Hokkaido University
Center of Slavic Researches
21st Century COE Program "Making a Discipline of Slavic Eurasian Studies:
Meso-Areas and Globalization"

Mehrali Toshmuhammadov“Civil War in Tajikistan and PostConflict Rehabilitation”

Sapporo2004

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Civil Warin Tajikistan andPost-Conflict Rehabilitation

Content:

Opening address

3

Chapter I. Prehistory of crisis in Tajikistan
1.1 General information on Tajikistan

4

1.2 External factors of influence

6

1.3 Internal factors of the conflict exacerbation

10

Chapter II. Civil war and conflict settlement
2.1 Military-political confrontation and its consequences

14

2.2 Inter-Tajik negotiations and General Peace Agreement

15

Chapter III. Post-conflict rehabilitation
3.1 Main post-war issues of Tajikistan

20

3.2 International community and rehabilitation of the country

21

Conclusion

24

Literature26

2Opening Address
Dear Mr. Chairman!
Dear ladies and gentlemen!
First of all let me express my sincere gratitude to the leadership of the Center of Slavic
Researches of Hokkaido University, personally to esteemed Professor Ivashitasan forcourteous invitation to make a speech in front of your in this seminar. It is a great honor andresponsibility for me to speak in front of the seminar's officials and participants of such a serious,
famous and considerable Research Center, which makes worthy contribution in studying urgent
issues and contemporary challenges both in theoretical and practical aspects in the international
scope.
I would like to present to your attention a speech on the civil war in Tajikistan and its
post-conflict rehabilitation. While selecting the subject, we have been guided by the assumptionthat our Japanese colleagues and friends have a certain idea on general situation in Central Asia,
including Tajikistan. Therefore, it was decided to select such a topic as a base through which it
would be possible to “refresh” or supplement your knowledge on some directions of today’s
development of Tajikistan.
We have not put an objective to cover all issues of Tajikistan today, this is a subject of aseparate scientific analysis, but to uncover some political aspects of the emergence andintensification of the Tajik Society’s crisis, its influencing factors, as well as the process of theconflict settlement and to talk about some aspects of post-war rehabilitation of the country, i.e.
about contemporary development of Tajikistan.
Therefore, I would be extremely thankful to you for requests, remarks and critics, which
would allow further improvement of this subject in future.
Domo arrigato godzaimas.

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Chapter I. Prehistory of crisis in Tajikistan
After the collapse of the former Soviet Union, as in any other post-soviet republics, atransition process from one social and political status to another began in Tajikistan. The practiceof post-soviet period, with the exception of Baltic countries showed that in such situations
struggle for power intensifies, since ruling circles do not want to part with it, as for newcontenders of various orientations, they try to climb to power by all means. As a result, thesociety is pulled into in political confrontation, which in Tajikistan, by virtue of various reasonsand peculiarities grew into military confrontation.
1. General information
The Republic of Tajikistan, hereinafter referred as to the RT, is located in thesoutheastern part of Central Asia, in the center of huge mountain systems of the world: Kunlun,
Hindu Kush, Himalayas, Pamir and Tian Shan. Therefore, of 143.1 thousand square kilometersof the country’s total area, mountains comprise 93% beginning with the height of 300 to 7,495
meters.1 Waters constitute 1% of the total area. Their source is 1,085 glaciers of Pamir with a
total area of 8,476km.2 Tajikistan’s rivers provide 60% of water resources of the Central Asian
region. Climate is very contrasting: the temperature in the south is +22oC in winter, in summer
from +45 oC above, in the east in summer and winter it is –8 oC to – 60oC respectively.3
Tajikistan borders Uzbekistan (910km) in the northwest, Kyrgyzstan (630km) in thenortheast, China (430km) in the west, Afghanistan (1,030km) in the south.4 The population ismore than 6.5mln, including rural – 72%.5 Natural increase is 144 people for 1,000 populations.
Average life expectancy is 67 years. Number of inhabitants in 1km2 is 45 people. Tajiks
constitute 80% of the total population, Uzbeks – 15.3%, Russians and Kyrgyzes – 1.1% each,
Tatars and Turkmens –0.3% each. 6 Main religion in Tajikistan is Islam; it is practiced by morethan 95% of the population of Tajikistan, mainly Sunni branch of the religion. Only dwellers of

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Mountainous Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast or Pamir, with a small exception, are thefollowers of Ishmaelite branch of Islam.
Tajiks according to their origin belong to Indo-European anthropologic race. Current
composition of Tajikistan’s population has been formed as a result of millennial history of theevolution of Tajiks, whose first state was created during the reign of Samanides in X-XI
centuries, and whose 1,100-years anniversary was celebrated in 1999. As a result of foreigners’
incursions (Greeks, Arabs, Mongols, Turks, Huns-Ephtalites and others) intestine wars, divisionof spheres of influence between superpowers, particularly in the end of XIX century as well as
demarcation of Central Asia in XX century Tajiks were pushed aside from fertile valleys into
foothills and mountains.7
A part of them remained in Samarkand and Bukhara, which jointed Uzbekistan, the otherpart joined Afghanistan, the third part wandered around the world in the search of a better life,
the rest died or assimilated in other countries. According to the opinion of the President of the
RT Emomali Rahmonov, “formation of the Tajik nation took place in fighting different, by its
appearance, powers over multi-millennial history...”, but “this was a nation, who met physicalblows with fascinating influence of its culture and language: the culture of the defeated nation
used to defeat victors”.8
Modern Tajikistan is a sovereign, democratic, jural, secular and unitary state. President is thehead of state and of executive power, Supreme Commander of the Armed Forces of the RT.
Tajik Parliament – Majlisi Oli consists of two houses: Majlisi Milli (National Assembly) andMajlisi Namoyandagon (Assembly of Representatives). Lower house consists of 63 deputies, 41(65%) of whom are elected through a single-mandate constituency, and 22 deputies (35%) –according to party wide lists. Upper house consists of 33 people, 25 of whom (75%) are electedin the deputies’ sessions in the Provincial level and Direct Ruled Districts and 8 (25%) are5

appointed by the President of the RT.9 Government consists of Prime Minister, his deputies,
ministers, chairmen of committees and heads of national establishments.
In regards to administrative and territorial division, Tajikistan consists ofMountainous Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast, Khatlon and Sughd Oblasts and Direct Ruled
Districts. There are a total of 62 districts, 23 cities and towns, 47 settlements and 360 Jamoat(sub-district level). 10 As a consequence of contrast and multiplayer geographic location,
peculiarities of relief, climate and combination of high altitude, Tajikistan is conditionallydivided into four large zones: Northern (main part of Sughd Oblast), Kuhistan (Zarafshan Valleyof Sughd Oblast and Direct Ruled Districts in Rasht Valley), Southern Tajikistan (the area of
Khatlon Oblast and Hissor Valley as well as Dushanbe city) and Pamir (the area of Mountainous
Badakhshan Autonomous Oblast).
Tajikistan is an agrarian country with developed elements of industrialization.
Gross National Product of the RT for 2003 in fact was 4,757.8mln Somoni, which isapproximately equivalent to US$ 1.6 bln.11 National currency of the RT is Somoni, exchange
rate is US$1 is equal to 2 Somoni and 91 Dirams (as of May 2004). Minimal wages are 4
Somoni. Able-bodies population is about 1.9mln. Unemployed, according to different estimatesis from 430 to 800 thousand. 12
1.2. External factors of influence
Peculiar geopolitical location of Tajikistan is defined by diverse nature of interests ofexternal forces towards it. Interests of super powers are mainly caused by availability of energy
resources in Central Asia as a whole, large reserve of oil and gas as well as gold deposits,uranium and other occasional metals and fresh water. In this case, Tajikistan mainly, with the
exception of water reserves, electric power, coal and uranium, plays the role of a transit state inwhich peace and stability have to be maintained for safe transportation of energy carriers and6other natural resources of Central Asia via Afghanistan, Pakistan, China, Kyrgyzstan andUzbekistan.
Interests of Russia in the RT are defined as military-political, economic and cultural bothin bilateral format and in the framework of international agreements. First of all, Russia and the
RT were the CIS members, members of the Collective Security Treaty Organization andCustoms Union. Russia actively lobbied the interests of the RT in the international and regionalorganizations. Secondly, Russia protected Tajik-Afghan border as a collective protection of CIS
southern borderlines from the penetration of international terrorists, radical extremists, drug andarms smuggling. Besides, Russia lobbied the interests of the RT in resolving of existing issues of
the Tajik-Chinese border.
Thirdly, economic relations of the two countries during that period were tied up in theframework of common national economy complex of the USSR. Russia was Tajikistan’s largest
sponsor and creditor; Fourthly, the mentality and the way of life of certain part of the populationof the RT, city population in particular, was closer to Russian-Soviet than any other foreign ones.
In addition, after collapse of the Soviet Union about 500,000 Russian-speaking population was
still dwelling in the RT, which were in need for material assistance and support from the land of
their forefathers. Besides, exaggerated ideas on renascence of Pan-Turkic and Pan-Islamic states“Great Turkestan” and “Great Khuroson” caused Russia certain concern.
Interests of Uzbekistan in the RT are defined by historical ties, many Tajiks and Uzbeks
have mixed families, majority population of Sughd Oblast, western Hissor Valley and a part of
Khatlon Oblast speak the two languages. Secondly, these countries are neighbors and have alengthy border. More than 1.2 million ethnic Uzbeks are living in the RT. Besides, that time
Tajik establishments actively lobbied the promotion of ethnic Uzbeks in resolving cadre issues.
Arrival of national-patriotic and Islamic forces in the RT was considered by Tashkent asa threat to Uzbekistan’s integrity and security since “the talk of the town” became the issues of

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the ownership of two ancient and large Uzbek cities being related to Tajiks – Samarqand andBukhara as well as energization of Muslims, particularly in Fergana Valley. In addition, interalia, Uzbekistan claimed the leading role in Central Asia.
In that period of time Afghanistan was in the height of intestine wars, but because of its
geostrategic situation it continued to influence directly to the situation in the Central Asian
region. Historical border between Middle East and Central Asia has namely been formed in the
territory of today’s Afghanistan and Tajikistan along the rivers of Amudarya and Panj. Arrivalof Russian Forces in Central Asia has officially secured the sphere of influence of between
Russia, the British Empire and China. The attempt of Britons to establish control over the southof Afghanistan and the attempt of Russia to establish control over the north of Afghanistan in
20’s of the last century were unsuccessful. As a result Afghanistan remained as some sort of abuffer zone between the two super powers that allowed it to preserve such a status and a stable
position during almost 70 years.
After commitment of the Soviet Union of its “limited troops” to Afghanistan historicalequilibrium of the region has been violated, which catalyzed all possible centers of force.
Besides, Afghan drug-dealers as early as 80’s have formed the policy of future drug trafficking
via Tajikistan.
Turkey and Iran did not lose hope to strengthen their influence in the region, and also in acertain extent Pakistan, China and India as well as the USA did so. In contrast to Iranian modelof theocratic state, Turkey through propaganda of its secular image tried to win leading positionsin the region. As the USA partner, Turkey also opposed the presence of Russia in the region andthe renaissance of Pan-Turkic ideas.
Iran also actively established relations with the region, particularly with Tajikistan, as
they are connected by historical, lingual and religious commonness. In addition, Iranstrengthened its influence to the region due to its rivalry with Turkey, as an alliance of the USA

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as well as resisted the presence of America in the region. Besides, Iran used to have strong stanceand high prestige in the International Islamic Organizations.
Having 7 thousand kilometers of border with Central Asia China could not remain
indifferent to the development of circumstances in the region. Therefore, China is expanding
cooperation with the states of the region in bilateral and regional formats in order to promotesecurity, stability and the development of the region. China also used to have territorial claims
towards bordering countries, which in the range of issues of delimitation and demarcation ofborders were awaiting their resolution.
India’s interest to Tajikistan and to the region as a whole was caused by the issues of theregional security, influence on the Afghan internal conflict in the region’s processes as well as
joint measures against proliferation of narcotics and radical Islam. India has put efforts inresisting the expansion of Pakistan’s influence in the region, in Tajikistan in particular. Similar
approach was employed by Pakistan, which actively opposed to India’s interests in Central Asia.
The USA after collapse of the Soviet Union, owing to its strong financial and economic
and technical potential, commenced systematic expansion of its influence in contrast with Russia
in the region. The USA have also attempted to resists political rapprochement of the region’s
states with those countries carrying out anti-American policy and the movements of radical Islam.
Washington has also attempted to create conditions for participation of the US firms in the
exploitation of natural resources of Central Asia and promotion of American goods in the local
consumer markets.
Thus, on the eve of conflict, tiny Tajikistan turned out to be in a huge crossroad ofinterests of superpowers of the world and the region, which exacerbated internal situation in the
country. On the other hand, various circles and forces actively operated in these countries, whichbuilt their relations with Tajikistan based on their private and group interests, which often did notcoincide with the official policy of these countries.

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1.3. Internal factors of the conflict exacerbation
Since 80’s development of events in Tajikistan by their political significance and content
can be split into several periods: 1) till 1985, that is the end of soviet development period; 2)
1985-1990 – period of Gorbachyov’s perestroika; 3) 1990 to the middle of 1992 – politicalconfrontation; 4) middle of 1992 to June 1997 – military confrontation and the process of interTajik negotiations; 5) June 1997 to 2000 – period of signing and implementation of the General
Agreement on Establishment of Peace and National Reconciliation in the RT; from 2000 topresent – post-war rehabilitation period.
Regional, parochial, religious and other factors predominantly were part of the series ofinternal causes, which were exacerbated by peculiarities of historical, geographic, demographic,socio-economic development of Tajikistan. The peculiarities of socio-economic development of
the RT for the last 70 years were lop-sided; predominantly development of primary resources in
the national economy that turned the country practically into a raw materials-producing agrarian
appendage of industrially developed regions of the former Soviet Union. According to theassessment of “Deutsche Bank” experts Tajikistan ranked last among all other CIS countries by
the level of its economic development and resource potential in the beginning of 90’s.13
Indeed, in comparison with other CIS countries there were lowest indicators per capita in
the RT: national revenue, living standard, availability of housing, education, health and culture
facilities. At the same time, there were highest indicators of natural population growth in
Tajikistan, especially in rural area. Foreign debts of Tajikistan have exceeded US$ 700 million
and internal ones are 1.5 billon Tajik Rubles.14
Gradually economic and social problems took more and more open political direction in
the people’s perception, discontent of masses transformed into negative attitude towards
authorities and the management personnel and gradually gravitated towards social extremism
and radicalism. For the first time in 70 years on 11-14 February 1990 mass meetings of the

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population against authorities took place, in which by various estimates from 10 to 30 thousandpeople participated. For the first time slogans like “Tajikistan is for Tajiks!” and other posters ofnational-patriotic nature appeared. 15 Protest action led to bloody tragedy when a crowd of
meeting participants stormed the building of the former Central Committee of the Communist
Party of Tajikistan and demanded the government’s resignation. The rally participants had beenbroken up and shot by Internal Troops and Subdivisions of Special Forces of former Soviet
Union. According to official information, 22 people had died and more than 100 had beenwounded by that time.16 However, February events became some sort of “prologue” or “generalrehearsal” for future armed confrontations.
The following main groupings were prominent according to the level of their influence
and activeness of participation in political confrontation of that period: party-soviet andeconomic

nomenclatureelite;

perestroika

stratum,

Islamic

orientation

forces,irreconcilable provincials and Tajik mafia.
More significant political power among them undoubtedly was former party, soviet andeconomic nomenclature elite, which firstly perceived Gorbachov Perestroika in former Soviet
Union as a next game of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union (CPSU) leadership giving it
an unplanned nature. However, rapid growth of new parties and movements, seriousness of theirintention in struggling for redistribution of power in the RT, forces the nomenclature to orient
and to launch a counter-offensive with the use of any possible forms and means.
In its turn, perestroika stratum, as they called new political parties in those days, among
which there were Democratic Party, Islamic Renaissance Party, People’s Movement“Rastokhez”, National Cultural Public Unions “La’li Badakhshon”, “Oshkoro”, “Hisori
Shodmon”, “Mehri Khatlon”, “Ehyoi Mastchoh” and others, using the new chances of glasnost
and perestroika they led increasing attack against old nomenclature.

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Those people who were deprived of their posts during perestroika and tried to return lost
positions at any rate were part of irreconcilable provincials. As a rule, they were First Secretaries
of Oblast, Town and District Committees of the Communist Party, Senior Staff of lawenforcement structures and trade at the periphery, particularly in former Kurgan-Tube Oblast.
Besides, huge negative impulse of politicization of the mass contributed to the decision of theCommunist Party of the RT supported by the CPSU to reunification of Kurgan-Tube and Kulyab
Oblast and creation of a new Oblast. As a result of a delay in resolving this issue for more than
two years many high rank officials, being influential among a part of population, used them inthe struggle for getting high posts in newly formed Khatlon Oblast.
More influential among forces of Islamic orientation were priests of mosques, who werepart of Qoziyot (Islamic Justice Institution) of Tajikistan, Tajik Regional Department of Central
Asian Spiritual Directorate of Muslims as well as the youth from among the activists of Islamic
Renaissance Party of Tajikistan, which gained a huge popularity particularly among rural
population due to their call for purity of religious beliefs and refusal from excessive gluts while
making devotions.
In the beginning of 90’s Tajik mafia was shaped organizationally in the internationalorganized criminal groups, which controlled many spheres of “shade” economy and trade,
restaurant businesses and production cooperation systems. They actively incorporated their
protégés in local authorities institutions, power structures, had very well-organizedcommunication systems, transport, fighter groups and general funding system. In the course of
military political confrontations initially confronting political forces split Tajik mafia, and later it
actively used these forces for realization of common purposes of criminals.
Chapter II. Civil war and conflict settlement
As a result of the presidential election in the RT in 1991 the old party-soviet andeconomic nomenclature returned to the power. It managed to win over to its side many

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provincial irreconcilables as well as a part of Tajik mafia. Between them, on one hand, and thegroup of perestroika stratum including national-patriots and democrats, who got united with theforces of Islamic orientation and augmented by criminals, a new phase of confrontation leading
to a deep crisis began. Foreign centers of influence also actively joined the destabilization
process and tried to use each of the sides for the realization of their own interests. Generalbackground of events exacerbated by total deficit of goods, economic collapse andintensification of social tensions in the community, paralysis of the public management system.
2.1. Military-political confrontation and its consequences
Beginning from March 1992 chronology of events unfolded with kaleidoscopical speed,
obtaining more and more expressed regional and clannish signs to which ideological label –struggle of communist forces with demo-Islamic opposition had been attached. Meetings ofmany thousands and of many months begun, which turned gradually from the threat of use offorce into real use of it. State of emergency was declared on 5 May 1992 by the decree of the
President, which envisaged ban on the activity of political parties and meetings and curfew was
imposed in Dushanbe. However, the situation had got out of hand, paralysis of power set in, theperiod of resolving political issues through military means began. National self-consciousness
was replaced by regional self-consciousness and the focus of confrontations shifted fromDushanbe to Vakhsh valley.
From 27 June 1992 regular military confrontations began between the sides. On bothsides during operations mercenaries from Russia, Uzbekistan, Baltic States, Caucasus, Afghan
Mujahids, Arab instructors as well as a significant number of criminal elements released fromthe jails of the RT took part. The operations obtained more and more bloody and criminal nature.
As a result of the fratricidal war in Tajikistan, according to various estimates, from 40
thousand to 100 thousand people have died, hundreds of thousands have become handicapped,13

lost bread-winners, about a million have become refugees and internally displaced, more than 50
thousand homes have been destroyed, economic damage estimated at US$ 7 billion.17
On 16 November 1992 the XVIth session of the Supreme Council of the RT was held in
Khujand, where presidential form of management was abolished and parliamentary form wasintroduced, new government of the RT headed by Emomali Rahmonov was formed. Opposition
forces, for the most part, stepped back in the east of the country from where they left to
Afghanistan, where they began training of fighting groups, which subsequently attacked
government troops through Tajik-Afghan border. For example, on 12-13 July 1993 a fighter
squad of 200 broke in to the territory of Tajikistan in the area of 12th Moskovsky Russian Border
Outpost. As a result 25 Russian Border Guards, a number of servicemen of the 201st Motor Rifle
Division and the personnel of National Security Committee of the RT as well as a large numberof local people had been killed.18
2.2. Inter-Tajik negotiation process
Tajik sides realized the malignancy of the war very soon, its reasons and consequences,
as well as lack of prospects in settling the conflict by force. Key role in erecting a negotiation
bridge was played by international community, first of all Russia and Iran, other donor countries
and Tajikistan’s neighbors, as well as the United Nations, which from the very beginning of theconflict on the request of both Tajik sides and a number of CIS countries joined the process ofpeaceful settlement of the conflict. First mission of UN offices took up their functions on 21
January 1993.19
The UN has also provided services to special envoys and personal representatives of the
UN Secretary General for reconciling the dispute in Tajikistan, employed such disputereconciliation mechanisms as Contact Group of Guarantee States, Consultative Meetings of theDelegations of the Tajik sides and conciliatory working groups, “shuttle diplomacy”.

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The role of UN personnel who gave their lives for the sake of establishing of peace andstability in Tajikistan is to be specifically noted. These are the United Nations Mission of
Observers to Tajikistan (UNMOT) personnel – Yutaka Akino, your compatriot from Hokkaido
and my colleague, who worked in the capacity of a political officer with UNMOT. The fourothers were military observers –Austrian Wolfgang Sponner, polish Ryszard Szewczuk,
Uruguayan Adolfo Sharpegge as well as their Tajik interpreter Jurajon Mahramov. In the sceneof their death in Nurobod district in the façade of the UNMOT building in Dushanbe and the
Rasht district center memorable boards, obelisks and stones have been installed, where every
year on 20 July wreath-laying ceremony takes place. Schools and colleges have been named after
them. But most important, they will always remain in the heart of Tajik people.
The most important role in reconciling the military-political confrontation in Tajikistan
was played by the Russian Federation. Namely on the initiative of Russia on 7 August 1993 a
meeting of the heads of states of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Russian Federation, Tajikistan,
Uzbekistan as well as the representative of the President of Turkmenistan took place. The
decision on collective protection of Tajik-Afghan Border as the southern border CIS was taken
during this meeting, and the Tajik sides were urged to hold negotiations.
On the decision of the CIS summit on 24 September 1993 the CIS Collective Peacekeeping Forces (CIS CPKF in the RT),20 which was comprised of one battalion at a time fromUzbekistan, Kazakhstan and Kyrgyzstan as well as Russian Border Troops in the RT and the201st Motor Rifle of the RF in the RT, totally 25 thousand servicemen. Within 7 years of CIS
CPKF presence more than 1 thousand ton of humanitarian goods have been transported to the RT,of which 2/3 was delivered to mountainous districts; guarding and accompanying have beenarranged for significant number of convoys with the goods of the government and humanitarianorganizations as well as convoys transporting more than 40 thousand refugees; more than 100
mine fields and barrier ties have been cleared, 141 thousand explosives have been discovered

15and destroyed, medical aid has been rendered to 18 thousand wounded and patients – citizens of
the RT; guarding of 40 objects have been carried out, including life supporting objects. 101
Russian servicemen and more than 20 Kazakh servicemen died during holding these
operations.21
Islamic republic of Iran played an important role in the dispute reconciliation, which used
its high prestige and influence has been able to convince Tajik opposition in the necessity ofpolitical negotiations and arranged active dialogue with other interested countries, first of allwith Russia for positive reconciliation of the dispute. Efforts for peaceful reconciliation havealso been supported by Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Pakistan, Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan as well
as Conference for Security and Cooperation in Europe, presently OSCE, Economic Cooperation
Organization (ECO), Islamic Conference Organization, the World Bank and other internationalorganizations and the members of the consultative group meeting of the donor states for
Tajikistan, including the USA, Japan, Germany, the EU and other countries.
The process of political negotiations between the Government of the RT and the United Tajik
Opposition (UTO) is a unique experience not only for both Tajik sides, but can serve as a model
for reconciling similar disputes in other “hot spots” of the world. Eight rounds of inter-Tajik
negotiations under the UN auspices and the participation of the representatives of interested
states went on for four years:•

First round (5-15 April in Moscow);•

Second round (18 – 25 June 1994 in Tehran). Also on 12-17 September a consultative
meeting of the delegations of both sides, which established a Joint Committee for
Observing the Agreement on Ceasefire took place in Tehran;•Third round (20 October – 1 November 1994 in Islamabad);22•

Fourth round (22 May –1 June 1995 in Alma-Ata);

16•

Fifth round (3-24 November 1995, 26 January - 18 February, 8 - 21 July 1996 in
Ashkhabad);•

Sixth round (5 January –19 February 1997 in Mashhad and Tehran);•

Seventh round (26 February - 9 March 1997 in Moscow);•

Eighth round (9 April - 28 May in Tehran).

In the process of political reconciliation of inter-Tajik dispute essential role was played by
the meetings of the heads of the sides: the President of the RT Emomali Rahmonov and the UTO
Leader Sayeed Abdullo Nuri (17 May 1994 – Kabul; 19 July 1994 – Tehran; 10 December
1996 - Husdeh (Afghanistan); 23 December 1996 – Moscow; 16-18 April 1997 - Bishkek).
On 27 June 1997 the President of the RT Emomali Rahmonov and the UTO Leader
Sayeed Abdullo Nuri signed “General Agreement on Establishment of Peace and National
Reconciliation in Tajikistan” in Moscow, more famous as General Agreement. Integral partsof the General Agreement are: Protocol on main principles of establishment of peace andnational accord in the RT dated 17 August 1995; Protocol on political issues dated 18 May 1997;
Agreement of the President of the RT and the UTO Leader on the outcomes of Moscow meeting
dated 23 December 1996; Protocol “On the main functions and authorities of the National
Reconciliation Committee” dated 23 December 1996; Provision “On the National Reconciliation
Committee” dated 21 February 1997; Additional Protocol to Protocol “On the main functions
and authorities of the National Reconciliation Committee” dated 21 February 1997; Protocol on
military issues dated 8 March 1997; Protocol on the refugees’ issues dated 13 January 1997;
Protocol on the guarantees of the implementation of the General Agreement on Establishment of
Peace and National Reconciliation in Tajikistan dated 28 May 1997.
Main mechanism of the implementation of the General Agreement was National
Reconciliation Committee (NRC), which consisted of 26 members – Government of the RT andUTO represented 13 members each. The Chairman of NRC became the UTO Leader Sayeed17

Abullo Nuri and Deputy Chairman Abdulmajid Dostiev, Deputy Speaker of Majlisi Oli. The
NRC consisted of four sub-committees: on military, political, juridical and refugee issues, inwhich 3 people from both the government and the UTO were represented.

Thanks to NRC’s constructive interactions with the Government of the RT and in accordancewith the provision of the agreement prisoners of war have been released as per Act on Mutual
Forgiveness and the Amnesty Law; reform of the governmental structures with the appointmentof the UTO representatives in the executive structures’ posts, including in ministries, directorates,
local administrations, judicial and law-enforcement bodies has been held.

Besides, amendments have been introduced to the Constitution of the RT through holding
nationwide referendum; bills on political parties, social unions, mass media, elections to theparliament of the country have been drafted; ban has been lifted on the activity of oppositional
political parties and movements as well as mass media. One of the most ponderable
achievements of the NRC became the process of reintegration; disarmament and disbandment of
the UTO armed elements consisting of almost 7 thousand fighters as well as simultaneous reformof power structures of the Government of the RT.

Repatriation of Tajik refugees became one of the tangible and successful outcomes of theGeneral Agreement and the NRC activity. Almost 800 thousand Tajik refugees have been
repatriated to the homeland from Afghanistan, Pakistan, Iran and the CIS countries. The
Government of the RT with the support of international organizations, first of all United Nations
High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) has carried out an amazing amount of work forrepatriation to their permanent residences, rehabilitation and reconstruction of homes andconfidence building.

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Chapter III. Post-conflict rehabilitation
Post-conflict Tajikistan is facing serious challenges caused by the consequences of civil
war and difficulties of the transitional period connected with economic decline, high poverty rate
among population and labor migration, weak social protection and decline of municipal economy.
3.1. Major post-war issues of Tajikistan
Main achievement of Tajikistan in recent years is maintenance of peace and stability inthe country, continuation of the national reconciliation policy. Due to the peace process reforms
are being implemented in political, economic, social and spiritual spheres. Tajikistan is paving
its way towards democratization of the society and transition to the market economy.
New constitution of the RT has been adopted, standing parliament has been establishedand is functional, six political parties are active in the country, including Islamic RenaissanceParty of Tajikistan. Moratorium to capital punishment has been declared. Gross Domestic
Product (GDP) is increasing; annual increase of GDP is 7%, national currency – Somoni isfunctioning stably.

Open door policy is effective, foreign relations are broadening andinternational prestige of the republic is increasing. The proof of that is the UN declaration of
2005-2015 the decade of “Water for life” action initiated by Tajikistan.
However, Tajikistan is not able to resolve numerous issues, which it faces presently.
These issues can be split into three groups: global, regional and countrywide. It is to be notedthat international terrorism, radical religious extremism, separatism, illegal migration, drugs
smuggling, arms smuggling, human trafficking, fight against AIDs and others are part of its
global issues. On the regional level the issues of the RT are related to delimitation anddemarcation of external borders, de-mining of the Uzbek-Tajik border, trans-border land andwater issues.
Among internal issues of the country, first of all reduction of poverty among more than
80% of the population; lack of employment opportunities, as a result the outflow of labor force

19

from the country varies within the limits of 400 thousand to 1 million people a year23. The issuesof food supply and power supply, overcoming of communication deadlock, demographic,
environmental, information issues and others remain to be critical.
3.2. International community and rehabilitation of the country
Several long-term comprehensive programs for post-conflict rehabilitation of the country,
including poverty reduction, structural reforms, economic development till 2015, improvementof demographic situation and others have been elaborated by the Government of the RT and areunderway, however solution of urgent issues are exacerbated by scantiness of its budget
capability.
In these conditions international communities’ aid is vitally essential for Tajikistan.
Therefore, the Government of the RT highly appreciates the outcomes of international
consultative groups meetings of donor countries for the RT supported by the UN and the world
Bank with a view of sustainable post-conflict peace-building in Tajikistan in Tokyo (31 October
1996, US$ 185mln were pledged); 24 in Vienna (November 1997 – US$56.5mln); 25 again inTokyo (16-18 May 2001 – US$ 430mln);26 in Dushanbe (2-3 May 2003 - US$900mln, of which
US$ 200mln as a humanitarian aid and about 2/3 as grants),27 in London (9-10 February 2004,
rendering assistance to the RT and ensuring their efficient use).28
On 25 September an International Conference of the Islamic Development Bank (IDB)
investor states opened in Dushanbe in which it was decided to establish an Investment Holding
with a Charter Fund of US$ 200mln in the RT. To present day IBD has provided loans to the RT
totaling at US$ 60mln and US$ 1.6mln as grants. Pension reform assistance, privatization in theindustry and public management reform programs were implemented with the IMF financial
support of US$ 108mln in the RT in 1999-2001. The European Bank for Reconstruction andDevelopment (EBRD) and the International Financial Corporation (IFC) have provided

20

Tajikistan with a loan of US$14mln for funding and development of small and medium
businesses programme.
From among international organizations the United Nations (UN) and its specialized
units in the RT are distinguished by their role and place. Only in 2003 due to the UN appeal
171.8 thousand tons of humanitarian aid worth US$ 115.8mln from 39 countries was received in
Tajikistan. 155.6 thousand tons of wheat flour, 7.4 thousand ton of vegetable oil, 5.4 thousand
tons of wheat as well as footwear, clothes, beddings and sheets, medical equipment andmedicaments have been distributed to those who suffered natural disasters. Among donor
countries the USA takes highest position by the amount they contributed – 51.6%, followed byGermany – 6.2%, Kazakhstan – 5.5%, Russia 3.9%, China – 3.1% and Uzbekistan 2.9%.29
3.4. Japanese aid to Tajikistan
Japan is also is one of the main Tajikistan’s donors. Embassy of Japan was opened in
Dushanbe on 15 January 2002. In this period Japan continued to provide support and assistanceto the RT on the following directions: through humanitarian aid in the framework ofinternational organizations’ projects and programs, including the UN; through long-termand privileged loans through international financial institutions; financial and in-kind
support to Tajikistan (on the request of Tajik leadership) for alleviation of the natural
disasters; grants for small-scale projects both through state and non-governmentalorganizations of the RT; arrangement of introductory trips for Tajik parliamentarians,
government officials, representatives of political parties and journalists to Japan; study
tours to the Universities of Japan for Tajik citizens.
On the whole, in the framework of the Grants Programme for small-scale projects theGovernment of Japan has implemented 48 projects worth US$ 2.3mln30.
Implementation of this programme allows focusing on rehabilitation of social
infrastructure, particularly in rural areas: reconstruction of schools, health facilities, irrigation

21

canals and supply of potable water to villages. The Government of Japan has also allocated
US$ 460 thousand to the National Museum of Antiquities of the RT for maintaining thepreservation conditions for unique historical exhibits, US$58 thousand for establishing of ascientific center for observation of Sarrez Lake on Pamir. Besides, Japanese Fund of Social
Development intends to allocate US$ 575 thousand for establishing of a module center for skills
training of former combatants in Rasht valley.
Thus, international community actively connected up to rendering necessary support toTajikistan in political reconciliation of dispute, and presently in resolving the issues of postconflict rehabilitation. Today Tajikistan needs to review its assistance strategy – fromhumanitarian to long-term assistance, sustainable development assistance. Through investing
resources into economic development of the RT, international community would also promote
regional security in the face of modern threats and challenges.
Conclusion
The experience of peaceful reconciliation of military-political conflict in Tajikistan is
exemplary from many points of view. First of all, the lessons of Tajik conflict dictate thenecessity of balanced approach towards transition from one social system into another one,particularly while considering the issues of ensuring security and political stability. Secondly,
stability and security can be reached based on the will and decisiveness of confronting sides ofconflict as well as the balance of interests of all stakeholders during the search of more optimal
options of the dispute resolution. Thirdly, an efficient interaction scheme of various international
factors (in the example of the RT – UNMOT/UNTOP, Contact Group, Guarantor and Donor
States, International Financial Institutions, CIS CPKFВ in the RT) is necessary for peacefulreconciliation of originated conflict.
Among other effective methods of peaceful reconciliation of conflict, direct negotiation
process between the conflicting sides under the auspices of international organizations, the role22of the leaders of the sides in establishing constructive dialogue and taking irregular decisions aswell as the use of various implementation mechanisms of the reached agreements (in the RT –National Reconciliation Committee; Joint Commission for ceasefire and other hostile actions;
Conciliatory Working Group; consultative meetings between the sides outside the negotiations
format; shuttle diplomacy) have to be marked out.
Development of political events in Tajikistan in the present and in the perspective will
depend on the new nature of socio-political relations in the country, particularly after
parliamentary (2005) and presidential (2006) elections as well as the condition of maintaining of
the stability of geopolitical equilibrium in the region, evolution of interest of superpowers of theworld such as the USA, Russia and China as well as regional centers of power.
In the present the activity of the Republic of Tajikistan is characterized with its
differentiated approach for drawing up behaviour lines in the international arena. The Presidentof the RT Emomali Rahmonov in his message to the Parliament has outlined the internal policyof the RT through consolidation of central authority, continuation of political, economic andsocial reforms directed first of all towards structural changes, alleviation of poverty and ensuring
internal stability in the country.
Foreign relations are defined by the «open door policy» as well as creation of a security
line around the RT connected with neutralization of the threat of international terrorism,
religious extremism, narcotics aggression, ensuring energy security, leading out the RT of thecommunication deadlock, and calling foreign investment for resolving urgent internal issues.

Domo arrigato godzaimas!

23

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