Activity Report of Field research
Determination of the Extent of Pollution in Soils, Water Bodies, and human hair at thee-waste recycling site
sitess in Ghana
Takashi TOKUMARU1
Japanese Summary

近年世界中で電子電気廃棄物, いわゆる e-waste が増加している. 一方, 先進国内
国内において処理しきれない電子電気廃棄物が違法な手段で中国やフィリピン
違法な手段で中国やフィリピン, ナイジェリア, インドやガーナ等の発インドやガーナ
展途上国に輸出されている. ガーナの首都の首都 Accra にある電子電気廃棄物処理場ではではこのような廃棄
物から Cu や Al 等の金属を回収するため野焼きが行われを回収するため野焼きが行われ, 多くの有害物質が環境中に放出されている. それゆえ、環境汚染及び健康への影響が懸念されている。
及び健康への影響が懸念されている。
Accra における現地調査の目的は, ガーナにおける電子機器廃棄物処理場での活動が人および環における電子機器廃棄物処理場での活動が人および環境に与える影響を把握することである。現地では土や泥与える影響を把握することである。現地では土や泥, 魚, 毛髪を採取し簡単な前処理を行った
採取し簡単な前処理を行った.
また処理場で働く人々の労働状況を把握するため
労働状況を把握するため彼らに対してインタビューを行ったに対してインタビューを行った. インタビュ
ーを通じて, 野焼き労働者は主にガーナ北部から来た比較的貧しい移民
ガーナ北部から来た比較的貧しい移民であり, インタビュー対象者は 12~32 歳, 1 日およそ 9~10 時間, 週 5~6 日働いていることが明らかとなった.
採取した魚や土壌、毛髪における土壌、毛髪における重金属の濃度を分析した結果、魚の濃度範囲は魚の濃度範囲は Cu (0.572-13,8µg/g d.w.), Zn (<0.0764-212
212 µg/g d.w.),
d.w. As (1.42-32.2 µg/g d.w.), Se (1.2-5.08
5.08 µg/g d.w.
d.w.), Cd(<0.005-0.244 µg/g d.w.), Sn (<0.008<0.008-0.0898 µg/g d.w.), Sb (<0.0004-0.00677
0.00677 µg/g d.w.
d.w.), Pb

であった. 魚における As, Cd, Pb の PTWI(耐容一週間摂取量)は As においてのみ超えていた. As と Se においてはは, 処理場から離れた場所のサンプルと比して高い値を示した
高い値を示した.
毛髪中における重金属の濃度は濃度は , Cu (8.14-206 µg/g d.w.), Zn (74.8-520
520 µg/g d.w.), As(<0.03-0.414 µg/g d.w.)(<0.0221-0.215 µg/g d.w.), Cd ( 0.0842-1.37
0.0842µg/g d.w.), Sn ( 0.0842-1.37 µg/g d.w.),
d.w. Sb (0.026-2.25であった. 電子電気廃棄物処理場付近に住む人々
人々の毛髪におけるAs, Cd, Sb, Pb 濃度は, 処理場から離れた場所のサンプル処理場から離れた場所のサンプルより高い値を示した. これは, 処理場付近に住む人々が有害元素を長期間にわたり摂取していることをを長期間にわたり摂取していることを示唆している.
µg/g d.w.), Pb ( 1.42-265 µg/g d.w.)

1 1st year of Master student, Department of Agriculture
Agriculture, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology, Tokyo, Japan.

Department of Agriculture, University of Ghana from 8th September to 6th December

English Summary
The production of electric and electronic products is a fast-growing industry, leading toincreasing numbers of electronic wastes, or e-wastes. Some of them are illegally dispatched todeveloping countries including China, Philippines, Nigeria, India and Ghana, and copper,
aluminum and other valuable materials are recovered through open burning and scraping ine-waste recycling sites. These e-waste activities involve a process of releasing various harmful
substances (e.g. cadmium and mercury) into the air and water. This is considered to be one of
the most serious environmental problems in Ghana.
There is a little information about effects on human health from e-waste activities in Ghana.
The aim of my field work was to understand the details of e-waste activities in Ghana by
investigating trace elements and heavy metals contamination in human bodies as well as
environments around the e-waste recycling site of its capital, Accra. I collected soil, sediment,
fish and hair samples and tested trace elements they contained by using Inductively Coupled
Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS). In addition to this, oral interviews were conducted tohear from workers in the site and examine the relationship between their ways of recycling andexposure to toxic substances. According to my findings, many workers engaged in e-waste
recycling come from the northern part of the country. They work about 9-10 hours per day and5-6 days a week. Their activities are harmful to their health and damage people even living
beyond the recycling site.
In this field survey, fish, soil, sediment and hair samples were collected from the e-waste
recycling site, James town near the site, and 3 controlled areas: Madina estate, University of
Ghana’s farm in Akosombo and Saltpond. The trace element concentrations in fish samples
were: Cu (0.572-13.8 µg/g d.w.), Zn (<0.0764-212 µg/g d.w.), As (1.42-32.2 µg/g d.w.), Cd(<0.005-0.244 µg/g d.w.), Sn (<0.008-0.0898 µg/g d.w.), Sb (<0.0004-0.00677 µg/g d.w.) and Pb(<0.03-0.414 µg/g d.w.). This revealed that the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) of As
in fish exceeded its threshold (15 µg/kg body weight/week). The concentrations of As in fish
collected from James town were significantly higher than those in the samples of the controlled
sites.
The concentrations in hair samples were Cu (8.14-206 µg/g d.w.), Zn (74.8-520 µg/g d.w.), As(<0.0221-0.215 µg/g d.w.), Cd ( 0.0842-1.37 µg/g d.w.), Sn ( 0.0842-1.37 µg/g d.w.), Sb (0.026-2.25µg/g d.w.) and Pb ( 1.42-265 µg/g d.w.). The concentrations of As, Cd, Sb and Pb in hair samples
collected from the e-waste site were significantly higher than those in the samples of thecontrolled site. This indicates that the high concentrations of Sb, Cd and Pb are likely to be
attributed to e-waste activities of the recycling site.
The field survey allowed me to explore how human health is damaged by e-waste activities in
Accra, Ghana. It demonstrated that some toxic elements have been accumulated in human haircollected at the e-waste site; still the larger number of hair samples is necessary for a moredetailed examination of the impact of e-waste activities.

21. Introduction
The production of electric and electronic equipment is a fast-growing industry (UNDP, 2005).
They are large appliances including TVs, laptops, refrigerators and air-conditioners. Some ofthese appliances have short lifecycles and are disposed of quickly. They are known as “electronic
waste,” or simply e-wastes. It is estimated that the total amount of e-wastes was 41.8 million
metric tons (Mt) in 2014 and will increase to 50 Mt by 2018 (Baldé et al., 2015). These include
e-wastes that are domestically dismantled and recycled ones. Meanwhile, e-waste materials
that are produced in developed countries are exported illegally to developing countries including
Philippines, Nigeria, India and Ghana (Greenpeace, 2008). There are some e-waste recyclingsites in these countries where copper, aluminum and other kinds of rare metals are recovered
through open burning. In Ghana, there is an e-waste recycling site called “Agbogbloshie,” which
is located in Accra facing the sea (Fig. 1). E-wastes contain various materials including
hazardous, valuable and scarce metals (Baldé et al., 2015). A process of dismantling andburning them involves the emission of hazardous chemicals, such as antimony, arsenic,
cadmium, chrome, nickel, mercury, lead, poly-brominated biphenyl and poly-brominateddiphenyl ether (Brigden, 2008, Greenpeace, 2008, Song and Li, 2014). Cd is used as stabilizers
in PVC, switches and solder joints in electronics. Cadmium sulfide is also used in cathode ray
tubes (CRTs). Laptop computers often contain rechargeable nickel cadmium (Ni-Cd) batteries(OECD, 2003). Sb is a metal with a variety of industrial uses, including being a flame retardant(as antimony trioxide) and as a trace component of metal solders in some forms. Antimony is acomponent of lead-acid batteries and some of this antimony is volatilized as gaseous stibnite(SbH3) at each charging of the battery (Andrewes et al, 2004). Pb is widely used as a major
component of solders (as an alloy with tin) and lead oxide in the glass of cathode ray tubes(televisions and monitors). Its compounds are employed as stabilizers in some PVC cables andother products (Greenpiece, 2008).
Beside obvious health implications for workers engaged in e-waste recycling, pollutants fromthe site can contaminate soils and rivers and further be transported to adjacent areas. These
harmful chemicals are accumulated in lands and rivers and accumulated in the urine of theworkers and inhabitants living in areas around e-waste recycling sites. (Asante et al., 2012,
Brigden et al., 2008, Caravanos et al., 2011, Caravanos et al., 2013, Hosoda et al., 2014, Huang
et al., 2014, Otsuka et al., 2012, Wang et al., 2009). According to some previous studies, Cu, Cd
and Pb were accumulated in hairs of e-waste recycling workers in China (Wang et al., 2009,
Zheng et al., 2011). A human hair is sampled and analyzed for the exploration of heavy metalson large cohorts (Rodrigues et al., 2008). Compared to other types of clinical specimens, a hair
has different uses for biomonitoring and even advantages over blood or urine. While urine andblood tend to show current or recent body status, a hair represents the accumulation of metals3

in a longer time frame, potentially several years. Since the concentrations of elements in hair
are higher than in urine and blood, we can analyze elements in hair more sensitive and accurate(Dean A et al., 2001). Trace elements and heavy metals in human urine have already been used
for biomonitoring at Agbogbloshie (Asante et al., 2012, Caravanos et al., 2013). However, ahuman hair for trace elements has not been collected there, to analyze the long-term impact of
its e-waste activities on human bodies. Generally, studies on environmental exposure tochemicals/substances emitted from its e-waste-recycling site as well as their effects on humanhealth are not adequate in Ghana. There is in particular a little information on e-waste workers
and their working conditions.
The objective of my field trip was to understand trace elements and heavy metals
contamination around the e-waste recycling site of the capital of Ghana, Accra by collecting andanalyzing trace elements in soils, sediments, fish and human hairs. Interviews with e-waste
recycling workers were conducted in this survey, to reveal exposure to toxic materials which
they were supposed to experience. During the field trip, I attempted to investigate how e-waste
activities as well as contaminated foodstuffs affect health conditions of people in and beyond thesite.

2. Study Area
Fig. 1 shows the map of “Agbogbloshie.” This e-waste recycling site is located in Accra, thecapital of Ghana. It adjoins one of the biggest fishing ports in Accra, James town, with a big
market selling tomatoes, onions, yams, cassavas and other types of vegetables. At Agbogbloshie,
workers dismantle and burn e-wastes, so as to recover some valuable materials. Abandoned
appliances from the Netherlands are shipped via Antwerp, Belgium to Tema harbor, which islocated 25km east of the city.
In this field trip, Madina estate, Akosombo and Saltpond approximately 13km north, 82km
northeast and 100km west from Agbogbloshie were surveyed as controlled sites to compare theimpact of e-waste activities.

4

Fig. 1 Map of “Agbogbloshie”

3. Methodology
Methodology
3.1 Interview
Interview was conducted to e-waste
waste recycling workers at Agbogbloshie. Interviewees wererandomly sampled and finally 12 in total. They included 10 recyclers and 2 dismantlers. I visitedthe recycling site in operation twice and asked them about their working hours,
hours activities andwages.

3.2 Sample collection
Thee investigation and sampling were conducted in Agbogbloshie, James town, Madina estate,
Akosombo and Saltpond.. Surface soils were collected from the e-waste
waste recycling site (n=26) andUniversity of Ghana’s farm in Akosombo (n=3).. In all spots, samples were gathered from 3
points about 1m apart from each other and mixed in a plastic bag. Sediments were collectedaround the e-waste recycling site (n=5) and from Akosombo river (n=3) by using a sediment
sampler (Ekman-Birge grab).. Hair samples were collected from Agbogbloshie (n=35, from 2
barbershops) and Madina estate as a controlled site (n=9, from 1 barbershop)
barbershop during theirroutine haircut and shaving sessions in barbershops. Most participants had a relatively short
hair length (< 10cm). Ages and gender
genders were identified. The use of hair treatments and dyeing
as well as washing routines were unknown, but a few samples indicated that they were dyed or
bleached. Fish
ish samples were collected from Akosombo,
Akoso
Saltpond and James town
own. 5, 23 and 38
samples were surveyed respectively.

3.3 Pre-treatment

53.3.1 Soil
The collected soil samples were air-dried for 2 days, passed through a 2 mm sieve andsubmitted for analysis. For digestion, 0.5 g of the sieved sample was placed in a PFT beaker andcovered with a PFT clock-shaped dish. It was boiled gently with HNO3 and HClO4 in anacid-resistant ventilation chamber. After brown color fumes were turned to white, the PFT cover
was removed and the acid was completely released. Then 16 ml of HF was added and heated at
150 ℃ for the complete decomposition of the aluminosilicate substances. As the materials werecompletely dissolved, HF was evaporated by means of a heater. After thermal release, thedigested fluid was filtered and diluted for the instrumental analysis.

3.3.2 Fish
Samples collected at Akosombo, Saltpond and James town were stored in a deep-freezer
at20 ℃ until dissect in Ghana. They were dissected and the liver, muscles and gills were taken
for chemical analysis. Before dissection biometrics of the samples was measured. They weredried in an oven for 16h at 90℃ and homogenized to a fine powder using a mortar. For digestion,
0.1g of the samples were transferred into a Teflon digestion vessel and digested with 2ml nitricacid using microwave. After this, the digested fluid was filtered and diluted for the instrumental
analysis. The instrumental analysis was conducted using ICP-MS in Japan.

3.3.3 Human hair
Hairs collected at barbershops were already cut into small pieces and mixed up. This study
employed the IAEA method to wash them. They were stirred and rinsed for 10-minute periods
with acetone, three times with water, and again with acetone (Chat A., 1985). After cleansing,
the samples were dried for 12 hours at 80 ℃ and stored in a plastic bag. For digestion, 0.1 g of
the samples were transferred into a Teflon digestion vessel and digested with 2ml nitric acidusing a microwave. Finally, the digested fluid was filtered and diluted for the instrumental
analysis.

3.4 Instrumental analysis
The concentrations of trace elements (Cu, Zn, As, Cd, Sn, Sb and Pb) in all types of thesamples were measured by an inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometer (ICP-MS 7500a).
Analytical accuracy was confirmed by analyzing standard reference materials, NIES No. 13
Human Hair provided by National Institute of Environmental Studies (NIES), Japan. The
recovery values of trace elements were in the range of 77.4-116.
4.

Findings and Discussions
Discussions

4.1. Interviewing e-waste workers
The interviews with e-waste recycling workers revealed that the length of working hours was

6between 9 and 10 hours on average. The working hours depended on types of activities in which
they were involved (e.g. dismantling, waste picking and burning). Contrary to the results of mysurvey, the previous study mentioned that the average length of a workday was between 10 and
12 hours per day (Akormedi et al., 2013). This difference might be attributed to the types ofinterviewees. The surveyed labors worked 5 or 6 days a week and received 5 Ghs for 1 pound of
copper. Friday and Sunday were their days off, because most workers were Muslims. The ages of
the interviewed workers were between 12 and 32. This interview showed that the majority ofthem lived in wooden houses around the market close to the site, but I could not find out how
many people actually lived there in total.
E-wastes were moved from Tema harbor to the recycling site by big truck, and in the site
dismantled wastes were transported to its incineration area by bicycle. Flat tires, straws andbumpers were used to burn e-wastes efficiently. This burning process resulted in the generationof black smoke reaching residential areas northwards. It is considered that during e-waste
activities, potential health risk as well as the contamination of the market might occur. Those
who sold food and water in the site were women only. Water was sold not only for drinking but
also for putting out the fire and cooling body. Although the e-waste workers were exposed tohazards from smoke and sharp objects, the majority of them did not use personal protective
devices, including masks and works clothes. Some workers used heavy shoes; others just put on
sandals.
I participated in one of e-waste activities to understand how it feels. Because of black smoke
always around me, I could not open my eyes and stay there for a long time. After the activity, I
realized that there were a lot of black dust depositions on my body and hairs.
During the field survey, dwellers of areas around the e-waste recycling site told me that floods
occurred frequently during the rainy season. The main concern is here that contaminated soils
as well as some e-wastes are transported to water bodies by flooding. According to an officer of
the Ghanaian government, it has conducted the detailed investigation on the environmental
risks by flooding and planned to construct a river dike.

7

Fig.2 E-waste
te recycling site. A: Burning e-waste. B: Burning of e-waste using tire and bumper. C: The
women selling water and food near the burning site. D: Interviewing person who workss near the e-waste
recycling site.

4.2 Concentrations of trace elements in soil samples
Table 1 shows the concentrations of trace elements in soil
soils collected from the e-waste
recycling and controlled sites. The concentrations of the elements in soils of the recycling site
were: Cu 602 (44-53643) mg/kg d.w.
d.w., Zn 1274 (314-5076) mg/kg d.w., As (2.97-21.9
21.9) mg/kg d.w.,
Cd 1.51 (0.392-7.34) mg/kg d.w.,, Sn 33.3 (3.4-275) mg/kg d.w., Sb 36.6 (3.13-364364) mg/kg d.w. andPb 442 (78-8976) mg/kg d.w. The levels of the concentrations of Cu, Zn, Pb were extremely highand ascribed to the processes of dismantling and burning e-wastes. By contrast,
contrast theconcentrations of these elements in soil
soils collected from the controlled site were relatively low.
Table 1 Concentrations of trace elements in soil samples (mg/kg d.w.)

8Location

NumberE-waste

GM

Cu

Zn

As

Cd

Sn

Sb

Pb

602

1274

6.69

1.51

33.3

36.6

442

(314-5076)(2.97-21.9)(0.392-7.34)(3.4-275)(3.13-364)(78-8976)

86.0

3.01

0.11

3.77

0.42

8.49

n=7
recycling site

(Range) (44-53643)

University's farm
n=3

GM

3.36

in Akosombo

GM: Geometric mean

4.3 Concentrations of trace elements in fish
Table 2 shows the concentrations of the trace elements in fish collected from James town andother controlled sites: Saltpond and Akosombo. The levels of the concentrations in fish samplesof James town were significantly higher than those at Saltpond and Akosombo (p<0.01, t-test).
The concentrations of these elements in fish were: Cu (0.572-13,8 µg/g d.w.), Zn (<0.0764-212µg/g d.w.), As (1.42-32.2 µg/g d.w.), Cd (<0.005-0.244 µg/g d.w.), Sn (<0.008-0.0898 µg/g d.w.), Sb(<0.0004-0.00677 µg/g d.w.) and Pb (<0.03-0.414 µg/g d.w.).
To argue the figure of As level in fish, reference to the indicator called Provisional Permissible
Tolerable Weekly Intakes, or PTWI as well as food habits of Ghanaians is necessary. The PTWI
indicator is an endpoint which is referenced in exploring food contaminants such as heavy
metals with cumulative properties. Its value represents permissible human weekly exposure tothese contaminants unavoidably taken in through the consumption of wholesome and nutritious
foods (FAO and WHO, 2011). The joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on food additives sets
PTWI of As, Cd and Pb at 15, 7 and 25 µg/kg body weight /week (FAO and WHO, 2004).
According to FAO food balance sheets, Ghanaians eat approximately 522 g of fish per week. If
the average Ghanaian body weight is about 50 kg, the weekly tolerable thresholds can be As:
750 µg/week, Cd: 350 µg/week and Pb: 1250 µg /week.
As indicated in table 2, the estimated PTWI of As in fish samples of this survey is just above
the threshold PTWI (As: 7×522>750 µg, Cd: 0.028×522<350 µg, Pb: 0.12×522<1250 µg). The Cd
and Pb levels in fish do not necessarily mean immediate threats to human health. In addition,
there are several chemical forms of As, some of which are toxic. Therefore, it is difficult to
examine the relationship between the impact of e-waste activities of the recycling site and levelof As.

Table 2 Concentrations of trace elements in fish samples from Ghana (µg/g d.w.)
Site

NumberJames town

n=38

GM

Cu

Zn

As

Cd

Sn

Sb

Pb

2.14

45.3

7

0.02850.02190.00265

0.117

9

Saltpond and
n=28

GM

3.3

41.6

2.43

0.06

0.054

N.D.

0.13

Akosombo

GM: Geometric mean N.D.: Not detected

4.4 Concentrations of trace elements in hair samples
The concentrations of the trace elements in sampled human hairs are shown in Table 5: Cu
19.9 (8.14-206) µg/g d.w., Zn 141 (74.8-520) µg/g d.w., As 0.102 (<0.0221-0.215) µg/g d.w., Cd
0.160 (0.0842-1.37) µg/g d.w., Sn 0.309 (0.0842-1.37) µg/g d.w., Sb 0.319 (0.026-2.25) µg/g d.w.
and Pb 30.9 (1.42-265) µg/g d.w. The concentrations of the trace elements increased
As<Cd<Cu<Pb<Sb<Sn<Zn in order. In terms of the concentrations of As, Cd, Sb and Pb, there
was significant difference (p<0.01, t-test) between those living in the e-waste recycling site andthe controlled ones. The concentrations of Cu and Zn were not significantly different between
those living in the e-waste recycling and controlled sites. However, the maximum concentrationsof them in the recycling site were 520 µg/g, which was 2-3 times higher than those in thecontrolled ones: 206 µg/g.
It is considered that the As concentrations in human hairs are ascribed to regular fish intake
or e-waste activities of the recycling site. The concentrations of some trace elements in tap waterfrom Accra are significantly higher than those from a mining site, Obuasi, but the previous
study suggests that trace element concentrations in drinking water are not necessarily
associated with the levels of them in humans (Asante K.A. et al., 2012). As is contained in lightemitting diodes (LEDs) and integrated circuit boards as forms of gallium arsenide (OECD, 2003).
Hence further investigation on the impact of e-waste activities of Agbogbloshie is necessary.
Table 3 Concentrations of trace elements in hair samples (µg/g d.w.)
SampleNumberResidents in e-waste arean=18

Residents in control area

n=9

Cu

Zn

As

Cd

Sn

Sb

Pb

GM

19.9

141

0.102

0.160

0.309

0.319

30.9

GM

12.1

134

0.05

0.04530.193

0.04982.30

GM: Geometric mean

In this survey, I revealed that the concentrations of Pb and Cd in human hairs wereaccumulated in a long term. The previous study shows that the concentrations of Pb and Cd inurine and blood serum of people living in the e-waste recycling site were not necessarily higher
than those in controlled areas (Caravanos et al, 2013). By contrast, my field work demonstrated
that the concentrations of e-waste elements in hairs of people livening in Agbogbloshie weresignificantly higher than those in the controlled site. While it is thought that concentrations inurine and blood serum are reflections of recent exposure to heavy materials, they are unlikely torepresent long-term results of contact with toxic materials. The high levels of the concentrationsof Cd and Pb that this study illustrates are thus understood as long-term health implications of10

e-waste activities of the recycling site.

5. Conclusion
This field research was conducted to clarify routes of contamination from the e-waste
recycling site of Accra, Ghana. The interview revealed that working hours of e-waste recycling
workers were 9-10 hours on average. The ages of the interviewed workers were between 12 and32 and they received 5 Ghs for 1 pound of copper. Some hurmful chemical compounds weredischarged and emitted through e-waste activities. The analysis of the collected samples
demonstrated that the concnentrations of some toxic elements in soils were extremely high,suggesting that inhalation and inflow of ash to river as well as humans are likley to be pollutant
pathways. The concentrations of As in fish were also significantly high, but the levels of theother poisounous elements were similar to those in the controlled sites. In addition, this fieldsurvey revealed that the concentraitons of some toxic elements in hairs were remarkably high.
The fact that the concentarations of Cd, Sb and Pb in tap water were relatively low indicatesthat high metal conentrations in hair samples could be affected by e-waste activities involving
processes of dismantling and burning e-wastes. The collection of hairs at barbarshops entailed
the confirmation of the sex and age of those who left ‘samples,’ but I realized that theiroccupations were hoped to be identified for the examination of the direct impact of e-waste
activities on human health. In short, further inverstigation is required to get more detailed
information on environmental exposure to chemicals emitted from Agbogbloshie.

6. Acknowledge
I really want to thank GLTP staff for assisting me sincerely and providing me with a great
opportunity to carry out my research. I am thankful to Prof. John Ofosu-Anim for acceccpting
me and to Prof. Siaw Onwona-Agyeman, Dr. Ozaki and Prof. Izumi Watanabe for assisting mefrom Japan. Finally, I really want to show my appreciation to Ms. Adisa Lansah Yakubu for
accepting me and hosting me for 3 months. She gave me a useful advice to carry out myresearch.

7. References
Akormedi M., Asampong E. and Fobil J.N. (2013) Working conditions and environmental
exposures among electronic waste workers in Ghana. International Journal of Occupational andEnvironmental Health. 19(4), 278-286.
Andrewes, P., KitChendian, K.T. and Wallace, K. (2004) Plasmid DNA damage caused by stibine
and trimethylstibine. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology. 194, 41-48.

11

Asante K.A., Agusa T., Biney C.A., Agyekum W.A., Bello M., Otsuka M., Itai T., Takahashi S.
and Tanabe S. (2012) Multi-trace element levels and arsenic speciation in urine of e-waste
recycling workers from Agbogbloshie, Accra in Ghana. Science of the Total Environment, 424,
63-73.
Baldé, C.P., Wang, F., Kuehr, R. and Huisman, J. (2015) The Global E-waste Monitor -2014,
United Nations University, IAS-SCYCLE.
Brigden K., Labunska I., Santillo D. and Johnston P. (2008) Chemical contamination at e-waste
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