Atomic Physics and Atomic Industry in Ukraine
Outline of History and Present
Volodymyr Tykhyy
Kyiv, Ukraine

Introduction
In 1920, a young Ukrainian National Republic (UNR) lost its independence and two years later dejure became a part of the Soviet Union (USSR). All the time since then and until 1991, when Ukraine
regained its statehood after the collapse of the USSR, it was in effect one of the provinces of a huge
empire, in which all economic, political, social and other decisions were taken in Moscow, the ultimate
goal of these decisions apparently having been USSR world domination. The role of regions - such as
Ukraine - was to supply the necessary resources and work force.
USSR’s atomic project was at the core of the policy of Soviet hegemony - it was run from Moscow
by the omnipotent Central Communist Party Committee (read as Stalin, until his death in 1953) and the
KGB, in strict secrecy. The major part of important documents on the Soviet atomic project, stored inarchives in Russia, is still classified and will hardly be made public in the foreseeable future. However,general information has been published in recent years, and it is quite sufficient for the writing of thisoutline of the history of atomic industry in Ukraine.
Soviet atomic industry’s scientific and educational potential was (and still is) located mainly in
Moscow and its vicinities, and partly deep in Russian territory, near the Urals and in Siberia. However,main research activities on atomic physics in the early years of its development (before WWII) wereconcentrated in Leningrad (Physical Technical Institute headed by Prof. Ioffe) and partly in Kharkiv.
Either due to the Soviet Government’s a Russian leaders’ gift of foresight, or merely due to the fact that itwas easier to hide the atomic project’s huge production facilities (with their multi-thousand-people labor
camps around them) in Siberia, just a fraction of atomic facilities, and none of the most important ones(e.g. uranium enrichment, plutonium production or warhead design) were located on Ukrainian territory.
While reactor production was concentrated in Russia (including the major undertaking of the Soviet epoch– the "Atommash" plant near Volgograd), nuclear power plants were built not only in the RussianFederation (31 reactors on 10 sites are still in operation , but also in several Soviet Socialist Republics(Kazakhstan, Ukraine, Armenia, Lithuania). Many of them are still in operation.
The history of Ukrainian atomic physics was not the same as the history of the Soviet atomic
industry. The Academy of Science of Ukraine, which was created in 1918 in Kyiv during the short periodof existence of Ukrainian National Republic, was quite independent from the communist government until
the early 30ies; only then was it subjected to the rule of the Government and later - to the Academy of
Science of the USSR (which was created in 1925 from the Russian Academy, and moved from Leningrad
to Moscow in 1936). After that the Academy of Science of Ukrainian SSR played an inferior role,
working on the problems which were formulated by the Soviet Government (and the Academy of Scienceof the USSR) in Moscow. Ukrainian Academy’s funding was extremely limited. However, several
institutes and a university, which were located in Kharkiv, had better opportunities for staffing and better
funding for research in natural sciences, including physics. Kharkiv was a capital of Ukrainian SSR during
the period of 1919-1934; Kharkiv is located some 700 km SE of Moscow, very close to the etnic Russian
territory - so it was considered less "nationalistic" than Kyiv.

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In this paper we will not discuss the issues of Chernobyl NPP disaster and it's consequences,because there are plenty of publications which look at them from perhaps every thinkable angle.
Ukrainian atomic industry and science were not independent, so below we put a very brief timeline of theSoviet atomic project and atomic industry. Of course, we pay more attention to events that occurred on
Ukrainian territory. We close the table at 1991, when Ukraine declared it's independence and the USSR
disintegrated.
Timeline: Soviet Atomic Science and Atomic Industry
Information related to Ukraine is in bold.
24 September. The State Rentgenological and Radiological Institute founded in Petrograd
1918(Leningrad). The Head of Physical-technical department - Prof. A.Ioffe.
1928
Ukrainian Physical Technical Institute (UPTI) founded in Kharkiv
A special group for investigation of atomic nucleus was created in Leningrad Physical
1932
Technical Institute (LPTI).
10 October. A group of UPTI scientiscts (Leypunsky, Sinelnikov, Valter, Latyshev) for
the first time in the USSR split lithium nucleus using a particle accelerator.
The first in Europe cyclotron was started at Radium Institute (Leningrad).
1937
The 2.5 MeV (energy of accelerated protons) Van-de-Graaf accelerator launched in UFTI
(Kharkiv)
Zeldovich, Khariton, Leipunsky proved the possibility of chain reaction in uranium.
1939
Commission on isotopes was created (chaired by V.I.Vernadsky, creator and President of the
Ukrainian Academy of Science in 1918-1919). As the first steps, Commission initiatedproduction of heavy water and work on separation of uranium isotopes.
Commission on uranium created (chaired by V.G.Khlopin). Presidium of Academy of Science1940
of USSR approves the program of the first soviet uranium project.
Flerov and Petrzhak discover spontaneous fission of uranium nuclei.
Stalin signs a decree "On organization of works on uranium", which resumed uranium-related1942
investigations in LPTI.
27 November. State Committee of Defense orders start of works on geological exploration,
production and processing of uranium ores.
11 February. State Committee of Defense orders beginning of works for military use of atomic
1943
energy.
14 August. A large group of LPTI physicists (including Kurchatov, Alikhanov, Flerov) areordered to move to Moscow for permanent work.
20 August. A Special Committee for coordination uranium works created (chaired by NKVD
1945
Chief L.Beria).
During the year, the Soviet Union signed several agreements with Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria,
Germany to create jointly operated uranium mines on territories of these countries.
On the Soviet territory, first specialized factories for uranium processing and enrichment were
established. The process of creation of huge industrial facilities for military and - later peaceful atomic programs continued until late 50s.
8 April. A specialized design bureau for nuclear bomb construction is organized in Sarov town
1946
(later known also as Arzamas-16) in present-day Nizhegorodskaja oblast.
This was the first of at least 10 secret "closed" cities which were founded between 1946-1957
around specialized atomic industrial facilities (uranium enrichment, component
manufacturing, plutonium production, weapons design etc.) At that time, workforce needed forthese facilities ("numbered factories") and cities (tens of thousand for each one) was suppliedby nearby concentration camps. Total population of these cities was over 700,000 in 2002.
25 December. The first Soviet reactor (F-1) became critical at the Laboratory # 2 (currently
Kurchatov Institute) in Moscow.
1947
14 August. The Council of Ministers of USSR decrees the construction ofhydrometallurgical "Plant # 906" (later Pridneprovsky Chemical Plant) in the city of
Dniprodzerzhynsk, Dnipropetrovsk oblast in Ukraine. This plant was intended for

2

1948

1949

1951

1952
1953

1954

1956

1957

1958

1959
1961
1964

processing of ore from Pervomaiske and Zhovtorechenske uranium deposits (Ukraine)and uranium-rich blast-furnace slag. Later it processed up to 60 % of uranium ore
produced in the Soviet Union.
The first Soviet reactor for production of weapon-grade plutonium was launched at Plant # 817(in the "closed" Ozersk city, Cheliabinsk oblast). More than 45,000 people (including inmatesof concentration camps) worked at its construction site.
27 August. First Soviet nuclear bomb test (20 kilotons) at Semipalatinsk range.
In the Institute of Nuclear Problems of Academy of Science of USSR, a 680 MeV
synchrocyclotron was launched.
24 July. Plant (Kombinat) # 9 (now Eastern Mining and Processing Complex near Zhovti
Vody, Kirovograd oblast of Ukraine) was created on the basis of Pervogo Maya andZheltaya River mines.
Creation of Plant # 586 (from 1966 - Yuzhnyi Mashynostroitelnyi Zavod). A huge tractor
factory that was under construction in Dnipropetrovsk was re-oriented towards the
production of rockets (ballistic, for nuclear submarines etc). By 1960s, thousands of theserockets were armed with nuclear warheads produced by the Soviet atomic project, and arough parity between the US and USSR nuclear weapons was achieved.
9 September. Stalin signs the Decree of the Government of the USSR on launching the
program for construction of nuclear submarines.
26 June. The Ministry of Medium Machine Building is created (to manage all tasks related toatomic project).
July 28 The Council of Ministers of USSR decreed to create two prototypes of ship nuclear
reactors: water cooled reactor and liquid metal reactor.
12 August. The first soviet thermonuclear (H) bomb tested.
June 27. The world's first nuclear power plant was launched in Obninsk, 100 km South-Westof Moscow. The 5 MW NPP had a water-graphite reactor of channel type.
14 September. A nuclear bomb was detonated over soviet troops at Totsk range in Orenburg
oblast during military maneuvers which imitated nuclear war conditions. Many participants ofthat maneuvers still live in Ukraine.
Similar exercise was conducted two years later, in September 1956 at Semipalatinsk range,
where 4 bombs, of them one H-bomb, were detonated, and 43 min after the last bomb exploded
two companies of paratroopers were parachuted close to the epicenter.
26 March. Representatives of governments of 11 socialist countries signed in Moscow anagreement establishing the Joint Institute for Nuclear Research in Dubna, 120 km North of
Moscow. Of 11 founding countries 3 do not exist any more (USSR, GDR, Czechoslovakia), 2
discontinued their membership (Albania, China), 2 new countries joined (Cuba and Vietnam)
and 8 former Soviet republics, including Ukraine, joined as independent states.
Feb 2 First tests of R-5m rocket with nuclear warhead took place at Kapustin Yar test site
29 September.Major nuclear disaster at Plant # 817 (later known as "Mayak", near present-day
Ozersk city in Cheliabinsk oblast) resulted in radioactive contamination of the area of 23,000
sq.km.
A plant that was later renamed Hartron was founded in Kharkiv. It's task was to develop
and produce control systems for nuclear missiles (such as SS18, SS19 and other). In
1990th the plant started production of electronic equipment and control systems fornuclear power plants.
5 December. The first nuclear-powered ice breaker "Lenin" was set afloat.
17 December. The first Soviet nuclear submarine was accepted for experimental service.
At Plant # 816 the first dual-purpose uranium-graphite reactor was launched. It produced
plutonium and generated electricity (thermal power 1,450,000 kW). It was designed by thesame team (A.P.Aleksandrov, N.A.Dollezhal) that later designed Chernobyl reactor # 4.
January. First kilogram of U3O8 produced at Plant # 9 in the city of Zhovti Vody,
Dnipropetrovsk oblast.
The first underground nuclear explosion at Semipalatinsk test range.
First two units of energy-generating Beloyarsk NPP (Ekaterinburg oblast) were put into
operation. It was equipped with water-graphite channel type reactors.

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1965

1967

1968
1969
1972
1972 1974
1973
1976

1977
1979
1979 1986
1986
1987
19881989
1990
1991

First unit of Novo-Voronezh NPP with VVER-type reactor launched
15 January. With underground nuclear blast an artificial lake Chagan of 20 mln.m3 was createdin the Semipalatinsk nuclear test site.
A world most powerful (at the time) linear electron accelerator for 2,000 MeV waslaunched in Kharkiv Physical Technical Institute,.
The Government of the USSR takes a decision to design a 1000 MWt (el) RBMK reactor.
2 February. The Central Party Committee and the Council of Minister of USSR approvethe decision to build a Central-Ukrainian (Chernobyl) NPP near Kopachi village in Kyiv
oblast.
1 July. In Washington, London and Moscow a Nuclear Weapons Non-Proliferation Treaty was
signed.
Kharkiv Turbine and Generator Plant starts production of turbines for nuclear power
plants which were constructed in the USSR and abroad.
An underground nuclear blast of 3.5 kt was used to extinguish a fire on a gas production
well in Kharkivska oblast.
With the support of Soviet specialists several NPPs launched in socialist countries: Bogunitse,
Czechoslovakia; Greifswald, German Democratic Republic; Kozloduy, Bulgaria.
23 December. The first unit of Leningrad NPP with RBMK reactor was launched.
23 February. "Sibir" nuclear icebreaker launched.
19 December. First unit of Kursk NPP with RBMK-1000 reactor launched.
Production started at the "Atommash" plant near Volgodonsk, Rostov oblast. The plant
produced equipment for civil nuclear power plants.
First unit of Armenian NPP with VVER-440 reactor launched.
September. The first unit of Chernobyl NPP with RBMK-1000 reactor launched.
A 0.3 kt nuclear blast was detonated 800 m below surface at Yunyi Kommunar coal minein Donetsk oblast.
9 units commissioned at 5 Ukrainian nuclear power plants
26 April 1986 - catastrophe at unit # 4 of Chernobyl NPP
October 1986 - Chernobyl NPP units #1 and #2 restarted
Rivne NPP unit # 3 and Zaporizhzha unit # 3 commissioned
December - Chernobyl NPP units # 3 restarted
At Khmelnytska, Yuzhno-Ukrainska and Zaporizha NPPs four new units commissioned
2 August - the Supreme Council of Ukrainian SSR introduces moratorium on
construction of nuclear power plants in Ukraine
24 August - Ukrainian Parliament adopts the Act of Declaration of Independence of
Ukraine. The Act establishes Ukraine as an independent, democratic state.

Atomic and nuclear physics in Ukraine
History
The Academy of Science of Ukraine (ASU) was created in 1918 (first President V.Vernadsky), but during
it's early years the main focus of the Academy was on humanitarian studies. Only in 1929 the Institute ofPhysics was founded in Kyiv. There was no research on atomic physics in the Kyiv Institute of Physics
until post-World War II period, when A.Leypunsky (who had worked in Leningrad, Kharkiv andMoscow) was it's Director in 1943-1949).
Research on atomic physics during pre-war period was concentrated in the Ukrainian PhysicalTechnical Institute (UPTI), founded in 1928 in Kharkiv (in 1938 it was renamed Kharkiv PhysicalTechnical Institute (KPTI), and in 1993 the the Institute was reorganized into the National Science Center"Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology"). In 1930, the Director of Leningrad Physical Technical
University Prof. Ioffe initiated transfer of several young talented scientists from LPTI to UPTI, and this4

led to outstanding results and establishing of several scientific schools in Kharkiv. Some of these scientist
just completed their research work in the best laboratories of England, Germany, Denmark (Sinelnikov,
Landau). In October 1932, a group of UPTI scientists (Leypunsky, Sinelnikov, Valter, Latyshev) for the
first time in the USSR split the atomic nucleus using a particle accelerator to bombard lithium with
protons, thereby repeating the achievement of Cockroft and Walton of half a year earlier.
In 1932, a laboratory of atomic physics was organized in LPTI under the direction of I.Kurchatov.
Together with K.Sinelnikov he graduated the same Tavrichesky University in Crimea in 1923. LPTI andUPTI closely cooperated until 1937, when NKVD (KGB) arrested a group of UPTI scientists accused ofespionage. Some spent several years in jail, some were shot down, some had to change the job or leave thecity. In 1930th UPTI was one of leading Soviet research centers in high-vacuum techniques, developmentof accelerators, low temperature physics, crystal physics. The department of theoretical physics (L.Landau,
E.Lifshyts, I.Pomeranchuk and others) was very strong until the espionage case of 1937, after which
many prominent physicists moved to Moscow. In 1938 UPTI was renamed Kharkiv Physical-TechnicalInstitute (KPTI) and subordinated to the Academy of Science. Many UPTI/KPTI's leading physisists(A.Akhieser, L.Landau, I.Lifshyts, K.Sinelnikov) taught at Kharkiv Politechnic and later at Kharkiv
University (when it was re-established in 1932-1933), thus educating young researchers not only for UPTI,
but for all Soviet Union.
During the Warld War II both KPTI and Institute of Physics worked in evacuation. When they
moved to Ukraine in 1943-1944, the Government planned to merge the Institute of Physics and KPTI into
one and move all research to Kyiv, but K.Sinelnikov asserted the independence of KPTI and became it's
Director for 1944-1965. The leader of the Soviet atomic project, I.Kurchatov included KPTI in his orbit. A
specialised "Laboratory # 1" was organized in KPTI for atomic project works (nuclear physics of medium
and high energies, metallurgy for nuclear industry etc.) KPTI received funding, staffing and all resources
directly from the Minsredmash in Moscow.
In 1947 the Ministry of Education of the USSR approved the new specialty "Nuclear physics"
which was taught at Kharkiv University. Students worked on their diplomas at KPTI. Experience of
Kharkiv physicists was also used for founding new education institutes in Moscow and other places - e.g.
A.Leipunsky was the first Dean of Moscow Engineering Physics Institute.
In 1960-1980th, KPTI retained it's position of the leading Ukrainian center for nuclear science.
New research directions were developed, like plasma physics, cryogenic physics, elementary particle
physics, radiation material science etc. Several academic institutes were founded on the basis of KPTI's
departments.
The Kyiv Institute of Physics also experienced a rapid growth after the war. Academician of the
Academy of Science of Ukraine A.Leipunsky was the Head of the Institute's Department of Nuclear
Pphysics until 1952. First electrostatic accelerator was launched in the institute in 1947, 120-cm cyclotron
in 1957, 10-MW research reactor VVR-M in 1960, Van-de-Graaf accelerator ESG-5 in 1964. However,Institute of Physics was not substantially involved in the Soviet atomic project. The Institute of Nuclear
Research of the Academy of Science of Ukrainian SSR was organized (on the basis of several departmentsof the Institute of Physics) in 1970.
Current status
At present, numerous areas of nuclear physics are investigated at the Ukrainian research institutes of the
National Academy of Science of Ukraine. Most of them belong to the Department of Nuclear Physics andPower Engineering of the Academy, headed by Academician I.Nekliudov from Kharkiv Institute for5Solid-State Physics, Materials Science and Technologies). The list of institutes follows (scientificspecializations of the institutes are clear from the name): National Science Center ‘Kharkiv Institute of Physics and Technology’ (Kharkiv):

Institute of Plasma Physics
Institute for High-Energy Physics and Nuclear Physics
O. I. Akhiezer Institute for Theoretical Physics
Institute for Plasma Electronics and New Methods of Acceleration
Institute for Solid-State Physics, Materials Science and Technologies
 Institute for Nuclear Research (Kyiv)
 Institute of Applied Physics (Sumy) Institute of Electro physics and Radiation Technologies (Kharkiv)
 Institute of Environmental Geochemistry under NAS and Ministry for Emergencies (Kyiv)
 Research and Training Center ‘Physical and Chemical Materials Science’ under Kyiv Taras
Shevchenko University and NAS of Ukraine (Kyiv)
The Academy approved the Conception of the Program of investigations of the department of
nuclear physics for 2007-2011 in November, 2006. The name of the Program is "Fundamental problems inphysics of elementary particles and nuclear physics", it covers over 50 research themes. The funding for
the Program will come from the state budget - 47.4 mln Ukrainian Hryvna for 5 years. As everywhere in
the world, institutes also work on numerous other research programs, which are funded from other sources.
Most institutes maintain tight scientific contacts and receive significant funding from foreign research
centers.
One institute of the Academy of Science which is directly involved with the work of Ukrainian
nuclear power industry, the Institute for Safety Problems of Nuclear Power Plants, belongs to the
Department of Physical and Technical Problems of Power Engineering. It was created in 2004 by
reorganization of the Inter-departmental Scientific Center "Shelter" of the Academy of Science. Main
directions of the Institute's work include: safety and efficiency of NPPs; technologies of nuclear waste
management; technologies of decommissioning of NPPs; scientific investigations at the Chernobyl"Shelter" object; technologies of conversion of the "Shelter" object into ecologically safe system.
Of course in this short paper it is impossible to describe the results of the work of Ukrainianscientists during last decades. However, some general problems of the Academy of Science of Ukraine(which are equally acute for the nuclear physics) make prospects for the future not very optimistic.
Among these problems - aging of the research personnel (average age of candidate of science in the
Academy is 53 years, doctor of science - 62 years), lack of new experimental installations, obsolete
equipment etc. Academy is too big (over 44,000 employed, of them 17,000 research staff), state funding isvery low and opportunities for external funding (from industry, business, international funds) limited.
About 70 % of budget funding is used for personnel's salaries and little is left for other needs. There isongoing discussion on the ways of reforming of Ukrainian science, but very little has been done so far.
Nuclear Industry in Ukraine: from Atomic Bomb Project to "Peaceful Atom"Uranium ore mining and processing
An essential problem during the early stage of the Soviet atomic project was the procurement of uraniumore. The first Soviet nuclear reactor was fueled with uranium from the German atomic bomb project. Thenthe Soviet Union started operating mines in East Germany, Czechoslovakia, Bulgaria and Poland (Soviet
Block countries - SBC), and eventually large domestic sources were discovered in Ukraine, Kyrgyzstan,

6

Uzbekistan and other republics. Supply of uranium during first years of Soviet atomic project (tons):






1946 - USSR 50.0, SBC 59.6;
1947 - USSR 129.3, SBC 209.8;
1948 - USSR 182.5, SBC 451.9;
1949 - USSR 278.6, SBC 988.7;
1950 - USSR 416.9, SBC 2056.8.
Geologists were the first who started atomic bomb related works in Ukraine. In 1945, Ukrainian
geologists discovered uranium ore at Pervomajsky and Zheltorechensky deposits in Dnipropetrovsk oblast.
These were the first large uranium deposits discovered in the USSR.
In 1947, the Kirovska Specialized Geological Expedition was created by the order of the Minister ofGeology of the USSR. It's role was to explore uranium deposits in Ukraine, Belarus, Moldova, Northern
Caucasus and Western provinces of Russian Federation. This organization still exists as a state enterprise
Kirovgeologia, with headquarters in Kyiv. It continues exploration of uranium in Ukraine and to a lesser
extent abroad.
The ore of Pervomaisky deposit was of iron-uranium type, and it was explored during productionof iron ore. The production of uranium ore at Pervomajsky and Zheltorechensky deposits started in 1948and during following years several mines up to 800 m deep were built. The ore was processed at ahydrometallurgical plant # 906 in the city of Dneprodzerzhynsk. Later, in 1951, a new plant (kombinat) #9 (now the Eastern Mining and Processing Plant (Eastern MPP) near the city of Zhovti Vody) was created(see below). Pervomaisky deposit was exhausted during 1948-1967, and Zheltorechensky during 19481989 (production at this deposit exceeded initial estimates).
Meanwhile, extensive exploration of uranium in Ukraine continued, and new deposits werediscovered in the same area (Dnipropetrovsk, Kirovograd, Mykolaiv oblasts). Production at the two ofthem, Devladivske and Bratske, was organized with the use of the technique of bore-hole sulphuric-acidunderground leaching (other chemicals were also used). Devlatovske deposit was exhausted during 1964 1983, and Bratske in 1970-1990. These areas still suffer from the problems of underground waterpollution due to mining operations.
Major achievement of Kirovgeologia was a discovery of Michurinske deposit on the floodplain of
Ingul river near the city of Kirovograd in 1964, and later of Vatutinske deposit in 1966. Two mostproductive mines of Eastern MPP - Ingulska (in operation since 1969, depth 340 m, expected close down
2020-2030) and Smolinska, in Malovysky district of Kirovograd oblast (in operation since 1973, depth
640 m, expected close down 2020-2025) operate on these two deposits. Reported productivity of mines is
20,000 - 25,000 ton/month.
Several more deposits were explored. In accordance with the state program "Uranium of Ukraine",production at these deposits should be started in the near future. Some of them are intended forunderground leaching technique (e.g. Safonivske in Mykolaiv oblast) and others for mining. Of these
deposits Novokostiantynivske in Kirovograd oblast is considered the largest in Europe. The constructionof mines at this deposit was started in 1984 but stopped in 1989. Large investments are needed tocomplete these mines and start production.
Prydniprovsky Chemical Plant
It was discovered in 1947 that iron ore from Pervomaisky deposit is rich in uranium. During blast furnace
production of iron from this ore uranium concentrated in slag. Blast furnace # 6 of Dniprodzerzhynsk
metallurgical plant was selected for smelting uranium rich ore, and by a decision of the Council of7

Ministers of USSR of 14 August 1957, a special plant for uranium extraction was to be built in
Dniprodzerzhynsk. That was Plant # 906, known by it's non-secret name as a Slag Fertilizers Plant (byproducts of uranium production from slag were reprocessed into fertilizers). More than 16,000 people
worked on its construction, many of them inmates of concentration camps which were relocated to thearea from the Urals.
In Dneprodzerzhynsk there already existed a plant which produced various chemicals, including
acids (present name "Dniproazot"), so both the raw materials (uranium-rich slag from blast furnace # 6,
then uranium ore from Wismut enterprise in GDR, then uranium ore from Ukrainian and Soviet Central
Asia deposits) and reagents were at hand. The production of yellow cake in Ukraine was launched. Of
course workers of the smelter and plant # 906 did not know what was their product, and the plant was
carefully fenced and guarded. At the peak of a "cold war", Plant # 906 processed over 60 % of uranium
ore mined in Soviet Union. It also produced other materials needed for Soviet atomic bomb project, likeheavy water (5.8 t in 1957 - 25 % of total Soviet production). In 1966 the plant was renamed - it became a"Prydniprovsky Chemical Plant" (PCP). For it's own needs it started production of ion exchange resins
necessary for new uranium extraction technologies. Later on production of zirconium was launched.
In 1991, when supply of uranium ore and demand for various military-oriented products of PCP
dropped, production of uranium concentrate was stopped. In 1990s the plant was divided into several
separate plants (production of ion-exchange resins, nonferrous metals, zirconium, hydrometallurgical plantetc) and bankrupted in 2002. Production of ion-exchange resins and zirconium meets the needs of
Ukrainian nuclear industry, but PCP does not produce uranium concentrate any more.
A state enterprise "Baryer" was created in December 2000 to manage the PCP's radioactive tailingsof uranium production (over 42 mln ton with estimated total activity over 2.7*1015 Bq) . One of thestorages contains parts of the dismantled blast furnace # 6. The works on the tailings and other objects ofthe former PCP were carried out in accordance with the State Program of 26.11.03, which was replaced bya new State Program of 30.09.09.
Eastern Mining and Processing Plant

A specialized mining company "Plant (Kombinat) # 9" in the city of Zhovti Vody,
Dnipropetrovsk oblast, was created on the basis of Pervomaisky and Zheltorechensky mines inJuly, 1951. Construction of hydrometallurgical production department of the plant was started in
1955, and in January 1959 the first kilogram of U3O8 was produced. During the following years thescale of uranium mining and production increased, several deposits were developed with the use ofunderground leaching, new mines were constructed. In 1989 the plant was renamed Eastern Mining andProcessing Complex.
At present, the State Enterprise Eastern Mining and Processing Complex is the only enterprise in
Ukraine engaged in the mining of uranium ore and production of a uranium oxide concentrate. It operates
two mines, hydrometallurgical plant and other subdivisions. The plant is under the supervision of the
Ministry of Energy, and it's importance will increase when the state program "Uranium of Ukraine" isimplemented.
Construction of nuclear power plants
First soviet atomic reactors were designed for production of weapon-grade plutonium. All of them werelocated in Russia. Then there was a turn for nuclear reactors for submarines. However, by mid-60s thepotential of Soviet nuclear industry exceeded the demand from the military. And so the era of "peaceful8atom" began, and nuclear power plant for electricity and heat generation were built.
In February, 1967 the Central Committee of the Communist Party and the Council of Minister of
USSR approved the decision to build a Central-Ukrainian (Chernobyl) NPP near the Kopachi village in
Kyiv oblast. This NPP was to be based on graphite-moderated RBMK reactors. Other sites in Ukraine
were also investigated and later on more nuclear power plants were constructed. The main problem withsiting of Ukrainian NPPs was lack of cooling water and unfavorable geological conditions in many areas.
However, by the time of Chernobyl disaster in 1986, four NPPs were in operation in Ukraine, and fiveother were under construction.
The first unit of Chernobyl NPP was launched in 1977, and the second, third and fourth in 1979,
1982, 1984. Two more units of ChNPP were under construction when the catastrophe on reactor # 4
occurred 26 April 1986. This became a turning point for a growing Ukrainian nuclear energy industry.
On 02.08.1990 the Supreme Council of Ukrainian SSR introduced a moratorium on construction of
nuclear power plants in Ukraine. The construction works were suspended and never resumed at four new
NPPs (Krymska, Odeska, Kharkivska and Chygyrynska in Cherkasy oblast - see the map). Of them, thedegree of completion of Krymska NPP was rather high and the satellite city of Scholkine was already built
for its workers. Now the city gradually deteriorates as there are few jobs available for its inhabitants.
Negative impacts of cancellation of three other projects (Odessa, Chygyryn, Kharkiv) were lower.
In accordance with international agreements signed by Ukraine, the last operating unit # 3 ofChernobyl NPP was closed down in 2000. More details on the current status of Ukarinian NPPs could befound in the last section of this paper.
Peaceful use of nuclear technologies included underground nuclear explosions. Soviet experiments(published data give the number of 124 peaceful undeground blasts) were conducted not only in Siberia or
Kazakhstan, where in 1965 an artificial lake Chagan was created by a 140 kt nuclear blast, but also in
Ukraine.
In 1972 an underground nuclear blast of 3.5 kt was used to extinguish a fire on a gas production
well in Kharkivska oblast. In 1979, nuclear explosion of about 0.2-0.3 kt was used near Gorlivka city inDonetsk oblast, to shake the rock in and around the "Yunyi kommunar" coal mine and thus reduce theconcentration of methane gas in the mine. That nuclear blast was detonated on 16 September 1979 at 800
m below the surface, and a glassified capsule of about 100 m3 still exists at the site of the explosion.
Unfortunately, none of these blasts produced the expected result - the fire continued, and the level ofmethane gas in the mine remained high.
Ukrainian industry's input into nuclear energy sector
The work on nuclear weapons, nuclear missiles, atomic submarines and later power nuclear reactors
needed huge material and human resources. Whole new industry sectors were created, hundreds of newplants, mines, research and design institutes established. Many of them were located in Ukraine.
Here we cannot provide even a general overview of design and production facilities located in
Ukraine, which provided various supplies for the Soviet atomic industry. Most of them were the so called"P.O.Box-organizations" - because there requisites were simply "p.o.box # XXX". Only authorized
personnel new where they were located and what did they produce. But several enterprises are now wellknown all over the world.
The Kharkiv Turbine and Generator Plant was built in 1929-1932. Since 1969 the plant supplied

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turbines for many NPPs constructed in the Soviet Union and socialist states. In 1980, by the decision of
the Soviet Government it was designated as a main supplier of turbines for nuclear power plants andrenamed Turboatom. Between 1982-1985, Turboatom's turbines were installed at Yuzho-Ukrainska,
Zaporozhzha , Balakovska and Kalininska NPPs. Turbines for Krymska, Odeska, Kharkivska andChygyrynska NPPs were also produced. At present Turboatom is the world's fourth largest supplier ofturbines.
The plant that now is known as Hartron was established in 1959 in Kharkiv, Ukraine. The main trendof its activity was development and implementation of control systems for ballistic missiles (such as SS18
and SS19, equipped with the nuclear warheads), carrier-boosters and space vehicles. Under a new
economic environment, Hartron Corp. has had to adapt to civilian applications, and now its products
among others include commercial industrial control systems for fossil-fuel and nuclear power plants,
transport, gas and oil pipelines. Hartron is the Ukraine's leading enterprise for reconstruction of
instrumentation and control systems for Ukrainian nuclear power plants.
Hartron Corp. includes enterprises located in Kharkiv and Zaporizha, which produce various
radioelectronic equipment for nuclear power plants. In 1994, Hartron and Westinghouse established a joint
venture, Westron.
Ukrainian Nuclear Industry: Current Status
Ukraine is heavily dependent on nuclear energy - it has 15 reactors generating about half of its
electricity. Important weakness of the Ukrainian nuclear industry is the fact that it receives most of its
nuclear services and nuclear fuel from Russia. In 2004 Ukraine commissioned two large new reactors. The
government plans to maintain nuclear share in electricity production, and this will involve substantial new
construction. Plans for this development have been already announced. Here we do not discuss these plans
and concentrate on present situation.
On 17 October 1996, the Cabinet of Ministers of Ukraine created a State-owned Enterprise
National Nuclear Energy Generating Company (NNEGC) “Energoatom”, which merged five Ukrainian
NPPs (Chernobylska, Zaporizhzha, Yuzhno-Ukrainska, Rivne, Khmelnytska). Later on Chernobyl NPP
became a separate entity, so at present NNEGC “Energoatom” operates four NPPs and several otherseparated enterprises (see details below).
NNEGC “Energoatom” is subordinated to the Ministry of Energy of Ukraine, which formulates thestate policy in nuclear energy sector, represents interests of Ukraine in IAEA and other internationalorganizations which deal with the nuclear energy issues.
Another government organ with a special status, the State Nuclear Regulatory Committee of
Ukraine (SNRCU) performs functions of the national regulatory body on nuclear and radiation safety. It
issues licenses and exercise control over all activities related to radioactive materials and sources ofradiation, including NPPs. Under the supervision of a Chief State Inspector on Nuclear and Radiation
Safety (Deputy Chairperson of SNRCU), the State Nuclear Safety Inspectorates work at all five Ukrainian
NPPs. The national policy on radiation protection of population is defined by the National Commission on
Radiation Protection appointed by the Parliament of Ukraine.
Chernobyl NPP and the State specialized enterprise "Chernobyl NPP"
After the accident of 26 April 1986 at reactor # 4 of ChNPP, units # 1 and # 2 were restarted already in
October, 1986. Unit # 3 was restarted in December, 1987. Three units worked in usual mode until the fire10

of 1991 at one of unit # 1 turbines. After the fire, the unit # 1 was stopped and never put in operation again.
After the accident of 1986, there was a permanent pressure from Western governments which insisted that
ChNPP did not meet nuclear safety requirements and should be shut down. Eventually an agreement
between the Government of Ukraine and donor countries was reached to close down Chernobyl NPP. In
return, Western countries pledged technical and financial support for solving the problems emerging fromthis closure (economic, energy supply, radiation safety, social). The agreement between the G7 countries,
EU Commission and the Government of Ukraine was signed on 25 December 1995. In accordance withthe agreement, four critically important facilities were to be built or completed near the ChNPP:
 completion of the industrial heating plant, IHP (put in operation in 2001, DOE of the USA donated$22.5 mln);
 liquid radioactive wastes treatment plant (LRWTP); spent fuel interim storage facility # 2 (ISF 2);
 Industrial Complex for Solid Radioactive Waste Management (ICSRM).
The last reactor # 3 which was still in operation was shut down on 15 December 2000. After this,Chernobyl NPP is legally in the state of decommissioning. Chernobyl NPP was taken out of NNEGC“Energoatom”. It became a State specialized enterprise "Chernobyl NPP" (SSE ChNPP) with the maintask of decommissioning the NPP and transformation of the Shelter object into ecologically safe system.
The license for decommissioning works was issued by SNRCU to SSE ChNPP in March, 2002.
The conditions for decommissioning were very unfavorable, because there were no plans, nonecessary technical facilities, no accumulated funds. However, significant progress in planning andpreparatory works has been achieved since 2002, and the “State Program of Chernobyl NPP
Decommissioning and Shelter Transformation into Ecologically Safe System” will come into force on
January 1, 2010. It was approved by the law of January 15, 2009.
One of the main responsibilities of SSE ChNPP is management of the Shelter object("Sarcophagus"). Since it's construction in 1986 it underwent a series of repairing, however, the state ofconstruction elements is deteriorating. The nuclear fuel (current estimates show that about 95 % of what
initially was in the reactor, with total activity about 16 million Ci is still inside or under the Shelter)
undergo destructive processes, and the amount of fine-dispersed fuel increases. This potentially creates athreat of incidents and consequent radioactive contamination. Another problem is possible radioactive
contamination of ground water, although on-going investigations show lack of tendency of uranium andplutonium spreading by underground water flow.
By joint decision of the Ministry of Emergencies of Ukraine and National Academy of Science of
Ukraine, the responsibility for scientific supervision of the Shelter object and its transformation into
ecologically safe object was assigned to the Institute for Safety Problems of Nuclear Power Plants of
NASU.
It is assumed that the solution for the problem of Shelter object will be a New Safe Confinement(NSC). The process of designing and preparation works for NSC (funded by the donor countries throughEuropean Bank for Reconstruction and Development) is underway. The NSC will have to provide
necessary conditions for transformation of the Shelter object into ecologically safe system, including
removal of fuel containing materials, radioactive waste management and dismantling of Shelter object
structures. So far, the result of joint Ukrainian-international efforts at ChNPP are not very encouraging.
Except of IHP, all other facilities are under various stages of construction/completion. Perhaps the worst
situation is with ISF 2, which was constructed but could not be put into operation due to various technicalfaults and problems. At present, new technical conditions and terms of reference for additional works are

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considered.
National Nuclear Energy Generating Company “Energoatom”
As of fall, 2009 NNEGC “Energoatom” is a managing company which is in charge of four NPPs andseveral separated subdivisions. Each NPP and each subdivision is a legal entity with its management, bankaccount etc. An overview of the four NPPs follows: Zaporizhzhya NPP - six VVER-1000 reactors commissioned between 1985-1996, with scheduledclose dates between 2015-2026. Zaporizhzha NPP is the first Ukrainian nuclear power plants whereon-site dry storage facility for spent fuel (SFDSF) was built. It was loaded for the first time in 2001.
It is expected that the capacity of SFDSF will be sufficient for all life span of the NPP.
 Rivne NPP - two VVER-440 and two VVER-1000 reactors commissioned between 1981-2005, withscheduled close dates between 2011-2035.
 Yuzhno-Ukrainska NPP - three VVER-1000 reactors commissioned between 1983-1989, withscheduled close dates between 2012-2019. To compensate peak loads and secure good operating
conditions of YuU NPP, Tashlyk Hydro accumulating Power Plant is being constructed. The firsttwo hydraulic units were put into operation in 2006 and 2007. Upon completion the THAPP is
expected to have generating capacity of 906 MW and to work on average 3.1 hour a day(turbining).There exists on-going controversy around THAPP because it will flood valuableecosystems.
 Khmelnytska NPP - two VVER-1000 reactors commissioned in 1988 and 2005, with scheduled close
dates 2018 and 2035. The construction of two other units was started in Soviet period but later
stopped.
It should be noticed that at present it is expected that the lifetime of existing nuclear power plants
will be extended by about 15 years compared to scheduled close date. The process of necessary checking
and licensing of such extension is underway for Rivne-1.
The share of electricity generated by NPPs (percent of total generation) remains high: 2000 45.3%, 2004 - 53.2%, 2005 - 52.3%, 2006 - 46.9%, 2007 - 47.5%, 2008 - 46.8%. In December, 2008
NNEGC “Energoatom” issued a statement of intention for completion of two units at existing site ofKhmelnytska NPP. Construction works on these two units were started in 1985 and discontinued in 1990.
New design and new permits are needed for completion. Currently the preparation of EIA in accordancewith Ukrainian legislation is announced.
Since the time of dependence of Ukraine, directly at NPPs a system of personnel training was
created. This system is based on the latest legislation framework, IAEA recommendations andinternational experience. Training centers, created at each NPP, form one of the main components of NPP
personnel training. The total staff of these centers comprise 436 persons, of them 160 instructors.
Simulator training base was created by joint efforts of specialists from the USA, Russia and Ukraine.
In 1993, the first in Ukraine full scale simulator of the main control room was launched at
Zaporizhzhya NPP. In December 1997 a similar simulator was put into operation at Khmelnitsky NPP. In
2001 a full scope simulator for Rivne NPP unit # 3 personnel training was put into operation. At present, 8
simulators work at Ukrainian NPPs. In 2000 Zaporizhzhya NPP received a license for training of the operating personnel. Now all training centers have similar licenses.
Main separated subdivisions of NNEGC “Energoatom” are:

“AtomRemontService” - improve management and efficiency of maintenance and repair atnuclear power plants; created partly to employ the personnel of Chernobyl NPP after its closure;

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


“Atomkomplekt” - supply of materials and services for Ukrainian NPPs;"Scientific and Technical Center" - created in 2003 to create in Ukraine a complex and effective
system of scientific and technical support of nuclear power industry;"Atomenergomash" - manufacturing of equipment for Ukrainian nuclear power plants;“Emergency and technical center” - works on the issues of preparedness of Ukraine for quick andeffective actions in case of accidents at nuclear power and industrial enterprises;"Atomproectenginiring" (created in December 2008) - coordinates investment activities of
NNEGC “Energoatom”, especially construction of new and completion of unfinished NPPs.

Services and education for nuclear power plants
It should be noticed that there are numerous enterprises which provide essential services for the nuclear
energy industry and which are independent from NNEGC “Energoatom”. Among them, here we will
mention Kharkiv Scientific-Research and Design Institute "Energoproekt" (which worked in 1970-80s
closely with All-Union Design Institute "Teploelectroproekt", later renamed as Atomenergoproekt, in
Moscow) and Kiev Design and Research Institute "Energoproekt" (with two institutes mentioned above,
Kiev institute participated in designing of many power plants, among others, Rivne and Khmelnytska
NPPs). These design institutes are located in Ukraine and incorporated under Ukrainian law, but theirownership issue is not very clear, as well as their potential after many years of significant work underload.
While there are many universities which have atomic and nuclear physics in their physics
curriculum, only three universities teach students in specialty "atomic energy engineering": National
Technical University "KPI" (Kyiv), Odessa Polytechnic University (Odessa) and Sevastopol National
University of Nuclear Energy and Industry (SNUNEI). For example, students can take this specialty at
Kyiv Technical University at a sub-department "Nuclear power stations and engineering thermal physics"of the Heat-and-Power Engineering Department (which was founded back in 1931). SNUNEI is arelatively young university, it was organized in 1996 on the basis of a former Soviet Navy Engineers
Higher College, which trained officers for Soviet nuclear submarines since 1964. "Atomic energy
engineering" is only one of many specialties at this university, while other specialties related to nuclear
industry include dosimetry, radioecology, radioactive waste management. The number of graduates atthese specialties in all three universities is not very large.
There is no higher education for reactor personnel in Ukrainian universities, equivalent to theRussian specialty 140305 (070500) - "Nuclear reactors and power plants", which is taught in Moscow,
Obninsk, St.-Petersburg, Tomsk. As it was mentioned above, extensive personnel training programs arecarried out directly at Ukrainian power plants.
Nuclear fuel and nuclear fuel cycle
Serious problem for Ukrainian nuclear energy industry is a supply of fuel. During the period of Ukrainian
independence, nuclear fuel assemblies for Ukrainian NPPs were provided by Russian Corporation"TVEL" (i) as a compensation for nuclear warheads transferred from Ukraine into Russia and (ii) on thebasis of contracts between Ukrainian NPPs, NNEGC "Energoatom" and TVEL Corporation. Ukrainian
Government works on diversification of nuclear fuel supply, maintaining working contacts with
Westinghouse and other Western companies.
No spent nuclear fuel (SNF) processing takes place in Ukraine: spent fuel was exported to Russia.
There exists a plan to build a centralized storage for SNF from VVER reactors in the 30-km zone ofChernobyl NPP, but the project is very controversial and its licensing and implementation (if it comes to13

implementation) will not be easy.
At present, the State Enterprise Eastern Mining and Processing Complex is the only enterprise in
Ukraine engaged in the mining of uranium ore and production of a uranium oxide concentrate. It operates
two mines, hydrometallurgical plant and other subdivisions. The plant is under the supervision of the
Ministry of Energy, and it's importance will increase when the state program "Uranium of Ukraine" isimplemented. Currently Ukrainian uranium industry capacity produces about 30 % of uranium that isneeded to fuel Ukrainian NPPs. Enrichment of uranium and production of fuel assemblies take place inRussia. There are plans to develop capacities and to introduce some other elements of nuclear fuel cycle in
Ukraine, but they are still far from implementation.
Sectoral program "Uranium of Ukraine" (for the period of up to 2030) pays special attention to theincrease of uranium production. For this, new uranium deposits should be put into production and thecapacity of existing processing plant increased. There are several uranium deposits which are suitable
either for underground mining or leaching from the surface technology. The ore is not very rich but thequantities of reserves are large, and this allows for relatively cheap industrial methods of mining andprocessing. Design works for mining and processing of uranium ore are conducted by the Institute forIndustrial Technology in the city of Zhovti Vody in Dnipropetrovsk oblast. The Institute was founded in1970 to serve the needs of atomic energy industry and it has a significant record of implemented designs.
Ukrainian zirconium production sector includes Vilnogirsk State Mining and Metallurgical Complex in
Dnipropetrovsk oblast (ore mining and processing, production of zirconium concentrate) and a StateEnterprize "Zirconium" in Dniprodzerzhynsk, which have specialized technological departments for
production of nuclear-pure zirconium. A state program "Nuclear fuel of Ukraine". approved 23 September
2009, sets the goal of creating a full cycle of zirconium production at "Zirconium" State Enterprise, whichshould supply all zirconium rolled products necessary for Ukrainian nuclear industry. According to theProgram, some construction elements of fuel assemblies will be produced in Ukraine as well.
Final Remarks
Nuclear physics in Ukraine has quite rich history. It contributed to the success of the Soviet nuclear bomb
project - especially during the 1930s-50s, but the field of research and available resources were dictated by
the central government in Moscow. At present, there are numerous areas where Ukrainian nuclear physics
still has substantial potential. However, it is unclear whether this potential will be converted into a vibrantscience. Insufficient funding and neglect by the government of Ukraine, as well as inefficient internalmanagement, soviet-type organizational structure of the Academy of Science, lack of proper cooperation
with universities lead to deterioration of Ukrainian academic institutes, especially those which needsignificant investments to maintain experimental base. Except for some rare occasions, Ukrainian nuclear
science and Ukrainian nuclear industry have very limited contacts, and it means that the science cannot
count on financial support from the industry.
In Ukraine, the share of nuclear energy in total electricity generation is very high, but the industry isheavily dependent on the supply of equipment, fuel and expertise from Russia. The only improvement thatis planned is in-country production of fuel assemblies, but the dependence on enriched uranium willremain. Ukrainian share in production of equipment (like turbines or electronics) for nuclear industry in
the former Soviet-block countries is quite high, but the success of this sector depends on Russia's efforts toremain an important player on the world's nuclear industry market.

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Selected References to Sections
Atomic and nuclear physics - www.nas.gov.ua; Історія АН України.1918-1993. Київ, "Наукова
думка", 1994. 301 с.; www.iop.kiev.ua; www.kipt.kharkov.ua; ww.univer.kharkov.ua; www.ioffe.rssi.ru;
www.mephi.ru; ipbaes.org.ua; dialogs.org.ua/print.php?part=issue&m_id=11566
From Atomic Bomb to Peaceful Atom - museum.rosenergoatom.ru; vostgok.com.ua; who-iswho.com.ua/bookmaket/ecology2008/8/167.html; "Разведка и охрана недр", # 10, 2005. М., "Недра";turboatom.com.ua; www.hartron.com.ua; atom.org.ua;
www.mns.gov.ua/showarticle.php?doc=pressa/ns/2002/09_10/06.ua&PHPSESSID=27ed109df95bbf1426
af974fa7796042&p=1; baryer.dp.ua; zakon1.rada.gov.ua/cgi-bin/laws/main.cgi?nreg=1846-2003-%EF;zakon1.rada.gov.ua/cgi-bin/laws/main.cgi?nreg=216-2009-%F0
Ukrainian Nuclear Industry: Current Status - mpe.kmu.gov.ua; www.energoatom.kiev.ua;
new.chnpp.gov.ua; www.rudana.in.ua; vostgok.com.ua; ipbaes.org.ua; www.sinp.com.ua;
www.chornobyl.net; www.world-nuclear.org/info/inf46.html

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Appendix. Map indicating locations mentioned in the text:16