Journal of Natural Disaster Science, Volume 29, Number 1, 2007, pp29-38

29

Regional Characteristics of Tsunami Risk Perception among the Tsunami
Affected Countries in the Indian Ocean
Tetsushi KURITA1, Masaru ARAKIDA2 and Sisira R. N. COLOMBAGE3
1
Tokyo Electric Power Services Co., Ltd.
(formerly of the Asian Disaster Reduction Center)2
Asian Disaster Reduction Center
3
Kobe University(Received for 25 May, 2007 and in revised from 11 Jul., 2007)

ABSTRACTThe 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami caused more than 220,000 casualties and over $10 billion worth of damage,with the extent of the latter attributed to a lack of knowledge about tsunamis, given their rarity in this area.
Questionnaire surveys on tsunami awareness were carried out among 1,000 residents in Indonesia, Sri Lanka andthe Maldives, respectively, since the coastlines of these countries were some of the most severely damaged regionsof the Indian Ocean. The purpose was to assess and evaluate the capacity of communities to respond to natural
disasters. Additionally, a comparative analysis was carried out to identify the regional differences in tsunami risk
perceptions, based on which people adjust their behavior and judgment. Careful consideration was given to differences in sociocultural backgrounds throughout the study, especially when quantitatively analyzing results andinterpreting the implications and overall trends revealed several differences among the three countries on the topics studied.

1. INTRODUCTION
The Indian Ocean Tsunami of December 2004 was a massive
disaster of a magnitude rarely seen in human history. It resulted in
more than 220,000 fatalities and caused more than $10 billion ofdamage (UN Office of the Special Envoy for Tsunami Recovery,2005). The reasons for the enormity of this disaster are complex,
and include not only the enormity of the tsunami that struck, but a
combination of several other factors. It is argued that one of themost important of these was the infrequency of tsunami events inthis part of the world, which is thought to explain the lack ofknowledge concerning tsunamis in the affected regions. To prevent similar disasters from recurring in future, it is essential thatefforts be made to ascertain the conditions in the affected regions
and examine local perceptions of tsunami risk.
A variety of surveys have been conducted in the tsunamiaffected regions, but virtually none have focused on people’s attitudes and perceptions. A perception study in Sri Lanka was reported by Kurita et al. (2006), but to date, no comparative studies havebeen conducted across all 12 affected countries.
In this study, we conducted a questionnaire survey among
more than 1,000 subjects (including residents, students, teachers,
and government officials) in each of the three countries severely
impacted by the tsunami, namely: Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and theMaldives. Many of the coastal areas of these countries sustained
damage of catastrophic proportions. We launched this study primarily to examine and evaluate the ability of communities to

respond to natural disasters. The survey results show the diversityof tsunami risk perceptions in each country. Another purpose ofthis study is to quantitatively identify the regional characteristics oftsunami risk perception and to provide information that will contribute to the restoration of the affected countries. Because theareas examined in this study have diverse geographical, cultural,and social backgrounds, we extracted regional differences by conducting cross-national comparisons. This paper offers yet anotherperspective on some interesting insights for the interpretation of
empirical findings.
2. SURVEY OVERVIEW
In this study, we conducted a questionnaire survey on tsunami
risk among residents, students, teachers, and government officials.
An overview of this survey is provided below.
2.1 Survey Methods
Questionnaire for the general public (residents): This survey
was conducted using an interview-style format, whereby local surveyors visited people at home, questioned them, and then recorded
their answers on questionnaire forms. The survey subjects wereselected by dividing the coastal region was into several zones, andthen conducting random sampling. The target number of respondents was 1,000.
Questionnaire for schoolchildren: This survey was conductedprimarily among children in the fifth grade (aged 10). The ques-

KEY WORDS: Indian Ocean Tsunami, tsunami risk perception, questionnaire survey, regional characteristics, tsunami-affected countries

30

T. KURITA, M. ARAKIDA AND S. R. N. COLOMBAGE

tionnaires were completed by the schools, and the surveyors later
returned to collect them. The target number of respondents was
1,000. To supplement the information provided by the students, asurvey was also conducted among the teachers of the classes surveyed.
Questionnaire for government officials: This survey was conducted among organizations of both the central and local (provincial and municipal) governments. The surveyor met a manager of
each organization and asked them to conduct the survey in theirdepartments. The questionnaires were then completed by eachorganization, and the surveyors returned later to collect them. The
target number of respondents was 50-100.
Although it is reasonable to argue that uniform interviewbased surveys could have been used for the three categories of thesample, we compelled to employ alternative methods for the following reasons. (i) Reluctance of the school administration toallow foreign investigation teams to enter school buildings, since
there was prior evidence of upsetting students. (ii) To avoid any
disruption to the ongoing duties of dealing with disaster related
issues, we requested that they fill in the questionnaire themselves.
However the impact of these different methodologies on survey
results is considered minimal, since the purpose and content of thesurvey were both well explained. Besides, the questionnaires weretranslated into the local language following extensive discussion
and agreement with local experts concerning the jargon used
inside.
2.2 Survey Period
The survey was conducted in Sri Lanka in March 2005, in theMaldives from June to July 2005, and in Indonesia from September
to December 2005.
2.3 Major Survey Items
The key topics covered by the survey are as follows:
Residents:
Behavior when the tsunami struck, information gathering during evacuation,knowledge of tsunamis, future measuresrequiredStudents:
Experience studying natural disasters,
knowledge of tsunamis, and dialogue with
their families.
Teachers:
Natural disaster curriculum, teachingmaterials in disaster education.

Government officials:

Disaster response, future necessary measures, dialogue with communities.

2.4 Structure of the Samples
Table 1 shows the number of samples collected, by region.
Because the survey could not be conducted in schools in theMaldives, no samples were obtained from that sector. For reference, Table 2 shows the number of causalities in each of the three
countries. With a total of 108 casualties, the Maldives appears tohave suffered considerably less than the other affected countries.
However, since the total population of the Maldives is about
1/1000 that of Indonesia, the ratio of those affected relative to thetotal population is significant. In addition, the Maldives comprises
about 2,000 low-lying islands whose highest elevation is about 1.3
m. It is unique in that about 200 of those islands are inhabited, andwas included in this study for the same reason.
3. COMPARATIVE ANALYSIS OF THE NATIONAL SURVEY RESULTS
This section compares the survey findings from the three
countries studied, and identifies the unique characteristics of each.
3.1 Survey of Residents
Fig. 1 shows whether the respondent had any knowledge concerning tsunamis and their perceived effectiveness of such knowledge. More than 70% of people in all three countries indicated thatthey knew nothing about tsunamis before the 2004 tsunami disaster. The majority of respondents in Sri Lanka and the Maldivesindicated that the damage could have been reduced had they known
about tsunamis, while most of those in Indonesia did not feel thiswas the case. Two main reasons were given for this. Firstly,
because many of the casualties in the tsunami-affected areas ofIndonesia, primarily Banda Aceh, were caused by the inland penetration of a tsunami wave as high as 10 m in some areas, it would
have been difficult to reduce the massive level of damage, even if
people had had some previous knowledge about tsunamis. The
second is that Indonesia, unlike the other two countries studied,
was extremely close to the source of the tsunami, giving residents
little time to evacuate between the earthquake and the arrival of thefirst tsunami wave. It is therefore believed that prior knowledge
concerning tsunamis might not have done much to mitigate thedamage.

Table 1 Number of samples by region.

REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TSUNAMI RISK PERCEPTION AMONG THE TSUNAMI AFFECTED COUNTRIES IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

31

Table 2 Number of casualties in each country examined.

† Sekainougokisha (2003).
‡ UN Office of the Special Envoy for Tsunami Recovery (2005).

Fig. 3 Optimal location to use as a tsunami evacuation site.

Fig. 1 Knowledge concerning tsunamis and its effectiveness.

Fig. 4 Optimal location to use as a tsunami evacuation site, by region.

Fig. 2 Optimal channel of communication for obtaining the information I
wanted.

Fig. 2 shows an international comparison of the most effective
channels of communication via which people obtained the disaster
information they wanted. Most people in Indonesia and theMaldives indicated that TV was the most effective channel of communication. In Sri Lanka, on the other hand, most people indicatedthat they obtained information directly from friends and neighbors,while few relied on the TV.
Fig. 3 shows the responses regarding the optimum tsunami
evacuation sites in each country. A temple or mosque was themost popular response in all three countries, reflecting theresidents high level of trust in religious facilities. However, thisratio was slightly lower in Indonesia than in the other countries,
where community centers were also indicated among the optimal evacuation sites. Respondents in Sri Lanka and the Maldivesfollowed similar trends, with the most popular response being atemple or mosque followed by a building of three or more sto-ries. Because the trends in Indonesia differed from the othercountries, we carefully examined the regional characteristics withinthat country, with Fig. 4 showing a regional comparison within
Indonesia. This reveals that an extremely large percentage of
respondents in Banda Aceh and the western part of north Sumatra
chose a temple or mosque, while this was a less common
response on Simeulue and Nias Islands. Most respondents on Nias
Island chose a community center, followed by a considerable
percentage indicating a temple or mosque. Clearly the characteristics of both Simeulue and Nias Islands have an impact on the
results shown in Fig. 3.
3.2 Survey of Schoolchildren
Since this survey was only conducted at schools in Sri Lanka
and Indonesia, only these two countries are compared in this section. Fig. 5 shows the results on questions regarding students
interest in studying natural disasters and their discussions ofwhat they learned at school with their families. It is worth notingthat the results obtained from two independent questions are combined in this figure, meaning the former questions did not influence
the results of the latter. Moreover, questions in the latter concern
not only natural disasters but also general learning issues. The figure shows that students in both countries are highly interested instudying natural disasters, and that they also tend to discuss what
they learn at school with their families. These results suggest that
introducing disaster education at this stage, when students are
eager to learn about natural disasters, would be an effective mea-

32

T. KURITA, M. ARAKIDA AND S. R. N. COLOMBAGE

Fig. 5 Interest in studying natural disasters and discussions with family.

Fig. 7 Are lessons on natural disasters conducted? Are they effective? Arethey necessary?

Fig. 6 Causes of the tsunami.

Fig. 8 Disaster education materials deemed effective (multiple responses
allowed).

sure. If disaster education were provided to children, we could also
expect the effects to extend to their families, with whom they sharewhat they learn. During interviews with residents in the affected
area, it emerged that some hold similar opinions, which is confirmed by the results of the analysis.
Fig. 6 shows the responses to a question concerning whatcaused the tsunami. Most children in Sri Lanka indicated that itwas caused by an earthquake, while in Indonesia the responses
were fairly evenly split between, the wrath of God, an earthquake, and I don't know.
3.3 Survey of Schoolteachers
Fig. 7 shows the responses to questions concerning whether
natural disaster lessons are taught in schools, and whether they are
effective and necessary. In both countries, more than 70% ofteachers indicated that natural disaster lessons are being taught.
However, there is a large gap between them concerning the perceived effectiveness of these lessons. While a relatively large
number of teachers (more than 40%) in Indonesia feel they are
effective, this feeling is shared by only 25% of teachers in Sri
Lanka. In both countries, many teachers in schools where such
lessons are not currently being taught feel that they need to be
adopted.
The responses to a question regarding the most effective
teaching medium in disaster education are shown in Fig. 8. In bothcountries, videos were cited by teachers as the most effective medi-

Fig. 9 Did you respond adequately to the tsunami?

um, followed by reading books and picture books. In Indonesia
conversely, virtually no teachers saw brochures or posters as effective.
3.4 Survey of Government Officials
Fig. 9 shows the responses to a question concerning how government officials responded when the 2004 tsunami struck. In all
three countries, the most frequently cited response was that they
responded adequately enough, but this figure was lowest inIndonesia at only 64%, indicating that more than 30% of govern-

REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TSUNAMI RISK PERCEPTION AMONG THE TSUNAMI AFFECTED COUNTRIES IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

ment officials there feel they did not respond adequately. This
clearly shows that the disaster situation in Indonesia, the country
most severely affected by this disaster, far exceeded that nation's
response capabilities.
Fig. 10 shows the results of a question regarding ties between
the government and the community and efforts to improve community disaster reduction capabilities, and a question regarding theavailability of opportunities for government officials and community members to mutually share ideas. In responding to questions
concerning the opportunity for the government to exchange ideas
with the community, it is evident that officers in central government and their local government counterparts view the patterns ofcommunication very differently. However, it is difficult to distinguish them determinately, since institutional settings and theadministration system of each country differ considerably fromeach other in each case. It shows that less than half of government
officials in the Maldives feel that such opportunities exist. In
Indonesia, by contrast, more than 90% of government officials feelthat they have access to such opportunities, while Sri Lanka lies
between these two. Clearly each country is characterized by a differing level of relationship between government officials and local
communities. In response to a question regarding the need for thegovernment and communities to hold integrated evacuation drills,
most government officials in all countries indicated that such drills
are, indeed, necessary, meaning they are all are aware of the needfor community involvement in disaster reduction efforts if damage

33

is to be reduced in future.
Fig. 11 shows the locations that government officials consider
to be the optimal tsunami evacuation sites. In all countries, most
government officials selected buildings designated as evacuation
centers, but in the Maldives, a temple or mosque was also avery common response. The reason for this is explained in the
SURVEY RESULTS FROM THE MALDIVES, as discussed
below. If these responses are compared with those from residents
shown in Fig. 3, we see that most government officials favor designated buildings as evacuation sites over religious facilities.
4. REGIONAL COMPARISON OF SURVEYRESULTS FROM INDONESIA
Surveys were conducted in four regions in Indonesia, eachwith its own distinct characteristics. Here we compare the regional
characteristics within Indonesia.
4.1 Regional Characteristics in the Survey of Residents
Fig. 12 shows the results of a question regarding prior knowledge of tsunamis, totaled up by region. In regions other than
Simeulue Island, most people had no knowledge about tsunamis,
but on Simeulue Island, more than 70% of the residents had suchknowledge. Table 3 shows the number of casualties by region.
The numbers of dead and missing shown here include those who
perished as a result of the earthquake and shows that the number ofcasualties on Simeulue Island, where people had prior knowledge
about tsunamis, was very small compared with elsewhere. Afterthe earthquake struck, the residents of this island immediately
evacuated to high ground, thereby saving many lives. Why did theFig. 10 Opportunities for the government to exchange ideas with the community and the need for joint evacuation drills.

Fig. 12 Existence of prior knowledge about tsunamis, by region inIndonesia.

Table 3 Number of casualties in the examined regions of Indonesia.

Fig. 11 Optimal locations to be used as tsunami evacuation sites indicatedby government officials (multiple responses allowed).

† BAKORNAS PBP(2005)‡ BPS of NAD Province (2005), BPS Provinsi Sumatera Utara (2005) and Interview
Survey at Syiah Kuala University by the Asian Disaster Reduction Center (2006).

34

T. KURITA, M. ARAKIDA AND S. R. N. COLOMBAGE

residents of Simeulue Island know about tsunamis? This is thelegacy of a tsunami that struck the island about a century ago in
1907, of which residents had been made aware (Drs. Darmili,2005) and a breakdown of the responses regarding prior knowledge
concerning tsunamis shows that nearly half had heard abouttsunamis from family and/or friends. This shows that information is being communicated between those close to one another.
The people of this island refer to tsunamis as smong, and theolder generation has passed down lessons from the previous tsunami through stories and songs. One song that has been passed down
explains the characteristics of a tsunami, and teaches people what
they should and should not do if one occurs. The descendants ofSimeulue Island were able to minimize the damage they sustainedby carefully following the lessons that had been passed down fromtheir ancestors. The effectiveness of that prior knowledge was tested and proven in a tsunami a century on.
The results of this survey have quantitatively shown that having prior knowledge concerning tsunamis can reduce disaster damage, thereby confirming the importance of disaster education.
Fig. 13 shows the results of a question concerning effective
ways of raising public disaster awareness. It shows that in all
regions, incorporating disaster education into the school curriculum
was the option deemed most effective. This ratio was lowest on
Simeulue Island, where tsunami-related knowledge has thus far
been passed down through the community. On Nias Island, bycontrast, which had a significant number of casualties, many residents recognized the importance of disaster education.
4.2 Comparison of Responses by Residents and Government
Officials
This section comparatively analyzes the perceptions of the residents and government officials in each region. Table 4 shows the
top five policies deemed necessary by residents to reduce tsunami
damage in future and Table 5 shows the top five policies indicatedby government officials. Although there were 15 response options
on the residents survey and 17 on that for government officials,
the top options selected were largely similar. Most respondents
considered the establishment of an early warning system to be
the most necessary policy. However, the most necessary policy
indicated by the residents of Simeulue Island, where tsunami dam-

Fig. 13 Effective methods of raising public awareness by region inIndonesia.

age was avoided by passing on an old story by word of mouth, wasplanting trees along the coast. In the western part of north
Sumatra, the respondents ranked planting trees along the coast
in 6th place, while residents in Nias Island ranked the same in 12th
place. Among both residents and government officials, there was atendency to favor not only policies related to infrastructure development, but also efforts to enhance the government disaster
response and promote education. These results show that both residents and government officials alike understand the importance ofconducting evacuation activities, based on early warnings andaccurate information as an effective tsunami preparedness policy.
We also found that there was no significant regional difference inpeople’s perceptions in this regard.
5. SURVEY RESULTS FROM THE MALDIVESIn the Maldives, this survey was conducted in a total of threeatolls: two atolls that sustained significant damage and the Kaafu
Atoll, where the capital of Male Island is located. The following
discusses the survey results by region and by respondent class.
5.1 Survey Results of Residents
Fig. 14 shows the results of survey questions regarding thedegree of residential damage by island. On Male Island, where
damage was reduced by seawalls that were constructed using
Japanese ODA, very few homes either totally or half-collapsed.
The most significant damage was sustained on Kolhufushi Island,followed by Muli Island, indicative of the significant level of damage sustained by Meemu Atoll.
Fig. 15 shows the level of personal exposure faced by the
respondents. It reveals that most of the residents of FonadhooIsland were caught in the tsunami in their homes. On Meemu
Atoll, many people were caught in the tsunami while trying toevacuate. Excluding Male Island, the number of people caught inthe tsunami was smallest on Gan Island, but this is attributed to thefact that this island is larger by comparison than the others, andconsequently not completely inundated.
Table 6 shows the results of the damage survey conducted by
the government of the Maldives. It shows that while the Kaafu
Atoll sustained few human casualties, it sustained extensive building damage. Because the Kaafu Atoll includes the capital island ofMale, and includes numerous buildings, although the absolute
number of damaged buildings is higher than the other atolls, theratio of damaged buildings is lower. Human casualties on Laamu
and Meemu, by contrast, were extensive. On Laamu Atoll, there
were few casualties on Gan Island, which has a large land area, butmany casualties on Fonadhoo Island. These results are consistent
with those shown in Figs. 14 and 15, which indicate that many
homes either totally or half-collapsed on Laamu and Meemu
Atolls, and that many people were caught in the tsunami in theirhomes on Fonadhoo Island.
5.2 Comparison of the Residents and Government Officials
The Maldives is a nation comprising many islands, each ofwhich has its own island office. Of the 182 survey responses collected from government officials in the Maldives, 98 were fromisland office officials. Here we analyze the differences in perception between residents and island office officials, and residents andREGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TSUNAMI RISK PERCEPTION AMONG THE TSUNAMI AFFECTED COUNTRIES IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

Table 4 Policies necessary for reducing tsunami damage, as reported by residents (multiple answers allowed).

35

36

T. KURITA, M. ARAKIDA AND S. R. N. COLOMBAGE

Table 5 Policies necessary for reducing tsunami damage, as reported by government officials (multiple answers allowed).

REGIONAL CHARACTERISTICS OF TSUNAMI RISK PERCEPTION AMONG THE TSUNAMI AFFECTED COUNTRIES IN THE INDIAN OCEAN

37

Table 6 Damage assessment by atoll (National Disaster Management Centre, 2005).

†As of mid-2004.
‡As of January 5, 2005.

Fig. 14 Damage to homes, by island.

officials in other ministries.
Fig. 16 shows the optimal places to use as evacuation sites, asreported by the three categories of population described above,with two aspects of buildings combined in this figure to facilitatecomparison. Clearly, most residents reported the mosque as the
optimal evacuation site, while many officials in other ministries
selected a school or building designated as an evacuation center or a building of more than three stories. Likewise, most officials in the island offices selected a building designated as anevacuation center or a building with more than three stories.
However, nearly the same number indicated a mosque , suggesting that because the island office officials are very closely integrated into their communities, their perceptions are very similar to
those of ordinary local residents.

Fig. 15 Personal exposure of respondents, by island.

6. CONCLUSIONSThis study examined the tsunami risk perceptions of people ofthree countries affected by the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami:Indonesia, Sri Lanka, and the Maldives. In this paper, we report
the tabulated results of the primary analysis of questionnaire-based
surveys. Because each country has its own geographical, social,and cultural traits, we were able to identify those distinctive traitsby comparing regions. The results of this study may prove usefulfor the reconstruction efforts in each country and can help contribute to the creation of communities that are better prepared fordisasters. The results of this study can be summarized as follows.
6.1 Cross-National Comparison of Survey Results
A lack of prior knowledge concerning tsunamis among resi-

Fig. 16 Optimal location to use as a tsunami evacuation site, as indicatedby residents and government officials in the Maldives.

dents was a common trait in all three countries, but many residents
in Indonesia indicated that the damage would not have been
reduced, even had they been equipped with such knowledge inadvance. Most residents in Sri Lanka and the Maldives, however,felt that the damage would have been reduced had they known
about tsunamis. This result suggests that prior knowledge alone
might not have been enough to mitigate the enormous disaster thatstruck Indonesia. In addition, residents of Indonesia and theMaldives indicated that the optimal channel via which theyobtained the desired information in the immediate disaster after-

38

T. KURITA, M. ARAKIDA AND S. R. N. COLOMBAGE

math was TV, while in Sri Lanka, more respondents indicatedobtaining information directly from family and neighbors thanfrom the TV. When asked about the optimal locations for evacuation sites, residents in all countries selected a temple or mosque,reflecting their high level of trust in religious facilities.
The survey conducted among schoolchildren showed that inboth countries where this survey was conducted, namely Indonesia
and Sri Lanka, students had a strong interest in studying natural
disasters. Also, since most students discuss what they learn inschool with their families, the effects of disaster education in theschools are expected to extend to the adults in those families as
well.
Among school teachers, 70% indicated that they were alreadyconducting lessons on natural disasters. While many teachers in
Sri Lanka did not consider the content of these lessons to be adequate, more than half of Indonesian teachers indicated that thelessons being taught were effective. In both countries, respondents
reported the most effective disaster teaching medium to be videos,
followed by reading books.
According to the survey conducted among government officials, many government officials in these three countries feel thatthey responded adequately enough at the time of the earthquake.
In Indonesia, however, more than 30% indicated that they didn't
respond adequately enough. This suggests that government officials in that country struggled with how best to respond when facedwith such an enormous disaster. The most frequently cited
response among officials in all three countries regarding the optimal location to use as an evacuation site was a building designatedas an evacuation center. In the Maldives, however, a considerable
number of government officials also selected a mosque as a potential evacuation site. This reflects the opinions of the many island
office officials who tend to be more closely integrated into theircommunities.
6.2 Discussion of Survey Results from Indonesia
The survey results from Indonesia revealed a significant difference in the level of prior knowledge concerning tsunamis in thefour regions studied. Many residents of Simeulue Island (morethan 70%), where stories about the 1907 tsunami had been passed
down over time, already had knowledge about tsunamis. They thus
minimized the damage sustained by carefully following the lessons
that had been passed down from their ancestors. These results
quantitatively show the effectiveness of prior knowledge abouttsunamis. Accordingly, following the success of the communitybased transmission of tsunami stories on Simeulue Island, the ratioof respondents who agreed with the notion of introducing disastereducation in the schools to enhance disaster awareness was thelowest among all the regions. On Nias Island, in contrast, where
the number of casualties exceeded that of Simeulue Island, many
respondents indicated the need for disaster education in theschools.
A comparison of the residents and government officials
suggested policies for reducing damage shows that they are fairly
consistent across both populations. In most regions, residents andgovernment officials alike pointed to the need to construct an early
warning system. They also highlighted efforts to enhance the gov-

ernment disaster response and promote education. These results
show that both residents and government officials alike understandthe importance of conducting evacuation activities based on early
warnings and accurate information.
6.3 Discussion of Survey Results from the MaldivesIn the Maldives, sorting the results by atoll reveals that Laamu
and Meemu Atolls suffered the most severe damage. This finding
is consistent with the damage assessments conducted by the government of the Maldives. Gan Island meanwhile, which has a large
land area and which was not fully inundated, and Male Island,
which was protected by coastal seawalls, had smaller ratios oftsunami victims, meaning we were able to confirm trends concerning the magnitude of damage based on the specific characteristics
of each island.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The surveys conducted as part of this study in Sri Lanka andBanda Aceh in Indonesia were conducted using Special
Coordination Funds for Promoting Science and Technology offeredby the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology, Government of Japan. The surveys conducted elsewhere in Indonesia were conducted under a contract from theUnited Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR). The surveys conducted in the Maldives were conductedunder a contract from the United Nations Development Programme(UNDP) Country Office in Maldives. We are deeply grateful forthe extensive cooperation offered by the governments of Indonesia,
Sri Lanka, and the Maldives while conducting these on-site surveys.
REFERENCESBAKORNAS PBP, 2005. Aceh Recovery,
http://www.bakornaspbp.go.id/aceh/modules.php?name=EstKorban.
BPS of NAD Province, 2005. Number of population by regency/city in
Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam Province, 1999-2004,
http://aceh.bps.go.id/isi/population.htm.
BPS Provinsi Sumatera Utara, 2005. Luas Wilayah, Jumlah Penduduk, dan
Kepadatan Penduduk Menurut Kabupaten/Kota 2004,
http://sumut.bps.go.id/pop1.htm.
Drs. Darmili, 2005. Local Wisdom that Saves Lives: Smong from Simeulue
to Kobe.
Interview Survey at Syiah Kuala University by the Asian Disaster
Reduction Center, 2006. Population of Calang & Meulaboh, They say
it is based on the 2003 Population Census.
Kurita, T., Nakamura, A. Kodama, M. and Colombage, S., 2006. Tsunami
public awareness and the disaster management system of Sri Lanka,
Disaster Prevention and Management, 15, No. 1, 92-110.
National Disaster Management Centre, 2005. Maldives: Tsunami Impact
and Recovery, http://www.tsunamimaldives.mv.
Sekainougokisha, 2003. Catalog of World Countries-2003. (in Japanese)
UN Office of the Special Envoy for Tsunami Recovery, 2005. Tsunami
Recovery: Taking Stock after 12 Months, President Clinton fs OneYear Report, http://www.tsunamispecialenvoy.org/.