An Introduction To Metabolic Analysis
An eBook presented by VO2 Master Health Sensors Inc.

Table of Contents
Introduction

Page 1

What is VO₂ Analysis?

Page 1

Why Does the Body Need Oxygen?

Page 4

Measuring Maximal Oxygen Consumption

Page 7

How to Train Based on Metabolic Test Values

Page10

Determinants of Team Sport Performance

Page 14

Introduction
Welcome to An Introduction to Metabolic Analysis. In thisebook, you will discover a concise and clear overview
of metabolic testing theory, terminology, andmethods. In addition, you’ll come to understand why
this analysis is important, including how to bestinterpret and apply test results to optimize fitnesstraining.

What is VO₂ Analysis?
If you’re a professional coach, serious athlete or
exercise scientist, you’re probably looking at andevaluating ways to run faster and farther, workout
harder and push athletic limits.
Your investigation may include tracking suchparameters as heart rate, caloric burn and top speed;
however, there’s key fitness markers that your fitness
watch can’t tell you: your VO₂ max and ventilatory
thresholds (VT1 and VT2). These parameters are usefulphysiological measures within the field of metabolic
testing.
Your VO₂ max and ventilatory thresholds can provide
you with important insights about yourcardiorespiratory fitness, such as how long you cansustain a certain intensity of exercise – which, forexample, directly relates to your mile run time.

What is VO₂ max?
Let’s start with VO₂max and then discuss ventilatory
thresholds.
VO₂ max is an abbreviated term for maximal oxygen
consumption, which refers to the maximum amount ofoxygen that an individual can utilize during intense
or maximal exercise.

It’s measured in millilitres of oxygen per kilogram ofbody weight per minutes (ml/kg/min) withessentially two determining factors:• How much blood your heart can pump out to themuscles with each beat (cardiac output).
• How efficiently your muscles can extract theoxygen from the blood and utilize it.
This measurement is generally considered the bestindicator of cardiovascular fitness and aerobic
endurance. The more oxygen a person can use
during high level exercise, the more energy a
person can produce.
As such, this test is the gold standard for
determining cardiorespiratory fitness becausemuscles need oxygen for prolonged aerobic
exercise, and the heart must pump adequate
amounts of blood through the circulation to meetthe demands of aerobic exercise.
The bottom line is the higher your VO₂ max score,
the more aerobic potential you have. However,with the right training, you can increase your VO₂
max. And perhaps more importantly, you’ll be able
to increase your efficiency at higher outputs ofspeed and power.
How do you test VO₂ max?
By putting a face mask on the person being tested(the subject), it’s possible to directly measure thevolume and gas concentrations of inspired andexpired air. This breath-by-breath measurement isagreed upon by researchers as being the mostaccurate way to conduct VO₂ analysis.
The test involves exercising (often running or
bicycling) at an intensity that increases every few
minutes until exhaustion and is designed toachieve a maximal effort.

During this test, the individual’s maximum heart
rate is also determined which, along with restingheart rate, can be used to develop a more precise
target heart rate ranges. This is more accurate thanage- predicted equations.
As a result of this process, clear insight into thesubject’s current fitness level is ascertained alongwith information as to how to most efficiently
improve their fitness level.
Up until recently, obtaining an accurate measure of
one’s VO₂ max wasn’t easy – you needed tomeasure it in a lab with expensive clinical medical
equipment. Thankfully, that’s all changed now withthe advent of the innovative VO2 Master Analyzer.
Training Intensities
Before we move on to discussing ventilatory
thresholds, it’s necessary to cover training
intensities. Ventilation and heart rate serve as agood reference points for determining one’s
training intensity and, unlike power or speed, thesemeasures show how intense the effort is on the
body. The higher the value for each, the more stressis being placed on the body.
Training Zones
VO2 Master has defined five training zones definedby breathing rate and heart rate that categorize
intensity levels.
• Zone 1: Rest
Zone 1 is the lowest intensity level where a person
is at rest. At this level, heart rate is low andbreathing rate may be somewhat irregular due toone shifting, yawning and slight movements.
• Zone 2: Mild
In this zone a person is moving, and may bewalking, jogging or cycling at an easy pace. Here,heart rate begins to increase and breathing rate
becomes very steady. A person can easily converse
with others in this stage.
• Zone 3: ModerateThis zone is characterized by more effort and may
include running or cycling at a relatively
comfortable pace. Heart rate continues to increasein a linear fashion and breathing rate continues tobe regular; however, the tidal volume has increased(the volume of air inhaled and exhaled per breath).
• Zone 4: Heavy

physiological principle of ventilation. During lower
stages of exercise intensity (Zones 2 and 3),
ventilation increases linearly with oxygen
consumption and carbon dioxide production. Thisoccurs primarily through an increase in tidal
volume.
At higher intensities (Zones 4 and 5), the frequencyof breathing becomes more pronounced andminute ventilation (measured as the volume of air
breathed per minute) rises disproportionally to theincrease in oxygen consumption. This means that
persons at these higher levels begin to breathe
more rapidly with each breath consuming lessoxygen.

In this zone, a person is exercising at an intensity
where they are breathing hard and are limited as tohow long they can continue to move at this level.
Lactate starts to climb, and the athlete is beginningto lose control of their breathing, as their breathing
rate now increases significantly – a departure fromthe regular intervals of Zones 2 and 3. Heartratecontinues to climb at a uniform levelcommensurate with applied exercise effort.

As exercise intensity increases, ventilation increases
in a somewhat linear fashion. Now, there two
deflection points at certain intensities associatedwith the metabolic changes occurring within thebody.

• Zone 5: Maximum

Ventilatory Threshold TestingThis point is where blood lactate accumulates
faster than it can be cleared, which causes a person
to breathe faster in order to blow off the extra CO₂
produced by the buffering of acid metabolites.
Prior to this intensity, fats are the major source offuel and only small amounts of lactate are being
produced. The need for additional oxygen here ismet primarily through an increase in tidal volume
and not by breathing faster. In other words, at thispoint, a person’s breathing rate remains steady –they just take in more oxygen per breath.

Now that we have defined the five intensity
training zones, we can look to two points ofinterest, around which training zones are organized
for an individual – ventilatory thresholds.

Past the crossover point (VT1), ventilation rates will
begin to increase exponentially as oxygen
demands outpace the oxygen-delivery system andlactate begins to accumulate in the blood.

The topmost zone is where a subject loses controlof their breathing entirely, with their breathing rateskyrocketing. They will only be able to stay in thisstage for a short period of time – up to 2 minutes.
Heart rate will hit its maximum as the person tries
to hang on, before inevitably dropping out of thislevel of intensity.

Ventilatory threshold testing is based on the

The first point – Ventilatory Threshold 1 (or VT1) –is called the “crossover” point and occurs between
Zone 3 and Zone 4.

Eventually, the person will approach the second
disproportionate increase in ventilation – thesecond Ventilatory Threshold 2 (VT2), which occurs
between Zones 4 and 5, at the point where lactate
is increasing with intensity and represents
hyperventilation. This represents the point where
blowing off CO₂ is no longer adequate to buffer theincrease in acidity that is occurring with
progressively intense exercise.

TIDAL VOLUMEMINUTEVENTILATION ( VE )
VT2

VT1

BREATHING RATE

EXERCISE INTENSITY

are physiological measures that are a part ofmetabolic testing, which can be performed with
the VO2 Master Analyzer.
Being aware of these values can provide a useful
way of optimizing the design, intensity andeffectiveness of your training sessions.
Without this insight, many athletes will spend too
long training at high intensities, which results ininhibited aerobic fitness gains and more
susceptibility to injury.
But, with accurate VO₂ analysis, players and theircoaches can strategically construct training
regimens that are designed to produce optimal
gains in cardiovascular fitness. These training plans
will specify – on an individual basis – the ideal
types of training and intensities an athlete should
undertake to achieve desired results. In otherwords, they will know exactly which training zones
they need to be in at any given time.
In fact, when athletes discover how they should be
ideally training, many are at first shocked by how
much slower they need to run or cycle in order tostick to their optimal training zones.

The VT1 to VT2 Distance
The longer a person can stay in the stretch between
VT1 and VT2, the more energy and aerobic
potential they will possess.
The good news is that it’s possible to extend one’s
distance between VT1 and VT2 such that a person
can work at higher intensities before hitting thesecond ventilatory threshold. This capability can beestablished through an optimal mix of low and highintensity training. But how do you determine whatthat mix should ideally be for a particular athlete?
Why Metabolic Testing is Important
As mentioned above, VO₂ max, VT1 and VT2 scoresWith smarter training procedures, it doesn’t takelong to begin to see the substantial value of VO₂analysis: more energy while competing and quicker
and more effective recovery, which translates toimproved overall performance.
For example, an Olympic athlete equipped with theinformation as to how to train more effectively thanher competitors has a distinct advantage when it
comes time to compete for gold.
Why Does the Body Need Oxygen?
We now turn our focus to exploring how the bodyuses oxygen. This information will be important indeveloping a deeper understanding of howmetabolic testing can be used to guide training touse oxygen more efficiently, and thus improve ourfitness levels.
Muscles Need Oxygen to Function
All cells, including muscle cells, require oxygen tofunction. Energy inside cells comes in the form of
adenosine triphosphate (ATP), a molecule thatcarries energy within cells. Most of our ATP iscreated through the breakdown of metabolic
substrates (food) using oxygen, resulting in CO₂
and water. This means that oxygen is very
important, and as you exercise, energy
requirements go up – so you need more oxygen.
Oxygen is first absorbed by the blood as it passes
through the lungs, binding to a special protein
called hemoglobin contained within red blood
cells. Now tied to hemoglobin, oxygen is pumpedby the heart through the vascular system to therest of the body. The oxygen is then released into
the cells where it is used in the breakdown ofmolecules to create needed energy.

as intensity increases and drops upon stopping theexercise.
Oxygen deficit is defined as the difference
between the oxygen intake of the body during theearly stages of exercise and during a similar
duration in a steady state of exercise.
EPOC is an abbreviation for excess post-exercise
oxygen consumption (also known as oxygen debt)
and refers to the amount of oxygen required torestore your body to its normal, resting level ofmetabolic function.
To understand this effect, think about how you
breathe heavy for a while after you have finished a
hard run.
However, it is important to note that the heavier
breathing required by the body in the EPOC stage
is not delivering more oxygen – but instead
eliminating excess carbon dioxide in order tomaintain a healthy pH balance.
Anaerobic Metabolism

Muscles performing work require increasing
amounts of energy as the workload increases,
which correspondingly requires more and more
oxygen.
We breathe more when we exercise to help remove
the large amount of carbon dioxide (CO₂ ) that is
produced by the working muscles. As carbon
dioxide levels increase, hydrogen ions are also
produced, which reduces the pH of the system,
which is very tightly regulated throughchemoreceptors in the brain and carotid arteries.
Figure 2.0 shows the oxygen usage for a person
starting at rest, progressing to exercise at an
intensity that is 75 percent of their maximum andreturning to rest.
We observe that the VO₂ (oxygen uptake) increases

Muscles can produce energy without oxygen in aprocess called anaerobic metabolism. The only fuelthat can be burned anaerobically is carbohydrate,
being converted into a substance called pyruvate
through glycolysis and then into blood lactate via
anaerobic metabolism.
It is a common misinterpretation that blood lactate
has a direct negative effect on muscle
performance. Lactate is, in fact, a buffer to thehydrogen ions produced during glycolysis. While
increasing lactate does correspond to an observed
drop in pH level, lactate does not contribute to theloss of muscle function. Moreover, lactate is apotent fuel for further energy production, and anecessary step in the process of refueling the liverof glycogen stores following exercise.

One other comment about anaerobic metabolism:
although this form of metabolism kicks in at higher
intensities leading to energy being created without theneed for oxygen (burning carbohydrate instead), there
are still numerous processes going on in the body thatcause a continued increase in demand for and use ofoxygen. In other words, regardless of the fuel source, at
higher training intensities your body requires an evermore amount of oxygen, with a ceiling equal to VO₂max.
The Bottom Line
Clearly, fuel source is an important factor relating to theamount of oxygen consumed. At higher intensities of
exercise, muscles burn mainly carbs and at lower intensities, they burn more fat. Burning fat uses more oxygen
than burning carbs, but we have more energy stored as fat, so you can keep going for longer when burning
without running out of energy.
Oxygen and VO₂
As you’ll recall from our previous article VO₂ is simply an abbreviation for oxygen consumption – it’s themeasure of the volume of oxygen that is used by your body to convert the energy from the food you eat into
ATP that your body uses at the cellular level.
Your VO₂ max is your maximal oxygen consumption, which is simply the maximum possible VO₂ that a given
person can achieve.
Improving Your VO₂ max
Not Necessarily the Be-All End-All First, it’s important to preface this section by noting that a high VO₂ max is
one of numerous factors that may improve an athlete’s performance; alone – and depending on the person – itmay not be the most important metric to go by. Generally, a comprehensive metabolic analysis, in which a
multitude of parameters are identified, is required to determine an optimal training platform for eachindividual.
It’s Still Important
Having stated the above, it is fair to say that, in general, a higher VO₂ max – the ability to use a greater amountof oxygen – is certainly correlated with improved performance across athletic endeavors. As such, it is ofbenefit to understand how to increase one’s VO₂ max.

Two major factors contribute to a high VO₂ max:
the amount of oxygen you can transport and yourmuscle physiology.

efficiency – but the right training can make a big
difference.
Measuring Maximal Oxygen Consumption

Optimal oxygen transportation includes a strong
heart pumping blood through the body, withhemoglobin-dense blood, a high blood volume
and high capillary density in the muscles. Betteroxygen transport leads to higher VO₂ max.
Muscle physiology means how many muscle fibers
you have, how big they are, how many
mitochondria they contain, and how strongly you
can activate them during exercise. More aerobic,
oxygen-guzzling muscles equals a higher VO₂ max.
Training programs can be implemented to improve
VO₂ max and help increase physical fitness,
improving
the way your body utilizes oxygen. These programs
are designed on an individual basis and based on
specific metabolic measurement values such as
one’s current VO₂ max, VT1 and VT2 scores. Limiting
factors like genetic makeup and age all have an
impact on the body’s ability to increase its VO₂Let’s examine how to accurately measure maximal
oxygen consumption, as well as discuss some of
the implications associated with different testing
protocols.
Maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂ max) describes
the body’s ability to uptake and utilize oxygen
during intense or maximal full-body exercise. It isformally defined as the maximum integrated
capacity of the pulmonary, cardiovascular andmuscular systems to uptake, transport and utilize
O₂ , respectively.
Historically, VO₂ max has been measured bycompleting an incremental exercise test on atreadmill or cycle ergometer; however, it can now
be measured in any training environment with theVO2 Master Analyzer. The VO₂ max test has becomea cornerstone in clinical and applied physiology
involving physical exercise.

Considerations for Measuring VO₂ max
There are dozens of different protocols and means of measuring VO₂ max across a number of different sports,
and there are significant considerations that must be taken into account before completing a test.
1. Protocol Selection
Selecting a measurement protocol depends on such factors as fitness level of the test subject, their preferredsport, and access to appropriate equipment. Novel procedures for testing VO₂ max have been established forchildren, adults of varying fitness, obese individuals, and medical patient populations.
It is important to understand the relationship between an athlete’s background and their measured VO₂ max.
For instance, consider three athletes: a runner, a cyclist and a kayaker – all of whom are world class in theirrespective discipline.
Now, if we have each athlete complete incremental (graded) exercise tests to exhaustion in each of the threedifferent sports, we will observe some interesting results. The kayaker will have a very low VO₂ max whenrunning and cycling simply because he never uses his legs in training, but his VO₂ max will be world classwhen tested in a kayak. Similarly, the runner will have a high value when running and cycling and a low VO₂
max when tested in a kayak. This result has been verified by independent studies, and it is concluded thatsport specificity is a critical factor when measuring VO₂ max.
This is a significant benefit of the VO₂ Master Analyzer, which permits athletes to measure their VO₂ max intheir respective sport, instead of being forced to test only on a treadmill or cycle ergometer.
Graded Exercise Testing (GXT) is the most widely used assessment to examine the dynamic relationshipbetween exercise and integrated physiological systems. Graded Exercise Testing protocols used for testing VO₂
max are maximal exercise tests where the athlete works to complete exhaustion as speed, power, or incline are
increased.
Two common GXT protocols used for many individuals
are the Bruce Protocol and the Astrand Protcol. These
are both widely used in a clinical environment, havebeen extensively validated, and possess a wide range
of applications for people who are able to tolerate
exercise testing on a treadmill.
The differences between the two relate to speed andgrade, as identified in Table 1.0.

TABLE 1.0
Bruce Treadmill Protocol

Astrand Treadmill Protocol

Each stage is 3 minutes in duration.

Each stage is 2 minutes in duration.

Stage

Speed (mph)Grade (%)

Stage

Speed (mph)Grade (%)

1
2
3
4
5
6
7

1.7
2.5
3.4
4.2
5.0
5.5
6.0

10
12
14
16
18
20
22

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

5
5
5
5
5
5
5
5

0
2.5
5
7.5
10
12.5
15
17.5

There are in fact many different incremental protocols that may be used to best fit a specific type of test
subject. For instance, the perfect test for a 25-year-old Olympic runner will require a different set-up 60-yearold sedentary individual.

2. Length of The Test
The length of the test is also something to be considered; if it’s set up to be too difficult or too easy for a test
subject then it will not produce sought after data.
For example, if a test starts at or beyond a person’s maximum speed, the individual will fail and not reach VO₂max; conversely, if a test is too easy, then the subject may eventually tire due to an unnecessary duration of thetest itself, and may not reach their true VO₂ max.
Broadly speaking, a VO₂ max protocol should ideally fall between 8-12 minutes in duration; however, there areseveral new protocols that have been developed which now challenge this long held theory.
Please note: Because GXTs are maximal exercise tolerance tests, they require a physician’s clearance andexpert supervision. In an untrained individual or an athlete with an underlying heart condition, exercising to a
maximal effort can lead to injury or cardiac event.
3. Future Considerations of Exercise Testing
The information from Graded Exercise Tests can be applied across the spectrum of sport performance,
occupational safety screening, research, and clinical diagnostics. The suitability of GXT to determine a valid
maximal oxygen consumption (VO₂ max) has been under investigation for decades. Although a set ofrecommended criteria exists to verify attainment of VO₂ max, the methods that originally established thesecriteria have been scrutinized (M. Beltz et al; 2016). Many studies do not apply identical criteria or fail toconsider individual variability in physiological responses.
As an alternative to using traditional criteria, recent research efforts have been directed toward using a
supramaximal verification protocol performed after a GXT to confirm attainment of VO₂ max. Furthermore, theemergence of self-paced protocols has provided a simple, yet reliable approach to designing andadministering GXT. Ongoing research continues to examine the utility of self-paced protocols used inconjunction with verification protocols to elicit and confirm attainment of VO₂ max. Our recommendation isthat testing of subjects takes into account all of the above information to help direct you to the mostappropriate test for the clients you are working with.
Determining VO₂ max
Visualizing how the body is responding to increasing exercise intensity/load is always a good first check for a
VO₂ max test. You should see that heart rate and oxygen consumption will increase throughout the test. At theend of the test, you may observe that both heartrate and VO₂ max begin to level out. When using the VO2Master Analyzer, the test subject’s VO₂ max will be determined and displayed via the VO2 Master Manager app,so no additional manual determination is required. This feature can be adjusted based on the protocol design
within the app itself.

How to Train Based on Metabolic Test Values
As we have identified, a myriad of data is determined when conducting metabolic testing, such as VO₂ max,
respiratory frequencies and tidal volumes. We look to any changes in these measurements (from previous
tests) to determine if training is in fact positively affecting the results.
You’ll recall that your VO₂ max (measured in ml/kg/min) is the maximum amount of oxygen you can utilize
during exercise, but for all intents and purposes, it’s a marker of just how fit you actually are.
Your VO₂ max value is an indication of your endurance performance potential, and it can be used to help
monitor your training routine over time. It’s advised to conduct metabolic testing before you begin a training
program and periodically to retest to identify whether the training is having the positive effect you are
expecting.
What’s a good VO₂ max score? Simply put, it varies by individual and their activity of choice. A sprinter, forexample, will possess a lower VO₂ max score than a long-distance runner, but that may not make them any lessof an athlete. For your reference, here are some general measures of typical VO₂ max scores for men andwomen by age category, based on cumulative data collected from thousands of athletes.
TABLE 2.0
Normative Data For VO₂ Max

Female (values in ml/kg/min)Age
Very Poor
13-19
<25.0
20-29
<23.6
30-39
<22.8
40-49
<21.0
50-59
<20.2
60+
<17.5
Male (values in ml/kg/min)Age
Very Poor
13-19
<35.0
20-29
<33.0
30-39
<31.5
40-49
<30.2
50-59
<26.1
60+
<20.5

Poor
25.0-30.9
23.6-28.9
22.8-26.9
21.0-24.4
20.2-22.7
17.5-20.1

Fair
31.0-34.9
29.0-32.9
27.0-31.4
24.5-28.9
22.8-26.9
20.2-24.4

Good
35.0-38.9
33.0-36.9
31.5-35.6
29.0-32.8
27.0-31.4
24.5-30.2

Excellent
39.0-41.9
37.0-41.0
35.7-40.0
32.9-36.9
31.5-35.7
30.3-31.4

Superior
>41.9
>41.0
>40.0
>36.9
>35.7
>31.4

Poor
35.0-38.3
33.0-36.4
31.5-35.4
30.2-33.5
26.1-30.9
20.5-26.0

Fair
38.4-45.1
36.5-42.4
35.5-40.9
33.6-38.9
31.0-35.7
26.1-32.2

Good
45.2-50.9
42.5-46.4
41.0-44.9
39.0-43.7
35.8-40.9
32.3-36.4

Excellent
51.0-55.9
46.5-52.4
45.0-49.4
43.8-48.0
41.0-45.3
35.5-44.2

Superior
>55.9
>52.4
>49.4
>48.0
>45.3
>44.2

Table Reference: The Physical Fitness Specialist Certification Manual, The Cooper Institute for Aerobics Research, Dallas, TX (1998)

Why VO₂ max Varies for Women
The trend of lower of VO₂ max scores in women is a result of size, muscle mass, oxygen carrying capacity andlower total blood volume.

Information is PowerYour VO₂ max score and additional metabolic test values, such as your Ventilatory Thresholds, permit you tocraft a personalized training plan for whatever goal you have – improving cycling endurance, mobilizing fat
stores, but mostly, becoming the fittest and most efficient athlete you’re capable of being.
Using your metabolic data to guide training will help ensure that you’re training productively. Continued
regular testing will help ensure that whatever training program you’re on is having the effects you want. If the
training is working, then great – you should continue with it. If the training isn’t working, then consider
modifying your program, and try a different approach.
It is recommended that you pursue a training plan for a number of weeks before retesting, and then make adecision based on updated metabolic data.
How to Craft a Training Plan Based Off Your Metabolic Data
If you own or have access to a VO2 Master Analyzer, you can use it to measure your VO₂ max and othermetabolic factors at any time. If not, then you’ll need to meet up with a person or facility that carries a
metabolic tester, which may be your coach, your physiotherapist, or a friend. Metabolic testing has become
more accessible in recent years due to the affordability and popularity of the VO2 Master Analyzer.
Another great thing about the VO2 Master Analyzer is that its portability permits you to test while exercising inyour sport of choice. For example, using a skatemill if you’re a hockey player, outdoors on a bicycle for cyclists,or on roller skis for cross-country skiers.
Without determining your personalized numbers, you’re essentially running blind and simply guessing as towhich type of training is working.
When you complete your VO2 Master Analyzer metabolic test, look to see where your limitations are. For
example, this may be your volume of breathing (tidal volume). In this case, if a person can’t take a big enoughbreath, then they will need to breathe faster to eliminate their CO₂ build up. Breathing faster is inefficient andwastes energy – energy that could instead be applied to running faster.
You may see your VO₂ max as a limitation, in which case you need to identify which part of the VO₂ max
contribution is causing the issue. The contribution to VO₂ max is affected by numerous factors, such as the sizeof your heart, how fast it can beat, the carrying capacity of oxygen in your blood, or your muscles’ ability to
extract oxygen. The VO₂ max number itself will give you an indication of your fitness ability; however,determining the exact factor is a complicated discussion and one that we will delve into in our Advanced
Series.
If your metabolic assessment identifies a limitation in aerobic fitness, your training regimen should be focusedon low-intensity, steady state exercise. To improve your performance, it’s advised that you train at thisheartrate for 60 minutes, four to six times a week, and as often as you’re able to fit it into your schedule andrecover from the sessions.
After 6-8 weeks, retesting will allow you to determine which beneficial effects have taken place. If
improvement is being seen, then the training program should not be changed. If positive effects are not seen,
then consideration should be given to modifying the plan.
Retesting your metabolic data regularly is very important in order to gauge progress. It should be recognizedthat factors affecting and limiting a person’s fitness are extremely individual in nature. This is the problem with
providing a universal plan or recipe that is meant to be applicable for a group of athletes. For example, twopeople with the same VO₂ max scores may have different limitations one may have a respiratory limitation(e.g., exercise-induced asthma) while the other may have an oxygen delivery limitation (e.g., low iron leading
to low total hemoglobin, which turn leads to low oxygen carrying capacity). Therefore, the specifics of theirrespective training programs should be different to effectively address each of their limitations (this will becovered in an advanced series article in the future).
That said, here is a program that is likely to assist in the general case of improving one’s VO₂ max.

The VO₂ max Training Plan
The training program below is very uncomfortable.
Keep it up for 6 weeks and most people shouldhave a 10 percent higher VO₂ max stat to brag
about.
Please note, after completing this program for 6
weeks, retesting is recommended at any time that achange is noticed and a shift a training intensity
may be required. There is a real risk for burnout anddecreased performance if intensities are too highor if the intervals are too long and this is why
consistent testing is so important.
Directions: Complete 60 minutes or more of lowintensity endurance work for 3 to 4 times a week.
Then try adding in the following workout once per
week for 6 weeks and retest weekly, if possible, orat the end of the 6-week period to watch for thechanges that you expect to see.

Workout 1 45 minutes total
Complete on a bicycle, treadmill, track or using
other suitable training equipment.
• Perform 3 rounds of 30 seconds of maximal
intensity effort, followed by 2 1/2 minutes of rest.
• That’s one set.
• Rest for 6 minutes after each set.
• Repeat the set 3 times.
• Complete once per week for 6 weeks.
If this workout is benefitting you but getting easythen increase the number of reps/sets to make it
more challenging.
After 6 weeks, if positive changes are happening,then continue with this plan, because it’s working.
If you see a plateau in performance or no change isoccurring, then you can try one of these alternate
workouts.
Alternate Workout 2
Complete on a bicycle, treadmill, track or using
other suitable training equipment.
• Perform 3 rounds of 90 seconds of maximal
intensity effort, followed by 2 minutes of rest.
• That’s one set.
• For the first two weeks, stick to one set.
• For weeks 3-6, complete 2 sets with 6 minutes ofrest between the two.

In reality, VO₂ max is one measure of fitness
potential rather than fitness itself. This means thatknowing your VO₂ max and other metabolic
information is a useful place to start any training
plan. You should be encouraged and expect
changes over time in measurements of parameters
VO₂ max, Ventilatory Thresholds or personal records
over a particular distance. VO₂ max is a usefulmetric, but it is only one number in a myriad ofvalues that VO2 Master Analyzer can provide.
Determinants of Team Sports Performance
Lastly, we turn our attention to identifying anddiscussing metabolic factors that affect athletic
performance in team sports.

Alternate Workout 3
Athletic Capacities
Complete on a bicycle, treadmill, track or using
other suitable training equipment or via jumpsquats.
• Perform 6 rounds of 10 seconds of maximal
intensity effort, followed by 3 minutes of rest.
• That’s one set.
• For the first two weeks, stick to one set.
• For weeks 3-6, complete 2 sets with 8 minutes ofrest between the two.

Without question, physical capacity of athletes is an
important element of success in every team sport.
This involves a massive number of different
physiologic parameters, with aerobic capacity
playing a significant role.
Maximal oxygen uptake (VO₂ max) has been
regarded by a majority of researchers as the bestindicator of aerobic capacity. This single
measurement indicates the functional capacities ofthe cardiovascular and respiratory systems, as wellas the capacity of tissues to utilize oxygen.
Metabolic Testing for Teams
Measurement of the physical capacity of membersof a sports team is one of the most important tasks
in assessing the team’s current performance.
Through regular assessments, we can more
efficiently guide the training process. It is now
possible to directly measure maximum oxygen
uptake in an athlete’s sport of choice by using theportable VO2 Master Analyzer. This device
eliminates the need to test everyone in a lab
environment with expensive equipment.
Metabolic Determinants Study:
Athletes in Team Sports
In a 2010 study 1 , researchers demonstrated thephysiologic differences between two team sports,
and compared these capacities to inactive subjects.
Material and Methods
The investigation included the determination ofabsolute and relative VO₂ max for a total of 66 maletest subjects. The study was undertaken at the
University of Pristina in Leposavić. The test subjects
were divided into two groups of active athletes ofdifferent profiles, while the third group of athletes
served as control group.

players were statistically significant. In addition,
there was also a statistically significant difference
between athletes and non-athletes.
TABLE 2.1

Mean VO₂ Max Values (liters/minute)

Test Group

VO₂ Max (l/min)SD

Soccer Players
Volleyball Players
Non-Athletes

4.25
3.95
3.19

0.27
0.18
0.21

FIGURE 3.0

Mean VO₂ Max Values (liters/minute)As displayed in Table 2.2 and Figure 3.1, a similarratio of VO₂ max values was also recorded after the
analysis of values expressed in relative units. The
best results were obtained again by soccer playerswith statistically significant differences whencompared to the group of volleyball players. Thisdifference underscores the importance of aerobic
capacity for elite soccer players.
TABLE 2.2

Mean VO₂ Max Values (ml/kg/min)

Test Group

VO₂ Max (ml/kg/min)SD

Soccer Players
Volleyball Players
Non-Athletes

4.25
3.95
3.19

0.27
0.18
0.21

FIGURE 3.1

Mean VO₂ Max Values (ml/kg/min)• Semi-professional soccer players (n=22)• Semi-professional volleyball players (n=18)• Non-athletes (n=26)
VO₂ max for all participants was determined by
performing the Astrand 6-minute cycle test.
Absolute values were expressed in ml/min and in
relation to body weight in ml/kg/min.
Results
Table 2.1 and Figure 3.0 display peak values of VO₂
max. The higher VO₂ max scores seen among soccer

Discussion
The level of competition now present among eliteteam sports requires an extraordinary aerobic
capacity for each athlete on the field. Aerobic
capacity is an integral indicator of the functional

capacities of all an athlete’s physical systems
involved in supplying, transporting and energizing
oxygen transformation. Functional impairment of
any link in the physiologic chain can decrease an
athlete’s physical capacity.
Insufficient aerobic capacity precludes themaintenance of a high level of aerobic exercise.
Sports performance will be negatively affected bythis fatigue, especially towards the end of a match.
A high level of aerobic capacity is indispensable forachieving success in all team sports. Therefore, thedetermination of VO₂ max is of special importance.
The sport of high-level soccer requires sustained
performance that intertwines aerobic andanaerobic exercises. The player is thus required tohave an efficient system that will support theirperformance throughout all 90 minutes of thematch.
It can be noted that there are statisticallysignificant differences between the volleyball andsoccer players. This indicates that the training
associated with each sport has led to physiologicchanges among the athletes.
The data related to the physiological profile ofsemi-professional soccer players, show that the
average distance made during a match is 8-12 km,with an aerobic/anaerobic ratio of 90%:10%. In
another study conducted by Diaz et al 2 ,measuring the maximal oxygen uptake of Mexican
professional soccer players, obtained the value of
53.8 ml/kg/min.
Furthermore, Wilmore et al 3 investigated two
teams from the Norweigan Professional league,and obtained the value of 60 ml/ kg/min. The
investigations of Cajasus 4 have shown that thevalue of VO₂ max reached 66.4 ml/kg/min in soccer
players of the Spanish First League.
The takeaway here is that as we progress to higher
performing soccer leagues (from the Mexican
league to the Norwegian league to the Spanish

league), there was an associated increase in higher
VO₂ max scores.
This assertion is confirmed when we look at
another study. It was also determined that soccer
players of the Union of Serbia and Montenegro’sFirst League had higher VO₂ max values (53.8 vs.
44.8 ml/kg/min) compared to amateur football
players.
Conclusion
An investigation into the maximal oxygen uptake
provides relevant insight into the health of playersof team sports. This can also be used in providing
training recommendations and the follow up togauge an athlete’s response to training. For thesereasons, the increase in VO₂ max values as
indicators of physical capability of team sport
athletes is indispensable for achieving top sports
results.

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An Introduction to Metabolic Analysis