A New Conceptual Model of Metaverse for Foreign-Language Education:
Exploring Educational Infrastructures in the Age of Web 3.0【Articles】

A New Conceptual Model of Metaverse
for Foreign-Language Education: Exploring
Educational Infrastructures in the Age of Web 3.0
外国語教育に向けたメタバースの新たな概念モデル
Web3.0 時代の教育インフラストラクチャーを模索する
YAMAZAKI Asuka
（山崎

明日香）

[Contents]
1. Introduction
1.1. Overview of Web 3.0
1.2. Background of the Study
1.3. Research Objectives and Main Points of Analysis
2. Definition of Metaverse and Expansion of Users’ Market
3. Educational Applications of the Metaverse
3.1. Review of Previous Studies
3.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Metaverse-Based Education
4. Directional and Functional Development of the Metaverse
5. Designing the Metaverse as Public Sphere of Educational Culture on Virtual Space5.1. Establishment of an Educational Public Sphere: A Decentralized Open Platform
5.2. Real-time and Semi-immersive Learning Environment in Digital Twin
5.3. Autonomous Learning Through the Introduction of Interactive, Voice-enabled AI
Avatars
5.4. Personalized, Decentralized, and Open Learning Plans
6. Conclusion
References
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A New Conceptual Model of Metaverse for Foreign-Language Education:
Exploring Educational Infrastructures in the Age of Web 3.0[Abstract]
This study explores a new decentralized and open form of foreign-language learning using
metaverse in the age of Web 3.0. The contemporary world is characterized by economic andeducational–cultural disparities among and within nations. A common digital platform foreducation is essential for language education to be accessible, autonomous, and open to all.
A new language-learning metaverse based on connectivism theory would be a decentralized
and open virtual campus for foreign-language learning across borders and institutions. A
semi-immersive and simulation-based learning environment using real-time information fromdigital twins that can implement AI assistants capable of responding to multilingual voices
would enable independent, assisted learning and personalized learning plans that can adjust
learning speed and process completion.

[Article]

1. Introduction
This study explores a new decentralized and open form of foreign-language learning through1）
the metaverse in the age of Web 3.0. In recent years, various courses in informatics and languages at universities in the United States, South Korea, Japan, and other countries havefrequently been using virtual spaces, or the metaverse (see Section 3.1). This study examines a conceptual model of a new metaverse for language learning based on the connectivism
theory. Following an overview of Web 3.0 in the introduction, the background and objectivesof the study are presented. Please note that this theoretical research paper is based on
numerous recent practical educational studies as well as on diverse theoretical studies oftechnology in the era of Web 3.0. Therefore, it lacks practical considerations, such as specificlesson formats, their implementation, and the measurement of their learning effects. It is
hoped that this abstract theory will somehow be concretized and implemented.
1.1. Over view of Web 3.0
The evolution of information technology and computing is moving our era to Web 3.0, called
the “semantic web” or “spatial web”̶a conceptual model that follows Web 1.0 and Web 2.0
2）(Fig. 1, Pileggi et al. 2012, 853). Web 1.0, called the “syntax web,” is a one-way information
dissemination model that focuses on desktop applications and their use provided by browsers. Web 2.0, called the “social web,” is represented by mobile application use andcharacterized by content sharing among users via social networks. This Web 2.0 is a central総合文化研究第 28 巻第 1 号（2022.6）+YAMAZAKI Asuka氏.indd 22― 22 ―

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Fig. 1. “Theoretical vs. real Web evolution.”
Graph from article on Pileggi et al. (2012) (DOI: 10.3390/fi4030852)
3）

ized power system operated by mega-platforms such as GAFAM. The next-generation
model, Web 3.0, was previously called the “semantic web.” It represents a system in whichmachines share and reuse information through ontologies, tagging each other with information, assigning meaning to content, and building relationships between content and its
structure, as if they were humans (Evans 2021).
In recent years, Web 3.0 has taken over the concept of “semantic web” and encompassed digital twin technologies that digitize the physical world and reproduce it in a virtual
space, which is called the “three-dimensional (3D) Web” or the “spatial Web.” With the development of distributed ledger technology represented by blockchain, Web 3.0 is expected to
expand the concept as a decentralized and open system of power with the application ofadvanced technology, increasingly eliminating the boundary between digital content andphysical objects (Cook et al. 2020, 2).
The Web 3.0 era will be enabled by a number of technological innovations and their
combined convergence including 5G networks, augmented reality (AR), virtual reality (VR),cutting-edge Internet of things technologies and devices, advanced AI and machine learning
capable of understanding natural language, big data usage, advances in user interfaces, digital mapping, and so on. Instead of centralized services provided by mega-corporations,decentralized application (Dapps) services will be developed whereby any user can build andoperate the system. In the Web 3.0 era, characterized by the “democratization of the Internet,” users will be able to freely access data and services while ensuring their personalprivacy and interests.

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1.2. Background of the Study
Since the COVID-19 pandemic, the digital transformation (DX) of the education industry has
been driven by the transformation of higher-education classes into interactive online classes
using Web 2.0 technologies. Many digital platforms, such as Zoom, Google Meet, Webex,
and other video conferencing systems; learning management systems such as Manabe andlearning management cloud services such as Google Classroom; and video services such as
YouTube, among others, have been introduced to the education field. Online and remote lessons beyond spatial and physical constraints are realized while maintaining social distancing
between teachers and students.
Iio (2021, 19ff.) discusses such online classes and indicates that the advantages include
the possibility of creating highly flexible content, providing a physically and temporally flexible viewing system and highly interactive learning effectiveness. However, he noted thefollowing problems: time and effort is required to prepare for classes; on-demand classes
tend to encourage a passive learning attitude in learners; participation off-video makes it difficult to recognize students; and communication is hindered.
Nihon University’s College of Commerce began offering non-personal online classes in
May 2020, and the author also conducted a simultaneous interactive language learning classand presented its educational results at Nihon University’s campus-wide FD symposium in
4）
October 2020. A number of issues and problems for the future were identified in the process. One of them is the difficulty of establishing smooth communication in simultaneousinteractive classes. When learners participated in the class by turning off the video for privacy reasons, they were unable to recognize each other’s facial expressions, which hindered
the performance of interactive tasks. Another problem of foreign-language learning throughremote teaching is the difficulty in setting up a realistic simulation. In remote classes, it isnecessary to set up a simulation environment with either text using two-dimensional (2D)
images or video, which makes it difficult for students to have an immersive and realistic 3D
experience.
In relation to the implementation of these online classes, education using VR and AR,
which belong to Web 3.0 technologies, has been increasing since the 2000s. It has developed
rapidly since the COVID-19 pandemic began. Liu et al. (2017) conducted a bibliometric analysis of relevant 975 articles published from 1995 to 2016 in the U.S., the United Kingdom,
and Taiwan̶leading countries for VR and AR education̶and concluded that VR is the toolwith the greatest potential and promise to promote learning outcomes. According to thiscomprehensive study, the two theoretical bases for applying VR to education are constructivism and autonomous learning. The aim is to achieve through VR education a learning
environment in which learners construct and process their own knowledge and information,
as well as an autonomous exploratory process of setting learning goals and selecting learning methods that guide them.
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VR and AR are also being introduced in language learning in higher education, and Saito(2021) presented a comprehensive research trend on the use of VR and AR in English education. The following points are listed as learning benefits of this technology: (1) an immersive
experience that allows for an optimal learning environment, (2) learning at any place andtime, (3) training in a safe virtual space, (4) high learning effectiveness in language learningemphasizing engagement and memory, (5) promotion of internal motivation of learners, (6)enriching learning styles, (7) reduction of learning anxiety, and (8) promotion of intercultural understanding.
However, disadvantages are also noted regarding VR and AR use in the classroom. In
fully immersive metaverse platforms, students often wear a “head-mounted display” (HMD)
called “VR goggles.” HMD, however, often causes physical symptoms such as dizziness, nau5）sea, and headaches, known as “cybersickness.” Furthermore, according to Jensen et al.
(2018), who addressed this issue, HMD-based classes can improve cognitive, psychomotor,
and affective skills, but the strong immersive experience of using HDMs can have the oppo6）
site and detrimental effect of interfering with the performance of the learning task.
The classroom examples presented above are practices using Web 2.0 digital platforms
and some Web 3.0 VR technologies. All of these are advantageous in realizing a constructivist and autonomous learning process that puts the learner at the center while maintaining
physical distancing, free lesson design, and interactive course formats. However, they leave
many issues to be resolved.
Furthermore, by way of background to this study, the educational standards of many
people today are affected by the economic and educational–cultural disparities both between
and within nations and the “digital divide” between urban and peripheral areas in terms of
information and communication technology (ICT) knowledge and skills (cf. Várallyai et al.
2015). As language acquisition is an important educational requirement for anyone seeking
to acquire social engagement and autonomy, establishing a common platform for educationthat can overcome these various barriers and allow everyone to participate at any time isnecessary.
1.3. Research Objectives and Main Points of Analysis
Based on the above discussion of language learning through the use of conventional digitalplatforms and applications, this study explores new methods of language learning in the postCOVID-19 age of semantic web/spatial web. For this purpose, we focus on the metaverse, an
online virtual space that has been attracting attention as a new social platform in recent
years, to examine its new conceptual model for language education. The metaverse is a persistent online 3D virtual space expected to be used as a digital platform for managing
economic activities and communities, further described in Section 2.
Educational practices introducing the metaverse have been conducted, as shown in the― 25 ―+YAMAZAKI Asuka氏.indd 25

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review of previous studies in Section 3.1. However, some problems are common to thoseteaching practices. Moreover, as we will discuss in Section 5, Halimi et al. (2019) devised an“Intelligent Learning System” for Web 3.0 based on the connectivism theory proposed bySiemens (2005), a learning theory for the digital age. However, no studies have examined aforeign-language learning metaverse for the Web 3.0 era; thus, presenting a new conceptualmodel based on connectivism theory is important.
With reference to Web 3.0 technologies, this study examines a conceptual model of a
new decentralized and open metaverse for language learning that will serve as an educational infrastructure and verifies the learning benefits expected from it. We proceed asfollows: in Section 2, we discuss the definition of the metaverse; Section 3 provides examplesof educational practices using the metaverse and a review of the existing literature. Section 4
examines characteristics of the metaverse applicable to the classroom. In Section 5, we analyze a conceptual model of a Web 3.0-type metaverse for language learning based onconnectivism theory. Finally, the teaching methods and issues involved in introducing thismodel are discussed.

2. Definition of Metaverse and Expansion of Users’ Market
Neal Stephenson proposed the concept of metaverse in his 1992 science fiction novel Snow
Crash, a portmanteau of “meta,” meaning transcendence, and “universe,” meaning world oruniverse. Defined as a 3D virtual space, it is an economic and social platform that merges
7）physical reality and virtual space, allowing users to interoperate. Users control their own
3D avatars and are not only able to develop land, build cities, and conduct business transactions in VR but also play games and form communities with other avatars using voice
conversation and chat functions.
The metaverse initially emerged as a platform for multiplayer online games: In Japan,
online games such as “Fortnite” and “Animal Crossing” are well known, attracting manyusers. According to a recent eMarketer report (cf. Petrock 2021), the number of AR and VR
users in the U.S. increased dramatically from 2019 to 2021, and this trend is expected to continue beyond 2022 (Fig. 2). The above market forecasts predict that the use of platforms andapplications for building VR will continue to grow in the U.S. and that household penetration
will also increase.
Furthermore, according to Diamandis et al. (2020), players worldwide collectively
spend three billion hours a week playing video games, and digital media use aggregates to
11 hours a day in the U.S. Because of this external factor of increasing digital use, there
should be a massive migration of people to the virtual world by 2030, according to them.
This is not to say that this is an unrealistic vision: as we all know, Facebook has changed its
8）
name to “Meta” and has set a goal of connecting one billion people to VR in the future. It is
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Fig. 2. “US virtual and augmented reality users 2021”
Graph from article on eMarketer (Petrock 2021)(https://www.emarketer.com/content/us-virtual-augmented-reality-users-2021)

estimated that many people will move their economic activities, events, and entertainment
from real space to virtual space.
In addition, an educational metaverse is currently being developed as a commercial
enterprise. For instance, Roblox Education, a U.S. provider of an immersive learning metaverse, is expanding globally. More than 240 organizations in 75 countries already use thecompany’s “Roblox Studio,” a VR platform (cf. Goldman Sachs 2021, 19). As described, educational endeavors using the metaverse are expected to grow, not only because of thedevelopment of VR and AR technologies and the expansion of user applications but also
because of the advantages of free class design, class formats that transcend geographical andtemporal limitations, and multi-user participatory teaching methods. In the future, Japaneseinstitutions of higher education will develop plans to use virtual space as a canvas.

3. Educational Applications of the Metaverse
This section reviews studies of classes that have introduced the metaverse and discusses
their strengths and challenges.
3.1. Review of Previous Studies
Educational uses of the metaverse were already conceived of in 2008. Collins (2008) foresaw― 27 ―+YAMAZAKI Asuka氏.indd 27

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that the use of the metaverse in higher-education institutions would reduce costs and create
an ideal working environment that met teachers’ needs. The information education class proposed by Ogawa et al. (2009) serves as a practical example from the same period. In thisclass, the metaverse “Second Life” was introduced, and the students were asked to create
their own avatars and given the task of making their own presentations and evaluating others’ presentations.
In digitally advanced South Korea, DX is progressing in the field of education, and applications of the metaverse in the classroom have been reported in recent years. Jeon et al.
(2021) provided several examples of classes using the “Gather.town” metaverse, whereinreal schools, classrooms, and lounges are digitally copied to create mirror worlds with 8-bit
designs. He also evaluated the use of metaverse in non-real-time offline classes outside regular classes, such as summer courses, where students can par ticipate without time
constraints. Moreover, metaverse enables peer tutoring, whereby learners teach each other,and flexible lesson design that combines live streaming, games, and whiteboards.
Meanwhile, Kye et al. (2021) examined the technical features of the metaverse and analyzed its advantages and limitations in educational applications. In that study, they described
how a classroom map using “Zepto,” a leading metaverse platform in Korea, was introduced
to a distance learning class, achieving a strong learning outcomes during the COVID-19 pandemic.
Koyama (2010) conducted a study of the early application of “There,” a metaverse, toteach English, conducted over a 5-year period from 2004 to 2008. Subject English-learners
were computer technical college students. In and out of class, learners controlled their own
avatars in the metaverse and attempted to communicate in English through text-based chatwith foreign avatars whom they happened to meet. Subsequently, they engaged in a minimum of 30 conversation turns in English with other avatars. The turns included greeting,self-introduction, and self-presentation. According to Koyama (2010, 142f.), the students’ dislike of English decreased, their English conversation skills improved, and theirunderstanding of the necessity of learning English increased as a result of this experiment. A
vocabulary test was conducted before and after the course to measure improvements in theconversational skills of the students. The results demonstrated a significant difference inaverage scores (ibid., 142).
3.2. Advantages and Disadvantages of Metaverse-Based Education
As mentioned above, several teaching practices in higher-education institutions have introduced metaverse. Among these studies, the following advantages are indicated: (1) more
flexible class design, (2) more motivation for learners and better learning outcomes, (3) successful simulation with high immersion and rich vir tual experience, (4) facilitatedcommunication, (5) classroom implementation beyond physical distancing and time con総合文化研究第 28 巻第 1 号（2022.6）+YAMAZAKI Asuka氏.indd 28― 28 ―

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straints, and (6) cost reduction. Here we see the advantages of free construction ofknowledge by constructivist learners and ensuring an autonomous learning process, both ofwhich are considered in VR and AR education. Both teachers and students are bound to fixedclass times in conventional methods. However, class design is flexible in metaverse-basedlearning because tasks can be performed outside of study hours.
Moreover, Koyama’s (2010) study of English-language learning using the metaverse,
which was referenced in this study, can also be mentioned for its advantages, including thechance nature of conversations (then called “chats”) between avatars who are not mutuallyacquainted and meet by chance in the metaverse. This chance or coincidence makes it possible for students to communicate with foreigners other than their classmates while they are in
Japan, and thus to have an extraordinary experience that transcends physical distancing. The
ability to interact with diverse students beyond the time and space of the virtual spacereflects learning in the metaverse.
The disadvantages, however, are summarized by Kye et al. (2021, 10–11) as follows: (1)identity confusion due to unclear boundaries between the real and virtual worlds; (2) inability by administrators to grasp all their students’ behaviors, which may lead to crimes; (3) riskof invasion of privacy as students can easily establish relationships with others. Furthermore,
the issue of Koyama’s (2010) practice can be cited. As previously mentioned, the element ofchance governs conversations between avatars who meet in the metaverse. Therefore, if noother users are available when participants “dive” (enter) into metaverse, they will not beable to find a conversation partner and will spend their time aimlessly, in which case it will
not work as a class. Even if a participant finds a conversation partner by chance, if there is asignificant difference between the person’s foreign-language ability and their level, theywould not be a suitable conversation partner. If the foreign language spoken by the person ismixed with the local language (i.e., the person has an accent), it is difficult for a beginner foreign-language learner to understand the hybrid foreign language spoken by the otherperson.
As discussed above, there are many advantages and disadvantages to using VR technology of the latest metaverse in the classroom. As a solution to these problems, this study
presents a conceptual model of an open platform for language learning, which is an evolutionof the centralized Web 2.0. As already mentioned, giant corporations control and offer
numerous Web 2.0 platforms, which are centralized systems. Hence, personal information
can easily be collected and potentially bought and sold (see Singhal et al. 2020, 23f.). Moreover, some metaverse fees are waived for personal use. Nevertheless, premium fees are set
9）for game-providing metaverse, such as Roblox. For example, oVice charges a monthly fee
10）of 5,500 yen for corporate users of its metaverse. In addition, it applies cluster charges of
one million yen for event planning and usage for corporations hosting events in their meta11）verse. Thus, metaverse use is not free.

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4. Directional and Functional Development of the Metaverse
This section examines the technologies and functions that could be applied to language
learning in the metaverse and provides guidelines for presenting a new conceptual model ofthe metaverse for educational use. The Metaverse Roadmap published by Smart et al. in 2007
estimates the possible technological developments, market expansion, social impact, anduser trends of the metaverse over the subsequent decade (Fig. 3).
In this roadmap, “augmented reality,” “virtual world,” “lifelogging,” and “mirror world”
are listed as the four technological domains that make up the metaverse. “Virtual world” represents a space in which simulated social, economic, and political systems are intermingledusing cybernetic technology, and it forms the foundation for the operation of the metaverse.
“Lifelogging” uses augmented technology to record and distribute real-time information
about objects and people. “Mirror world” is now being replaced by the concept of a digitaltwin or developed as a “mixed reality” technology that superimposes 3D holograms on realworld shapes.
The above four technological areas feature the “augmentation” and “simulation” technologies and two directional elements, namely, “intimate” and “external” (Fig. 3). Augmentation

Fig. 3. “Metaverse Scenarios”
Graph from article on Smart et al. (2016, 17)(https://www.w3.org/2008/WebVideo/Annotations/wiki/images/1/19/MetaverseRoadmapOverview.pdf)
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denotes the ability to extend the metaverse to real-world systems. Simulation signifies thetechnique of constructing a virtual and interactive space that models reality. The term intimate relates to the construction of an identity that is represented by the alter ego avatar,
which maintains subjectivity within the system and is created through interactions with otheravatars. Externality concerns the storage and provision of information about the external
world around the user as well as the ability of users to manage it themselves. Metaverse is
expected to continue to strengthen and develop the above four technologies and directions.
The simulation functionality embedded in the structure of the metaverse has also been
confirmed for its interactive effectiveness in language-teaching research, which is theoretically based on cognitive developmental science; according to García-Carbonel et al. (2014,12), the application of games and simulation methodologies in language learning is intended
to reproduce real-life language models through scenarios. Learners then use and discover
informed behaviors and knowledge that can be applied to real-life situations through thistraining. This traditional learning method also facilitates communication between learners
who role-play with each other, immersing them in the situation and allowing them to acquire
professional knowledge and competencies.
Furthermore, VR and mirror-world simulation technologies are characterized by theirreality modeling and immersive nature. In this regard, one can refer to Davis et al.’s (2020)
study of the effects of practicing public speaking with VR from a clinical psychology perspective. Cognitive modifications to reduce public speaking anxiety and fear can be achieved withVR training in front of an audience in a virtual space. Such training in a virtual space for verbal communication can be applied to foreign-language learning, in which learners are
immersed in an artificial situation to improve their language skills and develop problem-solving skills.

5. Designing the Metaverse as Public Sphere of Educational Culture on
Virtual Space
Siemens (2005) postulated connectivism as an educational theory of the digital age. This
conceptual construct is based on behaviorism, cognitivism, and constructivism, and similar
to these prior theories, the learner is the subject that assembles knowledge. The connective
principle extends the intellectual resources for learning in the dynamic and highly advanced
information society and expands the scope of learning beyond teachers. Learning can occur
both within and outside networks, and individuals can select from and opt for numerous upto-date information sources to generate and build their knowledge. Individuals are connected
in a network that decentralizes and commonizes their dynamic knowledge and simultaneously reverts it to the organization, which, in turn, reconstructs and feeds it back to society.
The extension of personal networks allows learning communities to interconnect and amplify― 31 ―+YAMAZAKI Asuka氏.indd 31

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knowledge and understanding.
In this context, Shrivastava (2018) reported the outcomes of a joint experiment conducted in two different educational institutions in India and Austria using the theory of
connectivism to create knowledge facilitating cross-cultural communication and understanding. The concept of connectivism is highlighted as a learning system that creates new
knowledge across spaces by organizing individual learning and team processes of knowledge
acquisition with complex and sophisticated open sources as nodes in the current digital ageof daily updates.
Furthermore, Halimi et al.’s (2019) theoretical study of the intelligent learning systems
represents a comprehensive study of the Web 3.0-related learning model based on connectivism, and their model is further designed on the basis of such connectivism, combined withsemantic web representation and the use of learning analytics techniques. The systemenables learners to connect and share information distributed across the network with others anytime and anywhere. It also shapes learning by creating knowledge through data
mining, monitoring learning activities, conducting semantic analysis of voluminous learning
data, and developing approaches to improving learning.
Halimi et al.’s learning system based on connectivism is solely grounded in the technicalconcepts of the semantic web and it does not include the newer, decentralized, and open Web
3.0 concepts of spatial web/3D web. Therefore, if Halimi et al.’s learning model is further
augmented with elements of VR 3D space and simulation elements of a public metaverse
with a digital twin, we can create a decentralized and open language learning model based onconnectivism that is more universal and appropriate for the digital age.
What would a metaverse for language learning based on this intelligent learning modelfor the Web 3.0 era look like? Here is a brief overview (Figs 4 and 5).
(1) A common open platform for education that transcends the limitations of nations
and higher-education institutions and becomes the main campus for foreign-language learning worldwide.
(2) A semi-immersive and simulation-enabled learning environment using real-time
information from digital twins.
(3) System implementation of a large number of AI assistants capable of responding tomultilingual voice support to enable self-directed learning.
(4) A highly personalized learning plan that can freely adjust learning speed and process completion.
In the next section, we examine in detail the conceptual model of the metaverse specific tolanguage learning, following the abovementioned points.

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Fig. 4. Foreign-language learning metaverse as a digital educational platform

Fig. 5 Images of the educational metaverse

5.1. Establishment of an Educational Public Sphere: A Decentralized Open Platform
As mentioned in Section 1.2, the current situation is one of widening economic and educational disparities between and within nations, with many people losing access to educational
and information resources, failing to achieve educational equality. Therefore, the author― 33 ―+YAMAZAKI Asuka氏.indd 33

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would like to propose the concept of an educational metaverse in the age of Web 3.0, which
would be a supra-regional and universal infrastructure for society and culture that can beapplied to language learning. It should exist as an educational and cultural public sphere in a
virtual space, a common platform that is freely accessible to all, through decentralized governance based on the cooperation of each state and each institution of higher education.
To investigate this concept of metaverse as an educational infrastructure, we refer to theideal concept of a blockchain-based “Decentralized Autonomous Organization” (DAO), critically examined by Nabben (2021). According to Nabben, DAOs should not be centralized
and oppressive digital platforms in which only an elite group gains control of the virtual
space. Its organization would be a “public interest” organization within a public blockchaincommunity, with harmonious human and algorithmic co-constitution, and autonomous self12）
determination and governance of individuals and groups.
However, as Singhal et al. (2020) noted, blockchain allows for a decentralized system
structure, but because of the commonly agreed-upon state and the global computer-likebehavior of the system, it is a logically centralized system in certain respects. Nevertheless,according to Singhal et al., this technology will enable leadership through the “Wisdom of
Crowds,” which incorporates the opinions of many diverse people and the consequent development of various fields. James Surowiecki’s (2004) book, The Wisdom of Crowds, alluded tothe term, hypothesizing that the aggregation of many insights can render an accurate prediction. People and things are networked in our times, and collective knowledge forms publiclearning. For instance, Wikipedia signifies that the Wisdom of Crowds is already considereda decentralized system. These new technologies could provide each user with a self-governing identity, allowing them to participate in learning characterized by openness anddecentralized control.
As for the organization of decentralized governance as sociocultural infrastructure, thegovernment-approved platforms that have already been realized ahead of their time canserve as a reference. In Japan, for example, since 2020, a virtual space called “Virtual
Shibuya,” a mirror world, has been operating, and public events such as coming-of-age cere13）
monies were held here during the COVID-19 pandemic. Such a public administrationdriven metaverse is expanding while also promoting digital infrastructure. In that virtual
space, everyone is free to receive public services and support without restrictions, and it isintended to function as a multilayered and decentralized community place that transcends
traditional administrative divisions. Using these public platforms as a model, the creation of aplatform for language learning as an international infrastructure for educational culture
could serve as a digital learning space freely accessible to everyone.
According to connectivism, this theory defines learning as a process by which learners
themselves become actors; find and connect to various intellectual resources such as people,
organizations, and data nodes in a network; and then build their own multilayered knowl総合文化研究第 28 巻第 1 号（2022.6）+YAMAZAKI Asuka氏.indd 34― 34 ―

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edge. Therefore, metaverse itself should be a public platform for the promotion of common
learning, where learners can dive in, find various nodes, and develop a learning network withother people and machines.
In this way, the open platform for language learning should become the main campus
for worldwide foreign-language learning through multilingual support. In connectivism,
learners themselves are not passive but active learning subjects in the construction anddeployment of networked knowledge. In such decentralized, open, autonomous learning,learners can shape the content of the platform. In this regard, Roblox Education, the current
educational metaverse, requires a developer to customize it for each institution’s users,
which is costly. Therefore, the educational metaverse in the age of Web 3.0 will be easier to
use if users are free to enlarge the space, and if the program is easy to configure to create
spaces for language learning and discussion. Learner involvement will be high if users arefree to build systems that respond to the ideas of the participants, such as communities, virtual canvases, vocational schools, and time-slip experience tours to the past.
5.2. Real-time and Semi-immersive Learning Environment in Digital Twin
The Web 3.0 technologies will advance the construction of the digital twin. For example, the“Tokyo Digital Twin Project” and the “PLATEAU” project aim to use real-time information inphysical space and conduct interactive integration in digital space to provide administrative
14）
services. Those are encouraging autonomous and decentralized uses of 3D city model datausing geospatial information and releasing it as open data. Everyone can freely use real-timeurban space data for simulation purposes in business and create new experiences and values
in culture and art. In the U.S. and Europe, where 3D urban data utilization is advancing, suchdata are recognized as public property that should be returned to citizens (Saito et al. 2022).
These data are released into the public domain in the U.S.
The prospect of public and private use of the open data of the digital twin supports therealization of the concept of a decentralized, connectivism theory–based educational platform
discussed in the previous Section 5.1. According to connectivism, information is constantly
being updated, and learners develop the decision-making capacity to connect to and acquire
such new knowledge, while also discarding it. The use of urban data transmitted in real timeallows learners to acquire more knowledge, share it with users in the network, and derive
creative answers to solve problems or feed the reconstructed information back to the larger
organization.
Furthermore, this real-time urban data can also be used as an open metaverse for foreign-language learning in the future. The platform would provide learners with a simulated
cultural experience as a place of interaction. Thus, the city as a platform could be reconfigured as a realistic compact city, where learners could learn about foreign customs, different
cultures, and history while using real-time local information, and understand the local experi-― 35 ―+YAMAZAKI Asuka氏.indd 35

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ence and culture using a more up-to-date simulation.
If the local higher-education institutions can be digitally twinned, a virtual study-abroad
experience can be conducted, serving as risk-avoidance preparation before studying abroad.
In our world, many people have limited freedom of movement; hence, providing people witha realistic, interactable virtual learning space in a multi-user mode can have the same educational effect as face-to-face interactive classes that transcend national borders. In addition,
real-time city information could be used in metaverse to simulate city-building as if it were agame, and to learn about the use of and connections to transportation modes such as planes,
buses, and trains that are operating in real time. Furthermore, it would be possible to study
global business, such as local monetary values and business practices through virtual transactions, such as shopping, and virtual experiences while learning the language of local
agriculture and factories.
Regarding this experiential learning using virtual technology, the class practice byYonemoto (2021), which is based on gamification methodology using foreign language learning AR to simulate disaster situations, is instructive. It is a process of learning information on
disaster preparedness, evacuation routes and survival methods in a foreign language. Thiskind of learning in the metaverse will be more effective not only as a preparation for disaster
preparedness in a foreign country, but also as a simulation of learning a foreign language
necessary for actually living there.
Finally, this study proposes a semi-immersive educational process for language learning
in metaverse. As already mentioned, while classes with VR goggles (HMDs) are effective in
learning various simulations, the physical symptoms of cybersickness and the learner identity confusion that occurs in VR classes were noted. Furthermore, from the author’s
perspective, wearing HMDs is unsafe, as they cannot recognize if a fire or crime occurs intheir surroundings. For this reason, a sustained learning experience on a PC is recommended without wearing VR goggles, which are conducive to virtual experiences. There aremany advantages to setting up a semi-immersive learning environment with a sense of being
in reality, rather than being fully immersed in a virtual world to accomplish learning tasks.
5.3. Autonomous Learning Through the Introduction of Interactive, Voice-enabled
AI Avatars
In January 2022, Meta announced a new supercomputer, the “AI Research SuperCluster,”with visions of a system that would enable real-time translation capabilities for multiple people and in multiple languages (cf. Lee et al. 2022). Thus, in the Web 3.0 world, automatic
speech recognition technology is expected to evolve further. Implementing such an oral language-enabled vir tual AI assistant in the metaverse system will suppor t the user’s
independent work and interactive learning environment. Two uses for this voice-enabledassistant can be thereby identified: 1) guidance and tutoring for the learner and 2) support
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for the learner’s language learning partner and performance.
An example of (1) is the practice proposed by Laeeq et al. (2021), whereby an intelligent
multi-agent-based voice-enabled virtual assistant is implemented to accelerate user tasks andimprove learner performance and motivation through natural voice commands. If theselearners do not need to use a mouse or keyboard to perform tasks, achieve progress, or complete the next assignment, they will be more efficient at all stages of learning. Moreover, as
the educational resource disparities widen, learners who lack educational resources often
face a digital divide problem, such as a lack of IT skills and other ICT, and discomfort withmachines. An easier-to-understand virtual assistant can take the operational burden off theirshoulders and mitigate these educational and informational divides. Therefore, learners canbe verbally guided through the operation of the metaverse and the execution of their studies.
Furthermore, MacCallum et al. (2019, 27) concluded that teachers with low VR manipulation
skills are less likely to benefit from learning in the AR metaverse. Some AI guidance would
be useful to support faculty with this information gap.
Regarding (2), Saito (2021) provides a helpful discussion on speech assistants that
improve learners’ conversational skills. According to her, technologies for automatic speech
recognition and automatic pronunciation evaluation have already been introduced in the fieldof language education, facilitating learning pronunciation and speech production. Moreover,Desai et al. (2021) used a virtual assistant in teaching English conversation and found it
effective for learning. This system includes the SynQG model for question generation, the
RoBERTa model for grammar error correction, and the Parselmouth–Praat model for speech
analysis. This automatic speech recognition technology has the potential to evolve further
and is expected to be used in many learning platforms in the future, including metaverse.
In connectivism, the learner does not solely rely on the teacher to assimilate knowledge,
but connects to and builds knowledge from the sources in the network, both alone and withcolleagues. The teacher provides information on each node to the learner, monitors them,and works with them to come up with solutions to problems that cannot be solved by AI. In
such an intelligent learning system for the Web 3.0 era, if VR avatars capable of natural language understanding that respond to users’ conversations are implemented in a metaverse
city, foreign-language learners can proceed with their learning independently. It is better todevelop not only scripted conversation patterns based on collective knowledge but also individually responsive deep-learning conversations for each learner.
With this methodology, learners would not rely on chance to converse with foreigners
they happen to meet in the metaverse, as we have seen in Section 3.2, referring to Koyama’s(2010) study of English learning using the metaverse. The learner will be able to simulate aface-to-face conversation with an AI assistant at any time, even alone, within the virtual space.
Autonomous learning in which the learner chooses his or her own learning goals and process is possible. Of course, the multi-user mode in class units can continue to practice― 37 ―+YAMAZAKI Asuka氏.indd 37

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conversations with each other, attempting to improve the effectiveness of group learning
while gaining a sense of intimacy.
In the current metaverse, for example, in the game Fortnite, users cannot communicate
verbally with an algorithmically controlled non-player character when playing in solo mode.
The user’s ability to have voice conversations is limited to other human avatar users when
the user switches to multi-user mode. To solve these problems of the current metaverse, a
new autonomous learning platform for language learning in the Web 3.0 era would be betterfor implementing a VR-AI assistant to guide and converse with each user. This would support
the user’s personalized learning process.
5.4. Personalized, Decentralized, and Open Learning Plans
The connectivism learning theory builds on previous learning theories, such as constructivism, behaviorism, and cognitivism and integrates self-organized learning processes within a
network. This theory is learner-centered and manages the learning process and proficiency
level by itself. The large amount of data generated by the learner also allows analysis of student behavior through learning analytics approaches and social semantic techniques (Halimi
et al. 2019, 1374). For learning systems practice in the “semantic” Web 3.0 based on the theory of connectivism, a survey by Saito (2021) of the trends of various AIED (AI in Education)
deployments in U.S. universities is instructive. According to the survey, the systems thathave been adopted since 2008 include (1) intelligent tutoring systems, (2) dialog-based tutoring systems, (3) exploratory learning environments, and (4) automatic feedback and scoring
essays. These not only allow learners to learn individually and autonomously but also reducethe cost of university education.
It would be ideal to incorporate such a system that uses advanced artificial intelligenceto support independent learning within metaverse in the Web 3.0 generation. There, eachlearner’s data, whether individual or in a group, will be organized and managed throughmechanical contextualization, hierarchization, and structuring. The analysis is then used tomake inferential and automatic content recommendations for more appropriate learning support. Such an integrated, personalized, and intelligent learning system makes the learner’s
own learning behavior visible and enables a flexible and engaged learning environment.
Metaverse learners take the free learning process discussed in Section 5.3. and manage
the setting and performance of their own assignments, selecting appropriate tasks. The
learning speed and the completion of the process may be freely adapted to the learner’s levelof learning proficiency, which may allow the learner to complete the course earlier. It would
also be desirable to allow students to choose to study either on an individual basis or in units
per class. In terms of class units, either at each university or, ideally, internationally andacross institutions, learners could be organized by field of specialization, interest, or proficiency level, and classes could be updated from time to time as learners’ academic skills
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improve. In this way, learners can constantly communicate and collaborate with other learners from different countries, allowing mutual cultural exchange through foreign-language
learning. It will be possible to achieve the ideal of connectivism, open collaborative learning
anytime, anywhere, with anyone, and with a diverse group of people.
This will create a new common learning space for group work and other activities thattranscend geographical and physical distance, regardless of university or status, with greater
range and intensity than ever before. In addition, as already mentioned in the digital twinconcept, free use of vast amounts of big data is expected in the era of Web 3.0, and the accumulation of such vast data will enable learners to create their own optimal simulations forlanguage learning through AI applications. Furthermore, it is normally necessary to prepare
various teaching materials such as textbooks and supplementary materials required for language learning, and teachers need to spend a lot of time creating such materials. However,by applying people’s vast collective knowledge, teachers and learners can collaborate to automatically create personalized learning content tailored to their own learning processes,
teaching styles, and interests. Decentralized and open content creation can lower the cost of
education.
The metaverse is expected to replace the traditional classroom space as a tool for independent learning once universities are eventually integrated. Foreign language learning
should denote social and educational and cultural infrastructure for everyone, regardless oftime or place. Moreover, people with physical disabilities can use the learning metaverse to
create easily accessible foreign language learning environments without traveling fromhome.
The organization and operation of such a common educational metaverse across nations
and universities requires common grading standards. For learners of European languages,
the introduction of the standardized “Common European Framework of Reference for Languages” (CEFR) will help them understand their proficiency levels and identify their futureachievement goals. Using these standards as a guide, it will be possible to design the language learning process as a credit system based on proficiency level, not tied to time orcourse hours. If a language course requires students to absorb specialized knowledge andvocabulary at the same time, or to include specialized or cultural experiences as part of thecourse requirements, other evaluation criteria should be used (CEFR encompasses evaluation criteria for only six levels from A1 to C2; hence, other criteria must be established if
these levels are insufficient).
As for the protection and security of personal information, blockchain technology allows
for stricter protection of personal information and grade management. According to
Kobayashi (2021), decentralized, open, community-based organizational management in theage of Web 3.0 will allow people to manage their own information themselves. When learners
learn in a common metaverse, identity is guaranteed by facial recognition, preventing avatars― 39 ―+YAMAZAKI Asuka氏.indd 39

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from impersonating themselves or acting on their own behalf when performing tasks. It thenbecomes desirable to manage personal information through a self-sovereign ID using blockchain. If the learner is affiliated with a university, the organization will manage his/her
grades, but the personal information will be managed jointly with the learner himself/herself, while learners who are not affiliated with an institution will control their informationindividually.

6. Conclusion
The universal educational metaverse discussed in this study assumes that all target students
have the same level of digital information skills and free access to ICTs. However, as discussed in Section 1.2, the existing uneven digital gap cannot be eliminated due tosocioeconomic inequalities and educational disparities. For these problems of the digital
divide, as emphasized by Cruz-Jesusa et al. (2016, 72f.), it is necessary to first find the gaps
in digital education and then eliminate the educational inequalities. The realization and operation of metaverse considered in this study will be difficult without simultaneously resolving
these information disparities. Moreover, as already mentioned in Section 5.3, differences inteachers’ ICT experience and skills must be considered in the teaching of VR use (cf. MacCallum et al. 2019, 31).
Moreover, the development, customization, implementation, and maintenance of a metaverse educational system would probably mandate the expense of enormous cost, time, andeffort. Such immense requirements of national investments indicate that the construction ofan open metaverse learning space and its accessibility to the general public remains a distant
likelihood. However, the plan could someday become a reality if nations mutually invest a
percentage of their GDPs in its actualization.
Nevertheless, a decentralized and open digital platform for education that is operated
jointly by the state and educational institutions is expected to not only have advantages
beyond advancing the DX of education but also solve the cost issues surrounding contempo15）
rary university education. In the trend toward cost-cutting at universities, the practice ofdigital classes connecting students at different universities online will become increasingly
standardized. In the context of this trend in the education industry, the development andoperation of a common metaverse in virtual space for education can be considered to represent a possible direction for the education industry of the future.

Acknowledgments
This study reflects the comments made by numerous participants during the conference presentations(KGDaF). In addition, it encompasses the opinions, critiques, and suggestions offered by the journal’s peer
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A New Conceptual Model of Metaverse for Foreign-Language Education:
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reviewers. I would like to express my gratitude to all of them. This research was supported by the Kaken
grant (19K00487) from the JSPS (Japan Society for the Promotion of Science), as well as the research fundof the College of Commerce, Nihon University.

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Yamazaki, Asuka (2022) “Ein neues konzeptionelles Modell des Metaversum für den Fremdsprachenunterricht: Erforschung von Unterrichtspraktiken im Zeitalter des Web 3.0,” Koreanischen Gesellschaft für
Deutsch als Fremdsprache (KGDaF) Tagungsband/Proceedings, 75–86
Yonemoto, Kazuhiro (2021) “Reinforcing International Students’ Language Skills for Disaster Preparedness:
A Case Study of Gamification that Utilizes Augmented Reality Technology,” M. Peterson et al. (eds.)
Digital Games and Language Learning Theory, Development and Implementation, Bloomsbury Academic, 163–192
Várallyai, László, Miklós Herdon, and Szilvia Botos (2015) “Statistical Analyses of Digital Divide Factors,”
Procedia Economics and Finance 19, 364–372, https://doi.org/10.1016/S2212-5671(15)00037-4

Notes1）This article reflects a comprehensive revision of the author’s proceeding manuscript (Yamazaki 2022)
to which significant additions and corrections were effected. This amended version of the original paper
also incorporates and develops the comments and suggestions offered by reviewers. This study is basedon Asuka Yamazaki’s conference presentation entitled “Ein neues konzeptionelles Modell des Metaversum für den Fremdsprachenunterricht: Erforschung von Unterrichtspraktiken im Zeitalter des Web
3.0,” (Koreanischen Gesellschaft für Deutsch als Fremdsprache (KGDaF)), (April 23, 2022, Korea University, Korea)
2）Regarding the different designations of Web 3.0, a number of articles have been published: Pileggi et al.
(2012, 853) define Web 3.0 as a “semantic web,” and Cook et al. (2020) define it as a “spatial web.”
3）Web 2.5 is the theoretical and practical web model in the middle stage between Web 2.0 and Web 3.0.
Some researchers have argued that certain computing technologies are currently located in this stage(Pileggi et al. 2012, 853).
4）Cf. Asuka Yamazaki (2020, Oct. 17) “A Successful Model of Language Teaching Using Zoom. From theIntroduction of Active Learning to the Examination of Issues in the First Semester,” The rd Symposiumon Online Teaching at Nihon University.
5）The BBC (2020) also reported on this “cybersickness” problem, in which software developers wore VR
headsets for many hours a day, resulting in weakening eyesight.
6）There is also concern about negative psychological effects regarding VR (see Bailenson 2018).
7）The definition of the metaverse has been developed from several works: cf. Collins (2008), Smart (2016),
Kobayashi (2021) and Okashima (2022) etc.
8）Davies, Pascale (2021, Oct.12) “Meta takes its first step in making the metaverse real with Horizon
Worlds app,” Euronews, https://www.euronews.com/next/2021/12/10/meta-takes-its-first-step-in-maki
ng-the-metaverse-real-with-horizon-worlds-app (accessed March 6, 2022)
9）For more information on “Roblox,” see https://www.roblox.com/premium/membership (accessed May
9, 2022).
10）The Web site of “oVice,” see https://ovice.in/ja/pricing/ (accessed May 9, 2022).
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A New Conceptual Model of Metaverse for Foreign-Language Education:
Exploring Educational Infrastructures in the Age of Web 3.011）About “cluster,” see the Website: https://www.biz.cluster.mu (accessed May 9, 2022).
12）For DAO, see also Fukunaga (2021).
13）For more information on “Virtual Shibuya,” see https://vcity.au5g.jp/shibuya (accessed Jan. 15, 2022).
14）Cf. Tokyo Digital Twin Project, https://info.tokyo-digitaltwin.metro.tokyo.lg.jp (accessed Feb. 17,2022). About “PLATEAU,” see the Website: https://www.mlit.go.jp/plateau/ (accessed Feb. 17, 2022).
15）In the context of the declining birthrate in Japan, Japanese universities are in a difficult financial situation, and foreign-language courses are being consolidated and outsourced as online classes (cf. Ueno2022).

要旨
本稿は Web3.0 時代におけるメタバースを利用した新しい分散型でオープンな外国語学
習の形を模索する。現代は各国家間や国内での経済的また教育文化的な格差が生じている。誰にもアクセス可能で自律的でオープンな言語教育のために、教育用の共通デジタル
プラットフォームが必要である。コネクティビズム理論に基づいた新しい語学学習用のメ
タバースは、国境や教育機関を超えた外国語学習の分散型でオープンな仮想キャンパスとなる。またそのプラットフォームは、デジタルツィンのリアルタイム情報を利用した半没入的でシミュレーション可能な学習環境となるだろう。そして、自立型の支援学習を可能にする多言語音声に対応できる AI アシスタントの実装と、学習速度や課程の修了を調節できるパーソナライズされた学習計画を可能にする。

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