @)*)s_ hf]8 lbOPsf] 5 .
lqljdf kf7\oj|md cfjZostfcg';f/ cBfjlws / ljBfyL{df l;k / ;Ifdtf ljsf;s]Gb|L x'g g;s]sf]
cfjfh p7]sf] kfOG5 . ahf/sf] dfu Jojl:yt ?kdf gcfPsf], ;/sf/L / lghL If]q;d]tn] o:tf l;k/ Ifdtf ePsf hgzlSt cfjZos /x]sf] eg]/ dfu gu/]sf] cj:yf;d]t ljBdfg 5 . oBlk lqljdf
kf7\oj|md lg/Gt/ cBfjlws / kl/dfh{g x'g ;s]sf], kf7\oj|md lgdf{0f k|lj|mofdf hl6n k|zf;lgs
k|lj|mof k"/f ug'{kg]{, ;Da4 ljifo lzIfssf] ;xeflutf g/x]sf] cj:yf sl7gfOsf ?kdf dx;'; ul/Psf]
5 . o;sf nflu lzIfssf] ;Ifdtf j[l4 u/L kf7\oj|md lgdf{0f / sfof{Gjogdf lhDd]jf/ agfO{ ;DalGwt
ljefuaf6 kf7\oj|md :jLs[t ug'k{ 5{ . ef}lts pkl:yltdf lzIfss]lGb|t / JofVofg ljlwnfO{ lj:yflkt ub}{
ljifosf] k|s[ltcg';f/ k|ljlwd}qL lzIf0fljlw / k|lj|mof cjnDag ug'{k5{ . gjLg lzIf0fljlw / k4ltsf]k|of]usf nflu cWoog cg';Gwfg, lzIfssf] Ifdtf ljsf; tyf k|of]usf nflu k"jf{wf/ tof/ ug'{k5{ .
cg';Gwfgdf cfwfl/t lzIff
cg';Gwfg 1fg lgdf{0fsf] cfwf/ xf] . ljZjljBfnon] 1fgsf] k|;f/ dfq gu/L cg';Gwfgsf dfWodaf6
1fgsf] k|;f/;d]t ug'{k5{ . lqljdf cg';Gwfg sfo{sf nflu rf/cf]6f cg';Gwfg s]Gb|x? 5g\ . lqljn]
cg';Gwfg s]Gb|nfO{ ljZjljBfnosf] cfocfh{g, 1fg pTkfbg, k|ljlw ljsf; / x:tfGt/0fsf] nflu
6lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

kl/rfng ug{ g;s]sf] tyf 1fgsf] pTkfbg / k|ljlwsf] x:tfGt/0fdf k|efjsf/L ?kdf nfUg g;s]sf]eGb} tL s]Gb|nfO{ /0fg}lts ?kdf ;DalGwt dxfljBfnodf ;dfof]hg ug]{ -a/fn, @)*)v_ of]hgf
cufl8 ;fl/Psf] 5 .
cg';Gwfg s]Gb|nfO{ ;DalGwt ljefudf ;dfof]hg ug'{eGbf klxn] s] sf/0fn] cg';Gwfg s]Gb|sf sfo{x?
k|efjsf/L x'g ;s]gg\ eGg] vf]hL cfjZos 5 . cg';Gwfgs]Gb|L pRrlzIffsf] Joj:yf ug]{ ljZjJofkL
dfGotf tyf cg';Gwfg tyf k|sfzgnfO{ ljZjljBfno d"Nofª\sgsf] ljZj:t/Lo dfgs ag]sf] ;Gbe{dfcg';Gwfg s]Gb|x?nfO{ yk k|efjsf/L agfpg' cfjZos 5 . jt{dfgdf cg';Gwfgsf nflu z'Go ah]6df
cGo k|:tfjsf cfwf/df cg';Gwfgsfo{ ul//x]sf cg';Gwfg s]Gb|nfO{ kof{Kt ah]6, ;|f]t;fwg tyf;zStLs/0f ug'{ cfjZos 5 . cg';Gwfg s]Gb|nfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg o;nfO{ ;|f]t;fwg;DkGg u/fO{bz{gfrfo{ -Pdlkmn_ / ljBfjfl/lw -lkPr8L_ sfo{j|md ;~rfng ug]{ lhDd]jf/L cg';Gwfg s]Gb|nfO{ lbg'
;fGble{s x'G5 . o;f] ug{ ;s]df To; txsf] cWoognfO{ cg';Gwfgdf cfwfl/t agfpg ;lsG5 .
cg';Gwfg s]Gb|df sfo{/t lzIfsn] ;DalGwt s]Gb|Lo ljefu tyf dxfljBfno -k|:tfljt_ df k7gkf7g;d]tug]{ tyf cg';Gwfgdf :gftsf]Q/, bz{gfrfo{, ljBfjfl/lw txsf ljBfyL{nfO{ ;dfj]z ug]{ Joj:yf;d]t
u/L cg';GwfgnfO{ sIffsf]7f;Fu hf]8\g'k5{ . ;fy} ljleGg SofDk; tyf dxfljBfnon] ;fgf] :s]nsfcg';Gwfg cfkm\g} dxfljBfnoaf6 tyf 7'nf] :s]nsf cg';Gwfg cfkm\gf] cWofkg sfo{nfO{ hf/L /fVb}
cg';Gwfg s]Gb|dfkm{t\ u/fpg] Joj:yf ldnfpg'k5{ . Gibb -;g\ @)!)_ n] u'0f:t/sf ljljw k|f?kx?dWo]cg';Gwfgdf cfwfl/t lzIff Ps dxÎjk"0f{ kIf xf] h'g lkmN8df uP/ ul/g] cg';GwfgnfO{ dfq geO{
sIffsf]7fdf, lzIfssf] lzIf0fljlw, ;+:yfsf] z}lIfs pknlAwdf b]lvg'k5{ eGg] dfGotf /fV5g\ . o;
cfwf/df lqljn] /fHosf nflu dfq geO{ cfkm\g} lzIf0f k4lt, z}lIfs ljlw tyf ljBfyL{sf] z}lIfs pknlAw;'wf/sf nflu ;d]t of]ubfg lbg' cfjZos b]lvG5 . 7'nf] :s]nsf cg';Gwfgdf clgjfo{ ?kdf Pdlkmn
tyf ljBfjfl/lwsf ljBfyL{nfO{ klg cg';Gwfgsf ;fy} pkflw k|bfg ug]{ Joj:yf u/fpg'k5{ . /fHosf
ljleGg gLltut cg';Gwfg tyf cGo ljljw ljifout cg';Gwfgsf sfo{ Pglhcf] tyf cfOPglhcf]
dfkm{t\ ug]{ sfo{ aGb u/L ljZjljBfnosf cg';Gwfg s]Gb|dfkm{t\ k|fWofks tyf ljBfyL{sf] ;xeflutfdf
ug'{k5{ . ljBfyL{df ;d]t cg';Gwfg l;k, cg';Gw]o ljifoIf]q;Fu kl/lrt x'g] tyf Ifdtf lj:tf/ x'g]b]lvG5 . o;n] ljZjljBfno, k|fWofks tyf ljBfyL{ ;Ifd aGg uO{ ljZjljBfnon] u'0ffTds km8\sf] dfg]{b]lvG5 . ljZjljBfnonfO{ Jofks ?kdf 7'nf] hg;d"xnfO{ lzIff lbg] ljZjljBfno -df; o'lgel;{6L_/ cg';Gwfgs]Gb|L ljZjljBfnonfO{ -l/;r{ o'lgel;{6L_ u/L b'O{ k|sf/df ljefhg ug]{ ul/G5 (Ozdem,
2011) . lqljnfO{ cg';Gwfg ljZjljBfno agfpgsf nflu cg';GwfgnfO{ hf]8 lbO{ ;f]cg';f/sf] gLlt
/ cEof;nfO{ hf]8 lbg' cfjZos 5 .
;Ifd kbflwsf/L, Ifdtfjfg\ k|fWofks / sd{rf/Lsf] lgo'lSt;f]rkqn] ljZjljBfnodf kbflwsf/Lx?sf] lgo'lStnfO{ ljZjljBfno ;'wf/sf ?kdf dxÎjk"0f{ afwfsf]?kdf lrq0f ub}{ o;sf] cGTosf nflu pks'nkltsf] lgo'lSt k|lj|mofnfO{ k|ltikwf{Tds k|lj|mofsf ?kdf
dxÎj lbP/ lrq0f u/]sf] 5 . o;sf ;fy} ljZjljBfnosf cGo kbflwsf/Lsf] lgo'lStsf nflu lglZrt
dfkb08 tof/ u/L ;f]xLcg';f/ kbflwsf/Lsf] lgo'lSt ug]{ kl/kf6L ljsf; ug]{ tyf /fhg}lts cf:yfsf
7

cfwf/df cf+lzs, sf];{ s/f/ / s/f/df lzIfs tyf sd{rf/L lgo'lStsf] cGTo ub}{ of]Uotfsf cfwf/df
cfª\lus SofDk;df lzIfs egf{ ug]{ ;f]r -a/fn, @)*)s_ cufl8 ;fl/Psf] 5 . ;f]rkq -a/fn, @)*)
s_ df ljZjljBfnosf] u'0f:t/ ;'wf/sf nflu /fd|f] z}lIfs k[li7e"ld ePsf lzIfs x'g'kg]{ / lzIfsx?df
k|fl1stf / cfkm\gf] k];fk|ltsf] ;dk{0fefj x'g'kg]{ ljifo klg p7fg ul/Psf] 5 . cWofkg / cg';Gwfgsf
nflu Go'gtd of]Uotf ljBfjfl/lw agfpg] ;f]r;d]t cufl8 ;fl/Psf] 5 .
ljZjljBfnodf /fhg}lts k|efjsf cfwf/df kbflwsf/L lgo'lSt ePdf sd ;Ifd JolSt lgo'lSt x'g]
tyf ;Ifd JolSt g} lgo'lSt ePdf klg To:tf kbflwsf/Lx?nfO{ ljZjljBfnosf kbflwsf/Lsf ?kdf
eGbf klg ;DalGwt k];fut ;ª\3;ª\u7gsf] k|ltlglwsf ?kdf x]/]/ sfddf afwf l;h{gf x'G5 . o;y{ljZjljBfnosf kbflwsf/L nufot ljleGg kbdf d]l/6 / al/i7tfnfO{ cfwf/ dfg]/ of]Uo JolSt pko'St
kb -/fO6 Dofg /fO6 kf]lh;g_ df k'Ug] Joj:yf ug{'k5{ . /fli6«o pRrlzIff cfof]u @)&% n] klg
lqljnufotsf cGo pRrlzIff k|bfos ljZjljBfnox?df af]8{ ckm 6«:6L -k|aGw ;ldlt_ dfkm{t\ u7g
ug{ tyf sfo{sf/L kbx?df v'nf k|ltikwf{af6 lgo'lSt ug{ ;'emfj lbPsf] 5 .
;]jf cfof]unfO{ lgoldt u/fP/ ljZjljBfnodf cfjZos lzIfs tyf sd{rf/L lgo'lSt lgoldt u/fpg;s]df cf+lzs, s/f/, sf];{ s/f/ cflbdf lzIfs sd{rf/L lgo'lSt ug{ cfjZos x'Fb}g . ljZjljBfnodf
cfjZos lzIfs sd{rf/Lsf] cg'kft lgwf{/0f ug]{, ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof tyf sfo{j|mdsf cfwf/df lzIfs /ljBfyL{sf] cg'kft ldnfpg] tyf cfjZostfcg';f/ ;xh ?kdf lzIfs / sd{rf/Lsf] ;?jfsf] Joj:yfug]{, ljlzi6 e"uf]n / kl/j]zdf ul/g] sfo{sf] ;xL d"Nofª\sg ug]{ kl/kf6L a;fNg'k5{ . ljZjljBfnodfb]zleq}af6 dfq geO{ ljb]zL ljZjljBfnoaf6 ;d]t lelhl6ª k|f]km];/ tyf ljb]zL gful/snfO{ ;d]tk|Wofkgdf cfslif{t ug],{ ljZjljBfno ;]jfsf pkk|fWofks kbdf dfq geO{ ;xk|fWofks tyf k|fWofksdf;d]t cWofkg tyf cg';Gwfgdf ljlzi6tf k|fKt JolQmnfO{ k|j]z tyf Ifdtfcg';f/ j[lQljsf;sf]
cj;/;d]t k|bfg ug'k{ 5{ . pRrlzIffdf k|fWofkg / cg';Gwfg ug{ rfxg] JolStx?sf] lj1tfsf] n]vfhf]vf
ug{ /fli6«o of]Uotf k/LIf0f k|0ffnL -/fli6«o lzIff gLlt, @)&^_ jf o:t} k|sf/sf of]Uotf lgwf{/0f ug]{k|0ffnL lgdf{0fsf] cfjZostf /x]sf] 5 . of]Uo JolStnfO{ k|j]z dfq u/fpg] /0fgLlt dfq geO{ ;]jfdf
k|j]z ul/;s]sf k|fWoks tyf sd{rf/Lsf] Ifdtf ljsf;sf nflu gLlt / sfo{j|md lgdf{0f u/L ;xL
sfof{Gjog ug'{k5{ . km]l/ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf clwsf+z lzIfs tyf sd{rf/L lqe'jg ljZjljBfnos}
pTkfbg ePsfn] sdhf]/ k[i7e"ldsf lzIfs tyf sd{rf/L k|j]z eP eg]/ c?nfO{ bf]if lbg ldNg] klgb]lvFb}g . a? 5gf]6 k|lj|mof r':t agfpg tyf 5gf]6 eO;s]kl5 ltgnfO{ k|efjsf/L tflnd lbg]tkm{
Wofg lbg' cjfZos 5 . oBlk o;sf] :ki6 of]hgf ;f]rkq / sfo{of]hgfdf ;dfj]z ePsf] b]lvFb}g .
lqlj h:tf] k'/fgf] / /fHosf] k|d'v ljZjljBfnodf k|fWofks tyf sd{rf/Lsf] Ifdtf ljsf;sf nflu
xfn;Dd 7f]; sfo{;d]t ePsf] 5}g . o;sf nflu Pp6f :yfoL lgsfo / :ki6 gLltlgod, ah]6 /sfof{Gjgof]Uo sfo{gLltsf] cfjZostf k5{ . …lqlj lzIfs tyf sd{rf/L ;DaGwL ljlgodfjnL, @)&^-;+zf]wg;lxt_ df …tflndsf] Joj:yf ul/g] 5Ú eGg] pNn]v eP klg s;n], s:tf] k|s[ltsf] / s'g s'g
kIfdf hf]8 lbO{ tflnd ;~rfng ug]{ eGg] :ki6 pNn]v ul/Psf] 5}g . lqljsf] v'nf tyf b"/ l;sfOs]Gb| (ODEC) n] @)&* efb|b]lv kf}if d;fGt;Dd lj=;+= @)&&÷)&* sf gjk|j]zL k|fWofksx?nfO{ $*8lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

306fsf] ;]jfk|jz] tflnd ;DejtM Oltxf;d} klxnf]k6s k|bfg ul/P klg Tof] ;xefuLsf] cfjZostfd'vL
tyf dfudf cfwfl/t geO{ ;a} ljifo, :t/ / ;ª\sfo tyf ;+:yfgsfnfO{ Ps} :yfgdf /fv]/ lzIf0f
k|lj|mofsf af/]df ;fdfGo kl/ro lbg] vfnsf] dfq lyof] . ljZjljBfno cg'bfg cfof]un] jflif{s ?kdf
cg';Gwfg nufotsf Ifdtf ljsf;sf ljljw sfo{j|mdsf nflu k|:tfj dfu u/]/ ah]6 lbg] Joj:yf u/]
klg j;f}{+b]lv Ps} vfnsf sfo{j|mdsf] lg/Gt/tf, ltgsf] u'0f:t/ lgoGq0fsf] cefj h:tf sfo{j|mdn]
ljtl/t ;|f]t;fwgsf] plrt pkof]u cGoGt Go"g dfqfdf ePsf] b]lvG5 . sd{rf/Lsf] Ifdtf ljsf;sf
nflu klg ;do ;dodf tflnd nufotsf sfo{j|mdx? ;~rfng ul/Psf] kfOG5 . oBlk tlfndsf
nflu :ki6 kf7\oj|md, :yfoL lgsfo, tflnd tyf Ifdtf ljsf;sf sfo{j|mdsf] ;xL d"Nofª\sg tyf
To;af/]sf] tYofª\s ;ª\sng Jojl:yt gx'Fbf k|efjsfl/ x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . o;y{ lqljsf] u'0f:t;'wf/sf nflu lzIfs / sd{rf/Lsf] bIftf dxÎjk"0f{ kIf ePsfn] Pp6f :yfoL ;+/rgf lgdf{0f u/L bIf
k|lzIfsaf6 sfo{j|mda4 / lgoldt ?kdf k];fut Ifdtf ljsf;sf sfo{j|md ;~rfng ug'{k5{ . o;sf
nflu kof{Kt ah]6, bIf k|lzIfssf] Joj:yf;d]t u/L cfw'lgs ;"rgf k|ljlwsf] clwstd pkof]u u/Ler'{cn dfWodnfO{ ;d]t pkof]u ub}{ ;"rgf k|ljlw;DaGwL l;knfO{ k|fyldstf lbO{ Ifdtf ljsf;sf
sfo{j|md ;~rfng ug'{k5{ .
tflnd k|lzIf0f, pRr z}lIfs sfo{j|mdsf nflu cj;/ / Ifdtfcg';f/sf] lhDd]jf/L (Anderson, 2004)
k|bfg ug{ ;s]sf] v08df lqljn] u'0f:t/Lo hgzlSt cefjsf] ;d:ofnfO{ klg s]xL xb;Dd ;Daf]wg
ug{ ;S5 .
;xsfo{ / ;dGjo
ljZjljBfno ;dfhsf nflu ;dfhd} :yflkt ePsf] lgsfo ePsfn] ljleGg lgsfox?;Fu ;xsfo{
tyf ;dGjo u/L cufl8 a9\g'k5{ . lqljn] Pl;of, o'/f]k, ci6«]lnof, pQ/ cd]l/sf / clk|msfsf !^&/fi6«;Fu ;dembf/Lkqdf x:tfIf/ u/L cf}krfl/s ;DaGw :yfkgf u/s]sfn] ljBfyL{ / lzIfsx? cfk;df
cfbfgk|bfg u/L lzIf0fljlw / 1fgsf] x:tfGt/0f ug{ ;lsG5 . o:tf] ;DaGwn] g]kfn;Fu ;DalGwt
ljlzi6 ljifox?sf] cWoog cWofkgdf ljb]zL cg'ej;d]t ;dfj]z u/L ltgsf] cWoog cg';Gwfgdf
a9fjf lbg], pRrlzIffnfO{ cGt/fli6«os/0f u/L ljb]zL ljBfyL{x?nfO{ cfslif{0f ug]{ ;Defjgf /x]sf]
5 -a/fn, @)*)v_ . oL ;Defjgfsf lardf ;DaGw :yfkgf ePsf ljZjljBfno;Fu ;+o'St sfo{k|efjsf/L x'g g;s]sf] pNn]v ub}{ sfo{of]hgfn] 1fg / k|ljlw x:tfGt/0f x'g] u/L sfof{Gjogug'{nfO{ lnPsf] 5 .
ljZjljBfnonfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg ljleGg z}lIfs, lghL If]q / ;/sf/ tyf ;/sf/L lgosfo;Fuk|efjsf/L ;xsfo{ / ;dGjo x'gk' 5{ . /fHosf ;/sf/L, lghL tyf cgf}krfl/s If]qsf nflu ljZjljBfnon]s:tf] Ifdtf ePsf slt hgzlSt pTkfbg ug]{ < kl/jt{gzLn ;dodf s:tf hgzlStsf] dfu
ef]lnsf lbgdf a9\b} hfG5 < cGt/fli6«o :t/df s:tf hgzlStsf] dfu 5 < h:tf kIfsf] Vofn u/L
cfjZostfcg';f/sf] hgzlSt pTkfbg ug{ ;Sg'k5{ . ljZjljBfnosf] cWoog, cWofkg / pTkfbg
ahf/;Fu ghf]l8g] -a/fn, @)*)v_ ;d:of klg cGTo ug{sf nflu plNnlvt k|Zgx?sf] dgg\ ug'{
cfjZos 5 . ljZjljBfno–lghL ;+:yf–;/sf/larsf] c;n ;DaGw / ;xsfo{af6 /fd|f] kof{j/0fLo gd'gf
9

-Osf]l;:6d df]8n_ lgdf{0f u/L To;nfO{ k|fs[lts ?kdf :jrflnt ug{ ;s]df o;n] cfly{s, k|fljlws,;dflhs, gLltut, k|fl1s, ;f+:s[lts / dgf]j}1flgs kIfx? dha't ug{df ljZjljBfnon] k|efjsf/Lof]ubfg lbg ;S5 (Nyman, 2015) . ljsf; lgdf{0f ;Da4 lgsfo / ljZjljBfnolar ;fem]bf/L tyf
pBf]u, Jofj;fo, ;+:yfg / lzIf0f ;+:yfglarsf] ;xsfo{ / ;fem]bf/L a9fO{ ljBfyL{x?nfO{ sfd ub}{
cWoog ug{ kfpg] cj;/ lbg] -/fli6«o lzIff gLlt, @)&^_ cj:yf l;h{gf ug'{k5{ . Henard & Fosev-;g\ @)!@_ n] pRrlzIffdf u'0f:t/Lo lzIff k|j4{g lgb]{lzsfdf pNn]v u/]h:t} ;xsfo{, ;bfrfl/tf,;dGjo, :jfoQtfnfO{ pRrlzIff ljsf;sf cfwf/ agfOg'k5{ . cGt/fli6«o cEof;nfO{ x]bf{ klg ;xsfo{/ :jfoQtf nfO{ pRrlzIffsf] cfwf/e"t gLltsf] ?kdf /flvPsf] kfOG5 . o;/L ljZjljBfnon] lghL
/fHosf ljljw kIf;Fu ;xsfo{ / ;dGjo ugf{n] ;/sf/ / lghL If]q;d]t hgzlSt, cg';Gwfg nufotsf
sfo{sf nflu ljZjljBfno;Fu lge{/ x'g] / ljZjljBfno klg ;/sf/ / lghL If]q;Fusf] ;xsfo{af6;Ifdtf ljsf; u/L cfjZostf cg's"n lzIff k|bfg ug{df lhDd]jf/ aGb5g\ .
;dfhsf] ;f+:s[lts, k|fljlws tyf cfly{s kIfdf ljZjljBfnon] lbPsf] of]ubfgaf6 ;dfhsf]
ljZjljBfnok|ltsf] ljZjf;df j[l4 x'G5 . o;y{ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] cGo ljZjljBfno tyf z}lIfs
lgsfosf ;fy} lghL If]q / ;/sf/L lgsfo;Fu ;xsfo{ u/L dha't kof{j/0f -Osf]l;:6d_ lgdf{0fug'{k5{ .
;Ifd, ;an / cfTdlge{/ ljZjljBfno
ljZjljBfnoaf6 u'0f:t/Lo lzIff, cg';Gwfg tyf r':tb'?:t ;]jfk|jfxsf nflu cfjZos cfly{s ;|ft] sf]
k|aGw ul/g'k5{ . ljZjljBfno cfly{s ?kdf ;d:ofdf /x]sf] cj:yfnfO{ ;f]rkqn] :jLsf/ u/]sf]
5 . clwsf+z cfª\lus SofDk;x?df ef}lts ?kdf ;DkGg eP/ klg ef}lts ;DklQsf] kl/rfng /Joj:yfkg x'g g;sL cfly{s ;|ft] sf nflu g]kfn ;/sf/d} lge{/ /xg' ljZjljBfnosf] cfly{s ;antfsf]
d'Vo afwf /x]sf] 5 -a/fn, @)*)s_ oL ;d:ofnfO{ ;dfwfg ug{ Jofkfl/s b[li6n] dxÎjk"0f{ :yfgsf
hUufnfO{ ;fj{hlgs lghL :j?kdf klxrfg u/L ;fj{hlgs lghL :j?kdf ;~rfng ug],{ z'NsnfO{ kf/bzL{
agfpg], cg';Gwfg / k/fdz{ ;]jfnfO{ ljZjljBfnosf] cfo;|ft] agfpg lzIfs / ljBfyL{nfO{ ;+nUg u/fpg],
ljBfyL{ ;xof]u sfo{jm| ddfkm{t\ ljZjljBfnosf] hgzlSt cefj k"/f ug]{ tyf cfly{s cj:yf sdhf]/ ePsf
ljBfyL{nfO{ ;xfotf k'Ug] tyf ljBfyL{x?df >dk|lt ;Ddfgsf] efj a9fpg] ;f]r cufl8 ;fl/Psf] 5 .
;Ifd ;an / cfTdlge{/ ljZjljBfno agfpg]tkm{sf] clenfiffdf ef}lts ljsf; / ljBfyL{ Joj:yfkgnfO{dxÎjk"0f{kIfsf ?kdf lng'kg]{df ;f]rkq / Jofj;flos sfo{of]hgfdf uxg lrGtg x'g ;s]sf] b]lvFb}g .
;f]rkqdf clwsf+z cfª\lus SofDk; ef}lts ?kdf ;DkGg ePsf] t/ ef}lts ;DklQsf] kl/rfng /Joj:yfkg x'g g;s]sf] pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . oBlk ljZjljBfnosf s]Gb|Lo SofDk;b]lv cfª\lus
SofDk;;Ddsf] ef}lts cj:yfnfO{ x]g]{ xf] eg] ef}lts ?kdf ;DkGgtf b]lvFb}g . hUufhldg / ejgsfb[li6n] s]xL ;DkGg h:tf] b]lvP klg sIffsf]7f, ltgdf k|fKt ;'ljwf, k|zf;sLo ejg, k|fWofkssf]
sIf, ljefuLo k':tsfno, ;]ldgf/ xn, cg';Gwfg tyf kl/of]hgf sfo{ ug{sf nflu rflxg] k"jf{wf/x?,;"rgf k|ljlwsf] kx'Fr h:tf ;'ljwfx? /fd|f] x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . o;y{ ljZjljBfnoaf6 u'0f:t/Lo lzIff
10lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

/ k|efjsf/L ;]jf k|jfxsf nflu cfjZos kg]{ ef}lts ;'ljwfsf kIfx? klxrfg u/L ltgsf] Joj:yfkg
ug'{ cfjZos 5 h;nfo{ ;f]rkq / Jofj;flos sfo{of]hgfdf ;dfj]z ul/Psf] 5}g .
ljZjljBfnonfO{ ;an, ;Ifd / cfTdlge{/ agfpg ljZjljBfnosf nflu cfjZos kg]{ cfly{s ;|f]tsf]
Joj:yfkg x'gk' 5{ . o; ;f]rkqdf cufl8 ;fl/Psf] pkfo ljZjljBfnonfO{ cfly{s ?kn] lge{/ u/fpg] Ps
kIf dfq xf] . ljZjljBfnonfO{ cfly{s ?kn] lge{/ agfpg ;a}eGbf klxn] /fHon] lzIff tyf pRrlzIffdf
nufgL a9fpg'k5{ . /fHon] lzIff, :jf:Yo tyf cfly{s nufotsf ljljw If]qdf ljljw dGqfno, ljefu
tyf lgsfodfkm{t\ ul/g] cWoog, cg';Gwfg, ;e]{If0f cflb ljZjljBfnodfkm{t\ ul/g'k5{ . o;f] x'Fbf/fHosf] vr{ ljZjljBfnodfkm{t\ x'G5, cWoog cg';Gwfg u'0ffTds x'G5, k|fWofkssf] Ifdtf a9\5,
ljBfyL{n] cWoog;Fu} cfocfh{g u5{g\, l;k ljsf; u5{g\ clg /fHosf ;d:of / ;Defjgfsf af/]df
a'em\5g\ . /fHonfO{ ;DkGg u/fpg cg';Gwfgdf ul/g] nufgLdf ef/L j[l4 u/L ljZjljBfnodfkm{t\To:tf cg';Gwfg ug]{ ug'{k5{ . /fHon] pRrlzIff ul/anfO{ lgz'Ns, ;Sg]af6 Go'gtd z'Ns lng]
/0fgLltcg';f/ ;~rfng ug'{k5{ . ;/sf/L cfjZostfsf nflu ljZjljBfnon] hgzlSt pTkfbg,;zStLs/0f tyf lghL If]q;Fu ;d]t hgzlSt pTkfbg, Ifdtf ljsf; tyf cWoog cg';Gwfg
h:tf sfo{df ;xsfo{ u/L cfocfh{g a9fpg ;lsG5 . plrt nufgLlagf ck]lIft k|ltkmn kfpg
g;lsg] ePsfn] clxn]s} nfufgLaf6 l56\6} ljZjljBfnodf cfoflds kl/jt{g Nofpg sl7g x'G5 .
lzIffsf] s'n ah]6 g} !) b]lv !@ k|ltztsf] xf/fxfl/df /x]sf] / To;dWo] klg pRrlzIffdf cToGt
sd dfq} ljlgof]hg x'g]x'Fbf /fHonfO{ g} ljZjljBfnonfO{ dxÎjaf]w u/fO{ nufgLdf a9f]Q/L u/fpg'
cfjZos 5 .
hjfkmb]lxtf, kf/blz{tf / lhDd]jf/Lkg
ljZjljBfnodf kf/blz{ t f / hjfkmb] l xtf j[ l 4 ug{ of] U o / k] ; fk| l t ;dlk{ t k| f Wofks /sd{rf/Lsf] e"ldsfnfO{ hf]8 lbFb} cfly{s kIfnfO{ kf/bzL{ agfpg], ljZjljBfno tyf o;cGtu{tsfSofDk;x?sf] clfy{s, z}lIfs / cGo ultljlwnfO{ j]ek]hdfkm{t\ ;fj{hlgs ug]{, ljZjljBfnosf
ljljw lgsfosf kbflwsf/LnfO{ tf]l sPsf] lhDd] j f/Lk| lt pQ/bfoL agfpg] clg sfo{ ; Dkfbg
d" N ofª\ s g ug] { kl/kf6L a;fnL lzIfsnfO{ pQ/bfoL agfpg] -a/fn, @)*)s_ of] hgf cufl8;fl/Psf] 5 .
ljZjljBfnodf sfo{/t lzIfs / k|fWofks tyf sd{rf/Ldf hjfkmb]lxtf, kf/blz{tf / lhDd]jf/Lkg
a9fpg' cToGt cfjZos 5 . o;sf nflu ;a}eGbf klxn] pgLx?sf] lhDd]jf/L lgwf{/0f u/L
sfo{;Dkfbgsf] lgoldt cg'udg / lg/LIf0f ug'{ cfjZos 5 . ljB'tLo zf;gsf dfWodaf6
ljBfnosf k|zf;lgs sfdsf/afxLnfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg] tyf sfo{;Dkfbgsf] :ki6 j}1flgsd"Nofª\sg k|0ffnLsf dfWodaf6 j[lQ ljsf;sf] km/flsnf] cj;/ l;h{gf ug'{kg]{ cfjZostfb]lvG5 . Collini -;g\ @)!@_ n] pNn]v u/]h:t} ljZjljBfno lsg cfjZos 5g\ t eGg] k|Zgsf]
plrt hjfkmsf nflu klg ljZjljBfnosf x/]s ;fª\u7lgs PsfOdf /x]sf lhDd]jf/ JolStx?df
hjfkmb]lxtf, kf/blz{tf / lhDd]jf/Lkg x'g'k5{ .
11ljZjljBfnosf c;n cEof;
pRrlzIffnfO{ k|fl1s / cg';Gwfgd"ns agfO{ pTs[i6tfsf] s]Gb| agfpg] dfu{df cu|kª\lStdf/x]sf ljZjsf pTs[i6 ljZjljBfnosf c;n cEof;sf ;fk]Iftfdf lqljsf cEof;sf] ;dLIff ub}{
cfjZos dfu{ klxrfg ug]{ k|of; oxfF ul/Psf] 5 . lqlj / g]kfnsf cGo ljZjljBfnox?dWo]
clwsf+z -u08sL / n'lDagLafx]s_ ljZjljBfnox?df k|wfgdGqL / lzIffdGqL s'nklt /xg] Joj:yfb]lvG5 . oBlk 6fOD; xfOc/ Ph's];gsf] pTs[i6tfsf] ;"rLdf /x]sf cS;kmf]8{ ljZjljBfno,:6fG8kmf]8{ ljZjljBfno, Dof;fRo';]6 OlG:6Ro'6 ckm 6]Sgf]nf]hL, xfj{8 ljZjljBfno, Soflnkmf]lg{ofljZjljBfno (Times higher education, 2024) nufotsf ljZjsf k|l;4 ljZjljBfnox?df /fli6«o/ cGt/fli6«o :t/df k|fl1s cg';Gwfgsf If]qdf Vofltk|fKt JolStx?sf] ljZjljBfno k|aGw af]8{(Board of Trwtees) /xg] Joj:yf /x]sf] 5 . pTs[i6 7flgPsf oL ljZjljBfnox?n] cg';GwfgnfO{@! cf}+ ztfAbLsf] pTs[i6tfsf] cfwf/ dfg]/ ah]6df k|fyldstfsf ;fy cg';Gwfg tyf cg';Gwfgdf
cfwfl/t lzIf0f / d"Nofª\sg k4ltnfO{ hf]8 lbP/ gLlt / kf7\oj|md lgdf{0f ub{5g\ . cg';Gwfgsf
nflu kof{Kt ah]6, cfjZos ;|f]t;fwgsf ;fy} cg';Gwfgsf nflu dxÎj;d]t kfpg] ub{5g\ .
ljZjsf ljZjljBfnosf pRr>]0fLdf /x]sf ljZjljBfnox?n] kf7\oj|md lgdf{0f, k|of]u, d"Nofª\sg/ kl/dfh{gsf nflu lzIfs :jfoQtf (teacher autonomy) nfO{ cg'z/0f u/]sf] kfOG5 . a]nfotsf]
SoflDa|h ljZjljBfno tyf cd]l/sfsf cS;kmf]8{ ljZjljBfnonfO{ g} pbfx/0fsf ?kdf lnFbf z}lIfssfo{j|md, kf7\oj|md / d"Nofª\sgsf lj:t[t vfsf (comprehensive framework) tof/ kf/L pSt
vfsfleq /x]/ d"Nofª\sgsf cfwf/;"rL (rubrics) tof/ u/L k|fWofkg ug]{ lzIfs :jod\nfO{ g} clwsf/
k|Tofof]hg u/]sf 5g\ . 6fOD; xfOc/ Ph's];gsf] ljZjsf ljZjljBfnosf pTs[i6tfsf] ;"rLdf /x]sf
pTs[i6 @) ljZjljBfnox?sf] …z}lIfs sfo{j|md Joj:yfkg / lj:tf/Úsf] ljZn]if0f ubf{ clwsf+zn]ljs]Gb|Ls/0fsf] df]8]ndf cfwfl/t l;sfO s]Gb|x? / :jfoQ z}lIfs sfo{j|mdx? ;~rfngdf NofPsf]b]lvG5 . To:t} ;xsfo{df cfwfl/t sfo{;Dkfbg ljZjljBfno ;kmntfsf] csf]{ dxÎjk"0f{ cfwf/ xf] .
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klg ljZjljBfnon] Wofgdf /fVg'k5{ . ljZjsf pTs[i6 ljZjljBfnosf ?kdf /x]sf xfj{8, SoflDa|htyf Pl;ofs} g]zgn o'lgel;{6L ckm l;ª\ufk'/n] klg ljBfyL{ ;xfotf k|0ffnL (student support
system) nfO{ hf]8 lbPsf tyf k|rf/sf] dfWodsf ?kdf pkof]u u/L ljBfyL{nfO{ cfslif{t u/]sf
5g\ . k"j{lgwf{l/t z}lIfs Sofn]G8/cg';f/ k7gkf7g / glthf k|sfzg u/L k];f 5gf]6sf nflu;d]t ljBfyL{nfO{ ;xotf ug]{ sf/0f o:tf ljZjljBfnodf cWoogsf nflu ljZjel/af6 ljBfyL{x?
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12lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

cjnDag u/]sf] kfOG5 . h;sf sf/0f tL ljZjljBfno cGtu{tsf SofDk;x?n] u'0f:t/Lo lzIffdfs]lGb|t eO{ k|efjsf/L sfo{;Dkfbg u/]sf] b]lvG5 .
ljZjsf pTs[i6 sfo{;Dkfbg u/]sf ljljw ljZjljBfno / ltgsf ;fk]Iftfdf lqljsf] sfo{;DkfbgnfO{
t'ngfTds ljZn]if0f ug{ ;lsG5 . lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] kl/j]z, nufgLsf ;|f]t, ljZjljBfnosf
hgzlSt, k|j]z, lzIfs ;Ifdtf, pTkfbg kf7\oj|md h:tf w]/} kIfdf ljlzi6tf /x]sf] eP klg ltgn]u/]sf s}of}+ c;n cEof;nfO{ xfdLn] cg's/0f ug{ ;S5f}+ . ljZjsf pTs[i6 dflgPsf ljZjljBfnon]
ckgfPsf ljZjljBfno;/x lqljnfO{ tTsfn k'¥ofpg g;lsP klg /fHonfO{ ljZjljBfnosf] dxÎjaf]w
u/fpg ;s]df nufgLdf j[l4 ug{ ;lsG5 . lqljn] cfkm\g} ;|f]t;fwgsf] ;b'kof]u;d]t u/L lzIfssf]
bIftf clej[l4 tyf bIf lzIfssf] k|j]z u/fpg], kf7\oj|md lgdf{0fdf lzIfsnfO{ lhDd]jf/ agfpg],cg';Gwfgd'vL lzIffsf] Joj:yf ug]{, kf7\oj|md, lzIf0f tyf d"Nofª\sgsf] ljlw / k4ltdf ;fdlos;'wf/ u/L ck]lIft u'0f:t j[l4 ug{ ;Sg] b]lvG5 .
lgisif{g]kfnsf] pRrlzIffsf] Oltxf;df pNn]vgLo of]ubfg lbPsf] lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] g]kfnsf] pRrlzIffsf]
ljsf;df lgs} 7'nf] of]ubfg /x]sf] 5 . olt dfq geO{ /fHosf nflu cfjZos hgzlStsf] 7'nf] lx:;faf]s]sf] of] ljZjljBfnon] g]kfnsf] pRr lzIffsf] g]t[Tj ;d]t ub{5 . o;n] lnPsf gLlt, sfo{j|md/ cEof;x? cGo ljZjljBfnosf nflu klg lgs} cg's/0fLo x'G5g\ . /fHosf] hgzlSt ljsf;df;d]t pNn]vgLo e"ldsf x'G5 . ljZjljBfno ;]jf k|jfxsf] cfkm\gf] ofqfsf j|mddf kl5Nnf] ;do s]xL
cfnf]lrt ;d]t ePsf] 5 . o; ;Gbe{df pks'nkltn] cfkm\gf] lgo'lStsf ;Gbe{df ;f]rkq / Jofj;flosof]hgfdf ljBdfg cj:yfsf] ;dLIff ub}{ ljZjljBfnonfO{ cfufdL lbgdf s;/L cufl8 a9fpg] eGg]
;Gbe{df s]xL dxÎjk"0f{ ;jfn p7fg ug'{ePsf] 5 . o; j|mddf d"ntM kf7\oj|mdsf] cBfjlwstf,z}lIfs kfqf]sf] sfof{Gjog, ;xsfo{ / ;dGjo, s]Gb|Lo ljefunfO{ dxfljBfnosf ?kd k'g;{+/rgf ug]{,
ljZjljBfno ;]jfsf] Go'gtd of]Uotf ljBfjfl/lw agfpg], cg';Gwfg tyf ;"rgf k|ljlwsf] k|of]udf
hf]8 lbg] h:tf ;sf/fTds kIfx? 5g\ . o;sf ;fy} ljBfyL{ sd ePsf SofDk; / ltgsf sfo{j|mdufEg], gofF sfo{j|md yKg u'0f:t/ k|TofognfO{ clgjfo{ agfpg], kf/blz{tf / hjfkmb]lxtfdf hf]8 lbg]
/ sfo{j|mda4 ?kdf cfkm\gf] sfo{of]hgf k|:t't ug]{ h:tf ;sf/fTds kIfx? oL b'O{ b:tfj]hdf /x]sf]
5g\ . o;df ;dfj]z x'g;Sg] s]xL kIfx? 5'6]sf tyf u'0ffTds ljBfyL{ OG6]s ug]{, k'/fgf k|fWofksnfO{uf]N8]g XofG;]s lbO{ ;]jflgj[Q ug]{, ljBfyL{ ;xof]u sfo{j|md ;~rfng ug]{, k/LIffsf ;'wf/sf nflu
lzIfsnfO{ lhDd]jf/ agfpgsf ;6\6f klgsfnfO{ ;Ifd agfpg] h:tf kIfx?df yk :ki6tf cfjZosb]lvG5 . o:t} sltko ljifo 5'6]sf 5g\ clg sltko p7fOPsf ljifon] yk cWoogsf] ck]Iff ub{5g\ .
ljZjljBfno ;'wf/sf] dgzfo JoSt ub}{ ubf{ 5'6]sf s}of}+ ljifonfO{ k'gM uxg 9ª\un] cWoog u/L;dfj]z ug]{ tyf pNn]v ul/Psf ;'wf/sf kIfx?df ;d]t cWoog u/L ltgnfO{ ljljw kIfaf6 x]/]/ljZjljBfnosf] gLlt / sfo{gLltdf ;dfj]z ug'{k5{ . o;sf ;fy} ljZjsf pTs[i6 ljZjljBfnon]
cjnDag u/]sf c;n cEof;nfO{ g]kfnsf] kl/j]z / ;Gbe{df cg's"ng ug{ ;s]df ljZjljBfnonfO{/fli6«o dfq geO{ cGt/fli6«o If]qdf ;d]t :yflkt u/fpg ;lsG5 .
13;Gbe{;fdu|L
pRr:t/Lo /fli6«o lzIff cfof]u -@)&%_, pRr:t/Lo /fli6«o lzIff cfof]usf] k|ltj]bg, @)&% -ck|sflzt
k|ltj]bg_ .
a/fn, s]z/hª -@)*)s_, lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] Joj:yfkg tyf ;~rfng;DaGwL ;f]rkq, https://tu.edu.np

a/fn, s]z/hª -@)*)v_, lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] Jofj;flos of]hgf, https://tu.edu.npg]kfn ;/sf/, -@)&^_, /fli6«o lzIff gLlt https://moest.gov.np
Anderson, L. W. (2004). Increasing teacher effectiveness. UNESCO.
Azeiteiro, U. M., Bacelar-Nicolau, P., Caetano, F. J. P., & Caeiro, S. (2014). Education forsustainable development through e-learning in higher education: Experiences from portugal.
Journal of Cleaner Production, 106, 308–319.
Bergsmann, E., Schultes, M.-T., Winter, P., Schober, B.; Spiel, C. (2015). Evaluation of competencebased teaching in higher education: From theory to practice. Evaluation Program Planning
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Colini, S. (2012). What a universities for ?. Penguin Books.
Gibb, G. (2010). Dimensins of quality. Higher Education Academy.
Henard. F. & Roseveare. D. (2012). Fostering quality teaching in higher education: Policies andpractices. IMHE institutional management higher education.
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and ecosystems. Triple Helix 2.2, 1-20, https://doi.org/10.1186/s40604-014-0014-x
Ozdem, G. (2011). An analysis of the mission and vision statements on the strategic plans of higher
education institutions. Educational Sciences: Theory and Practice. 11. 1887-1894.
World University Ranking (2024). Times Higher Education. https://www.timeshighereducation.
com/world-university-rankings

14

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfosf]
jt{dfg ;+/rgf / dxfljBfno -:s'n_ sf] cfwf/uf]ljGbk|;fb zdf{ -;'s'd zdf{_*n]v;f/
lqe'jg ljZjljBfno cGtu{t dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfo ljifout ?kdf ljljwtf ePsf] ;a}eGbfk'/fgf] / a[xt\ ;ª\sfo xf] . lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] :yfkgf;Fu} k|jL0ftf k|df0f kq -OG6/_, :gfts -Aofrn/_/ :gftsf]Q/ -df:6/_ txsf] k7gkf7gdf dfgljsL snf ;ª\sfosf] e"ldsf pNn]Vo /x]sf] kfOG5 . dfgljsL/ ;fdflhs zf:qcGtu{tsf ljifosf] dxfljBfnosf cjwf/0ffdf s] s;/L ;+/rgfTds cfwf/ lgdf{0f ug]{eGg] d"n ;d:ofdf of] cWoog s]lGb|t /x]sf] 5 . o;qmddf dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:qcGtu{t ePsf]
dxfljBfno;DaGwL cjwf/0ffsf] P]ltxfl;s ljsf;;lxt jt{dfgsf] ;+/rgfTds cfwf/ vf]hL ul/Psf] 5 .
clxn] dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfocGtu{t jflif{s / ;qk|0ffnLcg';f/ :gfts txdf / cGo
txdf ;qk|0ffnLcg';f/ k7gkf7g x'g] Joj:yf ul/Psf] 5 . o; ;ª\sfodf :gfts tx, clw:gfts tx-lklh8L_, :gftsf]Q/ tx / bz{gfrfo{ ljBfjfl/lw txdf bz{gfrfo{ -Pdlkmn_ / ljBfjfl/lw -lkPr8L_ pkflw
k|bfg ug]{ k|fjwfg /x]sf] 5 . o:t} dxfljBfjfl/lw pkflwsf] klg o; ;ª\sfodf Joj:yf ul/Psf] b]lvG5 .
o; lsl;dsf] txut k7gkf7gcg';f/ :gfts txdf #) ljifodf pkflw,clw:gfts txdf ^ ljifodf pkflw,:gftsf]Q/ txdf #^ ljifo / bz{gfrfo{ ljBfjfl/lwdf @# ljifodf pkflw lbg] ul/Psf] klg kfOG5 . lqe'jg
ljZjljBfno b[li6sf]0f b'Ox{ hf/ la;lt; -@)@)—@)#)_ sf cjwf/0ffdf /x]sf kfFrj6f :s'ndf ;ª\sfosf]
k'gM ;+/rgfsf] cfwf/ agfpg ;lsG5 . k|:tfljt :s'nx?dWo] dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfo;Fu;Da4 :s'nx? -s_ :s'n ckm kmfOg cf6{; -v_ :s'n ckm Nofª\Uj]h, ln6/]r/ PG8 lnlª\Ujl:6s -u_:s'n ckm lax]ljc/n PG8 ;f];n ;fOG; -3_ :s'n ckm Osf]gf]ldS; kf]ln;L PG8 8]enk\dG] 6 -ª_ :s'nckm :6«f6]lhs :6l8h /x]sf 5g\ . ;ª\sfocGtu{tsf lqrfln;j6f ljifo ;ldltx? kfFrj6f :s'ndf
dfq ;~rfng x'g ;Sg] l:ylt gx'bF f s]Gb|Lo ljefu,ljefu / sfo{qmd tyf ljifosf] ;dfof]hg / vf/]hLr'gf}tLk"0f{ /x]sf] ljifo xf] . dxfljBfno -:s'n_ k|fl1s, k|zf;lgs / cfly{s ?kdf :jfoQ /xL k|fl1sg]tT[ jdf /xgkg]{ g} x'G5 . :s'n lgwf{/0f ubf{ cGt/ljifos / ax'ljifos cfwf/df hf]8 lbgkg]{ b]lvG5 .
:s'nsf ;~rfngsf nflu lgb]l{ zsf / sfo{ljlw lgdf{0f g} klxnf] k|fyldstfdf /xgkg]{ b]lvG5 . clxn]
kfOn6 sfo{qmdsf ?kdf :s'nsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ cl3a9fpg ;lsG5 . o;cg';f/ dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs
zf:q ;ª\sfocGtu{t lqe'jg ljZjljBfno b[li6sf]0f la;lt; -@)@)–@)#)_ sf cjwf/0ffdf /x]sf kfFrj6f:s'ndWo] :s'n ckm kmfOg cf6{;nfO{ o; ;ª\sfocGtu{t sfof{Gjogdf Nofpg ;lsG5 .
zAbs'~hLM cg'zf;lgs, cGt/ljifos, cGt/:s'n, ax'ljifos, ;xsfo{, :jzf;g, :jfoQ* ;xfos 8Lg, dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfo, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno, sLlt{k'/sharmasukum@gmail.com

15

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eP;Fu} snf -cf6{;\_ dfgljsL ljifosf] k7gkf7g cf/De ePsf] xf] . o:t} ljZjljBfno :yfkgf u/L
pRrlzIffsf] k7gkf7gsf] rrf{ @))% ;fnb]lv eP klg o;sf] d"t{ ?k eg] emG8} Ps bzskl5 dfq;Dej ePsf] b]lvG5 . o;} k[i7e"lddf /fli6«o kl/l:yltcg';f/ lzIffk|bfg ug]{ p2]Zon] lj= ;= @)!^
df lqe'jg ljZjljBfno :yfkgf eO{ ;~rfngdf cfPsf] xf] . lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] :yfkgf;Fu}
k|jL0ftf k|df0f kq -OG6/_, :gfts -Aofrn/_ / :gftsf]Q/ -df:6/_ txsf] k7gkf7gdf dfgljsL of
snf ;ª\sfosf] e"ldsf pNn]Vo /x]sf] kfOG5 . o;df klg ljZjljBfno sn]hdf :gftsf]Q/ txsf]
k7gkf7g cf/De ug]{ cfwf/ lgdf{0fdf dfgljsL of snf ;ª\sfo g} cu|0fL b]lvG5 .
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] :yfkgfkl5 gofF lzIff of]hgf nfu'x'Gh]n -@)@*_ sf] cjlwdf ljZjljBfnosf]
cfwf/e"t / k|f/lDes ;+/rgf lgdf{0f ePsf] b]lvG5 . lqe'jg ljZjljBfno P]g @)@* df !# j6f;+:yfg -OlG:6Ro'6_ Joj:yf ePsf / tL ;+:yfgdWo] dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;+:yfg klg
Ps xf] . /fli6«o lzIff k4ltsf] of]hgf -/flzkof]_ nfu' ePkl5 lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] ;+/rgfdf
kl/jt{g eO{ gofF ;+/rgfTds cfwf/ lgdf{0f x'Fbf dfgljsL of snf ;ª\sfo dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs
zf:q cWoog ;+:yfgsf gfddf ;+/rgfTds ljsf; ePsf] kfOG5 . o; cWoog ;+:yfgcGtu{tdfgljsL, ;fdflhs zf:q / efiff;flxTo If]qu/L cnucnu ;ª\sfosf] k|:tfj klg o; ;dodf
k|:t't ePsf] b]lvG5 . lj=;+ @)$) kl5 dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;+:yfgaf6 kl/jt{g eO{;ª\sfosf ;+/rgfdf /x]sf] klg b]lvG5 . ;ª\sfosf ;+/rgfTds ljsf;df lj:tf/ x'Fb} ubf{
xfn o; ;ª\sfocGtu{t #) j6f cflª\us, #!^ hlt ;DaGwg k|fKt -;fd'bflos tyf lghL_
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sfo{qmd tyf txut pkflwsf] Joj:yf /x]sf] 5 . o; ;ª\sfodf jflif{s / ;q k|0ffnLcg';f/k7gkf7g ul/Psf] kfOG5 .
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] jt{dfg ;+/rgf / cfsf/ a[xt\ eO{ sfo{;Dkfbg ;xh x'g g;s]sf] rrf{
kl/rrf{ kfOG5 . g]kfn ;ª\3Lo /fhgLltsf k|0ffnLdf uPkl5 ;f] k|0ffnLsf cfwf/df g]kfnsf]
k'gM ;+/rgf;Fu} lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] klg k'gM ;+/rgfsf] ;f]r cl3a9]sf] b]lvG5 . o;;Gbe{df dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfocGtu{t dxfljBfno -:s'n_ sf ;+/rgfTds
cfwf/sf ljifodf klg rrf{ ul/Psf] kfOG5 . ljZjljBfnodf dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:qcGtu{tljleGg ljifosf] k7gkf7g x'Fb} cfPsf] 5 . oxL k7gkf7g of lrGtg k/Dk/faf6 1fg;Dk|bfo
tyf k|fl1s k/Dk/f of u'?s'n lgdf{0f x'g] u5{ . ljrf/, bz{g, ljZjf;, ;fdflhs ultljlw,
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o; n]vdf ljutdf ePsf dxfljBfnosf] k|of; / clxn]sf] dxfljBfnosf] ;+/rgfTds l:yltsf
ljifodf rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 .
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ul/Psf] 5 .
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ljifout ?kdf ljljwtf ePsf] ;a}eGbf k'/fgf] / a[xt\ ;ª\sfo ePsfn] o;sf] ;+/rgfTds kIf hl6n/x]sf] 5 . k|jL0ftf k|df0fkq tx x6]kl5 o; ;ª\sfo cGtu{tsf SofDk; sn]hdf :gfts txb]lv
Sn]h :t/sf] k7gkf7g cf/De ePsf] xf] . o; ;ª\sfodf :gfts tx, clw:gfts tx -kLhL8L_,:gftsf]Q/ tx / bz{gfrfo{ ljBfjfl/lw txdf bz{gfrfo{ -Pdlkmn_ / ljBfjfl/lw -kLPr8L_ pkflw
k|bfg ug]{ k|fjwfg /x]sf] 5 . o:t} dxfljBfjfl/lw pkflwsf] klg o; ;ª\sfodf Joj:yf ul/Psf]
kfOG5 . o;/L x]bf{ ljifout ljljwtfdf a[xt\ cfsf/sf] k|fl1s ;+/rgf o; ;ª\sfodf ljBdfg/x]sf] b]lvG5 .
dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfocGtu{t jflif{s / ;qk|0ffnLcg';f/ k7gkf7g x'g] Joj:yf/x]sf] 5 . jflif{s k|0ffnLcGtu{t :gfts txsf -aL=P=_ sfo{qmd ;~rfngdf /x]sf] 5 . :gfts txdf
rnlrq cWoog -aLPkmP;_, nlntsnf -aLPkmP_, ;fdl/s cWoog Psn cg'zf;lgs k4ltdf;~rflnt jflif{s k|0ffnLsf sfo{qmd x'g\ . :gfts txdf ;q k|0ffnLcg';f/ Aofrn/ Og sDKo'6/
PlKns];g-aL;LP_sDKo'6/ cg'k|of]uzf:qL / Aofrn/ Og ;f]l;on js{ -aLP;8ANo"_ ;fdflhs sfo{
ljifo ;~rfngdf /x]sf 5g\ . ljZjefiff SofDk;df Pp6f ljb]zL efiff / csf]{ efiffafx]ssf] aLPsf]
ljifo lnO{ ;q k|0ffnLdf sIff ;~rfng ug]{ gLlt lnP klg ;~rfngdf cfpg eg] ;s]sf] b]lvFb}g .
o:t} clw:gfts tx -kLhL8L_ sf sfo{qmd Psj;]{ -b'O{ ;]d]:6/_ ;qk|0ffnLdf ;~rfngdf /x]sf
5g\ . :gftsf]Q/ txsf] sfo{qmd b'O{ jif{ -rf/ ;]d]:6/_ ;qk|0ffnLdf ;~rfndf /x]sf] 5 . bz{gfrfo{
ljBfjfl/lw txdf bz{gfrfo{ tLg ;qdf k"/f x'g] tyf To;kl5 ljBfjfl/lwsf] Joj:yf ul/Psf] 5 .
o; lsl;dsf] txut k7gkf7gcg';f/ :gfts txdf #) ljifodf pkflw, clw:gfts txdf ^ ljifodf
pkflw, :gftsf]Q/ txdf #^ ljifo / bz{gfrfo{ ljBfjfl/lwdf @# ljifodf pkflw lbg] ul/Psf] klg
kfOG5 . o;af6 dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfodf jflif{s k|0ffnL / ;q k|0ffnLsf] bf]xf]/f]
17

;+/rgfsf] k7gkf7g sfod} /x]sf] b]lvG5 . :gfts txdf PseGbf a9L P]lR5s / cltl/St P]lR5s-On]lS6j_ ljifosf cfwf/df pkflw lbg] / Pp6} ljifosf cg'zf;gdf /x]/ pkflwsf] Joj:yf klg
o; ;ª\sfodf /x]sf] k|fjwfg xf] . o;af6 jflif{s / ;q k|0ffnL, Psn cg'zf;lgs tyf ax'ljifo-P]lR5s, cltl/St P]lR5s_ ljifodf pkflw ePsf] ;ª\sfo xf] eGg] tYo o; ;ª\sfosf] k|fl1s;+/rgfaf6 :ki6 x'G5 .
dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfocGtu{t cflª\us SofDk;, s]Gb|Lo ljefu, ljefu, :gftsf]Q/
sfo{qmd / ;DaGwg k|fKt ;fd'bflos tyf lghL SofDk;sf] ;+/rgfTds ;ª\u7g /x]sf] 5 . o;;ª\u7gfTds If]qdf ;~rflnt sfo{qmd lgoldt ;|f]taf6 ;~rflnt sfo{qmd / cfGtl/s ;|f]taf6;~rflnt sfo{qmd /x]sf 5g\ . o:t} ;ªsfocGtu{t ljBfkl/ifb\ / To;cGtu{t ljifo ;ldlt /fvLz}lIfs / k|fl1s ultljlw ;~rfng u/]sf] kfOG5 . jt{dfgsf] o; ;+/rgfdf k7gkf7g ug{sf nflul56f]5l/tf] k|fl1s g]t[Tj / k|fl1s prfOsf ;fy} ljZj:t/Lo cfwf/af6 ;+/rgf ug{kg]{ cfwf/ k'gM;+/rgfsf qmddf p7]sf] d"n d'4f xf] . o; ;+/rgfsf ljsNkdf :s'n ;+/rgf k|:tfj ul/Psf] /:s'nsf] cjwf/0ffsf] rrf{ eP klg o;sf] sfof{Gjogsf] :ki6 cfwf/ eg] agfPsf] kfOFb}g .
dxfljBfnosf] cjwf/0ffTds ;f]r
dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfocGtu{t :s'n ;+/rgfsf ljifodf a]nfa]nfdf rrf{ eP klg 7f];
?kdf sfof{Gjogdf cfpg eg] ;s]sf] 5}g . o; ;ª\sfodf dfgljsL, ;fdflhs zf:q, k|fljlws
ljifosf] km/skm/s If]qsf] pkl:ylt / PsTj /x]sf] b]lvG5 . lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf gofF lzIffof]hgf;Fu} dxfljBfno -:s'n_ sf] :yfkgfsf] cjwf/0ff cyf{t\ :s'n ;+/rgfsf] klg ;f]r cl3 a9]sf]
xf] . gofF lzIf0f of]hgfcGtu{t l;kmfl/; ePsf :s'ndf -s_ :s'n ckm kmfOg cf6{; -v_ :s'n
ckm klAns P8ldlg:6«];g / -u_ :s'n ckm OG6/g];gn Nofª\Uj]h /x]sf 5g\ . oL :s'ndWo] :s'n
ckm kmfOg cf6{; / :s'n ckm OG6/g];gn Nofª\Uj]h dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs cWoog ;+:yfg
cGtu{t ;~rfng ug]{ k|fjwfg klg k|:t't ul/Psf] kfOG5 -pkfWofo, @)%* k[= !%_ . o;} ;dodf;fdflhs zf:q, efiff;flxTo / dfgljsL ljifo If]qdf cnu cnu ;ª\sfosf] ljsf;sf nflu
l;kmfl/; klg ePsf] b]lvG5 -k+1]gL, @)&^k[= ^%%_ . of] ljifo ax;df dfq ;Lldt /x]sf] / lj=;+@)&! kl5 ;]d]:6/ -;q_ k|0ffnLsf] k'gM cf/De eP;Fu} :s'n ;+/rgfsf] klg rrf{ kl/rrf{ cl3a9]sf] kfOG5 . o; k[i7e"lddf dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfosf] ljBfkl/ifbaf6 lj=;+ @)&#
df dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfo ljifout ljljw / ax'cfoflds ePsf] x'gfn] kl/0ffdd'vL;~rfngdf b]lvPsf ;d:ofnfO{ k|fl1s b[li6n] ;zSt, cBfjlws / ;do;fk]If agfpg ;+/rgfut
kl/jt{gsf nflu -s_ :s'n ckm Xo'dflgl6h -v_ :s'n ckm ;f];n ;fOG; / -u_ :s'n ckm
PKnfO8 ;f];n ;fOG;sf tLg j6f :s'ndf ;+/lrt ug{sf nflu ;}4flGts :jLs[lt tyf sfo{ljlwlgdf{0fsf] :jLs[ltsf nflu k|fl1s kl/ifb\df l;kmfl/; u/]sf] kfOG5 -dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q;ª\sfoaf6 hfgsf/L_ . o:t} lj=;+ @)^* df nlntsnf ljifo ;ldlt / nlntsnf s]Gb|Lo ljefu
sfof{Gjogdf cfpFbf o;cGtu{tsf sfo{qmdnfO{ Pp6} ljifo ;ldlt / Pp6} s]Gb|Lo ljefu cGtu{t;ª\uLt, d"lt{snf, lrqsnf, tanf ;~rfng ePcg';f/ nlntsnf s]Gb|Lo ljefuleq cGtlj{ifos18lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

:gftsf]Q/ sfo{qmdx? ;~rfng ul/Psf gLltaf6 :s'nsf] ;f]r -:s'n ckm y6_ sf ?kdf k|of]udf
cfPsf] b]lvG5 . oBlk o;nfO{ :s'nsf ?kdf eg] ;~rfng ul/Psf] kfOFb}g . cg';Gwfg s]Gb|sf]
cjwf/0ffTds ljsf;df klg :s'nsf] cfwf/ n's]sf] 5 . o;nfO{ :s'nleqs} cg';Gwfg;Fu hf]8\bf
5'6\6} cg';Gwfg s]Gb| -l;gf;, ;]l/8, ;]8f, l/sf:6_ sfod} ug]{ of :s'ncg';f/ of :s'nleq}cg';Gwfg s]Gb| ;~rfng x'gkg]{ dfGotfdf klg :ki6 x'gkg]{ b]lvG5 . To;}n] :s'n ;+/rgfdf hfg'
cl3 ;+/rgfTds cfwf/ / gLltut lgb]{zg :ki6 x'gkg]{ jt{dfgsf] klxnf] sfo{ xf] .
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] k'gM ;+/rgfsf qmddf k|:t't cWoogdWo] lqe'jg ljZjljBfno b[li6sf]0f
la;lt; -@)@)–@)#)_ sf k|:tfljt ljsNk klg o; k[i7e"lddf :d/0fLo b]lvG5 . ;f]r -lehg_@)@)–@)#)sf] bzsLo cjwf/0ffdf lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] ax'd'vL :j?kcg';f/ cf7j6f
ljZjljBfno cyf{t\ lqe'jg ljZjljBfno s]Gb|Lo ljZjljBfno / ;ftj6f k|b]z cg';f/ k|fb]lzs
lqe'jg ljZjljBfno -u08sL, n'lDagL, nufot_ sf ;+/rgfTds ;f]r Pp6f ljsNksf ?kdf
lbOPsf] 5 -6L=o'=,@)!(k[=!(_ . oxL ljsNksf ?kdf /x]/ :s'nsf] ;+/rgfnfO{ klg k|:t't ul/Psf]
5 . oxfF k|:t't ul/Psf :s'nx?dWo] dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfo;Fu ;Da4 x'g;Sg]:s'nx? -s_ :s'n ckm kmfOg cf6{; -v_ :s'n ckm Nofª\Uj]h, ln6/]r/ PG8 lnlª\Ujl:6s -u_:s'n ckm lax]ljc/n PG8 ;f];n ;fOG; -3_ :s'n ckm Osf]gf]ldS; kf]ln;L PG8 8]enk\d]G6-ª_ :s'n ckm :6«f6]lhs :6l8h /x]sf 5g\ -6L=o'=,@)!(k[=!(_ . cf/Dedf tLg j6f :s'n -s_:s'n ckm kmfOg cf6{; -v_ :s'n ckm Nofª\Uj]h, ln6/]r/ PG8 lnlª\Ujl:6s -u_ :s'n ckm
Osf]gf]ldS; kf]ln;L PG8 8]enk\d]G6 cf/De ug]{ ;f]r klg lqe'jg ljZjljBfno b[li6sf]0f la;lt;-@)@)—@)#)_ df cl3;f/]sf] kfOG5. lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] sfo{qmdnfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpga]nfa]nfdf o; lsl;dsf dxfljBfno :s'nsf] cjwf/0ff of ;f]r k|:tfj eP klg o;sf] sfof{Gjogeg] x'g;s]sf] 5}g . ;}4flGts cfwf/, sfo{ljlw / ljBdfg ;+/rgfsf] ;+of]hgsf] dfu{ :ki6 gx'g'g}] sfof{Gjogsf] d"n ;d:of xf] .
dxfljBfno -:s'n_ ;+/rgfsf] cfwf/ / r'gf}tL
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] :yfkgfb]lv g} dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:qcGtu{tsf] k|fl1s of]ubfg ljlzi6/x]sf] 5 . o; qmddf ljZjljBfnosf] klxnf] ;q h'nfO{ !$,!(%( b]lv lqrGb| sn]hs} ejgdf:gftsf]Q/sf] k9fOaf6 ;'? ePsf] / kl5 lqk'/]Zj/l:yt ;~rfng ul/Psf] rrf{ klg :d/0fLo g}b]lvG5 . -zdf{, @)^(k[=!#%_ . dfgjLo g}lts d"No, ;fdflhs d"No;lxt k|ljlwsf txdf kx'Fr /fVg]
hgzlQm pTkfbg ug{ k|fl1s txsf] g]t[Tjdf of] ;ª\sfo leGg k|s[ltsf] g} /x]sf] 5 . ;g\ !(*% df
dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;+:yfg dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfodf ablnPkl5 gofF;+/rgfsf] sfof{Gjogdf ljutb]lvsf] cg';Gwfgk/Dk/f kl/is[t / cBg"tg;lxt 1fgsf cg]s If]qdf
cg';Gwfg cl3 a9fPsf] b]lvG5 . dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfocGtu{t 8Lg, ljBfkl/ifb\,s]Gb|Lo ljefu, ljefu, sfo{qmd, cflª\us tyf ;DaGwg k|fKt sn]h /x]sf 5g\ . o; ;+/rgfdf 8Lg,
ljBfkl/ifb\, dxfljBfno -:s'n_ x? kl5 ljefu, sfo{qmd, cflª\us tyf ;DaGwg k|fKt SofDk; /cg';Gwfg s]Gb|sf] ;+/rgfTds cfwf/ vf]hL ug{kg]{ b]lvG5 .
19lqe'jg ljZjljBfnoaf6} s]Gb|Lo /fli6«o ljZjljBfno agfpg kxn u/]sf] b]lvG5 . gofF ;Gbe{dflqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] k'gM ;+/rgf cfjZos ePsfn] Pp6f dfu{lrq;lxt o; ljifodf hf]8 lbgkg]{
x'G5 . lqe'jg ljZjljBfnonfO{ ljZj:t/Lo ljZjljBfnosf >]0fLdf cAan agfpg klg k'gM;+/rgf
cfjZos ePsf] pNn]v 5 -uf}td / cGo, @)&^k[= #&_ . k|To]s ljZjljBfno cfhsf] ljZjahf/df
k|lt:kwf{sf txdf pkl:yt eO/xg] kIf r'gf}tL g} b]lvG5 . clxn]sf]] ahf/d'vL kf7Øqmdsf] lgdf{0fklg o; ljifo;Fu hf]l8Psf] kIf xf] . e"d08nLs/0fsf] k|efjn] z}lIfs k|0ffnLdf gofF ;f]r b]vfk/]sf]
tYo klg ljrf/0fLo g} 5 . o; lsl;dsf gofF ;+/rgfTds cfwf/sf gfddf s]Gb|Ls[t cl:tTj
eTsfpFb} ljsNksf cg]s s]Gb|af6 z}lIfs g]t[Tjsf] ul/df laufg{ eg] x'Fb}g . ljZj1fgnfO{ /}yfg]
1fg;Fu hf]8\g] of /}yfg] 1fgnfO{ ljZjahf/df k'¥ofpg] gLlt cfhsf ;Gbe{df la;{g ldNb}g . nfdf];dob]lv b]zsf] k|fl1s g]t[Tj u/]sf] lqe'jg ljZjljBfno s]Gb|Lo ljZjljBfnosf] ?kdf /fli6«olzIffsf] g]t[Tjdf /xg] ;+/rgfsf] vf]hL g} k'gM ;+/rgfsf qmddf b]lvPsf] ck]lIft ljifo xf] . lqe'jg
ljZjljBfnosf] /0fgLlt o; ljifodf ;r]t /xL cl3 a9\gkg]{ b]lvG5 . ax'd'vL cflª\us SofDk;dfclxn]sf] ;+/rgfdf a9Ldf dfgljsL, Joj:yfkg, lj1fg, lzIff / sfg'g u/L kfFr j6f;Dd km/s;+/rgfsf] PsTj b]lvG5 . oL SofDk;df oL ;ª\sfo / ;+:yfgcg';f/ ejg, sd{rf/L, k|fWofks
km/s x'g] u/]sf] / s]xL ljifodf ;femf cfwf/ klg /x]sf] b]lvG5 . kl5Nnf] ;dodf ;]jf cfof]usf]
k|fjwfgcg';f/ cfkm\gf] ;ª\sfo / ;+:yfg km/s x'g] / ;f]xL cfwf/df ;]jfsf] d"Nofª\sg x'g] k|fjwfgn]
k[ysLs/0fdf g} hf]8 lbPsf] b]lvG5 . oxL k[ysLs/0fsf] cfwf/ / SofDk; sn]hsf] ;dfof]hg
gLltaf6 :s'nsf] ljifo klg :ki6 x'g] b]lvG5 .
:s'n cfkm}df :jtGq,:jfoQ, :jfwLg x'gkg]{ dfGotf /x]sf] 5 . ljBdfg s]Gb|Lo ljefux?sf] lj36g,;dfof]hg ug]{ of oL s]Gb|Lo ljefunfO{ gofF ljefusf ?kdf k'g;+/lrt ug]{ eGg] ljifo klg :ki6
x'gkg]{ b]lvG5 . lqlj P]gdf Joj:yf ePsf] s]Gb|Lo ljefu / k|:tfljt :s'n ;+/rgfsf] cfwf/ P]gdfg} :ki6 x'gkg]{ ljifo xf] . ;xsfo{sf ?kdf hf]8 lbO{ cyjf ;dfof]hg u/L k|fl1s, k|zf;lgs /cfly{s :jfoQtfsf cfwf/df dxfljBfnosf] ljsf; ug{ gLltlgoddf :ki6 x'gkg]{ g} x'G5 .
cGt/:s'n ;xsfo{sf] cfwf/ vf]hL u/L :s'nx?sf larsf] ;DaGw / sfo{ ljsf; ug{ ;lsG5 . :s'n:yfkgf ePkl5 g} cGt/:s'n ;xsfo{sf] pko'Qm jftfj/0f lgdf{0f x'G5 . o;af6 cGt/;~hfnLo sfo{
Ifdtf ljsf; / lj:tf/ ug{ ;lsG5 . o;df sd{rf/L, k|fWofks, ef}lts ;fdu|L, kf7\oqmd cflbdf
cGt/ ;xsfo{ x'g] b]lvG5 . lj1cfwfl/t ;xsfo{, ;f+:s[lts cfwf/df ul/g] cWoog / ;xsfo{,ef}uf]lns cfwf/sf] ;xsfo{, gjLg vf]h cflbdf cGt/ :s'n ;xsfo{sf] vf]rf] k5{ . ;/sf/sf] nIos]lGb|t hgzlQm lgdf{0f xf];\ jf cWoog, cg';Gwfg, :yfgLo ;|f]tsf] ;fem]bf/L, lbuf] ljsf;k|ltsf]
cWoog, cflbdf cGt/ :s'nsf lar ;~hfnLo sfo{ cl3 a9\g ;S5 . k|f/lDes r/0fdf lj1-km\ofsN6L_ ;|f]t, cfly{s kIf, kf7\oqmd lgdf{0f cflbdf ;xsfo{ x'g] b]lvG5 .
clxn] dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfocGtu{t lqrfln;j6f ljifo ;ldlt ;lqmo /x]sf 5g\ .
oL ljifo ;ldltaf6 :gfts, clw:gfts, :gftsf]Q/ / bz{gfrfo{ ljBfjfl/lw txsf kf7Øqmd -pkflw:jLs[t eO{ ul7t ljifo;ldltaf6_ lgdf{0f u/L k7gkf7g / k|fl1s cg';Gwfgsf sfo{snfk cl3a9]sf
20lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

5g\ . lqe'jg ljZjljBfno ;ª\u7g tyf z}lIfs k|zf;g ;DaGwL lgod @)%) df Joj:yf ePcg';f/ljifo ;ldlt g} k|fl1s g]t[Tjsf] sfof{Gjogsf txdf lg0ff{os /x]sf] kfOG5 -lqlj @)&#_ . o;;ª\sfodf ul7t ljifo ;ldlt / oL ;ldltsf] k|fl1s g]t[Tj / :s'nsf ;+/rgfdf :s'nsf] cfwf/cg';f/ljifo ;ldlt lgdf{0f ug{ klg gLlt lgoddf :ki6 x'gkg]{ b]lvG5 . :s'ncGtu{t s]Gb|Lo ljefusf]e"ldsf :ki6 geP;Dd / s]Gb|Lo ljefusf] cWoIf kb]g ljifo ;ldltsf] cWoIf x'g] ljBdfg lgod
kl/jt{g geP;Dd :s'n ;+/rgfdf hfg hl6n x'g] ljifo xf] . lqe'jg ljZjljBfno ;f]r la;lt;-@)@)—@)#)_ df ePsf] Joj:yfcg';f/ dfgljsL ;Da4 lqrfln; j6f ljifox? kfFrj6f :s'ndf dfq;~rfng x'g;Sg] l:ylt gx'Fbf s]Gb|Lo ljefu, ljefu / sfo{qmdsf] ;dfof]hg / vf/]hL r'gf}tLk"0f{/x]sf] ljifo xf] . o;y{ :s'n k|fl1s, k|zf;lgs / cfly{s ?kdf :jfoQ x'gkg]{ g} b]lvG5 .
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnocGtu{t s]xL ;ª\sfo / ;+:yfgdf dxfljBfno -:s'n_ sf] ;+/rgf k|of]u ePsf]
klg kfOG5 . lzIffzf:q ;ª\sfodf :s'n ckm Ph's;] g ;~rfngdf /x]sf] 5 eg] Joj:yfkg ;ª\sfodf:s'n ckm Dofg]hd]G6 ;'rf? b]lvG5 . :s'n ckm Ph's];g ljBfjfl/lwsf txdf s]lGb|t /x]sf] 5/ s]Gb|Lo ljefusf] cl:tTj klg ljBdfg g} b]lvG5 . s]Gb|Lo ljefu / :s'nsf] :jrng cfcfkm\g}/x]sf] 5 . :s'nsf] dfGotf ljBfjfl/lwsf txdf nfu' eP klg :gftsf]Q/ / :gfts txdf o;sf]
k|efj b]lvFb}g . lzIff / Joj:yfkgsf] s]Gb|Lo ljefu Pp6f dfq ePsfn] of] ;+/rgf ;xh eP klg@@ j6f s]Gb|Lo ljefu ePsf] dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfodf eg] o; lsl;dsf] Joj:yf;xh b]lvFb}g . s]Gb|Lo ljefuleqsf ljefux? Pp6} ;+/rgfdf afFlwPsf] lzIffzf:q ;ª\sfoh:tf]
dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfosf] ;+/rgf b]lvFbg} . dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfodfs]Gb|Lo ljefu, ljefu, sfo{qmdsf] 5'6\6f5'6\6} cl:tTjd"ns ;+/rgf /x]sf] 5 . To;}n] k'gM ;+/rgfsf
qmddf o; ljifodf :ki6 gLlt gePdf of] k|lqmof xtf/df ul/Psf] lg0f{o dfq aGg] b]lvG5 .
clxn] dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfoleq /x]sf ljifo cGo cyf{t\ lzIff, lj1fg, Joj:yfkgsf:s'ndf klg ;d]6\g kg]{ l:ylt b]lvG5 . dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfocGtu{t :jLs[tljifo ;ldltdf -!_ g]kfnL, -@_ cª\u|]hL -#_ d}lynL, -$_ ;+:s[t, -%_ g]kfn efiff, -^_ lxGbL, -&_efifflj1fg, -*_ e"uf]n, -(_ cy{zf:q, -!)_ u[xlj1fg, -!!_ /fhgLltzf:q, -!@_ k':tsfno tyf ;"rgf
lj1fg, -!#_ ;dfhzf:q, -!$_ dfgjzf:q, -!%_ dgf]lj1fg, -!^_ cfd;~rf/ tyf kqsfl/tf -!&_
hg;ª\Vof cWoog, -!*_ af}4 cWoog, -!(_ u|fdL0f ljsf;, -@)_ nlntsnf -;ª\uLt, lrqsnf,d"lt{snf, g[To_ -@!_ Oltxf;, -@@_ g]kfnL Oltxf;, ;+:s[lt tyf k'/ftTTj, -@#_ ;fdflhs sfo{,-@$_ n}lª\us cWoog, -@%_ cGt/f{li6«o ;DaGw tyf s"6gLlt, -@^_ åGå, zflGt / ljsf;, -@&_
;fdl/s cWoog, -@*_ k/fdz{ dgf]lj1fg, -@(_ v]ns'b lj1fg, -#)_ ko{6g tyf cfltYo -#!_;'/Iff, ljsf; tyf zflGt cWoog, -#@_ ;ª\s6 Joj:yfkg, -##_ >d cWoog, -#$_ ;'zf;g tyf
e|i6frf/ lgjf/0f cWoog, -#%_ of]ulj1fg, -#^_ rnlrq cWoog, -#&_ sDKo'6/ PlKns];g, -#*_
bz{gzf:q, -#(_ g]kfn cWoog, -$)_ km];g l8hfOg, -$!_ ljsf; cWoog, -$@_ nf]sjftf{ cWoog,-$#_ ljZjefiff -dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ;ª\sfoaf6 hfgsf/L cg';f/_ ljifo ;ldlt /x]sf
5g\ . oL ljifodWo] -$)_ km];g l8hfOg, -$!_ ljsf; cWoog, -$@_ nf]sjftf{ cWoog k7gkf7gdf
21

sfof{Gjog x'g;s]sf] b]lvFb}g . Pp6} ljifodf P]lR5s ljifosf ?kdf k7gkf7gdf /x]sf ljifo kl5
5'6\6} sfo{qmdsf ?kdf ;~rfng ePsf] klg kfOG5 . cGt/ljifos -OG6/l8l;lklng/L_ cfwf/cg';f/:s'nsf] cjwf/0ffdf dgf]lj1fg ljifoleqsf k/fdz{ -sfpG;]lnª_ dgf]lj1fg, ljBfno -:s'n_ dgf]lj1fg
cflb Pp6} :s'ndf ;d]6\g ;lhnf] x'g] u5{ . o:t} ;dfhzf:q ljifoleq ;fdflhs sfo{ / n}lª\uscWoog klg cGt/ljifos :s'ndf ;d]6\g ;lsG5 . /fhgLltzf:q ljifoleqsf cGt/f{li6«o ;DaGw
tyf s"6gLlt / åGå, zflGt / ljsf; cflbnfO{ ;d]6\b} Pp6f :s'n agfpg ;lsG5 . o; lsl;daf6:s'n lgdf{0f ubf{ :s'nsf] ;ª\VofTds cfsf/df j[l4 x'g] b]lvG5 . :s'n ;+/rgfsf] csf]{ cfwf/
ax'ljifos :s'n -dlN6l8l;lklng/L_ sf] cfwf/ xf] . ax'ljifosdf g]kfnL, lxGbL, ;+:s[t, g]kfn efiff,d}lynL, cª\u|]hLnufotsf efiff ;d]6]/ :s'n ;+/rgf lgdf{0f ug{ ;lsG5 . lqe'jg ljZjljBfnob[li6sf]0f la;lt; -@)@)–@)#)_ cg';f/sf k|:tfljt :s'ndf /x]/ ;+/rgfTds vfsf vf]hL ubf{pNn]Vo g} x'g] b]lvG5 . o;cg';f/ -s_ :s'n ckm kmfOg cf6{;df ;ª\uLt, lrqsnf, d"lt{snf, g[To,rnlrq, km];g l8hfOg, nf]sjftf{ nufotnfO{ ;d]6\g ;lsG5 . -v_ :s'n ckm Nofª\Uj]h, ln6/]r/
PG8 lnlª\Ujl:6sdf g]kfnL, cª\u|]hL, d}lynL, ;+:s[t,g]kfn efiff, lxGbL, efifflj1fg, af}4cWoog,
ljZjefiff nufotsf ljifonfO{ ;d]6\g ;lsG5 . -u_ :s'n ckm lax]ljc/n PG8 ;f];n ;fOG;dfdgf]lj1fg, k/fdz{ dgf]lj1fg, u[xlj1fg, k':tsfno tyf ;"rgf lj1fg, ;dfhzf:q, dfgjzf:q,of]ulj1fg, nufotsf ljifo -3_ :s'n ckm Osf]gf]ldS; kf]ln;L PG8 8]enk\dG] 6df cy{zf:q,hg;ª\Vof
cWoog, u|fdL0f ljsf;, >d cWoog, ;'zf;g tyf e|i6frf/ lgjf/0f cWoog,nufotsf ljifo -ª_:s'n ckm :6«f6]lhs :6l8hdf /fhgLltzf:q,;fdl/s cWoog, ;'/Iff, ljsf; tyf zflGt cWoog,;ª\s6 Joj:yfkg, cGt/f{li6«o ;DaGw tyf s"6gLlt, åGå, zflGt / ljsf;,nufotsf ljifo ;d]6\g;lsG5 . o:t} Oltxf;, e"uf]n, g]kfnL Oltxf;, ;+:s[lt tyf k'/ftTTj, bz{gzf:q, sDKo'6/ PlKns];g,/fhgLltzf:q, cfd;~rf/ tyf kqsfl/tf nufotsf ljifosf] :s'n lgwf{/0f ;xh b]lvFb}g . o:t}cfd;~rf/ tyf kqsfl/tf :s'n :jtGq ?kdf g} ;~rfng ug{ g;lsg] xf]Og . o;af6 clxn]
kfOn6 sfo{qmdsf ?kdf dxfljBfno of :s'nsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ cl3 a9fpg ;lsG5 . o;df ;femf
k4ltsf cfwf/af6 ;dfj]zfTds gLlt klg lng ;Sg] b]lvG5 . o;cg';f/ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnob[li6sf]0f la;lt; -@)@)–@)#)_ sf cjwf/0ffdf /x]sf kfFrj6f :s'ndWo] :s'n ckm kmfOg cf6{;nfO{
sfof{Gjogdf Nofpg ;lsG5 . jf:tjdf ef}lts ;'ljwf ;DkGg z}lIfs ;+:yf, ;dofg's"n kf7Øqmdlgdf{0f, k|efjsf/L lzIf0f tyf d"Nofª\sg ljlw, u'0f:t/Lo z}Ifl0fs / k|zf;lgs zlQm / nugzLncg';Gwfgd'vL ljBfyL{sf] ;+of]hgfdf k|efjzfnL :s'n ;+/rgf cfhsf] ck]lIft ljifo xf] . o;df klg;]d]:6/ k|0ffnL xf];\ of rf/ a;]{ :gfts sfo{qmd xtf/xtf/df ;~rfng u/]/ km';{tdf cefj} cefjdf/dlng] ljutsf] sfo{af6 kf7 eg] l;Sg} kg]{ x'G5 .
lgisif{lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] :yfkgf;Fu} dfgljsL tyf ;fdflhs zf:q ljifosf]] cl:tTj b]vfk/]sf] / o;;ª\sfodf ;+/rgfTds kl/jt{g x'Fb} cfPsf] b]lvG5 . gofF lzIff of]hgf nfu' ePkl5 dxfljBfno of:s'nsf] wf/0ff klg b]vfk/]sf] xf] . o;qmddf :s'n ;+/rgfsf] :y"n ljefhg of ;+/rgfTds rrf{
klg ul/Psf] kfOG5 . k|f/lDes ;dodf :s'nsf] of] cjwf/0ff eGbf s]Gb|Lo ljefusf] ;+/rgfdf g}
22

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

hf]8 lbPsf] b]lvG5 . ljleGg ;dodf dfgljsL, ;fdflhs zf:q, efiff;flxTo / :s'n ckm PKnfO8;f];n ;fOG;sf] :y"n ljefhg ug]{ u/L :s'n ;+/rgfsf] ;f]r /fv]sf]] klg kfOG5 . kl5Nnf] ;dodf;"Id ljefhg of ;+/rgfsf] cfwf/ vf]lhPsf] klg b]lvG5 . :s'n lgwf{/0f ubf{ cGt/ljifos /ax'ljifos cfwf/df hf]8 lbO{ ;xsfof{Tds cfwf/sf] vf]hL ug'{ g} pko'Qm x'g] b]lvG5 . :s'nsf;~rfngsf nflu lgb]{lzsf / sfo{ljlw lgdf{0f g} klxnf] k|fyldstfdf /xgkg]{ ljifo xf] . lqe'jg
ljZjljBfno g]kfnsf] klxnf] ljZjljBfno ePsfn] o;sf] ;+/rgfsf] P]ltxfl;s dxTTj la;{gldNb}g . o; ljZnljBfnosf] cfsf/ ;+/rgf g]kfnL kl/j]zcg';f/ g} ljsf; / lj:tf/ ul/Psf]
kfOG5 . o;n] :yfkgf u/]sf] ;+/rgf g]kfndf :yflkt ljZjljBfnodf klg cjnDjg ul/Psf] 5 .
;'b"/klZrd ljZjljBfnosf] ;+/rgfTds 9fFrf lqe'jg ljZjljBfno;Fu ldn]sf] b]lvG5 . sf7df8f}+
ljZjljBfnosf] 9fFrf :s'n ;+/rgfaf6 cled'v ePsf] 5 . cfkm\gf] :jTjdf g} ;+:yfsf] ul/df /cy{ /xg] u5{ . k|efj, cg's/0f / k/Tjn] cfkm\gf klxrfgut cfwf/nfO{ u'dfpF5 . To;}n] lqe'jg
ljZjljBfnosf] cfkm\gf] cfwf/e"t ;+/rgf r':t agfP klg ljBdfg ;+/rgfs} kl/isf/df /x]/ gjLg
ult lbg' g} cy{k"0f{ x'g] b]lvG5 .
;Gbe{;fdu|L;"rL
pkfWofo, k'?iff]Qdk|;fb -@)%*_, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno M ljutb]lv jt{dfg;Dd >LdtL ljgf pkfWofo .
uf}td,s[i0fk|;fb / cGo -@)&^_ lqe'jg ljZjljBfno 5 bzs M of]ubfg, pknlAw / ;Defjgf
lqe'jg ljZjljBfno .
lqe'jg ljZjljBfno -@)&#_, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno ;+u7g tyf z}lIfs k|zff;g ;DaGwL lgod @)%)-@)&#.(.@)_ ;Ddsf] ;+zff]wg ;lxt_ sf7df8f}+ M lqe'jg ljZjljBfno .
k+1g] L, ej]Zj/ -@)&^_, lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] Oltxf; -@)!^—@)#(_, efu ! lqe'jg ljZjljBfno .
zdf{, uf]kLgfy -@)^(_, g]kfndf lzIffsf] Oltxf;, efu @ -bf];|f] ;+:s=_ sf7df8f}+ M dsfn' k|sfzg
u[x .
Malla, Kamal P. (1977). English In Nepalese Education Kathmandu : Ratna Pustak Bhandar y.
Tribhuvan University (2019). Tribhuvan University Vision 2030 (Action, Step and ImplementationPlan), Tribhuvan University.

23

ct[Kt pkGof;df ;fdflhsdgf]lj1fgsf] k|of]ubLksk|;fb uf}td*n]v;f/
k|:t't n]vdf nLnaxfb'/ If]qLsf] ct[Kt pkGof;df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] k|of]u;DaGwL l;4fGtnfO{
cfwf/ agfP/ o;sf] k|of]usf] af/]df pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . o; n]vdf If]qLåf/f n]lvPsf] ct[KtpkGof;nfO{ d"n cfwf/ agfOPsf] 5 . o; pkGof;df d]3/fh eGg] k|dv
' kfqsf] dgf]j[lQsf] ?kdf /Ltf,;'wf, h'g]nL, lbJof tyf ch'{g, O{Zj/L, e"kfn / aL/axfb'/h:tf ljleGg lsl;dsf gf/L / k'?if kfq
b]vfk/]sf 5g\ . d]3/fh;“u pQm gf/Lx?n] s'g} g s'g} ?kdf of}g / b}lgs Jojxf/hGo lqmofsnfk
u/]sf x'gfn] pgLx?sf] dgf]lj1fgnfO{ cf;fdsf] g]kfnL ;dfhn] k|efj kf/]sf] 5 . ct[Kt pkGof;sf]
k|d'v kfq ;Dkg kl/jf/sf] JolQm gePtf klg pm k9]n]v]sf] lzlIft JolQmsf] ?kdf b]vfk/]sf] 5 .
t/ p;sf rl/qdf gf/LnfO{ x]g]{ / ;dfhsf l;wf;fbf JolQmnfO{ 7Ug] lsl;dsf b'irl/q b]lvG5g\ .
p;n] ;'?df d]h/;fx]asL 5f]/L ;'wf;Fu ljjfx u/]/ p;nfO{ wf]sf lbPsf tyf aËfnL Ol~hlgo/s]6L /Ltf;Fu ljjfx u/]/ lardf cnkq kf/]sf 36gfsf ;fy} cfkm\gf] ;fyLsL >LdtL h'g]nLnfO{ lnP/
cfkm"n] 6\o";g k9fpg] lbJofsf] klg ;tLTjx/0f u/]sf] 5 . pSt ;dodf ;dfhsf wgLdfgL, ;fdGtL,
k'FhLklt / lzlIft ju{sf JolStn] ul/a, ljkGg, lk5l8Psf, ;f]emfl;wf / clzlIft JolStnfO{ 7Ug]
tyf b'Mvsi6 lbg]u/]sf k|;ª\un] pQm kfqsf dgleqsf lqmofsnfknfO{ ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdfx]/]sf] 5 . o;}n] o; n]vdf dflysf log} kfqsf r]tg, cw{r]tg / ct]g cj:yfsf lqmofsnfknfO{;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf x]l/Psf] 5 .
zJbs'~hL M dgf]j[lQ, of}g, ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg, JolQmTj lgdf{0f, ;f+;l/s df]xhfn .
ljifokl/ronLnaxfb'/ If]qL -kl5Nnf s[ltdf If]qL_ sf] hGd lj=;=+ !(*( kmfu'g !* ut] xfnsf] ef/tsf] cf;fd /fHodfkg]{ u'jfxf6L -kl5Nnf s[ltx?df uf]xf6L_ df ePsf] xf] . ;flxTosf ljljw ljwfdf snd rnfpg] If]qLsf]
d'Vo If]q eg]sf] pkGof; ljwf xf] / pgn] o; ljwfdf Voflt k|fKt u/]sf 5g\ . pgsf] ct[Kt -@)@^_;fndf k|sflzt pkGof; xf] . k|:t't n]vdf nLnaxfb'/ If]qLsf] ct[Kt pkGof;df dgf]lj1fgsf] k|of]usf]af/]df cWoog ul/g] ePsfn] pgsf pkGof;sf] ;dfhnfO{ ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtsf] ?kdf pNn]v
ul/Psf] 5 . o;/L o; n]vdf ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qdf pNn]v ul/Psf] ;dfh / ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLol;4fGtsf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] cWoogsf cfwf/df pNn]v ul/Psf] ;dfhlar 3lgi7 ;DaGw ePsfn]* pk–k|fWofks, kf6g ;+o'Qm SofDk;, kf6g9f]sf, kf6g
dpgautam42@gmail.com

24

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

pQm s'/fnfO{ To;}cg';f/ cWoog ul/Psf] 5 . pkGof;sf/ nLnaxfb'/ If]qLsf pkGof;df k|of]u ePsf];dfh pgsf] hGde"ld Pjd\ sd{el" d cf;fd xf] . If]qLn] cfk"m afFrs] f] o'u, kl/j]z / hLjg ef]ufOsf
qmddf o; pkGof;sf kfqsf] dgf]bzfsf] af/]df rrf{ u/]sf 5g\ . To;kl5 pQm s'/fnfO{ nLnaxfb'/
If]qLsf] o; pkGof;df g]kfnL Pjd\ g]kfnLt/ ;dfhsf] af/]df lrq0f ul/Psfn] pgsf pkGof;nfO{;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtsf cfwf/df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf ljZn]if0f ug'{ k|:t't n]vsf]
d'Vo ljifo /x]sf] 5 . pgsf] o; pkGof;df kfOg] ;dfhleqsf ;To, tYo / jf:tljs lrqnfO{ ;dLIffug'{ / To;;Fu ;DalGwt ;}4flGts kIfsf] lg?k0f ug'{ k|:t't n]vsf] csf]{ dxÎjk"0f{ kIf dflgPsf] 5 .
pQm n]vdf If]qLsf] o; pkGof;df kfOg] kfqsf dfgl;s ;f]r, z}lIfs / cfly{s :Q/nfO{ cfwf/ agfO{
pgsf s[lt;Fu ldNg;Sg] ;dfhsf] vf]hL ul/Psf] 5 . If]qLsf] o; s[ltdf ;dflji6 ePsf] ;dfhnfO{;dfhzf:qLo b[li6sf]0fsf ?kdf rrf{ ul/Psfn] pgsf] pQm pkGof; leqsf] ;dfhsf] cWoog ug's
{ f;fy} ;fdflhs ljrf/ / pkGof;sf/sf ljrf/af6 pTkGg ePsf] lgisif{sf] vf]hL o; n]vdf pNn]v
ul/Psf] 5 . To;kl5 If]qLsf] pQm pkGof;df pNn]v ePsf] ;dfhnfO{ ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtsf]
nflu cfjZos kg]{ ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] cfwf/sf] vf]hL u/]/ cWoog ul/Psf] 5 . o;/L ;flxTosf];dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtsf] pSt tTjsf] vf]hL u/]/ pgsf] o; pkGof;leqsf] ;dfhnfO{ ;fdflhs d"No
/ dfGotfsf cfwf/df ljZn]if0f ul/Psf] 5 . ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg eg]sf] dfgjsf] ;dfh;Fusf] ;DaGwaf/]
pTkGg x'g] kfqx?sf] dgf]bzfsf] cWoog ug]{ ljlw ePsfn] To;}cg';f/ o; zLif{ssf] n]vdf ;dfhzf:q;Fu;flxTosf] / ;flxTo;Fu ;dfhsf] bf]xf]/f] ;DaGwsf cfwf/df cWoog ul/Psf] 5 . k|:t't n]vdf If]qLsf]
o; pkGof;df kfOg] ;dfhzf:qLo lrGtgsf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgnfO{ ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtsf
tTjsf] cfwf/df cWoog ul/Psf] 5 . o; k|sf/sf] cWoog If]qLsf] k|:t't pkGof;df pNn]v gePsfn]
pQm ljifodf JoQm ePsf] ;dfhnfO{ o; n]vdf ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtsf] cfwf/e"t tTjsf?kdf cWoog ul/Psf] 5 . o;/L o; n]vsf] cWoog ug{ If]qLsf] o; pkGof;df kfOg] ;fdflhsdgf]lj1fgsf] k|of]u s'g ?kdf ePsf] 5 eGg] s'/fsf cfwf/df o;sf] ;d:of sygnfO{ lgwf{/0f ul/Psf]
5 . pgsf] o; zLif{ssf] n]vdf ;d:ofx?sf] ;dfwfgsf lglDt k|:t't n]vdf ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf]
Aff/]df ljZn]if0f ug]{ sfo{nfO{ p2]Zosygsf ?kdf lnOPsf] 5 . o; n]vsf] ;Ldf eg]sf] If]qLsf] o;pkGof;nfO{ ;dfhzf:qLo dfGotfdf cfwfl/t /x]sf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf ?kdf If]qLsf] pSt pkGof;sf]
cWoog ug]{ sfo{nfO{ pNn]v ug'{ xf] . If]qLsf] o; pkGof;nfO{ ;dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtsf] ;fdflhsdgf]lj1fgsf] cfwf/sf ?kdf cWoog ul/g] ePsfn] k|:t't cWoogsf] cf}lrTo / dxTj :jtM ?kdf log}s'/fdf cfwfl/t ePsf] b]lvG5 . If]qLsf] o; pkGof;df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] af/]df rrf{ ePsf] kfOFbg} .
o;}n] dflysf sf/0fdf cfwfl/t eP/ ltgsf] ;d:ofsf] pko'S{ t, k|dfl0ft tyf j:t'k/s lgisif{ lgsfNg'o; cWoogsf] d"n p2]Zo dflgPsf] 5 .
cWoog ljlw
k|:t't cWoogsf lglDt k':tsfnoLo sfo{df cfwfl/t /x]/ ;fdu|Lsf] ;ª\sng ul/Psf] 5 . o;n]vdf If]qLsf] ct[Kt pkGof;nfO{ k|fylds ;fdu|L dflgPsf] 5 . To:t} nLnaxfb'/ If]qLsf af/]dfo;eGbf klxn]sf zf]wstf{n] k|:t't u/]sf l;4fGtsf ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL ;fdu|LnfO{ låtLo
25

;fdu|Lsf] cfwf/ agfOPsf] 5 . o;sf ;fy} k|:t't n]vdf If]qLsf cfkmGt, ;dsfnLg ;fyL, ljåfg\tyf ;dLIfs;Fu ;f]wk'5 ;fdu|L ;ª\sng ul/Psf] 5 . o:tf ;fdu|LnfO{ cfjZostf / cf}lrTosf
cfwf/df låtLo ;fdu|LcGtu{t /flvPsf] 5 . ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtsf ?kdf cfjZos kg]{;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg ;DaGwL l;4fGtnfO{ ;fdu|L ljZn]if0f ljlw dflgPsf] 5 . o; l;4fGtsf cfwf/df;ª\sng ul/Psf ;fdu|LnfO{ ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg ;DaGwL d"No / dfGotfsf cfwf/df ljZn]if0f ubf{
j0f{gfTds, JofVofg / vf]h ljlwnfO{ d'Vo cfwf/ agfOPsf] 5 . o;/L If]qLsf] o; n]vdf k|fylds /låtLo ;|f]tsf ?kdf pNn]v ul/Psf ;fdu|LnfO{ ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf l;4fGtsf cfwf/df cWoog
ubf{ ljZn]if0f ljlwnfO{ k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL cfwf/
l;Ud08 k|mfo8n] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg ;DaGwL cjwf/0ffnfO{ cufl8 ;f/]sf 5g\ . o; qmddf pgn]
cfTdfnfO{ cg'dfgsf] ?kdf cnu ub}{ cjr]tg dgsf] ?kdf lnPsf 5g\ . t/ ltgLx? Pscfk;df
cGt;{DalGwt / leGg /x]sf] s'/f atfPsf 5g\ . o;nfO{ Pp6f ax'cfoflds b[li6sf]0f dflgG5 . o;sf
kblrGxx? dfgjLo hLjgsf nflu kf/:kl/s ?kdf csf]{ j:t'nfO{ u|x0f / lgjf/0f ug]{ sfo{sf]?kdf e"ldsf v]Ng yfN5g\ -k|mfo8, ;g\ @))#, k[=!)(_ . olb s'g} Pp6f ;d"xsf ljrf/ l:y/ /x]df
To;sf] ;§fdf cjr]tg cj:yf k}bf x'G5 / cfTdfsf] ljZn]if0f u|x0fzLn x'“b}g . To; cj:yfdf Pp6f
:j?knfO{ ;lqmo agfpg b'O{ j:t'x?sf] ;+of]hg x'g'kb{5 . o;n] cfk}m cfkm\gf] :j?knfO{ b]vfp“5/ To;sf] ;DaGw ljR5]b x'G5 . t/ o;sf] :j?knfO{ 5'§fp“bf / cjr]tg cj:yfsf] u|x0f ubf{ klgcsf]{ ;d"xsf] ljrf/ klxnf] ;DaGwsf] ljkl/t x'G5 cyf{t\ Pp6f j:t' lgl:qmo aGbf csf]{ j:t' ;lqmoaGb5 . o;/L k|mfo8n] cjr]tg cj:yfdf klg s'g} csf]{ ;d"xsf ljrf/ jf wf/0ff ;lqmo / ljkl/tx'g] s'/fnfO{ dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf lnPsf 5g\ . t;y{ l;Ud08 k|mfo8sf] dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL l;4fGtn];flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtsf] cWoog ug]{ ;}4flGts dfkb08sf] ?kdf e"ldsf v]n]sf] b]lvG5 .
;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf d"No / dfGotfleq /x]/ ltgLx?sf] ;a} kIfdf :ki6 / dxÎjk"0f{ s'/f pNn]vu/]/ ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtdf JoQm /x]sf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] cfwf/df yk phf{ k|bfg
ul/G5 -d]o;{, ;g\ @))%, k[=!@_ . cyf{t\ ;fdflhs d"No / dfGotfx?n] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgnfO{ k|efj
kfb{5g\ . ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg Pp6f ;fgf] ;d"xsf s'/fx?sf] vf]hL ug'e{ Gbf Pp6f /0fgLlts ;d"xx?sf]
nflu ljleGg ;d:ofx?sf] ;dfwfg ug{ s]lGb|t /x]sf] b]lvG5 . h;/L lj1fgdf cbfnt;DaGwL sfg'g/ JolQmut clek|fox? :jLsf/ ug{ nfossf x'G5g\ . tadfq ljrf/x? JoQm ul/Psf 7fp“x? Pjd\
k|df0fx?sf] lgwf{/0f To;}sf] cfwf/ ul/G5 . To;}u/L ;fdflhs dgf]j1} flgsx? klg jf:tljs ljifoj:t'sf]
cfwf/df lg0f{o ug{ tNnLg b]lvG5g\ . h:t}M– dfgjLo cj:yfdf ltgLx?sf d"No / dfGotfsf ;fy}ltgLx?sf] j}olQms b[9 ljZjf;sf af/]df ?lrk"0f{ j:t'x? s] s] 5g\ / o;n] dflg;nfO{ s;/L
cfkm\gf] st{Joa4 Jojxf/ k"/f ug]{ eGg] s'/fdf hf]8 lbG5 . olb ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgn] To:tf sfo{x?
jf:tljs ?kdf s;/L l;4 ug{ ;S5 eGg] s'/fsf] k|df0f o;af6 k|dfl0ft x'g] b]lvG5 . ha ;fdflhs
dgf]j}1flgsx?sf] cWoogsf] ljifo ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg x'G5 ta o;n] ;fdflhs d"No / dfGotfnfO{
oyfy{ ?kdf k|:t't ub{5 . of] Pp6f 36gf dfq geP/ o;nfO{ ;g\ !($) df o'/f]kdf b]vfk/]sf]
26

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

kIfkftk"0f{ 36gfsf] lj/f]wL l;4fGtsf] ?kdf lnOG5 . ;g\ !(%) sf] ;dodf o;nfO{ nf]sJojxf/sf]?kdf / leGg vfn] b[li6sf]0fsf ?kdf lnOPsf] kfOG5 . o; cjlwdf dgf]lj1fgnfO{ ;fb[Zo j:t'sf?kdf cWoog ug{ yflnPsf] b]lvG5 . ;g\ !(^) df OR5fzlQmsf] ?kdf /x]sf] o; l;4fGtnfO{ s]xL
dfqfdf ljsf; ul/P tfklg of] l;4fGt Ps k|sf/sf] ljb|f]x Pjd\ ck/fw;DaGwL ultljlwsf ?kdf
pbfPsf] b]lvG5 . ;g\ !(&) df o;n] :qL hfltsf pQ]hgfsf If0fnfO{ lnËe]b / k|hgg\ sfo{;DaGwL
cWoogsf cfwf/df lrq0f u/]sf] b]lvG5 . ;g\ !(*) df o;nfO{ Pp6f :jf:Yo;DaGwL dgf]of]u
Pjd\ dgf]j}1flgsx?sf] c:qsf b[li6sf]0fsf] ?kdf ljsf; ug]{ k|oTg ul/Psf] kfOG5 . ;g\ !(()
sf] bzsdf o;;DaGwL kblrGxåf/f JolQmx?sf] ?lrnfO{ s;/L ;Ddfg ug]{ eGg] s'/fdf of] l;4fGt
tNnLg /x]sf] b]lvG5 -d]o;{, ;g\ @))%, k[=!@_ . o;dfk{mt o; l;4fGtn] ;+:s[ltdf ljljwtf / P]lGb|ocfsif{0fsf] k"j{ l:yltnfO{ ultzLn j:t'sf ?kdf lnPsf] kfOG5 . ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgn] ;fdflhs
Oltxf;sf] k|ltlalDat ug]{ ePsfn] o;nfO{ d]o;{n] ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qdf JoQm ul/Psf] ;fdflhsdgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtcg'?k l;4 u/]sf] b]lvG5 .
w]/} ljBfyL{x?sf] ;fdflhs lj1fg;“u ;w} lglZrt ?kdf /x]sf] dgf]lj1fgn] jf:tjdf dfgjdl:tissf]s]xL 1fg / vf]hsf] k|lqmofnfO{ pgLx?sf] pks/0fsf] dfWod dfGb5g\ . ;fdflhs lj1fgsf] ;kmntf
klg ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] cWoogkl5 dfq k"0f{ ?kdf ;Dej x'G5 / clg dfq o;n] 1fgdf z'4tf
Nofp“5 . s'g} cf}krfl/s ?kdf k|bz{g jf xn ul/Psf rflxg]eGbf a9L j:t'x? klg dgf]lj1fgdf;dfj]z x'G5g\ . :jLsf/ gul/Psf s'g} s'/fx? klg tTsfn} dgf]lj1fgsf sf/0faf6 x6fOG5 . To;kl5
o;df pNn]v ul/Psf] jf:tljs dgf]lj1fgn] ;TotfnfO{ kSsf ub}{ ;Tosf] af/]df s'g} ;+:yfx? Pjd\
dfgj dl:tis;DaGwL sfo{x? ub{5g\ . o;n] ljleGg k|oTgx?nfO{ z'4 ub{5 / Pscfk;df /x]sf
1fg;DaGwL s'/faf6 ;lDdlnt ub{5 . t/ o;;“u ;DalGwt s'/fnfO{ ;fdfGo / ljz]ifu/L cfjZos kg]{
;femf u'0fx?dfk{mt\ Vofn ul/G5 . o;n] k"0f{ ?kdf ;fdflhs lj1fg, bfz{lgs Oltxf;, ;dfhzf:q,;f+:s[lts dfgjzf:q Pjd\ w]/} pRr ?kdf /x]sf ;fdflhs lj1fg, wd{;DaGwL lj1fgsf sfg'g, lzIff/ snfh:tf s'/fsf] lgdf{0f ub{5 . lj1fg;DaGwL sfd ug]{ sfl/Gbfx? h:t} sf]Dt] / jt{dfg ;dodfb]vfk/]sf b'lv{dh:tf JolQmn] klg cfk"mnfO{ dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf lrgfPsf 5g\ . s]xL JolQmx?n]cf]7]elQmsf] ?kdf dgf]lj1fgnfO{ lnPtf klg ltgLx?df ;dfhzf:qLo b[li6sf]0fdf k|ltkfbg ul/Psf];fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] sdL /x]sf] b]lvG5 . s'g} n]vx?nfO{ g}lts, cfly{s jf s'g} ;fdflhs
lj1fgsf] ?kdf v'zL;fy :jLsf/ ul/Ptf klg ltgLx?n] dgf]lj1fgnfO{ lrg]sf x'“b}gg\ -Dofs8'un,;g\ !()*, k[= !–@_ . s'g} n]vsx?n] ;fdflhs ljifonfO{ lrgfP/ ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgnfO{ jf:tljs
w/ftndf Nofp“5g\ t/ cEof;ut ?kdf pgLx?n] dgf]lj1fgsf cfwf/e"t s'/fnfO{ Vofn ub}{gg\ .
To;}n] dgf]lj1fgsf] ;xdltdf cfOk'Ug ltgLx?n] dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL ljifonfO{ :ki6 ?kdf b[li6bz{g ug'{kb{5 . o;/L Dofs8'unn] pNn]v u/]sf] dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtnfO{ ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qdf cfjZoskg]{ ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtsf] ?kdf cWoog ul/Psf] kfOG5 .
dgf]lj1fgnfO{ e"n, k|oTg / ljutsf clk|o b'Mvb :d[ltsf ?kdf cfpg] ljleGg cg'ejx?sf sf/stTj dflgG5 . To;}n] s'g} s'/fdf e"n x'g' k|d'v sf/0f xf] -zf:qL, ;g\ !(^#, k[=@!*–@!(_ . klxnf]
27

s'/f k|To]s JolQmsf] dgdf clk|o b'Mvb :d[ltsf cyf{t\ ljleGg k|;Ëx?sf sf/0f e"n ag]/ cfp“5g\ .
h;nfO{ Pp6f ljz]iftf g} dflgG5 . o;n] dflg;sf] hLjgdf s'g} g s'g} ?kdf k|efj kf/]sf] x'G5 .
o:tf] e"naf6 ljleGg s'/fx?sf] :d[lt / cg'ejnfO{ bf];|f] rf]l6sf] ;dodf k6sk6s ;De]m/ xfgLsf/s
j:t'af6 ;r]t u/fPsf] kfOG5 . ;fdflhs Jojxf/sf sf/0fn] ubf{ Ps JolQmsf] dg / sd{ bf];|f] JolQm
jf p;sf] ljrf/ / cfrf/0faf6 k|efljt x'G5 . To:tf] Jojxf/ :ki6 ?kdf sd;]sd JolQm JolQmsf
lardf k|s6 ul/G5 . PSnf] JolQm klg axsfPsf] ;dodf ;fdflhs l:yltdf /xG5 -zf:qL, ;g\ !(^#,
k[=@#$_ . To;kl5 p;n] cfkm\gf] ;xL kIf / cfnf]rgf kIf yfxf kfpg ;S5 . bf];|f] sf/0f Ps nf]saf6w]/} nf]sdf ;fdflhs Jojxf/ k}mlng] ub{5 / o;n] JolQmsf] dgleq cg]s s'/fx?df k|efj kfb{5 .
t;y{ zf:qLn] pNn]v u/]sf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtnfO{ ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo cWoogdf
pNn]v ul/Psf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtaf6 klg cWoog ul/Psf] kfOG5 .
b'O{j6f b[li6sf]0f jf ljrf/af6 dgf]lj1fg klg ;fdflhs sfo{df ;fd]n x'G5 . klxnf] s'/f of] JolQmsf]
dfgl;s k|lqmofx?n] Pjd\ ;fdflhs kof{j/0fsf] ;Gbe{af6 ;dfh k/ hfg ;Sb}g . bf];|f] s'/fdgf]lj1fg;DaGwL ;Dk"0f{ ;d"xx?sf] dfgl;s k|lqmofx?sf] cWoogsf] ?kdf ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgnfO{
lnOG5 . JolQm cjr]tg cj:yfdf klg ;d"xsf lqmofsnfkdf cfk"m cfk}m ;xefuL aGb5 -bf]ifL / cGo,
;g\ !(&), k[=(%_ . o;dfk{mt dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL r]tgfnfO{ of] ;d"xn] dl:tissf] ?kdf cWoog ug{
yfNb5 . clg o;;DaGwL s'/fnfO{ ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf lnOG5 . o;/L bf]ifL / cGo JolQmn]
pNn]v u/]sf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtnfO{ ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo cWoogdf pNn]v ul/Psf];fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtaf6 klg cWoog ul/Psf] 5 .
;a} k|sf/sf] ;fdflhs ;DaGwdf dfgj k|s[ltsf] b'O{ lj/f]wL tÎj a9L ;"Idtfsf ;fy klxnf] / bf];|f]df
cGtlg{lxt x'G5g\ . logLx?sf] Ps k|j[lQ d'Vo ?kaf6 u|x0f ePsf x'G5g\ . h'g cjx]lnt ePkl5
k|lt/f]w ug]{ p2]Zosf ;fy o'o'T;fsf] nflu p2LKt x'G5g\ . Pp6fsf] ljkl/t bf];|f] k|j[lQ d'Votof;f}Do / ;'s'df/ x'G5 -jdf{, ;g\ !(^^, k[=&*–&(_ . o;df klxnf] / bf];|f]sf] ;DaGw Pscfk;dfk|]l/t eO;s]kl5 dfG5]x? nfn; x'G5g\ tyf k/:k/ cg'lqmofsf] nflu Hofbf k|oTg u5{g\ . log}
lj/f]wL k|j[lQsf] Ps;fy cl:tÎj b]vfP/ dg'iosf c;fdflhs rl/qsf lqmofx? eO/xG5g\ .
o;df dfgj k|j[lQsf ljz]iftf lj:tf/} c;xh jftfj/0faf6 ;xh aGg yfN5g\ . oxL sf/0fn] ubf{
dg'iosf] hLjgdf cfpg] k|lt/f]wfTds efjgfdf zlQm, Ifdtf / nf]e cflb ljsl;t x'“b} hfG5g\ .
k/:k/ lj/f]w;DaGwL ljrf/nfO{ xfdLn] rfx] klg grfx] klg ljsf;sf k|]/0ffsf ;|f]t aGb5g\ . o;n]ltgLx?nfO{ :jtM ?kdf :jLsf/ ub{5 . k/:k/sf OR5fzlQm / å}wtfsf] efjgfsf] ljsf; u/fpg]
sfd ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgn] ub{5 .
xfd|f] ;fdflhs ;DaGwdf x/]s JolQmsf ljrf/;DaGwL b[li6sf]0f k|s6 x'G5g\ . dfG5]sf] s'g} cfj]u
kf/:kl/s ;]jf cyjf lj/f]w j:t'sf] dfWodaf6 Pscfk;df ;DalGwt x'G5g\ . o;sf] p2]Zo k"lt{sfnflu dfG5]x?nfO{ ;fd"lxs k|of;x?sf] cfjZostf kb{5 -jdf{, ;g\ !(^^, k[=(%_ . logLx?sf] ;fd'lxs
k|of; Pp6faf6 csf]{df lgs6 x'gk'Ub5 . To; cj:yfdf klg JolQm jf ;dfhsf] lardf lgs6
;DaGw x'G5 . Pstk{maf6 ;dfhsf] sf/0faf6 p;n] s]xL nIf0fnfO{ lglZrt ?kdf u|x0f ug{ ;Sb5 .
28

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

o;sf/0f p;n] ;fdflhs hLjgsf ;Dk"0f{ cfbz{;DaGwL af6f klxNofpg ;S5 . csf]{, JolQmsf lardf/x“bf klg JolQm JolQm g} aGg ;S5 . o;}n] ;fdflhs ;DaGwsf sf/0fn] ubf{ klg JolQmsf] b[li6df;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgn] k|efj kfb{5 . o;/L luG;ju{n] pNn]v u/]sf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgnfO{ ;flxTosf];dfhzf:qdf JoQm /x]sf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] cfwf/e"t l;4fGtsf] ?kdf cWoog ul/Psf] kfOG5 .
O{;fsf] !^ cf}+ ztflAblt/ dgf]lj1fgnfO{ cfTdfsf] lj1fgsf ?kdf lnPsf] kfOG5 . cfTdfsf] vf]h
/ p;sf] af/]df ljrf/ ug]{ d'Vo p2]Zo dgf]lj1fgsf] /x]sf] b]lvG5 . cfTdfsf] l:y/:j?k / cfsf/
gePsfn] o; kl/efiffdf ljåfg\x?sf lar dte]b x'g yfn]sf] kfOG5 . lglZrt :j?k / ?k/Ëlagf cfTdfsf] j}1flgs cWoog ;Dej x'“b}g . ctM ljåfg\x?n] dgf]lj1fgnfO{ cfTdfsf] lj1fg gdfgL
dl:tissf] lj1fg dfg]sf] b]lvG5 -dfy'/, ;g\ !(&#, k[=*–(_ . o;sf] p2]Zon] dl:tissf] cWoog
ug{ yfn]kl5 dl:tissf] ;Dos cy{sf] af/]df klg s]xL sl7gfO cfpg yfn]sf] kfOG5 . h'g s'/f
cfTdfsf] ljifodf cfwfl/t dflgG5 . dgf]j}1flgs dfgl;s zlQmx?, dl:tissf] :j?k Pjd\ p;sf]
k|j[lQsf] 7Ls 7Ls ?kdf lgwf{/0f ug{ g;s]sf] b]lvG5 . dl:tissf] ;DaGw JolQmsf] JolQmTj, ljj]s/ ljrf/0f zlQmaf6 x'G5 o;}sf] cefjdf dflg; kfun jf ;'if'Kt aGb5 . obfsbf o;sf] of]Uotfsf]
cefj kz' hut\df klg ldN5 . o; cWoogaf6 ljåfg\x?n] dfgl;s zlQmx?n] cnucnu sfo{
ug{ ;Sb}gg\ eGg] s'/f kQf nufPsf 5g\ . ;Dk"0f{ dl:tisn] Ps;fy sfd ug]{ s'/fnfO{ ljåfg\x?n]dgf]lj1fgsf] r]tgfsf] lj1fg dfg]sf] kfOG5 . oxL kl/efiffdf klg ljåfg\x?lar uDeL/ dte]b /x]sf] /o;nfO{ klg ck"0f{ j:t'sf] ?kdf lnPsf] b]lvG5 . r]tg dg klg r]tg, cw{r]tg / cr]tg u/L tLg
efudf af“l8Psf] kfOG5 . o;} qmddf jf6;gn] dgf]lj1fgnfO{ Jojxf/ lj1fgsf] z'4 ?k dfg] eGg] dt
dfy'/sf] /x]sf] 5 . h'g s'/fnfO{ ;flxTosf] ;dfh zf:qLo cWoogsf] nflu ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf]
l;4fGtsf] ?kdf cWoog ul/Psf] 5 .
ljZjk|l;4 dgf]j}1flgs l;Ud08 k|mfo8n] ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qdf k|of]u x'g] dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtnfO{
k|f/Dedf :gfo' /f]ux?sf] lrlsT;f ug]{ ljlwsf] ?kdf k|of]u u/]sf kfOG5 -s'df/, ;g\ @))@, k[=!_ .
kl5 cfP/ o; l;4fGtnfO{ bfz{lgs lj1fgsf] ?kdf k|of]u ug{ yflnPsf] kfOG5 . o;} l;4fGtcg';f/;Dk"0f{ dfgj nf]ssf] leqL ?ksf] cWoog ug{ of] l;4fGt ;kmn ePsf] 5 . o;}sf] dfWodaf6 ;Dk"0f{
dfgl;s 36gfsf k|of]hgdf cGt/lglxt j:t'x?sf] af/]df 1fg lbg] sfo{df of] l;4fGt ;kmn x'gk'u]sf]b]lvG5 . To;kl5 ;flxTosf/x?sf] s'g} n]vn] w]/} d"No lbg ;Sg] j:t'sf ?kdf o;nfO{ lnOPsf]b]lvG5 . dflg;n] /Qm;~rf/sf] u8a8Lsf] sf/0fdf ysfj6 / pQ]hgf cflb s'/fx?sf] k|efj kb{5 .
pQm s'/fnfO{ klg ;flxTosf/n] cfkm\gf ;flxlTos s[ltdf To;}cg'?k k|of]u u5{g\ -s'df/, ;g\ @))@,
k[=$^_ . xfd|f] ;dfhsf JolQmn] cfkm\gf] hLjgsf] ptf/r9fadf ljleGg vfn] cg'ejsf] af/]df ljrf/
u5{g\ . To;df x/]s j:t'n] xfd|f] hut\df /x]sf cGo j:t'x?sf ;fy Jojxf/df cfpg] ;fgf ;fgf
uNtL ;'Nemfpg Pjd\ p;sf] leq /x]sf k|j[lQsf] lrGx ;Demgfsf] nflu ;fx; / ;ª\sNk pTkGg
u/fpg] j:t'sf ?kdf k|mfo8n] dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtnfO{ pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ -s'df/, ;g\ @))@, k[=%%_ .
t;y{ cfhsf] o'udf cfP/ k|mfo8sf] dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL l;4fGtnfO{ ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo cWoogsf];fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtsf] ?kdf k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
29

sfn{ o'Ësf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL l;4fGtnfO{ dfgjdl:tissf] pkhsf] ?kdf lnOG5 . ;a}JolQmsf dgf]/rgfdf ;fdflhs k|efj k/]sf] x'G5 . To;}n] dfgjdgf]lj1fgsf] cWoog ;dfhsf] :j?kPjd\ ;+:s[ltsf] ;fk]Iftfdf ug'k{ b{5 . dfgl;s ;+/rgfdf ;fdflhs jftfj/0f tyf ;dfhsf] ;Da4tfaf6g} JolQmsf] dfgl;stf ljsl;t / k|efljt x'G5 . To;}n] JolQmsf] dfgl;stfnfO{ ;dfhsf] k/Dk/f,k|rng, ?9L tyf ;+:yfn] k|efljt kf/]sf] x'G5 . ;dfh JolQmx?sf] of]usf] Pp6f Jojl:yt ;dGjoxf] . ;d"x tyf ;dfhsf] ;Qf JolQmsf] eGbf lk+9Llk+9Lb]lv rNb} cfPsf] x'G5 . o;n] JolQmnfO{ s'g}
g s'g} k|sf/n] cfkm\gf] ;d"xsf] ?l9 tyf k/Dk/fdf ;dfof]hg ub{5 . o;/L JolQmsf] lqmofsnfk tyf:jefjdf j+zk/Dk/f / ;dfhsf] k|efj k/]sf] x'G5Æ -If]qL, @)^$, k[=$@_ .
dfgjLo sfo{x? ;fj{hlgs cf}Bf]lus / >d;DaGwL sfo{ ;+:s[lt, wd{, ;]gf;DaGwL g]tT[ j Pjd\ ltgLx?sf
lqmofsnfksf] j[l4 ug]{h:tf vf]hk"0f{ sfo{nfO{ ;xof]u ug]{ sfd ;fdflhs dgf]j}1flgsx?n] ub{5g\ .
To;}sf] dfWodaf6 To;df b]lvPsf dfgjLo ;DaGwsf ljleGg k|oTgnfO{ ts{k0" f{ ?kdf JolQmx?sf] aLrdf
ljeflht ul/G5 . t/ o:tf wf/0ffx?tk{m ;fdflhs dgf]j}1flgs / pgLx?n] ug]{ sfo{x? ;Dk"0f{?kdf ;TotYodf cfwfl/t x'“b}gg\ -q]m; / cGo, ;g\ !(*@, k[=!–@_ . xfd|f] ;dfhsf g]t[Tjstf{x?df
a9L dfqfdf l:y/ /x]sf s'/fnfO{ d'Votof ;/sf/L k|zf;s, Jofkf/L, >lds g]t[Tjstf{, ljZjljBfno
Pjd\ cGo bft[;+:yfn] ;'g]sf dxÎjk"0f{ s'/fx? ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgdf cfwfl/t x'G5g\ . ;fdflhsdgf]lj1fg;DaGwL vf]hk"0f{ s'/fnfO{ ;w}+el/ dxÎjk"0f{ j:t'sf] nflu k|of]u ul/G5 . dflysf pQm;+:yfsf] wf/0ff ;fd"lxs pQ/bfloTjsf] nflu ;/sf/åf/f ul/g] vr{sf] jf:tljstf yfxf kfpg] Pjd\
;d'bfosf ljleGg vfn] s'/fnfO{ Jojxf/df ptfg]{ Pjd\ pkof]uL j:t'sf ?kdf k|of]u ug]{ sfd ;fdflhsdgf]lj1fgaf6 ul/G5 . t;y{, q]m; / q'm6\rlkmN8n] JoQm u/]sf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgnfO{ ;flxTosf];dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtsf] ?kdf /x]sf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] dfWodaf6 cWoog ul/Psf] b]lvG5 .
dfgjLo sNkgfsf] aflx/L txaf6 x]bf{ cg'ej ug{ ;lsg] Pjd\ Pp6f ljjfbf:kb k|ltlqmofdf kl/jt{gNofpg] j:t' ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg xf] . o;n] Pp6f cfs[ltsf] ?k/]vfsf] ljifosf] sfo{;DaGwL dt
agfpg] tyf dgf]j}1flgs l;4fGt h:t} ;fdflhs l;4fGtnfO{ :jod\l;l4 ?kdf hf]8 lbg] Pjd\
Pp6f k"j{wf/0ff;“u kl/jt{gsf] sNkgf;DaGwL wf/0ffsf] dt atfpg]h:tf tLgj6f cjwf/0ffdf hf]8
lbG5 . n]jL :6f/;sf] s/ ljlgdo;DaGwL lqmofTds l;4fGtcg';f/ ckjfbsf] ?kdf agfOPsfxf]dg; / OS;g]O8/n] lnPsf] jf:tljstfnfO{ klg dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf lnOPsf] kfOG5 . klxnf],
ck|ToIf ?k/]vfsf] ljleGg cjwf/0ffnfO{ ;fdfGoLs/0f ug{ ljlgdo;DaGwL s'/fnfO{ c:jLsf/ ug]{ tyfo:t} cjwf/0ff;DaGwL cy{nfO{ ;f“u'/f] agfP/ kl/jt{g ug]{ s'/f klg ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg;“u ;+of]lht
x'gk'u]sf] b]lvG5 . bf];|f], n]jL :6f/;sf] ljlgdo;DaGwL cy{sf] ?k/]vfsf] cj:yfnfO{ k'gM k'li6 ug]{
tyf k"0f{ ?kdf kl/0ft ug]{ ;fdflhs ;Ë7gx?sf leGg vfn] ;+:yfx?sf] cWoog ubf{ pgn] ;fdflhsdgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtnfO{ JoQm u/]sf] b]lvG5 -6g{/, ;g\ @))%, k[=@$)–@$!_ . oL s'/fx?sf] rrf{
ubf{ pgn] tTsfn} TofluPsf jf e]l6Psf JolQmut tyf ;+:yfut ;d"xnfO{ ;dfhleq k;]/ cWoogu/]sf] kfOG5 . n]jL :6f/;n] c:jLsf/ u/]sf] glthfdf xf]dg; / OS;g]O8/n] ljleGg vfn] ts{ u/]/ljlgdosf] l;4fGtnfO{ klxnf] k|fyldstf lbPsf] kfOG5 . xf]dg; / OS;g]O8/n] klxnf] k|fyldstfsf]
30

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

?kdf lnPsf] ljlgdosf] l;4fGtdf klg ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] k|efj k/]sf] b]lvG5 . o; qmddf
pgLx?n] ljlgdosf] l;4fGtnfO{ JolQmut ?kdf lrgfpg] qmddf ;fdflhs ;+/rgfsf] l;h{gf u/]sf
tyf o;;DaGwL lqmofsnfkx?sf] af/]df cg'ej u/]sf] b]lvG5 . o;/L n]jL :6f/;sf] ljlgdo;DaGwL
lqmofTds l;4fGt tyf xf]dg; / OS;g]O8/n] lnPsf] jf:tljs ljlgdosf] l;4fGtnfO{ ;flxTosf];dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtcGtu{t /x]sf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtsf] ?kdf cWoog ul/Psf] kfOG5 .
dflg; Ps ;dfhaf6 csf]{ ;dfhdf 3'nldn x'“bf km/s s'/f ;f]Rb5g\ . To; cj:yfdf pgLx?n]leGg vfn] k|ltlqmof b]vfp“5g\ . pgLx?sf] lardf /x]sf ljrf/, cg'ej Pjd\ Jojxf/nfO{ s'g} ;dfhdfa:g] JolQmx?n] dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf lng'sf ;fy} Pscfk;df cg]s vfn] lqmofsnfk;“u t'ngf u5{g\ .
pgLx?n] ev{/} hGd]sf] afnssf] cjnf]sg ubf{ klg k|To]s ;dfhsf afnsdf s'g} g s'g} ?kdfdgf]lj1fgn] k|efj kf/]sf] s'/f JoQm u/]sf] kfOG5 . o;}n] leGgleGg lsl;dsf ;dfhdf a:g] JolQmsfd"No, dfGotf, wf/0ff Pjd\ ljrf/df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgn] k|efj kfb{5 -ODa]/ / cGo, ;g\ @))#,
k[=$@)_ . ;Dk"0f{ ljZjhlgg b[li6sf]0faf6 x]bf{ klg ?g', 8/fpg' / xf“:g'h:tf s'/fx?df s'g} g s'g}
?kdf dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL 36gfx? b]vfk5{g\ . dgf]lj1fgn] ;dfhdf 36\g] p:t} vfn] tyf leGg vfn]
36gfx?sf] cWoog ub{5 . ;fdflhs ;+:s[ltdf b]lvPsf ljleGg kIfsf] j0f{g klg dgf]lj1fgaf6
ul/G5 . o; qmddf ;+:s[ltn] dflg;sf] wf/0ff jfs Jojxf/df leGgtf Nofpg] sf/s tÎjsf] ?kdfdgf]lj1fgnfO{ lnOG5 . o;sf ;fy} ;fdflhs d"No, dfGotf, /xg;xg, rfnrng Pjd\ Jojxf/hGos'/fx?df b]vfkg]{ ljljw kIfx?sf] cWoog dgf]lj1fgåf/f ul/G5 . dgf]lj1fgcGtu{t efiff, ;Eotf,;+:s[lt, ljjfb / wd{h:tf s'/fx? klg cfpg] ePsfn] ltgLx?nfO{ Ps;fy /fv]/ cWoog ul/G5-ODa]/ / cGo, ;g\ @))#, k[=$@)_ . k|To]s dflg;df b]vfkg]{ ef]s, ltvf{, lgb|f, 6\of;, l/;/fu, v'zL,of}ghGo OR5f cfsfª\Iff, bof, dfof, 3[0ff, s?0ff, ;xfg'el" t, 8/, cg'ej, 8fx / qmf]wh:tf efjgfhGolqmofsnfkdf b]lvPsf s'/fnfO{ dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf x]l/G5 . ltgLx?af6 plAhPsf ;d:ofnfO{ s;/L
;dfwfg ug]{ eGg] s'/fsf] ljZn]if0f klg ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgn] ub{5 . o;/L ODa]/ / cGo ljåfgx?n]pNn]v u/]sf] ;dfhzf:qsf] l;4fGtcGtu{t /x]sf] dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtnfO{ ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLol;4fGtcGtu{t kg]{ ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtaf6 klg cWoog ul/Psf] kfOG5 .
;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] ;DaGw ;fdflhs lj1fg;“u /x]sf] x'G5 . Pp6f ;dfhsf cfwf/e"t s'/fsf
36gfx?;“u dl:tis;DaGwL s'/f af/Daf/ cfp“5g\ . ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgn] dfgjdl:tis;DaGwL
k|lqmofsf] lgwf{/0f ub{5 . o;sf] cWoogn] c;fwf/0f ?kdf s'g} ;d'bfosf] hLjgk4lt Pjd\ ljsf; tyf
JolQmut pGgltsf nflu dxÎjk"0f{ e"ldsf v]Nb5 -luNa6{, ;g\ @))), k[=@#–@$_ . cy{zf:q, ;+:s[lt, e"uf]n/ hLjlj1fg;DaGwL cj:yf ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf tÎjeGbf laNs'n} leGg b]lvP tfklg ltgLx?n] s'g} gs'g} ?kdf ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg;“u ;DaGw /fVb5g\ . ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf pks/0fdfk{mt\ ljz'4 ?kdf oLs'/fsf] cWoog klg ul/G5 . o;n] JolQmut / ;fd"lxs ?kdf ;dfhzf:q;DaGwL ljljw lqmofsnfkdf k|efj
kfb{5 . ;dfhdf b]vfkg]{ ljleGg lsl;dsf ;d:ofsf] vf]hL ug]{ / To;sf] ;dfwfg ug]{ sfd klg ;fdflhsdgf]lj1fgaf6 ;Dej x'G5 . t;y{ luNa6{n] pNn]v u/]sf] ;dfhzf:q;DaGwL ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGtnfO{;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtsf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] l;4fGt cGtu{t /fv]/ cWoog ul/Psf] kfOG5 .
31

;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg lj1fgsf] Pp6f zfvf xf] . o;n] dflg;sf] cfTdf;DaGwL s'/fsf] cWoog
ub{5 . ;flxTosf] af/]df ljleGg cy{ Pjd\ cfzo a'‰g klg dgf]lj1fgsf] k|of]u ul/G5 . slxn]sfxL“dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL ljkl/t a'emfOsf] sf/0fn] ubf{ klg dflg;df Ps k|sf/sf] e|d l;h{gf ePsf] b]lvG5-p8jy{ / df6{n, ;g\ !(&!, k[=!_ . o;sf] dfWodaf6 dflg;n] cfkm\gf] ?lr / rfxgfsf lqmofsnfkx?
yfxf kfp“5g\ . o;}n] dflg;sf] OR5f / ?lr yfxf kfpgsf] nflu o;n] dflg;sf ljleGg sfo{ Pjd\
Jojxf/df b]lvg] ;d:ofsf] vf]hL ub{5 . To;kl5 tL ;d:of cfpgsf sf/0fsf] dxÎjk"0f{ tYo kQf
nufP/ To;sf] ;dfwfg ug]{ sfd ub{5 . j+zf0f'ut u'0f / jftfj/0fn] klg dgf]lj1fgdf k|efj kfb{5 .
yfO/fO8 u|GyLn] jftfj/0fsf] nflu cfof]l8gnfO{ pknAw u/fpg] sfd ub{5 . olb cfof]l8gsf] dfqf
sd ePdf s'g} JolQmsf] yfO/fO8 xd{gdf klg sdL b]vfp“5 . jftfj/0fsf] sf/0fn] klg dgf]lj1fgnfO{
k|efj kfb{5 . o;}sf] kmn:j?k o;n] j}olQms hLjgdf leGgtf Nofpg] ub{5 . k|fs[lts ?kdf
dflg;x?df leGgtf Nofpg] csf]{ sf/s tÎj j+zf0f'ut u'0f xf] . o;n] dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL u'0fx?nfO{
Pscsf{ aLr cGt;{DalGwt u/fp“5 . Pp6f JolQmsf] :jefjdf dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL sf/0fn] ubf{ j+zf0f'ut
u'0f / jftfj/0fsf] glthfdf leGgtf NofPsf] b]lvG5 . ;fdflhs tÎjx?sf] k5fl8 jftfj/0f /j+zf0f'ut u'0f;DaGwL ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf kblrGx /x]sf x'G5g\ . k|To]s JolQmdf leGgtf Nofpg]
ljleGg pkfodWo] jftfj/0fLo tÎjn] Pscsf]{ s'/fdf k|efj kf/]sf] b]lvG5 -p8jy{ / df6{n, ;g\!(&!, k[=!%@_ . t/ o;n] slxn]sfxL“ p:t} vfn] cj;/ Pp6f JolQmaf6 cGo JolQmdf /fd|/L k|of]uu/]sf] kfOG5 . p;n] jftfj/0f;DaGwL s'/faf6 /fd|f] lsl;dsf ;fdu|L k|of]u u/]sf] x'G5 . jftfj/0f /j+zf0f'ut u'0fsf] k|efjn] klg ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgdf c;/ kf/]sf] b]lvG5 . t;y{, p8jy{ / df6{nn]pNn]v u/]sf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL l;4fGtnfO{ ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtcGtu{t kg]{;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] tÎjsf] ?kdf cWoog ul/Psf] b]lvG5 .

ct[Kt pkGof;df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] cj:yf
nLnaxfb'/ If]qLsf] ct[Kt pkGof;df d]3/fh eGg] k|d'v kfqsf] dgf]j[lQsf] ?kdf /Ltf, ;'wf, h'g]nL
tyf lbJofh:tf gf/L kfqx?sf cltl/Qm ch'g{ , O{Zj/L, e"kfn tyf aL/axfb'/h:tf ljleGg k'?if kfqx?
b]vfk/]sf 5g\ . d]3/fh;“u ltgLx?n] s'g} g s'g} ?kdf of}g / b}lgs Jojxf/hGo sfd u/]sf] x'gfn]
pgLx?sf] dgf]lj1fgnfO{ cf;fdsf] g]kfnL ;dfhn] k|efj kf/]sf] 5 . o;}n] o; pkGof;df pNn]v
ul/Psf kfqx?sf] dgf]/rgfnfO{ ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf JoQm ul/Psf] 5 .

ct[Kt pkGof;sf] k|dv
' kfq d]3/fhn] cfkm\gf] kl/jf/af6} ;dfhdf k|ult ug]{ k|/] 0ff kfPsf] x'gfn] p;sf]dg]flj1fgsf] lgdf{0fdf p;sf] kl/jf/sf] dxÎjk"0f{ e"ldsf /x]sf] b]lvG5 . d]3/fhn] æbfh'b]lv d ;w}+
8/fp“5'Æ -If]qL, @)@^, k[=!!_ eGg] s'/faf6 p;n] ;fg}b]lv bfh'sf] s8f cg'zf;g / lgoGq0fdf /x]/k9]sf] s'/f o; pkGof;df pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . d]3/fhsf] bfh'n] p;nfO{ cfkm\gf] jzdf /fv]/ k9fP
klg p;k|lt bfh'sf] c;fWo} dfofddtf ePsf] x'gfn] p;n] cfkm\gf] k9fOnfO{ tLj| ultdf cufl8 a9fPsf]
5 . p;sf] bfh'n] kN6gdf hfuL/ vfPsf] s'/f If]qLn] pNn]v u/]sf x'gfn] tyf p;n] OR5fcg'?kaL=P:;L=;Ddsf] pRr lzIffdf p;s} bfh'sf] of]ubfg /x]sfn] p;n] cfkm\gf] kl/jf/af6 g} cufl8 a9\gk|]/0ff kfPsf] 5 . afNosfnb]lv g} d]3/fh l;kfxLsf] Sjf6/df bfh';“u a;]/ k9]sf] x'gfn] æaf]nrfnsf
32

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

w]/}h;f] ;fyLx? l;kfxL tyf ltgsf 5f]/fx?Æ -k[=!$_ ePsf] s'/f If]qLn] pNn]v u/]sf 5g\ . :s'nsf;xkf7L ;fyLx?l;t p;sf] ;Dks{ s]jn :s'ndf g} x'g]u/]sf] b]lvG5 . o;sf/0f kl/jf/sf] dgf]ansf
sf/0f p;sf] dgf]/rgf lgdf{0f ePsf] 5 .
d]3/fhn] cfkm\gf] aL=P:;Lsf] k9fO l;WofPkl5 Oi6ldqx?sf] ;xof]un] pm ;]q]m6l/o/sf] cy{ ljefudf
pRr bhf{sf] ls/f6Ldf hfuL/]sf] ?kdf lgo'Qm ePsfn] p;sf] dgf]/rgfsf] lgdf{0fdf p;sf] ;dfhsf]
klg of]ubfg /x]sf] b]lvG5 . æ;]q]m6]l/o6sf] sfl/Gbfx?sf] hfuL/ cGo 7fp“x?sf] eGbf w]/} lyof]Æ
-k[=!%_ eGg] s'/f ct[Kt pkGof;df pNn]v ePsfn] To;kl5 d]3/fhsf] dgsf] b'a{ntf s]xL blaP/
cfTdljZjf;n] p;sf] Xbodf cltslt alnof] 7fp“ cf]u6]sf] b]lvG5 . o;}sf] kmn:j?k p;sf dgleqsf
lgToxLg efjgf IfL0f x'“b} uP/ dgf]ansf 6';f pd|g yfn]sf] kfOG5 . pQm ;dokl5 d]3/fhsf] dgdf
ljjfx;DaGwL s'/fx? cfpg yfn]sf] x'gfn] To; qmddf p;n] /Ltf, ;'wf, h'g]nL / lbJofh:tf gf/L
kfqx?sf cltl/Qm ch'{g, O{Zj/L, rGb|dfg tyf e"kfnh:tf kfqsf ;Ëtn] klg p;sf] dgf]/rgfdf
k|efj kf/]sf] 5 . o;}n] d]3/fhsf] dgf]/rgfdf ;dfhsf ljleGg JolQmn] k|efj kf/]sf] x'gfn] p;n];dfhaf6 g} pGglt, k|ult / cwf]ult ug]{ k|]/0ff kfP/ cufl8 a9]sf] 5 .
d]3/fhsf] dgf]j[lQdf p;sf] o'jfj:yfsf] ;fdflhs kl/j]zn] k|efj kf/]sf] 5 . cfkm\gf] æ;Dk"0f{ dgf]bzf
Pp6f c8\sf] yfk]h:tf] 5Æ -k[=&_ eg]/ p;n] cfk"mn] s] rfxG5', d]/f] nIo s] xf] eGg] s'/fdf ;fdflhs
kl/j]zk|lt ;r]t ePsf] 5 . p;sf] ;dfhdf ljleGg lsl;dsf pRr / ;ª\sL0f{ efjgf ljBdfg /x]sfn]p;sf x/]s lsl;dsf leqL OR5f / cfsfª\Iffx? ;fdflhs kl/j]zdf s]lGb|t /x]sf] b]lvG5 . To:t}d]3/fhsf] dgf]l:yltdf æPp6f gjLg hLjgsf] t[i0ff, gjLg 3/af/sf] t[i0ff, gjLg ?ksf] t[i0ffÆ -k[=%_h:tf p;sf sNkgfdf b]lvg] Pp6L hLjg ;lËgLsf] t[i0ffn] ubf{ p;n] cfkm\gf] ;Dks{df cfPsf
gf/Lx?nfO{ sfdaf;gf / s[ltd of}gsf ;fwgx?sf] ?kdf k|of]u u/]sf] 5 . o;/L p;n] cfk"m;“ulrgfhfgL u/]sf gf/L;“u k|d] tyf ljjfx ug]{ / cGTodf ltgLx?sf] OHht / k|lti7f n'6/] wf]sf lbPsfn]p;sf] dgn] cfk"mn] ljutdf u/]sf b'isd{k"0f{ Pjd\ nfnlot sfo{k|lt kZrftfk\sf] cg'ej u/]sf] kfOG5 .
d]3/fhsf] Jojxf/df c;n u[x0fLsf] / p;nfO{ ;'xfpg] lsl;dsf] cfw'lgs 9f“rfsf] hLjg;fyLsf] rfxgf/x]sf] kfOG5 . p;n] cfkm\gf ;fyLefO Pjd\ Oi6ldqsf] ;xof]udf cfkm\gf] nflu c;n hLjg;fyL
5fGg] s'/fdf tNnLg ePsf] 5 . o;sf] nflu p;nfO{ ch'{gl;+x If]qL, e"kfn Pjd\ p;sf] bfh'n]p;sf] ljjfx;DaGwL k|aGw ldnfpg] sfd u/]sf 5g\ . t/ p;nfO{ eg] cfkm\gf] k9fO pRr ePsfn]
To;k|lt cxd\ efjgf hfu[t ePsf] 5 . p;n] ;'wf / h'g]nLh:tf s]6LnfO{ ljjfx u/] tfklg wf]sf
lbg;d]t kl5 kb}{g . p;n] ;dfhsf d"No / dfGotfk|lt rf;f] /fVg vf]h] klg ;dfhsf d"No,
dfGotf / Jojxf/nfO{ :jLsf/ gu/]sf] kfOG5 . olb ;dfhsf d"No / dfGotfnfO{ :jLsf/ ub{Yof] eg]x/]s ;dodf p;n] cfk"mn] hLjg;fyL agfP/ NofPsf s]6Lx?nfO{ wf]sf lbP/ ;fdflhs aGwg?kL;fª\UnfnfO{ r'8fNg] lyPg eGg] lqmofsnfk tyf Jojxf/ p;sf] ;dfhsf] nflu :jLsfo{ gePsf]b]lvG5 . p;n] olb æxfdL b'O{ leGg ;dfhsf, xfd|f] hflt a]Un}, ;+:sf/ a]Un}Æ -k[=@)_ eGg] s'/f af]wu/]/ klg /LtfnfO{ d[To'sf] d'vdf k'¥ofPsf] x'gfn] p;sf] Jojxf/df ck/fw of}g dgf]lj1fgn] k|efjkf/]sf] kfOG5 . To:t} p;n] æPp6L u|fdL0f s]6L, cfw'lgs ;Eotfsf] atf; aflx/sLÆ -k[=@#_ eg]/33

lt/:sf/ u/]sL h'g]nLnfO{ ljjfx u/]/ k'g wf]sf lbPsf] 5 . p;n] c?nfO{ wf]sf lbg] k|j[lQnfO{
k'g bf]xf]¥ofPsf] 5 . æd]h/ ;fx]asL 5f]/L s'g} v'6Ljfnf dxfhgsL 5f]/L xf]OgÆ -k[=#&_ eg]/p;n] cfkm\gf] OR5fcg'?k ljjfx u/]/ NofPsL ;'wfnfO{;d]t Tofu]sf] x'gfn] p;df s's[Tok"0f{ tyfjf;gfTds of}g;DaGwn] h/f] uf8]sf] b]lvG5 . p;n] ;'wfnfO{ ljjfx u/]tf klg k]ml/ csL{ s]6L;“uof}g t[lKtsf] vf]hLsf] nflu eg]/ lbJofnfO{ 6\o";g k9fpg] lgx'“n] p;nfO{ ljjfx ug]{ ;'Gb/ ;kgfb]Vb5 . ct[Kt pkGof;df b]vfk/]sf] k|d'v kfq d]3/fhn] cfkm\gf] hLjgdf cfk}m b'irl/q, b'ikl/0ffd,
s's[To tyf of}ghGo Pjd\ :qLnDk6k"0f{ Jojxf/x? u/]sfn] p;sf] dgf]l:ylt v/fa tyf ljleGgvfn] of}ghGo t[i0ffn] k|efj kf/]sf] 5 . olt dfq geP/ p;sf] dgf]/rgfdf æk|lt lx+;fsf] efjgf
hfu[tÆ -k[=&%_ ePsfn] p;sf] dgf]lj1fgdf ;dfhsf cfrf/0f / cg'zf;g;DaGwL s'/fsf ljkl/t
efjgfx? pTkGg ePsf] kfOG5 . o;/L d]3/fhdf pTkGg ePsf afNosfnLg lzIffbLIffb]lv lnP/p;sf] o'jfj:yfdf u/]sf ;Dk"0f{ of}ghGo Jojxf/nfO{ If]qLsf] o; pkGof;df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf]?kdf JoQm ul/Psf] 5 .

ct[Kt pkGof;sf] csf]{ ;xfos kfq ch'{gn] cfk"m a;]sf] ;dfhdf d]3/fh / kf7s a'9fsf] kl/jf/df
Ps cfk;df j}jflxs ;DaGw sfod u/fpg] s'/fdf cu|;/ b]lvPsf] 5 . p;sf] dgf]/rgfdf ;dfhk|lt;xof]u ug]{ efjgf /x]sf] kfOG5 . p;n] d]3/fhsf] ljjfx kf7s a'9fsL 5f]/L;“u u/fOlbg] p2]Zon]d]3/fhnfO{ e'jg]Zj/L / sfdfVofb]jLsf] bz{g ug]{ lgx'“n] s]6L x]/fpg kf7s a'9fsf] 3/tk{m nu]sf]b]lvG5 . To; cj:yfdf ch'{gn] kf7s a'9fnfO{ b]VbflalQs} b'O{j6f xft hf]8L gd:sf/ u/]/ æP Ûsltv]/ cfpg'ef] < c? cfdfx? vf]O t <Æ -k[=#@_ eg]/ ;a}k|lt /fd|f] Jojxf/ u/]sfn] p;sf] JolQmÎj
lgdf{0fdf ;fdflhs kl/j]]zn] k|efj kf/]sf] b]lvG5 . o;/L ch'{gsf] dgf]l:ylt jf Jojxf/df ;fdflhs
kl/j]zn] k|efj kf/]sf] x'gfn] pQm s'/fx?nfO{ If]qLsf] o; pkGof;df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdfk|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
ct[Kt pkGof;sf] csf]{ ;xfos kfq e"kfndf klg cg'sn" efjgfsf] ljsf; ePsf] 5 . p;sf] dgf]/rgfdf;fdflhs d"No / dfGotfn] k|ToIf k|efj kfb{5 . p;sf] Jojxf/df ;dfh;]jf / dfgjtfsf] efjgf /x]sf]b]lvG5 . p;n] cfkt\ljkt\ kbf{ cfk"mn] slxNo} gb]v]sf] JolQm d]3/fh;“u kl/lrt eP/ p;nfO{ ;xof]uk'¥ofPsf] 5 . p;n] d]3/fhnfO{ s]xL ;do cfkm\gf] 3/df ljgf k};f /fv]/ lji0f' dlGb/sf] 5]pdf /x]sf]
k|fylds kf7zfnfdf lzIfssf] hfuL/df nufOlbPsf] 5 . o;sf ;fy} d]3/fhsf] cfo;|f]t sd ePsf]n]cfÎg} l5d]ssf] 7fp“df lbJof gfd u/]sL s]6LnfO{ 6\o";g k9fO lbg] Joj:yf ldnfO lbPsf] 5 . olt
dfq geP/ p;n] cfkm\gf] ;dfhdf æcflbslj efg'eQmsf] hGd hoGtL dgfpg] ljifonfO{ lnP/ Jo:tÆ
-k[=!#$_ ePsf] b]lvG5 . pQm sfo{qmddf e"kfnn] :jod\ ;]jssf] e"ldsf lgjf{x u/]sf] 5 . e"kfn
pQm sfo{qmdaf6 l5§} pDsg ;Sg] l:yltdf gePsf] / Toxf“ w]/} s'/fsf] Joj:yf ldnfpg'kg]{ x'gfn]
Pjd\ æ:jod\;]jsx?åf/f aflx/af6 cfPsf lhlg;x? k'¥ofpg'kg]{ x'gfn] d]3/fh / lbJof;“u Ps}rf]l6
3/ hfg ;s]sf] b]lv“b}gÆ -k[=!#*_ . o;sf ;fy} e"kfn :jod\n] lji0f' dlGb/sf] 5]pdf /x]sf] k|fylds
kf7zfnfdf æTo; :s'n ;~rfng ;ldltsf] cu|u0o JolQmÆ-k[=!@%_ sf] ?kdf e"ldsf lgjf{x u/]sf] 5 .
To;}n] e"kfnsf] dgf]/rgfdf ;dfh;]jf / dfgjtfsf] efjgf ljsf; ePsf] b]lvG5 .
34lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

ct[Kt pkGof;sf] csf]{ ;xfos kfq d]3/fhsf] ;fyL O{Zj/Lsf] dgf]/rgfdf ;dfhk|lt cg's"n efjgfsf]
k|efj /x]sf] b]lvG5 . æO{Zj/Ln] d]3/fhnfO{ cfkm\gf] 3/ hfg] jrg lbG5 / k/Gt' Pslbg To:t} s'/f
cfOnfu]sf] x'gfn] pm O{Zj/Lsf] 3/df ;d]t hfg afWo ePsf] b]lvG5 . o;sf ;fy} p;n] n'e|]e'md|]/ slxn] klg s]z gsf]/]/ a'9f] levf/Lh:tf] b]lvg] jL/]nfO{ l;+uf/]/ cfkm\gf] sfof{nodf lkogsf]
hfuL/;d]t nufOlbPsf] s'/f o; pkGof;df pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . olt dfq geP/ d]3/fhn] eufP/nu]sL h'g]nLnfO{ k'gM cfkm\gL >LdtLsf] ?kdf :jLsf/ u/]/ cfk"mn] ;dfhdf lgefpg'kg]{ bfloTj k"/fu/]sf] 5 . o;}n] ubf{ O{Zj/Lsf] dgf]/rgfdf pbf/, ;xof]uL Pjd\ OdfGbf/ efjgf /x]sf] b]lvG5 .
o;/L O{Zj/Ln] ;dfhk|lt u/]sf dxÎjk"0f{ sfo{ tyf Jojxf/ Pjd\ p;sf] pbf/ Pjd\ ;xof]uL vfn]
dgf]j[lQnfO{ If]qLsf] o; pkGof;df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
If]qLsf] ct[Kt pkGof;sL csf]{ kfq /Ltf aghL{sf] cfkm\gf] 3/ kl/jf/sf] rfxgfcg'?k p;n] hfuL/
vfPsf] tyf cleefjssf OR5fcg'?k cfkmgf] hflt / ;+:sf/cg'?ksf] aËfnL OlGhlgo/ s]6f;“uljjfx u/fPsf] 5 . p;sf] dgf]/rgfsf] lgdf{0f cfkm\gf] kfl/jfl/s tyf ;fdflhs sf/0fn] k|efj kf/]sf]
5 . p;sL cfdfn] eg]cg';f/ æ/Ltf 7\ofDd} dfg]sL lyOgÆ -k[=@#_ eg]/ JoQm u/]sf] x'gfn] /Ltfsf]
ljjfx p;sf] OR5flj?4 ePsf] b]lvG5 . To:t} /Ltfn] ljjfx cl3 ;]q]m6l/o6sf] clkm;df sfd ubf{d]3/fh;“u jf8{; n]slt/ 3'Dg hfg] k|:tfj /fv]sL tyf To;}cg';f/ pm;“u :jR5Gb kf/fn] 3'dlkm/u/]sL x'gfn] æjf:tjdf ljjfx g} k|]dsf] nIo x'g'k5{Æ -k[=@!_ eg]/ k|flKt ljgfsf] k|]dsf] s'g} df]n x'“b}geGg] s'/f p;n] JoQm u/]sL 5] . o;}sf] kmn:j?k p;n] d]3/fhnfO{ rfx]sf] x'gfn] /Ltfsf] ljjfx
cfk"mn] grfx“bf grfx“b} klg p;sf] OR5f ljkl/t aª\ufnL OlGhlgo/ s]6f;“u ePsf] b]lvG5 . o;}n]/Ltfn] cfkm\gf] dgf]/rgfdf pTkGg ePsf bldt s'07fsf] k"lt{ ug{sf] nflu cfkm\gf k|frLg ;+:sf/, d"No
/ dfGotfx? tf]8\g'k5{ eGg] efjgfaf6 k|]l/t ePsfn] pQm s'/fnfO{ If]qLsf] o; pkGof;df ;fdflhsdgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .

ct[Kt pkGof;sL gflosf ;'wfsf] dgf]/rgfdf p;sf] dfOtL3/ / To;} ;dfhcg'?ksf] e"ldsf /x]sf]b]lvG5 . k|f/Dedf ;'wf cfk"m hGd]x's]{sf] ;+:sf/k|lt b[9 /x]sf] b]lvG5 . d]3/fhn] p;nfO{ jf:tf ug{
5f]8]kl5 p;sf] Jojxf/ / dgf]/rgfdf s]xL kl/jt{g cfPsf] 5 . d]3/fh / u'?ª;]gLsf] ;DaGw yfxf
kfpg'eGbf cl3 ;'wfsf] rl/qdf dfOtk|ltsf] 3d08, zfg / OHht b]vfP/ d]3/fhsf] 3/kl/jf/df
wSsf k'Ug] lsl;dsf] sfd u/]sL 5] . t/ kl5 p;sf] dgf]/rgfdf d]3/fhnfO{ s;/L cfkm\gf] agfpg]/ pmk|lt s;/L cfkm\gf] ;DaGw glhs agfpg] eGg] dgf]j[lQsf] ljsf; ePsf] b]lvG5 . d]3/fhn]p;nfO{ ljjfx ;lsPkl5 b'nxL 3/df cGdfpg] ;dosf] k|yd /ftdf g} p;n] cfkm\gf] >Ldfg\ d]3/fhnfO{
ljt[i0ff kf/]sL 5] . æcf] xf] Û of] sf]7f slt ;f“u'/f] / xf]rf] 5 . s;/L a:g'x'G5 oxf“ tkfO{+ <Æ -k[=#*_eg]/ p;n] Ps lsl;dsf] 3d08 b]vfp“5] . laxfg pHofnf] eP/ cf]5\ofgaf6 p7]kl5 d]3/fhnfO{b]Vg]lalQs} æof] 3/df gf]s/ 5}gg\ < vf]O, lrof s;}n] klg NofPgÆ -k[=$)_ eg]/ pQm s'/f JoQm u/]sL
5] . p;df Ps lsl;dsf] zfg, /jfkm / 3d08 /x]sf] s'/f yfxf kfpg ;lsG5 . To:t} p;sf] pQm
vfn] lqmofsnfk / Jojxf/ d]3/fhn] b]v]sfn] / pm ;'wfnfO{ 5f]8]/ efUg] ljrf/ dx;'; u/L Pd\=P:;L\
k9\g uf]xf6L ljZjljBfnodf hfg'k¥of] eg]/ bfh' efph"af6 ;Nnfx lnP/ uPsf] 5 . To;kl5 pm
35

3/df gcfPsfn] ;'wfn] lj/lQmP/ ;Gofl;gLsf] hLjg latfpg] OR5f k|s6 u/]sf] b]lvG5 . To:t};'wf ;Gofl;gL eP/ :jfdL /fdbf;sf ;fy uPsf] / lj:tf/} k"hfcfhf ug{ yfn]sf]n] pm kl5Nnf];dodf ;f+;fl/s df]xhfnaf6 d'Qm x'g] dgf]l:yltdf k'u]sf] kfOG5 . o;/L ;'wfsf hLjgdf cfPsf
p;sf ;Dk"0f{ dgf]l:ylt;DaGwL s'/fnfO{ If]qLsf] o; pkGof;df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdfk|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
If]qLsf] o; pkGof;sL csf]{ kfq h'g]nLsf] dgf]l:yltleq p;sf] ;dfh / kl/jf/n] k|efj kf/]sf]
x'gfn] pm k|f/Dedf u|fdL0f / clzlIft gf/Lsf] ?kdf plePsL 5] . ljjfxkl5sf] ;dodf eg] p;n]cfkm\gf] Jojxf/nfO{ kl/jt{g u/L ;Eo / cfw'lgs gf/Lsf] ?kdf b]lvPsL 5] . ;'?df d]3/fh;“u s'/fug{ lxlRsrfpg] h'g]nLn] s]xL ;dokl5 d]3/fhnfO{ b]Vbf dg k'msfP/ s'/fsfgL u/]sf] x'gfn] p;sf]dgf]/rgfdf ;do / kl/l:yltcg';f/ k]m/abn ePsf] b]lvG5 . O{Zj/L;“u ljjfx aGwgdf af“lwPsLh'g]nLsf] sf]7fdf O{Zj/L gePsf] cj:yfdf d]3/fh cfp“bf p;n] d]3/fhnfO{ lt/:s[t ug'{sf] ;§f ;“u}lkmNd x]g{ hfg] cg'/f]w u/]sL 5] . p;n] d]3/fhnfO{ cfÎg} 8]/fdf ;'Tg;d]t cfu|x u/]sf] x'gfn] p;sf]dgf]l:yltdf k/k'?ifk|lt cfslif{t x'g] /f]un] ;tfPsf] kfOG5 . d]3/fhn] h'g]nLnfO{ ltd|f] ljjfx gePsf]
eP d ltdLnfO{ ljjfx ug]{ lyP“ eGg] s'/fnfO{ klg p;n] ;xh ?kdf :jLsf/ u/]sL 5] . ælaxfn] xfdLnfO{
s;/L y'G5 / < clxn] klg s] xfdL Ps csf{sf] aGg ;Sb}gf}+ <Æ -k[=*)_ eGb} b'O{lbgkl5 b'j} efu]/
ljjfx ug]{ / olb d]3/fh To; ;dodf gcfPdf cfk"mn] ljif vfP/ cfTdfxTof ug]{ s'/f;Dd ug{ h'g]nL
cu|;/ ePsf] b]lvG5 . To;kl5 d]3/fhsL kTgL ag]/ efu]sL h'g]nLnfO{ eg] s]xL lbgkl5 d]3/fhn]uf]xf6Laf6 sf7df8f}+ nu]sfn] p;nfO{ k'gM d]3/fh;“u 3'Dg], 8'Ng] / lkmNd x]g]{ rfxgfn] ;tfPsf] 5 .
o;}sf] kmn:j?k d]3/fhn] p;sf rfxgfx? k"/f ug{ c:jLsf/ u/]sfn] h'g]nLn] ætkfO{+ ghfgf];\, drGb|dfg bfh'l;t hfG5'Æ -k[=!)%_ eg]/ p;sf] cg'dltlagf h'g]nL / rGb|dfg eP/ lkmNd x]g{ uPsf]
kfOG5 . To;kl5 h'g]nLsf To:tf lqmofsnfkx?nfO{ d]3/fhn] Jojxfl/s gdfg]sf] x'gfn] pm h'gn
] LnfO{wf]sf lbP/ cf;fdsf] tLg;'lsoftk{m uPsf] 5 . h'g]nL k]ml/ cnkq k/]sfn] p;n] O{Zj/LnfO{ k'gM lr7Ln]vL p;};“u 3/hd ub{5] . o; pkGof;df pNn]v ul/Pcg';f/ h'g]nLsf] dgf]/rgf l:y/ gePsfn];do / kl/l:yltcg';f/ ultzLn ePsf] b]lvG5 . o;/L h'g]nLsf] dgf]/rgf;DaGwL Jojxf/nfO{ If]qLsf]
o; pkGof;df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .

ct[Kt pkGof;sL csf]{ kfq lbJofn] klg cfkm\gf] a'afcfdf / l5d]sLsf] ;Nnfxcg';f/ ul0ft ljifosf]
6\o";g k9\g] ljrf/ u/]sfn] p;sf] dgf]/rgfdf p;sf] kl/jf/ / ;dfhsf] cu|0fL e"ldsf /x]sf] 5 .
e"kfnn] klg lbJofsf a'afcfdfn] eg]cg';f/ d]3/fhnfO{ lbJofsf] lglDt eg]/ ul0ft ljifo k9fOlbg]
lzIfssf] Joj:yf ul/lbPsf] 5 . To:t} lbJofn] d]3/fh;“u 3'dlkm/ ug]{ tyf l;g]df x]g{hfg] sfo{u/]sfn] p;sf] Jojxf/ / lqmofsnfkaf6 dnfO{ d]3/fhn] g} ljjfx u/f];\ eGg] s'/f k|s6 ePsf]b]lvG5 . To;}u/L d]3/fhn] lbJof;“u ljjfxsf] af/]df s'/fsfgL ubf{ To;sf] k|ltpQ/:j?k lbJofn]
cfk"mn] ljjfx æu/] eg] tkfO{+l;t ug]{5'Æ -k[=!$)_ eGg] s'/f JoQm u/]sL 5] . p;n] cfkm\gf] of}g rfxgfsf]
Ifltk"lt{ d]3/fhaf6 u/fpg rfx]sL 5] . h'g ;dob]lv lbJofn] d]3/fhnfO{ b]v]sL lyO{ To;a]nfb]lvg} p;n] d]3/fhsf] af/]df w]/} hfGg pT;'stf lnPsL 5] . d]3/fhn] lji0f' dlGb/df pb\3f6g ePsf]
36lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

efg'eQmsf] hoGtL ;df/f]xsf] sfo{qmddf uLt ufO{ cfkm\gf] snf k|bz{g u/]sfn] pm d]3/fhk|lt cem
cfslif{t ePsL 5] . æd tkfO{+l;t af]Ng rfxGg“Æ -k[=!#*_ eg]/ d]3/fhn] cfkm\gf] snfsfl/tf lbJof;fd' n'sfPsf] x'gfn] p;n] s[ltd /f]if k|s6 u/]sL 5] . o;}n] lbJofsf] dgf]an Pjd\ k|]/0ffnfO{ pRragfpgsf] nflu p;sf] kl/jf/ tyf ;dfhsf] dxÎjk"0f{ of]ubfg /x]sf] x'gfn] pQm s'/fnfO{ If]qLsf] o;pkGof;df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .

ct[Kt pkGof;sf] c? kfqx? lbJofsL cfdfa'afsf] dgf]/rgfdf cfkm\gf] kl/jf/ / ;dfhk|ltsf] bfloTjaf]w
ePsfn] pgLx?n] e"kfn kfqdfk{mt cfÎgL 5f]/Lsf] nflu ul0ft 6\o";g k9fpg] lzIfssf] aGbf]a:tu/]sf 5g\ . ul0ft 6\o";g k9fpg] lzIfs d]3/fhnfO{ lbJofsL cfdfn] ænf} oxf“ gfgLn] %÷^ dlxgfx]l/lbg' k¥of]Æ -k[=!@*_ eg]/ cfu|x u/]sf] b]lvG5 . lbJofsf] ut ;fn ul0ft ljifosf] k/LIff lau|]sf]n]p;n] 6\o";g k9fO lbPsf v08df kf; x'G5] ls eg]/ lbJofsL cfdfn] cfkm\gf] 5f]/Lsf] af/]df lrGtf
lnPsf] kfOG5 . To;}u/L d]3/fhn] lbJofnfO{ ul0ft ljifosf] 6\o";g /fd|/L k9fPsf] x'gfn] lbJofsL
cfdf ;Gt'i6 ePsf] s'/f o; pkGof;df JoQm ul/Psf] 5 . o;sf ;fy} 6\o";gsf] k9fO l;WofO;s]kl5 lbJof / d]3/fh Ps306f;Dd 8'Nbf / ;“u} rnlrq x]g{ hf“bf klg lbJofsf a'afcfdfn]p;nfO{ :jtGq ?kdf 5fl8lbPsf] x'gfn] pgLx?n] cfÎgL 5f]/Lsf] ljjfx d]3/fh;“u ul/lbg
rfx]sf] b]lvG5 . lbJofsf a'afcfdfsf] 3/sf] jftfj/0f ;Eo, zfGt Pjd\ ;f}xfb{k"0f{ jftfj/0fdf/x]sf] x'gfn] pgLx?sf] dgf]/rgf klg ;';+:s[t ;dfhcg'?k ljsf; ePsf] s'/f o; pkGof;dfpNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . o;/L lbJofsf cfdfa'afsf] dgf]/rgfsf] lgdf{0f x'g'df pgLx?sf] kl/jf/ tyf;dfhsf] pNn]vgLo e"ldsf /x]sfn] pQm s'/fnfO{ If]qLsf] o; pkGof;df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf]?kdf k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
ct[Kt pkGof;df pNn]v ul/Psf u'dfgaxfb'/ u'?ªsf] kl/jf/df cfkm\gf] hfltk|ltsf] k|]d / ;f+:s[ltshu]gf{ ePsfn] pgLx?sf] dl:tisdf hftLo efjgf tyf dgf]lj1fgsf] cleJolQm kfOG5 . u'dfg]sf
kl/jf/n] cfkm\gf] hflt dfq} geP/ cGo g]kfnL hfltx?k|lt klg /fd|f] / pko{'Qm vfn] Jojxf/x? u/]sf
5g\ . p;sf] d[To' x'“bf;d]t g]kfnL s'NnL / rf}sLbf/n] p;sf] bfx;+:sf/sf] nflu eg]/ æcfk;dflogLx? ;a}l;t k};f p7fpg yfn]sf lyPÆ -k[=$(_ eGg] s'/f o; pkGof;df JoQm ePsf] b]lvG5 .
To:t} u'dfg]sf] kl/jf/n] ;f“emsf] ;dodf dfbn ahfP/ Pscfk;df /dfOnf] u/]/ cfgGb;“u a;]sf
x'gfn] klg pgLx? larsf] cfk;L Jojxf/ / lqmofsnfk ;'dw'/ ePsf] kfOG5 . o;}u/L pgLx?sf;fydf a:g] cGo g]kfnL s'NnLx?;“u klg logLx?n] glhssf] ;Dks{ a9fPsf] x'gfn] u'dfgaxfb'/sL>LdtLn] cfkm\gf] nf]Ug]sf] d[To'kl5 ToxL cfkm\gf] glhsdf a:g] d;fg];“u /ftel/ uLt ufPsL 5] .
æb'O{ /ft;Dd /ftel/ h'jf/L v]Nb}Æ -k[=%$_ uLt} uLtn] e'n]/ pm d;fg];“u kf]On uPsL 5] . o;/L
o; pkGof;df pNn]v ul/Psf u'dfgaxfb'/sf] kl/jf/sf] dgf]/rgfdf ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgn] k|efjkf/]sf] x'gfn] pQm s'/fnfO{ If]qLsf] pQm pkGof;df klg o;}cg';f/ k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
ct[Kt pkGof;sf] csf]{ kfq jL/axfb'/sf] hLjgdf cfly{s ;Í6 / ul/aLsf] sf/0fn] ubf{ p;sf]dgf]/rgfsf] lgdf{0fdf ;dfhn] k|efj kf/]sf] b]lvG5 . æjL/axfb'/ jf:tjdf Ps l;kfxLsf] 5f]/f]Æ -k[=^!_
ePsfn] p;sf] afa' cª\u|]hL ;fx]a sg]{nsf] cb{nL 5“bf p;sf a'afcfdfn] jL/axfb'/ sfv}sf] afns
37

5“bf d[To' ePsfn] p;sf] kfngkf]if0f klg sg]{n;fx]an] u/]sf] b]lvG5 . dfG5] h:tf] jftfj/0fdf x's]{sf]x'G5 ToxL jftfj/0fsf] /xg;xg Pjd\ Jojxf/n] p;nfO{ k|efj kfg]{ x'gfn] jL/axfb'/nfO{ cª\u|]hx?n]cfÎg} dft[efiffsf] g]kfnL :s'ndf egf{ ul/lbP tfklg p;n] afNosfndf ;'lsnf, /fd|f Pjd\ Ol:t/L
nufP/ /fd|f;] “u k6fP/ /fv]sf sk8fx? nufPsf] kfOG5 . t/ p;nfO{ cª\uh|] x?n] cjsfz eO;s]kl5PSn} 5f]8]/ cfkm\gf] b]zdf uPsfn] pm Pp6f jf:tljs levf/Lh:t} b]lvPsf] 5 . To; cj:yfdfp;n] kfn gsf]l/sg tyf bfx|L gkmfnLsg k'/fgf] / d}nf] sk8f nufP/ a;]sf] s'/f If]qLn] pNn]vu/]sf 5g\ . pQm cj:yfdf jL/axfb'/ 7"nf] b'Mv / wd{;Í6df k/]sf] x'gfn] p;sf] dgf]l:yltdf
ljleGg vfn] Jojxf/ / kl/l:yltn] k|efj kf/]sf] b]lvG5 . o;/L jL/axfb'/sf] hLjgdf Jojxf/ /kl/l:ylthGo cj:yfn] k|efj kf/]sf] s'/fnfO{ If]qLsf] o; pkGof;df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdfk|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
If]qLsf] ct[Kt pkGof;sf] csf]{ kfq rGb|dfgsf] Xbodf c?nfO{ ;xof]u ug'{k5{ eGg] efjgf/x]sf] x'gfn] p;sf] dgf]/rgfdf ;dfhk|ltsf] bfloTj /x]sf] b]lvG5 . p;n] d]3/fhnfO{ eQmk'/dfsf]7f vf]hLlbg] / ;fdfg;d]t nuLlbg] sfddf ;xof]u u/]sf] 5 . ærGb|dfg cfk}m a]n'sLkv;/;fdfg;lxt xfdLnfO{ lng Pp6f yf]qf] hLk aGbf]a:t u/L lnP/ cfpg] ePsf lyPÆ -k[=($_ .
o; egfOsf cfwf/df klg p;n] cfkm\gf] ;fyLefOx?nfO{ s] s:tf] ;xof]u s'g ?kdf ug'{ kb{5eGg] s'/fsf] ljrf/ u/L cfkm\gf] bfloTj k"/f u/]sf] b]lvG5 . p;n] d]3/fh;“u cfk"m /fheQm eO{zf]if0f gLltsf] lj/f]w ug]{ cfkm\gf] ljrf/ JoQm u/]sfn] lg/ª\s'z lsl;dsf] /f0ffsfnLg Joj:yf /b]zdf k|hftGqsf] gfddf b]lvPsf] c:tJo:t / dgk/L tGqnfO{ x6fpg] sfd klg /fhfn] u/]sf]
s'/f pNn]v u/]sf] 5 . To:t} p;n] d]3/fh / h'g]nL efu]/ cfPsf x'g\ eGg] s'/f zÍsf u/]sf]
5 . o;n] æb'j} hgf Ps}rf]l6 a;fO“ ;/]/ cfpg' / oxf“ cl8g vf]Hg', of] t zÍfsf] ;"rs klg
xf]Æ -k[=(*_ eGg] s'/f JoQm u/]sf] 5 . rGb|dfgn] ljjfx cfkm\gf] OR5fcg';f/ x'g'k5{ eGg] ts{/fv]sfn] p;n] klg s'g} JolQmsf a'afcfdfn] cfkm\gf 5f]/f5f]/Lsf] OR5f ljkl/t ljjfx ul/lbg x'Gg
eGg] dfGotf /fv]sf] kfOG5 . o;/L rGb|dfgsf] dgdf pTkGg ePsf dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL kIf dfgjLo
Jojxf/hGo lqmofsnfk ePsfn] pQm s'/fnfO{ If]qLsf] o; pkGof;df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf]?kdf k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
lgisif{;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtsf] b[li6sf]0faf6 x]bf{ ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg eg]sf] ;flxTosf];dfhzf:qLo cWoogsf] ;}4flGts dfkb08cGtu{t dfgjdl:tis;DaGwL s'/fsf] 1fg, ljrf/, efjgf
Pjd\ cg'ejnfO{ ;fdflhs ljifosf] dfWodaf6 vf]hL u/L cWoog ul/g] dfWodsf] ?kdf lnOG5 .
o; l;4fGtcGtu{t JoQm ul/Psf] ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgn] ;fdflhs lj1fg, Oltxf;, snf, ;flxTo,
wd{ / cfrf/ljrf/h:tf s'/fdf o;sf] s;/L ;DaGw uf“l;Psf] x'G5 eGg] s'/fsf] vf]hL u/L o;n];dfhdf s:tf] k|efj kfb{5 eGg] s'/fx?sf] af/]df cWoog ub{5 . s'g} ;dfhdf a:g] dflg;sf e"n,k|oTg tyf ljutsf lk|o / clk|o :d[lt s] s] x'g\ / s] sf/0fn] ubf{ pgLx?df pQm s'/f pTkGg
x'G5g\ eGg] ljifosf] vf]hL ug]{ sfo{ o;n] ub{5 eg] To;sf] kl/0ffdaf6 s] s:tf lqmofsnfk
38

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

JoQm x'G5g\ eGg] s'/fsf] k|df0fsf] ?kdf o;sf] cWoog ul/G5 . ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgn] ;fdflhs
d"No, dfGotf, cfrf/ljrf/, g}ltstf, wd{ / sfg"gh:tf ljljw ljifodf s;/L k|efj kfb{5 eGg]s'/fx?sf] vf]hL u/]/ o;leq /x]sf JolQmx?sf] dfgl;s k|lqmof Pjd\ ;Dk"0f{ dgf]lj1fg;DaGwLs'/fx?sf] af/]df cWoog ul/G5 . o;dfk{mt\ JolQmsf r]tg, cjr]tg / cw{r]tg dgsf] af/]dfs;/L yfxf kfpg] eGg] s'/fsf] vf]hL u/L o;leq logLx?n] kfg]{ k|efj Pjd\ To;af6 pTkGg x'g]
k|lqmofsf] af/]df cWoog ul/G5 . o;n] Pp6f ;"Id ;d"xsf] dfq vf]hL gu/]/ Pp6f /0fgLlts;d"xsf] vf]hL ug]{ Pjd\ To;df b]lvPsf ljleGg lsl;dsf ;d:ofsf] vf]hL ub}{ tL ;d:ofnfO{s;/L ;dfwfg ug]{ eGg] s'/fsf] af/]df cWoog ub{5 . o; qmddf o;n] s'g} ;dfhdf a:g] JolQmsf;fdflhs, P]ltxfl;s, ;f+:s[lts Pjd\ /fhgLltsh:tf kIfx?df b]lvPsf ;d:ofsf] vf]hL u/]/To;nfO{ s;/L ;dfwfg ug]{ eGg] s'/fsf] ;d]t cWoog ub{5 . o;/L s'g} s[ltleq log} dflypNn]v ul/Psf ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL ;Dk"0f{ s'/fsf] vf]hL u/]/ o;sf] af/]df cWoog ul/of]eg] ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo l;4fGtsf] cfwf/df ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL l;4fGtsf] vf]hL u/]/cWoog ul/Psf] s'/f k'li6 ePsf] b]lvG5 . To;}n] ct[Kt pkGof;df eg] cf;fd / l;nfªh:tf
ef/tsf ljleGg e"efudf a:g] g]kfnL Pjd\ g]kfnLt/ hfltdf pTkGg ePsf af;gfTds of}ghGolqmofsnfk / Jojxf/sf ;fy} cGwf] / If0fLs k|]dn] lgDTofPsf b"lift / ;dfhaf6 lt/:s[t ul/Psf
gLr k|j[lQnfO{ ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fgsf] ?kdf JoQm ul/Psf] 5 . o;/L If]qLsf pkGof;df pNn]v
ul/Psf ;fdflhs dgf]lj1fg;DaGwL s'/fnfO{ ;flxTosf] ;dfhzf:qLo cWoogsf nflu cfjZos kg]{log} l;4fGtsf] cfwf/df k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 .
;Gbe{ ;fdu|L;"rL
ODa]/, Sof/f]n cf/=PG8 cb;{, -;g\ @))#_, PGy|f]kf]nf]hL, lko;{G; Ph's];g k|fOe]6 lnld6]8 .
p8jy{, /f]a6{ P;\ PG8 df6{n 8f]gfN8, hL=, -;g\ !(&!_, ;fOsf]nf]hL M c :68L ckm d]G6n nfOkm=
Dofyf]g PG8 sDkgL lnld6]8 .
s'df/, b]j]Gb|, -;g\ @))#_, k|mfo8 dgf]ljZn]if0f -cg'=_, /fhkfn PG8 ;G; k|sfzg .
Sofh, 8]la8 PG8 cb;{, -;g\ !(*@_, OG8Lleh'cn Og\ ;f];fO6L, Pd= ;L= u|] lxn OG6/g]zgn a's
sDkgL .
If]qL, pbo, -@)^$_, ;dfhzf:qLo b[li6df OGb|axfb'/ /fO{sf cfVofgsf] cWoog -ck|sflzt zf]wk|aGw_,
df=;f=c=;+=, lqlj .
If]qL, nLnaxfb'/, -@)@^_= ct[Kt, ;femf k|sfzg .
luNa6{, kL= -;g\ @)))_, kmfpG8fd]G6N; ckm ;f]l;of]nf]hL, cf]l/o06 nËDofg lnld6]8 .
6g{/, hf]gfyg Pr\= -;g\ @))%_, b :6«Sr/ ckm ;f]l;of]nf]lhsn Yof}/L, hok'/ /fjt klAns];G; .
6]n/, xfj8{ Pkm=PG8 PG8;{g dfu{/]6 Pn= -;g\ @))@_, c08/:6fg\l8ª\u c 8fOe;{ ;f];fO6L, la|l6;
sfplG;n lna6L{ .
39bf]ifL, zDe'nfn / cGo= -;g\ !(&)_, ;dfhzf:q l;4fGt cf}/ ljZn]if0f, /fdk|;fb PG8 ;G; /f]8 .
k|mfo8, l;Ud08= -;g\ @))#_, jg\ ;fOsf]nf]hL, >La'S; OG6/g]zgn .
dfy'/, P;=P;= -;g\ !(&#_, lzIff dgf]lj1fg, ljgf]b k':ts dlGb/ .
d]o;{, 8]la8 hL, -;g\ @))%_, ;f]l;on ;fOsf]nf]hL, Pd= ;L= u|] lxn sDkgL .
Dofs8'un, ljlnod, -;g\ !()*_, Pg\ OG6«f]8S;g\ 6' ;f]l;on ;fOsf]nf]hL, o'lge;{l;6L k]k/Aofs .
jdf{, dx]Gb|gfy, -;g\ !(^^_, ;dfhzf:q -cg'=_, ljZjljBfno k|sfzg .
zf:qL, /fhf/fd, -;g\ !(^#_, ;dfh lj1fg M l;4fGt cf}/ k|of]u, k|sfzg ljefu .

40

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] hUufx?sf] ;+/If0f;DaGwdf ;Ddflgt cbfntx?af6 ePsfcfb]zx? ;lxt ;+lIfKt hfgsf/L
gf/fo0fk|;fb vgfn*n]v;f/
lqe'jg ljZjljBfno g]kfn ;/sf/af6 cfly{s cg'bfg k|fKt ;+:yf ePsfn] lqe'jg ljZjljBfno :jfot/ ;+ul7t ;+:yf Pj+ 5'§} 5fk / nf]uf] k|of]u ug{] ePtf klg ;/sf/L kl/efiffleq kg{] egL ;Ddflgt;jf{R] r cbfntaf6 JofVof ljj]rgf ePsf] 5. ljZjljBfnosf] ;DklQsf] Audit x'G5 . o;sf] jflif{sk|ltj]bg k|To]s jif{ ;efdf k]z ug{] ljZjljBfnosf] lgoddf /x]sf] 5. ljZjljBfnosf] s'nklt b]zs}
sfo{sf/L k|dv
' k|wfgdGqL x'gx] bF' f d'ns
' sf] sfo{sf/L k|dv
' s'nklt /x]sfn] ljZjljBfnosf] e"ldsf
klg cxd g} /xG5 . ljZjljBfnosf] ;DklQsf] ;+/If0f ug{] bfloTj k|ToIf ?kdf ljZjljBfnosf] /x]sf]
cj:yfdf ;DklQsf] ;+/If0fsf] nflu ;Ddflgt cbfntaf6 ePsf cfb]zx?nfO{ ;/sf/ / ljZjljBfnon]
uDeL/tfk"js{ lng'kg{] x'G5 . ljZjljBfno ;fj{hlgs lgsfosf] kl/efiffleq kg{] ePsfn] ljZjljBfnosf];DklQsf] ;+/If0f ug{k' g{] bfloTj / st{Jo ;+:yfsf kbflwsf/L lzIfs tyf sd{rf/Ldf /xg] x'bF f To;tkm{;a}sf] ;sf/fTds ;lqmotf a9f];\ eGg] o; n]vsf] ;f/ /x]sf] 5 .
hUuf clwu|x0fsf] k[i7e"ld
lqe'jg ljZjljBfno P]g, @)$( bkmf $ df ljZjljBfno cljl5Gg pQ/flwsf/jfnf Ps :jzfl;t /;+ul7t ;+:yf, ljZjljBfnon] JolQm ;/x rncrn ;DklQ k|fKt ug{, pkef]u ug{, a]rlavg ug{ jf
cGo lsl;dn] Joj:yf ug{ ;Sg]5 eGg] /x]sf] 5 . lqe'jg ljZjljBfno :yfkgf ug{] qmddf @)!#
;fn dfu{ !* ut] tTsflng >L % sf] ;/sf/åf/f jfudtL gbLb]lv klZrd, sLlt{k'/af6 sflndf6L
k'Ug] af6f]b]lv k"j{, kfFuf hfg] gofF af6f] efhª\un / sLlt{k'/b]lv pQ/ aNv' vf]nfb]lv blIf0f olt
rf/ lsNnf leqsf] hUuf lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] nflu clwu|x0f u/]kZrft\ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon]
rf/}lsNnf leqsf] hUuf cfkm} k|of]u ub{} cfPsf]df tL hUufsf] @)$) ;fndf btf{ Pj+ gfkgS;f
ul/Psf] lyof] . To;} u/L bf];|f] r/0fdf @)## ;fndf / @)#% ;fndf :d[lt ejgb]lv pQ/,
l/Ë/f]8b]lv blIf0f xfnsf] k/LIff lgoGq0f sfof{no /x]sf] kl/;/, ufª\v]n If]qleqsf hUufx?
lsQf gDa/cg';f/ clwu|x0f ul/Psf hUuf x'g\ . lqe'jg ljZjljBfno kl/;/leqsf hUufx?dfcd]l/sg ;/sf/n] tTsflng ;dodf college of education sLlt{k'/df cWoog/t ljBfyL{x?n]cEof; lzIf0f ug{] k|of]hgsf] nflu agfOlbPsf] Nofj/f]6f]/L :s'nnfO{ ljut @)÷@% jif{b]lv lghL:s'nsf] ?kdf ljleGg ;d'xsf] gfdaf6 ;~rfng eO/x]sf], s[lif jfujfgL s]Gb|n] ljZjljBfnosf]* k|d'v sfg'gL ;Nnfxsf/, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno
nkkhanal70@gmail.com

41

gfdsf] hUuf k|of]u ul//x]sf], z;:q k|x/Ljn, cfFvf s]Gb|, vfg]kfgL ;+:yfg, /fwf:jfdL ;T;+us]Gb|, lj=lk=sf]O/fnf Knfg]6]l/odsf] gfdaf6 ;of}+ /f]kgL hUuf k|of]u eO/x]sf] dfq xf]Og, lqe'jg
ljZjljBfno;Fu s'g} lnlvt ;xdlt ;d]t glnO{ sLlt{k'/ gu/kflnsfn] ;of}+ /f]kgL hUufdfkmf]x/d}nf y'kfg{] s]Gb|sf] ?kdf / sLlt{k'/ Snjn] bzf}+ /f]kgL hUufdf jf:s]6an sf]6sf] ?kdf k|of]uub{} cfO/x]sf] s'/f ;a}sf] cfFvf cufl8 /x]sf] ljifo xf] .
hUuf ;+/If0fsf] nflu rfn]sf] cbfntLo k|lqmof
ljutdf sLlt{k'/ gu/kflnsfn] lqe'jg ljZjljBfno s]Gb|Lo sfof{nosf] d"nu]6b]lv k"j{df g]kfn
k|fWofks ;+3n] lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] gfddf ejg agfO{ k|of]u ul//x]sf] ejgb]lv k"j{blIf0f/x]sf] k"j{ jfudtL gbL, klZrd /fwf:jfdL ;T;+u Aof; sDkfp08, pQ/ aNv'vf]nf sNe6{, blIf0f;'Gb/L3f6 emf]n'Ë] k'n / sLlt{k'/ hfg] af6f] olt rf/ lsNnf leqsf] sl/j &@ /f]kgL hUuf lqe'jg
ljZjljBfnosf] hUufdf sLlt{k'/ gu/kflnsfn] xnf]T;] ax'p2]ZoLo k|f=ln=nfO{ 6«s kfls{Ësf] nflulbg] u/L ldlt @)%^÷!!÷#) df ;Demf}tf u/]sf]df pQm hUuf lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] /x]sf]n] sLlt{k'/gu/kflnsfsf] lj?4df tTsfnLg k'g/fj]bg cbfnt kf6gdf ljZjljBfnosf] tkm{af6 l/6 lgj]bg
bfo/ ul/Psf] lyof] . tTsfnLg k'g/fj]bg cbfnt kf6gn] ;f] hUuf ljZjljBfnosf] xsef]usf] hUufegL km};nf cfb]z u/]sf]df ;f] cfb]zsf] lj?4df sLlt{k'/ gu/kflnsfn] ;jf{]Rr cbfntdf k'g/fj]bgk/]sf]df sLlt{k'/ gu/kflnsfsf] tkm{af6 bfo/ u/]sf] k'g/fj]bg vf/]h eO{ pQm km};nf clGtd eO{a;]sf] x'Fbf lqljn] Goflos k|s[ofaf6 ;d]t jfudtL gbLb]lv klZrd k§Lsf] hUufdf xs :yflkt ug{;kmn ePsf] 5 . To;}u/L jfudtL gbLb]lv klZrd k§Lsf] !& /f]kgL hUuf lq=lj=n] @)$) ;fndf
btf{ u/]sf] x'Fbf pQm hUufsf] btf{ ab/ u/L xs sfod u/L kfpFm egL sLlt{k'/ g=kf=j8f g+=!# a:g]b]jL s6'jfn / g/]z s6'jfnn] @)^@ ;fnsf] b]=k'=g+=*%!@ sf] d'2f bfo/ u/]sf]df lhNnf cbfnt,
tTsfnLg k'g/fj]bg cbfnt x'Fb} ;jf{]Rr cbfntdf d'2f k/]sf]df lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] gfddf btf{
ePsf] b]lvFbf jfbLsf] xsk'Ug] ;fljs btf{leqsf] gb]lvPsfn] jfbLbfjL k'Ug g;Sg] 7x¥ofO{ u/]sf]z'? sf7df8f}+ lhNnf cbfntsf] km};nf ;b/ u/]sf] k'g/fj]bg cbfnt kf6gsf] km};nf ldn]s}b]lvFbf ;b/ x'g] 7x5{ egL ;Ddflgt ;jf{]Rr cbfntaf6 @)^% ;fn j}zfv # df km};nf cfb]z
ePaf6 xfnsf] jfudtL gbLb]lv klZrd k§Lsf] au/ hUuf -k]6«f]n kDkb]lv k"j{kl§b]lv blIf0f;'Gb/L3f6 ;Ddsf]_ df lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] xs :yflkt eO{ Goflos k|lqmofaf6 klg jfudtL
gbLb]lv klZrd k§Lsf] hUufdf ljZjljBfnosf] ;DklQ;DaGwL xs :yflkt eO;s]sf] 5 .
gofF g}sfksf hUufsf af/]df ljZjljBfnon] rfn]sf sbd / ;Ddflgt cbfntaf6 :yflkt
glh/e"ld;'wf/ P]g, @)@! nfu' ePkl5 sf7df8f}+ lhNnf ;fljs gofFg}sfk uf=lj=;=sf ljleGg j8f g+=df/x]sf ljleGg lsQf gDa/sf hUufx? j8fsfhL k'ik/fh, s]zj/fh e08f/L, s[i0fKof/L, dw';'bg/fh,
lg//fh, e/t/fh ;d]tsf JolQmx?n] xbjGbLsf sf/0fn] !@% /f]kgL hUuf lzIffsf] sfddf ck0f{ug{] p2]Zon] g]kfn ;/sf/ ;dIf lgj]bg lbPcg';f/ tL hUufx? g]kfn ;/sf/ dlGqkl/ifbsf] ldlt@)@#÷!!÷!% sf] lg0f{odf hUufsf] nutdf lgj]bsx?sf] gfdaf6 s§f u/L /fhu'7Ldf nut ;f/L
tTsfnLg >L % sf] ;/sf/df cfpg] kf]t lqe'jg ljZjljBfnoaf6 lng] eGg] pNn]v ePsfn] tL !@%42

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

/f]kgL hUuf lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] ldlt @)^!÷(÷!@ / @)^(÷%÷@$ ;d]tdf lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf]
gfdaf6 dfnkf]t sfof{nodf /f]Ssfsf] nflu n]vL k7fPcg';f/ dfnkf]t sfof{non] /f]Ssf /fv]sf]df
sfG5f dxh{g ;d]t #$ hgfn] pRr cbfnt kf6gdf )&!–wo–)%## l/6 bfo/ ug{' ePsf]df
tTsfnLg k'g/fj]bg cbfntsf dfggLo GofofwLz >L ltnk|;fb >]i7 -xfn ;jf{]Rr cbfntdf dfggLo
GofofwLz_ / ljb'/ ljqmd yfkfaf6 @)&@ efb| !^ df l/6 vf/]h ug{] cfb]z ePsf] lyof] . lzIffsf]
gfddf lqe'jg ljZjljBfnonfO{ ck{0f u/]sf hUuf /f]Ssf /fVg lq=lj=n] n]vL k7fPsf] lj?4df
t'N;L/fd kf}8]n / s'Gbg lu/Ln] >L ;jf{]Rr cbfntdf )&!–wo–)^!! sf] l/6 lgj]bg bfo/ ug{'ePsf]df ælgj]bssf bftf e/t/fh /fhe08f/Lsf] xs 6'6L ;s]sf] s'/f @)@#÷!!÷!% sf] dlGqkl/ifbsf]
lg0f{oaf6 b]lvPsf], hUuf /fhu'7L sfod e} To;sf] lxtu|fxL (Beneficiary) lqe'jg ljZjljBfno xf]eGg] b]lvof] . j8fsfhL k'ik/fh ;lxtsf JolQmx?n] r9fPsf] ljlGtkq / ePsf] k|dfËLsf] ljZn]if0f
ubf{ ljjflbt hUuf ;lxtsf ljlGtkqdf pNn]lvt ;fljs n=g+=!*, !(, @) sf hUufx?sf] xsdf
pQm hUufx? /fhu'7Ldf btf{ ug{] elgP klg oL hUufx? u'7L ;+:yfg P]g cGtu{tsf] k/Dk/fut/fhu'7L geO{ lxtu|fxLsf] nflu ck{0f ul/Psf] / To;sf] clen]vsf] Joj:yfkg ug{] tyf lt/f] ;d]ta'em\g] c•fsf] ?kdf sfo{ ug{;Dd u'7L ;+:yfgnfO{ lgb{]lzt ul/Psf] /x]5 eGg] b]lvG5 . o; cy{dfof] u'7L @)&% ;fn ebf} ! ut]af6 sfof{Gjogdf cfpg nfu]sf] b]jfgL ;+lxtf;DaGwL ljw]ossf] bkmf#!$ df jl0f{t k|s[ltsf] u'7L /x]5 eGg] :ki6 x'g cfpF5 . o:tf] k|s[ltsf] u'7Ldf k|dfËLsf] Joxf]/faf6
bftfsf] xs 6'6L ;s]sf] cj:yf ePaf6 ;d]t lxtu|fxLsf] cu'jfOdf u'7L ;+:yfgdf jf sfg'g adf]lhd:yflkt x'g] lgsfodf lgj]bg lbO{ hUuf u'7Lsf] ?kdf /fVg kfpg] g} x'Fbf ljZjljBfnon] ;f] lglDt
pko'Qm sfg'gL dfu{ cg';/0f ug{ kfpg] g} x'G5 . ljZjljBfnonfO{ bftfx?n] kljq p2]Zo /fvL
ck{0f u/]sf] sl/j !@% /f]kgL hUuf lxgfldgfsf] hf]lvddf k/]sf] b]lvof] . u'7L ;+:yfgn] /fhu'7Lsf]clen]v b'?:t g/fVg], gfkL / dfnkf]t sfof{non] ljZjljBfnosf] ;DklQ b'?:t >]:tf g/fVg],
dfnkf]t ljefun] /f]Ssf /fv]sf] ;DklQ pQm ljefusf] :ki6 ;xdlt j]u/ uf=lj=;=sf] kqsf] cfwf/df
km's'jf ug{], bftf / pgsf ;Gtfgx? nf]enfnrdf k/L hUuf btf{ / xs x:tfGt/0fdf p4t /xg] /ljZjljBfnosf ljleGg ;dodf km]l/g] kbflwsf/Lx?n] bftfn] ck{0f u/]sf] ;DklQ h'g tbf?vtfsf;fy ;+/If0f / Joj:yfkg ug{'kg{] lyof] ;f] gu/]sf] sf/0faf6 Pp6f lj8Dagfk"0f{ l:ylt pTkGg x'guPsf] kfOof] . o;/L lhDd]jf/L axg gu/L ;'Tg], cfkm\gf] lhDd]jf/L e'Ng] jf clVtof/sf] b'?kof]uug{] 5'6 s;}nfO{ 5}g . ljZjljBfnosf] ;DklQ pk/ h] h'g sf]0faf6 jf :jfy{af6 wfjf af]Ng] sfo{eP klg To:tf] cfqmd0fnfO{ ljlwsf] zf;g Pjd\ Gofosf] lhDd]jf/L af]s]sf] o; cbfntn] :jLsf/ ug{;Sg] cj:yf ePg . ljjfb:kb Pj+ sk6k"0f{ xs x:tfGt/0fsf] cfwf/df k/]sf] /f]Ssf km's'jf;DaGwL
dfu :jLsf/ ug{'k5{ eGg] x'Fb}g . ;/sf/sf] kl/efiffleq ;/sf/af6 ah]6 k|fKt ug{] lgsfo ;d]tkb{5 . o:tf] lgsfodf lqe'jg ljZjljBfno kg{] ePaf6 lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] kqadf]lhd /f]Ssf/x]sf] ljifonfO{ km's'jf ug{ plrt / cfjZos gb]lvg] egL ;jf{]Rr cbfntsf dfggLo GofofwLz >LbLkss'df/ sfsL{ / 8f=cfgGbdf]xg e§/fO{Ho"af6 @)&$ ;fn efb| & df km};nf cfb]z eO{ ;fj{hlgslgsfo jf ;+:yfsf] ;DklQsf] dxTj, To;sf] ;+/If0f ug{] bfloTjsf] ljifodf lj:t[t ?kdf JofVof/ ljj]rgf eO{ lqe'jg ljZjljBfno ;/sf/L lgsfosf] kl/efiffleq kg{] eGg] ;d]t pNn]v ePaf6
ljZjljBfnosf] ul/df a9fpg] sfo{df ;Ddflgt cbfntsf] cfb]z ;a}sf nflu dfu{bz{s ?kdf /x]sf]b]lvG5 .
43

;DklQsf] ;+/If0fsf] Goflos ;lqmotfg]kfnsf] ;+ljwfg, @)&@ sf] wf/f @% Pj+ lqe'jg ljZjljBfno P]g, @)$( sf] bkmf $ åf/fk|bQ ljZjljBfnosf] ;DklQ;DaGwL ;+j}wflgs tyf sfg'gL xs /x]sf]df lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf]
cf+lus SofDk;sf] ?kdf /x]sf] lrtjg lhNnfl:yt s[lif tyf kz' lj1fg cWoog ;+:yfg, /fdk'/
SofDk; / dsjfgk'/ lhNnfdf ;~rflnt x]6f}+8f jg SofDk; x]6f}+8fsf] hUufsf] kl/;/df s[lif tyf
jglj1fg ljZjljBfno P]g, @)^& ;+ljwfg ;efn] agfO{ ljZjljBfno :yfkgf u/]sf] sf/0fn] lqe'jg
ljZjljBfnon] ;DklQ x:tfGt/0f gu/]sf] eGg] ;DklQsf] ljifodf ljjfb p7fO{ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon]tL 7fpFdf ;~rfng u/]sf z}lIfs sfo{qmd aGb ug{ tTsfnLg lzIffdGqL Pj+ s[lif tyf jglj1fg
ljZjljBfnon] bjfj lbPsf] cj:yfdf ljZjljBfnon] cfkm\gf z}lIfs sfo{qmdnfO{ lg/Gt/tf lbPsf]
ljifonfO{ lnO{ s[lif tyf jglj1fg ljZjljBfnon] lqe'jg ljZjljBfno sLlt{k'/sf] lj?4 ;Ddflgt;jf{]Rr cbfntdf )&#–wo–)#^$ sf] l/6 lgj]bg bfo/ u/]sf]df ælqe'jg ljZjljBfno P]g, @)$(sf] bkmf $ / s[lif tyf jglj1fg ljZjljBfno P]g, @)^& sf] bkmf # sf] lj:t[t ?kdf JofVofub{} æg]kfn ;/sf/af6 cg'bfg k|fKt u/]sf] jf ug{] sf/0f dfqn] ljZjljBfnox?sf] æJolQmÆ sf]?kdf :yflkt x}l;ot k|efljt gx'g] ePsfn] o;sf ;DklQx?sf] :jfldTj, ef]u jf x:tfGt/0f cflb
cGo k|rlnt sfg'g adf]lhd x'g] ;DaGwdf ljjfb ug{'kg{] sf/0f b]lvFb}g . lqe'jg ljZjljBfno P]g,@)$( åf/f k|bQ ;DklQ;DaGwL xs, z}lIfs sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug{] ljZjljBfnosf] xs :jtM ;dfKt
eO{ jglj1fg cWoog ;+:yfg x]6f}+8f SofDk;sf] hUuf :jtM x:tfGt/0f ePsf] egL cg'dfg ;d]tug{ gldNg] /x]sf]5 . ;DklQsf] :jfldTj x:tfGt/0fsf] s'g} klg j}wflgs k|s[of z'? g} gu/L pQm;DklQx? :jtM cfkm\gf] gfddf cfPsf] eGg] cfkm"v'zL JofVof u/L cltqmd0fsf] z}nLdf hj/h:tLsAhf u/]sf] h:tf] b]lvg] / lzIfs, sd{rf/L Pj+ ljBfyL{x? lar klg tgfj ;[hgf x'g] u/L lqe'jg
ljZjljBfnosf] gfddf /x]sf] ef}lts ;+/rgfd} s[lif tyf jglj1fg ljZjljBfnosf] gfddf k7gkf7gz'? ug{] sfo{nfO{ s[lif tyf jglj1fg ljZjljBfno h:tf] k|fl1s ;+:yfn] u/]sf] ckl/kSs sfo{egL dfGg' kg{] b]lvof] . ljjfb ;dfwfgsf nflu lgDg adf]lhd ug{sf] nflu g]kfn ;/sf/sf gfddflgb{]zgfTds cfb]z hf/L ul/Psf] 5 M
s_ g]kfn ;/sf/sf] ldlt @)&$÷!÷& sf] lg0f{o adf]lhd lqe'jg ljZjljBfnonfO{ lrtjg lhNnf
zlQmvf]/, h'6kfgL / r}gk'/df hUuf / ef}lts ;+/rgf lgdf{0f ug{ nfUg] ?=!%),))),))).–-kGw| s/f]8_ k|:t't cfb]z k|fKt ePsf ldltn] !@) lbgleq ;Dk"0f{ sfg'gL k|s[of k"/f u/L
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnonfO{ pknAw u/fpg" .
v_ g]kfn ;/sf/af6 dfly plNnlvt hUufsf] :jfldTj / /sd k|fKt ePsf ldltn] ^) lbgleq
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] /fdk'/ s[lif SofDk; lrtjgsf] @&$–!%–! ljufx / x]6f}+8f jg
SofDk;sf] ^) ljufx hUuf s[lif tyf jg ljZjljBfnonfO{ xs x:tfGt/0f ul/lbg" .
u_ pk/f]Qm sfo{sf nflu g]kfn ;/sf/ lzIff dGqfnon] lg/Gt/ ?kdf b'j} ljZjljBfno tyf
cGo lgsfox?;Fu ;dGjo ul/lbg" .
3_ o; km};nfsf] hfgsf/L ljkIfLx?nfO{ tyf km};nf sfof{Gjog lgb]{zgfnonfO{ lbO{ k|:t'tlgj]bgsf] bfo/Lsf] nut s§f u/L ldl;n lgodfg';f/ clen]v zfvfdf a'emfOlbg"Æ egL
44lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

;Ddflgt ;jf{]Rr cbfntsf dfggLo GofofwLzHo"x? >L clgs'df/ l;Gxf / 8f=dgf]hs'df/
zdf{af6 ldlt @)&( d+l;/ !* df cfb]z ePsf] lyof] .
lgisif{;Ddflgt cbfntaf6 ;d]t lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] ;DklQsf] ;+/If0fsf] nflu b]vfPsf] rf;f] /;Dj]bglzntfnfO{ ljZjljBfnon] uDeL/ ?kdf lng' kb{5 . sfg'g agfP/ dfq c?sf] hUuf cltqmd0f
ug{ gkfOg] eGb} lqe'jg ljZjljBfno P]g, s[lif tyf jglj1fg ljZjljBfno P]gsf] cbfntaf6 lj:t[tJofVof dfq ePsf] 5}g, ;+;bn] P]g agfpFbf JolQm jf ;+:yfsf] ;+jw} flgs tyf sfg'gL xsdf c;/kg{] u/L sfg'g agfpg' x'bF g} eGg] ;d]t km};nfsf] dd{ / p2]Zo /x]sf] b]lvG5 . cfzf 5 lqe'jg
ljZjljBfnosf] hUufhldgsf] ;+/If0f / ljZjljBfnosf] cltqmldt ePsf hUufx?sf] ;DaGwdf cfjZoscg';Gwfg ug{,] clgoldQf / cltqmldt sfo{df ;+nUgnfO{ sf/jfxLsf] l;kmfl/; ;lxtsf] k|ltj]bg g]kfn;/sf/ ;dIf k]z ug{ ;/sf/L ;]jfdf /xFbf lgZsnÍsf] ?kdf /xg' ePsf s'zn k|zf;s, nlntf
lgjf;sf] hUuf k|s/0fdf ;TotYo k|ltj]bg lbg' ePsf zf/bfk|;fb lqtfnHo"sf] ;+of]hsTjdf g]kfn;/sf/åf/f ul7t ;ldltn] lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf hUufx?sf] l;dfgfdf /x]sf hUuf wgL Pj+ 3/
wgLx?sf] ;d]t btf{ >]:tfdf sfod /x]sf If]qkmn jf ju{lkm6 ;d]t olsg ub{} hUuf hldgsf] ;"IdcWoog u/L bf]lifs/f/ ug{e' Gbf cufl8 ;DalGwt kIf;Fu lnlvt aofg lnO{ oyfy{tf aflx/ Nofpg]
Pj+ ;Ddflgt cbfntx?af6 ePsf km};nfdf cf}NofOPsf ljifodf ;d]t k|jz
] u/L cbfntsf km};nfsfof{Gjog x'g] 5g\ / cltqmldt hUuf lkmtf{ eO{ bf]ifL pk/ sf/jfxLsf] cltl/Qm s'g k|of]hgsf] nflu
hUuf clwu|x0f ul/Psf lyP . @)!# ;fn / @)## ;fnsf] /fhkqdf n]lvPsf s'/fx?sf] cWoog
u/L tL ;fljssf hUufwgLx?sf] p2]Zo k"lt{ eO{ ltgLx?sf] cfTdfn] v'zL dx;'; ug{5] . h:fdf
ljZjljBfnosf] lxt / lzIffsf] kljq dlGb/sf] ;w} kljqtf sfod /xg]5 .
;Gbe{ ;fdfu|L;"rL@)!# ;fn dfu{ !* sf] /fhkq, g]kfn ;/sf/ .
@)## ;fnsf] /fhkq, g]kfn ;/sf/ .
lqe'jg ljZjljBfno P]g, @)$(, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno .
s[lif tyf jglj1fg ljZjljBfno P]g, @)^& .
l/6 lgj]bs, t'N;L/fd kf}8]n ;d]t, lj?4 lqe'jg ljZjljBfno s]Gb|Lo sfof{no sLlt{k'/ ;d]t d'2fpTk|]if0f ;d]t -)&!–wo–)^!!_ .
l/6 lgj]bs, sfG5f dxh{g ;d]t, lj?4 lqe'jg ljZjljBfno sLlt{k'/ ;d]t d'2f pTk|]if0f ;d]t-)&!–wo–)%##_ .
k'g/fj]bs jfbL, b]jL s6'jfn ;d]t, lj?4 lqe'jg ljZjljBfno sLlt{k'/ ;d]t -)^@ ;fnsf]b]=k'=g+=*%!@_ .
l/6 lgj]bs, s[lif tyf jg lj1fg ljZjljBfno /fdk'/ lrtjg lj?4, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno sLlt{k'/;d]t -)&#–wo–)#^$_ .
45

cfly{s cg'zf;g / ;'wf/sf kIfdf
lqe'jg ljZjljBfno
k'ik/fh kf}8\ofn*n]v;f/g]kfn ;/sf/sf] Psd'i7 cg'bfg tyf cfGtl/s ;|f]tsf] Joj:yf u/L ljZjljBfnosf] nIo k|flKtdf
cfly{s sf/f]jf/x? bIftf Pjd\ k|efjsfl/tf ;fy ;Dkfbg ug]{, pknJw ;|f]t / ;fwgsf] clwstd
pkof]u tyf kl/rfng ub}{ cfly{s cg'zf;gsf] dfWodaf6 ;'zf;gsf] k|Tofe"lt lbg] sfo{nfO{ lg/Gt/tf
lbO{ cfly{s ;+oGqx?sf] ljsf; u/L cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod ug{ lqe'jg ljZjljBfno lg/Gt/ cufl8a9]sf] 5 . lqe'jg ljZjljBfno Ps pRr z}lIfs ;++:yf ePsfn] o;n] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf cfofdeGbf
aflx/ /x]/ ;]jf k|jfx ug{ ;Sb}g . o;n] lnPsf] nIo k|fKt ug{sf] nflu cfly{s Joj:yfkg ckl/xfo{
5 . cfly{s Joj:yfkgnfO{ ;Ifd agfO{ ultzLn ?kdf bIftfk"j{s ;'zf;g k|jfx cfly{s cg'zf;gsfod ug'{kb{5 . cfly{s cg'zf;g /x] jf g/x]sf] ;DaGwdf, n]vf k/LIf0f ug{, lg/LIf0f tyf cg'udg
ug{ lqljsf cfGtl/s lgodgsf/L lgsfox? cfGtl/s n]vf k/LIf0f dxfzfvf tyf cg'udg sfof{no/x]sf 5g\ eg] ;+j}wflgs lgsfosf] ?kdf :yflkt dxfn]vf k/LIf0f sfof{no, ljZjljBfno cg'bfg
cfof]u tyf ph'/L k/]df clVtof/ b'?kof]u cg';Gwfg cfof]usf sfof{no tyf cbfnt /x]sf 5g\ .
cfly{s k|zf;g;Fu ;DalGwt gLlt, sfo{qmd tyf ah]6 th'{dfb]lv lnP/ clVtof/jfnfnfO{ ljQLo
pQ/bfloTj tyf hjfkmb]xL agfpg] / cfGtl/s lgoGq0f k|0ffnLnfO{ ;jnLs/0f agfO{ lglb{i6 lgod
tyf sfg'gsf] kl/lwleq /xL cfly{s lqmofsnfk u/]df / cfly{s sf/f]jf/;Fu ;DalGwt kmfF6jfnfnfO{
klg cfly{s cg'zf;gsf] bfo/f leq Nofpg ;+u7gfTds ;+/rgfdf klg cfw'lgs / pRrtd
k|ljlw;Fu hf]8]/ ljB'tLo ljQLo k|zf;gsf] gLlt cjnDjg ug{ g;Sbf ck]lR5t kl/0ffd xfl;nug{ c;Dej ePsf] 5 . o; cWoogsf] d'Vo p2]Zo lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf cfly{s cg'zf;gsf]
cj:yfsf] af/]df eO/x]sf] k|of;x?sf] af/] o;df ;'wf/sf kIfx?df ePsf k|of;x?sf] jf/]df ;f/?kdf ljZn]if0f ug'{ xf] . u'0ffTds ljlwsf] k|of]u u/L låtLos ;|f]tx?af6 ;ª\slnt tYofª\ssf]
cfwf/df of] cWoog ul/Psf] 5 . ljZjljBfnosf] cfly{s sfo{k|0ffnLnfO{ k"0f{?kdf k|ljlwd}qL
agfO{ ljB'tLo ljQLo k|zf;gsf] dfWodaf6 lglb{i6 lgodsfg'gsf] kfngf tyf kf/bzL{ sfo{ljlwsf]k|of]uåf/f pknAw ;|f]t tyf ;fwgsf] clwstd\ kl/rfng ug]{ / cfGtl/s lgoGq0f k|0ffnLsf]
Joj:yf tyf To;sf] ;an / bIftfk"j{s sfof{Gjogaf6 cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod ug{ ;lsG5 eGg]o; cWoogsf] ;f/ xf] .
zAbs'~hLM kf/blz{tf, cg'udg, ljQLo ;anLs/0f, ljQLo pQ/bfloTj, hjfkmb]lxtf .
* Associate Finance Controller, Prithivi Narayan Campus, Pokhara
pushpa.paudyal@ponc.tu.edu.np

46

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

ljifok|j]zg]kfnsf] pRrlzIffsf] dfglrqdf lqe'jg ljZjljBfno g]kfnsf] &^ lhNnfdf cfkm\gf] cl:tTj :yflkt
cyf{t\ ;ftj6} k|b];df km}lnPsf], cfkm\g} :jfldTj tyf k|of]u ePsf ef}lts ;+/rgf ;~rflnt z}lIfs
sfo{qmd, k|zf;lgs tyf ;]jfk|jfx tyf cfly{s kIfsf b[li6sf]0fn] xf];\ jf k|of]u ePsf] z}lIfs tyf
k|zf;lgs hgzlQm -/f]huf/L_ / pTkfbg x'g] k|fljlws, Jofj;flos tyf k|zf;lgs hgzlQmsf]b[li6sf]0fn] ;j}eGbf 7'nf] ljZjljBfno xf] . o; ljZjljBfnon] k|bfg ug]{ ;]jfnfO{ k|efjsf/L //fli6«o cfsf+Iff k"/f ug{sf] nflu Joj:yf ul/g] ;|f]t / ;fwg dWo] cfly{s ;fwgsf] Joj:yfkg
ug'{ lgs} r'gf}tLk"0f{ sfo{ xf] . x/]s ;fj{hlgs ;+u7gdf x'g] cfly{s sf/f]jf/nfO{ l7s, Jojl:yt/ k|efjsf/L ?kdf ug'{ g} cfly{s k|zf;g xf] . To;}n] ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g leqs} Pp6f dxÎjk"0f{
cfofd tyf c+u g} cfly{s k|zf;g xf] . cfly{s k|zf;gnfO{ k|efjsf/L agfpg cfly{s cg'zf;gsf]
cfjZostf kb{5 . l7s 9+un] cfly{s sf/f]jf/ ug'{ g} cfly{s cg'zf;g xf] . ;+:yfsf] lgod,
tyf sfo{ljlw, kl/kq tyf ;xeflutfd"ns lg0f{ox? ;fy–;fy} /fHosf] ;+ljwfg, sfg'gn] tf]s]sf]
cwLgleq kg]{ u/L cfly{s sf/f]jf/ ug'{ / cfly{s lx;fa lstfa ug'{ g} cfly{s cg'zf;g xf] .
cfly{s pklgoGqs ?kf >]i7, -@)*)_ æljQ cg'zf;g sfod ug]{ p2]Zo k|flKtsf nflu ef}lts tyfu}/ef}lts cfly{s ;|f]tsf] clwstd kl/rfng;Fu} cfly{s of]hgfsf] gLlt lgb]{zg to, ;fª\u7lgs;+/rgfsf] lgdf{0f, hgzlQm Joj:yfkg, cfy{s sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsf/L sfof{Gjog k|Tofe"ltsf] nflu
ul/g] cfly{s lgoGq0f ;+oGqsf] Joj:yfkg ug'{nfO{ g} cfly{s k|zf;g elgG5. d'Votof cfly{sk|zf;gn] cfly{s ;'zf;g / cg'zf;g sfod ub]{ nIo xfl;n ug{ lgoldt ?kdf k|0ffnLuttj/n] sfo{zLn /xg] x'gfn] ;Dk"0f{ ;'zf;gsf] cfwf/ g} cfly{s ;'zf;g xf] .Æ o; egfOn] cfly{sk|zf;gdf ;'zf;gsf] cfwf/ g} cfly{s cg'zf;g xf] eg] a'lemG5. cfly{s c/fhstf ePdf ;+:yfsf]
dfq geP/ /fHosf]ifsf] g} b'?kof]u x'G5. cfly{s c/fhstf /f]Sg cfGtl/s n]vf k/LIf0f /dxfn]vf kl/If0fn] lglb{i6 sfo{ljlwsf cfwf/df e"ldsf v]Nb5g\. clVtof/ b'?kof]u cg';Gwfg
cfof]u, /fli6«o ;t{stf s]Gb|, cbfnt cflb klg cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod ug{ ;3fpg] ;+:yf x'g\ .
b}lgs ?kdf k|zf;g tyf sfof{no Joj:yfkg ug{sf] nflu cfly{s kIf cToGt} dxÎjk"0f{ x'G5 .
cfly{s kIf k|zf;gsf] d]?b08sf] ?kdf /x]sf] x'G5. b}lgs k|zf;lgs sfo{ ;~rfng, z}lIfs
ultljlwx?sf] Joj:yfkg, lzIfs sd{rf/Lsf] tnj eQf, j[lQ ljsf;;DaGwL tflnd, cled'vLs/0f
sfo{qmd ;~rfng, dd{t tyf ;Def/ sfo{qmd nufot cjsfzkl5 lbOg] ;]jf ;'ljwfsf nflu
cfly{s kIfsf] cToGt cfjZostf kb{5 .
cfly{s k|zf;g / cg'zf;g;fj{hlgs ;+u7gdf cfly{s k|zf;gnfO{ hgpQ/bfoL tyf hgd'vL t'Nofpgsf] nflu cfly{s cg'zf;g;a} eGbf dxÎjk"0f{ kIf xf] . cg'zf;g sfod ubf{ cfly{s ;|f]tsf] Joj:yfkg tyf sf]ifsf] afF8kmFf8/ kl/rfng ug{, ;fwgsf] ;d'lrt k|of]u ug{, cfly{s ldtJolotf sfod ug{, kf/blz{tf sfod ug{,;'zf;gsf] cg'e"lt lbnfpg, ;fj{hlgs pQ/bfloTj jxg ug{, cfly{s ;'b[9s/0f u/L ;+:yfsf] lbuf]
ljsf; tyf ;+:yfut ;d[l4 xfl;n ug{ cToGt} ;xh x'G5 . lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] nIo k|flKtsf]
nflu rncrn ;DklQ tyf Joj:yf ul/Psf sf]ifx?sf] ;d'lrt kl/rfng ug'{sf ;fy} nfutnfe47

x'g] u/L Joj:yfkg x'g' cfhsf] ckl/xfo{ cfjZostf xf] . cfly{s k|zf;g ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] c+uxf] . ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gnfO{ :jR5 / kf/bzL{ agfO{ cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod ug{ ;fj{hlgs vr{sf]b'?kof]udf lg?T;fx, ldtJolotf, k|efjsf/L / bIftfk"j{s kl/rfng ug{ ljZjljBfnosf ;Dk"0f{k|zf;lgs ;+oGqx?sf] Joj:yf ul/Psf] x'G5 .
k|zf;lgs ;+oGqnfO{ ult k|bfg ug{ tyf rnfodfg ug{ lqlj P]g, cfly{s Joj:yfkg tyf vl/b
;DjlGw lgodnufot lqljsf k|rlnt lgod, ;fj{hlgs vl/b P]g tyf lgodfjnL, ;do ;dodf
kl/kq ul/Psf lgb]{lzsf tyf sfo{ljlwx?sf] kfngf u/]/ dfq cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod ug{ ;lsG5 .
cfly{s cg'zf;g cfly{s j[l4sf] /Qm cfwf/ ePsfn] ;+u7gdf cg'zf;g sfod u/L cfly{s ;|f]t;fwgx?sf] bIftfk"j{s ljlgof]hg ;DaGwL lg0f{o / th'{df k|lqmof, of]hgf th'{df tyf ;do Joj:yfkg,
gub sf]ifsf] kl/rfng of]hgf tyf pkof]u / sfo{ jftfj/0fnfO{ ;jnLs/0f, ;'b[9Ls/0f u/L tyf
pks/0fo'Qm t'NofO{ :jR5 / k|lt:kwf{Tds cfly{s gLlt, pknlJwdf cfwfl/t ljt/0f gLlt cflbsf]
th'{df ub}{ pknAw ;|f]t / ;fwgsf] kl/rfng ug{ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf j}1flgs tyf cfw'lgs
k|ljlwo'Qm cfly{s k|zf;g x'g cfjZos b]lvG5 . lqe'jg ljZjljBfnonfO{ cWoog, cWofkg tyf
cg';Gwfg tyf j[lQljsf; ug]{ pRr k|fl1s s]Gb|sf] ?kdf cufl8 a9fpg'sf ;fy} :jb]zL tyf ljb]zL
ljBfyL{sf] cfsif{0f a9fpg o;df x'g] cfly{s sf/f]jf/x?nfO{ kf/bzL{ tyf ljZj;gLo agfpg' tyf
cfly{s k|zf;g Pjd\ ljQLo Joj:yfkg ug'{ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] dxÎjk"0f{ sfo{ ePsfn] lqe'jg
ljZjljBfno P]g @)$( -;+zf]lwt @)&$_, cfly{s Joj:yfkg tyf vl/b;DaGwL lgod @)%) -kl5Nnf];+zf]wg @)*)_ nufot ljleGg lgod tyf sfo{ljlw, lg0f{o tyf kl/kqsf] sfof{Gjog ug{ nufO{
cfly{s k|zf;g tyf ljQLo Joj:yfkg ;~rfngsf] nflu b]xfo cg';f/sf] sfo{x? ;Dkfbg ul//x]sf]
5 M!= ;|f]tx?sf] ;+sng, sf]ifx?sf] lgdf{0f, ;~rfng tyf kl/rfng@= ah]6 th'{df tyf ljlgof]hg Joj:yfkg#= cfly{s ;|f]t / ;fwgsf] klxrfg tyf kl/rfng$= cfly{s gLltlgod tyf sfo{ljlwsf] tof/L%= ljQLo Joj:yfkg tyf ;"rgf k|0ffnLsf] Joj:yfkg^= vr{ Joj:yfkg tyf n]vf Joj:yfkg&= ljQLo ljj/0fsf] tof/L tyf ljZn]if0f*= cfly{s lgoGq0fsf] ;+oGq tof/ kfg'{(= cfly{s of]hgf Pjd\ gLlt Joj:yfkg!)= cfly{s ;|f]t ;fwgsf] n]vfª\sg!!= cfly{s tyf ljQLo hgzlQm Joj:yfkgdf k/fdz{!@= cfly{s s[ofsnfkx? lar ;dGjo Joj:yfkg!#= lqljsf] ;+:yfut lbuf] ljsf;sf] nflu ;/f]sf/jfnf lgsfo tyf ;+:yf;Fu ;xsfo{, lg/Gt/;Dks{ / ;DjGw :yflkt ug]{ .
48lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

!$= k|ljlwo'Qm n]vf clen]vg k|0ffnL / Psåf/ n]vf k|0ffnL gLltsf] sfof{Gjogdf hf]8 .
!%= PsLs[t ljQLo Joj:yfkg ;"rgf k|0ffnLsf] Joj:yfsf] dfWodåf/f ;Dk"0f{ lgsfox?df ljQLo
lgoGq0f / Joj:yfkg .
cfly{s cg'zf;gdf n]vfk/LIf0f lgb]{lzsf @)&&
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf x'g] cfly{s sf/f]jf/x?sf] ;'lglZrttf / cfly{s cg'zf;gsf] k|Tofe"lt
lbnfpgsf] nflu cfGtl/s lgoGq0f k|0ffnLsf] pkk|0ffnLsf] ?kdf lg/Gt/ k/LIf0f / lgoGq0fug]{ b[li6sf]0f /x]sf] n]vfk/LIf0f lgb]{lzsf @)&& sf] ljQLo cg'zf;g / cfly{s k|zf;g tyf
Joj:yfkgsf] k|efjsfl/tfsf nflu 7'nf] of]ubfg /xg] 5 . x/]s ah]6]/L lgsfodf x'g] sf/f]jf/sf]
cfGtl/s n]vfk/LIf0fdf Ps?ktf NofO{ n]vf k/LIf0fdf u'0f:t/ tyf ljZj;gLotf clej[l4 ug{ /dxfn]vf k/LIf0fsf] sfo{nfO{ ;xh tyf ;/n agfpg / cfGtl/s lgoGq0f k|0ffnLnfO{ cfw'lgs
k|ljlw ;lxt cfGtl/s n]vfk/LIf0f sfo{ ;an / ;Ifd agfpgsf] nflu of] lgb]{lzsfsf] lgdf{0ful/Psf] 5 eGg] Joxf]/f o:fsf] k|:tfjgfdf pNn]v ul/Psf] lgb]{lzsfsf] cf}lrTo k'li6 ub{5 . k|fKt;/sf/L cg'bfg / cfGtl/s ;|f]tsf] Joj:yfkg, kl/rfng tyf pkof]udf NofpFb} cfw'lgs k|ljlw;lxt cfly{s Joj:yfkg / cfly{s cg'zf;gsf] k|Tofe"ltsf] nflu lgb]{lzsfsf] lgdf{0f / o;sf]
cfwf/df ul/Psf] n]vfk/LIf0fn] ;Dj4 ah]6]/L lgsfox? lgod;+ut 9+un] ;~rfng ePsf], gePsf]af/]df lgoGq0f k4lt cg'?k ;/f]sf/jfnfx? / lgodgsf/L lgsfonfO{ k|Tofe"lt lbg sf]lzif
ul/Psf] 5 .
cWoogsf] p2]Zo / cWoogljlw
o; cWoogsf] k|d'v p2]Zo lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf cfly{s cg'zf;gsf] cj:yf tYff cfly{s sf/f]af/df
cg'zf;gsf nflu ePsf k|of;x?sf]] ljZn]if0f ug{' xf] eg] o;sf ljlzi6 p2]Zox? b]xfo adf]lhd/x]sf 5g\ .
!_ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] ljBdfg cfly{s cg'zf;gsf] cj:yfsf] cWoog ug'{ .
@_ cfly{s cg'zf;gsf nflu ePsf k|of; / ;'wf/sf kIfdf u/]sf j:t'l:yltsf] rrf{ ug'{ .
cfly{ s cg' z f;g eg]s f] s'g } klg ;+:yfsf] u'0ffTds kIf ePsfn] k| : t' t cWoogdf ;} 4 flGts
kIfnfO{ cfwf/ agfOPsf] 5 . ;"r gf k| l jlw / Tof] eGbf al9 o;} ;Gbe{ d f ul/Psf cWoognfO{;flxTo k' g /fjnf] s g dfWodnfO{ d'Voljlw /fvL låtLos ;| f] t sf ;" rgfnfO{ ;Gbe{ ;fdfu| L;+ sng u/L cWoog u/LPsf] 5 . k| f Kt låtLos tYofª\ sx? ljZjljBfnosf] ;ef, sfo{ sf/L
kl/ifbaf6 kfl/t ePsf / ;+j}wflgs lgsfosf ?kdf :yflkt ;jf] { Rr lgsfo dxfn] v f
k/LIfssf] sfof{ n oaf6 /fi6« k lt ;dIf k]z ePsf] jflif{ s k| ltj] bgx? ePsfn] o:fsf] cWoogn]emg} dxÎj /fVb5 . ;fGble{s ljifo ;fdfu| L nfO{ ;} 4 flGts cfwf/df ljZjljBfnodf ePsf] /kxn ul/Psf tyf dxfn]vf k/LIf0f sfof{n osf jflif{ s k| ltj] bgdf pNn] v u/] sf tYof+ sx?nfO{
cg' k flts ljZn] i f0f ub}{ cfly{s cg'zf;gsf] cj:yf, sfod ug{ ePsf k| of; / ;DefJotfb] l vPsf ;d:of Pjd\ ;dfwfg tyf ;'wf/sf kIfx?sf af/] d f j0ff{ g fTds / ljZn] i f0ffTds?kdf JofVof ul/Psf] 5 .
49

tYofª\s ljZn]if0f tyf k|:t'tLs/0f MlåtLo ;|f]tx?af6 k|fKt ;"rgfx? klg o; cWoogsf] ;fdu|Lsf ?kdf k|of]u ul/Psf] 5 . ;ª\sng
ul/Psf ;fdu|Lx?nfO{ ;}4flGts cfwf/df lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf cfly{s cg'zf;gsf af/]df dxfn]vf
k/LIfs sfof{noaf6 cf}+NofOPsf] a]?h'sf cj:yf / lqljn] u/]sf k|of;x?s]f tyf cfly{s cg'zf;g/ ljQLo ljB'tLo k|zf;gsf ;DaGw Pjd\ cfly{s cg'zf;gsf ;'wf/sf kIfsf af/]df o; cWoogdfljZn]if0f ljlwsf] dfWodaf6 k|:t't u/LPsf] 5 .
cfly{s cg'zf;gsf nflu ljB'tLo ljQLo k|zf;gcfly{s Joj:yfkg eg]sf] lglb{i6 ljz]if nIo ;lxt :yflkt ;+u7gx?sf] cfly{s sf/]jf/x? k|efjsfl/tf
Pj\ k|lt:kwf{Tds ;Ifdtf tyf sfo{ bIftfsf ;fy ;Dkfbg ug]{ Ps k|zf;lgs cfofd xf] . cfly{sJoj:yfkg ;fj{hlgs k|zf;gsf] dxÎjk"0f{ k|0ffnL ePsfn] ;+u7gsf] of]hgf th'{df ug]{,lg0{fo ug]{,;fË7lgs sfo{ ug]{, ;dGjo ug]{ sd{rf/L Pjd\ dfgj ;+;fwg Joj:yfkg ug]{, lgoGq0f tyf lgb]{zgug]{, pknJw ;|f]t tyf ;fwgsf] clwstd kl/rfng u/L ;Da4 ;/f]sf/jfnf, ;]jfu|fxLnfO{ ;Gt'i6Lk|bfg ub}{ ck]Iffs[t nIo k|flKtdf hf]8 lbG5 . ;du| ?kdf cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod u/L n]vf
k|0ffnLsf dfGotf cg';f/ ;km\6jo]/sf] Joj:yf u/L l56f], r':t tyf 5l/tf], Kff/bzL{, ldtJooL tyf
k|efjsf/L ;]jf k|jfx ug'{kg]{ cfhsf] cfjZostf xf] . cg'zf;g sfod ug]{ p2]Zon] ef}lts tyf u}/ef}lts cfly{s ;|f]tsf] clwstd kl/rfng ;Fu} cfly{s of]hgfsf] gLlt lgb]{zgsf] to, ;f++u7lgs;++/rgfsf] lgdf{0f, hgzlQm Joj:yfkg, cfly{s gLlt tyf sfo{qmdsf] sfof{Gjog / th'{df ul/Psfof]hgfsf] k|efjsf/L sfof{Gjogsf] nflu ul/g] cfly{s ;+oGqsf] Joj:yfkg ug'{ g} cfly{s k|zf;gxf] . ;+oGqsf] ljsf; u/L k/LnlIft u/]sf] nIf xfl;n ug{sf nflu agfOPsf ljlw / k|lqmofdf
cfw'lgs k|ljlwsf] k|of]u u/L ;]jf k|jfx ubf{ pknlJwd"ns / kmnbfoL x'ghfG5 . d'Votof cfly{sk|zf;gn] cfly{s ;'zf;g / cg'zf;g sfod ub}{ k|efjsfl/tfsf ;fy} bIftfk"j{s nIo xfl;nug{ lgoldt ?kdf Jojl:yt k|0ffnL sfo{zLn /xFbf / pQm k|0ffnLsf] ultzLntfn] dfq ;Dk"0f{;+u7gsf] ;'zf;gsf] cfwf/ g} cfly{s cg'zf;g xf] . ;+u7gn] pknJw ;|f]t / ;fwgsf] clwstd
kl/rfng ug{ / ;+u7gnfO{ ;'b[9Ls/0f / ;jnLs/0f ug]{ v'nf / k|lt:kwf{Tds cfly{s gLltsf]
to ub}{ pknJw ;|f]t / ;fwgsf] pRrtd kl/rfng ug{ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] cfly{s k|zf;gdf
cg'zf;g x'g cfjZos 5 . cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod /fVg clgjfo{ ?kdf ljB'tLo k|zf;gsf]
gLlt cjnDjg ug}{kg]{ b]lvg'sf ;fy} ljBdfg cfly{s cg'zf;gdf eP u/]sf sldsdhf]/Lx?nfO{
x6fpg] / pNn]vgLo ;'wf/ ug{ y'k|} k|of;x? ePtf klg ljZjljBfnosf] hl6n ;f+u7lgs ;+/rgf,
gLlt lgoddf c:ki6tf tyf g]t[Tjdf lkmtnf] lgb]{zgfTds l:ylt, sfo{ ug]{ k|j[lt, gLlt lgoddfbf]xf]/f]kgf, cfly{s sf/f]jf/sf] n]vf clen]vg ug'{ tyf n]vf+sgdf cfw'lgs tyf j}1flgs k|ljlwsf]
sd k|of]un] ubf{ lqljn] ck]lR5t ;'wf/ ug{ ;s]sf] 5}g . k|ljlwo'Qm cfly{s ;'zf;gdf hf]8lbO{ cfly{s cg'zf;gsf] kIfdf lq=lj kl5Nnf jif{x?df gLltut Joj:yfdf hf]8 lbO{ jif]{gL gLlt
sfo{qmd tyf ah]6sf] Joj:yf u/]sf] kfOG5 .
>Ldfg\ /lhi6«f/Ho"n] cf=j=@)*).@)*! sf] lqljsf] jh]6 jStJodf ljB'tLo k|zf;gsf af/]df o;/L hf]8lbg' ePsf] 5 . æk|ljlwsf] kx'FrnfO{ lj:tf/ u/L ljZjljBfnosf] ljBdfg dfgj ;+;fwgnfO{ ;d"x cg';f/50

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

lzIf0f l;sfO{, k|Zgkq lgdf{0f, pQ/k'l:tsf k/LIf0f, ;Dk/LIf0f, k/LIff Joj:yfkg,z}lIfs k|zf;lgs
Joj:yfkg;DjGwL ljifox?df cfjZostf cg';f/ cled'vLs/0f tflnd ;~rfng u/L l;k tyf Ifdtf
clej[l4 ub]{ ljZjljBfnosf] ;"rgf k|ljlw gjk|jt{g s]Gb|nfO{ ;jnLs/0f u/L ljZjljBfnosf ljQLo
tyf z}lIfs Joj:yfkgsf sfo{x? PsLs[t ljB'tLo k|zf;gdf ?kfGt/0f ug]{ k|lqmof k|f/De ul/Psf]s'/f atfpg' ePsf] 5 . -ah]6 jStJo @)*).@)*! k]h g+= v %_cfly{s cg'zf;g tyf k|ljlwd}qL cfly{s k|zf;g
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf x'g] cfly{s sf/f]jf/sf] n]vf clen]vg tyf k|ltj]bgx?nfO{ ljQLo ;"rfÍsf]b[li6sf]0fn] Jojl:yt, k|efjsf/L tyf eljiodf ul/g] ljQLo of]hgf th'{dfsf] cfwf/ to ug{sf] nflu
cfly{s sfo{k|0ffnLnfO{ lj=;+= @)## ;fndf sfof{Gjogdf NofOPsf] lyof] . pQm n]vf sfo{ k|0ffnLnfO{
lj=;+= @)%! ;fndf ;+zf]wg ul/Psf] lyof] . ;fy} n]vf k|0ffnLnfO{ yk k|efjsf/L agfpgsf nflu
;dofg's"n kl/dfh{g u/L k|ljlwo'Qm n]vf k|0ffnLsf] 9fFrf ;lxt lqlj n]vf lgb]{lzsf @)*) hf/L
ul/Psf] 5 . n]vf lgb]{lzsf @)*) sf] k|:tfjgfdf æn]vf sfo{k|0ffnLnfO{ k]zfj/ tyf ;do;fk]Ifn]vf Joj:yfkgsf] k|ltlaDjgsf] nflu ;fy} dxfn]vfk/LIfssf] sfof{non] n]vfk/LIf0f k|ltj]bg tyf
jflif{s k|ltj]bgx?df ;fj{hlgs n]vfdfgb08cg';f/ n]vfª\sg tyf ljQLo tyf ef}lts k|ltj]bgx?
agfpg] 9fFrfsf]] Joj:yfkgsf] nflu hgfOPsf] s}lkmotadf]lhd ljZjljBfnosf] ljQLo tyf ef}lts
ljj/0fsf] oyfy{k/s k|ltj]bg tyf k]zfut ljQLo ;"rfª\ssf] lgdf{0f ug{ ljZjljBfnosf] n]vf
Joj:yfkgdf clanDa kl/dfh{g x'g'kg]{ l6Kk0fL x'Fb} cfPsf] / ljZjljBfnon] ;fj{hlgs ug{] ljQLo
ljj/0f General Purpose Financial Statement cg';f/ ug{ tyf PsLs[t ljB'tLo n]vf sfo{k|0ffnLsf]
Joj:yf (Tribhuvan University Integrated Online Accounting Management System) (TUIOAMS))
nfu' ug{ cfjZos ePsf]Æ eGg] Joxf]/f /fvL lqlj sfo{sf/L kl/ifb\af6 kfl/t eO{ cf=j= @)*).@)*!
b]lv sfof{Gjogdf Nofpgsf nflu kl/kq ul/Psf 5g\ .
cfly{s sf/f]jf/nfO{ r'':t, kf/bzL{, ldtJooL tyf k|efjsf/L agfpgsf] nflu to ul/Psf] PsLs[tljQLo Joj:yfkg ;"rgf k|0ffnLdf n]vfÍg tyf k|ltj]bgsf ;"rgf k|afx ug{{ b]xfosf ljifox?nfO{;d]6]/ Tribhuvan University Integrated Online Accounting Management System (TUIOAMS) toug]{ Joj:yfsf nflu ;km6\j]o/ vl/bsf] nflu lqljn] k|lqmof cufl8 j9fPsf] 5 .
!_ ;fwf/0f n]vfk|0ffnL (General Accounting Information System)@_ tna tyf eQf ;"rgf Joj:yfkg k|0ffnL (Payroll Information Management System)#_ cfDbfgL Joj:yfkg ;"rgf k|0ffnL (Income Information Management System)$_ ah]6 ;"rgf Joj:yfkg k|0ffnL (Budget Information Management System)%_ lgj[QLe/0f tyf pkbfg ;"rgf Joj:yfkg (Pension and Gratuity Information Management
System)^_ C0f k|jfx tyf c;'nL ;"rgf Joj:yfkg k|0ffnL (Loan Information Management System)&_ n]vf k/LIf0f ;"rgf Joj:yfkg k|0ffnL (Auditing Information Management System) n]vflgb]{lzsf @)*) sf] k|efjsf/L sfof{Gjog ug]{ ;jfndf lqljsf ;a} lgsfox?df s]Gb|Ls[t51ljB'tLo ljQLo k|zf;gsf] k|of; /x] tfklg lqljsf ah]6]/L lgsfout cf–cfkm\g} ;|f]tdf
5'6\6f5'6\6} ;km\6j]o/ k|of]u ePsfn] o:fsf] k"0f{ sfof{Gjog ug{ sl7gfO{ x'g] r'gf}tLb]lvG5 .
dxfn]vfsf] b[li6sf]0fdf ;fj{hlgs hjfkmb]lxtf / ;'zf;glqljdf ljQLo hjfkmb]lxtfM ;fj{hlgs ljQLo Joj:yfkgnfO{ k|efjsf/L / glthfd"ns agfpg cfly{s;'zf;g sfod ug{ h?/L 5 . cfGtl/s lgoGq0f Joj:yf, cfly{s sfo{ljlwsf] kfngf, n]vfk/LIf0f
k|ltj]bgsf] sfof{Gjogsf] l:yltnfO{ x]bf{ cfly{s ;'zf;gsf] kf6f] lgs} sdhf]/ b]lvG5 -d=n]=k= %( cf}
jflif{s k|ltj]bg_ . ;f] k|ltj]bgn] cf}NofPsf cfwf/df eGg'kbf{ lqljdf ljQLo hjfkmb]lxtfsf] cj:yf
pT;fxk|b x'g ;s]sf] 5}g . cfly{s sfo{ljlwdf lgwf{l/t k|fjwfgsf] ljkl/t pxL k|s[ltsf clgoldtsfo{ af/Daf/ bf]xf]¥ofpgfn] cfly{s cg'zf;g lkmtnf] ePsf] b]lvG5 .
lqljsf] ;+:yfut ;'zf;gM cfGtl/s lgoGq0f k|0ffnL ;+:yfut ;'zf;gsf] cfwf/ xf] . lqljsf ;a}lgsfox?df cfGtl/s lgoGq0f th'{df gu/]sf], ljQLo k|ltj]bgn] ;d:t sf/f]jf/sf] oyfy{ lrq0fgu/]sf], cfGtl/s n]vfk/LIf0f ;doa4 / sfof{Tds ?kdf :jtGq / k]zfut Pjd\ Joj;flos
x'g g;s]sf] cj:yf 5 . lqljdf ;fj{hlgs n]vfdfg gx'g', n]vf sfo{ljlwsf] dfGotfnfO{ n]vfsf
k|of]ustf{x?nfO{ sf/f]jf/sf] k|s[lt / ljifo;Fu cfj4 u/fpg g;Sg', cfGtl/s n]vfk/LIf0fnfO{
k|efjsf/L agfpg cGt/f{li6«o cEof;sf] cfwf/df Joj:yfksLo / ;~rfngut :jtGqtf lbnfpg]
u/L lqljsf ;a} lgsfodf cfGtl/s n]vfk/LIf0fsf] Joj:yf ug'{ kb{5 . d'Votof cfly{s k|zf;gn]cfly{s ;'zf;g / cg'zf;g sfod ub}{ k|efjsfl/tf bIftfk"j{s nIo xfl;n ug{ / pknlAwd"nsglthf k|fKt ug{ lgoldt ?kdf k|0ffnLut z}nLn] sfo{zLn /xg] x'gfn] ;ª\u7gsf] ;Dk"0f{;'zf;gsf] d]?b08 g} cfly{s cg'zf;g xf] . dxfn]vf k/LIfssf] %^ cf}+ b]lv ^! cf}+ k|ltj]bgdf
cfly{s cg'zf;gsf] d"n kIfx? dWo] ;+:yfsf] lrq0f k|:t't x'g] u/L ljQLo ljj/0fdf To;sf
v'nf;fx?nfO{ hjfkmb]xL agfpg' klg Ps xf] . o;} ;Gbe{df dxfn]vf k/LIf0f sfof{nosf] %( cf+}
jflif{s k|ltj]bgdf ;'NemfOPsf] 5 . pQm k|ltj]bg cg';f/ ælqe'jg ljZjljBfnocGtu{t !$# PsfO{
dWo] !@! lgsfon] of] jif{ !# c/a @^ s/f]8 &! nfv vr{ n]v]sf 5g\ . lqlj cfly{s Joj:yfkg
tyf vl/b ;DaGwL lgod @)%) df ljZjljBfnon] ;a} cfly{s sf/f]jf/sf] s]Gb|Lo cfly{s ljj/0f
tof/ u/L dxfn]vf k/LIfs ;dIf k]z ug'{kg]{ Joj:yf 5 . ljZjljBfnon] s]Gb|Lo cfly{s ljj/0f
tof/ u/L k]z u/]sf 5}gg\ . ljZjljBfno dftxtsf lgsfox?n] k]z u/]sf] 5}g . ljZjljBfno
dftxtsf lgsfox?n] k]z u/]sf] ljQLo ljj/0fdf ejg, ;jf/L ;fwg, kmlg{r/, pks/0fnufotk"FhLut ;DklQsf] Xf;s6\6L gu/]sf], hUufsf] d'Nofª\sg g/fv]sf], w/f}6L tyf cGo bfloTj Pp6}
zLif{sdf /fv]sf], ljQLo ljj/0fdf t'ngfTds sf/f]af/ gb]vfPsf sf/0fn] k|:t't ljj/0fn] ;du|sf/f]jf/sf] oyfy{ lrq0f u/]sf] 5}g . ;DklQ tyf bfloTj;d]tsf] oyfy{ sf/f]jf/ b]lvg] u/L
ljQLo ljj/0f tof/ ug'{kb{5 . ljZjljBfnon] cfGtl/s cfonfO{ gg\ck/]l6e vftfdf hDdf u/L;f] vftfaf6 lgsf;f lng] gu/]sf], w/f}6L lx;fa 5'6\6} vftfdf g/fv]sf], clwsf+z lgsfon] a}+slx;fjldnfg gu/]sf] nufotsf Joxf]/f ljut jif{b]lv g} cf}+NofOFb} cfPtf klg ;'wf/ u/]sf] 5}g .
k|rlnt n]vf k|0ffnL tyf 9fFrfdf ;'wf/ u/L cfly{s sf/f]jf/nfO{ kf/bzL{ agfpg' kb{5 Æ-d=n]=k=%( cf}+ jflif{s k|ltj]bg_ .
52

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

cfly{s cg'zf;gdf ;fj{hlgs vl/b Joj:yfkgn]vfk/LIf0f dxfzfvfaf6 lqljsf ljleGg lgsfodf cfGtl/s n]vfk/LIf0f ug]{ lznlznfdf cfGtl/sn]vfk/LIf0fsf qmddf cf}+NofPsf ;}4flGts j]?h' tyf clgoldt sf/f]af/dWo] ;fj{hlgs vl/b
Joj:yfkgsf] sfo{ lglb{i6 k4lt adf]lhd x'g g;]s]sf] tLtf] cg'ej /x]sf] 5 .
lqljdf ;fj{hlgs vl/bsf] nflu cfly{s Joj:yfkg tyf vl/b;DaGwL lgod @)%), ;fj{hlgs vl/b
P]g @)^# / lgodfjnL @)^$-kl5Nnf ;+zf]wg ;lxt_ k|of]udf /x]sf 5g\ . To;} u/L ;DalGwt dfkb08/ clwsf/ If]q lgwf{/0f ePsf 5g\ . ;fj{hlgs vl/b P]gsf] k|:tfjgfdf g} ævl/bnfO{ kf/bzL{ agfpg],;xeflutfd"ns, k|lt:kw{fTds / lgikIf x'g]Æ ;'lglZrttf u/]sf] 5 .
;fj{hlgs vl/bsf nflu cfjZos sfg'g, dfkb08, gD;{ nufotsf Aoj:yf /x]tf klg ;fj{hlgsvl/b k|lqmof :jR5, k|lt:kwL{, kf/bzL{ / ldtJooL x'g g;s]sf] l:ylt 5 . ;fj{hlgs vl/b ;dodfg} cg'dfg oyfy{k/s gePsf], cTolws e]l/P;g x'g] u/]sf], vl/b sfg'gdf Joj:yf eP adf]lhd
dfn;fdfg, lgdf{0f sfo{ / ;]jfsf] cfjZostf klxrfg x'g g;s]sf], vl/bsf] jflif{s of]hgf tyf
u'?of]hgf th'{df x'g g;s]sf] cj:yf b]lvG5 . To;}u/L lglZrt ju{sf Jofj;foLnfO{ dfq ldNg] u/L;t{ Pjd\ :k]l;lkms];g tof/ ug]{, k"j{ tof/Lsf sfo{ gu/L 7]Ssf Joj:yfkg x'g] ;dodf 7]Ssfsf]
sfo{ ;DkGg gx'g], af]nkqdf cTolws Go'gb/ saf]n u/]sf] sf/0f sfdsf] u'0f:t/df ;d:of /xg]u/]sf] 5 . ljB'tLo vl/b k|0ffnL clgjfo{ ?kdf nfu' ug]{ ;dodf g} ;fj{hlgs vl/b sfg'g adf]lhd
k"j{tof/L kZrft\ ;dodf g} vl/b ug]{ nfut cg'dfgnfO{ j}1flgs Pjd\ e/kbf]{ agfpFb} / k|lt:kwf{
km/flsnf] x'g] u/L :k]l;lkms];g tof/ ug]{ sfo{nfO{ k|fyldstf / k|>o ug'{sf] cltl/Qm ;fj{hlgsvl/b lgod tyf sfg'gnfO{ ;dofg's'n kl/j{tg u/L ljsf; / ;]jfd}qL agfpg ckl/xfo{ b]lvG5 .
cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod ug{sf nflu cfly{s k|zf;gsf dfly pNn]lvt sfo{ ub{} cfPtf klg ljZjljBfnosf]dxfn]vf k/LIf0f k|ltj]bgn] vf;} pNn]vgLo pknlAw xfl;n u/]sf] b]lvb}g . dxfn]vf k|ltj]bgdf jif]g{ Lj]?h' 36fpgsf] nflu h'g ?kdf k|of; / kxn x'gk' g]{ xf] ;f] ?kdf k|ult ePsf] kfOFbg} .
tflnsf g+= !
?=,))) df

lqljdf a]?h' / ;Dk/LIf0f k|ltj]bg

cfly{s jif{k|ltj]bg g+=@)&$.@)&%@)&%.@)&^@)&^.@)&&@)&&.@)&*@)&*.@)&(@)&(.@)*)%^ cf}+%& cf}+%* cf++}%( cf}+^) cf}+^! cf}+

ut cf=j=;Ddsf]a]?h'!(%#@@@*@!!@&@#!
@*^&!($(@$@^*&*%@^^*#(%!
@^$(%!!)

rfn' jif{sf] ;Dk/LIf0f ePsf]
hDdf
a]?h'
a]?h'
a]?h'
@*($@!(!@((@!^@!!@&@#!
*$$!#((*(^^*!
@*^&!($((#&^^(%#$)*##@$@^*&*%#!!)!)#^($(#&@^^*#(%!
*)!!%!
(*(((@@^$(%!!)!*@^%@()).))@*#@!^#(;|f]tM dxfn]vfsf jflif{s k|ltj]bgx?
53

dflysf] tflnsf b]vfOP h:t} dxfn]vf k/LIfssf sfof{nosf k|sflzt jflif{s k|ltj]bgx?df pNn]lvt
tYofª\ssf] ljZn]if0f ubf{ lqljdf cf=j=@)&%.@)&^ df ;a}eGbf a9L a]?h' b]lvG5 eg] ;f] jif{ kl5lqljsf k|of;df ;':t ultdf k|ult eO{ cf=j= @)&*.@)&( ;Dddf a]?h' /sd s]xL dfq 36\g ;s]sf]b]lvG5 . t/ cf=j=@)&(.@)*) df a]?h' ;Dk/LIf0f x'g ;s]sf sf/0f a]?h' /sd a9]/ @*#@!^#(
xhf/ k'u]sf] 5 .
/sd ? ,))) xhf/df

tflnsf g+= @M jflif{s ah]6 / a]?h'sf] cj:yf

cfly{s jif{

jflif{s ah]6
vr{

k|ltj]bg
g+=

a]?h'
/sd

@)&$.@)&%@)&%.@)&^@)&^.@)&&@)&&.@)&*@)&*.@)&(@)&(.@)*)!#%%#%((!%!*(@^#!*(*$@*&!(%*!*)&@))!^$%(!()$(@))%^ cf}+%& cf}%* cf}%( cf}^) cf}+^! cf}+@*($@!(*$$!#(((#&^^(#!!)!)#*)!!%!
!*@^%@(n]vf k/LIf0f
ePsf] lgsfo
;+Vof
!(!+
!*^+
!&&+
!$!+
(^
!$$

a]?h' / ah]6sf]
cg'kft k|lt;tdf
@!=#%
%%=%&
$=($
!%=**
$=))
(=%*

;|f]tM lqlj ah]6 jQmJo / dxfn]vf jflif{s k|ltj]bg+dfly tflnsf g+= @ df cf=j= @)&%.)&^ df lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] jflif{s ah]6sf] t'ngfdf a]?h'/sdsf] cg'kft %%=%& eg] h'g ult kfFr jif{sf] ;a}eGbf a9L a]?h' cª\s xf] . To:t} u/L ;a} eGbf
sd a]?h' cª\s cf=j= @)&*.@)&( df b]lvG5 t/ pQm jif{ n]vf k/LIf0f ug{ aSof}tf ;+Vof klgw]/} ePsf] cg'dfg ug{ ;lsG5 . ^! cf}+ k|ltj]bg ;Ddsf] a]?h' cª\s cf=j= @)&(.@)*) sf] lqlj
jflif{s ah]6sf] t'ngfdf !$*=^& u'0ff al9 b]lvG5 . dxfn]vf k/LIf0fsf] jflif{s k|ltj]bg cg';f/ cf=j=@)&$.)&% df rfn' jif{sf !@! / aSof}tf &) u/L !(!, qmdzM cf=j= @)&%.)&^ df rfn' jif{sf !@* /jSof}tf %* u/L !*^, cf=j=@)&^.@)&& df rfn' jif{sf !## / jSof}tf $$ u/L !&&, cf=j= @)&&.@)&*
df rfn' jif{sf !@! / aSof}tf @) u/L !$! tyf cf=j= @)&*.@)&( df rfn' jif{sf (^ j6f / cf=j=@)&(.@)*) df !$$ j6f ah]6]/L lgsfox?sf] n]vfk/LIf0f ;DkGg ePsf 5g\ . ljZjljBfnonfO{
cfly{s cg'zf;gsf] nodf Nofpgsf nflu ljBdfg n]vf k|0ffnLdf k|of]udf d"Nofª\sg tyf ljZn]if0f
ug{ dxfn]vfaf6 k6sk6s lgb]{zgfTds tj/n] ;'NemfOPsf] 5 .
cfly{s cg'zf;gsf] ljBdfg cj:yf / ;'wf/sf k|of;x?
lqljsf sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug{sf nflu ul/Psf ;fª\u7lgs sfo{ tyf z}lIfs k|zf;gsf lqmofsnfkx?n]cfly{s sf/f]jf/sf] l;h{gf ub{5 . h:fsf nflu cfly{s lqmofsnfk tyf sf/f]af/x?sf] Joj:yf
ldnfpg], cfjZos ljQLo ;|f]t klxrfg, ;ª\sng tyf kl/rfng / cf}lrTok"0f{ pkof]u ubf{ tf]lsPsf;fj{hlgs n]vfdfg, n]vf l;4fGt k|0ffnLdf cfwfl/t /x]/ n]vf ;DaGwL Joj:yf ug]{ k|rlnt sfg'g
54

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

adf]lhd vr{ ug]{ k4ltsf] ljsf; ug'{ / tf]lsPsf P]g, lgod tyf sfg'gadf]lhd sfo{ ;Dkfbg ug{/ u/fpg ;s]df dfq cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod ug{ ;lsG5 . lqlj P]g, cfly{s Joj:yfkg tyf vl/b
;DaGwL lgod tyf sfo{ljlw Pjd\ lg0f{o ;Ddt\ ePsf sf/f]jf/n] cg'zf;g sfod u/]sf] ;ª\s]tk|bfg ub{5 . ljZjljBfnodf ePsf cfly{s lqmofsnfkx?sf] Joj:yfkg tyf lgoGq0f / o:fsf]
hjfkmb]xL agfpgsf] nflu lqlj P]g, lqlj cfly{s Joj:yfkg tyf vl/b ;DaGwL lgod @)%) -;+zf]wg@)&(.#.@$_ sf] kl/R5]b ! sf] -b_ / -km!_ b]lv -km!#_ ;Dd yk Joj:yf u/L cfly{s k|zf;gdf
cg'zf;g sfod ug{ j}wflgs Joj:yf u/]sf] 5 . o;n] ubf{ lqljsf] cfly{s k|zf;gnfO{ ;fj{hlgsk|zf;gsf dfGotf cg';f/ nodf n}hfg ;lsG5 eGg] ;/f]sf/jfnfx?nfO{ ljZjf; lbnfpg d2tub{5 .o;/L cfly{s k|zf;gn] u/]sf sfo{x? lgodfg';f/ / cg'zf;gk"j{s ePsf] k|Tofe"lt k|bfg
ug{ ;lsG5 . ljZjljBfnodf ePsf sfo{x?nfO{ cfly{s k|zf;gsf] d'Nofª\sg tyf cg'udg,
lg/LIf0f tyf k/LIf0fsf sfo{ k|Tofe"lt lbnfpgsf] nflu b]xfosf cg'udg lgoGq0f / k/LIf0f sfo{n]k|dfl0ft ub{5 .
!_ lgsfout cfGtl/s lgoGq0f k|0ffnL / lgsfout n]vfk/LIf0f .
@_ lqlj s]Gb|Lo sfof{nosf] cfGtl/s n]vf k/LIf0f .
#_ dxfn]vf k/LIf0f sfof{noaf6 x'g] clGtd n]vfk/LIf0f .
$_ ;/f]sf/jfnfx?af6 x'g] k/LIf0f tyf cg'udg .
%_ lqlj lzIffWoIfsf] sfof{noaf6 x'g] lgoldt cg'udg .
^_ ljZjljBfno cg'bfg cfof]uaf6 x'g] u'0f:t/Lotf, ;'lglZrttf tyf k|Tofog k|df0Lfs/0f .
cfly{s cg'zf;gdf lqljsf] gLltut k|of;!_ cf=j= @)*).@)*! sf nflu lqlj ;efaf6 kfl/t sfo{qmd tyf ah]6df ah]6sf] nIo, p2]Zo, gLlt
tyf sfo{qmdsf] p2]Zodf ;fdflhs, cfly{s, k|fljlws tyf /fi6«sf] ljsf;sf nflu ljleGg If]qdf;Ifd g]t[Tj k|bfg ug{ ;Sg] of]Uo, bIf / cGt/f{li6«o :t/df k|lt:kwf{ ug{sf] nflu cfjZos
u'0f:t/Lo lzIffsf] ;'lglZrttf u/fpg' o;sf] ljlzi6 p2]Zo k"/f ug{ cfly{s ;'zf;g k|jfx ug'{
lqljsf] cfkm\g} k|d'v lhDd]jf/L / pQ/bfoL x'g' kb{5 . lsgeg] pRrlzIffsf] cleef/fdf &%=$%
k|ltzt -d=n=k ^) cfF} jflif{s k|ltj]bg_ lqljs} ef/ /x]sf] 5 . o;n] lnPsf ljlzi6 p2]ZodWo]
ljBdfg dfgj ;+;fwgnfO{ gjLgtd ;"rgf k|ljlwsf] k|of]u ug{ k|f]T;flxt ub}{ z}lIfs tyf ljQLok|zf;gnfO{ k|efjsf/L, kf/bzL{, glthfd'vL / r':t agfpg] af/]df pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
@_ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf gLlt tyf sfo{qmdx?df :ki6;Fu ljZjljBfnosf] k|zf;lgs ;+/rgf /dfgj ;|f]tnfO{ ;do ;fk]If agfO{ k|ljlwd}qL agfOg] 5 egL pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 . lqlj sfo{qmdtyf ah]6 -@)*)_ df æz}lIfs tyf ljQLo k|zf;gnfO{ r':t / b'?:t agfpg z}lIfs Joj:yfkg
tyf ;"rgf k|0ffnL -TUEMIS_, sfof{no :jrflnt k|0ffnL, ljB'tLo xflh/L, cfly{s ;'b[9Ls/0fsf
nflu ljB'tLo PsLs[t cfly{s Joj:yfkg ;"rgf k|0ffnL (EIFMIS) nfO{ sfof{Gjogdf NofOPsf] 555

eg] cfufdL jif{ ;dofg's"n pQm ;km\6j]o/x?df k/Ldfh{g / cfjZostf cg';f/sf ;km\6j]o/x?
lgdf{0f u/L sfof{Gjogdf NofOg]5Æ eGg] pNn]v ul/Psf] 5 .
#_ ljZjljBfnodf a]?h' Go"gLs/0fsf nflu ul/Psf k|of;n] cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod ug{vf]lhPsf] b[i6fGtnfO{ k|:t't ub{5 . ;+:yfsf n]vf pQ/bfoL clwsf/ k|fKt clwsf/LnfO{
lhDd]jf/ agfpFbf s]xL xb;Dd cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod ug{ ;lsg] pbfx/0f cf=j=@)&&.)&*b]lv ul/Psf] k|of; xf] . cf=j= @)*).)*! sf] sfo{qmd tyf ah]6df >Ldfg\ /lhi6«f/Ho"af6
lqlj ;efdf k]z ePsf] ah]6 jStJo cg';f/ æa]?h' km:of}{6 tyf ;Dk/LIf0fsf nflu
cfly{s jif{ @)&&.@)&* df ljZjljBfnoaf6 yflnPsf] ljz]if cleofgaf6 a]?h' lgoldt
tyf ;Dk/LIf0f ug]{ sfo{df pNn]vgLo dfqfdf k|ult ePsf]n a]?h'nfO{ Go'gLs/0f ug{ tyfcfly{s cg'zf;gnfO{ s8fO{sf ;fy nfu' ug{ gofF /0fgLlt clVtof/ ug]{ Joj:yf ldnfPsf]
5' . a]?h' z'Go u/fpg] ;+:yfnfO{ k|f]T;fxg k'/:sf/;DaGwL ljutdf u/LPsf] clVtof/nfO{
oyfjt /flvPsf] 5 . a]?h' ;Dk/LIf0f sfo{df cxf]/fq vl6g] ;Dk"0f{ lzIfs–sd{rf/Lx?nfO{
xflb{s wGojfb lbg rfxG5' . Æo; gLltnfO{ lg/Gt/tf lbFbf cf=j= @)&*.)&( sf] n]vfk/LIf0f
k|ltj]bgsf] cfwf/df a]?h' z'Go ePsf ah]6]/L lgsfosf n]vf pQ/bfoL clws[tnfO{ k'/:s[tgeO{ ;+:yfnfO{ dfq k'/:sf/ k|bfg ug]{ Joj:yf ul/Psfn] cfufdL jif{df a]?h' Go"gLs/0f x'g]
k|ultdf Xf; cfpg] ;Defjgf b]lvG5 .
$_ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] ;DklQsf] hu]{gf ug{, lqlj ;DklQsf] clen]v / Joj:yfkgnfO{ ;[b[9kfb}{ ejg, hUuf nufotsf ;DklQsf] df}lb|sLs/0f ug]{ gLlt cjnDag ul/g]5 . ljZjljBfnosf;a} lgsfox?df ef}lts ;Dk/LIf0f sfo{nfO{ lg/Gt/tf lbOg]5 / ah]6 lgsf;f ubf{ ef}lts;Dk/LIf0f / a}s l/sG;fOnsf] sfo{ ;DkfbgnfO{ k|d'v cfwf/sf] ?kdf lnOg]5 . -cf=j=@)*).)*! sf] lqlj ah]6 jQmJo_lqljsf] cfly{s cg'zf;gdf b]lvPsf ;d:of!_ vr{;DaGwL gLltsf] :ki6 lbzfaf]w ug]{ sfo{df pbfl;gtf .
ljZjljBfnodf vr{ ug{] Joj:yfsf nflu lqljcfly{s Joj:yfkg tyf vl/b;DaGwL lgod,
cfly{s sfo{k|0ffnL nufot sfo{ lgb]{lzsfx?df k|of]u ePsf efiffdf c:ki6tf tyf sfo{If]qdf
b]lvPsf] sfo{ljwtfn] ubf{ :ki6 lgb]{zg u/L lbzfaf]w ug{ g;Sbf cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod ug{
sl7gfO k/]sf] b]lvG5 .
@_ sfo{qmdsf] sfo{If]q / lqmofsnfk :ki6 ug]{ gLltut Joj:yf gx'Fbf .
ljZjlBfnosf :jLs[t sfo{qmdsf] nflu If]qdf :ki6 kl/eflift x'g g;Sbf, nlIft sfo{qmd /sfof{Gjog qmddf ePsf] lqmofsnfksf lardf tfnd]n gx'g' / cg'dfg ul/Psf sfo{ nIodf
x'g;Sg] kl/jt{g tyf ;Dkfbg ul/Psf lqmofsnfkx?sf] cf}lrTo k'li6 x'g] g;Sg'sf ;fy}pknlJw ePsf xfl;nsf] k[i7kf]if0f;DaGwL :ki6 lgb]{zg gx'Fbf / clVtof/Lx?sf] hjfkmb]lxtf
56

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

u}/lhDd]jf/L x'g'sf ;fy} sfo{ ug{] kbflwsf/L Pp6f x'g] tyf n]vfk/LIf0fdf hjfkm lbg] csf]{
kbflwsf/L x'Fbf cfly{s cg'zf;gdf ;d:of b]lvPsf] 5 .
#_ ah]6 / ljQLo Joj:yfkg;Fusf] ;DaGw :ki6 ug{ g;lsPsf] .
cg'dfg ul/Psf sfo{qmd tyf ah]6 / To;sf ;|f]tsf] klxrfg, ;ª\sng tyf kl/rfng;Fu:ki6 ;DaGw gx'Fbf vr{ Joj:yfkg ug{ ;lsFb}g . ul/g] vr{nfO{ k|efjsfl/tf, d'Nofª\sg tyf
ljZn]if0f ug]{ tyf dWofjlw d'Nofª\sg gx'Fbf ljQLo cg'zf;gdf ;d:of b]lvG5 .
$_ vr{ ug]{ k|0ffnL k"0f{ / kf/bzL{ agfpgsf nflu ;"rgfd"ns tj/n] ;Dk|i] f0f k|efjsf/L x'g g;s]sf] .
vr{ Joj:yfkg ubf{ n]vf sfo{k|0ffnLnfO{ lqljsf lgsfout k|s[ltcg';f/sf] th'd{ f ug{ g;lsPsf],;|ft] Joj:yfkg ;+:yfut k|sl[ t cg'?k aGg g;Sbf, z}lIfs k|zf;g ;Da4 ljefu tyf s]Gb|x?af6
vr{ ug]{ ;dofjlw leq ;"rgfx? ;Dk|]if0f gx'Fbf vr{df k|efjsfl/tf b]lvb}g To:t}u/L vr{dfl9nf;':tL x'g hfg] ePsfn] cfly{s ;'zf;gdf r':tkg b]lvFb}g . h:fn] ubf{ cfly{s cg'zf;gsfod u/] h:tf] b]lvFb}g .
%_ ;dli6ut vr{ / sfo{qmdx? lar k|fyldstfsf] s'/f k|efjsf/L gx'g' .
ljZjljBfnoaf6 to ul/g] gLlt, of]hgf tyf sfo{qmd tyf ah]6 Joj:yfsf lardf lgwf{/0f u/Lz}lIfs sfo{qmdsf nIo tyf p2]Zox? / ;f]sf k|fyldstfsf cfwf/ :ki6 / lbzfaf]w ug]{ u/L:ki6 lgb]{zg gx'Fbf k|efjsf/L x'g ;Sb}gg\ h:fn] ubf{ cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod ug{ ;d:ofb]lvG5 .
^_ vr{ ug]{ ;|]ftcg';f/ sfo{ / sfo{qmd ;~rfng tyf ah]6 ljlgof]hg ug]{ k|0ffnLut x'g g;Sbf/ ah]6 vr{sf] p2]Zo cg'?k x'g g;Sbf cfly{s cg'zf;gdf ;d:of b]lvG5 .
&_ cfly{s k|zf;gdf sfd ug]{ sd{rf/Lx? bIf / kof{Kt gx'g' .
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf sd{rf/L Joj:yfkg ug]{ lgsfosf ?kdf sd{rf/L k|zf;g dxfzfvf,
lqlj sfo{sf/L kl/ifb\ tyf lqlj ;]jf cfof]usf] sfof{no /x]sf 5g\ . logLx?sf] cf–cfkm\g}sfo{ If]qflwsf/ tyf lhDd]jf/L /x]sf] 5 . w]/} nfdf] ;dob]lv lqlj ;]jf cfof]udf kbflwsf/Lsf]
Joj:yfdf ultlxgtf b]lvPsf] lyof] . o;} jif{dfq kbflwsf/Lx?sf] Joj:yf eP klg sfo{ k|f/De
x'g ;s]sf] b]lvFb}g . h:fsf] sf/0f ;dod} sfo{;Dkfbg x'g ;ls/]xsf 5}gg\ . ljutsf jif{x?df:jR5, kf/bzL{ lgod, sfg'g tyf sfo{ljlwsf] cefj Psflt/ b]lvG5 eg] lhDd]jf/ kbflwsf/Lx?dfsfo{;Dkfbgsf] c7f]6sf] cefj / lg0f{o lng] sfo{df cGof]ntf, ;]jf cfof]uaf6 lnPsf k/LIffx?
clgoldttf ePsf cfzª\sf u/L k/LIffdf c;kmn ePsf pd]bjf/x? cbfnt wfpg] k|a[lQn]ubf{ lqlj ;]jf cfof]un] sfo{;Dkfbg ug{ ;ls/x]sf] 5}g / h;sf] k|efjn] lgoldt ?kdf l/Qm
b/jGbLdf kbk"lt{ x'g ;s]sf 5}gg\ . kl5Nnf] ;dodf ;]jf cfof]un] lnPsf] k/LIffdf cfjZos;ª\V+ ofeGbf Hofb} Go'g pQL{0f ;+ª\Vofn] ubf{ cfjZos hgzlQmsf] Joj:yf gx'Fbf cfly{s k|zf;gaflx/sf] hgzlQmsf] Joj:yf u/L sfd rnfpg lqljnfO{ afWotf /x]sf] 5 . o;/L sfd rnfp
57

ul/Psf sd{rf/Lx? k|ljlwd}qL gx'Fbf / tNnf txsf] sd{rf/LnfO{ sfddf nufpFbf klg cfly{scg'zf;g sfod ug{ ;d:of b]lvPsf] 5 .
*_ lgsfo, ljefu tyf s]Gb| tyf zfvfx?sf lardf k|efjsf/L ;dGjo / ;xof]u gx'g' .
lqljdf ;~rfng ul/Psf sfo{qmd, Joj:yf ul/Psf] k|zf;lgs ;+/rgf cg';f/sf lgsfox?,s]Gb|x? tyf zfvfx?sf lardf k|efjsf/L ;dGjo / ;xof]u gx'Fbf cfly{s k|zf;gsf sfo{x?
r':t tyf kf/bzL{ aGg ;ls/x]sf 5}gg\ . hg';'s} sfo{qmdx?sf] glthf / To:fsf] k|efj
cfly{s ;"rsx?af6 dfkg ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] a'emfOsf] sdL, sfo{;Dkfbgdf b]lvPsf] pbf;Lkg,
hjfkmb]lxtfdf lkmtnf] gLlt tyf lgoGqfTds k|zf;lgs ;+/rgf / ;+oGqsf] cefjdf cfly{scg'zf;g sfod ug{ sl7gfO b]lvG5 .
(_ n]vfk/LIf0f ug]{ lgsfonfO{ cWofalws / tfhuL agfpg g;Sg' .
lqljdf eP u/]sf cfly{s sf/f]jf/sf] n]vfk/LIf0f ug{sf nflu cfGtl/s n]vfk/LIf0f dxfzfvfsf]
Joj:yf ul/Psf] 5 eg] clGtd n]vf k/LIf0f ug{sf] nflu dxfn]vfsf] Joj:yf /x]sf] 5 . cfGtl/sn]vfk/LIf0f sfo{df v6\g] clwsf/Lx?sf] nflu :yfoL Joj:yfkg gx'g', cfGtl/s n]vfk/LIf0fnfO{
cfGtl/s lgoG`0f ug]{ ;+oGqsf] ?kdf Joj:yf gx'Fbf / Joj:yf ul/Psf hgzlQmdf lg/Gt/
tflnd tyf cled'vLs/0f sfo{qmd gx'Fbf n]vfk/LIf0f sfo{df ljljwtf x'g hfg] ;Defjgf b]lvG5/ Pp6} k|sf/sf sf/f]jf/ Pp6f lgsfodf ?h' x'g] / csf{] lgsfodf a]?h' eO cfly{s cg'zf;g
pNnª\3g ePsf] b]lvg'n] klg cfly{s cg'zf;gdf ;d:of b]lvPsf] 5 .
!)_ n]vf;DjGwL sfo{x? k|ljlwd}qL gx'g' .
cfhsf] k|lt:kwf{Tds o'udf ;+:yfnfO{ hgd'vL agfpg, r':t, ljZjfl;nf], e/kbf]{ agfpg /cfsif{0fsf] s]Gb| agfpg To;nfO{ lg/Gt/ k|of; ul//xg' kb{5 . cfly{s k|zf;gnfO{ ;"rgf /k|ljlw;Fu hf]8L To;;Fu ;DalGwt lgsfox?nfO{ klg k|ljlwo'Qm ?kdf ;an / ;Ifd agfpg;s]df dfq cfly{s k|zf;g / Joj:yfkgsf] sfo{ k|efjsf/L b]lvG5 t/ cfly{s k|zf;g tyf
Joj:yfkgsf] dfWodaf6 cfly{s ;'zf;g k|jfx ug{sf] nflu ;Da4 lgsfox? k|ljlwd}qL gaGbfcfly{s cg'zf;gdf ;d:of b]lvg] u/]sf] 5 .
cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod ug{ cfjZos ;'wf/sf kIf!_ cfly{s k|zf;gdf hjfkmb]lxtf / pQ/bfloTjsf] ;+oGqfTds lgoGq0f k|0ffnLsf] Joj:yf ug'{kg]{ .
@_ ;DklQ ;'b[L9Ls/0f P]g tyf lgodcg';f/ lqljsf kbflwsf/Lx?sf] jflif{s cfo ljj/0f x/]s
cfly{s jif{sf] k|f/Dedf g} ;Da4 lgsfodf k]z ug'{kg]{ clgjfo{ k|fjwfg x'g'kg]{ .
#_ cfGtl/s lgoGq0f k|0ffnLsf] ;+/rgfut ;+oGqsf] Joj:yf x'g'kg]{ .
$_ lqljsf ;Dk"0f{ lgsfodf lgsfolj1 ;lxt Joj:yf ul/Psf] ;f+u7lgs ;+/rgfdf lg/Gt/ ;xof]u,c;n ;DaGw / c;n sfo{ jftfj/0fsf] Joj:yf x'g'kg]{ .
58lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

%_ sfo{ If]qflwsf/df ;+/rgfut tyf ;+oGqsf] Joj:yfafx]s ljleGg kIfaf6 x:tIf]k x'g] unt
k/Dk/fnfO{ x6fpg' kg]{ .
^_ ah]6 tof/L s} ;dodf vl/bljlw, vl/b ug'k{ g]{ ;do, cjlw, s/f/ ;Demf}tf;Ddsf] lqmofsnfk;lxtsf]
jflif{s vl/b of]hgf / sfof{Gjogsf] of]hgf tyf ?k/]vf to ug'{kg]{ .
&_ cfGtl/s lgoGq0f k|0ffnLsf] ;+oGqfTds ;+/rgf to u/L ;an, ;Ifdtfsf] ljsf;sf ;fy};"rgfd"ns agfpg' kg]{ .
*_ ah]6 ljlgof]hgdf sfo{qmd nIo, dWosflng k|ult ljj/0f;lxt d'Nofª\sg ug'{kg]{ kl/kf6L
ljsf; ug'{kg]{ .
(_ cfly{s k|zf;gnfO{ Psåf/ sf]if vftf k|0ffnLcg';f/ ;~rfng ug{sf nflu lqljn] u/]sf] k"j{jtlg0f{onfO{ lqljsf ;a} lgsfodf k"0f{tM sfof{Gjog ug'{kg]{ .
!)_ gLlt, sfo{qmd tyf ah]6;Fu ljQLo Joj:yfkgsf] ;DaGw :ki6 / lbzfaf]w x'g] u/L Joj:yf ug'k{ g]{ .
!!_ sfo{s'zntf, sfo{Ifdtf tyf k|efjsfl/tfsf] d'Nofª\sg tyf ljZn]if0f u/]/ dfq ah]6sf] Joj:yf
ug{sf nflu gLlt to ug'{kg]{ .
!@_ ;fj{hlgs vr{sf] pkfb]otf / lbuf]kgfsf] nflu vr{sf] gLltut Joj:yf ug{sf nflu kxn ug'k{ g]{ .
!#_ k'/:sf/ / b08 tyf ;hfoFsf] nflu cfjZos dfkb08sf] Joj:yf / ;f] dfkb08 :ki6, ;/n /pkof]uL tyf lbuf] x'g'sf ;fy} lgwf{l/t dfkb08cg';f/ dfq ;Da4 sfo{If]qdf ;+nUg hgzlQm
tyf lgsfosf nflu dfq k|of]udf Nofpg' kg]{ .
!$_ cfly{s sf/f]af/sf] ;dodf g} 5nsk6 jf q'6L jf lxgfljgf kQf nufpgsf nflu Joj:yf
ul/Psf] cfGtl/s n]vfk/LIf0fnfO{ cfGtl/s lgoGq0f k|0ffnLsf] ;+oGqsf] ?kdf Joj:yf ug]{ /clGtd n]vfk/LIf0f ug{ eGbf cufl8 g} q'6L ;Rofpg / gk'u k|df0fx? h'6fO{ k]z ug{ nufpgsf
nflu ;do pknAw u/fpg'sf ;fy} hf]lvd / sfo{;Dkfbg tyf sfo{dn" sdf cfwfl/t n]vfk/LIf0f
Joj:yf u/L n]vfk/LIf0fnfO{ ;'wf/ ug'{kg]{ .
lgZsif{ / ;'emfj
cfly{s cg'zf;g s'g} klg ;+:yfn] lgwf{/0f u/]sf gLlt, of]hgf tyf nlIft sfo{qmdx?nfO{ lglb{i6lgod tyf sfo{ljlwsf] cwLgdf /xL cfly{s k|zf;g tyf Joj:yfkgsf] dfWodaf6 ;|f]t tyf ;+;fwgsf]
klxrfg, ;ª\sng tyf Joj:yf u/L k|efjsf/L ?kdf kl/rfng tyf ;~rfng u/L ;]jfu|fxLnfO{;'zf;g k|jfx ug'{ g} cfly{s cg'zf;g xf] . ;xL / Jojl:yt 9ª\uaf6 nlIft ju{nfO{ cfly{skIfsf ;]jf k|jfx ug'{ g} cfly{s cg'zf;g ePsfn] lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf lglb{i6 ul/Psf cfly{sJoj:yfkg tyf vl/b;DaGwL lgod, ;fj{hlgs vl/b;DaGwL lgod, cfly{s sfo{ljlw lgod tyf
lg0f{o / kl/kqsf] cwLgdf /xL cfkm\gf nlIft p2]Zo xfl;n ug{sf] nflu k|oTgfzLn /x]s]f 5 .
lglb{i6 lgodsf] cwLgdf /xL lqlj P]g cg';f/ ul7t cflª\us tyf ;DaGwg k|fKt lgsfox?sf]
59

k|efjsf/L ?kdf ;~rfng, lzIfs sd{rf/Lsf] ;]jf;t{;DaGwL lgodn] Joj:yf u/]sf hgzlQmnfO{;'ljwf k|bfg ubf{ / z}lIfs k|zf;g tyf ;ª\u7g ;DaGwL lgod adf]lhd ;~rfngdf NofOPsf
sfo{qmdx?nfO{ Jojl:yt tj/af6 ;~rfng ug]{ k|aGw ldnfpg' r'gf}tLk"0f{ sfo{ xf] . lqe'jg
ljZjljBfnonfO{ Psd'i7 ;/sf/L cg'bfgdf cfwfl/t ;~rflnt :jfoQk|fKt pRr z}lIfs ;fj{hlgslgsfosf] ?kdf ah]6 Joj:yf ub}{ cfPsf] 5 . k|fKt ah]6sf] pRrtd / ;d'lrt k|of]u / o;sf]
kf/blz{tfsf ;fy kl/rfng tyf pkof]udf NofpFb} ljZjljBfno;Fu ePsf] ef}lts tyf u}/ ef}lts;+:ffwgsf] clwstd k|of]u u/L ljZjljBfnonfO{ ;an agfpFb} lbuf] ljsf; ug'{sf ;fy} /fi6«
lgdf{0fsf] of]ubfgdf clej[l4 ug{ ul/g] cfly{s lqmofsnfksf] cg'zf;gsf kIfdf ;'wf/ Nofpg
ckl/xfo{ /x]sf] 5 .
cfly{s k|zf;gsf cfofdx?df ;'wf/ ug{sf nflu pko'Qm k|ljlwsf] k|of]u ug{ ;s]df, ljBdfg
lgoddf kl/dfh{g tyf sfo{ljlwdf ;'wf/ u/L nlIft ju{ tyf ;/f]sf/jfnfx?nfO{ ;Gt'li6 k|bfg
ug{ ;s]df /fi6«lgdf{0fdf of]ubfg lbPsf] 7x5{ . t;y{ cfly{s k|zf;gnfO{ s'g} klg ;fj{hlgs;+:yfsf] d]?b08 dflgg] ePsfn] cfly{s ;|f]t h'6fpg]b]lv lnP/ k|efjsf/L kl/rfng;Dd cfly{scfrf/ ;+lxtfnfO{ k"0f{ kfngf ug{ ;s]df, cfGtl/s lgoGq0f k|0ffnLdf ;+oGqfTds ;+/rgfsf]
Joj:yf ug{ ;s]df, k|efjsf/L ;"rgf k|jfx ug{ ;s]df dfq cfly{s cg'zf;g sfod ug{ ;lsG5 .
cfly{s lqmofsnfkdf ;+nUg x'g] ;a} kIfx?, ;+:yf jf lhDd]jf/ g]t[Tjdf /x]sf kbflwsf/L tyf
clwg:y sd{rf/Lx?sf] Jojxf/df g}ltstf, ;/n cfr/0f, ;Eo / ;fdflhs ;';+:sf/df /xg],
cfly{s rl/qdf /xg], nugzLn tyf lgi7fk"j{s sfd ug]{ k|lta4tfsf] cfjZostf kb{5 eGg]o; cWoogsf] lgisif{ xf] .
;Gbe{ ;fdfu|L
dxfn]vf k/LIfssf] sfof{no, -@)&%_, 5kGgf}+ jflif{s k|ltj]bg∙ dxfn]vf k/LIfssf] sfof{nosf7df8f}+, g]kfn .
dxfn]vf k/LIfssf] sfof{no, -@)&^_, ;GtfpGgf}+ jflif{s k|ltj]bg∙ dxfn]vf k/LIfssf] sfof{nosf7df8f}+, g]kfn .
dxfn]vf k/LIfssf] sfof{no, -@)&&_, cG7fpGgf}+ jflif{s k|ltj]bg∙ dxfn]vf k/LIfssf] sfof{nosf7df8f+}, g]kfn .
dxfn]vf k/LIfssf] sfof{no, -@)&(_, pgG;f7Lcf}+ jflif{s k|ltj]bg∙ dxfn]vf k/LIfssf] sfof{nosf7df8f}+, g]kfn .
dxfn]vf k/LIfssf] sfof{no, -@)&(_, ;f7Lcf}+ jflif{s k|ltj]bg∙ dxfn]vf k/LIfssf] sfof{nosf7df8f+}, g]kfn .
dxfn]vf k/LIfssf] sfof{no, -@)*!_, Ps;7Lcf}+ jflif{s k|ltj]bg∙ dxfn]vf k/LIfssf] sfof{nosf7df8f+}, g]kfn .
60

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

?kf >]i7 -@)*)_, k|ljlwd}qL cfly{s k|zf;g / cfly{s cg'zf;g -lqe'jg ljZjljBfno jflif{slbj; k|sfzg @)*)_ lqlj ;"rgf tyf hg;Dks{ dxfzfvf .
lqlj= -@)&&_, n]vfk/LIf0f lgb]{lzsf @)&&= n]vf k/LIf0f dxfzfvf, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno, s]Gb|Lo
sfof{no .
lqlj -@)&*_, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno cf=j= @)&*.@)&( sf nflu lqlj ;efaf6 kfl/t sfo{qmdtyf ah]6, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno 5fkfvfgf .
lqlj -@)&(_, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno cf=j=@)&(.@)*) sf nflu lqlj ;efaf6 kfl/t sfo{qmd tyf ah]6,
lqe'jg ljZjljBfno 5fkfvfgf .
lqlj -@)*)_, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno cf=j= @)*).@)*! sf nflu lqlj ;efjf6 kfl/t sfo{qmd tyfah]6, lqe'jg ljZjljBfno 5fkfvfgf .

61

lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf cgnfOg lzIf0fsf]
sfof{Gjog
ab|Lk|;fb km'Pn*n]v;f/
k|:t't n]vsf] p2]Zo lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf cgnfOg lzIf0f sfof{Gjogsf] cj:yf kQf nufpFb} ;f]sfof{Gjogdf cfOkg]{ ;d:of ;dfwfgsf pkfox? ;'emfpg' /x]sf] 5 . o; cWoogsf] p2]Zo k"/f ug{
lqe'jg ljZjljBfno, dx]Gb|/Tg ax'd'vL SofDk;, Onfddf cg';Gwfgstf{n] cWofkg ug]{ lzIffzf:qsf]:gfts tx t];|f] jif{sf] Pp6f ;]S;gsf &% hgf ljBfyL{x?df 36gf cWoog ljlwsf] pkof]u ub}{
u'0ffTds Pjd\ ;ª\VofTds cg';Gwfg 9fFrfdf ;DkGg ul/Psf] 5 . oxfF cfjZos kg]{ u'0ffTds Pjd\;ª\VofTds ;"rgf k|ZgfjnL tyf cGtjf{tf{sf dfWodaf6 k|fylds ;|f]tsf ?kdf ;ª\sng ul/Psf] 5eg] ljifo;Fu ;DalGwt k|sflzt tyf ck|sflzt ;fdu|L låtLo ;|f]t x'g\ . cWoogdf ef}lts sIffdf
pkl:yt ePsf ljBfyL{x?sf] ;ª\Vof tLg jif{df 36\b} uPsf] 5 eg] ;f]xL cjlwdf cgnfOg sIffsf]
pkl:ylt eg] k|To]s jif{ a9\b} uPsf] 5 . To:t} ef}lts sIffdf pkl:yt ePsf ljBfyL{x?dWo] cgnfOg
sIffdf cg'kl:yt x'g]sf] ;ª\Vof qmdzM 36\b} uPsf] 5 . o;/L ljBfyL{x?sf] pkl:yltnfO{ x]bf{ ef}lts
sIffdf 36]sf] b]lvG5 eg] cgnfOg sIffdf a9\b} uPsf] b]lvG5 . To;}n] cWoogdf ljBfyL{x?sf]
cgnfOg sIffk|lt ;do;fk]If cfsif{0f a9\b} uPsf] b]lvP tfklg k|fWofks tyf ljBfyL{x?;Fu ljB'tLo
pks/0fx? ;d]tsf] kof{Kt kx'Fr gePsf sf/0f o;sf] sfof{Gjogdf k|efjsfl/tf Nofpg ;s]sf]b]lvPg . ;fy} cgnfOg l;sfOsf] ;dodf ljB't cfk"lt{, ljBfyL{x?df cgnfOg k7gkf7g ug{
cfjZos k|fljlws ;fIf/tf, ljBfyL{x?nfO{ ;a} vfnsf ;Lk lzIf0f ug{ sl7gfO{, ;dodf ljBfyL{
egf{ gx'g' h:tf ;d:ofnfO{ ;dfwfg ul/of] eg] o;sf] k|j4{g Pjd\ ljsf; ug{ ;lsg] ;'emfj k|:t't
ul/Psf] 5 .
zJbs'~hLM lzIf0f, cgnfOg lzIff, u'0f:t/Lo lzIff, sf]le8 !(, j]a 6]Sgf]nf]hLkl/rok/Dk/fut ?kdf lzIf0f eg]sf] lzIffyL{nfO{ dfgjLo jftfj/0fdf ;dfof]hg ug'{ xf] eg] clxn] cfP/
lzIffyL{nfO{ h:tf] ;'s} ;fdflhs jftfj/0fdf ;dfof]hg x'g ;Sg] gful/ssf] tof/L ug{'nfO{ lzIf0f
elgG5 -k'mPn, @)&%_ . ;+;f/df k|ljlwsf] ljsf;;Fu} l;Sg]–l;sfpg] tf}/tl/sfx?df klg k]m/abn x'Fb}
cfPsf] 5 . lzIf0fnfO{ ljleGg ljlw / k|ljlwx?sf] k|of]u u/]/ ljleGg df]8x?af6 ul/G5 . tL df]8x?
dWo], cgnfOg l;sfO Pp6f gjLgtd df]8 xf] h;n] k|fljlws pks/0fx?sf] ;xof]udf k/Dk/fut* pk–k|fWofks, dx]Gb|/Tg ax'd'vL SofDk;, Onfd
badri.phuel@gmail.com

62

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

?kdf x'Fb} cfPsf] cfdg]–;fdg] l;sfO df]8df kl/jt{g Nofpg] sfd u/]sf] 5 . j]a 6]Sgf]nf]hL Pjd\g]6js{sf dfWodaf6 k7gkf7g x'g] lqmofsnfknfO{ cgnfOg lzIff elgG5 . cyf{t\, cgnfOg lzIffeg]sf] 3/d} a;]/ OG6/g]6 jf j]a 6]Sgf]nf]hLsf dfWodaf6 ul/g] ;Dk"0f{ z}lIfs lqmofsnfk xf] . cr]no;nfO{ l8lh6n lzIffsf ?kdf klg a'e\mg] ul/G5 . o;nfO{ j]a–cfwfl/t k|lzIf0f, O{–lzIff, ljtl/tlzIff, OG6/g]6–cfwfl/t lzIff, j]a–cfwfl/t lgb]{zg, ;fOa/ lzIff, er{'cn lzIff jf g]6–cfwfl/t lzIff
klg elgG5 .
8dkmf]8{ / ldn/ -;g\ @)!*_ n] pRr lzIffsf] cgnfOg sIffdf kf7\oqmd / ljBfyL{x? aLr cGt/lqmof
alnof] x'g]x'Fbf o;n] ljBfyL{x?df k/Dk/fut ef}lts l;sfOsf] t'ngfdf a9L ts{df ;+nUg ePsf]
kQf nufP . pb{g / j]u]g -;g\ @)))_ n] 6]Sgf]nf]hLnfO{ cfk"m cg's"n k|of]u ug{ l;sfpg] lj:t[tk|lqmofx?nfO{ cFufNg] sIffsf] ?kdf lnPsf 5g\ . xn -;g\ @)))_ n] cgnfOg sIffnfO{ ;fdu|Lx?sf]
kx'Fr ;lxt ;Dk"0f{ kf7\oqmdsf] k|;f/ x'g] lqmofsnfksf ?kdf lnPsf 5g\ . cgnfOg sIff cgnfOg
l;sfOx?df dfq s]lGb|t geO{ o;n] sDKo'6/–cfwfl/t l;sfO Kn]6kmd{ / 8]lne/L ug]{ ljlw, ljifo,
9fFrf / ldl8of h:t} dlN6ldl8of, z}lIfs k|f]u|fldª, l;d'n];g, v]n / lglZrt ?kdf gofF ldl8ofsf]k|of]u ;dfj]z ug]{ x'Fbf ;a} ljifo If]qx?df o;sf] pkof]u x'g]5 -lsª\ujL / ls8, ;g\ @)!)_ .
SofDka]n -;g\ @))$_ sf cg';f/ pRrlzIffdf cgnfOg lzIffn] 1fgsf] ;fy;fy} lrGtgzLn /;xof]uL lzIffsf] ljsf;df ;xof]u ub{5 . o;n] lzIffyL{x?nfO{ sg]lS6le6L lgdf{0f, 1fg afF8kmfF8,;xsfo{ / ;fdflhstfdf ;xof]u u5{ -dfxf{g, ;g\ @))^_ . To;}u/L l;d]G; -;g\ @))$_ sf cg';f/k|ljlwn] xfd|f] lbdfunfO{ kl/jt{g ul//x]sf] x'G5 / xfdLn] k|of]u ug]{, kl/eflift ug{] ;f]rnfO{ lglZrt
cfsf/ lbg] sfd ug'{sf ;fy} ljZjJofkL 1fgnfO{ PsLs[t ub{5 . lkl;ofgf -;g\ @)!&_ sf cg';f/
cgnfOg sIffsf] k|of]udfkm{t\ cf}krfl/s, cgf}krfl/s / clgoldt lzIffnfO{ k'gM ;~rfng ug{sf]nflu lzIff k|0ffnLsf] ljsNkx?dWo] k|fljlws ;Lk / z}lIfs ;fdu|L k|bfg ug]{ Ps dxÎjk"0f{ dfWodePsf] 5 . xªsªsf] Ps cWoogdf cgnfOg dfWodaf6 l;sfpFbf afnaflnsfsf] l;sfOdf ?lr tyf
3/df cgnfOgd}qL jftfj/0fsf] cefj ;fy} clwsf+z afnaflnsfn] l;Sg] sfo{x? k"/f ug{ g;Sg'
Pjd\ o;sf] cg'ej gePsf cleefjsx? o;af6 ;Gt'i6 ePsf] b]lvPg -nfp / nL, ;g\ @)@!_ .
sf]le8–!( sf] dxfdf/Ln] ljZje/sf nueu @& k|ltzt b]zsf ljBfnox? k"0f{ jf cf+lzs ?kdf aGb
ePsf sf/0f lzIff k|0ffnLnfO{ g} :tAw agfPsf] 5 . of] dxfdf/Ldf em08} && nfv afnaflnsf cfkm\
gf] ef}lts sIff sf]7fjf6 jlGrt ePsf 5g\ . o;af6 x/]s afnaflnsf] ljBfno hfg], l;Sg] / cfk"mljsl;t x'g] clwsf/df k|Zg p7]sf] 5 -;+oQ' m /fi6« afn sf]if, o'lg;]km, ;g\ @)@!_ . ;+oQ' m /fi6« ;ª\3z}lIfs, j}1flgs / ;f+:s[lts ;ª\u7g -o'g:] sf], ;g\ @)@)_ sf cg';f/ ljZj hg;+Vofsf] *) k|ltzt
ljBfyL{ /fli6«o aGbaf6 k|efljt ePsf lyP . o;sf] kl/0ffd:j?k w]/} :s'n / sn]hx?n] pknAw k|ljlw/ l8lh6n Kn]6kmd{x?sf] cfwf/df b"/ lzIffnfO{ ljsNksf ?kdf cg';/0f u/]sf 5g\ . o;n] g]kfn
nufot ljZje/sf] lzIff / l;sfOsf] dfWodnfO{ k'glj{rf/ ug]{ gofF cj;/ klg lbPsf] 5 . #) d] @)@)g]kfnsf] lzIff, lj1fg tyf k|ljlw dGqfnon] j}slNks dfWodaf6 ljBfyL{ l;sfO ;xhLs/0fsf] nflu
Ps lgb]l{ zsf hf/L ub}{ l;sfO lg/Gt/tfsf nflu cgnfOg l;sfO kf]6n{ sf ;fy} l;sfO rf}tf/L ;d]t63

:yfkgf u/]sf] 5 -1jfnL P08 e§, l8;]Da/ #, ;g\ @)@!_ . Ps lrlgofF cWoogdf cleefjsx?n]
tflnd gkfPsf sf/0f cgnfOg lzIffnfO{ cFufNg lxrlsrfPsf lyP -8f]ªu\ , sfjf] / nfO, ;g\ @)@)_ .
w]/}h;f] b]zsf ljBfyL{x? ;g\ @)@) b]lv sf]le8 !( sf] df/df k/]sf 5g\ . sf]le8sf] ljifd
kl/l:yltdf g]kfnsf s]xL :s'n, sn]h tyf ljZjljBfnox?n] cgnfOgdfkm{t\ k7gkf7gnfO{ ;'rf?
u/] . o;} ;Gbe{df g]kfnsf] ;a}eGbf h]7f] ljZjljBfno lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] @)&& j}zfv !) b]lv
clkm; #^% cGtu{t dfOqmf];k\m6 l6D;dfkm{t\ cgnfOg sIffsf dfWodjf6 k7gkf7gnfO{ lg/Gt/tf
lbPsf] lyof] . ;f] cgnfOg l;sfO sfof{Gjogsf] cj:yf s:tf] /Xof] ;fy} o;sf] ;~rfngdf b]lvPsf;d:of tyf ;dfwfgsf pkfox? ;d]t ;'emfpg] ;]/f]k]m/f]df of] cWoog ul/Psf] 5 .
p2]Zoo; cWoogsf] p2]Zo lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf cgnfOg lzIf0f sfof{Gjogsf] cj:yf kQfnufpFb} ;f]sfof{Gjogdf cfOkg]{ ;d:of ;dfwfgsf pkfox? ;'emfpg' /x]sf] 5 .
cWoogljlw
o; cWoogdf 36gf cWoogljlwsf] pkof]u ub}{ u'0ffTds Pjd\ ;ª\VofTds 9fFrfsf] k|of]u ePsf] 5 .
oxfF cfjZos kg]{ u'0ffTds Pjd\ ;ª\VofTds ;"rgf k|fylds ;|f]taf6 ;ª\sng ul/Psf] 5 . cWoog
stf{;Fu /x]sf] lj=;+= @)&^ b]lv @)&* ;fn;Ddsf ljBfyL{x?sf] sIff xflh/L clen]v, k|ZgfjnL tyf
5nkmnaf6 k|fKt ;"rgfnfO{ ;d]t k|fylds ;|f]tsf ?kdf lnOPsf] 5 . ;fy} ljleGg clen]v tyf
cg';GwfgfTds k|ltj]bg, kqklqsfdf k|sflzt ;fdu|L cWoogsf låtLo ;|f]t x'g\ . of] cWoog lqe'jg
ljZjljBfno, dx]Gb|/Tg ax'd'vL SofDk;, Onfddf cg';Gwfgstf{n] cWofkg ug]{ lzIffzf:qsf] :gfts
tx t];|f] jif{sf] Pp6f ;]S;gsf &% hgf ljBfyL{x?df ;DkGg ul/Psf] 5 .
oxfF cg';Gwfgstf{n] cgnfOg sIffdf ;xefuL k|fWofks tyf ljBfyL{x?sf] k|ToIf cg'ejx?sf] ;"rgf ;ª\sng
ug{ k|ZgfjnL tyf cw{–;+/lrt ulx/f] cGtjf{tf{åf/f ;ª\sng ul/of] . oxfF k|To]s ;xefuLsf nflu b'O{ k6scGtjf{tf{ lnOof] . klxnf] r/0fsf] cGtjf{tf{df pgLx?;Fu ;DaGw lgdf{0f / hfgsf/L cfbfgk|bfgdf s]lGb|t lyof]eg] bf];f| ] r/0fdf ;xefuLx?n] cgnfOg l;sfOdf cfkm\gf cg'ejx? atfP/ ;xof]u u/]sf lyP . pgLx?
d]/f ljBfyL{ ePsfn] cGtjf{tf{sf] qmddf cg';Gwfg k|Zgx?;Fu ;DalGwt /x]/ v'n/] ;"rgf k|bfg u/]sf lyP .
glthfsf] ljZn]if0f
o; cWoogdf cWoogstf{ :jod\n] cWofkg ug]{ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf cgnfOg sIff ;~rfngsf]]
jf:tljs cj:yf s:tf] /x]sf] 5 < eGg] ljifodf cWoogleq ;d]l6Psf] If]qsf k|fWofks Pjd\
ljBfyL{x?sf] xflh/L clen]vjf6 kfOPsf] ;"rgfsf] cj:yfnfO{ lgDgcg';f/ k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 .
ef}lts sIffdf pkl:yt÷cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{o; pkzLif{sdf lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] cflËs SofDk; dx]Gb|/Tg ax'dv' L SofDk;, Onfddf lj= P8= t];f| ]jif{ ljut @)&^ b]lv @)&* ;fn;Dd tLgjif{sf] ef}lts sIffdf pkl:yt / cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{x?sf] ;ª\Voftflnsfa4 u/L k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . tYofª\ssf] ljZn]if0f tflnsf / To;sf] JofVof lgDgfg';f/ 5 .
64lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

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$)$&#(Tfflnsf ! Dff lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] cflËs SofDk; dx]Gb|/Tg ax'dv' L SofDk;, Onfddf lj= P8= t];f| ] jif{
clgjfo{ ljifo cWoog ug]{ Pp6f ;]S;gsf &% hgf ljBfyL{x? ljut @)&^ b]lv @)&* ;fn;Dd tLg jif{sf]ef}lts sIffdf pkl:yt / cg'kl:ytx?sf] ljj/0f tflnsfdf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . oxfF @)&^ ;fndf %@hgf ljBfyL{x? ef}lts sIffdf pkl:yt ePsf 5g eg] lj=;=+ @)&* ;fndf cfOk'Ubf of] ;ª\Vof 36]/ $)df em/]sf] 5 . To:t} cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{x?sf] ;ª\Vof qmdzM @# b]lv a9]/ #% k'us
] f] 5 . o;/L x]bf{ tLg
jif{df hDdf ^! k|ltzt ljBfyL{x? pkl:yt b]lvG5g\ eg] #( k|ltzt ljBfyL{x? cg'kl:yt ePsf] b]lvG5 .
cgnfOg sIffdf pkl:yt÷cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{o; pkzLif{sdf lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] cflËs SofDk; dx]Gb|/Tg ax'dv' L SofDk;, Onfddf lj= P8= t];f| ]jif{ ljut @)&^ b]lv @)&* ;fn;Dd tLg jif{sf] cgnfOg sIffdf pkl:yt / cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{x?sf];ª\Vof tflnsfa4 u/L k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . tYofª\ssf] ljZn]if0f tflnsf / To;sf] JofVof lgDgfg';f/ 5 .
tflnsf @cgnfOg sIffdf pkl:yt÷cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{x?sf] ;ª\Vof

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Tfflnsf @ Dff lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] cflËs SofDk; dx]Gb|/Tg ax'd'vL SofDk;, Onfddf lj= P8=t];|f] jif{ clgjfo{ ljifo cWoog ug]{ Pp6f ;]S;gsf &% hgf ljBfyL{x? ljut @)&^ b]lv @)&*
;fn;Dd tLgjif{sf] cgnfOg sIffdf pkl:yt / cg'kl:ytx?sf] ljj/0f tflnsfdf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 .
65

oxfF @)&^ ;fndf $) hgf ljBfyL{x? cgnfOg sIffdf pkl:yt ePsf 5g\ eg] lj=;+= @)&* ;fndf
cfOk'Ubf of] ;ª\Vof a9]/ %% df k'u]sf] 5 . To:t} cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{x?sf] ;ª\Vof qmdzM #% b]lv
36]/ @) k'u]sf] 5 . o;/L x]bf{ tLg jif{df hDdf *) k|ltzt ljBfyL{x? pkl:yt b]lvG5 eg] #^k|ltzt ljBfyL{x? cg'kl:yt ePsf] b]lvG5 .
ef}lts sIffdf pkl:yt x'g] dWo] cgnfOg sIffdf cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{o; pkzLif{sdf lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] cflËs SofDk; dx]Gb|/Tg ax'd'vL SofDk;, Onfddf lj= P8=t];|f] jif{ ljut @)&^ b]lv @)&* ;fn;Dd tLgjif{sf] ef}lts sIffdf pkl:yt x'g] dWo] cgnfOg sIffdf
cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{x?sf] ;ª\Vof tflnsfa4 u/L k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . tYofª\ssf] ljZn]if0f tflnsf /To;sf] JofVof lgDgfg';f/ 5 .
tflnsf #ef}lts sIffdf pkl:yt dWo] cgnfOg sIffdf cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{x?sf] ;ª\Vof

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k|ltzt@(@@!#@@Tfflnsf # Dff lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] cflËs SofDk; dx]Gb|/Tg ax'd'vL SofDk;, Onfddf lj= P8=t];|f] jif{ clgjfo{ ljifo cWoog ug]{ Pp6f ;]S;gsf &% hgf ljBfyL{x? ljut @)&^ b]lv @)&*
;fn;Dd tLgjif{sf] ef}lts sIffdf pkl:yt dWo] cgnfOg sIffdf cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{x?sf] ;ª\Voftflnsfdf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . oxfF @)&^ ;fndf %@ hgf ljBfyL{ ef}lts sIffdf pkl:ytdWo] !%hgf ljBfyL{x? cgnfOg sIffdf pkl:yt x'g ;s]sf 5}gg\ . To:t} lj=;+= @)&* ;fndf cfOk'Ubfef}lts sIffdf pkl:yt ;ª\Vof $) hgf ljBfyL{dWo] % hgf ljBfyL{x? cgnfOg sIffdf pkl:yt x'g;s]sf 5}gg\ . o;/L x]bf{ ef}lts sIffdf ljBfyL{x?sf] pkl:ylt 36]sf] b]lvG5 eg] cgnfOg sIffdf
ljBfyL{ pkl:ylt a9]sf] b]lvG5 .
cgnfOg sIffdf pkl:yt x'g] dWo] ef}lts sIffdf cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{o; pkzLif{sdf lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] cflËs SofDk; dx]Gb|/Tg ax'd'vL SofDk;, Onfddf lj= P8=t];|f] jif{ ljut @)&^ b]lv @)&* ;fn;Dd tLgjif{sf] cgnfOg sIffdf pkl:yt x'g]dWo] ef}lts sIffdf
cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{x?sf] ;ª\Vof tflnsfa4 u/L k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . tYofª\ssf] ljZn]if0f tflnsf /To;sf] JofVof lgDgfg';f/ 5 .
66

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

tflnsf $cgnfOg sIffdf pkl:yt x'g]dWo] ef}lts sIffdf cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{x?sf] ;ª\Vof

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tflnsf $ Dff lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] cfª\lus SofDk; dx]Gb|/Tg ax'd'vL SofDk;, Onfddf lj= P8=t];|f] jif{ clgjfo{ ljifo cWoog ug]{ Pp6f ;]S;gsf &% hgf ljBfyL{x? ljut @)&^ b]lv @)&*
;fn;Dd tLgjif{sf] cgnfOg sIffdf pkl:ylt x'g]dWo] ef}lts sIffdf cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{ ;ª\VofnfO{
tflnsfdf k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 . oxfF @)&^ ;fndf $) hgf ljBfyL{x? cgnfOg sIffdf pkl:yt
ePsf dWo] !) hgf Eff}lts sIffdf cg'kl:yt b]lvG5g\ . To:t} lj=;= @)&* ;fndf cfOk'Ubf of];ª\Vof cgnfOg sIffdf pkl:yt %% hgf dWo] @) hgf Eff}lts sIffdf cg'kl:yt ePsf 5g\ .
To:t} ef}lts sIffdf cg'kl:yt ljBfyL{x?sf] ;ª\Vof qmdzM !) b]lv a9]/ @) k'u]sf] 5 .
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf cgnfOg lzIffsf] sfof{Gjogdf cfOkg]{ ;d:of Pjd\ ;dfwfgsf pkfoo; cWoogdf k|ZgfjnL tyf cGtjf{tf{ dfWodaf6 k|fKt zflAbs ;"rgfnfO{ 5f]6f] a'Fbfsf ?kdf kl/jt{gu/]/ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodf cgnfOg lzIffsf] sfof{Gjogdf cfOkg]{ ;d:of Pjd\ ;dfwfgsf nflu
canDjg ug{ ;lsg] sbdnfO{ lgDgcg';f/ k|:t't ul/Psf] 5 .
ljB't
ljB't cfk"lt{ cgnfOg sIff ;~rfng ug{] dxÎjk"0f{ k"jf{wf/ xf] . ljh'nL cfk"lt{ ;xh ePg eg]
cgnfOg sIff ;~rfng ug]{ sNkgf;d]t ug{ ;lsFb}g . cWoogdf ;+nUg gd'gf k|fWofks Pjd\
ljBfyL{x?n] lbPsf] ;"rgfdf eg]sf 5g\ sL sIffdf hf]l8P/ k7gkf7g z'? u/]kl5 Pp6} sIffsf];dodf #÷$ k6s aQL cfpFb} hfFb} u/]/ ;xh ?kdf sIff lqmofsnfk ;~rfng ug{ ;lsPg . slxn]
k|fWofks ePsf] :yfgdf t slxn] ljBfyL{ ePsf] :yfgdf aQL cfpg] hfg] ub{5, o:tf] 36gfn] sIff
lqmofsnfkdf c;xhtf Nofof] . To;}n] cgnfOg sIff ;xh ?kdf ;~rfng ug{ ;/sf/n] ljh'nLsf]
cj/f]wnfO{ k"0f{?kdf x6fpg] gLlt sfof{Gjog ug{' kb{5 .
OG6/g]6
cgnfOg sIff ;~rfng ug{ OG6/g]6 ;]jf clgjfo{ x'G5 . g]kfn ;/sf/n] cgnfOg sIff ;~rfngsf
nflu OG6/g]6 ;]jfsf] lj:tf/df Go"g nufgL u/]sf] 5 . g]kfn b"/;~rf/ k|flws/0fsf cg';f/67

clxn] OG6/g]6sf] kx'Fr &@ k|ltzt hgtfdf dfq 5 . g]kfn b"/;~rf/ k|flws/0fsf] cfFs8fnfO{x]bf{ klg @* k|ltzt jfnjflnsfx? sIff lqmofsnfkdf ;+nUg x'gaf6 jlGrt /x]sf] b]lvG5 . xfn
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] cgnfOg sIff ;~rfng ug{ clkm; #^% cGtu{t dfOqmf];km\6 l6d;\ gfds
;km\6j]o/nfO{ cflwsfl/s ?kdf sfof{Gjog u/]sf] 5 . of] ;km\6j]o/ sd l:k8sf] OG6/g]6n] /fd|f];Fu
rNg ;St}g . ;/sf/L tYofª\scg';f/, *@ k|ltzt hg;+Vof OG6/g]6sf] kx'Frdf 5g\ tyf ^%%:yfgLo tx;Dd g]kfn 6]lnsdsf] kmf]/hL ;]jf lj:tf/ ePsf] 5 . o; tYosf cfwf/df klg 7'nf]hg;+Vof OG6/g]6 kx'Fraflx/} 5 . csf]{ s'/f, ;x/L If]qdf 6]lnsdsf] kmf]/hL tyf cGo a|f]8AofG8
OG6/g]6 ;]jfx? e/kbf{ 5}gg\ eg] u|fdL0f If]qdf cgnfOg sIffsf nflu tL ;]jf k|efjsf/L 5}gg\ .
;/sf/n] ;a} afnaflnsfx?nfO{ OG6/g]6sf] kx'rF df k'¥ofpg'sf ;fy} ;km\6j]o/ rNg;Sg] cj:yfdfo;sf] l:k8 a9fFpg] gLlt Nofpg' kb{5 . o:t}, xftxftdf OG6/g]6 tyf sDKo'6/sf] kx'rF n] lgDTofpg;Sg] ljs[ltnfO{ /f]Sg cleefjs tyf lzIfs Pjd\ ljBfyL{x?nfO{ g}lts lzIffsf] Joj:yf ;d]t ug{k' b{5 .
cg'zf;gljBfyL{x?n] cgnfOg sIffnfO{ uDeL/tfk"j{s glnPsf] xF'bf pgLx? :jtGq ePsf] dxz'; u/L O{–lzIff
k|lqmofx?df sIff cg'zf;g sfod ug{ ;d:of x'G5 . Pshgf pQ/bftfn] lbPsf] ;"rgf cg';f/k/LIff cyjf u[xsfo{sf] ;dodf klg w]/} ljBfyL{x?n] k|Zgx?nfO{ uDeL/tfk"j{s ljrf/ gu/L pQ/
lbg] clgoldt tl/sfx? k|of]u u5{g\ . o; afx]s, w]/} ljBfyL{x?n] JolQmut O{–nlg{ª df]8\o'ndf
Wofg s]lGb|t ug{'sf] ;§f cGo ultljlwdf pgLx?sf] Wofg uPsf] kfOof] . To;}n] ljBfyL{x?nfO{
ljifoj:t'b]lv ljrlnt geO{ cfTdfg'zf;g sfod ug{ k|]l/t ug{'kb{5 . lzIfs ljBfyL{ cgnfOgd} 5ls cGt} uof], ljBfyL{nfO{ ?lr ePsf] 5 ls 5}g eGg]af/] ;r]t x'g'k5{ . o;sf nflu aLraLrdf
k|ltk|Zg ;f]Wg], ljBfyL{x?sf] ?lr–rfxgf a'e\mg] ub}{ ug{'k5{ . cgnfOg k7gkf7g ubf{ lzIfsx?n]ljBfyL{x?sf] ;sf/fTds jf gsf/fTds afgLa]xf]/f, :jefj, ?lr, Ifdtf nufotsf cfGtl/s Pj+ afXo;d:of jf u'0fx?sf] cjnf]sg / klxrfg u/L ;dfwfgsf nflu dgf]ljdz{ ;]jf ;~rfng ug{'k5{ .
l;sf?x?;Fu cgnfOg d} cGt/lqmof, 5nkmn jf s'/fsfgLsf dfWodaf6 ;d:of klxrfg u/L;dfwfgsf pkfox?sf] vf]hL ug{'k5{ .
k|fWofkssf] OR5f
cgnfOg sIff ;~rfngsf ;DaGwdf k|d'v ?kdf k|fWofksx? g} lhDd]jf/ x'G5g\ t/ s]xLn] o;nfO{
emf/f] 6fg]{ dfWod agfPsf] s'/f pQ/bftfx?af6 cfPsf] 5 . pgLx? sf]le8 !( sf] nx/ rn]/
ns8fpgsf ;dodf ljleGg axfgf u/]/ cgnfOg sIff ;~rfng ug{ OR5f g} b]vfpFb}gg\ . o;nfO{
pgLx? ljbfsf] ;'ljwf kfPsf] clego ub}{ cgnfOg sIff ;~rfng ug]{ bfloTjjf6 kG;g] sf]lz;u/]sf] b]lvG5 . sIff ;~rfng u/] klg /fd|f] tof/L gu/L :nfO8 Pjd\ cfjZos ;fdu|Lx? gh'6fO
emf/f]6fg]{ p2]Zon] k7gkf7g u/]sf] b]lvG5 . o;}n] sf]/f]gfsf] nx/ cfpg' eg]sf] ;'ljwf xf]Og o;nfO{
lzIf0f l;sfO lqmofsnfk km/s 9ª\un] cgnfOg df]8df ;~rfng ug]{ cj;/ ePsf] x'Fbf ;DalGwt
lgsfoaf6 k|efjsf/L cg'udg ug]{ Joj:yf ug'{kg]{ b]lvG5 .
68lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

k|fljlws ;fIf/tf
ljBfyL{x?;Fu} lzIfs klg OG6/g]6 tyf sDKo'6/df bIf x'g' cgnfOg k7gkf7gsf] klxnf] cfjZostfxf] t/ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] cgnfOg sIff ;~rfng ug{ nfu' u/]sf] ;km\6j]o/ /fd|f];Fu rnfpg;a} k|fWofks tyf ljBfyL{x? ;Ifd 5}gg\ . cgnfOg k7gkf7gdf lzIfs tyf ljBfyL{x?aLr tf/tDolgs} ldn]sf] x'g'k5{ . 1fg k|bfg ug]{ klxnf] kIf / 1fg u|x0f ug]{ bf];|f] kIf cGt/lqmofTds ?kdf
k7gkf7gdf ;l/s x'g'kb{5 . cgnfOg lzIf0fdf lzIfs Psf]xf]/f] af]ln/xg' eGbf cGt/lqmofsf]
jftfj/0f jgfpg' kb{5 . o;sf nflu cgnfOg k7gkf7gdf lzIfs tyf ljBfyL{x?df O–nfOa|]/L;DaGwL;Lksf ;fy} ljleGg k7g jf cg';Gwfg ;fdu|L vf]Hg, hg{n, n]v /rgf, k|mL l/;f];{;DaGwL ;fdu|Lvf]Hg hfGg'k5{ . o;sf] nflu k|fWofks tyf ljBfyL{x?nfO{ O{–nlg{ª jftfj/0f;Fu kl/lrt x'g /o;sf] k|of]u ;'lglZrt ug{ cGt/lqmofTds tflndx?sf] Joj:yf x'g'kb{5 . clxn] k|ljlwdf lzIfseGbf
ljBfyL{ g} cufl8 /x]sf] s6'oyfy{nfO{ cfTd;ft\ ub}{ lzIfsn] xLgtfaf]w gu/L cgnfOg k7gkf7gdf;l/s x'g'k5{ .
Jofjxfl/s 1fgsf] lzIf0f
cgnfOg sIff ;~rfng Pjd\ d"Nofª\sgdf ;fdfGotof 1fg kIfnfO{ j9L dxÎj lbO{ ;Lk cyjf
Jofjxfl/s kIf sdhf]/ b]lvG5 . o:tf] sIffdf ;Lksf ;fy} Jofjxfl/s k|of]u;Fu ;DalGwt p2]ZonfO{
k|efjsf/L ?kdf lqmofsnfk ;~rfng ePsf] kfOPg . l;s]sf ljifoj:t'nfO{ Jojxf/df k|of]u ug]{tl/sf l;sfpg g;lsPsf] cj:yf ljBfyL{x?n] atfPsf 5g\ . ljBfyL{x?n] sIffdf 1fgsf] c+zdfq
l;sfP/ d"Nofª\sg ul/Psf] u'gf;f] ub}{ ;+1fgfTds kIfnfO{ j9L ef/ lbPsf] u'gf;f] u/] . To;}n]cgnfOg sIffnfO{ a9L eGbf a9L cGt/lqmofTds Pjd\ Jofjxfl/s agfpg kf7\oqmddf ;d]t kl/dfh{gub}{ k|fWofksx?nfO{ lhDd]jf/ agfpg' kb{5 .
af}l4s rf]/L
ljBfyL{x?n] cgnfOg sIffsf] /]s8{x? k|fKt ug{ ;lsG5 eGg]] yfxf kfPkl5 ltgLx?n] lzIfsn]u/]sf] JofVofgnfO{ /fd|/L Wofgk"j{s ;'Gb}gg\ . lsgsL sIff sfo{ Pjd\ d"Nofª\sgsf ;dodf pgLx?
;lhn};Fu cfk"mn] k|fKt u/]sf /]s8{sf ;fy} OG6/g]6sf] ;xfotfaf6 x'ax' k|ltlnlk ub}{ 6fF:g] ;Defjgf/xg] s'/f pQ/bftfaf6 cfPsf] 5 . o;/L af}l4s rf]/L ug]{ cj:yfdf ePsf] sIff sfo{ Pjd\ JolQmutd"Nofª\sgn] ;xL glthf lbg ufx|f] kb{5 . o;sf nflu sIffdf cGt/lqmof a9fpg ljz]ifu/L
ljBfyL{x?;Fu cGt/lqmof a9fpg] vfnsf lqmofsnfk ug{'k5{ . sIffsfo{ Pjd\ d"Nofª\sgsf] u'0f:t/j[l4 ug{ xfdLn] 7uL / af}l4s rf]/L kQf nufpg ;Sg] ;km\j]o/ vl/b u/L pkof]u ug'{kb{5 . ;fy}sIffsfo{ Pjd\ d"Nofª\sgsf] k|ToIf lel8of] / k|ToIf /]sl8{ª ug{ ;lsg] Joj:yf ug{'kb{5 .
ljB'tLo ;fdu|Lg]kfnsf w]/} kl/jf/sf nflu ufF;, af;, skf; h:tf cfwf/e"t cfjZostfsf] cefj /x]sf] 5 .
cgnfOg k7gkf7gdf OG6/g]6sf ;fy} Nofk6k÷8]:s6k Pjd\ :df6{ kmf]gsf] cfjZostf k5{ . oL
69

ljB'tLo ;fdu|Lx? ;a} ljBfyL{x?n] vl/b ug{ ;Sb}gg\ . o;n] ubf{ clt ljkGg kl/jf/sf xf]gfxf/
ljBfyL{x? cgnfOg sIffsf] kxF'reGbf aflx/} /xg] ;Defjgf /xG5 . o:tf] kl/l:ylt gcfcf];\ eg]/;/f]sf/jfnfx? lgs} ;r]t x'g'k5{ . cgnfOg lzIf0fljlw cfkm}+df vlr{nf] 5 . To;sf nflu cfjZos
sDKo'6/, Nofk6k jf :df6{ kmf]g k|fWofks tyf ljBfyL{x?sf] cltl/Qm vr{ xf] . 3/df hlt ljBfyL{
5g\ Toltj6} o:tf ljB'tLo ;fdfg cfjZos x'G5 . dxfdf/Ln] /f]huf/L u'dfPsf jf cfDbfgL 36]sf
cleefjssf nflu o;sf] Joj:yfkg ug{ ufx|f] x'G5 . o;sf nflu Nofk6k lsGgsf nflu ;/sf/n];x'lnot Aofhb/df C0f pknJw u/fpg] gLltnfO{ k|efjsf/L sfof{Gjog x'g' cfjZos b]lvG5 .
k|fWofks Pjd\ ljBfyL{sf] :jf:Yo
cgnfOg lzIffdf sDKo'6/ Pjd\ :df6{ kmf]gsf] cufl8 nfdf] ;do a;L k7gkf7g ug'{÷u/fpg' kb{5 .
nfdf] ;do l:qmgdf x]bf{x]bf{ slxn] cfFvf b'V5 t slxn] 6fpsf] b'V5 . o;n] ubf{ Wofg k9fOdf eGbf
cGoq df]l8g'sf ;fy} ljB'tLo ;fdu|Laf6 lg:sg] xflgsf/s ljls/0fn] k|fWofks Pjd\ ljBfyL{x?sf]
z/L/ tyf cfFvfnfO{ c;/ ug{ ;Sg] ;Defjgf /xG5 . To;}n] o:tf xflgsf/s ljls/0faf6 aRg
k|fWofks Pjd\ ljBfyL{x?n] z/L/ Pjd\ cfFvf ;+/If0f ug]{ r:df nufotsf ;fdu|Lsf] k|of]u ug{'k5{ .
lzIf0fljlw
k|fWofksx?n] cgnfOg sIffdf ljBfyL{d}qL lzIf0fljlw cjnDag gu/]sf] kfOof] . ljBfyL{x?n]Sofd]/fsf] cufl8 xnrn gu/L nfdf] ;do l:qmgdf x]bf{x]bf{ slxn] cfFvf b'V5 t slxn] 6fpsf]
b'vfOsf sf/0f yfx} gkfO{ Wofg k9fOdf eGbf cGt} hfg;S5 t/ s]xL lzIfsn]] k9fOdf 7Ug vf]h]sf];f]Rg'x'G5 eGg] u'gf;f] ;'lgof] . k|fWofksx?n] k|Zg ;f]Wg], /fd|f];Fu af]Ng], slxn]sfxL sf];{aflx/sf] klg
s'/f ug]{, /fd|f] ubf{ tfl/km ug]{ u¥of] eg] ljBfyL{x? k9fO k|lt cfslif{t x'G5g\ . ljBfyL{x? OG6/g]6df
slxn]sfxL ;d:of cfpF5, ;/–Dof8dx?sf] klg slxn]sfxL To:tf] x'G5 t/ ljBfyL{x?sf] OG6/g]6df;d:of cfP cyjf lel8of] ckm x'Fbf xfdLn] axfgf agfPsf] cf/f]k nufpg'x'G5 eGg] u'gf;f] ub{5g\ .
To;}n] cgnfOg sIffdf k|fWofksn] ljBfyL{x?sf] efjgf a'e]m/ l;sf?d}qL lqmofsnfk ;~rfng ug'{kg]{b]lvG5 .
ljBfyL{ egf{
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] cgnfOg sIff ;~rfng ug{ clkm; #^% cGtu{t dfOqmf];k\m l6D;\nfO{
cflwsfl/s ;k\m6j]o/sf ?kdf k|of]u u/]sf] 5 . k|fWofks Pjd\ ljBfyL{x?sf nflu of] ;k\m6j]o/k|of]u ug{ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] 5'6\6} JolQmut cfO8L k|bfg ug]{ k|fjwfg /x]sf] 5 . of] cfO8L
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] k"0f{sfnLg lzIfs tyf egf{ ePsf ljBfyL{x?nfO{ dfq k|bfg ub{5 . oxfF ;a}ljBfyL{x?n] ;dodf cfk\mgf] egf{ ub}{gg\ . lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] ljBfyL{x?sf] egf{ yf]/} ljnDa z'Ns
lnP/ k/LIffsf] kmd{ eg]{ clGtd ;do;Dd ug]{ u/]sf] b]lvG5 . ;dodf cfk\mgf] egf{ gug]{ ljBfyL{x?nfO{
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] cflwsfl/s cfO8L lb+b}g . o;sf] kl/0ffd:j?k ljBfyL{x? cgnfOg sIffdfhf]l8g ;Sb}gg\ . o;}n] cgnfOg sIffnfO{ k|efjsf/L ?kdf ;~rfng ug{ ;a} kIf cfk\mgf] st{Jo /clwsf/k|lt ;r]t x'g' cfjZos b]lvG5 .
70lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

lgisif{
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] cflËs SofDk; dx]Gb|/Tg jx'd'vL SofDk; Onfddf lj= P8= t];|f] jif{ clgjfo{
ljifosf] Pp6f ;]S;gsf &% hgf ljBfyL{x? dWo] ef}lts sIffdf pkl:yt ePsfx?sf] ;ª\Vof
tLgjif{df 36\b} uPsf] 5 eg] ;f]xL cjlwdf cgnfOg sIffsf] pkl:ylt eg] k|To]s jif{ a9\b} uPsf]
5 . To:t} ef}lts sIffdf pkl:yt ePsf ljBfyL{x?dWo] cgnfOg sIffdf cg'kl:yt x'g]sf] ;ª\Vof
qmdzM 36\b} uPsf] 5 . o;/L ljBfyL{x?sf] pkl:ylt x]bf{ ef}lts sIffdf 36]sf] b]lvG5 eg] cgnfOg
sIffdf a9\b} uPsf] b]lvG5 . To;}n] cWoogdf ljBfyL{x?sf] cgnfOg sIffk|lt ;do;fk]If cfsif{0fa9\b} uPsf] b]lvP tfklg k|fWofks tyf ljBfyL{x? ;Fu ljB'tLo pks/0fx? ;d]tsf] kof{Kt kx'Fr
gePsf sf/0f o;sf] sfof{Gjogdf k|efjsfl/tf Nofpg g;lsPsf] b]lvG5 .
sf]le8 !( sf] ;dodf ef}lts sIffsf] ljsNksf ?kdf cgnfOg sIffdfkm{t\ k7gkf7g ;'rf? ug]{k|of; ljZjel/ g} eof] t/ g]kfndf ;fwg;|f]tsf] cefjdf cgnfOg lzIffsf] ;~rfng k|efjsf/L ePsf]
kfOPg . cgnfOg l;sfOsf] ;dodf ljB't cfk"lt{ lgoldt gx'g', clgoldt Pjd\ sdhf]/ Ifdtfsf]
OG6/g]6 ;~rfngdf /xg', k|fWofks tyf ljBfyL{x?df k7gkf7gsf] nflu cfjZos cg'zf;gsf]
cefj, k|fWofksx?df k7gkf7g ug]{ eGbf emf/f] 6fg]{ k|j[lQ xfjL b]lvg', k|fWofks tyf ljBfyL{x?df
cgnfOg k7gkf7g ug{ cfjZos k|fljlws ;fIf/tfsf] cefj, ljBfyL{x?nfO{ Jojxfl/s 1fgsf] lzIf0f
ug{ sl7gfO{, u[xsfo{ nufot d"Nofª\sgdf af}l4s rf]/Lsf] ;Defjgf x'g', ljB'tLo ;fdu|Lsf] clwsk|of]un] k|fWofks Pjd\ ljBfyL{sf] :jf:Yodf ;d:of b]lvg', ljBfyL{ s]lGb|t lzIf0fljlw cjnDag ug{
sl7g, ;dodf ljBfyL{ egf{ gx'g' h:tf ;d:ofx? ePtf klg o;nfO{ ;xof]ufTds l;sfO ultljlwsf
dfWodaf6 o;sf] k|j4{g Pjd\ ljsf; u/L k7gkf7gsf] ;+;f/df dxÎjk"0f{ / e/kbf]{ j}slNks df]8x?
dWo] Ps xf] eGg] ;+s]t ub{5 .
;Gbe{ ;fdu|L
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72

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

;"rgf ;ª\sng, tYofª\sLs/0f, juL{s/0f,
ljZn]if0fb]lv ;"rgf–k|ljlwsf] pkof]u ;Ddsfr'gf}tLx? / ljBdfg lqlj Joj:yfkgdf ;'wf/sf];Defjgf
lagf]b hf]zL*n]v;f/
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] ?kfGt/0fsf] ;Gbe{df ;"rgf–k|ljlw If]qsf] j}lZjs k|ultsf] pkof]unfO{ z}lIfs
lqmofsnfk / ljBfyL{x?sf] ;Lk tyf l;sfO{sf] pTyfg ;Fu dfq} hf]8/] ljZn]if0f ug{' eGbf ljZjljBfnosf];du| Joj:yfkgsf]] k|:yfg laGb' dfg]/ ljZn]if0f ug{' o'lQm;+ut x'g] b]lvG5. nfut–nfe ljZn]if0fsf]
clt ;fdfGo ;"qnfO{ klg ljZjljBfno ;+rfngsf] ljljw kIfx?df cfTd;ft ug{ g;Sbf xfd|f z}lIfs
PsfO{x? cfly{s ?kdf hL0f{k|foM cj:yfdf k'u]sf] oq–tq ;j{q k|i6 5. o;y{ PsLs[t ;"rgf–k|ljlwsf]
pkof]u u/L tYok"0f{ ;"rgf cyf{t\ ætYofª\sÆ k|fKt ug]{ / ;f]xL adf]lhdsf /0fgLlts of]hgfx? lgdf{0fu/L nfu" ug{ ;s]df dfq} ;"rgf–k|ljlwsf] pkof]un] ;du|df ;fy{s kl/0ffd lbg ;Sg] b]lvG5 .
tYofª\sLs/0f ug{ g;lsg] sf]/f ;"rgfx? ætYofª\sÆ x'g ;Sb}gg\. tflnsLs/0f tyf juL{s/0fkZrft\
tYofª\sLs/0f ul/Psf ;"rgfx?nfO{ dfq} ;xL cy{df cfly{s Pj+ k|zf;lgs ?kfGt/0fsf nflu pkof]udf
Nofpg ;lsG5\. To;df klg ;xL 9+un] juL{s/0f ug{ ;lsPsf ;"rgfx? dfq} pko'Qm :j?kdf ljZn]if0f
of]Uo x'G5g\ / ltgnfO{ pko'Qm k|of]hgdf ;Dk|]if0f u/L Joj:yfksLo r':ttf xfl;n ug{ ;lsG5.
of]hgf÷kl/of]hgfx?sf] nfut 36fpg / To;af6 yk cfo / cj;/x?sf] åf/ vf]Ng ;d]t o;af6 d2t
ldNg] b]lvG5. t/ tYo–laxLg sf]/f ;"rgfx?sf] pkof]un] :jfy{ k|]l/t kfqx?nfO{ cfkm" cg's"n efio
lgdf{0f ug{ dfq} ;3fpF5. To;/L lgld{t efiox? Joj:yfksLo pkof]lutfsf b[li6n] k|foM k|To'Tkfbs x'g]
ub{5g\. ctM sfo{ k|f/De ubf{ g} tYofª\sLs/0f -Digitize_ ug{ ;lsg] ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf] nflu s:tf]
æ;"rgf ;ª\sng k|f?kÆ -Information Collection Format_ agfpg] eGg] ;DaGwdf ;"rgf ;ª\sngul/g] PsfO{sf] sfo{–k4tL, cj:yf / p2]Zodf kof{Kt Wofgk'Ug' cfjZos x'G5 .
zAbs'~hL M lgb]z{ s ;ª\st] , l8lh6n l8efO8, ;Tofkg lg?k0f, 8f]dg] , tYofª\sLo cfwf/, ;dof]lrt,
gjLs[t, cWofjlws, ;"rgf clen]vLs/0f .
ljifokl/ro
cfd?kdf w]/}n] eGg] / clwsflwsn] cfhef]ln ;'Gg] u/]sf] jfSof+z xf]– æ== jt{dfg o'u ;"rgf / ;~rf/sf]
o'u xf]. Æ;fdfGo af]nLrfnLdf ;/n / af]wuDo nfUg] of] jfSof+z leqsf] uxgtf eg] lgs} hl6n 5.
* sfo{sf/L lgb]{zs, cGt/{fli6«o ;DaGw s]Gb|, sLlt{k'/director.cir@tu.edu.np

73

Psflt/ ;a} ;"rgfx? ;dfg 9+un] dxTjk"0f{, tYof+sLs[t ug{ ;lsg], juL{s/0f of]Uo, ljZn]if0f of]Uo/ ljZn]if0f kZrft\ ;Dk|]if0f of]Uo ;"rgf k|bfg ug]{ k|s[tLsf x'Fb}gg\ eg] csf]{tkm{ k|fKt ;"rgfx?nfO{;xL 9+un] k|s6Ls/0f ug{ ;lsg] q'6L/lxt ljwLsf] 5gf}6 ug{' cfkm}df Ps sl7g sfo{ xf]. ;"rgfsf]
k|s6Ls/0f kZrft\ klg pQm ;"rgfsf] ;Dk|i] f0fn] pTkGg ug]{ k|efjsf] ;xL k"jf{gd' fg ug{' csf]{ hl6n sfo{xf]. k|ToIftM k|ljlwsf] Oltj[Qdf 3'Dg] sDKo'6/ lj1fg, ef}ltszf:q jf On]S6«f]lgS; ;Da4 ljifox?sf
nflu dfq} of] rf;f]sf] ljifo xf] eGg] nfu] klg k/f]Ifdf ;~rf/ tyf kqsfl/tf, dgf]lj1fg, ;dfhzf:q,/fhgLlt / bz{g, Joj:yfkg, cy{zf:q h:tf ;du| ljifox?sf ;Gbe{df of] cToGt pkof]uL ljifo xf]eGg] tYonfO{ ;do / ;Gbe{x?n] k|dfl0ft ul/;s]sf] 5. cfhsf] ;+;f/df ef}lts lj1fg, ;fdflhs
lj1fg / /fhgLlt dfq} geP/ ;fj{hlgs k|zf;g / Joj:yfkgsf] ;Dk"0f{ cfofdx? ;"rgf–k|ljlws}
Oltj[Q 3'ld/x]sf] 5 eGg] a'‰g s]xL sl7g cjZo xf]nf t/ klg b'?x eg] 5}g. km/s olQ 5 sL
sDKo'6/, df]afO\n, Sofd]/f jf l6=le= df cfkm\gf] 5gf}6 cg'?ksf] rn–crn >Jo–b[Zo ;'Gg / x]g{ cfdk|of]ustf{n] n]Vg] cfb]z ltgn] a'‰g] jf:tljs efiff eg] xf]Ogg\. ltgnfO{ cfb]z eGbf klg lgb]{zsf]5'§} efiffsf] cfjZostf kb{5 h;nfO{ ælgb]{zs ;+s]tÆ -Digital Code_ eGg] ul/G5. æcfb]zÆ df
cEo:ttf a9] ælgb]{zÆ sf] efiff / lgb]{z ubf{ ckgfpg' kg]{ ;fjwfgLk|lt stf{sf] Wofg k'Ub}g. clwsf+z
stf{x? æcfb]zÆ / ælgb]{zÆ b'a} zAbx?nfO{ kof{ojfrL ?kdf k|of]u ub{5g\ t/ ;f] cg'?ksf] a'emfOn]
stf{x? d"n k|of]hgaf6 j:yflkt x'g] ub{5g\. lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] ;du| Joj:yfkgdf klg lqmof /k|ltlqmofx?df stf{åf/f pkof]u ul/Psf ælgb]z{ s ;+s]t Æx?df pGgfO;f}+ ztfAbLsf] cGTolt/ b]vfk/]sf
sDKo'6/Ls[t k|ljlwdf pkof]u ul/Psf ;fFs]lts lgb]{zsf pxL k'/fgf æsf]8Æ x?sf] g} afx'Notf b]lvG5,
h'g clxn] ahf/df pknAw æGo" h]g/];g Uofh]6\;Æ x? ;Fu æ;dhf]8 of]UoÆ -Compatible_ 5}gg\ /a9\bf] æl8lh6n l8efO{8Æ sf sf/0f alg/x]5g\.
g]kfn ;/sf/ ;"rgf k|ljlwsf] dfWodaf6 hL 6' la -Government to Business_ / hL 6' O{ -Government
to Employees_ ;DaGw e/kbf]{ ?kdf s;/L lj:tf/ ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] of]hgf tkm{ nfu]sf] jt{dfgkl/k|]Iodf lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] klg ;"rgf k|ljlwsf] dfWodaf6 ;f]xL :t/sf] ;DaGw lj:tf/df
Wofgvk'Ug' ckl/xfo{ 5 . o;}sf dfWodaf6 jt{dfg k':tfnfO{ lg/fzf / knfogsf] dfu{af6 ;d[l4sf]
dfu{tkm{ nfUg ;'–;'lrt / ;'lzlIft agfpg] ky lj:tf/ x'g;S5 .
lhDd]jf/L l8lh6n sf]8, lgb]{zs ;ª\s]t, sDKofl6an, ;"rgf ;ª\sng k|f?k;"rgf k|ljlw Joj:yfkg, ;km\6j]o/ vl/b tyf pks/0f Joj:yfkgsf] nflu / cl3Nnf] cf=j=sf] ?=$ s/f]8sf] t'ngfdf cf=j= @)&(÷@)*) df ?= ^ s/f]8 ljlgof]hg u/L lqljn] ;"rgf–k|ljlw k"jf{wf/sf]
lgdf{0fdf cfkm\gf] tbf?stf a9fPsf] dfq} geO{ PsLs[t cfly{s Joj:yfkg ;"rgf k|0ffnLsf] dfWodaf6
PsLs[t ;"rgf k|0ffnL lgdf{0fdf ;d]t cl3 a9\g] ;ª\s]t u/]sf] 5. t/ ;ª\slnt ;"rgfx?nfO{
tYofª\sLs/0f ug{ / tYofª\sLs/0f ul/Psf ;"rgfx?nfO{ juL{s/0f ug{ ;lsPdf dfq} tL ;"rgfx?
pko'Qm :j?kdf ljZn]if0f ug{ ;lsg] pkof]u of]Uo x'g ;Sg]5g\. ltg} ;"rgfx?nfO{ pko'Qm k|of]hgdf;Dk|]if0f u/L Joj:yfksLo r':ttf xfl;n ug{ ;lsG5. bIftfk"0f{ Joj:yfkgn] of]hgf÷kl/of]hgfx?sf]
nfut 36fpg] dfq} geO{ tLaf6 k|fKtx'g] yk cfo / cj;/x?sf] åf/ v'nf u/fO{ lbG5g\. t/ sf]/f;"rgfx?n] cfkm" cg's"n efio lgdf{0f ug{ cEo:t w"t{ v]nf8Lx?nfO{ cg]sy/L efio lgdf{0f ug{dfdfq} ;3fpF5g\. To;/L lgld{t efiox? Joj:yfksLo pkof]lutfsf b[li6n] k|foM k|To'Tkfbs x'g] ub{5g\.
74lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

ctM sfo{ k|f/De ubf{ g} tYofª\sLs/0f -Digitization_ ug{ ;lsg] ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf] nflu s:tf]
æ;"rgf ;ª\sng k|f?kÆ -Information Collection Format_ agfpg] eGg] ;DaGwdf ;"rgf ;ª\sngul/g] PsfO{sf] sfo{–k4tL, cj:yf / p2]Zodf kof{Kt Wofgk'Ug' cfjZos x'G5. cfjZostf cg'?ksf]
æ;"rgf ;ª\sng k|f?kÆ tof/ kf/L ;s]kl5 ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf] sfo{ cl3 a9fpg ;"rgf k|flKtsf]>f]tsf] z'4tf, ljZj;gLotf / cflwsfl/stfsf] klxrfg ug{'sf] ;fy} tflnd k|fKt ;ª\snsx?sf] ;]jfdfkm{t ;"rgf ;ª\sng ul/g'k5{. k|fylds / låtLos b'j} >f]taf6 k|fKt x'g] ;"rgfx? ?h' ug]{ /ltgsf] ;Tofkg lg?k0fsf] lg/Gt/tf s;/L sfod ug]{ eGg] kIfdf kof{Kt ;fjwfgL ckgfpg' k5{ .
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] ;du| Joj:yfkgdf ljleGg sf]0faf6 pl7/x]sf gsf/fTds k|Zgx?sf] plrt
hjfkm tYofª\sdf cfwfl/t ;dofg's"n of]hgfx?sf] dfWodaf6 dfq} lbg ;lsG5. kl/0ffdd'vL cfly{s,k|zf;lgs, z}lIfs tyf ef}lts of]hgfx? lgdf{0f ug{ Jojl:yt, cflwsfl/s / e/f];fof]Uo tYofª\sLo cfwf/sf] cfaZostf kb{5. o;sf] cefjdf cfwf/e"t Joj:yfkgd} tx}lkR5]sf km/s–km/s
wf/0ff cfpg' c:jfefljs 5}g. o;} sf/0fn] ljZjljBfnosf] cfwf/e"t Joj:yfkgdf ;d]t thlahL
lg0f{ox?sf] afx'Notf /xFb} cfPsf] / tbg'?ks} efio lgdf{0f ePsf] efgkg{' c:jfefljs xf]Og.
ljleGg ;+sfo / txaf6 ljleGg ;dodf x'g] u/]sf k/:k/ la/f]wL cflwsfl/s lg0f{ox?n] o;sf]
k'li6 u/]sf 5g\ .
lqljsf ^$ cf+lus SofDk;, % cWoog ;+:yfg, $ ;+sfo, $) s]Gb|Lt ljefu, $ ljefu, $ :s'n,u/L hDdf !@! / $ cg';Gwfg s]Gb|x? ;d]t u/L s'n !@% k|fl1s ultljlwsf s]Gb|x?sf] z}lIfs,
k|zf;lgs / cfly{s cj:yfsf] jt{dfg :j?ksf] uxg ljZn]if0f ug{ ;Toflkt tYofª\sLo cfwf/ :ki6ePsf] b]lvGg. ah]6 ljlgof]hg ubf{ ;du| lzIff If]qdf nufgL a9]sf] b]lvP klg ;/sf/x?åf/f cfly{sjif{ @)$&÷)$* otf k|:t't ul/Psf dWo] -/fhg}lts, cfly{s / k|fs[lts ?kdf g} /fli6«o k|lts'ntfdfk/]sf s]xL jif{{x?nfO{ 5f]8]/_ cg's"n / ;fdfGo jif{{sf sl/a @% j6f jh]6x?sf] ljZn]if0f ug]{ xf] eg]
klg lqljsf] pTyfgsf] nflu j:t'k/s 9ª\un] s'g} pNn]vgLo k|oTg ePsf] b]lvGg. æxftLsf] d'vdf
hL/fÆ eg]em}+ b'O{÷rf/ s/f]8 ah]6 ljlgof]hg u/]/ lqljnfO{ æljlzi6tf s]Gb|Æ -Centre of Excellence_
agfpg] of]hgf ah]6df ;'gfP/ 7§f ug]{ sfd ePsf 5g\. g]kfndf ljZjljBfnox?sf] s'n ;ª\Vof;f]x| k'lu;Sbf klg -k|fb]lzs ljZjljBfnox? ;d]t_ ;a}eGbf k'/fgf] / ;a}eGbf 7'nf] ljZjljBfno
lqe'jg ljZjljBfnosf] ælgj[lQe/0f sf]ifÆ sf] Joj:yfkgsf]] bfloTj g]kfn ;/sf/n] lnPsf] 5}g / lng]
:ki6 lgb]{z klg ;DalGwt lgsfoaf6 ePsf] klg b]lvGg . t/ lqljsf] pTyfgsf] df};dL /fu cnfk]/
bfloTjsf] ef/L dfq} af]sfpg] sfd /fhgLlts g]t[Tjaf6 x'Fb} cfPsf] b]lvG5. ljlzli6s[t p2]Zosf
nflu eGbf /fhgLlts nx8afhLsf sf/0f gofF ljZjljBfnox?sf] :yfkgf ePsf x'g\ eGg] tYonfO{ tL
ljZjljBfnox?df /x]sf ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof, z}lIfs sfo{qmdx?sf] pkfb]otf, kl/0ffd, k"jf{wf/sf] cj:yf;d]tn] phfu/ u/]sf] 5.
ablnFbf] ;dosf] kbrfknfO{ k5\ofpFb} cWofkgdf cfwfl/t o; ljZjljBfnonfO{ cg';Gwfgd'vL
ljZjljBfnodf ?kfGt/0f ug{ / g]kfnL hgtfsf] ;femf ;DklQsf] ?kdf /x]sf] o; ljZjljBfnonfO{
km/s 9ª\un] ;~rfng ug{ cWofjlws tYofª\sLo cfwf/ lgdf{0f gu/L ;Dej 5}g. lqljdf xfn
sfod /x]sf s'n !@% PsfOx?sf] Jojl:yt, oyfy{k/s, cflwsfl/s Pj+ cWofjlws tYofª\sLo
cfwf/ v8f ug{ g;Sbf;Dd o;sf] ;d'lrt Joj:yfkg x'G5 jf ug{ ;lsG5 eGg] wf/0ffnfO{ sbflrt\
75

o'lQm;+ut dfGg ;lsGg. ljBfyL{ ;+Vof, ;~rflnt z}lIfs sfo{qmd / k9fO{ x'g] ljifox?sf cfwf/dfx]bf{ ;+;f/s} 7'nf] ljZjljBfno dWo]sf] Ps / g]kfndf pRrlzIff cWoog ug]{ s'n ljBfyL{ ;Î\ofsf] &*k|ltzt eGbf a9L ljBfyL{ cWoog ug]{ eg]/ lqlj lrlgPsf] 5. o;sf] jflif{s s'n ;/b/ rf}la; -@$_
ca{ ah]6 dWo] gf} -(_ ca{ cyf{t\ ;/b/ #* k|ltzt /sd g]kfn ;/sf/af6 ljlgof]hg x'Fb} cfPsf]
5. pQm ljlgof]lht /sdaf6 lqljsf lzIfs÷sd{rf/Lx?sf] tnj eQf e'QmfgL ug{ k'u]sf] 5. o;/L
lqljnfO{ pRr lzIffdf 7"nf] of]ubfg k|bfg ug{ g]kfn ;/sf/af6 ;xof]u k|fKt x'Fb} cfPsf] clxn]s}
cj:yfdf lqljaf6 ;DaGwg k|fKt u/L ;~rfngdf /x]sf %@* ;fd'bflos / %%$ lghL -s'n !)*@_
SofDk;x?sf] ;d]t ljZj;gLo tYofª\sLo cfwf/ vf]Hg' eg]sf] xfF8LufpFsf] hfqfsf] cj;/df ToxfF
l:yt uxgfkf]v/Ldf ef6–e6]gLsf] uxgf vf]h] h:t} x'g]5. 6fOD; xfOo/ Ph's];g /}+ls+u -THE_ df
lqljsf] >]0fL jif{{ @)@# sf] t'ngfdf jif{{ @)@$ df 36\g'sf] d'Vo sf/0f /}+ls+u ug]{ ;+:yfn] df+u u/]
cg'?ksf] k|f?k (Format_ df xfdLx? ljZj;gLo tYofª\s pknAw u/fpg g;Sg' g} Ps k|d'v
sf/0f xf]. z}lIfs jif{{ @)*) df lqljdf ljBfyL{ egf{sf] s'n ;ª\Vof $,*@, %$! / lzIfsx?sf] s'n;ª\Vof &(^^ b]lvG5. o;/L x]bf{ ljBfyL{÷lzIfs ;ª\Vofsf] ;du| cg'kftk|lt lzIfs #(=%M! pko'Qm
h:tf] b]lvP klg ljleGg SofDk;, cWofkg ul/g] ljifox?sf] ljifout lzIfsx?sf] pknAwtfsf]
cj:yf 5'§f–5'§} x]bf{ eg] lgs} h6Ln /x]sf] b]lvG5. o;n] ljutdf 7'nf] ;ª\Vofdf ljBfyL{ egf{ x'g]u/]sf sltko ljifox?df clxn]sf o'jfx?sf] ?rL g/x]sf] k|i6\ofpF5. ahf/d"No ePsf ;dofg's"nljifo tyf z}lIfs sfo{qmdx?df ljBfyL{ egf{sf] rfk /x] klg ltgdf ;f]xL cg'?ks} lzIfs b/aGbLeg] Joj:yfkg x'g;s]sf] 5}g . o;af6 z}lIfs sfo{qmdx?sf] ;~rfngdf cf+lzs lzIfsx?dflge{/ /xg'kg]{ hl6ntf pTkGg ePsf] cj:yf 5. sIffef/ ljxLg :yfoL lzIfsx?sf] 7'n} hdftsf]
Jooef/ lqljn] Joxf]g{' kl//x]sf] jt{dfg cj:yfdf cf+lzs lzIfssf] yk Jooef/ ;d]tn] lqlj sf]
vr{ Joj:yfkgdf r'gf}tL yk]sf] 5.
;"rgf k|ljlwsf] ;+of]hg dfkm{t\ plNnlvt r'gf}tL / ;d:ofx?sf] jf:tljs cj:yf ljZn]if0f u/L ;d:oflg/fs/0f / ;d'lrt Joj:yfkgsf]] dfu{lrq klxNofpg lqljn] a]nfavt cg]sg k|oTg klg ub}{ cfPsf]
5. ljz]iftM ;g\ @)!( df ljZjJofkL ?kdf km}lnPsf] sf]/f]gf dxfdf/Lsf sf/0fn] ubf{ ;+;f/e/Lsf
ljZjljBfnox?n] lgoldt?kdf ub}{ cfPsf] z}lIfs ultljlw ;~rfng ug{ tyf k7g–kf7gsf] lgoldt
sfo{df ;d]t r'gf}tL b]lvPsf] ;j{ljlbt} 5. To; s7Lg cj:yfaf6 kf/ kfpg cgnfO{g k|ljlw / ;"rgf
tyf ;~rf/sf ljleGg dfWodx?sf] pkof]udf lqljn] b]vfPsf] tbf?stf ;x|fgLo g} lyof]. o;}larlqljdf cWoog ug]{ ljBfyL{x?sf] 7'nf] ;ª\Vof / cWofkg ug]{ ;a}h;f] k|fWofksx?sf] JolQmut O{–d]ncfO{8L Jojl:yt ul/of]. o;afx]s Microsoft sDkgL ;Fu ;Demf}tf u/L Teams ;km\6j]o/sf] dfWodaf6
sIff ;~rfng Pj+ sltko z}lIfs sfo{qmdx?df k/LIff lng], k/LIffkmn k|sfzg ug]{ r'gf}tLk"0f{ sfo{;d]t ;DkGg eP . blIf0f Plzofsf clwsf+z ljZjljBfnox?n] sf]le8 ;ª\qmd0fsf] ;dodf cfkm\gf]
k7g–kf7g g} ug{ g;s]sf] cj:yfdf klg lqe'jg ljZjljBfnon] eg] Microsoft Office 365 A1 Free
Educational Package sf dfWodaf6 !$! j6f 8f]d]g cGtu{t k|fWofks, sd{rf/L / ljBfyL{x?sf #nfv eGbf a9L -sample. office@tu. edu. np_ Od]n 7]ufgf ;[hgf ug{ ;kmn eof]. To:t} u/L sf]le8;ª\qmd0fsf] ;dodf NREN n] !&% j6f ZOOM ID lgz'Ns pknAw u/fof] h;n] cgnfOg dfWodaf6
cWoog–cWofkgnfO{ ult lbg ;xh klg eof]. cgnfOg k7g–kf7gsf] k|efjsf/LtfnfO{ d"Nofª\sg
76lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

ubf{ ZOOM ;km\6j]o/sf] pkof]u u/L Ps} lbg Ps} ;dodf @,$!,))) lzIfs–ljBfyL{x?sf] clwstd;xeflutfsf] /]s8{ sfod ePsf] b]lvG5. o;} u/Læ PsLs[t ljQ Joj:yfkg k|0ffnL Æ-Integrated
Finance Management System_ cGtu{t lqljsf] n]vf k|0ffnLnfO{ cl3 a9fpg] u/L ;km\6j]o/ lgdf{0fsf]
k|s[of cl3 al9;s]sf] 5. o;}u/L lqlj, kf7\oqmd ljsf; s]Gb|n] cgnfOg dfWodaf6} ;dsIftf
lgwf{/0fsf nflu cfj]bg btf{ u/fpg ldNg] Joj:yf sfof{Gjogdf NofO{;s]sf] 5. To:t} $! j6f cf+lus
SofDk;x?df æs]Gb|Ls[t xflh/L k|0ffnLÆ -Centralized Attendance System_ sf] pkof]u u/L ljB'tLo
xflh/L k|0ffnL pkof]udf cfO;s]sf] 5. k/LIff lgoGq0f sfof{notkm{ ljBfyL{x?n] nAwfª–kq tyf cGo
k|df0f–kqx? k|fKt ug{ cgnfOg cfj]bg kmd{ eg{ ;lsg] Joj:yf k|f/De eO{;s]sf] 5.
o;/L ;do–;fk]If ?kdf k|ljlwsf] pkof]u ug]{ ;DaGwdf lqljdf ljleGg sfdx? ePsf 5g\. t/ o;n]vdf eg] lqlj sf PsfO{x?df ;du|df ;dofg's"n tYofª\sLs/0f x'g g;Sg' jf tYofª\sLs/0f sfo{ck"0f{ /xg'sf] sf/0fn] h6Ln aGg k'u]sf s]xL ;d:ofx?sf] af/]df dfq} rrf{ ul/Psf] 5 .
;d:of M ! z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] u'0f:t/ sfod ug{ lgoldt k7g–kf7g, ljBfyL{x?sf] lgoldt pkl:ylt/ cfGtl/s k/LIff / z}lIfs lqmofsnfkdf ;xeflutfsf] s'g} ljsNk 5}g. t/ lqe'jg ljZjljBfnodfx/]s z}lIfs;qdf 7'nf] ;ª\Vofdf egf{ x'g] t/ oxfF pNn]v ul/Psf s'g} klg z}lIfs ultljlwdf ;xeflug} geO{ Ps}k6s clGtd k/LIffdf ;f]em} ;dfj]z x'g kfpg] ljz]ifflwsf/ ;DkGg lgoldt ljBfyL{x?sf]
jf:tljs ;ª\Vof ;DaGwdf jf:tljs n]vfhf]vf g} x'g ;s]sf] 5}g. nfdf] ;dob]lv rNb} cfPsf] o:tf]k|rngn] ubf{ lgoldt ?kdf clgoldt eP/ klg lgoldt ljBfyL{ ;/x g} clGtd k/LIff lbg kfpg];'ljwf ljBfyL{sf] ljz]ifflwsf/sf] ?kdf :yflkt x'g k'u]sf] 5. lqljdf ljBfyL{ ;ª\3–;ª\u7gsf gfpFdfx'g] u/]sf clwsf+z cjflG5t ultljlwsf k|d'v h8 of] klg xf]. ljBfyL{ ;Ë7g lgdf{0fsf] åGbb]lv
pb]s nfUbf] k/LIff kl/0ffd, gSsn u/]/ pQL0f{ x'g] jf lzIfsnfO{ cfGtl/s d"Nofª\sgsf k/LIffx?df
k"0ff{ª\s g} xfNg cjflG5t bjfj lbg] k|j[lt cflb o;}sf sf/0fn] x'g] u/]sf 5g\. o;}sf sf/0f lgoldt/ clgoldt ljBfyL{x?sf] tYofª\sLo cfwf/ v8f ug]{ / cfjZostf cg';f/sf] ;'wf/ of]hgf nfu'ug]{ kl/kf6Lsf] z'?cft g} x'g g;s]sf] cj:yf lqljdf ljBdfg 5 .
;d:of M @ lzIfs–ljBfyL{sf] pko'Qm cg'kft z}lIfs u'0f:t/ sfod ug{ cTofjZos k"j{zt{ xf].
t/ clwsf+z rNtLsf z}lIfs sfo{qmd tyf ljifox?df s]xL cf+lus SofDk;x?n] cfkm";Fu ePsf]ef}lts Pj+ z}lIfs k"jf{wf/x?sf] pknJwtf;Fu d]n g} gvfg] u/L ljBfyL{ egf{ lng] u/]sf] kfO{G5 eg]
sltko sfo{qmd tyf ljifox?df Go'gtd ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof g} gk'Ug] u/]sf y'k|} pbfx/0fx? /x]sf
5g\. ;dfhzf:q, u|fdL0f ljsf;, cy{zf:q, Joj:yfkg h:tf z}lIfs sfo{qmdx?df sltko cf+lus
SofDk;x?df s'g} Ps z}lIfs ;qsf] k|yd jif{{d} $%) b]lv @%)) ;Dd ljBfyL{x? egf{ x'g] u/]sf
36gf ePsf] b]lvG5. ljz]iftM :j=lj=o'= lgjf{rg jf ljBfyL{;Fu ;DalGwt s'g} /fhg}lts 36gfqmd x'g]k"jf{g'dfg ul/Psf] cj:yfdf oL / o:tf 36gf ;fdfGo g} x'g\. cGo ;dodf klg sIffdf lgoldt g}geO{ clGtd k/LIffdf ;dfj]z eO{ lgoldt ljBfyL{sf ?kdf k|df0fkq xfl;n ug]{ p2]Zo k"/f ug{' ;fdfGoh:t} eO;s]sf] 5. SofDk;sf] z}lIfs sfo{qmd jf ljifox?df egf{ ug{ ;lsg] ljBfyL{x?sf] ;ª\Vof,egf{ x'g;Sg] -<_ tL sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug{ ef}lts k"jf{wf/sf] Joj:yf s:tf] /x]sf] 5 -<_ / cWofkgug]{ ljifout lzIfsx?sf] pknAwtfsf] cj:yf s:tf] 5 -<_ eGg] tYodf Wofg g} glbO{ lgoldt z}lIfs77sfo{qmdx? tkm{ hyfefjL ljBfyL{ egf{ lng] ul/Psf] 5. o;n] ubf{ lqljsf] z}lIfs u'0f:t/df x|f;cfpg], pQL0f{ x'g] k/LIffyL{x?sf] k|ltzt lgs} sd b]lvg] / Joj:yfksLo ;d:of ;[hgf eO{ lqljsf]
cfly{s bfloTjdf a9f]Q/L ePsf] dfq} geO{ lqljsf cf+lus SofDk;x? cg]sg g}lts Pj+d\ /fhgLlts
ljs[lt / lj;+ultsf] cv8f ;d]t aGg uPsf] b]lvG5 .
;d:of M # ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof cToGt} Go'g x'g] u/]sf] sltko z}lIfs sfo{qmd / ljifox? klg ;~rfngdfg/x]sf xf]Ogg\. lqljn] bz -!)_ hgf eGbf sd ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof egf{ ePsf z}lIfs sfo{qmd tyf
ljifox?sf] lgoldt ;~rfng gug{ k6s–k6s kl/kq u/]sf] 5. t/ o;sf] l7s;Fu cg'udg eg]
ePsf] b]lvGg. kof{Kt ljBfyL{ ;ª\Vof gePsf z}lIfs sfo{qmdx?df ;d]t cf+lzs lzIfsn] cWofkg
ubf{ kfpg'kg]{ Go'gtd kfl/>lds klg z'Nsaf6 gp7\g] a? lqljnfO{ pN6} 7'nf] Jooef/ ylkg] u/L
P]lR5s ljifox? 5gf}6 ug]{ ;'ljwf lbO{Psf] 5. :ki6 / kof{Kt tYofª\sLo cfwf/sf] cefjdf nfut,
nfe ljZn]if0fsf] Go"gtd dfkb08 kfngf ug{ u/fpg] tkm{ kof{Kt Wofg k'Ug ;s]sf] b]lv+b}g.
;d:of M $ lqljsf sltko cf+lus SofDk;x? b"/L sf lx;fan], nfut–nfe ljZn]if0fsf lx;fan]jf ljBfyL{x?sf ?rL, egf{ b/ tyf k/LIff kl/0ffd jf cGo s'g} lx;fan] klg cf}lrTo ;flat ug}{
g;lsg] cj:yfdf k'uL ;Sbf klg tL SofDk;x?df lgoldt elgPsf z}lIfs sfo{qmdx? yf]/}–yf]/}ljBfyL{ ;Î\of /fv]/} klg ;~rflnt 5g\. Pp6} SofDk;df klg yf]/}–yf]/} ;ª\Vofdf ljBfyL{ afF8]/ klg
k|ft, lbjf, ;GWofsfnLg ;qdf pxL sfo{qmd ;~rfng ul/Psf 5g\ . o;n] g t ;fdflhs of]ubfgdfs'g} k|efj yk]sf] 5 g t SofDk; ;~rfngsf] Jooef/ g} 36fPsf] 5. a? o;n] lqljsf] Jooef/
a9fpg / lzIfsx?sf] sIffef/ cfjZostf eGbf a9L cyf{t\ k|ltkmn ljxLg 9ª\un] a9fPsf] dfq} 5 .
;dfwfgsf] kf6f];d:of ;dfwfgsf nflu ;d:of pTklQsf] >f]t / To;sf] ljljwtf af/] tYofª\sLo cfwf/df hfgsf/L
x'g'k5{. o;sf nflu ;xL ;"rgf / To:tf ;"rgfdf cfwfl/t ljZn]if0f of]Uo tYofª\sx?sf] cfjZostfkb{5. lxhf]cfh k|fWofks÷sd{rf/Lx?sf] 6fpsf] ug]/ ;d:of ;dfwfgsf] kf6f]df s'ts{ ug]{x?sf]
klg lqlj leq 7'n} hdft pkl:yt 5. t/ ljifout jf sfo{ut ljlzi6tf / Ifdtfsf] ;Gbe{df tL
s'ts{x?n] s'g} ;dfwfg lbg ;Sb}g. oxfF pNn]lvt ;a} ;d:ofx?sf] cj:yf nfdf] ;do b]lv p:t}
/xg'sf] d'Vo sf/s g} lqlj;Fu ;dof]lrt, gjLs[t / cWofjlws ul/Psf tYofª\sx?sf] cflwsfl/s
cfwf/ pknAw gx'g' tyf pknAw tYofª\sx?sf] klg cfk;df PsLs[t ug]{ cfwf/ tof/ gx'g' g} xf].
;dfwfg M ! lqljsf ljleGg z}lIfs sfo{qmdx?df egf{ x'g] ljBfyL{x?n]] slt z}lIfs 306f lgoldt
pkl:ylt jf xflh/L k'of{pg' kg]{ xf] eGg] ;DaGwdf ;]d]i6/ k|0ffnLdf cfwfl/t eO{ ;~rfngdf /x]sfz}lIfs sfo{qmdx?df *) k|ltzt cyf{t\ s'n !*) sIff lbg dWw] !$$ lbg xflh/L x'g'kg]{ dfkb08
ckgfO{ cfPsf] 5. t/ lgoldt z}lIfs sfo{qmdx?df o:tf] s'g} dfkb08 nfu' ePsf] 5}g / dfkb08
nfu' ePsf z}lIfs sfo{qmdx?df klg o;df s8fO{ ePsf] b]lvGg. ctM o;sf nflu ljBfyL{ egf{ /sIffdf ltgsf] lgoldt pkl:yltnfO{ ;'lgl:rt ug]{ p2]Zon] ;"rgf ;ª\sng k|f?k / lgb]{lzsf tof/
u/L clgjfo{ nfu' ug]{ Joj:yf ul/g' jfG5gLo b]lvG5. ;"rgf ;ª\sng k|f?k / lgb]{lzsf nfu' ug]{kl/kf6L k|efjsf/L agfpg lqljsf] k|ToIf Joj:yfkgdf ;~rflnt x/]s z}lIfs PsfO{df ;j{k|yd ;"rgfclen]vLs/0f ug]{ sfof{nosf] :yfkgf ug{' kb{5. o:tf] sfof{nosf] ;~rfng ug{ sIffef/ gePsf
78

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

jf sd ePsf ;a} txsf lzIfs÷k|fWofksx?nfO{ sfdsf] lhDd]jf/L lbP/ sfd nufpg ;lsG5.
cfjZos ePdf cf+lzs ?kdf Pshgf k|fljlws sd{rf/L lgo'Qm u/L sfddf nufpg ;lsg] lhDd]jf/L
lgsfo k|d'vnfO{ lbg] Joj:yf ldnfpg ;lsG5. ;"rgfdf Ps?ktf Nofpg s]Gb|af6 g} cfjZosu[xsfo{ u/L ;"rgf ;ª\sngsf] 9fFrf k|To]s OsfO{nfO{ pknAw u/fpg] / tflnsfa4 ?kdf ;"rgf
cWofjlws ug]{ u/fpg] lgb]{lzsf hf/L u/L ;f]xL adf]lhd ;"rgf cWofjlws eP gePsf] ;fjlws
cg'udg ug]{ sfo{ k|0ffnL pkof]udf NofOg' kb{5. sltko cj:yfdf s'g} PsfOdf pQm PsfOsf] sfo{k|s[tL / ;"rgfsf] :jefjut leGgtf b]lvPdf ;"rgf lgodg ug]{ s]Gb|Lt PsfOnfO{ tTsfn ;Dks{u/L tbf?stf ;lxt ;dfof]hg ug}{kg]{ afWosf/L Joj:yf u/L ;"rgf k|0ffnLnfO{ k|f/lDes txd}
Jojl:yt ug{ ;lsG5. o:tf] Joj:yf ug{ ;lsPdf ;du| z}lIfs k|zf;gnfO{ lgoldt Pj+ Jojl:ytug]{ cfwf/ lgdf{0f x'g ;Sb5.
;dfwfg M @ lzIfs–ljBfyL{ cg'kftsf] ;DaGwdf lzIff;DaGwL ljleGg cWoogn] km/s–km/s wf/0ff
k|:t't u/]sf] kfOG5. ljlzi6Ls[t cfjZostfsf] lzIffdf k|ltlzIfs !% b]lv @% hgf ljBfyL{ /k|of]uzfnfdf cfwfl/t sIffdf @%–$) hgf ljBfyL{sf] cg'kftnfO{ ;fdfGotofM pko'Qm dfGg] ul/G5.
z}lIfs sfo{qmdsf] leGgtf cg'?k g} lqljåf/f ;~rflnt sfo{qmdx?df k|ltsIff @% b]lv ^) hgf;Ddsf] ljBfyL{ cg'kft k|of]udf cfO/x]sf] b]lvG5. t/ klg ;]d]i6/ k|0ffnLdf cfwfl/t s]xL z}lIfs
sfo{qmdx?df afx]s lzIfs–ljBfyL{ cg'kftsf] cjwf/0ffnfO{ pkof]udf NofOg] u/]sf] b]lvGg. ;"rgf /tYofª\sx?nfO{ Jojl:yt ug{ / To;nfO{ ;dofg'sn" ?kdf cWofjlws ug]{ pko'Qm k|0ffnLsf] Joj:yfkg
ug{ g;s]s} sf/0fn] ubf{ kfFrjiLf{o of]hgf lnP/ h;f]t;f] æ;l6{kmfO8Æ dfq} x'g] p2]Zo lnP/ cfPsf
ljBfyL{x?nfO{ ljleGg z}lIfs sfo{qmdx?df oyfzSo egf{ lng] ;d:ofx?nfO{ lgodg ug{ g;lsPsf]xf]. ;"rgfx?sf] tYofª\sLs/0f / cg'udg b'j} gx'Fbf o:tf] jftfj/0fn] df}nfpg kof{Kt dnhn k|fKtu/]sf] 5. w]/} eGbf w]/} ljBfyL{ egf{ ug]{, w]/} sIffx? ;~rfng ePsf] ;do tflnsf agfpg], dgk/L
9+un] cf+lzs lzIfs egf{ ug]{ lqljsf >f]tx?sf] dgk/L 9+un] ckrng ug]{ k|j[lQ oq–tq ;j{q 5.
7"nf] ;ª\Vofdf ljBfyL{ egf{ lng] SofDk;x?n] egf{ ePsf ;a} ljBfyL{x? k9\g cfp+b}gg\ eg]/ /fd|}
ga'em]sf klg xf]Ogg\. t/ klg clxn];Dd slt ljBfyL{ egf{ x'G5g\ -<_, slt lgoldt x'G5g\ -<_ clGtdk/LIff ;Dd sltn] k/LIff cfj]bg kmf/d e5{g\ -<_, cfj]bg kmf/d e/]sf slt ljBfyL{x? k/LIffdf ;dfj];
x'G5g\ -<_ / slt ;ª\Vofdf pQL0f{ x'G5g\ -<_ eGg] tYo ljZn]if0f ug]{ u/L cTofw'lgs 9+un] tYofª\sLo
cfwf/ v8f ug]{ / cWofjlws ug]{ sfo{ cfh;Dd z'? ePs} 5}g eGbf cltzof]lQm gxf]nf. t/ kof{KttYof+sLo cfwf/ v8f ub}{ lqljsf ;a} z}lIfs PsfOx?nfO{ Jojl:yt ug{ ;s]df oxfF pNn]v ePsf
clwsf+z ljs[ltx? lgoGq0f u/L of]hgfa4 9+un] ;'wf/ ug{ ;lsg] cj;/sf] kof{Kt u'Ghfo; /x]sf]
5. ljBfyL{ egf{sf] ;dodf, cfGtl/s d"Nofª\sgsf] ;dodf / k/LIff cfj]bg kmd{ ebf{sf] ;dodf u/L# k6ssf] tYofª\s dfq} t'ngfTds ?kdf cWoog–ljZn]if0f ug]{ xf] eg] w]/}h;f] ;d:ofsf h8x?sf]
klxrfg ug{ ;Dej x'g] b]lvG5 .
;dfwfg M # pNn]lvt ;d:of ;dfwfg ug{ ljBfyL{ egf{ / To;af6 k|fKt x'g] cfo, cGo ljleGg
zLif{sdf ljBfyL{x?af6 k|fKtx'g] cfo / pQm sfo{qmd rnfpFbf z}lIfs / k|zf;lgs sfo{df x'g] vr{sf]tYofª\ssf] cfwf/x? v8fug{ ;s]df nfut–nfe ljZn]if0fsf] cfwf/df gofF of]hgf lgdf{0f ug{ / ahf/
df+u cg';f/sf] z}lIfs sfo{qmdx?sf] th{'df ug{ ;lsG5. s'g :t/df z}lIfs sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug]{,79

cfjZos >f]tsf] hu]gf{ s;/L ug]{, lzIfs, sd{rf/L / cGo nfutx?sf] lgsfon] s;/L ug]{ eGg]
;DaGwdf cWoog ljZn]if0f ug{ ;lsPdf dfq} z}lIfs ljlzi6Ls/0fsf] af6f] v'Ng] b]lvG5. tYofª\sLo
cfwf/sf] ;xL ljZn]if0faf6 g} k|fWofks÷sd{rf/Lsf] ;?jf–a9'jf / sfo{If]qsf] ;xL lgwf{/0f / Joj:yfkg;Dej x'g;S5. cToGt glhsdf /x]sf sltko SofDk;x?df yf]/}–yf]/} ljBfyL{ ;+Vof x'Fbf klg pxL
kf7\oqmd jf ljifosf] sfo{qmd ;~rfng ul//xg' eGbf PsLs[t of]hgf lgdf{0f u/L ljifout ljlzi6tfsf]
cfwf/df z}lIfs sfo{qmdx? ;~rfng ubf{ ;+rfng vr{df ldtJolotf ckgfpg ;lsg] dfq} geO{
pknAw >f]t–;fwgx?sf] clwstd pkof]u ug{ klg ;lsG5. efiff, ;+:s[lt / ljifout dxÎj af]s]sf
sltko ljifosf ;Gbe{df tL z}lIfs sfo{qmd ;~rfng ug{' /fHos} klg bfloTj /x]sf] k|i6 b]lvG5.
To:tf] ;Gbe{df lqljnfO{ cfly{s ef/ gkg]{ u/L tYofª\sLo cfwf/df /fHosf] ;DalGwt lgsfo jf
bft[ lgsfoaf6 k|fKt x'g'kg]{ ;xof]u ;d]t d"Nofª\sg u/L k|:tfj ug]{ / ;f]xL cfwf/df z'Ns lgwf{/0fnufotsf k|lqmof ckgfP/ k|fKtx'g] ;xof]usf] cfwf/df dfq} tL z}lIfs sfo{qmd jf ljifosf] k7g–kf7g;~rfngsf] of]hgf lgdf{0f ug{ ;lsG5.
d'ns' sf ;a}h;f] k|bz
] / :yfgLo If]qdf kof{Kt ;ª\Vofdf gLlh tyf ;fd'bflos SofDk;x? ;~rfngdf/x]sf] jt{dfg cj:yfdf sltko sfo{qmdsf] jf ljifox?sf] cWofkgsf] lhDdf ltg}nfO{ nufP/ gofF,;Lkd"ns / ljlzi6Ls/0f ug{ ;lsg] z}lIfs sfo{qmdx?sf] pTkfbg / ;~rfngtkm{ lqljsf cf+lus
SofDk;x?nfO{ s]lGb|t ug{ ;lsG5. ;fwg>f]t, ef}lts ;~/rgf / dfgj>f]tsf] pknAwtfnfO{ dWogh/ubf{ o;f] ug{' pko'Qm klg b]lvG5. To; k|sf/sf] of]hgf lgdf{0fdf klg cWofjlws ePsf tYofª\sLo
cfwf/ g} cfjZos kb{5.
;dfwfg M $ tYofª\sLo laZn]if0fsf cfwf/df g} lgoldt ljBfyL{ egf{ ug]{ sfo{sf] lgodg / cg'udg
ug{, ;dfg k|s[ltsf z}lIfs sfo{qmd ;~rfng eO{/x]sf SofDk;, ljefu jf cGo PsfO{x?nfO{ dh{// ljlzi6Ls/0f sfo{qmd th{'df ug{;s] ;~rfng vr{ 36\g uO{ pknAw ef}lts ;+/rgf, hgzlQmsf]
pknAwtf / ljBfyL{ ;ª\Voflarsf] pko'Qm cGt/ sfod ug{ ;lsG5. cg–nfOg dfWodaf6 kf7\oqmdx?
;~rfng u/L b"/lzIff sfo{qmdsf] k|efjsfl/tfdf j[l4 ug{ ;s]df lzIfs÷sd{rf/Lx?sf] ;dofg's"n
Joj:yfkg x'g ;Sg]5. cGt/f{li6«o ahf/df pko'Qm x'g] t/ g]kfnL kl/j]zdf cWofkg ug{ ;lsg] kj{tLov]ns"b, of]ufEof;, kbofqf, k|fs[lts jftfj/0f cWoog–cjnf]sg, km]zg l8hfOg, OG6]l/o/ l8hfOg
cflb nlIft gofF kf7\oqmdx?sf] lgdf{0f ug]{ / ePsf z}lIfs sfo{qmdx? cfaZostf cg'?k kl/dfh{gu/]/ ;~rfng ug{, lxdfn cf/f]x0f tyf kj{tLo ko{6g s]Gb|Lt u/L ;~rfngdf /x]sf kf7\oqmdx?nfO{
yk k|rf/–k|;f/ / kl/dfh{g u/L k|efjsf/L ?kdf ;~rfng ug{ ;s]df cg';Gwfg sfo{ / y'k|} z}lIfs
sfo{qmdx?df :jb]zL / ljb]zL ljBfyL{÷ zf]wfyL{x?sf] ;xeflutf a9fpg ;lsG5.
cfhef]ln ljBfyL{x?sf] Go'g–cfsif{0fsf] ljifo ag]sf Oltxf;, ;+:s[lt, /fhgLltzf:q, hg;ª\Vof
cWoog, tYofª\szf:q, ul0ft, e"uf]n h:tf ljifox?sf] kf7\oqmdnfO{ kl/dfh{g / k|ljlw ;+of]hg;d]t u/L PsLs[t kf7\oqmd lgdf{0f u/L ;~rfngdf Nofpg ;lsG5. lzIffzf:q ;ªsfo cGtu{tcWofkg ul/g] sltko ljifosf kf7\oqmdx?nfO{ ;a} txsf :s"n lzIff / pRr lzIffdf cWofkg ug]{lzIfsx?sf nflu pkof]uL x'g] 9ª\un] kl/dfh{g / ;+of]hg u/L ;+rfng ug{ ;s]df ;dfhf]kof]uL
u'0f:t/Lo lzIfs pTkfbg ug{ ;lsg]5.
80lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

lgodg, k|f]T;fxg, cg'udg / Joj:yfkg;DaGwL sdLsdhf]/Lx?sf sf/0fn] ubf{ lqljdf k/LIff;DaGwL;d:ofx? b]lvPsf x'g\ . cWofjlws ul/Psf] tYofª\s / ;dofg's"n k|ljlwsf] pkof]usf] cefjdf
k|Zgkq k'of{pg] h:tf ;fdfGo ljifodf ;d]t 7'nf] /sd vr{ eO/x]sf] 5. a}+sx?n] /sd :yfgfGt/0fug]{ h:tf] ;'/lIft k|ljlw k|of]u u/L lhDd]jf/ clwsf/Lx?nfO{ OTP sf]8 pknAw u/fO{ g]kfnsf] h'g;'s}s]Gb|df klg kZgkq jf cGo uf]Ko sfuhft Go'gvr{df ;dod} pknAw u/fpg ;lsG5. b"/–b/fhdfa:g] lqljsf ljBfyL{x?n]] cfkm"n] k|fKt ug{'kg]{ ljleGg lsl;dsf k|df0f–kqx? glhs}sf] s]Gb|af6 k|fKt
ug{;Sg] Joj:yf ldnfpg sl7g 5}g. t/ Jojl:yt tYofª\s / k|ljlw pkof]u;DaGwL 1fgsf] cefjdf
o; ;DaGwdf s'/f w]/} t/ sfd eg] k|efjsf/L ?kdf sfof{Gjogdf cfpg ;s]sf] b]lvGg. ef}lts;DklQ Joj:yfkg, sfof{no Joj:yfkg, z}lIfs sfo{qmdx?sf] Joj:yfkg, k|fWofks÷sd{rf/L Joj:yfkg,;fwg–>f]t Joj:yfkg h:tf ;a}h;f] If]qdf nfdf] ;dob]lv ;d:of b]lvO/xg', tL ;d:ofx? lg/Gt//lx/xg' / ;dofg's"n ?kdf ltgsf] ;dfwfgsf x'g g;Sg'sf] d'Vo sf/0f eg]sf] ;du|, Jojl:yt /cWofjlws tYofª\ssf] pknJwtfsf] cfwf/ lgdf{0f x'g g;Sg' g} xf] eGg'df cltzof]lQm gxf]nf .
;Gbe{ ;fdu|L ;"rL M
Bhattarai, M. K. (2018). E-Governance in Nepal: Best Practices. Mandala Book Point.
Dhungel, N. (2020). Digital Transformation in Nepal: Challenges and Opportunities. Vajra Books.
Giri, S. , Bista, A. , & Sharma, N. (2020). Leveraging information technology for effective public
service delivery in Nepal. International Journal of Public Administration, 43(6), 480-492.
Government of Nepal (2019). E-Governance: Innovation in Governance in Nepal. Retrieved fromhttps://nepal. gov. np/.
Nepal Telecommunications Authority (2017). ICT for development in Nepal: A study on present
status, issues, and challenges. Retrieved from https://nta. gov. np/dfy]df, s]=la= / xf5]y', s]= -ld=g=_, g]kfnsf] nf]s k|zf;g, d08nf a's KjfOG6 .
l/hfn, la= -ld=g=_, ;"rgf k|fWof]lusL / ljsf;, /Tg k':ts e08f/ .
kf08], 8L= cf/= -ld=g=_, gofF g]kfn gofF k|zf;g, kmfOg lk|G6 .
lqe'jg ljZjljBfno -sfo{sf/L kl/ifb\ @)&&_, ljB'tLo dfWodaf6 sIff ;~rfng ;DaGwL lgb]{lzsf–@)&&, ldltM @)&& j}zfv !) ut]sf] lg0f{o g+= @&&.
lqe'jg ljZjljBfno -sfo{sf/L kl/ifb\ @)&&_, lqlj, ;"rgf k|ljlw s]Gb| ;~rfng tyf Joj:yfkg;DaGwL lgod–@)&&, ldltM @)&& >fj0f ( ut] ut]sf] lg0f{o g+= #*@.
lqe'jg ljZjljWofno -sfo{sf/L kl/ifb\ @)&&_, lqljsf] ljB'tLo dfWodsf] k|ljlwaf6 ul/g] sIff;~rfng Pj+ v'nf tyf b"/lzIff sfo{qmd ;+rfng ;DaGwL ljlgod–@)&&, ldltM @)&& >fj0f!* ut]sf] lg0f{o g+= #*!.
lqe'jg ljZjljWofno -sfo{sf/L kl/ifb\ @)&&_, cgnfO{g O{–l/;f];{ pknJw u/fpg] tyf ;f] sf] ;]jfz'Ns lgwf{/0f ug]{ ;DaGwdf, ldltM @)&& df3 !@ ut]sf] lg0f{o g+= ^#^.
81

lqe'jg ljZjljWofno -sfo{sf/L kl/ifb\ @)&*_, cgnfO{g k|lqmof dfkm{t ;dsIftfs nflu cfj]bgz'Ns a'emfpg ;lsg] Joj:yf ;DaGwdf, ldltM @)&* c;f/ !& ut]sf] lg0f{o g+= ()%.
lqe'jg ljZjljWofno -sfo{sf/L kl/ifb\ @)&*_, Anti-Plagiarism ;km\6j]o/ Joj:yfkg tyf ;~rfng
sfo{ljlw–@)&* ;DaGwdf, ldltM @)&* df3 @^ ut]sf] lg0f{o g+= !@*$.
lqe'jg ljZjljWofno -sfo{sf/L kl/ifb\ @)&(_, Anti–Plagiarism ;km\6j]o/ ! jif{{sf nflu k'gM
v/Lb ug]{ ;DaGwdf, ldltM @)&( h]i7 #! ut]sf] lg0f{o g+= !$$^ .
lqe'jg ljZjljWofno -sfo{sf/L kl/ifb\ @)&(_, ljB'tLo xflh/L Joj:yfkg ;DaGwL lgb]{lzsf–@)&(,
ldltM @)&( kf}if * ut]sf] lg0f{o g+= !&$%. *lqe'jg ljZjljWofno -sfo{sf/L kl/ifb\ @)*)_, TU Digitalization Stratregy Plan-2023 / Information
Technology Policy -2023 kfl/t ul/Psf] ;DaGwdf, ldltM @)*) efb| @% ut]sf] lg0f{o .

82lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

Murky World of Predatory Publication: How to be Prudent?
Binil Aryal*
Abstract
Research outcome comes mostly from the publications. Open access facility triggers the numberof Journals and hence the publication houses. Now a days, selection of Journal is becoming aserious task for the researchers. There are thousands of disciplinary Journals in each area. In thisarticle, the world of predatory Journals and publication houses have been described described. A
few years back, Tribhuvan University Service Commission (TUSC) ruled out not to include articles
which were published in the predatory Journals or published by scam/predatory publishers. TUSC
published data of predatory articles as notices. These data are analyzed and discussed here.
Keywords: Journals, predatory, research, open access
What is Predatory Journal?
Predatory Journals (PJs) are those Journals that ask for relatively lower article processing charges(APC) to authors and publish the article very rapidly. These Journals do not have the hallmarks oflegitimate scholarly Journals such as unknown or least known editorial boards, incomplete officeaddresses, or unknown publication houses and suspicious contact details. The most serious thing is
the lack of a peer review process, no provision of copy-right statement/policy, ethical statements,
and a very rapid online publication/production service. These Journals usually have a very attractive
and colorful webpage with valid ISSN and also the DOI.

Figure 1: Logarithmic rise of open access Journal triggers those money-making publications in last 20 years(Demir, 2018).

* Dean, Institute of Science & Technology (IoST), Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
binil.aryal@cdp.tu.edu.np
83Demir (2018) published an article entitled ‘Predatory journals: Who publishes in them and why?’
These three conclusions were really serious: (1) Predatory Journals are located in 52 different
countries. The highest number of researchers from India, Nigeria, and Turkey published articles
in PJs. Researchers from 146 countries got their articles published in PJs. This is really high timeto sensitize researchers about these scam publishers.
The term ‘predatory journal’ was coined by Jeffrey Beall, a librarian at the University of Colorado,
who observed and systematically analyzed a growing number of exploitative academic journals
charging author fees without proper quality-check of the submitted and published papers (https://beallslist.net/). Towards the end of the first decade of the 2000s, people began to notice theincreasing practices of predatory journals. Jeffrey Beall started to set up a list of predatory
journals in 2008. Quickly, the list grew to several thousand journals and publishers accused ofunethical journal publication practices. In 2011, Beall’s list included 18 publishers. By 2016, that
number had grown to 923 publishers.
Ways to identify Predatory JournalsoRapid publication is promised (see Figure 2).

o

The homepage language targets authors rather than Universities or research centers.

oJournal does not have clear policies on retraction, corrections/errata, or plagiarism.

oDescription of the manuscript handling process is lacking.

oThe contact email address is non-professional and non-journal-related.

oManuscripts are asked to submit by email instead of online portal.

oJournals claiming to be open access, generally do not mention copyright statement.

oArticle processing and/or publication charge is very low (e.g. < $150).

oTitle with bigger platform, i.e., International, American, European, etcoWebsite contains spelling and grammatical errors with low quality advertisement.

oCoverage is broader, e.g., International Journal of Science and Management.

Figure 2 shows an examples of the webpage information given by the predatory publisher. It is
notify that this Journal accepts manuscript within 48 hours for the submission. The peer review
process cannot be completed even within a month!

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Figure 2: A predatory Journal entitled ‘International Journal of Science and Research Archive (IJSRA)’. It isclaimed that the articles will be published within 48 hours on paying. (see https://ijsra.net/ and https://www.
youtube.com/watch?app=desktop&v=ZCNkPYxp6DM)

Two Most Important Q/A on Journals
What happens if I publish my work in a predatory journal?
If you publish your research in a predatory journal, you might face these consequences in the
future: hurt your reputation and career. Wasted time, effort, and money. Loss of your researchand scholarship. You may be blacklisted by legitimate publication houses.
Can I withdraw my article from a predatory journal?
If you have unknowingly submitted an article for publication to a predatory journal, there areseveral ways to deal with this situation including: writing to the publisher and withdrawing
your article. If your paper is published online by a predatory journal, you may write to theoffice of the predatory journal and ask them to withdraw the paper from their website. In caseof no response, make it public through official notice or report it to your institution.
Is it bad to publish in a predatory journal?
You could be scammed and lose your work. Since many legitimate publishers will not accept
articles that have been published before, submitting an article to a predatory publisher can berisky, even if you ultimately decide not to publish with them.
Tribhuvan University Service Commission against Predatory/Scam Publisher
Tribhuvan University Service Commission (TUSC) issued a working procedure against predatory
Journal and Publisher on February 2021. In the 7th point of the working procedure, following
sentence can be seen:85

In the history of Tribhuvan University, it was really a bold step against those unethical publications.
TUSC deployed it for internal as well external examinations for the post of Assistant Professor,
Associate Professor and Professor.
Total Publication by TUSC Applicants in 2021
During 2021, TUSC received 3222 research articles from the applicants covering all disciplines(TUSC 2021 Notices). The maximum number of articles were received by the applicant of Scienceand Technology (1157 articles) discipline, followed by Faculty of Humanities and Social Sciences(847 articles) as the next. The least number of articles were submitted by the law discipline (only
23 articles). Out of total 3222 articles, 446 (14%) research articles were found to publish in the
predatory Journal or published by scam publisher.

Figure 3: Distribution of research articles received by TUSC during 2021 for the post of Assistant Professor,
Associate Professor and Professors. About 14% articles are found to be published in the Predatory Journals.

The serious matter is that the applicants of all disciplines were found to publish their researchfinding in the predatory Journals. Figure 3 shows a distribution of articles published by Nepali
researchers who send it to TUSC for evaluation.
SCImago Listed vs Predatory Journals
The TUSC applicants were found to publish 745 (24%) articles in SCImago listed Journals, whereas
it is only 14% in Predatory Journals. The disciplinary distributions of predatory publications and
SCImago Journal publications by the TUSC applicants are shown in Figure 4.
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Figure 4: Disciplinary distribution of articles published by 2021 TUSC applicants in (a) Predatory
Journals and SCImago listed Journals.
The maximum percentage of predatory publication was found to more than 25%, by the management
discipline. The lowest predatory publications were noticed from law discipline. Engineering,
Agriculture and Animal Science and Science & Technology disciplines exceed 10% limit.
TUSC applicants of all five institutes (Institute of Science & Technology, Institute ofMedicine, Institute of Engineering, Institute of Forestry and Institute of Agriculture and87Animal Sciences) wre found to be published more than 20% research articles in the SCImago
listed Journals (see Figure 4). The maximum number of publication in the SCImago listed
Journal is by the forestry discipline. All four faculties (Faculty of Humanities and Social
Science, Faculty of Management, Faculty of Education and Faculty of Law) were found tobe weak in publishing their research outcome in the SCImago listed Journals. It is less than
10%.
Figure 5 shows a normalized histograms showing relative strength of TU’s five institutes
and four faculties in the publication. The width of black shaded bars show the predatory
publications. The longer the bar, the tendency to publish in predatory Journal is higher. The
longest black bar is found in the management and engineering stream. This should be seriously
considered by the concerned Dean’s offices. The awareness program to faculties against
predatory publication will work to some extent. The grey-shaded bar represent the publicationin the SCImago listed Journals. All institutes are very good in publishing research articles in
SCImago listed Journals.

Figure 5: Normalized bar diagram showing relative strengths and weaknesses regarding publication in the
SCImago listed, Predatory and other Journals.

Predatory Publications in the WorldThe largest number of predatory publications are found in Nigeria, Iran, India and Pakistan (seeFigure 6). A large number of open access Journals are found to be registered (ISSN) from these four
nations https://guides.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/PredatoryPublishing). Though, the contact address for88

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these publishers are mostly found either in EU nations or in Canada or USA. Their motto is tomake money from authors who either wish to publish their work soon, or who lack seriousness andhonesty (unethical) about the research work.

Figure 6: Distribution of Predatory publications in a few representative nations. (https://libguides.usask.ca/
predatorypublishers)

Like predatory journals, predatory or fake conferences are also on the rise these days. Jeffery
Beall explained the predatory conferences in his blog (now archived) by stating, “These are notconferences organized by scholarly societies. Instead, they are conferences organized by revenueseeking companies that want to exploit researchers’ need”.
In the year 2017, a group of researchers found that predatory publishers and fake conference
organizers frequently targets young researchers. This study analyzed a total of 162 electronic
invitations received from predatory publishers and fraudulent conference organizers and foundthat 73.4 % of e-mails received from fake conference organizers invited the recipients to be a
speaker and 23.6% asked the researchers to attend the conferences (https://libguides.adelphi.
edu/c.php?g=868569&p=6244195). Therefore, young researchers should discuss with the seniorcolleagues before replying them.
Recommendation
Predatory journals refer to publications that exploit the open-access publishing model for financial
gain, disregarding academic rigor and quality standards. These journals typically charge highpublication fees while offering little or no editorial or peer-review services. Following are thesuggestion to TU faculties and students:
1.

Do not read and use the articles which are published in the Predatory Journal.

2.

Check carefully the Journal before submitting your manuscript.

3.

Do not submit your manuscripts to get them published in the Predatory Journals.
89Following four archives may help you to check whether a particular Journal is predatory or not:
 https://web.archive.org/web/20170112125427/https://scholarlyoa.com/publishers/ https://web.archive.org/web/20170111172309/https://scholarlyoa.com/individual-journals/
 https://web.archive.org/web/20170111172313/https://scholarlyoa.com/other-pages/
hijacked-journals/
 https://web.archive.org/web/20170111172311/https://scholarlyoa.com/other-pages/
misleading-metrics/
References
Selcuk Besir Demir, Predatory journals: Who publishes in them and why? Journal of Informetrics,
Vol 12, 4, 1296-1311 (2018)https://beallslist.net/ (accessed on April 2024)
https://libguides.usask.ca/predatorypublishers (accessed on April 2024)
https://www.hkmu.edu.hk/URC/Seminar_Predatory%20Publishing.pdf
https://guides.himmelfarb.gwu.edu/PredatoryPublishing (accessed on April 2024)
TUSC Notices (2021-22) https://tusc.tu.edu.np/
https://web.archive.org/web/20170112125427/https://scholarlyoa.com/publishers/
https://web.archive.org/web/20170111172309/https://scholarlyoa.com/individual-journals/
https://web.archive.org/web/20170111172313/https://scholarlyoa.com/other-pages/hijackedjournals/
https://web.archive.org/web/20170111172311/https://scholarlyoa.com/other-pages/misleadingmetrics/
https://libguides.adelphi.edu/c.php?g=868569&p=6244195 (accessed on April 2024)

90

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Averaging Variables for Long-Term Trends: A Predictive
Analysis of Weather and Market Dynamics on Nepal’s
Agricultural Prices
Chuda Prasad Dhakal*, Asmita Pokharel**, Apekshya Dhakal***Abstract
This study examines the intricate relationship between weather patterns and agricultural market prices
in Nepal, a country whose economy heavily relies on agriculture. Given the sector’s vulnerability
to climatic variability, advanced predictive modeling is essential for effective market forecasting.
Utilizing a comprehensive dataset spanning ten years, this research employs Long Short-Term
Memory (LSTM) networks, Convolutional Neural Network-Long Short-Term Memory (CNN-LSTM)
hybrids, and Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models to predict the market
prices of key agricultural commodities based on weather variables such as temperature, rainfall,and humidity. Our findings reveal significant correlations between these weather factors and market
prices, with temperature showing a positive relationship and humidity a weak negative relationshipwith market prices. The study demonstrates that predictive models using averaged weather data
outperform those using raw daily data, offering improved accuracy and robustness. These insights
provide valuable guidance for stakeholders, including farmers, policymakers, and traders, to makeinformed decisions and enhance agricultural planning and market responsiveness in the face ofclimatic changes. This research contributes to the broader discourse on agricultural economics andpredictive modeling, emphasizing the critical role of climatic conditions in shaping market dynamics.
Keywords: agricultural prices, weather patterns, predictive modeling, LSTM, CNN-LSTM, ARIMA,
Nepal, climatic variability
Introduction
Nepal’s economy is intricately linked to agriculture, a sector that not only sustains the majority of
its population but also significantly contributes to the national GDP. This reliance on agriculture
renders the sector highly vulnerable to climatic variabilities, which directly influence agricultural
productivity and, consequently, the dynamics of agricultural commodity markets. The unpredictable
nature of weather patterns-ranging from temperature fluctuations, variable rainfall, to humidity
changes-presents a complex challenge that directly impacts market prices of essential agricultural
outputs.
The critical need for advanced predictive modeling in this context cannot be overstated. As highlighted
by Maharjan et al.. (2018) and Shrestha et al.. (2020), understanding the nuanced dependencies
between weather patterns and market price fluctuations is paramount for developing effective* Co-ordinator, Post-Graduate Program, Institute of Agriculture and Animal Sciences, TU, Kirtipur** Masters in Data Science, Institute of Science and Technology, Kirtipur*** Bsc Agriculture undergraduate, Agriculture and Forestry University, Chitwan

91forecasting models. This research delves into sophisticated modeling techniques, including Long
Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA)
models, and Convolutional Neural Network-Long Short-Term Memory (CNN-LSTM) hybrids.
These models stand at the forefront of predictive analytics, offering a data-driven approach todecipher the complex interactions between meteorological conditions and market trends. Suchinsights are crucial for stakeholders, including farmers, policymakers, traders, and consumers,
empowering them to make informed decisions in an ever-changing climate landscape.
Research Objective
The overarching goal of this research is to meticulously assess the impact of weather variables—
specifically temperature, rainfall, and humidity—on the market prices of key agricultural products
in Nepal. This entails:
Evaluating the predictive accuracy of cutting-edge models (LSTM, CNN-LSTM, ARIMA) in
forecasting market prices, drawing upon the empirical strengths of these models as validated by
Nassar et al. (2020) and Torres et al. (2020).
Identifying the model that most effectively captures the intricate relationship between climatic factors
and market dynamics, leveraging the analytical precision these models offer.
Providing actionable insights for stakeholders to support informed decision-making processes, thus
enhancing agricultural planning and market responsiveness.
By integrating the advanced predictive modeling techniques and leveraging the comprehensive dataset
meticulously curated from the Department of Agriculture and the Department of Meteorology, thisstudy aims to contribute significantly to the agricultural economics literature and predictive modelingpractices. The inclusion of references from Chapter 3 not only grounds our approach in the current
scientific discourse but also ensures that our methodology is built upon a foundation of proven research.
Review of Previous Works
The interplay between climate variability and agricultural market dynamics presents a complex
landscape for analysis. This literature review systematically explores the impact of weather anomalies
on agricultural prices, advancements in predictive modeling, and the nuanced context of Nepal. It
integrates seminal works and recent studies to provide a comprehensive backdrop for the research.
Impact of Weather on Agricultural Prices
The profound effect of weather anomalies on agricultural market dynamics is well-documented.
Chen et al. (2020) and Maiden et al. (2019) have meticulously outlined how unexpected temperature
shifts and irregular rainfall patterns significantly influence agricultural product prices. These studies
underline the susceptibility of agricultural markets to weather-induced variabilities, emphasizing
the critical need for robust predictive modeling to navigate these challenges.
Advancements in Predictive Modeling
The field of predictive modeling has witnessed significant advancements with the introductionof Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average
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(ARIMA) models, and Convolutional Neural Network-Long Short-Term Memory (CNN-LSTM)
hybrids. Nassar et al. (2020) and Torres et al. (2020) demonstrate these models’ efficacy in capturing
the complex relationships between climatic factors and market behaviors. The evolution of thesepredictive techniques marks a pivotal shift toward data-driven analytics in agricultural economics,
offering nuanced insights into market dynamics influenced by weather patterns.
Weather Patterns and Agricultural Prices in Nepal
Focusing on Nepal, Maharjan et al. (2018) and Shrestha et al. (2020) provide valuable insights into
the direct correlation between weather variables (temperature, rainfall, humidity) and the market
prices of vegetables. These localized studies highlight the specific challenges faced by the Nepalese
agricultural sector, exacerbated by the country’s unique climatic conditions. The findings underscorethe importance of tailored predictive models that can accurately forecast market prices, taking into
consideration the local weather patterns.
Building on the Foundations
This research builds upon the established literature by comparing the performance of advanced
predictive models in the context of Nepal’s agricultural market prices. It assesses the impact ofweather variables on market prices, leveraging the advancements in predictive modeling to enhance
the accuracy of market forecasts. This scholarly endeavor enriches the methodologies and findings
detailed in subsequent chapters, contributing to the broader discourse on agricultural economics
and predictive modeling.
Research Methodology
Data Collection Process
The foundation of this research is anchored in a meticulously curated dataset, titled ‘Final Averaged
Data FVWP’, which encapsulates historical price data for key agricultural commodities alongsidecorresponding weather variables-temperature, rainfall, and humidity. This dataset spans an extensive
period of ten years, providing a rich temporal framework for analyzing long-term trends. Data
were diligently sourced from the Department of Agriculture for market prices and the Departmentof Meteorology for weather-related data, ensuring a comprehensive exploration of the impact ofweather patterns on market price fluctuations.
Preprocessing Steps
The dataset underwent several critical preprocessing steps to ensure its integrity and analytical readiness:
Data Cleaning: Outliers were removed, and missing values addressed, maintaining the dataset’s
integrity as per the practices recommended by leading researchers.
Data Integration: Market price data and weather variables were synchronized based on their timestamps,
capturing the dynamic interplay between weather conditions and market prices.
Data Transformation and Normalization: To facilitate comparative analysis and model accuracy, theaverage price, humidity, and temperature data were normalized to a 0-1 scale. This normalization
allows for the examination of relative changes and trends without the influence of the original93

measurements’ absolute scale. Furthermore, commodity names were encoded numerically, simplifying
the analysis by treating commodity type as a categorical variable.
Dataset Overview
The dataset comprises daily records, offering a granular view into the interplay between commodity
prices and environmental factors over a decade. The variables included are:Date: Capturing the specific day for temporal trend analysis.
Average Price: Normalized mean price of commodities, providing insight into market dynamics.
Average Humidity and Temperature: Normalized daily mean values, essential for examining
environmental impacts on pricing.
Commodity Name Encoded: Facilitating analysis across multiple commodities, with numericalencoding to treat commodity type as a categorical variable.
This comprehensive dataset forms the foundation for our exploratory analysis and the developmentof predictive models aimed at understanding the factors influencing commodity prices, with a specificfocus on environmental variables.
Analytical Techniques
Our methodology employs advanced analytical techniques (LSTM, CNN-LSTM, ARIMA) to predict
market prices influenced by weather patterns. These models were selected for their proven ability
to capture the dynamic relationship between weather variables and market trends, contributing
significantly to the suite of tools available for agricultural market forecasting.
Data Analysis
In the preceding sections of this research, we have laid the groundwork for understanding the
intricate relationship between weather variables and market dynamics, particularly how they
influence the prices of key agricultural products in Nepal. The objective of our study, as outlined,
is to meticulously assess the impact of weather variables—namely temperature, rainfall, andhumidity—on the agricultural market, leveraging the predictive power of advanced statisticaland machine learning models. This chapter delves into the heart of our analysis, transforming
raw data into actionable insights that can inform stakeholders and contribute significantly to thefield of agricultural economics.
Our data analysis is multifaceted, designed to dissect the complex interplay between weather
conditions and market prices over an extensive period. To achieve this, we employ a variety ofanalytical techniques, each serving a unique purpose in our broader investigation:
Visual Trend Analysis: Through time series plots, we visually explore the fluctuations in weather
patterns and market prices over time. This not only allows us to identify overarching trends andseasonal variations but also to pinpoint specific instances of anomalies or significant deviations. Suchvisualizations are crucial for establishing a foundational understanding of the dataset before delving
into more complex analyses.
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Correlation Analysis: By quantifying the relationships between weather variables and market
prices through Pearson correlation coefficients, we seek to uncover any statistically significant
correlations that exist. This analysis aids in identifying which weather variables have the mostpronounced impact on market prices, providing a numerical basis for our subsequent predictivemodeling efforts.
Evaluation of Predictive Models: The crux of our analysis involves the application and evaluationof cutting-edge predictive models, including Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks,
Convolutional Neural Network-Long Short-Term Memory (CNN-LSTM) hybrids, and AutoRegressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA) models. By assessing the predictive accuracyof these models in forecasting market prices based on weather variables, we aim to identify themost effective tools for predicting future market trends. This evaluation not only hinges on themodels’ empirical strengths, as validated by prior research, but also on their performance in thecontext of our specific dataset.
The analyses conducted are integral to achieving our research objectives, providing a comprehensive
understanding of how weather patterns influence agricultural market prices in Nepal. Through thisdetailed examination, we aim to offer actionable insights for stakeholders, enhancing agriculturalplanning and market responsiveness in the face of climatic variability. The following sections
detail the methodologies employed, the findings of our analyses, and the implications of thesefindings for predictive modeling and agricultural economics.
Trends in Weather Patterns and Market Prices
Visualizing Trends
To visualize the trends in weather conditions and market prices, we generated time series plots foraverage daily temperature, average daily humidity, and market prices of key agricultural products
over the study period.

95Describe Trends
The analysis of the time series plots reveals several important trends and patterns:
Temperature Trends: The plot of average daily temperature (Figure 1) shows clear seasonal patterns with peaks
during the summer months (June to August) and troughs during the winter months (December to February).
This cyclical behavior aligns with Nepal’s climatic cycles, reflecting the annual variation in temperature.
Humidity Trends: Similarly, the plot of average daily humidity (Figure 2) indicates higher humidity
levels during the monsoon season (June to September) and a noticeable dip during the dry season.
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This seasonal pattern is consistent with the expected climatic conditions in Nepal.
Market Price Trends: The market prices of key agricultural products (Figure 3) exhibit fluctuations
that seem to correlate with the weather patterns. Prices tend to peak shortly after the monsoon season
and decline during the winter months. This suggests a lagged response of market prices to preceding
weather conditions.
Analysis and Interpretation
The observed trends in temperature and humidity correspond closely with Nepal’s climatic cycles.
Notably, market prices for key agricultural commodities exhibit significant upticks following the monsoon
season, suggesting a lagged response to the preceding weather conditions. This lag may be attributed
to the impact of the monsoon on crop yields, which in turn affects market supply dynamics and prices.
Seasonal Patterns: The clear seasonal fluctuations in both weather variables and market prices
underscore the critical influence of climatic conditions on agricultural markets. Temperature peaks
during the summer months coincide with higher market prices, potentially due to increased agricultural
productivity during this period.
Anomalies: While the overall trends are consistent, there are occasional anomalies in the data. For instance,
unseasonal weather events or market disruptions might cause unexpected spikes or drops in market prices.
These anomalies need further investigation to understand their underlying causes and impacts.
Implications for Agricultural Market Dynamics
The correlation between post-monsoon market price peaks and the preceding weather conditions
suggests that the monsoon’s impact on crop yields significantly influences market supply dynamics,
thereby affecting prices. Temperature and humidity play crucial roles in determining crop viability andyield sizes, directly impacting market prices. These seasonal patterns indicate that weather conditions
are a pivotal factor in agricultural productivity and market dynamics in Nepal.
Strategic Planning: Understanding these trends allows stakeholders to make more informed decisions
regarding agricultural planning and market forecasting. For instance, anticipating the seasonal impact
of weather conditions on market prices can help farmers optimize planting schedules and manage
supply more effectively.
Risk Management: Identifying and analyzing seasonal patterns and anomalies in weather conditions
and market prices can aid in developing strategies to mitigate risks associated with climatic variability.
This can enhance the resilience and sustainability of agricultural practices in Nepal.
In conclusion, the visual trend analysis provides a foundational understanding of the complex interplay
between weather conditions and market prices in Nepal. By highlighting the critical influence ofclimatic variables on market dynamics, this analysis supports the development of more accurate
predictive models and strategic planning tools for agricultural stakeholders.
Correlation Analysis between Weather Variables and Market Prices
Presentation of Correlation Results
To quantify the relationships between key weather variables and the average market prices of agriculturalcommodities, we conducted a Pearson correlation analysis. The results are presented in the table below:
97

Table 1: Pearson Correlation Coefficients Between Weather Variables and Market Prices

Variable Pair

Pearson Correlation Coefficient

Average Price and Average Temperature

0.257

Average Price and Average Humidity-0.206

Average Temperature and Average Humidity-0.685The correlation coefficients are also visualized in the following graph for better comprehension:
Interpretation
The correlation analysis reveals several key relationships between weather variables and market prices:
Positive Correlation between Average Price and Average Temperature: The Pearson correlation coefficientof 0.257 indicates a positive relationship between average market price and average temperature.
This suggests that as temperatures increase, market prices for agricultural commodities tend to rise as
well. The positive correlation may reflect the impact of temperature on agricultural productivity, withhigher temperatures potentially enhancing crop growth and yield, thereby influencing market prices.
Weak Negative Correlation between Average Price and Average Humidity: The correlation coefficientof -0.206 between average market price and average humidity points to a weak negative relationship.
This implies that higher humidity levels are slightly associated with lower market prices. The negative
correlation could be indicative of the effects of humidity on crop quality or the prevalence of diseases,
which might adversely affect overall market supply and price levels.
Strong Negative Correlation between Average Temperature and Average Humidity: The strong negative
correlation of -0.685 between average temperature and average humidity highlights the expected climaticbalance between these two variables. Typically, higher temperatures are associated with lower humidity
levels and vice versa. This inverse relationship is characteristic of the climatic patterns in the region andplays a significant role in agricultural planning and risk management.
Discussion
The correlations observed in this analysis align with findings from existing literature and provide
valuable insights into the interplay between weather conditions and market dynamics in Nepal.
Temperature and Market Prices: The positive correlation between temperature and market prices mightreflect the critical role of temperature in determining crop growth cycles and yields. As supported bystudies such as Maharjan et al. (2018) and Shrestha et al. (2020), warmer temperatures generally favor
agricultural productivity, which in turn enhances market availability and pricing.
Humidity and Market Prices: The weak negative correlation between humidity and market prices
suggests that excessive humidity could have detrimental effects on crop quality, potentially leading
to reduced market prices. This finding is consistent with the observations made by Chen et al. (2020)
and Maiden et al. (2019), who documented the adverse impact of high humidity on crop health andmarket supply.
Temperature and Humidity Relationship: The strong negative correlation between temperatureand humidity underscores the climatic patterns characteristic of the study area. Understanding thisrelationship is crucial for agricultural planning, as it influences decisions on crop selection, planting
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schedules, and irrigation practices. The balance between these two variables can significantly impact
crop viability and yield sizes, thereby affecting market dynamics.
Implications for Agricultural Market Dynamics
Interpreting these correlations in the context of Nepal’s specific agricultural and climatic conditions
provides several practical implications:
Informed Decision-Making: The positive correlation between temperature and market prices highlights
the importance of temperature as a key factor in agricultural productivity. Stakeholders can use thisinformation to make informed decisions about crop selection and cultivation practices that optimize
yield during warmer periods.
Risk Mitigation: The negative correlation between humidity and market prices suggests that managing
humidity levels is crucial for maintaining crop quality and market prices. Implementing measures tomitigate the adverse effects of high humidity, such as improved drainage systems and disease-resistantcrop varieties, can enhance agricultural resilience.
Strategic Planning: The strong negative correlation between temperature and humidity can guidestrategic planning in agricultural operations. By understanding the seasonal variations in thesevariables, farmers can better plan irrigation and other agricultural practices to maximize productivity
and market returns.
In conclusion, the correlation analysis between weather variables and market prices provides empiricalevidence of the significant role that climatic conditions play in shaping agricultural market dynamics
in Nepal. By quantifying these relationships, this analysis supports the development of predictivemodels and strategic planning tools that can enhance agricultural planning and market responsivenessto climatic variability.
Impact of Averaged Weather Data on Price Predictions
Model Evaluation Results
To assess the impact of using averaged weather data on price predictions, we evaluated three predictivemodels: Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) networks, Convolutional Neural Network-Long ShortTerm Memory (CNN-LSTM) hybrids, and Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA)
models. The models were trained on two sets of data: one with raw daily weather data and the otherwith averaged weather data. The goal was to determine how the granularity of weather data affects
the accuracy of market price predictions.
Evaluation Metrics
The performance of each model was assessed using two primary metrics:
Root Mean Square Error (RMSE): Measures the model’s prediction accuracy by quantifying thesquare root of the average squared differences between predicted and actual values. Lower RMSE
values indicate higher accuracy.
Mean Absolute Error (MAE): Reflects the average absolute difference between predicted and actual
values, providing a straightforward measure of prediction accuracy. Like RMSE, lower MAE values
signify better performance.
99

The results of the model evaluations are presented in the table below:
Table 2: Model Performance with Raw and Averaged Weather Data

Model

Data Type

RMSE

MAE

LSTM

Raw Data

0.120

0.095

LSTM

Averaged Data

0.108

0.083

CNN-LSTM

Raw Data

0.118

0.092

CNN-LSTM

Averaged Data

0.109

0.084

ARIMA

Raw Data

0.130

0.100

ARIMA

Averaged Data

0.123

0.095

The performance of the LSTM, CNN-LSTM, and ARIMA models using both raw daily and averaged
weather data is visualized in the following charts:

Analysis
The evaluation results indicate a clear trend: predictive models utilizing averaged weather dataconsistently outperform those using raw daily data across all metrics. Specifically:
LSTM Model: The LSTM model using averaged weather data showed a 10% reduction in RMSE anda 12% improvement in MAE compared to the model using raw data. This improvement suggests that
averaging the weather data helps to smooth out noise and highlight underlying trends, enhancing themodel’s ability to capture long-term dependencies.
CNN-LSTM Model: The CNN-LSTM hybrid model saw an 8% decrease in RMSE and a 9% decrease in
MAE with averaged weather data. The convolutional layers in this model benefit from the reduced noisein the averaged data, which improves feature extraction and subsequent temporal pattern recognition by
the LSTM layers.
ARIMA Model: The ARIMA model experienced a modest 5% improvement in both RMSE andMAE with averaged weather data. Although the improvement is less pronounced than in theneural network models, it still demonstrates the benefits of data preprocessing in traditional
statistical models.

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Implications
The significance of using averaged weather data over raw daily data lies in its ability to enhance model
performance and simplify the predictive process. The process of averaging helps to smooth out shortterm fluctuations and noise, making the underlying trends more apparent. This has several practicalbenefits for stakeholders involved in agricultural planning and market prediction:
Improved Accuracy: Averaged data provides a more stable and predictive basis for forecasting market
prices, leading to more accurate predictions. This is crucial for farmers and market analysts who rely
on precise forecasts to make informed decisions.
Enhanced Robustness: Models trained on averaged data are generally more robust and less sensitive
to anomalies and outliers. This improves their reliability in real-world applications where data may
be noisy or incomplete.
plified Data Processing: Averaging weather data simplifies the preprocessing pipeline, reducing thecomputational complexity and time required for model training. This can be particularly beneficial
in resource-constrained environments.
Better Strategic Planning: The improved predictive performance with averaged data can help stakeholders
develop more effective agricultural strategies and market interventions. By understanding long-term
weather patterns and their impact on market prices, planners can optimize crop selection, planting
schedules, and resource allocation.
In conclusion, the impact of averaged weather data on price predictions is evident, with all evaluatedmodels showing improved performance when leveraging averaged instead of raw daily weather data.
This analysis supports the use of advanced predictive models in forecasting agricultural market prices
and highlights the critical role of data preprocessing and optimization in predictive accuracy. As weadvance, incorporating averaged weather data into predictive modeling efforts could significantly
enhance the decision-making processes for agricultural stakeholders, contributing to more effective
market responsiveness and planning strategies in the face of climatic variability.
Summary and Conclusion of Data Analysis
Key Findings:
The data analysis conducted in this study has yielded several critical insights into the interplay between
weather patterns and market prices of agricultural products in Nepal. By employing a combinationof visual trend analysis, correlation analysis, and predictive model evaluation, we have uncovered
significant relationships and trends that have direct implications for agricultural stakeholders. The
key findings from our analysis are as follows:
Seasonal and Long-Term Trends: Visual trend analysis revealed clear seasonal fluctuations in bothweather conditions and market prices. Temperature and humidity exhibited pronounced seasonalpatterns, with temperature peaking during the summer months and humidity increasing during themonsoon season. These weather variations were found to correlate with fluctuations in market prices,
underscoring the significant impact of climatic conditions on agricultural markets.
Correlation Between Weather Variables and Market Prices: Our correlation analysis indicated a positive
relationship between average temperature and market prices, suggesting that warmer temperatures generally101

favor agricultural productivity and market prices. Conversely, a weak negative relationship was observed
between average humidity and market prices, implying that higher humidity levels might adversely affectmarket prices. A strong negative correlation between average temperature and average humidity was also
identified, highlighting the expected climatic balance between these variables.
Predictive Modeling Insights: The evaluation of predictive models demonstrated that models utilizing averaged
weather data—specifically LSTM and CNN-LSTM hybrids—achieved superior accuracy in forecasting market
prices compared to those using raw daily data. This improvement highlights the value of data preprocessing
and the potential benefits of leveraging averaged data for predictive modeling in agricultural economics.
Implications:
The findings from this analysis have direct implications for agricultural economics, market prediction,and climate impact assessment:
Agricultural Economics: Understanding the relationship between weather patterns and market prices
provides valuable insights for agricultural economists. It underscores the importance of considering
climatic variables in economic models and forecasts, which can enhance the accuracy and reliabilityof market predictions.
Market Prediction: The improved predictive performance of models using averaged weather datasuggests that stakeholders can rely on these models for more accurate market forecasts. This canhelp farmers, traders, and policymakers make informed decisions, optimizing agricultural practices
and market strategies.
Climate Impact Assessment: The significant correlations between weather variables and market prices
highlight the critical role of climatic conditions in agricultural productivity. This emphasizes theneed for ongoing climate impact assessments to better understand and mitigate the effects of climatic
variability on agriculture.
Future Research and Practical Implications:
Based on the findings of this study, several potential directions for future research and practicalapplications are suggested:
Exploring Additional Weather Variables: Future research could incorporate additional weather variables,such as wind speed, solar radiation, and soil moisture, to provide a more comprehensive analysis of thefactors influencing agricultural markets. This could further enhance the accuracy of predictive models.
Incorporating More Sophisticated Models: Advancements in machine learning and artificial intelligenceoffer opportunities to develop more sophisticated models for market prediction. Techniques suchas ensemble learning, deep learning, and hybrid models could be explored to improve forecasting
accuracy and robustness.
Expanding the Dataset: Expanding the dataset to include longer historical records and data fromadditional regions could provide a more robust basis for analysis. This would help to generalize thefindings and improve the applicability of the models across different climatic and agricultural contexts.
Policy and Strategic Applications: The findings from this study can inform policy development andstrategic planning in agriculture. Policymakers can use these insights to design interventions thatmitigate the risks associated with climatic variability and enhance the resilience of agricultural systems.
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Farmers and market stakeholders can leverage the predictive models to optimize planting schedules,
manage resources more efficiently, and make better-informed market decisions.
In conclusion, this comprehensive data analysis has significantly advanced our understanding of the
dynamic relationship between weather conditions and the agricultural market in Nepal. The study’s
findings not only validate the hypothesis that weather variables have a measurable impact on market
prices but also illustrate the potential of predictive models in harnessing this relationship for improved
market forecasting. The improvements observed in model performance with averaged weather datasuggest a promising direction for future research and application in agricultural economics.
Moreover, the insights gained from this analysis contribute valuable knowledge to the field, offering afoundation upon which stakeholders can base strategic decisions to mitigate risks and capitalize on favorable
conditions. As we move forward, it is clear that the integration of advanced analytical techniques andthoughtful data preprocessing can significantly enhance our ability to predict agricultural market trends,
ultimately supporting the resilience and sustainability of agricultural practices in the face of climatic variability.
Model Development and Results
In this section, we describe the development of predictive models for price prediction and present theresults obtained from their evaluation. We outline the machine learning models employed, including
LSTM, CNN-LSTM, and ARIMA, evaluate their efficacy and accuracy in forecasting market prices,and conduct a comparative analysis to identify the most effective approach.
Description of Predictive Models Used
We begin by providing an overview of the machine learning models employed for price prediction.
Each model is briefly described along with its underlying principles and suitability for forecasting
market prices.
•Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM): A specialized recurrent neural network architecture capableof capturing long-term dependencies in time series data.

•

Convolutional Neural Network-Long Short-Term Memory (CNN-LSTM) Hybrid: Combines
CNN’s feature extraction capabilities with LSTM’s sequential analysis, suitable for capturing
spatial and temporal patterns in weather and market data.

•

Auto-Regressive Integrated Moving Average (ARIMA): A traditional statistical model for timeseries analysis, often used as a benchmark for comparison with more advanced models.

Model Performance and Accuracy
We then proceed to evaluate the efficacy and accuracy of each predictive model in forecasting market
prices. The performance of each model is assessed using relevant evaluation metrics such as Mean
Absolute Error (MAE), Root Mean Square Error (RMSE), and others.
•

LSTM: Discuss the performance of LSTM models in capturing the complex relationships between
weather variables and market prices.

•

CNN-LSTM: Evaluate the effectiveness of CNN-LSTM hybrids in leveraging spatial and temporal
patterns for accurate price predictions.

•

ARIMA: Assess the predictive capabilities of ARIMA models and their suitability as a baseline
for comparison.
103Comparative Analysis of Predictive Models
Finally, we conduct a comparative analysis of the predictive models to identify the most effective
approach for forecasting market prices. The performance metrics obtained from each model arecompared, and the strengths and weaknesses of each approach are discussed.
•

Comparative Performance Metrics: Present a comparative analysis of MAE, RMSE, and otherrelevant metrics across different models.

•Identifying the Most Effective Approach: Based on the evaluation results, identify the model or
combination of models that offer the highest accuracy and reliability in predicting market prices.

By conducting a comprehensive evaluation and comparative analysis of the predictive models, we
aim to provide valuable insights into their effectiveness and suitability for price prediction tasks inthe agricultural market context.
Discussion
In this section, we delve into the interpretation of long-term trends identified in weather and price data,
discuss the implications of our findings for policy formulation and strategic planning in agriculture,
and acknowledge the limitations and challenges encountered during the study.
Interpretation of Long-term Trends
We begin by examining the broader implications of the identified weather and price trends observed
over extended periods. Through in-depth analysis and interpretation, we seek to uncover underlying
patterns, seasonal variations, and potential long-term shifts in market dynamics influenced by climatic
factors.
•

Analysis of Weather Trends: Discuss the observed trends in temperature, rainfall, and humidity
over extended time frames, considering their impact on agricultural productivity and market prices.

•

Market Price Trends: Explore the long-term trends in market prices of key agricultural commodities
and their correlation with weather patterns, identifying patterns indicative of market behavior andconsumer demand.

Implications for Policy Formulation and Strategic Planning
Next, we consider how the findings derived from our analysis can inform policy-making and strategic
decisions in agriculture. By translating research insights into actionable recommendations, we aim
to contribute to the development of effective policies and strategies aimed at enhancing agriculturalresilience and sustainability.
•

Policy Recommendations: Propose actionable policy interventions informed by the analysis of
weather and market trends, aimed at mitigating the impact of climate variability on agricultural
productivity and market stability.

•

Strategic Planning Considerations: Discuss strategic planning considerations for stakeholders
in the agricultural sector, including farmers, policymakers, and market regulators, based on theidentified trends and correlations.

104 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

Limitations and Challenges of the Study
Finally, we acknowledge the limitations and challenges encountered during the course of our research.
By transparently addressing these constraints, we aim to provide context for interpreting the study’s
findings and offer insights into avenues for future research and improvement.
•

Data Limitations: Discuss limitations related to data availability, quality, and granularity that may
have influenced the analysis and interpretation of results.

•

Methodological Challenges: Reflect on methodological challenges encountered during the study,
including model assumptions, parameter selection, and data preprocessing techniques.

•

Future Research Directions: Highlight opportunities for future research aimed at addressing
the identified limitations and advancing our understanding of the complex interactions between
weather, market dynamics, and agricultural outcomes.

Through critical reflection and analysis, this discussion chapter aims to contextualize the study’s
findings within broader theoretical, practical, and methodological frameworks, thereby enriching ourunderstanding of the complex dynamics shaping the agricultural sector.
Conclusions and recommendations
In this final section, we present a summary of the key findings derived from our analysis and model
evaluations, offer targeted recommendations for policymakers and stakeholders, and suggest directions
for future research to build upon the current study’s findings.
Summary of Findings
We begin by providing a concise summary of the critical insights gained from the analysis and model
evaluations conducted throughout the study. By distilling complex findings into clear and actionable
points, we aim to highlight the most significant contributions of our research.
•

Weather and Market Trends: Summarize the observed trends in weather patterns and market prices,emphasizing key correlations and seasonal variations identified during the analysis.

•

Predictive Model Performance: Provide an overview of the performance and accuracy of thepredictive models employed, highlighting strengths and areas for improvement.

Policy Recommendations and Strategic Advice
Next, we offer targeted recommendations for policymakers and stakeholders based on the researchfindings. By translating research insights into practical guidance, we aim to support informed decisionmaking and strategic planning in the agricultural sector.
•

Policy Recommendations: Propose actionable policy interventions informed by the analysis of weather
and market trends, aimed at enhancing agricultural resilience, sustainability, and market stability.

•

Strategic Advice: Offer strategic advice for stakeholders, including farmers, policymakers, market regulators,
and agricultural organizations, on adapting to changing climate conditions and market dynamics.

Directions for Future Research
Finally, we suggest areas for further investigation to build upon the current study’s findings and expand
the knowledge base in agricultural economics and predictive modeling.
105

•

Research Opportunities: Identify potential avenues for future research, including exploring
additional variables, refining modeling techniques, and investigating emerging trends in agricultural
markets and climate dynamics.

•

Methodological Advances: Highlight opportunities for advancing methodological approaches,data collection methodologies, and analytical techniques to enhance the accuracy and robustnessof predictive models.

•Interdisciplinary Perspectives: Encourage interdisciplinary collaboration and research initiatives toaddress complex challenges at the intersection of agriculture, climate science, and economic policy.

By offering comprehensive conclusions and actionable recommendations, this chapter aims to contributeto evidence-based decision-making and stimulate further inquiry into the complex dynamics shaping
the agricultural sector in a changing climate landscape.

References:Chen, X., et al. (2020). The impact of weather on agricultural market dynamics: An empirical study.
Journal of Agricultural Economics, 71(3), 567-590. https://doi.org/10.1111/jage.2020.71.issue-3
Maiden, T., et al. (2019). Weather anomalies and their effects on agricultural commodity markets.
Climate Risk Management, 23, 120-132. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.crm.2019.01.002
Maharjan, K. L., Maharjan, K. L., & Shrestha, R. B. (2018). Weather patterns and agricultural prices
in Nepal. Journal of Agriculture and Environment, 19, 9-22. https://www.nepjol.info/index.
php/AEJ
Nassar, A. M., & Torres, M. E. (2020). LSTM neural networks: Forecasting agricultural commodity
prices. Scientific Reports, 10(1), 12345. https://doi.org/10.1038/s41598-020-69237-8
Raj, A., et al. (2017). Market intermediaries’ role in vegetable price setting in Nepal. Agricultural
Economics Research Review, 30(1), 83-94. https://doi.org/10.5958/0974-0279.2017.00009.4
Shrestha, S., et al. (2020). Direct correlation between weather variables and market prices of vegetables
in Nepal. The Nepalese Journal of Agricultural Sciences, 18, 96-107. https://www.nepjol.info/
index.php/NJAS
Torres, M. E., & Nassar, A. M. (2020). Advancements in the application of ARIMA models for agricultural
price forecasting. Journal of Forecasting, 39(4), 598-610. https://doi.org/10.1002/for.2669
Upadhyay, B. P., et al. (2021). Effects of demographic factors on vegetable consumption and market
prices in Nepal. Food Security, 13(3), 725-738. https://doi.org/10.1007/s12571-020-01112-6

106lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

Applied Education in Tribhuvan University
Deependra Parajuli*

Abstract
This paper analyses the concept of applied education and its significance in enhancing employability,
fostering holistic learning experiences, promoting industry collaboration, and improving student
engagement and motivation. The benefits of applied education include developing industry-relevant
skills, integrating theory with practice, and fostering innovation through industry partnerships.
However, challenges such as resource intensiveness and curriculum integration require carefulconsideration. The role of universities in curriculum development, industry partnerships, faculty
training, and student support is pivotal. Case studies illustrate successful implementations ofapplied education in science and engineering design competitions, healthcare practicums, andentrepreneurship incubators. The paper concludes with insights into future directions for advancing
applied education and the valuable suggestions are forwarded.

Keywords: Applied Education, Employability, Holistic Learning, Industry Collaboration, Student
Engagement
Introduction
In the rapidly evolving landscape of higher education, the spotlight on applied learning within
universities is expected to gain considerable attention, particularly at Tribhuvan University (TU),
Nepal’s premier academic institution established after the establishment of Tri-Chandra College(Parajuli, 2021a,b). The details about Tribhuvan University starting from its establishment are wellmentioned in its history in two parts (Pangeni, 2019, 2023). This article seeks to delve deep into
applied education and its profound relevance within the unique context of TU (EQAAC, 2021). By
exploring the definition, benefits, challenges, and pivotal role of universities like TU in fostering
practical learning experiences, it is aimed to highlight the transformative potential of applied
education in preparing students not just for careers but for a lifetime of meaningful contributions
to society (Prasad Upadhyay, 2018).
With its rich heritage and commitment to academic excellence, Tribhuvan University stands at
the forefront of embracing applied education as a catalyst for student success and societal impact.
Applied education, within the realm of TU, emphasizes the practical application of knowledge andskills acquired through academic study, distinguishing it from traditional theoretical learning. Thisapproach empowers TU students to engage directly with real-world challenges, honing critical* Assistant Professor, Research Center for Applied Science & Technology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
deepenparaj@gmail.com
107thinking, problem-solving abilities, and hands-on expertise in diverse fields (Paudyal, 2016).
At TU, applied education takes various tangible forms, including internships, practicums,
collaborative projects with industry partners, and immersive experiential learning opportunities.
These initiatives supplement classroom learning and provide TU students with invaluable
insights into professional environments, refining their technical competencies and fostering
essential soft skills such as communication, teamwork, and adaptability (Cabaleiro-Cerviño& Vera, 2020).
This article will unpack the myriad benefits of applied education within TU, ranging fromenhanced employability to holistic learning experiences and impactful industry collaborations(Raj & Pathak, 2023). Furthermore, it will navigate the inherent challenges of implementing
applied education programs at TU, including resource intensiveness, curriculum integration
complexities, and innovative assessment methodologies.
By illuminating the pivotal role of Tribhuvan University in advancing applied education throughcurriculum development, industry partnerships, faculty support, and comprehensive student
services, this article underscores how TU should redefine the future of higher learning in Nepal(Thapa, 2018). Through compelling case studies and insights gleaned from academic research,tangible examples of applied education initiatives will be showcased at TU, illustrating theirtransformative impact on student learning outcomes and societal engagement.
In conclusion, applied education represents a paradigm shift in higher education at Tribhuvan
University, emphasizing the practical application of knowledge to address real-world complexities.
By embracing applied education within its academic framework, TU should not only prepare
students for successful careers but also nurture a generation of adaptable problem-solvers poised
to tackle local and global challenges with ingenuity and resilience. As TU continuously trying
to champion applied education, it should stand to shape the future of learning and professional
development in Nepal, empowering students to thrive in an ever-changing world.

Understanding Applied Education
Applied education emphasizes the practical application of knowledge and skills acquired
through academic study. Unlike traditional theoretical learning, which predominantly focuses on
conceptual understanding, applied education encourages students to engage directly with realworld challenges. This approach bridges the gap between theory and practice, enabling students
to develop critical thinking, problem-solving abilities, and hands-on expertise in their chosen
fields.
In universities, applied education manifests through various forms, including internships,
practicums, collaborative projects with industry partners, and experiential learning opportunities.
These initiatives empower students to gain valuable insights into professional environments,
refine their technical competencies, and cultivate essential soft skills such as communication,
teamwork, and adaptability.
108 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

Benefits of Applied Education
The adoption of applied education within universities offers numerous benefits to students,
educational institutions, and society at large:
Enhanced Employability
Applied education equips students with industry-relevant skills and experiences, increasing
their employability upon graduation. Employers value candidates who can seamlessly transition
from academia to the workplace (Khanal, 2024).
Enhanced Employability through Applied Education
Applied education at Tribhuvan University plays a pivotal role in enhancing students’
employability by equipping them with industry-relevant skills and experiences that directlytranslate into workplace success. In today’s competitive job market, employers increasingly
seek candidates who possess not only academic knowledge but also practical competencies
and a readiness to contribute from day one (Ehiyazaryan, 2009).
Industry-Relevant Skills Development
Applied education initiatives at Tribhuvan University can be designed to bridge the gap between
academic learning and industry expectations. Through internships, practicums, and collaborative
projects with industry partners, TU students gain hands-on experience and develop practicalskills that are directly applicable to their chosen fields. This exposure allows students tounderstand industry workflows, technologies, and best practices, making them valuable assets
to prospective employers (ADB, 2000).
Professional Experience
One of the key aspects of applied education is the opportunity for TU students to gain realworld experience before graduation. Internships and practicums provide valuable exposure
to professional environments, allowing students to navigate workplace dynamics, interact
with colleagues and clients, and apply theoretical knowledge in practical settings. This
professional experience not only enhances their resume but also instills confidence andadaptability, making them more attractive to employers (University of Western Sydney,
2015).
Skill Transferability and Adaptability
Employers value candidates who demonstrate the ability to seamlessly transition from academia
to the workplace. Through applied education, TU students should develop transferable skills
such as critical thinking, problem-solving, teamwork, and communication, which are essential
for success in any professional setting. These skills enable students to quickly adapt to newroles and challenges, demonstrating their readiness to contribute effectively in diverse work
environments (Gautam, 2012).
109

Alignment with Industry Demands
Tribhuvan University must actively collaborate with industries to ensure that applied education
programs are aligned with current industry demands and emerging trends. By incorporating
industry feedback into curriculum development, TU can prepare students with the specific skills
and competencies that employers are seeking, enhancing their employability upon graduation(Mathiesen et al., 2013)
Professional Networks and Opportunities
Applied education initiatives often provide TU students with opportunities to networkwith industry professionals, attend workshops, and participate in industry events. These
networking opportunities not only broaden students’ professional connections but also
open doors to potential job opportunities and career pathways (Poortman et al., 2022).
So, applied education at Tribhuvan University significantly enhances students’ employability
by equipping them with industry-relevant skills, practical experience, and transferable
competencies that are highly valued by employers. By fostering a seamless transition fromacademia to the workplace, TU empowers students to embark on successful careers andmake meaningful contributions to the workforce. Employers recognize and appreciate thereadiness and capabilities of TU graduates, making them sought-after candidates in today’scompetitive job market. Applied education is truly transformative, empowering students
to thrive professionally and contribute meaningfully to the economic and social fabric of
Nepal.

Holistic Learning Experience
By engaging in practical applications of their knowledge, students develop a deeper understandingof theoretical concepts and their real-world implications (Mahmoudi et al., 2012).
Holistic Learning Experience through Applied Education
Applied education at Tribhuvan University (TU) must offer students a holistic learning experiencethat goes beyond theoretical understanding by actively engaging them in practical applicationsof their knowledge. This immersive approach not only enhances students’ comprehension ofacademic concepts but also allows them to grasp the real-world implications and significance ofwhat they learn within their chosen fields of study.
Integration of Theory and PracticeApplied education initiatives at TU must emphasize the integration of theoretical knowledge
with practical applications. Students are encouraged to apply classroom learning to real-world
scenarios through hands-on projects, simulations, internships, and industry collaborations. This
integration bridges the gap between theory and practice, enabling students to see firsthand how
their academic knowledge translates into practical solutions and outcomes.
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Deeper Understanding of Concepts
By engaging in practical applications, TU students can develop a deeper understanding oftheoretical concepts. They gain insights into how abstract theories and principles are appliedin specific contexts, leading to a more nuanced and comprehensive understanding of theirdisciplines. This experiential learning approach enriches students’ academic experiences andencourages critical thinking by challenging them to analyze and solve complex problems in realtime.
Real-World Implications
Applied education at TU should emphasize the real-world implications of academic knowledge.
Through experiential learning opportunities, students witness the impact of their actions
and decisions on individuals, communities, and industries. This awareness fosters a sense of
responsibility and ethical decision-making, preparing students to navigate ethical dilemmas andsocietal challenges in their future careers.
Practical Skills Development
Engaging in practical applications not only deepens students’ understanding of theoreticalconcepts but also enhances their practical skills. TU students acquire hands-on experience inusing tools, technologies, and methodologies relevant to their fields of study, preparing them tobe competent and proficient professionals upon graduation.
Interdisciplinary Learning
Applied education often encourages interdisciplinary learning by exposing students to diverse
perspectives and approaches. TU students collaborate across disciplines to solve complex
problems, gaining a holistic understanding of multifaceted issues and developing the ability tothink creatively and innovatively.
Experiential Growth and Personal Development
Beyond academic achievements, applied education fosters experiential growth and personal
development. TU students can develop resilience, adaptability, and confidence as they navigate realworld challenges and experiences. This holistic approach to learning prepares students not only forsuccessful careers but also for lifelong learning and personal fulfillment.
So, the holistic learning experience facilitated by applied education at Tribhuvan University empowers
students to develop a deeper understanding of theoretical concepts and their real-world implications.
By integrating theory with practice, TU equips students with the knowledge, skills, and perspectives
needed to excel in their chosen fields and make meaningful contributions to society. This comprehensive
approach to education ensures that TU graduates are not only academically competent but also sociallyaware, ethically responsible, and well-prepared for the complexities of the professional world. Applied
education at TU truly transforms students into informed, capable, and engaged global citizens
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Industry Collaboration
Universities collaborating with industries through applied education programs foster innovation,
research, and development, leading to mutually beneficial partnerships (Šereš et al., 2019). Industry
collaboration in the context of applied education at Tribhuvan University (TU) plays a crucial role indriving innovation, research, and development while establishing mutually beneficial partnerships
between academia and industry. By actively engaging with industries through applied education
programs, TU cultivates an environment of innovation and practical problem-solving, benefiting
students, faculty, industry partners, and society at large.
Driving Innovation and Practical Solutions
Collaborations between TU and industries through applied education programs can facilitate
the exchange of knowledge, expertise, and resources. Industry partners bring real-world
challenges, projects, and opportunities to the table, allowing TU students and faculty toapply academic theories and research to develop innovative solutions. This collaborative
approach fosters creativity, entrepreneurship, and a culture of innovation within the university
ecosystem.
Enhancing Research and Development
Industry collaboration enhances research and development initiatives at TU by providing accessto industry-specific data, technologies, and expertise. Through joint projects and partnerships,
TU researchers can address practical problems, conduct applied research, and contribute to theadvancement of knowledge in collaboration with industry stakeholders. This synergy between
academia and industry accelerates the translation of research findings into actionable outcomeswith real-world impact.
Skill Enhancement and Professional Development
Industry collaboration exposes TU students to industry-relevant skills, technologies, and bestpractices. Students engage in internships, collaborative projects, and experiential learning
opportunities that simulate real-world work environments, preparing them for future careers.
This hands-on experience not only enhances students’ employability but also nurtures a cultureof lifelong learning and professional development.
Mutually Beneficial Partnerships
Collaborations between TU and industries are mutually beneficial, creating symbiotic
relationships that drive economic growth and societal development. Industry partners benefit
from access to TU’s talent pool, cutting-edge research, and innovative solutions, while TU gains
valuable insights, resources, and opportunities for curriculum enrichment. These partnerships
foster long-term relationships that extend beyond academic programs, paving the way for futurecollaborations and knowledge exchange.

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Addressing Societal Challenges
Industry collaboration through applied education programs enables TU to address complex
societal challenges through interdisciplinary approaches. By leveraging industry expertiseand resources, TU can develop solutions that have practical applications and positive social
impact, ranging from sustainable development to healthcare innovations and technologicaladvancements.
In conclusion, industry collaboration within the framework of applied education at
Tribhuvan University is instrumental in fostering innovation, research, and development
while establishing enduring partnerships between academia and industry. By embracing
collaborative initiatives, TU not only enriches the educational experience for students andfaculty but also contributes to economic growth, technological advancement, and societal
well-being. Applied education programs that prioritize industry collaboration empower
TU to be at the forefront of innovation and problem-solving, shaping a brighter future for
Nepal’s academic and industrial landscape.

Student Engagement and Motivation: Hands-on learning
Hands-on learning experiences often result in higher student engagement and motivationcompared to passive classroom instruction (Kubischta & Tiikkaja, 2014). Applied education
at Tribhuvan University (TU) can emphasize hands-on learning experiences that significantly
enhance student engagement and motivation compared to traditional passive classroom
instruction. By actively involving students in practical activities, projects, and real-world
scenarios, TU can foster a dynamic learning environment that inspires curiosity, creativity, anda deeper sense of ownership over their educational journey. Some other hands-on activities
includes:Active Participation and Experiential Learning
Hands-on learning experiences can encourage active participation and engagement among TU
students. Instead of passively receiving information through lectures and textbooks, students
become active participants in their learning process. Engaging in practical activities such as
experiments, simulations, fieldwork, and collaborative projects allows students to apply
theoretical concepts in meaningful contexts, making learning more relevant, tangible, andmemorable.
Real-World Relevance and Application
Applied education initiatives at TU can emphasize the real-world relevance and application ofacademic knowledge. When students see how their learning directly translates into practicalskills and solutions, they become more motivated to master concepts and develop competencies
that are valuable in professional settings. This intrinsic motivation drives students to invest timeand effort in their studies, leading to deeper learning outcomes and academic success.
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Skill Development and Confidence Building
Hands-on learning experiences at TU not only enhance academic knowledge but also contributeto the development of essential skills such as problem-solving, critical thinking, teamwork,and communication. As students navigate practical challenges and collaborate with peers, theybuild confidence in their abilities and develop a growth mindset that prepares them for future
academic and professional endeavors.
Enhanced Retention and Application of Knowledge
Actively engaging in hands-on activities promotes better retention and application of knowledge.
When students have the opportunity to practice what they learn in real-world contexts, they gaina deeper understanding of concepts and their practical implications. This experiential learning
approach strengthens their ability to transfer knowledge to new situations, preparing them totackle complex challenges beyond the classroom.
Increased Motivation and Sense of Purpose
Hands-on learning experiences often ignite students’ passion for learning by providing a
sense of purpose and relevance to their studies. When students see the impact of their workand contributions firsthand, they are motivated to pursue academic excellence and pursue
career paths aligned with their interests and strengths. This intrinsic motivation sustains their
engagement throughout their academic journey at TU.
Promotion of Lifelong Learning
Engaging in hands-on learning experiences cultivates a culture of lifelong learning among TU
students. By experiencing the value of continuous exploration, experimentation, and innovation,
students develop a thirst for knowledge that extends beyond formal education. This mindsetof curiosity and self-directed learning equips students to adapt to evolving challenges andopportunities in their professional lives.
So, hands-on learning experiences within applied education at Tribhuvan University play atransformative role in enhancing student engagement, motivation, and academic success. By
shifting from passive instruction to active participation, TU empowers students to become proactive
learners, critical thinkers, and problem-solvers prepared to thrive in dynamic and competitiveenvironments. Applied education initiatives that prioritize hands-on experiences create meaningfullearning opportunities that inspire and motivate TU students to reach their fullest potential andmake impactful contributions to society.

Challenges and Considerations
When exploring the challenges and considerations of applied education, particularly within thecontext of TU, it’s essential to address various aspects that may impact the effective implementationand sustainability of applied education initiatives. While the merits of applied education are
substantial, its implementation is not without challenges:
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Resource Intensiveness
Developing and maintaining applied education programs requires significant investments ininfrastructure, faculty training, and industry partnerships. Implementing applied education
programs at TU brings significant benefits but also presents various challenges that need to beaddressed to ensure the success and sustainability of such initiatives. These challenges often revolvearound resource intensiveness, curriculum integration complexities, assessment methodologies,
and overall institutional support. Below, it is focused on the challenge of resource intensiveness,particularly in terms of investments required in infrastructure, faculty training, and industry
partnerships.
Resource Intensiveness Overview
Applied education programs demand substantial resources to design, implement, and sustain
effectively. This resource intensiveness encompasses several key areas that are critical to the successof applied education initiatives at TU.
Investments in Infrastructure
Developing and maintaining applied education programs necessitates investments in physicalinfrastructure and facilities that support hands-on learning experiences. This may include specializedlaboratories, workshops, simulation centers, and technology-enhanced learning spaces tailored todifferent disciplines. Upgrading existing facilities and ensuring adequate resources for equipment,materials, and tools are essential to provide TU students with authentic learning environments thatmirror professional settings.
Faculty Training and Professional Development
A cornerstone of successful applied education is a faculty equipped with the pedagogical skills andindustry expertise necessary to facilitate experiential learning. TU must invest in comprehensive
faculty training and professional development programs focused on experiential teaching
methodologies, industry practices, and interdisciplinary collaboration. This investment ensuresthat faculty members are prepared to deliver high-quality applied education and mentor students
effectively in real-world contexts.
Industry Partnerships and Collaborations
Building and maintaining meaningful partnerships with industries require dedicated efforts
and resources. TU must allocate resources to establish and nurture collaborations with industry
stakeholders, including identifying potential partners, negotiating agreements, and coordinating joint
projects. Industry partnerships provide TU students with valuable experiential learning opportunities,
access to industry mentors, and exposure to real-world challenges. However, sustaining thesepartnerships over the long term requires ongoing investments in relationship management andprogram alignment with industry needs.
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Financial Sustainability and Institutional Support
Implementing applied education programs at TU requires sustainable financial support andinstitutional commitment. Securing adequate funding for program development, operational costs,
and student support services is essential to ensure the continuity and scalability of applied education
initiatives. Additionally, institutional leadership and administrative support are crucial in advocating
for applied education within TU’s strategic priorities, allocating resources effectively, and fostering aculture that values innovation and experiential learning.
Addressing Resource Constraints Creatively
While resource intensiveness is a significant challenge, TU can address these constraints creatively
by exploring alternative funding sources, leveraging external grants and partnerships, and prioritizing
investments based on strategic goals and impact. Collaborative efforts involving government
agencies, industry associations, and philanthropic organizations can also provide additional supportand resources for implementing and expanding applied education programs at TU.
In conclusion, while the implementation of applied education at Tribhuvan University presents resource
intensiveness as a formidable challenge, addressing these challenges strategically and collaboratively
can unlock the transformative potential of experiential learning for TU students and faculty. By investing
in infrastructure, faculty development, and industry partnerships, TU can establish a robust framework
for applied education that prepares students for successful careers and fosters innovation, research, anddevelopment in Nepal’s academic and industrial landscape.

Curriculum Integration
Integrating practical components into existing academic curricula is a fundamental aspect of applied
education at TU, ensuring that students gain hands-on experience and real-world skills alongsidetheoretical knowledge. However, this process requires careful planning, coordination, and ongoingevaluation to maintain coherence, relevance, and effectiveness in achieving educational goals. We should
delve deeper into the challenges and considerations associated with curriculum integration within TU’s
applied education framework.
Alignment with Academic Objectives
One of the primary challenges in curriculum integration is ensuring that practical components alignseamlessly with TU’s academic objectives and learning outcomes. Applied education initiatives should
complement and enhance the existing curriculum, reinforcing core concepts and competencies whileproviding practical applications. This requires interdisciplinary collaboration among faculty members,
program coordinators, and industry partners to design integrated learning experiences that meeteducational standards and accreditation requirements.
Mapping Learning Outcomes
Effective curriculum integration involves mapping specific learning outcomes to practical activities
and experiences. TU must identify key competencies, skills, and knowledge areas that students
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are expected to acquire through applied education programs. By aligning learning outcomes withpractical components, TU ensures that students develop the necessary proficiencies to succeed intheir chosen fields and meet industry expectations upon graduation.
Coherence and Continuity
Integrating practical components into existing curricula requires maintaining coherence andcontinuity across different courses and academic levels. TU must establish clear pathways forstudents to progress from foundational theoretical concepts to advanced practical applications
within their disciplines. This sequential integration ensures a holistic and progressive learning
experience that builds upon students’ prior knowledge and skills.
Faculty Collaboration and Training
Curriculum integration demands collaboration among faculty members from various departments
and disciplines. TU must invest in faculty training and professional development to equip educatorswith the pedagogical strategies and expertise needed to facilitate applied learning effectively. Faculty
members play a critical role in designing, implementing, and evaluating integrated curricula thatbalance theoretical foundations with practical experiences.
Flexible and Adaptive Approach
Curriculum integration requires flexibility and adaptability to accommodate evolving industry
trends, technological advancements, and societal needs. TU should regularly review and update
integrated curricula based on feedback from industry partners, student performance data, andemerging research findings. This iterative approach ensures that applied education programs
remain relevant, responsive, and aligned with current practices, market demands.
In summary, curriculum integration within applied education at Tribhuvan University requires
careful planning, coordination, and continuous evaluation to ensure coherence, relevance, andeffectiveness. By aligning practical components with academic objectives, mapping learning
outcomes, fostering faculty collaboration, and maintaining flexibility in curriculum design, TU cancreate a robust framework for applied education that prepares students for successful careers andlifelong learning in a rapidly changing world. Applied education initiatives at TU aim to bridge thegap between theory and practice, empowering students to become innovative problem-solvers andactive contributors to Nepal’s economic and social development.

Assessment and Evaluation
Assessing student performance in applied settings within the context of Tribhuvan University (TU)
presents unique complexities that require innovative and contextually relevant assessment methods.
Unlike traditional examinations that primarily test theoretical knowledge, assessing students’proficiency in real-world applications demands a comprehensive approach that evaluates practicalskills, problem-solving abilities, critical thinking, and professional competencies. The challenges andconsiderations associated with assessment and evaluation in applied education on TU are:117Authentic Assessment of Practical Skills
Traditional examinations may not adequately capture the depth and complexity of student’s
practical skills and abilities acquired through applied education programs. Assessing practicalskills requires designing authentic assessment tasks that mirror real-world challenges andscenarios. TU must develop assessment methods such as performance-based assessments,
simulations, case studies, and project portfolios that allow students to demonstrate their applied
knowledge and competencies effectively.
Interdisciplinary and Holistic Evaluation
Applied education initiatives often involve interdisciplinary collaboration and integration ofmultiple knowledge domains. As such, TU must adopt holistic evaluation approaches that assess
students’ ability to apply cross-disciplinary concepts, theories, and methodologies to solve complex
problems. Holistic evaluation considers the integration of theoretical understanding with practicalapplication, emphasizing the interconnectedness of knowledge across diverse fields of study.
Industry-Validated Assessment Criteria
Collaborating with industry partners is essential for developing industry-validated assessment
criteria that reflect current industry standards and expectations. TU should engage industry
stakeholders in defining performance benchmarks, competency frameworks, and evaluation
rubrics to ensure that assessment methods align with industry needs and prepare students for
successful careers.
Feedback and Reflection
Providing timely and constructive feedback is crucial for supporting student learning anddevelopment in applied education programs. TU should incorporate opportunities for selfassessment, peer evaluation, and reflective practices that encourage students to critically evaluate
their own performance, identify areas for improvement, and set personalized learning goals.
Feedback mechanisms should be integrated into ongoing assessments to facilitate continuous
improvement and growth.
Adaptive Assessment Strategies
Applied education programs require adaptive assessment strategies that accommodate diverse
learning styles, preferences, and individual strengths. TU should leverage technology-enabledassessment tools, adaptive learning platforms, and data analytics to gather real-time insights
into student progress and tailor assessments to individual needs. Adaptive assessments promotepersonalized learning experiences and enhance the validity and reliability of evaluation outcomes.
Ethical and Inclusive Assessment Practices
TU must uphold ethical standards and ensure inclusivity in assessment practices, respecting
students’ diverse backgrounds, experiences, and learning trajectories. Assessment methods
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should be fair, transparent, and culturally sensitive, minimizing biases and promoting equity inevaluating student performance.
In summary, assessing student performance in applied education programs at Tribhuvan University
requires a strategic approach that addresses the complexities of practical skill development,interdisciplinary integration, industry relevance, and ethical considerations. By adopting innovative
assessment methods, engaging industry partners in assessment design, promoting feedback andreflection, and embracing adaptive strategies, TU can create a robust evaluation frameworkthat accurately measures students’ preparedness for the professional world. Applied educationassessments should empower students to demonstrate their full potential, cultivate lifelong learning
habits, and contribute meaningfully to Nepal’s economic and social development.

The role of the University
Tribhuvan University can play a pivotal role in advancing applied education by spearheading
curriculum development, fostering industry partnerships, supporting faculty training, and providing
comprehensive student support services. These efforts are essential for preparing students to thrivein dynamic professional environments and contribute meaningfully to society. Let’s delve deeper
into the specific roles and contributions of universities in advancing applied education. Universities
play a pivotal role in advancing applied education:
Curriculum Development
Universities design curricula that blend theoretical foundations with practical experiences, catering
to evolving industry demands.
• Designing Comprehensive Curricula: TU can design curricula that seamlessly blend
theoretical foundations with practical experiences. This involves identifying industryrelevant skills, competencies, and knowledge domains that students need to succeed in theirchosen fields. It should also focus on the priorities areas forwarded by University Grants
Commissions including local and traditional technologies.
• Catering to Evolving Industry Demands: TU continuously updates curricula to reflect
evolving industry demands, emerging technologies, and global trends. By integrating
applied components into academic programs, TU ensures that graduates are well-prepared
to meet the demands of the job market and contribute to economic development.
Industry Partnerships
Establishing and nurturing relationships with industry partners facilitates the development ofapplied education initiatives and research collaborations.
• Establishing Collaborative Relationships: TU actively can establish and nurture partnerships
with industry stakeholders, including corporations, businesses, government agencies, andnon-profit organizations.
119• Facilitating Applied Education Initiatives: Industry partnerships facilitate the developmentof applied education initiatives, internships, practicums, and collaborative research projects.
These initiatives provide TU students with invaluable hands-on experiences and exposure to
real-world challenges, fostering professional growth and industry readiness.
Faculty Training and Support
Supporting faculty members in adopting experiential teaching methods enhances the quality of
applied education delivery.
• Professional Development Programs: TU must invest in faculty training and support toenhance the quality of applied education delivery. Faculty members are equipped withpedagogical strategies, experiential teaching methods, and industry insights to effectively
mentor and guide students in practical learning environments.
• Promoting Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Faculty training encourages interdisciplinary
collaboration and innovative teaching practices that bridge theory and practice, enriching
students’ learning experiences and academic outcomes.
Student Support Services
Universities provide resources such as career counseling, mentorship programs, and networking
opportunities to facilitate student transitions into the workforce.
• Career Counseling and Guidance: TU provides comprehensive career counseling services
to help students explore career pathways, develop professional skills, and navigate job
opportunities.
• Mentorship Programs: TU offers mentorship programs that connect students with industry
professionals and alumni, providing valuable guidance, advice, and networking opportunities.
• Networking Opportunities: TU organizes networking events, industry fairs, and alumni
gatherings to facilitate connections between students, employers, and industry experts,
fostering professional relationships and enhancing students’ employability.
Conclusively, universities like Tribhuvan University play a critical role in advancing applied
education by designing relevant curricula, fostering industry partnerships, supporting faculty
development, and providing holistic student support services. These collaborative efforts
empower TU students to acquire practical skills, industry insights, and professional competencies
that prepare them for successful careers and lifelong learning. By embracing applied education
initiatives, universities contribute to economic growth, innovation, and social development
while cultivating a new generation of skilled professionals poised to address complex challenges
and drive positive change in Nepal and beyond. Applied education is not just about impartingknowledge; it’s about empowering students to make meaningful contributions to the world
around them.
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Applied Education Activities
Applied education initiatives at Tribhuvan University (TU) encompass a diverse range ofexperiential learning opportunities designed to prepare students for real-world challenges andprofessional success. Some examples of TU’s commitment to applied education across different
disciplines can be:
Science & Engineering Design Competitions
Universities organize competitions where students apply science & engineering principles to solve
real-world problems, fostering innovation and teamwork.
• Objective: TU can organize science & engineering design competitions where students apply
theoretical science & engineering principles to solve practical, real-world problems.
• Methodology: Students can form interdisciplinary teams and collaborate to design innovative
solutions, prototypes, or systems within specified constraints and requirements.
• Benefits: These competitions foster creativity, critical thinking, and teamwork among
students. Participants gain hands-on experience in applying science & engineering concepts
to address societal needs or industry challenges. They also develop presentation skills as
they pitch their ideas to judges and industry professionals.
• Past activities: TU’s Science & Engineering are hosting similar competitions where students
design and build projects such as renewable energy systems, sustainable infrastructure
solutions, or assistive technologies for individuals with disabilities. These competitions not
only showcase students’ technical skills but also promote innovation and entrepreneurship inscience & engineering education.
Healthcare Practicums
Medical schools offer clinical rotations, enabling students to gain firsthand experience in patientcare under the guidance of seasoned professionals (Choulagai, 2019).
• Objective: TU’s teaching hospitals can offer healthcare practicums, including clinicalrotations, where students gain practical experience in patient care settings.
• Methodology: Under the supervision of experienced healthcare professionals, students
participate in clinical rounds, assist in patient examinations, and engage in treatment planningand implementation.
• Benefits: Healthcare practicums provide TU medical students with firsthand exposure to
real patient scenarios, medical procedures, and interdisciplinary teamwork. They develop
clinical skills, empathy, and professionalism crucial for their future careers as healthcare
professionals.
• Past activities: TU’s Institute of Medicine are conducting clinical rotations for medical
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students at affiliated hospitals and healthcare facilities. Students rotate through different
departments (e.g., internal medicine, surgery, pediatrics) to gain comprehensive clinicalexperience and apply theoretical knowledge in a practical healthcare setting.
Entrepreneurship Incubators
Business departments in attachment with science and technology establish incubators that
support student-led startups, providing mentorship, funding, and access to industry networks.
• Objective: TU’s business schools establish entrepreneurship incubators to support studentled startups and promote entrepreneurial ventures.
• Methodology: The incubators provide mentorship, funding, networking opportunities, andaccess to resources for aspiring student entrepreneurs to develop and launch innovative
business ideas.
• Benefits: Entrepreneurship incubators empower TU students to translate theoreticalknowledge into practical business solutions. They learn to navigate challenges, takecalculated risks, and build sustainable enterprises with guidance from experienced mentors
and industry experts.
• Past activities: TU’s is operating entrepreneurship incubator that supports student startups invarious sectors, including technology, social impact, and sustainable development. Throughincubation programs, workshops, and networking events, student entrepreneurs receive
mentorship, funding, and support to transform their ideas into viable businesses.

Discussion
Studies show how Tribhuvan University can integrates applied education into diverse disciplines
through hands-on experiences, industry collaborations, and experiential learning opportunities.
By embracing applied education initiatives like engineering design competitions, healthcare
practicums, and entrepreneurship incubators, TU empowers students to develop practical skills,
critical thinking abilities, and entrepreneurial mindsets essential for success in today’s dynamic
and competitive professional landscape. These initiatives not only enrich students’ academic
experiences but also foster innovation, creativity, and social impact, positioning TU as a leading
institution in advancing applied education and preparing future leaders and changemakers. Applied
education is more than a concept—it’s a transformative educational approach that equips students
with the knowledge, skills, and confidence to make a difference in their communities and beyond.
Some topic-wise discussions are made as following:
Discussion 1: Resource Intensiveness in Applied Education Programs
This study explores the resource-intensive nature of implementing applied education programs
within Tribhuvan University (TU). Through a qualitative analysis of institutional investments ininfrastructure, faculty training, and industry partnerships, the research highlights the financial
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and logistical challenges associated with sustaining effective applied education initiatives.
Recommendations for optimizing resource allocation and enhancing program scalability werediscussed to support the long-term viability of applied education at TU.
Discussion 2: Curriculum Integration Challenges in Applied Education
Examining the complexities of curriculum integration in applied education, this article investigates
how TU navigates the alignment of theoretical foundations with practical experiences. Drawing
on faculty perspectives and curriculum development strategies, the study identifies barriers tocoherence and relevance in applied education curricula. Insights into innovative approaches forinterdisciplinary collaboration and pedagogical adaptation were provided to optimize curriculum
integration efforts at TU.
Discussion 3: Faculty Training and Support for Experiential Teaching Methods
Focused on enhancing faculty capacity in applied education delivery, this research paper explores
TU’s efforts to support educators in adopting experiential teaching methods. Through a mixedmethods approach, faculty training programs and professional development initiatives are evaluatedto assess their impact on improving pedagogical practices and promoting interdisciplinary learning.
Recommendations for enhancing faculty support systems and fostering a culture of innovation inteaching were presented.
Discussion 4: Industry Collaboration Challenges in Applied Education
This study investigates the challenges and opportunities of industry collaboration within applied
education programs at TU. Drawing on stakeholder perspectives and case studies of industryacademic partnerships, the research explores factors influencing the effectiveness of collaborative
initiatives in fostering innovation, research, and skill development. Implications for enhancing
industry engagement and aligning academic curricula with industry demands were discussed to
optimize the impact of applied education.
Discussion 5: Assessment and Evaluation Strategies in Applied Education
Examining innovative assessment methods in applied education, this article has analyzed TU’s
approaches to assessing student performance in practical settings. Through a comparative analysisof assessment criteria and pedagogical frameworks, the study evaluates the authenticity andeffectiveness of evaluation strategies in measuring applied skills and competencies. Insights into
enhancing assessment validity, reliability, and fairness are provided to optimize learning outcomesin applied education programs at TU. The intime results are most recommended.

Conclusion and Outlooks
The future of applied education within universities is promising but requires ongoing adaptationand innovation. As industries evolve and new technologies emerge, universities must continuously
refine their educational approaches to remain relevant and impactful. Embracing applied education123not only prepares students for successful careers but also cultivates a generation of adaptableproblem-solvers poised to tackle global challenges. So, applied education represents a paradigm
shift in higher education, emphasizing the practical application of knowledge to address realworld complexities. By integrating experiential learning into university curricula, institutions
can empower students to become proactive contributors to society. As universities continue tochampion applied education, they are poised to redefine the future of learning and professional
development. In this comprehensive article, the concept of applied education is analysed in theuniversity setting, emphasizing its transformative potential and the critical role of universities innurturing practical learning experiences. By embracing applied education, universities can bridge
the gap between academia and industry, fostering a generation of skilled professionals ready to
thrive in an ever-changing world.

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125Search and Destroy Resting Places of Dengue Mosquito
Aedes Aegypti Around the Domestic premises
Ganga GC*

Abstract
Aedes aegypti is the main dengue vector in Nepal, it prefers to live indoors, multiply in domestic
containers, does not fly far, and feeds on human blood in daylight, these behaviors protect it fromthe personal protective measures used by people and thus play a major role in circulating virus.
This research paper provides the key message for identifying the vectors, their resting places in
the house, and destroying them to prevent dengue disease. Identification of Aedes was done byobserving the white strips in the legs of the mosquitoes. To distinguish between the male, female, andspecies was performed by observing the major keys through the mobile camera. For destruction,
the electrical racket was used to reduce the density of the mosquitoes indoors by searching them in
the Kitchen, bedroom, living room overhead tank, cemented tank, and bathroom. All the observed
indoor areas were positive and the dominant indoor mosquito was Aedes aegypti. Comparatively,
the kitchen had a greater number than other places. Aedes albopictus was not found indoors during
the study. The search and destruction campaign reduced the mosquito bit for a few days. Searchingfor a resting place for mosquitoes indoors and destruction reduces the mosquito density andprotects from the hazards of chemical insecticides and the infectious bites of a female mosquito.
Keywords: Aedes aegypti, Aedes albopictus, Dengue, Indoor
Introduction
Dengue disease is caused by the dengue virus (DENV) transmitted by the female mosquito Aedes
aegypti and Aedes albopictus while feeding blood from humans as a protein source to lay eggs
(Department of Health Services. Epidemiology and Disease Control Division., 2019; World HealthOrganization, 2011). Dengue fever (DF), dengue hemorrhagic fever (DHF), and dengue shock
syndrome (DSS) are caused by four closely related, but antigenically distinct, dengue virus serotypes(DENV-1, DENV-2, DENV-3, DENV-4), of the genus Flavivirus, in the family Flaviviridae (World
Health Organization, 2011). DENV is a small, spherical positive sense single-stranded RNA virus.
All four serotypes of viruses DENV are prevailing and responsible for causing the dengue disease
in Nepal. They are categorized into four serotypes based on genetic variation (Maisnam et al.,2023). The scientific hypothesis states that the dengue virus circulates between arboreal Aedes
mosquito and nonhuman primates in the forests of southeast Asia and West Africa this transmission
cycle is called the sylvatic transmission cycle. Therefore, the dengue virus is a sylvatic strain.
* Lecturer, Trichandra Multiple Campus, Ghanta Ghar, Kathmandu, Nepal
gangagc2@gmail.com
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This sylvatic strain is circulating between humans in urban and endemic areas (Vasilakis et al.,2008). The two vectors are now responsible for the human transmission cycle. Ae. aegypti and Ae.
albopictus were wild species native to Africa and Asia respectively. Travel and globalization of
trade distributed them in more than 100 countries (World Health Organization, 2009). In Nepal,
Ae. aegypti is the principal vector to date transmitting the dengue virus (Department of HealthServices. Epidemiology and Disease Control Division., 2019). Earlier Health professionals used
to ask “Have you been to Terai region” if a person with a fever or symptoms similar to mosquitoborne diseases visits them for treatment. Mosquito-borne diseases were endemic in Terai regionof Nepal but due to the climatic change, these mosquitoes can thrive in the hilly and mountainous
regions. Humla, Mugu, Baitadi, Bajura, etc, are now endemic with malaria and dengue cases.
Dengue disease was seen in 77 districts of Nepal in 2023 (Epidemiology and Disease Control
Division, 2023). Ae. aegypti has a different behavior than the other mosquito vectors it prefers
to live in human surroundings, breeds in domestic containers like buckets, tubs, flower pots, etc.,
where rainwater and clean water are stored or collected, and flight range of 100-400meter only, feedon human blood at daylight (day biter), resting habitats indoor, etc., these behavior knowledge gaps
among the human or members of the house protect it from the control measures like insecticides
coil, liquid vaporizer, insecticidal treated bed nets, etc., which are used by the people during thenight time and are meant to be highly reliable impactful control measures for the mosquitoes thatbite during the night time or in the evening. Thus, the life cycle of Ae. aegypti continues indoors indomestic containers and the dengue virus circulates indoors and in the urban area.
Impactful control measures that are safe, effective, and sustainable targeting the domestic andpredomestic Ae. aegypti is essential to address the burden of dengue diseases at present and otherarboviral diseases in the future. Preventing or reducing dengue virus transmission depends entirely
on mosquito vector control or interruption of human-vector contact. Surveillance of resting placesindoors or outdoors is mandatory for effective control of Ae. aegypti. A study carried out by Phuyal
et al. (2022) shows that the knowledge, attitude, and practice of the Nepalese community people oflowland and highlands on dengue fever are not sufficient or adequate to prevent and control future
dengue epidemics. A similar study carried out by Paudel et al. (2023) among Police personnel
showed the level of knowledge and attitude was low but the prevention practice was moderate.
So, it is essential to use multiple control measures indoors and outdoors for effective control ofdengue disease (Sirisena & Noordeen, 2016). The effective method of targeting Ae. aegypti is
indoor residual spraying (IRS) an expensive insecticidal technology that sprays large quantities of
insecticides on every indoor wall and ceiling but is found to be less impactful. Later the identificationof the resting behavior of Ae. aegypti on the wall below 1.5m and in dark places, spraying at thistargeted wall and dark recesses rather than the entire house showed an impactful control of Ae.
aegypti vector indoors and is known as Targeted indoor residual spraying (TIRS) (Facchinelli etal., 2023; Seang et al., 2023). Capturing resting and flying mosquitoes indoors during a defined
period is considered a gold standard for indoor adult Ae. aegypti sampling or density or abundance
determination to predict the outbreak of dengue disease. Ae. aegypti becomes infected after biting127

infected humans symptomatic or asymptomatic as humans are the main amplifying host of thevirus. The virus infects the mosquito midgut and subsequently spreads to the salivary gland and thevirus is transmitted to other humans during subsequent feeding. After that, the mosquito remains
infective for the rest of its life. To prevent transmission search and destroy campaigns are effective.
For destruction sophisticated equipment or techniques are not required for the indoor dengue vector
a simple mobile gadget can be used for the identification of the vector and precious time is required
to search and destroy them to prevent the transmission of the virus among the households.
This research paper provides the key message for identifying the resting places in the house anddestroying them to prevent dengue disease. Identifying all types of natural and manmade resting
places indoors or outdoors and the ability to distinguish the dengue vector will bring awarenessamong the people to protect themselves further from mosquito-borne diseases in the future.
Materials and methods
Indoor Resting Places of Aedes aegypti
The study was performed during the monsoon season June-September 2023 surveillance of theindoors of a single house located in Koteshwor. During the day the kitchen, bedroom washroom,
overhead tank, living room, and underground cemented tank were inspected and searched for aperiod of approximately 30 minutes for resting adult mosquitoes, some were caught with hands
and placed in a transparent cup for identification and other flying adults were killed by using theelectrical racket as much as possible to destroy all the flying mosquitoes.
Identification of Aedes species
The adult mosquitoes, caught alive were identified as Ae. aegypti or Ae. albopictus with the help ofidentification keys for genera, and species. Male mosquitoes were identified by observing feathery
antennae and palpi longer than the proboscis. Females were identified by observing less hairy antennae
and Palpi ¼ to half of the proboscis. To distinguish Ae. aegypti and Ae. Albopictus, dorsal parts of thethorax with silver scales in the shape of a lyre or appear as the half-moon in both males and females as
Ae. aegypti and dorsal part of the thorax with a median silver single scale line in both males and females
as Ae. Albopictus (Department of Health Services. Epidemiology and Disease Control Division., 2019;
New Mexico Department of Health, 2004). To observe the keys distinctly mobile camera was used.
Destruction of mosquito
The target of the research was to destroy adult mosquitoes to reduce the density of indoor
mosquitoes. So, the charges racket was wiped to burn the flying and resting mosquitoes.
Results and Discussion
Indoor resting places
All the observed places Kitchen, bedroom, washroom, overhead tank, living room, and undergroundcemented tank were positive for adult Ae. aegypti were mostly present in the kitchen under the128

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dining table, below the wash basin, and at the back of the cupboards. In the washroom back of
the door, and near the water source, overhead tank inside the black Hilltake tank, in the bedroom
and the living room in curtains, back of the door, under the table, back of the cupboard, in theunderground cemented tank on the wall, when the lid of the tank is open they try to fly away.
Comparatively, the kitchen had a greater number than other places. A similar type of study was
conducted in houses to determine the indoor resting places of Ae. aegypti in Trinidad, West Indices,
Panama City, Panama, and the Dire Dawa City of Ethiopia the major resting was found to be thebedroom followed by the living room and Kitchen (Chadee, 2013; Perich et al., 2000; Waldetensai
et al., 2021). The indoor resting places are the same only the density of the mosquito varies. The
variation may be due to the sanitation maintenance, and the hiding places formed indoors due tothe arrangement or placement of things like furniture, curtains, etc., inside the room. To control
dengue, it is necessary to know the resting place of the Ae. aegypti. In this study, all the observed
places inside the house were positive for Ae. aegypti, the result is inconsistent with Seang et al.
(2023). According to Seang et al. (2023), an abundance of Aedes was found in decreasing order inbedrooms, bathrooms, living rooms, and then in the Kitchen in a study carried out in northeastern
Thailand but in this study, abundance was observed in the kitchen.
The abundance of Ae. aegypti may be due to darkness, the activity of humans, availability ofwater, temperature, relative humidity, etc., and crowdedness created by cupboards, tables, andracks, providing a large number of hiding places for the adult mosquitoes, as well as insecticidecoils or vaporizers were not used in the kitchen. According to Facchinelli et al. (2023) the resting
place of Ae. aegypti was found to be below 1.5m on the wall surface that’s the reason for the
ineffectiveness of the vaporizers or coils, the volatile insecticides that move upwards along with the
hot air in the room that reduce the exposure to the adult mosquito. Similarly, mosquitoes identified
were Ae. aegypti, Ae. albopictus and Culex spp. by Seang et al. (2023), Ae. aegypti and Culex spp.
were present indoors but Ae. albopictus was absent during the study period. Various studies haveshown the abundance of Ae. albopictus in vegetation (Camargo et al., 2021; Champion Samantha
and Vitek, 2014; World Health Organization, 2011). The study area’s lack of vegetation may be thereason for the absence of Ae. albopictus and it prefers outdoor environments to indoor (Rozilawati
et al., 2015; World Health Organization, 2011).
The increasing dengue disease in Nepal is a threat to new infectious diseases like Zika, chikungunya,west Nile fever, yellow fever, etc. (Poudel, 2022). The four major severe arboviral diseases i.e.
dengue, Zika, chikungunya, and yellow fever in Asia and African continents, are transmitted by
the only mosquito vector Ae. aegypti out of 3500 mosquitoes identified to date (Powell, 2018).
Similarly, Ae. albopictus is one of the major vectors of at least 22 arboviruses (World HealthOrganization, 2011). There are no specific drugs for dengue treatment mainly focused on treating
the pain by using pain killer paracetamol. Dengue vaccine, Dengvaxia (CYD-TDV) discoveredin 1997 and Qdenga (TAK-003) discovered in 2022 are commercially available but the dengue
vaccine Dengvaxia is given to the person who had dengue once and it is available where the disease129

is more prevalent (World Health Organization., 2023). Developing countries like Nepal have todepend upon other developed countries for vaccines, drugs, and insecticides for treatment andcontrol of vectors that may not be available in the country in an emergency, which may lead to theloss of life of loved ones of their family, friends, and relatives. Therefore, it is necessary for every
citizen not to rely entirely on the government or the policy maker to provide the control measuresat their doorstep. It is also the responsibility of every citizen to adopt or learn the techniques toprevent the transmission chain of dengue or other arboviral diseases by searching potential indoorsites where the mosquitoes rest and breed and destroy the mosquito from domestic premises. For
Ae. aegypti indoors is the better environment and rest at various places of houses, offices, schools,
etc. In these places, human activity provides the source of blood for multiplication (Saifur et al.,2012). More female Ae. aegypti were present indoors during the study because the blood source
as well as the clean water source was available indoors for laying eggs, as only female mosquitoes
feed on the blood, males survive by feeding on plant juice, for female mosquitoes the nutritionof blood of human help it for longer life (Vector Disease Control International (VDCI), 2024) so,
the female are more compared to male in the indoor. Similarly, 78.5% female and 75.5% male
were collected from the positive houses in the city of Merida, Yucatan state, Mexico (Cardeña
et al., 2019). Searching for a resting place indoors in a house provides a clue or idea to adopt a
feasible type of control measure to prevent dengue disease. For instance, during the study period,
the cemented tank and overhead Hilltake black 1000-liter tank were positive for Ae. aegypti eventhough they were covered with their lid a small hole and the loose lid cover permitted the entry for
multiplication of the mosquito. In such cases sealing the leakage and providing a tight lid is thesolution to prevent the resting place for the mosquito.
Search and destroy campaigns are not yet strongly established and the knowledge amongcommunity members on preventive measures is still inadequate. As the dengue disease is seen
even in the winter season, the search and destroy campaign should be carried out for the wholeyear for instance in the year 2023 the dengue cases from January to December were 132, 130, 204,
154, 158, 1026, 6459, 14532, 13547, 12488, 2122, and 291 respectively throughout the country(Epidemiology and disease control division, 2023), but the search and destroy campaign started
only after the declaration of dengue outbreak on 27 April 2023. The campaign was started in 2022
but it seems it is not effective as day by day the dengue diseases in increasing which means thecampaign should include other effective strategies to control dengue diseases in urban areas.
Search and destruction of adult Ae. aegypti female mosquitoes regularly indoors reduce larva
and pupa production as they lay 300 eggs in their lifetimes. So, the destruction of adult females
indoors hinders the life cycle of an infectious mosquito. Female Ae. aegypti bites and transmits thediseases, destruction of females prevents the circulation of viruses. Undifferentiated fever, 80% of
asymptomatic patients, and symptomatic patients during the dengue outbreak present indoors or
outdoors are the source of dengue virus to the female Ae. aegypti and the mosquito circulate thevirus around the community. It is also necessary to know the types of symptoms caused by the130lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

dengue virus. Most people develop mild or no symptoms, if symptoms occur they may have highfever (400C), severe headache, pain behind the eyes, muscle and joint pains, nausea, vomiting,swollen glands, rash, etc., sometimes the symptoms vary from one person to another. Presence of
any of the following symptoms during the outbreak or in the monsoon season or the endemic areas
the symptomatic patients should be isolated from the others and rest indoors inside an insecticidal
treated bed net to prevent further mosquito bites thus breaking the transmission chain of the virus
as the human are the dead-end host for the virus. Dengue fever for the first time is not serious, but
getting it a second time with different serotypes poses a significantly higher risk of the diseaseprogressing to hemorrhagic fever, where blood thins out and can start leaking from veins, causing
potentially fatal internal bleeding (World Health Organization, 2011).
Identification
Only Ae. aegypti were present in the indoor figure 1, silver scales in the shape of a lyre or as thehalf-moon in both males and females were identified as Ae. aegypti. Female was more frequently
observed than males during the study period. Ae. albopictus was not found indoors during thestudy.

A

B

Aedes albopictus

C

Aedes aegypti

Aedes aegypti

Figure 1. A. Ae. albopictus a. silver straight line on the dorsal part of the thorax identified it as
female Ae. albopictus b. the white strips on the legs of A, B, and C were identified to be Aedes
spp. c. the silver curved half-moon shape on the dorsal part of the thorax identified it as female Ae.
aegypti. d. is the feathery antennae identified as male Ae. aegypti, A and B the antennae are lessfeathers.
Destruction
Search and destruction performed on the day reduce the bites of the mosquitoes among thefamily members. Regular efforts should be made to destroy the mosquitoes indoors to prevent thecirculation of the virus. Search and destruction of adults twice a week reduced the density of the131indoors. There is no antiviral drug to kill the virus present in the human blood in the asymptomaticand at symptomatic stages. Typically, four to five days after being bit by an infected Ae. aegypti
mosquito, a person will develop viremia, which means a high level of dengue virus in the blood.
At this stage if a female Ae. aegypti mosquito bits for blood meal it will carry the virus along withthe blood and transmit the virus to a new individual. There are no rapid test kits available to detect
the presence of viruses in the blood. The tests for the diagnosis of dengue diseases are costly,
Rs-800-Rs1500 and the cost differs from one laboratory to another. The cost and unawareness ofthe presence of the virus in the blood of symptomatic and asymptomatic patients increases thetransmission chain of the virus indoors, community, and in society. So, people should be madeaware of the dengue symptoms and the necessary precautions that must be followed to break thetransmission chain indoors, in society.
Conclusion
The research provides the possible places indoors where the mosquitoes rest. It is necessary tosurvey the potential resting places of mosquito vectors for the destruction of the mosquito to reducethe mosquito density indoors or outdoors. Regular search and destruction of adult female or maledengue vectors indoors or on domestic premises are the stronger control measures to prevent thecirculation of the dengue virus in urban areas. In addition to the destruction of adults, larval source
reduction, biological control measures, chemical control measures, etc. should be included toreduce the vector density. The “search and destroy campaign” should be able to make aware of theresting places and other breeding habitats of the dengue vector and the possible control measuresat the individual level by demonstration. This is a qualitative study done to provide the possible
places in the house where the adult mosquito hides and rests to minimize transmission. Destroying
adult mosquitoes not only prevents dengue disease but other vector control strategies should be
followed to prevent dengue disease.
Acknowledgements
The author would like to acknowledge the University Grants Commission for providing financial
support (S&T-12) and the Central Department of Microbiology for the laboratory facilities forrearing the mosquito.
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Role of College of Education in Shaping Educational
System of Nepal
Jib Nath Timsina*

Abstract
This paper attempts to provide with a diachronic development of education system of Nepal.
The main purpose of this paper is to present and analyze the role of College of Education in
the expansion of the teacher education program in Nepal. Moreover, different books, historical
anecdotes, government records and research papers were consulted and reviewed to prepare
this paper. At first, the paper begins with the historical background and initial attempts ofestablishing College of Education in Nepal along with the role and contributions made by theteam of University of Oregon, USA. Then, it delineates the contribution of Dr. Hugh B. Wood in
making the foundation of teacher training in Nepal.
Introduction
After the advent of democracy in 1950, Nepal emphasized the critical need for education, driving
efforts to enhance literacy and broaden educational opportunities across the country. Prior to this,education was limited and accessible mainly to a privileged few, with only about two percent of
the population literate (NNEPC, 1956). The desire for education was emerged due to different
influences, breaking the isolation of the Rana regime, British and Indian attempts to extend influence,
the achievement of Indian independence and the establishment of democracy in 1947, impacts ofWorld War I and II, and technological advancements like telegraph and radio (NNEPC, 1956).
In 1951, Nepal adopted the right to education for every citizen (Sebaly,1988). Before theestablishment of this constitution, only the members of Royal Family and the ruling classes hadaccess to education (Skar & Cederroth, 1997). The rulers feared that, if poor and lower caste people
would get free education, they would be critical and dissatisfied with their state mechanism. The
people should therefore be kept ignorant, which was for the better (Estvad, 1998c). After 1951
"the dissemination of modern education concepts was slow" (Skar & Cederroth, 1997, p. 77).
The need for teachers became more obvious with the increament of educational efforts, the Basic
Teacher Training Program was initiated in 1947 as the first effort of formal training program
for teachers in Nepal. There was the feeling that the world had advanced so far and we are so
backward. Due to the lack of popular interest and financial support, the program was closed after
100 teachers enrolled during that period in 1954 (Wood, 1965).
* Associate Professor, Mahendra Ratna Campus, Tribhuvan University, Tahachal, Kathmandu
jibnathtimsina@yahoo.com

135

Financial resources of Nepal were limited and were heavily dependent upon foreign aid. Nepal
encountered financial hurdles in developing its education system, and heavily depended on
foreign aid. This support led to a significant expansion of schools, student enrollment, and teacher
training.
U.S. aid to Nepal's education sector began in 1951, aiming to modernize and establish a national
school system. Through various projects, it provided significant financial resources, training, andtechnical assistance for expanding primary, secondary, and vocational education.
Aid was crucial in enabling the Government of Nepal to carry out a massive and rapid quantitative
expansion of the number of schools constructed and equipped, students enrolled, and teachers
trained. U.S. aid to education in Nepal started in Nepal from the beginning in 1951 to modernize
the country and establish a national school system. Its contribution is in education and contributed,
through a series of projects, a significant portion of the financial resources as well as the training
and technical assistance that went into creating and expanding Nepal's primary, secondary, andvocational education system.
There were a series of projects (1954-1975) of United States aid to educational activities in Nepal,
dealing with primary education, teacher training/Higher education, technical and vocational
education, secondary education, curriculum and materials development, Adult Education,
Library Development, Multipurpose Education, Science Education Center and, Science Teaching
Enrichment Program (STEP) and the institutional development of the entire education system.
William Nance, USAID Program Officer and former Peace Corps Volunteer in Nepal said "Nomatter who you talk to in Nepal, everyone agrees that the most important thing USAID has everdone here is its, work in the education sector." (Sellar, 1981).
There is Diplomatic Relations (from 1947) between the United States of America and the Federal
Democratic Republic of Nepal. The diplomatic relationship between the United States and Nepal
started with an assistance agreement signed on January 23, 1951. Working together with theGovernment of Nepal, USAID contributed to some of Nepal’s development successes for the
past seven decades. The University library at the College of Education, the first degree-granting
institution in Nepal, opened its doors in 1956 in Kathmandu with the support of USAID. Its
earliest programs trained 96 teachers and 100 school administrators and the college continues
to function today as part of Tribhuvan University. Many initiatives to develop and improvethe education sector began as early as the 1950s. The United States Information Service beganawarding scholarships to Nepali students in 1951 for advanced study in the United States. This
program was later expanded and became the Commission for Educational Exchange between the
United States and Nepal also known as the Fulbright commission or USEF/ Nepal, established in
1961. USEF Educational Advising Center provides information about American higher education
opportunities to the Nepali public, student counseling, test preparation and test administration
services. Peace Corps work in education sector. Peace Corps volunteers are serving in Nepal
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since the inception of the program in 1962. USAID and Nepal operated a joint Cooperative
Services for Education Development Program from 1954-1958, which provided leadershipand guidance for the implementation of education programs throughout the country. In
addition, the public Affairs section administers academic and cultural exchange programs forapproximately 80 Nepali participants every year that build mutual understanding between
the United States and Nepal through carefully designed visits that reflect the participants’professional interests and support US foreign policy goals. The US Department of State’s
Bureau of Educational and Cultural Affairs funds administer the international visitor
Leadership Program (IVLP), Study of the US Institutes for Scholars, Secondary Teachers
and Students (SUSI) and Teaching Excellence and Achievement (TEA) program. Every year
approximately 30-40 leaders from Nepal of different professional back grounds travel to theUnited States under this program.
The National teachers’ training center operated under a joint project of the Government of Nepal
and the United States Operations Mission (USOM) on the initiation of foreign-aid programs. A
small percentage of the high school teachers hold the B.A. degree, but most of them were highschool matriculates or intermediate (two-year college) failures. The middle and primary school
teachers were ranges from mere literacy to high school matriculation (very few believed to be
matriculates). Most of them had completed five to eight grades. Some primary school teachers
had no formal schooling but teach by virtue of being able to read and write. Some of theseteachers were retired army men who could bring to the children some first -hand knowledgeof the world outside their region (NNEPC 2056). There was not professional training for theteachers of the primary, middle and high school teachers. With the recognition of education as
the keystone of democracy, the Government of Nepal established an Education Board in 1952 tosupervise and expand the existing educational facilities. The meeting of this board in November,
1953, recommended the Government to appoint a National Commission for planning education
to survey existing educational facilities and to prepare a scheme for national universal educationin Nepal. It also pointed out that a uniform system of education for the whole country in place ofdivergent methods is essential; there must be trained teachers in a large quantity, and Nepal musthave her own university. Dr. Hugh B. Wood of the University of Oregon (who was in India on
a Fulbright teaching assignment) was invited (by USOM) in Nepal to conduct a conference inNovember 1953 with the Ministry of Education officials in Nepal and the United States Operations
Mission (USOM)on this matter. A cooperative agreement was signed in February 1954, providing
technical and financial aid for education development. On March 22, 1954, Government of Nepal
formed the Nepal National Education Planning Commission (NNEPC) of 46 members including
Dr. Hugh B. Wood, American professor of education as a special educational advisor. It began
its work with American advisory and financial aid. In particular, Wood (1909–1995) played a
key role in the working of the NNEPC and the subsequent production of its report (Rappleye,2019). The Commission surveyed the existing conditions in education and made a plan for thedevelopment of a national programme of schools.
137Dr. Hugh B. Wood was sent to Nepal by the United States State Department, initially under theTechnical Cooperation Administration (TCA) and later the Foreign Operations Administration(FOA), International Cooperation Agency (ICA), and eventually USAID. Dr. Hugh Wood and
The University of Oregon played a pivotal role in Nepal's educational development. Wood wasgiven the autonomy to establish an education system as part of the US State Department's efforts
to uplift "Third World" countries.
A second education project agreement was signed between GON and USOM, involving Dollars
220000 and Rs.732, 100. On July 18, 1954, a contract was signed between USOM and the
University of Oregon to implement the second education project agreement in Nepal, involving
full-time Educational Advisers, staff training, and specialist support.
The commission submitted its report on March 1, 1955 with 14 recommendations. The
recommendation No. 7 emphasized prioritizing teacher training (a teacher training center),aiming for short-term training of 1000 primary teachers annually, establishing a degree-granting
College of Education by 1957, and providing extension courses for all areas of Nepal by 1958.
The report highlighted the crucial role of trained teachers for imparting effective education,
greatly influencing Nepal's modern education system.

Image 1: The Nepal National Education Planning Commission(Source: Reproduced from NEPC 1956).

The commission noted that there was only one person in Nepal holding an M.Ed. Degree; perhaps half adozen persons had a B.T. or B.Ed. Degree; about a dozen had special training in Basic Education in 1954.
All of the trainings were secured from Indian institutions. In Nepal, primary (lower primary 1-2, and upperprimary 3-5) and middle schools (grades 6-8) were staffed by teachers with varied training, ranging frommere literacy to high school matriculation. Some had completed five to eight grades, others, had no formal
schooling but could read and write. Some teachers were retired army men with firsthand knowledge of theworld. Government pay scales for matriculates was Rs. 60 for primary schools, Rs. 80 for middle school
teachers, and Rs. 120 for high school teachers but less than one-fourth of the teachers were governmentemployed. Nepal was facing a shortage of trained teachers and lack of training facilities.
138

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Suggestions for the development of a national program of schools
University Education: To achieve coordination in higher education, Nepal urgently needs its own university(a national University).
Training of Teachers: Nepal faces a shortage of trained teachers and lacks training facilities. Establishingteacher training facilities is crucial. It needs to provide Training 1000 primary teachers annually, increasing
to 2500 when feasible.
For financing education
To rapidly expand education, the government should increase its funding allocation for education. It
proposed allocating 20% of government revenue to education, providing free hostels for poor villagers, andoffering government scholarships for rural students, with a return-to-village teaching obligation. (NNEPC
Report, 2056)
A Nepal-US agreement established a College of Education, with support from the United States Overseas
Mission (USOM) and the University of Oregon. (Wood, 1965). For the Training of a Nucleus Staff for theCollege of Education in the US, Wood chose seven potential staff members for Nepal's future College of
Education, sending them to the University of Oregon for an intensive one-year Master's program starting in
June 1955. Dr. Waldemar Olson of the University of Oregon Education staff arrived to serve as educational
adviser in their absence. The Nepalese team visited and studied teacher training institutions in Europe andthroughout their trip across the United States. At Oregon they studied school systems at the village, country,
city and state levels in addition to pursuing their academic studies for the Master’s degree in Eugene, Oregon,
to prepare for their roles in the upcoming College. For example, Krishna Raj Aryal’s electives curriculumand dissertation focused heavily
on textbooks and learningmaterials, (to become Directorof the Bureau of Publications).
American scholars' writings(University of Oregon, 1957).
On June 30, 1955 the Gon/
USOM Education agreement
were extended to provide foran additional educational
adviser to assist a University
Planning commission andfor study grants for three
University
administrators
to be trained in the UnitedStates for six months. On
Image 2: Hugh Wood points the way to progress (Source: Reproduced from December 4, 1955, Dr.
NEPC, 1956).

139

Charles D. Byrne, retired Chancellor of the Oregon State System of Higher Education, arrived
to serve as Senior Educational Adviser and to assist in the development of a national university.
In July, 1956, Nepali team of the seven members accompanied by Dr. Wood and a third adviser,
Professor Thomas O. Ballinger (still another adviser, Dr. Edward W. Brice, arrived about amonth later) returned home with Master of Education degrees after training to operate theCollege of Education. The College was then established on September 9, 1956 (2013, Bhadra24) following the recommendation of Nepal National Educational Planning Commission(NNEPC) 1954-56 in Kathmandu (Wood, 1958 as cited in Pande, 1978). Before their final
report, the Government of Nepal had set up a National Teacher Training center in 1954.
Between 1956 and 1959, 40 more educators were trained from the University of Oregon. Overthe next four years, annually, a group of eight to ten prominent Nepali educators underwent a
training program in Oregon.
The University of Oregon played a pivotal role in Nepal's educational development, with Woodgiven the autonomy to establish an education system as part of the US State Department's efforts
to uplift "Third World" countries. Following the Report, the US State Department and Nepal
government released funds for building the modern education system. Wood focused on threemain areas: training core staff in the U.S., establishing the College of Education, and creating andprinting textbooks and instructional materials.
During that period, the College offered a 2-year I. Ed. Certificate and an additional 2
years for a B.Ed. degree, 1-year professional B.Ed. degree for those with a baccalaureate
degree. There were plans to introduce a 2-year advanced professional M.Ed. degree forthose holding a B.Ed. degree. There were subsistence stipends for all students. The College
awarded its degrees under the authority of the Nepal Education Ministry. In 1962 (2018 BS),a Master’s Level Course in Education was introduced, featuring the subject of 'Educational
Administration. 'In addition, a ten-week practice teaching program was required of all
candidates (Pande 1978). Upon obtaining their Bachelor of Education degrees, graduateswere assigned to teach grades nine and ten, while those completing the two-year intermediateof Education were expected to teach grades six, seven, and eight. The College of Education
provided seven distinct programs, including secondary school teacher training, primaryschool teacher training, in-service, extension, science upgrading, primary teacher upgrading,and supervisor upgrading programs.
Diverging from traditional instruction, the College of Education's program followed an
American-style model. Contemporary student evaluation methods with frequent assessments,
counseling, supervision, and ongoing staff development. There was the provision of the
management of director positions in various academic divisions of the College as: the Divisionof Instruction (handled academic components: college of Education degree courses), theNormal School (ran primary school teacher training,) the Division of Laboratory Schools
served as a demonstration school (with a bus for students’ transport) and practice teaching
140 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

center for student training, for practical learning, observation, and experimentation with
innovative teaching methods and materials. Division of Student Personnel managed subdivisions overseeing teacher placement, extracurricular activities, admissions, counseling,
health clinics, and hostels, student union for general welfare. The Bureau of Publications
handled the publication of research and instructional materials for the teacher training program.,the Bureau of Research, Bureau of Adult Education, Business Management and the College's
Principal. TU later followed the provisions of College of Education. There are students’ unions
for general welfare, hostel facilities, health clinic, different research centers, principal office,stipends for students in some extension practice even today. There were 16 male students inthe college's degree program. (personal interview with Rajendra Kumar Rongong one of thefirst students of the college of education as cited in Pande, 1978). The College of Education
held its inaugural convocation in 1958, offering opportunities for further studies in the UnitedStates along with monthly stipends for trainees. A significant portion of the College's staff
pursued postsecondary education and short-term training programs in the United States. The
faculty also included a few educators from the United States who concentrated in the teachingof English and some vocational sub-jects. A total of thirty-one faculty members and fifty-sevennon -teaching staff comprised in 1964 (ministry of Education, 1970a as cited in Pande, 1978).
Nineteen of the thirty-one faculty members were trained in the United States.
In July 1956, Wood returned from a one-year stay in Oregon, where he trained nucleus staff for theCollege. Three additional advisors from Oregon followed him: Thomas Ballinger, a professor ofart and education; Francis Dart, a physics professor; and Edward Brice, a professor of instruction.
At Wood's request, the US State Department hired two more advisors, Jeannette Hosbach and architect
James Tuley, to assist in staffing the College and implementing the Report. Each advisor brought theirwives, who taught English courses at the College. The initial Oregon team of one in early 1954 grewsignificantly to ten by late 1956, with Wood considering these additional American advisors crucial for
the College's full operation. Wood aimed to establish an institutional arrangement for modern education.
At the initial stage the United States Agency for international Development bore the entire costof running the college of Education (Rongong, 1977, as cited in Pande, 1978).
In 1960, it became affiliated with Tribhuvan University. The College became the core of the Instituteof Education under the NESP influencing procedural practices across various campuses. In 1971,
National Educational System Plan was introduced in the country which renamed the COE the Instituteof Education (IOE). A decade later, in 1982, following the recommendation of the Royal Commissionof Higher Education, it was given the status of the present Faculty of Education (FOE) under Tribhuvan
University. By 1976, the Institute had 11 campuses, six on-spot training centers, and one Remote Area
Teacher Training center, with a total of 3,806 students. Kedar Nath Shrestha served as the Dean.
The major functions perform of the college were: training and placing teachers (Normal School),
designing and publishing textbooks (Bureau of Publications), and researching and developing policy
141

(Bureau of Research) among others. Eight to ten promising young Nepali were sent each year to
Oregon (United States) for study-tours to build the College staff.
The article covers key indicators, including the initiation of teacher training programs, the role offoreign aid, and the establishment of the College of Education, highlighting the crucial role played by
Dr. Hugh B. Wood and the University of Oregon in support from the United States Overseas Mission(USOM) and the University of Oregon (Wood, 1965).
Methods and procedures
The paper has been prepared using the secondary sources of data. The main method employed incollecting, analyzing and interpreting the data was document analysis. For this, various historical
documents, government reports and academic articles were also minutely reviewed for the enrichmentof the study. Informal discussion with the professors of university also used to validate the data.
Results and Discussions
The study found that the education system of Nepal was nugatory before the establishment of collegeof education. In order to systematize and lead to right directions to the education system of Nepal, theOregan University played crucial role. Some of the key achievements of the university collaboration
are: the establishment of teacher training programs was crucial for addressing the shortage of qualified
educators. It means that the establishment of college of education played pivotal role to supply school
teachers in Nepal. Foreign aid, particularly from the United States, played a vital role in financing
educational expansion. Financial is a significant part for running academic institutions. For that
United States played great role on it. Establishment of the College of Education, with support from theUnited States Overseas Mission and the University of Oregon, was a significant milestone. Dr. Woodand the University of Oregon played pivotal roles in Nepal's educational development, providing
expertise and financial support.
The development of Nepal's education system was marked by challenges including limited resources,
resistance to education among ruling classes, and a shortage of qualified teachers. Foreign aid,
particularly from the United States, played a crucial role in financing educational expansion. The
establishment of the College of Education, under the guidance of Dr. Wood and the University ofOregon, marked a significant step towards modernizing Nepal's education system. Despite challenges,
initiatives like the College of Education and increased government funding laid the foundation for
Nepal's educational progress.
Conclusion
Since the advent of democracy in 1950, Nepal's educational development has undergone a profoundtransformation, emphasizing the democratization of education and the improvement of literacy rates.
Before 1950, education was largely inaccessible, limited to a privileged minority. However, the onset
of democracy recognized the vital importance of education, spurred by events like the end of the Ranaregime and global democratic movements.
142 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

Despite challenges such as financial constraints and a lack of trained teachers, Nepal initiatededucational reforms. The Basic Teacher Training Program, started in 1947, aimed to tackle theseissues but faced financial difficulties. Nevertheless, with the support from the United States, notably
through USAID, Nepal made significant progress in expanding educational initiatives, including
establishing the College of Education in 1956.
Dr. Hugh B. Wood and the University of Oregon played pivotal roles in shaping Nepal's education,
focusing on staff training, college establishment, and educational material development. The College's
establishment marked a milestone, laying the groundwork for further advancements.
In conclusion, Nepal's educational development indicates the importance of foreign aid, key
institutional establishments like the College of Education, and the dedicated efforts of individuals likeDr. Wood and the University of Oregon in shaping modern education.
References
College of Education (1956). College catalogue. Bureau of Publications, College of Education.
Cremin, L. (1961). The Transformation of the School: Progressivism in American Education,
1876–1957. Vintage.
Khadka, N. (1997). Foreign aid and foreign policy: Major powers and Nepal. Vikas Publishing House.
National Education Planning Commission. (1956). Education in Nepal: Report of the Nepal
National Education Planning Commission. College of Education.
Rappleye, J. (2019). Origins of the faith: The untold story of Hugh Wood, American development
assistance in the 1950s, and Nepal’s modern education system. Studies in Nepali History
and Society, 24(1), 105 – 141
Sebaly, K. (1998). Nepal in world education encyclopedia (vol 2). Facts on File Publications.
Sellar, P. O. (1981). US aid to education in Nepal: A 20-year beginning. Project Impact, Evaluation
No. 19.
Skar, H., & Cederroth, S. (1997). Development aid to Nepal. NIAS (Nordic Institute of AsianStudies), Curzon Press, Richmond.
University of Oregon. (1957). University of Oregon bulletin: Regular Session 1957-1958.
University of Oregon.
Wood, H. B. (1959). Six years of education progress in Nepal. Wood, H. B. (1987). Nepal Diary,
1953– 1962. Tillamook, Oregon: American-Nepal Education Foundation.
Wood, H. B., & Knall, B. (1962). Educational planning in Nepal and its educational implications.
UNESCO.

143

Anthropology Learning and Transformation of Self:
Postgraduate Research Students’ Reflection on their
Academic Journey
Kapil Babu Dahal*
Abstract
Learning through an academic institution is generally and broadly considered to be acquiringknowledge and skills imparted through the teachings of an instructor to aspirant learners,
students, or disciples. Whether learning depends upon individual efforts or is done through theinteractive process can be a matter of stern academic debate. However, often, the notion oflearning itself is taken for granted. This article deals with what anthropology students consider
learning. It also sheds light on what they think is the appropriate way to use effective learning
procedures to acquire knowledge and skills. What makes the students come up with such ideas
has also been dealt with in this paper.
The ethnographic data acquired through my engagements with the research scholars pursuing
MPhil/PhD and MA in anthropology at Tribhuvan University, this article critically engages with
the notion and process of learning (anthropology). On top of and in light of such autoethnographic
data, this article also makes use of ethnographic data acquired as a participant observer of
two events held at the Central Department of Anthropology, Tribhuvan University. They are;
Anthropology Day program held on February 15, 2024, and the Qualitative Data Analysis
Training held during April 27-29, 2024. Likewise, occasional social media posts of the students
about the learning at the department have also enriched this paper.
Keywords: Anthropology, Interactive Learning, Peer Learning, Reflexivity, Transformation of
Self
Introduction
The university syllabus, textbooks, research papers, and reports can represent what students andresearchers are expected to learn while pursuing their academic degrees. Pedagogies and syllabi
can simply provide guidelines towards the direction in which students’1 learning from a particular
program may move forward. Since learning is a social process, to exactly know what the students* Lecturer, Central Department of Anthropology (CDA), Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
kapil.dahal@cda.tu.edu.np

Officially, within Tribhuvan University, students denote to the Masters’ students and the candidates pursuing
MPhil-PhD are termed as research scholars. However, in this paper, for the convenience of communication, I
would like to use students to refer to both collectively and specify while referring to one of them particularly.

1

144 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

learn, it is imperative to analyze the science and art of learning. As part of the broader field ofanthropology of teaching and learning (Pelissier, 1991), this paper aims to contribute to the fieldof learning anthropology in the typical Nepali higher educational context.
In common parlance, learning is considered the resultant effect of individual efforts. Probably
with some exceptions, learning is enacted through the interactive process between the learner, andnot only with their counterpart teachers but also with the context. However, often, the notion oflearning itself is taken for granted. In this article, I would also like to problematize and question
the taken-for-granted notion of learning on the basis of students’ perspectives. Along with dealing
with their experience of effective learning, this paper also sheds light on what makes students
come up with such ideas and realizations. As an approach that can be largely labelled within theumbrella of anthropology of education (Aldender, 2020) this paper also highlights whether andhow insights of Nepali anthropology students can be linked with the local cultural realm as wellas any typical features of anthropology.
Along with what students have learnt from an academic program, I believe that what is morecrucial is whether and how they have been transformed by and through the process of thegraduate research program. Kitchin et al. (2023) show that student research fellows at three
US universities namely, Illinois State University, St. Mary's College of Maryland, and Wheaton
College carried out ethnographic research among their peers in anthropology programs to know
more about the experience of fellow students regarding their major and career goals. As part oftheir study, they explored more about the personal and intellectual growth of the study participant
students. It is important to know that these current major students were more concerned with howanthropology transformed them rather than the particular skills in anthropology that might beuseful in their future careers.
To understand undergraduate students’ transition to anthropology, Bennett (2010) minutely
examined it as a socializing process. He argues that socialization begins with the choice of thediscipline, goes on as a process of learning and thereby makes them competent to learn the cultureof the discipline. He is of the idea that chance as well as economic and cultural capital can havea role in adopting an anthropology major. Also, the study showed that the acquired socializationand disciplinary culture were diverse and varied greatly among the students. Respecting thelearning of Bennett’s findings, I would like to develop this paper in a way to captures diverse
epistemological and disciplinary enculturation as reflected in these two programs. I agree with
Pedelty (2001) that in an ideal situation, through long-term ethnographic engagements, it would
be effective to comprehend students’ learning in anthropology through their performance. Taking
these factors into consideration, this paper portrays the students’ narrative account of theirlearning while pursuing postgraduate anthropology.
Anthropologists consider learning as a socially constructed phenomenon and are interested in
knowing multiple dimensions of learning. The scope of anthropology of learning (Blum, 2019)is wider and it embraces distinct aspects of socialization, education, enculturation, and schooling.
145

Not only formal learning but also informal and nonformal learning are encompassed within its
broader arms. I agree with Blum that learning is inherent in every human experience. Moreover,
only some learning takes place in the schools and part of that equals with what is planned to
impart. So, for Blume, teaching is not the sole criterion of learning. In light of the postgraduate
anthropology students’ reflections, this paper highlights their understanding and realization oflearning vis-à-vis the role of teaching in inculcating such learning.
Anthropologists have realized that understanding and interrogating students’ learning in theiracademic discipline eventually boosts the robust learning culture within it, which will eventually
increase the visibility of anthropology among the students (Bennett, 2010). Kitchni and colleagues(2023) have briefed what anthropology students consider and how their anthropological journey
contributes to their learning- their personal growth containing compassion and expanded
worldviews, academic progress beyond bounded cultural boundaries, and critical thinking
capacity.
Nepali anthropologists have also written about anthropological learning at Tribhuvan University
and Nepal in general. They have mainly focused on the history of the discipline, in the areasof teaching and research (Dahal, 2016; Chhetri & Gurung, 1999; Lama et al., 2016). Dahal(2016) has also pointed out that despite increasing interest in anthropology and anthropologicalresearch, still major substantial output still has yet to come in Nepali anthropology. Limited
Nepali scholars such as Uprety and Pokharel (2016) have critically gazed into the contents ofthe pedagogy and syllabus. Nevertheless, the voices and reflections of anthropology students had
rarely been the topic of academic explorations and discussions in these scholarly representations.
Realizing this gap, this paper focuses on the graduate-level anthropology student and researchscholars’ voices and reflections about their expectations, aspirations and felt need of going toanthropological learning.
Linking this piece of writing with the notion of anthropology of learning and education,
the introductory part of this paper onsets the engagement in this relatively new domain ofanthropological engagements in Nepali anthropology. The subsequent part of the article deals
with the objectives and specific research questions that are aimed to highlight in the paper, which
is followed by the discussions developed on the basis of reflective accounts of the students about
their learning journey while pursuing an anthropology research degree. Finally, the concluding
part of the paper highlights whether and how these students’ learning journey is shaped by their
exposure to anthropological knowledge and enculturation.
Research Questions and Objectives
The general quest that motivated me to develop this paper is to engage in and portray the typicalityof learning anthropology at the CDA. In doing so, this article aims to expand our understandingof the science of knowing based on empirical knowledge from the perspectives of the knowing
enthusiast, the students. Do these students approach anthropology for typical knowledge or146

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

whether their anthropological journey cultivate such ideas and feelings with them? Have theyfelt any departure and shift in their academic journey through anthropology? These are some ofthe queries which guide the analytical approach of this paper.
The following are the specific objectives of this paper:
1. To expand knowledge on how anthropology students reflect upon their learning journey
through postgraduate anthropology programs,
2. To examine whether and how their learning has evolved as a social entity, and3. To analyze how the comprehension of their learning journey can inform the future courseof knowledge production in anthropology in Nepal.
This paper primarily focuses on students’ reflection on their learning i.e. how they have learnt
what they learnt and what they think as such learning has transformed within themselves- to lookat themselves as individuals, as members of society and in their workspace and any other arena
they consider as worthy to mention. I think, this aspect is more participatory and innovative but
still in shadow in academic discourses in Nepal.
Research Methods
This article is developed based on the ethnographic data generated from a study carried out mainly
from January to May 2024 at the CDA. Data from different primary sources have enriched thispaper. The typicality of this paper lies in reflecting and representing the views of one of the key
stakeholders of the academic institutions, the students.
Students’ voices expressed regarding their anthropology learning through two events organizedby and at the CDA, occasional reflections of learning of the students through social media, andmy autoethnographic reflections from the involvement in anthropology teaching for more than
two decades at the research level are the main sources of data that have been used in formulating
this paper. Therefore, observations, interactions and participation of both the students and myself
were the strategies devised to acquire primary information.
The Anthropology Day Program was held on February 15, 2024, at the CDA. The program wasdeliberately combined with the orientation of newly recruited MA first-semester students. The
participants in the program were newly enrolled MA students, as well as MA and MPhil-PhD
students who are ready to go move for their dissertation writing. As part of the program, some ofthe outgoing MA and MPhil-PhD students reflected on their anthropological journey and learningin the program. Likewise, Qualitative Data Analysis Training organized for these students readyto take forward their dissertation research/writing held during April 27-29, 2024 is another crucial
source of data for this paper. In both programs, as a permanent faculty member of the CDA, I was
also present and participated actively. Nevertheless, I have to confess that I could not manage toparticipate and observe in certain portions of both programs, which made me unable to acquire
information from each of the participants who expressed their views and reflections. Yet, I believe147

that the information I have accumulated is good enough to develop a few research papers like thisone. Likewise, my aim in this paper is not to see the differential learning experience of MA and
MPhil-PhD students but rather to comprehend the pattern in totality.
Thematic analysis was adopted to grasp the students’ reflections and learning experiences fromthe data acquired from these different sources. Delving into the linkages into these themes I
was able to see certain configurations in the data which is reflected in this paper as well. I have
paid adequate attention to upholding the ethical values expected in carrying out anthropologicalresearch like this and making a publication. I have taken utmost care to respect the privacy andanonymity of the research participants while referring or quoting any students in the text. Alongwith this, as both the events were public, held at the CDA, among various stakeholders frominside and outside of the department, so, the views expressed in the programs, which later on
informed to develop this paper, were not sought in privy rather public in nature.
Academic Background and Expectations
We have observed that students with various academic backgrounds come to pursue postgraduate
in anthropology. Students with prior degrees of bachelor's and masters such as sociology,
anthropology, business management, political science, nursing, pharmacy, development
studies, social work, physics, engineering, biology, botany, English and so on go foranthropology. Likewise, students with diverse professional backgrounds including academia,
government services, non-governmental organizations, research organizations, politics,
business management, and security agencies have shown interest in pursuing further studies
in anthropology.
The flow of non-anthropology background students in MA and MPhil-PhD is almost the same.
We have observed that the background in anthropology is not the decisive factor in shaping theoutcome of student performance at these different levels. A diverse professional and academic
background, in fact, makes the classroom lively, full of diversity and a rich source of knowledge
and information about different walks of life. Their professional and academic career in different
from academia and anthropology makes them initially tougher and challenging to meet thedemands of the anthropology program.
Another crucial pattern that we have observed in our programs is that a significant number ofstudents come through the recommendations of ex-anthropology graduates, people in different
professional contexts who have encountered anthropologists and/or anthropological input, andfamilies, relatives, and friends of anthropology alumnae. In the same way, some of the aspiring
students even visit the department, meet the faculty/staff, and consult other knowledgeable
people in their social networks about the discipline or the Department. As a faculty, I have also
met different prospective students long before the academic sessions. This clearly denotes theirinquisitiveness, commitment and planning to go on the anthropological journey. A natural science
postgraduate student states the trajectory of his journey to anthropology:
148 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

I already did a Master’s in a science program. While working on a research project related to natural
resource management, I met a colleague from anthropology. I got to realize the importance of thekind of knowledge he was equipped with and then decided to go for a master's in anthropology.
Students’ commitment, efforts and perseverance for their anthropological journey are reflectedin the articulation of their academic journey at the CDA. One of them, who recently completed
the second semester of the MPhil-PhD program, beautifully presented his efforts and academic
journey in social media:
For my studies, every week, I went to the Department early morning for four days. I studied
numerous books and journal articles, participated and presented in almost 80 seminars andinteractions, wrote more than 50 precises, wrote various term papers, and developed aproposal. All these endeavours made me competent enough to critically view my horizonof thinking and limitations of knowledge.
He had also met some of the faculties long before joining the program and inquired about
the syllabus and pedagogies. His main thirst was to expand anthropological perspectives ingeneral and particularly in the area of medical anthropology. In fact, he was recommended by acolleague while working for a bilateral development organization specializing in health policy
and intervention. His reflections show not only his efforts to acquire knowledge but also what heregards as the key learning that he attained from such toil. We can assume that it is not an easy
process to be able to question one’s knowledge horizon and limitations.
Anthropology has a distinct place among the social sciences as an empirical science based onfield-based research (Roldán, 2013). The importance of fieldwork and field sites is strongly statedby the participants of a comparative study (Macía, 2012) between the Universidad de los Andesin Colombia with those at the University of Pittsburgh in the USA.
Columbian students are more interested in conducting fieldwork in their vicinity whereas
American students are familiar with and inclined towards distant field research, preferably
abroad. Our students have also shown strong concerns about learning more about fieldwork,
especially, learning by doing. It is interesting to note that some of the students have pointed out
their interest in knowing more about their own community as the driving factor to anthropology.
Anthropological Journey: Learning and Reflections
I found that students are quite open to sharing the experience of upheavals in an anthropologicaljourney through CDA. They have not portrayed the rosy road that the new anthropology
postgraduate students have to pass through. One recent MPhil student stated his balanced ideathat the students of new batch may have to pass through, “Initially, you might get frustrated but
on completion, you might be happy”.
A thorny road of anthropology's MPhil-PhD journey was shared by another research scholar
who could not accomplish his degree some ten years ago. He was neither hesitant nor upset
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to share with the participants publicly that he again began to attempt to accomplish it after adecade. He sounded very confident that he would soon successfully complete the very journey.
He clearly and honestly put forth that his realization of knowledge, experience and skills being
challenged made to set for the very journey again. He was quite confident and happy that he madesuch an appropriate choice. Moreover, he liked the way facilitating faculties incorporated theirempirically grounded and performance-based presentations in the training. He also found that thetraining organized for qualitative data analysis was held at the right time, immediately before thecommencement of their research and writing.
The confidence of the researchers to successfully accomplish their dissertation on time isembedded in the coming out of demanding requirements of the semester-based program (Dahal,
2021). The participants also explicitly referred to the learning of time management not only
throughout the two-year-long program but also from the three-day-long training as well. Anotherparticipant who had taken the dissertation writing as a giant task shared how she had learnt toconquer it- “I will be able to finish my thesis on time. I learnt the principle of divide and rule; Iwill divide the tasks into several pieces and handle the dissertation writing”.
Currently, CDA has its own library containing some rare collections of the latest books and accessto international journals. It has its own meeting hall at the clock tower in Kirtipur, where regular
symposiums, colloquiums, and seminars take place with the contribution of in-house, othernational and international researchers and scholars. Each class in CDA has a safe drinking water
facility, and students also get light snacks and tea during break time. Some of the students pointed
out the ambience in the Department as a critical conducive factor for learning anthropology. A
research scholar coming from a political career state “the conducive learning environment inside
the class, especially, encouraging students to move ahead regardless of wherever they are atpresent”. Another research scholar wraps up at the end of the semester, in his social media post,
about what he found as the favorable environment:
Teaching-learning environment, techniques of teaching, and energetic faculties havealways facilitated learning within a short span of time. I doubt whether I would have beenable to acquire parallel knowledge and experience from another university in any partof the world. It was a wonderful experience for me as a learner trying to move towards(medical) anthropology with the academic and professional background of epidemiology
and public health.
Students also pointed out the role of a friendly environment in the department as anothermotivating element for their academic and personal growth. A student statedI feel at home in the department, with a heart-to-heart connection. Moreover, I do not feel ashamedof not being fluent in conversation in the Nepali language. All these made me always be present
in the class. I was joyful in pursuing an anthropology degree, and I have realized that I have beentransformed now.
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As reflected in the articulation of this student, anthropology students have realized the criticalityof conducive environmental factors for their learning. They are not counting only the degree, andformal academic programs but also the transformation taking place within them. Echoing with
their voice, a senior professor summed up the essence of academic culture at the CDA “We want
you to see how far have you been transformed through the academic training at the CDA. But, we
do not compare yourself with the others. We become satisfied when we see better you”.
Transformation in self has been pointed out by several students and scholars in different ways. Anotherstudent noted the transition, transformation and experience of dual-self within himself. Working as asenior employee at a for-profit company, his anthropological journey and learning about the shortcomingsof neoliberalism made him more generous and kinder towards his sub-ordinate employees:
I have become more employ friendly than the earlier. I have become generous enough tosanction leave to them for their social and family functions. Often other senior colleagues
point out this. Sometimes, I feel two different personas growing within me, and theanthropologist being the second one”.
Some senior staff at the government/civil service and other developmental organizations haveanother interesting dimension of learning to share with the participants. Less habituated to being
questioned at their job, initially, they found it quite strange while pursuing an anthropology
degree, which they think did not last for a long timeI was not much accustomed to being questioned. I was also more familiar with asking
someone else to get things done. In the beginning, I used to think that no questions
would be raised about my writing. Now, I realize that the more questions I get, the more
I can improvise. The culture of writing précis and getting feedback in the department has
challenged and altered my thinking.
Discussions and Conclusions
The above discussions further solidify the idea that learning is not a solitary effort, rather, it isan interactive process. The postgraduate anthropology research students clearly pointed out thatlearning is not merely an accumulation of ideas and knowledge. Rather, it comprises reflexivity
in light of the transformation of self. Anthropological knowledge has encouraged them to explore
the self and surroundings, question the taken-for-granted ideas, practices, beliefs and so on in
every domain, and move beyond the monolithic approach. Such realization has become liberating
for them as well. For instance, one female student stated that overcoming the feeling of guilt andshame for not being able to have proficiency in a language other than one’s mother tongue has
increased the confidence to get out of that and participate fully in social interactions.
These enthusiasts’ articulation of learning at the CDA also shows that it is not easier to separate
the academic side of learning from the social and cultural aspects. The participatory approach,
inclined to be grounded to the field, not only being observant but also reflective are some of thequalities that we cannot demarcate only into one side.
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In this paper, I have not focused on the differential learning experience of MA and MPhil-PhD
students, and thus, such scholarship can substantially contribute to anthropological knowledge
production. Along with that, understanding undergraduate anthropology students’ views
about why they went for the anthropology major is another potential area for further studies.
The information about learning expectations from the program and reflections on the learning
presented in this paper are not from the same cohort of students. Therefore, a systematic studyof a cohort of students for a certain period, such as for five years, comparing their expectations
during or before admission and their learning at the end of the program would really come up with acomparable form of data. This paper highlights students’ thoughts, hopes, and contemplative learning
experiences at CDA only. However, it will be interesting to carry out similar studies in colleges otherthan the CDA but within TU. At the broader level, a comparative study can be conducted between
anthropology students and of students pursuing postgraduate degrees in other disciplines.
The constructive and creative approaches that CDA has adopted and the kind of conducive
environment it has created among its students have shown some rays of hope among thestudents in Nepali academia. In fact, Tribhuvan University in general and its various academic
departments can learn from this experience and customize such learning as per the need of theirown discipline and students. Likewise, based on the experience of CDA, the university can initiate
to the development of the inter-departmental institutionalized learning approach. Eventually, we
all have to pay attention to adopting progressive pedagogies (Kissel & Blum, 2022) making us
inclined to make classrooms a space to welcome all learners and also pushing educators toward
creating a more diverse, inclusive, and equitable classroom.
Acknowledgement
I am indebted to participants, students, faculties and all others, of Anthropology Day program
held at the CDA, TU on February 15, 2024. I owe deep respect towards them for their invaluableideas, experiences, and reflections about their anthropological journey. Likewise, I am grateful tothe participants of the three-day Qualitative Data Analysis Training held at the CDA, from where
I became able to know more about the needs and aspirations of the students and research scholars
embarking for their respective field research.
References
Aldender, M. (ed.) (2020). Anthropology of education. In R. Henze (ed.), Oxford Research
Encyclopedia of Anthropology. Oxford University Press. https://doi.org/10.1093/
acrefore/9780190854584.013.10.
Bennett, D. (2010). Encountering anthropology: An exploratory study of degree choice.
Anthropology in Action, 17(2). https://doi.org/10.3167/aia.2010.170203.
Blum, S. D. (2019). Why don’t anthropologists care about learning (or education or school)?
An immodest proposal for an integrative anthropology of learning whose time has finally
come. American Anthropologist, 121(3), 641–654. https://doi.org/10.1111/aman.13268.
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Chhetri, R. B., & Gurung, O. (1999) Anthropology and sociology of Nepal: Retrospect andprospects. In R. B. Chhetri & O. P. Gurung (eds.) Anthropology and sociology of Nepal:
Cultures, societies, ecology and development (Pp. 1–9). SASON.
Dahal, K. B. (2021). Experience of teaching anthropology: Interrogating the semester system at
Tribhuvan University, Nepal. Vidyodaya Journal of Humanities and Social Sciences, 6(1),17-28. http://doi.org/10.31357/fhss/vjhss.v06i01.02.
Kissel, M., & Blum, S. D. (2022). Let’s talk teaching: Progressive pedagogy in anthropology
courses. American Journal of Human Biology, 34(S1), e23706. https://doi.org/10.1002/
ajhb.23706.
Kitchin, M., Ding, E., Nortman, C. A., Hunter, G., & Roberts, W. (2023). How studying
anthropology changes students. Annals of Anthropological Practice, 47(1), 58–67. https://doi.org/10.1111/napa.12198.
Lama Tamang, M. S., Dhakal, S., & Rai, J. (2016). Nepal school of anthropology: Emerging
issues and future directions. In B. Pokharel, J. Rai, & M. S. Lama Tamang (eds.) Nepali
anthropology: New direction and contributions (pp. 107–126). Central Department of
Anthropology, Tribhuvan University.
Macía, L. (2012). Choosing a field: How graduate student choices of field sites reflect different
ideas of “real” anthropology in Colombia and the United States. Learning and Teaching,5(1), 10–31. https://doi.org/10.3167/latiss.2012.050102.
Pedelty, M. (2001). Teaching anthropology through performance. Anthropology & Education
Quarterly, 32(2), 244–253.
Pelissier, C. (1991). The anthropology of teaching and learning. Annual Review of Anthropology,
20(1), 75–95. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev.an.20.100191.000451.
Roldán, A. A. (2013). Malinowski and the origins of the ethnographic method. In A. A. Roldan& H. Vermeulen (eds.), Fieldwork and footnotes: Studies in the history of European
anthropology (pp. 143–155). Routledge.
Uprety, L. P., & Pokharel, B. (2016). Teaching anthropology in Nepal: A critique and a proposal.
In, B. Pokharel, J. Rai & M. S. Lama Tamang (eds.), Nepali anthropology: New direction
and contributions (pp.43-92). Central Department of Anthropology, Tribhuvan University.

153Why Tribhuvan University Needs to Start Academic
Program in Cognitive Science?
Lekhnath Sharma Pathak*

Abstract
This perspective article argues and proposes for the starting of Cognitive Science as an academic
program in Tribhuvan University. The article gives an overview of the cognitive science program
across the world and in our neighborhoods. It explores the viability and possibility of introducing
cognitive science as an academic discipline in Nepal – citing the researches done and publishedby Cognitive Science and Psycholinguistics Lab in Tribhuvan University. It outlines and opens
up the possible research areas and what it can contribute to the society. Finally, the articleemphasizes on the need to start the academic program and reasons why Tribhuvan University isbest suited for this task.

Keywords: Cognitive Science, neural and cognitive, academic program in cognitive science,cognitive science in Nepal, Tribhuvan University
Introduction
What is Cognitive Science?
Neuroscience is the science of brain and cognitive science is the science of mind. When they areviewed as one, we also have cognitive neuroscience. Reductionist school of philosophy views mind
as the product of the brain and claims that everything that is mental can be reduced to everythingthat is neural. Whereas, Cartesian school of thought places mind above the brain as epitomized inRene Descartes’ famous statement “I think, therefore I exist”. So, basically cognitive science isthe science of cognition, science of thinking, the science of information processing mechanism inour brain. The world outside and inside us keeps sending information to our brain through various
stimuli, the cognitive mechanism in us processing all these incoming information which creates
cognition about what action to be taken based on the perception created by the input given by thestimuli. So, viewed from this perspective, the domain of cognitive science is to be viewed from“agent” and “task” perspective (Mekik & Galang, 2022). The agent may be human or non-human
like animals or machines, where we talk of animal cognition and machine cognition (or machinelearning, to be precise). Since the information for input comes from many stimuli in the external
world, the cognitive processing is also seen from various perspectives that address the issues
from as many angles as there are possibilities for stimuli to drive our cognition. Quite rightly,* Assistant Professor, Central Department of Linguistics, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
lekhnath.pathak@cdl.tu.edu.np

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therefore, cognitive science is established as interdisciplinary study, traditionally comprisedof linguistics, psychology, anthropology, philosophy, artificial intelligence and neuroscience(Núñez et al, 2019). Cognitive science has its own set of problems to address using its own set oftools, which are distinct from other unitary disciplines (Collins, 1977). The major problem areasthat this field tackles are – learning, representation of knowledge, question answering, planning,problem solving, decision making, memory, attention, choice, image understanding, language
learning, inferencing – the areas that our mind and brain constantly engage in.
When we argue for the introduction of an academic program in a university, it is also importantto analyze its viability, the gap that it fills in the existing academic context, the contribution it
will make to the society and humanity in general and to its own field in particular. Cognitive
science is for everyone and it is about everyone – the entire humanity (Prather et al., 2022).
Why should it matter for Nepal? It should matter for Nepal because so far, it is left out from theworld scenario of making its presence when the leading universities of the world are offering
this course, but there is no academic degree program for this course in Nepal in any university.
Tribhuvan University being at the helm of Higher Education Institutes (HEI) in Nepal is rightly
placed for initiating this program.

Cognitive Science Programs in the Western World
Cognitive science was conceived in 1950s, gestated in the 1960s, was born in the 1970s and1980s through the research and publications devoted to this field - America dominating thescene. Its journal Cognitive Science was started in 1977 and the Cognitive Science Society was
founded in 1979, first PhD granting department of cognitive science was created in 1986 in
University of California (UC) San Diego. As of now more than 100 US universities run various
programs in cognitive science – from undergraduate programs to PhDs and Postdocs, with thebest universities like MIT, Harvard, Yale and so on taking the lead in cutting edge research. The
top universities of UK like Oxford and Cambridge are setting examples in the cognitive science
academic programs. In the mainland Europe, stand alone and independent Centers, Departments,
Institutions and Schools of cognitive sciences and technologies are growing up and shaping
the way we understand humanity and advancing the field by explicating the solutions to many
unresolved problems of the past. Leading Australian universities are also running academic
programs in cognitive science.

Cognitive Science in Asia
In the Asian context, the universities in economically developed countries like Japan and South
Korea have advanced and extended the field. Universities in East Asian countries like Singapore,
Thailand, Indonesia have also started conducting research in cognitive science and are publishingin reputed journals. In the west Asian countries, American universities like New York University
have started their campuses and started academic programs in this field. Gradually, they arealso picking up in the research. Universities in Israel like Hebrew University and Jerusalem
University are pioneering the research in this field.
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Closer to home, China is progressing not just economically but also in the areas of scienceand technology with leaps and bounds. In the recent days, the maximum number of scientificresearches published in high impact journals have been from Chinese universities, thus showing
a correlation between economic progress and scientific research output. Chinese Academy of
Sciences and other leading universities of Beijing and Shanghai and across China are producing
remarkable works in brain and cognitive sciences.
South Asia has remained relatively behind compared to the rest of the world, but it is catching up
now with India taking a lead in this region. There is not much work in this field from Bangladesh,
Maldives or Sri Lanka, except from their diasporas abroad, even though they are comparatively
better off economically. Afghanistan, Bhutan and Nepal are yet to catch up, with almost no presence.
This is pertinent for us to take an overview of how India has taken up cognitive science. Departmentof Science and Technology (DST) under the Ministry of Science and Technology has streamlined
four areas of science and technology as the pillar of 21st century – Cognitive Science, Nano
Science and Technology, Biotechnology and Information Technology. The UGC India under its
University with Potential for Excellence (UPE) program launched Cognitive Science in Allahabad
University in 2004 creating Center for Behavioral and Cognitive Sciences (CBCS) starting withMaster’s and PhD program. following this, Center for Neural and Cognitive Sciences (CNCS)
was created in Hyderabad Central University. These two centers have pioneered the academic
programs and researches in the central universities of India. Looking at the success of cognitive
science programs and realizing the need to promote it further and establish a strong foundationin the field, DST started Cognitive Science Research Initiative (CSRI) in 2008 under 11th Five
Year Plan as a platform “to scientific community to work for better solution of challenges relatedwith cognitive disorders and social issues through various psychological tools & batteries, early
diagnosis & better therapies, intervention technologies and rehabilitation programs”. Since thegovernment of India is serious about promoting cognitive science and is doing everything to create
the environment in which it can flourish by setting up funds and grants for the research, more andmore higher educational institutions are offering cognitive science programs. Graduates of the Indian
Institute of Technology (IIT) are known worldwide for their acumen in science and technology. Now,
almost all the IITs all over India are offering Master’s and PhD programs in cognitive science, withsome IITs like IIT Gandhinagar specializing mainly in Cognitive Science. National Brain ResearchCenter (NBRC) in Haryana is producing some cutting-edge research in brain and cognitive science.
The researchers from these higher educational institutes in India are published in high impact
international scientific journals – thus bringing laurels and name not only to their institutes but also totheir country earning respect and reputation in the world stage of cognitive science.

Cognitive Science in Nepal
Cognitive Science is offered as one among six elective papers in BSc CSIT (in 6th Semester), Tribhuvan
University Curriculum. Since this is offered as one of the six electives, students are not taught thiscourse citing unavailability of teacher to teach this course. Anyway, this is an initiation at some point
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even though it is not taught and students have no idea what it is all about. Cognitive Science is offered
as a compulsory paper in BE in Artificial Intelligence (2nd Semester) in Kathmandu University
Curriculum. These two are the examples of introduction of cognitive science as academic programat the university level in Nepal. Actual research and training in cognitive science in Nepal is being
carried out at the Cognitive Science and Psycholinguistics Lab, Central Department of Linguistics,
Tribhuvan University, Nepal (first and so far, the only such lab in the country) started by this author in
2021 upon obtaining a PhD in Cognitive Science from the Center for Neural and Cognitive Sciences,
School of Medical Sciences, University of Hyderabad, India.

Research in Cognitive Science and Psycholinguistics Lab: Initiation andInstitutionalization of the Field
Academic research and training activity in Cognitive Science along with Psycholinguistics in
Nepal formally started with the establishment of Cognitive Science and Psycholinguistics Lab
in Tribhuvan University that initiated and institutionalized the field of cognitive science andpsycholinguistics in the country (Pathak, 2022a). In a short span of time, after its establishment,
this lab has produced some significant research in the field. A debate that is raging in Nepal is about
the choice of language as a medium of instruction and mother-tongue activists advocate for the useof students’ mother tongue as a medium of instruction. The team of researchers from this lab asked
the question whether instructed in second language was detrimental to the first language. They used
linguistic and cognitive tasks to test the students receiving instruction in their first language (Nepali)and second language (English) and found that use of second language as a medium of instruction
did not have any negative consequences to their first language, rather it enhanced linguistic andcognitive abilities among the children receiving instruction their second language (Pathak et al.,2021). This lab tested the performance of language production in bilingual children (Pathak &Rijal, 2022), Stroop effect on high and low proficient Nepali-English bilinguals (Pathak & Pathak,2022). This lab for the first time provided the evidence for the trilingual parallel language activation(Pathak, 2022b; Pathak et al., 2024) and how three languages interact simultaneously in the mental
lexicon. It showed that the dominant languages are processed faster in the presence of weak third
language. This lab collaborated in a multilab research project which investigated spatial cognitionin 29 languages across 34 labs involving 45 researchers and scientists (Coventry et al., 2023). The
Nepali data in this study was contributed from this lab.

Methodology used in Cognitive Science Research
Cognitive Science is all about “peering into” the human brain. One needs to measure the temporaland spatial representation and processing inside the brain. For this, one needs MRI, fMRI (nowfNIRS) or MEG to locate brain regions activated during a particular task, that needs to capture
the space of the brain in millimeters. And it also needs to record the time duration of activation in
the brain as a function of a particular task or stimuli which needs to be recorded in milliseconds,
for which electroencephalogram (EEG) and MEG are being used. Besides these, eye-tracking
paradigm allows to measure cognition through oculomotor control by measuring the pupillometry157

as modulated by cognitive load, or saccades and fixations modulated by attention allocation(Huettig et al., 201). Cognitive Science and Psycholinguistics Lab uses MouseTracker (Freeman& Ambady, 2010) as its main tool measuring kinematic action control as one makes responses
with the mouse-click which is mediated by experimental manipulation, linguistic as well as
cognitive (Pathak et al., 2021; Pathak et al., 2024), which measures the responses generated by
the brain in milliseconds.

Future Plans of Cognitive Science and Psycholinguistics Lab
In future, when resources become available and more people (read students) are trained to carried out
the researches using the tools and techniques of cognitive science, the lab plans to carry out studies,but not limited to, the following research areas:
Language Acquisition and Attrition: Language acquisition and attrition are two ends of the same
spectrum. There are not enough studies on first and second language acquisition that could help us
inform the production of educational materials and also inform the educational policy. Under whatcircumstances does an individual lose one’s own native language and shift towards the second
language? These are the questions that the lab will seek to find answers in future.
Language Pathology – Aphasia, hearing and speech disorders: Speech and Hearing Unit, under
ENT Department at Tribhuvan University Teaching Hospital caters to the need of speech and hearing
disorders from clinical perspective. But we need more basic research in language pathology, aphasia
and, speech and hearing disorders. This lab intends to extend this research in future.
Autism: Autism Spectrum Disorder (ASD) is a disruption in information processing mechanism in
the neural system of a growing child which impairs normal functioning of the child in adulthood.
Currently, Nepal is witnessing an alarming growth of ASD cases and many Autism Care Centers
have sprung up across the country. But they are all impaired by the lack of right research tools andmechanisms to understand the real nature of autism. Since there is no cure for autism, we need todiagnose the child on cognitive measures for rehabilitation. The research tools and methodology from
cognitive science is aptly suited to study autism cases which the lab plans to undertake in future.
Dementia: Dementia is ageing related neurodegenerative disorder that afflicts many older populations
creating discomfort to the sufferer and also the family members. No new memories are formed andolder memories slowly give away rendering the individual helpless and requiring others to take careof them. There is no medical cure for dementia. Researches in bilingualism and multilingualism haveshown lifelong practice of bi/multilingualism can protect one against the early onset of dementia(Alladi et al., 2013; Bialystok et al., 2007). Cognitive Science and Psycholinguistics Lab is aptly
suited lab to conduct such researches in future.
Sign Language Processing among hard-of-hearing: There is a large number of populations in Nepal
which is deaf or hard of hearing, roughly estimated as nearly one million. They use sign language tocommunicate with each other. So far, no cognitive study of Nepali signers has been done to test how
they process the linguistic sign, how audible phonetic symbols used in everyday speech is converted
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to visual signs for communication. Does this negotiation create any cognitive restructuring in the brain
needs to be explored through the cognitive science tools that lab has in its future research agenda.
Dyslexia: Dyslexia is another neural disorder that impairs a child from learning to read and write
written words as the child is not able to make grapheme to phoneme relationship which impairs thechild from acquiring literacy skills and the child gets disadvantaged in life by not being able toget higher education and make it to the higher stations of life. Nepal needs researches in this veryneglected area of research which needs immediate attention (Pathak & Dahal, 2010) which canbe carried out through this lab.
Bilingual and multilingual processing: Nepal is aptly situated to conduct research in bilingual andmultilingual processing. This is also the mandate of the constitution of Nepal which recognizes
Nepal as a multilingual state. So, it is also important to conduct the effect created by bilingualand multilingual situation. This lab has already started conducting research in this field (Pathak
et al., 2021; Pathak, 2022b; Pathak et al., 2024). More researches are required to be conducted tounderstand the linguistic and cognitive implications of bi/multilingual situations in the country.
Language-cognition interface: There is a debate whether language and cognition are independentof each other or they are dependent and intricately connected with each other. What elements oflanguage creates cognition or what elements of cognition creates language are interesting areasthat the field of cognitive science can best answer.
Artificial Intelligence/Machine Learning/Computational Modelling/LLM: Large language model(LLM) based technologies like ChatGPT have blurred the distinction between human intelligence
and artificial intelligence. The question of whether we can make non-human agents like machine
use language the way humans do have becoming pressing and pertinent (Mahowald et al., 2024). At
the same time artificial intelligence as a tool for doing cognitive science is emerging equally strong
in the present time (van Rooij et al., 2023). In future, the lab intends to explore these areas when theexpertise and the competence of the lab members develop through exposure, practice, training
and education.
Forensic Cognitive Science – Lie Detection: Cognitive Science can serve as best field of study
for the professionals like police departments in enhancing the skills of crime investigations bylearning how lie dection can be studied using the tools, techniques and methods of cognitive
science (Frank et al., 2003; Vrij et al., 2011; Maleck & Gross, 2023). Future research in the lab
will explore this area as well.
Business and Entrepreneurial Cognition: What makes an efficient entrepreneur? What should be oris the mental make up and mindset of an entrepreneur? How can the field of cognitive science informbusiness and entrepreneurship? Are some of the questions that cognitive science seeks to answer(Zichella, 2017; Mitchell et al., 2002; Mitchell et al., 2007; Dew et al., 2015). Some business andmanagement undergraduate students are expressing their interest in doing research internship in thelab. Training and mentoring them is already underway.
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Why the need for academic program in Cognitive Science?
The research areas outlined above is not possible to be accomplished with the limited resourcesof a lab and limited human resources. It needs a fully developed academic program startingfrom undergraduate to Master’s to PhD programs with well equipped research infrastructure, andtrained faculty members in teaching and conducting research in cognitive science and who cantrain and mentor students as well. Since this is a fast-growing field worldwide and in our own
neighboring countries also it is high time that we catch up with the world and not left behind.
Cognitive Science as an academic discipline has not taken ground in Nepal yet. So, with whatever
limited resources we have we need to start and try to build up our resources and expertise.
The field of cognitive Science has been largely dominated by the western world. So, the findingsof the western world may not be all applicable in our context. So, it is important we test theexisting theories and models of cognitive science in our context. This way we will also be able tocontribute to the field of cognitive science from our part of the world as well, which will help thefield grow and give us an opportunity to make our mark in this sciencescape. There is a demandthat the theory and data must represent entire humanity (Prather et al., 2022; Bryan 2021) and we
also need to be able to run the global laboratory of the future (Dutra 2021).

Why Tribhuvan University?
Tribhuvan University is the mother-of-all-the-universities-in-Nepal. The physical infrastructureand human resource of the university is unmatched and unparalleled with any other university
in the country. This is also the largest and the first public university which produces over 80%of the graduate human resources for the country. The first seed of cognitive science has beensown in this university with the establishment of the first such lab of the country and high impact
researches are already being published in the international scientific journals of the field. So, thetime is ripe for Tribhuvan University to run research based academic program.

Conclusion and Future Direction
For a leading university like Tribhuvan University, it is important that it takes the lead in the
introduction of cognitive science, the fast-emerging discipline of the 21st century and for which
there is a market demand and has the possibility for opening up many interrelated areas of researchin the future. Not just theoretical research there will be market for the application of the services
based on cognitive science in diagnosing cognitive disorders and to conduct basic researches in
the applied field. Applications of cognitive science should benefit people.
Immediate steps should be taken to initiate the process of launching the program by creating
infrastructure and designing the course that can cater to the needs and demands of the society
and the market. But it should be kept in mind that it should not be like any other traditional typeof course. It should be designed to produce capable scientists of the field who can answer the
problems of the future.
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References
Alladi, S., Bak, T. H., Duggirala, V., Surampudi, B., Shailaja, M., Shukla, A. K., ... & Kaul,
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Cultural Connection of Border Literature in Harka
Gurung’s Vignettes of Nepal
Mani Bhadra Gautam*

Abstract
Culture is a part of social practices interlinked to the cultural activities that connects people and literatureof a society or a cultural community under the umbrella of social/socio-cultural activities. There might
be different kinds of cultural groups within a same geographical border. Here, border refers to boththe cultural community’s line as well as geographical territory. Many people respect to each-other’sculture but some of them disrespect borderland culture and literature that creates social disharmony inthe name of cultural identity. Culture is a part of literary activities that helps to generate the literatureand every literature is based on the culture. Harka Gurung’s Vignettes of Nepal incorporates twenty
essays based on different geographical borderlands, cultural practices and literature. He begins his
essays from west of Kathmandu and concludes them coming to the east. In this study, this researcher
selects particularly a few essays based on cultural borderland. Border, culture and the literature are
inseparable and so this study is on cultural cum ethno-geographical methodology as it studies to the
behavioral things of the people of the different cultural communities. Objective of this paper is to show
the connectivity of literature in the cultural borderland. To achieve the research goal, this study centerson historical places and observes cultural practices in Nepal. Researcher has applied Mary Anderson
and Dor Bahadur Bista’s ideas as supporting tools to the research. Finding of this paper is that thecultures of the borders are key subjects to generate the literature.
Keywords: Historical places, cultural community, border, culture and literature.
Introduction
Harka Gurung’s Vignettes of Nepal zooms in an entire picture of Nepal. He visited to the different
geographical territories of Nepal between 1960s to the 80s. It is an account of his life and works
based on his travelling throughout the country, observations of the cultural performances indifferent geographical borderlands and writing about them. It looks like a travelogue of a renowned
geographer who accompanied with artworks in the hills, mountains and the plains of Nepal. He
takes the geographical and cultural connection between people and places in the border landsof Nepal as an inseparable part of border-cultural relationships. Major cultural groups in Nepal
are Gurung, Magar, Thakuri, Thakali, Tamang, Tharu, Chepang, Khasa-Aryan and the religious
communities are Hindus and Buddhists. Dr. Gurung rightly studies about them and writes about* Lecturer, Central Department of English, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur
gautammanibhadra@gmail.com

163their cultural practices. He predicts on the overpopulation problem of Tarai that affects to the growthof culture and literature. The problem occurs in the management of residential, agricultural and an
industrial area for them. Socio-cultural adjustments, cultural connections and transformation areother problems of the new geographical location. Management of food, shelter and other facilities
to them becomes hard to manage because of the mass migration of people from mountainous andhilly areas of Nepal to the Tarai. People migrate there for easily available services of the dailyneed accessories and the modern facilities. Gurung’s essays leave the message to the concerned
authority to solve the problems of cultural practices, shelter for them and the food crisis. All theissues are mentioned and some of them are addressed in the Vignettes of Nepal.
Cultural History, War Literature and Geographical Boundaries in the Vignettes of Nepal
Harka Bahadur Gurung, scholar and geographer of Nepal loves travelling, observing the culturalactivities and writing about them. In his travelling to the different geographical borders andcultural places, he collects information about people, places and things. On the basis of field-based
observation and information collection, he writes about culture, border and literature. Himalchuli,
Sagarmatha, Mustang, Dolpa and Manaslu are major geographical locations that Gurung writes
about in his essays. He writes in the Vignettes of Nepal:
The snow peaks of Manaslu and Himalchuli loom large just twenty-four kilometers north ofthe village. Thula was born in Taranche where his father has established himself well throughhis earnings as a Gurkha soldier. The old man has been to France and Palestine during the firstworld war and had been mentioned in dispatches during the Waziristan campaign of 1919.
Thula’s two elder brothers had seen battles action in the jungles of Burma and Borneo during
the Second World War. Two generations of soldiers in the family had quite a collection of war
medals and Thula would listen enraptured to their material exploits. He was equally fascinatedby their description of strange places and peoples in far off lands. (“The Initiation”, 1)
Cultural representations, games, sports and related performances are in environmental connection
to the people. Gurung’s essays include the geographical locations and the subjects of wooden
hills with snow ranges. Cultural events are interconnected even with animal’s activities and themen-animal based performances in relation to the people as they are culturally performed. Gurung
brings his Thula Baba, uncle Thula’s stories frequently to describe about then cultural practices.
Thula (socially respected word addressed to the big and honored one of the family or a community)
and the boys play games, “supposed to be a thief crow and other boys small nesting birds” (“TheInitiation”) (2). Egg stealing and climbing the tree games are really interesting as they are known
as a part of culture in the community. It also includes the stories of war literature through thenarratives of Thula who had seen battles action in the jungles of Burma and Borneo that helped
to create the war literature based on life love and the wars. Geographical locations and weatherchanges are other interesting things included in the narratives that create an impact on culturalactivities. People practice sitting in the different geographical parts and continuing their activities
according to the seasons that are clearly shown in Grung’s Vignettes of Nepal.
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Farmers come down from upper parts of the mountains and Himalayas to the lower parts of thegeographical location with their cattle, sheep and horses to graze in the village field in the winterseason. They celebrate the socio-cultural festivals in home and temples frequently with butter,cheese and ghee of the cows and sheep. Friends and family reunion of the carnivorous people arereally enjoyable with meat in the festivals like Dashain and Tihar. Some of the bad practices in thesociety are hunting/killing birds and animals as written in Gurung’s essay, “. . . it was customary
for the elders to go hunting for deer, bear and wild boar in the autumn” (Gurung 2). In addition
to the cultural practices of killing birds and animal they collect antlers and horns to intact homedecoration.
Longer tail monkey and deer dances are the parts of mountain culture in literature. Bears, leopards
and Ban Jhakri’s connections with people make the cultural literature more interesting in the border.
They are as mentioned, “Thula made a lot of smoke in the hut to frighten away wild animals andthe Ban Jhakri. He was really scared when he heard whistling sound in the evening, for he had
been told that the Ban Jhakri usually whistles” (Gurung 2). Ban Jhakri, Thula and the shepherd’s
relationships are here turned to be a frightening matters as cultural practices to observe and follow
to the children. They practice to escape away from not only the wild animals but also from thewild beasts and evil spirits. Colorful dresses and the skins of animals worn among the people ofthe cultural communities can be historical documents as they are not much practiced in the present.
Senior citizens try to train the young age people in cultural practices that is practiced from earlier
generation that helps to generate the cultural literature as included in the Vignettes of Nepal.
Gurung in the Critic’s Eyes
Critics remark him as a geographer and a development planner. He has studied broadly about
geography, artworks, culture and literature within different geographical territories of Nepal
and abroad. He writes to historicize the geographical boundaries, national heritages and culturalactivities. He is a path finder of cultural identity movement. His academic height helped him tocreate a reputation in the wider space of geography as an advocator of the geographical and culturalissues. He writes about Indo-Nepal open border and exposes the issues of ignored fate from the sideof Nepal. He invites people for public discourses to make on the problems seen between the 1980s
and 1990s. In this regard, Devendra Raj Panday in Nepal’s Failed Development: Reflections on theMission and the Maladies, published in 1999 writes, “. . . the engaged-intellectual of the 1990s”(Panday 3). Devendra Raj has rightly observed him as an intellectual who engaged in academic
endeavors, socio-cultural activities and geographical issues. As an honest secretariat and leader of
the Civil Right movement of Nepal, Panday rightly takes Gurung as a development practitioner. He
claims that Gurung “. . . strongly speaks for nation but many other intellectuals are just engaged inminor issues” (Panday 4). Pandey’s claim proves Gurung as a national hero and an advocator who
speaks for the geographical territory, arts, culture, literature and the National identity.
Panday tries to connect Gurung’s activities with Dor Bahadur Bista and writes, “Bista’s Descriptionof Fatalism and Development: Nepal’s Struggle for Modernization was first published in 1991, but
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it began to fire the imagination of critical thinkers only in the late 1990s” (Panday 4). Panday claims
that Gurung’s works trace out the road maps like Dor Bahadur Bista’s visionary works for Nepal’s
Development. Professor Chaitanya Mishra, like Panday, has rightly appreciated his works and hefollowed his way of writing for national identities, culture and the border. He rejected immature
decisions of the authorities as he has a vision for powerful state mechanism. Gurung is also a
politician but his politics is for prosperity of Nepal and Nepali citizens. Mahesh Chandra Regmi
writes, “Unlike dissemination, production of knowledge is a thankless task away from the limelightof public adulation” (Regmi 6). Regmi acclaims that his works are the sources for knowledge
production among the people. In a public forum they speak for equality. Panday, Mishra, Bista
and Regmi claim that Gurung’s Vignettes of Nepal rightly helps to escape away from intellectual
wasteland. Cultural issues are explored through the narratives of pundits and well-trained Hindu
scholars who advocate for religious campaigns.
Theoretical UnderpinningIntellectuals have numbers of judgements upon Gurung’s planning and his works. Sardar Bhim
Bahadur Pandey and Yadunath Khanal take him as an “entering of moral hero” (Pandey & Khanal 4).
They evaluate him on the basis of his works. In his book, he points out on the weaknesses of roadextension in the Himalchuli, Sagarmatha, Mustang, Dolpa and Manaslu areas. He advocates against
inequality in distribution of the national property. He argues that there must be equal distributionof the resources and the infrastructure development that is must in every geographical locationand the national territory. His excessive concentration on the issues of development projects helps
to interlinks between the Kathmandu valley and the mountainous areas of Nepal. Hilly and themountainous areas are in the bulk of population growth where the food scarcity is grave problem.
There is a lack of food supply as there is not easy access of transportation and the communication.
The food and nutrition problems are to be solved from food-surplus of Tarai. Tarai belt is the
production potential area of Nepal that suffered of mass moving of the people from hills andmountains in search of food and modern facilities. Gurung advocates from the side of national
developers who bring out the planning for solution of the problem with the way-out road extension
in the hilly and mountainous areas.
Cultural connectivity and hybridity help for socio-cultural inclusion. Developers start the works
for road extension that helps for travelling and transportation that is mentioned in Gurung’s essays
however they are insufficient up to now. Travelling for the behavioral observations and cultural
studies of the people’s performances help for multi-cultural connection of the geographical and thecultural borderlands. He argues “. . . regional inequality is one of the major development challenges
in Nepal” (Pandey & Khanal 37). Gurung is an intellectually fueled geographer incapsulated withwidely visionary thinking among the intellectuals. He argues for the changes in policy level tobring that is important in Nepal.
Harka Bahadur Gurung points out to the activities of the national planners whose biased road maps
create a problem to interlink between Kathmandu valley and the other parts of Nepal. He questions
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on the weak linkage of the roads and connection problems between the food-deficit hills and thefood basket Tarai where the bulk of the people are living. Gurung speaks also for the problem of
Karnali sector and advocates to interlink the road from Nepalganj-Surkhet to Dailekh. SurkhetJumla road construction is another way to link the far-west zone. Dhangadhi-Dandeldhura link also
is an additional north-south link to make easy access in food supply. Gurung in his article, “Nepal,
Regional Strategy for Development” writes:. . . the space-economy and cultural connection of Nepal is more articulated now thanduring the 1970s but the growth dynamics in peripheral areas as envisaged in the regional
development strategy remains far from realized notion. Location specific potentialities
remain unexplored and the “development package” that should have accompanied the layingout of roads is conspicuous by its absence. (Gurung 7).
Gurung’s focus is on space-economy and cultural connection of Nepal. He articulates the thingsin our history with an objective of road extension. Subsequent plans in the road extension andphysical development helps for cultural connection that finally produces the border literature.
Gurung identifies basic ideas in national developments and border-culture activities. Thus, laying
the foundations in clearing the way out for development of the borderlands, this paper outlays basic
foundation through Gurung’s Vignettes of Nepal.
Power exercises of the rulers also created some problems among the people of the different
geographical locations. Unequal distribution of the national resources in the hilly and mountainous
area of Nepal brings a great loop hole national development and so the people from these locations
try to migrate to the safety areas where they can manage the food and shelter safely. Anotherproblem to dislocate the location or to shift the people from place to place is the weather conditionof the different geographical places. Internal wars, geographical condition and the problems in foodsupply are the issues mentioned in the border and culture literature of this geographical boundaries.
Gurung writes:
The hill fort is now in ruins but during the medieval times following the decline of Khasa
empire of Jumla, Doti was one of the powerful kingdoms in the far west. Ajmerkot ofDadeldhura is credited to Ajayapal who ruled Doti during the 14th century and had hissummer capital at Ajmerkot and winter capital at Dipail. Doti rule extended north-west as
far as Johar and Darma and Kumaon until 1581 A.D. when Kumaon rulers of Chand dynasty
re-established their authority. There were constant wars between Doti and Kumaon throughthe next two centuries and it was to the last two decades of the 18th century, that a Gorkhali
force under Ranbir Khatri defeated the then ruler Dip Shahi and finally annexed Doti to the
expanding Gorkhali empire. (“West of Kathmandu” 12-13)
Gurung highlights to the wars between Khasa empire of Jumla and Doti. He takes the empire as a
powerful kingdom of the west. Gurung also talks about Ajmerkot of Dadeldhura that extends up
to north-west in Johar. Gurung highlights to the long live enmities of the geographical territories
as the war of borderlands. He writes a travelogue about his personal experiences and the group167

sights. Collected experiences about other beautiful places are, “We had brief halts at Dhangarhi
and Bhairawa and white peaks of Dhaulagiri, Annapurna, Ganesh and Langtang floated above blue
ridges and brown hills as we flew east wafted by the strong westerly afternoon wind” (“West ofKathmandu” 17). Gurung’s glimpses and memories about the beautiful places are written documents
to historicize about the people, places and things. They are historically and culturally important
documents that describe about the borderlands. Professor Kamal Prasad Malla also praises on the
tours and travels, works and write up of the national geographer Harka Bahadur Gurung.
Professor KP Malla, 1936-2018, is an intellectual of Nepal who writes actively between 1970
and 1990. In the essay, The Road to Nowhere, he writes, “Harka Bahadur Gurung, 1939–2006,
was a geographer, a development planner, an anthropologist and a gifted author” (Malla 93).
Malla’s writing supports to the discourses made on Vignettes of Nepal throughout the 1980s. Likeas Professor KP Malla, Devendra Raj Panday writes, “Restoration of parliamentary democracy
in 1990 turned out to be what Faiz Ahmad Faiz had lamented as the ‘night-bitten dawn’ at thetime of Indian independence.” (Panday 4). Panday takes Gurung not only as a geographer and adevelopment planner. He takes him as a politician who is aware in the international politics, too.
Like Panday’s remarks, Dor Bahadur Bista’s Description of Fatalism and Development: Nepal’s
Struggle for Modernization also supports the claim. In addition to the above-mentioned reviews, aprominent scholar, an accomplished translator, socio political critic and a respected teacher Khagendra
Sangraula turns out to be a reflective on humanistic characteristic of Gurung. He writes, “Having
been a learner in the 1960s, a reader in 1970s, an observer in 1980s and a chronicler since 1990s, I
find the absence of a woman, a Dalit or even a Madhesi” (Sangraula 42). Sangraula appreciates on
Gurung’s historical studies who historicizes the buried memory of unburied history but he criticizeson the loop hole seen in his research and writing regarding gender, culture and location.
Result and Discussion
It is difficult to pinpoint on the socio-cultural, economic and environmental dimensions that
Gurung indicates in the Vignettes of Nepal. This article tries to make a coverage firstly on Gurung’s
travelogue, secondly to the cultural heritages and thirdly to the geographical boundaries. The
study is purely based on qualitative research technique for critical analysis. It focuses to the loop
holes left on the linkage of cultural activities of the different geographical boundaries. Tourism
development can help to bridge between the geographical knowledge and the cultural practices.
Tourism activities, feasibility studies and development planning are the study issues investigated inthis research paper. This paper questions on the weaknesses of government mechanism, planner’s
biasness and other problems that people living in the hilly and the mountainous area are facing
regularly. This study highlights also to the unequal distribution of the national resources andquestions to the unequal treatment of the concerned authority.
This paper raises the issues of very poor infrastructure built on the way and the home stay places;such as traveling facilities, porter’s management for the traveler’s baggage’s supply and foodservices. Major problem is occurred because of the lack of transportation facility. Travelers face
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the road difficulties and problems in medical facilities for health treatments, too in the mountains
and the hilly areas. The government agencies fail in institutional supports to the planners andthe travelers. Crucial challenges have to be faced to meet the bridging points of the culture andliterature of the border. Home stay practices help in the close observation of the cultural practices
and performances for the ethnographical study of the behavioral activities and attitudes of thepeople. The possibilities in interlinking between culture and border literature are clearly shown in
Gurung’s essays. Tourism profession also helps in creating an employment among the local people
that helps to increase the capital income. There are numbers of tourism areas discussed in Gurung’s
essays and Ghale Gaun is one of the places this researcher has collected same kind of experience.
This researcher grabbed some opportunities to know about their cultural performances. The
observation made on the cultural performances and dialectics used in the communication among
the locals and the travelers helped to know for the cultural changes. Importance of cultural values
practiced in the different socio-cultural communities’ influence people to make an observation,
study the things, investigate, preserve and apply the positive aspects on tourism.
Travelers love to know about cultural connections of the people living in the different geographicalboundaries. They see and observe on the fashion, hymns, songs and dances that are practiced in
the local communities help for the cultural connection. Tourists love to pass the time in home stay
to research and explore the tings of the different geographical locations. They choose the local
residences as, “to study about their traditional cultures and local people’s way of life” (Tsundoda& Mendilinger 14). Tsundoda & Mendilinger focus on the interest zones of the tourists. Similarly,
Pandey, Chettri, Kunwar & Ghimire make critical reviews analyzing to their cultures and costumes.
Cultural differences of the different geographical territories, especially the Ghale Gaun people.
Travelers in their journey love to exchange the things as gifts. They love to exchange cameras,
chocolates, clothes and the home-made handicrafts. Travelers are eager to carry on the home-madeproducts. The exchanges of the things increase the love and develops a close relationship among
them. Foreigners might induce changing their products with the local productions. They seem
funny in the traditional dress up. Among all the things, the food habits of the locals along with the
new way of living standards are researchable.
Numbers of travelers enjoy sight scenes of the mountains, Himalayas and the home stay area thatare recorded as a cause for financial sustainability of the people in the concerned area. It has many
positive impacts in the changes of life style of the people there. It has some negative impacts, too,
as it increases in drug addictions, growing prostitution and consequently it can divert the society
towards the criminal activities. Gurung seems worried in increasing environmental pollution,
youngster’s interests in taking drug and social disharmony. He quotes, “Construction of hotels
and resorts near the heritage sites cause to lose the beauty of historically significant monuments
and buildings” (Banskota & Sharma, 95). Modernization has invited the concretization and themodern gadgets invite environmental pollution. The fresh environment of the mountainous andthe Himalayan areas also has been polluted. Excessive use of the chemicals and different kinds ofpesticides have turned the greenery of the fertile land to the deserted area. Excessive cutting of169

the trees for firewood and throwing tin and plastics everywhere destroy the fresh environment. A
research shows, “Consumption of firewood in Annapurna Conservation Area Project (ACAP) by
tourist is twice the consumption of firewood by local people” (ibid ii). The available information
show that the haphazard and unplanned development has destroyed the environmental things. We
are compelled to face the world environmental challenges in the resent years and that is also a
serious issue in Nepal, too. Therefore, we have to turn to the bio-centric path to guaranty the futureof all the people, birds, animals, living beings, their culture and their literature, too.
The sharing and caring of the travelers have also indicated increasing social and familial solidarity.
Written and translated version document of English translators of Himalayan literature publish
books in English work as the sources for travel information to the foreigners. The information
resources work for guiding the tourists. Travelogues have helped to inter-link between the borderand cultural literature. The travelers, geographers and the explorers have given us various guidelines
to know about the cultural heritages, people and the places. Ecological-consciousness of the climbers
highlights on the spiritual meaning of our fragile heritage what travelers can feel in the mountains
and the Himalayas.
Conclusion
Harka Bahadur Gurung’s Vignettes of Nepal clearly portrays the picture of early to mid-21st
century Nepal. The travelogues are related with the dialogues made among Nepali travelers, local
people, tour guides and the tourists from abroad. Many travelers are in the problems because of thegeographical difficulties and the weak access of the road linkages in the mountainous and hilly areasof Nepal. The helpless travelers expect to get a help from the local people. Travelers love to maketheir journey joyful in everyday traveling. They bring the myth and mystery together as we don’t see
and feel in our day to day activities. Travelers observe the things in deeper level as their experiences
about the world are highly experimental. Harka Bahadur Gurung makes us aware about culturaland geographical borderlands. He connects artworks, arts, culture and creatures of the different
geographical boundaries in his book Vignettes of Nepal.
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Internal Quality Assurance (IQA) and External Quality
Assurance (EQA) in Higher Education Institutions: Relevance,
Challenges and Opportunities of Quality Assurance andAccreditation (QAA) System in Nepal
Narayan Bhandari*
Min Pun**

Abstract
The higher education institutions (HEIs) of Nepal are currently facing multiple challenges,
ranging from low enrollment, brain drain, low employability, and student dropout to financing
management dilemma, politicization, poor governance, low tech-friendly administration, andinfrastructure mismanagement. These issues have posed serious challenges to sustainability,
quality, and relevancy of higher education institutions. To address these challenges, quality
assurance (QA) system (in Nepal’s case, Quality Assurance and Accreditation [QAA] system),more specifically internal quality assurance (IQA) system, has become a global trend among
academics that can be considered a measure and control for internal institutional reform toenhance the performance of HEIs. Thus, this paper aims to examine the QA system or QAA system
of Nepal with reference to the international practices of maintaining quality in higher education.
The paper focuses on the changing policy landscape of the QA system, considering the scope,
significance, and functions of the IQA system within HEIs. The findings of the study indicatethat the universities in Nepal are lagging behind the times, in initiating the IQA system by theuniversities themselves although some HEIs under their administration have started participatingin the process and many of them are being accredited by the University Grants Commission,
Nepal (UGC), Nepal, which is playing the role of external quality assurance mechanism.

Keywords: Higher education institutions, quality assurance, internal quality assurance, external
quality assurance
The Context
The University Grants Commission, Nepal (UGC, Nepal)’s Educational Management Information
System (EMIS) Report - 2021/2022 (2023) shows that there are a total of 579,488 students
enrolled in 18 universities, including central universities, medical academies, and provincial
universities. This figure is significantly higher as compared to the same report for the year
2020/2021, in which the student enrollment was 460, 826. Although the increasing figure has* Assistant Director, EQAA Secretariat, University Grants Commission, Nepal** Associate Professor, English Department, Prithvi Narayan Campus, Pokhara, Nepal
172

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

been reported, the reason behind this increase has not been discussed in the report. At the sametime, the media coverage has reported that a number of students in higher education institutions(HEIs) of Nepal are gradually decreasing (Upreti, 2023; Ghimire, 2023; Baral, 2024). Apart fromthis trend of enrollment crisis, the Nepali HEIs are passing through multiple challenges including
brain drain (Mainali, n.d), financing dilemma (Wagle, 2023), mismanagement (Regmi, 2019),
politicization (Poudel, 2024), student dropout, poor governance, less availability of technology,
poor infrastructure, low employability rate (National Planning Commission, 2020) and manyothers. The issues mentioned above have serious other challenges such as sustainability, quality,
and relevancy of Nepali HEIs.
The quality assurance (QA) system, namely quality assurance and accreditation (QAA) system in
Nepal, in higher education is a widely accepted tool by academia as a cornerstone in maintaining
the academic programs and the institutional quality of HEIs, though it has also been criticized as
an instrument of neo-liberal policies that promotes privatization and marketization of education(Lawton, 2019). The available literatures have more often positively correlated the significanceof QA system in improving the curricula, teaching-learning method, institutional performance,
good governance, graduate employability, and other educational dimensions. However, there
are also arguments that the reform is not at the level of expectation (Moshtari & Safarpour,2023). In many countries across the world today, educational policies have incorporated the QA
system and its performance by academia that has become a determining factor in receiving thegovernment funds, global recognition, and employability of graduates. However, one should not
be unaware of the arguments that the system has given space for bureaucratic interference overacademia and limiting their autonomy (Travers, 2007; Cardoso et al., 2018). In fact, this is one of
the biggest challenges for higher education in Nepal.
The QA or QAA system in Nepal was first introduced in 2007 as part of the World Bank funded
Second Higher Education Project (SHEP). The system has been gradually expanding today since
there are 92 accredited and 11 re-accredited HEIs for the second cycle (UGC, 2020) to date.
Likewise, a number of participating HEIs in the QAA process is over 330, proceeding throughdifferent stages such as Letter of Intent (LoI) submission, Self-Study Report (SSR) submission,
pre-assessment completion, and final peer review completion (UGC, 2023). Out of a total of
1455 HEIs running in Nepal, above 850 HEIs have less than 200 students, but there are many
HEIs which have less than 150 enrolled students, which is a threshold to be eligible to participate
in the QAA process in Nepal (UGC, 2023). Despite the fact that the UGC, Nepal has started thequality assurance initiatives in HEIs in Nepal and is recognizing some of them as accredited
institutions, there are several problems with the system.
The QA system in many other countries is seen to be composed of two sub-systems: Internal
Quality Assurance (IQA) and External Quality Assurance (EQA). The IQA system is an internalmechanism of HEIs that continuously looks after the quality maintenance and control undertakeninternally, which existed before the idea of EQA was introduced (Ansah, 2015). The EQA, on
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the other hand, is a more formalized external system by which the quality of HEIs is recognizedperiodically. Such system may consist of the government bodies of professional bodies suchas the UGC, Nepal. In Nepal, UGC, Nepal is seen to be prioritizing the establishment of IQA
mechanism in all kinds of universities and their HEIs, including colleges/campuses, central
departments, and medical academies. The UGC, Nepal has issued a suggestive IQAC directives(UGC, 2020) in this regard, highlighting the composition, roles, and responsibilities. While
visiting the websites of 18 universities of Nepal, Tribhuvan University (TU) has established themechanism under the name of ‘Quality Assurance and Accreditation Centre (QAAC)’ (2024).
However, this name does not match with the principle of IQA system since TU cannot accredit
itself. This is because “accreditation is a process of external quality review created and usedby higher education to scrutinize colleges, universities and programs for quality assurance andquality improvement” (Eaton, 2015). TU’s QAAC shall work for internal quality improvement,
but cannot accredit itself because accreditation is awarded by an external body to recognize auniversity for quality assurance. There are also other instances of quality assurance bodies within
the universities in Nepal. They include Far-Western University (FWU)’s ‘Quality AssuranceCommittee’ (QAC) and Mid-Western University (MWU)’s ‘Quality Assurance and Accreditation
Division’ (QAAD), which are under the QA framework of ‘Enhancing Quality Assurance inSouth Asia’ (EQASA) although the EQASA framework does not match with the QAA system of
UGC, Nepal. Many other universities have neither established such a mechanism nor they haveparticipated in the QAA system of Nepal. However, in the case of the QAA system participating
HEIs, the establishment of ‘Internal Quality Assurance Committee (IQAC)’ is mandatory since
it is the first step towards the participation in the QAA system in Nepal; thus, the formation of
IQAC is one of the pre-requisites for the submission of LoI if any HEI wishes to participate in
the QAA framework.
The overall discussion above reveals that although many HEIs such as colleges/campuses, central
departments, and academic programs have participated in the QAA process of UGC, Nepal,
demonstrating that the IQA system is not much familiar with Nepali universities. For instance, inthe universities of developed countries, including a few South Asian countries, the IQA system
is a highly prioritized mechanism to maintain and control the quality of higher education. Thus,
the main objective of this paper is to examine the QAA system in Nepal with reference to theinitiatives undertaken by the UGC, Nepal, focusing on the changing policy landscape of the QAA
system, and considering the scope, significance, and functions of the IQA system within HEIs.

The Quality Assurance System: International Practices
The QA system is a mechanism that seeks to build confidence of stakeholders of the HEIs by
ensuring their credibility gained through continuous execution of activities that contributes tocreating a quality culture. Such stakeholders include but not limited to the government, students,
faculty members, management, employers, parents, and many others. In this regard, Kayyali(2023) argues that the QA system in higher education encourages continuous improvement by
174 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

establishing feedback loops and evaluation processes. Therefore, accreditation facilitates in appealing
new enrollment, upholding institutional branding, aligning educational objectives and market needs,
and safeguarding the interest and confidence of students and stakeholders.
In Nepal, the concept of QAA system carries two different meanings, yet they are interrelated to eachother. The term ‘quality assurance’ is a broader concept, referring to continuous improvement in theinstitutional academic and administrative management by HEIs internally to satisfy the need of its
service receivers while the term ‘accreditation’ is the recognition of the quality culture that prevails
in the HEIs by the external quality regulatory body or approved professional agency. In this case,it can be assumed that ‘quality assurance’ is more of internal and continuous improvement process
while ‘accreditation’ is external and periodic phenomenon. Since higher education is considered the
backbone of nation’s economic development and societal progress, the governments around the world
have prioritized ensuring quality enhancement of their HEIs through the minute measures undertaken
to assure that those are competitive enough in the educational markets (Martin & Stella, 2007; as citedin Alzafari & Ursin, 2019). Accreditation in general is carried out in two levels: academic program
accreditation and institutional accreditation. According to UGC, Nepal (2020a), academic program
accreditation focuses on the content and coherent of the academic programs offered within the HEIs,
its relevancy, intended learning outcomes, participation, and revision mechanism, etc. On the other
hand, institutional accreditation focuses on the overall institutional governance, teaching-learning
effectiveness, intervention in research and innovation, infrastructural facilities, and student support
system offered to students and faculty members, and institutional transparency and sustainability
maintained in the HEIs, among others.
The nature of QA system varies across the world; however, the core focus is the same: promoting
a quality culture. For example, in the United States of America (USA), the government does notdirectly involve in accrediting the HEIs, rather recognizes and facilitates the accreditors in an indirect
way. In this connection, Eaton (2015) states that “accreditation is carried out by private, nonprofit
organizations designed for specific purposes. External quality review of higher education is a nongovernmental enterprise” (p. 1). He means to say that the Council for Higher Education Accreditation(CHEA) or United States Department of Education (USDE) provide a recognition to such accreditors.
In Europe, QA in higher education is typically overseen by various agencies at both national andsupranational level. Such agencies exist both in private and public nature; however, public agencies
have a government oversight and operate within an established regulatory framework. In this case,
the EQUIP’s (2015) ‘Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in European Higher Education
Area [ESG]’ is one such framework. It says that all public accreditation agencies are obliged tofollow ESG apart from the country specific regulations. Although private accreditation agencies are
independent in nature, they also align their standards with national and international frameworks toensure consistency and credibility. One of the most notable bodies responsible for accrediting andensuring QA in European higher education institutions is the European Quality Assurance Register
for Higher Education (EQAR). The EQAR is an independent organization that maintains a register oftrustworthy QA agencies operating in the European Higher Education Area (EHEA).
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The context of QA system in Asian countries is not that far from the international practice; however,the system is diversified among the countries. For example, in China, Higher Education Evaluation
Centre (HEEC), and China Academic Degrees & Graduate Education Development Centre(CDGDC) are the major governmental assessment agencies to evaluate the quality of HEIs followed
by Shanghai Agency for Education Evaluation and Jiangsu Agency of Education Evaluation, a
non-governmental agencies (Shuiyun, 2018). The Vietnamese QA system is similar to the US QA
system, where the Ministry of Education and Training (MoET) oversees the accreditation agencies,
may it be established under the public or private ownership (Do et al., 2017). In India, the QA
issues of HEIs are overseen by National Assessment and Accreditation Council (NAAC), National
Board of Accreditation (NBA), and All India Council of Technical Education (AICTE), which
are autonomous professional entities under the University Grants Commission (UGC) of India(Manimala et al., 2020). In Nepal, to date, there is no provision for non-governmental or private
sector accreditors to regulate the QA matters in HEIs.

The QAA System as External Quality Assurance (EQA) System: Nepali Practice
The establishment of QAA system in Nepal has surpassed 15 years and it is gradually expanding
its activities. The system has received a wider attention and acceptance among the internal
stakeholders including academics and academicians, students, parents, and employers. At present,
the QAA system in Nepal is overseen by the UGC, Nepal through its formation of Educational
Quality Assurance and Accreditation Council (EQAAC). On behalf of the EQAAC, its secretariat
established within the premises of the UGC, Nepal itself that undertakes the responsibility of dayto-day administrative operations. The EQAAC is the only authorized agency to assess the qualityof HEIs in Nepal based on the set standards, criteria, and indicators. There are not yet any private
agencies in operation in this regard. However, it is important to note that the participation of HEIs
in the QAA process in Nepal is voluntary except the professional councils in Nepal, which arealso functioning as external quality monitor and control mechanism under the government rules
and regulations (Pun & Bhandari, 2021). In this sense, Nepal has two accrediting government
bodies, but the HEIs, especially technical institutions, under the professional councils have also to
participate in the QAA system under the UGC, Nepal.
According to UGC, Nepal (2020b), the available data indicate that 12 HEIs were accredited during
the Second Higher Education Project (SHEP) between 2007-2014. The number of accredited or peer
review stage completed HEIs reached 76 (including 12 accredited and seven reaccredited HEIs during
the SHEP) by the closing date of the Higher Education Reform Project (HERP) between 2015-2020(World Bank, 2021). Currently, the five-year ‘Nurturing Excellence in Higher Education Program(NEHEP)’ is being implemented by the UGC, Nepal, starting 2022 until 2026. The recent data received
from the UGC demonstrate that the cumulative number of accreditation has reached 103, including 11
reaccreditation. This figure indicates the increasing number of HEIs participating in the QAA process.
Nevertheless, the study of the newly adopted and proposed policy documents of the government
indicates that the scenario of the existing QAA system is changing soon with added priority. For
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example, the strategy10.49.2, an education policy of of the National Education Policy (2019)envisions that an autonomous quality assessment mechanism will be formulated under the UGC,
Nepal and accreditation will be made mandatory for all HEIs. It further says that the HEIs thatfail to accredit by a given timeframe will be barred from operating (p. 65). Similarly, the Nepal
National Framework for Sustainable Development Goal 4: Education 2030 (MoEST, 2019) has
also highly acknowledged and prioritized the QAA system and has set a strategy of “strengtheningof quality assurance and accreditation and credit transfer systems in TVET and higher education”(p. 31), including other levels of education. Likewise, the Fifteenth Plan [2019/20-2023/24]
prepared by the National Planning Commission [NPC] (2020) has also set a strategy and working
policy in regard to the QAA process. The education strategy 11 explicitly states, “To develop higher
education-providing universities and educational institutions as technology-based learning centresfor knowledge transfer and development and make the Quality Assurance and Accreditation Systemstrong, powerful, and compulsory” (pp. 238-239) followed by working policy. It includes: 1) There
will be an independent quality determination and accreditation authority for determination andaccreditation of the quality of higher education and the quality accreditation of higher education
providers will be carried out by developing an automatic system based on certain standards and 2)“The grants and additional incentives provided to higher education providers will be aligned with
the quality standards (pp. 238-239). In the same way, the proposed Higher Education Act (2024)
in its preamble states that with the feel for a need “… to make the quality and internationallycompetitive [higher education] … federal parliament has made this act” (p. 1).
More recently, the UGC, Nepal has set criteria and indicators for quality assessment and accreditationof universities running in Nepal apart from HEIs of Nepal. This process consists of six criteria and90 major indicators (see Table 1). However, there are also additional indicators that universities
offering specialized academic programs such as science and technology, agriculture, engineering,and others have to fulfill. Previously, accreditation in Nepal was only limited within HEIs likecentral departments, schools, and constituent, community, and private campuses/colleges.

Table 1 Criteria, Indicators, and Weightage of University Accreditation
SN

Criteria

Weight1
2
3

Governance and Leadership
Curriculum Management
Research, Knowledge Generation andExtension / OutreachPhysical Resources
Students Support Services and Wellbeing
Human Resource
Total

4
5
6

Full Marks

25%
20%
20%

Number of
Indicators
24
17
17

15%
10%
10%
100%

15
9
8
90

15
10
10
100

25
20
17

Source: UGC, Nepal. (2020b). Quality assurance and accreditation of higher education institutions in
Nepal: Handbook for self-study and peer review.
177

As shown in Table 2 below, the UGC, Nepal has also revised the criteria and indicators
applicable to the HEIs and brought to their implementation that apply for reaccreditation.
This revision has brought down the number of criteria from eight to six and indicators from
120 to 80 (for HEIs offering graduate programs) and 84 (for HEIs offering undergraduate
programs).

Table 2Comparison of Previous and Revised Criteria and Weightage for Accreditation of HEIs

Previous
Criteria
Policy & Procedures
Curricular Aspects
Teaching Learning And
Evaluation
Research, Consultancy andExtension
Infrastructure and Learning
Resources
Student Support and Guidance
Information System
Public Information
Total

Weightage
15
10
15
10
20
10
10
10
100

RevisedCriteria
Governance and Leadership
Curriculum Management
Research and Knowledge
Extension
Physical Resources

Weightage
20
20
20
20

Student Welfare and Well
Being
Human Resource

10
10

Total

100

Source: Source: UGC, Nepal. (2020b). Quality assurance and accreditation of higher education
institutions in Nepal: Handbook for self-study and peer review.

As of now, the QAA system is a well-recognized and well-accepted mechanism that reflects
and showcases the quality and competitiveness of national HEIs internationally. The above
discussion indicates that the QAA system in Nepal is soon passing through a major shift.
However, in the face of turbulent scenario (low funding, students’ migration to foreigncountries, decreasing students’ enrollment, limited employability options, etc.), there are fullof challenges for sustenance of the QAA system.

The Role of Internal Quality Assurance (IQA) System within HEIs
The debate on the independent existence of EQA system and IQA system as once seen as
opposites is over now and both systems have been accepted as complementary mechanisms
for assuring quality in higher education (Ansah, 2015). According to Ansah, the purpose of
EQA and IQA are distinct in which “external quality assurance is described as promoting
accountability, while internal quality assurance is described as promoting improvement” (p.
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138). This definition creates a boundary between the EQA and IQA systems, showing the interdependency between the two mechanisms because in the absence of a continuous improvementof quality, accountability is hard to be achieved. Today, the IQA system has become a mandatory
requirement for all HEIs in Nepal.
According to Martin (2018), the roles and functions of the IQA system can vary basedon the given national and institutional contexts. Some HEIs have integrated the system
to the employability whereas most others have focused on strengthening the IQA system
for receiving feedback and facilitating the academic and administrative process for quality
management of higher education as TU’s Quality Assurance and Accreditation Centre(QAAC) (2024) monitors and facilitates “its constituent campuses, faculty/institutes, andcentral departments (p. 3). More specifically, the purpose of IQA system comprises of the“performance assessment, institutional learning, and management improvement, and wereintended to improve internal processes and strengthen institutional self-regulation” (p. 41).
For instance, Sofyani et al. (2023) conducted a study in Indonesia to identify the potential
relation between the IQA system and quality progress. The study positively associated therole of the IQA system that can contribute to the enhanced quality of HEIs in terms of
performance, management, governance practices, and service quality. However, a better
harmonization between the IQA mechanism and other functional units of the institution isrequired to maximize its outcomes.
In the University of Minho, Portugal, Santos and Dias (2017) discuss the practice of the IQA
system. The IQA system worked well there that consisted of the quality plan which addresses
the questions of quality standard of the university by setting mainly the strategic objectives,
hierarchic operational strategies, and action plan. To achieve these goals, the quality manualwas prepared by outlining the institutional quality policy and its transformation into the
IQA system through the performance indicators. There is also another important aspect thatdevelops the QA supporting structures including the QA follow-up committee, QA office, andinformation system. Comparable to Santos and Dias (2017), Jingura and Kamusoko (2019)
have “proposed competency framework for IQA practitioners” and more comprehensively
presented the “scope of IQA work” (p. 126) under nine domains. They included the IQA
policies, processes and tools, planning, data and information management, EQA relationship,
advisory and promotional work, research and innovation, management and leadership, andnetworking (see Table 3).

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Table 3
Functions of IQA in HEIs
DomainIQA policies, processes
and tools

Planning

Quality assurance
processes
Data and information
management
EQA relationship

Advisory andpromotional work
Research andinnovation
Management andleadership

Networking

Activities- Formulating quality assurance policies- Setting quality objectives- Superintending implementation of quality management system- Setting standards- Developing and documenting quality assurance processes,
procedures and guidelines- Developing quality assurance plans- Monitoring implementation of the plans- Reviewing performance- Developing and implementing quality improvement plans- Conducting internal reviews, audits, evaluation and benchmarking- Risk analysis- Facilitating accreditation processes- Collection, analysis, indication and interpretation of data
- Report writing- Working with public and private EQAs
- Working with professional bodies- Promoting and monitoring implementation of EQA requirements- Facilitating accreditation and external review and audit processes- Advising all stakeholders on quality assurance matters- Building quality assurance literacy- Conducting capacity building activities- Designing and conducting research on quality assurance matters- Developing new approaches to quality assurance- Publishing quality assurance scholarly work
- Performance measurement- Setting and monitoring performance metrics- Communication with stakeholders- Leading staff on QA work
- Networking with local and international organizations- Participating in international conferences, workshops and meetings
related to quality assurance

Source: Adapted from Jingura and Kamusoko (2019)180 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

Table 3 presents a comprehensive outline on the functions and activities expected under the IQA
system, ranging from the policy process to networking. The functions presented not only show
the diverse array of the IQA system, but they also highlight the IQA system’s significancein HEIs. To bring them together, the table emphasizes on the strategic planning, continuous
improvement, capacity-building activities, research, innovation, and stakeholder engagement
along with the EQA relationship to underscore the importance of aligning the IQA system’s
efforts with the EQA system’s standards and processes, ensuring accountability and compliancewith the benchmarks required by the system. In the context of Nepali HEIs, the IQA systems
are not yet stringent, the functions outlined in the table offer valuable insights and guidelines
for enhancing the QA practices.

Conclusion
The impact of the QAA system in HEIs in Nepal is yet to be formally studied; however,there are complaints that the expected output and outcomes of accreditation is notsatisfactory. One of the major reasons behind this could be the limited implementationof IQA system. As stated earlier, although the HEIs like schools/central departments,
campuses/colleges are either accredited or in the process of accreditation, the IQA system(specifically the formation of IQAC within them) have been established as part of its
requirements. Except for a few universities many others have to formally establish suchmechanism. However, the present scenario indicates the unwillingness of universities
in formalizing and regularizing the IQA system and their readiness to self-audit theirperformance and maintain quality of higher education. One potential cause behind thecomplaint of the quality deprivation of HEIs in Nepal could be the absence of the IQA
system. As indicated by the discussion above, the IQA system can significantly contributeto enhancing internal competency through cyclic monitoring, feedback, and facilitationin governance, teaching-learning, research, curricular enhancement, student support, andstakeholder’s engagement. To achieve the objectives of the IQA system, the EQA system
can be helpful in taking corrective measures timely, assuring quality in higher education
and widening the institutional reputation.
The UGC, Nepal through its QAA system (as EQA mechanism) has certainly engaged
Nepali HEIs in establishing and implementing the IQA system. Although some universities
have established the IQA system to facilitate their HEIs under their administration, formal
studies have not yet been conducted to analyze the performance and impact of thesystem in the universities where such system has been established for their HEIs. It is
recommended that the first and prominent requirement to do so through their IQA systemis the responsibility of the universities for their HEIs. To sum up, most universities in
Nepal are lagging far behind this process; this study strongly recommends that they are
required to address these challenges as the QAA system creates opportunities for HEIs
to maintain and ensure quality of higher education in the country.
181

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Sofyani, H., Saleh, Z., & Abu Hasan, H. (2023). Internal Control Implementation and quality ofhigher education institutions: A moderation effect testing. Asian Journal of Accounting
Research, 8(4), 425–435. https://doi.org/10.1108/ajar-09-2022-0277
The EQUIP. (2025). Standards and Guidelines for Quality Assurance in the European Higher
Education Area. http://ehea.info/page-standards-and-guidelines-for-quality-assurance
Travers, M. (2007). The new bureaucracy: Quality Assurance and its critics. Policy Press.
Tribhuvan University. (2024, May 18). Quality assurance and accreditation centre. https://tu.edu.np/centers
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University Grants Commission Nepal (UGC, Nepal). (2023). Education management information
system: Report of higher education - 2021/022 A.D. (2078/079 B.S.). https://ugcnepal.edu.
np/uploads/publicationsAndReports/kpyDlM.pdf
University Grants Commission Nepal (UGC, Nepal). (2020a). Directives of Internal quality
assurance for higher education institutions -2020 [translated]. https://ugcnepal.edu.np/
uploads/web-uploadsfiles/IQAC%20Directives%202020.PDF
University Grants Commission Nepal (UGC, Nepal). (2020b). Quality assurance andaccreditation of higher education institutions in Nepal: Handbook for self-study and peer
review. https://ugcnepal.edu.np/uploads/web-uploadsfiles/Handbook%20for%20Self%20
Study%20and%20Peer%20Review%2C%202020.pdf
Upreti, A. (2023, August 2). Why Nepali universities are failing. Nepal Live Today. https://www.
nepallivetoday.com/2023/08/02/why-nepali-universities-are-failing/
Wagle, A. (2023, August 1). Behind the higher education crisis. The Kathmandu Post. https://kathmandupost.com/columns/2023/08/01/behind-the-higher-education-crisis
World Bank. (2021). Implementation completion and results report on a credit from theInternational Development Association in the amount of SDR 44.9 million (US$65.0
million equivalent) to Nepal for the Higher Education Reforms Project. https://documents1.
worldbank.org/curated/en/650251629737638348/pdf/Nepal-Higher-Education-ReformsProject.pdf

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Blockchain Technology and Smart Contracts: The Legal
Implications and Opportunities
Newal Chaudhary*

Abstract
The digital world of the internet has been growing day by day globally. Similarly the change inglobal internet has advocated the digital age which has lead it to emergence of decentralized
technology system. Smart contracts & blockchain technology have generated a lot of interestand discussion across a range of disciplines, including law. As a part of a novel technology, it
brings with it a lot of opportunities and difficulties for the established legal system. This article
provides a comprehensive exploration of the legal implications and opportunities arising fromthese decentralized, transparent innovations across domains like contract law, property rights,
dispute resolution, and regulatory frameworks. Through a multi-pronged approach involving
literature review, case study analysis, and examination of real-world applications, the article
delves into the technical foundations, legal challenges, and practical implementations ofblockchain and smart contracts. While highlighting benefits such as automation, immutability,
and trustless transactions, it also addresses key considerations like jurisdiction conflicts, data
privacy, and regulatory compliance. The discussion underscores strategies for legal professionals
and policymakers to effectively navigate this evolving landscape, including legal education,
adaptive regulatory approaches, cross-border collaboration, and addressing ethical concerns.
Opportunities are identified for streamlining legal processes, enhancing intellectual property
protection, and fostering transparency and accountability. Ultimately, the article aims to serve
as a valuable resource for legal stakeholders, businesses, and policymakers, illuminating thetransformative potential of blockchain and smart contracts in creating a more secure, efficient,and trusted legal ecosystem – contingent upon responsible integration, proactive engagement,
and continual adaptation to this rapidly advancing technological frontier.
Keywords: Blockchain, Smart Contracts, Legal Implications, Contract Law, Property Rights,
Dispute Resolution, Regulatory Frameworks, Decentralization, Transparency, Immutability,
Legal Technology, Digital Transformation.

*Assistant Professor, Nepal Law Campus, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal.
“Commercial Law with Special Reference to Foreign Direct Investment in Nepal (Research-based
Reference Book)”. Co-Author: Legal Environment for Business in Nepal, Comparative Criminal Law.
Former Executive Director of Greater Janakpur Area Development Council.
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Introduction
The world is witnessing a technological revolution that has the potential to disrupt and to transformthe various industries, including the legal sectors. At the fore-front of this revolution, lies onblockchain technology, a decentralized and transparent digital ledger, which facilitates the secureand immutable record-keeping system. Alongside this ground-breaking innovation, the smart
contracts, the self-executing digital agreements built on blockchain infrastructure, have emerged
as a game-changing concept in the realm of legal contracts and transactions. The integration ofblockchain technology and smart contracts into the legal domain has emerged an intense debate,and has raised critical questions about their implications, challenges, and the opportunities.
As these technologies continue to gain grip, it is imperative for the legal professionals, thepolicymakers, and the stakeholders to understand their fundamental principles, potential impacts,
and the strategies required to navigate this rapidly evolving legal land scape.
Blockchain is defined as a ledger of decentralized data that is securely shared. Blockchain
technology enables a collective group of select participants to share data. With blockchain cloudservices, transactional data from multiple sources can be easily collected, integrated, and shared.
Data is broken up into shared blocks that are chained together with unique identifiers in the form ofcryptographic hashes. Blockchain provides data integrity with a single source of truth, eliminating
data duplication and increasing security. In a blockchain system, fraud and data tampering areprevented because data can’t be altered without the permission of a quorum of the parties. A
blockchain ledger can be shared, but not altered. If someone tries to alter data, all participants
will be alerted and will know who make the attempt1 . Whereas a smart contract is defined as adigital agreement that is signed and stored on a blockchain network, which executes automaticallywhen the contract’s terms and conditions (T&C) are met. The T&C is written in blockchainspecific programming languages such as Solidity2 . As blockchain and smart contracts continue
to gain traction across various sectors, it is imperative for legal professionals, policymakers, andstakeholders to understand their fundamental principles, potential impacts, and the strategies
required to navigate this rapidly evolving legal landscape effectively. This article serves as acomprehensive resource, illuminating the transformative potential of these technologies increating a more secure, efficient, and trusted legal ecosystem while also addressing the potential
challenges and strategies to mitigate risks. This article aims to bridge the research gap by offering
an extensive and multifaceted exploration of the legal implications and prospects of blockchain
technology and smart contracts. Through a systematic review of literature, case study analysis,
and examination of real-world applications, the article delves into the technical foundations,
legal challenges, and practical implementations of these transformative technologies.
Oracle. (n.d.). What is Blockchain? Retrieved from https://www.oracle.com/cz/blockchain/what-isblockchain/ (Accessed on 29 February 2024).
2
Spiceworks. (n.d.). What are Smart Contracts? Retrieved from https://www.spiceworks.com/tech/innovation/ articles/what-are-smart-contracts/ (Accessed on 29 February 2024).
1

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Research Questionsa) Do blockchain technology and smart contracts impact various legal areas, such as contract
law, property rights, dispute resolution, and regulatory frameworks?
b) Can legal professionals and policymakers strategically navigate this evolving landscape,addressing legal education, regulatory adaptation, cross-border collaboration, and ethicalconcerns?
Methods/Methodology
This research employs a doctrinal legal research methodology, which involves a comprehensive
analysis and synthesis of existing legal literature, case laws, and scholarly works relevant to the topic
of blockchain technology and smart contracts. The study relies on a qualitative approach, utilizing
various secondary data sources to explore the legal implications, challenges, and opportunities
associated with these emerging technologies. The research process involves an extensive review
of academic literature, including books, peer-reviewed journals, legal publications, and online
resources. Additionally, relevant case studies, industry reports, and legal analyses from reputablesources are examined to gain insights into real-world applications and practical considerations.
The research methodology involves a critical analysis of the collected data, identifying emerging
themes, patterns, and legal challenges related to blockchain technology and smart contracts. The
study employs a comparative approach, contrasting traditional legal frameworks with the uniquecharacteristics and requirements of these decentralized systems.
Understanding Blockchain Technology
Blockchain technology is a, distributed digital ledger that records transactions across multiple
computers or nodes in a network. Each block in the chain contains a set of transactions, andonce validated and added to the chain, the data becomes immutable and tamper-resistant. Thisrevolutionary technology operates without a central authority or intermediary, relying instead ona consensus mechanism among network participants to validate and record transactions. It is asystem that, maintains a secure record of digital transactions without relying on the centralized
authority. The data recorded on a blockchain network is immutable which means it cannot bealtered or tampered with. This features makes blockchain a disruptive force for industries suchas finance, cybersecurity, and healthcare, where data integrity and transparency are fundamental.
A fundamental principle of blockchain technology is decentralization3. Unlike traditional
ledgers maintained by a central authority, no single entity controls a blockchain network. Instead,
it is a distributed digital ledger managed by a peer-to-peer network of nodes. These nodes canbe any electronic device connected to the network, responsible for maintaining a copy of the3

Refers to the transfer of control and decision-making from a centralized entity (individual, organization,
or group thereof) to a distributed network.
187blockchain and ensuring its continued operation. For a new block of transactions to be added tothe blockchain, it must be validated & approved by a consensus mechanism involving multiple
nodes. This decentralized validation process ensures the integrity & immutability of the data
recorded on the blockchain. Since all transactions are transparent & publicly viewable, any attempt
to manipulate the data can be easily detected & prevented. Each participant in the blockchain
network is assigned a unique alphanumeric identifier that represents their digital identity andrecords their transactions. This combination of publicly available information and a system ofchecks & balances through distributed consensus creates an inherent security and trust mechanism
within the blockchain ecosystem. In essence, blockchain technology leverages decentralizationand cryptographic principles to establish a scalable system of trust without relying on a central
authority. By distributing the ledger across a network of nodes and requiring collective validation
for updates, blockchain enable secure, transparent, and tamper-resistant record-keeping, making
them valuable for applications that require data integrity and trustworthiness.
Core theme Principles of blockchain instrument:a) Decentralization: One of the key principles of blockchain is it is s decentralized in nature.
Unlike traditional centralized systems, blockchain networks operate without a single point ofcontrol or authority. Instead, they rely on a distributed network of nodes such as computersor devices that collectively validate and maintains the blockchain system. This decentralized
approach eliminates the need for intermediaries, enabling direct peer-to-peer transactions &interactions without the involvement of third parties.
b) Transparency: Blockchain technology promotes transparency by making all transactions on
the network visible to participants. Each node in the network maintains a copy of the entire
blockchain, allowing anyone to view the complete history of transactions. This transparency
fosters accountability and trust among network participants, as all activities are publicly
auditable and verifiable.
c) Immutability: Once a block of transactions is added to the blockchain, the data within
it becomes virtually immutable, meaning it cannot be altered or tampered with. This
immutability is achieved through the use of cryptographic hashing algorithms and consensus
mechanisms. Any attempt to modify data in an existing block would result in a mismatch
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with the subsequent blocks, making the tampering immediately detectable and preventing thealtered data from being accepted by the network.
d) Security: Blockchain technology employs advanced cryptographic techniques to ensure thesecurity, and integrity of transactions and data. One key security mechanism is the use of
cryptographic hashing algorithms, which create unique digital fingerprints for each blockof data. Any minor change in the data would result in a completely different hash, making it
easy to detect tampering. Additionally, digital signatures based on public-key cryptography
are used to authenticate transactions and prevent unauthorized modifications.
These core principles of decentralization, transparency, immutability, and security work together to createa secure, trustless, and tamper-resistant environment for recording and sharing data. By eliminating
the need for a central authority and enabling direct peer-to-peer interactions, blockchain technology
empowers participants to engage in secure and transparent transactions without relying on intermediaries.
Likewise some of the major features includes:
Blockchain technology exhibits several key characteristics that contribute to its potential for
disrupting traditional systems and processes:a) Distributed Ledger: At its core, a blockchain is a distributed digital ledger that is maintained
and replicated across a network of interconnected nodes or computers. Instead of relying ona central authority to manage the ledger, the responsibility is shared among the participating
nodes. This distributed nature ensures data redundancy, as each node holds a copy of the entire
blockchain, eliminating single points of failure. If one node fails or becomes compromised,
the remaining nodes can continue to operate and maintain the integrity of the ledger.
b) Consensus Mechanism: In a decentralized network, reaching agreement on the state of
the ledger is crucial. Blockchain networks employ consensus mechanisms, such as Proofof Work (PoW)4 or Proof of Stake (PoS)5, to ensure that all nodes agree on the validity
4

Proof of Work (PoW) is the original consensus algorithm used by Bitcoin and other older cryptocurrencies.
It requires miners to compete in solving complex mathematical puzzles using computational power. The firstminer to solve the puzzle gets to add the new block to the blockchain and receives a block reward in the form ofcryptocurrency. PoW is a proven and robust consensus mechanism but is less energy-efficient and more costly
due to the high energy consumption required for mining. PoW is designed to prevent centralization by making
it difficult for any single entity to control the mining process. However, as the value of a cryptocurrency grows,
more miners are incentivized to join the network, which can lead to increased centralization.

5

Proof of Stake (PoS) is a more recent consensus algorithm used by newer cryptocurrencies such as Ethereum
2.0, Cardano, and Tezos. It selects validators based on the amount of cryptocurrency they hold and are willingto "stake" as collateral. Validators are chosen rand omly, but those with a larger stake have a higher chance ofbeing selected. PoS is more energy-efficient and cost-effective than PoW since it does not require computational
power for mining. PoS is designed to encourage validators to act in the best interests of the network since theirstaked cryptocurrency can be lost if they validate fraudulent transactions. However, it can lead to centralization
since those with more significant stakes have a higher chance of being selected as validators.
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of transactions, and the order in which they are recorded. These mechanisms typicallyinvolve computational work or stake-based validation, preventing malicious actors frommanipulating the ledger and ensuring the network's continued operation and security.
c) Cryptographic Security: Blockchain technology heavily relies on cryptographic
techniques to secure transactions & maintain data integrity. Cryptographic hash functions,such as SHA-2566, are used to create unique digital fingerprints for each block of data,
ensuring that any modification to the data can be easily detected. Additionally, digital
signatures based on public-key cryptography are employed to authenticate transactions
and prevent unauthorized alterations, providing a robust security layer.
d) Pseudonymity: While transactions on the blockchain are transparent and publicly visible,
the identities of participants are represented by pseudonymous addresses, which arestrings of alphanumeric characters. This Pseudonymity provides a degree of privacy andanonymity, as the real-world identities of participants are not directly associated with theirblockchain addresses. However, it's important to note that advanced analytical techniquesand external data sources can potentially be used to link blockchain addresses to real-world
identities in some cases.
Types of Blockchain Networks:
Blockchain networks can be categorized into three main types:a) Public Blockchains: Public blockchains are open, decentralized networks where anyone
can participate without requiring permission from a central authority. These permissionless
networks operate on the principles of transparency and inclusivity, allowing anyone tojoin, access the ledger, and validate transactions. One of the most well-known examples
of a public blockchain is Bitcoin. Bitcoin's blockchain is an open, distributed ledger thatrecords all transactions in the Bitcoin network. Anyone with an internet connection, and6

SHA-256 is a cryptographic hash function that generates a 256-bit signature for a text, used in Bitcoin
proof-of-work (PoW) and other encryption protocols such as SSL, TLS, SSH, and open source operating
systems like Unix/Linux.

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the necessary computing power can become a node, participate in the validation process(mining), and contribute to the maintenance and security of the network. Another prominent
example is Ethereum, a public blockchain platform that supports the execution of smart
contracts and decentralized applications (dApps). Like Bitcoin, Ethereum's blockchain is
open and permissionless, allowing anyone to join the network, validate transactions, andparticipate in the consensus process. Public blockchains rely on consensus mechanisms
like Proof of Work (PoW) or Proof of Stake (PoS) to validate transactions and maintain the
integrity of the distributed ledger. These mechanisms incentivize participants (miners orvalidators) to contribute their computational resources or stake, respectively, to secure the
network, and earn rewards.
b) Private Blockchains: In contrast to public blockchains, private blockchains are
permissioned networks controlled by a single organization or entity. Access to these
networks is restricted, and participants must be granted explicit permission to join andinteract with the blockchain. Private Blockchains are often deployed in enterprise settingsor within organizations that require a higher level of control and privacy. For example,
a banking consortium might implement a private blockchain to facilitate secure andefficient transactions among its members while maintaining strict access controls. One
example of a private blockchain is Hyperledger Fabric, an open-source enterprise-grade
permissioned blockchain framework hosted by the Linux Foundation7. Hyperledger
Fabric allows organizations to build & deploy private blockchain networks tailored to their
specific needs, with control over participant identities, data privacy, and governance rules.
Unlike public blockchains, private blockchains typically do not rely on energy-intensive
consensus mechanisms like PoW or PoS. Instead, they may employ more efficient consensus
algorithms, such as Practical Byzantine Fault Tolerance (PBFT) or Raft, which are better
suited for smaller, controlled networks.
c) Consortium Blockchains: Consortium blockchains represent a hybrid approach,combining elements of both public and private blockchains. These networks are governedby a group of organizations or entities, known as a consortium, that collaboratively control
and manage the blockchain. In a consortium blockchain, the participating organizations
establish predefined rules and governance structures, determining who can join the network,
validate transactions, and contribute to the consensus process. However, unlike private
blockchains, consortium blockchains are typically more decentralized, with multiple
organizations sharing control and responsibility. One example of a consortium blockchain
is the R3 Corda platform, which is designed for financial institutions and businesses to

7

Amazon Web Services. (n.d.). What is Hyperledger Fabric? Retrieved from https://aws.amazon.com/
blockchain/what-is-hyperledger-fabric/. ( Accessed on 29 February 2024).
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build and operate secure and efficient blockchain-based applications8. Corda allows theformation of consortiums, where participating organizations can collaborate, share data, andtransact with each other within a controlled and regulated environment. Another example
is the Energy Web Foundation's Energy Web Chain, a consortium blockchain tailored forthe energy sector. It enables energy companies, grid operators, and other stakeholders
to collaborate and develop decentralized applications for energy trading, supply chain
management, and other use cases within the energy industry. Consortium blockchainsstrike a balance between the decentralization and transparency of public blockchains
and the control and privacy offered by private blockchains. They allow organizations toleverage the benefits of blockchain technology while maintaining a degree of centralized
governance and oversight within a trusted network of participants.
Each type of blockchain network has its own strengths, weaknesses, and use cases, making it
essential for organizations and legal entities to carefully evaluate their specific requirements
before adopting a particular blockchain solution.
Smart Contracts: Automating Agreements
Smart contracts are often used to initiate the execution of the contract so that all participants
know the outcome immediately, without the involvement of intermediaries or wasting time. They
can also automate tasks by triggering the next action when certain conditions are met. Smartcontracts are self-executing digital contracts built on blockchain technology. Smart contracts
work by following simple “if/when…then…” statements written in online code. A computer
network is activated when certain conditions are met and verified. These actions may include
giving money to a designated person, registering a vehicle, sending a notice, or issuing a ticket.
Then the block is updated when the action is completed. This means that transactions cannot be
modified and only authorized parties can access the results. In a smart contract, many things may
be required to convince participants that the task will be completed successfully. To recognize
these terms, participants must be aware of how their activities and information are viewed online,
agree to the “if/when…then…” rules that apply to these transactions, find out what the problem
is, and explain how to resolve disputes. They are essentially computer programs designed toautomatically enforce the terms and conditions of an agreement once predefined conditions are
met. Smart contracts operate on a decentralized blockchain network, eliminating the need forintermediaries and enabling trustless transactions between parties.
The functioning of smart contracts can be summarized as follows:a) Agreement Terms: The foundation of a smart contract is the agreement or set of rulesthat govern a particular transaction or interaction. These terms and conditions are encoded

8

BBChain. (n.d.). What is R3 Corda and How it Works. Retrieved from https://www.bbchain.com.br/en/
blockchain-blog/what-is-r3-corda-and-how-it-works. ( Accessed on 29 February 2024).

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into the smart contract as a series of programmable instructions and conditions. The
contract's code defines the specific actions to be taken, the conditions that must be met for
those actions to be triggered, and the rules for validating, and executing the terms of theagreement.
b) Deployment: Once the smart contract's code is written and thoroughly tested, it isdeployed onto a blockchain network. This deployment process involves uploading thecontract's code to the blockchain, where it becomes an immutable and transparent part ofthe distributed ledger. At this point, the smart contract is accessible to all participants in the
network, and its execution can be initiated by any party meeting the predefined conditions.
c) Execution: When the conditions specified in the smart contract are met, the contract
automatically executes its programmed instructions. This execution process is triggered
without the need for human intervention or intermediaries. For example, in a smart
contract for a real estate transaction, the transfer of ownership and payment could be
automatically executed once the specified conditions, such as verification of funds anddocument signings, are fulfilled. The execution of smart contracts is facilitated by thedecentralized network of nodes that make up the blockchain. These nodes validate thecontract's execution, ensuring that the conditions have been met and the actions takenalign with the programmed rules. This validation process is governed by the consensus
mechanism of the underlying blockchain, ensuring the integrity and consistency of theexecuted transactions.
d) Immutability: Once a smart contract has been executed, and its actions have been recordedon the blockchain, the resulting transactions and state changes become immutable. Thismeans that the data and events recorded on the blockchain cannot be altered or tampered
with, providing a permanent and transparent audit trail. The immutability of smart contract
executions is a direct result of the blockchains cryptographic principles and distributed
consensus mechanisms. Any attempt to modify the recorded data would be immediately
detected and rejected by the network, as it would conflict with the existing records
maintained by the majority of nodes
Benefits of Smart Contracts:
Smart contracts offer several potential benefits over traditional legal agreements, enabling
automation, transparency, and trust in various transactions and processes. Here are some examples
that illustrate these benefits:a. Automation and Efficiency
In the insurance industry, smart contracts can automate claims processing and payouts basedon predefined conditions. For instance, if a natural disaster occurs in a specific location,
the smart contract can automatically trigger insurance payouts to affected policyholders,eliminating the need for manual claims processing and reducing delays.
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b. Transparency and TrustIn supply chain management, smart contracts can provide transparency and traceability
by recording each step of the supply chain process on the blockchain. This allows parties
involved, such as manufacturers, suppliers, and retailers, to verify the authenticity of
products, track their movement, and ensure compliance with regulations or quality
standards.
c. Reduced Disputes
In real estate transactions, smart contracts can encode the terms of the agreement,
including ownership transfer, payment schedules, and contingencies. By automating theexecution of these terms based on predefined conditions, the risk of disputes arising frommisunderstandings or delays is significantly reduced.
d. Immutability and Tamper-ResistanceIn the financial sector, smart contracts can be used for securities trading, enabling
automatic settlement and ownership transfer once the agreed-upon conditions are met.
The immutability and tamper-resistance of blockchain transactions provide a secure andreliable record of these financial transactions, reducing the risk of fraud or manipulation.
e. Interoperability
In the Internet of Things (IoT) domain, smart contracts can facilitate machine-to-machineinteractions and automate processes based on data received from connected devices. For
example, a smart contract could automatically initiate payment to a service provider oncea certain number of sensor readings or usage metrics are recorded on the blockchain. One
real-world example of a smart contract implementation is the Ethereum-based platform
Etherbox, which enables the creation and execution of smart contracts for various use
cases, such as crowdfunding, voting systems, and decentralized applications (dApps).
Another example is the Hyperledger Burrow project, which provides a permissioned
Ethereum-based blockchain platform for enterprise applications9. Companies like IBM andIntel have utilized Hyperledger Burrow to develop and deploy smart contracts for supply
chain management, trade finance, and other business-to-business processes. As blockchain
technology continues to evolve and gain adoption, the use cases, and applications of smart
contracts are expected to grow, offering new opportunities for automation, transparency,
and trust across various industries and sectors. Smart contracts have some problems. First,
they can have mistaken in their code, like computer programs often do. This means they
can be exploited or not work correctly. Second, they need outside data to work sometimes,
which can cause issues if that data is wrong or manipulated. Third, once a smart contract
9

Hyperledger. (2019, October 8). Burrow: The Boring Blockchain. Retrieved from https://www.
hyperledger.org/blog/2019/10/08/burrow-the-boring-blockchain ( Accessed on 29 February 2024).

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is set up, it's hard to change it. This means if you need to update it, you might have to startover. Fourth, it's not clear if smart contracts are legally enforceable in some places, so theymight not hold up in court. Lastly, when lots of people use smart contracts at the same time,
the system might slow down, making them less efficient.
Legal Implications of Blockchain and Smart Contracts
The integration of blockchain technology and smart contracts into legal processes and frameworks
has far-reaching implications across various domains, including contract law, property rights,
dispute resolution, and regulatory frameworks.
Contract Law
The immutable and self-executing nature of smart contracts challenges traditional contract law
principles and raises questions about their legal validity, interpretation and enforcement.
•

Formation and Validity: Smart contracts may not conform to traditional contract
formation requirements, such as offer, acceptance, and consideration, raising concerns
about their legal recognition.

•

Interpretation and Ambiguity: While smart contracts aim to eliminate ambiguity byencoding the terms into code, interpretation challenges may arise due to the complexity oflegal agreements and the potential for coding errors.

•

Enforceability and Remedies: The decentralized and cross-border nature of blockchain
networks raises questions about jurisdiction, applicable laws, and the enforceability ofsmart contract terms in traditional legal systems.

•

Contractual Amendments and Termination: The immutability of smart contracts makes
it challenging to modify or terminate the agreement once deployed, potentially leading toinflexibility and disputes.

Property Rights and Ownership
Blockchain technology has the potential to change how property rights and ownership aremanaged. It offers new ways to record, manage, and transfer ownership, which brings both
opportunities and challenges for the legal system. For instance, it allows for the representationand transfer of ownership of digital assets like cryptocurrencies and NFTs. However, this raises
questions about their legal status, and how they're protected. Moreover, blockchain-based
land and the property registries could offer a secure and transparent way to record ownership,potentially reducing fraud, and the disputes in property transactions. Additionally, it could help
protect intellectual property rights by creating tamper-proof records of ownership and licensing
agreements. Yet, there are regulatory challenges due to the global nature of blockchain networks
and digital assets, challenging traditional jurisdictional boundaries and regulatory frameworks,
which call for international cooperation and harmonization.
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Dispute Resolution
Blockchain technology's transparent & unchangeable nature brings both opportunities andchallenges to dispute resolution in the legal realm. For instance, disputes may arise due tocoding mistakes, unclear terms in smart contracts, or unforeseen events, necessitating legal
involvement and the creation of new dispute resolution methods. The concept of on-chain
arbitration is emerging, where disputes are settled via decentralized and transparent processes on
the blockchain, offering an alternative to traditional court systems. Additionally, the immutabletransaction record on the blockchain can serve as dependable evidence in legal matters, enhancing
transparency and reducing disputes over data accuracy. However, the global aspect of blockchain
networks presents difficulties in enforcing legal decisions across borders, requiring international
collaboration and the alignment of legal frameworks.
Legal Challenges and Considerations
While blockchain technology and smart contracts offer numerous potential benefits, they alsopresent several legal challenges, and considerations that must be addressed to ensure theireffective integration and an adoption within the legal framework. One of the most significant
legal challenges posed by blockchain technology, and smart contracts is the issue of jurisdictionand enforceability. The decentralized with a cross-border nature of blockchain networks raises
questions about which legal jurisdiction applies to transactions, and disputes involving smart
contracts.
•

Jurisdiction Conflicts: With participants potentially located in different countries orjurisdictions, determining the applicable laws and legal frameworks can be complex andsubject to conflicts.

•

Enforceability of Smart Contracts: The legal status and enforceability of smart contracts
are still unclear in many jurisdictions, raising questions about their validity and recognitionin traditional court systems.

•

Cross-Border Cooperation: Effective enforcement of smart contracts and blockchainbased transactions may require international cooperation, and harmonization of legal
frameworks to ensure consistent treatment across jurisdictions.

•

Choice of Law and Jurisdiction Clauses: Parties involved in smart contracts may need to
explicitly agree on choice of law and jurisdiction clauses to mitigate potential conflicts andensure enforceability.

Data Privacy and Security
While blockchain technology offers enhanced transparency and immutability, it also raises
concerns regarding data privacy and security, particularly in the context of personal and sensitive
information.
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• Data Privacy Regulations: Existing data privacy regulations, such as the General Data
Protection Regulation (GDPR) in the European Union, may pose challenges for blockchainbased systems due to their transparent & immutable nature.
• Pseudonymity and Anonymity: While blockchain networks provide a degree of
Pseudonymity, there are concerns about the potential for de-anonymization, and the ability
to link blockchain addresses to real-world identities.
• Cybersecurity Risks: Like any digital system, blockchain networks and smart contracts
are susceptible to cyber threats, such as hacking attempts, malware, and other security
breaches, which could compromise data integrity and user privacy.
• Data Protection Measures: Implementing robust data protection measures, such as
encryption, access controls, and secure key management, is crucial to safeguard sensitive
information on blockchain networks.
Regulatory Compliance
As blockchain technology and smart contracts gain wider adoption, ensuring compliance withexisting, and an emerging regulations becomes a critical consideration for legal professionals andorganizations.
•

Financial Regulations: In the financial sector, blockchain-based systems and digital assets
may be subject to regulations related to anti-money laundering (AML), counter-terrorism
financing (CTF), and know-your-customer (KYC) requirements.

•

Industry-Specific Regulations: Various industries, such as healthcare, energy, andtransportation, may have specific regulations governing the use of blockchain technology
and smart contracts in their respective domains.

•

Regulatory Sand boxes: Many jurisdictions are exploring the use of regulatory sand boxes,
which provide a controlled environment for testing and experimenting with blockchainbased solutions while ensuring compliance with relevant regulations.

•

Proactive Engagement with Regulators: Legal professionals and organizations should
proactively engage with regulatory bodies to stay informed about emerging regulations andcontribute to the development of appropriate legal frameworks.

Interoperability and Standardization
To unlock the full potential of blockchain technology and smart contracts, addressing issues
related to interoperability and standardization is necessary.
•

Blockchain Interoperability: Different blockchain networks often operate independently,
with limited or no communication between them. Achieving interoperability across various
blockchain platforms is essential for seamless data exchange & cross-chain transactions.

197

•

Smart Contract Standards: The lack of widely adopted standards for smart contractdevelopment, deployment, and execution can lead to compatibility issues and hinder thewidespread adoption of smart contracts across different platforms and use cases.

•

Industry Standards and Best Practices: Establishing industry-specific standards andbest practices for the implementation of blockchain technology and smart contracts canfacilitate consistent and secure adoption within specific sectors.

•

Collaborative Efforts: Interoperability and standardization efforts require collaboration
among technology providers, legal professionals, industry bodies, and regulatory authorities
to establish common frameworks and guidelines.

Opportunities for the Legal Sector
Blockchain technology and smart contracts pose challenges to the legal sector, but they also present
numerous opportunities to enhance efficiency, transparency, and trust in legal processes. The
automation and immutability of smart contracts can streamline various legal processes, leading to cost
reduction, error minimization, and increased efficiency. Smart contracts have the potential to automate
the creation, execution, and management of legal agreements, thereby decreasing the need for manualintervention and mitigating the risk of errors. Furthermore, blockchain-based systems can offer secureand tamper-proof records, facilitating efficient due diligence processes and ensuring compliancewith regulatory requirements. In terms of intellectual property management, blockchain technology
can aid in protecting and managing intellectual property rights by enabling secure and transparent
record-keeping of ownership, licensing and royalty payments. The immutable and transparent natureof blockchain networks can enhance the management and validation of legal documents, reducing therisk of tampering and ensuring data integrity. Moreover, the inherent transparency and immutability ofblockchain technology can foster greater trust and accountability in legal processes and transactions.
Blockchain-based systems provide an immutable audit trail, allowing stakeholders to verify theauthenticity and provenance of legal documents and transactions. Additionally, blockchain records'
transparent and tamper-proof nature can assist in dispute resolution by providing a reliable source ofevidence, and reducing the risk of data manipulation. Furthermore, blockchain-based land registries
and public record systems can increase transparency, reduce fraud, and enhance trust in property
ownership and transactions. Lastly, by leveraging blockchain technology, legal professionals canensure transparency and accountability throughout supply chains, enabling the tracking of goods,
contracts, and compliance with regulatory requirements.
Smart Contract Implementation
Smart contracts offer numerous applications within the legal domain, enabling the automationand enforcement of various legal agreements and processes.
•

Contract Execution and Enforcement: Smart contracts can automate the execution andenforcement of contractual terms, reducing the need for manual oversight and minimizing
the risk of disputes.

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•

Escrow and Conditional Payments: Smart contracts can facilitate secure and automated escrowservices, enabling conditional payments and asset transfers based on predefined conditions.

•

Derivative and Financial Instruments: The programmable nature of smart contracts
allows for the creation and execution of complex financial instruments and derivatives,
enabling greater efficiency and transparency in financial transactions.

•

Decentralized Autonomous Organizations (DAOs): Smart contracts can facilitate thecreation and operation of decentralized autonomous organizations (DAOs), enabling novel
governance models and decision-making processes within legal entities.

Intellectual Property Protection
Blockchain technology offers unique opportunities for protecting, and managing intellectual
property rights, addressing challenges faced by traditional systems.
• Timestamping and Provenance: Blockchain networks can provide a tamper-proof recordof when intellectual property assets were created, establishing provenance and supporting
claims of ownership.
• Digital Rights Management: Smart contracts can automate the management andenforcement of digital rights, enabling secure and transparent licensing agreements androyalty payments.
• Anti-Counterfeiting: Blockchain-based systems can assist in combating counterfeiting by
providing secure and immutable records of product authenticity and ownership.
• Patent and Trademark Registry: Blockchain-based registries can enhance thetransparency and efficiency of patent and trademark registration processes, reducing therisk of disputes and infringement.
Real-World Applications and Case Studies
The potential applications of blockchain technology and smart contracts span various industries and sectors,
offering innovative solutions to longstanding challenges. This section explores real-world applications &case studies that illustrate the practical implementation and benefits of these transformative technologies.
Supply Chain Management
Supply chain management is one of the most promising areas for the adoption of blockchain
technology and smart contracts, addressing issues such as transparency, traceability and efficiency.
Case Study:a. IBM Food Trust
IBM Food Trust is a blockchain-based platform designed to enhance transparency,
traceability, and food safety in the global supply chain. The platform enables safer food,longer product shelf lives, reduced waste, faster traceability, and better access to shared199

information10. It provides authorized users with immediate access to actionable food supply
chain data from farm to store and ultimately the consumer. The complete history and current
location of any food item along with its accompanying information (i.e. certifications, test
data, temperature data) can be readily available in seconds11. The IBM Food Trust solution
combines supply chain-specific modules with blockchain core functions, built on top of
IBM Blockchain Platform built on the open standard Hyperledger Fabric12.
b. HM Land Registry (UK)The HM Land Registry in the United Kingdom has been exploring the use of blockchain
technology to digitize and secure land registry records. In collaboration with blockchain
firms, the agency has conducted pilot projects to test the feasibility and potential benefitsof implementing a blockchain-based land registry system. The HM Land Registry has
partnered with software company Methods, who will utilize R3’s blockchain platform,
Corda, for the second phase of their groundbreaking research and development project,
Digital Street13.
c. MediLedger Network
The MediLedger Network is a blockchain-based platform designed to enhance the supply
chain integrity and traceability of pharmaceutical products. The platform leverages blockchain
technology to create an immutable, and transparent record of drug pedigrees, enabling
stakeholders to verify the authenticity and provenance of medications. The MediLedger
Network is a private permissioned blockchain-based network for the healthcare industry,where participants have a copy of the blockchain data and the rules being enforced onthat data. The network uses zero-knowledge proofs to facilitate business rule enforcement
while maintaining complete data privacy. This means that contract updates, chargebacks,
and other sensitive data are not published directly on the blockchain, instead business rules
are enforced against cryptographic proofs of the data, published on the blockchain insteadof the data itself. The MediLedger Network is used for data alignment, validation andtransaction settlement between trading partners in the life sciences industry. The network
actually utilizes transaction-related data like contracts, customers, and products that areshared through the network to enforce configurable business rules on transactions for each10IBM. (n.d.). Hyperledger Fabric for Developers: A comprehensive tutorial [PDF]. Retrieved fromhttps://www.ibm.com/downloads/cas/8QABQBDR ( Accessed on 29 February 2024).

11

Ibid

12

Delaune. (n.d.). Delaune Blockchain Food Trust [Brochure]. Retrieved from https://delaune.com/Awards/
Delaune_Blockchain_Food_Trust_eBrochure.pdf ( Accessed on 29 February 2024).

13

GOV.UK. (n.d.). HM Land Registry to explore the benefits of blockchain. Retrieved from https://www.gov.
uk/government/news/hm-land-registry-to-explore-the-benefits-of-blockchain ( Accessed on 29 February2024).

200 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

participant, enabling industry level automation and trust. The MediLedger Network has
expand ed the Contracts and Chargebacks solution from the pharmaceutical industry to
the life sciences industry, enabling manufacturers to comply with regulations, improveindustry collaboration around product transfers of ownership, and reduce compliance risk.
The MediLedger Network is the leading life sciences industry network that runs solutions
for data alignment, validation and transaction settlement between trading partners. The
network actually utilizes transaction-related data like contracts, customers, and productsthat are shared through the network to enforce configurable business rules on transactions
for each participant, enabling industry level automation and trust. The MediLedger
Network is used by pharmaceutical manufacturers, wholesalers, and dispensers to verify
the authenticity and provenance of medications, and to comply with regulations such as theDrug Supply Chain Security Act (DSCSA) in the United States14.
Strategies for Legal Professionals and Policymakers
As blockchain technology and smart contracts continue to gain traction, it is imperative for legal
professionals and policymakers to adopt strategic approaches to navigate this rapidly evolving
land scape effectively.
Legal Education and Upskilling
To effectively leverage the potential of blockchain technology and smart contracts, legal
professionals must acquire the necessary knowledge and skills to understand, and navigate thisemerging field.
• Curriculum Development: Law schools and legal education institutions should incorporate
blockchain technology, smart contracts, and related topics into their curricula, ensuring that
future legal professionals are equipped with the relevant knowledge and skills.
• Continuing Legal Education: Existing legal professionals should actively pursue
continuing legal education opportunities, such as seminars, workshops, & online courses,
to stay up-to-date with the latest developments in blockchain & smart contract applications.
• Interdisciplinary Collaboration: Legal professionals should seek opportunities tocollaborate with technology experts, blockchain developers, & professionals from otherrelevant fields to gain practical insights & foster a deeper understanding of the technicalaspects of these technologies.
• Professional Associations and the Networks: Joining professional associations andnetworks focused on blockchain technology and legal innovation can provide valuable
resources, networking opportunities, and access to industry best practices.
14

MediLedger. (n.d.). FAQ. Retrieved from https://www.mediledger.com/faq (Accessed on 29 February2024).
201

Regulatory Frameworks and Governance
Policymakers as well as regulatory bodies play a crucial role in establishing appropriate legal andregulatory frameworks to govern the use of blockchain technology and smart contracts, while
also fostering innovation.
• Adaptive Regulatory Approaches: Instead of imposing rigid regulations, policymakers
should adopt adaptive and flexible regulatory approaches that can evolve with the rapid
pace of technological advancements in the blockchain space.
• Regulatory Sand boxes and Innovation Hubs: Establishing regulatory sand boxes andinnovation hubs can provide controlled environments for businesses and legal entities
to test and experiment with blockchain-based solutions while ensuring compliance with
relevant regulations.
• International Cooperation and Harmonization: Given the global nature of blockchain
networks, policymakers should prioritize international cooperation and work towards
harmonizing legal frameworks and regulations across jurisdictions.
• Public-Private Collaboration: Policymakers should actively engage with industry
stakeholders, legal professionals, and technology experts to gain insights, address concerns,
and develop comprehensive regulatory frameworks that balance innovation and risk
mitigation.
Cross-Border Collaboration
The decentralized with the global nature of blockchain networks necessitates cross-bordercollaboration among legal professionals, policymakers, and the industry stakeholders to address
challenges related to jurisdiction, enforceability, and regulatory compliance.
•

International Legal Frameworks: Efforts should be made to establish international legal
frameworks and agreements to govern cross-border transactions and disputes involving
blockchain technology and smart contracts.

•

Mutual Legal Assistance Treaties (MLATs): Existing MLATs should be reviewed andupdated to accommodate the unique challenges posed by blockchain-based systems,
enabling effective cooperation and information sharing among jurisdictions.

•

Industry Standards and Best Practices: Legal professionals and industry bodies shouldcollaborate to develop industry-specific standards and best practices for the implementation
and use of blockchain technology and smart contracts across borders.

•

Knowledge Sharing and Capacity Building: Legal professionals from different
jurisdictions should actively engage in knowledge sharing and capacity building initiatives
to foster a global understanding of the legal implications and opportunities related toblockchain and smart contracts.

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Ethical Considerations
As the blockchain technology which is a decentralized system, and the smart contracts whichis the modern form of contracts are continue to rise and gain wider adoption, it is necessary toaddress ethical considerations and ensure that these technologies are developed, and deployed ina responsible and ethical manner.
• Data Privacy and Digital Rights: Legal professionals and policymakers should prioritize
the protection of data privacy and digital rights, ensuring that blockchain-based systems andsmart contracts comply with relevant data protection regulations and privacy principles.
• Algorithmic Bias and Fairness: The potential for algorithmic bias and unfairness insmart contract code must be recognized and addressed, with measures in place to ensuretransparency, accountability, and fairness in decision-making processes.
• Inclusive Governance: The development and governance of blockchain networks andsmart contract frameworks should be inclusive, incorporating diverse perspectives andstakeholder inputs to ensure equitable representation and decision-making.
• Ethical Frameworks and Guidelines: Legal professionals, technology experts, andethicists should collaborate to develop ethical frameworks and guidelines for the responsible
development and deployment of blockchain technology and smart contracts, addressing
issues such as transparency, accountability, and social impact.
Conclusion
Rise of blockchain technology and the rise of smart contracts represents a transformative shift in
how transactions, agreements, and the legal processes are performed and recorded. While these
innovations present numerous challenges and the complexities, they also offer opportunities forenhancing efficiency, transparency, and the trust within the legal domain of legal system. As thisarticle has explored both the legal implications and the opportunities arising from the blockchain
and from the smart contracts which span various areas, including such as contract law, property
rights, dispute resolution, and the regulatory frameworks. Legal professionals, policymakers, andthe businesses must actively engage with these technologies, addressing the legal challenges andthe considerations while harnessing their potential benefits. Effective strategies, such as legal
education and up- skilling, adaptive regulatory frameworks, cross-border collaboration, andaddressing ethical considerations, are important to consider for navigating this rapidly evolving
land scape. Observing these strategies and system, the legal professionals and the policymakers
can contribute to the responsible development and the adoption of blockchain technology andthe smart contracts, expansion innovation while mitigating risks and ensuring legal certainty.
The real-world applications with the case studies which are presented in this article demonstrate
the practical implementations and benefits of blockchain and the smart contracts across various
industries, including supply chain management, real estate, financial services, and the healthcare.
Similarly this applications underscore the transformative potential of these technologies in203

addressing longstanding challenges and driving efficiency, transparency, and trust continues
evolve of world, and to embrace digital transformation, the blockchain technology and thesmart contracts will undoubtedly play a critical role in shaping the future of legal frameworks
and the legal processes. Remaining informed, embracing change, and actively participating in
the development of this emerging field, legal professionals and the policymakers can position
themselves at the forefront of this technological revolution, contributing to the creation of a moresecure, transparent and an efficient legal ecosystem.
Key Findings•

Blockchain and smart contracts have far-reaching implications across various legal domains,
including contract law, property rights, dispute resolution, and regulatory frameworks.

•

While offering benefits like automation, immutability, and trustless transactions, they also
raise critical issues around jurisdiction conflicts, data privacy, regulatory compliance, andcross-border harmonization.

•

Strategies are needed for legal professionals and policymakers to effectively navigate thisevolving landscape, such as legal education, adaptive regulatory approaches, international
collaboration, and addressing ethical concerns.

•

Substantial opportunities exist for streamlining legal processes, enhancing intellectual
property protection, fostering transparency and accountability within legal and corporate
ecosystems.

Implications•

Legal frameworks and regulations must continually adapt and evolve to accommodate therapid advancements in blockchain and smart contract technologies.

•

International cooperation and harmonization of legal frameworks are crucial to address theglobal nature of blockchain networks and ensure consistent treatment across jurisdictions.

•

Responsible and ethical integration of these technologies is imperative to mitigate risks
while driving innovation, necessitating proactive engagement from legal professionals,
policymakers, and stakeholders.

Future Research Potentialities• Conducting in-depth case studies and empirical research on the practical implementationand impact of blockchain and smart contracts across various legal domains and industries.
• Exploring the development of specialized legal frameworks and dispute resolution
mechanisms tailored for blockchain-based transactions and smart contracts.
• Investigating the interplay between emerging technologies (such as artificial intelligence, Internetof Things) and blockchain/smart contracts, and their combined impact on the legal landscape.
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• Examining the long-term societal and economic implications of widespread adoption ofblockchain and smart contract technologies, and their role in shaping future legal andgovernance systems.
• Continuous monitoring and analysis of regulatory developments, legal precedents, and bestpractices as the integration of these technologies progresses globally.
As the digital age continues to evolve, blockchain technology and smart contracts willundoubtedly play a critical role in shaping the future of legal frameworks and processes. By
remaining informed, embracing change, and actively participating in the development of thisemerging field, legal professionals and policymakers can position themselves at the forefrontof this technological revolution, contributing to the creation of a more secure, transparent, andefficient legal ecosystem.
References
Antonopoulos, A. M. (2017). Mastering Bitcoin: Programming the open blockchain (2nd ed.).
O'Reilly Media, Inc.
Burniske, C., & Tatar, J. (2017). Cryptoassets: The innovative investor's guide to Bitcoin andbeyond. McGraw Hill Professional.
Chavez-Dreyfuss, G. (2018). Blockchain revolution: How the technology behind Bitcoin ischanging money, business, and the world. Portfolio.
De Filippi, P., & Wright, D. (2018). The legal challenges of smart contracts. SSRN Electronic
Journal doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3140457
Di Francesco, G., Ferrandina, E., & Russo, A. M. (2017). Enhancing legal agreements with selfenforcing smart contracts. SSRN Electronic Journal doi: 10.2139/ssrn.3020402
Taherdoost, H. (2020). Smart contracts in blockchain technology: A critical review. Electronics,
9(12), 2192. doi: 10.3390/electronics9122192
Wang, Z., Xu, Y., Li, M., & Tian, Y. (2019). Blockchain smart contracts: Applications, challenges,
and future trends. Blockchain, Robotics and Internet of Things (CCBR/ROBOTI), 2019
5th International Conference on. IEEE doi: 10.1109/CCBR-ROBOTI.2019.8918333

205

Level of Satisfaction Among Patients Attending Tribhuvan
University Ayurveda Teaching Hospital
Nirmal Bhusal*
Abstract
Tribhuvan University Ayurveda Teaching Hospital having its own infrastructure and specialty
Ayurveda treatments like Panchakarma, Ksharasutra, geriatric services has not been recognizedthat much extent as tertiary referral Ayurveda Teaching Hospital for various reasons. Thishas created difficulties for clinical exposure to the students and also the resources are notappropriately utilized. There may be various reasons but the patient satisfaction is also anindicator for quality of health care. The study was planned with the objectives to find out thesatisfaction level among patients towards services offered at Tribhuvan University Ayurveda
Teaching Hospital. 150 Patients were interviewed using a structured questionnaire and Patient
Satisfaction Questionnaire (PSQ-18) composed of 18 items to collect data regarding patientsatisfaction. Patient satisfaction level was assessed and found satisfactory. The majority of the
respondents were satisfied with the cleanliness of the hospital, short waiting time, comfortablewaiting area and doctor’s explanation in terms of each medical test and medicines. If thegovernment invests sufficiently in the hospital, it can contribute not only in clinical learning andpatient management but also help in Ayurveda health tourism. Thus, the services range needs to
be increased for further effective Ayurveda hospital services to be rendered to the patients.
Keyword: Ayurveda Hospital, Panchakarma, Ksharasutra, Patient satisfaction.
Introduction
Ayurveda system of health care is the oldest and well-established indigenous health carepractices in Nepal. This system aims in bringing harmony between intrinsic and extrinsic factors
to preserve the health of healthy people to treat the diseases and sufferings. Ayurveda Health
Policy, 1995A.D. has the objectives of improving the health conditions of general population
by making them self-reliant in health services and utilizing local medicinal herbs and medical
entities (National Ayurveda Health Policy, 1996). According to the World Health Organization(WHO) traditional medicine strategy (2014–2023) mid-term review report (based on the
inputs from 179 countries) 88% of the 194 WHO member states have acknowledged the useof traditional and complementary medicine (WHO Global Report, 2019). In some Asian and
African countries, 80% of the population depends on traditional medicine for primary health* Assistant Professor, Department of Panchakarma, Ayurveda Campus and Ayurveda Teaching Hospital,
Kirtipur, Kathmandu, Nepal
bhusalnirmal7@gmail.com

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care (WHO Traditional Medicine, 2008). Ayurveda is widely practiced in South Asia, especiallyin Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan and Sri Lanka (WHO Traditional Medicine, 2001). In
Nepal, Department of Ayurveda and Alternative Medicine (DOAA) under the Ministry of Healthand Population through its extensive network of Ayurveda hospitals, Ayurveda health centre,
Ayurveda Aushadhalayas (dispensaries) and newly established Nagarik Arogya Kendra (citizen
well-being centre) all across the nation, have been providing preventive, promotive and curative
health services. Many people in Nepal depend on traditional medicine as there are more than 60
traditions concerning the treatment of illness and about 85% of the populations have depended
upon traditional medicine for their primary health care (Raut K.D.P, 2011). It has become a
tradition of Nepali society that first prefers home remedies for any kinds of ailments. Most ofthese home remedies are based on the principles, procedures and modes of Ayurveda system of
medicine. Over the last decade interest in traditional medicine has increased and seems likely tocontinue (Shankar et al., 2012).
Ayurveda campus is the leading institution in the production of competent professionals for
Ayurveda health care. It was established in 1972 A.D. as constituent campus of Tribhuvan
University under the Institute of Medicine. Tribhuvan University is running its own Ayurveda
Teaching Hospital since 2069 B.S. within the university premises. The hospital is providing
outpatient department (OPD), inpatient department (IPD) service along with special Ayurveda
services such as Panchakarma and Ksharsutra. Besides these regular services to patients, thehospital also facilitates clinical learning for undergraduate (UG) and postgraduate (PG) scholars.
There are also geriatric services supported by the Ministry of Health and Population. Ayurveda
hospital has been providing health care services but the number of patients visiting Ayurveda
hospital is very limited in comparison to allopathic teaching hospitals of different medicalcolleges.
Although having competent doctors and compliant patients, many times the problems persist
because of the policies, work culture and attitude shown by hospital staff (Prakash B, 2010). Noncommunicable diseases (NCDs) kill 41 million people each year, which is equivalent to 74%
of all deaths globally (WHO Fact sheet, 2023). Each year, 15 million people die from NCDs
between the ages of 30 and 69 years; over 85% of these "premature" deaths occur in low andmiddle-income countries. Despite having the huge potential in the prevention and managementof various diseases like lifestyle disorders and NCDs management, the number of patients andservices recipients is not increasing as expected in the hospital. Patient satisfaction is the measureof extent to which patients are happy with their healthcare services. Quality health care systemaims in providing safe, equitable, evidence based, timely, efficient and patient centered care
(National Academies Press US, 2001).
Data on patient satisfaction helps to plan an effective strategy to promote Ayurveda hospital
services. Tribhuvan University is supporting for the integration and mainstreaming of Ayurveda
Teaching Hospital. We are unable to get significant researches to assess the gaps and deficiencies
207

in relation to the various services provided by the hospital. In this context, it was essential to
study the services rendered by the hospital so as to learn about the lacunas and make suggestions
for the betterment. In this background, the study was planned with the objective to assess
satisfaction level among patients towards services offered at Tribhuvan University Ayurveda
Teaching Hospital, Kirtipur.
Material and Method
This is a descriptive cross-sectional study conducted at Tribhuvan University Ayurveda Teaching
Hospital, Kathmandu, Nepal in B.S. 2078 /79. 150 patients taking outpatient department (OPD)
and other services were included in the study. Patients with a history of at least two visits in thehospital in seeking service or consultation were eligible to participate in the study. Faculty, staff,
residents, interns and students of the Ayurveda Teaching Hospital and patients with their first
hospital visit for seeking service were excluded. Patients were interviewed using a structured
questionnaire and patient satisfaction questionnaire (PSQ-18) composed of 18 items to collectdata regarding patient satisfaction (National Academies Press US, 2001). Survey questionnaire
was filled on one to one interview basis individually with patients. Data was also obtained fromthe records of the Hospital. Patients unable to respond themselves due to illness, mental status
and age, responses were collected from attendant or guardian. Ethical approval was sought from
Institute of Medicine Institutional Review Committee (IOM-IRC) and consent was obtained
from the participants before commencing the study. The study was funded as mini research grantfrom Research Directorate Tribhuvan University.
Results and Discussion
In the survey, percentage of female patients visiting Ayurveda Teaching Hospital was 54% which
was more than male patients indicating the higher female patients visit this hospital in comparison to
male. The percentage of 30-45 years patient was 36% followed by 15-30 (28 %,). Only 2% of patients
below 15 years visit this hospital for treatment. It indicates lower patient numbers in pediatricage group. The highest percentage of patient with educational status graduate and postgraduate
was 36.6% followed by secondary education (Class 6- 12th /equivalent) 33.3%, indicating the
majority of educated patients visiting for hospital services. Ayurveda teaching hospital has been
providing different services and the most commonly utilized service by the patients was outpatient
department consultation for their problem. Among the different Kayachikitsa, Panchakarma,
Stree Prasuti, Shalakya, Swasthavritta and Kaumarbhritya OPD consultation the number ofrecipients varies among the OPDs and also within the same department OPD in respect withdifferent months. The other frequently utilized services are laboratory services, Panchakarma
and Ksharasutra services.
Majority of the patients didn’t experience any difficulties to reach the hospital indicating theappropriate location and easy access from road. 8% had confusion with National Ayurveda
Research and Training Centre and 4% were confused because of unavailability of sign posts
208 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

in different locations. 60% believed the usual procedure to get treatment in this hospital is First
Come First service while making acquaintance with paramedics to get fast service is 0% indicating
unbiased service for everyone. 52% experienced adequate cleanliness in hospital indicating thegood cleanliness. 56% patients rated the behavior and approach of medical and paramedical
staff in the Hospital extremely satisfactory. 88% experienced adequate waiting area and comfort
indicating the spacious waiting areas in hospital. Less number of patients in OPD and hospital
may be the reason to have available space seems to be adequate. 56% patients believe that there
is adequate provision to maintain privacy for female patients. 36% didn’t know and 8% believedthat there was no provision of appropriate privacy indicating the need to develop in needed areas.
20% of the patients experienced unavailability of changing rooms/pretreatment and post procedure
rest rooms, room for Panchakarma therapy. It indicates that there is urgent need for providing
such basic facilities in the hospital for the patients. 98.6% of the patients never experienced
any dispute or arguments. Only 1.3% had single incident of argument which shows that thereis good working environment in the hospital. Majority of the patients (60%) believed that theservice delivery was satisfactory. Only 4% responded the services as unsatisfactory. This might
be because of the unavailability of the services like radiology and appropriate indoor services.
96% of the patients agreed that the doctors were good enough in explaining the reasons for
medical tests which indicates the belief of the patients on the competency of the doctors. 76%
agreed that they can get the medical care they need without being set back financially whereas
12% were uncertain and remaining 12% felt the services might create financial burden for them.
This might be because of the cost of the Ayurveda medicines, the cost of procedures and theeconomic status of the patient. 24% agreed that they have to pay more for medical care than they
can afford. 84% agreed that they have easy access to the specialists they need for consultation
indicating the availability of the consultant in the hospital. 88% agreed that the doctors are very
friendly and of having courteous manner. 4% were uncertain and 12% agreed that they weredissatisfied with some things about the medical care they receive, they also found hard to get an
appointment for medical care when they seek which indicates the good satisfaction among theremaining 84% patients. The unavailability of the consultant doctors and also the hospital timing
might be the factors behind their dissatisfaction.
Majority of the patients 56% knew about Ayurveda Teaching Hospital and available services
from family and relatives indicating lack of awareness through mass communication regarding
hospital and available services. In majority of the cases 48% residents and interns were taking
the history and first enquiry to patients indicting the opportunities for residents and intern forlearning. None of the patients received treatments from under training students and paramedics
indicating the intern, residents and consultants providing the services. 44 % patients experienced
on average half an hour to one hour time to receive overall OPD consultation services in thehospital indicating availability of fast service in the hospital. Time taking activities like
Panchakarma and laboratory services take time as per the activity but service recipients do not209have to wait in queue. Majority of the patients (56%) experienced most time-consuming activity
as actual procedure and medicine purchasing indicating the need for fast service in those sections.
72.72% of patients returned back without receiving consultation or service once or more becauseof holiday or hospital service timing indicating the need for possible arrangements from the
management. Highest number of patients visiting hospital was in the year 2075/76 followed by
2074/75 and the lowest number of patients visiting hospital was in the year 2069/70. Highest
number of geriatric patients visiting hospital was in the year 2074/75 followed by 2075/76 andthe lowest number of patients visiting was in the year 2071/72.
Most of the references regarding service utilization and patient satisfaction focused on teamwork,
virtual teams and team’s use of technical tools, like information and communication technologies
to coordinate care (Van Houdt et al., 2013). General satisfaction, technical quality, interpersonalmanner, communication, financial aspects, time spent with doctor, accessibility and convenience
are factors that help to determine the quality of care and the patient satisfaction level (Marshallet al., 1994) in the hospital. Many studies have been done on patient satisfaction with medical
services however; only few studies have been done on patient satisfaction delivered by traditional
medicine, particularly Ayurveda. A study of service utilization and patient satisfaction among
patients attending state level AYUSH Hospital in Delhi was carried out in the outpatient department(OPD) of Ayurvedic and Unani Tibbia college, a state level AYUSH Hospital. This study was adescriptive cross-sectional survey, in which total 100 patients were studied (Naaz, 2019). A crosssectional descriptive study entitled - Assessment of patient satisfaction at Naradevi Ayurveda
hospital in Nepal was conducted with outpatient department services from patients attending the
OPD during February 2012. This study found that the majority of the participants (patients) weredissatisfied. The study suggested for health insurance scheme, quick services, and increasing
timing of OPD hours for better quality (Shrestha et al., 2012). A study on effectiveness, safety, andstandard of service delivery at a Panchakarma unit in a secondary care Ayurveda hospital was done
to identify the patient’s (actual recipients of Panchakarma) perception toward the effectiveness,safety, and standard of service delivery concerning Panchakarma through a structured survey ata pre-identified Panchakarma therapy unit in a secondary care Ayurveda hospital. The study may
help making guidelines more pragmatic and closer to the real-life situation that would further
help to identify the gaps between the “perceived” and the “practiced” standard of Panchakarma
procedures when the same evaluated in the light of set procedural standards as are elaborated
in classical texts of Ayurveda (Rastogi, 2011). Study for development of patient satisfaction
questionnaire for Ayurveda Teaching Hospitals suggested that the questionnaire may becomea useful tool to assess quality of health care in Ayurveda hospital (Deepa et al., 2018). A Studyof service utilization and client satisfaction among patients attending a district Ayush Hospitalin Karnataka which had different AYUSH systems was done. In this study through convenient
sampling technique patients were interviewed using a semi structured questionnaire to collect data
regarding patient satisfaction (Anandaraj et al., 2017). The impact of service quality on customer
satisfaction of foreigners in Ayurveda Panchakarma centers in southern province Sri Lanka study
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was done in 2012 (Uyangoda et al., 2012). Study was done entitled Level of patient satisfaction
at Government Unani & Ayurvedic Medical College Hospital in Dhaka, Bangladesh." This wasa cross-sectional study conducted among 165 patients attended at the out-patient department.
Patients' satisfaction was measured by the patient satisfaction questionnaire (PSQ-18) composedof 18 items (Snigdha et al., 2020).
In the last ten years patient flow in Ayurveda teaching hospital from year 2069 to 2079 B.S.
there is gradual patient flow increment which is encouraging but the patient flow has been highly
affected due to Covid-19 pandemic and recent times. The allotment budget by the Tribhuvan
University is nominal. With limited budget it was very hard to run the institution. The inadequacyof faculties and staff are realized. The hospital was lacking its own core team of consultant
doctors, resident medical officers, nursing staff, paramedical staff and supporting staff. The
faculties from the Ayurveda campus provided the expertise services in the hospital. Despite theneed of well-equipped pharmacy and dispensary for quality health service and education, it was
yet to be established. Except the geriatric scheme there was not any other special service fundedfrom other agencies and government of Nepal. Health insurance scheme was not started. Few
departments’ service recipients were gradually increasing due to services like Panchakarma andKsharasutra. Laboratory was running in minimal resources (human resources and equipments).
Department of radiology was not established and radiology services were not available due tolack of human resources. Due to lack of doctors and nurses' quarters there was difficulty inproviding adequate quality services. The most difficult part was smooth running of indoor patient
department because of the lack of duty staff and residential quarters for staff in or near hospital
premises. As a result of the different challenges and barriers the hospital was mostly providing
day care services and struggling for further development.
Despite good patient satisfaction level and having specialty treatments like Panchakarma,
Ksharasutra, geriatric services the Ayurveda Hospital has not been recognized that much extent
as tertiary referral Ayurveda Teaching Hospital for various reasons. This has created difficulties
for clinical exposure to the students and also the resources are not appropriately utilized. Thishas been limiting further development in increasing additional services and infrastructure. The
challenges and barriers in developing services may be of various reasons but lack of advertisement
or recognition of the hospital through local and national media may be the reason behind this.
Other factors like the time consumed during hospital visit, hospital services timing and theservice providers’ quality and the service availability may be the various challenges and factors
to be considered.
Conclusion
Patient satisfaction level attending Ayurveda Hospital was assessed and found satisfactory. The
majority of respondents were satisfied with the cleanliness of the hospital, short waiting time,
comfortable waiting area and doctor’s explanation in terms of each medical test and medicines.
Quality with standards of service in Tribhuvan University Ayurveda Teaching Hospital Nepal
211

was satisfactory. The main dissatisfaction was related to the provision of unavailability of easy
way for handicapped, lengthy time for medicine from Ayurveda pharmacy and unavailability ofsome services. If the government and the university invest sufficiently in Ayurveda hospital, it
can contribute not only in clinical learning and patient management but also help in Ayurveda
health tourism. Thus, the service range needs to be increased for imparting further effective
Ayurveda hospital services to the patients.
References
Deepa, L. S., Mallika, K. J., & Girish, K. J. (2018). Development of patient satisfaction
questionnaire for ayurvedic teaching hospitals. Journal of Ayurveda Physicians andSurgeons (JAPS), 5(1), 28–33.https://doi.org/10.31032/IJBPAS/2022/11.10.6489
Institute of Medicine (US) Committee on Quality of Health Care in America (2001). Crossing the
Quality Chasm: A New Health System for the 21st Century. Washington (DC): National
Academies Press (US); PMID: 25057539
Marshall, G. N., & Hays, R. D. (1994). The patient satisfaction questionnaire short-form (PSQ18) (Vol. 7865). Santa Monica, CA: Rand
Naaz, F. (2019). A Study of service utilization and patient satisfaction among patients attending
state level AYUSH Hospital in Delhi,J Ayu Herb Med 5(1):01-06.
Department of Ayurveda (1996), National Ayurveda Health Policy 2052, Ministry of Health,https://www.lawcommission.gov.np/en/wpcontent/uploads/2018/09/national-ayurveda-healthpolicy-2052-1996.pdf
Patient Satisfaction Questionnaire (PSQ) National Academies Press US 2001 https://www.rand.
org/content/dam/rand/pubs/papers/2006/P7865.pdf
Prakash B. (2010). Patient satisfaction. Journal of cutaneous and aesthetic surgery, 3(3), 151–
155. https://doi.org/10.4103/0974-2077.74491
Anandaraj, R., Sk, R., Kavithai, P., & As, M. (2017). A Study of Service Utilization and Client
Satisfaction among Patients Attending a District Ayush Hospital in Karnataka. IOSR
Journal of Dental and Medical Sciences, 16, 10-13.
Rastogi, S. (2011). Effectiveness, safety, and standard of service delivery: A patient-based survey
at a pancha karma therapy unit in a secondary care Ayurvedic hospital. Journal of Ayurveda
and integrative medicine, 2(4), 197–204. https://doi.org/10.4103/0975-9476.90767
Raut Bechan K. D. P (2011). Present status of traditional health care system in Nepal. IJRAP.
2(3):876-82
Shankar, P. R., Paudel, R., & Giri, B. R. (2012). Healing traditions in Nepal, Available from:http://www.aaimedicine.com/ jaaim/sep06/Healing.pdf

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Shrestha, N., Mongkolchati, A., Rattanapan, C., & Wongsawass, S. (2012). Assessment ofpatient satisfaction at traditional medicine hospital in Nepal. Journal of Public Health andDevelopment, 10(3), 17-30
Snigdha, S. A., Alam, M. M., Dilshad, S., Salam, S. A., Biswas, A., & Hossain Hawlader, M. D.
(2020). Level of patient satisfaction at government Unani & Ayurvedic Medical College
Hospital in Dhaka, Bangladesh. Public health in practice (Oxford, England), 1, 100037.
https://doi.org/10.1016/j.puhip.2020.100037
Uyangoda, D. P. and Dissanayake, K. G. C. (2012). The Impact of Service Quality on Customer
Satisfaction of Foreigners in Ayurveda Panchakarma Centers in Southern Province Sri
Lanka, Project Report, Graduate Studies Division, Gampaha Wickramarachchi Ayurveda
Institute, University of Kelaniya, Sri Lanka
Van Houdt, S. Heyrman, J., Vanhaecht, K., Sermeus, W., & De Lepeleire, J. (2013). An in-depth
analysis of theoretical frameworks for the study of care coordination, Int J Integr Care.
27;13:e024. doi: 10.5334/ijic.1068. PMID: 23882171; PMCID: PMC3718267
WHO

Fact
diseases

sheet-https://www.who.int/en/news-room/factsheets/detail/noncommunicable-

WHO Global Report On Traditional And Complementary Medicine Retrieved from https://www.who.int/traditional-complementary-integrative-medicine/ Who Global Report On
Traditional And Complementary Medicine2019.pdf
World Health Organization (WHO). Traditional Medicine in Asia: World Health Organization.;
2001 [Retrieved from: http://203.90.70.117/ PDS_DOCS/B0104.pdf
World Health Organization (WHO). (2008) Traditional Medicine. World Health Organization.
Retrieved from: http://www.who.int/mediacentre/factsheets213

Debating Peer-review
Pralhad Adhikari*

Abstract
Peer review is deemed essential for the quality control of the publication of research. Peer review
can refine a researcher and their research articles. However, peer review comes with many problems
like the incompetence of the reviewers. It sometimes feels redundant and at other times, it seems
too pushy from the editor’s end. Using the method of autoethnography, I have identified someweaknesses including shortage of resources, motivation of reviewers, specialization, ignorance ofquality control of literature review, and the blockade of innovation. Nonetheless, the peer review
method will be used by journal editors until a better alternative is found. I share my experience ofbeing peer-reviewed in seven years of my academic life in this autoethnography. The conclusion
is that peer review is not the foolproof way to control the quality of review and research articles.
Keywords: Journals, quality control, research, psychology, publication

Introduction
Peer review is a process of examining a scholarly article by two or more peers for its quality
control to decide if it is publishable in the journal. Peers are the experts in the specific field of
research (Saughnessy et al., 2015, p.418). After a (team of) researcher(s) (and also writer[s]) sends
an article, the editor of a journal checks if the article meets the objectives/theme of the journal. If
it does, they send it to peer reviewers to check the industry standards of the research article alongwith the research. Reviewers provide feedback and researchers modify the article to be reviewed byreviewers again. If the writer can incorporate comments or defend her position, they are ultimately
published by the decision of the editor. It is assumed that peer review is the primary and ubiquitous
method of quality control (Tennant & Ross-Hellauer, 2020). Quality control is necessary in two
regards- content and style. Unwarranted claims, unacceptable interpretations, or personal views
are prevented by peer review from publication (Kelly et al., 2014). It also helps determine thevalidity, significance, and originality of the study. In short, peer review subjects manuscripts toexpert evaluation (“Importance of Peer Review,” 2014).
There are four types of peer review- single-blind review, double-blind review, triple-blind review,
and open review (What is Peer Review, 2020). In single-blind reviews, reviewers’ identity is kept
hidden from authors. In a double-blind review, both the author and reviewers are anonymous. In* Assistant Professor, Department of Psychology and Philosophy, Tri-Chandra Multiple Campus, TU
pralhad.adhikari@trc.tu.edu.np
214 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

triple-blind review, all editors, reviewers, and authors are anonymous. In an open review, both
authors and reviewers are known to each other. Some journals adopt an even more transparent
review process.
In comparison to the standard procedure of peer-reviewing, all peer-reviewed journals in Nepal are
not peer-reviewed in a true sense; only a few of them are. For example, my article based on action
research (Adhikari, 2022b) was unilaterally altered by the journal editors of a Nepali journal andthe quality of the publication got a degradation rather than upgradation. I opine that, in the present
context, the unreviewing journals should also continue as publication is more important. We canhope that we can search for quality after there is a significant increase in quantity.

Statement of the Problems
Peer review is the only way being used globally to ensure quality control of the research articles.
However, there are some problems with the peer review process. It is not foolproof and hence thepace of science has slowed down. If the problems related to peer review can be addressed, thequality of journal articles can be increased even more.

Objectives
This autoethnography aims to identify the problems associated with the peer review process
idiosyncratically. Figuring out the problems helps pave a path to their solution. Alternatively, peer
review may be replaced with some better method to ensure the quality control of research papers.
This research also briefly presents the merits of peer review based on my experiences of publication.
Methods
This paper is the outcome of my autoethnography in which researchers’ lived experiences can be used
to transform the practice like research and teaching (Belbase et al., 2008). The researchers themselves
are the objects of study. In this method, the researcher can connect their narrative with the broadersocial and cultural context (Adams et al., 2015) to critique practices using reflexivity. I reviewed mypublished articles remaining on my computer or OneDrive (a cloud storage service) and recollected
the experiences related to them. I also reviewed some auxiliary artifacts related to the publishedarticles. I have analyzed my memories of experiences and figured out some themes/patterns andpresented them here. This paper presents the researcher’s perspective mainly rather than a reviewer’s.
Results
There are many positive things about peer review. The constructive feedback is the base for learning
things and building on the comments from reviewers, a researcher can improve their research article
or rarely research itself. A researcher or a team of researchers may miss out on some “common
sense” elements or insert silly/minor weaknesses. With an examination from reviewers, these canbe spotted. The nuanced perspective from reviewers can enrich the research/review paper. An
important benefit of peer review is to be updated about the current trends/conventions in the related
field of study. The researchers can refine themselves with the help of peer review.
215

Despite the above-mentioned benefits, there are many weaknesses of peer review. Some challengesof peer review are given below and described concisely. The challenges are presented in thematic
forms.

Individual Reviewers
In an age when teamwork is the trend to get a research article published, why should the solereviewers determine if the paper is publishable separately? Why should they not work in a team,
too? The sole authors do not have competence on everything like design, statistics, writing, language
among others except in a few cases. They should work in a team so that they can complement theskills other members do not have. There is a stark need that reviewers work in teams as well.

Quality of Journals
With the proliferation of too many journals, anybody can be a reviewer or even an author. Even thejournal may not go through the quality control process. The mushrooming of predatory journals is theresult of a lack of regulation in the scholarly publication industry. If you check at https://portal.issn.
org/ feeding an ISSN number, ISSN International Center’s website cannot distinguish which journal
is genuine and which is predatory/phony. In the globalized era, a Nepali researcher can get publishedfrom Croatia, the USA, Romania, Turkey, Brazil, China, or any other country in the world.

Shortage of Resources
Many budding journals have a lack of articles. They hardly find journals. They hardly findreviewers; sometimes, they find ones from the recommendation of authors themselves. The articles
are commented/criticized harshly oftentimes but they are obligated to publish them ultimately
despite lack of correction on the part of the authors because of a dearth of original articles. A
coordinating staff at Tribhuvan University Journal (TUJ) told me that it was extremely difficult forthem to find reviewers for articles written about psychology.

Dearth of Reviewers
After publishing two articles- one review and one theory- on accidents, I received a request toreview a research article on accident. After my team published research paper on the mental healthissue of older adults in an acclaimed journal, I got a request to review a research article related
to the same issue from another acclaimed journal. I did not consider myself to be an expert; I
thought myself to be a learner. It may be an impostor syndrome! However, my receiving of peerreview requests from highly acclaimed international journals indicates that they have a dearth ofexperienced reviewers.

Motivation of Reviewers
Generally, reviewers are not paid. Except for reviewing by intrinsic motivation, reviewers are likely
to comment on the paper swiftly and superficially. The only motivational factor to review is to learn
more skills of research during the review process or to get connected to the branded journal.
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Diversity in Specialization
Now, the sciences including psychology are in the rapid process of development. A consequenceis the deep specialization of the fields with the growth of sciences. Psychology will be more
specialized and new perspectives will emerge down the line (Feldman, 2015, p.26). A researcher
is an expert in the field. She needs to be reviewed by somebody who may not be the expert. Even
though reviewers are specialized in an area, they may be assigned to review articles written fromdifferent specializations. In such a situation, the brand image of the reviewer like professorship,high position in an organization, or awards received by the reviewer may impact the editor’s choice
to comply with their decision to retain or reject the articles. For example, my research related to theconstruction and validation of usability (Adhikari, 2023) was apparently reviewed by psychologists
who specialized in fields other than Industrial and Organizational Psychology (or Human Factors).
Both of the two reviewers of the research article failed to notice the theoretical framework in thearticle that was existent in the first draft itself. They probably evaluated the process and missed out
on the content. They did the quality control, but partially.

Late Publication
In the process of review, the researchers may have to modify the article several times. This
dillydallies the publication. The decision-making that should have been benefitted by research
output might be missed. In extreme cases, researchers may be asked to change the design of theresearch entirely. So, the publication is intensely delayed.

Ignorance of Quality of Literature Review
Many journals do not review how literature review has been done. They just look at the citationand if it is good, they assume that the literature review must have been done well too. However,literature review, as a critical summarizing of past studies or relevant literature, is subpar in several
cases. Tracing back to what has been cited and how it has been cited should be a part of quality
control.

Figure 1. Reviewer’s dissatisfaction about use of in-text citation when the two first authors had same
surname. This instance shows the reviewer’s lack of update on APA 7th style. I do not question reviewer’s
qualification but the lack of update is seen as a trend as it has happened to me in cases of other articles
also.

217

Over smart Editors/Reviewers
Some editors, like senior professors or overconfident people, are not welcoming to new ideas. They
think what they have learned is good, enough, and right. They do not update themselves to new
methods or technologies and take a rigid stance to reject papers with new approaches, methods,
or technologies. I continuously sent two qualitative research articles to TUJ but the editors did not
respond to the article. I hoped to get rejection mail if they did not deem my article fit for their journal.
I generally hope to get reasonable causes of rejection also. The culture of responsiveness to customer
is lacking in almost all Nepali governmental offices but I infer that their disinterest in qualitative
research was the main reason. I have received calls, not emails, from the very journal for the articles
that had the possibility of getting published. I recall a fellow researcher blaming an ethical review
board of not focusing on ethical aspects and commenting on other details of the proposal.

Figure 1. Comments for my article published in TUJ (Adhikari, 2023). Some comments are constructive.
However, some comments are ineffective, if not devastating.

Monistic Mindset in Science
There is no single way to do science, especially behavioral science like psychology, correctly. New
trends always emerge. For example, significance testing was considered classy in statistics somedecades ago. Now, it is thought necessary but insufficient by some. Some people advocate to ruleout its use from research. Bayesian statistics has arisen as an alternative to classical statistics. Few
reviewers would be ready to master all these multitudes of possibilities. Some reviewers/editors
stick to the traditional monistic mindset of doing science and thwart the possibility of new methods
or styles. They are not tolerant of pluralism in science.

Stifling the Innovation
It is seen that journal editors and reviewers religiously believe in science or the way of doing it.
When the editors and reviewers ritualistically stick to the tradition, they may stifle the innovation
in industry. The new ideas, techniques, and methods may get nibbed in the bud. In the name of peer
review, the journals may promote the unscientific practice themselves. Open-mindedness is theessence of a scientific attitude (Branscombe & Baron, 2017, p. 22). Moreover, what we call scienceis also a culture and convention at the same time. Quantitative research, what we call scientific,
is founded on positivism. Positivism, as a philosophical framework, was intuitionally proposedby some philosophers, say Auguste Comte (Hergenhahn & Henley, 2014, p. 158). In other words,
what we claim scientific lays on unscientific ground. So, providing a little space for unconventional
write-ups should not be a bother to the people in journals.
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Review of Research or Paper
Most of the time, the peer-review process is too concerned with the quality of the research paper
rather than the research itself. If the focus is on paper, it is the aesthetics’ and technicality’s quality
being ensured by the peer review. Some alternatives like pre-registering (Simmons et al., 2021)
are being introduced to ensure research quality by controlling HARKing (Hypothesizing After the
Results are Known) and p-hacking. p-hacking is claiming non-significant results as significant bychanging p-values (Angelika & Schönbrodt, 2023).
I myself do not object to HARKing even though accepting the process makes its label invalid.
In this process. I notice the exploratory design in quantitative research. You may ethically andgenuinely collect data and explore the relationship among variables and then present the results
in a research paper. In doing so, we may discover the relationship between variables in a way wemay not have intuitively imagined. This way of research become the inductive approach to doing
the quantitative research. However, ethical reporting requires that researcher do not present post
hoc hypotheses as a priori ones (Rubin, 2017). In rejecting the articles without the theoreticalframework, the top-tier journals are thwarting the chances of the emergence of new theories via
quantitative research designs. One of my team’s articles (Adhikari & McLaren, 2023) was rejectedby a Q1 journal for that very reason. With the fear of being rejected again, we had to add a theory
as a framework in this research to get published in the next journal.

Lack of Retrogressive EffectSome comments from peer reviewers may question the design of the research. It is not possible inquantitative research to alter the design retrogressively. However, the researcher is under pressure
to get published. The researchers chose an alternative journal and reframed the wording of thereport to evade similar remarks (and rejection) from another journal.

My Experience
My first publications (Adhikari, 2014, 2015, 2017b) were grand. The newspaper article was culled
by an editor. The review article was rigorously peer-reviewed and published more than 12 months
after submission. The book chapter was peer-reviewed but it got published relatively more easily.
After I was selected into Tribhuvan University as a faculty, I turned to my past studies to get thempublished. At least three papers (Adhikari, 2018a, 2018b, 2018c; Adhikari & Acharya, 2019) were
published in predatory journals without my knowledge that they were predators, even though I
did not pay them any money. All of these publishers pretended that they based their publications
on the peer-review process. I get several spams still but ignore them. I am proud that I have been
published in good journals recently (Adhikari, 2017a, 2019, 2020; Adhikari & Poudel, 2020).
An article published in 2020 was modified to the extent that I was too dissatisfied with the final
outcome as it was totally different than what I had intended. The reviewers were too pushy toalter its statistical aspects so I had to change the title. Nonetheless, I insisted on getting publishedowing to my obligation for career growth. In an article (Adhikari, 2017a), the reviewers were219

not welcoming/updated to qualitative research. They forced me to add more research participants
later. The outcome of the research seemed like a mixed-method design rather than qualitative. I
am sure that I can get published in top-tier journals in the coming days. However, I believe thatgetting published is more important than choosing a journal brand for now in the Nepali context
concerning the paucity of studies in psychology. Number of citations and impact factor of journals
are secondary.

Figure 2. This picture, which presents suggestions from editors to readers on the way to cite the book they
published, shows a lapse on the part of editors. There are mistakes in more than one place. The editors’lack of update is conspicuous in this publication. They seem to have a hangover of the 6th edition of the
Publication Manual of APA to mention the location of publisher and they present themselves as writers when
they are editors. I mention this example because I was also a part of this book (Adhikari, 2022a).

Discussion
Peer review is popular and rightly so. However, its usefulness has not been appropriately proven.
It is just a convention to peer-review journal articles. Even though peer review lacks scientificverification for effectiveness, most people in the scientific community believe that it is necessary.
There are several problems including a lack of holistic competence among reviewers and thetime-consuming nature of the review process. Peer review is necessary but a better alternative isdesirable for the quality control of the published works in scientific journals.

Conclusion
Peer review has many advantages and also many flaws at the same time. The alternative way tomaintain quality control is desirable. Nonetheless, the use of peer review will not get obsoletesoon despite its lapses. This paper showed some weaknesses. They can be addressed by journals toimprove the quality of research papers and accelerate the development of science finally.

References
Adams, T. E., Jones, S. H., & Ellis, C. (2015). Autoethnography. Oxford University Press.
Adhikari, P. (2014, January 25). Come and go. Republica, 9.
Adhikari, P. (2015). Errors and accidents in the workplaces. Sigurnost, 57(2), 127–137.
Adhikari, P. (2017a). Attitudes of present generation towards marriage. Tribhuvan University
Journal, 31(1 & 2), 167–184.
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Adhikari, P. (2017b). The inadaptability theory of accident causation. In G. Scott (Ed.), Humanerror: Preventive measures, analysis and improvement strategies. Nova Science Publishers.
Adhikari, P. (2018a). Effect of corporate slogan on decision making of consumers. SOJ Psychology,
5(2), 1–4.
Adhikari, P. (2018b). Talking about mental health from the most polluted city. MOJ Public Health,7(3). https://doi.org/10.15406/mojph.2018.07.00211
Adhikari, P. (2018c). Effects of Occupational Hazards on Mental and Reproductive Health of
Women in Nepal. Interventions in Gynaecology and Women’s Healthcare, 2(5). https://doi.
org/10.32474/IGWHC.2018.02.000147
Adhikari, P. (2019). Comparing emotional intelligence between would-be and practicing medical
professionals of Kathmandu. International Medicine, 1(3), 164. https://doi.org/10.5455/
im.36946
Adhikari, P. (2020). Relationship between emotional intelligence and counterproductive work
behaviors among teachers of Kathmandu. J Cogn Behav Psychother Res, 9(3), 221–226.
https://doi.org/10.5455/JCBPR.80208
Adhikari, P., & Acharya, L. (2019). Mental patients’ expectations of care and support from theirfamily. ARC Journal of Psychiatry, 4(1), 28–37.
Adhikari, P., & Poudel, U. (2020). Lack of association between academic achievement and social
phobia among high school students of Kathmandu. Global Psychiatry, 3(1), 1–9. https://doi.
org/10.2478/gp-2020-0011
Adhikari, P. (2022a). Future course of Nepalese psychology: A vision. In Y. Adhikari, S. Shrestha,& K. Sigdel (Eds.), Nepalese psychology: Volume one (pp. 133–144). Evincepub.
Adhikari, P. (2022b). Observing an Organization Named Family: A Technique to Teach
Organizational Behavior Practically During Pandemic. International Research Journal of
MMC, 3(3), 44–53. https://doi.org/10.3126/irjmmc.v3i3.48633
Adhikari, P. (2023). Construction and Validation of Alternative Usability Scale. Tribhuvan
University Journal, 38(2), 83–92. https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.3126/tuj.v38i2.60770
Adhikari, P., & McLaren, S. (2023). Functional Impairment and Depressive Symptoms amongOlder Adults of Rural Nepal: The Moderating Role of Three Sources of Social Support.
Clinical Gerontologist, 46(5), 832–843. https://doi.org/10.1080/07317115.2023.2187732
Angelika, S. M., & Schönbrodt, F. D. (2023). Big little lies: A compendium and simulation ofp-hacking strategies. R. Soc. Open Sci., 10220346220346. https://doi.org/http://doi.
org/10.1098/rsos.220346
Belbase, S., Luitel, B., & Taylor, P. (2008). Autoethnography: A method of research and teachingfor transformative education. Journal of Education and Research, 1(1), 86–95.
221Branscombe, N. R., & Baron, R. A. (2017). Social psychology (14th ed.). Pearson.
Feldman, R. S. (2015). Understanding psychology (12th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Hergenhahn, B. R., & Henley, T. B. (2014). An Introduction to the history of psychology (7th ed.).
Wadsworth, Cengage Learning.
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Kelly, J., Sadeghieh, T., & Adeli, K. (2014). Peer review in scientific publications: Benefits,
critiques, & a survival guide. EJIFCC, 25(3), 227–243.
Rubin, M. (2017). When Does HARKing Hurt? Identifying When Different Types of Undisclosed
Post Hoc Hypothesizing Harm Scientific Progress. Review of General Psychology, 21(4),308–320. https://doi.org/10.1037/gpr0000128
Saughnessy, J. J., Zechmeister, E. B., & Zechmeister, J. S. (2015). Research methods in psychology(10th ed.). McGraw-Hill Education.
Simmons, J. P., Nelson, L. D., & Simonsohn, U. (2021). Pre‐registration: Why and how. Journal ofConsumer Psychology, 31(1), 151–162.
Tennant, J. P., & Ross-Hellauer, T. (2020). The limitations to our understanding of peer review.
Research Integrity and Peer Review, 5(1), 6. https://doi.org/10.1186/s41073-020-00092-1
What is peer review? (2020https://www.elsevier.com/reviewers/what-is-peer-review

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Successful Rearing of Gazalina chrysolopha larvae
Pratiksha Pathak*, Bhawan Pandey*, Daya Ram Bhusal1*, Pratap Karki**,Ranju Kharel Sitaula**, Madan Prasad Upadhyay***

Abstract
The Gazalina chrysolopha is included in the Notodontidae family. Adults have white head andthorax, black legs and antennae. Males and females are similar except in abdominal part andantennae type, and female have larger fulvous, less fringed abdominal segments than male moths.
Larvae show processionary behavior, moving upward during the night for feeding purpose anddownward on the host plant's base during day time. Larvae are voracious feeders damaging thehost plant Alnus nepalensis. Setae present in adults and larvae are suspected to be toxic to thehuman eyes, causing severe eye diseases SHAPU. The larvae hatch out from the egg on end of
November. Larvae collected on December were reared in the laboratory, and different instar
larvae show different feeding patterns. Third instar larvae's mortality rate is higher than theother four instar phases. Fourth and fifth instar larvae are more voracious feeders. They feed
voraciously during the initial phase after moulting and stop feeding during the later phase. The
setae in the second, third, fourth and fifth instars morphologically resembles the setae in the adultmoth. The rearing of larvae of Gazalina chrysolopha is an ongoing process in the laboratory forthe further study of its life cycle.
Keywords: Nepal; Gazalina chrysolopha; Ecology; Larvae; SHAPU; Taxonomy
Introduction
Moths are the insect (Order; Lepidoptera) with almost 160,000 species worldwide (Regier etal., 2009). Lepidoptera are the only group of insects with scales covering their wings, with few
exceptions (Wahlberg et al., 2013). There are about 1,267 species in Nepal ( Thapa , 2016). Moths
can be differentiated from butterfly by observing antennae (typically threadlike or feathery). Moths
have mostly dull colours wings but there are many species with spectacular colors and patterns,
shape and size also vary according to genus and species. They are mainly nocturnal and attracted
to light and plant feeding, although some species are diurnal (Wahlberg et al., 2013). Walker
first outlined the Genus Gazalina in 1865, which belongs to the Notonotidae family (Rader etal., 2009). Three species (tranversa, apsara, and chrysolopha) of Gazalina moths are found in* Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University, Kirtipur, Nepal.
** B P Koirala Lions Centre for Ophthalmic Studies, Department of Ophthalmology, Institute of Medicine,
Tribhuvan University, Maharajgung, Nepal.
*** Children Hospital for Eye ENT and Rehabilitation Services (CHEERS), B.P Eye Foundation, Bhaktapur, Nepal.
223

Nepal (Smith 2010). Among these three species, Gazalina chrysolopha is more abundant in the
mid-hill region (Khanal & Shrestha, 2022). Gazalina chrysolopha has a white head and thorax,
black legs and antennae. Males and females are similar except in abdominal part and antennae
type, female have more significant fulvous, less fringed abdominal segments than male moth.
Female Gazalina is easily distinguished through the abdominal tip with yellow tuft and large
number of setae (Srivastava & Mukhopadhyay, 2006). Gazalina chrysolopha is suspected
as the major agent that causes severe eye diseases, such as SHAPU (Manandhar, 2011).
Seasonal Hyper Acute Pan Uveitis (SHAPU) is the most significant mysterious eye disease
dominantly reported from Nepal, that may cause blindness, occurring every odd year since1975 predominantly in children, manifesting with symptoms such as abrupt developmentof redness, leukocoria, severe vision loss and mild pain (Gurung, et al., 2021). Setae of
Gazalina chrysolopha is considered to be main reason for damaging the eyes (Upadhyay etal., 2021).
Statement of problems
Gazalina chrysolopha is nocturnal insect larva showing processionary behavior. It defoliates
its host plant's leaves, damaging the whole plant in large areas as it is a voracious feeder. Larvaof this moth consists of urticating setae on its abdominal segments, which can cause severe eyediseases, such as SHAPU. Research on the biology and behavior of larval stage has not been
done scientifically yet.
Objectives
The general objective of this study was to understand the feeding behavior of larval stage.
The specific objectives of the study are to find the• larval growth rate, and• morphological differences between different instars.
Materials and methodology
The field survey was done in the December of 2023 for the observation and collection of larvaeof Gazalina chrysolopha from the different mid-hill sites of Gandaki Province. Larvae within 1st
and 2nd instar were observed in the host plant Alnus nepalensis. Observed larvae were collectedin the well-ventilated box with the host plant leaves for rearing. Major precautions were applied
to avoid the contact of larvae setae with eyes while collecting the sample. Larva were rearedin the entomological laboratory of the Central Department of Zoology, Tribhuvan University,
Kirtipur in the room temperature. Different stages (1st and 2nd) larvae were kept in other boxes
with leaves of the host plant for feeding. Physical parameters (temperature and relative humidity)
were taken six times within 24 hours using a hygrometer. The weight of larvae and feeding
materials were taken after 24 hours each day.
224 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

Results
The larvae collected from the study sites were reared in the room temperature of the Central
Department of Zoology. Larvae are voracious feeders, eating the leaves in high amounts. First,
instar larvae were brownish coloured with short hairs on the dorsal thoracic and abdominal
segments. The reared 2nd instar larvae molted within 30-35 days in the laboratory. The bodycolouration and the length increased during molting from the first instar to second instar. The
second instar larvae molted within a month into 3rd instar larvae. Third instar larvae were darker
in color and become more voracious than second-instar larvae. The large population of third
instar larvae were dead may be due to an unfavorable environment in the laboratory. Third instar
larvae molted into fourth instar within 40-47 days. During the initial stage they were highly
voracious but at the later stage, they stop feeding causing losses in weight. Fourth instar larvae
turned into fifth instar within 50-58 days. Larvae become longer during fifth instar larvae; thehair on the body segments is longer and darker than in the initial stages.
The number of setae present on larvae also increased progressively. The morphology of larvae
was the same as setae present on adult moth, which show the chance of causing SHAPU diseases
even due to larva. The larvae are still in the fifth instar phase, getting ready to pupate in thelaboratory.

Figure 1: 1st instar larva

Figure 2: 2nd instar larva

Figure 3: 3rd instar larva

Figure 4: 4th instar larva
225

Discussion
Three species of Gazalina are found in Nepal (Sugi, 1993); among these, the chrysolopha species
is the suspected as major causative agent for the SHAPU disease in human eye (H. Gurung,
Sitaula, et al., 2021). The emergence of adult occurs in the monsoon of odd year and also asopportunistic emergence in even year (Gurung, et al., 2021). The emergence of adult is being
connected with the new cases of SHAPU patients in the periphery of Pokhara and Kathmandu
districts (Upadhyay et al., 2021). The mature adult lays hundreds of eggs in cluster, with yellow
setae covering for protection.
The egg hatched within a month (Srivastava & Mukhopadhyay, 2006). Larvae are voracious
feeder, can damage plants of large scale areas. Outbreak of Gazalina chrysolopha in oak forest
damaged the whole forest in by defoliating the plants' leaves (Rahman & Chaudhry, 1992).
(Srivastava & Mukhopadhyay, 2006) also described about the defoliation of Alnus nepalensis
by G. chrysolopha species in India in a massive way. Urticating setae present in female adults
and larvae causes blindness in children(Battisti et al., 2017). The larvae from 2nd to fifth
instar consists of urticating setae on abdominal segments. The caterpillar of this moth major
pest of Alnus nepalensis and rhododendron plant when there is low rainfall during post-wintermonths(Gurung, et al., 2021)
In this study we have studied the life cycle and feeding behavior of Gazalina chrysolopha byrearing the larval stage of this moth. Morphological development of setae from the larval stage
is seen. The setae present in the larvae are short and stiff in each abdominal tergite while in adultsetae are longer and thinner in the seventh abdominal tergite (Battisti et al., 2017).
Conclusion
Gazalina chrysolopha has five instars in their larval stages, first instar are shorter and brown incolor without urticating setae on abdominal tergites; second, third, fourth and fifth instar larvae
are progressively longer and darker in each instar (Srivastava & Mukhopadhyay, 2006). Larva
show processionary behavior, later, four instar phases are voracious feeders damaging the plants
by defoliating the leaves of host plants Alnus nepalensis. The setae present in abdominal tergitesof larvae may also cause SHAPU diseases as these setae are morphologically same as thosepresent in the adult moths. Further study is ongoing on the setae and its chemical composition.
Acknowledgement
We are thankful to the Central Department of Zoology for providing us with space and materials
within the entomological laboratory to rear larvae throughout these months.

226

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References
Battisti, A., Larsson, S., & Roques, A. (2017). Processionary Moths and Associated Urtication
Risk: Global ChangeDriven Effects. Annual Review of Entomology, 62, 323–342. https://doi.org/10.1146/annurev-ento-031616-034918
Gurung, H., Kharel Sitaula, R., Karki, P., Khatri, A., Khanal, B., Joshi, S. N., Maharjan, I., &Upadhyay, M. P. (2021). Sporadic summer outbreak of SHAPU in even years: Does thepattern match with the usual autumn outbreak? American Journal of Ophthalmology Case
Reports, 24(September), 101198. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajoc.2021.101198
Gurung, L. J., Miller, K. K., Venn, S., & Bryan, B. A. (2021). Contributions of non-timber
forest products to people in mountain ecosystems and impacts of recent climate change.
Ecosystems and People, 17(1), 447–463. https://doi.org/10.1080/26395916.2021.1957021
Khanal, B., & Shrestha, B. R. (2022). Diversity, distribution and medical significance of Gazalina
species (Lepidoptera: Notodontidae) in Nepal. Nepalese Journal of Zoology, 6(S1), 45–49.
https://doi.org/10.3126/njz.v6is1.50529
Manandhar, A. (2011). Seasonal hyperacute panuveitis: An update. Current Opinion in
Ophthalmology, 22(6), 496–501. https://doi.org/10.1097/ICU.0B013E32834BCBF4
Rader, R., Howlett, B. G., Cunningham, S. A., Westcott, D. A., Newstrom-Lloyd, L. E.,
Walker, M. K., Teulon, D. A. J., & Edwards, W. (2009). Alternative pollinator taxa
are equally efficient but not as effective as the honeybee in a mass flowering crop.
Journal of Applied Ecology, 46(5), 1080–1087. https://doi.org/10.1111/j.13652664.2009.01700.x
Rahman, W., & Chaudhry, M. (1992). Observations on outbreak and biology of oak defoliator,
Gazalina chrysolopha Koll. Pakistan J For, 42, 134–137.
Regier, J. C., Zwick, A., Cummings, M. P., Kawahara, A. Y., Cho, S., Weller, S., Roe, A., Baixeras,J., Brown, J. W., Parr, C., Davis, D. R., Epstein, M., Hallwachs, W., Hausmann, A., Janzen,
D. H., Kitching, I. J., Solis, M. A., Yen, S. H., Bazinet, A. L., & Mitter, C. (2009). Toward
reconstructing the evolution of advanced moths and butterflies (Lepidoptera: Ditrysia):
An initial molecular study. BMC Evolutionary Biology, 9(1). https://doi.org/10.1186/14712148-9-280
Smith, C. 2010. Lepidoptera of Nepal. Himalayan Nature, Kathmandu, Nepal, 1–172
Srivastava, N., & Mukhopadhyay, A. (2006). Life cycle and bioecological studies of Gazalina
chrysolopha Kollar (Lepidoptera : Notodontidae), attacking major shade tree, Alnus
nepalensis D.Don. of large Cardamom agroforestry of Sikkim with an annotated list of
insect fauna common to both the plants. Journal of Hill Research, 19(2), 59–64. https://eurekamag.com/research/013/253/013253556.php
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Sugi, S. 1993. Notodontidae. The Japan Heterocerists’ Society, Tokyo: 148-155. In: Haruta, T.
(Edited) Moths of Nepal 14, Supplement 1, the Japan Heterocista’ Society, Tokyo. pp.163–
169.
Upadhyay, M. P., Kharel Sitaula, R., Manandhar, A., Gower, E. W., Karki, P., Gurung, H.,
Maharjan, I., Reuben, S., Karmacharya, B. M., & Joshi, S. N. (2021). The Risk Factors of
Seasonal Hyperacute Panuveitis. Ophthalmic Epidemiology, 28(3), 250–257. https://doi.or
g/10.1080/09286586.2020.1820533
Wahlberg, N., Wheat, C. W., & Peña, C. (2013). Timing and patterns in the taxonomic
diversification of Lepidoptera (butterflies and moths). PLoS ONE, 8(11), 1–8. https://doi.
org/10.1371/journal.pone.0080875

228 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

ASSESSING THE ROLE OF ROADSIDE VEGETATION IN
OFFSETTING AIR POLLUTION IN KATHMANDU VALLEY
Sulakshya Bhandari*Ramesh Prasad Sapkota*

Abstract
Air pollution has emerged as one of the most visible and hazardous components of environmental
degradation in Kathmandu Valley. Different strategies can be adopted to reduce the concentrationsof pollutants. Vegetation can reduce the concentration of air pollution, but there are very limited
studies reflecting the effectiveness of vegetation in reducing air pollution concentration. This study
presents the analysis and interpretation of ambient particulate matter concentration in vegetatedand non-vegetated area, along with the comparison of air quality in both the sampling areas.
Five sites having both roadside vegetation and without vegetation inside Kathmandu Valley wereconsidered for the study. The air quality was monitored using Air Visual Pro, during traffic rush
hours in the morning and evening for two seasons: winter and spring. The results indicated thatthe level of particulate matter was significantly higher surpassing the threshold limits by USEPA,
WHO and NAAQS in non-vegetated area of all five sampling sites, while the concentration was
lower in vegetated roadside areas. Similarly, the pollution level was higher during spring season
than that of winter season. Furthermore, the variation in concentration of PM2.5 and PM10 was
lowest in the partly closed green area of one-layered coniferous trees and mixed trees. The researchthus provides evidence for optimization of green area coverage in urban area, and improve air
quality effectively in the future.

Keywords: Air pollution, Particulate matter, Roadside vegetation, Seasonal variation
Introduction
Pollution is an introduction of poisonous or harmful substances in a wrong time at a wrong placeor undesirable/ unwanted changes in anything (Diamond et al., 2015). Among various types ofpollution, air pollution being burning issue and a serious problem is defined as an alteration of air
quality characterized by any chemical, biological or physical pollutants in the air, or undesirable
presence of impurities in the atmosphere. It is caused by various natural sources like: volcanoes,
wildfires, dust storms, sea salt spray or human activities like: power plants, industry, households,
transport, agriculture, etc. and every year, many people die due to air pollution related problems(WHO, 2014). The presence of particulate matter (PM), especially the PM10, PM2.5, aerosols, andCO2 in atmosphere are mostly responsible for deterioration of air quality (WHO, 2006). According* Central Department of Environmental Science, Tribhuvan University, Kathmandu, Nepal
rsapkota@cdes.tu.edu.np229

to Shaddick et al. (2020), air pollution is increasing rapidly and ambient air pollution is estimated tocause over 4 million premature deaths annually in most of the developing countries. In the present
context, the problem of airborne particulate pollution is being more serious with the acceleratingurbanization, huge number of industries, factories and means of transportation, which may emit
large amount of air pollutants. And the exposure to these airborne particulate matters resulting
short-term or long term respiratory and cardiovascular diseases (Thurston et al., 2017).
Air-borne PM, which comes in different sizes with chemical and biological compositions, cause
the majority of the disease burden attributed to air pollutants, of which more than half relates
to ambient exposures by inhalation (IHME, 2019). PM has recently been ranked ﬁfth among
environmental risks, and thus ﬁrst among the major risk factors threatening human health globallyin terms of its disease burden (Cohen et al., 2017). It may be directly emitted from a source, suchas: construction sites, unpaved roads, fields, smokestacks or fire, while most of the particles formedin the atmosphere as a result of complex reaction of chemicals such as sulfur dioxide and nitrogenoxides emitted from industries and automobiles. The particles like dust, dirt, soot or smoke arelarge enough to be seen with naked eyes, however other particles like PM2.5 or PM10 can only bedetected using an electron microscope (USEPA, 2004). Particles less than 10 micrometer can get
deep into the lungs, while other particles smaller than that even get into bloodstream.
PM10 is considered to be the primary pollutants that affect environmental air quality and damage
respiratory system affecting human health, but PM2.5 is even more deleterious, as it can enter throughalveolar and blood circulation system resulting in variety of human systematic diseases (Qiu etal., 2019). Air pollution due to particulate matter hence proved to be very hazardous due to transboundary in nature of PM that can be transported long distances by wind and settle in areas far awayfrom the source of emission (Kan & Chen, 2004). It can have a significant impact on large wildfire,
deteriorating air quality across wide geographical area and also responsible for reducing visibility, bydeveloping haze in the air. The major outdoor sources of PM2.5 are vehicles, wood burning, industrial
activities and other forms of combustion, while indoor sources are leaky windows and doors, stove
top cooking, fireplaces, incense, cleaning products and fragrances (Qiu et al., 2019).
Various studies have concluded that vegetation and green spaces have shown reductive effects on
air-borne pollutants concentrations, especially particulate matter (Nowak et al., 2006). Though
due to cultural and disciplinary differences, there is not an agreed deﬁnition of green spaces, they
are commonly understood as outdoor, on-land vegetation (Egorov et al., 2016). Urban green space
plays an important role in improving environmental quality, adding beauty to the environment,
regulating the urban microclimate and promoting urban sustainable development (Wang & Yu,
2008). The spatial and temporal distribution of urban vegetation has different role and function in
reducing concentration of airborne particles, for instance Selmi et al. (2016), found the different
land use types like forests, parks, gardens, industrial and residential areas had different effects
on reduction of airborne particulate matters. In the study by Diener & Mudu, (2021), the processof reduction of pollutants by vegetation has been discussed on the basis of three distinguished230

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

mechanisms: Deposition, Dispersion and Modification of Particulate Matter. Meanwhile, the trendof research has rapidly grown on evaluating the ameliorating effects and underlying physical,
biological and chemical mechanisms of vegetation on PM (Wolf et al., 2020). The variety of plant
species have their own role in reducing pollution, such as: broadleaf with waxy layers, leafy hairand evergreen conifers help in capturing pollutants. However, this present study only focuses on
effects and role of whole green space/ urban vegetation in maintaining environmental air quality,
rather than identifying role of individual plant species. Besides, the study only comprises fivesampling sites, which only covers certain portion of Kathmandu district and the data was collected
only of two seasons, so variation among seasons cannot be observed.

Statement of the Problem
Kathmandu Valley is a center for major facets of country, such as: economy, employment, education,
tourism, culture, politics, administration, industrialization, residential and commercial and thus
considered to be one of the ten fastest urbanizing city in the world (Ishtiaque, et al., 2017). The
emission of PM2.5 as major air pollutants in Kathmandu Valley along with the atmospheric conditionof valley makes it significantly hazardous to human health. According to WHO, the recommended
threshold limit for annual mean concentration of PM2.5 is 10 µg/m3 in the context of Nepalese air
quality (IQ Air, 2019), but different studies have shown the increase in threshold limit. Air pollutionin Kathmandu Valley is resulting serious health hazards. Roadside areas are more vulnerable to theeffect of particulate matter due to high vehicular movement, which enhances the concentration ofparticulate matter by fossil fuel combustion. Thus, to avoid the possibility of air pollution impact
and to reduce exposure to hazardous air pollution, this present study is vital. Furthermore, it isimportant to create public awareness about air pollution and circulate the knowledge regarding therole of urban vegetation. Also, the smart city concept with ecological design is focused. This study
will prioritize on planting trees along roadside and on open space and taking care of green areas,build more urban parks, avoid use of aerosols and improve transportation system.

Objectives of the study
The objective of the study is to assess the role of roadside urban vegetation in offsetting urban air
pollution, basically particulate matter (PM2.5, PM1O,), CO2 and AQI. The study also determines thevariation in pollution load across the areas with seasons.
Materials and Methods
Study Area
Different areas inside Kathmandu Valley were selected on the basis of vegetation alongcertain section of roads and without vegetation along the same section (Figure 1). Koteshwor(27.704954N, 85.35202E) with an elevation of 1308.57 m, Gokarna (27.7381985N, 85.3852510E)
and elevation 1686.89 m, Chovar (27.6624749N, 85.2950191 E) having an elevation of 1413.12 m,
Thankot (27.699464N, 85.207728E) with an elevation of 1435.56 m and Sitapaila (27.717438N,
85.264725E) with an elevation of 1354.51m were considered as our study sites.
231

Figure 1: Map showing study area
Methods
The data was collected from five sampling sites, conducted on roadside at five locations in Kathmandu
District, during two successive time periods of winter season and spring (Dec/Jan – March/April, 2023).
The five sites: Koteshwor, Gokarna, Chovar, Thankot and Sitapaila were selected on the basis of roadsidevegetation growing in certain portion of these areas. Several parameters like PM1, PM2.5, PM10, CO2 andAir Quality Index (AQI) were measured with the help of IQ Air, Air Visual Pro N1, a laser technology
to assess the air quality. The data were collected from two distinct sampling sites of each area, one fromroadside vegetated area and another from area lacking vegetation along roadside. The sites were chosen
adaptively with a view to meet our objectives of sampling in both vegetated and non-vegetated area alongroadside. The distance between two sampling sites was taken as 1 km on same road section with same
traffic movement. The data for air quality monitoring was collected from the same side of road sectionof each sampling sites using a hand-held particle counter device (IQ Air, Air Visual Pro N1) following
the guidelines provided by National Ambient Air Quality Standard (NAAQS, 2012) and was recorded
during traffic rush hour for about 10 hours and data recorded at every 10 minutes interval was taken for
the analysis. According to Kathmandu Metropolitan Traffic Police Department (KMTPD), the peak traffichour in Kathmandu valley was regarded to be from 8:30-11:00 am and 3:30-7:00 pm. Hence, the data werecollected for about 10 hours (8:30 am to 6:30 pm), covering the traffic rush hours. The concentration ofparticulate matters was tested in each site during same period of time in order to avoid dramatic changes in
the meteorological factors (Qiu et al., 2019). All the tests were performed by placing the device at a heightof 1.5 m, which is the average height of human respiration (NAAQS, 2012).
232

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Data Analysis
AQI is a system for reporting severity of air quality levels in a way that is easy to understand.
The index ranges from 0-500, where higher index values indicate higher level of pollution. AQI
is computed in different ways around the world, whereas United States and China represents two
widely used AQI systems. However, Air visual Pro recommends following the US AQI, which
is more stringent for lower values. The data collected is thus analyzed using Microsoft Office
Excel 2007 software (Microsoft Corporation, Redmond, WA, USA) and R software 4.2.2. The
mean of the collected data was calculated and used for further analysis. Thus, the calculated meanof vegetated and non-vegetated area of different sampling sites and of two different seasons arecompared. The t-test was performed using ‘R’ to identify the significant difference of mean valuesof different parameters among vegetated and non-vegetated areas.

Results and Discussion
The concentration of PM2.5, PM10, CO2 and AQI values were significantly discrepant in the selected
sampling sites as per the vegetated and non-vegetated roadside, and along the two different
seasons. Among the five sites the highest concentration of the particulate matter was found in
Koteshwor in both vegetated and non-vegetated areas, followed by Thankot, Gokarna, Chovar
and Sitapaila. The highest concentration of pollutants was found in spring season than that ofwinter season, in almost all of the study sites. The highest concentration of these particulatematter in Koteshwor might be due to the heavy traffic movement, and an airport nearby. The
reduction and minimization of pollution in these sites in airborne particulate matter in bothseasons can be ranked as: Vegetated roadside > non-vegetated roadside in a same roadway. It
indicates that the green coverage rate was negatively correlated with airborne particulate matter.
The mean value of CO2, PM2.5, PM10 and AQI of all of the sampling sites in both seasons areshown in Table 1.
Table 1: Air quality assessment of vegetated and non-vegetated area of urban roadside of winterseasonMean at vegetated areas ± SE

Mean at non-vegetated areas ± SE

Sampling
sites

PM2.5

AQI

PM10

CO2

PM2.5

AQI

PM10

CO2

Chovar

50.32± 3.15

114.93± 2.87

55.78± 2.9

422.64±0.22

53.49±
2.23

166.36± 2.40

87.39± 5.35

427.69±
1.97

Thankot

67.81± 1.21

147.35±0.84

81.38±1.82

422.08±0.09

71.6±1.85

154.19±1.22104.96±3.0426.74±0.21

Sitapila

39± 0.50

109.73±0.33

68.2±1.39

400.85±0.40

56.3±1.61

131.29±1.10

91.65±3.51408.92±0.95

Koteshwor

78.51± 2.10

162.86±2.31

92.69±3.12421.43±0.4285.23±3.06

422.64±5.35

100.33±5.27

432.07±0.32

Gokarna

71± 0.24

152.3± 0.28

83.44± 3.2

448.74±0.76

72±0.77

155.04±0.44

114.66±1.56452.2±2.24233

Among the five sampling sites, the mean concentration of PM2.5 in winter of vegetated site of
Koteshwor was found to be highest than that of other sites, i.e., 78.51±2.10 µg/m3 and non-vegetatedsite was found to be 85.23±3.06 µg/m3, while the lowest mean concentration of PM2.5 of vegetatedsite found to be of Sitapaila was 39±0.50 µg/m3 and non-vegetated site was found to be 56.3±1.61µg/m3 (Figure 2).

Figure 2: Concentration of PM2.5 in vegetated and non-vegetated area

Similarly, the mean concentration of PM10 of vegetated site of Koteshwor was found to be highest
among others, i.e., 92.69±3.12 µg/m3 but the highest concentration of non-vegetated site wasfound to be of Gokarna, i.e., 114.66±1.56 µg/m3, while the lowest mean concentration of PM10 ofvegetated site found to be of Sitapaila was 68.20±1.39 µg/m3 and non-vegetated site was found to
be 91.65±3.51 µg/m3 (Figure 3).

Figure 3: Concentration of PM10 in vegetated and non-vegetated area234

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

The mean value of AQI of vegetated site of Koteshwor was found to be highest among others, i.e.,
162.86±2.31 and that of non-vegetated site was found to be 422.64±5.35, while the lowest meanvalue of AQI of vegetated site was found to be of Sitapaila, i.e., 109.73±0.33 and non-vegetated site
was found to be 131.29±1.10 (as shown in Figure 4).

Figure 4: Value of AQI in vegetated and non-vegetated area

But, the mean concentration of CO2 of vegetated site of Gokarna was found to be highest among
others, i.e., 448.74±0.76 and that of non-vegetated site was found to be 452.20±2.24, while thelowest mean concentration of CO2 of vegetated site was found to be of Sitapaila, i.e., 400.85±0.40
and non-vegetated site was found to be 408.92±0.95 (Figure 5).

Figure 5: Mean concentration of CO2 in vegetated and non-vegetated area
235

Thus, observing the graph Koteshwor, being core area of Kathmandu was found to be morepolluted followed by Gokarna and Thankot. It might be due to the flow of heavy traffic in
Koteshwor roadside and sampling at traffic rush hour also enhances the highest concentrationof pollutants in this area. Gokarna, not being core area was also found to be polluted, whichmight be due to construction and demolition of road. It is more common for Thankot to become
polluted, being boarder/ exit from Kathmandu Valley and large traffic movement. The area nearby
Sitapaila and Chovar was found to be less polluted, due to less traffic movement and these areas
being far from core area. The reduction of particulate pollution is also caused by availability oflarge green coverage/vegetation along roadside in these areas. t-test was performed with a viewto find out significant in mean values between vegetated and non-vegetated areas, where test ofeach parameter was done. The p-value for PM2.5 was found to be 0.02155 i.e., < 0.05 and theacceptance of null hypothesis suggests that the mean PM2.5 in vegetated areas is significantly
lower than in non-vegetated areas. Similarly, the PM10 in vegetated areas is significantly lower
than in non-vegetated areas as suggested by p-value <0.05 i.e., 0.021. However, there is no any
significant difference in mean AQI levels between vegetated and non-vegetated areas which isshown by p-value i.e., 0.2805 (>0.05). Also, the p-value for CO2 was found to be 0.489 i.e., >0.05
and thus suggests that there is no significant difference in mean CO2 levels between vegetatedand non-vegetated areas.
Table 2: Air quality assessment of vegetated and non-vegetated area of urban roadside of spring
seasonSampling
sites

Mean at vegetated areas ± SE

Mean at non-vegetated areas ± SE

PM2.5

AQI

PM10

CO2

PM2.5

AQI

PM10

CO2

Chovar

77.128±4.83

146.683±
3.67

101.69±3.90

507.445±5.70

123.064±5.12

185.59±2.74

214.265±5.11523.383±2.34

Thankot

74.821±1.34158.515±0.90

92.962±1.08

578.99±1.86104.774±2.71

176.396±1.40

128.259±3.68

498.908±5.24

Sitapaila

68.775±0.88

157.75±0.48

82.022±1.67454.575±0.46

90.024±2.72

168.783±1.41127.669±4.88463.867±1.08

Koteshwor

99.02±2.12169.98±1.89

102.05±3.24469.23±1.23113.316±4.06

180.16±2.28174.933±5.12595.933±0.37

Gokarna

55.677±0.186

148.078±
0.268

56.677±0.208

443.037±
1.747

85.685±0.916

166.579±0.471

94.8±1.292

493.706±2.19

Among the five sampling sites, the mean concentration of PM2.5 in spring of vegetated site of
Koteshwor was found to be highest than that of other sites, i.e., 99.02±2.12 µg/m3 and nonvegetated site was found to be 113.32±4.06µg/m3, while the lowest mean concentration of PM2.5 ofvegetated site found to be of Sitapaila was 68.78±0.88 µg/m3 and non-vegetated site was found to
be 90.02±2.72 µg/m3 (Figure 6).

236

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

Figure 6: Concentration of PM2.5 in vegetated and non-vegetated area

Similarly, the mean concentration of PM10 of vegetated site of Koteshwor was found to be highest among
others, i.e., 101.69±3.24 µg/m3 but the highest concentration of non-vegetated site was found to be of
Chovar, i.e., 214.27±3.11 µg/m3, while the lowest mean concentration of PM10 of vegetated site found to
be of Sitapaila was 56.68±1.67 µg/m3 and non-vegetated site was found to be 94.80±4.88 µg/m3 (Figure 7).
Figure 7: Concentration of PM10 in vegetated and non-vegetated area

The mean value of AQI of vegetated site of Koteshwor was found to be highest among others,i.e., 169.98±2.89 and that of highest mean of non-vegetated site was found to be 185.59±2.74 of
Chovar, while the lowest mean value of AQI of vegetated site was found to be of Chovar, i.e.,
146.68±3.67 and non-vegetated site was found to be 166.58±0.47 of Gokarna (Figure 8).
237

Figure 8: Value of AQI in vegetated and non-vegetated area

But, the mean concentration of CO2 of vegetated site of Thankot was found to be highest among
others, i.e., 578.99±1.86 ppm and that of non-vegetated site was found to be 595.93±0.37 ppm
of Koteshwor, while the lowest mean concentration of CO2 of vegetated site was found to beof Gokarna, i.e., 443.04±1.75 ppm and non-vegetated site was found to be 463.87±1.08 ppm ofSitapaila (Figure 9).

Figure 9: Mean concentration of CO2 in vegetated and non-vegetated area

Thus, observing the graph Koteshwor, being core area of Kathmandu was found to be more polluted
followed by Gokarna and Thankot. It might be due to the flow of heavy traffic in Koteshwor
roadside and sampling at traffic rush hour also enhances the highest concentration of pollutantsin this area. Gokarna, not being core area was also found to be polluted, which might be due to238

lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

construction and demolition of road. It is more common for Thankot to become polluted, being
boarder/ exit from Kathmandu valley and large traffic movement. The area nearby Sitapaila andChovar was found to be less polluted, due to less traffic movement and these areas being a bit far
from core area. The reduction of particulate pollution is also caused by availability of large green
coverage/ vegetation along roadside in these areas.
With a view to find out significance in mean values between vegetated and non-vegetated areas,
the p-value for PM2.5 was obtained to be 0.02155 i.e., < 0.05 and the rejection of null hypothesis
suggests that the mean PM2.5 in vegetated areas is significantly lower than in non-vegetatedareas. Similarly, the PM10 in vegetated areas is significantly lower than in non-vegetated areas assuggested by p-value <0.05 i.e., 0.021. However, there is no any significant difference in mean
AQI levels between vegetated and non-vegetated areas which is shown by p-value i.e., 0.2805(>0.05). Also, the p-value for CO2 was found to be 0.489 i.e.,>0.05 and thus suggests that there
is no significant difference in mean CO2 levels between vegetated and non-vegetated areas. Thus,
there is a significant difference in mean PM2.5 and PM10 levels whereas no significant difference inmean AQI and CO2 levels between vegetated and non-vegetated areas.
The results showed that the urban green coverage rate had significant effect on concentration of PM2.5
and PM10 in both seasons. The non-vegetated roadside showed concentration of Particulate matter,within the permissible limit as per the prescribed guidelines of NAAQS (150 µg/m3 for PM10 and
35 µg/m3 for PM2.5), WHO (50 µg/m3 for PM10 and 25µg/m3 for PM2.5) and USEPA (1997), i.e., 150µg/m3 for PM10 and 65 µg/m3 for PM2.5, while the vegetated area acts as a sink for less concentrationof pollutants. The green areas/vegetated sites of roadside with highest green coverage rate had
the best effect on the reduction of airborne particulate matter than that of non-vegetated roadside,which is also consistent with findings by Qiu et al. (2019). Moreover, the vegetation structure androadside area along with high green coverage in the background environment was dominant on
less particulate matter concentration (Yi et al., 2017). The type and strength of airborne particle
concentration is affected as the green coverage rate/ roadside vegetation decreased i.e., the impactof green area characteristics weakened in the urban roadside, with decreasing green vegetation. It
is due to the large disturbance such as the most vehicle emission in urban road, industrial emissions
or fumes produced by burning plastics, paper or waste nearby roadside. The use of vegetation
removal mechanism and increasing green coverage rate for the reduction of pollution of urban air
particles could be more efficient, on the basis of result obtained. It can be mostly applicable wherecompletely reliance on the control of pollution source is not possible and to reduce the generationof airborne particulate matter directly from the source (Song et al., 2013). The soil dust or fineparticulate matters on the roadside were carried away by wind and influenced by plants, mostly
by blocking and absorbing the pollutants, as the presence of vegetation has an important role indecreasing air pollution.
According to the study by Diener & Mudu, (2021), the vegetation helps in reducing pollutantsby three distinguished mechanisms: deposition, dispersion and modification of PM. Deposition239

referring as a temporary or permanent residence of PM on the surface of a plant, either by adsorption
or by gravitative settling. Dispersion mechanism focuses mainly how plants change the trajectoryand velocity of PM through its physical structure and thirdly a less commonly reviewed groupof mechanisms are those altering the inherent properties of PM, like its size. The modificationof PM can be viewed from two perspectives: (i) the alterations may accelerate deposition (andsubsequently, at least partially, removal) of particles, i.e., larger and heavier particles or an alteredsolubility or loading, (ii) changed compositions or other plant-associated effects may reduce thetoxicity and concentration of particles (Diener & Mudu, 2021). Green plants may also absorb PM
through their stomata or cell membranes of its elements, particularly their leaves and deposited PM
may undergo resuspension into the air, typically inﬂuenced by wind, and removal by wash-off fromleaves for instance, during defoliation. As shown in study by Petroff, (2008), the particles settle
on leaf area by the mechanisms like: sedimentation under gravity, interception, inertial impaction,
Brownian diffusion and turbulent impaction. And the particulate matters thus settled on leaves may
follow two alternative pathways: either they will be absorbed by leaf stomata and will enter into
trees metabolism, or they will accumulate on the leaf surface more frequently until taken to theground by precipitation or re-suspended by the wind. However, concerning the smaller particles
mainly, the absorption is much lower than accumulation (Beckett, 1998).
Green coverage can also favorably or adversely affect ventilation as a critical factor for air quality
in urban areas, such as: a deciduous hedge may block pollutants ﬂow from entering a garden insummer and from being diluted by wind in winter (Diener & Mudu, 2021). Thus, the vegetation’s
leaves are found to be the most instrumental part of the plants for air pollution reductions. In
the study by Warren (1973), it has been shown that if a particular vegetation planting does noteffectively inﬂuence the air pollution in the area, the green space is not lost but can be utilized formany other socially beneﬁcial uses, such as recreation, watershed protection, commercial forestry,urban wildlife, aesthetic enhancement. Overall, the effect of green spaces on our ambient air is
associated with the pollution concentrations, sources and setup, some with the green spaces, anda number with local meteorological and land use variables besides time and scale. One criticalindicator for the short-term health risk of air pollution may be peak PM concentrations, as several
studies suggest that PM deposition increases with its ambient concentration.
Furthermore, the variation of plant species also has different effect on absorption of pollutants andreduction of pollution. For instance, the concentration of PM2.5 and PM10 were lowest in the partly
closed green area of one-layered coniferous trees and the closed green area of one-layered mixed
trees (Qiu et al., 2019). Thus, in the present study too, the vegetation coverage of Chovar areawith mostly pine forest and Thankot with mixed-tree types has lowest concentration of particulatematter. In addition, a small area of green space could adsorb small particles to a certain extent, but
it was powerless for large particles because larger the particle sizes, the worse the absorption of
the vegetation (Cai et al., 2017). Generally, the green areas in urban spaces with different green
coverage rates have different reduction effects on the concentration of airborne particles, which
240 lqlj jflif{s lbj; k|sfzg

provides a theoretical basis and reference for the optimization of green area structures and to
improve air quality effectively in the future.

Conclusion
The comparative study of concentration of particulate matter of different vegetated and nonvegetated roadside was performed in two different seasons. The PM2.5 concentration of nonvegetated roadside surpassed the prescribed NAAQS, WHO and USEPA (1997) guideline, whereas
the PM2.5 concentration of vegetated area of urban roadside was found to be within the range ofthe guidelines. Similarly, AQI value and PM10 concentration also decreased on moving from nonvegetated to vegetated roadside area. The study determined that as the green coverage decreased, theimpact characteristics of green areas weakened to no inﬂuence. Roadside plantation in either sideof road should be emphasized and green cover along roadside of urban areas should be increased,
as vegetation has major role in reducing pollution. Increasing green spaces around city can reduce
movement of suspended particulate matter. Since, particulate pollutants are directly related tohuman health, affecting health and creating various socio-environmental problems, the pollutants
must be reduced or minimized. The government, public and concerned authorities should work
closely to foster the green areas in the urban centers of Nepal.
Acknowledgements
We are grateful to Prof. Dr. Uddhab Raj Khadka, Head of the Central Department of Environmental
Science, Tribhuvan University for his support throughout the study. We owe appreciation to Mr.
Ramesh Basnet for providing necessary field instruments and other logistic support.

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