Preface
The term “globalization” was coined in the previous century to explain therelaxation of border controls and the promotion of interactivity between nations.
Nowadays, the term is commonly subdivided into the three main categories of
economic globalization, political globalization, and cultural globalization, although
it is more often used in relation to international trade and communications.
Despite its short history as a noun, the start of globalization is generally
attributed to advances in transportation technology, such as the steam locomotiveand steamship, and the telecommunications infrastructure; both of which arecomparatively modern advances. Some scholars, however, prefer to trace its
origins back much further to the European Age of Discovery in the 15th century.
However, if we take the word “globalization” at face value to mean
“integration on a global scale,” then it is possible to trace it back to the moment
when the human race took its first step outside of Africa and began to spreadthroughout the world. From this point of view, the true meaning of globalizationis buried in cultural exchange, not in trade and communications.
This book concentrates on the cultural side of globalization under thename of “transculturalism” in order to separate its cultural aspect from its
broader meaning. The aim of the book is to put forth the idea that although
there is a strong tendency for us to believe that cultures evolved independently
and are completely different from each other, they all share certain underlying
similarities that link them together. In many cases, the cultural elements
prevalent in our own nations originated in other countries and were adapted to
fit local tastes over time. In other cases, certain cultural aspects would not existwere it not for pre-existing cultures. For example, were it not for the culture ofAncient Greece, the Italian Renaissance would never had occurred.
But, more than anything, the book is designed to emphasize the fact that
despite our own national identities, beneath the surface we are all members of
the same human race, and understanding and keeping an open mind about othercultures is the most important form of globalization.
And lastly, please note that all opinions stated within the book are mine.
Hopefully, you will be able to find points of contention so that you can form yourown opinions.

Christopher Belton

Transculture.indd 3

2016/10/13 9:38

Unit 4

Table of Contents

RenaissanceTranscending Cultural Movements ……………… 28
ルネサンス ―― ジャンルを横断するムーブメント

Unit 1The Concept of Beauty

Unit 5…………

8「美」の概念The Structure of
Fictional Literature………………………

34

物語の構造

Unit 2

Unit 6

Greek Mythology

The Theater and Acting

Stories of Gods and Humans …………………………… 14「演じる」という行為

………

40

……………

46

ギリシア神話 ―― 神々と人間の物語

Unit 3

Unit 7The Bible

The English Language

Mainstay of Christianity …………………………………… 22

英語の変遷

聖書 ―― キリスト教の支柱Unit 8

Unit 12The Rise of Cities………………………………

52

Marriage and the State………………

都市の隆盛

結婚と国家

Unit 9Unit 13

Trusting in RecordedHistory

The Meaning of Prayers……………………………………………………………………

58

76

…………

82

……………

88

…………………………………………………………

94「祈り」のもつ意味

歴史という記録の信頼性

Unit 10

Unit 14

Battles on Board Games

…………

64

Mankind and Laughter

盤上の戦い ―― チェス／将棋／チャトランガ…

笑いと人間

Unit 11

Unit 15

How Democracy Works…………

民主主義という制度

70

The Importance ofDiscipline「しつけ＝規律」の重要性

Unit1The Concept of Beauty「美」の概念「美」とはいったい何か。わたしたちはどのような基準に基づいて、あるものを「美しい」と感じるのか。ひいては絶対的な美の基準なるものは存在するのか。
古代ギリシアや日本の「侘び／寂び」を例に、時代や地域によって異なるさまざまな「美」のありかたを概観する。

Keywords
symmetry/asymmetry
regularity
simplicity
imperfection
impermanence
incompletion
A Zen rock garden in Ryoanji Temple in Kyoto

DL 02 ~ 08

CD1-02 ~CD1-081 Beauty is in the eye of the beholder.

2 There is little doubt that physical beauty—or the beauty inherent with the physi-

This proverb was first recorded in the English language in its current form in thecal appearance of people—is subjective. The ideal “beautiful woman” differs between

19th century. However, the concept of people viewing beauty differently from a sub-

15 cultures, and in many cases is based on fashion. Some cultures cherish obesity,

jective point of view has been around in most cultures of the world since ancientwhile others believe that body mutilation is the epitome of beauty. The women of the5 times. But what exactly is beauty, and is it really subjective? The definition in theMursi tribe of Ethiopia, for example, slice open their bottom lips and insert discs

Merriam-Webster dictionary is “the qualities in a person or a thing that give plea-

made from clay or wood; a custom that stretches

sure to the senses or the mind.” This definition, however, fails to mention whether

back to at least 8700 BC. Body art in the form

there is a universal standard for beauty, or whether each individual person views

20 of piercings and tattoos is also increasingly rec-beauty based on a totally different set of criteria. Some of the arts seem to suggest

ognized as a sign of beauty in many countries of

10 the latter if we consider the fact that everybody has their own favorite piece of music

the world today, although there are also manyor painting that they consider to be beautiful. Nature, on the other hand, consistent-people in these same countries who continue toly comes up with scenes that are universally considered to be beautiful.

disagree with this assessment.
Mursi woman with lip plate

8Unit 1The Concept of Beauty93 Certain ancient Greek philosophers, includ-

economy, modesty, asymmetry and asperity, and theing Pythagoras, believed that beauty was basedmain message that it includes is that nothing is finished,on symmetry and regularity, and they were

55 nothing is perfect and nothing lasts forever. A withered

therefore convinced that mathematics was atautumn leaf, for example, could be considered to be wa-

the core of true beauty. This concept was trig-

bi-sabi because it expresses the beauty of nature while at

30 gered by them noticing that objects proportioned

the same time emphasizing its flaws and impermanence.

25in accordance with the golden ratio appeared tobe more attractive than objects that were moreGolden ratio

In its artistic form, wabi-sabi is best expressed in pottery.
60 Simple asymmetric bowls glazed in unsophisticated baserandom in shape. Symmetry and regularity also seem to play a part in physicalcolors and exuding a rustic style of imperfection stim-beauty. At the end of the 19th century, British anthropologist Francis Galton discov-ulate the mind into considering the beauty of the three

35 ered that “averaging” out human faces by overlaying them to form a composite image

achieved a level of regularity that was more attractive than each of the individualcomponents.

Black Raku Tea Bowl, Kuroraku typemarks of existence laid down in sanboin.
7 Whether the true essence of beauty lies in mathematics, as believed by the an65 cient Greeks, or in the aesthetic emptiness of wabi-sabi, as believed by the Japanese,

4 Despite this, there are many forms of art that are considered beautiful yet are
far removed from symmetry and regularity. Some examples of this include Fauvism,remains open to conjecture, but one thing is certain.
Beauty will always remain in the eye of the beholder.

40 Cubism, Expressionism, Futurism, and many other forms of modern art. And, one of

the most profound concepts of beauty lies not in symmetry, conformity and regulari-Notes

ty, but in imperfection, impermanence and incompletion; wabi-sabi.
2mutilation 切断 / epitome 典型 / Mursi tribe ムルシ族（エチオピアの少数民族）

5 Wabi-sabi is a Buddhist concept introduced to Japan from China, where it evolved

Expressionism 表現主義（20世紀初頭にドイツから始まった芸術運動。感情を作品に表現ギリシアの哲学者、数学者）/ golden ratio 黄金比（美術やすることを中心に据え、文学・音楽・演劇・映画にも広まって建築などで美しいとされる比率。1：（1 ＋√5）／ 2 ＝ 1：1.1618）いった）/ Futurism 未来派（20 世紀初頭にイタリアで始まっ/ Francis Galton フランシス・ゴルトン（1822-1911。イた前衛的な芸術運動。芸術を含めた旧来の世界を否定し、機ギ リ ス の 人 類 学 者、 統 計 学 者、 遺 伝 学 者）/ composite

械文明による新時代のスピードやダイナミズムを礼賛した）/

image 合成画像

conformity 調和

Fauvism フォービズム（20 世紀初頭のフランスにおける

5

minimalistic 最小限主義的な / withered 枯れた芸術運動。自由な色彩を特徴とし野獣派ともよばれる。代表的6

sanboin 三法印（仏教の存在論における３つの印「諸行無な画家はアンリ・マティス、ジョルジュ・ルオー、ラウル・デュ常」「一切行苦」「諸法無我」を指す）/

フィなど）/ Cubism キュビズム（20 世紀初頭にパブロ・ピ/ asperity 粗さ、凹凸 / glaze 釉薬（うわぐすり）を塗る /カソとジョルジュ・ブラックによって始められた芸術運動。さexude にじみ出させる

まざまな角度から見たものをひとつの画面に立体（cube）的に

7

4Picasso Avignon Ladies at MoMA, New York術に大きな影響を与えた）/Pythagoras ピタゴラス（紀元前 570 頃 - 紀元前 495 頃。

3Parthenon in Athens, Greece

収めることによって伝統的な写実から脱却し、その後の現代美

enlightenment 悟り

conjecture 推測

into a distinctly Japanese aesthetic concept. The word wabi originally referred to45 the loneliness of nature and sabi to something that is minimalistic or withered. The

meaning gradually changed over time, and by the 14th century wabi meant “rusticsimplicity” and sabi “beauty” or “serenity.” Nowadays this concept is usually described as “natural simplicity” or “flawed beauty.”
6 Wabi-sabi is based on the three Buddhist marks of existence known as sanboin,
50 which are impermanence, suffering and emptiness. It was thought that understand-ing the beauty contained within emptiness and imperfection was the first step toachieving a state of enlightenment. Wabi-sabi places the emphasis on simplicity,

10

Unit 1The Concept of Beauty

11Comprehension Check

Writing a Summary

A Read the sentences below about the passage and circle T (True) or F (False).

A Determine the main idea of the following paragraphs.

1.	The idea that whether something is beautiful or not depends upon how you see itParagraph 1

subjectively originated as recently as the 19th century.

T / F

2.	It is hard to define the universal standard for beauty, though there are some things
universally considered to be beautiful.

T / F

3.	Some parts of the body artificially transformed by cutting and painting are sometimes regarded as beautiful.

T / F

4.	Some forms of beauty are considered to be based on regularity while others onirregularity.

T / F5.	The concept of wabi-sabi is originally and exclusively unique to Japanese mentality
and culture.

T / F
Paragraph 2
Paragraph 3Paragraph 4Paragraph 5Paragraph 6
Paragraph 7

B Select the best answer for each question.

1.	According to the passage, ancient Greek philosophers believed beauty was based on(A) symmetry and regularity(B) regularity and simplicity(C) simplicity and asymmetry(D) asymmetry and modesty

2.	What is indicated about wabi-sabi?
(A) It has nothing to do with any kind of religion.
(B) It was initially introduced to Asian countries from Japan.
(C) It gradually formed into an aesthetic concept specific to Japan.

B Summarize the passage in about 50 words.
The concept of beauty is …





(D) It is based on the countless Buddhist marks of existence.

3.	Which is NOT the main message wabi-sabi includes?
(A) Nothing is finished.
(B) Nothing is perfect.
(C) Nothing lasts forever.
(D) Nothing is asymmetric.

12Unit 1

Extensive Learning
Discuss and share your opinion on “The Concept of Beauty” with a partner.

The Concept of Beauty

13