How to Make Yourself UnderstoodCenter for Language Learning
English Department, Hokkaido University
English I

Online Materials

URL: http://ocw.hokudai.ac.jp/Course/LiberalArts/EnglishI/EnglishI/2015/

Satoshi Oku
Jeff Gayman
Takashi Tsuchinaga
Atsushi Tsujimoto©2014How to Make Yourself Understood

TABLE of CONTENTS
General Introduction
Component 1

p. 3

Tips for English Speech Sounds

Unit 1

Pronounce by Semantic Groups

p. 11

Unit 2Focus on Important information

p. 23

Unit 3Beware of Sound Change – Part 1

p. 35

Unit 4Beware of Sound Change – Part 2

p. 47

Unit 5Check out Sound Segments

p. 57

Component 2 Tips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs
Unit 6

From Sentences to “Text”

p. 67

Unit 7

What is a “Paragraph”?

p. 74

Unit 8Essay Structurep. 87

Unit 9Notes on Essay Constructionp. 95

Unit 10Planning an Outline

p. 107

Component 3 Steps toward Attractive Presentations
Unit 11

Purpose and Content of Presentation

p. 117

Unit 12

Audience and Presentation Tools

p. 127

Unit 13

Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

p. 135

Unit 14

Learning from Real Presentations

p. 1452

General Introduction

How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

General Introduction

3

How to Make Yourself Understood

General Introduction- CONTENTS Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
Organization of the Course

p. 5

Tips for Foreign Language Learning (1)Notice Similarities

p. 6

Tips for Foreign Language Learning (2)Notice Differencesp. 7

Further Tips
(1) 単語の「訳」だけでやろうとすると行き詰まるわけ
その１：「book = 本」ではありません

p. 9

book cannot be identical to “hon”(2) 単語の「訳」だけでやろうとすると行き詰まるわけ
その 2：「he/his/him = 彼」の落とし穴

p. 9

he/his/him = “kare”? Don’t be trapped

Satoshi Oku and Jeff Gayman
4General Introduction

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Hello everyone. Welcome to the Hokkaido University English One Online Material Course. My name is Jeff
Gayman, and I’m an associate professor of the Hokkaido University Research Faculty of Media andCommunication. This course will be providing you with some foundations for expressing yourself in English
in a clear and attractive fashion.

Organization of the Course

This course consists of three components.
Unit 1 ~ Unit 5

Tips for English Speech Sounds

Unit 6 ~ Unit 10 Tips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs
Unit 11 ~ Unit 14 Steps toward Attractive Presentations
The first component, Units 1 through 5, is about English pronunciation. This will give you some important
tips when you pronounce English words, phrases, and sentences. In the second component, Units 6 through10, we will learn some foundations for English writing. We will especially focus on how to write paragraphs,
which are important units larger than a sentence. The third and last component, Units 11 through 14, deals
with some basics of oral presentations in English.
The first two components are independent, so you can start with any one of the two. The last component,
however, is partly based on the first two components. So it’s a good idea to watch the first ten units first, andthen to go on to Units 11 through 14.
OK. Before I conclude these introductory remarks, let me tell you something important about learning
foreign languages.

Points―――――――――――――――

・この教材は 3 つの部門からなる
第１部：Unit 1 ~ Unit 5

Tips for English Speech Sounds（英語発音のヒント）

第２部：Unit 6 ~ Unit 10 Tips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs（良いパラグラフを書くために）
第３部：Unit 11 ~ Unit 14 Steps toward Attractive Presentations（魅力的なプレゼンを目指して）・第１部と第２部はそれぞれ独立しているので、好きな方から取り掛かって・第 3 部は、第１部と第２部の内容にもとづいているので、Unit 1～Unit10 をやってから取り掛かるとよい――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
5

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodTips for Foreign Language Learning (1): Notice Similarities

First, both Japanese and English (or whatever your native language is) are instances of “human language.”So, there are many similarities among them. Let me give you one simple example. In both English andJapanese, a question sentence is not necessarily used as a “real question.” In an appropriate context, Whowill do this hard job? can mean, “Nobody wants to do this job.”< literal meaning >< speaker’s intended meaning >Who will do this hard job?



Nobody wants to do this job

The same is true in Japanese. Again in an appropriate context, 誰がこの大変な仕事をするの？ ‘Who will dothis hard job?’ can be used to mean 誰もこんな仕事したくないよ ‘Nobody wants to do this job’.
< literal meaning >< speaker’s intended meaning >誰がこの大変な仕事をするの？



誰もこんな仕事したくないよIn other words, there is the same pragmatic rule in both Japanese and English which bridges the literalmeaning of question sentences and their speaker’s intended meaning. So it’s a good strategy to realize
similarities between your native language, say Japanese, and the target foreign language, say English, inforeign language learning.
Especially, in writing academic essays and in making oral presentations, no matter in what language, there
are a lot of important aspects which can be focused on in order to make your writing and presentations moreclear and attractive. Therefore, if you are getting better with your oral presentations in Japanese, you will
simultaneously be getting better with your presentations in English. And likewise, if you are getting betterwith organizing your paragraph structure in English, your report writing in Japanese will also become
better.

Points―――――――――――――――

・英語と日本語。共通点はたくさんあり（同じ人間言語ですから）
たとえば、英語でも日本語でも疑問文が文字通りの意味ではなく使われる場合あり
・上記テキストで見た例の他に、慣用化した表現も多数
英語の例

Who cares?

文字通りの意味「誰がそれを気にかけますか？」
話し手が言いたいこと「そんなこと気にしなくていいよ！」
あるいは「知ったことか！」

Who knows?

文字通りの意味「誰がそれを知っていますか？」
話し手が言いたいこと「誰にもわからないよ！」「そうとは限らないよ！」

日本語の例

いつまで待たせるの?

 話し手が言いたいこと「早く来てよ！」

何をやっているの？

 話し手が言いたいこと「そんなことはやめなさい！」6General Introduction

Tips for Foreign Language Learning (1): Notice Differences

At the same time, however, there are many differences between Japanese and English as well. Consider thefollowing examples.
～けれど

but ? however ? although/though ?

If you consider just the meaning of Japanese ～けれど, it can be rendered into English but, however,

although or though, for example. Notice, however, these words have very different grammatical functions.
For instance, you can say,
Tom washed his bike carefully. His mother, however, still didn’t like it very much
But you cannot replace this however with but.
Tom washed his bike carefully. × His mother, but, still didn’t like it very muchis an ungrammatical expression in English. Additionally, you cannot use although here, either.

Points―――――――――――――――

・外国語の力がなかなかつかない（苦手な）人によくみられる特徴
外国語の単語の「訳」「意味」だけで考えようとする  これではすぐ行き詰まる
・ここの例で分かるように、大まかな「意味」としては「逆接」でも、but, however, although (though)は、全く異なった「機能」を持つ：文中で現れることができる位置がそれぞれ全く異る・単語の「訳」や「意味」だけではなく、文中での「機能・働き方」を丁寧に理解するのが上達への早道(1) but は「等位」接続詞：文１と文２の間にのみ現れる「文１ but 文 2」(2) although は「従属」接続詞：従属節の先頭にのみ現れる「主節, although 従属節」または「although 従属節, 主節」(3) however は副詞：文頭にも、文中にも、文末にも現れることが可能
John washed it carefully. However, his mother didn’t like it very much
John washed it carefully. His mother, however, didn’t like it very much
John washed it carefully. His mother didn’t like it very much, however
・読んだり聞いたりする場合は、大ざっぱな「意味」の理解でもなんとかなる場合もあるかもしれないが、きちんと書く、きちんと話すためには、このような似た意味の単語の使い方の違いをしっかり認識しておくことがとても重要＊注１：though には副詞用法もあり

注２：but, however には上記とは別の機能もあるので注意
7

How to Make Yourself Understood
Again,Tom washed his bike carefully. × His mother, although, still didn’t like it very muchis not an appropriate sentence in English. Likewise, you can say,Though Tom washed his bike carefully, his mother still didn’t like it very much
but you cannot say
× But Tom washed his bike carefully, his mother still didn’t like it very much
And
× However Tom washed his bike carefully, his mother still didn’t like it very muchis not a good sentence in English.
As can be seen from these simple examples, it is very important to realize systematic differences between
your mother tongue and the target language you are trying to learn. So, don’t just focus on the “meaning” ofwords; try to understand grammatical “functions” of words in your target language.

Good luck! It’s up to YOU!

OK. Finally, these online course materials cover only a few important aspects of English pronunciation,
paragraph writing, and oral presentations. But, since this is a course for university students, it doesn’t
matter what we will cover in the course. What does matter is what you will discover through the course.
So, are you ready? Good luck, and enjoy the course!

～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～
8

General Introduction

Further Tips
単語の「訳」だけでやろうとすると行き詰まるわけ
その１：「book = 本」ではありません
日本語と英語で（あるいはどの外国語同士でも）、一方の言語の１つの単語が、もう一方の言語の１つの単語と100%意味・機能が同じということはありません。辞書に書いてある「訳」は「近似値」と考えるのが良いでしょう。それを手掛かりに、前後の文脈情報や文法上の情報を利用して、その文の意味内容を読み取っていくことが重要です。たとえば、book という英語の基本的な単語と日本語の「本」という単語の意味・機能は、完全に同一ではありません。
意味が重なっている部分も少なくありませんが、大きな違いもあります。英語の book には、notebook という表現からも分かるように、本状に閉じられたものであれば、「帳面」や「手帳」、レストランやホテルの「予約台帳」なども指します。book には動詞で「予約する」という意味もありますね。これも book に「台帳」という意
味があることを考えると、とても自然なことです。日本語訳だけで考えていると「本」と「予約する」の間のつながりが全く見えてきませんね。つまり、英語母語話者が book という単語から連想するイメージと、日本語母語話者が「本」という単語から連想するイメージとは、かなり異なっているわけです。このように、意味の似た単語の意味機能の違いを「発見」していくことは、外国語学習の大きな楽しみの１つです。さらに、母語である
日本語の今まで気がつかなかった隠れた特徴にも気がつく、という楽しいおまけもついてきます。「訳」だけで考えようとするのは、もっとも退屈な外国語学習法ですね。

単語の「訳」だけでやろうとすると行き詰まるわけ
その２：「he/his/him = 彼」の落とし穴
Every boy washed his bike には、２つの解釈の可能性があります。１つは、大好きな山田先生の自転車を男の子みんなで洗った、といったタイプの解釈。ここでは、his は文脈上明らかな男性単数を指します（たとえば「山田先生」）。もう１つの解釈として、A 君は A 君の自転車を洗い、B 君は B 君の自転車を洗い、C 君は C 君の自転車を洗い…という「連動読み」があります。もしこの文を「どの男の子も、彼の自転車を洗った」と訳してし
まうと、その日本語訳では「連動読み」の解釈は難しくなってしまいます。
「どの男の子も、自分の自転車を洗った」というのが連動読みを表わす自然な日本語でしょう。このことから、外国語学習で文中に代名詞や指示詞が出てきたときに、やってはいけないこと、やるべきことが見えてきます。
＜やってはいけない方法＞
まず、he/his/him をとりあえず「彼」と訳しておく。それから、日本語訳を通して「彼」が誰を指すのかを考える（it, this, that, they, she, her なども同様）
9How to Make Yourself Understood＜やるべき方法＞
まず、he/his/him が文中（あるいは文脈上）のどの部分を指しているか、どの部分とつながっているかを、文構造や文脈情報を利用して考える
上記の「連動読み」の例からも分かる通り、＜やってはいけない方法＞では、文全体の意味のつながりが分からなくなってしまったり、誤った解釈をしてしまう可能性がとても大きくなります。＜やるべき方法＞に従えば、それぞれの具体的な文脈で he/his/him が指すものが確認できた段階で、文を正確に理解したことになります（それ以上日本語に「訳す」必要もありません）。
同様に、they/their/them には、人だけではなく複数の「もの」や「ことがら」を指す用法もあります。英語が苦手な北大生によく見られる失敗として、they をまず「彼ら」と訳してしまい、その日本語訳にもとづいて文全体の意味を考えようとするので、その they が「もの」や「こと」を指しているような場合に、全く意味がつながらず困ってしまう、ということがあります。順序が逆です。
「訳す」前に文脈とのつながり、they がどの部分を指しているかを見つけるのです。文法上最も近い所にある複数形の名詞句を指している場合がほとんどです。
本当の共通点を理解し、違いを楽しむ。外国語学習を根気よく続けるための秘訣です。

10

How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

Tips for English Speech Sounds
Unit 1
Pronounce by Semantic Groups

キーワード（key words）
意味グループ（semantic group）

ポーズ・間（pause）

内容語（content word） 機能語（function word）

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodTips for English Speech Sounds
Unit 1

Pronounce by Semantic Groups- CONTENTS -Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
Warming Up Quiz: Identify Semantic Unitsp. 13

Phrases as Pronunciation Unitsp. 16

Summaryp. 19

Further Tips
(1) 間のとり方による違い

p. 20

Pauses make a difference(2) 機能語を強く読むとき

p. 20

When function words are stressed(3) イントネーション：英語と日本語で違う場合もquestions  rising intonation? Not always

p. 21

疑問文だからといって文の最後を上げるとは限りません

rising intonation  questions? Not always

p. 22

文の最後を上げたからといって質問をしているとは限りません

Satoshi Oku and Jeff Gayman
12Unit 1 Pronounce by Semantic Groups

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Hello everyone. I’m Jeff Gayman. The first five units of this course deal with pronunciation of English words,
phrases, and sentences. Today, we will consider pronunciation units as semantic groups.

Warming Up Quiz: Identify Semantic Units

Look at the following sequence of words. Where will you put a pause to make this an intelligible sentence?
When you go to Niseko you will see many foreign visitors who speak Japanese well
You may put a pause here. And maybe a minor pause here, too.
When you go to Niseko // you will see many foreign visitors (/) who speak Japanese well
Easy? Well, then let us ask why we put a pause in these places. The key is “semantic units.” For instance,
the sentence is divided into two large semantic units like this.
Semantic unit

Semantic unit

[When you go to Niseko] [you will see many foreign visitors who speak Japanese well]

Points―――――――――――――――

 意味のまとまりに注目
英語の長い文を話すときの注意
・個々の単語の発音にとらわれすぎると、かえって不自然に（日本人初学者によく見られる誤り）・意味のまとまりを意識して・まとまりの切れ目には思い切って間（pause）を入れよう
・ぺらぺら話すよりも通じやすくなる
・特に、複数の人の前で話すときには間（pause）が大切・単語をただ出てきた順に発音するのではなく、意味のまとまり・切れ目をしっかり意識して――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

13

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodSo, it is very natural to put a pause between Niseko and you, which makes your pronunciation easy toperceive. Further, the second part of the sentence can be divided into two smaller semantic units like this.
[When you go to Niseko] [you will see many foreign visitors [who speak Japanese well]]Semantic unit
Therefore, you may want to put a minor pause between visitors and who, especially when you speak before alarge audience and want to make your pronunciation clearly articulated.
Let’s practice a bit now. Repeat after me.
When you go to Niseko, // you will see many foreign visitors (/) who speak Japanese well<your turn>Good. Some of you may find that the pause based on semantic units is natural and easy. However,sometimes, if you put the pause in a wrong place, you cannot make yourself understood correctly. Consider
the following example. Where are you going to put a pause in this sentence?
Tom told me a weird story I don’t believe he just cooked it up
Depending on where you put the pause, this can mean very different things. You can put a big pause here.
Tom told me a weird story. // I don’t believe he just cooked it up

In this case, you mean you trust Tom and believe his story although it is weird. Also, however, you can put abig pause here, rather than after story.
Tom told me a weird story I don’t believe. // He just cooked it up
In this case, you do not trust Tom and do not believe his story. You see? It is sometimes very important where
you put a pause. The place of the pause can change the meaning of sentences completely.
Ok. Let’s practice now. Repeat after me. When you trust Tom and believe his story, you would say:
Tom told me a weird story. // I don’t believe he just cooked it up

14<your turn>Unit 1 Pronounce by Semantic Groups

Points―――――――――――――――

 日本語でも「私は夕方家に着いた祖母からの荷物はまだ開けていない」
a. 「私は夕方家に着いた。/ / 祖母からの荷物はまだ開けていない」
b. 「私は / 夕方家に着いた祖母からの荷物は / まだ開けていない」
・(a)では夕方家に着いたのは「私」。荷物の到着時は述べられていない・(b)では夕方家に着いたのは「荷物」。私の帰着時は述べられていない・英語でも日本語と同様・間を無視すると、うまく通じず、誤解を招く
・間の置き場所によってはまったく逆の意味になる場合も――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
And when you do not believe his story, you would say like this. Repeat after me.
Tom told me a weird story I don’t believe. // He just cooked it up<your turn>
OK. How was it? When you speak, it’s very important to recognize semantic units, and to put a pause inappropriate places when necessary. Do not pronounce the sentence in a “word-by-word” fashion!

Points―――――――――――――――

 意味が全く逆になる例
Tom told me a weird story. // I don’t believe he just cooked it up
・ここに間を置くと、トムの話は奇妙だが、トムが勝手に作った話だとは思わない。つまりトムを信用している、という意味
Tom told me a weird story I don’t believe. // He just cooked it up
・ここに間を置くと、トムの奇妙な話を信じていない。勝手に作った話だと思っている。つまりトムを信用していない、という意味
・同じ単語が同じ順番で並んでいても、間を置く場所 1 つで、全く逆の意味になる場合もある
15

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodPhrases as Pronunciation Units

Now, let’s go onto the second part of Unit 1. We are going to consider tips for pronouncing phrases. Consider
the following example.
A: What’s that noise?
B: My neighbor is building a deskIn sentence B, there are three core words: neighbor, building, and desk. These three words are not only
semantic cores, but also cores for pronouncing this sentence. Do not pronounce in a word-by-word fashion
like:
My … neigh .. bor .. is … buil …ding … a … desk.
Rather, let’s start with just these three core words alone. Repeat after me.
“NEIghbor … BUIlding … DESK”

Points<your turn>―――――――――――――――

 内容語（動詞・名詞・形容詞・副詞など）は意味の中心になりやすい 機能語（助動詞、前置詞、代名詞、冠詞など）は内容語を補佐
・内容語は発音上の核となる・機能語は発音上、内容語の付属品
a deskdesk の付属品として発音

発音上の核（強くはっきりと）(極力弱く軽く短く)
発音上の核（強くはっきりと）is buildingbuild の付属品として発音 (build にぶら下げて極力弱く軽く短く: 決して強く発音しない)
発音上の核（強くはっきりと）
my neighborbuild の付属品として発音 (neigh にぶら下げて極力弱く軽く短く: 決して強く発音しない)
16

Unit 1 Pronounce by Semantic Groups
OK. Now let us read by a phrasal unit. Repeat after me.
my NEIghbor
Do not put any stress on my and -bor. Just put a stress on nei.
my NEIghbor
Next.
a DESK
Try to make a as weak as possible, and put a strong stress just on desk.
a DESK
Next, let’s read the verb phrase. Repeat after me.
is BUIlding a DESK

<your turn>Put a strong stress on build and desk, and make everything else as weak as possible.
is BUIlding a DESK

<your turn>OK, let’s read only three core words again. Repeat after me.
NEIghbor … BUIlding … DESK

<your turn>Now, keep the rhythm the same, and put the other elements together.
my NEIghbor is BUIlding a DESK

<your turn>

Again, the core words alone.
NEIghbor … BUIlding … DESK

<your turn>

Keep the rhythm constant, and:17

How to Make Yourself Understood
my NEIghbor is BUIlding a DESK

<your turn>

OK? This is the English rhythm and makes your pronunciation clear and natural. Let’s practice with a few
more examples. First, with just the core words. Repeat after me.
BOY … PUT … BIKE … gaRAGE

Points<your turn>―――――――――――――――

 発音練習のコツ
・英語には、１つの強勢と次の強勢との間にかかる時間を一定に保とうとする傾向あり| 等間隔 |a.

I’ll gotoschoolb.

I’m going toschoolc.

I’m going to the school| 等間隔 |・上記(a)(b)(c)で go から school までの時間間隔を同じに保とうとする・機能語をはずして、内容語だけを一定の間隔リズムで発音・慣れてきたら内容語を加え、間隔リズムを変えずに発音
nei

build

desk

My neighbor is building a desk
| 等間隔 | 等間隔 |
boy

put

bike

garageThe boy will put his bike in the garage|等間隔 | 等間隔 | 等間隔|・機能語(my, is, -ing, a, the, will, his, in など)を強く明確に発音していてはできません
・機能語は内容語にぶら下げて、極力弱く軽く――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Now, try to keep the rhythm constant, and …
the BOY will PUT his BIKE in the gaRAGE<your turn>18

Unit 1 Pronounce by Semantic Groups
Again, the core words alone.
BOY … PUT … BIKE … gaRAGE<your turn>the BOY will PUT his BIKE in the gaRAGE<your turn>And,

Good. Next. Again only with core words first. Repeat after me.
TELL … WHERE … BUY … WAter<your turn>Now, try to keep the rhythm constant, andTELL me WHERE i can BUY a bottle of WAter<your turn>Summary

Good! OK. Let’s wrap up today’s lesson. When you speak, try not to read word by word. Rather, try to talk to
your listener by semantic unit. This is very important when you speak English in order to make yourself
understood.
OK, that’s all for today’s lesson. I hope you enjoyed it. Good luck, keep practicing. And see you next time!

Points―――――――――――――――

 個々の単語の発音に劣らず、重要な要素
・適切な間（pause）
・強弱などのプロソディー・イントネーション
 これらの点に留意して練習を続けると・文全体を意味内容に即して発音できるようなる
・流暢でなくても、通じる英語になる・聞き取りの力もアップする～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～
19

How to Make Yourself Understood

Further Tips (1)間（pause）をとる場所によって意味が変わってしまう他の例（息が続かなくなったからといって、勝手に切ってはダメよ！）
Takako was not fired because of her behavior
・続けて読むと、「態度が原因で首になったわけではない」
つまり「首になった。ただ、その理由は貴子の態度ではない」という意味（not は because 以下にかかると考えるとよい）・fired と because の間に pause を入れて読むと「首にならなかった。態度がよかったから」、
つまり「首にならなかった」という意味（not は fired にかかる）
・聞き取りの際、間のとり方を無視すると、発話の意図を誤解してしまうかも・発音の際、間のとり方に注意しないと、全く逆のことを人に伝えてしまうかも（首になっていない人のことを首になったと言ってしまう！「貴子さん、ごめんなさい！」）・意味の大きなまとまりや区切れ目をいつも意識して・Reading の時にも、ピリオドはもちろんカンマの位置にも注意を払う習慣をつけるとよい
意味のまとまりがマークされています。それを意識して音読練習もFurther Tips (2)機能語を強く読むとき
 助動詞、前置詞、代名詞、冠詞などの機能語は、通常は強く読まない・これらを強く読むのは特別な意味を伝えたいとき
例１「Your neighbor is not building a desk（隣の人は机を作っていないんだよね）」といわれた時、「いや、作っているよ」と言うには：My neighbor IS building a desk
前言の… is not …を否定するので、肯定であることを強調して IS が強くなる（この文脈では IS を強く発音しないと不自然）

20

Unit 1 Pronounce by Semantic Groups
例２「John’s neighbor is building a desk（ジョンの隣の人が机を作っているんだよね）」といわれた時、「いや、作っているのは私の隣人だよ」と言うには：MY neighbor is building a desk
前言の John’s を否定し、それとは対照に「私の」と述べている（この文脈で MY を強く発音しないと不自然）・機能語を強く発音する場合には、それなりの意味上の理由がある
・理由がないのにうっかり強く発音してしまうと思わぬ誤解を招く恐れも・特定の機能語を強く発音すべき文脈なのに、しっかり強く発音しないと、とても不自然に

Further Tips (3)イントネーション：英語と日本語で違う場合も(A) 疑問文だからといって文の最後を上げるとは限りません
・「疑問文は文末を上がり調子で（rising intonation）」と教わると、日本語も英語も同じだ！と思うかもしれません・共通点もありますが、違いもあるので注意
・日本語は「yes/no 疑問文」も「疑問詞疑問文」も、通常文末を上がり調子でa.

昨日、お寿司を食べましたか？

b.

昨日、何を食べましたか？

c.

誰と遊んだの？

・英語も「yes/no 疑問文」は、通常文末を上がり調子でd.

Did you play with Sam?

ところが・英語の what/who/when/where などを含む「疑問詞疑問文」は通常下がり調子（falling intonation）
e.

What did you eat yesterday?

f.

Who did you play with?
21

How to Make Yourself Understood
・英語の「疑問詞疑問文」を上がり調子で発音すると、単に質問している以上の別の意味が加わります
たとえば、(g)(h)は（）内のようなニュアンスに聞こえる場合がありますg.

What did you eat yesterday?

(きのう、何を食べたんだって？)h.

Who did you play with?

(誰と遊んだんだと！？)・「ちょっと聞き逃したので、もう一度教えて」というニュアンスにもなりますが、文脈や言い方によっては、非難しているようにも聞こえ、とても失礼になるので要注意(B) 文の最後を上げたからといって質問をしているとは限りません
・次のような場面を想像して：友達と向かい合って話をしています。テーブルの上にあったお菓子を手に持って相手の方に差し出して次のように言いました
クッキー？
・このような場合日本語では、「これクッキーですか？」という質問をしているという理解が最も一般的でしょう・ところが同じ場面で、英語で上がり調子でいうとCookies?

「クッキーをどうぞ」「クッキーいかが」と相手にお菓子を勧める文であると理解されるのが最も一般的です“Cookies?”と言われて、“Yes, they are”などと答えないように・イントネーション（プロソディ・抑揚）は、単純そうに見え、どの言語でも同じような使い方をすると思われがちかもしれませんが、言語ごとに使い方が異なる場合もあります。十分に注意を

22

How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

Tips for English Speech Sounds
Unit 2Focus on Important Information

キーワード（key words）
強勢（stress）

主強勢（main stress）

新情報（new information）

焦点（focus） 対比的焦点（contrastive focus）

脱強勢（de-stress）

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodTips for English Speech Sounds
Unit 2Focus and Important Information- CONTENTS -Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
Warming up Quiz: Which Part is Stressed? (Context 1)

p. 25

Context 2: Object as New Information

p. 26

Context 3: Verb Phrase as New Information

p. 26

Context 4: The Sentence as a Whole as New Information p. 28
Context 5: Verb Alone as Contrastive Focus

p. 29

Context 6: The Genitive Part of the Subject
as Contrastive Focus

p. 30

Pronouns: De-stressed Elements

p. 30

Summaryp. 33

Further Tips
(1) 思わぬ誤解を生む I / you の不用意な強勢

p. 33

Unnecessary Stress on I / you may cause a problem(2) my / your への強勢がパターン化されている例

p. 34

Cases where stress on my / your is natural
Satoshi Oku and Jeff Gayman
24Unit 2 Focus and Important Information

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Hello everyone. I’m Jeff Gayman. In Unit 1, we learned that semantic core words are also cores forpronouncing English sentences. Today, we are going to learn more tips on pronouncing sentences based on
information structure of the sentence. The key concept is;“Put a heavy stress on the most important information, and make other elements weak”

Warming Up Quiz: Which Part is Stressed? (Context 1)

Let’s start by looking at the following sentences. In answering question A, which word in sentence B do you
read the strongest?
Context 1
A: Who is cooking spaghetti?
B: My teacher is cooking spaghetti
In this context, it is clear that my teacher is the most important information. Therefore, it is natural to put
the heaviest stress on the core word of the subject noun phrase; that is, teacher.
My TEAcher is cooking spaghetti
It sounds very strange if you put the heaviest stress on spaghetti, instead of teacher, in this context.
Therefore, when you are asked
A: Who is cooking spaghetti?
if you answer
B: My teacher is cooking spaGHEtti
it sounds as if you are NOT answering the question sincerely. Therefore, which word you should stress thestrongest in a sentence is extremely important for making yourself understood correctly.
This may be true in any human language, but since English is a stress-accent language, the correct positionof the heaviest stress is crucial in many cases. If you put the main stress on the wrong place, it might lead toa serious misunderstanding.

25

How to Make Yourself Understood

Points―――――――――――――――

・単語のレベルでもストレスの位置は重要 複数音節の単語で主強勢の位置を間違えると通じない恐れあり
例： commúnicate – commúnicative – communicátion

(よくある間違い：×communicáte) 複数音節の新出単語は、アクセントの位置を正確に覚えて――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Context 2: Object as New Information

OK? So let’s consider several other contexts, and check which word should be the strongest. In answering
question A, to which word in sentence B do you give the strongest stress in this context?
Context 2
A: What is your teacher cooking?
B: My teacher is cooking spaghetti
This time, the most important information is the object spaghetti. Therefore, it is natural to read spaghetti
the strongest. Let’s practice. Repeat after me.
My teacher is cooking spaGHEtti<your turn>Context 3: Verb Phrase as New Information

Too easy? Well, then, how about the next context? Which word do you read the strongest in sentence B thistime?
Context 3
A: What is your teacher doing?
B: My teacher is cooking spaghetti
Which part of sentence B carries the most important information, answering question A here? In thiscontext, the verb phrase [cooking spaghetti] carries the most important information, since it is giving therequired information to the question “doing what?” The subject part is the given information. OK, now, howshould we read this sentence most naturally? Very interestingly, the heaviest stress is assigned to the object

spaghetti again. It sounds very strange if you put the heaviest stress on cooking in this context, even thoughcooking is also a part of the important information verb phrase.

26

Unit 2 Focus and Important Information

Points―――――――――――――――＜意味の観点から：どの部分が「焦点」Focus か？＞
大きく分けて二つのパターン（１）Information Focus：疑問詞に対応する答えになっている部分。新情報（New Information）とも呼ばれる
Who is cooking spaghetti?

My TEAcher is cooking spaghetti
必要とされている新情報を提供

What is your teacher cooking?

My teacher is cooking spaGHEtti
必要とされている新情報を提供（２）Contrastive Focus：前の文脈の何かと対比させている部分
Your teacher is cooking pizza, right?

No, my teacher is cooking spaGHEtti
対比Your brother is cooking spaghetti, right?

No, my TEAcher is cooking spaghetti
対比・新情報の箇所をしっかり強く発音しなかったり新情報を差し置いて旧情報の部分をより強く発音してしまうと とてもちぐはぐなやりとりに。場合によっては、誤解されるかも
日本語でも：「何を作っているの？」「スパゲッティは作っています」（??）

・対比されるべき部分をしっかり強く読まないと 言いたいことがうまく通じない不自然な発音に日本語でも：「ピザが好きなんでしょ？」「いや、スパゲッティは好きなんです」（??）――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
So it’s a rule of English to put the heaviest stress on the object when the verb phrase as a whole carries themost important information.
< Stress-Information Rule in English 1 >Put the main stress on the object when the verb phrase is the new information
In other words, the strongest word is not necessarily the most important part of the sentence, although it is
a PART of the most important information.

27

How to Make Yourself Understood

Points―――――――――――――――

「焦点 Focus」と「主強勢 Main Stress」を混同しないで！
・「焦点 Focus」とは意味上の概念
 文のどの部分が、新情報か、（対比されている）重要な情報か・「主強勢 Main Stress」は音韻上の概念
 文のどの部分を一番強く発音するか・したがって、「焦点」イコール「主強勢」ではない
Context 3
A：What is your teacher doing?
B：My teacher is cooking spaghetti・doing what?という質問に対する答えなので、B 文における「焦点」（新情報）は、cooking spaghetti の部分。
しかし、音韻上、この部分全部を強く読むことはない。主強勢は spaghetti の-GHE-の部分のみ。つまり、英語の主強勢と焦点との関係には次のような規則ある< Stress-Information Rule in English 1 >（目的語を持つ）動詞句全体が新情報の時、主強勢は目的語に置かれる――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Context 4: The Sentence as a Whole as New Information

Let’s go on to the next context. Which word do you read the strongest in sentence B in this context?
Context 4
A: What’s that noise?
B: My teacher is cooking spaghetti
This time, the whole sentence B is the new information, and thus the most important. Now, again, very
interestingly, it is most natural to put the heaviest stress on the object spaghetti in this context, too. Again,
it’s one of the English rules to put the main stress on the object when there is an object and the wholesentence is the new information.
< Stress-Information Rule in English 2 >Put the main stress on the object when the whole sentence is the new information
At first glance, the relation between the main stress and the important information looks straightforwardand easy. “Give the strongest stress on the most important part of the sentence.” However, things are not so28

Unit 2 Focus and Important Information
straightforward, as we have just seen. Usually, a sentence carries just one main stress which falls on one
word. The new information, however, can be larger than a word in the sentence. Therefore, they are not in a
simple one-to-one correspondence.
Specifically, in our current example sentence, my teacher is cooking spaghetti, if you put the main stress on

spaghetti, the possible new information parts can be the object spaghetti alone, or the verb phrase cooking
spaghetti, or the whole sentence.
My teacher is cooking spaGHEtti
most important
My teacher is cooking spaGHEtti
most important
My teacher is cooking spaGHEtti
most important

Points―――――――――――――――

・Context 4 の B：文全体が新情報 それでも主強勢は spaghetti の-GHE-のみに（文の単語すべてを強く読むわけではありません！）< Stress-Information Rule in English 2 >（目的語を持つ）文全体が新情報の時、主強勢は目的語に置かれる――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Context 5: Verb Alone as Contrastive Focus

OK. Let’s consider a few more contexts now. Which word receives the main stress in sentence B this time?
Context 5
A: Has your teacher received the spaghetti delivery already?
B: My teacher is cooking spaghettiOK, this time, the important contrast is between received the spaghetti delivery and cooking spaghetti. In
other words, the most important information part in sentence B is just cooking. Hence, it is most natural to
put the heaviest stress on cooking in this particular context. Let’s practice. Repeat after me.
My teacher is COOking spaghetti<your turn>29

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodContext 6: The Genitive Part of the Subject as Contrastive Focus

Good! OK, let’s consider the last context with this sentence. Where do you put the main stress in sentence B
in this case?
Context 6
A: Their teacher is cooking spaghetti, right?
B: No. My teacher is cooking spaghettiOK, this time, their and my are contrasted. In other words, my is the most important new information insentence B in this context. Consequently, it’s most natural to put the main stress on my in this instance.
Let’s practice. Repeat after me.
MY teacher is cooking spaghetti

Points<your turn>―――――――――――――――

・Context 5 と Context 6 はそれぞれ対比の焦点を表すために、主強勢が通常とは異なる位置にContext 5 では、先生はスパゲッティの宅配を頼んだのではなく、自分で料理している、という対比を。その意味を適切に伝えるために、COOking に主強示すために、cooking が焦点（contrastive focus）
勢。
（それ以外のところを cooking よりも強く読むと、この文脈では大変不自然に）「彼らの先生」ではなく、「私の先生」という対比を示すために、my が焦点（contrastive
Context 6 では、
focus）。その意味を適切に伝えるために、通常は主強勢を置かれることがない代名詞の MY が最も強く発音される。
（それ以外のところを my よりも強く読むととても不自然に）・これらの例文は、単語も文法も簡単なものですが、使われる文脈によってどの部分が焦点になるか、そしてその焦点を表すためにどの部分に主強勢を置くかが大変重要であることを示しています。単語をただ左から右へ「発音する」のではなく、文脈における意味（どの部分が焦点か）をよく考え、適切な主強勢の位置で発音することが通じるための重要なポイントとなります。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Pronouns: De-Stressed Elements

Good. Now let’s move on to the second part of today’s lesson.
We have just seen that putting the main stress on the appropriate place is very important to convey thesentence information accurately. On the other side of the same coin, it is also important to de-stress parts ofthe sentence which do not contain important information. In this lesson, we particularly focus on pronouns
such as I, me, you, he, we, they, and so on. In most cases, pronouns have to be pronounced very very weakly.
This is quite natural because we use pronouns when the relevant information is already obvious from the30

Unit 2 Focus and Important Information
context and thus is not very important. And it would sound strange or the sentence would carry peculiar
information if you put a stress on pronouns. Let’s consider the following example.
A: What is your teacher cooking?
B: He’s cooking spaghetti
We now know that the main stress falls on spaghetti in sentence B. Further, my teacher is replaced by he insentence B, since it is old information here. So it’s most natural to read he’s as weakly as possible. If you put
a heavy stress on he in this context, the sentence sounds very strange. So, let’s practice. Repeat after me.
He’s cooking spaGHEtti<your turn>Don’t put a heavy stress on he like
HE is cooking spaGHEtti
It would sound very unnatural in this particular context.
Try to speak likeHe’s cooking spaGHEtti

Points<your turn>―――――――――――――――

・一方、代名詞や前置詞、助動詞、冠詞などの「機能語」は、通常、強勢は置かれない。前後の単語の付属品のようにできるだけ速く弱く発音するのが自然。下記の A に対して、B と答える時、主語が He となっているの
は、動作主が直前の my teacher であることが明らかで、意味情報上重要ではないから（重要なのは新情報のspaghetti）。 意味的に重要ではない he を強く発音してしまうと、とても不自然に
A：What is your teacher cooking?
B：He’s cooking spaGHEtti
日本語でも：「君の先生、何を作っているの？」「先生がスパゲティを作ってます」（??）――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
Good! Now let’s look at another example. How do you pronounce I – like – them in this context?
A: Have you seen the new computers?
B: Yeah, I like them31How to Make Yourself UnderstoodSince I and them are old information in sentence B, and the verb like is the most important new information,it’s most natural to put the main stress on like. Let’s practice. Repeat after me.
I LIKE them

<your turn>

Further, in a natural speed conversation, the object pronoun them becomes as if it is a part of the verb like,and is pronounced just as “m”, as in
I LIKE’m
Just add a very weak “m” sound, attached to the verb. Repeat after me.
I LIKE’m<your turn>Now let’s consider what will happen if you put a heavy stress on the first person pronoun I.
Satoshi: Hi, Jeff
Jeff: Hi, Satoshi
Satoshi: Have you seen the new computers?
Jeff: Yeah. “I” like them
How do you find the last sentence in this conversation? Since I is not new information in usual contexts like
this, if you put a strong stress on I, it will convey some special intention of the speaker. It may mean, forinstance, “I don’t care at all what everyone else thinks of the new computers, but I like the new computers nomatter how you feel about it”. Here again, the location of the main stress may drastically change theimplication of the sentence.

Points―――――――――――――――

I – my – me や you – your などは、会話に頻繁に出てくるが、何かとの対比を表す場合以外は、通常、あまり強く発音されることはない。 不用意に強く発音してしまうと、思わぬ誤解を与えかねないので注意
Satoshi: Have you seen the new computers?
Jeff: Yeah, “I” like them
ここで I を不用意に強く発音してしまうと、「他の人たちがどう思っているか知ったこっちゃないけど、「俺」は気に入ってるぜ」のようなニュアンスで伝わってしまう恐れあり。

32

Unit 2 Focus and Important Information

Summary

OK. Let’s wrap up.
English is a stress-accent language. Therefore, the location of the main stress in a sentence is extremely
important to express your intention accurately. By the same token, it is also important NOT to put any
stress on elements like pronouns which usually do not carry important new information in the sentence. If
you put a heavy stress on the wrong place in a sentence, you may not be able to make yourself understoodsuccessfully. And in extreme cases, it may lead to a serious miscommunication!
OK. How was today’s lesson? Remember that in English, it’s very important to realize which word carries
the heaviest stress, and which words are phonologically very light.
Well, that’s all for today. Good luck, keep practicing, and see you next time!

Points―――――――――――――――

・意味を理解して、強弱のメリハリをつけての発音練習を習慣づけると
 通じやすくなる（誤解を生む恐れが減る）
 聞き取り力もアップする～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～

Further Tips (1)
思わぬ誤解を生む I / you の不用意な強勢
久しぶりに会った合った友達に、「今何してるの？」と聞かれて：
友達：What do you do now?
あなた：I am a college student「大学に通ってるんだ」というつもりでも、不用意に I を強く発音してしまうと、「あなたは何してるか知らな
いけど、私、大学通ってるんだからね！」というニュアンスに聞こえてしまうかも。
合宿で、友達に「歯、磨いた？」というつもりで、
Did you brush YOUR teeth?
33How to Make Yourself Understood
文法的には何の問題もありませんが、不用意に YOUR を強く発音してしまうと、「他人の歯磨き手伝うのもいい
けど、自分の歯は、ちゃんと磨いたの？」というニュアンスに聞こえてしまうかも。

Further Tips (2)My / your への強勢がパターン化されている例
my や your は、通常、前の文脈で述べられたこととの対比を示す場合を除いて、強く発音されないのがもっとも一般的ですが、以下のように、強く読まれるのが普通である例もあります。どちらも日常的によく使う表現です。
「次、君の番だよ」「お次どうぞ」という意味で、Your turn と言いますが、この場合は、YOUR turn のように
YOUR に主強勢を置くのが一般的です。意味上、「（他の誰でもない）あなたの」が重要で、「番」は文脈から明らかなことがほとんどだからでしょう。日本語でも同じ文脈で、「きみ（の番）だよ」のように、「番」は省略できるくらい意味的に軽いものになっていますね。これを your TURN のように turn の方を強く発音するととても不自然になることが多いでしょう。
バスケットボールのチーム練習をしていて（バレーでもサッカーでもラクロスでもセパタクローでもよい）、味方から来たよいパスを受け損なって（打ち損なって）しまい、「ごめん！」と謝る時、My fault と言います。
（ス
ポーツでなくとも、自分のミスを認め謝る場合に使えます。
）このときも、my に主強勢を置いて MY fault というのが普通です。うまくいかなかったので、失敗 fault であることは文脈から明らか。その失敗の原因は「（他の誰でもない）自分だ」と言って謝っているわけですから、MY を一番強く発音するのがこの場合最も自然なわけです。ここでも、my FAULT のように fault の方を強く発音するのは、大変奇妙な感じになるでしょう。

My fault …

34

How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

Tips for English Speech Sounds
Unit 3Beware of Sound Change – Part 1

キーワード（key words）
音韻変化（sound change） 発音記号（phonetic alphabet） 同化現象（assimilation）
弱化母音（vowel reduction） 母音脱落（vowel drop）

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodTips for English Speech Sounds
Unit 3Beware of Sound Change – Part 1- CONTENTS -Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
Warming Up Quiz: How to Pronounce Japanese Compounds
p. 37Sound Changes in English
Assimilation 1
Assimilation 2: Voicing Assimilation

p. 38
p. 41

Vowel Drop: Japanesep. 42Vowel Drop: English

p. 42

Summaryp. 44

Further Tips
(1) have to と of course のなぞ

p. 44

Why have to?
(2) 錦織は「ニシキオリ」それとも「ニシコリ」

p. 45“ham’n eggs” / “Tom’n Jerry”

Satoshi Oku and Jeff Gayman
36

Unit 3 Beware of Sound Change – Part 1

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Hello everyone. I’m Peter Richardson. I’m from Birmingham, UK, and have been teaching at Hokkaido
University since 2013. Today, we are going to learn about some of the most interesting and challenging
aspects of foreign language learning: namely, sound change.
In English, as well as in Japanese, when two or more words are put together, the whole chunk is often
pronounced in a different way than it is when pronounced separately.

Warming Up Quiz: How to Pronounce Japanese Compounds?

Let us first consider the following Japanese example: かいしゃ (会社). How do you pronounce this? If you
are a native speaker of standard Japanese, you would probably read this with a high pitch prosody all theway through like:

かいしゃ（会社）
OK? Next, how about this? かんり (管理). Again, in standard Japanese, it is read with a high-low-low
prosody like:

かんり（管理）Notice now that if we put these two words together, something very interesting happens. First, かいしゃ（会社）becomes がいしゃ. Further, the entire prosody also changes. We do not pronounce this complex word,
retaining the original intonations as:

かんり がいしゃ(管理） （会社）
rather the whole chunk is pronounced as:

かんり がいしゃ(管理） （会社）37

How to Make Yourself Understood
This reflects the unconscious phonological rules of native speakers of Japanese.

Points―――――――――――――――

・ここでの日本語の音韻変化（sound change）は、実際に日本語で見られる音韻変化のごく一部
 通常は無意識
・どの言語でも、個々の単語は文中で実際に使われると、辞書形とは異なる発音に変化する場合あり
 規則的なパターン
・外国語の場合、そのようなパターンの基本的なものをいくつか意識的に学び、練習する必要あり 発音・聴き取りとも上達する（「英語は速い」は錯覚だとわかる）――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Sound Changes in English

English is no exception. When two or more words are put together, various types of sound change may
happen. In other words, words in a row may NOT be always pronounced as their dictionary forms. Hence,
when learning a foreign language, it is very important to learn patterns of sound change in the target
foreign language you are trying to learn. Today, we are going to learn some of the representative examples ofEnglish sound changes.
Let us consider the first type of English assimilation.

Assimilation 1
When the last sound of the word is [s] sound like miss, and the next word starts with [ j ] sound like you, [s]and [ j ] get mixed together and, like a chemical reaction, they become a [ ʃ ] sound, like miss you.
I will miss you[s] [j][ʃ]

Points―――――――――――――――

・発音記号（phonetic alphabet）に慣れよう[ ʃ ]: 日本語の「シュ」に近い音[ʤ]: 日本語の「ジュ」に近い音[ ʧ ]: 日本語の「チュ」に近い音[ ʒ ]: 日本語の「ジュ」に近いが、音を出す瞬間に、舌を口の天井につけないように――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
38

Unit 3 Beware of Sound Change – Part 1

Let us look at a few more examples: It is warm in May this year. In this sentence, the [s] sound in this andthe [ j ] sound in year get together and turn out to be a [ ʃ ] sound, as in this year.
It is warm in May this year[s][j][ʃ]A similar pattern is observed in the following examples: Jeff is busy, as you know. In this sentence, the [z]sound in as and the [j] sound in you get together and become the [ʒ] sound, like as you know.
Jeff is busy, as you know[z][j][ʒ]
Likewise, you cannot use your hands in this sport. The [z] sound in use and the [ j ] sound in your become a[ʒ] sound, like use your hands.
You cannot use your hands in this sport[z][j][ʒ]
Next, let us consider the following example: You like apples, don’t you? This time, focus on the last sound of

don’t. This [t] sound gets together with the following [ j ] sound of you, and another chemical reaction isobserved. They become a [ ʧ ] sound, as in don’t you.
You like apples, don’t you?
[t][j][ʧ]39

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodIn the same vein, the [d] sound of did and the [ j ] sound of you get together and are pronounced as a [ʤ]sound, like did you.
Did you go to the concert?
[d][j][ʤ]
OK. Let us wrap up the points so far. There are many words in English which end with an [s] sound, a [z]sound, a [t] sound, or a [d] sound. Also, English has many words which start with the [ j ] sound, as in you,

your, year, yet, yellow, yeast, and so on. Therefore, the chemical reaction, or assimilation, of the types wehave just seen can be observed everywhere in natural English speech. Let us practice a bit. Repeat after me.
miss you[ʃ]

as you see

not yetdid you

[ʧ]

[ʤ]

[ʒ]

Good! How was it? Sound change is a very natural process in any human language. So if you get accustomed
to sound change patterns in English, your pronunciation would be very natural and clear.

Points―――――――――――――――

miss you[ʃ]

as you see

not yetdid you

[ʧ]

[ʤ]

[ʒ]

・この４つの音韻変化パターンは頻繁に現れる
 一度しっかり慣れておくと、発音も自然に、聴き取りも楽に・他の例[s][j][z][j][t][j][d][j]

[ʃ]

[ʒ]

[ʧ]

[ʤ]

Bless you.

Those unique videos are …

Who taught you?

Would you?

She likes you.

Raise your hands.

Nice to meet you.

Look around yourself.

six years

He knows your mother.

Has he finished yet?

Has he moved yet?

――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

40

Unit 3 Beware of Sound Change – Part 1

Assimilation 2: Voicing Assimilation
OK. Let us next look at one of the most popular sound changes in human language, voicing assimilation. The
English regular plural marker is S, but it is pronounced [s], as in books, or [z] as in bags.
book s

bag s

[s]

[z]

Why is this so? Well, the last sound of book is [k], which is a voiceless sound: [k] [k]. Therefore, the following
S is also a voiceless [s] sound. On the other hand, the last sound of bag is [g], which is voiced: [g] [g].
book sbag s[k][s][g][z]

Therefore, the following S sound is also voiced: [z] [z]. In other words, the two adjacent sounds become
similar to each other in terms of their voicing quality.
The same rule applies to the past tense marker –ed. When we add –ed to kick, it is pronounced as a voiceless[t] sound: kicked, kicked. And in contrast when –ed is added to beg, it is pronounced as a voiced [d] sound:

begged, begged.
kickedbegged[t][d]Why? Again, the last sound in kick is a voiceless [k] sound. And the last sound in beg is a [g] sound, which isvoiced.
kickedbegged[k][t][g][d]

Points―――――――――――――――

人間の言語音には、無声音（voiceless）と有声音（voiced）がある
・無声音：[p][t][k][s]など、声帯を振動させずに発音する音・有声音：[b][d][g][z]や母音など、声帯を振動させて発音する音
有声性の同化現象（voicing assimilation）
・有声音の隣の音が、有声音になる・無声音の隣の音が、無声音になる

 多くの言語に見られる現象
41

How to Make Yourself Understood
Here again, the sound quality of the past tense marker becomes similar to the sound to which it is attached.
This is another instance of voicing assimilation in English.
It is very interesting, isn’t it? Oops, sorry. I dropped the book. Oh, by the way, in pronunciation of humanlanguage, a part of word sounds sometimes drops too.

Vowel Drop: Japanese

Let us look at Japanese examples first: たいいく (体育). In careful speech, this word is pronounced as たい
いく、which is the dictionary form. However, in casual speech, many Japanese actually pronounce this word
as たいく, dropping one of the [ i ] sounds, as in
たい くかん(体育館)たいいくのひ(体育の日).
いLikewise, せんたくき (洗濯機). In careful speech this word is pronounced as せんたくき, which is thedictionary form. In casual speech, however, almost every Japanese actually pronounces this word as:
せんたっき（洗濯機）
sentak kiudropping the [u] vowel between two [k] sounds: せんたっき. This is again an instance of vowel drop, which
can be seen occasionally in standard Japanese.

Vowel Drop: English

Vowel drop is observed very frequently in English as well. Let us consider the following examples.
Canada[kǽnədə]Here, the first vowel receives the main stress, like Canada. However, the position of the main stress moves
as inCanadian[kəneidiən]´42Unit 3 Beware of Sound Change – Part 1
Now, the first vowel is reduced and very weak, and thus in casual speech it is often dropped, and the word is
pronounced as
Canadian[k neidiən]´əLet us take a look at a few more popular examples of vowel drop in English.
familypercent

camera[fǽməli][pəsént][kǽmərə]In their dictionary forms, there is a reduced vowel which is very weak but is supposed to be pronounced in
careful speech. In casual speech, however, these reduced vowels are often dropped and they sound more likefamilypercent

camera[fǽm li][p sént][kǽm rə]əəə

Points―――――――――――――――

弱化母音（vowel reduction）と母音脱落（vowel drop）
・英語の[ə]: 曖昧母音（schwa）
 強勢を受けず、弱く発音される 直前または直後に強勢音節があり、子音に挟まれていると、脱落する場合あり
・母音脱落は、一つの単語内だけでなく、単語が並ぶことによっても起こる例：

go to school[tu]  [tə]  [t](母音なしで、[t]とだけ発音される)

ham and eggs
[ænd]  [ən]  [n]([d]も脱落し、[n]とだけ発音される)

I am a student[æm]  [əm]  [m](母音なしで、[m]とだけ発音される場合が多い)

発音に合わせて、I’m a student と書くことも多い＊am が文末に現れる場合、母音脱落は起こらない
Yes, I am.
43

×Yes, I’m.

How to Make Yourself Understood
He is nice[iz]  [əz]  [z](母音なしで、[z]とだけ発音される場合が多い)

発音に合わせて、He’s nice と書くことも多い＊is が文末に現れる場合、母音脱落は起こらない
Yes, he is.

×Yes, he’s.

You are right[ar]  [ər]  [r](母音なしで、[r]とだけ発音される場合が多い)

発音に合わせて、You’re right と書くことも多い
・弱化母音の脱落：英語で頻出する普通の現象
 単語・句の全体の音価（母音の数）が、辞書形より少なくなる
このパターンに慣れておかないと、実際の英語の発話がとても「速く」聞こえてしまう 何度も練習をして慣れてくると、通じやすい発音になり、聞き取りも楽に――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Summary

OK? Well, let us summarize today’s lesson.
Sound change is quite common in natural languages. When words are put together to make phrases andsentences, it is seldom the case that they are pronounced in their exact dictionary forms. Therefore, it is very
important to understand sound change patterns in the target foreign language you are trying to learn.
Knowing and practicing typical sound change patterns in English will make your pronunciation clear andnatural. And it will improve your listening comprehension as well!
Well, how was today’s lesson? I hope you enjoyed it. Note, however, that the examples of sound change
patterns in English that we have just seen were only a very limited sample. Please try to learn and practicemore. Okay, that’s all for today. Good luck, and keep practicing. See you next time!

～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～

Further Tips (1)have to と of course のなぞ
熟語の have to が[hæv tə]ではなく[hæf tə]と発音されること、不思議に思ったことはありませんか？あるいは、中学生に質問されて説明に窮した経験は？これは、実は同化現象が起こっているのです。熟語としてひとまとま44Unit 3 Beware of Sound Change – Part 1
りの単語のように発音されるため、隣り合った音同士がお互いに影響を受けやすくなっています。
have

to

[ hæv ] + [ tə ]
有声音

無声音

[ hæf ] + [ tə ]
無声音

無声音

[v]は有声音（声帯が振動している）、[t]は無声音（声帯が振動しない）です。この場合は、有声音[v]が、無声音[t]と同化して、無声音[f]に変化しています。同様に、熟語 of course は、多くの場合[əv kɔ:rs]ではなく、[əf kɔ:rs]と発音されます。つまり、of の[v]が無声音の[f]と発音されるわけです。これも同化現象によるものです。
ofcourse[ əv ] + [ kɔ:rs ]
有声音

無声音

[ əf ] + [ kɔ:rs ]
無声音

無声音

有声音[v]が、直後の無声音[k]の影響を受けて、無声音[f]に変化しています。これらは、決して「無秩序に」「ランダムに」発音が「くずれて」いるわけではなく、きちんとした音韻規則(「有声性同化規則」)に従っているわ
けです。

Further Tips (2)錦織は「ニシキオリ」それとも「ニシコリ」
弱化母音が脱落した形が、辞書形（常にそのように発音される形）になっている例もあります。「ハムエッグ」という料理名の意味での ham and eggs は、これでひとまとまりの単語のようになっており、and は[n]としか発音されません。ham'n eggs. （「ハムエッグ」という料理名ではなく、「スーパーでハムと卵を買った」のように、普通の句として使われる場合の and は、[ənd]と発音されます。）同じように、アメリカの人気アニメ『トムとジェリー』も、これでひとまとまりの固有名詞なので、Tom and Jerry の and は[n]となり、Tom’n Jerry と発音されるのが普通です。
日本語にもあります。たとえば、「錦織」という名字は、「ニシキオリ」という一族もいれば、「ニシコリ」という一族もいますね。いったい何が起こっているのでしょうか。
45

How to Make Yourself Understood
ニシキオリ[nishikiori]
ニシコリ

母音脱落
[i]

 [nishikori][i]が脱落すると「ニシコリ」になります。これは、脱落した形と脱落していない形の両方が共存している例です。
一方、母音が脱落した形が、辞書形になっている（母音脱落していない形では使われない）例もあります。「白球」は、どんなに丁寧な発話であっても、[ハクキュウ hakukyu]ではなく、真ん中の[u]が脱落して[ハッキュウ
hak_kyu]と発音されますね。
類例： 決闘 [ケツトウ ketutoo] ではなく、真ん中の[u]が脱落して[ケットウ ket_too]
一階 [イチカイ ichikai]ではなく、真ん中の[i]が脱落して[イッカイ ich_kai]、など多数
これらの例でも、[u]や[i]が無声音の子音にはさまれているから脱落現象が起こっているのであって、後ろの子音が有声音であれば、母音の脱落は起こりません。決断 [ケツダン ketudan]、一概 [イチガイ ichigai]

有声音なので、前の母音[u]や[i]の脱落起こらず

英語でも日本語でも（１）丁寧な発話では辞書形、カジュアルな natural speed の発話では、変化形で発音されるパターン（２）変化形が辞書形となり、常に変化した後の形で発音されるパターンがあります。
単語や句はいつでも「目で見た通り」に発音されるわけではない、同化や脱落などの音韻変化を受ける場合がある、それもランダムな発音の「くずれ」などではなく、音韻規則に従ったパターンである、ということを意識しておくと、外国語の学習も楽しくなるでしょう。自分の母語（日本語）についての楽しい発見も。

右の写真はアメリカの Shopping
Mall。
「リネン製品と雑貨」のお店のサインですが、真ん中の「N」はand のこと。実際の発音では[n]と発音されるので、その発音のままの表記を採用しているわけです46

How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

Tips for English Speech Sounds
Unit 4Beware of Sound Change – Part 2

キーワード（key words）
鼻音の二重化（nasal doubling） 鼻母音置き換え（nasal replacement）
鼻音共有（nasal sharing）

開音節言語（open-syllable language）

閉音節言語（closed-syllable language）

子音脱落（consonant drop）

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodTips for English Speech Sounds
Unit 4Beware of Sound Change – Part 2- CONTENTS -Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
Warming Up Quiz:「N」Variation in Japanesep. 49… N + Vowel in English

p. 51… C + Vowel in English

p. 52

Consonant Drop in English

p. 53

Summaryp. 54

Further Tips
(1) 英語は閉音節言語・日本語は開音節言語

p. 55

English is a closed syllable language
Japanese is an open syllable language(2) 単語の中での子音脱落も。脱落形が辞書形になった例もConsonant drop within a word
Dropped form as a dictionary form

p. 56

Satoshi Oku and Jeff Gayman
48

Unit 4 Beware of Sound Change – Part 2

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Hello everyone. I’m Chuck Brown. I’m from Columbus, Ohio, in the United States, and I’ve been teaching at
Hokkaido University since 2013. In Unit 3, we learned a few important sound change patterns in English. In
Unit 4, today, we are going to learn some more sound change patterns that are challenging especially for
native speakers of Japanese; that is, variation of nasal “N” sound, sound linkage (or liaison), and consonant
drop. Let’s start by considering the following Japanese examples.

Warming Up Quiz:「N」Variation in JapaneseThis is おう (応), and this is はん (反). Now, notice, however, that if we combine these two words, something
very interesting happens. How do you pronounce this?
反(はん)

応(おう)

You do not pronounce this as はん おう. Rather, it is pronounced as はんのう (反応). Right? Somehow an
extra “N” sound is added. Let’s look at some more examples of the same pattern.
観(かん)

音(おん)

山(さん)

王(おう)

This is not かん おん, but かんのん (観音). Likewise, you do not usually pronounce this as さん おう; rather,
さんのう (山王). You see? In Japanese, when the first word ends with “N” sound and the next word starts
with a vowel, あ、い、う、え、or お, then sometimes, an extra N sound is added before the vowel. Let’s callthis rule “nasal doubling”, which can be observed in words such as 反応、観音、山王, as we’ve just seen.
There is another pattern frequently observed in Japanese, when N and a vowel get together. Consider thefollowing example.
全(ぜん)

員(いん)

In very careful speech, this word is pronounced as ぜんいん (全員), which is the dictionary form. However,in casual speech, the middle N is replaced by a nasalized vowel [ ẽ ]. So many Japanese actually pronounce
this as ぜーいん, as in 全員集合 (ぜーいんしゅーごー). This new vowel is slightly nasalized, which meansthat part of the air from your lungs goes through your nose when you pronounce this sound. The same patternis quite frequently found.

49

How to Make Yourself Understood
半(はん)

音(おん)

For instance, in casual daily conversations, はんおん is often pronounced as [h a ã o N] (はーおん), with the
N sound replaced by a nasal vowel [ ã ], as in 半音階.
恋(れん)

愛(あい)

Likewise, れんあい, is pronounced, in casual speech, as [r e ẽ a i] (れーあい), with the N sound replaced by anasal vowel [ ẽ ]; れーあい、れーあい.
Let’s call this strategy Nasal Vowel Replacement. The “N” sound in the dictionary form is replaced by anasalized vowel.
Let’s wrap up the points so far. In Japanese when the “N” sound is followed by a vowel sound, such as お, it
may be realized as the accurate dictionary form in very careful speech, like はんおん.
In casual speech, on the other hand, this “N” sound is often replaced by a nasal vowel, and the word is
pronounced as はーおん [h a ã on]. In the same context of the “N – vowel sequence,” such as はん おう, it
is sometimes the case that the nasal doubling is obligatory, and the word always turns out to be はん のう.
In other words, the “N” doubling form here becomes a dictionary form in examples like はんのう, かんのん,
さんのう, and so on.

Points―――――――――――――――

・日本語の音韻：「～n」＋母音の場合」
 パターン１：[n]音が追加される「鼻音の二重化（nasal doubling）
はん(反) + おう(応)haN はん のう (反応)ouhaNNouその他の例：観音 [k a N N o N]、山王 [s a N N o u]」 パターン２：[n]が鼻母音に置き換わる「鼻母音置き換え（nasal replacement）
 ぜ～いん (全員)

ぜん いん (全員)zeN iN
その他の例：

zeẽiN
半音 [h a N o N]  は～おん [h a ã o N]
恋愛 [r e N a i]  れ～あい [r e ẽ a i]・パターン１は辞書形になっており、丁寧な発話でも、くだけた会話でも二重の鼻音があらわれる（＊固有名詞的なので、「かんおん」「さんおう」発音される地域もあり）・パターン２は丁寧な発話では、鼻母音置き換えが起こらず、辞書形どおりに発音されるが、日常会話では多くの場合、鼻母音置き換えが起こっている  多くの日本語母語話者が無意識のうちに従っている音韻規則
50

Unit 4 Beware of Sound Change – Part 2… N + Vowel in English

OK? These are instances of sound change rules that most Japanese speakers unconsciously follow. Now,
bearing this in mind, let’s consider what happens in English, when the nasal “n” sound is followed by a vowel.
Look at the following example.
run + er
When the word run is followed by –er, neither of the Japanese nasal rules applies. Don’t be trapped by thespelling! Although an extra “N” is added here in the English writing system, in terms of speech sound, we
have only one N sound here. Therefore, it is NOT pronounced as ランナー (“raŋ+Na－”) with double N. It isjust runner [rʌnər] with a single “N” sound. Runner [rʌnər]. This “N” sound is originally the Coda (or the lastsound) of the syllable run, but it is pronounced, at the same time, as if it is also the Onset (or the first sound)of the following syllable –er. Let’s call this “nasal sharing.”
Now here is a tip for English pronunciation, especially for Japanese students. When you pronounce an “Nplus vowel” sequence in English, do not use the Japanese rule Nasal Doubling. Rather, try to use the English
rule “nasal sharing”. OK. Let’s practice a bit.
thinnerThis is thinner [θinər]. Don’t pronounce this as シンナー [“θiŋ+Na－”], which is a typical Japanese mistake.

Thinner [θinər].

Points―――――――――――――――

・英語の音韻：「～n」＋母音の場合
 鼻音が前の音節の最後の音であると同時に、後ろの音節の最初の音にもなる：「鼻音共有（nasal sharing）」
runner[rʌnər]: [n]は[rʌn]の最後の音であると同時に、[nər]の最初の音 [n]音はあくまでも 1 つ 典型的な日本人式発音：上記の日本語音韻規則パターン 1「鼻音の二重化」を持ち込んでしまう× ランナー [raŋna－]◎ [rʌnər]「ラナ」に近い音

× ハンマー [hamma－]◎ [hæmər]「ハマ」に近い音

× シンナー [θiŋna－]◎ [θinər]

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How to Make Yourself Understood
Next, turn in [tərnin]. Try NOT to say these two words separately like “turn ‘in”. Try to link the N sound inturn with the following word in. It’s good if you hear some [ni] sound. Turn in [tərnin].
Next, open-air [oupnɛər]. Again, don’t say these two words separately like “open ‘air”. The final N in open
sounds as if it is also the first sound of air. So again, it is good if you hear something like [nɛ] sound, like

open-air [oupnɛər]. Well then, how do you pronounce this in natural speed English?
burn out
Yeah! It is burn out [bərnaut]. Do you hear some [na] like sound in the middle of the phrase? It is NOT “burn‘out”. Rather, burn out [bərnaut].

Points―――――――――――――――

・英語の音韻：「～n」＋母音の場合

turn in：turn の[n]が in の[i]の最初の音のようになるので、[ni]のような音が出る
× ターンイン◎ [tərnin]（「ターニン」に近い音）

open-air：open の[n]が air の[ɛ]の最初の音に。[nɛ]のような音が出る
× オープンエア◎ [oupnɛə](「オープネア」に近い音)

burn out：burn の[n]が out の[a]の最初の音に。[an]のような音が出る
× バーンアウト◎ [bərnaut](「バーナウ(ツ)」に近い音)――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――… C + Vowel in English

Now, this sound pattern is actually more general in English. When a word ends with a consonant even otherthan nasal “n”, it’s combined together with the following vowel, and pronounced as if it is the first sound of
the second word. Let’s look at some examples.
break up[kʌ]Here, the last [k] sound of break is linked to the first vowel of up, and thus the phrase sounds like break up.
big apple[gæ]52

Unit 4 Beware of Sound Change – Part 2
Similarly, in big + apple, the [g] sound is linked to the [æ] sound of apple. So, big apple. One more example.
heads or tails[zə]Here, the last sound [z] in heads is linked to the [ɔ:] sound of or, and thus you may hear a [zə] like sound in
the middle of the phrase. heads or tails.

Points―――――――――――――――

・英語の音韻：もっと一般的に、子音＋母音の場合

break up：break の[k]が up の[ʌ]の最初の音のようになるので、[kʌ]のような音が出る
× ブレイクアップ◎ [breikʌp]（「ブレイカッ」に近い音）

big apple：big の[g]が apple の[æ]の最初の音に。[gæ]のような音が出る
× ビッグアップル◎ [bigæpl](「ビガプゥ」に近い音)

heads or tails：heads の[z]が or の[ɔ:]の最初の音に。[zə]のような音が出る
× ヘッズオアテイルズ◎ [hɛdzəteilz](「ヘゾテイルズ」に近い音)

類例：get out, get on, get in, kick off, take out, sum up,――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Consonant Drop in English

Good! It’s interesting, isn’t it? We’ve seen that in Japanese, sometimes, an extra consonant N is inserted inexamples, like han-nou (反応) or kan-non (観音). In English, however, quite the opposite may happen veryfrequently. That is, when the identical consonants appear next to each other in casual speech, the sequenceis pronounced as if there is only one sound there. For example, this is big + ‘game in very careful speech, but
in casual daily conversations, it is actually pronounced as bi(g)game, as if there is only one [g] sound.

bi(g)game. Next, take + ‘care is quite often pronounced as ta(ke) care. And, first + ‘time will be pronounced
as firs(t) time in casual speech as if there is only one [t] sound there. Firs(t) time.
OK? Now, the English sound change system goes still further. Even when the two adjacent consonants are
NOT exactly the same, one of these consonants is often dropped in casual speech. Sometimes, the first
consonant becomes very weak and is dropped eventually. For example, good + ‘bye becomes goo(d)-bye. Or,

back + ‘door turns out to be ba(ck)-door. On the other hand, the second of these adjacent consonants may besometimes deleted. For instance,
I like them53How to Make Yourself Understood

I like them becomes I like’em.
Did you call her?
Similarly, Did you call her? is pronounced in causal speech as Did you call’er? by dropping the [h] sound in

her. Did you call’er?

Points―――――――――――――――

・日本語では、子音[n]が増えることがあった

haN + ou  haN Nou (鼻音の二重化)

英語の子音脱落（Consonant drop）
・英語では同じ子音が並ぶと、一方か消える場合あり
big game× ビッグゲーム◎ [bi(g)geim](「ビゲイ(ム)」に近い音)

take care× テイクケア◎ [tei(k)kɛə](「テイケア」に近い音)

first time× ファーストタイム◎ [fərs(t)taim](「フースタイ(ム)」に近い音)・並んだ子音が完全に同じ音でなくても、消える場合あり
 前の子音が消える場合
good bye× グッドバイ◎ [gu(d)bai](「グバイ」に近い音)

back door

× バックドア◎ [bæ(k)dɔ:r](「バッドー」に近い音) 後の子音が消える場合
I like them  I like’em

them の th が落ちて「ライケム」に近い音に

Did you call her  Did you call’erher の h が落ちて「コーラー」に近い音に――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Summary

OK? So let’s summarize today’s lesson. Both Japanese and English have many sound change patterns, butthey are sometimes quite different. As we’ve seen today, when an “N” is followed by a vowel, nasal vowel
replacement is a very common practice in Japanese, as in は～おん or ぜ～いん, and even nasal doubling
sometimes happens as well in Japanese as in はんのう or かんのん. However, none of these applies toEnglish in the same phonological context. Instead, nasal sharing is the common practice in this case in
English. The N is pronounced as if it is the first sound of the next word. Representative examples are, open-

air, or turn out. Don’t say ランナー[raŋ + Naー]. It’s runner [rʌnər].
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Unit 4 Beware of Sound Change – Part 2
Next, we’ve seen another type of English sound change pattern, which many Japanese students are not very
good at: Consonant drop. This phonetic phenomenon is quite typical in the English sound change system,
especially when identical or similar sounds are aligned next to each other. Therefore, if you get accustomed
to consonant drop patterns in English, your pronunciation will be very clear and natural. Plus, your listening
comprehension will also become a lot better.
Satoshi: Hi, Chuck.
Chuck: Hey, Satoshi.
Satoshi: Shall we do it?
Chuck: OK. Yeah, good idea.
Heads or tails?
Satoshi: Heads.
Chuck: It’s tails. I won.
Okay, that’s all for today. Good luck, keep practicing, and see you next time～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～

Further Tips (1)英語は閉音節言語 / 日本語は開音節言語
日本語は、音節末の「ん」や促音（小さい「っ」で表す）の場合を除き、音節はすべて母音[a, i, u, e, o]で終わる
開音節言語（open-syllable language）です。したがって、通常子音の連続は起こりません。一方、英語は音節が子音で終わる単語がたくさんある閉音節言語（closed-syllable language）です。したがって、子音で終わっている単語の次に、母音が来たり、子音で終わっている単語の次に子音で始まる単語がくるなど、日本語ではあまり見られない、音のつながりのパターンがたくさん出てきます。
[ 単語 …子音] + [母音 … 単語 ][ 単語 …子音] + [子音 … 単語 ]このような時に起こる音韻変化のパターンを一通り覚え、それを意識しながら発音練習を積み重ねていくと、英語の聞き取り、発音ともに飛躍的によくなります。

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How to Make Yourself Understood

Further Tips (2)単語の中での子音脱落も脱落形が辞書形になった例も

上記では、ba(ck) door や bi(g) game、I like (th)em のように、単語と単語が繋がった場合の子音脱落の例を見てきました。実際には１つの単語の中で、特定の子音がほとんど聞こえなくなる（脱落する）例もあります。
actually [ækʧuəli]は通常の発音で、[k]の音が次の[ʧ]に吸収され、ほとんど聞こえなくなります。[æ(k)ʧuəli]
apartment も、apart の[t]の音が次の[m]の音に吸収されてほとんど聞こえなくなります。[əpɑ:r(t)mənt]
さらにつづりから見ると本来あったと思われる子音の音が、現代英語では完全に発音されなくなっている例もあります。
Wednesday の最初の[d]音は、多くの標準的英語において、全く発音されません。[wenzdei]
cupboard の[p]の音も、全く発音されません。[kʌbərd]＊見た目（つづり）に惑わされず、本物の音で覚えておく習慣をつけましょう。

56

How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

Tips for English Speech Sounds
Unit 5Check out Sound Segments

キーワード（key words）[s] / [ ʃ ]Dark LL and R vs らりるれろ

F [f] vs ふ[ɸu][ f ] vs [ v ]TH [ð] / [θ]How to Make Yourself UnderstoodTips for English Speech Sounds
Unit 5Check out Sound Segments- CONTENTS -Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）[s] / [ ʃ ] Paradigm in Japanese and English

p. 59

Find Differences

p. 61“Dark L” [ɫ] vs る

p. 62

English [æ] and [ʌ] vs Japanese あ

p. 62

Summaryp. 63

Further Tips
(1) さまざまな[ t ]音たち

p. 64

Various disguises of the [t] sound(2) TH の発音、後回しでもよいかも

p. 64

Don’t worry too much about the TH soundEnglish Speech Sound Inventoryp. 66

Satoshi Oku and Jeff Gayman
58Unit 5 Check out Sound Segments

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Hello everyone. I’m Piers Williamson, from Heswall, near Liverpool, in the United Kingdom, and I’ve beenteaching at Hokkaido University since autumn, 2012. Today, we are going to learn some English soundsegments: namely, consonants and vowels. In particular, we will focus on some English sound segments which
many Hokudai Japanese students are not very good at. Let’s start by looking at the following Japaneseparadigm.

[s] / [ ʃ] Paradigm in Japanese and English

You have pairs like 差[sa] and 社[ʃa], 酢[su] and 酒[ʃu], and 祖[so] and 書[ʃo]. English also has the samepairs. sigh [sai] and shy [ʃai], sue [su:] and shoe [ʃu:], and saw [sɔ:] and Shaw [ʃɔ:]. Therefore, these English
words are very easy for Japanese students both to pronounce and to perceive accurately. So far so good!
Let’s go on to complete this paradigm. In English, there are two more types of pairs. same [seim] and shame[ʃeim], and sea [si:] and she [ ʃ i:]. Now, let’s check if Japanese has the corresponding pairs. There is a word
like 背[se], but there seems to be no word like しぇ[ ʃ e] in Japanese. Furthermore, there is a word like 市 [ ʃi], but there’s no word like [si]; and there is even no Hiragana letter for this [si] sound in Japanese. In otherwords, this [si] sound is completely missing in the Japanese speech sound inventory.
Therefore, it’s natural that some Japanese students have difficulty in pronouncing some basic English words
with this [si] sound, such as sea [si:]; this is not ×シー[ ʃ i:].
sea [si:]×シー [ ʃ i:]scene [si:n]

×シーン [ ʃ i:n]season [si:zn]

×シーズン[ ʃ i:zn]

Or scene [si:n]; this is not × シ ー ン [ ʃ i:n]. Or season [si:zn]; this is not × シ ー ズ ン [ ʃ i:zn]. What’s thedifference?
OK. The first point. When you pronounce the English “she” [ ʃ i:] sound, try not to widen your mouth to thesides. Not something like しー, しー. Rather, the shape of your lips is more like the one when you pronounce
the [u] sound; [u]. She [ ʃ i:], she [ ʃ i:]. Well, the even more important key is the position of your tongue in yourmouth. When you pronounce she or the Japanese し[ ʃ i] sound, the middle of the tongue, as well as the tip,
get very close to the roof of the mouth; she [ ʃ i:], she [ ʃ i:]. Repeat after me. She [ ʃ i:], she [ ʃ i:]. When you
pronounce sea, on the other hand, only the tip of the tongue gets close to the front of the roof of the mouth.

Sea [si:], sea [si:]. Repeat after me. Sea [si:], sea [si:].

59

How to Make Yourself Understood

Points―――――――――――――――

・日本語にない[s]音差 [sa] 社 [ʃa]sigh [sai]shy [ʃai]? [si]

市 [ ʃ i]sea [si:]she [ ʃ i:]

酢 [su] 酒 [ʃu]sue [su:]shoe [ʃu:]

背 [se] しぇ? [ʃe]same [seim]

shame [ʃeim]

祖 [so] 書 [ʃo]saw [sɔ:]

Shaw [ʃɔ:]「しぇ」という音は現代日本語本来の音としてはないが、発音はしやすい [si]という音は現代日本語にない。それを書くひらがなもカタカナもない。発音も難しい
・英語では[si]は多用される音[ ʃ i]との違いをしっかり認識し、たくさん練習を

類例：＜ 語頭 ＞＜ 語末 ＞

sister [sistər]×シスター

icy [aisi]

×アイシー

seat [si:t]

×シート

juicy [ʤu:si]

×ジューシー

simple [simpl]

×シンプル

taxi [tæksi]×タクシー

since [sins]×シンス

galaxy [gæləksi] ×ギャラクシー

(cf. sheet [ ʃ i:t])

cinema [sinema] ×シネマ

sexy [seksi]

×セクシーcity [siti]

Tracy [treisi]

×トレイシー×シティ――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――The same is true for the voiced counterpart. So, easy [i:zi], easy [i:zi]. Don’t say the Japanese じ [ʤi] soundas in イージー [i: ʤi:]. Rather, say, easy [i:zi], easy [i:zi].

Points―――――――――――――――

・日本語にない[z]音[si]の有声音[zi]も日本語にない音：
日本語の「じ」ではないので注意 舌の先頭だけを口の天井に近づける＜ 語末 ＞
easy [i:zi]

×イージー

busy [bizi]

×ビジー

rosy [rouzi]×ロージー

Susie [su:zi]

×スージー

ただし、energy は[enərʤi]：「エナジー」に近い音
60

Unit 5 Check out Sound Segments＜ 語頭 ＞
zeal [zi:l]

ただし、jeans、gypsy, gym の先頭音はzipper [zipər]

×ジッパー

zigzag [zigzag]

×ジグザグ

日本語の「じ」に近い音 [ʤ]――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Find Differences

OK? These are just a few examples of the difference between Japanese and English speech sound segments.
Understanding the sound difference between your native language and the target language you are trying tolearn is one of the important keys to foreign language learning. Let’s consider some other examples.

F [f] vs ふ[ɸu]Japanese ふ [ɸu] as in ふた [ɸuta] sounds similar to the English F sound as in foot, but they are actuallyquite different. Japanese ふ [ɸu] is pronounced by placing the upper and lower lips close to each other. ふた[ɸuta], ふた [ɸuta]. In contrast, the English F sound is produced by placing the lower lip and the upper teeth
close to each other. Foot [fut], foot [fut]. Try not to use the Japanese ふ [ɸu] sound when you say food [fu:d],free [fri:], fly [flai], and so on in English.

TH [ð] and [θ]: No Japanese counterpart

Next, let’s practice the English TH sound as in they [ðei] or think [θiŋk]. This is another difficult speechsegment for Japanese students. When you pronounce words such as they [ðei], though [ðou], this [ðis], orthat [ðæt], the first segment is pronounced by making the tip of your tongue touch the upper teeth softly.

They [ðei], they [ðei]. With exactly the same place of articulation, the first segment of think [θiŋk], thought[θɔ:t], thank [θæŋk]and so on, is also pronounced. Make the tip of your tongue touch the upper teeth softly
again. Thank [θæŋk], thank [θæŋk].

ラーメン is not “ramen”: L and R vs らりるれろ
Well, how is it so far? It is not easy to produce and perceive speech sound segments which do not exist in yourmother tongue. English L and R are other notorious examples which are stumbling blocks for many Japaneselearners of English. To tell the truth, it’s not easy for me, as a native speaker of English, to pronounce
Japanese “ra, ri, ru, re, ro” properly, for instance, since they do not exist in English. I love miso ramen, but
it’s difficult for me to say miso ramen exactly the same as native Japanese speakers do. Therefore, it’s very
important to understand how such unfamiliar sounds are actually articulated, and then to practice manytimes, in order to make yourself understood properly in a foreign language.

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How to Make Yourself Understood

Points―――――――――――――――

・[ f ] vs [ v ]：下唇を「噛まないで！」
 噛んでは発音できません。下唇を内側に巻き込んでもいけない ただ、上の歯をそのまま真っ直ぐ下ろして、下唇の内側に軽く触れ、摩擦音を出す――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――“Dark L” [ɫ] vs る
Let’s next take a look at one peculiar instance of the English L sound. In casual daily speech, when an L
sound is the last element or the element right before the last consonant, it’s often realized as a so-called “darkL” or “velar L.” Listen carefully. pool [pu:ɫ], pool [pu:ɫ], or milk [miɫk], milk [miɫk]. When you pronounce
this particular type of L sound, you say a [u] like sound deep in the back of your mouth: [ɫ] [ɫ]. pool [pu:ɫ],pool [pu:ɫ], milk [miɫk], milk [miɫk]. Let’s practice some more examples of this dark L. Repeat after me.
file [faiɫ]beautiful [bju:tifəɫ]
help [hɛɫp]
Good! This dark L sounds quite different from the usual L as in lake [leik], or light [lait]. And of course it’svery different from the Japanese る sound.

English [æ] and [ʌ] vs Japanese あLet’s finally look at two different あ like sounds in English, which are not easy for some Japanese students
to distinguish. The [ʌ] sound in words such as bunk, done, sunk, some, and cut can be said to be almost thesame as the Japanese あ sound. On the other hand, the あ like sound as in bank, Dan, sank, Sam, and cat
is very different. This sound may be characterized as the sound somewhere between the Japanese あ and えsounds. Let’s practice a bit. Listen carefully and repeat after me.
bank [bæŋk]bunk [bʌŋk]Dan [dæn]done [dʌn]sank [sæŋk]sunk [sʌŋk]Sam [sæm]some [sʌm]cat [kæt]cut [kʌt]

62

Unit 5 Check out Sound Segments

Points―――――――――――――――

・“Dark L” (or “Velar L”) [ɫ] 少し練習するとできるようにのど奥深くで「ぅ」という感じで
pool [pu:ɫ]は「プーゥ」に近い音
beautiful [bju:tifəɫ]は「ビューティフゥ」に近い音
file [faiɫ]は「ファイゥ」に近い音
milk [miɫk]は「ミゥク」に近い音
help [hɛɫp]は「ヘゥ」に近い音
日本語の「る」とは程遠い音：「る」を忘れて、のどの奥で「ぅ」！
・多くの母語話者がこのように発音  慣れると聞き取り力もアップ――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Summary

Good! OK, let’s wrap up today’s points. The speech sound inventory is a systematic organization in every
language. The set of Japanese speech segments and the set of English speech segments are similar to someextent, but at the same time, they are very different in several important respects. Therefore, it’s very
important to try to understand the differences between Japanese and English at the sound segment level.
And then, practice many times. Notice also that today’s lesson covers only a small portion of sound segment
differences between Japanese and English. So, I strongly encourage you to learn more differences, as well as
similarities, between Japanese and English sound systems, which I am sure will help you improve yourEnglish pronunciation.
Atsushi: Miso ramen omochi simasita.
Piers: Oh, thank you. It looks so delicious. I LOVE miso ramen.
Well, that’s all for today. I hope you enjoyed the lecture. Good luck, keep practicing, and see you next time!
(Wow, this looks great … )～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～
63

How to Make Yourself Understood

Further Tips (1)さまざまな[ t ]音たち
次の日本語と英語の表を見ましょう。
田 [ta]

茶 [ʧa]

time [taim]

chime [ʧaim]

?

[ti]

地 [ʧi]

tin [tin]chin [ʧin]?

[tu] 津 [tsu] 中 [ʧu]two [tu] ? [tsu] chew [ʧu]

手 [te]

ちぇ？[ʧe]tech [tek]check [ʧek]

戸 [to]

著 [ʧo]

top [tɔp]chop [ʧɔp](または[tɑ:p])(または[ʧɑ:p])

日本語の「たちつてと」。実は「ち」と「つ」の最初の子音は、単純な[t]ではないのです。
「ち」の場合は最初の「つ」の場合は最初の子音が[ts]です。また、「ちぇ」[ʧe]は現代日本語に本来ない音です。さらに、[ti]子音が[ʧ]、と[tu]は、それに対応するひらがな・カタカナもありません。この二つの音は、現代日本語の子音体系に全く含
まれていないといえます。したがって、外国語に[ti]や[tu]を含む単語があると、その発音は日本語母語話者にとって難しくなります。two [tu:]を「ツー」[tsu:]と発音したり、team [ti:m]を「チーム」[ʧi:m]と発音したりするのは、日本語にはない音を日本語にある似た音で代用するという現象です。外国語を学習するすべての人に起こる現象で、いわゆる「外国人のなまり」の大きな原因のひとつです。同様に、英語には[tsu]という音が基本的にはありませんので、英語母語話者にとって日本語の「つ」の発音には少し練習が必要かもしれません。
tour [tuər]を「ツアー」と発音しても誤解される恐れはあまりないと思われますが、tip (心づけ、チップ)と chip
(かけら、切れ端)のように、意味が変わってしまう場合もあるので、注意が必要です。

Further Tips (2)TH の発音は、後回しでもよいかも
they [ðei]や thank [θæŋk]の th の発音は、日本人にとって発音も聞き取りも難しいものの 1 つでしょう。しかし、これは後回しにしてもよいかもしれません。They を「ゼイ」と発音しても、thank you を「サンキュー」と発音しても、問題が起こることはあまり考えられません。TH の発音に苦労をして英語の学習全体が滞ってしまうよりは、割り切って後回しにするのも賢明な選択かもしれません。
後回しにするというやりかたにとって都合のよい情報を 2 つ。

64

Unit 5 Check out Sound Segments（１）TH 音は世界的に見ても珍しい
世界の言語の中でもこの[ð]や[θ]は、とても珍しい音です。フランス語やドイツ語でもこれらの音は使われません。世界的に見て、かなり特殊な音なのです。この音を使わずに（つまり、母語なまりで）、英語を話している英語非母語話者は世界中にたくさんいます。できなくても恥ずかしがる必要は全くありません。
（２）母語話者も最後に獲得
英語を母語として獲得する子どもにとっても、実はこの[ð]や[θ]は最も難しい音なのです（無意識の母語獲得ですので、子どもたちが意識的に「難しい」と感じているわけではありませんが）。英語母語話者の子どもは平均して、4 歳までにほぼ全ての英語の子音を獲得し、発音できるようになります。ところが、英語圏の子どももその多くは、4 歳でもまだ、[ð]や[θ]は正しく発音できないのです。5 歳～6 歳になって、自然に正しい発音ができるようになります。つまり、英語を母語として獲得する際に、この[ð][θ]音が一番最後に発音できるようになる音なのです。
（さらに the を[da]と発音する英語の方言もあります！）それだけこの音は人間にとって発音が難しい音といえるでしょう。自分の母語（たとえば、日本語）に[ð][θ]の音がない人が、英語を学ぶ時に、「TH の発音は後回しでいいや！」というのは決して根拠のないことではないのです。
（参考：Ingram, David. 1989. First Language Acquisition: Method, Description,

and Explanation. Cambridge University Press）＊うまく通じるかうまく聞き取れるかは、個々の子音の発音以上に、Unit 1 から Unit 4 でやったような、(i)規則にのっとった音変化に慣れることと、(ii) 強弱の付け方、イントネーション、間のとり方など、より大きな単位での英語らしさを意識することの方がより重要です。
「木を見るよりも森を見よう」。これが外国語の発音・聞き取り上達の 1 つのコツです。

65

How to Make Yourself Understood

English Speech Sound Inventory
Consonants（子音）Bilabial
両唇音
Stops
閉鎖音 [-v][+v]

Libiodental Interdental
唇歯音
歯間音

p
b

Alveolar Alveopalatal Velar
Glottal
歯茎音
硬口蓋音 軟口蓋音 声門音tdFricatives
摩擦音 [-v]
[+v]

θ
ð

f
v

k
g
ʃ
ʒ

s
z

Affricates
破擦音 [-v]
[+v]

h

ʧ
ʤ

Nasals鼻音mŋnLiquids
流音lw(ʍ)

Glides

r
ɫ

渡り音

j

Vowels（母音）Lax (short) and reduced vowels

Tense (long) vowels and diphthongs弛緩母音と弱化母音

High
高舌
Mid
中舌
Low
低舌

緊張母音と二重母音

Front
前舌

Back
後舌

ɪ

ʊ

ɛ
æ

ə

ʌ
ɑ

ɔ

Front
前舌

Back
後舌

High

i

u

高舌
Mid

eɪ

oʊ, ɔɪ(æʊ)(a)

aʊ, aɪ

中舌
Low
低舌
66

How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

Tips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs
Unit 6
From Sentences to “Text”

キーワード（key words）
テキスト（text） 結束性（cohesion）

話題の一貫性（consistency in topic）

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodTips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs
Unit 6

From Sentences to “Text”- CONTENTS -Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
Warming up Quiz: Which Sounds Strange?

p. 69

What is a “Text”?

p. 70

Summaryp. 74

Takashi Tsuchinaga, Satoshi Oku, and Jeff Gayman
68Unit 6 From Sentences to “Text”

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Hello everyone. How’s your English study going? I’m Jeff Gayman. Welcome to the "How to Make Yourself
Understood" video series, Unit 6. In this video, we are going to learn what a "text" is. Let's start by comparing
two sets of sentences.

Warming Up Quiz: Which sounds strange?
Please listen carefully: Which is strange, A or B?

Example A
I love goldfish. Yesterday I bought three lovely ones. But by the time I woke up this morning my cat
had eaten them all.

Example B
I love cheese sandwiches. Yesterday I bought a new laptop computer. But, in 1867, Alfred Nobel
invented dynamite.
Every sentence in both A and B is perfect in terms of grammar. However, in terms of overall meaningfulness,
the two are diametrically different.
I suppose you've found something wrong with example B. You're right. Let's see each sentence in B one byone. The first sentence goes: “I love cheese sandwiches.” Nothing is wrong so far. The speaker starts talking
about “cheese sandwiches.” Then, the second sentence brings the totally new topic of a brand-new laptop.
Where has the speaker's love of cheese sandwiches gone? Then, the last sentence brings still another different
topic: the invention of dynamite!
(1) I love cheese sandwiches

topic(2) Yesterday I bought a new laptop computer

new topic(3) But, in 1867, Alfred Nobel invented dynamite

another new topic

As you see, each sentence is grammatically perfect, but is disconnected from the others. The passage in its
entirety does not make overall, unified sense: you just cannot see any unity of meaning in it. It's almost
hopeless to imagine a real human being speaking passage B. By contrast, you can easily see that example A
is coherent in terms of meaning.
The connection of the first two sentences is natural enough: I love goldfish; therefore it's natural that I bought
three goldfish. There is an important connecting device here; the word ones, which refers to goldfish
69How to Make Yourself Understoodmentioned in the first sentence. There is another instance of a pronoun being used to connect the second andthe third sentences. Them refers to “the three lovely goldfish I bought.” As a whole, example A reads as a
unified story-line telling a tragedy which happened to a goldfish-lover.
(1) I love goldfish (2) Yesterday I bought three lovely ones
(3) But by the time I woke up this morning my cat had eaten them all

Points―――――――――――――――➡上記２つの英語の例(A, B)を日本語で表現しても同じことが言えます。
Example B(1) 私は チーズサンド が大好き
(2) 昨日 新しいノート PCを買いました(3) しかし、1867 年にアルフレッド・ノーベルは ダイナマイトを発明しました
話題の内容（下線部）が次つぎと変わっていますね。脈絡がありません。
Example A(1) 私は 金魚 が大好き（I love goldfish）(2) 昨日 かわいいのを 3 匹 買いました（Yesterday I bought three lovely ones）(3) しかし今朝起きてみるとうちの猫に 全部 食べられてしまっていました（But by the time I woke up this morning my cat had eaten them all）
「金魚が好き」だから「買った」という流れは自然。(2)の ones という代名詞が(1)と(2)を結びつけ（日本語では、(3)の them という代名詞が(2)と(3)を結びつけています(日本「かわいいの」が「かわいい 金魚 」を指します）
語では受動態にした文の主語を省略することによって、食べられたのは昨日買ったかわいい 3 匹の金魚であることが暗示されています)。こうして Example A は意味の点でまとまっていると言えます。
➡要は文法的に間違いがない文をつなぎ合わせても、まとまりのある文章になるとは限らない、ということです。
何かについて論理的に話したり、論文やレポートをまとめるのには、１つひとつの文をどのようにつなげて、
まとまりのある文章にしていくことが重要です。それがこの Unit 6 から Unit 10 までのテーマです。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

What is a text?

Sentence sequences like example A are often called by linguists a "text". A text is not a random collection ofgrammatical sentences, but rather is a series of sentences that are glued together to form a unified whole in70

Unit 6 From Sentences to “Text”
terms of meaning.
Making a text thus means much more than putting grammatical sentences together. You need to arrange
sentences so that each sentence is connected in some way or other to what comes before and after it. This
interconnectedness of sentences in a text is called "cohesion". Passage A therefore is a cohesive text, whereas
passage B lacks cohesion and therefore is not a text.
It’s rather straightforward so far, isn’t it? However, there is more to cohesion than each sentence being linked
to what comes before and after it. Take passage C for example:

Example C
I love cheese sandwiches. By the way, I looked up the word "sandwich" in a dictionary and foundthat it originates from an English nobleman. I am thinking of giving the dictionary to someone
because I don't use it anymore.

Points―――――――――――――――➡ テキスト（text）とはtext はさまざまな意味で使われる語です。教材として使われる文章を指すこともあれば、「テキストファイル」と言う場合のように、文字飾りやフォントサイズのない文字データを指すこともあれば、文学作品などの本文を意味することもあります。
ここで言う text とは、言語学上の概念を表す用語であり、sentence の集合体で、しかも全体として意味的にまとまっているものを指します。前節の解説で、１つにまとまった「文章」という言い方をしましたが、それがtext です。word→sentence→text という順に、より大きな単位となっていくと考えてください。
複数の words をつなぎ合わせて sentence を作るための規則がいわゆる文法（grammar）だとすれば、複数のsentences をつなぎ合わせて text を作るのにも規則があり、その規則も一種の文法だと言えます。この高次の「文法」のことを言語学で「テキスト文法」（text grammar）と言うこともあります。みなさんは「文をつなぎ合わせる文法」なんて今まで意識していなかったかもしれません。でも、まとまった文章、特に academic writing
を書ける人は、このより高次の文法を実践していると言えます。
➡ 結束性（cohesion）とはCohesion とは言語学の用語で、日本語では「結束性」と呼ばれることがあります。テキストを構成する文と文のつながりのことを指します。結束性が高い文章は、まとまりのある良い文章ということになります。これは良い論文やレポートを書くためには、大変重要なことです。cohesion について、より詳しく学びたい人は、
M.A.K. Halliday and Ruqayia Hasan, Cohesion in English. (London: Longman, 1976)を参照してください。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
Here, the first sentence is connected to the second because the word sandwich is repeated which serves as akind of glue, and the speaker introduces the second sentence using a transitional signal by the way, eventhough the topic is diverted from the real sandwiches I love to the origin of the word sandwich.
71

How to Make Yourself Understood(1) I love cheese sandwiches

real sandwiches I love(2) By the way, I looked up the word "sandwich" in a dictionary and found that it originates from an
English nobleman

origin of the word

The third and final sentence is linked to the second because the word dictionary in the second is repeated in
the third. However, the topic now moves away from etymology to the plan of giving the dictionary to someone.
(2) By the way, I looked up the word "sandwich" in a dictionary and found that it originates from an
English nobleman

tool to check out etymology(3) I am thinking of giving the dictionary to someone because I don't use it any moreobject to be given to someone
In this way, although the sentences in example C are linked to each other, they do not form a unified whole.
The story changes direction with each sentence and the audience should be puzzled as to where they will betaken in the end. There is no semantic consistency: no focus of meaning which all the sentences are centeredaround. Therefore, example C does not constitute a text. In contrast, example D is a text.

Example D
I love cheese sandwiches. Every morning I make cheese sandwiches for my breakfast. Also for lunch
every day I eat cheese sandwiches. So, one morning when I found no cheese in the fridge, I stoodspeechless for a while.
Passage D starts with the same sentence as passage C. However, none of the three sentences following it
diverts from the topic expressed in the first one. The audience are sure of what the whole text is about: how
I love cheese sandwiches. All the sentences center on this focus of meaning.
This consistency in topic is required of any text. You always have to be very careful whether your text has aconsistent topic throughout. OK? Now, finally, let us consider the following example passage.

Example E
I have an English speaking class this afternoon. The instructor is so-so, but the textbook is very
interesting. Also the TA is from Singapore and very kind to all of us. I always enjoy the lesson.
Notice here that expressions such as English, speaking, or class in the first sentence are not repeated in thispassage. There is no pronoun referring back to the English speaking class, either. Nevertheless, this passage
makes a perfect cohesive text. Why is it so? The key is the article the.

72

Unit 6 From Sentences to “Text”

The in the instructor indicates that we are talking about the instructor of this English speaking class. The
in the textbook signals that it is the one being used in this English class. The in the TA signifies that we aretalking about the TA in this class, and finally the in the lesson specifies that we are talking about the lessonof this English speaking class. Therefore, the proper use of the definite article the plays a crucial role to makea cohesive text. This is a very important aspect of English grammar that you have to bear in mind when you
speak and write a proper text in English. OK?

Example E
I have an English speaking class this afternoon
The instructor is so-so, but the textbook is very interesting.
Also the TA is from Singapore and very kind to all of us.
I always enjoy the lesson.

Points―――――――――――――――➡話題の一貫性（consistency in topic）
Example C を日本語で表現してみます。
(1) 私は チーズサンド が大好き
(2) ところで、「サンドイッチ 」という語を 辞書 で調べてみたら、イギリスの貴族の名前が語源である
ことがわかりました(3) その 辞書 はもう使わないので誰かにあげようと思います(1)と(2)は「サンド（イッチ）」という語で結びついています。(2)と(3)は「辞書」という語で結びついています。
このように、隣り合った文同士は cohesion によって意味的につながっています。しかし、それぞれの文の話題を見てみると、(1)では本物のチーズサンドの話をしていたのに、それが(2)になると、「サンドイッチ」という語の語源の話になり、さらに、(3)では語源を調べるのに使った辞書の話になってしまいます。話題が次々にそれて行くので、(1)〜(3)は結局全体としてのまとまりがないものになっており、テキストとは言えません。これに対して、Example D は「私がどれほどサンドイッチが好きか」という話題に収斂しているため、テキストであると言「話題の一貫性」（consistency in topic）も、テキストを構成するためには重要だというこえます。このように、とです。
➡結束性（cohesion）を生み出す定冠詞 the の用法(1) I have an English speaking class this afternoon(2) The instructor is so-so, but the textbook is very interesting(3) Also the TA is from Singapore and very kind to all of us
73How to Make Yourself Understood(4) I always enjoy the lesson(2)〜(4)の下線部の名詞は the がつくことによって、「(1)の an English speaking class の」というように意味が限定されます。たとえば(2)の The instructor は、「その英語スピーキングクラスの教員」という意味になります。
この the の働きによって、(2)〜(4)は(1)と結びつけられています。もし(2)が An instructor is so-so, but a textbook
is very interesting となっていたらとても不思議な話の流れになります。こんな感じになります。
「（今話した、
今日の午後にある英語のスピーキングクラスの教員とは違うんだけど）とある教員はまあまあなんだけど、(今話している授業で使っている教科書とは違う)とある教科書はとてもおもしろいんだ」
定冠詞 the の用法は、英語の学習者が最初に学ぶ基本中の基本ですが、実はそのときみなさんは、この unit で学んだ、文と文をつないでテキストを作るための「のり」（glue）について学び始めていたわけですね。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Summary

Let us summarize today’s lesson. In this unit, we’ve learned the following.
1. A text is a sequence of sentences that forms a semantic unity
2. In a text governed by cohesion:a: each sentence is linked to what comes before and after it, andb: one single topic runs through and unites all the sentences
As a student, you will be required to acquire academic writing skills, skills in writing logically on a particularsubject. In order to meet this challenge, you must learn to generate texts at will, because every piece of
academic writing is made of texts. So, in this sense, I hope that today’s lesson has given you some “clues” inorder to be a good writer. So please don't be just satisfied with just being able to connect words grammaticallyto make a sentence. Go one step further and try to care about how you can connect sentences to construct ameaningful text.
Yes! In order to be a good writer, you need “glue”. Well, that's all for today. Good luck, keep practicing, andsee you next time!

Points―――――――――――――――➡まとめ
1. テクストは意味の点で 1 つにまとまった一連なりの文である
2. 結束性を持つテクストの特徴
a. 個々の文がその前後の文とつながっているb. 1 つの話題がすべての文を結びつけている
Unit 7〜Unit 10 では、さらに詳しく大切な点を考えていきます。お楽しみに！
74

How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

Tips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs
Unit 7
What is a “Paragraph”?

キーワード（key words）
パラグラフ（paragraph）
結論（conclusion）

トピックセンテンス（topic sentence） 支持文（supporting sentence）

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodTips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs
Unit 7

What is a “Paragraph”?
- CONTENTS -Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
Organizing your Thoughts

p. 77

Organized Units in Academic Writing

p. 78

Basic Characteristics: Semantic Unity

p. 78

Paragraph Components

p. 79

Sample Paragraphs: “How I Changed the Way I Read”

p. 80

Paragraph ≠ ‘段落’ in Japanesep. 82

Summaryp. 83

Further Tips
(1) 「段落」についての補足

p. 84

A Remark on Japanese danraku(2) 英英辞典のすすめ

p. 84

English-English Dictionary(3) パラグラフ・ライティングについての参考書

p. 85

Useful Japanese books on paragraph writing
Takashi Tsuchinaga, Satoshi Oku, and Jeff Gayman
76

Unit 7 What is a “Paragraph”?

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Hello everyone. Welcome to the “How to Make Yourself Understood” video series, Unit 7. I’m Rick Siddle. I’mfrom Sheffield, UK, and I’ve been teaching at Hokkaido University since 2011. In this video, we are going tolearn what a “paragraph" is.

Organizing your Thoughts

Imagine what you do when you try to communicate your feelings or thoughts in writing to someone else. One
possible answer might be, “Well, I simply turn my feelings or thoughts into words just as I feel or think.”
However, this idea of what’s inside you automatically being converted to the written word is too naïve, I’mafraid. Your reader would just get confused. That is because in many cases, what’s in your brain remains
formless, disorganized, and hard to capture until it is organized into an intelligible form. That may be why
you often hear people say something like “I know what I want to say, but it’s hard to put it into words!”
In order to voice your inner feelings or thoughts, you need to take the trouble of organizing your ideas bymanipulating your language skills. That may be a challenging and time-consuming task, but if you skip thisprocess, then your potential readers will have a hard time interpreting the disorganized language that you
let fly automatically. Taking the time to organize your ideas is worth doing not only because it helps yourreader grasp what you mean, but also because it can reveal any vagueness or inconsistency in your ideas.
Trying to organize our thoughts can help us to think better.

Points―――――――――――――――➡「思ったままを書けばよい」わけではない
自分の思ったことをそのまま書いても読み手に伝わる分かりやすい文章にはなりません。頭の中だけで考えたことは、そのままの状態では混沌としているので、それを生のかたちで吐き出して相手に読んでもらおうとしても、理解してはもらえません。
書くということは、確かに時間のかかる面倒な作業かもしれませんが、頭の中の混沌とした思考を整理して、言語化し、理解可能な形に構成するという意識的な作業だと考えてください。さらに、「思ったまま書く」という態度では、自分で自分の考えを理解することも難しいと言えます。頭の中で思い巡らしているだけの状態では、自分が何かすばらしいことを考えているように思えていたのに、いざ、それを整理して言葉にしてみようとすると、論理的につながらない箇所が見えてきて、「あれれ、こんなはずではなかったのに」と気づくことがあります。ですから、自分の考えを意識的に組み立てて言語化するという作業は、自分の思考を鍛えることにもなります。さらに言えば、自分の考えは言語化することによって初めて他者に伝わり、他者からの批評をもらえるようになります。そのような知的な対話、議論に参加すること、それこそが学術論文を書くことの意味なのです。

77

How to Make Yourself Understood

Organized Units in Academic Writing

Now that you know conscious organization of your thoughts is a must, let's see how to do that in academic
writing. In order to do so, you use what is called a paragraph. I guess you remember the definition of a text:
a sequence of sentences that form a semantic unity.

Basic Characteristics: Semantic Unity

A paragraph is the most basic unit of such a text. You can compare a piece of academic writing to a building.
Just as a huge construction is made of small building blocks, so is a piece of academic writing made ofparagraphs. Now, let's see the characteristics of a paragraph.
Paragraph
1. one single main idea
2. each sentence related to the main idea
3. indentation
First, it contains one single content or main idea. Second, each sentence in a paragraph is related to thatmain idea. If you want to discuss two topics in a paragraph, for example, you have to divide it into twoparagraphs.
In addition to these essential, semantic characteristics, a paragraph has a clear outward appearance. A
paragraph is distinguished from what is before and after it by means of indentation at the beginning and/or
empty lines enclosing it. This helps the reader see where a paragraph starts and ends.

Points―――――――――――――――➡ パラグラフとは何か？
テクストを構成する基本的な単位であり以下の特徴を持ちます。
1. 1 つの main idea（主たる内容）を持つ
2. パラグラフ中のすべての文はこの main idea とつながっている
3. パラグラフとパラグラフの区切りは、冒頭の字下げや空白行の挿入によって表される
したがって、1 つのパラグラフに 2 つ以上の内容が含まれるということはあり得ません。内容が 2 つあるなら、パラグラフも 2 つに分割すべきです。
パラグラフはこのように意味のまとまりであると言えますが、同時に、見栄え（レイアウト）の点では、上記（３）のような特徴を持ちます。
日本の小学校で国語教育を受けた人であれば、原稿用紙に書くときは段落の冒頭一字分を空けて書くようにと教わりましたね。（３）はそれと似ています。

78

Unit 7 What is a “Paragraph”?

Paragraph Components

Now let us consider the internal structure of a paragraph. The default structure of a paragraph is: it starts
with a topic sentence, followed by supporting sentences and a concluding sentence. Let's look at each of theseparagraph components one by one.
Topic Sentence
Supporting Sentence Supporting Sentence
Supporting Sentence Supporting Sentence
Supporting Sentence Supporting Sentence
Conclusion
A topic sentence is the most important sentence in the paragraph. I hope you remember that a paragraphcontains only one main idea. That main idea, or topic, is clearly stated by the topic sentence. It is in mostcases the first sentence of a paragraph. This default location is important. Because a topic sentence gives
orientation to the reader at the beginning of a paragraph, the reader knows the topic very early so that they
can know what to expect in the rest of the paragraph. If the topic sentence doesn't appear until the end of
the paragraph, the reader is kept in suspense, always wondering what the paragraph is going to be about.
Next. A topic sentence is followed by supporting sentences, which develop the main idea and make it
convincing using a variety of methods: giving examples, proofs, reasons, details, explanations, making
comparisons, restating the topic in other words, and so forth. If a topic sentence is an introduction, supporting
sentences are the body of a paragraph.
Finally, a concluding statement closes the paragraph, reminding the reader of the topic of the wholeparagraph. These three components cooperate to convince the reader of the one single topic and contributeto the semantic unity of the paragraph.
No digression is permitted. Do not put anything of no direct relevance in a paragraph.
paragraph
A topic sentence (main idea)
Supporting sentences

× anything unrelated
A conclusion
79

How to Make Yourself Understood

Points―――――――――――――――➡ パラグラフの構成要素
topic sentence: そのパラグラフの main idea（主たる内容=topic）を表している、パラグラフの中で最も重要な文。パラグラフ冒頭が定位置。
supporting sentence: main idea（トピック）を展開して読み手に納得させる働きをする文。topic
sentence の次が定位置。
conclusion: 結論。パラグラフの main idea をまとめる。
これ以外の脱線的要素をパラグラフに入れることは厳禁です。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
Now, let's look at an example paragraph and see the three components in action.
Listen to the following text first.

Sample Paragraph: “How I Changed the Way I Read”
For nearly a year, most of my reading activities have been on a digital basis. As soon as I buy books,
I convert most of them into PDF files using a document scanner, and read them on my tablet PC.
This method has several advantages. First, I don't have to carry along bulky textbooks from home
to college anymore, because everything I need in the classroom is stored in my light-weight, handy
tablet. Not only the textbooks but also my whole library is now accessible wherever I go. When I was
totally dependent on paper books, there was a limit to the number of books I could carry along. In
addition to this excellent portability, digital reading gives me more freedom in taking notes. As was
the case with traditional reading, you can easily jot down your memos in PDF. Moreover, you candelete or modify them as you like, which is impossible with paper books. Although you mightmention the danger of losing all of the books together with the tablet, actually, here again digitizedbooks beat their paper-based equivalents. Because digital files are so easy to copy, I have madebackups of my whole library on my laptop PC and in two hard-disk drives. You can say that mybooks are far more securely protected than paper books. For these reasons, I am very much satisfied
with my present reading environment.
OK, let us look at the text. Oh! The letters are too small? Don’t worry. We first just give you an overall view,and then look at each component in detail. The first sentence is the topic sentence. The main body consistsof various supporting sentences, and we have a concluding statement at the very end of this paragraph.
Look at the first sentence. For nearly a year, most of my reading activities have been on a digital basis. This
conveys the topic in a very general manner. The remainder of the paragraph, except for the final sentence,80Unit 7 What is a “Paragraph”?
are all supporting sentences, elaborating upon the topic in various ways.
The first supporting sentence is, As soon as I buy books, I convert most of them into PDF files using a

document scanner, and read them on my tablet PC. This sentence expresses the general topic in a specificmanner and makes the reader understand what "reading on a digital basis" is.
The second supporting sentence, This method has several advantages, starts the list of the advantages ofdigitized reading. The list consists of three parts. In the first part, the writer says that digitization makes it
possible to carry a lot of books in a handy manner. The second part starts with In addition to this excellent

portability and discusses how digital reading gives more freedom in taking notes. Here, the phrase thisexcellent portability not only introduces the second item on the advantage list, but also captures the content
of the first part in a nutshell and thus helps the reader grasp the logical development.
[supporting sentences] This method has several advantages.
(1) … handy tablet …
cohesive(2) In addition to this excellent portability,
The next sentence goes; Although you might mention the danger of losing all of the books together with thetablet, actually, here again digitized books beat their paper-based equivalents. This sentence introduces thethird advantage; by mentioning a possible argument against digital reading first, the writer maintains that
there is a valid counter-argument to it. The point of that counter-argument is made clear in the two sentencesthat follow: digital books are in fact far easier to back up than paper books.
The final sentence concludes the paragraph. For these reasons, I am very much satisfied with my present

reading environment. Note that these reasons refers to the three advantages mentioned in the three groupsof supporting sentences. This makes the entire paragraph a cohesive whole.
[supporting sentences] This method has several advantages.
(1) …

handy tablet …

(2) … more freedom in taking notes. …
(3) … more securely protected … .

↑cohesive[conclusion] For these reasons, I am very much satisfied with my present reading environment.
We have just seen an example of a stand-alone paragraph, a single paragraph essay. You can use morebuilding blocks, that is, more paragraphs, to construct a longer essay, which is the topic of the next video
lecture. Before concluding this lecture, let me briefly mention some tips for Japanese students.
81How to Make Yourself Understood

Points―――――――――――――――➡ sample essay の構成について
最初に topic sentence が来て、その後に supporting sentences が続き、最後に conclusion で締めくくるという、パラグラフ構成の常道に従っている文章です。
冒頭の topic sentence、For nearly a year, most of my reading activities have been on a digital basis は一般的な（general な）言い方でトピックを述べています。読みやすい、説得力のある文章では、一般的な言い方の後に、それを具体的に（specific に）わかりやすく説明する、という展開の仕方がよく採用されます。そもそも
topic sentence は、パラグラフ全体の内容を一文で表すため、一般的、抽象的な表現がよく使われます。そしてその後の supporting sentences で、topic sentence の内容を具体的な例や説明や言い換えなどによってわかりやすく伝えるわけです。「general なことを書いたら specific な説明をしよう」と心がけてください。
➡ sample essay の cohesion をもたらす手法について
著者はデジタル読書の第１の利点として、First, I don't have to carry along bulky textbooks from home to college anymore, because
everything I need in the classroom is stored in my light-weight, handy tablet. Not only
the textbooks but also my whole library is now accessible wherever I go. When I was totallydependent on paper books, there was a limit to the number of books I could carry along.
と述べています。要するに、自分の蔵書をどこにでも持って行けるということです。注目していただきたいのは、第 2 の利点を述べる文が、In addition to this excellent portability で始まっているという点です。第 1 の利点を this excellent portability という簡潔な名詞句に凝縮してまとめ、それに加えて第 2 の利点は、という具合に話を続けていますね。この名詞句により、第 1 の利点を述べている部分と第 2 の利点を述べている部分
が結びつけられて、cohesion（結束性）が生まれています。代名詞以外の語彙をうまく用いているわけです。
上の例では、「どこにでも運ぶ（carry）ことができる」という意味を表す portable という形容詞のさらに名詞形である portability という単語を使っています。carry から portable（英語で意味を説明すれば able to be
carried）、さらに portability（= the quality of being able to be carried）を思い出せるような語彙力を活用す
れば、このような表現が可能になります。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Paragraph ≠ ‘段落’ in Japanese
The concept and definition of Japanese danraku does not seem to be the same as the standard notion of aparagraph in academic writing as we have just learned. So try not to use your logic of danraku, but rather
try to follow the structure of a paragraph. This basically applies to writing academic papers in any field. Even
when you write papers in Japanese, the basic structure of each paragraph should be like what we havelearned in today’s lecture. This, I am sure, will make your writing more intelligible, sensible, and readerfriendly.
82Unit 7 What is a “Paragraph”?

Points―――――――――――――――➡この unit で紹介した「パラグラフ」と、日本の国語教育を受けたみなさんが学んだ「段落」は似て非なるものであると考えてください。学術論文を書く際は、たとえ日本語で書く場合であっても、パラグラフ構成を取る「段落」についての補足」をご覧ください。
必要があります。詳しくは下記 Further Tips(1)「――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Summary

OK! Let’s wrap up today’s points. In this unit, we have learned the following. In academic writing, youorganize your ideas and write using paragraphs. A paragraph contains one main idea, not more. Everything
in a paragraph should be related to the main idea.
A paragraph is made of the following three components.
1. a topic sentence, expressing the main idea of the paragraph ina nutshell, usually located at the beginning
2. supporting sentences, following and supporting the topic sentence
in a variety of ways
3. conclusion
Anyone writing academic papers in any language in any field should write on a paragraph writing basis. This
will make what you would like to convey in your writing clearly understandable. Furthermore, understanding
the basic structure of a paragraph also helps you read academic papers quickly and accurately.
What a mess! This is not a paragraph!
Now, it looks good. This IS a paragraph.
Well, that’s all for today. I hope you enjoyed the lecture. Good luck, keep working hard, and see you next time!

～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～
83

How to Make Yourself Understood

Further Tips (1)「段落」についての補足
日本で国語教育を受けた人であれば、「形式段落」と「意味段落」という用語を覚えているかもしれません。簡
単に言うと、形式段落とは、冒頭を 1 字下げることによって区切られた文章のかたまりのことであり、意味段落
は形式段落がいくつか集まって作られた、１つの意味を持つ文章のかたまりである、ということです。
このような「段落」の概念はこの unit で学んだ「パラグラフ」の概念とは全く異なります。なぜなら、形式段
落とは意味の区切りとは必ずしも関係があるわけではなく、単に見栄え（レイアウト）上の区切りでしかないか
らです。一方、パラグラフは徹頭徹尾、意味のまとまりですので、意味とは関係なく冒頭の字下げをしたような文章はパラグラフとは言えません。意味のまとまりとは関係のない形式段落というものがあるという考え方それ自体が、パラグラフの考え方と相容れないのです。形式段落と意味段落という区別があると教えられてきたせい
で、意味のまとまりと関係なく、ただ何となくこのあたりで字下げをしたほうがいいかな、というだけで段落を区切るような癖がついてしまっているなら、学術論文を書く前にぜひその癖をなくしてください。そうしないとダメパラグラフを量産してしまいます。
この注を書いている筆者も、遠い昔に形式段落と意味段落の区別を小学校で教わったのですが、ふとしたきっかけでそのことを思い出すまで数十年間すっかり忘れていました。おそらく学術論文をたくさん書いている人の大半がその区別を忘れていることと思います。それほど、形式段落、意味段落という区別は、パラグラフ・ライ
ティングによって構成される学術論文には無用のものと言えるでしょう。
そして、これは何語で論文を書こうが同じことです。自分は日本語を使うのだから、形式段落で書いてもよいのだ、ということにはなりません。日本語で書くにしても、学術論文を書くのであれば、「段落」の概念によらず、「パラグラフ」の概念によって文章を書くべきです。

Further Tips (2)
英英辞典のすすめ
みなさんは、中学、高校と、英語の授業で、ある単語の同意語、反意語、別な品詞の形等の関連語彙を覚えさせられたり、意味を他の英語で説明させられたりした経験があると思います。実は関連語彙を思い出したり、別な表現で言い換える等の語彙力は、cohesive な文章を書く上で不可欠な能力だったのです。決して点数をとるための技術ではなかったのですね。このような語彙力を培うためには英英辞典がお勧めです。英和辞典に頼っていると、英単語と、それと意味が近い日本語の語彙との結びつきしか頭に入りません。しかし、英英辞典を使うことにより、ある英単語を調べると、それに関連するたくさんの英単語が否応なしに目に飛び込んでくるため、関連する英単語同士の網の目を頭の中に作ることができます。そのような言葉の網の目は、cohesion
によってまとまった文章を組み立てる上で非常に役に立ちます。

84Unit 7 What is a “Paragraph”?

Further Tips (3)パラグラフ・ライティングについての参考書
上で述べたように、日本語の論文を書く場合にもパラグラフの概念は不可欠ですから、日本語による論文の書
き方のマニュアル本にもパラグラフ構成についてしっかり解説してくれている良書があります。ここでは古典的名著と新しい古典とも言える本を紹介しておきましょう。
1. 木下是雄『理科系の作文技術』中公新書（中央公論新社、1981）
2. 木下是雄『レポートの組み立て方』ちくま学芸文庫（筑摩書房、1994）
1 は理科系の論文に出てくるような文章を例文としていますが、2 は人文・社会科学系の例文が使われています。自分に合った方を読めばよいでしょう。
3. 戸田山和久『新版

論文の教室：レポートから卒論まで』NHK ブックス（NHK 出版、2012）85

How to Make Yourself Understood86How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

Tips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs
Unit 8Essay Structure

キーワード（key words）
エッセイの構造（essay structure）

主題提示（thesis statement）

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodTips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs
Unit 8Essay Structure- CONTENTS -Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
What is an “Essay”?

p. 89

Characteristics of an Essay

p. 89

Essay Components

p. 90

Sample Essay: How I Changed the Way I Readp. 91

Summaryp. 94

Takashi Tsuchinaga, Satoshi Oku, and Jeff Gayman
88Unit 8 Essay Structure

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Hello everyone. I’m Jeff Gayman. Welcome to the "How to Make Yourself Understood" video series, Unit 8.
How is your study of the English language going? Writing something clearly in English is very difficult? I
know, but if you learn the logic and basic structure of academic writing, your writing skill will surely improve.
It is important to keep trying.

What is an “Essay”?

In this unit, we are going to learn the structure of an essay. An essay is a piece of academic writing dealing
with a particular subject. Academic papers researchers write and class reports or term papers students
submit all fall under the category of an essay. Compared with the stand-alone paragraph we studied in Unit
7, an essay is made of more paragraphs and thus capable of conveying a more detailed and complex argument.
However, the underlying organizing principles are the same. An essay is, so to speak, a paragraph on a larger
scale. Let's look at the fundamental characteristics of an essay.

Points―――――――――――――――➡エッセイ ≠ 随筆
「エッセイ」と言うと、『枕草子』や『徒然草』のような「随筆」を思い浮かべる人が多いかもしれません。しかし、この unit で学ぶ essay とは、そのような文学的随筆ではなく、むしろ論文やレポートのようなもの、つまり、あるテーマについて論理的に論じた複数個のパラグラフから成る文章のことです。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Characteristics of an Essay

First of all, just as a paragraph is a text, an organized whole, so is an essay. Secondly, just as a paragraphcontains only one topic or main idea, so does an essay. In the case of an essay, that one topic is called a “thesis,”which is a theory or idea you maintain or argue in the essay. Finally, remember that everything in aparagraph is related to the topic of the paragraph. In the same manner, every paragraph in an essay is related
to the one thesis maintained in the essay.
OK. You are beginning to see what I mean by an essay being a paragraph on a larger scale. Since you havelearned what a paragraph is in the previous lecture, you should be able to understand the structure of an
essay by means of analogy.
Now, let's see the components of an essay one by one in comparison to those of a paragraph. Again, you will
see how the same organizing principles govern both.

89How to Make Yourself Understood

Points―――――――――――――――➡エッセイ = パラグラフの拡大版
パラグラフ

エッセイ

テクストとしてのまとまりを持つテクストとしてのまとまりを持つ

１つの内容（topic）を持つ

１つの内容（thesis）を持つ

どの部分も topic と関連している

どの部分も thesis と関連している

この表からもおわかりのように、複数パラグラフから成るエッセイは、単一パラグラフと同じ構造を持っており、その意味で単一パラグラフの拡大版と言えます。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Essay Components

You remember that the first part of a paragraph is a topic sentence, right? In the case of an essay, the firstpart is an introduction, which is made of one paragraph or, in the case of a longer essay, two or moreparagraphs. An introduction should contain one sentence called a “thesis statement”, which expresses themain argument of the entire essay in a nutshell. The thesis statement makes clear to the reader what the
essay is going to maintain.
The next part is the body, which is the longest part in an essay, where the thesis is developed in full andargued. The paragraphs in the body correspond to supporting sentences in a paragraph and thus are
sometimes called “supporting paragraphs.”
The final paragraph or paragraphs in an essay serve as a conclusion. The conclusion summarizes andconcludes the main argument of what you have stated in the previous parts of the essay.
< essay >An introduction: one or more paragraphs containing a “thesis statement”
The body: paragraphs to develop and argue for the thesis
A conclusion: one or more paragraphs to summarize the point
Every piece of academic writing should have this three-part structure: an introduction with a thesis
statement, a body consisting of supporting paragraphs, and a conclusion.

90Unit 8 Essay Structure

essay
Introduction (with Thesis Statement)
Supporting ParagraphSupporting ParagraphSupporting ParagraphSupporting Paragraph
Conclusion

Points―――――――――――――――➡ エッセイの構成要素
パラグラフ

エッセイ

topic

パラグラフの主要な論点

thesis statement

sentence（topic）を 1 文で表したもの

supporting

topic sentence の内容を展開

body （ supporting

sentence(s)し、論証する文

paragraphs）

conclusion

結論をまとめる文

conclusion

エッセイの主要な論点（thesis）を 1 文で表したもの。introduction に含まれる
thesis を展開し、論証するパラグラフ
結論をまとめるパラグラフ

上の表からおわかりのように、パラグラフとエッセイはほぼ共通の構成原理によってまとめられています。こ
こでも、単一パラグラフの構造が拡大されたものがエッセイの構造であると言えます。そして、パラグラフにおける topic sentence と同じ役割を担う文 thesis statement がエッセイには不可欠なのです。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
Now let’s look at a sample short essay and see how each component is located. For the first reading, just focus
on the general structure of the essay.

Sample Essay: How I Changed the Way I Read
[ introduction ]These days, in many aspects of our daily life, computers, especially small mobile devices, arechanging the traditional way of doing things. For example, mobile devices with a camera installed
have almost replaced film cameras at least for casual use. Travelers now depend on maps displayedon their mobile phone screen instead of paper maps. Using an online calendar for scheduling is now
quite a normal procedure. As for me, when I was admitted to college last year, I started something
new to follow this trend: the digitization of most of my reading activities. Let me show you how I
read books now and how I evaluate this new method of reading.
91

thesis statement

How to Make Yourself Understood[ body: first supporting paragraph ]In order to convert the books I buy into a digital format, first I use a desktop paper cutter to cut off
the spines and separate all the sheets from each other. Then I scan dozens of the sheets at a time,using a very fast document scanner. The scanned data are automatically stored as PDF files in mytablet PC. The tablet PC containing these PDF files serves as a kind of book for me: I can read andturn pages on the screen with my forefinger.
[ body: second supporting paragraph ]One year after having changed my reading method in this way, I have become sure that digitizedreading has several advantages. First of all, I no longer have to carry along bulky textbooks fromhome to college, because everything I need in the classroom is stored in my light-weight, handy
tablet. Not only the textbooks but also my whole library is now accessible wherever I go. For example,
when a passage displayed on the screen happens to remind me of another related title, I can
immediately search for and open it. That was impossible when I was totally dependent on paper
books, because there was a limit to the number of books I could carry with me.
[ body: third supporting paragraph ]In addition to this excellent portability, digital reading gives me more freedom in taking notes.
Everybody knows you can jot down your memos in a paper book, if it is your own, of course. With
digital reading, you can likewise annotate on the screen using your finger or a stylus pen. What ismore, you can delete or modify your notes at your will, which is impossible with paper books.
[ body: fourth supporting paragraph ]Although someone might mention the danger of losing your whole library by losing your tablet PC,
actually, here again digitized books beat their paper-based equivalents. Because digital files are soeasy to copy, I have the backups of my whole library in my laptop PC and in two portable hard-disk
drives so that if my tablet is lost or broken, I still have my library data at hand. This three-foldbackup is impracticable with paper books. Just imagine how time-consuming and tedious it might
be to make just one Xerox copy of a 200 page paper book! Even if you manage to make it, where doyou put those paper copies? In contrast, with digital book data, backup can be so simply and quickly
done. Therefore, you can say that my books are far more securely protected than paper books.
[ conclusion ]Portability, flexibility in annotation, and ease of backup: these are some of the reasons why I amvery much satisfied with my present reading environment. It may be that my reading method works
because I am a sophomore and have less than a hundred books of my own. A professor who owns
thousands of books would find the idea of converting them into PDF from scratch totally unrealistic.
I am wondering what will happen as my library gradually increases in the future. For the time being,
92

Unit 8 Essay Structure
however, I cannot imagine my daily life without my whole library in my tablet.
So, how was it? You may have noticed that this sample essay is based on the sample paragraph we saw inthe previous video. The single paragraph is now expanded into a six paragraph essay. You see that an
introduction paragraph comes first which contains the thesis statement, followed by a four paragraph body,and that a concluding paragraph ends the essay. We are going to discuss the detailed analysis of eachparagraph of this essay in the next lecture. So, please look forward to it!

Points―――――――――――――――➡ sample essay についてUnit 6 で読んでいただいた sample paragraph を 6 つのパラグラフに拡大したエッセイです。単一パラグラフと同じ構造を持っている点に注意してください。
1. introduction: 第 1 パラグラフ。thesis statement（下線部）を持つ（単一パラグラフの topic sentence に相当する）
2. body: 第 2〜5 パラグラフ。それぞれ thesis statement を support する（単一パラグラフの supporting sentences に相当する）
3. conclusion: 第 6 パラグラフ。結論をまとめる（単一パラグラフの conclusion に相当する）➡ 建築の比喩
パラグラフとエッセイの構造をわかりやすく説明する際に、よく建築の比喩が用いられます。１つひとつのパラグラフはブロックであり、そのブロックを組み立てることによって大きな建築物（エッセイ）が作られる、というわけです。そして、この構造はミクロとマクロのレベルでも見られるのです。
ミクロのレベルで言えば、１つひとつの文がブロックであり、そのブロックを組み立てることによって、パラグラフという建築物が作られます（これについては Unit 7 で学習しました）。マクロのレベルで言えば、短いエ
ッセイが１つひとつのブロック（本のセクション）となり、そのセクションが集まって１つの章となり、その章が集まって一冊の本になるというわけです。
今学習しているエッセイの構造は、さらに大きなレベルの文章を作り上げるための基礎でもあります。ですから、しっかりと理解して自分のものにしてください。

93How to Make Yourself Understood

SummaryNow, let’s wrap up today’s points. A single paragraph and an essay made of more paragraphs are governedby the same organizing principles.
1. An essay is a text, an organized whole.
2. An essay contains only one thesis, a theory or idea to be maintained or argued.
3. Every paragraph in an essay is related to the thesis and contributes to the unity of the essay.
4. An essay has the following three components:
・ introduction, containing a thesis statement
・ body or supporting paragraphs, and・ conclusion, summarizing the entire essay
Do you remember the metaphor of architecture used in the previous video? A sentence can be likened to abuilding block. Combining sentences on one topic makes a paragraph. In the same fashion, a paragraph, inturn, can be likened to a building block too. Combining these building blocks on a particular thesis creates
an essay. You can construct still larger building units in a similar manner. For example, a short essay madeof several paragraphs can be a section in a larger unit. Namely, several sections make up a chapter. And
eventually, several chapters constitute a book. Within each of these different levels of academic writingarchitecture, the same organizing principles work and contribute to the ideal author-reader communication.
If you follow these general principles and architecture, your academic writing will become a lot clearer, more
intelligible, and more attractive!
Well, that’s all for today. I hope you enjoyed the lesson. Good luck, keep working hard, and see you next time!

94How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

Tips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs
Unit 9Notes on Essay Construction

キーワード（key words）
つなぎ表現（transitional signals） パラグラフの分析（anatomy of paragraphs）

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodTips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs
Unit 9Notes on Essay Construction- CONTENTS -Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
Analyzing the First Paragraphp. 97

Paragraph without a Topic Sentencep. 98

Anatomy of the Body Paragraphs

p. 99

Concluding Paragraph: How to Finish your Essay

p. 101

Cohesive Devices: Transition Signals

p. 101

Summaryp. 105Further Tips
(1) 適切な transition signals を選ぼう

p. 105Better Choice(2) 似て非なる first と at firstp. 106

At first is no kin to first!

Takashi Tsuchinaga, Satoshi Oku, and Jeff Gayman
96Unit 9 Notes on Essay Construction

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)(… so expensive. Yeah, well, that’s a good point…Ah)
Hello everyone. I’m Chuck Brown. Welcome to the "How to Make Yourself Understood" video series, Unit 9.
In the previous video, we learned the basics of essay structure.
In this video, we are going to add some notes on ways an essay can be composed, using the sample essay
presented in Unit 8. Let’s first look at the following sentence.

Analyzing the First Paragraph
When I was admitted to college last year, I started something new:the digitization of most of my reading activities.
Remember? This is a part of the thesis statement of the essay. Although the default position of a topic
sentence is the first sentence of a paragraph as we learned in Unit 7, sometimes it may not be a good idea to
put your readers suddenly in the middle of a topic which may be quite new to them. In such a case, you canprovide some preparatory statements which gradually ease the reader into the topic.
< Paragraph 1 >[1] These days, in many aspects of our daily life, computers, especially small mobile devices, arechanging the traditional way of doing things. [2] For example, mobile devices with a camera installed
have almost replaced film cameras at least for casual use. [3] Travelers now depend on maps
displayed on their mobile phone screen instead of paper maps. [4] Using an online calendar forscheduling is now quite a normal procedure. [5] As for me, when I was admitted to college last year,
I started something new to follow this trend: the digitization of most of my reading activities. [6] Let
me show you how I read books now and how I evaluate this new method of reading.
The sample paragraph starts with a very general mention of the fact that small mobile devices are changing
the traditional way of doing things. Sentences [2] to [4] list three examples of this change. Only after thesegeneral introductory statements does the topic sentence [5] appear. This sentence is also the thesis statementof the whole essay. “When I was admitted to college last year, I started something new to follow this trend:
the digitization of most of my reading activities.” The last sentence [6] follows the thesis statement toannounce the supporting ideas to be discussed below: how the author reads books now, and how the author
evaluates this method of reading. This announcement gives a brief preview of the essay’s logical progression
to the reader. In this way, when you read an essay, you should pay special attention to the first paragraph.
The thesis statement may be somewhere toward the end of the paragraph and followed by a preview of how
the thesis will be supported in the body of the essay.
97How to Make Yourself Understood

Points―――――――――――――――➡ エッセイ冒頭のパラグラフに関する注意事項
1. Unit 7 で、topic sentence の定位置はパラグラフの冒頭であると述べました。しかし、これには例外があります。そしてこの例外が最も高頻度で発生するのが、エッセイの冒頭部分なのです。なぜならエッセイの冒頭には、先行する文章が何もないからです。何も前置きがない状況でいきなり “the digitization of most of myreading activities”と書かれても、読者はとまどうかもしれません。そこで、読者を議論の中に引き込むために、一般的な話題から始めて、次第に話題を狭めていき、最終的に topic（エッセイですから同時に thesis でもある）へと導く、という手口がよく用いられます。
本格的な学術論文では、執筆者の論点を読者に理解させるために、その研究分野において、これまでにどのような研究が行われ、何がわかってきて、何がまだわかっていないかということ等を、過去の研究論文から引用しながら説明し、その後に、自分の問題意識と論点を提示するという手順を踏むことがよくあります。そのようにして自分がこれから展開しようとする議論を、これまでの研究の流れの中に位置づけるわけです。このような論述を行う場合は、エッセイ冒頭の１パラグラフだけでは足りず、数パラグラフを費やして、その終わりの方に thesis statement を置くという introduction 構成が取られることがあります。
sample essay ではそこまで壮大な構成は取っていませんが、前置きをしてから topic sentence（兼 thesis
statement）を置くという方法を採っています。落語に、「枕」という導入部分がありますね。それと似ています。
2. エッセイ冒頭のパラグラフの最後の文は、エッセイ全体の議論の進め方を予告する役割を担っています。これもエッセイ冒頭パラグラフではよく用いられる手法です。これによって、読者は自分がこの先どのような流れの議論を読むことになるのか、見当をつけることができます。読みやすく、誤読されにくい論文を書くには、
読者に手の内を明かしておいて、見通しのよい論理展開をしていくことが重要です。それも冒頭パラグラフ（introduction）の重要な役割なのです。何についてどのように論じるのかを早めに読者に伝えず、読者を宙
ぶらりんの状態にしたまま論文の末尾まで引きずり回すような書き方をしていては、おしまいまで読んでもらえません。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Paragraph without a Topic Sentence

Next, let’s proceed to the second paragraph: the beginning of the body of this essay. Which sentence is the
topic sentence here?
< Paragraph 2: No topic sentence >[7] In order to convert the books I buy into a digital format, first I use a desktop paper cutter to cut
off the spines and separate all the sheets from each other. [8] Then I scan dozens of the sheets at atime, using a very fast document scanner. [9] The scanned data are automatically stored as PDF
files in my tablet PC. [10] The tablet PC containing these PDF files serves as a kind of book for me:
I can read and turn pages on the screen with my forefinger.
98Unit 9 Notes on Essay Construction
Well, you may notice that there is no topic sentence in this second paragraph! Why is this so? This paragraphexplains the process of converting paper books to digital data. Therefore, no sentence is more important thanany other. In principle, a paragraph should contain a topic sentence, but there are some exceptions to thisrule. Just as in this second paragraph, with a recipe or instruction, each step is equally important: therefore,in essays of this kind, paragraphs may lack a topic sentence. Another possible exception is, for example, when
the paragraph is a continuation of the previous paragraph’s content.

A paragraph may lack the topic sentence if the essay is:
1. a recipe or instruction
2. a continuation of the previous paragraph’s content

Note, however, that except for these very limited cases, you must write a topic sentence for every paragraph.
OK?

Points―――――――――――――――➡ topic sentence のないパラグラフ
パラグラフには（多くの場合その冒頭に）topic sentence が置かれるというルールをすでに説明しましたが、これにも例外があります。それを示すため、あえて sample essay に topic sentence のないパラグラフを 1 つ入
れておきました。例外が起きる事例として、
1. レシピや作業手順
2. 直前のパラグラフの内容の続きがあります。このほかに、時系列にしたがって出来事（物語）を述べるという場合も topic sentence なしとなる
ことがよくあります。
しかし、みなさんがパラグラフを書くときに「自分はこのパラグラフで何を述べるのか」を明確に意識して、それを topic sentence という形でパラグラフ冒頭に書くという癖をつける必要があるので、例外は例外であり、非常に少ないのだとお考えください。sample essay でも第３パラグラフ以降は例外なく topic sentence が、しかも冒頭に置かれています。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

Anatomy of the Body Paragraphs
Now, let’s go on to paragraph 3.
< Paragraph 3 >[11] One year after having changed my reading method in this way, I have become sure that digitizedreading has several advantages. [12] First of all, I no longer have to carry along bulky textbooks
99

How to Make Yourself Understoodfrom home to college, because everything I need in the classroom is stored in my light-weight, handy
tablet. [13] Not only the textbooks but also my whole library is now accessible wherever I go.
[14] For example, when a passage displayed on the screen happens to remind me of another related
title, I can immediately search for and open it. [15] That was impossible when I was totallydependent on paper books, because there was a limit to the number of books I could carry with me.
Sentence [11] is the topic sentence, announcing that the author is going to explain several advantages ofdigitized reading. “One year after having changed my reading method in this way, I have become sure that
digitized reading has several advantages.”
The next sentence [12] is also an important sentence in the paragraph because it starts introducing the firstadvantage: “First of all, I no longer have to carry along bulky textbooks from home to college, because
everything I need in the classroom is stored in my light-weight, handy tablet.”The second advantage is covered by paragraph 4,< Paragraph 4 >[16] In addition to this excellent portability, digital reading gives me more freedom in taking notes.
[17] Everybody knows you can jot down your memos in a paper book, if it is your own, of course.
[18] With digital reading, you can likewise annotate on the screen using your finger or a stylus pen.
[19] What is more, you can delete or modify your notes at your will, which is impossible with paper
books.
and the third advantage of digitized reading is covered by paragraph 5.
< Paragraph 5 >[20] Although someone might mention the danger of losing your whole library by losing your tablet
PC, actually, here again digitized books beat their paper-based equivalents. [21] Because digital files
are so easy to copy, I have the backups of my whole library in my laptop PC and in two portablehard-disk drives so that if my tablet is lost or broken, I still have my library data at hand. [22] This
three-fold backup is impracticable with paper books. [23] Just imagine how time-consuming andtedious it might be to make just one Xerox copy of a 200 page paper book! [24] Even if you manage
to make it, where do you put those paper copies? [25] In contrast, with digital book data, backup canbe so simply and quickly done. [26] Therefore, you can say that my books are far more securely
protected than paper books.
The structure of the body part in this essay is pretty straightforward.

100Unit 9 Notes on Essay Construction

Concluding Paragraph: How to Finish your Essay

Finally, after these supporting paragraphs, the essay is concluded by paragraph 6.
< Paragraph 6 >[27] Portability, flexibility in annotation, and ease of backup: these are some of the reasons why I
am very much satisfied with my present reading environment. [28] It may be that my reading
method works because I am a sophomore and have less than a hundred books of my own. [29] A
professor who owns thousands of books would find the idea of converting them into PDF from scratch
totally unrealistic. [30] I am wondering what will happen as my library gradually increases in the
future. [31] For the time being, however, I cannot imagine my daily life without my whole library in
my tablet.
Notice that all of these paragraphs have a topic sentence at their very beginning, which makes the point ofeach very clear to the reader.
OK? From this, we can see that it is clear that the location of the topic sentence is very important. Next let's
focus on some of the cohesive devices employed and see how they glue the whole essay together.

Cohesive Devices: Transition Signals

First of all, in English writing, some words and phrases are designated “transition signals” or “transition
words”. These are some of the typical transition signals employed in this sample essay.
< paragraph 1 > For example< paragraph 2 > first, Then
< paragraph 3 > First of all, because, For example< paragraph 4 > In addition to, likewise, What is more< paragraph 5 > again, Because, In contrast, Therefore< paragraph 6 > however
Their main function is to make clear how parts of the text are connected and to help the reader follow thethread of the argument.
In paragraph 1, the phrase For example signifies that what follows are examples of small mobile devices
mentioned in the first sentence.
In paragraph 2, the words first and then clearly indicate the sequential order of the process of convertingbooks into a digital format. These transition words are very straightforward, aren’t they? They clarify thetransition within a paragraph.
101

How to Make Yourself Understood

Points―――――――――――――――➡ transition signals（つなぎ語、つなぎ表現）について連続する文と文、パラグラフとパラグラフがどのような論理的なつながりを持っているかを表す接続表現を
transition signals と呼びます。これらは例えば、「例示」（for example など）、「因果関係」（because, therefore
など）
、
「逆接」
（however, although など）、「列挙」（first of all, then, likewise など）などのカテゴリーに分類されます。
transition signals の使用について意識的になることは、cohesion によってつながった文章を書くために重要なことです。たしかに紋切り型の transition signals を使い過ぎると、幼稚な感じを与えることもありますが、どのように論理的につながるのかが不明な文を連ねるよりははるかにましです。最初は型にはまったつなぎ方しかできなくても、上手な書き手の文章をたくさん読み、自分でも書く練習を重ねていくうちに、紋切り型ではな
いつなぎ方もできるようになっていくでしょう（その例は、この後のほうで紹介されています）。まずは型を覚えることが先決です。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
Another thing you should know about how paragraphs are connected is that they often start with a transition
from the previous paragraph, or end with a transition to the next paragraph. For example, paragraph 3 starts
with sentence [11].
[11] One year after having changed my reading method in this way, I have become sure that digitizedreading has several advantages.
In this sentence, the phrase having changed my reading method in this way refers to the overall content ofparagraph 2. Sentence [11] first sums up the previous paragraph and then starts a new topic: “several
advantages”.
Sometimes connecting devices can be more sophisticated. For example, sentence [12] starts the list ofadvantages of digitized books by using the transitional signal, First of all.
[12] First of all, I no longer have to carry along bulky textbooks from home to college, because
everything I need in the classroom is stored in my light-weight, handy tablet.
Here, the simplest procedure for starting paragraph 4 would seem to be to use the transitional signal secondly,
and for paragraph 5, another transitional signal thirdly, which would introduce the second and the third
advantages.
[ Potential Paragraph 4 ]Secondly, digital reading gives me more freedom in taking notes.
102Unit 9 Notes on Essay Construction< Actual Paragraph 4 >[16] In addition to this excellent portability, digital reading gives me more freedom in taking notes.
In actuality, however, paragraph 4 starts with the phrase, In addition to this excellent portability, which
serves in this situation as a transition from paragraph 3. Here, the phrase this excellent portability functions
to summarize the topic of the previous paragraph and, combined with in addition to, announces to the reader
that another advantage is to be presented.
Meanwhile, paragraph 5 could begin with:[ Potential Paragraph 5 ]Thirdly, digitized books beat their paper equivalents because digital files are so easy to copy that I
can have the backups of my whole library in my laptop PC and in two portable hard-disk drives ....
In actuality, however, the author cites a possible opposing view to the digital reading method explained inparagraphs 3 and 4, and then presents the third advantage as a counterargument to that possible criticism.
< Actual Paragraph 5 >[20] Although someone might mention the danger of losing your whole library by losing your tablet
PC, actually, here again digitized books beat their paper-based equivalents. …
Let us consider paragraph 6, the concluding paragraph. Notice that the author starts the paragraph byrecapitulating the three advantages, rather than just using a very simple transition signal such as inconclusion.
< Paragraph 6 >[27] Portability, flexibility in annotation, and ease of backup: these are some of the reasons why I
am very much satisfied with my present reading environment. …

Portability refers to paragraph 3, flexibility in annotation to paragraph 4, and ease of backup to paragraph
5. This is a very nice way to remind the reader of what was stated in the body of this essay.
Finally, after summarizing these three supporting paragraphs in this way, the author introduces a conclusive
statement: I am very much satisfied with my present reading environment. The author’s conclusion in thisessay is very clearly stated in this fashion. Further, the very last sentence in the conclusion paragraph is: I

cannot imagine my daily life without my whole library in my tablet. This leaves the reader a strong
impression of how the author is fascinated by the digitized library, and is therefore a very nice way ofconcluding the essay.
103How to Make Yourself Understood
OK. We have just seen how normal vocabulary is used to do more than what simple transition words can do:
it can be very helpful to the reader, in the course of reading a particular paragraph, at points in which wemight forget where we are in the logical development of the entire essay, and some kind of reminder isnecessary. In such cases, cohesive devices using normal vocabulary serve both as a text-glue and as areminder to help the reader keep track of the flow of the essay's argument.

Points―――――――――――――――➡ transition signals 以外の手段
たとえば第 3 パラグラフの冒頭の文[11]は、副詞句の中の having changed my reading method in this way が
第 2 パラグラフの内容を簡潔にまとめており、その後の I have become sure that digitized reading has several
advantages が第 3 パラグラフの topic を示すという働きをしています。これによって、第 2 と第 3 パラグラフのつながりができると同時に、読者はすでに読んだ第 2 パラグラフの内容を確認することができます。
[11] One year after having changed my reading method in this way, I have become sure that digitizedreading has several advantages.（このように自分の読書の仕方を変えてから 1 年たった今、私は読書のデジタル化にはいくつかの利点があると確信している。
）
第 4 パラグラフ冒頭[16]の In addition to this excellent portability も、this excellent portability によって第3 パラグラフの内容を簡潔にまとめると同時に第 4 パラグラフにつなぐという役割を持っています。Secondly という型どおりの transition signal を用いる場合と比較すると、単調さを回避するだけでなく、読者に対して親切な書き方となっています。第 3 パラグラフできちんと書いた内容をわざわざ別な言葉でまとめて挙げる必要があるのかと思われるかもしれませんが、人間はどんどん忘れていく生き物です。要所要所でそこまでのまとめをしてあげることで、記憶を新たにして論理の流れを再確認することができますし、万一誤読していたときに修正のチャンスを読者に与えることにもなります。
第 6 パラグラフ冒頭の[27]も、Portability によって第 3 パラグラフを、flexibility in annotation によって第 4
パラグラフを、ease of backup によって第 5 パラグラフをまとめながら、エッセイ全体の結論を導入する役割を果たしています。これによって、読者は、もう忘れてしまっているかもしれないエッセイ全体の論理の流れを把握し直すことができます。
ここで注意していただきたいのは、transition signal 専用の表現だけでなく、それ以外の普通の語彙をうまく使うことによっても、文章をつないで cohesion をもたらすことができるということ、そして同時に、読者に論理の流れを思い出させることができるということです。面倒だと思わないで、読者を親切に導いていく技術を身につけるよう努力してください。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――In these units, we have learned the basics of constructing an essay; the minimum requirements for writing
an essay which communicates your meaning clearly. From this starting point, you can learn to be a better
writer by acquiring advanced strategies like the ones we learned today, such as manipulating normal
vocabulary instead of simple transition words, or writing your conclusions by using impressive statements.
104

Unit 9 Notes on Essay Construction
That may seem to be a distant goal. However, you are going to have plenty of opportunities to read manyother well-written essays. If you keep paying attention to their organizing strategies, hopefully you will beable to acquire a wide and flexible repertoire of tactics to improve your writing skills.

SummaryNow, let’s wrap up today’s points.
1. In the first paragraph of an essay,(1) the topic sentence often appears after introductory statements, and(2) a brief preview of the supporting ideas can follow this delayed thesis statement.
2. The following kinds of paragraphs often have no topic sentence:(1) recipes or instructions, or(2) paragraphs which are a continuation of the previous paragraph's content.
3. You can use transition signals or other vocabulary to connect the sentences or paragraphs in an
essay with one another.
Well, that’s all for today. I hope you enjoyed the lecture. Good luck, keep working hard, and see you next time!

～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～

Further Tips (1)
適切な transition signals を選ぼう
transition signals を使えば文と文のつながりが明確になるのですが、どんな transition signals を選んでもよ
いというわけではなく、適切なものを考えながら選ぶということが大事です。たとえば、第 4 パラグラフを以下のように書き換えてみましたが、どう思いますか？
[16] And digital reading gives me more freedom in taking notes. [17] Everybody knows you can jot
down your memos in a paper book, if it is your own, of course. [18] And with digital reading, you canannotate on the screen using your finger or a stylus pen. [19] And you can delete or modify yournotes at your will, which is impossible with paper books.
And という transition signal が多用されていますね。実は and は追加、前後関係、因果関係など、さまざまな
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How to Make Yourself Understood
つながりを表すことができる万能的表現なので、このように and だけを多用して文をつないでいくと、論理的な関係がかえって不明瞭になる危険があります。それよりは、その箇所で最も適切な、単機能の transition
signal を選ぶほうが望ましいのです。たとえば[16]の And は、digital reading の利点を追加する表現を導くので、In addition の方が適切です。[18]の And は惰性的にいいかげんに使われている例です。ここは、「紙の読書と同様に digital reading でも」というつながりを表すべきところなので、And は使わず、代わりに likewiseを使って With digital reading, you can likewise annotate....としたほうがよいでしょう。[19]は、digital
reading では「さらに」こんなこともできる、というつながりを表すので、And の代わりに What is more やMoreover を使うほうが意味がはっきりします。
このように transition signals を上手に使い分けるには、慣れと経験が必要ですので、他の人たちが書いた上
手なエッセイをたくさん読んで手本として、勘所をつかんでください。

Further Tips (2)注意！似て非なる first と at first
Transition signal の用法で、北大生に非常に多くみられる誤りを１つ紹介しましょう。それは、at first の誤用です。何となくぼんやりと意味を知っている気になっていると大きな失敗をします。列挙を示す場合、最初に、
first あるいは first of all などを使います。これらは、いくつか順番に出てくるもの最初のものを示す合図としてとても有用です。しかし、at first はこれとは全く意味が違います。列挙をする最初のものをただ順番に示すだけの場合に at first を用いると大変不自然になります。at first の意味機能を 2 つの辞書で確認してみましょう。
COBUILD7 の説明：You use at first when you are talking about what happens in the early stagesof an event or experience, …, in contrast to what happens later.
『ジーニアス英和辞典』の説明：最初は、初めは《「しかし後にはそうではなかった」の意を含み、but 節、then, later, afterward などが続くのが普通》
したがって、友達の良さを列挙して紹介しようとして、First of all, she was very nice, ….
とすれば、その人の良い点の例が次つぎに挙がってくることが自然と予測されますが、もしこれをAt first, she was very nice, …
としてしまうと、「最初は一見とてもいい人だったんだけど、実は後からそうでもないということが分かった」という意味を示唆することになってしまいます。大きく印象が変わってしまう、あるいは思わぬ誤解を与えてしまう可能性もあるので、十分に注意しましょう。このような at first の意味はどの辞書にも必ず書いてあります。
丁寧に確かめる癖をつけておくとよいでしょう。
106How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

Tips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs
Unit 10Planning an Outline

キーワード（key words）
アウトライン（outline） 項目の階層化（layering sections）

How to Make Yourself UnderstoodTips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs
Unit 10Planning an Outline- CONTENTS -Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
How to Start?

P. 109Creating an Outline

p. 109Why Outline?

P. 113

Summaryp. 115General Review: Tips for Writingp. 115Further Tips
(1) アウトライン作成を補助する道具

p. 115

Supporting Software(2) 英文チェックとアウトライン

p. 116

Proofreading and Outlines(3) さらにプロフェッショナルなアカデミック・ライティングのために

p. 116

Toward Becoming an Advanced Writer
Takashi Tsuchinaga, Satoshi Oku, and Jeff Gayman
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Unit 10 Planning an Outline

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Oh, hello everyone. I’m Peter Richardson. Welcome to the “How to Make Yourself Understood” video series,
Unit 10. This is the last unit of the session titled “Tips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs”. Thus far, we havelooked at academic writing as an end-product. This video is going to focus on one important and indispensable
step in the writing process which we need to do prior to the writing: planning an outline.

How to Start?

Suppose you are asked to write an essay as one of your course assignments. You have decided on your topic
as well as completed collecting the necessary information. Now what do you do next? Do you think you areready to boot up your word processor and write your article from the first sentence of the first paragraph tothe end? You forget about another important step before you write, namely, outlining. An outline is a plan foran essay, in which the organization of the essay is visualized by listing ideas.
Just as an architect compiles a plan for a building before construction, every academic paper writer makes
an outline before proceeding to write an essay. Let's see how an outline is made, taking for example an outline
for the sample essay used in Units 8 and 9. The top level outline items are the following.
Thesis: I started to digitize my reading activities
I. introduction
II. digitizing process
III. advantages of digitized reading
IV. conclusion

Points―――――――――――――――➡ アウトラインを作る
アウトラインとは、エッセイの組み立てを視覚的にわかりやすく表した見取り図、いわばエッセイの設計図です。家を建てる前には設計図を作らなくてはならないのと同様に、エッセイを書くにはまずアウトラインを作らなければなりません。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――Creating an Outline

The thesis of the essay is “I started to digitize my reading activities.” The first component, the introduction,puts forward this thesis. The second and third components constitute the body of the essay. The final
component is a conclusion.
Thesis: I started to digitize my reading activities
109How to Make Yourself Understood
I. introduction
II. digitizing process
III. advantages of digitized reading
IV. conclusion
By laying out these components, that is, by actually writing down this basic flow chart, you can visualize thegeneral framework of what you are going to write. This is something you really have to do as the very firststep of your actual writing. Then you can elaborate these outline items into more specific details in a step bystep fashion.
Take this introduction part for example. The introduction is divided into three outline items.

I. introduction[A] is a traditional way of doing things which has been changed by computers, especially small
mobile devices[B] is a thesis statement for the essay: “I started to digitize my reading activities”[C] is a very brief preview of the essay's logical progression
Then, component A is further subdivided into three items, each giving an example of a traditional way of
doing things which has been changed by computers.
[A]
1. mobile devices with a camera installed
2. digital maps, and3. online calendars
Component C of the introduction is meant as a preview of supporting ideas. It comes in two parts. First, theprocess of how I digitize my own books into digital data is going to be described. Then, secondly, my evaluationof the new reading method is going to be stated. After that, the remaining three top-level items are divided
and subdivided in a similar way.
For example, the second section, “the digitizing process,” consists of four components, A, B, C, and D.

II. digitizing process[A] separating book pages[B] scanning[C] saving the data as PDF[D] reading “books” on the tablet PC
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Unit 10 Planning an Outline
Likewise, the third section, “the advantages of digitized reading”, has three components;

III. advantages of digitized reading[A] excellent portability[B] more freedom in taking notes, and[C] protection against data-loss
Each of these components in turn is further divided into two subcomponents: two examples of excellent
portability, two specific features of digital note taking, and two arguments that digital libraries are moreeasily protected than paper books.
The conclusion section also has the following three components.

IV. conclusion[A] I am satisfied with the digital library because of the three advantages[B] these advantages may be conditional on the number of books one owns, and[C] for the time being, I cannot imagine my reading life without my digital library
Now you can see how the relationship of outline items is visualized: the basic plan of the essay is now veryclear. Note that the difference in the level of each outline item is given different kinds of labels. For example,
at the top level, we use roman numerals. To visualize the components of the next level, we employed two
devices; using capital letters, A, B, and C, and so on, and indenting. To indicate the next subcomponents, weused Arabic numerals, 1, 2, 3, and so on, and further indenting.
Using different labels and indenting is very useful in particular when you wish to write a long essay
consisting of several components.

Points―――――――――――――――➡ アウトラインの基本形
アウトライン項目は階層構造をなすように配置します。それぞれの項目の階層レベルは字下げ（indentation）の量によって区別されます。さらに、階層レベル毎に異なるラベルをつけることもあります。sample essay のアウトラインでは、最上位レベルがローマ数字、その下のレベルがアルファベット大文字、その下のレベルがアラ
ビア数字という方式をとっています。
I. introduction
A. traditional way of doing things changed by computers (esp. small mobile devices)
1. mobile devices with a camera installed
2. digital maps
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How to Make Yourself Understood
3. online calendars
B. [thesis statement] “I started to digitize my reading activities”
C. a very brief preview of the essay's logical progression
1. digitization process
2. my evaluation of the new reading method
II. digitizing process
A. separating book pages
B. scanningC. saving the data as PDF
D. reading “books” on the tablet PC
III. advantages of digitized reading
A. portability
1. textbooks
2. my whole libraryB. freedom in taking notes
1. paper-book-like annotation
2. possible modification
C. protection against data-loss
1. manifold backup
2. better than paper-book
IV. conclusion
A. satisfied with the new reading method
B. advantages may be conditional
C. For now, I can’t imagine life without my digital library
アウトラインの作成過程では、項目の追加、削除、移動などを頻繁に行うので、まず下のように、文字ではな
く記号と字下げだけを用いて、アウトラインが確定したら文字を振るというやり方でもかまいません。
・introduction
・traditional way of doing things changed by computers (esp. small mobile devices)・mobile devices with a camera installed・digital maps
・online calendars
・[thesis statement] “I started to digitize my reading activities”
・a very brief preview of the essay's logical progression
・digitization process
・my evaluation of the new reading method――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
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Unit 10 Planning an Outline

Why Outline?

Well, those who are not yet familiar with academic writing might find outlining a tedious and time-consuming
job, and prefer to skip this process. However, that is one of the deadly mistakes beginners are tempted to
make. Look at the following example.
It is kind of easy to make a digital copy of paper-books recently. The backup of the data is saved in
my desktop PC. I don’t have to carry along all of the necessary books to school. I can change mymemos in the digital books simply by deleting and modifying them. Digitized reading activities arecool. I can go to classes only with my tablet PC, and these days scanners are very fast.
Notice here that the content ingredients are about the same as our original essay, but this paragraph doesn’tsound right. The problem here is rather straightforward. The author just scattered her ideas on digital
reading practices onto paper. Obviously, the author did not lay out the outline before starting to write.
Actually, outlining is such an important and indispensable part of writing process that having completed
your outline means more than half of the essay writing being done. The rest may be smoothly and confidently
finished. Let’s use the architecture metaphor again. In order to make a well-constructed and robust building,an architect has to make a plan beforehand. Similarly, an academic paper writer, in order to write a wellstructured essay, has to make an outline in advance.
The outline helps the writer keep an overall picture of the final product in mind. You can safely begin to write
an essay, deciding on which outline is going to be covered by which paragraph and giving details to outline
items.
Furthermore, an outline may change or develop in the course of writing. It sometimes happens that you cometo find it necessary to think again about your essay thesis or structure. You may want to omit or add someoutline items, or to change the order of description. In such cases, you are free to revise your outline.
In contrast, without outlining, the essay output might exceed the limit, or collapse in the middle of the writing
process. In the worst case, you are forced to rewrite all over again from the very beginning! Therefore,skipping outlining might cause you to end up with an unexpected tedious and time-consuming job.

Points―――――――――――――――➡ アウトラインの効用
課題のエッセイを書くだけでも大変なのに、その前にアウトラインなんか書いていられるか、などと考える人がいるかもしれませんが、アウトラインを書くことによって以下のような効用が期待できます。

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How to Make Yourself Understood
1. アウトラインという設計図があると、構成の整ったエッセイを書きやすくなる
Unit 7 の解説で「思ったままに書けばよい」という考え方ではまとまりのない文章を書いてしまう危険があると述べましたが、アウトラインを作ることによって「頭の中の混沌とした思考を整理して、言語化し、理解可能な形に構成する」ことができるのです。
2. アウトラインがあると、エッセイの全体像を頭に入れて調整しながら書くことができる
アウトラインはエッセイの骨組みであり、エッセイ本文を書くという作業は、骨組みに肉付けをしていく作業と言えます。骨組みがしっかりしていると、どの部分にどの程度肉付けをしていくかという配分もしやすくなります。
たとえば下の I を 1 つのパラグラフで表現するとしましょう。書くべき項目は A-1、A-2、A-3、B、
C-1、C-2 です。これら 1 つひとつにどれくらいの分量の言葉を使って表現するかの見当をあらかじめつけながら書くことができるので、最終的にちょうどよい分量のパラグラフができあがります。もしもアウトラインなしで書いていると、調子に乗ってしまって、たとえば A-1 に相当する部分がかなりの分量になり、結果として introduction が肥大してしまうということになりかねません。
I. introduction
A. traditional way of doing things changed by computers (esp. small mobile devices)
1. mobile devices with a camera installed
2. digital maps
3. online calendars
B. [thesis statement] “I started to digitize my reading activities”
C. a very brief preview of the essay's logical progression
1. digitization process
2. my evaluation of the new reading method
エッセイの長さだけでなく、論理展開の点でもアウトラインは役立ちます。アウトラインなしで、だ
いたいの見当しかつけずに書き始めると、途中で論理が破綻してしまったり、つじつまの合わない部分が生じてしまうことがあります。そうなると最初から書き直しということになります。アウトラインを作っておけば、そこに論理展開の筋道がきちんとつけられているので、安心して書き進めることができます。
➡ 一度作ったアウトラインは変更可能か？
可能です。書いていくうちに設計変更が必要に感じられることはよくあります。たとえば、上の例ですと、Aの下位項目として 3 つ考えていたのだが、実際に書いてみると 1 と 2 だけで、どうしてもかなりの分量になるので、3 は省きたくなるかもしれません。ですから、エッセイ本文を書きながら、必要に応じてアウトラインもきちんと改訂していくのがよいでしょう。

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Unit 10 Planning an Outline

SummaryNow, let’s wrap up today’s lecture.
1. You should make an outline before starting to write
2. An outline is a visual plan of essay organization, with ideas listed hierarchically, using
indentation and labels
3. You do not have to regard an outline as something permanently fixed: it may berevised or developed in the course of writing

General Review: Tips for Writing

Before concluding the "Tips for Writing Sensible Paragraphs" series, let us quickly review what we havelearned in this series.
This lecture series gave you the important foundations for your academic writing skills; namely, you always
have to bear in mind: cohesive text, paragraph structure, essay structure, and outlining. These are essential
features in order to make yourself understood by writing clearly and attractively. Based on the groundwork
you have learned in this lecture series, you will be able to learn more advanced properties of academic writing.
Well, that’s all for today. I hope you enjoyed the lecture. Good luck, keep working hard, and see you next time!

～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～

Further Tips (1)アウトライン作成を補助する道具
アウトラインを作るのに別段特別な道具は必要ありません。紙と鉛筆、消しゴムがあればそれで十分とも言えます。実際昔の人たちは手書きでアウトラインを作っていました。
しかし、今は執筆作業をパソコン上で、ワープロ（word processor）を使って行う人がほとんどです。ワープ
ロは本来論文、レポートなどを書くための便利な道具として作られました。アウトライン作成は書く作業の中の重要な一部です。ですから、どんなワープロにも、当然のこととして、アウトライン作成を補助する機能がついています。そのような機能の存在すら知らない人（学生だけでなく教員も）が多いようですが、せっかくある便
利なものは使っておくとよいかもしれません。アウトライン項目のインデントや移動も自由自在、ラベルの文字・数字も自動的に連番にしてくれます。
興味のある人には、たとえば、下記のような論文執筆をする学生・研究者向けの本がお手頃で有用です。
田中幸夫『卒論執筆のための Word 活用術：美しく仕上げる最短コース』
ブル—バックス B-1791（講談社、2012）115

How to Make Yourself Understood

Further Tips (2)英文チェックとアウトライン
将来みなさんが英語で本格的な研究論文を書くときに、自分で書いた英文に問題がないか、英語のネイティブ・
スピーカーにチェック・英文校正をお願いすることがあるかもしれません。アウトラインがしっかりしていて、各パラグラフ内、およびパラグラフ間の論理展開を書き手がはっきりと把握して書かれた文章であれば、英語表
現のレベルでのチェックですみます。たとえ英語が苦手であっても、何をどう論じたいかがはっきりしていれば、表現を手直しするのはそれほど大変ではないでしょう。そして、チェックを受けることによって、みなさんの英語表現力も向上することが見込まれます。
しかし、アウトラインがいい加減なまま書かれた英文は、英語表現に問題があるだけでなく、そもそも議論の展開の仕方、パラグラフ構成自体が不明瞭だったり不適切だったりという深いレベルでの不具合を抱えているので、チェックしようにもお手上げです。何を言おうとしているのかがそもそもわからない、どのパラグラフもパラグラフの体をなしていない、いったいどこに topic sentence があるの？など。そうなってしまうと表面的な書き直しではどうにもならず、英文校正者が書き手に代わって書き直し（rewrite）しなければまともな文章にはならないという事態に陥ってしまいます。これでは有益なチェックを受けることは望めません。高いお金を払ってプロに英文校正を依頼しても、自分が述べたかったこととは違う内容の論文になって返ってくるということさえ起こりかねません。
この点からも、アウトラインをきちんと作って、各パラグラフで何をどう論じたいのかを明確にしておくことは、非常に有益です。英語による文章表現力が自分は不足していると思うのであれば、なおさら、確固としたア
ウトラインを作って、土台を固めておかなくてはなりません。

Further Tips (3)さらにプロフェッショナルなアカデミック・ライティングのために
Unit 6 から Unit 10 まで、アカデミック・ライティングの基本として、まとまった cohesion に支配された文章（テクスト）を書くこと、パラグラフとエッセイの構造、アウトラインといった話題についてお話ししてきました。しかし、わかりやすく説明するために、例文としてはアカデミックというよりは身近な題材を扱った文章を使ってきました。
本格的なアカデミック・ライティングについて学ぶには、研究テーマの絞り方、文献調査の方法、文献の引用（quotation）
・要約（summary）
・書き換え（paraphrase）、出典の明示の仕方、避けるべき剽窃（plagiarism）など、いくつかの重要な事柄を学習する必要があります。さらに上級者向けのアカデミックな内容については、
北海道大学英語 II オンライン授業のために作られた、Philip Seaton による“Academic Writing”というビデオ講
義をご覧ください。北海道大学オープンコースウェア・ウェブサイトの全学教育の英語 II（2010 年度）講義資料として公開されています。
URL は http://ocw.hokudai.ac.jp/Course/LiberalArts/EnglishII/EnglishII/2010/index.php?lang=ja&page=03です。
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English I

Online Materials

Steps toward Attractive Presentations
Unit 11
Purpose and Content of Presentation

キーワード（key words）
情報伝達型（informative type） 説得型（persuasive type）
普遍的価値（universal value） 個人的な体験（personal experience）
示唆や教訓（suggestion / lesson）

How to Make Yourself Understood

Steps toward Attractive Presentations
Unit 11

Purpose and Content of Presentation- CONTENTS -Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
Warming up: What is the Purpose?

p. 119In terms of Objectives

p. 119Sample passage: informative type

p. 121

Sample passage: persuasive type

p. 121

In terms of Content

p. 122

Possible Presentation Types

p. 123

Summaryp. 124

Atsushi Tsujimoto, Satoshi Oku, and Jeff Gayman
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Unit 11 Purpose and Content of Presentation

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Hello everyone. I’m Chuck Brown. Welcome to the “How to Make Yourself Understood” video series, Unit 11.
We’ll now start talking about “Steps toward Attractive Oral Presentations.” At the moment, you may nothave a clear image of yourself making a presentation in English in front of a large audience. Or you might
be nervous already simply by thinking about the act of making a presentation. Well, don’t worry. You aregoing to learn some basics of oral presentations through this video series so that you may get prepared formaking attractive presentations.

Warming Up Quiz: What is the Purpose?

Let’s consider the following titles of presentations first.
Suppose that you are making a presentation under Title 1, in front of international students visiting
Hokkaido University: Some Beautiful Spots on the Hokkaido University Campus. What is the purpose of thispresentation? Clearly, the purpose here is to provide information; something about Hokkaido University. OK,
how about the next title?
Suppose that you are making a presentation in front of your classmates, under Title 2: Let’s Set Up a Bicycle
Recycling Project on Campus. This time, the purpose of the presentation is not just to provide information,
but rather to make a proposal and to try to persuade the audience to join the project.
As can be seen from these simple examples, presentations usually have their own objectives. So the types ofpresentation can be classified in terms of the objective of the presentation.

Points―――――――――――――――

「プレゼンテーション」は、公式な場所で多くの人々に向けて話をする形態だけとは限りません。上述のように、北海道大学のキャンパスを誰かに紹介したり、社会的意義のある企画を誰かに持ち掛けることも、「プレゼン
テーション」と理解しよう。プレゼンテーションをする場合は、常に以下のことを意識しよう。
・「誰に対して」、「どのような目的で」、「どのように（どのような手段を使って）」プレゼンテーションするのか。
（相手が十分に受け止められるプレゼンテーションの形態を模索する）――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――In terms of Objective

Therefore, before you actually prepare your presentation, it’s a good idea to be aware of what yourpresentation will be about. Is it just to provide information? Is it to persuade your audience? Or will your119

How to Make Yourself Understoodprimary objective be to entertain your audience?

< informative type >If your primary purpose is to provide information, the content must be accurate, and easy to understand. You
always have to keep in mind that the audience are just listening to your speech for the first time. The
information in your talk will be completely new to them. So it’s a good idea to try to avoid using difficult
words, to try to be concise, and to make your presentation easy to follow.

< persuasive type >If your main purpose is to try to persuade the audience, you should present your argument logically to makeit convincing, as well as accurate and easy to understand.
OK? We’ve just seen that presentations can be classified in terms of the objective. Let’s now look at somespecific examples. Suppose that you are introducing Ohno Ike Pond on campus to international students.

Points―――――――――――――――

 プレゼンテーションの目的として、大きくは、informative type（情報伝達型）と persuasive type（説得型）に分かれます。実際には、この二つのタイプがミックスした場合が多いですが、まずは、それぞれのタイプを成立させるために、どのような要素が必要なのか理解しよう。
・informative type（情報伝達型）
・・・・正確かつ新しい情報であること。また聞き手にとって、理解しやすい表現であることが求められる。
＊新しい情報が専門用語である場合、それらの用語を相手に理解してもらえるように、必ず簡単な言葉に置き換えて説明する必要がある。また同時に、具体的な例を挙げて、相手がしっかり理解できる環境を整える必要もある。

・・・・説得的であること。そのために、何よりも論理的に話を組み立てること
・persuasive type（説得型）
が求められる。
＊説得的であっても複雑な論理を組み立てると、聞き手は混乱しますので、分かり易い論理構成の中に、必要最低限の情報を織り込もう。
下の例＜Sample 2＞(bicycle recycle project)であれば、
a) 「問題提議」 → b)「 解決方法の提示」→ c) 「想定されるメリット」
この 3 段階の論理を示すことで、聞き手を説得しようとしています。

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Unit 11 Purpose and Content of Presentation

Sample passage: informative type
< Sample 1 >Ohno Ike Pond is located somewhere in the middle of the campus. It was dilapidated for a long time,
but it was restored sometime ago. Now it is one of the most beautiful spots on campus.
If this informative passage is a part of your presentation, it has at least two shortcomings. First, the word

dilapidated is too difficult. Second, the audience cannot understand where the pond is and when it was
restored. That is, this paragraph is not easy to understand and not accurate on some important information.
So you may want to revise it as follows.
< Sample 1 (revised) >Ohno Ike Pond is located between the engineering department and the faculty restaurant. It wasneglected for a long time, but it was restored in August, 1998. Now it is one of the most beautiful
spots on campus.
This is much better because the relevant information is accurate and clear.
Let us next look at another sample paragraph which is supposed to be an instance of the persuasive type.

Sample passage: persuasive type
< Sample 2 >There are too many bicycles discarded on campus. I really don’t like this kind of mess. Some of them
are still in good shape, and so we can recycle them. This may be a good idea. If you are interested,
please let me know.
Well, what do you think of this talk? Would you like to join this project? You can understand the point of thetalk but it may not sound very convincing. Let’s try to revise it to make it more logical and persuasive.
< Sample 2 (revised) >About 200 bicycles are discarded on campus every year, many of which are still usable. If we set upa system to recycle such bikes, we can make our campus cleaner, save resources, and also help needy
students. I believe this is a good idea. So let’s do it. Why don’t you help me?
Well, you may find this revised version more convincing. The speaker gave reasons for this project clearlyand logically. Based upon these revisions, we can easily imagine that more people will be persuaded and join
the project.
121How to Make Yourself Understood

In terms of Content

Presentations can also be classified in terms of their content; in other words, the topic of the presentation.
Your presentation may contain universal values, or your presentation may be mainly about your personalmatters and experiences, or your presentation may contain suggestions or lessons for the audience toseriously think about and learn something important.

Containing Universal Values
When you talk about universal values or general topics, it’s a good idea to try to make the audience recognizethat the topic is familiar to them. Providing specific examples is always helpful.

Containing Personal Matters
When your talk contains your personal experiences or stories, the audience will be strongly attracted, because
they like this kind of content. It would be a good idea that you also try to extract some general value fromyour personal story.

Containing Suggestions/Lessons
The third type of presentation content contains suggestions or lessons. This, again, is different from simply
providing information, universal values or personal experiences. It may include some issues for serious
consideration, or it may contain an important lesson to take to heart.

Points―――――――――――――――

 プレゼンテーションの内容として、以下のどれに特化して話をまとめるのかを決めよう。
・Containing Universal Values（普遍的な価値を提議する）
普遍的な価値を提議することはやさしいことではないかもしれませんが、注意深く考えてみると、身近にも小さな題材はたくさんあります。上述した論理構成（「問題提議」→「 解決方法の提示」→「想定されるメ
リット」）にもとづき内容を組み立てることが重要ですが、その内容は、あくまでも聞き手がその話を聞くことによって自分の生活に新たな価値を見出すものでなければなりません。
・Containing Personal Matters（個人的な体験などを述べる）
個人的な経験談は、誰もが興味を示すものです。この内容を上手に提示すれば、聞き手が寝てしまうことは、ないでしょう。内容をまとめる際のポイントは、以下の a)～c)にまとめられます。
a)「どのような状況で経験したことか」b)「どのような経験をしたのか」c)「その経験によって何を感じたのか（考えたのか）」122

Unit 11 Purpose and Content of Presentation
これらを分かりやすくまとめるということです。聞き手はあなたのその話によって、自分の経験には無い新しい世界を経験するために興味を示すのです。
・Containing Suggestions / Lessons（示唆や教訓を示す）
示唆や教訓を示すことなど、一見とても難しいことに思えるかもしれません。しかし、自分の目線で気がついたことや学んだことが、多くの人にとっても示唆に富む内容であることも少なくないはずです。これは、上述の「普遍的な価値を提議する」タイプの内容と似ていますが、示唆や教訓を示す場合は、個人的な経験を素材にすることも多いでしょう。辛い経験をどのように克服してきたか、楽しい経験から何を再認識したかなどを具体的に示すことは、少し工夫をすれば、それほど難しくはないでしょう。ちょっとした小さな経
験が自分の考え方や物の見方を変えるきっかけになったということは、誰にでもあることでしょう。
以下に示される、皆さんの先輩が行ったプレゼンテーションは、個人的な経験です。深刻な内容でありながら細やかな状況描写、身内と深く向き合う状況、そこから学ばれた教訓、これらが、聞き手の心に強く訴えかける、
重要なメッセージを生み出していることが分かるでしょう。
以下に、具体的なプレゼンテーション（北大学生の例）を見ていきましょう。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――
Now, as you may easily notice, any specific presentation actually may contain all of these types of content tosome extent at any one time.

Possible Presentation Types

OK, next, let’s quickly consider some possible presentation types which you may be requested to do as a firstyear Hokudai student.

First year college classFirst of all, it is most likely that your very first presentation will be a presentation in your college classes.
The audience is your classmates, and in the simplest case, you will just simply be reporting on your homeworkassignment. For the purpose of presentation practice, you may be assigned one of the following topics. For
instance, “This is my treasure”, “The person who changed my life”, “What I want to do in college”, and so on.
These topics are related to your personal matters, and therefore, easily adaptable to an oral presentation.
In other words, you already have something to talk about.

“First Step Program”
Alternatively, there is a possibility that you might join the “First Step Program” provided by the Office ofInternational Affairs, Hokkaido University, and make a presentation to international students. In this case
you might be asked to introduce something about Hokkaido University, Sapporo, or Japan, to an international
audience. In this situation, possible topics might be “Brief History of Hokkaido University,” “Attractive Places123How to Make Yourself Understoodon the Hokudai Campus”, “Interesting Spots in Sapporo”, “How to Enjoy Hokkaido Foods,” and so on. If thiswere the case, you would want to do some research on facts and data, because you would want for the
information that you would be presenting on to be accurate.
These two situations are rather realistic ones for first year Hokudai students. So, based on these you can try
to imagine a specific situation in which you might make a presentation and prepare yourself accordingly.
As we’ve seen so far, there are various possible situations in which you may have to make a presentation
during your college years. Finally, let us watch one sample presentation given by one of your sempai senior
students. The title is “The most influential event in my life.”

Demo Presentation by your Sempai Student
I have a younger brother. In his childhood, my parents treated him like a baby, so I thought he wasa little, powerless boy. Five years ago when he was 11, he had a hard surgery, which changed myfeel[ings] about him. Before the operation, he was very nervous and whenever nurses came to his
room, he cried and made us tired. So I wondered what would happen to him after the operation.
When the operation finished, he lay in bed weakly. He wasn't able to move because of pain.
Nevertheless, he was very patient and never cried. This time, I found that he was not a little,
powerless child. He was very brave. Thanks to this incident, I learned that I had seen only people’s
appearance[s]. Everyone has strength in their heart even if it does not appear usually. Though mybrother is still powerless, I don’t make a fool of him because I know he is honorable. When we
communicate with people, it is important to try to understand what they really are. Thank you.
How do you like it? This is a short but very good presentation. Notice that the content of this presentation isa mixture of the three types of content we have introduced in today’s lecture. The presenter is talking abouta very personal experience of hers: her brother and his surgery. However, the important message in thispresentation contains universal values; that is, everyone has strength in their heart, and a lesson toremember: we should not judge people by their appearance.

Summary

OK? Let’s wrap up today’s points. Oral presentations can be classified in various ways.
1. In terms of ObjectiveFirst, each presentation should have its own objective. The purpose will be to provide information, or topersuade the audience, or to simply entertain the audience.

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Unit 11 Purpose and Content of Presentation
2. In terms of type of Content
Presentation types can be classified in terms of content as well. The topic may be about your personal matters.
Or the presentation may contain some universal values, or the presentation may contain an importantsuggestion or lesson for everyone to remember. As we have just seen in the last sample presentation, one
single presentation may often contain all of these three types of content to some extent. In other words, even
if the main topic of your presentation involves some suggestion, for instance, it’s a good idea to include yourpersonal experience as a concrete example. Likewise, even if your primary purpose is to convey your personal
experience, it’s a good idea to extract some universal value from your experience and share it with youraudience.
Well, how was the lesson today? As we have learned, there are various types of presentations in terms ofobjective and types of content. Therefore, when you prepare a presentation, it’s very important to have a clear
image, in advance, of the purpose and content of your talk.
.
Ok, that’s all for today. Good luck, keep working hard, and see you next time!
Yu: Chuck! Are you all done?
Chuck: Oh, Onee-chan! Yes, I’m all finished here.
Yu: Well, good boy. Let’s go home then!
Chuck: OK. Let’s go!

Points―――――――――――――――

 目的と内容を明確にしてから準備を
どのような「プレゼンテーション」であっても、漫然と人前で思い付きを話すわけではありません。何らかの「目的」があり、話す内容の「タイプ」があります。大学生活では、これからプレゼンテーションの機会はさまざまあるでしょう。そして、その時のプレゼンテーションはどのようなタイプのものであるのかをしっかり意識して、準備をすることがとても大切です。

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How to Make Yourself Understood126

How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

Steps toward Attractive Presentations
Unit 12
Audience and Presentation Tools

キーワード（key words）
聞き手の規模（size of the audience）、聞き手の属性（profile of the audience）
プレゼンテーションに用いる道具（presentation tools）

How to Make Yourself Understood

Steps toward Attractive Presentations
Unit 12

Audience and Presentation Tools- CONTENTS -Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
Warming Up Quiz: The Topic is Set. Then, are you Ready? p. 129
Who are you Talking to?

p. 129What Tools are you Going to Use?

p. 131

Summaryp. 134Further Tips
話者が抱くイメージを伝える

p. 134

How to Convey your Thoughts and Images Properly

Atsushi Tsujimoto, Satoshi Oku, and Jeff Gayman
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Unit 12 Audience and Presentation Tools

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Hello everyone. Welcome to the “How to Make Yourself Understood” video series, Unit 12. I’m Emma Cookand I’m from Hemel Hempstead, in the UK. I have been working at Hokkaido University since 2013. In thelast video, we learned that it is very important to have a clear idea of the purpose and the content of yourpresentation before you start preparing for it. In this video, we are going to learn two more aspects we haveto bear in mind about presentations: the audience and the presentation tools.

Warming Up Quiz: The Topic is Set. Then, are you Ready?

Suppose that your topic is “How I Changed my Reading Activities”, and that you have decided to introduce
how handy and convenient it is to use digitized books. Now, do you have a clear image of how yourpresentation will turn out to be? If you do not know who you are going to be talking to, it would be very
difficult to prepare your presentation even if you already had an idea of what you were going to be talking
about. Furthermore, if you do not know what presentation tools you can or cannot use for the particularpresentation you are going to make, it will be virtually impossible to start preparing. So let us think about
these two important aspects one by one.

1. Who are you Talking to?
1.1 Size of the audience< small group? >First of all, you should be conscious of the size of audience you expect to be speaking to. For example, if you
are going to talk to a small group of people, say less than 10, you may not have to care much about the volume
and speed of your speech. Just try to articulate clearly.
< middle-sized group? >However, if your audience is a middle-sized group of 20 to 50 people, you will likely have to project your voice
to the other end of the room, and may have to speak more slowly and clearly than usual. You will likely haveto be careful of the volume of your voice, especially if you are not going to be using a microphone.
< large audience? >Thus, if you are going to be making a presentation in front of a large audience of more than 50 people, youwill have to prepare accordingly. For example, even if you use a microphone, you will have to articulate veryclearly, and speak more slowly especially for the parts you would like to emphasize.

129How to Make Yourself Understood

Points―――――――――――――――

 伝えるべき内容を分かりやすく伝えることは重要ですが、「どれくらいの規模」の人達に話すのか、この事を意識した場合、必然的に話し方が異なってきます。
・small group（10 人以下）
10 人以下のグループに話す際は、自分の言葉、一語一語に気をつけて、はっきりと話す。1 人ひとりの顔を見ながら、表情の変化を見ながら語り掛けることが望ましい。不明瞭な話し方をすると聞き手の表情が変わってくるので、伝わりにくかったことは、再度、分かりやすく説明し直すことが望ましい。
・middle-sized group（20-50 人）
20 人から 50 人規模のグループに話す際は、その場所にいる人すべてに自分の声が届くように、大きな声で、ゆっくりとはっきりと話すことが必要です。これくらいの規模までは、聞き手全員の表情が分かりますので、できるだけ彼らの表情の変化に注意し、聞き取りにくそうな表情をしていないかを常に確認し、部屋の一番後ろにいる人にもはっきりと話が伝わるように、話し方を調整しよう。
・large audience（50 人以上）
50 人以上のグループに話す際は、マイクを使う必要があります。声は大きくなりますが、マイクの性能が悪いと声がこもる場合もあり、聞き取りにくい状況も想定されます。特に、話が長くなる場合、聞き手にとっては単調に聞こえることもあります。このような状況を回避するために、しっかりした構成の内容を準備することが不可欠です。その上で、自分が強調したいことを、はっきりと、ゆっくりと話す習慣をつけましょう。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

1.2 Profile of the audience
The next important thing you have to take into account before your presentation is the profile of the audience.
Suppose you are going to be talking about foods in Sapporo.
< audience: classmates in Sapporo >How will you prepare your presentation if your audience is going to be your high school classmates from
Sapporo? You can reasonably assume that all of them already know many things about foods in Sapporo. So
you may want to introduce something new or something specific to your own experience so that yourclassmates get interested.
< audience: college classmates >By contrast, if the audience is going to be your college classmates, how will you prepare your presentation?
This time, you can reasonably assume that your classmates already know many things about your college
life, but some who are from mainland Honshu may not have had jingisukan mutton barbeque yet, for example
130Unit 12 Audience and Presentation Tools< audience: international students >Or what if your audience is going to be international students visiting Hokkaido University? Then, you canreasonably assume that they may not know many things about foods in Sapporo.
As you can see from these examples, when you prepare your presentation, it is not enough that you know
well what you are talking about. Rather, it’s a very good idea to take into careful consideration what youraudience may already know about what you are going to talk about, and what they really want to hear fromyou. In other words, it is very important to remember that you have to talk about what the audience wants
to hear, not just what YOU want to talk about. In order to do this, you really have to recognize the profile of
the audience, namely, who you are talking to, in advance.
So, one of the frequent mistakes presentation beginners commonly commit is to forget the size and the profileof their audience. For instance, it is very likely that your first English presentation will be to your classmates.
So don’t use very long and complex sentences, and don’t use difficult words that even you have known only
by consulting a dictionary.

Points―――――――――――――――

プレゼンテーションを通して伝えられる情報は、聞き手にとって「新しい情報」で、かつ「知りたい情報」
であること。話し手は事前に、聞き手の属性（profile of the audience）を、しっかりと把握する必要があります。

 聞き手がすでに知っている情報は、長々と話すべきではない。
（新しい情報を説明するための入り口として、少し触れる程度が望ましい）例） 皆さんは、〇〇の事はよくご存じだと思います。これは△△ですね。しかし、いまは状況が変わってしまい、□□なのですよ。今日はこの事について話をしたいと思います。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

2. What Tools are you Going to Use?

OK, so, let’s go on to the second part of today’s lecture, presentation tools.
< no specific tools >In some cases, you may not use any presentation tools, like this:Student A: Good afternoon. My name is Nagisa Nakamura. Would you like to go abroad? Whatcountries do you want to go? I’m here to talk about what I want to do in my college life.
Student B: I think Hokkaido University is good for pursuing my dream, so I am here today.
131How to Make Yourself Understood< handout materials >In some cases, you may use handout materials which you distribute to the audience, like this:Teacher A: Look at (9) on the handout, OK? Page 3, top of the page 3, look at (9), OK?
Four plausibility conditions …
< concrete items >In some other cases, you may use a specific object to demonstrate, like this:Student C: Today, I’m going to talk about my treasure. This is my treasure. This is a silver chain.
Student D: What is your treasure? My treasure is the T-shirt. The T-shirt is basically black, but backof it printed the logo CHICAGO and around the logo is very colorful.
< presentation slides >Or you may use presentation slides, like this:Student E: … 360 citizen and I did the survey with the city office and [those in] charge of thepromotion of public relations.
Teacher B: As we have seen, what is our language knowledge as adult speakers of native language?
What is the endowment; inborn, innate property? And what is the necessary “primary linguistic
data”? All of these are not very clear …
As you can easily imagine, your presentation preparation will vary greatly depending on what tools you aregoing to use.
Notice also that how to use presentation tools depends on the size of the audience. For example, if youraudience is a small group of less than 10 people, demonstration using a real object would be very effective;
you can even circulate and let the audience touch the object. However, you cannot do that when the audienceis very large. Likewise, if you use presentation slides, you will have to use larger fonts if your audience islarge. It is very important to make your slide content easily visible to all the people in the room.

Points―――――――――――――――

 プレゼンテーションをする際に使われる道具は、それぞれの状況に応じて、自分が伝えるべき情報が、もっとも伝わりやすいものを選択しよう。

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Unit 12 Audience and Presentation Tools
・no specific tools（特に道具は使わない）
これがプレゼンテーションの基本です。しっかりした構成の内容を、適切なことばで分かりやすく表現すれば、十分に聞き手に訴えるプレゼンテーションができます（歴史に残る名演説がたくさん知られていますが、それらの多くは、特に道具を利用していませんね）。下記で示す道具はあくまでも補助的なものですので、まず、道具は何も使わずに聞き手にしっかりと内容を伝える方法を身につけましょう。これがしっかりできずに道具に頼ったプレゼンテーションをしても、相手に伝わる良い発表にはなりません。
・handout materials（資料を配布する）
これには以下の２つの機能があります。
(i) 発表の際に同時に見てもらい、具体的な情報を補足するもの(ii) 口頭で伝えるには不向きな詳細なデータや情報を聞き手の手元に残すためのもの(i)は具体な資料や例を見てもらいながら説明をするのが有効な場合に役に立ちます。（プレゼンテーション
スライドを投影する機器が整っていない場所でも使えるという利点があります）。(ii)の方法は、発表の後でじっくりと見てもらうものという位置づけです。資料を（事前）配布する場合は、上記(i)(ii)の役割をきちんと区別して利用することが重要です。特に、プレゼンテーション中に具体的な情報を大量に示しても、聞き手の理解は追いつきません（発表者にとっては、何度も考え抜いた良く知っている内容であっても、聞き手は初めて聞く話しであるということを忘れずに）。したがって、上記(i)の目的で配布資料を利用する場合
は、内容のエッセンスだけが伝わるように簡潔な記述にすることが重要です。
・concrete items（具体的な物を見せる）「具体的な物」について話をする際は、聞き手の前に、その実物があれば効果的です。上記 Student C, Student
D の「this is my treasure」のような Show and Tell タイプの方法です。さらに、聞き手が少人数グループの場合には、実物をまわして実際に触ってもらうという方法も効果的でしょう。話す場所に持ち込むことが困難な物の場合は、写真やイラストでもいいでしょう。どのような提示方法を選ぶにしても、聞き手が具体的なイメージを抱くような工夫が必要です。
「これが私の宝物」というプレゼンテーションをするのに、聴衆に見せる実物も写真もなければ、分かりやすい発表は難しいでしょう。
・presentation slides（パワーポイント・スライドを使う）
プレゼンテーション初心者が犯す典型的な間違いは、スライドにたくさんの情報を詰め込んでしまうことです。情報量が多すぎるスライドは、会場から見づらくなるばかりでなく、聞き手がスライドの情報を一生懸命読み始めて、発表者の言葉を聞かなくなってしまいます。スライドは発表者のための「発表原稿」ではありません。あくまでも、聞き手の理解を助けるための補助手段です。特に、比較的大きな会場で、多くの人に向かってプレゼンテーションする場合は、会場の人すべてがしっかり理解できるように、各スライドで使う文字は大きく、またできるだけ図表を利用するなど、イメージを中心に描き、自分のメッセージを伝える
ようにしましょう。プレゼンテーションの基本は、何も道具を使わずに行うことであるということをもう一度しっかり認識してください。発表用のスライドはあくまでも補助手段であるということを忘れずに。
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How to Make Yourself Understood

Summary

OK, let us wrap up today’s lecture.
When you prepare your presentation, you have to think seriously about not only what you are going to talkabout, but also about who you are going to be talking to: that is, the size and profile of the audience. Further,you have to consider what presentation tools you are going to use. In order to make your presentation
attractive, as well as the topic itself, it is extremely important to consider these additional factors when you
prepare your presentation.
What is more, considering who your audience will be and what tools you will be using is very important when
you make a presentation in Japanese, or in any other native language, as well.
Well, how was the lesson today? What is important when you prepare your presentation? In a nutshell,
always try to be audience-friendly. The main player in your presentation is not you: it’s the people who arewatching and listening to your presentation.
OK, that’s all for today. Good luck, keep working hard, and see you next time!
OK, guys? Let’s start today’s story.
“Prince Goose in Ohno Ike Pond”. Once upon a time, there was a deserted pond in the middle of an old
university campus. The place was so neglected that no birds or animals came to the pond …

～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～

Further Tips
話者が抱くイメージを伝える
Unit 12 では、聴衆の規模や属性、話す際に使用するアイテム、これらに注意を払いながら、いかに効果的なプ「話し手が抱くイメージを、いかに明確
レゼンテーションを行うかを説明しました。プレゼンテーションでは、に、聞き手に伝えられるか」が重要です。しかし、いくら熱意があっても、それを明確に伝えるための技術的な裏づけがなければ、自分の抱くイメージは聞き手の心には届きません。外国語でのプレゼンテーションの場合はなおさらです。聴衆の属性や使用する道具について考慮することは、そのために必要な条件の１つです。この他にも、このレクチャーシリーズで扱ってきた、発音・文法・しっかりした全体の構成をなど、総合力を少しでも高めて、話し手と同じイメージが聞き手の心に浮かぶように、プレゼンテーションのスタイルを工夫しましょう。
To Make Yourself Understood を目指して！

134How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

Steps toward Attractive Presentations
Unit 13
Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

キーワード（key words）
言語によるコミュニケーション（verbal communication）
言語によらないコミュニケーション（non-verbal communication）
アイコンタクト（eye contact） 体の動き・ジェスチャー（body language）

How to Make Yourself Understood

Steps toward Attractive Presentations
Unit 13

Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication- CONTENTS -Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
Warming Up: Essays and Presentations, What is Different?
p. 137
Verbal Communication

p. 138Eye Contact

p. 139

Non-Verbal Communication

p. 141

Summaryp. 143Further Tips
(1) 失敗を恐れない

p. 143Don’t Fear Mistakes!
(2) リズミカルに話せるようになると、言葉が溢れてくる

p. 144

Practice Makes Perfect

Atsushi Tsujimoto, Satoshi Oku, and Jeff Gayman
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Unit 13 Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Hello everyone. Welcome to the “How to Make Yourself Understood” video series, Unit 13. I’m Peter
Richardson. In the last video, we learned that it is a good idea to take into consideration who your audienceis and what presentation tools you are going to use before you start preparing your presentation. Today, weare going to learn some tips for the actual performance of your presentation. Let’s first consider the following
questions.

Warming Up: Essays and Presentations, What is Different?

What aspects are common between oral presentations and written essays? And what are crucial differences
between presentations and written essays?

Common Aspects in Essays and PresentationsFirst of all, both presentations and essays are modes of communication using language, with specific purposes.
You may want to convey some information to your reader or audience, you may want to persuade your reader
or audience, or you may want to give suggestions or lessons for the reader or audience to take into serious
consideration. Therefore, the basic structure of your presentation must be the same as the basic structure of
essays we have learned in Unit 6 to Unit 10 in this video series. That is, a good presentation has to have an
introduction, a body, and conclusion. So, the foundations we have learned for essay writing also apply to oralpresentations.

Fundamental Differences
However, there are several crucial differences between essay writing and oral presentations. Written essays
are completed before the reader actually starts to read, whereas oral presentations are being created live
together with your audience.
So, even if you have prepared a well-structured manuscript for your presentation, it’s never good enough. In
a presentation, how you address your audience is extremely important. Let’s consider some verbal aspects
first.

Points―――――――――――――――

 プレゼンテーションを実施する前には、パラグラフ・ライティング（Unit 6 – Unit 10）で学んだような原稿を一度しっかり用意するのがよいでしょう。しっかりとした全体構造、文法的にも語法的にも分かりやすく正確な文章をしっかりと準備します。しかしながら、本番ではそれを読んではいけません。聞き手に話しかけなければならないからです。要点と話の流れが確認できる、箇条書きのメモを手元に用意して、原稿は伏せておきましょう。プレゼンテーションは、聞き手との双方的なコミュニケーションですので、質問や感想を受けた
りした場合には、臨機応変に応えられるように、原稿とは別に+αの情報も準備しておくとよいでしょう。
137How to Make Yourself Understood

1. Verbal Communication

Look at the following presentation.
Yu: Hello, everyone. I’m Yu Sakamoto. Today, I would like to talk about my reading activities, using
digitized books.
< Don’t read >How do you find this introduction? It is not very attractive, is it? The presenter is just reading her manuscript,
not trying to communicate with the audience. A presentation is a live communication; so you have to betalking to your audience, not just reading your manuscript draft. Yu, why don’t you try again?
Yu: Hello, everyone. I’m Yu Sakamoto. Today, I would like to talk about my reading activities, using
digitized books.
< Try to talk to the audience >Hmm …. OK. You are not just reading this time but trying to talk to the audience. However, it is still notvery natural or attractive. What is the problem? Well, recall what we learned in Unit 1 to Unit 5 in this videoseries.
< Proper use of prosody, intonation, and pauses is crucial >Your pronunciation is very important in order to make your presentation clear and attractive. Especially,
your prosody, intonation, and use of pauses are crucial. If you employ these verbal features properly, you willsound like you really are talking to your audience. Hence, your presentation will become clearer and more
attractive. OK? Why don’t you try once again?
Yu: Hello everyone.

clearly
strongly

I’m Yu Sakamoto. (pause)
Today, I would like to talk about my reading activities,
using digitized books.
slowly and clearly

Right. As you can see, clear articulation and appropriate prosody will make your speech easy to understandand thus attract the audience’s attention effectively.

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Unit 13 Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

Points―――――――――――――――

 Verbal Communication（言語でのコミュニケーション）は、プレゼンテーションの命です。聞き手は、言葉を通して、話し手の伝えようとする情報を獲得することになります。話し手は、できるだけスムースに情報を伝える環境を整える必要があります。以下に注意を払ってください。

棒読み厳禁a) 語法・文法・構成がしっかり整った原稿を用意する
b) 原稿を棒読みしないc) 一つひとつの文を、適切な抑揚（intonation・prosody）で話す
d) 適宜、間（ま）（pause）を作る(c) (d)を意識することによって、聞き手にとっての理解のしやすさが格段に増します。また、適切な間（pause）
は、大きなまとまりの切れ目を明示することになり、話全体の構成の理解に役立つと同時に、余韻を残すことによって、聞き手は理解を深め、強い印象が残ります。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

2. Eye contact

Now, in addition to verbal features such as articulation, intonation, and prosody, there is one more crucial
feature to make your live performance attractive: eye contact. Eye contact is very important for establishing
the connection with your audience that will make them want to listen to what you have to say.
While it may be easy to have eye contact with people in a small-sized audience, making eye contact can bedifficult and is even more important, when the audience size becomes larger. For example, if you get nervous
and talk into the air or talk to the wall at the back of the room, the audience will feel that you are not reallytalking to them. Also, you shouldn’t talk to the manuscript draft which you are holding in your hands, nor to
the presentation screen. They are not your audience.
What should we do when we are talking in front of a large audience? It will be difficult or even very unnatural
to try to have eye contact with each single individual when there are, for example, more than 20 people in
the audience. Here are some tips for such a situation. Try to find three or four people in the large audience
who keep watching and listening to you with interest. Then, try to talk to such people in turn so that theentire audience feels like you really are talking to all of them. This creates a small-group atmosphere evenwhen you are talking to a very large audience. Let us look at the following presentation.
Yu: Hello, everyone. I’m Yu Sakamoto. Today, I would like to talk about my reading activities, using
digitized books.
Now, it is evident that eye contact is the crucial factor to make a good connection with your audience.
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How to Make Yourself Understood
Furthermore, by having proper eye contact with the audience, you may be able to notice if something
unexpected happens during your presentation. For instance, some of the audience may not have taken a seatyet, some of the audience may not have received the handout materials you distributed, or even yourmicrophone may not be working. If you are not looking at the audience carefully, you may start making yourpresentation without noticing these kinds of accidents.
Since a presentation is a mode of communication, it is very important to try to sense how the addressees,
namely, your audience, are feeling about your presentation. So, don’t be shy. Try to communicate with youraudience.

Points―――――――――――――――

 プレゼンテーションは、聴衆とのライブでのコミュニケーションですから、「聞き手の方を見て話す」ことが重要です。しかし、大勢の聴衆を前にして、具体的に「聞き手の方を見る」とはどのようなやり方をすればよいのでしょか。これを効果的に行う方法がアイコンタクトです。特に、多くの人々に向かって話す際（20 人以上）は、アイコンタクトは重要な行為になります。以下を意識して実践してみましょう。こうすることによって、聴衆の数が多い場合でも、あたかも聴衆１人ひとりに話しかけているような、よい雰囲気を作り出すことが出来ます。
a) あなたの話に興味をもっていそうな人を、3、4 人見つける(こちらを向いてうなずきながら聞いてくれる人が必ず何人かは聴衆の中にいます)b) その人たちに対して、順番にアイコンタクトをしていく アイコンタクトは、聞き手との双方向のコミュニケーション（気持ちのやり取りと言ってもいいかもしれません）を促進するものですが、以下のことにも役立ちます。
c) 早めに不測の事態を認識でき、しかるべき対応が可能となります（以下の事例など）
・まだ着席していない人を確認できる
・すべての人に配布資料が渡っているかを確認できる・マイクが ON になっていない（あるいは音量が十分でない）ことにすぐに気づくd) 自分の話に興味を持っている人を聴衆の中に見つけることで、リラックスして話ができる
原稿にかじりついて、周りが見えなくなっていると、かえって緊張してしまいますし、ちょっとした聴衆の反応にも気づかずに、独りよがりのプレゼンテーションになってしまうかもしれません。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

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Unit 13 Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication
Also, don‘t be afraid of making minor mistakes. It is impossible to have a live performance without making
any mistakes. Suppose you are making a presentation in your mother tongue, say, Japanese. Even then you
may misstate something, make unnecessary repetitions, have a slip of the tongue, and so forth.
Likewise, native speakers of English may make some language mistakes, while … uhm …, during a live
presentation in English. So practice a lot in advance, and on stage, do your best and don’t worry too muchabout making minor mistakes.

3. Non-Verbal Communication

Finally, let us consider a little about non-verbal communication aspects of your presentation. Your gestures
or body language may convey a lot of information; sometimes much more than you expect.
For example, it may not be a good idea to stand still like this when making a presentation. This may give theaudience an impression that you are very nervous. Try to relax. You may want to move your hands naturally
like this. Natural movements of your hands and your body will make you relaxed, and also make the audience
feel comfortable. Together with eye contact, natural movements of your hands and body will make yourpresentation very natural and attractive.
< Some inappropriate gestures >There are, however, some gestures that are not appropriate in yourpresentations. For example, making a circle using your thumb andforefinger may mean “money” in Japan, but not in western countries.
In some countries, such a gesture might suggest something very
inappropriate. So you have to be very careful.
Likewise, in Japan, pointing your forefinger to your nose may mean “myself”. In English speaking countries,
however, such a gesture simply means “nose”. Putting your hand on your chest would be more appropriate
in such a case.
It’s myIt’s me.

nose.

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How to Make Yourself Understood
Similarly, pointing your finger to someone in the audience looks extremely rude in any circumstances. So if
you want to address a specific person in the audience, it would be a good idea to stretch your arm toward theperson with your palm up. So proper gestures will help make your presentation lively and attractive, while
inappropriate gestures might give the audience a very bad impression of you.
How
about you?

Points―――――――――――――――

 Non-Verbal Communication（言語によらないコミュニケーション）は、あなたのプレゼンテーションをより生き生きとした魅力的なものにします。自然な「身振り手振り」や「ジェスチャー」は、自分自身をリラックス
させてくれると同時に、聞き手にも自然な発表である印象を与えます。積極的に取り入れましょう。
a) 言語によらないコミュニケーション（「身振り手振り」「ジェスチャー」）を用いるメリット
・聞き手に、言語表現以上の情報を提供する
・自分自身がリラックスできる・アイコンタクトと併用すれば聞き手は強印象を受け、記憶に残るプレゼンテーションとなる
ただし、不適切なジェスチャーは、上手く通じないばかりか、思わぬ誤解や不快感を与えてしまう場合もありますから、注意が必要です。
b) ジェスチャーは、万国共通の「意味」を持たない
・人差し指の先と親指で丸を作ると、日本人は「お金」をイメージしますが、欧米ではその意
味を持ちません（とても不適切な意味を暗示する可能性もあります！）
・日本人は「私」という意味で、人差し指の先を自分の鼻に向ける動作をすることがあります
が、英語圏では、その意味を持ちませんc) ジェスチャーは、失礼な行為を意味する場合もある
・誰かを人差し指で指すのは、いかなる場合でもあまり良いジェスチャーとはいえないでしょう。聴衆の誰かを指したい場合は、手のひらを開いて上に向けて、相手のほうに腕を伸ばすのがよい方法です
この他にも、自国では普通のジェスチャーでも外国では無礼な行為に当たるものや、全く違った意味に取られるものもありますので気を付けてください。
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Unit 13 Verbal and Non-Verbal Communication

SummaryWell, let us wrap up today’s points.
Presentation is a mode of communication. You really have to try to communicate with your audience.
Therefore, don’t just read your draft, but talk to the audience. Proper use of your vocal features is very
important. You don’t have to speak very fast or pretend to be fluent, especially when making a presentation
in a foreign language. Just try to articulate very clearly. Further, try to use proper prosody, intonation, andpauses. This will make your presentation very audience-friendly.
Eye contact is extremely important to establish a good rapport, or connection, with your audience. You are
not speaking into the air; you are speaking to people.
And finally, your gestures or body language are much more important than you may imagine. Proper gestures
not only relax you, but also make your presentation lively and interesting to follow.
Satoshi (voice): Peter. Are you ready now?
Peter: Oh yeah, … ok…, give me another second… . Hmm…. Ok. Ok, I’m ready now, Satoshi.
Satoshi (voice): Ok. Take 245. Action!
Peter: Well, how was the lesson today? You are still nervous? I know. Everyone gets nervous in making apresentation. The only way to reduce your tension is to take enough time to prepare and practice many, many,
many times. Ok, that’s all for today. Good luck, keep practicing, and see you next time!
Satoshi: Cut!
Peter: Phew…
Satoshi: Congratulations! You finally did it just before midnight. Well done. We can go home now.

～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～

Further Tips (1)
失敗を恐れない
英語でプレゼンテーションするにあたり、「失敗を恐れない」ことが重要であることを述べましたが、これは別の意味でも重要であると理解してください。以下の(a) , (b)の日本語を比べてみましょう。
(a) 私はこれから学食へ行きます。あなたも私と一緒に行きますか？
(b) これから学食へ行くんだけど、どうかな？ 君も一緒に
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How to Make Yourself Understood(b)はとても informal な表現ですが、それでも日本語で許容される文法構造にきちんと従っています。したがって、多くに人に正しく言いたいことが伝わります。しかし、外国語の場合は informal でカジュアルな表現がその言語の文法構造で許容される範囲であるかは、非母語話者にとっては判断がむずかしい問題です。特に、日本語で許される自由な語順や省略が、その外国語で同じように許されるとは限りません。英語は一般に、語順の自由度が日本語よりも低いと考えられますし、省略に関しても英語と日本語とではパターンがかなり異なります（異なる文法規則に従っています）。したがって、安易に日本語の感覚だけに頼って、知っている単語を適当に並べるたり、親しみをこめるつもりで省略をしたり、インフォーマルな話し方をしたつもりでも、うまく通じないばかりか、思わぬ誤解を招くことにもなりかねません。プレゼンテーションの場合は、あまりにも非標準的な部分が多い英語を使っていると、どんなに熱意を持って伝えようとしても、話している内容そのものまで、軽く見られることさえあります。発表用の原稿はしっかり準備しなければなりません（ただし、本番では「読ん」ではいけません。
）
準備してきた以外のことを、即座に述べなければならないような実際の場面では、失敗を恐れずにどんどんト
ライすることがとても大切です。しかし、普段の勉強・練習では、母語話者のような完璧さを求める必要はありませんが、英語の基本的な文法・構文にしっかりと従った正確な文表現を意識して身に付けることが重要です。
それを日頃から積み重ねることによって、いざという時でも、相手にきちんと伝わる英語が少しずつ口から出てくるようになるでしょう。
「失敗を恐れない」ためにも、日ごろから正確な英語表現を出来るだけたくさん自分の中に蓄えておく努力を続けることが、とても大切になります。

Further Tips (2)リズミカルに話せるようになると、言葉が溢れてくる語彙をしっかり増やし、基本的な文法にきちんと従って英語で話すことに慣れてくると、少しずつリズミカルに話せるようになります。さらに練習をたくさん重ねれば、少しずつ言葉が溢れてくるようになるでしょう。これは、意識的／無意識的に、話すセンテンスに関して「意味のまとまり」（semantic groups）で区切りながら話す
習慣が付いてきたことを意味します。正確な英文を、CD やパソコンなどの音声をお手本にして、イントネーシ
ョンやポーズ（pause）を意識しながら、１人で英語を話す練習（shadowing）を繰り返しやってみてください。
仮に会話練習の相手が簡単には見つからなくても、自分 1 人ででも英語を話す能力を鍛える良いトレーニングになります。毎日数 10 分ずつでもいいので、このような練習を一定期間続ければ（半年～１年）、英語で何か話すことに対する抵抗感がぐっと減ってくるはずです。

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How to Make Yourself Understood
English I

Online Materials

Steps toward Attractive Presentations
Unit 14
Learning from Real Presentations& General Summary

How to Make Yourself Understood

Steps toward Attractive Presentations
Unit 14

Learning from Real Presentations& General Summary- CONTENTS Scripts and Annotations（スクリプトと解説）
Sample Presentation by an Undergraduate Student

p. 147

Sample Presentation by a Graduate Student

p. 149

Question and Answer Session

p. 151

Sample Presentation by a Native Speaker of English

p. 152

General Summary

p. 156Further Tips
(1) スライドの内容を確認してから、具体的な話へ入る

p. 157Check out What is on the Slides(2) 「想定問答集」の作成

p. 157

Prepare for Questions

Atsushi Tsujimoto, Satoshi Oku, and Jeff Gayman
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Unit 14 Learning from Real Presentations& General Summary

Scripts and Annotations (スクリプトと解説)
Hello everyone. I’m Jeff Gayman. Welcome to the “How to Make Yourself Understood” video series, Unit 14.
This is the last lecture of this video series. I hope you will enjoy it. Today, we are going to watch some samplesof actual presentations, from which we can learn many important tips for a good presentation.

1. Sample Presentation by an Undergraduate Student

First, let’s watch the introductory part of one of your sempai’s presentations. This was taken in an English I
class. His topic was “the event that changed my life”. The speaker started his presentation by asking
questions first to attract his audience’s attention.
[ Sample A ]Good afternoon, everyone. My name is Fumiyoshi Sasajima. Have you ever been to [any] foreigncountries? Which countries do you want to go? To tell the truth, I’ve been to England once. I stayed
there for only three weeks. But I’m sure that this experience influenced me very much. When I wasa high school student, I took part in a school project; “Studying in England.” Although there were a
lot of people who wanted to participate in it, I was lucky to be chosen as a member.
Although his pronunciation is not perfect, his presentation is still very attractive because he looks confident,
and he is trying to communicate with his classmates, maintaining eye contact, and talking carefully using
proper prosody, intonation and pauses. This presentation also employs some useful strategies we havelearned in this video series.
< Good Features >Remember that when you talk, it is essential to clearly articulate important information. Specifically, in thepresentation we have just seen, the presenter did this by saying his name very clearly. This is very importantbecause what the audience wants to hear is this part, not this part. One of the typical mistakes which
Japanese students often make during self-introductions is to say their names very softly and quickly, which
is not appropriate, especially when you talk to non-Japanese listeners because they will not be familiar withJapanese names.
My name is ○○○I’m ○○○
important
information
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How to Make Yourself Understood
The speaker in our first sample presentation also uses body language properly, which helps the audience tounderstand what he is talking about.
I’ve been to England once. I stayed there for only three weeks.

< How to start >As we can see from this sample presentation, it is very important to start your presentation powerfully andclearly. Here are some useful representative example phrases with which you might begin your presentation.
I’m here today to talk about …
I would like to start my presentation by introducing ….
Today I would like to show you how ….
Again, how you start your presentation is crucial in order to get your audience interested.

Points―――――――――――――――

 学部の 1 年生など、初めて英語でプレゼンテーションする場合は、難しい構文や語法、難しい単語を利用する必要はありません（自分でも和英辞書を使わなければ分からないような難しい単語を使っても、クラスメー
トの聞き手には理解してもらえないでしょう）。しかし、高校までに学んだような基本的な語法・文法・構文にきちんと従った英語表現を準備することは大変重要です。基本的な文法事項（基本単語の語法、冠詞の使い方、前置詞の使い方、時制の一貫性など）は、発表原稿の中に何度も何度も繰り返し出てきます。したがって、その使い方が間違っていたり不正確であると、それが原稿中に何度も出てくることになります。結果として、間違いだらけの英語原稿になってしまうのです。これでは、どんなに興味深い内容を用意したとしても、どんなに熱心に伝えようとしても、分かりやすく魅力的なプレゼンテーションをすることは出来ません。文法的に正確な英語表現を心がける、そして、Unit 6 – Unit 10 で学んだ方法に従って、きちんとした構成の発表原稿を用意する。これは不可欠な準備です。
 何度も繰り返し練習をつむこと。上記の準備ができたら、本番を想定して時間を計りながら何度も練習をします。人前での発表は、誰でも緊張します。ましてや、（初めての）外国語での発表は相当なプレッシャーを感じるでしょう。そのようなプレッシャーを少しでも軽減する一番の方法は、しっかり準備をし、何度も繰り返
し事前練習をしておくことです。
「あれだけ事前練習をした」という事実が、必ず自信につながります。
148Unit 14 Learning from Real Presentations& General Summary その上で、本番の発表では、聞き手に伝わる雰囲気、話し方を心掛ける！初めて英語でプレゼンテーションを行う際は、この事が最も重要です。せっかくしっかりした内容の発表を準備しても、発表の方法そのものがまずければ、
聞き手に言いたいことは伝わりません。
上記の学部生による Sample A のプレゼンテーションは、以下の点が優れています。これは、このビデオシリーズで学んだことです。
a) 自信をもって落ち着いて話している→ 聞き手は、安心して聞いていられますb) アイコンタクトをきちんと行っている→ 聞き手の注意を集めることができますc) 「イントネーション」や「間」（ま）をうまく使っている→ 聞き手にとって、理解しやすい話し方です
また下記は、基本的なことですので、プレゼンテーションの最初に意識して話してください。
d) まず自分が何者か名乗る（氏名、所属など）e) 今から何を話すのか、まず示す
例） I’m here today to talk about …
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

2. Sample Presentation by a Graduate Student

The sample presentation we have just seen was by a freshman student, who is talking about a personalmatter: his experience in England. However, when you are a fourth year student, or a graduate student, it ishighly likely that you will present your own personal research in front of other professional researchers andstudents with the same interest. Let’s next watch one such presentation. The speaker is one of your sempai
graduate students. She is talking about NPO activities for supporting the education of international children
living in Sapporo.
[ Sample B ]Odori high school provides first language support – first language support. And then they teachstudents’ first language, but they don’t teach subjects in their first languages. So … I think … it’s
not enough. Effective education support is to teach them subjects in their first languages, especiallyat younger ages. Also I’d like to see an example of other countries [with] many immigrants and how
they provide effective education for immigrant children, especially by using NPO and university.
Please let me know if somebody knows about current effective educational support models in
England. Thank you so much for listening.
< gestures help >First, her use of body language makes her presentation look very natural, and helps the audience to149How to Make Yourself Understoodunderstand what she is trying to say.
Effective education support is to teach them subjects
in their first languages,

especially at younger ages.

You can see that her hand movement makes it easier to follow what she is saying.
< How to Finish Powerfully >OK? Next, how to finish your presentation is also very important. Do not fade away. Rather, try to finish
powerfully, in order to give the audience a good impression of your entire presentation. Here are some sample
phrases which you could use to conclude your talk.
I would like to finish by emphasizing …
I would like to finish by asking you to remember that …
Finally, then, I would like to repeat the one main point I have talked about today …
By using these concluding phrases, for instance, you can remind the audience of the point you would like to
make. Now, let’s watch our sample presentation once again and see how the speaker concludes her
presentation.
< By asking the audience for some information >Please let me know if somebody knows about current effective educational support models in
England. Thank you so much for listening.
Notice that she closes her talk by asking the audience for information. This is actually appropriate here
because about one-third of the audience in this particular presentation are from England. In other words,
she adjusts her concluding remarks to the profile of her current audience, a good strategy in an actual
presentation situation.

Points―――――――――――――――

このプレゼンテーションは、皆さんの先輩大学院生が行ったものです。話し方においてとても参考になる点が含まれています。以下がポイントとなります。
a) 「話している内容」と「ボディー・ランゲージ」がリンクしている
話している内容に、それをイメージさせるボディー・ランゲージが加わることで、聞き手は、より具体的なイメージをいだくでしょう
150Unit 14 Learning from Real Presentations& General Summaryb) 聴衆を巻き込んでいる

プレゼンテーションは、双方向のコミュニケーションであることを繰り返し述べてきました。このプレゼンテーションは、「札幌に住む外国の子供たちを支援する NPO の活動」について述べたものです。一方で、この研究発表の聴衆の 3 分の１は、実はイギリスからの大学院生や研究者でした。
他の地域での事例を知るには絶好の機会です。話し手は、Please let me know if somebody knows
about current effective educational support models in England と、聴衆に話しかけています。発表の終わり方を、聞き手のプロファイルに合わせて工夫しているとてもよい例ですc) 何となく終わらない「自分のプレゼンテーションは、そろそろ終わります」というメッセージは必要です。聞き手にとって、気が付けば何となく終わっていた、というものでは格好がつきません。かならず最後を締めるメッセージを示しましょう
例）I would like to finish by emphasizing …
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

3. Question and Answer Session

In actual conference presentations, the next step would be a question-and-answer session following yourpresentation. This session is extremely important because it’s the time when you as the speaker and youraudience actually interact. Also, since the question-and-answer session comes at the very end of yourperformance, how you deal with the questions and comments from the audience will strongly affect the
impression of your entire presentation. So let’s watch one example.
[ Sample B – Question and Answer Sessions ]Question: What Odori high school is doing is different from what your NPO is trying to do.
Is that correct?
Answer: Yes, it’s a little bit different. It’s different, yeah, because this NPO has been
providing education in their first languages, and also using the second language,
Japanese. And if the students don’t understand the subject in Japanese, we willteach, ah, the NPO will teach the subject contents in their first languages.
As you can see, your sempai is handling the question pretty well. She is trying to answer the question
accurately and sincerely, while at the same time, maintaining eye contact and using her hands naturally. In
this way, she is maintaining a connection with the audience. So, it’s always essential to “talk” to the audience.
You should remember that a presentation is not just reading, but rather a mode of communication between
you and the people whom you are talking to.

151How to Make Yourself Understood

Points―――――――――――――――

 英語でのプレゼンテーションで「質疑応答」が上手に出来るようになると、あなたのプレゼンは高いレベル「質疑応答」は発表の最後に行わに達したと考えてよいでしょう（母語での発表でもやさしくありませんね）。
れるものですから、その対応の仕方の良し悪しが、発表全体の印象を大きく左右します。発表そのものが良いできであっても、質問やコメントへの対応の仕方が誠意の感じられないものであると、発表者へのイメージは下がってしまいます。一方、発表そのものがそこそこの出来であっても、質問やコメントに対して、適切に、誠意を持って、分かりやすい対応をすれば（つまり、発表者と聴衆との間で、よいコミュニケーションの時間を共有できれば）、発表全体の印象がぐっと良くなります。
 海外の国際会議などで、発表後に多くの質問を矢継ぎ早に受けることがあります。その際は、臆せず、冷静に、「もっとゆっくり話してください」とか、「あなたの質問は「〇〇〇〇」であったと理解でいいですか？」と聞きましょう。質問者は、繰り返し話すことを苦にしません。分かったフリをして関係ないことを回答しては、せっかくの聴衆とのコミュニケーションの場を無駄にしてしまうことになります。相手の質問を自分でもう一度繰り返す（repeat）、あるいは自分の言葉でもう一度言い換える（rephrase）習慣を普段からつけておくと良いでしょう（日本語で発表をする場合でも同様です）。これには、いくつも利点があります。
[質問の繰り返しや言い換えの利点]a) 質問の内容を確認できる
質問者にとってもうれしい行為ですb) 質問者以外の会場の全ての人たちと質問内容を共有できる
質問者と発表者だけが分かっている二人だけのやりとりになってしまうという場合がたまに起こります。それを避けるためにも、質問内容を会場全体で共有するように、発表者が聴衆全体に向かって、質問を言い直すというのはとても重要ですc) 質問を繰り返したり、言い換えたりしている間に、答え方を考える時間を稼ぐことができる
ほんのわずかの時間ですが、その時間がとても貴重です
質問への答えを考えて、発表者が長い時間黙りこくってしまうことがたまに起こります。
これは是非避けましょう
最後に見る Sample C のデモプレゼンテーションでも、発表者は２つの質問に答える前に、それぞれ質問の内容をもう一度きちんと繰り返しています。この点にも注目して見てください。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――

4. Sample Presentation by a Native Speaker of English

OK. Next, let’s watch our final sample presentation for today. The topic is “Places to visit in Hokkaido”.

152

Unit 14 Learning from Real Presentations& General Summary< Introduction >Good afternoon. I believe everyone agrees that Hokkaido has many attractive tourist spots. Today,
out of the many travel destinations within Hokkaido, I would like to recommend the following threeplaces, in order of travel time required from Sapporo: Otaru, Hakodate, and eastern Hokkaido.
< Body 1>
First of all, let’s take a trip around the Otaru area. This area is small enough to enjoy in a day or
two, and it’s easy to move around even without a car. Especially, the Otaru canal area has many
interesting places to visit, among which are the Otaru Music Box Museum and glass factory shops.
Fresh seafood is also something you shouldn’t miss there.
< Body 2 >Second, Hakodate, about four hours away from Sapporo by train, is a good place for those who would
like to see historic sites and buildings. I strongly recommend going to the top of Hakodate Yama
mountain at night, from which you can fully enjoy one of the best three night views in Japan.
< Body 3 >Finally, eastern Hokkaido, including Akan, Mashu, and Kussharo Lake areas, is the farthest away.
If you go there, you may need a car to get around. However, this place is worth visiting, since thenatural environments in the area look completely different from those in Honshu and even from thenature in the Sapporo area.
< Question-and-Answer Session>
As I presented above, Hokkaido has many enjoyable spots worth visiting. OK, now, I can takequestions if you have some.
Question: Yes, I have two questions. Is it difficult to see around the eastern Hokkaido
without a car? And my second question is, what food do you recommend in Hakodate?
OK. Let me answer your second question first. What food do I recommend in Hakodate? Well, there
are lots of great places to go and eat in Hakodate, and the seafood especially is very nice down there.
But funnily enough, my favorite place is a hamburger shop which sells beautiful hamburgers, someof the most beautiful I’ve ever tasted. And so that would probably be my number one
recommendation.
As for your first question, “do you need a car to get around eastern part of Hokkaido?”, ah, well,there are many areas in eastern part of Hokkaido which can be reached by public transportation. So
if you don’t have a car, don’t worry. However, in some cases if you do have access to a car, then I
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How to Make Yourself Understoodwould recommend it, because it could save you a lot of time. OK, any other questions? No?
< Conclusion >Well, if there are no more questions, I would like to finish my presentation by emphasizing this.
Hokkaido has a lot of natural surroundings and interesting cultures which you may not find in otherplaces in Japan. So while you are a Hokudai student, please take this wonderful opportunity you
have to get out and see as much of this beautiful island as you can. Thank you.

< Good Characteristics: well-organized structure >OK. How was it? So, let’s quickly review some good characteristics of this presentation. First, it contains an
introduction with a thesis statement.
… out of the many travel destinations within Hokkaido, I would like recommend
the following three places.
Second, the main body of the presentation contains three specific examples in the relevant order, and third,
it finishes with the concluding statement which contains a strong message.
Well, if there are no more questions, I would like to finish my presentation byemphasizing this. Hokkaido has a lot of natural surroundings and interesting
cultures which you may not find in other places in Japan. So while you are a Hokudaistudent, please take this wonderful opportunity you have to get out and see as much ofthis beautiful island as you can.
In other words, this presentation is characterized by a well-organized essay structure.
Introduction
Thesis statement
Main bodyFirst of all,Second,Finally,
Conclusion
with a strong message< Good Characteristics: effective use of visual aid >Next, visual aids are used effectively.

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Unit 14 Learning from Real Presentations& General Summary
I strongly recommend going to the top of Hakodate
Yama mountain at night, from which you can fully
enjoy one of the best three night views in Japan.
Additionally, it also avoids one of the most frequent mistakes in presentations which is to put too muchinformation on one slide. For example, if you were to put the same full sentences which you speak on theslide, your slide would look too crowded and the audience might focus on reading the sentences on the slide,instead of listening to you, the speaker. In this way, visual aids, specifically, your presentation slides, are notyour manuscript to read. Simple phrases and visually attractive layouts will be extremely important formaking your presentation slides appealing.

Simple and Attractive
Points―――――――――――――――a) 綺麗な構造になった話は理解しやすい
綺麗な構造になった話は、聞き手にとって理解しやすいです。パラグラフ・ライティングの Unit 6～Unit 10で学んだように、まずは以下の構造を作って話を分かりやすくまとめてください。
1. Introduction（導入部）→ いまから何を主張するのかを示す
2. Main body（本論）→ 主張に対する裏付け（もしくは具体例）を複数個、用意する
10 分～15 分前後のプレゼンテーションでは、3～4 つの裏付け（論拠、データ、具体例など）を用意する

3. Conclusion（結論）→ 自分が伝えたい内容を簡潔にまとめて、再度述べる

b) Visual Aids（視覚を補助する素材）を有効活用する
このプレゼンテーションでは、北海道のおススメ観光場所を紹介することを主眼としています。大自然のすばらしさ、夜景の素晴らしさは、口頭では表現しきれません。このような場合は、写真やイラスト、ビデオ等を有効活用して、聞き手に具体的なイメージを持ってもらいましょう。
c) パワーポイント・スライドに記載する文字情報は最小限に
パワーポイント・スライドに記載する文字情報は、できるだけ少ない方が良いです。話すものと同じ文をその155

How to Make Yourself Understood
まま書き連ねるのは最もやってはいけないことです。スライドは「発表者が読むための原稿」ではありません。
少なくとも箇条書きにして、情報の要点を凝縮した表現にしましょう。情報量が多くなると、スライドに記載される文字が必然的に小さくなり見にくくなるだけでなく、聞き手は多くの情報を理解しようとしてスライドに意識を集中し、話し手へ注意を払わなくなります。発表者が話していることを理解しやすくするための補助であるはずのスライドが主役になってしまっては、本末転倒です。発表者の声に集中でき、理解の助けになる
ような、見やすい魅力的なレイアウトを心掛けることが重要です。
――――――――――――――――――――――――――――――～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～

General Summary
OK, so, how was today’s lesson? Since this is the last unit in this video series, let’s briefly overview theessential points of making yourself understood in English.

< to express yourself >First, when you express yourself in English either by writing or through oral presentations, not only
grammatically accurate sentences, but also a clearly organized structure are essential. Secondly, in an oralpresentation, prosody, intonation, and pauses are crucial. You do not have to sound like a native speaker, but
you should try to speak very clearly. Finally, always keep in mind that the main player in your essay writing
or in your presentations is the reader or the audience. Keep trying to make your writing reader-friendly, andto make your presentation audience-friendly.
1. clear structure
2. proper use of prosody, intonation, and pauses
3. the main player is your reader/audience
These are the most fundamental keys to making yourself understood in writing and through presentations
in English, as well as in Japanese.
Jeff: Well, this concludes our lecture series “How to make yourself understood”.
Atsushi: We hope you enjoyed the lectures.
Tuti: Good luck, keep working hard.
Satoshi: And see you around. Good bye for now.
～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～～
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Unit 14 Learning from Real Presentations& General Summary

Further Tips（1）
スライドの内容を確認してから、聴衆へ話しかける
プレゼンテーション用のスライドであれ、発表中に見てもらうハンドアウトであれ、その内容は口頭での発表内
容ときちんと結びついたものでなくてはなりません。スライドに提示されているトピックから離れた話題にいきなり移るのは望ましくないでしょう。公式の発表の場合、時間制限がありますから、主題からそれた話を長々とすることは避けるべきです。逆に、スライドには載せてあるけれども、その点については触れないというのも望ましくありません。具体的なスライドを示しながら、「時間がないのでこのスライドは飛ばします」というのは、聞き手にとって興ざめであるばかりでなく、発表者の準備能力が疑われることになります。事前に与えられた発
表時間は分かっているのですから、過不足ない形で準備をすることが重要です。
話題がわき道にそれるのを防ぐ 1 つの方法として、
a) まず、スライドに記載された情報を読み上げるb) その情報に関して、自分の意見を付加していくというやり方が有効でしょう。

Further Tips（2）「想定問答集」の作成
自分の考えていること、述べたいこと、あるいは研究してきたことを「全て」1 回のプレゼンテーションで発表することは出来ません。取捨選択が必要です。そうすると、語られていない部分、今後の方向性などに関して特定の質問がされることがある程度予測できます。特に研究発表の場合は、良い発表をすればするほど、質問がきます。
（よくわからない発表、つまらない発表には質問はきません）。つまり、たくさんの質問がくるということは、それだけその発表に興味を持ってもらえたというサインになります。質問が出そうな内容を想定して、それに対する対応の仕方をある程度考えておく（想定問答集）のも、自分の発表内容に深みを持たせることができるという意味でも、よいことであると考えられます。もちろん、実際の発表では、想定通りの質問が来るとは限りません。真摯に、誠意を持って精一杯対応する姿勢が重要であることには変わりありません。

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How to Make Yourself Understood謝辞

このプロジェクトのために協力くださった方々。
2014 年度北海道大学、英語 I クラスの学生のみなさん、特に、鍵谷慧くん、柏葉紘則くん、中村凪紗さん、
笹島史好くん、山口峻正くん。北海道大学国際広報メディア・観光学院の Tandem Language Learning Program
Study Week 2014 に参加した大学院生のみなさん、特に、宇山小夜さん、野口将輝くん。国際広報メディア・観光学院「言語研究方法論演習」に参加した大学院生のみなさん。北海道大学外国語教育センターの同僚教員のみなさん、特に、Chuck Brown 先生、Emma Cook 先生、Peter Richardson 先生、
Rick Siddle 先生、Piers Williamson
先生。さまざまなお手伝いをしてくれた国際広報メディア・観光学院の大学院生小林良平くん、坂本悠さん、楊雯淇（ヤンヤン）さん。そして、ビデオ教材作成において、撮影・編集など技術的なサポートを全面的に担当してくださった北海道大学オープンエデュケーションセンターの佐多正至さん、松本哲也さん、川村優子さん、田中宏明さん、南俊輔さん、およびスタッフのみなさん。
すべての皆様に、心より感謝申し上げます。
2014 年 12 月
英語 I オンライン教材作成プロジェクトチーム 2014
奥聡（北海道大学大学院メディア・コミュニケーション研究院准教授）

土永 孝（北海道大学大学院メディア・コミュニケーション研究院准教授）
辻本 篤（北海道大学大学院メディア・コミュニケーション研究院准教授）
Jeff Gayman（北海道大学大学院メディア・コミュニケーション研究院准教授）

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