less against given stylistic discourses such as Cubism, or any other kind ofartistic style that seems to come out of Europe at a particular moment in
its modern trajectory.
Moderator (Tsuji): Professor Clark has aptly identified all the problems
that we have been discussing in this symposium. I think we started out
this symposium feeling more confident about our understanding ofmodernity than we do now. As we proceeded in our discussion , we started
questioning what modernity is and what modernism is. We need toreconsider our understanding of these concepts. Many of the recent
discussions describe modernism as something that emerged in Europe , sothere is a question of applying this in a Japanese or an Asian context.
There is also the question which Professor Clark raised. Are we reallyliving in the modern age of Asia? We can start a new discussion by asking
this question. I would now like to take questions from the floor. Are there
any last minute comments from the panelists before we do so?
Mizusawa Tsutomu: I was listening to our discussion just now, andasking myself, what if we were to organize an exhibition on Cubism
under the same theme of Cubism in Asia? In this case, what would be thefirst step? This symposium seems to answer this question , so I listened toProfessor Clark with these thoughts in mind. There were many topics that
we covered during our discussion, and now we are hearing morecomments referring to the historical context of Cubism. We could learn
from reconsidering Cubism through such views. Yesterday, Professor
Omuka discussed how Cubism is placed in a geneological line charted by
MoMA New York. Today we discussed murals in Mexico and issues thatare specifically related to the 1930s. These issues could be related to the
New Woodcut Movement in Shanghai , as demonstrated by existingwoodcuts and graphic expressions. But I was left with an impression thatafter the Great Depression in 1929, there was a great change in the overall
cultural landscape which increased awareness of modernity and the will
to become modern. In relation to Cubism , 1929 marks the peak of aproletarian art movement. Consequently ,Japanese printmakers wereconnected to the New Woodcut Movement in China. Li Hua foundelements in Japanese woodcut movement that led him to incorporate
Cubist style in his works. By that time, the Japanese printmakers weremoving on to political Realism , and had already adopted Cubist idioms as
their own. To summarize the changes, I would say that Cubism was put
under different conditions after the 1930s. By more closely comparing
these two trends before and after 1930, we could understand better how
Cubism was disseminated. We could then also look at Cubism in the345

1950s in Asia to make a more accurate comparison. The Japanese artist
Yorozu Tetsugoro , who was gifted with an extraordinary talent, seems tohave had a self-awareness of being a Cubist. He was strongly motivated to
become a Cubist, and chis may be why he continued to incorporate
Cubist motifs in his work throughout his career. He was also aware ofgender representations , and coupled his Cubist work Leaning Womanwith
another work entitled Man. In his Woman Holdinga Sphere,a nude body isholding the sacred gem. I may be overstating the implications of thiswork , but I would say that he was representing maternity by rendering
the mother and child motif
I became very interested in looking at the issues in the context ofthe early 1930s, as I listened to the discussion.
Moderator (Tsuji): Thank you. We seem to have already identified issues
to be discussed in our next symposium. Let's now take questions from thefloor.
Question (Furuya): I am an anthropologist specializing in Brazil. I haveseveral questions , but I will ask only two this time. My first question isrelated to what Professor Winther-Tamaki said about Asia. I think it isimportant to identify Asia as a device or a strategy, rather than an
essentialized entity or consequence. Therefore , understanding

the uniquefeatures of Cubism in Asia should not lead to a conclusion , but should
open doors to a series of new discussions. My second question concerns
the dissemination of Cubism. What I learned from the presentations andthe discussions is that Cubism traveled to different cultures , and thatduring its travel, ic was creatively transformed and appropriated. But, infact, it was not Cubism that traveled. It was disseminated through people
who traveled and media that were influential. I chink we need tounderstand chis situation , because , otherwise, we would wrongly
understand that Cubism in Paris impacted the world instantly , as if ic
were propagated through the Internee. We need to acknowledge the factthat there were people and objects chat traveled by ship, or bad quality
reproductions in black and white that influenced people on the receiving
end. Could I have some comments on my observation ?
Moderator (Tsuji): Professor Winther-Tamaki, please.
Winther-Tamaki: I appreciate that comment and I think it makes a lot ofsense to think of Asia as a point of departure of kind of strategy for
obtaining new knowledge , and not as a foregone conclusion and keeping
the process of mapping itself unbounded from , ironically , Asia, while still346

being related to places , and having other ramifications as well.
Moderator (Tsuji): The second issue Mr. Furuya raised is about the specificchannels and modes of dissemination. For example, there are Chinese andKorean artists who studied Cubism through art schools in Japan and inEurope, or Japanese artists who studied in Russia and in America. There
were many channels to access information on Cubsim. Professor Shen, do
you have any comment on the specific channel through which Cubism
was introduced to China?
Shen: I mentioned yesterday that Chinese artists mainl y learned Cubismin Europe and Japan.
I agree with Mr. Mizusawa's comments on how to approach Asian
Cubism. After looking at the exhibition and listening to the panelists inthe discussions , I see Cubism as divided into two periods. One is in the
1920s to '3 0s,Japanese Cubism and Chinese Cubism. It was still aWestern-oriented Cubism then, with mainly formalistic concerns.
In the 1950s, Cubism can be found mainly in Southeast Asia and South
Asia. The concerns are completely different. Although artists still haveformalistic and stylistic concerns, the contents and th ematic concerns arecompletely different.
So I think there are two different discourses. When we think about
Asian Cubism, maybe you have to reconstruct the discourses as it is very
difficult to look at them as one Asian Cubism.
Ushiroshoji: I would like to add some comments. I think there wereseveral channels, but one that was influential was through the foreignteachers who taught in Asia. This is particularly true in Southeast Asia.
Yesterday, we discussed Ries Muld er, a stained-glass artist from Holland
who taught at the Bandung Institute of Technology. Man y students under
his influence produced painting in a Cubist style. It may be problematicto describe all the paintings as Cubistic, but Cubistic methods , with thicklines that cut across a very flat surface in the stained-glass manner , were
widely accepted and applied by Indonesian artists. Mr. Supangkat
informed us that this was exactly so because the instructor was a stainedglass artist. Wh ether or not the flat and decorative features of Cubism inIndon esia were also rooted in native aesthetics is another issue. As seen inthis Indonesian example, foreign instructors had a significant influence inthe propagation of Cubism. This is related to a kind of archetypical myth ,which tells th e story of a committed foreign teacher who comes from theWest and builds art schools and teaches native artists in the course ofdeveloping modern art in the receiving country. This archetype has

34 7

become a discourse or a myth which has circulated in the region, andillustrates an aspect of dissemination. Also, when speaking of foreignteach ers,Japanese teach ers had a significant influence, not only on
Chinese, Taiwanese , and Korean students who came to Japan to study inart schools , but also on artists in countries that were colonized by Japan.
Japanese artists who were sent to the colonies acted as art teachers, as in
the example of Keimin Bunka Shidosho(Japanese Culture Center ) in
Indonesia. We need to acknowledge these Japanese influences in certain
countries.
Moderator (Tsuji):Thank you. I think there are many issues involved in
Mr. Furuya's question, but we will not be able to answer all at once. So,
could we move on to our next question 'Question (lkegami): I have a question for Professor Omuka. Modern art as
defined by the MoMA diagram was mentioned on several occasions inyesterday's and today's discussion. It was very useful to understand how
this model spread overseas by taking Japan as an example . At the end of
the presentation, you mentioned the change in Japanese views ofAmerican art. But I think you should distinguish the MoMA model fromthe rest of American art , because MoMA's relationship to American art of
the time was complex. Actually, the two conflicted on many occasions.
So, I think the Japanese view towards American art, as defined in a
specific location of MoMA in New York, should be distinguished fromthose towards the American art in general.
Omuka Toshiharu: You are correct in your observations. I think the twoshould be thought of as different types of art. But at the beginning of the
1930s, I think the Japanese were not ready to distinguish the two inviewing American art . For example , after the Cubism exhibition was over,Noda Hideo introduced the exhibition on Surrealism , "Fantastic Art ,Dada, Surrealism ; (The Museum of Modern Art , New York, 1936 ) in anart magazine. This implies the change in views of American art because ,up until then , MoMA was not acknowledged at all by Japanese artists. I
think artists became more aware of this new museum , and they looked at
it as a place that introduces new art. We would need to distinguish thedifferent types of American art when we place MoMA in a historicalcontext , but Japanese at the time would not have been able to differentiate the two , because there was not enough information for people to
make a distinction. Having said that , I understand your point very well.
If I may add something else, I would like to comment on the last
question. I think there are different levels of understanding Cubism , bur I

348

would like to talk about a very specific case. When the National Museumof Modern Arc, Tokyo put on a show of Koga Harue 's drawings ("Harue
Koga: the creative process: a show built around che museum collection ;'1991), I was surprised to find Koga's replica of Leger's work taken from an
art magazine. Of course, the cop y was in black and white, and Koga
produced the replica using brush and ink. This example shows how
Cubism was not simply a style chat was imported into Japan, butsomething chat affected the artist 's impulse. He wanted to make this into
his own. As I briefly mentioned in my presentation , !hara Usaburo also
made a copy of Picasso's Cubist work. If consider copying co be a
traditional approach , !hara rook this traditional approach in incorporating Cubism , an ultimate form of modernism. I find chis to be quite odd ,but we need to acknowledge the face chat artists had such strange
impulses in adopting Cubism.
Moderator (Tsuji): I think we have also found a new concern with regard
to the Japanese understandingof American arc. On this note, I would liketo draw this session to a close. Thank you.

349

Wrap-up

Hayashi Michio: We are running out of time, so I would like to review
our discussion through the sessions from yesterday and today. First , we
had the keynote speech by Mr. Tatehata Akira who referred to Walter
Benjamin 's theory on translation and proposed how the concept oftranslation , with a different notion from what we normally know, could
be effectively applied to our exhibition. The main point of the argument
was the need to consider an anaphoric relation instead of an analogicalone. For example, there was a reference made to the "afterlife" as consequence of the "violence of the task of translation ; in describing how
Cubism in Asia was not a copy of the original that attained similarity, but"something like Cubism" that resulted in productive transformation.
Thus, he proposed a theoretical framework that places significance on
multiple versions of the original , which are produced as an outcome ofviolence in translation. Professor Tsuji Shigebumi, on the other hand,made a counter-argument , and claimed that , although such rhetoricalsimplification is possible , in reality, there were probably many versions of"something like Cubism" in Europe, too. If this is true, then, the processof translation was actually complex, because it transferred informationfrom a set of multiple "something like" versions to another set of multiple"something like" versions. Our discussion started on these premises.
Professors Omuka Toshiharu , Shen Kuiyi, and John Clark presented
their papers on the theme of "Metropolis / Transnationalism" for Session 1.
Professor Omuka focused on the reputation of Cubism in Japan in the
1930s based on a thorough research of the period. In summary, it outlined
the changes in the discourse on Cubism following the introduction of the"Cubism and Abstract Art" exhibition at the Museum of Modern Art,
New York organized by Alfred Barr in various printed media in the 1930s.
Throughout the symposium, we did not have much discussion on how
Cubism disseminated in the various cultures, but I think Professor
Omuka's paper was able to demonstrate how magazines functioned as animportant agent in transferring information. Of course , mobilization ofartist and foreign teachers were also important factors. We have couchedon these topics in the columns of our exhibition catalogue , so I hope you
can read them for your reference.
Professor Shen Kuiyi discussed Cubism in China and presented

350

several issues concerning how Cubism emerged in the modern art
movement centered around Shanghai. The network that connected themetropolises of Shanghai , Tokyo, and Paris is an important factor that has
not been closely examined until now. Activities of foreign students inrelation to Japanese art history are a well-researched field. However, mostof these studies have focused on Tokyo and Paris, or Japan and the West as
key locations. But , in fact, many art students from China and Korea cameto Tokyo in the 1930s to stud y art and were introduced to Cubism (andother Western ideas of modern art ) in various ways. lt is also a fact thatmany Asian artists who went to Paris studied under the same instructor
around the same time.! don't think such exchanges have been examinedclosely yet. These multi-polar exchanges among artists could gain
visibility if we turn our eyes to these metropolises.
Professor John Clark presented us with the issue of meta-discourse
concerning Cubism in close detail. He laid out a categorical table to map
basic terms suc h as "Asia" and "Cubism " to call to our attention his
apprehension towards our casual use of these terms, and remarked how
colonia l condit ion s are not monolithic but diver se. He also used the term
"endogenous " to point out the need for utilizing a local context to read
Cubistic works in Asia, in addition to understanding

how the Western

Cub ism was transformed in the Asian context. I think he has pointed toincorporating an edogenous process in the methodology of our research.
Those of us who are art historians have a desire to take an object as astart ing point of our research , but Professor Clark has reminded us that
we also have to take th e issue of discourse into consideration.
In Session 2, Mr.Jim Supankat , Professor Patrick D. Flores , and Mr.
Ahmad Mashadi presented papers under the topic of "Postcolonial
Situ ation~ Mr. Supangkat presented a paper on discourse , which could beconnected to Professor C lark 's presentation in Session 1. Whereas ,Professor Clark presented a comprehensive mapping of elements related
to discourses, Mr. Supangkat focused on a very specific case in the
Ind onesian context by introducing to us the idea of kagunan. Cubism in
Ind onesian art history was mainly received through artists of theBandung School, which has been criticized as followers of Western
ideology in the postcolonial context. I think Mr. Supangkat was arguing
against this preconception. In other words, there may be a danger inapplying the Western ideology of art in evaluating the art historicaldevelopment in Asia. Hence , by applying ideas such as kagunan , a nonWestern ideology , we may attain a new perception that does not simply
follow the West.
Professor Patrick D. Flores provided us with how Cubism was
influential to a wide audience in diverse fields, which prompted a lively

35 1

discussion on many interesting issues. During the 1940s to the' 50s,
Cubistic style was popular in representing peasants , workers , street andslum inhabitants , and in the years that followed, under the Marcos
regime , it became a device with a set of entirely different objectives.
Vicente Manansala is an artist who exemplified this process in person. He
became a national artist known for his Transparent Cubism style andpublic works, such as murals that disseminate ideologies of the rulingState authority. Some of the issues that were raised in observing thistransformation were the relationship between Cubism and political
ideology, mural as media , and kitchfication. We saw Cubistic features as along-lasting and influential trend in the art scene in the Philippines. Thisis exceptional among Asian countries.
Mr. Ahmad Mashadi referred to the Nanyang School in Singapore,
which was a movement centered around Chinese emigre artists. Theyexperimented with hybrid-style painting , in which they referred to alanguage that exerted Chinese-ness while experimenting with modernist
idiom. It is regretful that we were not able to delve deeper in to thespecific issues, but we were able to touch upon the stylistic fusion caused
under the diasporic conditions. As immigrants, they were able to acquire
the progressive mode of the time, but at the same time, because they were
immigrants, they latched on to their cultural identity. This led them to akind of a schism. The Nanyang School became a target for criticism
during the 1950s when Social Realism became popular in the context ofanti-colonial movement in Singapore. Rendering of leftist subject mattersin Cubist style by Lim Hak Tai was introduced as an effort to bridge this
divide.
We started our second day with Session 3 "Body/Gender/Color/
Decoration." The moderator, Mr. Matsumoto Tohru, presented the issue of"neutrality " upfront. He suggested that Cubism was transferable because
it was independent and neutral.
Professor Kim Young-na presented her observations of the motherand-child subject. Her description of how the Korean War had a large
impact on transforming the relationship in Korean families is noteworthy.
As consequence of the war, absence of the husband and break-ups offamily became common, changing the demographics of Korean families.
A number of mother-and-child paintings were produced against thisbackdrop, and Cubism's reception was intertwined into this historicalsequence. Female artists such as Nena Saguil and Anita Magsaysay-Ho in
the Philippines or Park Re-hyun in Korea all depicted women engaged inlabor, instead of nude. She suggested that we turn our attention to thedifferences between male and female painters , which I think needs due
consideration.

35 2

Mr. Tanaka Masayuki , in his paper , applied Freud's theory on
fetishism to explore the female body depicted by artists such as F. N.
Souza and Cheong Soo Pieng, among others. He read the magicalqualities in these paintings , in which the women are iconically renderedin such a way that they almost look back to the viewer from their frontal
position. Mr. Tanaka not only read the ambiguity in the female body,which is both an object of desire and an object that causes castration
anxiety, but also made further suggestions in taking it as a site of conflict
under colonial conditions, where imitators aspire to gain independence
in the field of art practice. He provided us with a very ambitious hypothesis in his presentation by selecting specific works in support of his
theory , but we also need to understand that Freud 's fetishism does not
apply to all female figures depicted in the Cubistic works in Asia. We
should be reminded that his theory was applied to very specific artworks.
Professor Bert Winther-Tamaki's presentation was closely linked to
Mr. Tanaka's theory, as he described how Cubism that originated inEurope was received ambiguously by the artists in Asia. As a subversive
style against the Western academic style, Asians may have found Cubism
liberating. But as its origin was in the West, it also became the source ofanxiety. He described this ambiguity in relation to the intriguing term ,Asian "possession~ The issue at hand was about possession: whether or
not I possess my style or style of the others.
During our discussion in Session 3, Professor Flores pointed to theissue of"translatability,

in regards to the application of Freudian theory

on female body. It was suggested that we treat it as a problem to bereconsidered, rather than a given, because Freud's theory is based on afamily model of the 19th century bourgeois society. Applying such theory
without observing the role of woman in Asian families is an issue worth
considering. This is why we should look at Cubism 's translatability not
only in regards to its style, but also to its theory.
Session 4 covered a broad range of subjects under the theme"Narrative / Myth / Religion'.' Professor Tsuji first posed the issue of time
and the latent possibility of the narrative that is inherent in Cubism in his
introduction to the session. Cubism, from its early stages, particularly
among Salon Cubists , was closely related to the ideologies of social
reform. He indicated how we may have left this aspect behind in
examining Cubism , despite the fact that this is what may be deeply
affecting the narrative.
Following this opening comment, Professor Ushiroshoji Masahiro,
followed by Professor Karen Cordero and Mr. Tatehata Akira eachpresented their paper. Professor Ushiroshoji set our to inquire why
Cubism was incorporated in shaping the nation-state , particularly in353

paintings that have narrative subjects. In his hypothesis , he suggested chatthe multi-faceted viewpoint and the method of breaking down andrestructuring images in Cubist expressions can be deemed effective inconstructing a narrative. Moreover, he suggested that we need to take noteof the Asia-unique rendering of the narrative , which comes fromcrossbreeding Cubism with scroll painting and ocher oriental traditions.
He also followed up on the issue of audience, by caking the example of
Soedjojono of Indonesia , who endeavored to paint for the people of thenation, and not for Western tourists.
Professor Cordero's presentation in some parts corresponded toProfessor Ushiroshoji 's paper. To be specific, she noted how the Cubist
language and grammar allow for spatial and temporal compression to
construct a symbolic narrative. I believe the particular term "compress "was used in her description. This method of compression was particularly
important in murals , because murals were crucial during the Mexican
revolution as a media that presented the possibility of representing acultural symbol with modern and pre-modern tradition integrated into
one plane .
Professor Tacehata, in response , suggested how Cubism may havefunctioned as a device to arouse narrative elements. By taking a stepfurther into his argument , he suggested that styles such as Transparent
Cubism should be read , not as facets in the sense of European Cubism,
but as visual effects created by overlapping the edges of the layers, whichbecome a device to enable multiple instants to be represented in a single
picture plane. By taking this hypothetical view, he suggested how the factthat many Asian Cubists were introduced to Cubism through Orphism
and Salon Cubism could have a significant meaning.
I have just outlined the presentations of Session 4, but I will nottake the trouble in repeating the proceedings of the discussion that
followed, as our memory of this is still fresh.
In closing, I would like to comment on my experiences as one of thecuratorial members who organized the "Cubism in Asia" exhibition. Firstof all, just to remind you of the basic framework of this project , I mustnote the significant features of this exhibition. It has been co-organized bythree national museums in Tokyo, Seoul and Singapore, and has entailed
not only touring the show to the three venues , but also working througha collaborative process in the research and planning phases that led to themounting of the show. Having many curators on the team resulted insome difficulties during the process, but members were all committed inworking proactively throughout the different stages. Thus, we were able tocontinue with our discussions throughout the process. I believe such354

effort has enabled us to build an intangible but a worthy asset. In
addition, having many researchers from America , Australia , Mexico , anddifferent Asian countries parti cipat e in this sympo sium has enabled us tocreate, how ever temporaril y, a space for transnationalistic dialogue. If!
may go back to my initial inquir y, this symposium has provided us with
an opportunity to question our approach to art histor y, which continues
to stand on the premise of studying art within the confinement of
national frameworks.
By continuing our current transnationalistic effort, we ma y
construct a differ ent historical space, or a space in which we could
imagine a different histor y. Hence, it is crucial to consider how we cansustain this kind of opportunity. At the same time , we should stay wary of
the fact that promoting multiculturalism

is comparatively easy in any

cultural projects , including the visual arts, music , and theater . Brushing on
the surface would be meaningless. Cultural activities should not bemaking up for the lack of the activities in other fields. Professor Tessa
Morris-Suzuki used the term "cosmetic multiculturalism " in describing
such wariness. We should not take cultural exchange as a token gesture ,but take the issues discussed in today 's symposium into our everyday
concerns.
I may have rushed through this wrap-up session, but I would like todraw this symposium to a close.

355

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36 7

Session I

Metropolis/ Transnationalism"How We Encountered Cubism"
Mizusawa Tsutomu[C hief Curator, The Museum of Modern Art, Kamakura & Hayama]

Why Asia and Cubism? Why not Asia and Fauvism, or Asia and Expressionism, or perhaps Futurism? For example , if we were to focus on color ,the most formalistic aspect of modern painting, we could have centered
our discussion on the issue of Fauvism, taking into consideration moreworks in a broader sense to analyze Modernism in Asia from a multilateral perspective. Expressionism or Futurism may have been more
adequate points of discussion that would have enabled us to conduct a
dynamic analysis of mass culture including urban customs and manners,
and cast light on the phenomenon of cultural encounters within thecontext of"cities" or "war" in a more diverse way.
I suppose visitors who saw the landmark exhibition "Cubism inAsia" and those who have come to attend this symposium will at firsthave these sorts of questions in mind.
I myself have attempted to analyze how Expressionism in theGerman-speaking countries, Dadaism , or the cubo-futuristic expressions
which are formal aspects of those movements , made it to Japan in the Far
East, by conducting research in a specific field of expression, that ofprints, and linocuts in particular. If! were to take the terms used in thetitle of Session 1, this was my attempt to tackle the theme of"Metropolis /Transnationalism:' Part of the fruits of this endeavor was presented at theexhibition "Modernism in the Russian Far East and Japan 1918-1928" heldin 2002 , through the collaborative research by Professor Omuka
Toshiharu of the University ofTsukuba , who spoke about Cubism inJapan in Session 1 today, and Mr. Takizawa Kyoji, Curator of the Machida
City Museum of Graphic Arts. Specifically speaking , the linkage of cities
that was covered in this exhibition was: "(Berlin )-Moscow - Khabarovsk-Vladivostok - Tokyo:' Nourished by this linkage , our ideas blossomed
into an understanding of the trends of Modernism in Japan before theSecond World War, mainly in Tokyo. The outcome of this research waspresented at the exhibition "Modern Boy, Modern Girl 1910-1935" incollaboration with Professor John Clark of the University of Sydney, who
also gave a presentation in Session 1. This exhibition was realized in 1998
with the full support from the Japan Foundation and traveled to
Kamakura and Sydney.
I must admit that "Cubism " and ''Asia" are too ambitious as themes
to tackle for a curator like myself with such limited academic capacity.

368

These themes seemed to be so vast and boundless, I was at a loss as towhere to begin and could not help but feel petrified by the project.
However, Mr. Tatehata Akira and Professor Hayashi Michio who are theorganizers of this exhibition and symposium, were keenly aware of myapprehensions and handed me a large net that was marked "Metropolis"on the one side and "Transnational ism" on the other , so that I cou Id scoop
up the problem from both sides. With a slight sense of anxiety and hope, I
took part in Session 1, wondering if I could use their help to its fullest.
It was the system of the "modern museum " that greatly contributed
to guaranteeing "Cubism" its "glory" in an art historical sense. Above all,we cannot overlook the important role that the Museum of Modern Art ,New York played in this context. Our first panelist, Professor Omuka gave
us a clue to understanding how Cubism came to be accepted in Japan ,mainly in Tokyo in the 1930s, by focusing on the relationship with
America (particularly New York). He also pointed out an important issueof the transformation of the relationship between Japan and America
during the 1930s. Professor Shen Kuiyi led us to a yet uncharted territory
for us, exposing the historical reality behind modern Western painting in
China , including the actual movement of Cubism in Shanghai where
Modernism was flourishing at the time. While the presentation of thesetwo panelists touched on the role of the "Metropolis;' Professor Clark gave
us a variety of examples to analyze the dynamics of Cubism within the"Transnational" context of Asia. He also made us realize that these styles
went through very subtle ideological mutations.
How did we encounter Cubism in the first place? We do not evenhave to go as far as imagining the changes Pablo Picasso went through toanswer this question, for it probably remains a mystery to even the
Cubists themselves. Cubism went through many shifting of ideas , wasexposed to countless misunderstandings and was controversial by nature,even among the Cubists themselves, as well as in the very context of theWest that accepted Cubism.
The underlying question is whether or not there were creative
encounters between the artists and Cubism. In fact, the question directly
leads to us here in Tokyo today, and urges us to ask whether we have had acreative encounter with the exhibition "Cubism in Asia" or not. We
should not simply be baffled by what we see, nor indulge ourselves inexcessive discussion , but seek for the possibility of "unbounded dialogues"in the numerous sparks of creativity we find in what lies before us. The
presentations and discussion by the three panelists enabled us toreconfirm that this is the very starting point of our endeavor.

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Session 2

Postcolonial Situation
Hayashi Michio[Associate Professor, Faculty of Comparative Culture, Sophia University]

This Session was comprised of three presentations based on the theme of"Postcolonial Situation" from the following panelists: Mr.Jim Supangkat
from Indonesia, Professor Patrick D. Flores from the Philippines , and Mr.
Ahmad Mashadi from Singapore. Each individual was asked to give a
presentation on current issues of their respective countries, and I was themoderator responsible for developing their presentations into further
discussion.
Mr.Jim Supangkat expounded his theory on the important notionof kagunan that lies at the basis of modern art in Indonesia, and pointed
out the problematic nature of the very idea of"art" that was imported
from the West. This issue seems to have stemmed from the discontent
with the fact that the Bandung School, which played a proactive role in
the reception of Cubism , is often times criticized for having had a"colonial" tendency of being subservient to Western modern art. If weperceive the Bandung School, not from the perspective of the translated
notion of art = senz;but from the broader perspective of kagunan thatembraces both ethical and practical connotations, one could say that the
School did in fact have the potential of departing from colonialism . As
such, the transplantationof movements from the West is often accompa-

nied by the formation of a counter-discourse in the respective localities inquestion . Mr. Supangkat's presentation pointed out that at those levels
also, a fruitful "negotiation" and process of"transformation" could befound.
Professor Patrick D. Flores' presentation shed light on how thePhilippines stood out as unique among the whole of Asia in the way thatit accepted Cubism, albeit sharing similarities with other countries in theregion to a certain degree. What was surprising was the long duration of
the influence of Cubistic sryles. It was in this context that we renewed ourview on the importance of the national artist Vicente Manansala.
However, while Cubism was used in a broad range of media , including
the paintings immediately after the war that depicted the people of thelower class, to the murals that celebrated the Marcos regime, it became
highly stylized and eventually became kitsch in the process. Professor
Flores raised several issues of Cubism that should be further discussed in
the future, such as its growing possibility of its transferability, as well as its
collusion with commercialism and political power.

37 0

Mr. Ahmad Mashadi's presentation also pointed out how colonialism cast a complex shadow on the reception of Cubism. The Nanyang
School , which was the first modernist group in Singapore comprised of
ethnic-Chinese artists who incorporated aspects of Shanghai Modernism,
had a progressive outlook on Cubism. However , as Socialist Realism
gained prominence corresponding to the rise of the independence
movement , Cubism gradually became the target of criticism as anapolitical , bourgeois kind of art. Nevertheless, under such circumstances ,possibilities for new transferability were explored by artists like Lim Hak
Tai who took Cubistic elements and diverted them into leftist subject
matter. Mr. Mashadi spoke about how the connotations of Cubismchanged in relation to political contexts over a course of time , andpointed out that similar situations emerged in Indonesia and thePhilippines as well.
Based on these presentations, in our discussion we talked about themultifarious use ofCubistic idioms within political contexts from various
viewpoints. We recognized how the style of Cubism was at first accepted
as something very radical and "modern" but eventually perceived asconservative and geared towards the establishment , in general, as it
disseminated among the people. Perhaps this is a trend commonly
experienced by avant-garde movements; indeed, we came to the conclusion that this was a common, repeated trend in Asia as well. The topic of
Cubism's compatibility with large media in forms of murals to attract the
public was also raised, taking Manansala of the Philippines as an example.
Because Cubism was a method in which images and spaces were
fragmented and reconstructed , it was suitable for expressing multiple
events in one frame. Consequently, it was effective in creating a "narrative"
on a large scale. This discussion was passed onto Session 4 of Day 2.
With regard to kitchfication of Cubist works, we received acomment from the audience, questioning whether or not there was aprocess in which Cubistic methods were widely accepted in the massculture, and later came to provide people with visual entertainment. This
individual suggested that it would be necessary to dig further into this
topic. Another person commented that interpreting the Cubistic methods
that were used in murals was probably as entertaining as figuring out apuzzle, and that this element of entertainment was the driving force
behind Cubism to a certain degree. One could argue that Cubism waspreferred to be used in public images over traditional Realism, because its
way of processing images was in itself innovative. But this aspect was nottaken up in our discussion.
There were also many questions and comments raised on Mr.
Supangkat's commentary on constructing a counter-discourse such as
kagunan.As long as we are uncritical in using the idea of"art " in theWestern modern sense , there is the risk that various creative experiments
37 1

can only be evaluated within that framework, which also means that
artists of Asia have not fundamentally divorced themselves from postcolonial circumstances. In order to break from this presumption, somecall for the need to consider possible opposing dictums , while others
believe that such efforts would be generally equivalent to creating an
artificial dichotomy berween the Western and the indigenous ideas. This
may further lead to the indifference towards the process of complex
negotiation taking place in specific points in history, or the conflicts anddifferences that consequently arise within those local areas. In otherwords, this would mean suppressing the pluralistic aspects and imposing
the illusion of a "singular" culture. This concern is not limited to Cubism
in Asia but universal, as it arises at every instance one advocates for
cultural independence in the context of colonization.
This concludes my wrap-up of Session 2, in which we discussed how
Cubism changed in meaning and in function particularly in the three
countries during the process of postcolonialism , while it was subject tovarious political and social pressures. Many issues to be discussed in the
future were also raised during this session.

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Session 3

Body I Gender / Color / Decoration
Matsumoto Tohru[Chie f Curator, The Natio nal Museum of Mode rn Art, Tokyo]

Cubist works in Asia have several distinguished characteristics regarding
palettes, techniques and decorative tendencies chat are unique to each
local area, unusually lon g horizontal or vertica l picture planes chat appear
to be a compromise or mixture with conventional pictorial forms (such as
picture scro lls or hanging scro lls), and the heavy usage of curved linear
elements that are rarely seen in European Cubism. Th e cu ltur al ground or
local characteristics on the side of those who received Cubism cannot be
divorced from the particular ideas relating to the body or gender of theindividual artists. In Session 3 entitled "Body/ Gender / Co lor / Decoration ;we analyzed the formal characteristics as a starting point and tried toapproac h themes and issues relating to each art ist's identity such as bodily
expressions and ideas of gend er.
The presentation by Professor Kim Young-na took specific examples
of mother and child portraits , family portraits , as well as portraits offemale labor ers by Korean artists to exam ine the new experie nces women
faced am id the social changes during and after the Korean War, and how
strongly these experie nces were reflected in the painterly expressions. In
his presentation, Mr. Tanaka Masayuki took the female representation in
the works of F.N. Souza of Indi a, Cheong Soo Pieng of Singapore, andSom pot Upa-In of Thailand , and interpreted chem based on the Freudian
theory of fetishism. Furthermore , Mr. Tanaka suggested the possibility
that the structure of"imagined aut hori ty" inh erent in those works can befurther expanded into other symbo lic interpretations such as theachievement of national autonomy or ind ependence. The presentation byProfessor Bert Winther-Tamaki was based on the premise chat theexperience of non-European art by the European modern artists , and thatof European art by the Asian artists were not unilateral movements thattook the form of explo itation or imitation but rather , that they were
mutual exchanges. In this context, representation of the female figure in
the works ofYorozu Tetsugoro , K. G. Subramanyan, EN. Souza and others
were ana lyzed in order co understand the circumstances under wh ich thebodily expressio n was formed in their painting s. As it turned out, thethree panelists mainly took up female figures or works by female art ists,
which consequentl y lead to the discussion of gender theories and otherclosely related issues.
As one of the curators involved in the exhibition "C ubi sm in Asia"

373

that runs in conjunction with this symposium, I would like to commentthat the composition of the exhibition as a whole -w hich is comprisedof four themes: "On the Table;'"C ubism and Modernity,' "Body,'"C ubism
and Nation" - does not necessarily incorporate a gender-theoretical
viewpoint. Yet even so, I can recall with certainty that the issue of thefemale figure and the circumstances of women that are particular to Asia
were often raised as issues of concern among the organizers. Some of thefemale figures chat were interesting in this regard were grouped together
in one of the sub-sections under Chapter 3 "Body.' Meanwhile , the worksof the two female Filipino artists, Nena Saguil and Anita Magsaysay-Ho
who painted scenes of women engaged in farming labor were grouped
together in Chapter 4 "C ubism and Nation~ What I am trying to pointout here is that one of the important underlying themes of the exhibition
was unexpectedly foregrounded by the three panelists in Session 3.
The discussion after the three presentations was triggered by Mr.
Tanaka's concern relating to th e pros and cons and the possibilities ofinterpreting the group of female figure paintings based on the Freudian
theory of fetishism. Criticisms and concerns were mainly about thevalidity of limiting the interpretation of such works to the scope of
Freudian analysis, as is the case with most discussions of this sort. The
ocher concern was how far one could take a singular work from a singular
viewpoint to gain an understanding of ocher phenomena .
With regard co the former issue, Professor Hayashi Michio commented chat an analysis based on the theory of fetishism was convincing
to a certain degree , for example , when interpreting the "uncanny"impression one receives from the work Lady in Black by EN. Souza. On
the other hand , Mr. Ahmad Mashadi and Professor Ushiroshoji Masahiro
took up Cheong Soo Pieng 's work Malay Womanand directed ourattention to the multiple elements chat lead to its formation , such as theartist's origin and milieu as a Chinese immigrant, the situation underwhich Singapore and Malaysia were during the nations' formative stages,
and their social situation as multi ethnic and multicultural nations.
Professor Kim also pointed out the importance of understanding thesocial and political backgrounds when interpreting works in Korea.
The latter issue relate s to the latter half of Mr. Tanaka's presentation ,which is about the possibility of expanding the Freudian interpretation
further and reading into the works as symbolic interpretations of theachievement of"national autonomy" or"gaining of independence ~Worthy to note is Professor Winther-Tamaki 's commentary on thepossibility of interpreting the aggressive character seen in the female
representation during wartime (period of nationalism ) in Satomi
Katsuzo 's work as the artist's struggle with his own identity. Meanwhile,
Mr. Tatehata Akira took particular note of the ambiguous nature ofCheong Soo Pieng 's work, that of disquietness and toughness , and374

commented on the possibility of interpreting Cubism-a"sign of the
Other" that came from the West -as an "ideology of a transitional phase"when nations (here, I believe the term "nation" is both a representation of
a "nation = country" exercising authority, and a "nation = the people" underthat authority ) were in their formative periods to become nation-states.

375

Session 4

Narrative/Myth / Religion
Tsuji Shigebumi(Professo r, Faculty o f Hum anities. Ote m ae Un iversity/
Direc tor, Nishi nomi ya City Otani Memorial Museu m of Arc]First of all, we must pay attention to the important fact that for a long
period, from the late 18th century to the early half of the 20th century , thehistory of modern and contemporary art had been profoundly involved
with the issue of time in visual arts. In his famous literary work Laocoon:

An Essayon the Limits of Paintingand Poetry,written in 1766, Gotthold
Ephraim Lessing talks specifically about the dictum that continued to be
associated with the development of modern and contemporary art
thereafter. According to Lessing , a story is a form of art that expresses
events that emerge with time, and the most befitting form for that isliterature, for literature itself develops sequentially . On the other hand , theprimary purpose of a painting, which is a static object in itself, is to selectand depict "the most significant instant:' Impressionist paintings peakedwith Monet's work of the 1890s, and here also, the term instantaneite
continues to be an important keyword. However , important to note is
the fact that even Monet expressed his instantaneitethrough a painting
sequence - a serie- and that ultimately, this led to the realization of thelong and massive frieze housed in the Musee de l'Orangerie. This painting
actually reveals, though implicitly, that his "instant" is inseparable fromthe fact that it is a sequence, or a continuation, of multiple points in time,
and thus the ambiguity of this fact becomes unarguable. To phrase it
rather metaphorically , no matter how much importance we attach to theinstantaneite of a sensuous experience, the arts of the 19th century was infact, persistently caught up in the search for a "narrative. " The developments in 19th century Western art as such were necessary premises for
Cubism to emerge.
I would like to take up the 'TAbbaye de Creteil" as an example inorder to take a closer look at this fact. As an organization with an actual
institution, the movement had a short life that began in 1906 and ended
in 1908. Nonetheless , the formation of the organization had alreadybegun in 1904, and even after the group disbanded, its core members had
a profound influence on the breakout emergence of the so-called Salon
Cubists at the Salon d 'Automne in 1910. However, we must not forgetthat this "movement " was not confined to creative genres such as
literature and painting but rather , that it was deeply involved with the
crucial issues of the bourgeois society at the turn of the century , andaimed to reform various aspects of the society and industries from the376

public's point of view. Along with Jules Romains and Emile Verhaeren,
Albert Gleizes was also involved in the activities of"I..:Abbaye de Creteil "from its early stage , primarily through printmaking.

Yet even so,"I..:Abbayede Creteil " itself was never restricted to literary and artistic
fields , but was an organization devot ed to social reform , inspired by Leo
Tolstoy, William Morris or Peter Kropotkin .
The next point we should keep in mind is that this movement
hailed the idea of simultaneite as its key concept. The theory of simultaneite
had already been addressed in 1836 by Michel Eugene Chevreul , but by
the turn of the century , the theory had already transcended the limits ofnatural science and evolved into a larger concept , embracing social andartistic fields of interest. Needless to say, simultaneity in the arts refers to
the idea of expressing multiple viewpoints by layering images of an object
on a single plane (this includes the so-called "Roentgen images " as well as
the so-called "four dimensional expressions "), and the expression ofdifferent groups of images on a flat plane in the form of a frieze.
N. Cox 's book entitled Cubism (2000 ) was familiarized to us
through the recent translation by Mr. Tanaka Masayuki. It is one of thebest surveys in recent years that spares enough pages on the topic of'TAbbaye de Creteil ~ but unfortunately it is hard to say that Cox gives anaccurate account of the circumstances under which Henri Le Fauconnier's
epic piece,Abundance became a sort of visual manifesto for the Salon
Cubists when it was exhibited at the Salon des Independants in 1911 andwhy the piece received such enthusiastic support from the "Cubists'.' As isoften said , the widespread support of Le Fauconnier 's Abundance did not
simply arise from artistic conservatism , but occurred because the workthat was based on a grass-roots movement like the "I..:Abbayede Creteil "appeared as an icon of social reform and subsequently spread throughout
the whole of Europe. Until now, the "Salon Cubists" such as Greize,Jean
Metzinger and Le Fauconnier were likely to be regarded as followers ofPicasso and Braque. However , if they adopted Cubism not just to bringchange on the formal , aesthetic level, but on a more widespread socialand cultural level, it is perhaps more correct to say that the new forms ofexpression by Picasso and Braque incomprehensible

which were deemed violent andby the general public at the time -were accepted

because they corresponded to those mov ements of reform. We must takethis into account when we read Greize 's comment - "By the time I cameto know Picasso and Braque , I had already methodized my original
version of Cubism~
Considering the fact that Cubism embraced the image of a utopiansocial reform theory throughout the 20th centur y, which was a century of
brutal wars , it was as if it had to becom e a sort of prelude to the ensuingideologies , Stalinism and Fascism. Consequently, as authoritarianism andradical nationalism arose, Cubism was destined to be instantly branded a377