Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center

The Role of a Self-Access Learning Center in Japan: Accommodation ofTranslingual Practice amidst International Educational Reform

Tetsushi Ohara
Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University
t-ohara@apu.ac.jp
Ryo Mizukura
Meiji University
rmizukura@meiji.ac.jp

Author Biography
Tetsushi Ohara is a senior lecturer in Japanese at Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University (APU).
His research interests include comprehending learner autonomy in language learning,
designing class activities to promote active learning, and articulating the roles of Self-Access
Learning Centers.
Ryo Mizukura is a senior assistant professor at the Organization for International
Collaboration in Meiji University. His research interest is in translingual identity of language
teachers and students, language ideology, and English as a Lingua Franca in higher
education.

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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
Abstract
In recent years, Japanese higher education has seen drastic reforms to accommodate the rapidchanges of social structure and economic order in light of globalization. The government haspromoted a policy of educating university students to become active participants in the future
global society. Although the government has financially supported these university
reformations, mainly neoliberal procedures have been employed; universities have been held
responsible for their own reformation, while accountability has been ensured using numerical
data, such as the number of international students or taught English taught courses. As forlanguage education, universities have tended to use language test scores, such as TOEFL and
IELTS to evaluate outcomes. However, the knowledge assessed in these language tests isfragmented, regulating learners’ diverse language use. Thus, research in applied linguistics
has recently begun to critically evaluate such neoliberal measures of reform. The present casestudy aimed to qualitatively assess how a Japanese university’s globalization policy has
influenced the development of translingual agency in two students working as peer advisors
at the university’s Self-Access Learning Center (SALC). The results indicated that theneoliberal reformation of language education could influence the natural language activitiesof translingual language learners, but that the SALC could be an important place for learners
to explore their translingual identities and engage in diverse language activities.
近年グローバル化の最中、日本の高等教育は社会構造や経済秩序の急速な変化に対応するため劇的な改革を進めてきた。政府は将来グローバルに活躍できる人材を育てるため、大学生の教育に関して変化を求めてきた。しかし、政府は財政的に大学の改革を支えてきたものの、それらの多くは新自由主義的方策が採用されてきた。
すなわち、大学はその改革に責任を持つと同時に、説明責任として数値的データを用いて外部に示してきた。例えば、留学生の数や英語の試験の点数といったものである。言語教育については、大学は教育成果を評価するために、TOEFL や IELTS のスコアを使用する傾向にある。しかし、これらのテストで評価される知識は断片化されたものであり、学習者の多様な言語使用を制限してきた。したがって、近年の応用言語学の領域では新自由主義的改革について批判的に評価されている。本研究は、二人のピーアアドバイザーとして大学の自律学習センターで働いていた学生に対し質的な調査を行った。調査では主に、日本の大学のグローバル化政策が、2 人の学生のトランスリンガルなエージェンシーを発揮するにあたりどのように影響を与えてきたのかを検証した。
Keywords: translanguaging, language learner identity, language learner agency,
McDonaldization, neoliberalism

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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
Accompanying the progression of globalization, a radical reformation of university
education has begun in Japan, with the central aim of developing university students to be
active participants in the new global society. Although the Project for Promotion of Global
Human Resource Development in 2012 and the Top Global University (TGU) Project in2014, led by the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT),
has financially supported this reformation, with regards to actual policy-making andimplementation, largely neoliberal measures have been employed. Individual universities
have been expected to reform their curricula and to demonstrate outcomes by reporting
numerical data, such as improved test scores and numbers of students joining study abroad
programs. These neoliberal reformation procedures have been subject to scrutiny withinapplied linguistics (e.g., Block, 2018; Holborow, 2013; Kubota, 2014, 2016) because of thetest-based evaluations of linguistic and cultural knowledge. It is widely argued that aspects oflanguage and culture are inseparable and thus cannot be individually measured through tests
such as the Test of English as a Foreign Language (TOEFL) or International English
Language Testing System (IELTS).
Although these neoliberal education reformation projects have tended to focus on
fragmented knowledge, which is standardized for equal evaluation of English ability, thenature of language use in an international context is more complex. Applied linguists have
explored the nature of international communication practices and labeled them astranslanguaging (García & Li Wei, 2014). Foreign language learners who engage intranslanguaging can integrate various languages into one system and choose different
resources to communicate with others depending on the context. In translingualism(Canagarajah, 2013), which is an umbrella term encompassing superdiversity (Blommarert &Rampton, 2012), metorolingualism (Pennycook & Otsuji, 2015), and translanguaging (García& Li Wei, 2014), it is vital to consider the contradiction between monolithic standards in

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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
neoliberal reformation and the complex nature of international communication or language
learning in translingual speakers.
Furthermore, universities in Japan have focused on improvement of language abilityof students in the TGU project implementation. However, they have paid less attention to theeducational efficacy of Self-Access Learning Centers (SALCs), even though SALCs enable
learners to realize their own personally designed language learning through engagement withvarious resources, teachers, and other learners (Gardner & Miller, 1999). Thus, in order toexplore how neoliberal reformation affects students’ language learning experiences at a
SALC, we report on a qualitative case study of two translingual students at a Japanese
university. The following sections will review the relevant theoretical background, describe
the methods, and summarize the results of the present study. Finally, the effects of theinstitution’s neoliberal policies on translingual language learning and activities will be
discussed.

Literature Review
Neoliberalism and Language Education
Neoliberalism is a politico-economic body of thought, which, according to Kubota(2014), encourages “privatizing public services, creating a flexible workforce, and increasing
individual and institutional accountability for economic success” (p. 485). Due to the
reduction of public services provided by the welfare system, neoliberalism can potentiallygenerate or widen economics gaps between the upper and lower classes.
With regard to language education, neoliberalism has been found to largely
influence the English language teaching (ELT) industry. Due to the nature of neoliberalism,
individual accountability plays a greater role in decision-making. As quantified results are
preferred to measure success, the focus on improvements in scores on tests such as TOEFL or
IELTS places pressures on educators and students. This is evidenced in language school
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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
advertisements that claim that by attending their schools, students could improve their
TOEFL scores. In Japan, most students must study English as a required subject foruniversity entrance exams, and thus are drawn to books designed specifically for entrance
exam preparation and cram schools (Tsuneyoshi, 2013). It seems that this trend in language
education could be influenced by the commercialization of education.
Ritzer (2011) developed the concept of McDonaldization, which refers to thephenomenon of various industries and sectors, such as education, operating in ways that
resemble fast-food restaurants. It is characterized by efficiency, calculability, predictability,
and control (Ritzer, 2011). Gray and Block (2012) criticized the scientific management andtailor-made system of teacher education in ELT industries, which they argue applied thesefour characteristics. Seargeant (2009) also warned that McDonaldized language education
tended to employ widely-used standardized textbooks and teaching methods, aimed at more
economical and systematic efficacy rather than promoting the diverse identities andincarnations of the language.
Furthermore, De Costa and Norton (2017) argued that these result-oriented
quantitative outcomes largely resembled neoliberalism in that competent teachers focused
their teaching on improving students’ language test scores. In addition, in spite of the fact that
language knowledge is not divisible into discrete fragments, in order to quantitatively
evaluate students’ learning outcomes, the language has been fragmented and teachers havebecome a pedagogical tool for inputting fragmented knowledge into students’ brains. De
Costa and Norton (2017) problematized this tendency for quantification and fragmentation of
education and its outcomes, arguing that the nature of education was more dynamic andcomplex. While the effectiveness of standardized tests for objectively and quickly evaluating
English ability should be acknowledged, the diversified and practical language use andlearning achieved through SALCs cannot always be applied to language tests, posing achallenge for students who must prioritize studies that directly impact their futures.
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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning CenterTranslingualism and Autonomous Language Learning
As mentioned above, neoliberal language education has focused on quantitatively
measurable knowledge due to institutional accountability. Kubota (2016) argued thatneoliberalism in language education tended to ignore the historical aspects of humanity,
culture, and subjective experience in language learning. Throughout the continuous
expansion of globalization, international communication styles have also diversified
considerably. In particular, English has become a lingua franca in the global community, andinternational communication in English amongst non-native English speakers has spread.
Thus, the nature of international communication practices has become increasingly complex.
Many scholars, such as Blommarert and Rampton (2012), have discussed how tointerpret the nature of international communication in modern society. Blommarert andRampton (2012) introduced the term superdiversity, which describes the dramatic increase inmigrations, resulting in migrants losing sociocultural features, such as their nationality,
ethnicity, language, and religion. Because of superdiversity, languages have become mixed
and methods of communication have become complex. Furthermore, many scholars (e.g.,
Canagarajah, 2011; Creese & Blackledge, 2010; García & Li Wei, 2014) have discussed
these international communication practices in terms of translanguaging, or “the ability ofmultilingual speakers to shuttle between languages, treating the diverse languages that form
their repertoire as an integrated system” (Canagarajah, 2011, p. 401).
In translingualism, continuous changes in languages similar to the transformations of
the world due to the globalization can be observed. According to Canagarajah (2013),
although certain features of English may be undeniably helpful in international
communication, English cannot be an absolute norm to guarantee successful meaning-making
activities in communication. Pennycook (2010) also mentioned that the language systems ofeach individual are always re-localized with new meanings and values depending on thesituation. Thus, a new indexicality of vocabulary and syntax is continuously being generated
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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Centerin the language system. In other words, the system can persistently be in the state of
becoming.
In addition, the concept of learner autonomy has had political and cultural
implications on Western perspectives and English. Pennycook (2014) observed that theconcept of learner autonomy was founded in individualism from the European Enlightenment
and that its dissemination across the world coincided with that of English as an international
language. Riley (1988) further critiqued the relationship between learner autonomy andculture, arguing that the definition of learner autonomy failed to include non-Western culturaland educational backgrounds. Other researchers had also tried to investigate the applicabilityof autonomy in Asian educational contexts (e.g., Palfreyman, 2003; Smith, 2001). However,as Benson (2013) suggested, each individual has his or her own autonomy, and even within
an individual, autonomy can be manifested differently according to specific contexts. As theparadigm of translingualism does not follow the monolingual principle of one language as
one culture, observing the nature of foreign language learners and learner autonomy from amonolingual perspective would not yield valid results. Thus, it is necessary to consider
political and cultural factors when investigating and analyzing how students approach theirlearning and use languages in the translingual environment.

Research Methodology
The present research was conducted at a medium-sized international university inJapan, known for its multicultural environment and bilingual education system in which mostof the undergraduate courses are held in both Japanese and English. The majority of theinternational students are from Asian countries and the university has been selected as one of
the 24 TGU (Global Traction Type) by MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports,
Science and Technology, Japan, 2019). The university also emphasizes the globalization ofJapanese students while paying special attention to improving Japanese students’ English
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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
ability. As parts of its global learning plan, the university promotes high achievement inrecognized English tests, such as TOEFL and IELTS, and study abroad experiences.
The SALC offers a range of language learning support to students studying English,
Japanese, and Chinese outside of classrooms. Peer advisors (PAs) offer students opportunities
to practice English, Japanese, and Chinese and learning advisors (LAs) provide students withadvice regarding their language studies and university lifestyles. In addition, the SALC
organizes a range of social and cultural events, including Japanese calligraphy lessons, guitar
lessons, and movie nights. It also provides a variety of language learning materials, including
games and comic books. The SALC is not only a place to study languages, but also a space tosocialize with friends. This context could play a significant role in realizing the aim of thisresearch project because it can reveal how these two translingual participants use interesting
features of the SALC to design their own language learning and exercise their diverse
language use.
ParticipantsThis case study focuses on two female Japanese university students, Hanako andYoshiko1, who were selected as research participants because of their extensive experiencesat the SALC and their abilities to use several languages in communication. The aim was toinvestigate how and why students’ approaches to language learning and use had changed, or
not changed, due to their experiences at the SALC. Thus, Hanako and Yoshiko, both ofwhom were fourth-year students and who had been visiting the SALC since their first year at
the university were deemed suitable for the purposes of this observation. Additionally, thetwo participants had similar experiences, as they both worked at the SALC as PAs, hadjoined an overseas program at the university, and spoke a third language other than Japaneseor English (see Table 1). Both agreed to participate in the study when recruited by the
researchers and, following an orientation regarding the study, signed a research participationconsent form.
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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
Table 1
General Information on the ParticipantsParticipant 1

Participant 2

Name

HanakoYoshiko

GenderFemaleFemale

Year

4th

4th

Languages

Japanese, English, and Indonesian

Japanese, English, and KoreanInternational

1.

1.

experience2.

Indonesia

United Kingdom(one-year exchange at a senior(one-year exchange at ahigh school)

university)

Indonesia(eight-month internship as aJapanese language assistant)

PA experience

3 years

0.5 yearat the SALC

Data Collection Methods
This study employed narrative inquiry to investigate the participants’ diachronic
experiences, particularly concerning foreign language learning and the use of translanguaging
in the two participants. Their stories were collected in Japanese. To account for varying
storytelling abilities and the subjective nature of the narratives, this study employed two
different types of narrative (Flick, 2007, 2014). First, the participants were asked to write
about their language learning history2 (LLH; Barkhuizen et al., 2013) at the end of their thirdyear at the university. Subsequently, they participated in semi-structured oral narrativeinterviews in Japanese when they were fourth year students.
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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning CenterIn the LLH, they were asked to reflect on their past experiences at the SALC,
explaining their language learning experiences and use. The interview questions aimed to
extract more narrative from the participants to attain deeper insights into their LLHs.
Considering the practical limitations (i.e., time and place) of each data collection method, thisresearch followed Riemann’s suggestion (as cited in Flick, 2014), primarily focusing on“how” questions, followed by “why” questions. In addition, in order to further triangulate thedata, one of the language support sessions was recorded with an IC recorder. As bothparticipants worked as PAs at the SALC to support international students, this data was
expected to provide insight into how they actually interacted with students at the SALC.
Data Analysis
The purpose of this research was to understand the SALC’s role in foreign language
learning and its use by describing and analyzing two translingual students’ experience at the
SALC. In Strauss’s (1987) thematical coding, researchers are required to generate short
descriptions about cases in order to decide on the rules for coding. To do this, all of the audio
data from the oral narrative interviews and support sessions were transcribed. Next, each of
the researchers independently analyzed the data from the LLH and the interviews to findpossible themes and generate codes for the data. These were discussed and consolidated (seeTable 2 for a sample of the coding).

Table 2
Example of coding in narrative data analysis

Time

Narrative

Codes

Source

1st[…] I explained how to cook my

1. FAMILIAR TOPICS

LLH

semester

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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
favorite meal1. […] John sent me atext with a picture showing that heactually used my recipe, which we2.

had talked about in the session

EXCHANGEMESSAGES

when we discussed him cooking
by himself2. After that, I went to
the SALC every day and the
SALC became one of the most3.

COMFORTABLE
PLACE

comfortable places3 for me.

Findings
Hanako’s Story
Hanako had initially been influenced by the image of the ideal Japanese university
student, which entailed being proficient at English, going to a university in an Englishspeaking country as an exchange student, and becoming a successful global person. She felt
the need to improve her TOEFL scores and pursue an exchange program because she was astudent at an international university and because most of her fellow Japanese students would
be held to similar expectations. She also believed that she had to speak perfect English inorder to interact with international students. These factors restricted her language activities.
Although she struggled to improve her English, she felt comfortable at the SALC,
due to the friendly support she received from the PAs and LAs. As a result, she aspired to
become a Japanese PA to support international students studying Japanese at the SALC,
which she was able to do beginning in her second year at university. Because she worked as aPA, the SALC changed from a place to study English to a place to work and support otherstudents. In using English, Japanese, and Indonesian to communicate with other PAs andstudents, she came to realize the importance of conveying her message, rather than speaking
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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
each language perfectly. Meanwhile, she also became interested in Southeast Asian culture
and people, eventually joining a Japanese teaching assistant program in Indonesia. Her SALC
experience empowered her to find unique language activities and gave her opportunities todevelop her translingual identity as well as explore her own interest. Thus, the SALC became
the most important place for her during her university life.
Transition in Hanako’s Approach to Language Learning and Use
Hanako began with negative feelings towards English because she compared herself
to her friends who were better at English. This motivated her to visit the SALC, which wasintroduced to her in an English class during her first semester. At the SALC, she focused on
studying English for improving her tests results and coursework through support provided by
English PAs and LAs. However, as she struggled to improve her English, her negative
emotions toward English remained.
After becoming a Japanese PA, she had increased opportunities to communicate
with other PAs and international students. She used English, Japanese, and Indonesian tointeract with them and was able to build strong relationships. Because of her need tocommunicate with such a diverse group, she became less focused on speaking perfect English
and began to mix languages to convey her meaning (see the Appendix for an example of how
she interacted with students at the SALC). Her thoughts and approach to language learningand use changed into a more translingual perspective. Table 3 illustrates the change in her
notion of language learning and use.

Table 3
Coding in Narrative Data Analysis of Hanako’s Approaches to Language Learning and Use

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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
Time

Narrative

Codes

Source

1st semester

Four of my friends were good at

1. COMPARISON

LLHEnglish, as they were placed in
the Intermediate and Advanced
English classes1. I started tovisit the SALC because I was
not good at English and didn’t

2. NEGATIVE FEELING

like English2, so I wanted to

TOWARD ENGLISH

improve my English. I thought
I had to work hard since I wasat this university […] I mainly
practiced speaking with a PA atthe SALC. In particular, I

3. STUDY FOR TESTSAND CLASSES

intensively practiced test topics
before English speaking
exams3.
3rd–4thsemesterIn the SALC, I became friends1

1. FRIENDS

LLH[with international students]
because I could communicate2
with them without speaking

2. COMMUNICATION

perfect English3. Thus, I no
longer paid attention to“language” [how fluently or

3. PERFECT ENGLISH

perfectly I spoke eachlanguage] much.

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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
4th–5thI was shy and didn’t want to talksemester

1. MIXED LANGUAGESInterviewin English [laugh], and I justdidn’t like [to speak English].
But the idea came to me that I
could mix languages1. I

2. TRANSLANGUAGING

completely become like… aslong as I can convey mymessages, it’s OK [to talk using
mixed languages]2. […] I think
this was quite a big change3 for

3. CHANGE INLANGUAGE USE

me.

Discovering an Interest in Southeast Asia
Because the university promoted globalization based on English, many Japanese
students felt the need to improve their English and participate in an exchange program tobecome a successful member of the global society. In her first year, Hanako had also
perceived English skills to coincide with success and global competence. However, throughher interactions with Southeast Asian students inside and outside of the SALC, as well as
outside the university (i.e., her part-time job at a Vietnamese restaurant), she developed aninterest in Southeast Asia. In addition to studying English, she also enrolled in Indonesianlanguage classes and eventually became fluent in Indonesian. In her third year, connecting
her interests in Southeast Asia and her Japanese PA experience at the SALC, she joined aJapanese teaching assistantship program in Indonesia for eight months. Table 4 describes theanalysis of how her goals had changed since the first semester.

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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
Table 4
Coding in Narrative Data Analysis of Hanako’s Goals

Time

Narrative

Codes

Source1st

At the time [1st year], I had a goal,

1. COMMON GOAL

Interviewsemesterwhich was similar1 to otherJapanese students. Because I
entered this international

3.

university2, I thought I had to

EXPECTATION(TOP-DOWN)

improve my English … and thenI could become a successful[global] person3.

4.

ENGLISH =SUCCESS AND
GLOBAL

4th–5thsemester

I was thinking that it would be good 1. SOUTHEAST ASIA

Interview

if I could go to an Englishspeaking country using an
exchange program at theuniversity or joining a study

2. CHANGE IN GOAL

abroad program at my own
expense because my English

4. FINIDING OWN

would be improved a lot, but I

INTEREST (BOTTOM-

realized that I actually liked theUP)atmosphere of Southeast Asia1[…] and the people there. So, myidea changed2 to, if I had a

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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Centerchance, wanting to challenge
myself3 in Southeast Asia
without sticking to English.

Development of Meaning and Value at the SALCAs described above, for Hanako, in the beginning the SALC was a place to study
English. However, because of her role as a PA, the SALC was no longer only a place to study
English, but also a place to work and support other students. As a result of her experiences at
the SALC, Hanako was empowered to explore her translingual identity and discover herinterest in Southeast Asia. In her third year, Hanako became the leader of the Japanese PAs,and her commitment to the SALC increased. She made a considerable effort to improve the
SALC and her contribution was recognized by many of the other PAs, LAs, and coordinators
at the SALC. Thus, the SALC became the most important place for her in her university life
as Table 5 exemplifies.

Table 5
Coding in Narrative Data Analysis of Hanako’s Development of Meaning and Value at The
SALC

Time

Narrative

Codes

Source7th

I am a fourth-year student now, but

1. IMPORTANT PLACE

Interviewsemesterthe SALC has been a very, very
important place1 for me, when I
look back on my university life[…] As other students have a

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2. SPENDING TIME AND

20

Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
passion for their club activities

ENERGYand student organizations, I havespent my time and energy2 moston the SALC.

Yoshiko’s Story
According to Yoshiko, when she entered the university, she was eager to enjoy
international communication, but she struggled because she compared herself with otherstudents and felt inferior to them, particularly in her English ability. At this time, the SALC
helped relieve her stress and anxiety. She could speak openly with teachers and senior friends
about her anxieties concerning her English language learning, and she could enjoy casualconversation with PAs in English. Also, she began to learn Korean and made Korean friends.
Later, she became interested in studying abroad and studied intensively to raise her IELTS
score, practicing the speaking portion with the PAs. When she passed the exam for theexchange program, she became a PA because she wanted to contribute to the SALC andsupport Japanese language learning for international students. Although her experiences weredifferent from Hanako’s, they eventually led to a similar result, with the SALC becoming themost important place for her in her university life.
Complex relation between language and surroundings
Based on Yoshiko’s narrative, two points of contrast were evident in how she hadlearned and used languages at the beginning of her university life: English and Korean
languages, and classroom studies and SALC. For her, English was perceived as a challenge
invoking negative emotions, such as inferiority or anxiety. To cope with this, she required a
comfortable place to release her negative emotions and to be reminded of her original goal ofgetting involved in international communication. In contrast, she had more positive views of
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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
the Korean language and voluntarily spent time with Korean students. She did not seem toalter her behavior according to the context or environment. When she was with Korean
students, she did not restrict herself solely to Korean. Rather, she chose to use the full
capacity of her language resources from Japanese, English, and Korean, mixing the languages
and communicating meaning using the most efficient methods possible. Table 6 contains
translated excerpts from Yoshiko’s written LLH and interview that illustrate her attitudes
towards English and Korean.

Table 6
Coding in Narrative Data Analysis of Yoshiko’s Relation between Language and Surroundings

Time

Narrative

Codes

Source

1st

I was suddenly placed into the

1. INFERIOR FEELING

LLH

semesterhigher-level class. In that class,one student had studied abroad,and, well, the other students
spoke very well with our

2. ANXIETY

teacher1 […] I didn’t have achance to talk much in class[…] So, I was very nervous2
and I couldn’t say anything.

3. ENJOY[…] I used the SALC not as a

CONVERSATION IN

place for studying, but as a

ENGLISHplace for enjoying

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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
conversations withinternational students3.
3rd[…] I don’t say this in Japanese,semester

1. MIXED LANGUAGE

Interview

but I can say it in Korean. They
are slightly similar. I
sometimes say Korean words
when I’m speaking in

2. TRANSLANGUAGING

Japanese, unintentionally1, 2.
[…] Well, sometimes, if I’m
more fluent in Korean, I havedifficulty accessing my English[…].

Conflicts between Yoshiko’s Motivation and the School’s Policy
Yoshiko was initially interested in studying abroad in Korea for one year because
she had enjoyed learning Korean and had made lasting friendships with Korean students.
However, due to the university’s exchange program system, she was also forced to consider
her TOEFL scores when applying for the program. Although she had initially been internallymotivated to study in Korea, the TOEFL score-based criteria for study abroad brought about
external pressures, particularly due to the unofficial ranking of countries that had arisen fromdifferences in TOEFL score requirements. Her reason to choose Korea changed from aneagerness to experience the language and culture she loved to the fact that it was possible forher to apply with her current TOEFL score, which was not high.
In addition to her motivation to study abroad, her motivation to study English had
also changed, and she spent more time practicing for the speaking section of the IELTS with
the PAs. Although her natural interactions with the international students at SALC did not
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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
completely disappear, they had tapered and her language use and intercultural experiences
became less diverse. The following extract demonstrates Yoshiko’s test-based motivations topursue Korea for her study abroad experience.

Table 7
Coding in Narrative Data Analysis of Conflicts between Yoshiko’s Motivation and The
School’s Policy

Time

Narrative

Codes

Source3rd

If I want to go to Asian countries,

1

InterviewsemesterI don’t need a higher score in

LOWER LANGUAGEREQUIREMENTTOEFL compared with European
countries1. Also, I heard it’s not

3rdsemesterlikely to be competitive2.

2

LESS COMPETITIVE

Now I have this sort of score in

3

POSSIBLE CHOICE

Interview

TOEFL and Korea can be apossible choice3. I didn’t have
many choices.

Entanglement of the Self, Languages, and the Environment
By her third year at university, the borders between Yoshiko’s Japanese, Korean,and English language resources had begun to fade. As a result, her rich language resources
and natural ability to use translanguaging as a pedagogy enhanced her work as a PA. Not
only had the borders between her language resources faded, but the borders between her andother PAs and the places for learning and international communication also began to blur.
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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
Various aspects of her university life merged to allow her to experience more naturalinternational exchanges and international communication. The following excerpts from herinterview and written LLH illustrate this transition.

Table 8
Coding in Narrative Data Analysis of Yoshiko’s Notion of The Self, Languages, and The
Environment

Time

Narrative

Codes

Source5th[…] for example, I changed the

1. CHANGE LANGUAGE

Interviewsemesterpronunciation of Chinese

FLEXIBLY

characters (kanji) from Japanese
to Korean because it’s easier for
Korean students to understand1.
If they talked to me in English, I
answered in English.
4th
semester

The relationship between me and
the PAs1 was kind of like that of

1. TEACHER- STUDENT

LLH

RELATIONSHIP

student and teacher, so I felt aborderline between us. […] But
two SALC PAs invited me into
the community. Then, the

2. FADING OUT
BORDERborderline2 between me and theother PAs began to fade out. […]I could have nice friendships3 not 3. EXPANSION OF

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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
only with English PAs, but also

FRIENDSHIPJapanese PAs.

Discussion
Many Japanese universities use globalization and international university as key
terms to advertise and receive funding from the government in such initiatives as the TGU
Project. However, due to the associations within Japanese society between such keywords
and the English language, universities instinctively strive to improve students’ English
abilities. There is a focus on English test scores (e.g., TOEFL and IELTS), which are thought
to have clear criteria to judge students’ English ability, to demonstrate degrees ofglobalization. In addition, it is also easier for universities to use standardized test scores togauge achievement rather than assessing each individual student’s language competency
when competing with other countries in the international context. Thus, universities have
employed quantitative measures and a standardized ideal global human resource norm3
influenced by McDonaldization instead of emphasizing individual students’ agency anddiversity in communication styles such as translanguaging. In other words, students andteachers have become part of a McDonaldized language education system (Gray & Block,2012; Ritzer, 2011).
English is a lingua franca and it is important to learn in order to communicate withvarious people in international situations, even amongst non-native English speakers. Also,
given the current political climate, there is clearly a need for accountability in English
language education, and English tests can be important tools to show students’ English
proficiencies. However, imposing strict top-down policies4 of globalization on university
students due to business concerns can distract from the key role of the university as an
educational institution.

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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
Japanese universities emphasize English as one of the main criteria to judge thedegree of the globalization of their students, despite the fact that the majority of theirinternational students are from Asian countries5 （Japan Student Services Organization,2020）. In this study, Hanako studied and spoke Indonesian and Yoshiko studied and spoke
Korean. As with Hanako and Yoshiko, students at international universities may benefit from
opportunities to learn Asian languages to communicate with others in those languages. In
fact, Hanako and Yoshiko show that learning languages outside of Japanese and English has
been a significant factor in expanding their language activities and international relationships.
However, the value of learning and using Asian languages as well as the concept oftranslanguaging are being overshadowed by the idea that English ability is a central factor inglobalization. As De Costa and Norton (2017) indicated, the emphasis on result-oriented
quantitative outcomes is related to a neoliberalism perspective. According to this view, theuniversity in this study prioritized and standardized what language students should learn (i.e.,
English) and how the language should be learned (i.e., test-oriented studies). As a result, inspite of being in a very unique environment within Japan where they could explore diversity
in language learning and use, students have often followed the norms set by the university.
The policies and systems emphasizing English and test scores can potentially limit
language education, as was evidenced by Hanako and Yoshiko’s cases. Both participants
showed that their language learning and use were limited when they attempted to follow thenorms imposed by the university. McDonaldization of education usually involves the use ofstandardized teaching methods and a disregard for diversity in education (Seargeant, 2009).
Thus, the policies and educational practices set by the university, prominently focusing on
English and test scores, have restrained the students’ agency in language learning and use.
As an educational institution, the university should create an environment to support
each student in finding his or her own way to learn and use languages. Hanako and Yoshikoalso demonstrated that students had the ability to express their agency in language learning
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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Centerand use if there was an environment that supported them. Both of them experienced a period
during their university lives in which they struggled to find their aims at the university.
However, while changing their roles at the SALC and cultivating relationships with PAs,
LAs, and friends, they developed their own understanding of language learning and use andhave led a fulfilling university life. This is in accordance with Pennycook’s (2010) statementthat the language system of each person is re-localized with new meanings and values
depending on the situation. One of the most important roles of SALCs is empowering
students by offering them a variety of resources (both material and human) so that each
student may individually explore language learning and use as well as constructindividualized identities and relationships with others. At the university in this study, theSALC played one of the most important roles in not only supporting the students’ exploration
and achievement of their goals, but also advocating the importance of diversity in language
learning to the university as a whole.
Many Japanese universities have become McUniversities in the name ofglobalization (Gray & Block, 2012; Ritzer, 1996). The standardization of English language
education based on numbers and statistics may be a means for universities to achieve
globalization in Japan. However, such a method is accompanied by the risk of students losing
their agency in language learning and use because of the focus on language (e.g., perfect
English in Hanako’s story) rather than communication (e.g., translanguaging among
students). Universities should offer SALCs as a place for students and universities to achieve
a diverse perspective on language learning beyond the traditional concepts of bi- andmultilingualism. A continuous reexamination and redefinition of the role of SALCs isimperative for supporting individual students in their expressions of agency in language
learning and use and their engagements in languaging6 (García, 2014).
As mentioned above, this study succeeded in capturing the experiences of two
Japanese students who had explored their translingual identities while actively engaging in
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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
the SALC at a Japanese university by using the data from the retrospective narratives writtenby the students, and the follow-up interviews with them. The data also successfully captured
the students’ main experiences from their first year at university onward. However, further
research through periodic observations of the two participants at the SALC and interviews
could reveal more details about how and why their thoughts and approaches to language
learning and use have changed. In addition, although it is difficult to argue how many
participants are sufficient for qualitative research, a larger sample could help to uncover thediverse forms of language learning and roles the SALC plays in students’ university lives.
Data collection from a variety of students, teachers, and administrators could shed light on
the varying interactions between university language education and the SALC.

Conclusion
Given the current situation of higher education in Japan, universities may have no
choice but to accept the idea of globalization proposed by the government in order to secure
funds and recognition through participation in programs such as the Project for Promotion of
Global Human Resource Development and the TGU Project. One of the main consumer
goods in Japan’s globalization is English, and English language tests, such as TOEFL and
IELTS. Japanese universities give high priority to English language education to promote andadvertise their globalization efforts. However, this research shows the importance of offering
students opportunities to explore their identities and express their agency in language
learning and use. SALCs can be one of the key places to foster diversity in language learningand use as well as to initiate individualized support for students.

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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning Center
Notes
1.

Participant names are pseudonyms.

2. The LLH was written in Japanese and the interview was also conducted in Japanese. Allof the excerpts in this paper are English translations by the authors. A sample of ourtranslations was validated by a person with no connection to the study to improve thevalidity of our translations.
3. This approach is related to a McDonaldized system consisting of efficiency, calculability,
predictability, and control (Gray & Block, 2012; Ritzer, 2011). For example, English isconsidered to be a vital element in global human resources. As universities assume that
globalization can be efficiently calculated using English test scores, the language
education at the universities focuses more on increasing students’ English abilities basedon test scores and standardized teaching methods, allowing the university to maintaincentralized control over the goal and content of teaching and learning. This allows theuniversity to predict a certain level of performance from both students and teachers. With
this rational system, the university can control its globalization, which is one of the key
factors involved in government funding.
4. For example, all Japanese students achieve a certain score in recognized English tests
such as TOEFL and IELTS.
5. In 2019, 92.7% of the international students in higher education institutions come from
Asia (Japan Student Services Organization, 2020).
6. According to García (2014), “English is not a system of language structures; rather,languaging through what is called English is practicing a new way of being in the world”(p.5).

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Acknowledgements
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant-in-Aid for Research Activity Startup. The Grant Number is 19K23087. We would like to thank Ms. Fumie Ishimura for checking
a sample of our translations.

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Appendix
A Sample of the Interaction between Hanako and an Indonesian Student at the SALC
The following dialogue (Dialogue 1) is an interaction sequence between Hanako andan Indonesian student who had visited the SALC to talk to her. Hanako and the Indonesianstudent knew each other, as the Indonesian student had previously received Japanese learning
support from Hanako at the SALC. In the dialogue, they were talking about their university
lives and Hanako started to discuss the student’s search for a circle (club).

Dialogue 1
Interaction between Hanako and an Indonesian Student at the SALC

H: Hanako

S: Student1) H: うん。ほんと、よかったね。[Yeah. It was really good.]2) S: そう。そう。そう。そう。[Yeah. Yeah. Yeah. Yeah.]3) H: え、そうだよね。前さ、Cari サークルだったじゃん。[Oh, is that true? Before,
you were looking for a circle, didn’t you?]4) S: ん？ Cari? [Huh? “Cari?”]5) H: Cari. Cari. 探してたじゃん。[Cari. Cari. You were looking for, remember?]6) S: Cari って？[What is “Cari”?]
7) H: インドネシア語で「Cari」でしょ。 [Is it “Cari” in Indonesian, right?]
8) S: ...
9) H: Mencari。
10 ) S: あ、Mencari。[Oh, “Mencari.”] [Laugh]11) H: Are you Indonesian?
12) S&H: [Laugh]

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Translingual Practice in a Self-Access Learning CenterIn this interaction sequence, Hanako spoke Japanese (written in italics), Indonesian(underlined), and English to interact with the student because both of them spoke the threelanguages. First, they were conversing in Japanese, but Hanako began to use Indonesian
terms, “cari” and “mencari,” which mean “to look for.” Then, she spoke English, asking, “areyou Indonesian,” to tease the student who could not understand the Indonesian terms. In theinterview about the interaction sequence, Hanako indicated that she could demonstrate hercommunication abilities better and make friends with international students more easily by
mixing languages.

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