Journal of Applied Input-Output Analysis, Vol.1, No.2, 1993

Estimation of Air Pollutions and Evaluating CO2 Emissions from
Production Activities:

Using Japan's 1985 Input—Output Tables1
By

Hitoshi Hayami*, Ayu Ikeda**, Mikio Suga***, and Kanji Yoshioka*

Abstract

The aim of this research is to extend the input-output tables for environmental analysis
in the most detailed classification possible. It can also be shown that it plays an importantrole in evaluating accurately the emissions of CO2, NOx and SOx.

This paper decries

the three points needed to understand our environmental extended input-output tables.
Firstly, it explains how to estimate air pollution's from the 406 sectors in the 1985 input-

output tables of Japan. Secondly, it shows an overview of our estimates of CO2, NOx, andSOx emissions. Thirdly, it reports the CO2 emission from 1 unit of production activities

using our environmental input-output tables. Our estimates suggest that there are large
differences in CO2 emissions between sectors, even though the sectors belong to the same

2-digit category. This implies large potential of cutting CO2 exists by recycling materials
or through introducing alternative technologies.

1.

Introduction

In order to realize "sustainable development", we must investigate whether an alternative tech

nology reduces air pollution in the economic system. Although a new technology cuts CO2 orNOx with the new equipment, it might increase CO2 or NOx in other industries by demanding
new inputs which were not required by old technology. To analyze the dependency of one sector's

CO2 emission on the other sectors, we must take into account the interdependence between in
dustry sectors. This is our main purpose in constructing the environmental input-output tables,

and its aim is similar to Leontief's pioneering works2.
To evaluate the inter-sector effects precisely, we have developed "the 1985 406-sector InputOutput Tables for Environmental Analysis in Japan". We elucidate the difference of adopted
technology between commodities, and we attempt to compare the alternative technologies pro

ducing the same kind of commodities. This 406 sectors Input-Output Table has the most de

tailed classification which is available for three types of pollutants, CO2, NOx, SOx, in Japan3.
Manuscript received July 10, 1993. Revised September 9, 1993.

* Keio University, ** Tokai University, *** Graduate School of Keio University

1This paper is originally presented at the 10th Conference on International Input-Output Analysis at Sevilla in
Spain on 29 March 1993. The authors are indebted to Dr.Y.Tonooka for verifying the estimations of fixed sources.
We have received valuable comments from anonymous referee and workshop participants at Keio Economic
Observatory. Any errors remain to be the responsibilities of the authors.

2Leontief(1970) considered anti-pollution activities which attempt to reduce pollutions.

Although we did

not divide an activity into production process and abatement process, we use emission factors after eliminating
NOx and SOx. For SOx, it is better to incorporate abatement activities in order to consider the environment
protection investment which induces SOx emission in the other sectors. For NOx, transportation activity is themain source of NOx emission. There is no abatement facility on automobile, and NOx emission depends on thedriving condition.

3 We have another extended version of 441 sectors table with detailed construction activities.

30

Journal of Applied Input-Output Analysis, Vol.1, No.2, 1993

This paper contains three points to understand our extended input-output tables. Firstly, itbriefly explains the estimation procedures of our environmental input-output table. Secondly,

it shows an overview of our estimates of CO2, NOx, SOx in 29 sectors. Thirdly, it elucidates
the effects of 1 unit of production on CO2 emissions for each economic activity.

2.

Components of the Environmental Input-Output Table

Figure 1 shows the conceptual framework of the extended input-output table.

Our Environ

mental Input-Output table contains 7 parts, that is,(1) 406x406 basic table(its component is X,j),(2) 406-ffinal demand sectors x40 physical input table for fuel consumption and material use,
(3) 406-|-final demand sectors x40 fuel/input ratio table for fuel and materials,(4) 406+final demand sectors x40 calorie input table as fuel consumption,(5) 406-ffinal demand sectors x31-7 emission coefficients (per calorie unit) table ,(6) 406-ffinal demand sectors x31-7 emission (volume) table,(7) 406-hfinal demand sectors x3 emission coefficients (per production unit) table,

3.

CO2, NOx and SOx emissions from fixed sources

According to Leontief(1970), the input-output table for environmental analysis is incorporated
with anti-pollution sectors. But in fact, it is difficult to divide the air pollution by NOx into

generation and abatement activities 4.
For estimating NOx from fixed sources, we can get the emission coefficients after eliminating
pollutions by sector and by type of boiler or furnace.

Therefore, we can directly construct

the table for emission (not for generation) after NOx eliminating activities. It is familiar thatNOx emission greatly depends on thermal NOx, which varies with burning condition. Thus the
reduction of NOx depends on both burning condition and abatement activity.

It is important to incorporate abatement activities in input-output tables for environmen

tal analysis, when we take the stability of emission factors into consideration. Unfortunately

we could not get enough information about abatement activity, and hence this remains to be
improved in future research.

On the other hand, CO2 originate mainly from fuels with some from material origins. For
CO2, since there is no abatement activity, we estimate CO2 emission from its content in thefuel and the material(e.g. limestone in cement activity, pig iron in crude steel activity). Even if
there is no abatement activity, energy transfer of by-products to other sectors exists. But theenergy transfer activity can be adopted in only a few limited industries. With the exceptionof the following four sectors, we estimate CO2 emission from fuel consumption and the ratio ofcarbon content.

For the following sectors, (l)coal products, (2)pig iron, (3)crude steel and (4)gas supply, theygenerate by-products(BFDust, BFG, COG, LDG, OFG etc.) with consume and transfer energy

products with each other simultaneously. It is not proper to attribute CO2 emission from fuel
4However, there are a few pioneering works, see, S. Shishido and A. Oshizaka(1975). They analyze the effects
of abatement activities and abatement activity related investment by using 60-sector input-output tables. Also
MITI publishes 25-sector input-output tables for industry pollution with abatement activities in 1976. MITI
estimates SOx, COD, SS, IW from many pollution surveys in addition to basic input-output tables.

Estimations of Air Pollutions and Evaluating CO2 Emissions

Ele tri
Pc werBasic Table 1985(406x406)
million yen

Final
Demand406x11

T
o

t
a

1

A
t
o

m

i
c

T
h

W
a

t

e

e

r

r

m

»

a

e

1

Value Added (10x406)

Control Total (1x406)
Material Table (40x406)

kl, ton, 1000m3

Ratio Table (40x406)

Fuel Table (40x406)

kl, ton, 1000m3

Calorific Table (40x406)
lOOGcalEmission Factor
NOx kg/100Gcal(31x406)

SOx kg/100Gcal(31x406)
CO2kg/Gcal(37x406)
Emission Volume

NOx ton(31x406)

SOx ton(31x406)

CO2 ton(37x406)
Emission Factor (3x406)

NOx kg/million yen
SOx kg/million yen
CO2 kg/million yen

Figure 1: Components of the Environmental Input-Output Table in Japan

t
c.

31

32

Journal of Applied Input-Output Analysis, Vol.1, No.2, 1993

Table 1: Fuel / Material Classification
Fuel/Material

PhysicalCalorific Volume

Unit

per Physical Unit

CO2 Emission
Factor(kg/Gcal)

1

Limestonet

440 kg/t

2

Iron oret

for SOx

3

Lead and Zinc ore

t

4

t

7

Coking Coal(domestic)
Coking Coal(imported)
General Coal(domestic)
General Coal (imported)

8

Crude Petroleum

kl

9

LNG

t

Gasoline

kl

5
6

10

t
t

t

11

Jet Fuel Oil

kl12

Keroseneklfor SOx

6,530
6,530
6,530
6,530
9,400
13,300
8,600
8,700
8,900
9,200
9,200
9,900
8,600
12,000kcal/kg
kcal/kg
kcal/kg
kcal/kg
kcal/1
kcal/kg
kcal/1
kcal/1
kcal/1
kcal/1
kcal/1
kcal/1
kcal/1
kcal/kg
kcal/1
kcal/1

13

Light Oilkl

14

Heavy Oil A

kl

15

Heavy Oil B and Ckl

16

Naphtha

kl

17

LPG

t

18

Reformed Oilkl

19

Hydrocarbon Oil

kl

8,600
9,900

366.3

366.3
286.5
208.6

281.877
269.3

269.3
294.9

277.9
306.1
283.5
251.7

294.9
322.7

20

Oil Hydrocarbon Gas

103m3

9,900

kcal/m3

217.2

21

Oil Coke

t

Coke

t

kcal/kg
kcal/kg

427.9

22

9,400
6,800

23

Coke Furnace Gas

24

Blast Furnace Gas

kcal/m3
kcal/m3
kcal/m3
kcal/m3
kcal/m3

453.0

25

Converter Gas

10377l3
103m3
103m3

26

Electric Furnace Gas

103m3

27

Coal Mine Gas

103m3

4,800
800
2,000
2,000
8,550

10,000kcal/m3

234.9

394.2

188.6
910.0

767.1
767.1
210.4

28

Electric Power29

Supplied Gas

106 kwh103m3

30

Steam and Hot Water

106kcal31

Pulp Drainingt

32

General Waste

t

3,000
1,580

kcal/kg
kcal/kg

33

Industrial Waste

t

4,000

kcal/kg

34

Pig Iront

35

Crude Steel(Converter)t

36

Crude Steel(Electric Furnace)t

37

Blast Furnace Dustt38

Coal-tart

39

Iron Scrapt4.0% Carbon
0.3% Carbon
0.3% Carbon
30.0% Carbon
90.3% Carbon
4.0% Carbon

40

Steel Scrapt0.3% Carbon

353.3
322.3

Notes on emission factors.

(1): 10 Gasoline's emission is from automobile activity.
(2): 15 Heavy Oil B has the same coefficient as Heavy Oil C.
(3): 26 Electric furnace gas is the same coefficient as Converter Gas.
(4): Figures of 34-40 are the weight percentages of carbon contents.
(5): 37 Dust is assumed to be generated 15 kg per production of lkg pig iron.

Estimations of Air Pollutions and Evaluating CO2 Emissions

33

consumption to these sectors since there are considerable energy transfer. Thus carbon balancetable for the four sectors was constructed(see Yoshioka et.al.[1992]).
For the estimations of the other sectors, fuel consumption is estimated from volume ofphysical input and the ratio of fuel to material use.

For example, petrochemical aromatic

products require 76.9% coal-coke for material in total inputs, and the carbon(C02) contents ofcoke is 453(CO2)kg/t. By multiplying these figures to physical volume of energy input, we get
the volume of CO2 emission.
In estimating SOx, we use the emission coefficients after eliminating sulfur, since there areabatement activities. As the SOx coefficients include material originated sulfur such as copper,
iron ore, lead and zinc, we assume these material inputs are proportional to fuel consumption.

As these coefficients are based on the fuel consumption calorific value, we estimate SOx emission
from fuel consumption with calorific unit. Unlike CO2 emission, we do not make sulfur balancetable for the above four sectors.

4.

CO2, NOx and SOx emissions from mobile sources

For NOx from automobile they are estimated from the emission coefficients by using the exper

imental fleet test data5, which pollution has and has not been eliminated using catalyst.
The volume of NOx emission from an automobile depends on many factors such as driving

velocity, weight of carried freight, road condition (highway, mountain road, or city road), andauto's age which determines the level of regulation.

Hence, estimation procedure of air pollution by mobile sources is very difficult and needs
different estimating method from fixed sources.

The JEA's regulatory emission factors are applied to estimate the NOx emission volume

in the published JEA's report6. Since it is not based on actual traveling, it is not sufficient toanalyze the effect of economic activity on air pollution which depend on level of traffic congestionor velocity of automobile7.
On the other hand, the Tokyo Environmental Research Institute's fleet test (experimental)

data show the emission coefficient per mileage[g/km] by types of autos. It describes how thevolume of pollution depends on the velocity of each types of traveling automobile and the vintageof existing automobile. But the experimental data is not simply applicable to economic datasuch as the Input-Output table. In order to incorporate engineering data and economic data,
we must use at least 5 different statistical data. As a result, we estimate the 8,400 emission

factors(by 35 roads, 16 auto types, 3 fuels [gasoline, diesel oil, LPG] and 5 vintages/regulatory
year) for the automobile sources.
For SOx emission from mobile sources, we apply the same method as NOx from automobile.
But for air, water and ocean transports, SOx emission was estimated from the sulfur contentsof fuel-gasoline and fuel-heavy-oils(3 types).

For CO2 emission from mobile sources, we apply the same method as for fixed sources, basedon the carbon contents of fuels.

5.

An Overview of the Japanese Air Pollutions in 29 sectors and final
consumption

Figures 2-4 show CO2, NOx, SOx emissions in 29 sectors and in final consumption which are ag

gregated from the 406-sector tables8. Sectors such as (l)Electricity, gas, thermal energy supply
5See Hayami(1992) for automobile, and Suga( 1992) for airplane.

6See the Institute of Behavioral Science ed.(1989)[8] and [9] for examples.
7 See Bureau of Environmental Protection of Tokyo Metropolitan-city Government ed.(1987).
8Final consumption is classified into emissions from fuel consumption by automobile and from heating, etc.

34

Journal of Applied Input-Output Analysis, Vol.1, No.2, 1993

are the main sources of CO2 emissions in 29 sectors. Other sectors like (2)transport which includes self-transportations(self-passenger and freight transports by private motor cars) but does
not include consumption expenditure of gasoline and diesel oil), (3)steel and its products and,(4)ceramic heavily generate CO2 emission. CO2 emission from these activities is due to coal andoil, except ceramic which includes cement production. Cement production consumes limestone
in addition to oil and coal, which generates CO2 during the burning at clinker formation.

NOx are emitted mainly from (l)transport activities.

Next to transport, (2)agriculture,

forestry and fishing are large sources of NOx emission. In the above three activities, fishing isthe dominant source of NOx emission, because fishing shipment uses a lots of heavy oil. NOx
from these activities is in fact emission from transportation activities.

Main SOx emission is due to (l)transport and (2)electricity, gas, and thermal energy supply.
These activities use heavy oil and coal. SOx from transport is generated by shipment and freighttransportation activities. Mobile sources are the dominant sources of NOx and SOx pollutionsin Japan. We must take alternative mobile technologies into consideration in order to reduce
NOx and SOx.

6.

Evaluating CO2 emissions from the production of 1 unit of com
modity6.1.

Method of estimating CO2 emissions from production activities

Estimating methodology is simple, using an open input-output model.

That is, if 1 unit ofj-th commodity(j=l,...,406) is produced as final demand, it induces directly or indirectly the
production of commodities denoted by the vector Xj, as follows.

(1)
where,
A:

input coefficients matrix of 406 sectors

M:

import coefficients matrix(diagonal)9I:

identity matrix

vector of derived productions from 1 unit of j-th commodity's production/ 0
0: final demand vector of 1 unit of jth commodity production0, 0

CO2 emission factor based on 1 unit of production(l million yen in 1985) is denoted asec(CO2 kg/million yen). Hence, we can describe the derived CO2 emission from 1 unit of j-thcommodity Cpj, as follows.

j = l,...,406),
where • is an inner product of two vectors.

(2)

We call Cpj the emission from production

activities of the j-th commodity.
9 Import is assumed to be proportional to domestic demand.

Estimations of Air Pollutions and Evaluating CO2 Emissions

million ton(CO2)
1,000 _

.Consumption expenditure of households
Consumption expenditure outside house
900

Unclassified
Serviceucation,research,medical-health services.Government

800.Communication and broadcasting.Transport(includes self-transportations.)

al estate

inancial and insurance service
700.Commerce.City water, other sanitary services

600

electricity, gas, thermal energy supply

500

Construction

400

300

200

/Other manufactured products/)ther machines and instruments/Transportation equipment
lectric machinery.General machinery.Other metal products
on-ferrous metals and products

teel and steel products_Ceramic, stone and clay products

Petroleum products
100.Chemical products

ulp, paper, and wooden products'abricated textile products
bod•Agriculture, forestry k fishing

Figure 2: CO2 Emissions in 29 sector and Final Consumption

35

36

Journal of Applied Input-Output Analysis, Vol.1, No.2, 1993

l,000ton

(NO2)
3,000

Consumption expenditure of households
Consumption expenditure outside house
Unclassified
Serviceucation,research,medical-health services
Government
Communication and broadcasting

2,500 _

2,000

_Transport(includes self-transportations.)

1,500

Jleal estate

inancial and insurance service
1,000

ir^ .Commerce

ity water, other sanitary services

llectricity, gas, thermal energy supply
Construction
achinery, other manufactured productsfmetals and products
and steel products
500.Ceramic, stone and clay products
Petroleum products
Chemical products
ulp, paper, and wooden products'abricated textile products:Fopd
finingAgriculture, forestry & fishing

Figure 3: NOx Emissions in 29 sector and Final Consumption

Estimations of Air Pollutions and Evaluating CO2 Emissions

l.OOOton

(SO2)
1,500

^Consumption expenditure of households-Consumption expenditure outside house"Unclassified
Serviceducation,research,medical-health services.Government

iommunication and broadcasting
1,250_Transport(includes self-transportations.)

1,000
Ileal estate/^Financial and insurance service
Commerce
City water, other sanitary services

750

electricity, gas, thermal energy supply
instruction,Other manufactured products^ther machines and instruments
ansportatipn equipment
machinery500

machinery.
metal products
on-ferrous metals and products
teel and steel products-Ceramic, stone and clay products-Petroleum products

250-Chemical products_Pulp, paper, and wooden products-Fabricated textile products_Food.Mining
Agriculture, forestry & fishing

Figure 4: SOx Emissions in 29 sector and Final Consumption

37

38

Journal of Applied Input-Output Analysis, Vol.1, No.2, 1993

Table 2: Top 10 sectors of CO2 Emission induced by 1 unit of ProductiomCC^kg
code

Sector071101

Coal

252101511104

Total

Emission in
Production Process

Emission by fuelin Final Consumption

202,052

6,080

Cement195,972

76,42376,423070,86570,8650072101

Self-power Generation
Crude Petroleum

68,167

3,913

64,2552111018

LPG

49,676

1,985

073101

LNG

47,692

48,9684,412

44,5562111013

Kerosene

45,356

1,985

43,3712111014Light Oil

36,020

1,985

34,034261101

Pig Iron

33,18633,1860111901

Salt

30,92030,9200CO2,Note(l):See Yoshioka et.al.(1992) for other sectors.
Note(2):The ranking order is sorted by total emission CO2J.

Furthermore, if j-th commodity is an energy input, it is assumed to be burned and anemission factor Cej is added. We call Cej the emission from final consumption of the j-thenergy. The total CO2 emission is defined as the sum of emission from production activities of
the j-th commodity and final consumption of the j-th commodity in the case of fossil fuel atfinal demand.

CO2j

=

=
6.2.

ee.{I-(I-M)A)-1

j = l,...,406).

(3)

CO2 emission derived from 1 unit of production

Following the above formula, the estimation results by commodity are briefly shown in Table
2-3 and Figures 5-15. Table 2 shows the top 10 CO2 generating sectors, Table 3 shows thebottom 10 sectors10.
The results show that there are large differences between sectors, when the same economic
value of 1 million yen is produced in each sector.
For example, 1 unit of coal production and its consumption as fuel generates 202 ton ofCO2, but 1 unit of electronic computing equipment renting generates 315 kg. The difference
approaches 641:1. In the case of coal, CO2 emission includes both emission from production
process and emission from final consumption. Final consumption of coal contributes most of theCO2 emission from coal, therefore if coal is not burned as fuel at all, CO2 emission is reduced to
6,162 kg. This implies that liquefaction of coal before final consumption(burning) may decrease
total emissions of CO2, since hydrogen combines with carbon and hydrogen burns into H2O.

On the other hand, cement production is highly CO2 generating. One unit production of
cement produces 76.4 ton of CO2. This emission is 242.5 times the CO2 emission from electronic
computing equipment renting.

Cement made from limestone(portland cements) contributes

emissions of CO2 in two processes. One is chemical reaction, CaCOz —► CaO + CO-i- Anotheris from heating in order to produce the above chemical reaction, which burns fossil fuel. If
plants use blast-furnace slag and precipitated calcium carbonate which are by-products fromiron industry, the CO2 emissions from cement production can be reduced11.
10See Yoshioka et.al.(1992) for more detailed sectors.
11 See for detail, Yoshioka et. al.(1993c)

Estimations of Air Pollutions and Evaluating CO2 Emissions

39

Table 3: Bottom 10 sectors of CO2 Emission induced by 1 unit of Production:CO2kg
code

Emission in Production

Sector

Process(=Total Emission)
731201

Domestic telecommunication

748.2

114101

Tobacco685.5

821104

School research institute (public, social sciences)

677.1

731909Other service relating to communication

593.3

717903Service relating to water transport

510.5

621201

Life insurance

460.4

642101

House rent

397.8

641102

Real estate rent

394.8

621101

Financial service

391.9

851301

Electronic computing equipment renting

315.1

NoterRefer notes on Table 3.

Natural Gas
Crude Petroleum
Coal

Figure 5:

CO2 Emission from Energy Related Mining(kg/million yen)

Figures 5-12 show CO2 emissions of the selected sectors.

Figure 5 shows energy related

mining, and Figure 6 shows coal and oil manufacturings. In these sectors, CO2 emission fromthe burning process is much larger than their production process.

Figure 6 indicates a large

difference between self-power generation and electric power. The reasons of this difference are

due to (1) self-power generation does not contain value added, so that its estimated price is quite
low compared to electric power, (2) electric power includes water and nuclear power generation
which emit less CO2. The issue of self-activity (self-power generation, self-transportation etc.)
shows the limitations using the basic input-output table of Japan.
Figures 7-8 are related to foods and its products. It is shown in Figure 7 that fishery producesmuch more CO2 than agriculture because of operating shipment. In Figure 8, salt emits a very
high level of CO2. Purifying salt needs a lot of heavy oil.
In Figure 9, pulp and paper emit much CO2, since in these industry boiling process needs
a lot of energy. In some chemical manufacturings, Figure 9 shows a large difference among thechemical products. Industrial soda chemicals has a very high CO2 emission, because it uses salt
for material.

Steam&Hot Water
Gas Supply
Self-power Generation
Electric Power
Coal Products
LPG
Light Oil
Kerosene
Gasoline

Figure 6:

12157

J

18341

19380

1

1

70865

1

8789

Zl

49677

1

36030
45356
33310

m

1

CO2 Emission from Coal, Oil and Energy Products(kg/million yen)

40

Journal of Applied Input-Output Analysis, Vol.1, No.2, 1993

Inland Water Culture
Inland Water Fisheries
Marine Culture
Distant Water Fisheries
Off-shore Fisheries
Coastal Fisheries
Minor Forest Products
Logs

Silviculture
Sericulture
Beef Cattle
Pig Racing
Fowls&Broilers
LayersDairy Farming
FruitsVegetables
PulsesPotatoes
Miscellaneous Cereals
Wheat&Barley
Rice1000.0Figure 7:

2000.03000.04000.05000.06000.07000.08000.09000.010000.0

CO2 Emission from Agriculture, Forestry, Fishery(kg/million yen)

Sparkling&Still Beverages
Tea&Roasted Coffee

]

3056

2134 1

3075
Other Liquor
Whiskey&: Brandy 23J

1

4359

Ethyl Alcohol for Liquor M&nuf.

|

BeerRefined Sake 1495J

Prepared Frozen Foods

2598

Retort Foods
Flavoring
Salt
Vegetable Oil

2481

3240

5672

|

3028
3028

1875 1

Noodles 2392
Grain Milling I6io|

Canned/Bottled Seafoods
Salted,Dried/Smoked Seafoods
FVozen Fishesfc Shellfishes

|

3104

|

2799

|

4059

|

2287 |

Animal oil& Fat

3134

Processed Meat Products
Canned/Bottled Meat Products
Slaughtering&Meat Processing

1

30920

StarchSugar

Dairy Farming

12534 ]

Dextrose,Syrup&Isomerized Sugar

Bread& Confectionery

1
[

1

625|

2644

1

LT511

0.0

Figure 8:5000.010000.015000.020000.0

CO2 Foods Manufacturing(kg/million yen)

25000.030000.0

Estimations of Air Pollutions and Evaluating CO2 Emissions

Paint Varnish&Lacquer

4197

3444

Medicaments||

Synthetic Fiber

1

8035

Artificial Silk&Staple Fibers
Cyclic Intermediates
Aliphatic Intermediates

1

13338

1

8356
9130

6351

Petrochemical Aromatic Product*

Petrochemical Basic Products
Industrial soda chemicals
Corrugated Card Board Boxes

5116

|

1

18188

5045

Co&ted Pa.pcr4ePa.per Converted
for Construction Use|
7339

Corrugated Cardboard
Paperboard
Foreign^ Japanese Paper
Pulp
Knit Fabrics
Woolen FabricSilk&Artificial Silk Fibers
Cotton&Stable Fibers Fabrics
Woolen Yarn

9503
15458

14330

1

13045

3868

|

3344
4934

|
|

II

5703

0.0

1

1

3630
1833

1

|

3410

Synthetic Fiber Yarn
Cotton Yarn

Figure 9:41|3000.04000.06000.08000.010000.013000.014000.016000.018000.030000.0

CO2 Emission from Textile, Paper, Pulp, Chemical Manufacturings(kg/million yen)

Figure 10 is energy consuming heavy industries, like steel and iron, and cement. As mentioned previously, cement generates nearly 76 ton of CO2 from every 1 million yen of output.

Next to cement, pig iron shows a large amount of CO2 emission. In ferro alloy, crude steel,
hot rolled steel CO2 emissions are two thirds of pig iron. Furthermore, in steel products, CO2
emission are two thirds of crude steel. This fact implies that iron recycling is a very effective
way to reduce CO2 emission.

Figure 11 is related to machinery. In these industries, the varieties of the input materials
are wider than that in material related industries, therefore the variance of CO2 emission isdecreased. However, the volume of CO2 emission varies from 1,425kg to 4,855kg.

Finally, Figure 12 shows transportation. In these activities, self-transportations do not havevalue added, therefore evaluation of their prices is difficult. Furthermore, carrying capacity ofeach transportation is not considered in this analysis12. Besides self-transportation, ocean andwater transport have heavy CO2 emission, since they use heavy oil.

7.

Concluding Remarks

We have developed the basic tool for the environmental analysis of economic activities. This
study will extend to the various applications for testing alternative technologies. Among them,

we have already evaluated the CO2 contents of household activities13 and we have proceeded
to evaluating alternative technologies such as energy saving houses, slag cement and paper

recycling, etc14.
In this paper, we found that the induced CO2 emission from 1 unit of production differs

largely among commodities. Therefore if carbon tax is to be imposed, its burden will be widelydifferent according to the amount of the induced CO2 emission even within the same 2-digit
category

15

12See Hayami [1992], Suga[l992], for the emission of CO2 per mileage or per passenger.

13 See, Yoshioka et.al.( 1993a).
14See, for example, Yoshioka et.al.( 1993b).

15The figures we get are under the condition that the final demand remains constant, since we use the open
input-output model.

42

Journal of Applied Input-Output Analysis, Vol.1, No.2, 1993

Metal Products for Construction
Non-ferrous Metal Castings&Forgings

Rolled Alminium ProductsElectric Wires&Cables
Aluminium
L*on&Steel Shearing^ Slitting

1

15230
Cast&Forged Steel
9418|
Coated Steel12370_|
Cold-finished Steel
11551|
Steel Pipes&Tubes
16544
Hot Rolled Steel
20736
Crude Steel
19107
Ferro Alloy
Pig Iron
Pottery.China&Earthenware 4829 |15304
Cement Products
Ready Mixed Concrete
CementGlass Fiber& Glass Products

Figure 10:

1
I

D

33186

1

CO2 Emission from Cement, Metal Manufacturings(kg/million yen)

Medical Instruments
Watches&Clocks
CameraAircraftRailway cars

1775

J

1630

|

1425

|

1232

|

1

3516

3878

Internal combustion engine for vessel

1

3730

Internal combustion
engine for motor vehicles

Motor vehicle bodies
Trucks, buses and other cars
Passenger cars

Playback* Equipment (VTR)Radio& Television Sets
Bearings
Metal Molds
Textile Machinery
Agricultural Machinery
Industrial Robots
Chemical Machinery
Refrigerators&Air
Conditioning Apparatus

Engines
Boilers& Turbines

2973

1

2725

2285

2044

|

1827

1

]

1

|

2034

|

1

4855

3823
3631

3768

ID

2402
2753

m

3052
3408

m

3058

1500.0Figure 11:

1

4301

Semi-conductor X>eyices&
Integrated Circuits

Electric Computing Equipment (Main Parts)
Magnetic RecoadingAfe

m

3066

2000.02500.03000.01
3500.0CO2 Emission from Machinery(kg/million yen)4000.04500.05000.0Estimations of Air Pollutions and Evaluating CO2 Emissions

Storage Facility Service
Air Transport
Transport Service in Harbor
Castal&Inland Water Transport
e Ocean Transport

1678

|

i

6678

974

|
8783

10664

by Private Motor Cars
Self-Passenger Transport
by Private Motor Cars

Local Railway&Tramway Transport

Japan Railway ElectricTrans port (Passengers)
Japan Railways (except passengers

9388

1

2761

3770

3349

3401

1

1

1

|

1

3088

3331

1
|
4337

of JR electric trains)

Figure 12:

■I

10603

Self-Freight Transport

Railway forwarding
Road Freight Transport
Hired Car&Taxi Transport
Bus Transport

43

HI

CO2 Emission from Transportation(kg/million yen)

But on the other hand, it suggests many possibilities of reducing CO2 emission throughintroducing various alternative technologies.

References[1] Hayami, H.(1992) "Estimation of Air Pollution by Mobile Sources:Automobiles," KEO Occasional
Paper J.No.25, Keio University, July 1992, (in Japanese).
[2] Ikeda, A.(1991) "An Empirical Study on the Interdependency between the Environment and theEconomic System : An Input-Output Approach," Journal of the School of Humanities and Culture
No.22, Tokai University, March 1992, (in Japanese).

[3] Leontief, W.W.(1970) "Environmental Repercussions and the Economic Structure:

An Input-

Output Approach," Review of Economics and Statistics, Vol.52, No.3, pp.262-271.

[4] Leontief, W.W.(1972) "Air Pollution and the Economic Structure : Empirical Results of InputOutput Computations," in Input Output Economics 2nd ed., Oxford University Press, New York,1986, pp.273-293.

[5] Shibata, M., M. Mizushima and S. Yanagisawa(1991) "Study for The Counterplan to Airplane's
Exhaust (1)," Sangyo-Kogai, Vol.27, No.9, 1991, (in Japanese).
[6] Shibata, M., M. Mizushima and S. Yanagisawa(1991) "Study for The Counterplan to Airplane's
Exhaust (2)," Sangyo-Kogai, Vol.27, No.12, 1991, (in Japanese).
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trol in Japan," Discussion Paper Series No.2, Institute of Socio-Economic Planning, University ofTsukuba, Jan. 1975.

[8] Suga, M.(1992) "Estimation of Air Pollution from Air Transportation Industry," KEO Occasional
Paper J.No.23, Keio University, March 1992, (in Japanese).
[9] Tonooka, Y.(1992) Private Letters[10] Yoshioka, K., H. Hayami, A. Ikeda and M. Suga(1992), "Application of the input-output approachin environmental analysis: Causes and efFects of CO2 emissions generated by production activities,"

Innovation & 1-0 Technique, Vol.3, No.4, October 1992, pp.31-47, (in Japanese).
[11] Yoshioka, K., H. Hayami, A. Ikeda and M. Suga( 1993a), "Application of the input-output ap
proach in environmental analysis(II):Evaluating CO2 emissions from household activities throughthe compilation of the household accounts on CO2 emission," Innovation & 1-0 Technique, Vol.4,

No.l, January 1993, pp.37-57, (in Japanese).

44

Journal of Applied Input-Output Analysis, Vol.1, No.2, 1993[12] Yoshioka, K., H. Hayami, A. Ikeda and M. Suga(1993b), "Application of the input-output approachin environmental analysis(III): A simulation of promoting energy saving houses," Innovation & 1-0
Technique, Vol.4, No.2, April 1993, pp.26-39, (in Japanese).

[13] Yoshioka, K., H. Hayami, A. Ikeda, K. Fujiwara and M. Suga(1993c), "Application of the inputoutput approach in environmental analysis(IV): A simulation of promoting slag cement," Innova

tion & 1-0 Technique, Vol.4, No.3-4, pp.32-39, (in Japanese).

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[2] Air Pollution Control Division, Air Quality Bureau ed.(1988), Nitrogen Oxide Total Emission
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[3] Air Pollution Control Division, Air Quality Bureau ed.(1989), Guidance for Soot and Dust Dis
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[5] Customs Bureau ed.(1986), Japan Exports and Imports: Country by Commodity 1985 December,
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[6] Energy Policy Planning Division, Director's Secretariat Agency of Natural Resources and Energyed.(1992), 1991 General Energy Statistics, Ministry of International Trade and Industry, February
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[7] Health and Welfare Statistics Association ed.(1991), Trend of National Health, August 1991.
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[9] The Institute of Behavioral Sciences ed.(1989), Survey Report for Projection of Large Cities'
Traffic Congestion, March 1989.

[10] The Institute of Electrical Engineers ed.(1985), Lectures ou Thermal-power Generation, March
1985.

[11] Ministry of International Trade and Industry(1976), Input-Output Tables for Industry Pollution
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[12] Management and Coordination Agency, Government of Japan ed.(1989), 1985 Input-Output Ta
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[13] OECD(1991), OECD Environmental Data.
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[15] Public Utility's Department Agency of Natural Resources and Energy ed.

(1985,86), 1985, 86

Summary for Supply and Demand of Electricity, Ministry of International Trade and Industry,
September 1985,86.

[16] Research and Statistics Department, Minister's Secretariat ed.(1986), 1985 Yearbook of Chemical
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[17] Research and Statistics Department, Minister's Secretariat ed.(1986), 1985 Yearbook of the Cur
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[18] Research and Statistics Department, Minister's Secretariat ed.(1986), 1985 Yearbook of Iron andSteel Statistics, Ministry of International Trade and Industry, June 1986.

[19] Research and Statistics Department, Minister's Secretariat ed.(1986), 1985 Yearbook of Mining,
Non-ferrous Metals, and Products Statistics, Ministry of International Trade and Industry, July
1986.

Estimations of Air Pollutions and Evaluating CO2 Emissions

45[20] Research and Statistics Department, Minister's Secretariat ed.(1986), 1985 Yearbook of Production, Supply and Demand of Petroleum, Coal and Coke, Ministry of International Trade and In
dustry, July 1986.

[21] Research and Statistics Department, Minister's Secretariat ed.(1986), The Structural Survey ofEnergy Consumption in Commerce, Mining and Manufacturing, 1985, Ministry of International
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[22] Road Bureau ed.(1989), 1988 Road Traffic Census, Ministry of Construction, March 1989.