International Classification of
Impairments, Disabilities,
and Handicaps

A manual of classification
relating to theconsequences of disease

Published in accordance withresolution WHA29. 35 of the Twenty-ninth World Health Assembly,
May 1976.,WORLD HEALTH ORGANIZATIONGENEVA

1980

The World Health Organization is a specialized agency of the United Nations withprimary responsibility for international health matters and public health. Throughthis organization~ which was created in 1948~ the health professions of some 180
countries exchange their knowledge and experience with the aim of making possible
the attainment by all citizens of the world by the year 2000 of a level of health thatwill permit them to lead a socially and economically productive life.
By means of direct technical cooperation with its Member States, and by stimulating such cooperation among them, WHO promotes the development of comprehensive heaJth services, the prevention and control of diseases, the improvement ofenvironmental conditions, the development of human resources for health, the coordination and development of biomedical and health services research~ and the planning and implementation of health programmes.
These broad fields of endeavour encompass a wide variety of activities, such as
developing systems of primary health care that reach the whole popUlation of Member countries; promoting the health of mothers and children; combating malnutrition;
controlling malaria and other communicable diseases including tuberculosis andleprosy; coordinating the global strategy for the prevention and control of AIDS;
having achieved the eradication of smallpox, promoting mass immunization against
a number of other preventable diseases; improving mental health; providing safe
water supplies; and training health personnel of all categories.
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the International Health Regulations; revising the International Statistical Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems; and collecting and disseminating
health statistical information.
Reflecting the concerns and priorities of the Organization and its Member States,
WHO publications provide aUlhoritative infonnation and guidance aimed at promoting and protecting health and preventing and controlling disease.

Reprinted 1985, 1989, 1993 (with foreword)

ISBN 924154126 I© World Health Organization 1980
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Page

Foreword to the 1993 reprint ......................................

1

Introduction ................................................

7

Section 1

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE
The response to illness ............................
A unifying framework ............................
Application of the concepts ........................

Section 2

CLASSIFICATION OF IMPAIRMENTS
Definition and characteristics ......................
List of two-digit categories ........................
1 Intellectual impairments ........................
2 Other psychological impairments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3 Language impairments ... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4 Aural impairments .............................
5 Ocular impairments ............................
6 Visceral impairments ...........................
7 Skeletal impairments ...........................
8 Disfiguring impairments ........................
9 Generalized, sensory, and other impairments ......
Guidance on assignment ..........................
Index.. . . . . .... . .. .. . . ..... . .. . .. . . .... .. . . .. . ..

Section 3

23
25
31

47
48
53
57
68
73
79
86
92
106
112
11 7
121

CLASSIFICATION OF DISABILITIESDefinition and characteristics ......................
List of two-digit categories ........................
1 Behaviour disabilities ........... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
2 Communication disabilities ......................
3 Personal care disabilities ........................
4 Locomotor disabilities ..........................
5 Body disposition disabilities .....................
6 Dexterity disabilities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
7 Situational disabilities ..........................
8 Particular skin disabilities .......................
9 Other activity restrictions .......................

143
144
148
153
157
161
163
166
168
171
172

IV

CONTENTS
Page

Supplementary gradings of disability ................
Guidance on assignment ..........................
Section 4

173
179

CLASSIFICATION OF HANDICAPSDefinition and characteristics ......................
List of dimensions ................................
Orientation handicap ...........................
2 Physica1 independence handicap. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..
3 Mobility handicap ..............................
4 Occupation handicap ...........................
5 Social integration handicap ......................
6 Economic self-sufficiency handicap ...............
7 Other handicaps ...............................
Guidance on assessment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . ..

183
184
185
188

192
195
199
202
206
207

FOREWORD TO THE 1993 REPRINT

The International C/rlssification of Impairments, Disabilities. and Handicaps (ICIDH),
developed in the 1970s, was issued by the World Health Organization in 1980 as a tool forthe classification of the consequences of disease (as well as of injuries and other disorders)and of their implications for the lives of individuals. It now exists in 13 languages I andfurther versions in other languages are in preparation; more than 15 000 copies of the
English and French versions and over 10000 copies in other languages have been distributed. The bibliography maintained by the WHO Collaborating Centre on ICIDH in the
Netherlands lists over 1000 references to the ICIDH. Published comments on the ICIDH
include such remarks as: "[The ICIDH] concepts provide the key to rational managementof chronic diseases"; at the same time, however, concern has been expressed that the
ICIDH does not state clearly enough the role of social and physical environment in theprocess of handicap} and that it might be construed as encouraging "the medicalization of
disablement". (The term "disablement" is used here to encompass the full range ofimpainnent, disability, and handicap.)
The ICIDH belongs to the "family" of classifications developed by WHO for application to various aspects of health and disease. The best established is the International
Statistical Classification of Diseases. Injuries, and Causes of Death (leD), the Ninth
Revision of which (ICD-9) was issued shortly before the publication of the ICIDH. The
first volume of the Tenth Revision of the ICD (lCD-IO), published in June 1992, includes
various changes, for instance in the area of mental and behavioural disorders, which will
have to be taken into account in a revised ICIDH.
The dissemination and application of the ICIDH, as well as the advocacy role oforganizations .and bodies devoted to the problems of people with disabilities, have beenaccompanied by important changes in the way impainnents, disabilities, and handicaps,
and the various problems that may arise in each of these three areas are perceived andaddressed. The listing of the classification items has allowed a better description andfacilitated the assessment of people with disabilities and of their situation within a given
physical and social environment.
This foreword is intended lo clarify certain aspects of the 1980 introduction which havebeen the subject of much discussion, and to indicate some of the issues to be addressed ina forthcoming revision. It also offers an opportunity to provide infonnation on the range
of uses of the ICIDH and on the developments that have occurred as a result of its
publication. In other respects~ the manual is essentially unchanged and includes theoriginal introduction.
Two Collaborating Centres for the ICIDH have been established, in France (Centre
technique national d'Etudes et de Recherches sur les Handicap.(j et les Inadaptations) and in
the Netherlands (Standing Committee for Classifications and Terminology). Together withother WHO Collaborating Centres for Health-related Classifications, notably those in
1 A list of translations is available on request from Strengthening of Epidemiological and Statistical
Services (SES/HST), World Health Organization, 1211 Geneva 27, Switzerland.

2

FORE"WORD TO THE 1993 REPRINT

Uppsala, Sweden, for the Nordic countries, and at the National Center for Health Statistics, Hyattsville, MD, USA for North America, with groups such as the Canadian Society
for the ICIDH and the Reseau pour l'Etude de I'Esperance de Vie en Sante/lnternational
Network on the Study of Healthy Life Expectancy (REVES), and with intergovernmentalorganizations such as the Statistical Division of the United Nations Department of Socialand Economic Deve1opment~ and the Council of Europe, these Centres have formed atechnical network which has been in operation since 1987. The Council of Europe has
established a Committee of Experts for the Application of the WHO International Classification of Impairments, Disabilities, and Handicaps, which brings together representativesof 14 countries~ plus five observers. This Committee has examined specific applications of
the rCIDH in rehabilitation work, surveys, and the collection of statistics, in the study ofmental retardation, the assessment of vocational capacity) the assessment of technicalenabling devices, and the application of the concept of handicap. The Real Patronato dePrevenciim y de Atenciim a Personas con Minusvalia in Madrid has undertaken a survey ofthe use of the ICIDH in Spanish-speaking countries.

Current applications of the ICJDHThe ICIDH is intended to offer a conceptual framework for information; the framework is relevant to the long-term consequences of disease, injuries, or disorders, andapplicable both to personal health care, including early identification and prevention, andto the mitigation of environmental and societal barriers. It is also relevant to the study ofhealth care systems, in terms both of evaluation and of policy formulation. The conceptsof the ICIDH have elicited much philosophicaJ interest, and its applications have covered
activities in social security, the design of popUlation surveys at local, national, andinternational levels, and other areas, such as the assessment of working capacities, demography, community needs assessment, town planning, and architecture. Although the
ICIDH is inherently a health-related classification, future documentation and development
will need to reflect a broader spectrum of applications and users.
A primary application of the ICIDH has been in describing the circumstances ofindividuals with disabilities across a wide range of settings. The ICIDH has been directly
applied to the care of individuals in diagnosis and treatment, evaluation of treatment
results, assessment for work, and information. Reports on its use in personal health carehave come from nurses, occupational therapists, physicians, physiotherapists and others
working with a wide variety of people, including elderly peop1e, chiJdren and adolescents,
and psychiatric patients, in many widely different countries, including Australia, theNetherlands, Pakistan, Spain, Venezuela, and Zimbabwe. The ICIDH is also used to assesspatients in rehabilitation, in nursing homes, and in homes for the elderly; its use in theseareas has facilitated communication between various categories of workers and coordination between different types of care.

FOREWORD TO THE 1993 REPRINT3

At the institutional level the ICIDH has been used to assess the numbers and type ofstaff required, and to study discharge policies and the characteristics of health-care utilization. At the community level, it has helped in identifying the needs of peop1e withdisabilities and handicaps, identifying handicapping situations in the social and physicalenvironment, and formulating the policy decisions necessary for improvements in everyday
life, including modifications of the physical and social environment.
In the areas of social security, occupational health, and employment, the ICIDH serves
as an actual or potentia] basis for various assessments: for decisions on allowances, theorientation of individuals, and the nomenclature of handicaps in France, for the assessment of working abilities in Germany and the Netherlands, and for access to institutionalcare and to enabling devices in Italy and in Belgium (by the Flemish Fund for the Social
Integration of Persons with a Handicap). Switzerland is investigating the use of the ICIDH
in health insurance nomenclature.
The framework of the ICIDH has been used successfully by demographers, epidemiologists, health planners, policy-makers, and statisticians in disability surveys at national,
regional, and local levels in several countries, both deve10ped (inter alia Australia, Canada,
Netherlands) and developing (inter alia Algeria, China~ Fiji, Kuwait). Definitions used in
the ICIDH have also served. as a basis for surveys in the Netherlands, the United Kingdom,and most notably Spain, and for analysis of survey results. The statistical tools developedby the Statistical Division of the United Nations Department of SociaJ and Economic
Development for the international monitoring of popUlation and household censuses,
surveys, and administrative systems include an International Disability Statistics Database(DISTAT), which uses a framework based on the ICIDH; DIST AT covers national
statistics from over 95 countries both in machine-readable form and as a printed Compendium on Disability_ ICIDH concepts and definitions have been similarly used to determine
various types of demographic indicators of Healthy Life Expectancy (impairment-free,disability-free, or handicap-free life expectancy) for a range of developing and developed
countries. The use of the ICIDH in surveys has highlighted the relationships between
impairment and disability and between disability and handicap; indeed, whether a survey
is based on the concept of impairment or on that of disability can lead to marked
differences in the resulting assessment of the population.
At the conceptual and policy levels, the use of the lCIDH has changed the ways inwhich disabilities themselves, peopJe with disabilities, and the role of the physical andsocial environment in the development of handicap are considered. It has also changedsome of the policy, planning, and administrative reactions of governments, organizations,and individuals to these concepts. The action taken by France in the promotion of an
adapted version of the ICIDH for the collection of data on social services, and in theapplication of a Nomenclature des handicaps based on the ICIDH can be taken as one
example (similar action is being considered in other countries); recent legislation in Italyis another. In Quebec, Canada, a systematic approach to policies on impairment, disability,and handicap is largely based on the ICIDH. Active interest in the ICIDH has recently
been demonstrated in the USA, during and after the preparation of the Americans with
Disabilities Act and in the publication of a major report on Disability in America. Even by
those who do not necessarily accept it as the dominant framework, the ICIDH is widely
recognized as an important standard for a conceptual framework in this field.

4

FOREWORD TO THE 1993 REPRINT

Some problems identified in the use of the ICIDH
An important task in the revision of the ICIDH will be to clarify the role andinterrelationships of environmental factors in the definition and development of thedifferent aspects addressed by the ICIDH, most notably - but not exclusively - handicap.
A report of the united Nations Commission on Human Rights for its Forty-third Session
on Human Rights and Disability encouraged WHO to revise the ICIDH and to consider
more specifically the role of the environment in the development of the handicap process.
Much work has addressed conceptual developments for this topic, notably the proposals
issued by the Canadian Society for the ICIDH on the development of the handicap process.
The role of the social and physical environment is briefly addressed in the original
introduction to the ICIDH (see page ]4):
"Handicap is more problemati~al. The structure of the Handicap classification isradically different from all other ICD-related classifications. The items are not classified according to individuals or their attributes but rather according to the circumstances in which people with disabiHties are Hkely to find themselves, circumstancesthat can be expected to place such individuals at a disadvantage in relation to theirpeers when viewed from the norms of society."
This will require elaboration in the revised version. The Handicap classification is aclassification of situations and not of individuals: the word "'circumstances" is to beconsidered as referring not only to statistical aggregates of individuals, but also to characteristics of the physical and social environment. Indicators for both categories are also
under development in the field of health promotion.
The categories of impainnent, disability, and handicap remain robust; non-ICIDHbased models embody similar concepts, although they may use different terms. A numberof models of the consequences of disease which incorporate other factors, such as thephysical and social environment~ have been proposed in the scientific literature, and will
be considered during revision of the IC1DH, although most remain at the stage oftheoretical development and empirical testing.
In several instances, there is a degree of overlap between disability and handicap asregards functional limitations and activities of daily Jiving. This overlap also occurs
between impairment and disability, for instance as regards: inte11ectual impairments; thedistinction between aural, ocular, and language impainnents and communication disabilities; incontinence; and physical independence. The problem of overlap will require
further elaboration.
The current model of the consequences of disease and its graphic representation (seepage 30) are effective in distinguishing between impainnents, disabilities, and handicaps as
separate concepts, but do not provide adequate information on the relationship between
them. In particular, the arrows linking disease or disorder, impairment, disability, andhandicap have occasionally been interpreted as representing a causal model and an
indication of change over time. This representation does not allow for movement fromhandicap and disability back to impainnent, as facilitated by appropriate interventions,and has thus been taken to imply a unidirectional flow from impairment, to disability, tohandicap. Furthennore, the graphic representation of the ICIDH framework does notFOREWORD TO THE 1993 REPRINT

5adequately reflect the role of the social and physical environment in the handicap process.
A1though the original text states that the situation is more complex than a simple linear
progression, this statement needs to be made more clearly - the arrows in the graphic presentation must be understood as meaning no more than "may lead to'~ These issues, as well
as alternative graphic representations, will be considered in the revision of the ICIDH.

Some proposed changes to the ICIDH
The lCIDH has found a wider range of uses and users than was originally envisaged.
Its value as a tool for planners and policy-makers has been amply demonstrated, notably
in Canada and France, and this aspect should be stressed and extended in an introductory
section of the revised version. Similar considerations apply to other facets of its use. Several
reports comment that the ICIDH is not difficult to use, and this is encouraging; in an effort
to broaden the application of the classification, revision should tend towards simplification
rather than towards the addition of further detail. Revision, particularly of the impainnent
classification, must also take into account the needs of users who are not health professionals;
for example, the revised version should include alphabetical indexes in addition to the index
that now exists for impairments only. Consideration should also be given to the problem
of application in specific population groups (e.g. children, because their status changes
to the problems of measurement of severity; therapidly), and more space should be
guidance and rulings on this included in the current version will be reconsidered.
In view of the concern about the way in which the definition of handicap is presented
and understood, suggestions for revision include greater emphasis on presenting handicap
as a description of the circumstances that individuals encounter as a result of interaction
between their impairments or disabilities and their physical and social environment. An
important task in the revision of the ICIDH will be to improve the presentation andillustration of the way in which external factors affect the rCIDH components. The
introduction must stress the importance of the environment, together with the role andinteraction of both individual characteristics and physical and social factors.
However, these factors, which are major components of the handicap process, should
not be developed as an additional classification scheme within the ICIDH. Social andphysical factors in the environment, and their relationship to impairment~ disability, andhandicap are strongly culture-bound. 1t is unlikely that a universally acceptable classification of these determinant factors is achievable at present, for the same reasons that
preclude a universally accepted classification of the determinants of health. Nevertheless,classifications of environmental factors may prove useful in the analysis of nationalsituations and in the development of solutions at the national level.
The classifications developed in the area of mental health~ whether for the entire
population or for specific age groups, are based mainly on the ICD. The chapter on mental
and behavioural disorders has been thoroughly updated in the Tenth Revision of the lCD,
and the ICIDH will have to reflect these changes, as well as those embodied in otherpublications. The Council of Europe Committee of Experts has recently drawn up a reportdiscussing the present use of the ICIDH in the study of mental retardation. Recognizing
the ICIDH as an important step towards generally accepted criteria for legal definitions,

6

FOREWORD TO THE 1993 REPRINT

the report of the United Nations Commission on Human Rights, mentioned ear1ier,
encouraged WHO to revise the ICIDH with special attention to the problems of impairments and disabilities related to mental health. Similar concerns apply to the problems of
cognitive function often associated with aging. PubJication of the French-language versionof the ICIDH in 1988 evoked particular interest among psychiatrists; as WHO Collaborating Centre for the ICIDH, the Centre technique national d'Eludes et de Recherches sur lesHandicaps et les Inadaptations (CTNERHI) is devoting an important part of its activities
to the applications of the ICIDH and its relation to other classifications in mental health.
As a result of these developments, the area of mental health will be treated with particularcare in the revision of the ICIDH.
5

The revision process will also address detailed changes to items within the classification,and must take into account the improved understanding of basic biological mechanisms,
particularly as regards impairments. In some cases this will have implications for preferredterminology and will entail changes to terms that have become obsolete.
The current version of the ICIDH contains definitions and examples that are highly
culture-specific (e.g. references to "pouring tea") or that are inappropriately characterizedaccording to sex; these will be corrected whenever possible. In addition, typographical andfactual errors, and definitions no longer consistent with those in ICD-IO will be similarly
remedied. A small number of these have been corrected in the present reprint.
An "umbrella" term is needed to encompass the spectrum of experiences linked to
impairment, disability, and handicap: the term "disablement" has been suggested, but is
not universally accepted. In some languages there appears to be no single suitable term.
The official French-language version, for example, uses "handicap" as an umbrella term,
stressing that it does not cover a monolithic reality, but is the result of different levels of
experience; this version also uses a term signifying "disadvantage" for the third level ofexperience in the classification (as do the Italian~ Japanese, and Portuguese versions).
French-speaking Canadians, on the other hand, appear to prefer the word "handicap'~ forthis third level and do not make use of an umbrella term. Agreement on the use of an
existing term or on the introduction of a new term will require much thought anddiscussion during the revision of the ICIDH.
Training and presentation materials for the ICIDH have been developed, notably inFrance by CTNERHI, and in Quebec, Canada (as a video presentation). In addition, theReal Patronato de Prevencion y de Alencion a Personas con Minusvalia in Madrid has
supported the development of a computer-based program in Spanish for its application.
Identification and sharing of these and other experiences, and some standardization of
approaches, will enhance their usefulness.
The revision of the ICIDH will be based upon a review of reports and documents
describing its use, and consultation with expert representatives from relevant disciplines.
The opinions of international and nongovernmental organizations, including organizations of people with disabilities, which deal with different aspects of disability will continue
to be sought and considered throughout the process of revision, and representation ofexperiences from countries in the various Regions of WHO win be ensured.

INTRODUCTION
The ability-capability gap, the discrepancy between what health caresystems can do and what they might do) constitutes one of the greatest
chal1enges for those concerned with health care and welfare. The hope iswide]y shared that improvements in the availability of relevant infonnation
could make an important contribution to the development of policies more
appropriate for the solution of these problems. Choices are being made all
the time, even if only by default. It is assumed that the quality of choices
would be enhanced if the degree to which decisions were related to information, a description of the situation as it is, was increased. The classification
schemes in this manual are offered as frruueworks to facilitate the provisionof such information.

Infonnation relevant to health experiences
The material incorporated in this manual is concerned with dimensionsof health-related experience complementary to those embraced by theconcept of disease. The manual is published by the World Health Organization,
a1beit only for trial purposes, in response to a resolution of the World
Health Assembly. Inescapably, this carries with it the implication that
infomlation about these additional diInensions is useful and even necessary
for health service planning. As the collection of this extra information can
only increase the burden on existing information systems, it is prudent tobegin by indicating why the need for it arises.

Routinely available data

The organization and planning of a health care system are generally basedon information generated routinely from the system. This tends to be of
two types. First, there are indicators of need, such as recorded morbidity
experience. Second, there are data that are the by-products of administrativerequirements; these consist of information on resource inputs, such as manpower or hospital beds, or derivatives from these such as waiting lists, andon resource utilization> such as patient loads in various sectors of the system.
All this information is the product of an existing health care system, and
it is therefore subject to the same assumptions as those underlying available
health care processes. In other words) questions of utility and relevance, as
they concern the appropriateness both of the care system and of the inform-

8

INTRODUCTION

ation that derives from it, are difficult to examine. This means that thepotential for fundamental appraisal or evaluation of the processes is very
limited, and as a result alternative approaches may too readily be neglected.
If health care processes are to be evaluated, they must be goalaoriented,
because the appraisal is concerned with the extent to which goals are
attained. The prime requirement is for clearly specified outcome goals. This
would pennit study of the extent to which these outcome goals are met, theeffectiveness of the particular health care process; the inputs necessary toattain this, the efficiency of the process; and its availability and uptake, theequality of its distribution. 1 Management is always likely to be processing
data on resource provision and utilization but, as should be evident, these
are relevant mainly to efficiency and equality goals. Although attempts havebeen made to evaluate effectiveness by these nleans, resource data can serve
only as proxies for what is of real concern.

Data for evaluation

Three aspects are fundamental to any attempt to evaluate the effectivenessof health care processes. These are:i) contacts made with the system;ii) how the system responds to contact; andiii) the outcome of contact.
Assessment of the second of thes~} how the system responds to contact,
requires only brief consideration. In principle the means for structuring
infonnation re]evant to this aspect are widely available. Thus resource dataof the types already indicated can be used for g10bal appraisals, whilst the
newly developed International Classification of Procedures in Medicine 2
provides a framework for documenting specific responses by the system.
However, the nature of infonnation pertinent to the first and third aspectsis ]ess straightforward and therefore requires more detailed examination.
The outcome of contact has to be related to goals. In general, these havenot been fonnulated with the precision necessary to pennit evaluation.
However, the simplest requirement of a hea1th care system is that somebeneficial change in the individual's situation or status should result fromcontact with the system. If no such change can be detected, then the value
1. Cochrane, A. L. (1972) b1fectivenegs and efficiency: random reflections on
health services. London, Nuffield Provincial Hospitals Trust.

2. World Health Organization (1978) International classification of procedures inmedicine, Geneva, vol. 1 and 2.

INTRODUCTION

9of a given hea1th care process is seriously open to question. Thus, thechallenge is to devise a means of describing the status of an individual insuch a way that, by assessing status when contact is first made and thenagain after the system has responded, change can be recorded. This change
would provide a measure of outcome.
Unfortunately, the nature of the challenge alters as the burden of morbidity
changes. Thus when the major force of disease is expressed as acute illness,of which the acute infections provide the most notable example) simple andunequivocal measures are readily available from which outcome can beassessed. These consist of the occurrence or otherwise of the disease, andrecovery or a fatal outcome. For this purpose, terms derived from the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) provide a valuable and relevantmeans for studying health experience, and the underlying cause concept is
additionally helpful. Moreover, generalizations in population terms are
simple to derive and are justifiable because disease control is so dependent
on community-based action. Herein lay the nineteenth-century foundationsof public health and of the value of indirect indicators of community
health, such as perinatal mortality.
As the acute infections come under control, other diseases assume agreater importance. As long as the latter are life-threatening, the simple
indicators, such as mortality, continue to be valuable, so that ICD tenns
retain their usefulness for evaluation. However, as technological power isdeveloped, the situation changes. Conditions like diabetes and pernicious
anaemia can be controlled even though their underlying causes cannot be
eliminated. Mortality and even the occurrence of disease then have lessrelevance to evaluation other than that relating to primary prevention, andICD teons no longer reflect outcome goals, particularly when the rules for
assignment to categories are constrained by the underlying cause concept.
Hence the need to identify manifestations, a facility made possible byoptions in the Ninth Revision of the ICD. This extension of the classification
does pennit evaluation, because of the potential for a manifestation to beabolished or suppressed;change after contact can thus be recorded. However,
the extent to which population generalization can be developed on this basis
remains to be explored further.
Diseases that are se1f-limiting or amenable to prevention or cure accountfor only part of the spectrum of morbidity. In fact, the very success of control measures for these diseases has resulted in the increasing importance ofa residue of conditions that do not come into this category. These include
the effects of trauma, impairments of special sense organs, mental retardationand mental illness, and the chronic diseases of middle and later life, particu-

10

INTRODUCTION

lady heart disease. stroke, bronchitis,and arthritis. Disorders like these arecoming to dominate current morbidity experience in some countries andthey are especially noteworthy as causes of disability. For these disorders, amanifestation code is very useful for identifying the calls that may be madeon different types of service, but it can only rarely serve as a means of
indicating change in the individual's status after contact with a health caresystem.

Consequences of disease
The difficulties arise because of the limited scope of the medical modelof illness. The kernel of the situation is represented by the concept of disease,which may be depicted symbolically as a sequence,
etiology)la pathology ---...... manifestation.
The ICD is based on this model, the components of the sequence being
variously and severally identified within the classification. However, such amodel fails to reflect the full range of problems that lead people to makecontact with a health care system. Some consideration of the nature of thereasons for contact is therefore necessary.
Sickness interferes with the individual's ability to discharge those functions
and obligations that are expected of him. In other words, the sick person isunable to sustain his accustomed social role and cannot fllaintain his customary relationships with others. This view is sufficiently broad to take accountof the vast majority of calls that are likely to be made on a health caresystem. At one extreme, it embraces life-threatening disease, and, at theother, it includes less medical experiences such as anxiety or the wish foradvice and counselling. The only class of contact not incorporated in thisapproach is contacts made in the absence of illness phenomena, such asattendances for prophylactic inoculation. Provision for certain of these nonsickness-related contacts has been made ever since the Sixth Revision of the
ICD~ and this aspect has now been tackled systematically in the Ninth
Revision (Supplementary Classification of Factors influenCing Health
Status and Contact with Health Services V Code).
Although, in everyday practice, the medical model of illness portrayedabove provides a very efficient approach to disorders that can be prevented
or cured - the impact of illness is relieved secondarily as the underlying
condition is brought under control it is incomplete because it stops shortof the consequences of disease. It is the latter, particularly, that intrude
upon everyday life, and some framework is needed against which understanding of these experiences can be developed; this is especially true forINTRODUCTION

11

chronic and progressive or irreversible disorders.
The sequence underlying il1ness-related phenomena thus needs extension.
This can be presented as.. impairment... disability ---.-handicap
diseaseThe nature of these different dimensions of the consequences of disease,
their definition, and the basis for developing three separate classification
schemes, will be considered in greater depth in the first section of thismanual. At this juncture it is probably sufficient to note that the distinctions
facilitate policy development in response to the problems, clarifying thepotential contributions of medical services, rehabilitation facilities, andsocial welfare respectively. By the same token~ the proposals offer different
types of status descriptor, with a varying potential for change, so that theneeds of evaluative studies are anticipated. Furthermore, the descriptors
provide the basis for study of both the reasons why an individual makes
contact with a health care system and a related problem, underutilization,
where it is the detenninants of why not all of those with a given health status
tnake contact with the system that are of interest.

Development of the classifications
Many approaches have been made to measurement of the consequencesof disease. One strand has been concerned to structure experience in clinicaland rehabilitation contexts, and this has been particularly notable in the
United States of America. Great emphasis has generally been placed onfunctions such as activities of daily living, and the approach has been basedon assessment procedures. 3 A more recent development has sprung fromdelnands for ascertainment of disabled individuals, either in prevalence
surveys or for detcnnining eligibility for pensions and other welfare provisions.
The purpose has been to identify categories or groups of people fulfilling
predetermined criteria; works of this type have therefore been concernedmorewith assignment thanwith assessment. However ,the range of applications
has been considerable, extending from routine health statistics and specificcash benefits to health service planning,social security, social administration,and social policy.
Those concerned with measurement on a community scale, by the gathering and presentation of statistical tabulations relevant to these purposes,
3. Wood, P. H. N. & Badley, E. M. (1978) An epidemiological appraisal of disablement. In: Bennett A. E., ed., Recent advances in community medicine, Edinburgh,
Churchill Livingstone.

12

INTRODUCTION

were stimulated by these activities. A preliminary scheme was developed by
Mrs Esther Cahana, and submitted to WHO by Israel in 1972. Within a
few months, a more comprehensive approach was suggested by the WHO
Centre for the Oassification of Diseases, in Paris~ after discussions between
the Head of the Centre) Dr Madeleine Guidevaux, and Professor Andre
Grossiord of Hopital Raymond Poincare, Garches, France. These suggestions
were based on two important principles: distinctions were made between
impairments and their importance, i.e., their functional and social consequences, and these various aspects or axes of the data were classified
separately on different fields of digits. In essence, this approach consisted ofa number of distinct, albeit parallel, classifications. This contrasted with thetraditions of the ICD, wherein multiple axes (etiology, anatomy, pathology,etc.) are integrated in a hierarchical system occupying only a single field ofdigits.

WHO therefore invited a consultant, Dr Philip Wood of Manchester,
England, to explore the possibility of assimilating the Paris proposals into ascheme compatible with the principles underlying the structure of the leD.
For this purpose, it was intended to supplement a three-digit hierarchicalclassification of imp ainnents, analogous in form to the leD, by three
additional digits dealing with disability and handicap in the form of mobility,
physical dependence, and economic dependence. At the same time, preliminary attempts were made to systematize the terminology applied todisease consequences. These suggestions were circulated infonnally in 1973,
and help was solicited particularly from groups with a special concern forrehabilitation.
It soon emerged that difficulties arose not only from nomenc1ature, butalso from confusion about the underlying concepts. After clarification ofthese ideas, it became apparent that a single scheme conforming to thetaxonomic principles of the ICD was unsatisfactory. Whilst impairments
could be dealt with in this manner, a synthesis of the different dimensionsof disadvantage could be accomplished only by making arbitrary and often
contradictory compromises between the various dimensions or roles identified.
The principle was therefore advanced that a classification of handicap had
to be structured differently, based on ordination of the different states ofeach dimension. This development is discussed in greater detail in the firstsection of this manual.
After discussions with Professor Grossiord and the Paris centre, separate
classifications of impairments and handicaps were prepared. These were
circulated widely in 1974, and many comments and suggestions for improve-INTRODUCTION

13

ment were received. Particularly helpful contributions to the developmentof these schemes have been made at various stages on behalf of the International Continence Society (Eric Glen), the International Council ofOphthalm010gy (August Colenbrander), the International and European Leagues
against Rheumatism (Philip Wood), the International Society for Prosthetics
and Orthotics (the late Hector W. Kay) , and Rehabilitation International(K.-A. Jochheiro). Acknow1edgement must also be made to the individual
contributions of Elizabeth M. Badley and Michael R. Bury, and to the work of
Bernard Isaacs and Margaret Agerholm. Various memoranda were also madeavailable by the World Health Organization, both at its headquarters in
Geneva and at its Regional Office for Europe in Copenhagen.
Further discussions were then he1d, involving WHO and representatives of
the International Social Security Association and the Social Security Department of the International Labour Office. Responsibility for collating
comments and developing definitive proposals 'was undertaken by Dr Wood.
These were submitted for consideration by the International Conference for
the Ninth Revision of the International Classification of Diseases in October
1975. At this juncture the scheme incorporated a supplementary digit toidentify disability, and the whole approach was acknowledged as being to alarge extent experimental and exploratory. Having considered the classification, the Conference recommended its publication for trial purposes. In
May 1976, the Twenty-ninth World Health Assembly took note of thisrecommendation and adopted resolution WHA 29.35, in which it approved
the publication, for trial purposes, of the supplementary classification of
impairments and handicaps as a supplement to, but not as an integral partof, the International Classification of Diseases.
The present manual, published under this authority, represents a consider·able recasting of the detailed proposals submitted to the Ninth Revision
Conference. The hierarchical arrangement of the impairment classification
has been radically altered so as to allow for taxonomic spaces more closely
related to importance and frequency of occurrence; a completely new disability
classification has been introduced, resembling in structure the impairment
classification; and the handicap classification has been augmented. These
alter?tions have been carried out in the light of preliminary field testing,comments by the Internationa1 Federation of Societies for Surgery of theHand (A1fred B. Swanson), and further comments by the individuals andorganizations noted previously and by UNESCO and DECD.
Practical application of the classifications

Scope and structure o/the manual
The manual contains three distinct and independent classifications, eachrelating to a different plane of experience consequent upon disease.

14

INTRODUCTION(a) Impairments (I code), concerned with abnonnalities of body structure
and appearance and with organ or system function) resulting fromany cause; in principle, inlpairments represent disturbances at theorgan level.

(b) Disabilities (D code), reflecting the consequences of impairment interms of functional performance and activity by the individual;
disabilities thus represent disturbances at the level of the person.
These two are perhaps the least controversiaL Their taxonomic structure
resembles that of the leD in that they are hierarchical, with meaning
preserved even if the codes are used only in abbreviated form; also they are
exhaustive. The contrast between the [ and D codes stenlS from the natureof what is being classified. Impairments resemble disease terms in the leD inthat they are best conceived of as threshold phenomena; for any particular
category, a]J that is involved is a judgement about whether the impairment ispresent or not. On the other hand, disabilities reflect failures in accomplishments so that a gradation in perfonnance is to be anticipated; provision has
thus been made for recording of the degree of disability ~ and also of future
outlook.
(c) llandicaps (H code), concerned with the disadvantages experienced
by the individual as a result of inlpairnlcnts and disabilities; handicaps
thus reflect interaction with and adaptation to the individual'ssurroundings.
Handicap is more problematical. The structure of the Handicap classification
is radically different from all other leD-related classifications. The items are notclassified according to individuals or their attributes but rather according to thecircumstances in which people with disabilities are likely to find themselves,
circumstances that can be expected to place such individuals at a disadvantage
in relation to their peers when viewed from the norms of society. The scheme is
not exhaustive and is restricted to key social roles,what have been regarded as
the most jmportant dimensions of disadvantageous experience - orientation,
physical independence~ mobility, occupation, social integration, and economic
self-sufficiency. For each of these dimensions a gradation of circumstances ispossible, so that specification of the individual's status in regard to each is
required. These properties determine that the codes are not hierarchical in thecustomarily accepted sense, and abbreviation is possible only by neglecting
certain of the dimensions. Perusal of the outline of the H code should indicate
these characteristics more clearly.
These and other features of the three classification schemes are examinedat greater length in the first section of the manual. Assessment and assignment to relevant categories are also discussed. In addition, the manual
includes an index to impairments.

INTRODUCTION

15

Data sources
With the exception of surveys and research enquiries, the primary sourcefor data of the type covered by this manual is the records of contacts madewith a care system. It is therefore necessary to review what is entered inrecords, so that its suitability for classification according to the present
schemes can be considered. Contact will be made with a caring professional,
who may be a physician, a nurse, a remedial therapist, a social worker, or apensions assessor, or who may be from various other health-related professions. The essence of the transaction that ensues is that the individual~s
problems are elicited and assessed. The conclusions of the assessment)
augmented by some of the information exchanged, are likely to be noted in
the case records.
The process may be exenlplified by medical diagnosis. Symptoms andsigns are elicited from the individual. These are then assessed and considered
in conjunction. On the basis of known constellations of characteristics it isusually possible to assign the individuaFs problems to a predetennined groupor category in the form of a specific diagnosis. Three aspects are especially
noteworthy. First, the raw data are individual-oriented, the symptoms andsigns present in one specific individual. In tenns of an information system
all that can be derived are enumerations of individuals with particularattributes. Second, meaning is given to these diverse attributes by categorization, identifying a basis for interrelationships between them. This generates
group-oriented infonnation, which has two important properties. There is apotential to make inferences about individuals in the group that go beyond
the limits of data necessary for categorization; for instance) in addition tolabelling the individual's collection of symptoms and signs an ideal diagnosis
also indicates etiology, pathology, and prognosis. There is also a potential toaggregate category-oriented data on the basis of more general commonalities)
such as the chapters of the leD, and this enhances transmission of simplified
infonnation. The third significant aspect of medical diagnosis is that itprovides a medium for communication between one professional and another,largely on the basis of the attributes that can be inferred from the categorylabel.
On this foundation, it is possible to examine the nature of infonnation
likely to be available on disease consequences. A number of difficulties are
immediately apparent, and their influence can most clearly be revealed bypursuing the analogy with medical diagnosis. First, objectives inevitably
differ appreciably between the various professions; thus what is gennane fora remedial therapist is unlikely to be so for a social worker. This variation inemphasis and concern introduces a lack of comparability into data. Second,

16

INTRODUCTION

heterogeneity tends to be exaggerated by the fact that in this context mostprofessions are concerned mainly with assessment and its associated individualoriented data, without there having been much standardization of procedures.
Infonnation of this type does not lend itself to simplification for transmission
in an information system; consider, for instance, an enumeration of difficulties
experienced in the activities of daily living, which is not particularly helpful
either for service planning or for indicating policy options.
A third difficu1ty is that unifying concepts analogous to disease entities
have not generally been developed. As a result few category-oriented data
have been available, an important factor contributing to shortcomings inpolicy development and planning in regard to the disabled. Finally, the lackof appropriate concepts with transprofessional currency has led to communication difficulties, a problem compounded by ambiguity and confusion
in terminology.
This manual does not presume to resolve all these difficulties, as its
publication for trial purposes indicates. However, it is presented for exploration as a means of overcoming some of the problems. It seeks tocontribute to the promotion of uniformity in broad concepts and terminology and, by indicating ways in which individual attributes may be grouped
together for simplification, to encourage standardization and an improvement in the conlparability of data. Today's case records are unlikely to contain all the necessary detail in a fonn suitable for rigorous application of theclassification schemes. Nevertheless, it is hoped that the manual will haveeducational value, stimulating the collection and recording of more appropriate data.
Pending the gathering of more ideal infonnation with these classification
schemes specifically in mind, it is still possible to exploit the approach withexisting records. Some indication of the possibilities may be helpful. The
underlying cause of an individual's difficulties, the disease, can usually beascertained from the diagnosis stated in medical records, 80 that leD coding
is not too difficult. In nonmedical records the underlying cause may not beeasy to determine but in these contexts it is usually likely to be of lessimportance in any case. In either type of record the more immediate con~sequences of disease, the major impairments, are likely to ~e noted, so thatcoding to the I code should also not present insuperable obstacles. The main
aspect likely to command attention in the future relates to identification
criteria and their relation to severity.
I

The D code calls for information that is also likely to be in the records
already, although care will be necessary in regard to variation resulting from

INTRODUCTION

17

the use of clinical assessment, functional tests (including the activities ofdaily living), or questionnaires. The categories proposed should lend them&selves to assessment and to elicitation by questionnaire without muchdifficulty. However, caution is also necessary in appreciating the manner inwhich disability may be established in different contexts - a professional
medical definition based on a physician's judgement, a behavioural defmition
derived from perfonnance of selected activities, or a legal defmition framedin teons of eligibility for various benefits.
The assessment of handicap unavoidably includes consideration of thedimensions and categories included in the H code. Thus the basic assignment
should not prove unduly difficult or give rise to any additional] abour. Thissuggests that the scheme is feasible, but its comparability and validity will
only be revealed by further experience. For retrospective application toexisting records the major difficulty is likely to be incomplete infonnation,
but the orientation of whatever material may be available can still be
instructive~Nevertheless in applying the classification certain problems need
to be borne in mind. First, disadvantage may be perceived in three different
ways: subjectively, by the individual himself; by others who are significant
to the individual; and by the community as a whole. Second, there isambiguity over how to regard third&party handicap. Third, it is not possible
for any scheme intended for international use to correspond exactly witheligibility for various benefits. These and related problems are examined ingreater detail in the first section of the manual.

Uses ofinform.ation
It is a fundamental principle of taxonomy that classification is subordinate
to a purpose. This would appear to preclude the possibility of any generalpurpose scheme and, as has been noted earlier, to embrace all the, planes of
disease consequences has necessitated three distinct taxonomies. However,this canon does not debar development of classifications that simultaneously
are able to serve a number of purposes, as the durability and robustness ofthe basic structure of the ICD indicate; the price of such flexibility is no
more than the occasional controversial compromise. The schemes presented
in this manual have been developed with these considerations in mind, atthe same time trying to take into account the needs of a wide variety ofpotential users, and it may be helpful if some of the uses are identified
specifically.
The three major classes of needs are analogous to those for which theleD is most widely used. These are:4.

Wood and Badley. op. elt.

18

INTRODUCTION(a) for the production of statistics on the consequences of disease.
These are necessary for surveillance of trends, for service planning,
and for research enquiries into the epidemiology and sociology ofdisability and handicap. For the latter purpose it is discordances inseverity between the three planes and the detenninants of thesedifferences that are particularly instructive;(b) for the collection of statistics relevant to the utilization of services.
These not only provide the basis for service planning, but also
facilitate evaluation ~(c) for indexing and case record retrieval according to the attributes
identified in the classifications.
As has been noted) each of the three schemes is restricted to a single
plane of the consequences of disease. This means that a full proflle, extending
from the underlying cause of the impainnent to the disadvantage thatensues, can be derived only if all three codes are used in conjunction withthe leD so as to yield a complete specification of status. It is hoped that ineveryday clinical contexts the full scheme will be utilized so that, in addition
to fulfilling the above needs, it may be possible to promote more sensitiveand comprehensive assessment of individual problems and to facilitate morecritical evaluation.
In addition, though, the codes have been conceived so that they arecapable of independent use for specific purposes. It is envisaged that forthese more limited applications the orientation of the impairment, disability,and handicap codes will be, respectively, for medical, rehabilitation, andwelfare services. However, disability and handicap data are also relevant tobroader areas of social policy, such as those concerned with education,
employment, and hou~ing. Finally, it is also hoped that the codes may con·tribute to standardization in problem identification and record-keeping
among different professional groups.
Although there have been demands for a means of classifying impairments
and disabilities in conjunction with the leO, the nature and scale of theschemes proposed go considerably further than many persons had originallyenvisaged. This is in keeping with the World Health Organization's declared
goal of "Health for all by 2000". Better information on the consequences ofchronic and disabling conditions should make an essential contribution to
the realization of this aim.
The development of these classification schemes has covered much new
ground. Indebtedness to the work of many individuals and groups has alreadybeen acknowledged. Nevertheless, experience in this area of claSSification,
especially in the practical applications, is extremely limited. After extensive

INTRODUCTION

19

consultation, it seemed that the most constructive plan to secure overall
coherence and consistency in these tentative and experimental proposals
would require that their fina1 integration and editing be undertaken by asing1e individual. The more usua1 process of revision by group deliberation
would best be exploited when variations in practical experience from wide·
spread field application were to hand, and when conflicting views needed
resolution. For these reasons users encountering difficulties in the application of the classifications are asked to communicate their comments
to:Strengthening of Epidemiological and Statistical Services,
World Health Organization,
1211 Geneva 27,
Switzerland.

The following leD abbreviations and conventions have been used in thismanual;NEe not elsewhere classified
NOS not otherwise specified*
combination category (for reduction of infonnation on a number of
impairments to a sing1e category)other in the titles of categories in the classification, the tenn '''other''indicates any specification not included in preceding categories (forexample, inclusion in the category "complete deficiency, right"
requires that the right side be specified; the next category is "othercomplete deficiency", and to this would be assigned those where theleft side or both sides were specified, and also those where the side
affected was not specified)decimaldigits8and9 used for "other" and "unspecified" categories, respectively

SECTION 1
THE CONSEQUENCES OF ~ISEASE

The re8pOllIC to illness
Acute and chronic ~A UDifying framework

I

Planes of experience!

ImpairmeJit
Disability
Handicap

I

i

I

Integration of concept~

Application of the concepts I
Tenninology

I~2;~;mm$:.!.tiea
Dimensions of disad

ts

tage

Classification of handi ps

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE
Thls manual is concerned with improving information on the consequencesof disease. Such an endeavour is dependent on appreciation of the nature ofhealth-related experiences. It is necessary, therefore, to begin with anattempt to clarify these.
The response to j)lness
In contemplating illness phenomena it is customary to invoke the conceptof disease. This notion and its derivatives, such as the International Qassification of Diseases (leD), consider pathological phenomena as though they
were unrelated to the individuals in whom they occur. Long-prevalent'traditions in thought have fostered such separation, tending to make categorical distinctions between the natural and human worlds, between nonliving and living, and between body and mind. However, certain limitationsin this appr<;>ach are evident. By isolating thoughts of disease from consideration of the sufferer, the consequences tend to be neglected. These
consequences - responses by the individual himself and by those to whom
he relates or upon whom he depends assume greater importance as theburden of illness alters. The problems may be illustrated by contrast between
acute and chronic processes.

Acu te and chronic illness
In colloqUial speech, "acute'" tends to indicate something sharp or
intense, whereas "chronic'" implies severity in terms of being objectionable
or very bad. For this reason patients can be alanned when they learn thatthe official nomenclature for their condition includes the latter term - e.g.,chronic bronchitis. However, professional usage of the words remains closer
to their etymology. Thus "'acute~'rneans "ending in a sharp point", implying
a fmite duration, which, classically, culminates in a crisis. On the other hand"chronic", which is derived from a word meaning "time", indicates "longcontinued". A host of interrelated properties is associated with these contrasts in time scale, and these render unnecessary any precise formulation of
the temporal boundary between acute and chronic processes.
The characteristics of acute illness may be exemplified by acute infections.
Onset of the condition is frequently sudden. There may be almost total
prostration, not least because rest is commonly regarded as facilitating
recovery. Furthermore, there is the prospect of a limited period in this state.
These three features help to promote two important responses. First,
suspension of everyday obligations comes about in such a way as to be
acceptable both to the sufferer and to others. Secondly, the situationencourages unquestioning capitulation to professional advice. For the health

24

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

professional the situation is also relatively straightfoIWard. The interval
between exposure to the putative dominant cause and development of theillness tends to be short, so that simple models of causaJity can account for
disease occurrence. The high incidence of many acute conditions provides
the professional with experience of a diversity of responses. Uncomplicateddecisions are called for; either action is imperative or there is time for re·flexion on what fonn of support might be appropriate. Most acute illnesses
are self·limiting; some may be life-threatening, but the remainder, becauseof their fmite duration, pose a minimal threat to the patient. These featuresencourage a paternalistic attitude by the professional, so that symptom
relief is regarded largely as a means of tiding the patient over until thecrisis has passed. Finally, the concentration of effort needed to treat acuteconditions is not too difficult to justify; although primary prevention may
offer a more economical solution, commitment of resources for secondary
control by health services is at least time-limited. Thus, in policy terms, theoptions in regard to what can be accommodated within a given level ofhealth service investment tend to be clear-cut, the choices being concernedwith whether various acute health problems should be responded to at all.

Chronic illness presents different challenges. The onset is usually insidious;
there may be a gradual progression of symptoms, or more permanent problems may develop as the sequel to a number of acute episodes. Confidence
and hopes are undennmed; the experience is usually difficult to account for,no end is in sight) and self.perception - the sense of identity - is assaulted
by changes in the body and its functional performance. Activity restriction,
though at times severe, nevertheless usually falls short of total incapacity
until very late in the course of the illness. Legitimation or acceptance byothers can be more difficult when a degree of independent existence ispossible, not least because obligations cannot be suspended indefmitely;some way of coming to terms with the altered situation therefore becomes
necessary. Finally, the persistence of problems impliCitly reveals limitationsin the potency of medical treatment, so that professional advice is often
accepted with less assurance. The health profeSsional is confronted withcomplementary difficulties. The prevalence of chronic conditions may behigh, but their incidence is relatively low; common expedence therefore
relates more to the range of problems unfolding in a limited number ofpatients. This has been one of the forces contributing to the development of
medical specialization and the concentration of care in large institutions
such as hospitals. Clinical decisions themselves are more problematic, theinsidious progress of chronic disease making diagnosis more difficult;defmitive conclusions often have to be deferred, yet action may be called
for in the face of this uncertainty.

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

25

Demands differ in other important aspects. Thus~ the impact of thecondition on the individual, though important, does not dominate the scene
to the exclusion of all else. Clinical status has to be set against the back·ground of life, moving, as it does, between home and work. Symptoms
reflecting impainnents and disabilities call for attempts at amelioration in
their own right. Sensitivity is also taxed; virtually everyone experiences
acute Ulness at some time, so that it is not too difficult to project oneself
into the situation of the patient, but personal knowledge of chronic suffering
is much less widespread. Finally) the multidimensional quality of problems
encountered in people with chronic illness tends to promote needs-based
appraisals, which carry with the:m potentially inflationary consequences
for health and welfare services. Thus policy fonnulation is more difficultand more controversial; it is necessary to choose which to respond to fromthe diversity of problems presented by affected individua]s.

A unifying framework
The challenges for health care ·change as chronic illness comes to occupy
a more dominant position. The sufferers themselves) the health professionals
concerned to help them, and thl~ policy makers and planners seeking toadapt to the different needs that aJrise - each in his different way encountersdifficulties in coming to tenns with the consequences of disease. The confusion that all three groups share stems largely from the lack of a coherent
scheme or conceptual framework against which to set such experiences.
These limitations in understanding are an obstacle to improving relevant
infonnation, and this in turn inhibits progress towards more helpful responses.

Planes of experience

The principal events in the deve:]opment of illness are as follows:(i) Something abnormal occurs within the individual; this may be present
at birth or acquired later. A chain of causal circumstances, the "etiology",
gives rise to changes in the structure or functioning of the body, the "pathology". Pathological changes mayor may not make themselves evident;
when they do they are described as "manifestations", which, in medical
parlance, are usually distinguished as "symptoms and signs". These features
are the components of the medic~al model of disease J as indicated in the
In troduction.

26

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE(ii) Someone becomes aware of such an occurrence; in other words, thepathological state is exteriorized. Most often the individual hlmselfbecomesaware of disease manifestations, usually referred to as "clinical disease".
However, it is also necessary to encompass two other types of experience.
(a) Not infrequently, symptoms may develop that cannot currently belinked to any underlying disease process. Something is certainly being
exteriorized, even if it cannot be accounted for. Most health pro~fessionals would attribute such symptoms to a disturbance - as yet
unidentified - of some essential structure or process within the body(b) In contrast, some deviation may be identified ofwhlch the "patient"
himself is unaware. Such pathology without symptoms sometimes
constitutes subclinical disease, which is encountered with increasing
frequency as screening progranunes are extended. Alternatively, a
relative or someone else may draw attention to disease manifestations
In behavioural tenns, the individual has become or been made aware that heis unhealthy. His illness heralds recognition of impairments, abnormalities
of body structure and appearance, and of organ or system function, resulting
from any cause. Impairments represent disturbances at the organ level.

(iiO The performance or behaviour of the individual may be altered as aresult of this awareness, either consequentially or cognitively. Common
activities may become restricted, and in this way the experience is objectified.
Also relevant are psychological responses to the presence of disease, part ofso-called illness behaviour, and sickness phenomena., the patteming of
illness manifested as behaviour by the individual in response to the expectations others have of him when he is ill. These experiences represent disabilities, which reflect the consequences of impairments in terms of functional
performance and activity by the individual. Disabilities represent disturbancesat the level of the person.
(iv) Either the awareness itself, or the altered behaviour or performance towhich this gives rise, may place the individual at a disadvantage relative toothers, thus SOCializing the experience. This plane reflects the response ofsociety to the individual"s experience, be this expressed in attitudes, such as
the engendering of stigma, or in behaviour, which may include specificinstruments such as legislation. These experiences represent handicap, thedisadvantages resulting from impainnent and disability. The explicit concern
with the value attached to an individual's perfonnance or status obviously
makes this the most problematical plane of disease consequences.
Each of the last three planes in this sequence exteriorization,objectifi.
cation, and socialization - now requires more detailed consideration. This

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

27

will be followed by further examination of the interrelationships between
the underlying concepts, supported by examples to highlight the distinctions.
Impairment
In the context of health experience, an impairment is any loss
or abnormality of psychological, physiological, or anatomical
stmcture or function

Two aspects of this defmition need to be stressed. First, the tenn "impairment" is more inclusive than "disorder'" in that it also covers losses; e.g., theless of a leg is an impairment, but not a disorder. Secondly, in reaching
agreement on terminology with other international agencies, it has beennecessary to make certain modifications to the defInitions included in apreliminary draft of this manual. 1 In the draft, fUnctional limitations wereregarded as being elements of disability, whereas they have now been
assimilated with impairments; this alteration helps to resolve boundary
distinctions that originally lacked clarity.
Impairment represents deviation from some nonn in the individual's
biomedical status, and definition of its constituents is undertaken primarily
by those qualified to judge physical and mental functioning according to
generally accepted standards. Impairment is characterized by losses orabnonnalities that may be temporary or pennanent, and it includes theexistence or occurrence of an anomaly, defect, or loss in a limb, organ,
tissue, or other structure of the body, or a defect in a functional system ormechanism of the body, including the systems of mental function. Being
concerned to describe identity at a particular point in time, impainnent isneutral in regard to a number of associated features, and this needs to be
stressed. Thus impairment is not contingent upon etioiogy, how the statearose or developed; both ascribed and aclrleved status, such as genetic abnormality or the consequences of a road traffic accident, are included. Use of theterm "impairment" does not necessarily indicate that disease is present orthat the individual should be regarded as sick. Equally, the deviation fromthe nonn does not need to be perceived by the impaired individual, as
should be clear from what has been said above about exteriorization. On thesame grounds, a concept of latent impairment constitutes a contradiction intenns - the individual exposed to or harbouring an extraneous etiologicalagent of disease is not impaired; impairment ensues only when the agent has
initiated a reaction by the body so that pathological processes develop.

1.
Wood, P.H.N. (1975) Classification of impairments and handicaps(Unpublished document WI-IO/ICD9/REV. CONFj7S.15)

28

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

Disability In the context of health experience, a disability is any restriction
or lack (resulting from an impainnent) of ability to perform anactivity in the manner or within the range considered normal fora human being
In providing the link between impairment and handicap, it is fairly easy forthe concept of disability to appear somewhat vague, variab1e, or arbitrary.
As already noted, however, functional limitation is now regarded as an
aspect of impairment, and this should resolve most of the difficulties.
Impairment is concerned with individual functions of the parts of the body;as such it tends to be a somewhat idealistic notion, reflecting potential in
abs01ute teons. Disability, on the other hand, is concerned with compoundor integrated activities expected of the person or of the body as a whole,such as are represented by tasks, skills, and behaviours.
Disability represents a departure from the norm in tenus of perfonnanceof the individua1, as opposed to that of the organ or mechanism. The concept is characterized by excesses or deficiencies of customarily expectedbehaviour or activity, and these may be temporary or permanent, reversibleor irreversible, and progressive or regressive. The key feature relates toobjectification. This is the process through which a functional limitation
expresses itself as a reality in everyday life, the problem being made objective
because the activities of the body are interfered with. In other words,
disability takes form as the individual becomes aware of a change in his
identity. Customary expectations embrace integrated functioning in physical,
psychological, and social terms, and it is unrealistic to expect a neat separation between medical and social aspects of activity. For instance, physicalincapacities and socially deviant behaviours equally transgress what is
expected of the individual
the important differences between themconcern the value that is attached to such deviations, and any sanctions that
may be applied as a result; such valuations relate to the concept of handicap,
rather that to that of disability.
In attempting to apply the concept of disability, there is a need forcaution in how the ideas are expressed. By concentrating on activities,
disability is concerned with what happens
the practical - in a relatively
neutral way, rather than with the absolute or ideal and any judgements that
may attach thereto. To say that someone has a disability is to preserve
neutrality ~ nuances of interpretation in regard to his potential still being
possible. However, statements phrased in terms of being rather than having
tend to be more categorical and disadvantageous. Thus to say that someone
is disabled, as if this were an adequate description of that individual, is torisk being dismissive and invoking stigma.

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

29

Handicap
In the context of health experience, a handicap is a disadvantage
for agiven individual, resulting from an impairment or a disability,that limits or prevents the fulfilment of a role that is normal(depending on age, sex, and social and cultural factors) for that
individual
Three important features of this concept should be borne in mind:(i) some value is attached to departure from a structural, functional, or
perfounance nOml, either by the individual himself or by his peers in agroup to which he relates;(ii) the valuation is dependent on cultural nonns, so that a person may behandicapped in one group and not in another - time, place, status, and role
are all contributory;(iii) in the first instance, the valuation is usually to the disadvantage of theaffected individual.
The state of being handicapped is relative to other people - hence theimportance of existing societal values, which, in turn, are influenced by theinstitutional arrangements of society. Thus~ the attitudes and responses of
the non-handicapped play a central role in modelling the ego concept, anddefming the possibilities, of an individual who is potentially handicapped the latter has a very limited freedom to detennine or modify his own
reality. In this context it is relevant to take note of differences in societal
responses to visible as opposed to invisible impairments, and to serious as
opposed to trivial disadvantages.
Handicap is characterized by a discordance between the individuars
perfonnance or status and the expectations of the particular group of which
he is a member. Disadvantage accrues as a result of his being unable to confonn to the norms of his universe. Handicap is thus a social phenomenon,
representing the social and environmental consequences for the individual
stemming from the presence of impairments and disabilities. The essence ofan adverse valuation by society is discrimination by other people, but theconcept is, nevertheless, essentially neutral as regards its origins. Thus theindividual's own intention is of no immediate concern; disadvantage canarise when the individual deviates in spite ofhls own wishes, but it can also
develop when the deviation is inadvertent or the product of his own choice.
The concept also assimilates phenomena such as invalidism or excessive
dependence upon an institution.

Integration of concepts
The ideas just discussed can be linked in the following manner:

30

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASEDISEASE or
DISORDER--tl........IMP~IRMENT~ DISABILITY--)IIa- HAN~ICAP(intrinsic,(ex terlorized)
situation(objectijied)( socializ ed)

Although this graphic representation suggests a simple linear progression
along the full sequence, the situation is in fact more complex. In the firstplace, handicap may result from impainnent without the mediation of astate of disability. A disfigurement may give rise to interference with thenormal operation of cues in social intercourse, and it may thus constitute avery real disad vantage, to say nothing of the embarrassment that the disfigured
individual may feel. In this example, though,it would be difficult to identify
any disability mediating between the disfigurement and the disadvantage.
Similarly, a child with coeliac disease, who is functionally limited, may beable to live a fairly normal life and not suffer activity restriction; he could
nevertheless suffer disadvantage by virtue of his inability to partake of anormal diet. More important than these incomplete sequences is the possibility of interruption at any stage. Thus one can be impaired without being
disabled, and disabled without being handicapped. The corollary of this isthat there can be striking disparities in the degree to which the various
elements of the sequence depart from their respective norms, and, as aresult, one cannot assume consonance in degrees of disability and handicap.
For instance, one individual with rheumatoid arthritis may be only mildly
disabled and yet at a severe disadvantage, whereas another person with thesame disease who is much more severely disabled may, perhaps because of
greater support from the family or social network, experience considerably
less disadvantage.
Further complexity is introduced by two other phenomena. First, certain
disabilities can retard or conceal the development or recognition of otherabilities; thus, an impairment of language can interfere with the expressionof other and dependent qualities, such as intelligence. Secondly, there canbe a variable degree of influence in a reverse direction along the sequence.
Thus, the experience of certain handicaps can engender, as part of illness
behaviour:> not only various disabilities but at times even the impainnentof certain faculties; as already noted, each of the concepts is largely independent of its origins, so that these secondary phenomena should not be
excluded.
The great value of presenting the concepts in this way is that a problemsolving sequence is portrayed, intervention at the level of one element
having the potential to modify succeeding elements. This is especiallyTHE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

31

relevant to the purposes of this manual, since the sequence is also valuable
as a means of identifying information deficits. It will probably be helpful
to present further examples of how the concepts are expressed.
- A child born with a finger-nail missing has a malformation a structural impairment but this does not in any way interfere with the function of the hand and so there isno disability; the impairment is not particularly evident, and so disadvantage or handicap would be unlikely.
- A myope or a diabetic individual suffers a functional impairment but, because thiscan be corrected or abolished by aids, appliances, or drugs, he would not necessarily bedisabled; however, the non-disabled juvenile diabetic could still be handicapped if thedisadvantage is considerable, e.g., by not being aDowed to partake of confectionery
with his peers or by having to give himse1f regular injections.
- An individual with red-green colour blindness has an impairment, but it would be
unlikely to lead to activity restriction; whether the impairment constitutes a handicap
would depend on circumstances - if his occupation were agricultural he might weD be
unaware of his impairment~ but he would be at a disadvantage if he aspired to drive arailway engine, because he would be prevented from following this occupation.
- Subnormality of intelligence is an impairment, but it may not lead to appreciable
activity restriction; factors other than the impairment may determine the handicap
because the disadvantage may be minimal if the individua11ives in a remote ruralcommunity, whereas it could be severe in the child of university graduates living in alarge city~ of whom more might be expected. (This example illustrates how any attempt
to differentiate between intrinsic and extrinsic components of handicap in fact neglects
the fundamen tal property of this concept~ which expresses the resultant of interaction
between the intrinsic and the extrinsic; the intrinsic aspect is identified by any impairments and disabilities that may be present.)- Perhaps the most graphic example of someone who is handicapped without being
disabled is the individual who has recovered from an acute psychotic episode but whobears the stigma of being a "mental patienC~; note that this handicap complies with thedefinition, because it js consequent upon impairment and disability, but that neither
the impairment nor the disability exists at the time the handicap develops.
- Finally, the same handicap can arise in different situations, and therefore as a resultof different disabilitics. Thus. personal hygiene might be difficult to maintain, but its
antecedents could be very different for someone accustomed to a washbasin as compared with a way of life where ablutions are performed in a lake, 01 in a fast-moving
river) or yet aga.in in a desert environment.

Application of the concepts
Before one can attempt to apply this conceptual framework for theconsequences of disease, it is necessary to deal with two related difficulties.

Terminology
A major reason for the lack of infonnation about the disabled in societyis that the various agencies concerned have not shared a common unambiguous defm..ition of what constitutes disablement, impainnent, andTHE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

32

limitation. 2 Incongruence in problem identification also occurs, as was
highlighted in a review of the need for defmitions: "The word disability
refers to an abnormality which in terferes with function to a significant
degree. A complete diagnosis should describe the disability, the abnonnality
underlying it, and the cause of the abnonnality. Parents tend to think intenns of disability, whereas doctors often speak of abnormalities or theircauses, and this may lead to misunderstanding.,,3 Most of the tenns overwhich confusion arises have been used with conunon-sense meanings ineveryday speech and writing. The underlying problem has been that concepts relating to disability and disadvantage have been insufficiently explored,
and, as a result, no systematized language usage specific to these concerns
has developed.
Two initiatives by the World Health Organization have helped to transfonn this state of affairs. The first took place in 1975-1976, when approvalin principle was given to the conceptual framework put forward in the preliminary draft of this manua1. The second t built on this foundation over the
succeeding years, has secured agreement on usage for the most importanttenns between a number of international agencies. This preferred nomen·
clature has been employed throughout.
Although too much can be made of the importance of semantic distinctions, the acid-test for a preferred nomenclature is whether it promotes
practical benefits. The latter should come about as a clearer description ofprocesses reveals to what extent and in what way problems may be solved.
Considerable care has been applied to the selection of descriptive tenns inthis manual, so as to reinforce the conceptual distinctions. This effort canbe seen at two levels:(i) Avoidance of the same word to identify an impairment, a disability,
and a handicap. In colloquia1 speech there has been a trend to euphemism ~with words being debased as mental retardation first became mental disability
and then mental handicap. This succeeds only in blurring the distinctions;the disadvantage experienced by individuals with psycho10gicaJ impairments
can vary, so that it is inappropriate to refer to a handicap as "mentaJ". Thus
the descriptive adjectives ''mental'' and "physical" may correctly be applied
to impairments., but their use in relation to disabilities is loose and to handicaps qUite unsuitable. It is perhaps vain to hope that the tide of carelessusage can be reversed, but at least in serious discourse the logic of terminology
2.
Townsend, P. (1967) The disabled in society. London, Greater London
Association for the Disabled.
3.

Mitchell, R. G. (1973) Editoria1:Develop. Med. Child. Neurol, 15,279-280.

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

33

should be exploited to reinforce the conceptual framework.
Oi) In addition to see1dng different descriptive terms, the use of different
parts of speech also seemed to be appropriate. Thus for the qualities represented by impairments an adjective derived from a substantive is apposite,
but for the activities jncluded as disabilities a participle was deemed moresuitable, the "-ing" ending emphasizing the dynamic aspect. An exhaustive
consistency in this regard has not been possible, but a trend should beapparent.
These points can best be illustrated with examples;

Impairment

Disability

Handicap

languagehearingvisionspeaking}
listeningorientation
seeingdressing, feeding physical independence
skeletal
mobility{ walkingpsychologicalbehavingsocial integration
For specific impairments, the nomenclature and classification preferred byrelevant international organizations, such as the International Society for
Prosthetics and Orthotics, have been employed wherever possible.

Deviation from nonns
All three of the concepts relevant to the consequences of disease
impairment, disability, and handicap - depend on deviations from norms.
The amount of deviation regarded as being present depends on the operationof a defmition of the nonn in question, be the specification implicit or
identified. There are three approaches to such defmition:(i) For quantitative phenonlena, such as body height) the exploitation of
statistical concepts of "the nornlal" and of deviations therefrom is of somehelp. However) although the approach may be useful in indicating conformity
to type, there are limitations and certainly statistical methods can have little
application when the norm relates to a value. The attraction of statisticalconcepts is that they appear to be value-free, which appeals to the many
health professionals with a scientific background. Such striving for objectivity
is encouraged by the illusion that common notions of causality in science
are non-normative, as if they represented matter of·fact relations or contingent connexions between events. The reality is that the very notion of what
will count as a causal agent in disease is connected with a normative view of
the normal or healthy organism.
(ti) Normative views, such as those just indicated, are detennined byreference to some ideal. This approach to the norm implicitly relates to6

34

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

threshold phenomena. To some degree the situation may be circumscribedby enunciation of standardized criteria for assignment to the class of those
conforming, or failing to confonn, to the ideal. Such methods can be applied
to unquantified phenomena in the domain of impainnent, and to mostdisabilities.
(ill) Drawing further on the theory of deviance, yet other nonns are deter·
mined by social responses. These are relevant to some disabilities and to
most handicaps. In general, these nonns are more difficult to categorize
reproducibly, other than by recourse to cumbersome and highly arbitrary
methods such as those used for determining eligibility for benefits. However,the particular relevance of social nonns in the present context is that they
indicate that an individual's perceptions his belief that he has a problem or the identity that other people attribute to the individual can both giverise to disadvantage.
Another problem sterns from the very nature of nonns. Specific individual
impainnents or disadvantages are not themselves universal, although when
they are taken in aggregate most of us fail to escape some departure fromthe nonn. The social definition of problems allows one to resolve thedifficulties, because value orientation relates to social interest; thus, in asocial context,.disease occurring in wild species is likely to be of little concern, whereas maladies affecting domestic animals are of greater interest.
Departures fr01TI the nonn thus need to be regarded in such a way that views
are tempered by consideration of the feasibility and desirability of intervention to restore the nODn. TIris is also the place to introduce anothernote of caution. There has been a recent vogue for promoting the notion ofsocial handicap, drawing attention to such problems as poverty and poor
housing out of relation to their direct influences on health. While one has
sympathy with any attempt to combat social deprivation, such dilution of
the concept of handicap is unhelpful because it tends to confound identification of specific heaJth -related experiences and the means by which thesemight be controlled.

Measuremen t
In order to measure the consequences of disease, those who are affectedhave to be ascertained. The process of ascertainment of the disabled andhandicapped is itself somewhat dubious, at least as an absolute proposition,and two crucial questions have to be acknowledged. The first concerns thesense in which the individual is disabled or handicapped. This should havebeen made clear by the definitions of concepts, and it is hoped that the ideas
will seIVe to rebut those who try to dismiss the scheme as an attempt toTHE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

35

classify the unclassifiable. The second question, which underpins the first~ isdirected at the reason for ascertainment, because any attempt to clarify
thinking in this area can be vu1nerable to the protests of those who are concerned that categorization or labelling engenders stigma. However, thisattitude surely denies the possibility of any coherent attempt to alter thepresent situation; until categories can be identified, one is unable to begin tocount, and until counting is possible one cannot know how big the problems
are or deploy the resources intelligently in an endeavour to control the prob1ems.
In om er to overcome the difficulties, it has been necessary to develop
three separate ciassification schemes supp]ementary to the leD - one concerned with each of the three principal concepts. These classifications areintended to facilitate study of some of the consequences of disease. They
have been designed as coding systems that wil1 allow details from individual
case records to be reduced to standardized numerical form. This will allow
the simplest form of measurement , by counting the numbers in each category_In turn, these counts can then be grouped with related problems so as topromote simplification for the preparation of statistical tabulations of
aggregated data. The classifications therefore exemplify the underlying
conceptual framework, but to a considerable degree their value can be con-sidered separately from that of the theoretical constructs. This means thatthe classifications should be evaluated in the same way as the leD - Le., dothey assist in the derivation of infonnation of value to users?
Brief guidance on the acquisition of data compatible with these classifications was offered in the Introduction, and further suggestions about
assessment and assignment have been made at the end of each of the succeeding chapters. However, it is now necessary to provide a more detailed
description of the principles underlying the development of each of thethree classifications.

Classification of impairments

For many clinicians, thought on an impairment axis is likely to be unfamiliar because it is cross-<iisciplinary. In many ways there is an approximate
inverse relationship between the leD and the impairment (I) code. Thus
where the leD allows a considerable array of causes, such as those for
cardiovascular and respiratory diseases, the I code makes relatively limited
provisions because the functional consequences of these various conditions
are much more limited. Similarly, the functional consequences of an ampu-

36

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

tation are virtually identical, be it due to trauma or to a congenital deficiency,
and so only a single series of coding categories is provided; the leD would
have to be used to distinguish which cause applied. However, amputations
also illustrate how parts of the ICD fail to provide sufficient detail forclinical management, a problem that applies to other disorders of the limbs
as well. An attempt has been made to embrace the diversity of the functional
consequences of these conditions in some detail, although this has necessitatedrecourse to a fourth digit.
The basic structure of the I code consists of two digits supplemented bya decimal digit; as just noted, in some parts the use of a fourth digit has
been suggested as well. An attempt has been made to allot taxonomic spacein relation to the frequency and importance of the various types of impairment. In form the code resembles the ICD,in that it is hierarchical and meaning
is preserved even if the code is used only in abbreviated form. Again, likedisease tenus in the leD, impairments are best conceived of as thresholdphenomena; for any particular category, all that is involved is a judgement
about whether the impairment is present or not. In developing a single
exhaustive code, it has been necessary to make compromises in specificity
and taxonomic purity for the sake of simplicity, and a number of aspects
obViously could not be accommodated; perhaps the most important omissions
are individual composite functions such as jumping and creeping. The
classification had to simplify details, and the overwhelming consideration
has been to identify the most important feature influencing the intervention
or support the individual might be likely to need. As soon as multiple
impairments are present, specificity becomes less important. However, toallow for specificity when it is desired, an option has been provided wherever
possible; each individual impainnent may be coded (multiple coding) or
special combination categories, identified by an asterisk, may be used instead
if the infonnation has to be reduced to a single category. Alternatively, thecode could be used to identify the most limiting impairment. This would beby analogy with the underlying cause concept in relation to the leD. In thisconnexion, the prime function of the level of detail offered is to define thecontent of cJasses. It is up to the user to detennine how much detail isrecorded, so that the situation resembles that with the ICD - definition of
subcJasses by speCification of considerable detail, but tabulation of aggregateddata by broader classes such as ICD chapters.
One other problem is that some categories of the I code and of the ICD
appear to over1ap. This occurs particularly in regard to symptoms, but areview of the purposes of the two classifications is likely to settle thedifficulty. Interest in the condition leading to the consumption of medical
services would probably require an leD statement. A study of the reasons why

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

37

people make contact with a health care system could use either I code orleD statements, depending on the tenns of reference of the study. Evaluationof the effectiveness of a health care system would call for two I code
statements - one indicating initial status, and the other the status after
contact with the system. Perhaps the likeliest use of the I code, though,would be as an indicator of unmet needs. In these circumstances, one mightwell wish to restrict consideration to relatively persistent impainnents,
eliminating transitory states and other trivia by adopting duration andseverity criteriasuch as that I code statements should be recorded only
for impairments that had been present for a specified period of time, or that
had persisted after medical treatment. Finally, it can be seen that in many
ways a classification of hnpairnlents may be regarded as a classification ofhealth-related problenls that individuals are likely to encounter. The I code
therefore has relevance to problem-oriented record systems and may be ofvalue to those interested in automating the processing of such records, shortof introducing full interactive visual display with a computer.

Oassification of disabilities
In the preliminary draft of this manual a limited scheme was put forward
for recording disability in a rather arbitrary manner, by means of a digit
supplementary to the I code. This proved to be inadequate for many
purposes. As a result, a more comprehensive disability (D) code has been
designed
one that encompasses the more important behaviours andactivities associated with everyday life. The key influence in designing thisclassification has been the feasibility of recording the interface between
the individual and his environment in such a way as to display his potential;
this may be supplemented by the handicap classification as a means of
indicating the extent to which potential is realized. Perhaps the ideal aim forthe D code would be to present a profile of the individual's functional
abilities, as detennined from what disabilities were present, in such a waythat reciprocal specification of the environment allowed matching with theindividual's capabilities. For instance, in the context of job placement, afactory extending over two floors but with toilet facilities located on only
one of these would require separate specification of each floor for purposesof matching with the (residual) functional abilities of potential employees.
If this effort succeeded, the D code could then be used as a means ofscreening that could be applied not only to job placement in vocational
rehabilitation but also to school placement, rehousing the disabled, identifying
vulnerability in the elderly, and other related purposes.

3S

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

In view of these considerations, it proved necessary to eliminate much of
the complexity and detail present in conventional assessments, such as thoseof the activities of daily living. Only in this way could procedures be developed that would be simple and confmed to the most basic or key functions.
The actual assessment procedures may need to retain their complexity but,
as in the I code, this additional detail could be incorporated in the D code
more as a means of clarifying the content of broader classes. In the circumstances~ it is understandable that the D code is less developed than theschemes for impairment and handicap. However, its form allows of expansion
in response to additional needs uncovered by further field experience. The
basic structure of the code consists of two digits, with the option of a
supplementary decimal digit, but even the nine main chapters have not been
fwly utilized so far. Once again, the taxonomic fonn resembles that of the
ICD in being hierarchical, meaning being preserved even if the code is used
only in abbreviated form
this feature is essential for facilitating matchingof the individual and environmental circumstances. However, there is one
important difference from both the ICD and the I code - disabilities are notthreshold phenomena; they reflect failures in accompJishments, so that a
gradation in perfonnance is to be expected. Provision has therefore been
made for recording the degree of disability by means of a supplementary
digit. Furthennore~ those engaged in rehabilitation also fmd a judgement on
future outlook of potential value, and so provision has also been made forthis on an additional supplementary digit.

Dimensions of disadvantage
Before proceeding to the classification of handicaps, it is necessary toconsider further the nature of disadvantage. Any direct attempt to measurevalues is fraught with difficulties. However, one can identify certain fundamental accomplishments that are related to the existence and survival of
man as a social being and are expected of the individual in virtually every
culture. An individual with reduced competence in any of these dimensionsof existence is, ipso facto, disadvantaged in relation to his peers. The degreeof disadvantage attached to reduced competence may vary appreciably indivers cultures, but some adverse valuation is almost universal. The key
accomplishments include the ability of the individual to:(i) orient himself in regard to his surroundings, and to respond to these
inputs;(ii) maintain an effective independent existence in regard to the more
immediate physical needs of his body, including feeding and personal
hygiene;THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

39(ill) move around effectively in his environment;(iv) occupy time in a fashion customary to his sex, age, and culture, including
following an occupation (such as tilling the soil, running a household, orbringing up children) or carrying out physical activities such as play andrecreation;(v) participate in and maintain social relationships with others;(vi) sustain socioeconomic activity and independence by virtue of labour or
exploitation of material possessions, such as natural resources, livestock, orcrops.
These six dimensions may be designated as survival roles, and the handicap
classification is based on this analysis. However, before describing thisscheme, a number of other points have to be taken into account.
The only value assumed in this analysis is that existence and survival arenecessary and good. In a consideration of health-related problems this
proposition would not appear to require justification. Survival roles have themerit of being broadly transcultura1; in fact, disturbance of orientation,
physical dependence, immobility, restricted occupation, social isolation, andpoverty are the biggest and most frequent problems of the impaired anddisabled, even in urbanized and industrialized societies with appreciable surplus wealth. Survival roles by no means exhaust the dimensions of handicap,
and cognizance must be taken of other disadvantages. Maslow's hierarchy ofneeds 4 would appear to present a useful conceptual framework for understanding these problems. The three lowest planes are physiological, safety,
and social needs, and it is with these that the handicap classification deals,
largely in that order. Ego needs and status recognition come next, and thehighest level is self·fulfIlment. Maslow then asserts that man is motivated tosatisfy needs in a predetermined order; the individual is no longer driven
once a need is satisfied, but higher needs will be ignored until more basic
needs are met. These hierarchical distinctions can be of value in helping todetermine priorities. Certainly the dominance of survival roles emerges veryclearly from such an analysis. Moreover, the symbolic values attached tosuch basic functions as eating and excretion can be seen to reflect a higher
level of need. However, these higher needs are more difficult to measure,and there is little to commend directing attention to more difficult problems
as long as basic needs are neglected. For this reason the classification makes
little provision for disadvantage other than in relation to survival roles. Thoseinterested in studying these aspects in greater detail will doubtless develop
their own supplementary schemes.

4.

Maslow, A.H. (1954) MDtiJJtltiDn I1nd persolUluty. New York. Harper & Row.

40

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

One importan t source of confusion needs to be disposed of at this stage.
Disadvantage has frequent1y been equated with dependence. Certainly
dependence has the advantage of being fairly easy to define, and therefore
to measure. Moreover, a fundamental se1f.·sufficiency in regard to physicaland material accomplishments is important, not least because dependence
on others entails making demands on their productivity and time. This
aspect is complicated in many societies, in which changes in family size,
geographica1 mobility, and obligations within the family have led to demands
for dependence to be responded to collectively rather than individually - a
problem compounded by demographic changes that increase the proportionof the population at greatest risk, the elderly. The principal obstacle tosubsuming disad vantage within the term "dependence" is that it obscuressocial needs that can themselves~ if met, go a long way to overcoming manyof the disadvantages associated with irremediable physiological and safety
needs. Underlying this is the fact that the notable feature of highly integrated
societies is the extreme dependence of the individual on others, both forsocial relationships and for opportunities for occupation and economic selfsufficiency. The reality is that man is a social being; the social relations an
individual enjoys are equally as essential for his survival as is competence inattending to physiological needs. Thus man's situation can more appropriately
be described as one of interdependence. Moreover ~ this helps to highlight
another important aspect - if disadvantage in one dimension is reduced,
disadvantage in another may also be made more bearable.

The apparent lack of a clear operational differentiation has obviously
served to perpetuate confusion between disability and handicap. In the past,
the means of identifying handicap usually depended on the ascertainment of
disability and its severity. To infer the existence of disadvantage from thepresence of certain disabilities may not appear unreasonable, but important
assumptions both about values and about the interrelationship between
disadvantage and the nature and severity of disability are implied by thisapproach. Thus there is a danger that the goal of social action may too
readily become deflected to disability alone. This is a reductionist response,
submerging handicap within disability, and it can encourage views that are
insensitive to other dimensions of disadvantage, so that inequities result.
These are exemplified by the common and yet unacceptable differences in
the fmancial recompense offered to the disabled according to the cause of
their impairment, feelings of guilt presumably accounting for the preferential
rates often given to those disabled at war. There is also a tendency to concentrate excessively on disability resulting from physical impairments, tothe neglect of that consequent upon psychological impairments.

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

41

The difficulty is that the measure too readily detennines the activity. For
instance, measurements of intelligence quotients (IQ) have tended toinfluence educational opportunities out of relation to need, educational
potential, or anything other than the availability of buildings and institutions
to cope with the categories so identified. Much the same has happened withdisability. Administratively) it may appear to be simpler to institute ascertain·
ment and control at the level of disability; certainly one can see the need forsome yardstick to reconcile the frequently conflicting needs of society andof the individual. However, disability will only indirectly influence dig·advantage, and it is therefore important to be quite clear about one's goals.
If handicap is the prime area of social concern, not all those with activity
restriction are necessarily at a disadvantage
because activity restriction
cannot be viewed as a sociological phenomenon per se. There is a distinct
cleavage between disability and handicap, both conceptually and in themeans for intervention~ and methodological obstacles need not compel
social action on disadvantage to be detennined by measures of disability
alone. As evidence for this, the handicap classification is provided as themeans of studying disadvantage direct.

Classification of handicaps
Having indicated the challenge, it is now necessary to explain why thehandicap (H) code takes the form that it does. An attempt to classify
nominal variables is relatively easy. The principal requirement is that theclassification should be exhaustive. In medical contexts, the other requirement of simple logic - that the classes be exclusive ~ is more problematical t
since more than one disease, impairment, or disability can occur in the same
individual. The difficulty can be overcome, however, either with multiple
coding or by adopting conventions such as combination categories orassignment rules based on concepts such as the underlying cause. A hierarchy
can be imposed on a classification of nominal variables by identifying
similarities and grouping these together. An example is provided by thevarious axes of the ICD, based on etiology, system, location, and nature.
hnpairments and disabilities can be classified in a similar manner.
The essential property of nominal variables is that the classes are mutuallyexc1usive. When one turns to the concept of handicap, the situation is very
different. Whereas manifestations are finite, consequences relate to a more
complex whole that is difficult to partition. In tenns of disadvantage, theconsequences are that an individual is unable to sustain the roles to which
he is accustomed or to attain those to which he might otherwise aspire.
Through these roles one can identify dimensions or components of disadvantage, but these interact in such a way that it is important to reflect

42

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

them all, while keeping them distinct. Thus the first task in constructing ataxonomy of handicap is to identify the dimensions that one wishes toclassify. This has been undertaken in the preceding section, where it was
acknowledged that values, being difficult to measure, may best be studied
in an indirect manner. Thus the H code classifies items not according toindividuals or their attributes, but according to the circumstances in which
disabled people are likely to find themselves circumstances that can be
expected to place such individuals at a disadvantage in relation to theirpeers when judged by societal norms. It is then necessary to recognize that
one is concerned with degrees of these dimensions; thus, for each dimension,a gradation of circumstances is possible, and a specification of the individual's
status in regard to each is therefore required. As a result, the code is nothierarchical in the customarily accepted sense, and abbreviation is possible
only by arbitrarily neglecting certain of the dimensions - rather than bycompromise between various roles or axes, as is incorporated in the leD.
Similarly, an attempt at synthesis would be both presumptuous and selfdefeating; it would involve the imposition of value judgements in a dangerously
subjective realm.
Perusal of the outline of the H code should indicate these characteristics
more clearly, when it will be seen that, as a de scrip tor , an H code statement
is a means of summarizing the situation semi-quantitatively, rather thanidentifying discrete categories. Overlap between categories in the different
dimensions has been kept to a minimum, but it could not be eliminatedaltogether. Thus an individual who is bedfast is not only immobile, but also
totally dependent on others for care. Theoretically it might be possible toeliminate such overlap, but in practice it appeared preferable for eachdimension to stand on its own, for the reasons noted above. Much thoughthas been given to the ordination, the partitioning of the states of the various
dimensions. Not only must categories be meaningful in themselves~ butdifferentiation between them must be feasible by fairly simple and yet
reliable means. For these reasons a full spectrum of sensitivity spanning theavailable nine digits, has not always been possible. One must acknowledge
here the value of concepts such as that of critical interval needs,S which has
been incorporated in the physical independence dimension and is muchsuperior to more arbitrary distinctions such as those based upon the duration
for which help is needed. How successful all these attempts have been, andhow appropriate the ordination within each dimension is, will become
apparent only after further practical trials of the classification.
t5.
Isaacs, B., & Neville, Y. (1975) The meorurement of need in old people.
(Scottish Health Service Studies, No. 34) Edinburgh, Her Majesty's Stationery Office.

THE CONSEQUENCES OF DISEASE

43

Certain other problems are likely to be encountered. First, disadvantage
may be perceived in three different ways subjectively, by the individual
himself; by others who are significant to the individual; and by the community as a whole. Secondly, there is ambiguity over how to regard thirdparty handicap Le., handicap in an individual who is not himself impaired
but who suffers disadvantage because of the demands made upon him bychronic illness or disability in the family. The difficulty is that, in following
the defInition of handicap with rigour, it is not possible to take account ofsuch people in the present context, since their disadvantage is not consequent upon their own impairment and disability. Thirdly, it should be
obvious from what has been said that it is not possible for any scheme
intended for international use to correspond exactly with eligibility status
for various benefits.

SECTION 2
CLASSIFICATION OF IMPAIRMENTS

List of two-digit categories
1 Intellectual impairments
2 Other psychological impairments
3 Language impairments
4 Aural impairments
5 Ocular impairments
6 Visceral impairments
7 Skeletal impairments
8 Disfiguring impairments
9 Generalized, sensory, and other impairments
Guidance on assignment
Index

IMPAIRMENT

Definition

In the context of health experience, an impairment is
any loss or abnormality of psychological, physiological,
or anatomical structure or function(Note : "Impairment" is more inclusive than "disorder"
in that it covers losses - e.g., the loss of a leg is an
impairment, but not a disorder)

Characteristics

Impairment is characterized by losses or abnormalities
that may be temporary or permanent, and that include
the existence or occurrence of an anomaly, defect, orloss in a limb, organ, tissue, or other structure of thebody, including the systems of mental function. Im·
pairment. represents exteriorization of a pathologicalstate, and in principle it reflects disturbances at thelevel of the organ

LIST OF TWO·DIGIT CATEGORIES OF IMPAIRMENT
1INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENTS
Impairments of inteUigence (10-14)

10

Profound mental retardation

11

Severe mental retardation

12

Moderate mental retardation

13

Other mental retardation

14

Other impairment of intelligence
Impairments of memory (15-16)

15

Amnesia16

Other impairment of memory

Impairments of thinking (17.18)
17

Impainnent of flow and form of thought processes

18

Impairment of thought content
Other inteUectual impainnents (19)19

Other intellectual impairment

2

OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPAIRMENTS
Impairments of consciousness and wakefulness (20-22)

20

Impairment of clarity of consciousness and of the qualityof conscious experience

21Intermittent impairment of consciousness

22

Other impairment of consciousness and wakefulness
Impairments of perception and attention (21-24)

23

Impairment of perception

24

Impairment of attention

CATEGORIES OF IMPAIRMENT

Impainnents of emotive and volitional functions (25-28)

25
26

27
28

hnpairment of drives
Impairment of emotion, affect, and mood
hnpainnent of volition
Impairment of psychomotor functions
Behaviour pattern impainnents (29)29

Impairment of behaviour pattern

3

LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENTS
Impairments of ]anguage functions (30-34)

30
31
32

33
34

Severe impainnent of communication
Impairment of language comprehension and use
Impairment of extralinguistic and sublinguistic functions
Impairment of other linguistic functions
Other impairment of learning
Impainnents of speech (35-39)

35
36

37

38

Impairment of voice production
Other impairment of voice function
Impairment of speech form

39

Impairment of speech content
Other impairment of speech

4

AURAL IMPAIRMENTS
Impairments of auditory sensitivity (40-45)

40
41
42

43
44
45

Total or profound impairment of development of hearing
Profound bilateral hearing loss
Profound hearing impairment in one ear with moderately severe
impairment of the other ear
Moderately severe bilateral hearing impairment
Profound hearing impairment in one ear with moderate orlesser impairment of the other ear
Other impairment of auditory sensitivity

49

50

CATEGORIES OF IMPAIRMENTOther auditory and aural impainnents (4649)
46
47
48
49

Impairment of speech discrimination
Other impairment of auditory function
Impairment of vestibular and balance function
Other impairment of aural functionS

OCULAR IMPAIRMENTS
Impamnents of visual acuity (SO-55)

50

Absence of eye

51
52

Profound visual impairment of both eyes
Profound visual impairment of one eye with low vision in the othereyeModerate visual impairment of both eyes
Profound visual impairment of one eye
Other impairment of visual acuity

53
54
55

Other visual and ocular impainnents (56-58)
56
57
58

Visual field impairment
Other visual impairment
Other ocular impairment

6

VISCERAL IMPAIRMENTS
Impairments of internal organs (60-66)

60
61
62
63
64
65
66

Mechanical and motor impairment of internal organs
Impairment of cardiorespiratory function
Impairment of gastrointestinal function
Impairment of urinary function
Impairment of reproductive function
Deficiency of internal organs
Other impairment of internal organs

CATEGORIES OF IMPAIRMENT

Impamnents of other special functions (67-69)

67
68
69

Impairment related to olfaction and other special functions

7

SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

Impairment of sexual organs
Impairment of mastication and swallowing

Irnpainnents of head and trunk regions (70)70

Impairment of head and trunk regions
Mechanical and motor impairments of limbs (71-74)

71

Mechanica1 impairment of limb

72

Spastic paralysis of more than one limb

73

Other paralysis of limb

74

Other motor impairment of limb
Deficiencies of limbs (75-79)

75

Transverse deficiency of proximal parts of limb

76
77

Transverse deficiency of distal parts of limb
Longitudinal deficiency of proximal parts of upper limb

78

Longitudina1 deficiency of proximal parts of lower limb

79

Longitudinal deficiency of distal parts of limb

8

DISFIGURlNG IMPAIRMENTS
Disfigurements of head and trunk regions (80-83)

80
81

82
83

Deficiency in head region
StructuraJ deformity in head and trunk regions
Other disfigurement of head
Other disfigurement of trunk

51

52

CATEGORIES OF IMPAIRMENTDisfJgUrements of limbs (84-87)
84
85
86
87

Failure of differentiation of parts
Other congenital malformation
Other structural disfigurement
Other disfigurement
Other disfiguring impainnents (88-89)8889

Abnormal orifice
Other disfiguring impairment

9

GENERALIZED, SENSORY, AND OTHER IMPAIRMENTS
Generalized impairments (90-94)

90
91
92

93
94

Multiple impairment
Severe impairment of continence
Undue susceptibility to trauma
Metabolic impairment
Other generalized impairment
Sensory impairments (95-98)

95
96
97
98

Sensory impairment of head
Sensory impairment of trunk
Sensory impairment of upper limb
Other sensory impairment
Other impairments (99)99

Other impainnent

INTELLECTU AL IMPAIRMENTS

1Intellectual impairments include those of intelligence, memory, and thought
Excludes: impairments of language and learning (30.34)
IMPAIRMENTS OF INTELUGENCE (1()'14)
Includes : disturbances of the rate and degree of development ofcognitive functions, such as perception, attention,
memory, and thinking, and their deterioration as aresult of pathological processes

10

Profound mental retardation
IQ under 20
Individuals who may respond to skill training in the use of legs,hands,

and jaws
11

Severe mental retardation]Q 2()"34
Individuals who can profit from systematic habit training

12

Moderate mental retardation
IQ 35-49
Individuals who can learn simple communication, elementary healthand safety habits, and simple manual skills, but do not progress infunctional reading or arithmetict3

Other mental retardation

13.0

Mild mental retardation
IQ 50-70
Individuals who can acquire practical skills and functional reading andarithmetic abilities with special education, and who can be guided towards social conformity

13.8
13.9

Other
Unspecified

14

Other impairment of inteDigence

14.0

Global dementia
Dementia affecting all cognitive functions and skills
Includes : deterioration of cognitive functioning as a result of cerebral
disease or trauma
Lacunar or patchy dementia
With partial preservation of some cognitive functions and skills

14.1

54

14.2
14.3
14.8
14.9

INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENTS

Other and unspecified dementia
Loss of learned skills
Other
Unspecljied

IMPAIRMENTS OF MEMORY (15-16)

15

15.4
15.5
15.6
15.8
15.9

Amnesia
Includes : partial or complete loss of memory for past events, andinability to register, retain, or retrieve new information
Retrograde amnesia
Impaired memory for happenings prior to some well-identified event
Impairment of long-term memory
Impairment o/recent memory
Includes : congrade amnesia, impaired ability to acquire new information
Psychogenic amnesia
Irregularity of pattern of memory loss
Impairment of memory for shapes
Impairment of memory for words
Impairment of memory for figures
Other
Unspecified

16

Other impairment of memory

15.0
15.1
15.2

15.3

16.0
16.1
16.2
16.3
16.4
16.8
16.9

Memory includes the capacity to register, retain, and reproduce information
Includes : faIse memories and distortions of memory content
Confabulation
Memory illusions
Paramnesia
Cryptomnesia
Recall of facts or events without recognizing them as memories
Other distortion of memory content
Forgetfulness
Other
Unspecified

INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENTS

55

IMPAIRMENTS OF THINKING (17·18)
17

Impairment of flow and fonn of thought processes
Includes : disturbances affecting the speed and organization ofthought processes, and the ability to fonn logicalsequences of ideas

17.0

Impairment of conceptualization or abstraction
Relates to the ability to interpret the meaning of what is perceived,
to integrate perceptions, to fonn meaningful relations among perceptions, and to abstract
Impairment of logical thinking
Relates to the ability to relate ideas hierarchically
Slowness 0/ thought
Acceleration o/thought
Perseveration
Includes : "getting stuck", repeating phrases, andconstantly returning to same topic

17.1
17.2
17.3
17.4

17.5
17.6
17.7

Circumstantial thinking
Obsessional ideas
Fiigh t of ideas
Includes : association of words by sound or rhyme

17.8

Other
Includes : incoherence of thought processes
Unspecified

17.9
18

Impairment of thought content
Includes : restriction of thought content, excessive or unrealisticemphasis on and preoccupation with a particular set ofideas to the exclusion of critical examination of theideas, and false beliefs not amenable to correction
through logical argument and reality testing

18.0
18.1

Poverty 01 thought content

18.2

Paranoid delusions
A delusion is a false belief, impervious to the force of reason,and not shared by others of similar education and cultural background. A paranoid delusion or idea of reference is a delusion
in which the individual considers that things in his surroundings
are happening especially in connexion with him

Overvalued ideas

56

18.3
18.4
18.5

18.6
18.7
18.8
18.9

1NTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENTS

Depressive delusions
Includes : delusions of guilt and impoverishment
De/Usiona/ jealou~
Delusions of grandeur
Fantastic delusions
Hypochondriacal and nihilistic delusions
Other delusions
Other and unspecified

OTHER INTELLECTUAL IMPAIRMENTS (19)19

Other intellectual impainnent
Inc1udes: Impairments of gnosis and praxis functions, where there is
disturbance of higher cortical functions underlying therecognition and purposeful manipulation of objects

19.0

Agnosia
Disturbed ability to recognise objects in the absence of impainnentsof consciousness, memory, and thinking

19.1

Apraxia
Disturbed ability to perform learned purposefuJ movements in theabsence of impairments of consciousness, memory', thinking~ andmotor capacity

19.2

Acalculia
Disturbed ability 10 count and operate with numbers in the absenceof impairments of consciousness, memory, and thinking

19.3
J 9.4

Impairment of openness to new ideas
Misinterpretation
A misinterpretation is a fa]se construction put by the individual onan occurrence

19.8

19.9

Other
Unspecified

2

OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPAIRMENTS

Psychological impainnents have been interpreted so as to include interferencewith the basic functions constituting mental life. For the purposes of thisscheme, the functions1isted as being impaired are those that normally indicate
the presence of basic neurophysiological and psychological mechanisms. The
level of organization of these functions is that usually recorded in a clinicalexamination of the central nervous system and in the examination of"mental
status'! In addition, some more complex psychological functions to do withdrives, emotional control, and reality testing have also been included.
Conventionally symptoms such as hallucinations and delusions are usually
thought of as very closely related to what have been defmed here as impair·ments. In terms of the classification they can be regarded as the result of
impairment of some essential psychological processes, which must nonnallyexist even though we are as yet largely ignorant of their nature. For instance,
severe anxiety symptoms can be thought of as an impairment of autonomic
response control mechanisms; the same applies to morbid depressive affect,
and to hypomanic affect. Similarly, hallucinations presumably result from
impairment of mechanisms differentiating between self and non-self, while
delusions indicate impairment of anaJogous mechanisms concerned withreality testing. For the purposes of the classification, symptoms have been
included among impairments with the understanding that there is an inferred
impairment of some underlying complex psychological mechanism.
Interferences with behaviour that represent complex purposeful and integrated
sequences of interaction with and response to the environment and otherpersons are, for this purpose, properly regarded as disabilities rather than
impairments.

IMPAIRMENTS OF CONSCIOUSNESS AND WAKEFULNESS (20-22)
20

Impairment of clarity of consciousness and the quality of
conscious experience
Includes : various degrees of diminished wakefulness, and states
characterized by changes in the level of wakefulness
combined with altered awareness of self and the surrounding world
Excludes: Intermittent impairment of consciousness (21)

5H

20.0

OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPAIRMENTS

Unconsciousness
Inc1udes : coma, sopor, and stupor

20.1

Qouding of consciousness

20.2

Narrowing of field of consciousness

20.3

Delin'um

20.4

Other confusional state

20.5
20.6

Dissociative state
Trance-like state

20.7
20.8
20.9

Akinetic mutism
Other
Unspecified

21

Intermittent impainnent of consciousness

Inc1udes : transitional syndrome or post-concussional state
Includes : when due to affectIncludes : twilight states
Includes : disorientation for time, place, and persons

Includes : hypnotic state

Includes : intermittent ictal disturbances characterized by a total orpartia1loss of consciousness or by states of altered awareness, and a variety of local cerebral signs and symptoms

21.0

Profound intermittent interruption of consciousness
Includes : epilepsy with frequency of seizures of once per day orgreater

21.1

Severe intermittent interruption of consciousness
Includes : epilepsy with frequency of seizures of once per week orgreater

21.2

Moderate intermittent interruption of consciousness
Includes : epilepsy with frequency of seizures of once per monthor greater

21.3

Mild intermittent interruption of consciousness
Includes : epilepsy with frequency of seizures less than once per

21.4

Intermittent disturbance of consciousness

month
Includes : psychomotor epilepsy

21.5

Other seizures
Includes : petit mal

21.6

Other intermittent interruption of consciousness

21.7

Fugue states

Includes : syncope and drop-attacks

OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPAIRMENTS

59

21.8

Other

21.9

Unspecified

22

Other irnpainnent of consciousness and wakefulness
Includes : impairments of the sleep/wakefulness cycle, both disturbances affecting the quantity, quality, and pattern of theprocesses of sleep and wakefulness,and impainnents ofautonomic control of bodily functions that are influenced
by the sleep cycle

22.0
22.1

Difficulty in getting off to sleep
Premature awakening from sleep
Includes : insomnia NOS
Hypersomnia
Excessive sleeping
Other impairment of sleep/wakefulness pattern
Includes : narcolepsy
Enuresis nocturna

22.2
22.3
22.4
22.5

22.6
22.7
22.8

22.9

Other abnormality of acitivity during sleep
Includes : sleep-walking and sleep-talking
Other impairm ent of sleep/wakefulness cycle
Sleepiness
Inc1udessomnolence
Other
Includes impairment of awareness (which is an undifferentiatedresponse to stimulus)

Unspecified

IMPAIRMENTS OF PERCEPTION AND ATTENTION (23-24)

Includes : disturbances of the functions enabling an individual toreceive through the senses, to process infonnation about
the individual's own body and his environment, and to
focus selectively on aspects or parts of such infonnation

23

Impairment of perception

23.0

Impairment of the intengity of perception
Includes changes in the degree to which qualities and attributes ofobjects are perceived as vivid and impressing on the mind
23.00
Uniform dulling of perception

60

OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPAIRMENTS

23.01
23.02
23.03

23.1

23.2

23.3

Selective dulling of perception
Includes : dulling in specific modalities
Uniform heightening of perception
Selective heightening of perception
Includes : hypersensitivity to noise

23.08
Other
23.09
Unspecified
Distortion of perception[neludes : iJlusions,disturbed percepts where the objective content
of sense data received in different modalities is distorted- something actua11y to be seen or heard is experienced
as something else
Excludes: depersonalization (23.30)
Optical illusions
23.10
23.11
Acoustic illusions
23.12
Tactile illusions
23.13
Kinaesthetic illusions
23.14
Illusions in other sense modalities
23.15
Composite illusions
Includes : pareidolic imagery
23.18
Other
23.19
Unspecified
False perception
Ineludeshallucinations and pseudohallucinations, false or abnormal percepts that are not based on objective sense data
23.20
Visual hallucinations
23.21
Auditory hallucinations
23.22
Tactile hallucinations
23.23
Olfactory hallucinations
23.24
Gustatory hallucinations
23.25
Other hallucinations
23.26
Pseudohallucina lions
Includes : those in any sense moda1ity
23.27
Oneiroid or dream-like hallucinatory state
23.28
Other
23.29
Unspecified
Disturbance of body awarenessOTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPAIRMENTS

23.30

61

Depersonalization
Experiences of alienation from one's own body, and theexperience that one's relationship to the environmentand surroundings (and vice versa) is altered

23.31

23.32
23.38
23.39

23.4
23.5
23.8
23.9

24

Derealization
Alteration of the feeling of reality/unreality and familiarity /unfamUiarity accompanying the perception of
objects
f.' vu,Jamrus. . vu, an d dejaf." vecu expenences.
I neIud es: d eJa
Body image disorder
Includes: phantom limb experiences
Other
Unspecified

Disturbances of time and space perception
Includes: tirne-standing..still, micropsy, and macropsy experiences
Impairment of reality testing
Includes : loss of ability to distinguish fantasy from reality
Other
Unspecified

Impainnent of attention
Includes : disturbances of the intensity, span, and mobility ofattention, the latter being a differentiated responseto specific stimulus

24.0
24. I
24.2
24.3
24.4

24.5
24.6

Distractibility
Impaired concentration
Na"owing of attention span
Impaired ability to shift focus of attention
Includes : f1Xed attention
Blank spells
Includes : sudden stoppage or inattention while speaking for a few
seconds or longer (may be due to thought·blocking or
haUucination)
InattentivenessImpail'ment of alertness
Includes: diminished ability to stay alert as reflected byfacial expression, speech, or posture

62

OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPAIRMENTS

24.8

Other

24.9

Unspecified

IMPAIRMENTS OF EMOTIVE AND VOLITIONAL FUNCTIONS (25·28)
Refer to functions which contribute predispositions to action andpurposeful behaviour
2S

25.0
25.1

25.2

Impainnent of drives
Includes : increase, decrease, or changes of pattern of various
behaviours related to basic physi010gical needs or
instincts
Excludes: impainnent of volition (27)
Decreased appetite
Includes : anorexia
Increased appetite
Includes : hyperorexia and bulimia
Impairment of sexual role

Includes : lack of interest in a sexual relationship or contact
25.3

Decrease of libido

25.4

Other impairment of sexual performance
In the presence of nonnallibido
Includes : other disturbances of sexual functioning
Excludes: impairment of reproductive function (64) and of
sexual organs (67)25.40
Impotence

Includes : loss of libido

25.5

25.6
25.7

25.41
Ejaculatio praecox
25.42
Frigidity
Other
25.48
25.49
Unspecified
Alcohol dependence
Includes : alcohoHsm
Other drug dependence
Includes ; drug addiction
Other pathological craving
Includes : states of pathological craving related to substancedependence, and alcohol abuse

OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPAIRMENTS

25.8

25.9

26

26.0

Other
25.80
Inability to sustain goals
25.81
Impairment of motivation
25.88
Other
Unspecified

Impainnent of emotion, affect, and mood
Includes : disturbances of the intensity and quality of feelings
and their somatic accompaniments, and disturbancesof the duration and stability of feeling states
Excludes: pathological affect leading to narrowing of field ofconsciousness (20.2)
Anxiety
Includes: tense, worried look or posture, fearful apprehensive
look, frightened tone of voice, and tremor
Excludes: tremor NOS (74.92)
26.00
Pathological anxiety
Includes: free-floating anxiety
26.01

26.1

63

Phobic anxiety
Includes: panic attacks
Other
Unspecified

26.08
26.09
Depression
Includes : anhedonia, and features such as sad~ mournful look,tears, gloomy tone of voice, deep sighing, and choking
of voice on depressing topic

26.2

Other blunting of affectIncludes : apathy, expressionless face or voice, uniform blunting
whatever the topic of conversation, indifference todistressing topics, and flatness of affect

26.3

Gross excitement
Includes: the individual is manic, or throws things, runs or jumps
around, waves arms wildly, shouts, or screams

26.4

Other excitement
Includes : euphoria~ elation, hypomania, and unduly cheerful orsmiling.
Excludes: psychomotor excitement (28.2)

64

26.5
26.6

26.7

26.8

OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPAIRMENTS["itability
Includes: angry outbursts
Emotionallability
Includes : lability of one mood, changing from one mood toanother, and pronenem to periods of depression or
elationIncongruity of affectIncludesemotion shown but not congruent with topic, andambivalent affect
Other"Catastrophic reaction~'
26.80
26.81
Attempted control of affect display
Includes: attempt to suppress crying or anger, or to
fake a socially appropriate affect

26.83

26.82

Restlessness
Feelings of guilt

26.84

Emotional immaturity

26.85

Distress NEe

26.88

Other

26.9

Unspecified
Includes : emotionally disturbed NOS, emotional impairment NEe

27

Impairment of volition
Includes : disturbances of the capacity for purposeful behaviour
and control of own actions
Excludes: obsessional traits (29.5) and mutism (30.0)

27.0

27.1
27.2

Lack of initiative
Includes : impairment of manifestations of independent or unprompted action and self detennination (the latterincluding expression of personal opinion such as
spontaneous criticism or disagreement (not negativism, 27.3), situation-relevant acts such as closing
a door or lifting an object from the floor, asking
questions, and making requests or demands)
Restriction of interests
Includes : loss of interests
Overcompiiance
Includes : excessive cooperation with elements of passivity,
and automatic submission

OTHER PSYCHOLOG]CAL IMPAIRMENTS

27.3
27.4
27.5

65

Negativism
Ambitendence
Compulsions
Includes : rituals

27.6

Impairment o/impulse control

27.8

Other

Includesimpulsive acts

Includesimpairment of adaptability, and other impairmentof cooperation (e.g., misleading responses such as
consistently negative responses and frequent self·
contradiction, or appearance of being deliberately
misleading)Excludes: Fatigability (28.5)

27.9

Unspecified

28

Impairment of psychomotor functions
Includes : disturbances in the speed, rate, and quality of voluntary
movements in the presence of an intact neural motor
apparatus
Excludes : involuntary movements of face (70.21), head (70.31),
and body (70.54), and facial mannerisms (70.22)

28.0

Slowness
Includes : slowness of psychic tempo, reduction of rate or speedof voluntary movements, and delays in responding toquestions or in initiating requested tasks or movements(such as walking abnormally slowly, delay in performing movements, slowness of speech with long pauses
before answering or between words, and reduction of
facial movements)
Excludes : indistinct speech (35.S)

28.1

Other underactivity
Includes:

28.2
28.3
28.4

hypoactivity, semistuporous states, and reduction ofextent of voluntary movements (such as sitting abnormally still, near total lack of voluntary movement,
U doing nothing", and immobility of face)Excludes: stupor (20.0)
Psychomotor excitement
Hyperkinesia in children
Other overactivity
Includes : over·talkativeness, pacing up and down restlessly, andnot sitting down for a minute

66

28.5

OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPAIRMENTS

28.8

Fatigability
Fatigue out of proportion to demands experienced
Inc1udes : abnormal faU-off in a1ertness or speed of response or
initiative
Excludes : sleepiness (22.7) and generalized fatigue (94.6)
Other

28.9

Unspecified

BEHAVIOUR PATTERN IMPAIRMENTS (29)
Refer to habitual patterns of behaviour that may interfere with social
adjustment and functioning. Such patterns of behaviour may bepresent since adolescence and throughout most of adult life (e.g., inpersonality disorders), or may occur as persisting sequelae of neurological or mental illnesses. They manifest themselves Dlainly as
accentuated character traits
Exc1udes: emotional lability (26.6)

29
29.0

Impainnent of behaviour pattern
Suspiciousness

29.1

Social withdrawal
Includes : active avoidance of verbal or non-verbal interaction withother people, or of being in the physical presence of otherpeople (e.g., avoidance of customarily expected social
activities outside the home such as visiting kin or friends~
going out with friends~ and participating in games)

29.2

Excessive shyness
Includes : excessive sensitivity and vulnerability, and other impairment of ability to mix with people
Hypochondriasis
Worrying
Excludes : anxiety (26.0)
Obsessional traits
Includes : insecurity, indecisiveness, and repetition compulsion
Other phobios
Inc1udes : agoraphobia
Hostility
Includes : aggressivity, being uncooperative, angry, overtly hostile.
discontented, antagonistic, threatening, or violent(hitting out at or attacking others)

29.3
29.4
29.5

29.6

29.7

OTHER PSYCHOLOGICAL IMPAIRMENTS

29.8

Other
29.80
29.81
29.82
29.83

29.84

29.85
29.88

29.9

Histrionic traits
Perplexity
Includes : puzzlement
Self-injury
Includes : head banging, picking at sores, and beating eyes
Other destructiveness
Includes : damaging furniture and tearing up pages, maga~zines, or clothing
Atten tion-seeking
Includes : will not leave (other) adults
Solitary behaviour
Other

Unspecified
Includes:67

personality disorder NEe

3

LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENTS

Language impairments relate to the comprehension and use of language
and its associated functions, including learning
IMPAIRMENTS OF LANGUAGE FUNCTIONS (30·34)
30

Severe impainnent of communication

30.0

30.5
30.8
30.9

Severe functional impairment of communication
Inc1udes : mutism
Combined central disorders of speech and visual function withsevere impairment o[ communication
Includes : autism
Impairment of higher centres for speech with inability to communicate
Includes : severe dysphasia
Other dysphasia
Other severe impairment of communication due to cerebral
damageOther total or severe interference with communication
Other impairment of higher centres for speech
Unspecified

31

Impairment of language comprehension and use

31.0

Central disorders of visual function with inability to communicate
Includes : severe dyslexia

31.1
31.2
31.3
31.4
31.5
31.8
31.9

Other dyslexia
Other central disorders o/visual function
Impairment of vocabulary
Impairment of syntax
Impairment o/semantic /unction
Other
Unspecified

30.1

30.2

30.3
30.4

LANGUAGE IMPAlRMENTS

32

Impairment of extralinguistic and subJinguistic functions

32.0

32.8
32.9

Impairment of extralinguistic functions
Includes : imitation (reproduction of sounds without comprehension)
Impairment of processing, patterning, and retention of audi·
tory stimuli in a temporal and fOTmAintegrated manner
Other impairment of sublinguistic functions
Unspecified

33

Impairment of other linguistic functions

33.0

Impairment of use of other language systems
Inc1udes : finger spelling and sign language
Impairment of listener feedback
Includes : lack of signals usually emitted by listener (e.g.,affirmative nodding and phrases such as " I see.... " and "Is that so ?")Other impairment of facial expression
Includes : increase, reduction, or inappropriateness of quantity
or range of facial expression (such as gaze avoidance,
looking up, and abnormal staring)Excludes: disturbance of facial expression (70.23)
Other impairment of body language
Includes : pantomime, gesture, idiosyncratic or involuntary
patterns of body movement, and disturbance of
posture, orientation, and tonus (such as abnormally
reclined, relaxed, uncomfortable, inappropriate, orclosed posture position), uncommunicative bodyorientation (e.g., turned away from conversation
partner at 900 angle), abnormally limited gesture,abnormal muscle tension, agitation (e.g. t fidgety,restless, pacing, or frequent unnecessary movements), and catatonic movements (echopraxia,
flexibilitas cerea, "Mitgehen", and echolalia)
Excludes: slowness of body movement (28.0), sterotypies andpostural mannerisms (70.55), negativism (27.3), andambitendence (27.4)
Other impairment of language comprehension, verbal
Other impainnent of language comprehension
Includes : nonverbal

32.1

33.1

33.2

33.3

33.4
33.5

69

70

33.6

LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENTS

33.7

Other impairment of language formulation, oral
Other impairment of language formulation

33.8
33.9

Other
Ungpecified

34

Other impairment of learning
Excludes: those related to impainnent of intelligence (10·14),
and impairment of openness to new ideas (19.3)

34.0
34.1
34.2
34.3
34.4

Delayed language comprehension and use for auditory stimuli
Delayed language comprehension and use fOT virual stimuli
Reading difficulties
Other impainnent of reading
Impairment of writing

34.5

Other specific learning difficulties

Includes : graphic

Includes : mirror writing
A child with specific learning difficulties is one with average orabove·average intelligence and with no evidence of major motor
disorder~ neurosensory loss) prima.ry emotional disorder, or environmenta] disadvantage, who exhibits difficu1ties in understanding or using spoken or written language as manifested by disordersof listening, thinking, reading, writing, speUing, or arithmetic
34.8
34.9

Other
Unspecified

IMPAIRMENTS OF SPEECH (35-39)

35
35.0

Impairment of voice production
Use of rubstitute voice

Includes : artificial larynx
35.1
35.2

35.3
35.4

Other deficiency of larynx
Other total loss of voice production
Severe dysarthria
Other dysarthria

LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENTS

35.5

Indistinct speech
Includes : drawling, mumbling) slurring,.and other features
making speech difficult to understandExcludes: impairments of speech form (37)

35.6
35.7
35.8
35.9

Other impairment of neurological control
Includes : laryngeal palsy
Other impairment of speech organs
Other
Unspecified

36

Other impainnent of voice function

36.0

Other impairment of nonverbal Ugram11Ulr"
Inc1udes : lack of changes of pitch and loudness to amplify
meaning
Excludes: impaired use of gesture (33.3)

36.1

Impainnent of voice modulation

36.2
36.3

Includes : expressionless and flat tone of voice
Impairment of pitch

36.5

Abnormally quiet voice
Other impairment of loudness
Other impairment o/intonation

36.6

Impairment o/voice quality

36.4

Includes : harsh, breathy

36.7
36.8
36.9

Impairment of other quaiities of voice
Other
Unspecified

37

Impairment of speech fonn

37.0

Impairment of speech fluency
Includes : stammering and stuttering

37.1

Impairment of speech pressure

37.2
37.3
37.4

Includes : more copious speech than normal, too rapid speech
Other impairment o/gpeech patteming
lnc1udes : impainnent of rate, rhythm~ and stress
Other impairment o/phonation
Other impairment o/resonation

71

72

LANGUAGE IMPAIRMENTS

37.5

Impairment of coherence
Includes : distorted grammar, lack of logical connexion, sudden
irrelevancies, and answering off the point

37.6

Nonsocial speech
Includes : talking, muttering, or whispering out loud or outof context of conversation
Other impairment of conversational form
Includes : simultaneous talking or talking out of turn
Other
Unspecified

37.7
37.8
37.9
38

Impainnent of speech content
Excludes : perseveration (17.4) and flight ofideas (17.7)

38.0

Idiosyncratic use of words or phrases
Includes : use of neologisms
Other inappropriate speech
Includes : excessive use of puns, rhymes, jokes, and song, andirrelevant speech

38.1

38.2

Other impainnent of humour
Includes : other inappropriate humour or lack of humour 31though appropriate occasions offered by conversation

38.3

38.5

Impairment of speech length
Includes : abnormally lengthy or circurnstantiaJ speech, andindividual difficult to interrupt
Other impairment of speech quantity
Includes : restricted quantity of -speech (frequently fails toanswer, or restricted to minimum necessary, or no
extra sentences or additional comments)
Poverty of speech content

38.8
38.9

Other
Unspecified

39

Other impainnent of speech

38.4

4

AURAL IMPAIRMENTS

Aural impairments relate not only to the ear, but also to its associatedstructures and functions. The most important subclass of aural impairment is made up of impairments relating to the function of hearing

IMPAIRMENTS OF AUDITORY SENSITIVITY (40-45)
Terminology The term "dear' should be applied only to individuals
whose hearing impairment is so severe that they arc unable
to benefit from any amplification
Auditory sensitivity is determined by the average hearing
threshold level, measured in decibels (d B), for pure tone
stimuli of 500, 1000, and 2000 hertz (Hz), with reference
to ISO : R389 - 1970. Distinction is customarlly made between the following levels of hearing impainnent :Coding40

total hearing loss
profound hearing impairment more than 91 d B (ISO)71 - 91 dB (ISO)severe hearing impairment
moderately severe hearing
impairment
56 - 70 dB (ISO)moderate hearing impairment 41 ·55 dB (ISO)mild"hearing impairment
26 - 40 dB (ISO)where hearing impairment is asymmetrica1 it should be, classified according to the less impaired side.

Total or profound impairment of development of hearing
An individual who has 10st or never had the ability to hear and understand speech even when amplified, this 10s8 having been suffered prior
to the age of 19 years
Includes : deaf mutism

41

Profound bilateral hearing loss

41.0
41.1
41.2

Total bilateral hearing loss
Total hearing loss in one ear, profound impairment in the other ear
Profound bilateral impairment of hearing

74

41.3
41.9

AURAL IMPAIRMENTS

Other profound hearing impairment of one ear specified as the better
ear
Unspecified
Includes : (biJateral) deafness NOS, profound hearing loss NOS
Excludes: profound hearing impairment where only one ear ismentioned and not specified as the better ear (44.3 and
44.7)

42

Profound bearing impainnent in one ear with moderately severe
impairment of the other ear

42.0

Total hearing loss in one ear, hearing impairment of other ear
severeTotal hearing loss in one ear. hearing impairment of other ear
moderately severe
Profound hearing impairment in one ear, hearing impainnent ofother ear severe
Profound hearing impairment in one ear, hearing impairment ofother ear moderately severe
Other severe hearing impairment in one ear speciFied as the better
ear

42.1

42.2
42.3
42.4

43

Moderately severe bilateral bearing impainnent

43.0
43.1

Severe bilateral hearing impairment
Severe hearing impairment in one ear, hearing impairment in otherear moderately severe
Moderately severe bilateral hearing impairment
Other moderately severe hearing impairment in one ear specified as
the better em
Hard of hearing bilaterally NOS
Unspecified
Includes : bilateraJ hearing impairment NOS~ hard of hearing NOS,
psychogenic deafness
Excludes: moderately severe hearing impairment where only one
ear mentioned and not specified as the better ear (45.1,
45.3)

43.2
43.3
43.8
43.9

AURAL IMPAIRMENTS

75

44

Profound hearing impairment in one ear with moderate orlesser impainnent of the other ear

44.0

Total hearing loss in one ear, hearing impainnent in other ear moderate
Total hearing loss in one ear, hearing impairment in other ear mild
Total hearing loss in one ear, no hearing impairment in other ear
Total hearing loss in one ear, hearing impainnent in other ear notstatedProfound hearing impairment in one ear, hearing impairment inother ear moderate
Profound hearing impairment in one ear, hearing impaimzent inother ear mild

44.1
44.2
44.3
44.4
44.5
44.6
44.7
44.9

Profound hearing impairment in one ear, no hearing impairment
in other ear
Profound hearing impairment in one ear, hearing impairment inother ear not statedllnspecijied
Includes : deafness of one ear NOS

45

Other impainnent of auditory sensitivity

45.0

Severe hearing impairment in one ear, hearing impairment in otherear moderate or mild

45.1

Severe hearing impairment in one ear, hearing impairment in otherear not present or not statedModerately severe hearing impairment in one ear, hearing impairment in other ear moderate or mild

45.2
45.3

Moderately severe hearing impairment in one ear, hearing impairment in other ear not present or not stated

45.4
45.5

Moderate bilateral hearing impairment
Moderate hearing impairment in one ear, hearing impairment inother ear mild

45.6

Moderate hearing impairment in one ear, hearing impainnent inother ear not present or not stated

45.7

Mild bilateral hearing impairment

45.8

Mild hearing impairment in one ear, heaJ'ing impairment in otherear not present or not stated

76

45.9

AURAL IMPAIRMENTS

Unspecified
Includes : hearing impairment NOS

OTHER AUDITORY AND AURAL IMPAIRMENTS (46-49)
46

Impairment of speech discrimination
A distortion of hearing function where the basic problem exists
in discrimination and recognition, involving auditory distortion
not accountable in terms of sensorineural sensitivity. It is assessedby speech audiometry (discrimination for monosyllabic words inquiet, with speech presented at comfort level in sound field), but
is a function of auditory sensitivity and can be calculated fromthe pure tone threshold of hearing, and so often is not distinguishedExcludes : impairments accompanied by impairment ofauditory sensitivity (4045)

46.0

Profound bilateral impairment of discrimination (less than 40%
correct)
Severe bilateral impairment of discrimination (40-49% correct)

46.1
46.2

Moderately severe bilateral impairment of discrimination (50·59%

correct)
46.3
46.4

Moderate bilateral impairment of discrimination (60-79% correct)

46.5

Profound unilateral impairmen t of discrim ination Oess than 40%
correct)

46.6

Severe or moderately severe unilateral impairment of discrimiIUltion (40·59% correct)
Moderate or mild unilateral impairment of discrimination(60..90% correct)

46.7
46.8

46.9

Mild bilateral impainnent of discrimilUltion (80-90 % correct)

Other and unspecified bilateral impairment of discrimination
Includes : where correctness not quantified but specified asbilateral
Other and unspecified
Includes : where correctness not quantified

47

Other impairment of auditory function

47.0
47.1
47.2

Impairment of sound conduction NEe
Sensorineural impairment NEe
Tinnitus

AURAL IMPAIRMENTS

47.3
47.4 *
47.8
47.9

Other subjective impairments of hearing
Mixed impairment ofauditory /unction
Other impairment of auditory /unction
Unspecified

48

Impairment of vestibular and balance function

48.0

77

VertigoIncludes : dizziness

48.1
48.2
48.3
48.4
48.5

Impairment of labyrinthine function
Impairment of locomotion related to vestibular or cerebellar function
Other impairment of cerebellar and coordinating function
Other impairment of vestibular function
Liability to falls
Includes : those occurring suddenly while walking, giving rise
to a tendency to walk holding on to furniture andassociated with rejection of human help
Excludes: impu1sive falls (48.6)

48.6

Impulsive falls
Includes : the impulsive elderly individual who gets up and tries
to walk and then overbalances and falls (i.e., is able
to walk but requires supervision because of the riskof falling)

48.7
48.8

Other impairment of balance
Other

48.9

Unspecified

49

Other impairment of aural function

49.0
49.1
49.2

Deficiency o/inner ear
Deformity of inner ear
Aural discharge

Excludes: impairment of coordination of limbs (74)

Includes : otorrhoea

49.3

Aural irn'tation
Includes : dermatitis and ear pain

49.4
49.5
49.6

Other aural infection
Deficiency a/middle ear
Deformity of middle ear

78

49.7
49.8
49.9

AURAL IMPAIRMENTS

Defonnity of external ear
Inc1u des : de ficiency and disfigurement
Other impairment of external ear
Other and unspecified

I

5

OCULAR IMpAIRMENTS

Ocular impairments relate not only to t~e eye, but also to its associatedstructures and functions, including the ~yelids. The most important
subclass of ocular impairment is made u~ of impairments relating to thefunction of vision!

IMPAIRMENTS OF ~ISUAL ACUITY (50-55)
i
I

Scope

The degree of imp~rment may be reduced by compen..
sating aids, and a r4fractive error that can be fully corrected by glasses o~I contact lenses is generally not regarded as a visual uppairment. However, provision for
identifying such in~ividuals has been made in category
57.0
I

Terminology

Different meanings lare attached to the term "blind-Ikness" , particularly the context of legal definitions.
In order to avoid ~biguity a preferred nomenclature
for visual impairmebts is defmed in the table, in which
synonymous terms lare also identified
iI

Coding

1.

The degree of! impairment may be different for thetwo eyes of ~ individual. Unfortunately there isno consisteno/ in identifying these differences sometimes th~ performance of both eyes is re·corded, someJtimes only that of what is specified as the be~ter or the worse eye, and sometimes only th~t of one eye without further qualification. A rtference chart is appended afterI
category 55 !

2.

Absence of a* eye is classified separately fromother profoudd impairments of visual function.
1his distincti~n is made because the individualwith a missing eye is additionally impaired inregard to app~arance, i.e.) he has a disfiguring
deficiency
I

3

As the refere~ce chart indicates, provision ismade for all ~ossible combinations of impairments of visu~ acuity; multiple coding within
this section is Itherefore unnecessary

I

I

I

i

I
I
I

I

80

OCULAR IMPAIRMENTSTERMINOLOGY FOR IMPAIRMENTS OF VISUAL ACUITY

WHO categoryof vision

NORMALVISION

Synonyms and alternative

Degree ofVisual acuity
impairment (with best possible
correction)

defmitioos

Nonerange of normal vision

0.8 or better(5J6,6h.s,20/25,or
better)Slightless than 0.8

near-normal vision( < 516,6/7.5,or ']J)125)

LOW VISION

Moderateless than 0.3

modera te low vision( < 5/15,6/18 or 6/2Q,
or 20/al or '}JJnO)
Severeless than 0.12

severe low vision - legal blind-( < 5/40 6/48, or 20/1(0) ness in some countries; countt( <: 0.1,5150, 6/ro, or

lmgers at 6 m or less'lD/200)§
BL1NDNESS 'If Profoundless than 0.05

profound low vision or moderate( <: 51100,3/60 ,orblindness - blindness in ICD-9;
count fmgers at less than 3 m fmger counting NOS

20/400)Near-total

less than 0.02(:$51300,1/60, or

3/200)
Total

no light perception(NLP)

severe or near-total blindness; countfmgers at 1 m or less, or hand motions
at 5 m or less, or hand motions NOS,or light perception
total blindness (including absenceof eye)§this alternative level of visual acuity is less accurate: on charts without lines at 0.16
and 0.12 it means effectively < 0.2.

,.,

one or both eyes.

50
50.0
50.1

50.2
50.3
50.4

50.5
50.6

50.7

Absence of eye

Absence of both eyes
Absence of one eye, visual impairment of other eye total
Absence of one eye, visual impairment of other eye near-total
Absence of one eye, visual impairment of other eye profoundAbsence of one eye, visual impairment of other eye severe
Absence of one eye. visual impairment of other eye moderate
Absence of one eye, visual impal'nnent of other eye slight
Absence of one eye, no visual impairment of other eyeOCULAR IMPAIRMENTS

50.8

81

Other absence of one eye
Includes : absence of one eye when degree of visual perfonnancein other eye not specified

50.9

Unspecified

SI

Profound visual impairment of both eyes(see chart after category 55)

51.0
51.1

Total visual impairment of both eyes
Total visual impainnent of one eye, visual impainnent of other eye
near-total
Total visual impainnent of one eye, visual impairment of other eye
profoundNear-total visual impairment of both eyes
Near-total visual impairment of one eye, visual impainnent of othereye profound
Other near-total visual impairment of one eye specified as the better
eye
Profound visual impairment of both eyes
Other profound visual impairment of one eye specified as the better
eye
Unspecified

51.2
51.3
51.4
51.5
51.6
51.7

51.9

Includes : (bilatera1) blindness NOS
Excludes: profound visual impainnent where only one eye mentioned
and not specified as the better eye (54.2, 54.5, and 54.8)
S2

Profound visual impairment of one eye with low vision in the other eye(see chart after category 55)

52.0

Total visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment of other eye
severeTotal visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment of other eye
moderate
Near~total visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment of othereye severe
Near-total visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment of othereye moderate
Profound visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment of othereye severe
Profound visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment of othereye moderate
Other severe visual impairment of one eye specified as the better eye

52.1
52. 2

52.3
52.4
52.5
52.6

82

OCULAR IMPAIRMENTS

52.9

Unspecified
Includes : b1indness (WHO category) of one eye and low vision ofother eye NOS

S3Moderate visual impairment of both eyes(see chart after category 55)

53.0
53.1

Severe visual impairment of both eyes
Severe visual impairment 'of one eye, visual impairment of othereye moderate

53.2
53.3

Moderate visual impairment of both eyes

53.8
53.9

Other moderate visual impainnent of one eye specified as thebetter eye
Low vision of both eyes NOS
Unspecified
Includes : bilateral visual impairment NOS, low vision NOS
Excludes: moderate visual impairment where only one eyementioned and not specified as the better eye(55.2, 55.5, and 55.8)

54

Profound visual impairment of one eye(see chart after category 55)

54,0

Total visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment of othereye slight54.1

Total visual impairment of one eye, no visual impairment ofother eye
Total visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment of othereye not stated
Near-total visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment ofother eye slight
Near-total visual impairment of one eye) no visual impairment ofother eyeNear· to tal visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment ofother eye not stated

54.2
54.3
54.4

54.5
54.6

Profound visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment ofother eye slight

54.7

Profound visual impairment of one eye~ no visual impairmentof other eye

54.8

Profound visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment ofother eye not stated

83

OCULAR IMPAIRMENTS

Unspecified
Includes : blindness of one eye NOS

54.9

Other impainnent of visual acuitySS(see chart below)

Severe visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment of othereye slight
Severe visual impairment of one eye, no visual impairment ofother eyeSevere visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment of othereye not statedModerate visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment of othereye slightModerate visual impairment of one eye, no visual impairmentof other eye
Moderate visual impairment of one eye, visual impainnent of othereye not stated
Slight visual impairment of both eyes
Slight visual impairment of one eye. no visual impairment ofother eye
Slight visual impairment of one eye, visual impairment of other eye
not stated
Unspecified
Includes : (unilateral) impainnent of vision NOS, loss of vision NOS

55.0

55.1
55.2
55.3
55.4
55.5

55.6
55.7

55.8
55.9

REFERENCE CHART FOR CLASSIFICATION OF IMPAIRMENTS
OF VISUAL ACUITY §Degree of impair· Degree of impairment of other eyemeni of better eye total near-total profound severe moderate slight not specified
total
near-total
profoundseveremoderateslightnone
better eye notspecified
§

51.0
51.1
51.2
52.0
52.1
54.0
54.1
54.2

51.3
51.4
52.2
.52.3
54.3
54.4
54.5

51.6
52.4
52.5
54.6
54.7
54.8

51.5
51.7
53.0
53.1
55.0
5.5.1
55.2

53.2
55.3
55.4
55.5

52.6
53.3
55.6

55.7
55.8

excludes where an eye is absent (50), 01 where only WHO categories of vision specified (51.9, 53.8 t 54.9)

84

OCULAR IMPAIRMENTS

OTHER VISUAL AND OCULAR IMPAIRMENTS (56-58)
Excludes : central disorders of visual function(30.1, 31.0, and 31.2)
S6

Visual field impairment

56.0
56.1
56.2
56.3
56.4
56.5
56.6
56.7
56.8
56.9

Excludes : impairments accompanied by impairment of visual acuity(50-55)
Total impairment a/visual fields (field diameter 0°)
Near-total impairment otvisual fields (field diameter 5° or less)Profound impairment o/visual fields (field diameter 10° or less)
Severe impairment of visual fields (field diameter 20° or less)Moderate impairment o/visual fields (field diameter 60° or less)
Slight impairment of visual fields (field diameter 1200 or less)Tunnel vision NOS
Hemianopia
Other unilateral visual field impairment
Other and unspecified

57

Other visual impainnent

57.0
57.1

Wears co"ecting lenses (with resultant normal or near-normal vision)
Astigmatism

57.2
57.3
57.4

Impairment of visual accommodation
Diplopia
Includes : strabismus
Other impairment of ocular motility and binocular vision

57.5

Impairment of colour vision

57.6
57.7

Impairment o/night vision

Includes : nystagmus

Subjective impairment otvision_

Includes:amb1yopia, distortions, floaters, and transient visualloss
Excludes: blurred vision, eye pain, and eye strain (58.7)

57.8
57.9

Other impairment oivision
Includes : light sensitivity
Unspecified

S8

Other ocular impairment

58.0

Ocul(U discharge

Includes : excessive lacrimal sec-retion, running eye

OCULAR IMPAIRMENTS

58.1
58.2
58.3

Other ocular infection
Anaesthetic eye
Dry eye58.4

Includes : irritating eye
Deformity of eyeball
Includes : disfigurement and exophthalmos
Excludes: absence of eyeball (50)58.5

Deformity of eyelid

58.6
58.7
58.8
58.9

Includes: blepharitis, everted eyelids) ptosis, and deficiency or
disfigurement of eyelids
Other impairment of eyelid
RI-defined ocular impairment

Includes : blurred vision, eye pain, eye strain
Other ocular impairment
Unspecified

85

6

VISCERAL IMPAIRMENTS

Visceral impairments include impainnents of internal organs and ofother special functions. The array of underlying disorders that may
give rise to these impairments is very considerable, extending over1arge sections of the ICD. However, the functiona1 consequencesof such disorders are much more limited. For instance, cardiovascularand respiratory diseases occupy 129 categories in two chapters of
the leD, but their common functional consequences can be identi
fled comprehensively within a single two-digit category of the impairmen t classification.
a

IMPAlRMENTS OF INTERNAL ORGANS (60.66)
60

Mechanical and motor impairment of internal organs

60.0
60.1
60.2
60.3

Tracheobronchial obstruction
Oesophageal or gastric obstruction
Intestinal obstruction
Other mechanical impairment of internal organs 'Excludes: urinary obstruction (63.4) and genital obstruction

60.4
60.5

Diaphragmatic palsy
Other motor or analogous functional impairment of internalorgansExcludes: laryngeal palsy (35.6)
Combinations of the above
Unspecified(66.5)

60.8*
60.9
61

Impairment of cardiorespiratory function
Excludes: syncope (21.6), peripheral manifestations classifiable to disfigurements of head (82) and of limbs(84-87) such as cyanosis and oedema, and gangrene(99.1-99.3)

61.0

Shortness of breath

61.1
61.2

Includes : dyspnoea, orthopnoea, and respiratory failure
Other disturbance of breathing
Includes : stridor and wheezing
Other abnormal sounds
Includes : cardiac murmurs and abnormal sounds in chest

VISCERAL IMPAIRMENTS

61.3
61.4

61.5

61.6
61.7
61.8

61.9

Exercise pain in chest
Other chest pain
Other exercise intolerance
Includes : intermittent c1audication
Excludes: fatigue (94.6) and pain on exercise in arm (97.3)
Disturbance of cardiac rhythm
Includes : arrhythmia, heart block, pa1pitation, and tachycardia
Cough or sputum
Other impairment of cardiorespiratory fUnction
Includes: haemoptysis
Excludes: subject to corrective or prosthetic intervention orsurgery (65.20)
Unspecified

62

Impainnent of gastrointestinal function
Excludes: impairment of mastication and swallowing (68) 1

62.0

Food intolerance

62.1
62.2
62.3

62.4

87

Includes : nausea
Excludes: specific dietary intolerance (93.2) and anorexia (25.0)
Vomiting and regurgitation

Flatulence
Includes : borborygmi, eructation, and hiccoughAbdominal pain
Includes : intestinal colic and biliary colic
Constipation

62.5

Dia"hoea

62.6

Irritable colon

62.7

Other intestinal functional impairment
Includes : gastrointestinal hypermotility, dumping, and intestinal
hurry
Other impairment of gastrointestinal function
Includes : piles and rectal bleeding, mucus, and pain
Excludes : severe impairment of continence (91)

62.8

62.9

Unspecified
Inc1udes : faecal incontinence NOS

63

Impairment of urinary function

63.0

Renal colic

88

VISCERAL IMPAIRMENTS

63.1

Other impairment of renal [unction
Includes : renal failure
Excludes: renal dialysis (94.0) and transplantation (65.60)

63.2

Frequency of micturition
Includes : polyuria

63.3

Reflex incontinence
Voluntary loss of urine due to abnormal reflex activity in the
spinal cord in the absence of the sensation usually associatedwi th the desire to micturate
Includes : automatic bladder

63.4

Overflow incontinence
Involuntary loss of urine when the intravesical pressure exceeds
the maximum urethral pressure owing to an elevation of intravesical pressure associated with bladder distension but in theabsence of detrusor activity
Includes : outflow obstruction of micturition, and prostatism
Urge incontinence
Involuntary loss of urine associated with a strong desire to void ;it may be motor) associated with uninhibited detrusor contractions, or sensory t not due to uninhibited detrusor contractions
Stress incontinence
Involuntary loss of urine when the intravesical pressure exceeds
the maximum urethral pressure but in the absence of detrusor
activity

63.5

63.6

63.7

63.8

Other impairment o/micturition
Includes : dysuria
Other impairment o/urinary /unction
Excludes : severe impairment of continence (91)63.9

Unspecified

64

Impairment of reproductive function
Excludes: impairment of sexua1 organs (67)~ impotence(25.40), and frigidity (25.42)

64.0

Currently subject to contrQceptive procedure
Includesconsuming a contraceptive pill, intrauterine device insitu, and post-vasectomy
Sterility
Excludes: impairments ofintemal genitalia (65.8 and 66.5)
Sub[ertility
Includes : infertility other than that due to sterility

64.1

64.2

VISCERAL IMPAIRMENTS

64.3

Dyspareunia
Excludes: that related to vaginal discharge (67.3)

64.4

Sexual ambiguity
Includes : hermaphroditism

64.5
64.6
64.8
64.9

Dysmenorrhoea
Menorrhagia
Includes : vaginal bleeding and excessive menstrual loss
Other disturbance of menstrual function
Other and unspecified

6S

Deficiency of in temal organs

65.0

Deficiency of tracheobronchial tree
Excludes: deficiency of larynx (35.1)
Deficiency of lung
Deficiency of heart

65.1
65.2

65.20

subject to corrective or prosthetic intervention
or surgery
Excludes: pacemaker (94.0)

65.21
65.22

anomalies of cardiac development (such as patentinterventricular septum)
acquired valvular lesions

65.28

other

65.3

65.29
unspecified
Deficiency of oesophagus and stomach

65.4
65.5
65.6

Deficiency of intestine and rectum
Deficiency of gall bladder. liver, or spleen
Deficiency of kidney

65.7
65.8
65.9
66

65.60
subject to rena1 transplantation
65.68
other
65.69
unspecified
Deficiency of bladder
Deficiency of internal genitalia
Other and unspecified
Other impairment of internal organs
Excludes: artificial and abnormal orifices (88)

89

90

66.0
66.1

VISCERAL IMPAIRMENTS

Abnonnality of blood vessels 0/ thorax and abdomen
Inc1udes : aortic aneurysm
Haemo"hage from inte17Ul1 organs
Includes : pulmonary, intrathoracic, gastrointestinal, and intraabdominal
Exc1udes: epistaxis (69.3)~ haemoptysis (61.8), and rectal bleeding (62.8)

66.2

Transposition of viscera
Includes : situs inversus viscerum

66.3

Accessory viscera

66.8

Includes : splenunculus
Other structural abnormality o/viscera
Exc1udes: deficiencies (65)
Other impairment 0/ internal genitalia
Includes : tubal obstruction
Excludes: deficiency (65.8) and malpositioning (67.4,67.5)
Other impairments of internal organs

66.9

Unspecified

66.4
66.5

IMPAIRMENTS OF OTHER SPECIAL FUNCTIONS (67-69)
67

Impainnent of sexual organs

67.0

Absence 0/ nipples

67.1
67.2
67.3

Hypertrophy of breasts
Other impairment 0/ nipples and breasts
Genital discharge
Includesurethritis, vaginitis, and urethral or vaginal discharge
or irritation
Prolapse
Includesprocidentia
Other malposition ofintemal sex organs
Includes : undescended testicle
Other deformity or deficiency of external genitalia
Includes : hypospadias
Other impairment of external genitalia
Other impairment o/sexual organs
Unspecified

67.4
67.5
67.6
67.7
67.8
67.9

VISCERAL IMPA1RMENTS

91

68

Impairment of mastication and swallowing
Excludes: impairment of jaw (70) and dentofacial impairments (80)

68.0
68.1

Currently wearing dental prosthesis
Deficiency of teeth, complete
Includes: edentu10us
Excludes: if wearing prosthesis (68.0)

68.2

68.9

Other deficiency of teeth
Includes : caries or decay
Excludes: if wearing prosthesis (68.0)
Toothache
Impairment of Sfllivation
Includes: dry mouth
Other impairment of salivary function
Other impairment of mastication
Other impairment of swallowing
Other
Unspecified

69

Impainnent related to olfaction and other special functions

69.0
69.1
69.2
69.3

Impairment of smell and taste
Impairment of smell
impairment of taste
Nasal discharge
Includes : epistaxis and rhinorrhoea
Nasal obstruction
Other impairment of nasal function
Excludes : nasal deficiency (80.6) and nasal deformity (81.0)

68.3
68.4
68.5
68.6
68.7
68.8

69.4
69.5
69.8

69.9

Impairment of other special [unctions
Excludes: impairment of sleep (22)Unspecified

7

SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

Skeletal impairments have been interpreted broadly so as to reflect the dis·position of the body and its visible parts. Skeletal impairments include mechanical and motor disturbances of the face, head, neck, trunk, and limbs,
as well as deficiencies of the limbs. Recourse to a fourth-digit has often beennecessary in order to encompass the level of detail desired
Excludes: certain more evidently disfiguring impairments (80-87)
IMPAIRMENTS OF HEAD AND TRUNK REGIONS (70)70

Impairment of head and trunk regions
Excludes: most deficiencies and disfigurements (80-83)

70.1

Mechanical and motor impairment of jaw

70.2

70.10
70.11

Trismus
Malocclusion

70. 12
70.13

Prognathism
Underdevelopment of lower jaw

70.14
70.15

Other disturbance of jaw development
Other jaw dysfunctions
Includes : clicking

70.18
70.19

Other
Unspecified

Mechanical and motor impairment offace
70.20

Facial paralysis
Includes : facial palsy

70.21

Involuntary facia1 movements
Includes : tics and masticatory movements

70.22

Other facial mannerisms
Includes : stereotypies and distinct idiosyncratic or
repetitive movements of unclear meaning
not classifiable as tics or automatisms(e.g., constant repetition of movements,
or postures such as rubbing and grimacing)

70.23

Other disturbance of facial expression
Excludes: impairment of facial expression (33.2)

70.28

Other

70.29

Unspecified

SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

70.3

93

Other mechanical and motor impainnent of head
70.30
70.31

Mechanical impairment of head
Abnormal movement of head
Includes : titubation

70.32
70.38

70.4

Other motor impairment of head
Other
Includes : both mechanical and motor impairmentsof head70.39
Unspecified
Mechanical and motor impainnent of neck
70.40
Torticollis
70.41
70.42
70.48

70.5

70.6

Other mechanical impairment of neck
Other motor impainnent of neck
Other
Includes : both mechanical and motor impairmentsof neck
70.49
Unspecified
Impairment ofposture
70.50
Spinal curvature
Includes : kyphosis, lordosis, and scoliosis
70.51
Deficiency of vertebra
70.52
Other deficiency of spine
70.53
Other spinal deformity
70.54
Involuntary body movements
Includes : dyskinesia and dystonia
Excludes; those of limbs (74)70.55
Postural mannerisms
Includes : odd stylized movements or acts (usuallyidiosyncratic and often suggestive ofspecial meaning or purpose) and stereo~
typies (constant repetition of movementsor postures such as rocking, rubbing, andnodding)
Excludes: other impairments of body language (33.3)
70.58
Other
70.59
Unspecified

Impairment of physique
70.60

Dwarfism
Includes : short stature
Excludes: genera1ized skeletal defect (70.65)

94

SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

70.61
70.62
70.63

70.64
70.65
70.68
70.69

70.7

70.8

70.9

Gigantism
Includes : unduly tall stature
Other impairment of stature
Emaciation
Includes : undue thinness
Obesity
Generalized skeletal defectIncludes : achondroplasia
Other
Unspecified

Other mechanical and motor impainnent of trunk
70.70
Impairment of pelvis potentially interfering with nonnal
delivery
Includes : contracted pelvis
Excludes; deficiency of pelvis (75.4 and 78.0·78.2)
70.71
Other impainnent of skeletal structures of trunk NEe
70.72
Other abnormality of tissues in trunk region NEe
70.78
Other
70.79
Unspecified
Other impairment of head and trunk region NEe
Inc1udes : reduced plasticity or slowing of physical functions encountered in association with ageing

Unspecified

MECHANICAL AND MOTOR IMPAIRMENTS OF UMBS (71-74)
As elsewhere in this section, differentiation is made between mechanical andmotor impairments. The distinction is analogous to that between the physicalstate of a piece of machinery and its constituent parts on the one hand, andthat of the power source and its transmission on the other.
Throughou t this section certain terms are used with particular meanings:
extent of involvement:

degree of invo]vement :complete if there is involvement of the whole ofa limb, andincomplete if only part of a limb is affected
total if the attribute is totally lacking, andpartial if there is a reduction of the attribute

SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

71

95

Mechanical impairment of limb
The following fourth-digit subclassification to indicate the natureof the mechanical impairment is suggested for use with categories

71.0-71.7

ototal loss of movement, with or without deformity,

bilateral
Includes : ankylosis and fIXation specified as bilateralother total loss of movement
Includes : ankylosis and fIXation2

instability, bilateral
Includes : flail joint specified as bilateral

3

other instability

Includes : flail joint

4other deformity, including deviation of axis, bilateral
Excludes: with f1Xation (0, above)5

other deformity

6

Excludes: with fIXation (1, above).~ or if congenital (84)other restriction or loss of movement, bilateral
Includes : stiffness related to mechanical impairment
bilaterally
Excludes: congenital contracture (84)

7

8*

9

71.0
71.1
71.2
71.3
71.4

other restriction or loss of movement
Includes : dislocation, and stiffness related to mechanical impairment
mixed impairment(e.g.) otherwise classifiable to l, above, on one side and7, above, on other)
unspecified

Mechanical impairment of shoulder and upper ann
Mechanical impairment of elbow and forearm
Mechanical impairment of wrist and carpus
Excludes: impairment also involving the hand (71.3)
Mechanical impairment of metacarpus and hand
Includes : impairment a1so involving the wrist and carpus
Mechanical impairment of finger
Includes : impairment of thumbExcludes: impairment of fmger if hand also impaired (71.3)

96

71.5
71.6
71.7

71.8

71.9

SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

Mechanical impairment of hip and thighMechanical impairment of knee and leg
Mechanical impairment of ankle and footIncludes : impairment of subtaloid, tarsal, and metatarsal joints
Excludes: toes (71.90 and 71.91)
Mixed and other upper limb mechanical impainnent
Excludes: impairments classifiable to 71.08 *, 71.18·, 71.28·,
71.38 *, and 71.48 *Mechanical impairment of more than one region of
71.80 *
an upper limb or limbs
Includes : shoulder-hand syndrome
71.81*
Upper arm impairment on one side with forearm impairment on the other
Upper arm impairment on one side with wrist or hand
71.82 *
impairment on the other
Upper arm impairment on one side with fmger impair71.83 *ment on the otherForearm impairment on one side with wrist or hand
71.84 *
impairment on the other
71.85*
Forearm impairment on one side with fmger impairment on the other
Wrist or hand impairment on one side with fmger im71.86 *pairment on the other
Other mixed mechanical impairment of upper limb
71.88 •
71.89
Other and unspecified mechanical impairment of upper
limb
Mixed and other mechanical impairment of limb
Excludes : impairments classifiable to 71.58 *, 71.68 *, 71.78 .,and 71.8
Mechanical impairment of toes, bilateral
71.90
Other mechanical impainnent of toes
71.91
71.92
Impairment of lower limbs due to unequal length oflegs NEe
71.93
Other and unspecified mechanical impainnent of]ower
limb
Includes : impairment of walking NOS
Hip or thigh impainnent on one side with knee or ]eg
71.94 *
impairment on the other
Hip or thigh impainnent on one side with ankle, foot~71.95 •or toe impairment on the other

SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

71.96 *

Knee or leg impairment on one side with ankle, foot~or toe impairment on the other71.97 •
71.98 *
71.99

Other mixed mechanical impainnent of lower limb
Mixed mechanical impairment of upper and lower limb
Unspecified mechanical impairment of limb

72

Spastic paralysis of more than one limb
Includes : hemiplegia, paraplegia, and tetraplegia

72.0

Complete spastic paralysis of upper and lower limbs on same side,with involvement of speech
Includes : (spastic) hemiplegia, dominant side or with involvement of speech
Other complete spastic paralysis of upper and lower limbs on
same side

72.1

72.2
72.3

Other spastic paralysis of upper and lower limb on same side
Includes : (spastic) hemiparesis
Bilateral complete paralysis of lower limbs

Inc1udes : (spastic) paraplegia

72.8
72.9

Other bilateral spastic paralysis of lower limbs
Includes : (spastic) paraparesis
Spastic paralysis of three limbs
Complete paralysis of all four limbs
Includes : (spastic) tetraplegia
Other spastic paralysis of all four limbs
Includes : (spastic) tetraparesis
Other spastic paralysis of more than one limb
Unspecified

73

Other paralysis of limb

72.4
72.5
72.6
72.7

97

The following fourth-digit subc1assification to indicate the natureof the paralysis is suggested for use with categories 73.0·73.9
ocomplete spastic paralysis
Excludes: para1ysis classifiable to 72.0,72.1, 72.3,
and 72.6
other spastic paralysis
Excludes: paralysis classifiable to 72.2, 72.4, 72.5,
and 72.8

98

73.0
73.1
73.2
73.3
73.4
73.5
73.6
73.7
73.8

73.9

74

SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

2
complete total flaccid paralysis
3other total flaccid paralysis
4complete partial flaccid paralysis
5other flaccid paralysis
6other weakness of limb
7
fatigue of limb
9unspecified
Bilateral paralysis of upper limbs
Paralysis of domilUlnt upper limb
Other paralysis of upper limb
Bilateral paralysis of lower limbs
Excludes: paralysis classifiable to 72.3 and 72.4
Other paralysis of lower limb
Paralysis o/upper and lower limbs on same side
Excludes; paralysis classifiable to 72.0) 72.1, and 72.2
Paralysis of three limbs
Excludes: paralysis classifiable to 72.5
Paralysis of all four limbs
Excludes: paralysis classifiable to 72.6 and 72.7
Other paralysis
73.80
Spastic paralYSiS, complete
73.81
Other spastic paralysis
Includes : spastic paresis or paralysis NOS
73.82
Total flaccid paralysis s complete
73.83
Other total flaccid paralysis
73.84
Partial flaccid paralysis, complete
73.85
Other flaccid paralysis
Includes : flaccid paralysis NOS
73.86
Other weakness of limbs
73.87
Fatigue of limbs
Excludes: fatigue NOS (94.5)
Unspecified
Other motor impairment of limb
Excludes: stiffness related to mechanical impainnent (71)

The following fourth-digit subclassification to indicate the natureof the impairment is suggested for use with this category :SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

099

rigidity or stiffness, complete

1other rigidity or stiffness

2

abnormal movement, complete
Includes : tremor

3

other abnormal movementlack of coordination, complete
other lack of coordination
other impairment of dexterity
other
mixed
(e.g., otherwise c1assifiable as both 0 and 5, above)

4
5

6
7
8*

9

74.0
74.1
74.2
74.3
74.4
74.5
74.6
74.8
74.9

unspecified
Other bilateral motor impairment of upper limbs
Other motor impairment of dominant upper limb
Other motor impainnent of upper limb
Other bilateral motor impairment of lower limbs

Other motor impairment of lower limb
Other motor impairment o/upper and lower limbs on same side
74.50
Hemiballismus
Other motor impairment involving three or four limbs
Other moror impairment
Unspecified
74.92
74.97

Tremor NOS
limping NOS
Excludes: impairment of walking NOS (71.93)

DEFICIENCIES OF LIMBS (75-79)
Excludes : other congential malfonnations of limbs (84 and 85)

Scope

7ransverse defzeiencies (75-76) present essentially as an
amputation-like stump; they may arise as a failure offormation of parts, or as the result of surgical intervention. These impainnents include those previously
designated as peromelia or terminal transverse deficiencies. A deficiency is customarily identified by the levelat which the limb terminates (the most proximal partthat is missing), it being understood that all elements
distal to the level named are also absent

100

SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

Excludes: where a deficiency is not complete across thelimb at the same level (when it is probably
longitudinal rather than transverse)

Longitudinal deficiencies (77·79). All skeletal limb def·
iciencies other than those of the transverse type should beplaced in the longitudinal category ~ though by the same
token almost all arise as a failure of fonnation of parts.
These impainnents include those previously designated as
ectromelias or tenninallongitudinal, intercalary transverse,
and intercalary longitudinal deficiencies. All absent bones
or portions of bones that are missing are named, any bones
not named as being missing being understood to be present
Tenninology The International Society for Prosthetics and Orthotics(I SPO) has developed a preferred nomenclature and recommended abbreviations for describing the appropriate
levels, and these have been incorporated in the classification
Coding

A reference chart is appended after category 79, indicating the equivalence between preferred and previous
nomenclatures
2 The terms "complete" and "incomplete" have beenused with consistency throughout the classification
to indicate the extent of an impairment, "comp]ete"
denoting involvement of the whole of the part and"'incomplete" that less than the who1e of the part isaffected. However, in practice the terms "total" and"partialH may be encountered and in this context
they should be interpreted as equivalent to"complete" and "incomplete" respectively
3 ISPO has a strong preference for full specification of deficiencies, which calls for multiple coding. As a result only
a very limited provision for combination categories has
been incorporated for other users
4 The degree of detail that is desirable varies in relation to
the structure of the part affected. Thus,in proximal parts,
particular1y those related to long bones, it is the level ofthe deficiency that is of most concern. In contrast, in
distal parts with greater transverse differentiation it is
the ray manifesting the deficiency that is of greater in·terest. For this reason separate subclassifications havebeen developed for deficiencies of proximal parts~ 75, 77,
78, and for those of distal parts, 76 and 79

SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

7S

75.0

75.1
75.2
75.3
75.4
75.5
75.6
75.7
75.8 *

101

Transverse deficiency of proximal parts of limb
(see chart after category 79)
Includes : those of arm, carpus, leg, and tarsus
The following fourth·digit subclassification to indicate the extent
of the defiCiency is recommended for use with this category:ocomplete deficiency, rightother complete deficiency
Includes : left) bilateral *, and side unspecified
2
incomplete deficiency) upper third right3
other incomplete deficiency, upper third
4
incomplete deficiency, middle third right5
other incomplete deficiency, middle third
6
incomplete deficiency, lower third right7
other incomplete deficiency, lower third
8other incomplete deficiency, right
Includes : incomplete deficiency of carpus or tarsus,
right9
other incomplete, or unspecified extent
Transverse deficiency of shoulder (Sh)
Includes : fore-quarter amputation
Excludes: deficiencies where only a portion of the shoulder ismissing (77)shoulder disarticulation (75.1)

Transverse deficiency of upper arm (Ar)
Includes : shoulder disarticulation
Transverse deficiency of forearm (Fo)Includes : elbow disarticulation
Transverse deficiency of carpus (Ca)
Includes : wrist disarticulation
Transverse deficiency o/pelvis (Pet)
Includes: hlnd-quarter amputation
Transverse deficiency of thigh (Th)
Includes : hip disarticulation
Transverse deficiency of lower leg (Le)
Includes : knee disarticulation
Transverse deficiency of tarsus (Ta)Includes : ankle disarticulation
Transverse deficiencies at multiple sites in proximal parts of limbs

100

75.9

SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

Unspecified site in proxtnuzl parts 0/ limb
Includes76

upper limb (UL) (transverse) deficiency
lower limb (ll) (transverse) deficiency
deficiency of hand or foot NOS

Transverse deficiency of distal puts ofHmb(see chart after category 79)
Includes : where rays identifiable in hand or footThe following fourth.digit code to indicate the extent of the deficiency

is suggested for use with this category :odeficiency of al1 rays
deficiency of first ray, complete

76.0
76.1
76.2
76.3
76.4
76.5

76.6
76.7
76.8 *

2
3

deficiency of second ray, complete

4other deficiency of second ray

5
6
7
8

deficiency of third ray, complete
other deficiency of third ray
deficiency of fourth ray') complete
other deficiency of fourth ray

9

deficiency of fifth ray, or of unspecified rayother deficiency of first ray

Transverse deficiency 0/ metacarpal, right (MC)Other transverse deficiency of metacarpal
Transverse deficiency o/phalanges o/fingers. right (Ph)
Other transverse deficiency o/phalanges o/fingers
Transversede/iciency o/metatarsal , right (MT)Other transverse defzciency 0/ metatarsal
Transverse deficiency of phalanges of toes. right (Ph)
Other transverse deficiency 0/ phalanges of toes
Transverse defiCiencies at multiple sites in limb
Includes : deficiencies at multiple sites in distal parts of limbs,
and mixed transverse deficiencies of proximal anddistal parts of limbs

76.9

Unspecified site

77

Longitudinal deficiency of proximal parts of upper limb
(see chart after category 79)
Inc1udes : those of arm and carpus

SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

103

The following fourth-digit subc1assification to indicate the extent
of the deficiency is suggested for use with this category) and ruso
with 78

o
1

77.0
77.1
77.2
77.3
77.4
77.5
77.6
77.7
77.8
77.9

complete deficiency, rightother complete deficiency

2
incomplete deficiency, right3
other incomplete deficiency
8
other
9
unspecified extent
Longitudinal deficiency of scapula (Se)Longitudinal deficiency of clavicle (Cl)Longitudinal deficiency of hume1Us (Hu)Longitudinal deficiency of radius (Ra)Longitudinal deficiency of ulna (Ul)Longitudinal deficiency of radial elements of carpus (Ca)Longitudinal deficiency of central elements of carpus
Longitudinal deficiency of other elements of carpus
Longitudinal deficiencies at multiple sites in proximal parts of upper
limb
Unspecified site in proximal part of upper limb

Includes : upper limb (UL) longitudinal deficiency
78

Longitudinal defICiency of proximal parts of lower limb
(see chart after category 79)
Includes : those of leg and tarsus
The same fourth-digit subclassification as for 77 is suggested foruse with this category

78.0
78.1
78.2
78.3
78.4
78.5
78.6
78.7
78.8·

Longitudinal deficiency o/ilium (11)Longitudinal deficiency of ischium (Is)Longitudinal deficiency o/pubis (Pu)Longitudinal deficiency of femur (Fern)
Longitudinal deficiency 0/ tibia (Ti)
Longitudinal deficiency of fibula (Fib)Longitudinal deficiency of tibial elements of tarsus (Ta)Longitudinal deficiency of other elements of tarsus
Longitudinal deficiencies at multiple sites in proximal parts of
limb

104

78.9

SKELETAL IMPAIRMENTS

Unspecified site
Includes : lower limb (LL) longitudinal deficiency, and longitudinal
deficiency NOS

79

Lon,gitudinal deficiency of distal parts of limb
(see chart on next page)
Includes : where rays identifiable in hand or footThe following fourth-digit subclassification to indicate the extent
of the deficiency is suggested for use with this category :o1deficiency of all rays
deficiency of frrst ray, complete

2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

other deficiency of first ray
deficiency of second ray, complete
other deficiency of second ray
deficiency of third ray) complete
other deficiency of third ray
deficiency of fourth ray) complete
other deficiency of fourth ray
deficiency of fifth ray) or of unspecified ray

Longitudinal deficiency of metacarpal, right (MC)Other longitudinal deficiency of metacarpal
Longitudinal deficiency ofphaJanges offingers, right (Ph)
Other longitudinal deficiency of phalanges of fingers
Longitudinal deficiency of metatarsal right (MT)79.4
Other longitudinal deficiency of metatarsal
79.5
Longitudinal deficiency of phalanges of toes, right (Ph)79.6
Other longitudinal deficiency o[ phalanges of toes
79.7
79.8 * Longitudinal deficiencies at multiple sites in limbs
Unspecified site
79.9
79.0
79.1
79.2
79.3

t

ISPO-preferred

Frantz-(YRahilly(original)
TRANSVERSE DEFICIENCIES (T·)
amelia, upper
arm, complete
amelia, lower
thigh, complete
hemimelia (A/E)
arm, middle (third)
thigh, lower (third)
hemimelia (AlK)hemimelia (E-D)
f()rea.rm~ complete
hemimelia (K·D)
leg~ complete
forearm, lower (third)
partial hemimelia

Frantz-O')RahiUy(revised)

Europeanarne~ upperamelia, lower
meromelia., humerus M
meromelia, femur D
meromelia, radio-ulnar
meromelia, tibio-fibular
meromelia, radius D, ulna D

amelia, upperamelia., lower
peromelia, midahumeral
peromelia, lower femoral
peromelia at level of elbow
peromelia at level of knee
peromelia, lower radi()ooulnar

Other

tr:'I
~

trJ

shoulder disarticulation
hip disarticulation
short above-elbow stump
long above-knee stumpelbow disarticulationknee disarticulation
partial aplasia of radius

and ulnaleg, upper (third)

carpal, complete
metacarpal, complete
phalanges, complete

partial hemimelia

~

tr1

'"lj

meromeli.a, tibia P, fibula P

acheiria
adactyliaaphalangia

peromelia, upper tibio-flbular partial aplasia of tibia
and fibula
wrist disarticulation

Z

(')

tr:'I

n

=

)-

::0
~

'Tl

0

~

Z
0

a::
t'I:1

Z

P
>
d
:;et
t!1

LONGITUDINAL DEFICIENCIES (L/)

0humerus, complete
tibial-fibular, complete

proximal phocomelia

ulnar, complete

complete paraxial(intercalary transverse)

distal phocomelia.
meromelia, ulnar

hemimelia, ulnar
radial, complete; carpal,
complete paraxial meromelia, radial
partial; MC 1.2, complete; henrlmelia, radial
Ph 1.2, complete
tibial, partial; tarsal,
incomplete paraxial meromelia, tibial M, D
partial; MT 1. 2, complete; hemimelia, tibial
Ph 1. 2, complete

ectromelia with complete
axial aplasia, ulnar
ectromelia with axial
aplasia(intercalary longitudinal)(termina11ongitudinal)

"'r.1

0

trJ
"rt

5
trJ

r.I)

~

tT1
t"""
['T1

~

t"""

~

'"'d

)-

::t1
~
tTJ

Z

~

r.I)

Z

n

trJ

CIl

ectromelia with partial aplasiaof tibia and complete aplasiaof tarsals, metatarsals, andphalanges
The above are only examples, and further details may be derived from "The proposed international terminology for the classificationof congenital limb deficiencies", Developmental medicine and child neurology. 17, Suppl. 34 (1975) •

0

'"lj

t:

a::

1:::1::2

r.I)

0

tJJ

8

DISFIGURING IMPAIRMENTS

Disfiguring impairments include those with a potential to interfere withor otherwise disturb social relationships with. other people. The concept
has been interpreted broadly so as to include conditions that may not be
the consequence of specific diseases, such as disfigurement, as well as
disorders that may impair control of bodily functions in the manner thatis customary and socially acceptable. However, more specifically biomedical impairments with a potential to engender aversion (for instance,
abnormal movements of parts of the body) have been classified to one ofthe preceding sections
DISFIGUREMENTS OF HEAD AND TRUNK REGIONS (80-83)
Excludes: those of ear (49), of eye (58), of sexual organs (67),and of posture and physique (70)80

DerlCiency in head region

80.0
80.1
80.2
80.3
80.4
80.5
80.6
80.8
80.9

Deficiency of cranial vault
Deficiency of upper jaw
Deficiency of lower jaw
Exc1udes: prognathism and underdevelopment of lower jaw (70.1)
Other deficiency of skull
Deft palate
Other dentolacial deficiency
Deficiency of nose
Other
Unspecified

81

Structural defonnity in head and trunk regions

81.0
81.1

Deformity of nose
Deformity of head shape
Includes : hydrocephaly, microcephaly, and abnonnality of skull
shape
Accessory structures in head region

81.2

81.3
81.4

Other defonnity of head region
Includes : lips, tongue, and palate
Deficiency in neck region
Excludes : deficiency of vertebra (70.51)

DISFIGURING IMPAIRMENTS

81.5
81.6
81.7
81.8

Deficiency in thorax
Excludes: internal organs (65)
Deficiency in abdominal wall
Other deficiency in abdomen
Excludes: internal organs (65)
Other

Includes : funnel chest
81.9

Unspecified

82

Other disrtgUrement of head

Includes : face
82.0

Other soft tissue deficiency 0/ head

82.1

Swelling of part of head
Includes : tumours

82.2

Pigmentation o/skin of head
Includes : depigmen tation
Other colour changes ofhead
Includes : cyanosis, flushing, rashes, and skin infections

Includes : wasting

82.3
82.4
82.5

Baldness, partial or complete
Other abnormality of hair

82.6

Scarring of head

82.7
82.8

Other abnormality of skin of head
Other disrzgurement of head

Includes : marked ugliness (e.g., gargoylism)

82.9

Excludes: deformity of nose (81.0), dentofacial deficiencies(80.4 and 80.5), and deformity of head shape (81.1)
Unspecified

83

Other disfigurement of trunk

83.0

Other soft tissue deficiency of trunk

Includes : wasting
83.1

83.2
83.3

Swelling of trunk
Includes : tumours
Excludes: hypertrophy of breasts (67.1)
Pigmentation of skin of trunk
Includes : depigmentation
Other colour changes of tnlnk
Includes : rashes and skin infections

107

108

83.4
83.5
83.6
83.7
83.8
83.9

DISFIGURING IMPAIRMENTS

Abnormal hair on trunk
SCQ"ing of trunk
Other abnormality of skin of trunk
Excludes: absence of nipples (67.0)
Accessory structures on trunk
Excludes: accessory nipples (67.2)
Other disfigurement of trunk
Unspecified

DISFIGUREMENTS OF LIMBS (84-87)
Excludes : limb deficiencies (76·79)
The following fourth·digit subclassification to indicate thelocation of limb disfigurements is suggested for use withcategories 84·87

oshoulder and upper arm
elbow and forearm2

wrist and carpus
Excludes: disfigurement also involving the hand (3., below)

84

3

metacarpus and hand
Includes: disfigurement also involving wrist and carpus

4

imger
Includes: thumbExcludes: disfigurements classifiable under 3 (above)5

hip and thigh6knee and leg

7ankle, foot, and toe

8*

multiple
Includes: those affecting who1e of limb or affecting both
upper and lower limbs

9

location unspecified

Failure of differentiation of parts
Includes : failure of separation of parts

84.0
84.1

Congenital deformity
Synostosis

DISFIGURING IMPAIRMENTS

84.2

109

Congenital soft-tissue contracture
Includes : contracture secondary to failure of differentiation ofmuscle, ligament, and capsular structures, such asarthrogryposis, camptodactyly, and trigger digit

84.3

Congenital skeletal contracture
Inc1udes : cJinodactyly

84.5

84.4

Simple syndactylia
Soft-tissue syndactylia
Includes : synonychia

84.6

Skeletal syndactylia
Includesfusions, acrosyndactylia, Apert's syndrome, andbrachysyndactylia

84.8
84.9

Other
Unspecified

8S

Other congenital malformation
Excludes: those of internal organs (65 and 66)

85.0
85.1
85.2
85.3

Hypoplasia of skin and nails
Hypoplasia of musculotendinous stroctures
Hypoplasia of neurovascular stroctures
Other hypoplasia

85.4
85.5

Includes : hypoplasia of more than one of preceding types oftissue (85.0-85.2)
Excludes: dwarfism (70.60), and achondroplasia and generalized
skeleta1 defect (70.65)
Overgrowth
Excludes: impairment of physique and gigantism (70.61)
Skeletal duplications
Includes : those of bones of limbs

85.6

Other duplications
Inc1udes : those of an tissues, such as polydactylism and mirror

85.7

Congenital constriction band
Other

hand

85.8

Includes : arachnodactyly

85.9

Unspecified

86

Other structural disfigurement

86.0

Wasting, complete
Excludes : emaciation (70.63)

110

86.1
86.2
86.3
86.4

DISFIGURING IMPAIRMENTS

86.8
86.9

Other wasting
Other soft-tissue deficiency, complete
Other soft-tissue deficiency
Swelling of tissues
Includes : tumours
Excludes: that due to fluid (86.5 and 86.6)
Other ~welling, complete[ncludes : lymphoedema
Other swelling
Includes : oedema
Accessory structures
Exc1udes: accessory digits (85.6)
Other stro.ctural disfigurement
Unspecified

87

Other disfigurement

87.0

Pigmentation[nc1udes : depigmentation
CyanosisOther disturbance of skin colouration
Includes : bruising, rashes, and skin infections
Excludes: generalized bruising (92.4)
Other circulatory disturbance of skin
Includes : varicose veins
Disturbance o/sweating
Exudation
Includes : scaling
Scarring
Abnormal ha;rOther abnormality of skin
Other and unspecified

86.5
86.6
86.7

87.1
87.2

87.3
87.4
87.5
87.6
87.7
87.8
87.9

OTHER DISFIGURING IMPAIRMENTS (88-89)
88

Abnormal orDJCe

88.0
88.1
88.2

Tracheostomy
Gastrostomy
fleostomy

DISFIGURING IMPAIRMENTS

88.3
88.4

88.S
88.6

Colostomy
Other gastrointestinai diversion
Indwelling urinary catheter
Other urinary diversion

88.7
88.8
88.9

Inc1udes : extraurethral incontinence
Other artificial orifice
Other abnormal orifice
Unspecified

89

Other disfiguring impairment

111

9

GENERALIZED, SENSORY, AND
OTHER IMPAIRMENTS
GENERAUZED IMPAIRMENTS (90-94)90Multiple impairment

90.0*
90.1*

Multiple, of all classes
Multiple, of mental functions? speech, and special senses
Includes : if with viscera or with skeleton
Multiple, o/mentalfunctions and speech
Afultiple, of special senses, viscera, and skeleton
Multiple, 0/ special senses
Multiple, o/viscera and skeleton
Other
Unspecified

90.2*
90.3*
90.4*
90.5*
90.8*
90.9*

91

Severe impainnent of continence
Excludes : reflex, overflow~ urge, and stress incontinence (63)91.0

Subject to control by devices
Includes : adaptive devices and electrical stimulators
Excludes: special protective clothing (classify appropriately to
91.1-91.8)
Double incontinence with frequency greater than once every night
and once every day
Includes : soiling (faecal incontinence) and wetting (incontinenceof urine) greater than specified frequencies

91.1

91.2
91.3

Other double incontinence every night and every day
Double incontinence with frequency greater than once every weekby night and by day

91.4
91.5

Other double incontinence
Faecal incontinence with frequency greater than once every 24
hours
Other faecal incontinence with frequency greater than once every

91.6

week
91.7
91.8
91.9

Incontinence of urine with frequency greater than once every 24
hours
Other
Unspecified
Excludes : faecal incontinence NOS (62.9)

GENERALIZED, SENSORY, AND OTHER IMPAIRMENTS 113

92

Undue susceptibility to trauma
Excludes: intermittent i..'npairment of consciousness (21) and
impairment of balance function (48)92.0

Haemo"hagic disorders
Includes : bleeding tendencies
Excludes: bruising (92.4)
Skeletal fragility
Other undue susceptibility to fracture
Undue susceptibility to pressure SOTes
Generalized bruising
Undue insensitivity to pain
Other undue susceptibility o/tissues
Includes : scurvy
Reduced recuperative powers associated withageing
Other

92.1
92.2
92.3
92.4
92.5
92.6
92.7
92.8
92.9
93

Unspecified
Metabolic impairment
Excludes: impairment of physique (70.6) and skeletal fragility(92.1)
93.0
93.1
93.2
93.3

93.4
93.5
93.6
93.7
93.8
93.9

lmpainnent of growth
Includes : failure to thrive and failure of maturation
Delicate
Specific dietary intolerance
Includes : gluten sensitivity
Other dietary limitation
Includes : diabetes
Excludes: food intolerance (62.0)
Malnutrition
Weight loss
Excludes: emaciation (70.63)
Weight gain
Excludes: obesity (70.64)
Polydipsia

Other
Unspecified

114 GENERALIZED, SENSORY, AND OTHER IMPAIRMENTS

94

Other generalized impainnent
Excludes: impainnent of sleep (22)94.0

Subject to electromechanical devices for life support
Includes : pacemaker, renal dialysis, and respirator

94.1

Intermittent prostration
Includes : such as may occur with asthma or migraine
Excludes: vertigo (48.0)

94.2
94.3

Generalized pain
Fever
Includes : pyrexia

94.4

Generalized pruritus
Other weakness
Includes : (generalized) weakness NOS
Generalized fatigue
Includes : fatigue NOS
Excludes: fatigabiJity (28.5)
Other
Unspecified

94.5
94.6

94.8
94.9

SENSORY IMPAIRMENTS (95-98)
9S

Sensory impairment of head

95.0
95.1

A1lIl,sthesia
Excludes : anaesthetic eye (58.2)
Disturbance of sweating

95.2

Temperature change

95.3

Facial pain

95.4

Headache

95.5

Other ache in head
Includes : congestion, throbbing, and tightness
Excludes: earache (49.3)
Itching

95.6
95.7
95.8

Numbness
Includes : paraesthesia and tingling
Other

95.9

Unspecified

96

Sensory impairment of trunk

96.0

Anaesthesia

GENERALIZED, SENSORY, AND OTHER IMPAIRMENTS 115

96.1
96.2
96.3

96.8
96.9

Disturbance of sweating
Temperature change
Back pain
Includes : neck pain and lumbago
Other pain in trunk region
Excludes: abdominal pain (62.3), chest pain (61.3 and 61.4),
and renal colic (63.0)
Other ache in trunk region
Includes : congestion and tightness
Excludes: chest pain (61.3 and 61.4) and tightness of chest
related to exercise (61.5)
Itching
Numbness
Includes : paraesthesia and tingling
Other
Unspecified

97

Sensory impainnent of upper limb

96.4

96.5

96.6
96.7

97.0

Anaesthesia

97.1

97.6

Disturbance of deep sensibility
Includes : astereognosis
Temperature change
Pain on exercise
Other pain
Includes : causalgia
Other ache
Includes : congestion and tightness
Itching

97.7

Numbness

97.2
97.3
97.4
97,5

97.8
97.9

Includesparaesthesia and tingling
Other
Includesburning or prickling, and cramp or spasm
Unspecified

98

Other sensory impairment
Includes : that of lower limb

98.0

Anaesthesia

116 GENERALIZED, SENSORY, AND OTHER IMPAIRMENTS

98.1

Disturbance of deep sensibility
Includes : astereognosis

98.2
98.3

Temperature change

Pain
Includes : causalgia
Excludes: pain on exercise (61.5)

98.4

98.5
98.6

Other ache
Includes : congestion or tightness
Excludes: intermittent claudication (61.5)
Itching
Excludes : generalized pruritus (94.4)

Numbness
Includes:paraesthesia and tingling

98.8

Other
Includes : burning or prickling, and cramp or spasm

98.9

Unspecified
OTHER IMPAIRMENTS (99)99

Other impairment

99.0

OJ"entiy pregnant(Pregnancy has been included within this classification
because it is associated with certain functional limitations)

99.1
99.2
99.3

Gangrene o/upper limb
Gangrene of lower limb

99.8
99.9

Other gangrene
Includes : that affecting upper and lower limb
Other

Unspecified
Includes: impairment NOSGUIDANCE ON ASSIGNMENT

Impairments resemble disease terms in the ICD in that they are best conceivedof as threshold phenomena; for any particular category, a1l that is involved isa judgement about whether the impainnent is present or not.
The apparent comprehensiveness of the code may at first appear to be daunting. However, the level of detail provided serves two purposes: first, as ameans of defining the content of classes., and, secondly, to allow for considerable specificity for users who may wish to record such detail. The taxonomic
structure of the code resemb1es that of the lCD in that it is hierarchical, withmeaning preserved even if the code is used only in abbreviated form. Thus
the leve1 of detail to be recorded is a matter of choice for the user.
Hitherto, the more immediate consequences of disease - the major impairments - are generaJly likely to have been noted in records. Thus coding toappropriate categories of the I code of whatever has been recorded should
not present insuperable difficulties. The principaJ problem is likely to beconcerned with under-ascertainment - the degree to which significant impairments may not have been noted.
From now on, it is suggested that the nine major sections of the I code be used
as a check-list that is applied to each individual. This would require that theobserver ask himself a series of questions: "Does this person have an intellectual impairment, does he have any other psychological impaitment, does hehave a language impairment 7" and so on, in sequence. Further information on
any questions answered affirmatively, along the lines of the greater detail contained in the code, could then be elicited.
The main aspect likely to command attention in the future relates to identification criteria and their relation to severity. The difficulties have been noted
under "Deviation from norms", in the earlier section on the Consequenceso{disease.

ALPHABETICAL INDEXIMPAIRMENTS

121

In the alphabetical list below, the code numbers of impairments may be of two, three or four digits, e.g., Deaf
mutism 40, Tunnel vision 56.6, Kyphosis 70.50. A dash(-) may replace the fourth digit, e.g., Paralysis, limb(s)NEe 73.9-; this means that fourth·digit subdivisions exist
but have not been indexed and that the coder should referto the classification of impairments itself in order to assign
the appropriate fourth digit. In the above example, thecoder would find on page 97 a fourth-digit subclassification for rubrics 73.0 to 73.9 indicating the nature of theparalysis.

A
Abdominal pain 62.3
Abnormal, abnormality. abnormally- activity during sleep 22.5
blood vessels o( thorax and abdomen
66.0- hair (head) NEe 82.5
- limb (lower) (upper) 87.7trunk 83.4
limited gesture 33.3
- muscle tension 33.3
- quiet voice 36.3
rapid speech 37.1
- skin NEe- - head 82.7
- - limb (lower) (upper) 87.8- trunk 83.6
- skull shape 81.1
- sleep/wakefulness pattern 22.3
sounds in chest 61.2
tissues in trunk region NEe 70.72- viscera, structural NEe 66.4
Absenceeye NEe 50.9
both 50.0- - one, visual impairment of other eye
moderate 50.5
- - near-total 50.2
- none 50.7
profound 50.3
severe 50.4
- slight 50.6
- total 50.1
unspecified 50.8
- limb (total) see DefiCiency, transverse
nipples 67.0
Acalculia 19.2
Acceleration of thought 17.3

Accessory
digits 85.6structures
head (region) 81.2
- limb (lower) (upper) 86.7- trunk 83.7
- viscera 66.3
Ache (lower limb) NEe 98.4
- head 95.4
trunk (region) 96.5
- upper limb 97.5
Achondroplasia 70.65
Acrosyndactylia 84.6Acts, impulsive 27.7
Addiction, drug 25.6
Agenesis, limb - see Deficiency, transverse
Aggressivity 29.7
Agitation 33.3
Agnosia 19.0
Agoraphobia 29.6
Alcohol dependence 25.5
Alcoholism 25.5
Alienation (parts) of own body 23.30
Ambiguity. sexual 64.4
Ambitendence 27.4
Ambivalence of affect 26.7
Amblyopia 57.7
Amelia - see Deficiency, longitudinalAmnesia NEe (for) 15.9
congrade 15.2
figures 15.6
- long-term events 15.1
psychogenic 15.3
recent events 15.2
retrograde 15.0
- shapes 15.4
specified type NEe 15.8
words 15.5

122

INDEX

Amputation (stump). limb - see Deficiency,transverse
Anesthesia (limb) NEC 98.0
- eye 58.2
- head NEC 95.0
- lower limb 98.0
- trunk 96.0
- upper limb 97.0
Anesthetic eye 58.2
Aneurysm. aortic 66.0
Angry outbursts 26.5
Anhedonia 26.1
Ankylosis, limb. NEe - see categories
71.0-7 L 7 with 4th digit 1- bilateral - see categories 71.0- 71. 7 with
4th digit 0
Anomalies of cardiac development 65.21
Anorexia 25.0
Anosognosia 19.0
Anxiety NEe 26.09- free-floating 26.00- pathological 26.00

Anxiety NEC - continued- phobic 26.01
specified type NEC 26.08
Aortic aneurysm 66.0
Apathy 26.2
Apert's syndrome 84.6Appetite
decreased 25.0
increased 25.1
Apraxia 19.1
Arachnodactyly 85.8Arrhythmia 61.6
Arthrogryposis 84.2Artificiallarynx 35.0
Astereognosis (lower limb) 98.1
- upper limb 97.1
Astigmatism 57.1
Attacks, panic 26.01
Attempted control of affect display 26.81
Attention-seeking 29.84
Autism 30.1
Automatic bladder 63.3
Awakening premature from sleep 22.1

B
Baldness (complete) (partial) 82.4
Banging head 29.82
Behavior, solitary 29.85
Biliary colic 62.3
Blank spells 24.4
Bleeding- rectal 62.8
- tendencies 92.0
- vaginal 64.6
Blepharitis 58.5
Blindness (bilateral) NEC 51.9
- one eye NEC 54.9
with low vision of other eye 52.9

Blunting of affect 26.2
Blurred vision 58.7
Borborygmi 62.2
Brachysyndactylia 84.6Bruising see also Color changes- generalized 92.4
Bulimia 25.1
Burning sensation (lower limb) 98.8
- upper limb 97.8cCamptndactyly 84.2Cardiac murmurs. 61.2
Caries (teeth) 68.2
Catastrophic reaction 26.80
Catatonic movements 33.3
Causalgia (lower limb) 98.3
- upper limb 97.4
Chilblains (lower limb) (upper limb) 87.3Circumstantial thinking 17.5

Claudication, intermittent 61.5
Cleft palate 80A
Clicking jaw 70.15
Clinodactyly 84.3Clouding of consciousness 20.1
Colic
- biliary 62.3
- intestinal 62.3
- renal 63.0

IMPAIRMENTS
Calor changes NEC
head 82.3- limb (lower) (upper) 87.2- trunk 83.3
Colostomy 88.3
Coma 20.0
Compulsion(s) 27,5
repetition 29.5
Confabulation 16.0
Confusion 20.4
Congestion see also Ache- head 95.5
Constipation 62.4
Constriction band, congenital 85.7-

123

Contraceptive procedure in llse 64.0
Contracted pelvis 70.70
Contracture, congenital- skeletal 84.3soft tissue 84.2Cough 61.7·
Cramp (lower limb) 98.8
- upper limb 97.8
Craving, pathological (alcohol) (drug) 25.1
Cryptomnesia 16.2
Curvature, spinal 70.50
Cyanosishead 82.3- limb (lower) (upper) 87.1-

D
Deaf mutism 40
Deafness (bilateral) (see also Loss, hearing,
total) 41.9
- one ear 44.9
- psychogenic 43.9
Decay (teeth) 68.2
Decreased- appetite 25.0
- libido 25.3
Deficiency- abdomen 81.7
- - wall 81.6
- all rays - .'iee categories 76- & 79- with
4th digit 0- bladder 65.7
- cranial vault 80.0
dentofacial NEC 80.5
ear NEC 49.9
external 49.7
inner 49.0
middle 49.5
- esophagus 65.3
- eyelid 58.5
- fifth ray NEC - see categories 76- & 79with 4th digit 9
first ray NEC see categories 76- & 79with 4th digit 2
complete - see categories 76- & 79with 4th digit 1- fool NEC 15.9- fourth ray NEC -see categories 76- & 79with 4th digit 8- - complete - see categories 76- & 79with 4th digit 7
gall bladder 65.5
- genitalia

Deficiency continued- genitalia continued
external 67.6
- - internal 65.8
hand NEe 75.9head (region) NEe 80.9
specified part NEe 80.8
- heart NEe 65.29
specified type NEC 65.28
subject to corrective or prosthetic
intervention 65.20- internal organs NEe 65.9
intestine 65.4
kidney NEC 65.69- specified type NEe 65.68
subject to renal transplantation 65.60
larynx 35.1
liver 65.S
- longitudinal (intercalary) (terminal)
NEC 78.9- - distal parts of limb NEC 79.9metacarpal NEe 79.1right 79.0- metatarsal NEC 79.5- - right 79.4- multiple sites 79.8·
phalanx
finger NEe 79.3·- - right 79.2toe NEe 79.7right 79.6- proximal parts of limb (lower) NEC
78.9carpus NEe 77.7- central elements 77.6radial elements 71.5-

124

INDEX

Deficiency - continued- longitudinal continued- proximal parts of limb - continued- - - clavicle 77.1complete NEe - see categories 77& 78- with 4th digit 1
right - see categories 77- & 78with 4th digit 0
femur 78.3- fibula 78.5humerus 77.2ilium 78.0incomplete N EC - see categories 77& 78- with 4th digit 3- right see categories 77- & 78with 4th digit 2- ischium 78.1- multiple sites 78.8- - pubis 78.2- - radius 77.3scapula 77.0tarsus NEe 78.7- tibial elements 78.6- tibia 78.4- ulna 77.4unspccified extent - see categories
77- & 78- with 4th digit 9
upper NEC 77.9- muhiple sites 77.8lower
jaw 80.2
limb (transverse) NEe 75.9]ung 65.1
neck (region) 81 .4- nose 80.6
- rectum 65.4
- second ray NEe - see categories 76- &79- with 4th digit 4
complete - see categories 76- & 79with 4th digit 3
skull NEe 80.3
soft tissue- - hcad NEC 82.0
- - limb (lower) (upper) NEe 86.3comp]ete 86.2- - trunk NEe 83.0
- spine NEe 70.52
spleen 65.5
stomach 65.3
- teeth NEC 68.2
- - complete 68.1
- third ray NEe see categories 76- & 79with 4th digit 6
complete - see categories 76- & 79with 4th digit 5- thorax 81.5
tracheobronchial tree 65.0

Deficiency - continued- transverse (terminal) NEe 76.9- - distal parts of limb NEe 76.9metacarpal NEe 76.1- right 76.0- metatarsal NEe 76.5- - - right 76.4- - multiple sites 76.8- - phalanx- - - - finger NEe 76.3- - right 76.2- toe NEe 76.7- - - right 76.6- intercalary - see Deficiency,
longi tudin £11- - - and proximal parts 76.8proximal parts of limb NEe 75.9·
and distal parts 76.8carpus 75.3- complete NEe - see categories
75.0-75.9 with 4th digit 1- - right - see categories 75.0-75.9
with 4th digit 0- - - forearm 75.2incomplete NEe - see categories
75.0- 75.9 with 4th digit 9- right NEe - see categories
75.0-75.9 with 4th digit 8- - lower third NEe - see categories
75.0-75.9 with 4th digit 7- right - see categories 75.0-75.9
with 4th digit 6
middle third NEe - see categories
75.0-75.9 with 4th digit 5- - right - see categories 75.0- 75. 9with 4th digit 4
upper third NEC - see categories
75.0-75.9 with 4th digit 3
right - see categories 75.0-75.9
with 4th digit 2
lower leg 75.6multiple sites 75.8- pelvis 75.4- shoulder 75.0- - tarsu!\ 75.7- - thigh 75.5- - - upper arm 75.1unspecified ray - see categories 76- & 79with 4th digit 9- upperjaw 80.1
limb (transverse) NEe

75.9valvular, due to acquired lesions 65.22
vertebra 70.51
Deformity (structural)- congenital, limb (lower) (upper) 84.0- ear NEe 49.9

IMPAIRMENTS
Deformity - continued
ear NEC - continued- - external 49.7
- - inner 49.1
- - middle 49.6
- external genitalia 67.6
- eyeball 58.4
- eyelid 58.5
- head (region) NEe 81.3
- - shape 81.1
- limb. NEC -see categories 71.0-71.7 with
4th digit 5- with fixation see categories 71.0-71.7
with 4th digit 1- - bilateral see categories 71.0-71.7
with 4th digit 4- - with fixation - see categories
71.0- 71. 7 with 4th digit 0- nose 81.0
- spinal NEC 70.53- trunk (region) NEe 81.9
- - specified part NEe 81.8
"Deja vecu" experience 23.31"Deja vu" experience 23.31
Delayed language comprehension and use
for- auditory stimuli 34.0
- visual stimuli 34.1
Delicate 93.1
Delirium 20.3
Delusional jealousy 18.4
Delusions (of) NEC 18.8
- depressive 18.3
- fantastic 18.6
- grandeur 18.5
- guHt 18.3
- hypochondriacal 18.7
- impoverishment 18.3
- jealousy 18.4
- nihilistic 18.7
- paranoid 18.2
- reference 18.2
Dementia NEC 14.2
- global 14.0
- lacunar 14.1
- patchy 14.1
Dental prosthesis in use 68.0
Dependence (on)- alcohol 25.5
- drug 25.6
- life support devices 94.0
pacemaker 94.0
renal dialysis 94.0
respirator 94.0
Depersonalization 23.30
Depigmentation - see Pigmentation
Depression 26.1

125

Derealization 23.31
Dermatitis, ear 49.3
Destructivcness NEe 29.83
Diabetes 93.3
Dialysis (renal) 94.0
Diaphragmatic palsy 60.4
Diarrhea 62.5
Dietary- intolerance 93.2
- limitation 93.3
Difficulty (in)- getting off to sleep 22.0
- reading 34.2
- specific learning NEe 34.5
- understanding language (spoken)(written) 34.5
- using language (spoken) (written) 34.5
Diplopia 57.3
Disarticulation- ankle 75.7- elbow 75.2- hip 75.5- knee 75.6- shoulder 75.1- wrist 75.3Discharge- aural 49.2
- genital 67.3
- nasal 69.3
- ocular 58.0
- urethral 67.3
- vaginal 67.3
Disfigurement NEe 89
external ear 49.7
- eyeball 58,4
eyelid 58.5
- faee NEe 82.9
spccified type NEe 82.8
- head NEe 82.9
specified type NEC 82.8
- limb (lower) (upper) NEe 87.9ankle, foot and toe - see categories
84-87 with 4th digit 7
elbow and forearm - see categories
84-87 with 4th digit 1
finger - see categories 84-87 with 4th
digit 4- - hip and thigh - see categories 84-87
with 4th digit 5- - knee and leg see categories 84-87
with 4th digit 6
metacarpus and hand see categories
84-87 with 4th digit 3- mUltiple - see categories 84-87 with
4th digit 8- - shoulder and upper arm - seecategories 84-87 with 4th digit 0

126

INDEX

Disfigurement NEe continued
limb - continued- - structural NEe 86.9- - - specified type NEe 86.8- unspecified - see categories 84-87 with
4th digit 9- wrist and carpus see categories 84-87
with 4th digit 2- trunk NEe 83.9
- specified type NEe 83.8
Dislocation, limbs - see categories 71.0-71.7
with 4th digit 7

Disorder (of)- body image 23.32- central- - visual function NEe 31.2
- and speech, with severe impairmentof communication 30.]
- with inability to communicate 31.0
heart valves; acquired 65.22
hemorrhagic 92.0
Disorientation (time. place. persons) 20.4
Dissociative state 20.5
Distortion (of)memory content NEe 16.3
- perception NEC 23.19
specified type NEC 23.18
visual 57.7
Distractibility 24.0

Distress NEe 26.85
Disturbanceattention NEe 24.9
intensity 24.0
mobility 24.3
span 24.2
body awareness NEe 23.39
specified type NEe 23.38
breathing 61.1
cardiac rhythm 61.6
circulatory. skin of limb (lower) (upper)
87.3consciousness, intermittent 21.4-- deep sensibility (lower limb) 98.1
- - upper limb 97.1
facial expression NEe 70.23- feelings NEe 26.9
- jaw development NEe 70.14
menstrual function NEe 64.8
perception NEe 23.19- - body image 23.32- - time and space 23.4

Disturbance - continued- sexual- - functions NEe (with normal libido)
25.49- - - specified type NEe 25.48- performance NEe (with normal
libido) 25.49- - specified type NEe 25.48
sweating
head 95.1
limb (lower) (upper) 87.4trunk 96.1
- time and space perception 23.4
Diversion
gastrointestinal NEe 88.4
- urinary NEe 88.6
Dizziness 48.0
Drawling (speech) 35.5
Drop-attacks 21.6
Drug
addiction 25.6
dependence 25.6
Dryeye 5R.3- mouth 68.4
Dulling of perception- selective 23.01- specific modalities 23.01- uniform 23.00
Dumping syndrome 62.7
Duplications NEe- limb (tissues) 85.6- skeletal (bones of limbs) 85.5- viscera 66.3
Dwarfism 70.60
Dysarthria NEe 35.4
- severe 35.3
Dysfunction, jaw NEe 70.15
Dyskinesia 70.54
Dyslexia NEe 31.1
- severe 31.0
Dysmcnorrhea 64.5
Dyspareunia 64.3
Dysphasia NEe 30.3
- severe 30.2
Dyspnea 61.0
Dystonia 70.54
Dysuria 63.7

IMPAIRMENTS

127

E
Ectromelia - see Deficiency, longitudinal
Edema, limb (lower) (upper) 86.6Edentulous 68.1
Ejaculatio praecox 25.41
Elation 26.4
Emaciation 70.63
Emotional- immaturity 26.84- labiJity 26.6
Enuresis noeturna 22.4
Epilepsy NEe 21.5
- with frequency of seizures- - less than oncc per month 21.3
- - once per- - - day or greater 21.0
- - - month or greater 21.2
- - - week or greater 21.1
- psychomotor 21.4

Epistaxis 69.3
Eructation 62.2
Euphoria 26.4
Eversion, eyelid 58.5
Excessive- sensitivity 29.2
- shyness 29.2
- sleeping 22.2
- vulnerability 29.2
Excitement NEe 26.4
- gross 26.3
- psychomotor 28.2
Exophthalmos 58.4
Expressionless voice 36.1
Exudation. limb (lower) (upper) 87.5-

F
Facialinvoluntary movements 70.21- mannerisms 70.22- palsy 70.20- paralysis 70.20
Failure (of) (to)- differentiation of parts NEe 84.9- - specified type NEe 84.8maturation 93.0
- renal 63.1
- respiratory 61.0
- thrive 93.0
False perception 23.29- specified type NEC 23.28
Fatigability 28.5
Fatigue (generalized) NEe 94.6
- limbs see categories 73.0-73.9 with 4th
digit 7
Fecal incontinence NEC 62.9
- frequency greater than once every- - week 91.6
- - 24 hours 91.5
Feeble-minded 13.0
Feeling of guilt 26.83
Fever 94.3
Fixation~ limb, NEe - see categories
71.0-71. 7 with 4th digit 1- bilateral - see categories 71.0-71.7 with
4th digit 0

Fixed attention 24.3
Flail joint - see categories 71.0-71.7 with
4th digit 3- bilateral .'tee categories 71.0-71.7 with
4th digit 2
Flatulence 62.2
Flight of ideas 17.7
Floaters 57.7
Flushing - ,see Color changes
Food intolerance 62.0
Forequarter amputation 75.0Forgetfulness 16.4
Fragility, skeletal 92.1
Free-floating anxiety 26.00
Frequency of micturition 63.2
Frigidity 25.42
Fugue states 21.7
Funnel chest 81.8

128

INDEX

G
Gangrene NEe (lower and upper limb)
99.3
lower limb 99.2
upper limb 99.1
Gargoylism 82.8

Gastrostomy 88.1
Gigantism 70.61
Gluten sensitivity 93.2
Grand mal (see ulso Epilepsy) 21.5
Guilt feeling 26.83

H
Hallucination NEe 23.25
auditory 23.21
gustatory 23.24
olfactory 23.23
tactile 23.22
visual 23.20
Hallucinatory state (aneroid) (dream~like)
23.27
Hard of hearing (see also Impairment
hearing) NEe 43.9
bilateral 43.8
Headache 95.4
Heart block 61.6
Heightening of perception (uniform) 23.02
selective 23.03
Hemianopia 56.7
Hemiballismus 74.50
Hemimelia see Deficiency, longitudinal
Hemiparesis (spastic) 72.2
Hemiplegia (spastic) NEe 72.1
dominant side 72.0
with speech involvement 72.0
He moptysis 61.8

Hemorrhage, internal (organs) 66.1
Hemorrhoids 62.8
Hermaphroditism 64.4
Hiccough 62.2
Hindquarter amputation 75.4Histrionic traits 29.80
Hostility 29.7
Hydrocephaly 81.1
Hyperkinesia in children 28.3
Hypermotility gastrointestinal 62.7
Hyperorexia 25.1
Hypersensitivity to noise 23.03
Hypersomnia 22.2
Hypertrophy, breasts 67. I
Hypnotic state 20.6
Hypoactivity 28, 1
Hypochondriasis 29.3
Hypomania 26.4
Hypoplasia NEC 85.3- musculotendinous structures 85.1- neurovascular structures 85.2- skin and nails 85'()·
Hypospadias 67.6

I10
less than 20 10
20-34 1135-49 1250-70 13.0
Idiosyncratic
patterns of body movement 33.3
speech 38.0
Idiot 10
Ileostomy 88.2
Illusions NEC 23.14- acoustic 23.11
composite 23.15

Illusions NEC - continued- k.inesthetic 23.13- memory 16.1
optical 23.10- specified sense modalities NEe 23.14
tactile 23.12
Imbecile 12
Imitation (sounds) 32.0
Immaturity, emotional 26.84
Immobility of face 28.1
Impairment (of) NEC 99.9
ability to- - acquire new information ] 5.2

lMPAIRMENTS

Impairment - continued- ability tn - continued- mix with people 29.2
- - shift focus of attention 24.3
abstraction 17.0
- affect NEe 26.9
specified type NEe 26.88- alertness 24.6
- attention NEe 24.9
- - specified type NEe 24.8
auditoryfunction NEe 47.9
mixed types 47.4
specified type NEe 47.8
sensitivity NEC 45.9
- aural function NEe 49.9
- awareness 22.8
- balance 48.9
- and vestibular functions NEe 48.9
- - specified type NEe 48.8
specified type NEe 48.7
- behavior pattern NEC 29.9
- - specified type NEe 29.88- binocular vision NEe 57.4
- body language NEC 33.3
- breasts NEC 67.2
cardiorespiratory function N EC 61. 9- specified type NEe 61.8
cerebellar function NEC 48.3
locomotion 48.2
- darity of consciousness N EC 20.9
- - specified type NEe 20.8
- cognitive functions (all) 14.0
global 14.0
- - lacunar 14.1
patchy 14.1
coherence 37.5
- color vision 57.5
- communication NEC 30.9
- - severe NEC 30.5
- - - due to cerebral damage 30.4
- - - functional 30.0
- - - with central disorders of speech andvisual function 30.1
- - total NEC 30.5
concentration 24.1
- conccptualization 17.0
- consciousness NEe 22.9
- - specified type NEC 22.8
- continence, severe NEe 91.9
- specified type NEC 91.8
conversational form NEe 37.7
coordinating function 48.3
- development of hearing~ total or
profound 40- dexterity NEe - see categories 74.0~ 74.9
with 4th digit 6

129

Impairment continued- disfiguring NEC 89- drives NEe 25.9
- - specified type NEC 25.88
emotion NEe 26.9
specified type NEe 26.88
external ear N EC 49.8
eXlralinguistic function 32.0
- - and sublinguistic NEe 32.9
- eyelid NEe 58.6
- facial expression NEe 33.2
- flow and form of thought processes NEC
11.9
specified type NEe 17.8
gastrointestinal function NEe 62.9
specified type NEe 62.8
- generalized NEe 94.9
- - specified type NEe 94.8
- genitalia NEe 67.9
- - external NEe 67.7
- internal NEe 66.5
gnosis function 19.0
growth 93.0
head (region) NEe 70.9
- - specified type NEC 10.8
- hearing NEC 45.9
- - bilateral NEe 43.9
- - mild- bilateral 45.7
- - one ear- hearing impairment, other ear
moderate 45.5
moderately severe 45.2
none 45.8
profound 44.5
- - - - - severe 45.0
- - - - unspecified 45.8
- - total hearing loss, other ear 44.1
moderate- - - bilateral 45.4
- - - one ear- - - - hearing impairment, other ear- - - - - mild 45.5
- - - - - moderately severe 45.2
- - - - - none 45.6
- - - profound 44.4
- severe 45.0
unspecified 45.6
total hearing loss, other ear 44.0
- - moderately severe- - - better ear 43.3
- - - bilateral 43.2
- one ear- hearing impairment, other ear- mild 45.2
moderate 45.2
none 45.3

130

INDEX

Impairment continued- hearing NEC continued- - moderately severe continued
one ear continued
hearing impairment. otherear - continued
profound 42.3
- - - - - severe 43.1
unspecified 45.3
total hearing loss, other ear 42.1
- - profound NEe 41.9
- - - bener ear 41.3
- - - bilateral 41.2
- - - one ear NEe 44.9
hearing impairment, other ear
mild 44.5
moderate 44.4
moderately severe 42.3
nonc 44.6
severe 42.2
unspecified 44,7
total hearing loss, other ear 41.1
- - severe
better ear 42.4
- - - bilateral 43.0
- - - one ear- - - - hearing impairment, other ear- - - - - mild 45.0
- moderate 45.0
- - - - - moderately severe 43.1
none 45.1
profound 42.2
unspecified 45.1
- - - - total hearing loss, other ear 42.0
- - suhjective NEe 47.3
- higher centres for speech NEC 30.8
- - with inability to communicate 30.2
- humor N EC 3H.2
- impulse control 27.6
- intellectual function 19.9
- - specified type NEC 19.8
- intelligencc NEC 14.9
- - specified type NEe 14.R
- intensity of perception 23.09- - specified type NEe 23.08- intermittent of consciousness NEC 21.9
- - specified type NEe 21.8
- internal organs NEe 66.9
- - specificd type NEC 66.8
- inte~tinal function NEC 62.7
- labyrinthic function 48.]
- language- - comprehension (nonverbal) NEe
33.5
and use NEC 31.9
specified type NEC 31.8
verbal 33.4

Impairment - continued
language - continued
formulation (graphic) NEe 33.7
oral 33.6
learning NEC 34.9
- specified type NEe 34.8
linguistic function NEe 33.9
specified type NEe 33.8
listener feedback 33.1
logical thinking 17.1
mastication NEe 68.6
and swallowing NEC 68.9
specified type NEe 68.8
mechanical- and motor
face NEe 70.29
specified type NEC 70.28
head NEe 70.39- specified type NEC 70.38
internal organs NEC 60.9
jaw NEe 70.19
specified type NEe 70.18
neck NEC 70.49
specified type NEe 70.48
trunk NEC 70.79
specified type NEe 70.78
ankle 71.7one side, with other side
hip or thigh 71.95
knee or leg 71.96
carpus 71.2and metacarpus 71.3elbow 71.1finger 71.4one side, with other side
forearm 71.85
hand 71.86
upper arm 71.83
wrist 71.86
foot 71.7one side, with other side
hip or thigh 71.95
knee or leg 71.96
forearm 71.1one side. with other side
finger 71.85
hand 71.84
upper arm 71.81
wrist 71.84
hand (and wrist) 71.3one side. with other side
finger 71.86
forearm 71.84
upper arm 71.82
head 70.30
hip 71.5one side, with other side

IMPAIRMENTS
Impairment - continued
mechanical - continued- - hip - continued- - - one side - continued- - - - ankle, foot or toe 71.95~ - - - knee or leg 71.94- - internal organ NEe 60.3
- - knee 71.6- - - one side, with other side
- - - - ankle, foot or toe 71.96- - - - hip or thigh 71.94- - leg 71.6- - - one side, with other side
- - - - ankle, foot or toe 71.96- - - - hip or thigh 71.94- - limb NEe 71.99- - - mixed type - see categories
71.0-71.7 with 4th digit 8- - lower limb NEe 71.93- - - and upper limb 71.98- - - both NEe 71.97- - - due to unequal length of legs 71.92- - metacarpus (and carpus) 71.3- - metatarsal jOint 71.7- - neck NEe 70.41- - shoulder 71.0- - subtaloid joint 71.7- - tarsal joint 71.7- - thigh 71.5- - - one side, with other side
- - - - ankle, foot or toe 71.95- - - - knee or leg 71.94- - thumb 71.4- toe NEe 71.91- - - bilateral 71.90- - - one side, with other side
- - - - hip or thigh 71.95- - - - knee or leg 71.96- - upper- - - arm, one side, with other side
- - - - finger 71.83- - - - forearm 71.81- - - - hand 71.82- - - - wrist 71.82- - - limb NEe 71.89- - - - and lower limb 71.98- - - - both NEe 71.88- - - - more than one region 71.80- - upper arm 71.0- - wrist 71.2- - - and hand 71.3- - - one side, with other side
- - - - finger 71.86- - - - forearm 71.84- - - - upper arm 71.82- memory NEe (for) 16.9
- - figures 15.6~

131Impairment - continued- memory NEe - continued- - long~term events 15.1
- - past events 15.0
- - recent events 15.2
- - shapes 15.4
- - specified type NEe 16.8
- - words 15.5
- metabolic NEe 93.9
- - specified type NEe 93.8
- micturition NEe 63.7
- mood NEe 26.9
- - specified type NEe 26.88- motivation 25.81- motor NEe- - and mechanical - see Impairment,
mechanical and motor- - head NEe 70.32- - limb(s) NEe 74.9- - - four 74.6- - - lower NEe 74.4- - - - both 74.3- - - - with upper, same side 74.5- - - mixed type - see categories
14.0-74.9 with 4th digit 8- - - specified- - - - combinations NEe 74.8- - - - type NEe - see categories
74.0-74.9 with 4th digit 7- - - three 74.6- - - upper NEC 74.2- - - - both 74.0- - - - dominant 74.1- - - - with lower, same side 74.5- - neck NEe 70.42- - or analogous functional of interna1organs 60.5
- - - combinations NEe 60.8
- multiple NEe 90.9
- - all classes 90.0
- - mental functions and speech 90.2
- - - and special senses (and viscera) (andskeleton) 90.1
- - special senses 90.4
- - - and viscera and skeleton 90.3
- - specified classes NEe 90.8
- - viscera and skeleton 90.5
- nasa1 function NEe 69.5
- neurologica1 control of speech organs
NEe 35.6- night vision 57.6
- nipples NEe 67.2
- nonverbal ';grammar" 36.0
- ocular NEe 58.9
- - ill-defined 58.7
- - motility NEC 57.4
- - specified type NEe 58.8

132

INDEX

Impairment - continued- olfaction - see Impairment, smell- openness to new ideas 19.3
- patterning of auditory stimuli 32.1
- pelvis, potentially interfering with normaldelivery 70.70- perception NEe 23.9
- - specified type NEe 23.8
- phonation NEe 37.3
- physique NEe 70.69- - specified type NEe 70.68- posture NEe 70.59- - specified type NEe 70.58- praxis function 19.1
- processing of auditory stimuli 32.1
- psychomotor functions NEe 28.9
- - specified type NEe 28.8
reading NEe 34.3
- reality testing 23.5
renal function NEe 63.]
reprnductive function NEC 64.9
- resonation NEe 37.4
- retention of auditory stimuli 32.1
- salivary function NEe 68.5
- salivation 68.4
- semantic function 31.5
- sensorineural NEe 47.1
- sensory NEe 98.9
- - head NEe 95.9
- - - specified type NEe 95.8
- - lower limb 98.9
- - - specified type NEe 98.8
- - trunk NEe 96.9
- - - specified type NEC 96.8
- - upper limb NEe 97.9
- - - specified type NEe 97.8
- sexual- - organs NEe 67.9
- - - specified type NEe 67.8
- - performance NEe 25.49- - - specified type NEe 25.48- sleep/wakefulness- - cycle NEe 22.6
- - pattern NEe 22.3
- smell 69.1
- - and taste 69.0
- sound conduction NEe 47.0
- special functions NEe 69.9
- - specified type NEe 69.8
- specified type NEe 99.8
- speech NEe 39- - content NEe 38.9
- - - specified type NEe 38.8
- - discrimination NEe 46.9
- - - bilateral NEe 46.8
- - - - mild 46.4
- - - - moderate 46.3

lmpairment - continued- speech N EC - continued- - discrimination NEC - continued- - - bilateral NEC - continued- - - - moderately severe 46.2
- - - - profound 46.0
- - - - severe 46.1
- - - unilateral NEC 46.9
- - - - mild 46.7
moderate 46.7
- - - - moderately severe 46.6
- - - - profound 46.5
- - - - severe 46.6
- - fluency 37.0
- - form NEe 37.9
- - - specified type NEC 37.8
- - length 38.3
- - organs NEe 35.7
- - - neurological control NEC 35.6
- - patterning N EC 37.2
- - pressure 37.1
- - quantity NEe 38.4
- stature NEe 70.62- sublinguistic function NEe 32.8
- swallowing NEC 68.7
- - and mastication NEC 68.9
- - - specified type NEe 68.8
- syntax 31.4
- taste 69.2
- - and smell 69.0
- thought content NEC 18.9
- trunk (region) NEC 70.9
- - skeletal structures NEC 70.71- - specified type NEC 70.8
- urinary function NEC 63.9
- - specified type NEe 63.8
- use of- - finger spelling 33.0
- - other language systems 33.0
- - sign language 33.0
- vestibular function NEC 48.9
- - and balance 48.9
- - - specified type NEe 48.8
- - locomotion 48.2
- - specified type NEe 48.4
- vision (unilateral) NEC 55.9
- - binocular NEe 57.4
- - color 57.5
- - night 57.6
- - subjective 57.7
- visual NEe 57.9
- - accommodation 57.2
- - acuity NEe (see also lmpairment,
vision) 55.9
- - bilateral NEe 53.9
- - field NEe 56.9
- - - moderate 56.4

IMP AIRMENTS
Impairment - continued- visual NEe - continued- - field NEe - continued- - - near-total 56.1
- - - profound 56.2
- - - severe 56.3
- - - slight 56.5
- - - total 56.0
- - - unilateral NEe 56.8
- - moderate- - - better eye NEe 53.3
- - - both eyes 53.2
- - - one eye- - - - other eye absent 50.5
- - - - visual impairment, other eye- - - - - near-total 52.3
- - - - - none 55.4
- - - - - profound 52.5
- - - - - severe 53.1
- - - - - slight 55.3
- - - - - total 52.1
- - - - - unspecified 55.5
- - near-total- - - better eye NEe 51.5
- - - both eyes 51.3
- - - one eye- - - - other eye absent 50.2
- - - - visual impairment, other eye- - - - - moderate 52.3
- - - - - none 54.4
- - - - - profound 51.4
- severe 52.2
- - - - - slight 54.3
- - - - - total 51.1
- - - - - unspecified 54.5
- - profound- - - better eye NEC 51.7
- - - both eyes 51.6
- - - one eye- - - - other eye absent 50.3
- - - - visual impairment, other eye- - - - - moderate 52.5
- - - - - near-total 51.4
- - - - - none 54.7
- - - - - severe 52.4
- - - - - slight 54.6
- - - - - total 51.2
- - - - - unspecitied 54.8
- - severe- - - better eye NEC 52.6
- - - both eyes 53.0
- - - one eye- - - - other eye absent 50.4
- - - - visual impairment, other eye- - - - - moderate 53.1
- - - - - neac-total 52.2
- - - - - none 55.1

Impairment - continued- visual N EC - continued- - severe - continued- - - one eye-continued- - - - visual impairment, othereye - continued- - - - - profound 52.4
- - - - - slight 5540
- - - - - total 52.0
- - - - - unspecified 55.2
- - slight- - - both eyes 55.6
- - - one eye- - - - other eye absent 50.6
- - - - visual impairment, other eye- - - - - moderate 55.3
- - - - - near-total 54.3
- - - - - none 55.7
- - - - - profound 54.6
- - - - - severe 55.0
- - - - - total 54.0
- - - - - unspecified 55.8
- - specified type NEC 57.8
- - total- - - both eyes 51.0
- - - one eye- - - - other eye absent 50.1
- - - - visual impairment, other eye- - - - - moderate 52.1
- - - - - near-total 51.1
- - - - - none 54.1
- - - - - profound 51.2
- - - - - severe 52.0
- - - - - slight 54.0
- - - - - unspecified 54.2
- vocabulary 31.3
- voice- - function NEC 36.9
- - - intonation NEe 36.5
- - - loudness NEe 36.4
- - - modulation 36.1
- - - pitch 36.2
- - - quality 36.6
- - - - specified type NEe 36.7
- - - specified type NEe 36.8
- - production NEC 35.9
- - - specified type NEC 35.8
- volition NEe 27.9
- - specified type NEC 27.8
- wakefulness NEC 22.9
- - specified type NEC 22.8
- walking NEC 71.93- writing 34.4
Impotence 25.40
Impulsive- acts 27.6
- falls 48.6

133

134

INDEX

Inability to sustain goals 25.80
Inappropriate- facial expression 33.2
- gesture 3:3.3- humor 38.2
- posture (orientation) (position) 33.3
- speech NEC 38.1
Inattentiveness 24.5
Incoherence NEC 37.5
- thought processes 17.8
Incongruity of affect 26.7
Incontinence- double NEe 91.4
- - every night and every day 91.2
- - frequency greater than once every- - - night and once every day 91.1
- - - week, by night and by day 91.3
- fecal NEe 62.9
- - frequency greater than once every- - - week 91.6
- - - 24 hours 91.5
- severe NEe 91.9
- - specified type NEe 91.8
- - subject to control by devices 91.0
- urinary NEe 63.7
- - extraurethral 88.6
- - frequency greater than once every 24
hours 91.7
- - overflow 63.4
- - reflex 63.3
- - stress 63.6
- - urge 63.5
Increased- appetite 25.1
- facial expression 33.2
Indecisiveness 29.5
Indistinct speech 35.5
Indwelling urinary catheter 88.5
Infection- aural NEe 49.4
- ocular NEe 58.1
- skin - see Color changes

Infertility NEC 64.2
Insecurity 29.5
Insomnia NEC 22.1
Instability- limb, NEe - see categories 71.0-71. 7 with
4th digit 3- - bilateral - see categories 71.0-71. 7
with 4th digit 2- mood 26.6
Intermittent- claudication 61.5
- prostration 94.1
Interruption intermittent of consciousness- mild 21.3
- moderate 21.2
- other 21.6
- profound 21.0
- severe 21.1
Intestinal- colic 62.3
- hurry 62.7
Intolerance- exercise 61.5
- food 62.0
- specific dietary 93.2
Intrauterine device in situ 64.0
Involuntary patterns of hody movement
associated with language 33.3
Irritability 26.5
Irritable colon 62.6
Irritation- aural 49.3
- eye SR.3
- urethral 67.3
- vaginal 67.3
Itching (lower limb) 98.5
- head 95.6
trunk 96.6
- upper limb 97.6

J
"Jamais vu" experience

23.31

I Jealousy, delusional 18.4

KKyphosis 70.50

IMPAIRM ENTS

135

L
Loss continued- hearing - continued- - total NEe - continued
one ear NEe - continued
hearing impairment, otherear - continued
profound 41.1
severe 42.0
- unspecified 44.3
interests 27.]
learned skills 14.3
libido 25.3
memory see Amnesia
menstrual, excessive 64.6
movement, limb, NEe - see categories
71. 0-71. 7 with 4th digit 7
bilateral - see categories 71.0-71. 7
with 4th digit 6
total NEe - see categories 71.0-71. 7
with 4th digit 1
bilateral - see categories 71.0-71. 7
with 4th digit 0
vision NEe (see a/so Impairment t
vision) 55.9transient 57.7
voice production 35.2
weight 93.5
Low vision NEe 53.9
both eyes 53.8
one eye with blindness, other eye 52.9
Lumbago 96.3
Lymphedema
limb (lower) (upper) 86.5-

Lability, emotional 26.6
Lack of- coordination NEe see categories
74.0-74.9 with 4th digit 5- - complete see categories 74.0-74.9
with 4th digit 4- humor 38.2
- initiative 27.0
- voluntary movement 28.1
Laryngeal palsy 35.6
Larynx- artificial 35.0
- deficiency 35.1
Liability to falls 48.5
Libido decreased 25.3
Life support devices in use 94.0
Light sensitivity 57.8
Limping NEC 74.97
Lordosis 70.50
Loss (of)- ability to distinguish fantasy from reality
23.5- appetite 25.0
hearing- - profound (bilateral) NEe 41.9
- - total NEe 41.9
- - - bilateral 41.0
- - - one ear NEC 44.9
- - - - hearing impairment. other ear
mild 44.1
moderate 44.0
moderately severe 42.1
none 44.2

M
Macropsyexperiences 23.4
Malformation congenital (limb) NEe 85.9- specified type NEe 85.8Malnutrition 93.4
Malocclusion 70.11
Malposition internal sex organ NEe 67.5
Mannerism- facial NEe 70.22- postural 70.55
Memory- illusions 16.1
- impairment NEe (for) 16.8
- - figures 15.6
- long-term events 15.1

Memory - continued
impairment NEe - continued
past events 15.0
recent events 15.2
- - shapes 15.4
- - words 15.5
- - unspecified 16.9
Menorrhagia 64.6
Mentaldeficiency - see Mental, retardation- retardation NEe 13.9
- - mi1d 13.0
- - moderate 12- - profound 10

136

INDEX

Mental- continued- retardation NEe continued- - severe 11- - specifjed type NEe 13.8
Microcephaly 81.1
Microspy experiences 23.4
Micturition, frequency 63.2
Mirror- hand 85.6- writing 34.4
Misinterpretation 19.4
Mood
- impairment NEe 26.9
- - specified type NEC 26.88- instability 26.6
- swings (frequent) 26.6
Moron 13.0
Movement- abnormal, idiosyncratic, repetitive or
stylized- - facia} 70.22- - head 70.31

Movement - continued- abnormal - continued- - limb - see categories 74.0-74.9 with
4th digit 3- - - complete - see categories 74.0-74.9
with 4th digit 2- - postural 70.55- involuntary- - body 70.54- - facial 70.21- - limb - see categories 74.0-74.9 with
4th digit 3- - - complete - see categories 74.0-74.9
with 4th digit 2- masticatory 70.21
Mucus; rectal 62.8
Mumbling 35.5
Murmurs (cardiac) 61.2
Mutism 30.0
- akinetic 20.7
- deaf 40

N
Nonsocial speech 37.6
Numbness (limb) NEe 98.6
- head 95.7
- lower limb 98.6
- trunk 96.7
- upper limb 97.7
Nystagmus 57.4

Narcolepsy 22.3
Narrowing (of)- attention span 24.2
- field of consciousness 20.2
Nasalobstruction 69.4
Nausea 62.0
Negativism 27.3

oObesity 70.64
Obsessional- ideas 17.6
- traits 29.5
Obstruction
esophageal 60.1
- gastric 60.1
- genital 66.5
intestinal 60.2
- nasal 69.4
outflow urine 63.4
- tracheobronchial 60.0
tubal 66.5
urinary 63.4
Oligophrenia - see MentaL retardation1

Orifice- abnormal NEe 88.9
- - specified type NEe 88.8
- artificial NEe 88.7
Orthopnea 61.0
Otorrhea 49.2
Outbursts, angry 26.5
Outflow obstruction of micturation 63.4
Overactivity NEC 28.4
Overcompliance 27.2
Overflow incontinence 63.4
Overgrowth, limbs (lower) (upper) 85.4Overtalkativeness 28.4
Overvalued ideas 18.1

IMPAIRMENTS

137

p
Pacemaker in situ 94,0Pain (in)- abdominal 62.3
- back 96.3
- chest NEC 61.4
- - on exercise 61.3
- ear 49.3
- eye 58.7
- facial 95.3
- generalized 94.2
- head NEC 95.4,- lower limb NEC 98.3
- - on exercise 61.5
- neck 96.3
- rectal 62.8
- trunk (region) NEe 96.4
- upper limb NEe 97.4
- - on exercise 97.3
Palpitation 61.6
Palsy see also Paralysis- diaphragmatic 60.4
- facial 70.20- laryngeal 35.6
Panic attacks 26.01
Paralysis NEe- facial 70.20- limb(s) NEC 73.9- - flaccid (partial) NEC - see categories
73.0-73.9 with 4th digit 5
complete - see categories 73.0-73.9
with 4th digit 4
total NEe - see categories 73.0-73.9
with 4th digit 3
complete - see categories
73.0- 73. 9 with 4th digit 2- - four 73.7- - lower NEC 73.4and upper, same side 73.5- - - both 73.3- - spastic NEe 73.91- - - complete 73.90- - - four NEe 72.7
complete 72.6
- - - lower NEe 73.41- - - - and upper, same side 72.2
- - - complete 72.1
with involvement of speech
72.0
both 72.4- - - complete 72.3
complete 73.40- - - more than one NEC 72.9
specified combinations N EC
72.8
three 72.5

Paralys'js NEe - continued
limb(s) NEC - continued- - spastic NEe continued- - - upper NEC 73.21- - and lower, same side 72.2
- - - - - complete 72.1
- - - - - with involvement of speech
72.0- - - both NEC 73.01
complete 73.00- - - complete 73.20- - - dominant NEe 73.11- - - - -- complete 73.10- - specified combinations NEe 73.8- -- three 73.6- - upper NEe 73.2- and lower, same side 73.5- both 73.0- - dominant 73.1Paramnesia 16.1
Paraparesis (spastic) 72.4
Paraplegia (spastic) 72.3
Paresthesia see Numbness
Pathological- affect 20.3
- anxiety 26.00- craving (alcohol) (drug) 25.7
Perception, false NEC 23.29- specified type NEC 23.28
Peromelia see Deficiency, transverse
Perplexity 29.81
Perseveration 17.4
Personality disorder 29.9
Petit mal (see also Epilepsy) 21.5
Phantom limb experiences 23.32
Phobias NEe 29.6
Phocomelia see Deficiency, longitudinal
Pigmentation (skin)- head 82.2
limb (lower) (upper) 87.0- trunk 83.2
Piles 62.8
Pill (contraceptive) in use 64.0
Polydactylism 85.6Polydipsia 93.7
Polyuria 63.2
Postvasectomy 64.0
Poverty (of)- speech content 38.5
- thought content 18.0
Pregnant 99.0
Prickling (lower limb) 98.8
- upper limb 97.8
Procidentia (uteri) 67.4
Prognathism 70.12

138

INDEX

Prolapse (uterus) 67.4
Prostatism 63.4
Prosthesis. dental 68.0
Pruritus (generalized) 94.4
Pseudohallucination 23.26

Psychomotor excitement 28.2
Ptosis- eyelid 58.5
Puzzlement 29.81
Pyrexia 94.3

Q

R
Rash - see Color changes
Reaction, catastrophic 26.80
Reading difficulties 34.2
Reduced recuperative powers (as:-,ociatedwith ageing) 92.7
Reduction facial expression 33.2
Regurgitation 62.1
Renal
colic 63.0
dialysis 94.0
failure 63.1
- transplantation 65.60
Repetition compulsion 29.5
Resplrator 94.0

Restlessness 26.82
Restriction- interests 27.1
- movement, limbs, NEC - see categories
71.0-71. 7 with 4th digit 7- - bilateral see categories 7 L 0-7 L 7with 4th digit 6
Retardation, mental - see Mental,
retardation
Rhinorrhea 69.3
Rituals 27.5
Rudimentary limb - see Deficiency.
longitudinal
Running eye 58.0s
Scaling, limb (lower) (upper) 87.5Scarring
head 82.6- limb (lower) (upper) 87.6trunk 83.S
Scoliosis 70.50
Scurvy 92.6
Secretion lacrimal, excessive 58.0
Seizures NEC 21.5
Self-injury 29.82
Semistuporous state 28.1
Sensitivity. excessive 29.2
Sexual ambiguity 64.4
Shortening, limb - see Deficiency,
longitudinal
Shortness of breath 61.0
Shoulder-hand syndrome

71.80

Shyness, excessive 29.2
Situs inversus viscerum 66.2
Skeletal defect, generalized 70.65

Sleep- -talking 22,5
- -walking 22.5
Sleepiness 22,7
Slowness 28.0
- speech 28.0
- thought 17.2
- walking 28.0
Slurred speech 35.5
Social withdrawal 29.1
Soiling see Incontinence, feeal
Solitary behavior 29.85
Sopor 20.0
Spasm (lower limb) 98.8
- upper limb 97.8
Speech- abnormally lengthy 38.3
- idiosyncratic 38.0
- inappropriate NEC 38.1
- indistinct 35.5

IMPAIRMENTS

139

Strabismus 57.3
Strain- eye 58.7
Stridor 61. 1
Stupor 20.0
Stuttering 37.0
Suhfertiiity 64.2
Substitute voice 35.0
Suspiciousness 29.0
Swelling- limb (lower) (upper) NEe 86.6- - complete 86.5- part of head 82.1
- tissues- - limb (lower) (upper) 86.4- trunk 83.1
Syncope 21.6
Syndactylia- simple 84.4- skeletal 84.6- soft tissue 84.5Syndrome- Apert 84.6- shoulder-hand 71.80- transitional 20.1
Synonychia 84.5Synostosis 84.1-

Speech - continued- non-social 37.6
- restricted 38.4
- slurred 35.5
Spells, blank 24.4
Spinal curvature 70.50
Splenunculus 66.3
Sputum 61.7
Stammering 37.0
State- cnnfusional 20.4
- dissociative 20.5
- hypnotic 20.6
- post-concussional 20.1
- trance-like 20.6
- twilight 20.3
Stature- short 70.60- unduly tall 70.61
Stereotypies- facial 70.22- postural 70.55
Sterility 64. I
Stiffness, limbs, NEC see categories
74.0-74.9 with 4th digit 1- complete - see categories 74.0-74.9 with
4th digit 0- in mechanical impairment - see categories
71.0-71. 7 with 4th digit 7- - hilateral-seecategories7LO-71.7
with 4th digit 6

T
Tachycardia 61.6
Tallness, undue 70.61
Temperature change (limb) NEC- head 95.2
- lower limb 98.2
- trunk 96.2
- upper limb 97.2
Tetraparesis (spastic) 72.7
Tetraplegia (spastic) 72.6
Thinking - see condition
Thinness. undue 70.63
Thought - see condition
Throbbing. head 95.5
Tics 70.21
Tightness - see also Ache- head 95.5
Time-standing-still 23.4
Tingling see Numbness

98.2

Tinnitus 47.2
Titubation 70.31
Toothache 68.3
Torticollis 70.40
Tracheostomy 88.0
Traits- histrionic 29.80- obsessional 29.5
Trance-like state 20.6
Transplantation, renal 65.60
Transposition of viscera 66.2
Tremor NEe 74.92- limb - see categories 74.0-74.9 with 4th
digit 2
Trigger digit 84.2Tdsmus 70.10
Tumor- head 82.1

140

INDEX

Tumor - continued- limb (lower) (upper) 86.4- trunk 83.1

Tunnel vision 56.6
Twilight state 20.3

uUndue - continued- susceptibility - continued- - pressure sores 92.3
- - tissues NEe 92.6
- - trauma NEe 92.9
- - - specified type NEC 92.8
- tallness 70.61- thinness 70.63
Urethritis 67.3

Ugliness (marked) 82.8
Unconsciousness 20.0
Uncooperativeness 29.7
Underactivity NEC 28.1
Underdevelopment, lower jaw 70.13
Undescended testicle 67.5
Undue
- insensitivity to pain 92.5
- susceptibility (of) (to)- - fracture NEe 92.2

v
Vaginal- bleeding 64.6
- discharge 67.3
Vaginitis 67.3
Varicose veins 87.3Vertigo 48.0
Violence 29.7
Vision loss NEe 55.9
- transient 57.7

Voice
- abnormally quiet 36.3
- breathy 36.6
- expressionless 36.1
- flat tone 36.1
- harsh 36.6
Vomiting 62.1
Vulnerability. excessive 29.2

w
Wasting- head 82.0
- limb (lower) (upper) NEe 86.1- - complete 86.0- trunk 83.0
Weakness (generalized) NEe 94.5
- limbs - see categories 73.0-73.9 with 4th
digit 6
Wears correcting lenses (giving(near- )normal vision) 57.0

Weight- gain 93.6
- loss 93.5
Wetting - see Incontinence, urinary
Wheezing 61.1
Withdrawal, social 29.1
Worrying 29.4

x Y Z

i

SECTION 3

CLASSIFICATION OF DISABIUTIES

List pf two-digit categories
1 B~haviour disabilities
2 Communication disabilities
3 Personal care disabilities
4 Locomotor disabilities
5 8bdy disposition disabilities
6 Dexterity disabilities
7 Si~uational disabilities
8 Particular skiU disabiJities
9 O_her activity restrictions
Supplementary gradings
Guid3nce on assignment

DISABILITY

Definition

In the context of health experience, a disability is any
restriction or lack (resulting from an impainnent) of
ability to perform an activity in the manner or within
the range considered nonnal for a human being

Characteristics

DisabiJity is characterized by excesses or deficienciesof customarily expected activity performance andbehaviour, and these may be temporary or permanent,
reversible or irreversible, and progressive or regressive.
Disabilities may arise as a direct consequence of impairment or as a response by the individual, particularly
psychologically, to a physical, sensory, or other impair·ment. Disability represents objectification of an
impairment, and as such it reflects disturbances at thelevel of the person
Disability is concerned with abilities, in the form ofcomposite activities and behaviours, that are generally
accepted as essential components of everyday life.
Examples include disturbances in behaving in an
appropriate manner~ in personal care (such as excretory
control and the ability to wash and feed oneself), in theperformance of other activities of daily living, and inlocomotor activities (such as the ability to walk)LIST OF TWO-DIGIT CATEGORIES OF DISABILITY
1

BEHAVIOUR DISABILITIES

Awareness disabllities (10-16)
10Self·awareness disability

11

Disability relating to location in time and space

12

Other identification disability

13

Personal safety disability
Disability relating to situational behaviour

14
15

16

Knowledge acquisition disability
Other educational disability

Disabilities in relations (17-19)
17

Family role disability

18
19

Occupational role disability
Other behaviour disability

2

COMMUNICATION DISABILITIES
Speaking disabilities (20-22)

21

Disability in understanding speech
Disability in talking

22

Other speaking disability

20

Listening disabilities {23-24}

23
24

Disability in listening to speech
Other listening disability
Seeing disabilities (25-27)

25

Disability in gross visual tasks

26

Disability in detailed visual tasks

27

Other disability in seeing and related activities

LIST OF TWO-DIGIT CATEGORIES OF DISABILITY

Other communication disabilities (28-29)

28

Disability in writing

29

Other communication disability

3

PERSONAL CARE DISABIUTlES
Excretion disabilities (30..32)

30
31

32

Controlled excretory difficulty
Uncontrolled excretory difficulty
Other excretion disability
Personal hygiene disabilities (33·34)

33
34

Ba thing disability
Other personal hygiene disability
Dressing disabilities (35-36)3536

Clothing disability
Other dressing disability
Feeding and other personal care disabilities (37-39)

37
38
39

Other feeding disability

4

WCOMOTOR DISABILITIESDisability in preliminaries to feeding
Other personal care disability

Ambulation disabilities (40-45)

40
41

42
43
44
45

Walking disability
Traversing disability
Climbing stairs disability
Other climbing disability
Running disability
Other ambulation disability

145

146

LIST OF TWO-DIGIT CATEGORIES OF DISABILITY

ConfIDing disabilities (46-47)
46
47

Transfer disability
Transport disability
Other locomotor disabilities (48-49)

48
49

lifting disability
Other locomotor disability

5

BODY DISPOSITION DISABILITIESDomestic disability (SO-51)

50

Subsistence disability

51

Household disability
Body movement disabilities (52-27)

52
53

Retrieval disability

54

Other disability in arm function

55

Kneeling disability

56

Crouching disability

57

Other body movement disability

Reaching disability

Other body disposition disabilities (58-59)

58
59

Other body disposition disability

Postural disability

6

DEXTERITY DISABILITIES

Daily activity disabilities (60-61)
60
61

Environmental modulation disability
Other daily activity disability
Manual activity disabilities (62-66)

62

Fingering disability

63

Gripping disability

64

Holding disability

65

Handedness disability

66

Other manual activity disability

LIST OF TWO-DIGIT CATEGORIES OF DISABILITY

147

Other dexterity disabilities (67-69)
67

Foot control disability

68

Other body control disability

69

Other dexterity disability

7

SITUATIONAL DISABILITIES
Dependence and endurance disabilities (70-71)

70

Circumstantial dependence

71

Disability in endurance
Environmental disabilities (72.77)

72

Disability relating to temperature tolerance

73

Disability relating to tolerance of other climatic features74

Disability relating to tolerance of noise

75

Disability relating to tolerance of illumination

76

Disability relating to tolerance of work stresses

77

Disability relating to tolerance of other envirorunental factors
Other situational disabilities (78)78

Other situationaJ disability

8

PARTICULAR SKILL DISABILITIES

9OmER ACTMTY RESTRICTIONSt

BEHAVIOUR DISABILITIESRefer to an individual's awareness and ability to conduct himself~ both ineveryday activities and towards others, and including the ability to learn
Excludes: communication disabilities (2)AWARENESS DISABILITIES (10·16)
Awareness refers to having knowledge

10

Self-awareness disability
Includes: disturbance of the ability to develop or maintain amenta1 representation of the identity of the individual's
self or body ("body image U ) and its continuity overtime; and disturbance of behaviour resulting from inter·
ference with consciousness or sense of identity and con..
fusion (inappropriate interpretation of and response toexternal events, which expresses itself in agitation, restlessness, and nOisiness)

10.0
10.1

Transient selfawareness disability
Disability in body image orientation
Includes: disturbance in the mental representation of the individual's body, such as inability in right..left differentiation, "phantom limb" experiences, and other related
phenomena
Personal uncleanliness
Includes: neglect of shaving or state of hair, and dirty clothing
Other disturbance of appearance
Includes: careless dress or make-up, and appearance that isbizarre (such as "secret documents" and special clothes
or ornaments with idiosyncratic meaning, which may
be related to delusions), of very inappropriate taste,or conspicuously out of fashion

10.2
10.3

10.4

Other disturbance of selfpresentation
Includes: disturbance of the ability to present a favourable image
in social situations, such as by inattention to supportive
socia1 routines (e.g., greetlngs, partings, giving thanks,
apologizing, excusing, and reciprocation of these), andlack of "presence" (e.g.~ total absence of originality, or
excessive conformity in demeanour)
Excludes: intended unconventional behaviour (which is not a disability)

BEHAVIOUR DISABILITIES

10.8
10.9
11

11.0
11.8

11.9
12

12.0
12.1

12.8
12.9

t3

13.0

13.1

13.2

149

Other
Unspecified
Disability relating to location in time and space
Includes: disturbance of the ability of the individual to correctly
locate external objects, events, and himse1f in relation
to the dimensions of time and space
Transient disability relating to location in time and space
Other
Unspecified
Other identification disability
Includes: disturbance of the ability to identify objects and persons correctly
Transient disability in identifying objects and persons
Conduct out of context
Conduct that is generally appropriate but which is inappropriate to
the place, time, or stage of maturation
Includes: cultural shock (such as in immigrants), moving in dif.
ferent identities (e.g., transvestism and passing, suchas black passing for white), pseudo-feeble-mindedness,and breaking taboos
Other
Unspecified
Personal safety disability
Includes: disturbance of the ability to avoid hazards to the integrity of the individual's body, such as being in hazard
from self-injury or from inability to safeguard self fromdangerLiability to selfinjury
Includes: risk of suicide or self·inflicted injury
Personal safety disability in special situations
Includes: being in hazard in special situations, such as those related
to travel and transport, occupation, and recreation, in·cluding sport
Excludes: occupational role disability (18)
Conduct potentially dangerous to the individual himself
Includes: leaving gas taps or fires on

150

BEHAVIOUR DISABILITIES

13.3

Other i"esponsible conduct
Includes: tossing lighted matches on carpet
Getting lost
Other wandering
Includes: when inappropriately clad
Other
Unspecified

13.4
13.5
13.8
13.9

14

14.0

14.1

14.2

14.8
14.9

Disability relating to situationa1 behaviour
Includes: disturbance of the capacity to register and understandrelations between objects and persons in situations ofdaily living
Excludes: personal safety disability in special situations (13.1)
Situation comprehension disability
Includes: disturbance of the capacity to perceive, register, or
understand relations between things and people
Situation interpretation disobility
Includes: false interpretation of the relations between and mean·ing of things and people
Situation coping disability
Includes: disturbance of the ability to perform everyday activities in specific situations, such as outside the home orin the presence of particular animals or other objects
Excludes: disability in crisis conduct (18.6)
Other
Unspecified

15

Knowledge acquisition disability
Includes: general disturbance of the ability to learn, such as may
arise from impairments of intellect or of the ability tolearn new skills

16

Other educational disability
Includes: other inability to benefit from educational opportunities
because of disturbance of specific individual capacities
for acquiring, processing, and retaining new infonnation
Excludes: those arising from communication (2) and other disabilities (3 - 7)

BEHAVIOUR DISABILITIES

16.9

151

Unspecified
Includes:slowing of mental functions NOS

DISABIUTIES IN RELATIONS (17 - 19)
17

F amity role disability

17.0

Disability in participation in household activities
Includes:17.1

Disability in affective partnership role

Includes:17.2

affective relationship with steady partner or spouse,and communication (such as talking about children)news) and ordinary events), ability to show affection
and warmth (but excluding culturally customary outbursts of anger or irritability), and engendering a feeling of being a source of support in the partner

Other disability in affective partnership role
Includes:17.3

customary common activities such as having meals
together, doing domestic chores, going out or visiting together, playing games, and watching television,and conduct during these activities, as well as household decision-making, such as decisions about children
and money

disturbance of sexual relations with steady partner(inc1uding occurrence of sexual intercourse andwhether both individual and partner find sexual relations satisfactory)

Parental role disability
Includes:undertaking and perfonnance of chi1d care tasks appropriate to the individual's position in household (such as
feeding, putting to bed, or taking to school, for smallchildren, and looking after child's needs, for older children) and taking interest in child (such as playing with~reading to, and taking interest in child's problems or
school work)

17.8

Other family role disability

17.9

Unspecified

152

BEHAVIOUR DISABILITIES

18

Occupational role disability
Includes: disturbance of the ability to organize and participate inroutine activities connected with the occupation of time,
not just confmed to the performance of work
Excludes: situational disabilities (70 - 79)

18.0

Disability in motivation
Includes:interference with the ability to work by virtue ofsevere impainnent of drive

18.1

Disability in cooperation

18.2

inability to cooperate with others and to "give and take"in social interaction
Disability in work routine
Includes:Includes:18.3

Disability in organizing daily routine
Includes:

18.4
18.5

18.6

18.8

other aspects of confonnity to work routine (such as
going to work regularly and on time, and observing therules)
disturbance of the ability to organize activities in temporal sequences, and difficulty in making decisions about
day-to-day matters

Other disability in work performance
Includes: other inadequacy in perfonnance and output
Recreation disability
Includes: lack of interest in leisure activities (such as watchingte] evision, listening to radio, reading newspapers orbooks, participating in games, and hobbies) and in local
and wor1d events (including efforts to obtain information)
Disability in crisis conduct
Includes: unsatisfactory or inappropriate responses to incidents(such as sickness, accident, or other incident affecting
family member or involving other people), emergencies(such as fire), and other experiences customarily requiraing quick decision and action

Other occupational role disability
Includes: for individuals not working, their interest in obtaining
or returning to work and actual steps undertaken tothis end
Excludes: other social role disability (19.2)

BEHAV10UR DISABILITIES

153

18.9

Unspecified

J9

Other behaviour disability
Includes: disturbance of interpersonal relationships outside thehouseholdExcludes: occupational role disability (18)
Antisocial behaviour
Includes: severely maladjusted, psychopathic, and delinquent
Indifference to accepted social standards
Includes: conduct that is embarrassing (such as making sexualsuggestions or advances, or lacking restraint in scratching
genitals or in passing loud flatus), irreverent (such as singing, making facetious silly jokes or flippant remarks, orbeing unduly familiar), or histrionic (such as expressionof feelings in an exaggerated~ dramatic, or histrionicmanner)Other social role disability

19.0
19.1

19.2

Includes:

19.3

19.4.

overt conduct by the individual involving arguments,
arrogance, anger, marked irritability, or other friction
arising in social situations outside own home (such aswith supervisors, co-workers, or customers, if the indi·vidual engages in outside work; with neighbours andother people in the community, if the individual has adomestic role; with teachers, administrators, andfellow students, if the individual is a student; and withfellow inhabitants, if the individual lives in communal
accommodation)
Excludes: self-awareness (10) and identification disabilities (11 . 12)
Other personality disability
Includes: other excess or lack of any customary trait of personality NOS
Other severe behaviour disorder
Includes:other disturbance of behaviour (such as aggressiveness,
destructiveness, extreme overactivity, and attentionseeking) that presents problems in management andthat are NEe

19.8

Other

19.9

Un speCijled
Includes: behaviour disorder NOS

2

COMMUNICATION DISABILITIESRefer to an individuaPs ability to generate and emit messages, and to receive andunderstand messages
SPEAKING DISABILITIES (20 - 22)
20

21

Disability in Wlderstanding speech
Includes: loss or restriction of the ability to understand the meaningof verbal messages
Excludes: listening disabilities (23) and situation-related difficulties
such as lack of knowledge of a 10ca1language
Disability in talking
Includes:22
22.0

loss or restriction of the ability to produce audible verbal
messages and to convey meaning through speech

Other speaking disability
Disability in understanding other audible messages
Excludes: listening disabilities (24)

22.1

22.2

22.8
22.9

Disability in expression through substitute language codes
Includes: loss or restriction of the ability to convey information bya code of sign language
Other disability with substitute language codes
Includes: loss or reduction of the ability to receive information bya code of sign language
Other
Unspecified
LISTENING DISABILITIES (23 - 24)

23

Disability in listening to speech
Includes: loss or reduction of the ability to receive verbal messages

24

Other listening disability
Includes: loss or reduction of the ability to receive other audible
messages

COMMUNICATION DISABILITIES

155

SEEING DISABILITIES (25 - 27)
2S

16

Disability in gross visual tasks
Includes: loss or reduction of the ability to execute tasks requiring
adequate distant or peripheral vision
Disability in detailed visual tasks
Includes:loss or reduction of the ability to execute tasks requiring
adequate visual acuity, such as reading, recognition of faces,
writing, and visual manipulation

27

Other disability in seeing and related activities
Excludes: disability related to tolerance of illumination (75)

27.0
27.1
27.2

Disability in night vision
Disability in colour recognition

Disability in comprehending written messages
Includes:loss or reduction of the ability to decode and understandwritten messages

27.3

Other disability in reading written language

27.4

Disability in reading other systems of notation

Includes:Includes:27.5

loss or reduction of the ability to read Braille by an individual disabled in near sight who had previously had thisability, or difficulty in learning this system of notation by
an individual disabled in near sight

Disability in lip reading
Includes:

27.8
27.9

difficulty with speed or endurance

loss or reduction of the ability to lip-read by an individual
disabled in listening who had previous]y had this ability, ordifficulty in learning this skill by an individual disabled inlistening

Other
Unspecified
OTHER COMMUNICATION DISABILITIES (28.29)

28

Disability in writing
Includes:loss or reduction of the ability to encode language into
written words and to execute written messages or to

make marks

156

29
29.0

29.1

29.2

29.8
29.9

COMMUNICATION DISABILITIESOther communication disability
Disability in symbolic communication
Includes: loss or restriction of the ability to understand signs andsymbols associated with conventionaJ codes (e.g. t traffic
lights and signs, and pictograms) and to read maps, simple
diagrams, and other schematic representations of objects
Other diSllbility in nonverbal expression
Includes: loss or restriction of the ability to convey information
by gesture, expression, and related means
Other disability in nonverbal communication
Includes: loss or restriction of the ability to receive information
by gesture, expression, and related means
Other
Unspecified
Includes: communication disability NOS3PERSONAL CARE DISABILITIESRefer to an individual's ability to look after himself in regard to basic physio.
logical activities, such as excretion and feeding, and to caring for himself~ suchas with hygiene and dressing

EXCRETION DISABILITIES (30-32)
30

ControUed excretory difficulty
Control relates to mitigation of the consequences of excretory dir·ficu1ty by effecting a degree of regulation, either by adaptive de·vices, electrical stimulators, special protective clothing, or by someother means, so that an effectively customary existence becomes
possible

30.0
30.1
30.2

Control by adaptive devices
Control by electrical stimulators
Gastrointestinal diversion
Includes : ileostomy and colostomy
Excludes: internal short-circuit operations (70.S)

30.3

30.4

30.5
30.8
30.9

Indwelling urinary catheter
Other urinary diversion
Includes: with abnormal orifice (such as cystostomy)
Excludes: internal short-circuit operations (70.5)
Control by special protective clothing

Other control of excretory difficulty
Unspecified

31

UncontroUed excretory difficulty

31.0

Severe double incontinence
Frequency every night and every day
Includes: soiling (faecal incontinence) and wetting (incontinenceof urine)

31.1

Moderate double incontinence

31.2

31.9

Other double incontinence
Other faecal incontinence
Other urinary incontinence
Other uncontrolled incontinence
Unspecified

32

Other excretion disability

Frequency greater than once every week by night and by day
31.3
31.4
31.8

158

32.0

32.1
32.2
32.8
32.9

PERSONAL CA RE DISABILITIESAssociated with transfer difficulty at home
Difficulty for the individual in transferring self to and from a lavatory at home
Associated with transfer difficulty elsewhere
Other difficulty in using sanitary facilities
Other excretion disability
Unspecified

PERSONAL HYGIENE DISABILITIES (33-34)
33

Bathing disability
Inc1udes : having an all-over wash, washing the body and the back,and drying self thereafter

33.0
33.1
33.2
33.8
33.9

Associated with transfer difficulty
Difficulty for the individual in transferring seJf to and from a bath
Other dIfficulty in using a bath
Difficulty in using a shower
Other bathing disabl1ity
Unspecified

34

Other personal hygiene disability

34.0
34.1

Washing face
Wash ing hair
Includes : washing neck and ears
Core of hands
Inc1udes : washing, and care of fingernails
Care o//eet
Includes : washing, and care of toenails
Post-excretion hygiene
Menstrual hygiene
Dental hygiene
Gender-specific care
Includes : brushing and combing hair, and shaving
Other
Unspecified

34.2

34.3
34.4
34.S
34.6
34.7
34.8

34.9

PERSONAL CARE DISABILITIESDRESSING DISABILITIES (35-36)
35
35.0
35.1

35.2
35.3

35.4
35.5
35.8
35.9
36
36.0

36.1
36.2
36.3
36.4
36.5
36.8
36.9

Clothing disability
Excludes: footwear (36.1)
Underclothes
Lower part of body
Includes: putting on skirts and trousers
Over anns and shoulders
Includes: putting on jackets
Over the head
Includes: putting on blouses, shirts, and nightdresses
Outer clothing
Includes: putting on overalls, smocks, and overcoats
Fastenings
Includes: doing up buttons, hooks, and zips
Other
Unspecified
Other dressing disability
Hosiery
Includes: putting on socks and stockings
Footwear
Includes: putting on shoes and tying shoelaces

Protective covering of hands
Headwear
Cosmetics
Other aspects of adornment
Other
Unspecified

FEEDING AND OTHER PERSONAL CARE DISABILITIES (37-39)
37

Disability in preliminaries to feeding

37.0

Dispensing beverages
Includes : pouring tea

159

160

37.1

37.2
37.3

37.4

PERSONAL CARE DISABILITIES

Holding drinking vessel
Dispensing food
Includes = serving food
Making food readyIncludes : cutting meat and buttering bread
Eating utensils
Includes : holding cutlery and other eating utensils

37.8
37.9

Other
Unspecified

38

Other feeding disability

38.0

Drinking
Includes38.1

conveying beverages to mouth and consuming (suchas sipping)

EatingIncludes : conveying food to mouth and ingesting

38.2

Chewing
Includes : mastication

38.3
38.4
38.5

Swallowing
Gastrostomy
Poor appetite

38.8

Other

38.9

Unspecified

39

Other personal care disability

39.0

Difficulty in getting to bed
Includes: difficulty in getting up, and inability to make thedecision to go to bed

39.1

Excludes: transfer disability (46)Difficulty in bed
Includes: difficulty in managing bedclothes

39.8

Other

39.9

Unspecified

4

LOCOMOTOR DISABILITIESRefer to an individual's ability to execute distinctive activities associatedwith moving, both himself and objects, from place to place
Excludes: overall mobility and consideration of the degree towhich this may be restored by aids (code under thehandicap classification), and also disabilities arisingfrom diminished endurance (71)

AMBULATION DISABILITIES (4045)
40

41

42

43
44
45

Walking disability
Includes : ambulation on flat terrain
Excludes: negotiation of discontinuities in terrain (41-43)
Traversing disability
Includes : negotiation of discontinuities in terrain such as theoccasional step between different levels
Excludes: flights of stairs (42) and other aspects of climbing(43)
Oimbing stairs disability
Includes : negotiation of flights of stairs and similar man-madeobstac1es such as ladders
Excludes: the occasional step (41)Other climbing disability
Includes : natural obstacles
Running disability
Other ambuJation disability

CONFINING DISABILITIES (46-47)
46

46.0

46.1

Transfer disability
Excludes: those related to excretion (32), bathing (33), andtransport (47)Transfer from lying
Includes: difficulty in rising from and lying down on bed
Excludes: difficulties in getting to bed and getting up that are
not related to the actual transfer (39.0)
Transfer from sitting
Includes: difficulty in getting in and out of chairs
Excludes: difficulty associated with getting on or off a lavatory(32) or in and out of a car (47.0)

LOCOMOTOR DISABILITIES

46.2

Standing transfer
Includes: difficulty in standing transfer to or from bed associated with manipulative problems

46.3

Reaching bed or chair
Includes: difficulty in reaching a bed or chair

46.8

46.9

Other
Unspecified

47

Transport disabllity

47.0

Personal transport
Includes : difficulty such as transfer in and out of car or in using
other forms of personal transport
Other vehicles
Includes : mounting and dismounting from public transport

47.1
47.2

Other difficulty with remote shopping
Includes: inaccessibility from location to which transported(such as that vehicles cannot be parked sufficiently
close)
Excludes: neighbourhood shopping (50.0) and lack of avail·ability of transport (which is a handicap)

47.7
47.8
47.9

Other transport disability
Other confining disability
Unspecified

OTHER LOCOMOTOR DISABILITIES (48-49)
48

lifting disability
Includes : carrying
Excludes: difficulty in lifting and carrying related only to sus*
tenance disability (50)49

Other locomotor disability
Exc1udes: body movement disabilities (52-57)

5

BODY DISPOSITION DISABILITIESRefer to an individual's ability to execute distinctive activities associatedwith the dispOSition of the parts of the body, and including derivative
activities such as execution of tasks associated with the individual's
domicile
Excludes: dexterity disabilities (6)DOMESTIC DISABILITIES (50·51)
SO

Subsistence disability

50.0

Procuring sustenanceIncludes : shopping in immediate neighbourhood
Excludes: remote shopping associated with transport disability

50.1

50.9

Transporting sustenanceIncludes: laying in supplies by transporting to home (such as
carrying shopping)
Opening containers
Includes : opening cans
Preparing food
Includes : cutting and chopping
Mixing food
Includes : beating
Cooking solids
Includes : lifting and serving from pots and pans
Cooking liquids
Includes : managing and pouring from containers of hot fluids
Serving food
Includes : carrying trays
Catering hygiene
Includes : washing up utensils after meals
Other and unspecified

51

Household disability

51.0
51.1

Care of bedding
uSmalls" laundry

(47)

50.2
50.3
50.4
50.5
50.6
50.7
50.8

Includes:gentle hand washing (such as of small or delicate
garments)

164

BODY DISPOSITION DISABILITIES

51.2

Bulk laundry
Includes: washing large garments and household linen

51.3

Drying laundry
Includes : wringing, hanging out, and spreading out
Manual cleaning
Includes : wiping, dusting, rubbing, and polishing

51.4
51.5

51.6

Assisted cleaning
Includes : sweeping and use of floor cleaner (such as vacuum cleaner)
Care of dependants

51.8

Includes: helping children or other dependants with tasks
such as feeding and dressing
Other

51.9

Excludes: moving objects (61.3) and reaching or stretching up (53)
Unspecified
BODY MOVEMENT DISABILITIES (52 - 57)
Excludes: those classifiable as domestic disabilities (50-51)

S2

Retrieval disability
Includes: picking up objects from floor, and bending
Excludes: picking up and carrying small objects (61.3)

S3

Reaching disability
Includes: reaching or stretching up for objects

S4

Other disability in arm function
Includes: the ability to push or pull with the upper limbs
Kneeling disability
Crouching disability
Inc1udes : stooping

55
S6
57

Other body movement disability

OTHER BODY DISPOSITION DISABIUTIES (58.59)
S8

Postural disability
Includes : difficulty in attaining or maintaining postures (such as
disturbance of balance)
Excludes: those related to limited endurance (71)

BODY DISPOSITION DIS ABILITIES59

Other body disposition disability
Includes: other difficulty in maintaining appropriate relations
between different parts of the body

165

6

DEXTERITY DISABILITIESRefer to adroitness and skill in bodily movements, including manipulative skills
and the ability to regulate control mechanisms
Excludes: ability to write or make marks (28)

DAILY ACTIVITY DISABIL1TIES (60-61)
60

Environmental modulation disability

60.0

Security disability
Includes: operation of latches and other closures (such as door
handles), and use of keys

60.1

Ingress disability

60.2

60.3

1nc1udesopening and closing of doors
Fire
Includeskindling rue and striking matches
Domestic appliances
Includes : use of taps, pumps, switches, and plugs

60.4

Ventilation

60.8
60.9

Includes: opening windows
Other
Unspecified

61

Other daily activity disability

61.0

Use of standard (dilll) telephone

61.1

Cu"ency
Includes: handling money

61.2

61.8

Other fine movements
Includes : winding watches and docks
Moving objects
Includes : picking up and carrying small objects and avoiding dropping objects
Excludes: retrieving objects (52)Handling objects
Includes : managing a newspaper
Other

61.9

Unspecified

61.3

61.4

DE X T E R I TY D I SA B I L I TI E'S167

MANUAL ACTIVITY DISABILITIES (62-66)
Excludes: writing disability (28)
62
63
64
65

66

Fingering disability
Includes : ability to manipulate with fmgers
Gripping disability
Includes : ability to grasp or grip objects and move themHolding disability
Includes : ability to immobilize objects by holding them
Handedness disability
Includes : disabled by virtue of being a sinistral in a predominantly
dextral culture
Other manual activity disability
Includes : other difficulty in coordination

OTHER DEXTERITY DISABILITIES (67-69)
67

68

69

Foot control disability
Includes : ability to use foot control mechanisms
Other body control disability
Includes : ability to use other parts of body to regulate control
mechanisms
Other dexterity disability

7

SITUATIONAL DISABILITIES

Although some of the difficulties incorporated in this section are not strictly
disturbances of activity performance (in fact, some could more properly beconceived of as impairments), they have been included here for practicalreasons - particularly in regard to reciprocal specification of the environment (see earlier section on the Consequences of disease)

DEPENDENCE AND ENDURANCE DISABILITIES (70-71)
70

Circumstantial dependence
Includes : dependence for continued existence and activity uponlife-sustaining equipment or special procedures or care

70.1

Dependent on external mechanical equipment
Includes : dependence on any form of extemallife-saving machine,such as an aspirator, a respirator, and a kidney (dialysis)
machine, or any form of electromechanical device forthe sustenance or extension of activity potential, suchas Possum and related enabling devices

70.2

Dependent on internal devices for life sustenance

70.3

Dependent on other internal devices

Includes : cardiac pacemaker
Includes : cardiac valve prostheses and joint replacements

70.4

Dependent on organ transplantation

70.5

Dependent on other alterations to the internal environment of the

Includes : post-transplantation status

body
Includes : internal short-circuit operations and existence of arti-

ficial orifices
Excludes: organ removal without functional consequences (suchas appendicectomy or cholecystectomy), and artificial
orifices related to excretion (30) or feeding (38)70.6

Dependent on special diet
Includes : inability to partake of the meals customary to the individual's culture

70.8

Dependent on other forms of special care
Excludes: dependence on the help of another individual (see70.9

Supplementary gradings of disability)
Unspecified dependence

SITUATIONAL DISABILIT1ES

71

DisabDity in endurance

71.0

Disability in sustaining positions
Includes : sitting and standing

71.1
71.2
71.8
71.9

Disability in exercise tolerance
Disability in other aspects of physical endurance
Other disability in endurance
Unspecified
ENVIRONMENTAL DISABILITIES (72..77)

72

Disability relating to temperature tolerance

72.0
72.1
72.8
72.9

Tolerance of cold
Tolerance of heat
Tolerance of other aspect 0/ ventilation
Unspecified

73

Disability relating to tolerance of other climatic features

73.0

Tolerance o/ultraviolet light
Includes: sunlightExcludes: intolerance of bright illumination (75.0)

73.1
73.2

Tolerance of humidity
Tolerance 0/ ex tremes of barometric pressure
Includes : intolerance of pressurization associated with flying

73.9

Unspecified

74

Disability relating to tolerance of noise

7S

Disability relating to tolerance of illumination

75.0
75.1
75.8
75.9

Tolerance of bright illumination
Tolerance of fluctuation in illumination
Other
Unspecified

169

170

SITUATIONAL DISABILITIES76Disability relating to tolerance of work stresses
Includes: inability to cope with the speed or other aspects ofthe pressure of work
Excludes: that attributable to occupational role disability (18)77

Disability relating to tolerance of other environmental factors

77.0
77.1

Tolerance o/dust
Tolerance 0/ other allergens

77.2

Undue susceptibility to chemical agents
Includes : that associated with liver disease, and that arising fromprevious exposure to safe limits of toxic chemicals

77.3
77.4

Undue susceptibility to other toxins
Undue susceptibility to ionizing radiation
Includes : that arising from previous exposure to safe limits ofirradiation

77.8

Tolerance 0/ other environmental factors

77.9

Unspecified

OTHER SITUATIONAL DISABILITIES (78)78

Other situational disability
Includes: generalized activity restrictions arising from suchreasons as the individual's being delicate or unduly
susceptible to trauma

8

PARTICULAR SKILL DISABILITIES

Vocational resettlement calls for assessment of many aspects of the individ·
ual's abilities and accomplishments. These include:i)behavioural abilities, such as intelligence, drive, motivation (including attitude to rehabilitation), perception, awareness (including
ability to see possibilities and limitations) learning ability (including openness to new ideas and learning potential)~ orientation forshape and space, concentration (including intensity and ability to
be sustained), memory (for words, figures, and shapes, and longterm), and thinking (abstract and logical), as well as reaction tocriticism) ability to cooperate, and other aspects of social relationshipsii)

task fulfilment abilities, such as capacity to plan tasks> problem
solving (flexibility and resourcefulness), adaptability, independencein fulftlment, task motivation and interest, capacity to control own
work and compare it with that of others, sensorimotor coordination, dexterity (fine and gross), accuracy, tidiness, punctuality,
safety behaviour, endurance (both as regards sustaining full-time
occupation and in relation to work circumstances, such as fatigue
resistance), performance rate (both for repetitive and for complex
tasks), and performance quality

Most of these attributes have already been accommodated, as appropriate, in
the impairment and disability classifications. However, there is also a need toaccommodate particular occupation-related physical and other skills that havenot been included elsewhere. This need may vary in different contexts atpresent~ and there is insufficient basis at the moment for development of a
subclassification of such skills that might have universal application. Nevertheless this section has been provided in anticipation of these needs, in the hopethat preliminary experience in the use of these classifications will indicate themost useful approach. It is hoped that individual users of the disability c1assifi·
cation will develop their own tentative subclassifications for this section

9

OTHER ACTIVITY RESTRICTIONSThis section also has been made available so as to provide a means of meetingneeds not satisfied in other parts of the classification. Again} it is hoped that
individual users of the disability classification will develop their own tentative
sub classifications for this section, so as to provide the basis for a more standardized scheme in the future

SUPPLEMENTARY GRADINGS OF DISABILITY

Severity

Most peop1e concerned with he1ping individuals who have adisability usually qualify their assessments with a grading of
the severity of restriction in activity perfonnance. Provision
has therefore been made for a fourth-digit supplement todisability classification assignments for this purpose

OutlookSome users have expressed a wish to be able to codifY theoutlook for individuals who have a disabnity. Provision has
therefore been made for an optional fifth.digit supplement
to disability classification assignments for this purpose

Codingconventions

The structure of the disability classification is such that it
may extend to a three-digit field. In order to avoid ambiguity, therefore, it is recommended that these supplementary
gradings always be coded to the fourth and fifth digit positions, even if the classification is only being used at one or
two digit levels

INTERVENTION AND SEVERITY

In everyday life,performance is very rarely an all-or-none characteristic, andmost people acknowledge this fact by grading the severity of restriction. It
is recommended that grading to the scale categories shown in the next section be recorded as a fourth-digit supplement to disability classification assignments; there are very few disabilities to which the standard scale categories are not applicableAs far as scale categories are concerned, there are four goals for intervention
in regard to disability :
(i)
(ii)
(ill)

(iv)

Disability prevention, when the individual is able to perform activities unaided and on his own without difficulty
Enhancement~ when the individual is able to perform activities unaided and on his own but only with difficulty
Supplementation, when the individual is able to perfonn activities
only with aid, including that of others
Substitution~ when the individual cannot perform activities, evenwith aid

174

SUPPLEMENTARY GRADINGS

These goals can be illustrated by different levels of disability in seeing. Thus :the individual can carry out all visual tasks
Level (i)Level (ii)the individual's vision needs enhancement in order for him to
be able to carry out detailed visual tasks without difficulty;
enhancement may be accomplished directly, such as by theuse of reading glasses, or indirectly by adaptation, either by
adjustment of illumination or by complementary assistancesuch as the use of large print
Level (iii)

Level (iv)

the individual can accomplish gross visual tasks only bysupplementing his perfonnance with aid; supplementation
may be direct, e.g., by the continuous use of appliances suchas powerful correcting lenses or by help from a guide dog, or,with other types of physical disability, by the assistance ofother people, or indirect, e.g., by adjustment or adaptationof the environment (for instance, by use of raised marks oncontrol gear, such as knobs, to allow tactile reinforcement ofpreciSion in adjustment)
the individual has no useful vision and so is dependent on
substitution to accomplish tasks that are customarily mediatedby vision; substitution may be accomplished in various ways,
such as by radio as a replacement for newspapers as a sourceof news, by provision of ta1king books, or by provision of asuitably adapted environment to eliminate hazards that theindividual usually avoids by reliance on his vision

At first it might be thought that these four levels could provide the basis fora simple scaling of severity of disability. Certainly the categories have themerit of being fairly easy to defme, and hence to ascertain, and such a fourpoint scale has been used quite widely. However, the categories are too broad
to indicate with enough precision the quality of intervention required to improve performance. Moreover, they arc unequal in their scope; thus levels
i, ii, and iii can all refer to individuals who, under most circumstances, could
be regarded as being independent, whereas both levels ill and iv are susceptible
to subdivision that displays more sensitively the types of intervention required

SUPPLEMENTARY GRADINGS

175

SEVERJTY OF DISABILITY(optional fourth-digit supplement)
Defmition
Severity of disability reflects the degree to which an individual's activity performance is restricted
Characteristics
Scale construct:

the potential for intervention at the level of the individual
to improve functional performance in relation to current
statusIncludes:indications of the potential to meet some unfulfIlled needs
in regard to disability

Excludes:severity of underlying impairments, and also the potential
to reduce the individual's handicap (disadvantage) status,
particularly by social policy and social welfare measures

Severity scale categoriesoNot disabled (not in categories 1 . 9)
Includes:no disability present (i.e., the individual can perfonn theactivity or sustain the behaviour unaided and on his own
without difficulty )Difficulty in perfonnance (not in categories 2 - 9)
Includes:2

difficulty present (i.e., the individual can perform the activity or sustain the behaviour unaided and on his own but
only with difficulty)
Aided performance (not in categories 3 - 9)
Includes:aids and appliances necessary (Le., the individual can perform the activity only with a physical aid or appliance)

Excludes: assistance by other people (category 3)

3Assisted performance (not in categories 4 - 9)4

the need for a helping hand (i.e.~ the individual can perfonn
the activity or sustain the behaviour, whether augmented byaids or not, only with some assistance from another person)
Dependent perfonnance (not in categories 5 .. 9)
Includes:Includes:complete dependence on the presence of another person(i.e., the individual can perform the activity or sustain the
behaviour, but only when someone is with him most of thetime)

Excludes: inability (categories 5 and 6)

176

5

6

8
9

SUPPLEMENTARY GRADINGS

Augmented inability (not in categories 6 - 9)
Includes: activity impossible to achieve other than with the help ofanother person, the latter needing an aid or appliance toenabJe him to provide tI1is help (for example, the individual
cannot be got out of bed other than by the use of a hoist);behaviour can be sustained only in the presence of anotherperson and in a protected environment
Complete inability (not in categories 8 or 9)
Includes: activity or behaviour impossible to achieve or sustain (forexample~ an individual who is bed-bound is also unable totransfer)
Not applicable
Includes: severity grading not applicable to particular disability
Severity unspecifzed

It can be seen that the scale categories correspond to intervention goals in thefollowing manner :Enhancement
scale category 1
Supplementation
scale categories 2 - 4
Substitution
sca1e categories 5 and 6

Rules for assignment

il

iii

categorize an individual according to his activity perfonnance, taking
account of aids, appliances, and assistance needed to pennit this levelof accompJishment;
aids and appliances that it is intended to provide or prescribe should
not be taken into account - this would then permit use of the scale asa rough measure of what had been accomplished when such aid or
appliance was provided;
if doubt is experienced about the categoty to which a disability should
be assigned, rate it to the less favourable category (Le., that with. ahigher number)

ASSESSMENT OF OUTLOOK(optional fifth-digit supplement)

Dermition
Outlook reflects the likely course of the individual's disability status

SUPPLEMENTARY GRADINGS

177

Characteristics
Scale construct :Includes:Excludes:the potential for intervention at the level of the individual
to improve functional performance in relation to expected
future statusindications of the potential to anticipate some needs inregard to disability
prognosis for underlying impainnents, other than to theextent that disability status may correlate closely with theoutlook for the impainnent
the potential to reduce the individuars handicap (disadvantage) status, particularly by social policy and social
welfare measures

Outlook scale categories

o

2

3

Not disabled (not in categories 1 . 9)
Includes: no disability present
Recovery potential (not in categories 2 - 9)
Includes: disability present but diminishing, and recovery without
ultimate restriction in functional perfonnance expected
Improvement potential (not in categories 3 - 9)
Includes: disability present but diminishing, though the individualis likely to be left with residual restriction in functional
performance
Assistance potential (not in categories 4 . 9)

Includes:4

disability in stable or static state, but functional perfonnance could be improved by provision of aids, assistance,or other support
Stable disability (not in categories 5 - 9)
Includes:5

6

disability in stable or static state with no outlook for
improvement in functional perfonnanceAmelioration potential (not in categories 6 - 9)
To ameliorate means to make more bearab1e
Includes: disability increasing, but functional perfonnance could
be improved by provision of aids, assistance, or othersupportDeteriorating disability (not in categories 8 or 9)
Includes: disability increasing with no outlook for amelioration

178

8
9

SUPPLEMENTARY GRADINGS

Indeterminable outlook
Outlook unspecified

Rules for assignment

ii

iii

categorize an individual according to the outlook for his activity
performance (Le., disability status), and not for the prognosis of theunderlying impairments, other than to the extent that disability may
correlate closely with the outlook for the impainnents~ and taking
account of aids and appliances, modification or adaptation of his
immediate environment, and assistance received from other persons;aids or adaptations that it is intended to provide or prescribe should
not be taken into account - this would then permit use of the scale
as a rough measure of what had been accomplished when such an aid
or adaptation was provided;(Note: the ordination of this scale according to the potential forintervention determines that categories with a potentia] for assistanceor amelioration have lower numbers than the corresponding stable or
deteriorating categories - thus provision of assistance or amelioration
is likely to lead to reasSignment to a category with a higher number,since no further potential for improvement can be assumed)
if doubt is experienced about the category to which a disability should
be assigned~ rate it to the less favourable category (i.e., that with ahigher number)

GUIDANCE ON ASSIGNMENT
To some extent~ disabilities can be conceived of in the first instance as
thresh01d phenomena. Thus,to establish the existence and nature of adisability calls only for a judgement about whether a particular accomplish.
ment can be performed or not. In principle, the assignment of failures inaccomplishment to the appropriate categories in the code should not prove
to be unduly difficult.
The taxonomic structure of the code resembles that of the leD in that it
is hierarchical, with meaning preserved even if the code is used only inabbreviated form. Once again, the level of detail provided is intended todefine the content of classes and to allow specificity for users who desireit. However, the scheme is less exhaustive than the I code, and provision
has been made for expansion in response to needs uncovered by further
experience of applying the code. Thus the level of detail to be recorded
is a matter of choice for the user.
Information about major difficulties is generally likely to have been notedin existing records. Coding whatever has been recorded to the appropriate
categories of the D code shouJd therefore not present insuperable diffi·
culties. However, two problems should be acknowledged. First, existing
records will usually be vulnerable in regard to under-ascertainment - thedegree to which significant disabilities may not have been noted. Second1y,some caution is required in connexion with potential variability related tothe method of ascertainment. Thus differences are to be expected between
assignments based on clinical assessments, functional testing (including theactivities of daily living), or questionnaires.
From now on, it is suggested that the major sections of the D code be used
as a check-list that is applied to each individual. This would require thatthe observer ask himself a series of questions ': "Does this person have a
behaviour disability, does he have a communication disability, does he havea personal care disability 1" and so on, in sequence. Further information
on any question answered affirmatively, along the lines of the greater
detail contained in the code, could then be elicited.
Having established the presence of particular disabilities~ further questions
then arise. This occurs because disability represents a failure in accomplishment, so that a gradation in performance is to be expected. Thus assessmentof the severity of individual disabilities is called for. Assessment of outlook
is also likely to prove helpful. The basis for such assessments has been indicated on the immediately preceding pages, dealing with supplementary

180

GUIDANCE ON ASSIGNMENT

gradings. It is unfortunate that, in attempting retrospective assessment on
the basis of existing records, insufficient details of the level of perfonnancemay prevent full application of the supplementary gradings.
Two aspects of the D code are likely to command particular attention in the
future. First, the proposals in the code contrast fairly markedly with thecomplexity and exhaustiveness of conventional assessment schedules forthe activities of daily living. The difference in approach is based on preliminary reappraisal of goals and methods,l and it is hoped that further experience with the code will help resolve the differences in such a way as topromote economy in future assessment effort. Secondly, users have theopportunity to expand the code in order to meet their own needs moresatisfactorily. It is hoped that, as requested in the Introduction, such developments will be communicated to the originators of these classifications.

1.

Badley, E.M., Lee, J. & Woo~ P.RN. (1919) Rheumatology andRehabilitation, 18, 105-109.

SECTION 4
CLASSIFICATION OF HANDICAPS

List of dimensions
1 Orientation handicap
2 Physical independence handicap
3 Mobility handicap
4 Occupation handicap
5 Social integration handicap
6 Economic self~ncy handicap
7 Other handicap

Guidance OD assessment

HANDICAP

Definition

In the context of health experience, a handicap is a disadvantage for a given individual) resulting from an impairment
or a disability, that limits or prevents the fulf1lment of arole that is normal (depending on age, sex, and social andcultural factors) for that individual

Characteristics

Handicap is concerned with the value attached to an individual's situation or experience when it departs from thenorm. It is characterized by a discordance between theindividual's performance or status and the expectations of
the individual himself or of the particular group of which
he is a member. Handicap thus represents socialization of
an impairment or disability, and as such it reflects theconsequences for the individual- cultural> social, economic, and environmental - that stem from the presenceof impairment and disability
Disadvantage arises from failure or inability to conform to
the expectations or norms of the individual's universe.
Handicap thus occurs when there is interference with theability to sustain what might be designated as "survival
rolest) (see next page)

Classijica tion

It is important to recognize that the handicap classificationis neither a taxonomy of disadvantage nor a classification ofindividuals. Rather is it a classification of circumstancesin which disabled people are likely to find themselves, circumstances that place such individuals at a disadvantage
relative to their peers when viewed from the nonns ofsociety

LIST OF DIMENSIONS OF HANDICAPSURVIVAL ROLES

1

Orientation handicap2

Physical independence handicap

3

Mobility handicap

4

Occupation handicap

5Social integration handicap

6

Economic self-sufficiency handicap

OTHER HANDICAPS
7

Survival roles

Other handicaps

The six key dimensions of experience in which competence
is expected of the individual have been designated as survival roles. For each of these dimensions the more important array of circumstances that may apply has been scaled.
In contrast to the impainnent and disability classifications,in which individuals are likely to be identified only in the
categories that apply to them, in the handicap classification
it is desirable that individuals always be identified on eachdimension or survival role. -This will provide a profile oftheir disadvantage status

Other handicaps The six major survival roles by no means exhaust the possibilities of disadvantage, although they do cover the major
problems. The varied nature of other handicaps precludes
scaling, and so provision has been made just for the identification of these difficulties

1

ORIENTATION HANDICAP

Dermition
Orientation is the individual's ability to orient himself in re1ation to his surroundings
Characteristics
Scale construct: orientation to surroundings, including reciprocation orinteraction with surroundings
Includes:reception of signals from surroundings (such as by seeing,
listening, smelling, or touching), assimilation of these signals, and expression of response to what is assimilated;consequences of disabilities of behaviour and communication, and including the planes of seeing, listening, touching, speaking, and assimilation of these functions by themind
Excludes:response to reception and assimilation of signals from thesurroundings manifest as handicaps of personal care (physical independence handicap, 2), evasion of physical hazard(mobility handicap, 3), behaviour in specific situations(occupation handicap, 4), and behaviour towards others(social integration handicap, 5)
Scale categoriesoFully on'ented (not in categories 1-9)
Fully compensated impediment to orientation (not in categories

2 9)aIncludes : continuous use of aids for seeing (e.g., spectacles),listening (e.g., amplification), or extension of touching (e.g., a cane), or continuous use of medication
to control behaviour or communication disabilities,
with resultant restoration of full orientation
Excludes: aids or medication used intermittently (other handicaps, 7)2Intermittent disturbance of orientation (not in categories 3-9)
Includes : episodic experiences that interfere with full orientation,such as vertigo, those associated with Menieres disease,
diplopia (as may be encountered with multiple sclerosis),intermittent interruption of consciousness (e.g.,
epilepsy), and certain impediments of speech fonn(e.g., stuttering)Excludes: fully corrected or controlled disturbances (category 1)

186

3

ORIENTATION HANDICAP

Partially compen8llted impediment to orientation (not in categories
4-9)
Includes:4

individuals otherwise classifiable to categories 1 or 2
but who experience disadvantage in some aspect of
their lives because the impediment to orientation
renders them vulnerable in certain circumstances,such as critical dependence on levels of illumination,
for some seeing disabilities; critical dependence onlevels of background noise and other competing
signals~ for listening disabilities and some speaking
disabilities (e.g., where speech volume is impaired);and disadvantage attributed to the need for aids or
medication (e.g., by virtue of resultant ineligibility
to take up certain employments or to drive an automobile - code such instances additionally as CUTtailed occupation, category 2, of occupation handicap, 4)Moderate impediment to orientation (not in categories 5.9)
Inc1udes : where aids or medication fail to produce ·satisfactorycompensation of the impediment, so that appreciabledifficulty in orientation is experienced; or whereassistance is required from other people, such as forindividuals who are partial1y sighted, have appreciable
hearing loss~ have insensitivity to touch, are confused,or have other appreciable impediments

5

Severe impediments to orientation (not in categories 6.9)
Includes : severe behaviour or communication disabilities where
substitution is necessary, such as more severe degreesof the states encountered in category 4 (Le., the indi·vidual cannot perform the activity, even with aid, andso is dependent on substitution by other planes oforientation in order to compensate, such as thereliance of the blind on listening or touching), or
moderate disorientation

6

Orientation deprivation (not in categories 7·9)
Includes : where there is moderate or severe impediment in morethan one plane of orientation, these planes being seeing,
listening, touching, and speaking
Excludes: disabilities of speech fonn associated with deafness(assign such individuals solely according to listening
status unless speaking disturbance is so severe as tointerfere with communication; assign individuals in
the latter situation to category 6)

ORIENTATION HANDICAP

7

187

Disorientation (not in categories 8 or 9)
Includes : inability of the individual to orient himself to his surroundings to the extent that he requires institutionalcare

8

Unconscious

9llnspecij7ed

Rules for assignment

ii

iii

iv

occasional difficulty or dependence on help should not preclude
assignment to a less disadvantaged category (i.e., that with a lower
number);aids or adaptations that it is intended to provide or prescribe should
not be taken into account this would then pennit use of the c1assi·
fication as a rough measure of what had been accomplished when suchan aid or adaptation was provided;
if doubt is experienced about the category to which an individual
should be assigned, rate him to the less favourable category (Le.,that with a higher number);morale is obviously an important factor, but an individual should
be assigned according to his actual degree of dependence, rather
than to what the assessor thinks he may be capable of

2

PHYSICAL INDEPENDENCE HANDICAP

Definition
Physical independence is the individual's ability to sustain a customarily
effective independent existence

Characteristics
Scale construct: independence in regard to aids and the assistance of others
Includes :self-care and other activities of daily living

Excludes:aids or assistance in orientation (orientation handicap, 1)

Scale categories

o

1

2

Fully independent (not in categories 1·9)
Includes : independence in self.-care and without dependence on
aids, appliances, environmental modification, or theassistance of other people, or dependent only on minor
aids not essential to independence (the 1atter should
be identified as other handicaps, 7)
Aided independence (not in categories 2-9)
Assignment to this category depends on the provision and use ofan aid or appliance. Individuals who have been provided with anaid or appliance but do not make use of it, and thus forfeit someof their independence, and individuals living in cultures where
suitable aids and appliances are not available J should be assigned
to category 3 or 4.
Includes: dependence on the use of aids and appliances, such as an
artificial or substitute limb, other prostheses, walking
aids, or aids to daily living, as well as controlled excretory
difficulty
Excludes: minor aids and appliances not essential to independence,such as artificial dentures or ring pessaries to control
prolapse of the womb, and seeing aids (spectac]es) pro·vided that the individual would not otherwise be dependent on assistance of the type described in categories 4 8; individuals whose lives are assisted or improved byminor aids of this type should be assigned to category 0
and should also be identified, as appropriate. underorientation (1) or other handicaps (7)Adapted independence (not in categories 3-9)
Assignment to this category presupposes two conditions. First, thatthe immediate environment customary to the way of life of the individual and the group of which he is a member creates physical ob-

PHYSICAL INDEPENDENCE HANDICAP

3

4

189

stades to independence, e.g., structural or architectural barriers suchas ladders or stairs (for the purpose of this category immediate environment shall be interpreted as the dwelling); and ,secondly , thatthe potential to create or provide an alternative environment isavailable in that culture. For example, a lake dweller encountersobstacles in climbing a ladder to his dwelling, and yet the means foran alternative environment do not exist in that culture
Includes: dependence on modification or adaptation of theimmediate environment, such as individuals who aredependent on a wheelchair, provided that the individual
can get in and out of, operate, and otherwisetransfer to and from the chair without assistance fromanother individual; individuals who have been re~housed in order to reduce their physical dependence,
because of their previous inability to cope with adwelling of more than one storey; and individuals
who have had structural alterations or special adaptations to their dwellings, such as the provision ofa ramp or a Hft, or an alteration in the height of work·
ing surfaces, etc.
Excludes: architectural barriers not related to the individual's
dwelling (difficulties in this regard should be assigned
to category 3 or 4, as appropriate); individuals who
decline an offer of a dwelling with amenities that would
reduce their physical dependence, who should be assigned
to category 3 or 4
Situational dependence (not in categories 4-9)
Includes : difficu1ty in meeting personal needs but without being
largely dependent on others, such as may arise because
aids and appliances or environmental modifications or
adaptations are not feasible or not available within
the culture in which the individua11ives~ or, if available, are declined; difficuHy in mobility outside thehome that is overcome only with the assistance of otherpeople; and moderate impediments to orientation that
require assistance from other people
Long-interval dependence (not in categories 5-9)Long~interval needs are those that arise once every 24 hours or lessfrequently
Includes : dependence on other individuals for meeting long-intervalneeds such as those identified as subsistence or household disabilities, which relate to the ability to performtasks necessary for maintenance of acceptable degrees
of sustenance, warmth, cleanliness, and security;need for sheltered or supervised accommodation

190

PHYSICAL INDEPENDENCE HANDICAP

Excludes: culturally detennined dependence, such as the customary
dependence of an employed male on his spouse (whlch inthis context shall not be regarded as a disadvantage)

5

6

7

Short-interval dependence (not in categories 6-9)
Short-interval needs are those that arise every few hours by day
Includes: dependence on other individuals for meeting short-intervalneeds, such as those identified under personal hygiene,
feeding) and other personal care disabilities; mobility
within the home; transferring to chair or commode; emptying chamber pot, commode, or bucket; stripping beds
and washing linen soiled by urine or faeces; and need forresidential care in order to be looked after
Critical-interval dependence (not in categories 7.9)
Critical-interval needs are those that arise at short and unpredictableintervals by day and which require the continuous availability ofhelp from other persons
Includes : dependence on other individuals for meeting critical-in·
terval needs such as going to the toilet, unfastening andremoving clothes t using toilet paper t and cleansing; in·dividuals who are unable to rise from a bed or chair,
walk to the toilet unassisted) use it, and return safely
without danger of falling; and individuals with physicalfrailty or mental instability giving rise to potential hazard;
need for institutional care in order to provide supervision,
such as for behaviour that is socially unacceptable
Special·care dependence (not in categories 8 or 9)
SpeciaJ-care needs are those that arise predominantly throughout the
day or throughout the night and that give rise to continuous demands for supervision and help (as opposed to the mere availabilityof such help, category 6)
Includes:individuals who need someone to supply most of theirpersonal needs and to care for them as far as customary
everyday functions are concerned, or are sufficiently
senile, or otherwise mentally impaired, to need a similarorder of care, and who as a result require the constantattendance of other people thoughout the day; substantial
soiling of clothing or bedding by urine or faeces of fre ..
quent occurrence other than in response only to physicalstress; and individuals who need help with excretory orsimilar critical functions (such as behaviour) practicallyevery night but who are less dependent by day;need for institutional care in order to provide restraintof behaviour

PHYSICAL lNDEPENDENCE HANDICAP

8

191

Intensive-care dependence
Intensive-care needs are those that arise practicalJy every night aswell as throughout the day and which as a result require the constantattendance of other people throughout the 24 hours
Includes: individuals who need help with excretoty or similar
critical functions (such as behaviour) practically every
night as well as throughout the day - most individuals
in this category need to be fed and dressed, as well as
requiring a lot of help during the day with washing andexcretory functions, or are incontinent

9lJnspecl]7ed

Rules for assignment
occasional difficulty or dependence on help should not preclude
assignment to a less disadvantaged category (Le., that with a lower
number);ii

aids or adaptations that it is intended to provide or prescribe should
not be taken into account - this would then, permit use of the classification as a rough measure of what had been accomplished when suchan aid or adaptation was provided;

ill

if doubt is experienced about the category to which an individual
should be assigned, rate him to the less favourable category (Le.,that with a higher number);iv

morale is obviously an important factor, but an individual should be
assigned according to his actual degree of dependence, rather than towhat the assessor thinks he may be capable of3

MOBILITY HANDICAPDefInition
Mobility is the individuars ability to move about effectively in his surroundings

Characteristics
Scale construct: extent of mobility from a reference point, the individual's
bed
the individual's abilities augmented, where appropriate, by
Includes :prostheses or other physical aids, including a wheelchair(all these should have been identified in categories 1 or 2of physical independence handicap, 2)
mobility attainments with the assistance of other indiExcludes:
viduals (the latter should be identified as 1ong-interval
dependence, category 4 of physical independence
handicap, 2)

Scale categoriesoFully mobile (not in categories] ·9)
Variable restriction of mobility (not in categories 2-9)
Includes: a bronchitic with winter impairment of exercise tolerance, or a severe asthmatic with intennittent impairment of exercise tolerance, and impairments and disabilities following a fluctuating course, such as mild
rheumatoid arthritis or (osteo)arthrosis
2
Impaired mobility (not in categories 3·9)
Includes: restriction such that the ability to get around is notinterfered with but getting around may take longer,e.g., because seeing disability makes the individual
uncertain in getting around, or because of other un·
certainty, or, in an urbanized society, because theindividual has difficulty but nevertheless is able tocope with public transport under all circumstances
3

Reduced mobility (not in categories 4·9)
Includes : reduction such that the ability to get around is cur·tailed, e.g., because seeing disability interferes withthe ability to get around; or curtailment because of
uncertainty, frailty, or debility; or disability on
severe exertion due to cardiac or respiratory impairment; or, in an urbanized society, inability to copewith public transport under all circumstances; orMOBILITY HANDICAP

193

interference with following occupation by virtue ofdifficulty in getting to and from occupation when
this is followed away from the individual's dwelling
Neighbourhood restriction (not in categories 5-9)
Inc1udes : restriction to immediate neighbourhood of dwelling,suoh as by disability on moderate exertion owing tocardiac or respiratory impainnent
Dwelling restriction (not in categories 6-9)
Inclu des ; confinemen t to dwelling such as by severe seeing
disability or disability on mild exertion owing tocardiac or respiratory impainnent

4

5

6

Room restriction (not in categories 7-9)
Includes:confinement to room, such as by disability at rest
owing to cardiac or respiratory impairment
Chair restriction (not in categories 8 or 9)
Includes : confinement to chair, such as by disability whenrecumbent owing to cardiac or respiratory
impairment, or by dependence on hoists orsimilar appliances for getting in and out of bed

7

8

Total restriction o/mobility
Includes : bedfast or confined to bed

9Unspecified

Rules for assignment

ii

lii
iv

v

categorize an individual according to his independent abilities,taldng account of aids and appliances and modification or adaptation of his im·
mediate environment, but disregarding his accomplislunents with the aidof other persons (thus uncertainty leading to classification to category
3 or 4 may be reduced in the company of other persons; this consequential reduction should nevertheless not be taken into account, but
the dependence on other persons should be identified under category
3 or 5, as appropriate, of physical independence handicap, 2) ;occasional reduction or restriction of mobility should notpreclude assignment to a less disadvantaged category (i.e.,that with a lower number);aids or adaptations that it is intended to provide or prescribe should not
be taken into account;
if doubt is experienced about the category to which an individual should be assigned, rate hlm to the less favourable
category (i.e., that with a higher number);an individua1 should be categorized according to his actual degree ofmobility, rather than to what the assessor thinks he may be capable of

194

Notes

MOBILITY HANDICAPa) Problems may be encountered in selecting categories, such as
the choice between categories 2 and 3 in areas where a public
transport system is not available. In instances like these theindividual should be assigned to the less favourable category,in accordance with Rule iv, because it is only by providing
a special vehicle that category 2 mobility can be accomplished.
This convention should be applied even if the individual IS
occupation or way of life does not call for overall mobility;
it is only the effort that would be deployed in trying tomodify his category that would be influenced by these factsb) The dependence of disadvantage on cultural norms is we]]illustrated by a problem in urbanized societies. The behaviourof bus drivers in one area might preclude use of public transport by disabled persons in that area, whereas more sympathetic behaviour by bus drivers in anotlter area might allow
someone with the same disability to use public transport.
This 1eads to a conflict between reproducibility (a category
meaning the same thing in all places) and the ability of theclassification to reflect an individual's needs. The handicap
classification is intended predominantly for the latter purpose,and only secondarily for transcultural comparisons

4

OCCUPATION HANDICAP

Definition
Occupation is the individual's ability to occupy his time in the manner customary to his sex, age and culturetCharacteristics
Scale construct : the ability to sustain appropriate occupation of time forthe working day
Includes:play or recreation, employment, and the elderly pursuing
occupations customary to their age group, which in many
cultures includes their assuming a more domestic role andfulfllling this after the upper age for nonnal employment
Excludes:restriction or loss of the ability to follow an occupationthat is not due to an individual's impairment, such as
might arise because of changes in employment possibilities
Scale categorieso2

Oistomarily occupied (not in categories 1-9)
Includes: where educational opportunities exist, the ability of achild to attend a nonnal school; independent of educational opportunities, the ability of a child to participate in the activities customary for his age group; theability to run a household in the accepted manner;and the ability to discharge the responsibilities customarily expected of a parent bringing up young children
Intermittently unoccupied (not in categories 2·9)Includes: intermittent inability to follow customary occupationor leisure-time activities, e.g., because of interferenceby conditions such as epilepsy, migraine, or allergy,
or because of occasional falls (with or without injury)in the elderly
Curtailed occupation (not in categories 3-9)
Includes: reduced ability to follow customary occupation, suchas in children able to attend normal school but who
suffer from disabilities that restrict participation in
all the activities of the school; individuals who areunable to participate in all the activities associatedwith their customary occupation or recreation (e.g.,"light work"); and individuals experiencing difficulty in running a household or in discharging the
responsibilities customarily expected of a parent
bringing up young children, although they are able
to manage these activities

196

3

OCCUPATION HANDICAP

Adjusted occupation (not in categories 4-9)
Includes: inability to follow customary occupation,but theindividual is able to follow modified or alternative
fu11&time occupation (including modifications tocustomary occupation because of disability, e.g.,alterations at work place or provision of special
assistance or aids); alteration of recreations andother leisure activities (e.g.,hobbies); need forspecial help at ordinary school (e.g.,because theindividuaJ is partially sighted or partial1y deaf~ orbecause he needs toilet assistance or help withfeeding); restriction of career choice because of
impainnent or disability; necessity to change em·
ploymen t or occupation (inc1uding premature re·tirement - after attaining the customary age ofretirement the individual should be reassigned to
one of the categories 0-2, as appropriate); andhaving to make special arrangements to allow
continued running of household or looking afterchildren (e.g.,by compensatory role adaptationby spouse, by some extra support from social net·work, by special purchase of labour-saving devices,or by employment of some paid assistance withgeneral duties such as cleaning)

4

Reduced occupation (not in categories 5-9)
Includes: limitations on the amount of time the individual
is able to devote to his occupation, such as curtailment of recreation and other leisure activities (e.g.,
because of conditions such as rheumatic heart disease);able to attend school only part-timet or other reduction in amount of regular educational instruction; able to sustain only part-time employment or
occupation because of impairment or disability;
impaired concentration in the elderly (domestic
and parental responsibilities can usually be discharged
on a more fluid time scale than other occupations,and this may allow compensation for limitations in
the time that can be devoted to them - interferencewith these activities therefore does not feature inthis category)OCCUPATION HANDICAP

197

5

Restricted occupation (not in categories 6-9)
Includes: limitations on the type of occupation the individual
follows, such as severe restriction of participation in
activities customary for the individual~s age group;
disabilities that preclude a child from attending anormal school (e.g., the need to attend a special
establishment for disabled children, where such exists);
moderate mental retardation; able to gain employment only under special circumstances (e.g., in a
sheltered workshop); has to delegate most of responsibilities for running a household or bringing up children (e.g., by appreciable support from social networkor by employment of assistance); and frequent falls
in the el derly

6

Confined occupation (not in categories 7-9)
Includes: limitations on both the type of occupation theindividual follows and the amount of time he devotes to it, such as inability to participate in activities customary for the individual's age group;
disabilities that require a child to be resident in an
institution for purposes of education (where such
exists), or to be educated at home {where this is
not customary); severe mental retardation; able
to carry out only very limited domestic activities(e.g. ,those connected with running a household or
bringing up children); and impairment of concentration leading to difficulty in sustaining an occupation
Excludes : residence in an institution by virtue of behaviouralmaladjustment or the need for restraint (categories
5-8 of physical independence handicap, 2)

7No occupation (not in categories 8 or 9)
Inc1udes: inability to follow occupation because of impainnent
or disability, such as severe limitation in ability tobenefit from educational endeavours (e.g.,profoundmental retardation); unable to sustain any form of
employment; unable to run a household or bring up
children; and severe impairment of concentration
leading to inability to sustain an occupation

198

OCCUPATION HANDICAP

8

UnoccupiabJe
Includes: inability to occupy self in a meaningful manner

9llnspecijied

Rules for assignment
occasional less favourable experience should not preclude assignment to a less disadvantaged category (Le., that with a lower
number);ii

if doubt is experienced about the category to which an individual
should be assigned, rate him to the less favourable category (Le.,that with a higher number);lii

an individual shou1d be categorized according to his actual occupation status, rather than to what the assessor thlnks he may becapable of

5

SOCIAL INTEGRATION HANDICAP

Defmition
Social integration is the individual's ability to participate in and maintaincustomary social relationships
Characteristics
Scale construct: individual's level of contact with a widening circle, fromthe reference point of self
Scale categoriesoSocially integrated (not in categories 1-9)
Includes: fu1] participation in all customary social re]ationships
Inhibited participation (not in categories 2-9)
Inc!udes: individuals in whom the presence of an impainnent
or disability gives rise to nonspecific disadvantage that
may inhibit but not prevent participation in the fullrange of customary social activities (includes embarrassment, shyness,and other defects of self-image due
to disfigurement or other impairments and disabilities);and certain mild personality impainnents or behaviour
disabilities

2

Restricted participation (not in categories 3-9)
Includes: individuals who do not participate in the full range ofcustomary social activities, such as those with impairments or disabilities that interfere with opportunities
for marriage; curtailment of sexual activity becauseof impairment or disability; and certain personality
impairments or behaviour disabilities
Excludes: impairments and disabilities that do not interfere withsocial relationships, such as prolapse of the worn\> controlled by a ring pessary that does not give rise to appreciable curtailment of sexual activity

3

Diminished partiCipation (not in categories 4-9)
Includes:individuals who are unable to relate to casual acquaintances, so that social relationships are confmed to primary and secondary contacts such a8 family, friends,
neighbours, and colleagues: and individuals who are
retarded in physical, psychological, or social develop..
ment but in whom developmental improvement is
continuing

200

SOCIAL INTEGRATION HANDICAP

4

Impoverished relationships (not in categories 5-9)
Includes: individuals who have difficulty in sustaining relations
with secondary contacts such as friends, neighbours,
and col1eagues: and individuals who are retarded inphysical, psychological, or social development andin whom there is no evidence that developmental
improvement is occurring

5

Reduced relationships (not in categories 6-9)
Includes: individuals who are able to relate only to significant
others, such as parent or spouse; general withdrawal
or disengagement by an elderly person; and moderately severe behaviour disorders

6

Disturbed relationships (not in categories 7-9)
Inc1udes: individuals -who have difficulty in relating to significant others; and severe behaviour disorders

7

Alienated (not in categories 8 or 9)
Includes: individuals who are unable to relate to other people;
impairment or disability preventing the developmentof nonnal social relationships; and individuals in whom
behavioural maladjustment prevents coexistence andintegration in the customary home and family; andelderly persons following the loss of family andfriends and with reduced capacity to enter into new
relationships

8

Socially isolated
Inc1udes:9

individuals whose capacity for social relationships isindeterminable because of their isolated situation,such as those admitted to institutional care becauseof lack of social support in the home or community(e.g., children in an orphanage or otherwise abandoned, and residents in an old people's home)

Unspecified

Rules for assignmentii

occasional reduction in social integration should not preclude
assignment to a less disadvantaged category (Le., that with alower number);
if doubt is experienced about the category to which the individual should be assigned, rate him to the less favourable category (i.e., a higher number);

SOCIAL INTEGRATION HANDICAP

ill

an individual should be categorized according to his actual degree of social integration, rather than to what the assessor thinks
he may be capable of

201

6

ECONOMIC SELF-SUFFICIENCY HANDICAP

Derutition
Economic self-sufficiency is the individuars ability to sustain customarysocioeconomic activity and independence
Characteristics

Scale construct:fundamentally related to economic self-sufficiency,from the reference point of zero economic resources,
but, unlike with the other handicap scales, the construct has been ex tended so as to include possession
or command of an unusual abundance of resources;
the justification for this extension is the potentialthat abundant resources provide for relieving or
ameliorating disadvantage in other dimensions

Includesthe individua1's self-sufficiency in regard to ob·ligations to sustain others, such as members of thefamily; economic self-sufficiency sustained by virtue of any compensation or standard disability, invalidity, or retirement pension that the 'individual
receives or to which he may be entitled, but excluding any supplementary allowances or benefits towhich the individual"s poverty may entitle him;
economic self-sufficiency by virtue of income(earned or otherwise) or material possessions suchas natural resources, livestock, or crops; and poverty resulting from or exacerbated by impainnent
or disability
economic deprivation due to factors other than impairment or disability

Excludes:Scale categoriesoWealthy (not in categories 1-9)
Includes: individuals in possession of resources considerably
in excess of those available to the majority of the
population of which the individual forms a part
Comfortably off (not in categories 2-9)
Includes: individuals in possession of resources sufficiently
in excess of their requirements for sustaining
their accustomed style of living that the additional
resource expenditure incurred in attempts to ame}·
iorate handicap and disability can be accommodated without appreciable sacrificeECONOMlC SELF-SUFFICIENCY HAN DICAP

2

Fully selfsufficient (not in categories 3-9)
Includes:3

economic self-sufficiency without support from ordependence on fmancial or material aid from otherindividuals or the community (including the state,
but compensation or standard disability, invalidity,or retirement pensions shall be regarded as income
entitlement rather than aid in this context) and suchthat the burden of attempts to ameliorate handicap
and disability can be acconunodated without appreciable deprivation

Adjusted sel/sufficiency (not in categories 4-9)
Includes:4

individuals who, although e.conomica11y self-suf.
ficient, have suffered a reduction in economic wellbeing when compared with status before impairment
or disability developed or that expected if the individual were not impaired or disabled, such as' those
who have experienced lower economic reward as aconsequence of having had to change their occupation, or those who have incurred extra expenses because of their disability and to such a degree as tolead to appreciable deprivation
Precariously selfsufficient (not in categories (5-9)
Includes: individuals who, following a reduction in economic
well·being, remain self-sufficient only by virtue ofappreciable support from or dependence on financial or material aid from other individuals or thecommunity (including the state, such as an allowance or benefit supplementary to the customary
provisions for disability or retirement pensions towhich they are entitled), and who in the process
may jeopardize their family's self-sufficiency or
cause other family members to be deprived

5

Economically deprived (not in categories 6-9)
Includes:individuals who economically are only partially
se1f·sufficient because their income or possessions
or financial or materia) aid from other individuals
or the conununity meets only part of their needs,
and who in the process may reduce their family
to a subsistence 1evel of existence

203

204

6

ECONOMIC SELf-SUFFICIENCY HANDICAP

Impoverished (not in categories 7 ~ 9)
Includes:7

Destitute (not in categories 8 or 9)
Includes:8

Individuals who economically are not self-suf~
ficient by virtue of being totally dependent for
frnancial or material aid on the goodwill of otherindividuals or the community, because of ineligibility for or non-availability of disablement or
retirement pensions or supplementary benefits!>
and who in the process may reduce their family
to existence below subsistence level; or indi..
viduals residing in institutions for the indigent
individua1s who economically are not self-sufficient and to whom support from others is notavailable, so that their disability status is further
aggravatedEconomically inactive
Includes:individuals without family support who are unable to undertake economic activity by virtue oflimited competence (such as that resulting frommental retardation) or. tender years (such as achild that has not passed the customary age at
which he nonnally becomes independent of thefamily for complete economic or material support)
Excludes: those with family support and those often regarded as being economically inactive by virtueof their "dependent" status, such as a spouse orother cohabitant (assign to one of the categories
o·7, as appropriate, according to economic selfsufficiency of family or head of family)

9

Unspecified

Rules for assignment
categorize an individual according to the economic self-sufficiency of his family, so that dependent status is not taken
into account;ii

occasional reduction in economic self-sufficiency should notpreclude assignment to a less disadvantaged category (i.e.,that with a lower number);

ECONOMIC SELF-SUFFICIENCY HANDICAP

Hi

pensions or supplementary benefits that it is intended to provide or prescribe should not be taken into account;iv

if doubt is experienced about the category to which an individual should be assigned, rate him to the less favourable cat·egory (i.e., that with a higher number)

205

7

OTHER HANDICAPSDefmition
Other circumstances that may give rise to disadvantage

Characteristics
Excludes:disadvantages identified elsewhere in the handicap
classification

Categorieso

Not subject to disadvantage
Includes: impairments or disabilities not giving rise to appreciable disadvantage, such as some chronic diseases that
do not appreciably interfere with everyday life

Minor disadvantage
Includes:2

the need to use minor aids tl}at do not appreciablyinterfere with everyday life, such as dentures, reading
glasses, or a ring pessary to control uterine prolapse;
intennittent use of aids or medication to control
disabllity

Nonspecific disadvantage
Includes:impairments or disabilities that give rise to general or
nonspecific disadvantage, such as coeliac disease or thestate of being delicate

3Specific disaavantage
Includes: reduction of the quality of life as a result of specificdisadvantage not elsewhere identified in the handicap
classification

9

Unspecified disadvantage

GUIDANCE ON ASSESSMENT

The structure of the H code is radically different from that of all other leD·related classifications. Thus the codes are not hierarchical in the customarily
accepted sense, and abbreviation is not really acceptable. What is called foris that every individual should be categorized according to each dimension of
the H code, the latter relating to various circumstances in which disabled
people are likely to find themselves. As a result of these considerations, thedifficulties in applying the H code relate not to assignment, but to assessmentof the individua1~s status in regard to each dimension of handicap. However,the basis for such assessments has been indicated under each of the dwen·
sions.
For retrospective application to existing records, the major difficulty is likely
to be incomplete information. Nevertheless, as noted in the Introduction, theorientation of whatever infonnation may be available to the dimensions of
the H code can still be very instructive.
From now on, it is hoped that information will be gathered 80 as to pennit
assessment in each dimension of the code. The main aspect likely to command attention in the future relates to the development of assessment
schedules. These are likely to be based on a questionnaire approach, sothat problems with language will loom large, and so it will not be easy todevelop instruments capable of transcultural application.