原注・参考文献■

著者による注釈
参照を管理しやすくするため，参考文献は各章ごと，さらに各章の主要なトピックごとに分類した．関連する注釈（例：補足的な事実や，特定の引用文の参照先情報など）は，関連するトピックの直後に記載した．
各参考文献は文献全体の参照先情報を記載し，本書内のもっとも関連性が高いセクションに分類した（一部の参考文献には，その論文の本書への特定の影響を強調するための注釈を付記
した）．また，あるセクションの理解が他の参考文献の理解にとって重要な場合，セクション
内の注釈に当該の参考文献への参照先情報を含めた．

アイゼンハワーの言葉■

アイゼンハワー大統領による「喧嘩に勝つのは，……（What counts is not necessarily thesize of the dog in the ﬁght ―― itʼs the size of the ﬁght in the dog.）」の有名な発言は，1958
年 1 月21日の演説中になされたものであるが，同大統領は，それ以前にも少なくとも 1 回，
1957年にこの表現を使っている．この表現の出典は，マーク・トウェインをはじめとする多くの人物とする説がある．しかし，トウェインの作品にはこの表現は一度も出てこないため，彼によるものではないとも考えられている．実際，この表現は1930年代を通じて多く使われており，私たち著者は，もっとも早い時期のものとして1928年のMacLeanʼs Weekly誌で使われていることを確認している．とはいえ，この表現はおそらくさらに前から使われていたと考えら
れる．1933年のサウスダコタ州のある刊行物には，それが「オールド・ブラックヒルズ（インディアンが住んでいた地域）に古くから伝わることわざである」と記されている．
．
American Assn. of Port Authorities, World Ports, vol. 20−21, pp. 16（1957）
Eisenhower, Dwight D.,

Excerpts from Remarks at Republican National Committee

Breakfast, Washington, DC（1958）．
Kenner, Samantha, 著者との文書通信（2012）．
Schmidt, Barbara, 著者との文書通信（2012）．
State Bar of South Dakota, South Dakota Bar Journal, vol. 2, pp. 53 et seq.（1933）．
Word Study, vol. 1−15, p. 34, Springﬁeld, MA: G. & C. Merriam Co.（1968）．
第１章
スカイダイビング■

Cortisol Luminescence Immunoassay（RE62019）, vers. 2009_09, IBL International,Hamburg（2009）．
Deinzer, R., C. Kirschbaum, C. Gresele, & D. H. Hellhammer, Adrenocortical Responses
to Repeated Parachute Jumping and Subsequent h-CRH Challenge in Inexperienced
Healthy Subjects, Physiology & Behavior, vol. 61（4）, pp. 507−511（1997）
．

競争の科学

1

Deinzer, Renate, 著者との文書通信（2012）．
Deinzer, Renate, 著者によるインタビュー（2011）．
FAQʼs, Georgia Tech Sport Parachute Club, http://bit.ly/MSFdap（2011）．
Frequently Asked Questions, U.S. Parachute Assn., http://bit.ly/LZrD2z（2008）．
Kalman, Brian A., & Ruth E. Grahn,

Measuring Salivary Cortisol in the Behavioral

Neuroscience Laboratory, Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education, vol. 2（2）,
pp. A41−A49（2004）．
Lyng, Stephen,

Edgework: A Social Psychology Analysis of Voluntary Risktaking,American Journal of Sociology, vol. 95（4）, pp. 851−886（1990）．
Meyer, James, Syncope and Hypoxia, Toggle Times, Parachute Assn. of South Africa,
http://bit.ly/Qwlr4i（1/27/2011）．
Ryan, Allan J., & Clayton L. Thomas, Sport Parachuting and Sky Diving, JAMA, vol. 194（3）,
pp. 259−263（1965）．
Strahler, Katharina, Felix Ehrlenspiel, Moritz Heene, & Ralf Brand, Competitive Anxiety
and Cortisol Awakening Response in the Week Leading Up to a Competition,
Psychology of Sport & Exercise, vol. 11（2）, pp. 148−154（2010）．
United States Parachute Assn., 2012−2013 Skydiverʼs Information Manual（Sept. 2011）
．
競技ダンス

■

私たち著者が，人間はスカイダイビングには慣れるが，競技ダンスのコンテストには何年経っても慣れないという皮肉に注目したのは，Strahlerらの論文（2010）がきっかけであった．
Kalman, Brian A., & Ruth E. Grahn,

Measuring Salivary Cortisol in the Behavioral

Neuroscience Laboratory, Journal of Undergraduate Neuroscience Education, vol. 2（2）,
pp. A41−A49（2004）．
Rohleder, Nicolas, Silke E. Beulen, Edith Chen, Jutta M. Wolf, & Clemens Kirschbaum,
Stress on the Dance Floor: The Cortisol Stress Response to Social-Evaluative Threat（1）,
in Competitive Ballroom Dancers, Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 33
pp. 69−84（2007）．
Rohleder, Nicolas, 著者との文書通信．
Rohleder, Nicolas, 著者によるインタビュー．
Strahler, et al.（2010）（前掲）．
■

1万時間の法則

Adler, Amy, 著者によるインタビュー（2011）．
Ericsson, K. Andres,

The Influence of Experience and Deliberate Practice on theDevelopment of Superior Expert Performance, In: K. Anders Ericsson, Neil Charness,
Paul J. Feltovich, & Robert R. Hoffman（Eds.）, Cambridge Handbook of Expertise andExpert Performance, ch. 38, pp. 683−703, New York: Cambridge University Press（2006）．
Ericsson, K. Andres, Ralf Th. Krampe, & Clemens Tesch-Römer, The Role of Deliberate

競争の科学

2

Practice in the Acquisition of Expert Performance, Psychological Review, vol. 100（3）,
pp. 363−406（1993）．
Gladwell, Malcolm, Outliers: The Story of Success, New York: Little, Brown & Co.（2008）［マ
ルコム・グラッドウェル『天才！――成功する人々の法則』勝間和代訳（講談社，2009）］．
Syed, Matthew, Bounce: Mozart, Federer, Picasso, Beckham & The Science of Success, New
York: Harper（2010）［マシュー・サイド『非才！――あなたの子どもを勝者にする成功の科学』山形浩生・守岡桜訳（柏書房，2010）］．
競争の倫理面，競争心の強さ，性格特性■

Bergin, D., & C. Tsai, A Taxonomy for Categorizing Research on Competition, Paper
Presentation at Annual Meeting of the MWERA, St. Louis, MO, http://bit.ly/UffPis（2009）．
Bergin, David, 著者との文書通信（2011）．
Bullinger, Angelika C., Anne-Katrin Neyer, Matthias Rass, & Kathrin M. Moeslein,
Community-Based Innovation Contests: Where Competition Meets Cooperation,（3）, pp. 290−303（2010）．
Creativity and Innovation Management, vol. 19
Chance, Zoë,A Temporal View of Self-Deception,

Paper Presentation at Annual

Convention for the Society for Personality and Social Psychology, San Diego（2011）．
Chance, Zoë, Michael I. Norton, Francesca Gino, & Dan Ariely, Temporal View of the Costs
and Beneﬁts of Self-Deception, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.
108（supp. 3）, pp. 15655−15659（2011）．
Collier, A. Shawn, Richard M. Ryckman, Bill Thornton, & Joel A. Gold,
Personality Attitudes and Forgiveness of Others,

Competitive

Journal of Psychology:

Interdisciplinary & Applied, vol. 144（6）, pp. 535−543（2010）．
Connell, Joseph H., On the Prevalence and Relative Importance of Interspeciﬁc Competition:
Evidence from Field Experiments,

American Naturalist, vol. 122（5）, pp. 661−696（1983）．
Green, Vanessa A., & Ruth Rechis, Childrenʼs Cooperative and Competitive Interactions in
Limited Resource Situations: A Literature Review, Applied Developmental Psychology,
vol. 27, pp. 42−59（2006）．
Kwateng, Danielle,

Decoding the Business of Earvin,

Black Enterprise, http://bit.ly/

McSy14（2012）．
Lallemand, Thierry, Robert Plasman, & François Rycx, Intra-Firm Wage Dispersion andFirm Performance: Evidence from Linked Employer-Employee Data, KYKLOS, vol. 57（Fasc. 4）, pp. 541−566（2004）．
Morey, Nadege, & Gwendolyn L. Gerber, Two Types of Competitiveness: Their Impact on
the Perceived Interpersonal Attractiveness of Women and Men, Journal of AppliedSocial Psychology, vol. 25（3）, pp. 210−222（2006）．
Ryckman, Richard M., Bill Thornton, & J. Corey Butler,

Personality Correlates of theHypercompetitive Attitude Scale: Validity Test of Horneyʼs Theory of Neurosis,

競争の科学

3

Journal of Personality Assessment, vol. 2（1）, pp. 84−94（1994）．
Ryckman, Richard M., Bill Thornton, & Joel A. Gold, Assessing Competition Avoidance as a
Basic Personality Dimension, Journal of Psychology, vol. 143（2）, pp. 175−192（2009）．
Shleifer, Andrei, Does Competition Destroy Ethical Behavior? American Economic Review,
Papers & Proceedings of the One Hundred Sixteenth Annual Meeting of the American
Economic Assn., San Diego, vol. 94（2）, pp. 414−418（2004）．
Tauer, John M., & Judith M. Harackiewicz, The Eﬀects of Cooperation and Competition on
Intrinsic Motivation and Performance, Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, vol.
86（6）, pp. 849−861（2004）．
Tjosvold, Dean, David W. Johnson, Roger T. Johnson, & Haifa Sun, Competitive Motives
and Strategies: Understanding Constructive Competition, Group Dynamics: Theory,
Research, & Practice, vol. 10（2）, pp. 87−99（2006）．
Weekly Address: To Win the Future, America Must Win the Global Competitionin Education,

Remarks by President Barack Obama, http://1.usa.gov/gCuCaK（2/19/2011）．
■「アレタス」と古代ギリシアのオリンピック「aretē」という表現を使用する学者もいるが，私たち著者はその活用形である「aretas」を採用した．ギリシャ人の友人との議論の結果，カジュアルな会話で用いられている方を使用すべきと判断したためである．オリンピックに関する詳細な参考文献については，第12章の参考文
献を参照のこと．
．
Hamilton, Edith, The Greek Way, New York: W. W. Norton（1930）
Hansen, William（Ed.）, The Oracles of Astrampsychus, In Anthology of Ancient Greek
Popular Literature（Randall Stewart & Kenneth Morrell, Trans.）, pp. 285−326（1998）．
Harris, William, The Intelligent Person s Guide to Greek, http://bit.ly/MSFha1（u.d.）．
Lendon, J. E., Soldiers & Ghosts: A History of Battle in Classical Antiquity, New Haven: Yale
University Press（2005）．
Littlewood, A. R., Games and Sports, In: Nigel Guy Wilson（Ed.）, Encyclopedia of Ancient
Greece, New York: Routledge（2006）．
Miller, Stephen G., Arete: Greek Sports from Ancient Sources, Berkeley, CA: University ofCalifornia Press（1991）．
Porter, David T.,

The Pursuit of Arete,

David O. McKay Lecture, Brigham Young

University−Hawaii, http://bit.ly/McSCh8（2007）．
Rostkowska, Elżbieta, Women and Sport: A Historical Outline and Contemporary Social andPhysiological Issues, Studies in Physical Culture & Tourism, vol. 14（2）, pp. 169−175（2007）．
北京オリンピック（2008年）
でのジェイソン・レザック■

2008年北京オリンピック競泳競技に関する本書の主な情報源は，レザックへのインタビューと競技映像である．また，公開されている記事も詳細を肉付けするのに有用だった．

競争の科学

4

Beijing: Lezak, U.S. Make History in 4 × 100m Freestyle （video）, NBCOlympics.com,
http://bit.ly/IEZSxB（8/2008）．
Crouse, Karen, Lezak, Not Phelps, Puts on a Show, New York Times, p. D1, http://nyti.
ms/N2yxJA（8/10/2008）．
First-Ever Mutual of Omahaʼs Duel in the Pool to Settle Rivalry Between Powerhouse U.S.
and Australian Swim Teams, Mutual of Omaha Press Release, http://prn.to/MSFeeA（8/7/2002）．
Forde, Pat,

No Wayʼ Turns into No Quitʼ for Lezak, Menʼs Relay Team, ESPN.com,

http://es.pn/N3Tujb（8/11/2008）．
Henderson, John, Bernard Holds Oﬀ Lezak in 100 Free, Denver Post, http://bit.ly/Q5ZWtY（8/14/2008）．
Jenkins, Sally, Getting By with a Little Help from His Friends, Washington Post, http://
wapo.st/PWbnVj（9/12/2008）．
Lezak, Jason, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
．
Paxinos, Stathi, Rivalry to Fire Phelps, The Age, http://bit.ly/olfSbu（7/16/2011）
Steele, David, Deep Pool of Talent Fuels Rivalry, San Francisco Chronicle, p. D2, http://
bit.ly/MLUa1z（9/14/2000）．
Voepel, Mechelle, At 32, Lezak Keeps Phelpsʼ Dream Alive, Kansas City Star, http://bit.ly/
LZshxb（8/11/2008）．
動機づけの原動力としての競争■

以下に挙げるのは，モチベーションの源泉としての競争を議論するために使用される研究のコンテクスト

ほんの一部に過ぎない．本書の後半で取り上げた，特定の文脈における動機づけ要素としての競争については（例：競争と創造性），当該セクションの参考文献を参照のこと．
Carse, James P., Finite and Inﬁnite Games: A Vision of Life as Play and Possibility, New
York: The Free Press/Macmillan（1986）．
Duplinsky, Michelle S., & Robert L. Woolfolk, Motivation Styles, Attribution Styles, and Goal
Orientations in Triathletes, Poster Presentation at Annual Convention of the American
Psychological Assn. Washington, DC（2011）．
Erev, Ido, Gary Bornstein, & Rachely Galili, Constructive Intergroup Competition as a
Solution to the Rider Problem: A Field Experiment, Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, vol. 29（6）, pp. 463−478（1993）．
Myers, Albert, Team Competition, Success, and the Adjustment of Group Members,
Journal of Abnormal & Social Psychology, vol. 65（5）, pp. 325−332（1962）．
Schapiro, Michelle, Barry H. Schneider, Bruce M. Shore, Judith A. Margison, & Stephen
J. Udvari,Competitive Goal Orientations, Quality, and Stability in Gifted and Other

Adolescentsʼ Friendships, Gifted Child Quarterly, vol. 53（2）, pp. 71−88（2009）．
Schneider, Barry H., Joyce Benenson, Márta Fülöp, Mihaly Berkics, & Mónika Sándor,
Cooperation and Competition, In: P. K. Smith & C. H. Hart
（Eds.）, The Wiley-Blackwell（子供
Handbook of Childhood Social Development, 2nd Ed., ch. 25, pp. 472−490（2011）

競争の科学

5

と競争に関する研究についての文献調査）．
第２章
トリプレット，競争と子供■「競争と子供」について，この章で取り扱った以外のテーマの参考文献は，Schneider（前掲），
Schapiro ら（前掲），第 6 章，第 7 章，第11章の参考文献を参照のこと．
Bergin, David, Use and Misuse of Incentives in School Settings, Paper Presentation at
Annual Convention of the American Psychological Assn., Washington, DC（2011）．
Bergin, David A., 著者との文書通信（2011）．
Bergin, David A., & Helen C. Cooks, Academic Competition among Students of Color: An（4）, pp. 442−472（2000）．
Interview Study, Urban Education, vol. 35
Bergin, David A., & Chia-Lin Tsai,A Taxonomy for Categorizing Research on

Competition, Paper Presentation at Mid-Western Educational Research Assn., St. Louis,
MO（2009）．
Davis, Stephen F., Matthew T. Huss, & Angela H. Becker, Norman Triplett: Recognizing
the Importance of Competition, In: Christopher D. Green, & Ludy T. Benjamin, Jr.,
Psychology Gets in the Game: Sport, Mind, and Behavior, 1880−1960, ch. 3, pp. 98−
115, Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska Press（2009）．
Shermer, Michael, Psyched Up, Psyched Out, Scientiﬁc American, vol. 11（3）, pp. 36−43（2000）．
Triplett, Norman, The Dynamogenic Factors in Pacemaking and Competition, American
Journal of Psychology, vol. 9, pp. 507−533（1898）．
A Neglected Innovator in Sports Psychology:

Vaughan, Graham, & Bernard Guerin,

Norman Triplett and the Early History of Competitive Performance, International
Journal of the History of Sport, vol. 14（2）, pp. 82−99（1997）．
米国空軍士官学校生，ピア効果■

集団への参加に関する第 6 章の参考文献，エリート学生に対するJacksonの研究等も参照のこと．
Americaʼs Top Colleges, Forbes, http://onforb.es/oq7T4t（June 2011）．
Azmat, Ghazala, & Nagore Iriberri, The Importance of Relative Performance Feedback
Information: Evidence from a Natural Experiment Using High School Students, Journalof Public Economics, vol. 94（7−8）, pp. 435−452（2010）．
Bandiera, Oriana, Iwan Barankay, & Imran Rasul, Social Incentives in the Workplace,
Review of Economic Studies, vol. 77（2）, pp. 417−458（2010）．
Bono, James W., Sales Contests, Promotion Decisions and Heterogeneous Risk, Managerial．
& Decision Economics, vol. 29（4）, pp. 371−382（2008）
Carrell, Scott, 著者との文書通信（2011）．
Carrell, Scott, 著者によるインタビュー（2011）．
Carrell, Scott E.,

Does Your Cohort Matter? Measuring Peer Effects in College

競争の科学

6

Achievement, Journal of Labor Economics, vol. 27（3）, pp. 439−464（2009）．
Carrell, Scott E., Robert N. Gilchrist, Richard L. Fullerton, & James E. West,

Peer

Leadership Eﬀects in Academic and Athletic Performance, Working Paper（2007）．
Carrell, Scott E., Teny Maghakian, & James E. West, Aʼs From Zzzzʼs? The Causal Eﬀect of
School Start Time on the Academic Achievement of Adolescents, American Economic
Journal: Economic Policy, vol. 3, pp. 62−81（2011）．
Carrell, Scott E., Bruce I. Sacerdote, & James E. West, Beware of Economists Bearing
Reduced Forms? An Experiment in How Not to Improve Student Outcomes, Working
Paper（2010）．
Carrell, Scott E., Bruce I. Sacerdote, & James E. West, From Natural Variation to Optimal
Policy? The Lucas Critique Meets Peer Effects, Working Paper, National Bureau of
Economic Research, Cambridge, MA（7/5/2011）．
De Giorgi, Giacomo, Michele Pellizzari, & William Gui Woolston,Class Size and Class

Heterogeneity, National Bureau of Economic Research, Cambridge, MA（2010）．
Delfgaauw, Josse, Robert Dur, Arjan Non, & Willem Verbeke, Dynamic Incentive Eﬀects ofRelative Performance Pay: A Field Experiment, Paper Presentation at Tournaments,．
Contests, and Relative Performance Evaluation Conference, Raleigh, NC（2011）
Delfgaauw, Josse, Robert Dur, Arjan Non, & Willem Verbeke, The Eﬀects of Prize Spreadand Noise in Elimination Tournaments: A Natural Field Experiment, Working Paper
TI 2011−120/1, Tinbergen Institute（2011）．
Dur, Robert, 著者との文書通信（2011）．
Fast Facts, Air Force Academy, http://bit.ly/QSxgGh（u.d.）．
Frank, Douglas, & Tomasz Obloj,
from Retail Banking,

Reference Points and Organization Performance

Paper Presentation at Tournaments, Contests, and Relative

Performance Evaluation Conference, Raleigh, NC, http://bit.ly/PWe3lT（2011）．
Kruczek, Theodore,

A Cadetʼs Life: United States Air Force Academy,

http://bit.

ly/7rKIEH（1/12/2010）．
List of Acronyms and Explanations of Terms Used at the USAFA, United States Air．
Force Academy Parents Club of Central Florida, http://bit.ly/O6xVlE（u.d.）Murphy, William H., & Peter A. Dacin, Sales Contest Research: Business and IndividualDiﬀerence Factors Aﬀecting Intentions to Pursue Contest Goals, Industrial Marketing
Management, vol. 38（1）, pp. 109−118（2009）．
Poujol, F. Juliet, Christophe Fournier, & John F. Tanner Jr., Compliance versus Preference:
Understanding Salesperson Response to Contests, Journal of Business Research, vol. 64（7）, pp. 664−671（2011）．
Sacerdote, Bruce,

Peer Effects with Random Association Results for Dartmouth

Roommates, Quarterly Journal of Economics, vol. 116（2）, pp. 681−704（2001）．
U.S. Air Force Academy Catalogue, http://1.usa.gov/QSz16m（2008）
．

競争の科学

7

■

SAT
（大学進学適性試験），Ｎ効果

Garcia, Stephen, 著者との文書通信（2009, 2011）．
Garcia, Stephen, Interviews with Authors（2009, 2011）．
Garcia, Stephen M., & Avishalom Tor, The N-Eﬀect: More Competitors, Less Competition,
Psychological Science, vol. 20（7）, pp. 871−877（2009）．
State Proﬁle Report: Alabama, College Board（2011）．
State Proﬁle Report: Alaska, College Board（2011）．
State Proﬁle Report: Arkansas, College Board（2011）．
．
State Proﬁle Report: California, College Board（2011）
State Proﬁle Report: Massachusetts, College Board（2011）．
State Proﬁle Report: New York, College Board（2011）．
Tor, Avishalom, & Stephen M. Garcia, The N-Effect: Beyond Probability Judgments,
Psychological Science, vol. 21（5）, pp. 748−749（2010）．
ハーバード対イェールをはじめとする大学間ライバル関係■

Bensch, Bob,

Harvard Defeats Yale 45−7 to Extend Domination of

The Gameʼ,．
Bloomberg Business Week, http://buswk.co/s8pqXO（11/19/2011）
Cohn, Steve, & Bob Barton, Yale Football 2009, http://bit.ly/PPozui（2009）．
Conroy, Tom, Investment Return of 21.9% Brings Yale Endowment Value to $19.4 Billion,
Yale News, http://bit.ly/wGZYi8（9/28/2011）．
Financial Aid, Yale University, http://bit.ly/eXcxhK（u.d.）．
Football by Year, http://bit.ly/O6wgwo（u.d.）．
Harvard University Endowment Earns 21.4 Percent Return for Fiscal Year,

HarvardGazette, http://hvrd.me/oyh9ZS（9/22/2011）．
Harvard-Yale Grid Contests Feature Upsets, Stars in 75 Year History, Harvard Crimson,
http://bit.ly/OvgwTf（11/25/1950）．
The Harvard-Yale Rivalry, GoCrimson.com, http://bit.ly/OmNGWF（2010）．
Heads of State, Harvard University, http://hvrd.me/OvgBWV（2012）．
Kilduﬀ, Gavin J., Hillary Anger Elfenbein, & Barry M. Staw, The Psychology of Rivalry: A
Relationally Dependent Analysis of Competition, Academy of Management Journal, vol.
53（5）, pp. 943−969（2010）．
Lakin, Tom, Harvard-Yale Brings History to Life, ESPNBoston.com, http://es.pn/MLVphm（11/20/2009）．
Mathews, Jay, The 12 Top Rivals, Newsweek, http://bit.ly/O9kBu0（8/8/2008）．
Nobel Laureates, Yale University, http://bit.ly/O9kIFM（2011）．
Nobel Laureates at Harvard University,

Harvard University, http://hvrd.me/rhFnp6（2012）．
Pisner, Noah B.,

The Name of the Game,

Harvard Crimson, http://bit.ly/uiyw7F（11/17/2011）．
Record for Financial Aid, Harvard Gazette, http://hvrd.me/GWf8X1（3/26/2012）
．

競争の科学

8

Wanger, Emily, Yale Redistributes Financial Aid, Yale Daily News, http://bit.ly/gQ6AWc（2/18/2011）．
Welcome to the Harvard Financial Aid Office, Harvard University, http://bit.ly/oTJE7（2009）．
Yale Alumni in U.S. Politics, Yale News, http://bit.ly/O6ybRJ（3/27/2009）．
パッケージング・バレー，ビジネスにおけるライバル関係■

ACMA Group: Company Proﬁle http://bit.ly/P0TlfW
Alpern, Peter, Italian Packaging Machinery Industry Proves Resilient, Industry Week,
http://bit.ly/LV33Vn（11/17/2009）．
Are You Ready for Track&Trace??? Marchesini.com, http://bit.ly/NA9Ch5（11/25/2011）．
Barnett, William P., The Red Queen: History-Dependent Competition among Organizations,
In: Barry M. Staw & Roderick Moreland Kramer（Eds.）, Research In Organizational
Behavior: An Annual Series Of Analytical Essays & Critical Reviews, vol. 26, pp. 351−
371, Oxford: Elsevier（2005）．
Barnett, William P., & Olav Sorenson, The Red Queen in Organizational Development,
Industrial & Corporate Change, vol. 11（2）, pp. 289−325（2002）．
Belussi, Fiorenza,

The Generation of Contextual Knowledge through Communication

Processes: The Case of the Packaging Machinery Industry in the Bologna District, In:
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マタイ効果，マルコ効果■

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第３章
クリントン大統領訪日（1996年）とカーク・ハンリン■

この逸話に関する私たち著者の主な情報源は，カーク・ハンリン（Kirk Hanlin）本人である．他のレポートも，大統領の当該の訪日に関する政治的意味合いについて，私たちの理解を深めた．ホワイトハウスの記者団が車列から除外されれば，本国から強く批判されるかもしれないというハンリンの懸念は，決して大げさなものではない．事実，2012年，バラク・オバマ
大統領が韓国を訪問した際，ホワイトハウスの記者団が，一時的に誤って大統領の参加行事から除外された．AP通信はこの件に触れ，韓国には言論・報道の自由へのコミットメントが欠如していると指摘するとともに，アメリカに韓国との同盟関係を維持する価値はあるかという疑問すらほのめかした．Gearan（2012）を参照のこと．
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Clinton Visit Scheduled to Begin Thursday, Japan Times（11/13/1998）．
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Gearan, Anne, Obama Press Corps Temporarily Blocked Out in South Korea, Huﬃngton
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Hanlin, Kirk, 著者との文書通信（2011, 2012）．
Hanlin, Kirk, Interviews with Author（2011, 2012）．

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ホームアドバンテージ■

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Superstars, Journal of Political Economy, vol. 119（5）, pp. 982−1013（2011）．
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Entry into Winner-

Take-All and Proportional-Prize Contests: An Experimental Study, Journal of Public
Economics, vol. 94（9−10）, pp. 604−611（2010）．
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CME Group Titleholders Info, LPGA, http://bit.ly/TCdjk6（u.d.）．
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Outside of Conscious Awareness, Science, vol. 329（5987）, pp. 47−50（2010）．
Deci, Edward L., Richard Koestner, & Richard M. Ryan,

A Meta-Analytic Review ofExperiments Examining the Effects of Extrinsic Rewards on Intrinsic Motivation,
Psychological Bulletin, vol. 125（6）, pp. 627−668（1999）．
Ehrenberg, Ronald G., & Michael L. Bognanno, Do Tournaments Have Incentive Eﬀects?
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Franke, Jörg, The Incentive Eﬀects of Leveling the Playing Field̶An Empirical Analysisof Amateur Golf Tournaments, Applied Economics, vol. 44（9）, pp. 1193−1200（2012）．
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R. Humphreys & Dennis Ramsay Howard（Eds.）, The Business of Sports, Westport, CT:
Praeger（2008）．
Harbring, Christine, & Bernd Irlenbusch,

How Many Winners are Good to Have?: On（3−
Tournaments with Sabotage, Journal of Economic Behavior & Organization, vol. 654）, pp. 682−702（2008）．
Harbaugh, Rick, & Robert Ridlon,

Handicapping and Reverse Handicapping under

Uncertainty in an All-Pay Auction, Working Paper（2010）．
Höchtl, Wolfgang, Rudolf Kerschbamer, Rudi Stracke, & Uwe Sunde,

Incentives vs.

Selection in Promotion Tournaments: Can a Designer Kill Two Birds with One Stone?,．
IZA Discussion Paper No. 5755, http://bit.ly/O09IiW（2011）
Kohn, Alﬁe, Why Incentive Plans Cannot Work, Harvard Business Review , vol. 71（5）, pp.
54−61（Sept./Oct. 1993）．
Kosfeld, Michael, & Susanne Neckermann,

Getting More Work for Nothing? SymbolicAwards and Worker Performance, American Economic Journal: Microeconomics, vol. 3（3）, pp. 86−99（2011）．
Lallemand, Thierry, Robert Plasman, & Francois Rycx,

Women and Competition in

9 1）, pp. 3−19（2008）．
Elimination Tournaments, Journal of Sports Economics, vol. （Leuven, Edwin, Hessel Oosterbeek, J. H. Sonnemans, & Bas Van der Klaauw, Incentives
versus Sorting in Tournaments: Evidence from a Field Experiment, CEPR Discussion
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Lim, Noah, Michael J. Ahearne, & Sung H. Ham, Designing Sales Contests: Does the Prize

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Structure Matter? Journal of Marketing Research, vol. 46（3）, pp. 356−371（2009）．
LPGA Tour Schedule, LPGA.com, http://bit.ly/PDdidk（2012）．
Mantrala, Murali K., Sönke Albers, Fabio Caldierar, Ove Jensen, Kissan Joseph, Manfred
Krafft, Chakravarthi Narasimhan, Srinath Gopalakrishna, Andris Zoltners, Rajiv Lal,
& Leonard Lodish, Sales Force Modeling: State of the Field and Research Agenda,, pp. 255−272（2010）．
Marketing Letters, vol. 21（3）Maria Hjorth Wins LPGA Tour Championship,

GOLF.com, http://bit.ly/RvzM4P（12/5/2010）．
Matthews, Peter Hans, Paul M. Sommers, & Francisco J. Peschiera,

Incentives andSuperstars on the LPGA Tour, Applied Economics, vol. 39（1）, pp. 87−94（2007）．
Melton, Michael, & Thomas S. Zorn, An Empirical Test of Tournament Theory: The Senior（7）, pp. 16−32（2000）．
PGA Tour, Managerial Finance, vol. 26
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Neckermann, Susanne, Reto Cueni, & Bruno S. Frey,

What Is an Award Worth?: An

Econometric Assessment of the Impact of Awards on Employee Performance CESInfo
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PLoS ONE, vol. 6（4）, e18050（2011）．
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The Economic Design of Sporting Contests,

Journal of Economic

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and Unconscious Reward Processing Modulate the Active Maintenance of Goal-Relevant
Information, Consciousness & Cognition, vol. 20（2）, pp. 355−362（2011）．
第４章
身体的特徴の多遺伝子性■

Bouchard, Claude, Genomic Predictors of Trainability, Experimental Physiology, vol. 97,
pp. 347−352（2012）．
Bouchard, Claude, Mark A. Sarzynski, Treva K. Rice, William E. Kraus, Timothy S. Church,
Yun Ju Sung, D. C. Rao, & Tuomo Rankinen, Genomic Predictors of the Maximal O2
Uptake Response to Standardized Exercise Training Programs, Journal of Applied
Physiology, vol. 110（5）, pp. 1160−1170（2011）．
Huang, Kenneth G., & Fiona E. Murray, Entrepreneurial Experiments in Science Policy:
Analyzing the Human Genome Project,

Research Policy, vol. 39（5）, pp. 567−582

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（2010）．
Rankinen, Tuomo, & Claude Bouchard, Genetic Predictors of Exercise Training Response,
Current Cardiovascular Risk Reports, vol. 5（4）, pp. 368−372（2011）．
Tucker, Ross, Genes and Performances: Why Some Are More Equal than Others, The
Science of Sport, http://bit.ly/po6PT0（8/11/2011）．
Tucker, Ross, & Malcolm Collins,

What Makes Champions? A Review of the Relative

Contributions of Genes and Training to Sports Success,British Journal of Sports

Medicine, vol. 46, pp. 555−561（2012）．
Yang, Jian, Beben Benyamin, Brian P. McEvoy, Scott Gordon, Anjali K. Henders, Dale
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ジュリアス・アクセルロッドの功績とCOMTに関する他の基礎研究■

脳内におけるCOMTの重要性をさらに定量的な視点でとらえるための情報を付記しよう．
「COMTは，腹側線条体においてはドーパミン除去の15％を担う．しかし，COMTは前頭前皮質（PFC）内のドーパミンの除去の60％を担っている」
Axelrod, Julius,Banquet Speech,

Nobel Banquet, Stockholm, Sweden, http://bit.ly/

NFF7kY（12/10/1970）．
Axelrod, Julius, Julius Axelrod, In: Larry R. Squire（Ed.）, The History of Neuroscience in．
Autobiography, vol. 1, pp. 50−78, Washington, DC: Society for Neuroscience（1996）
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bit.ly/PDdKIP（12/12/1970）．
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Annual Review of Neuroscience, vol. 27, pp. 393−418（2004）．
Diamond, Adele, Consequences of Variations in Genes that Aﬀect Dopamine in Prefrontal, pp. 161−170（2007）．
Cortex, Cerebral Cortex, vol. 17（supp. 1）
Hariri, Ahmad R.,

The What, Where, and When of Catechol-O-Methyltransferase,

Biological Psychiatry, vol. 70（3）, pp. 214−215（2011）．
Tunbridge, Elizabeth M.,

The Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Gene: Its Regulation andPolymorphisms, In: Erkki Nissinen & Alireza Minagar（Eds.）, Basic Aspects of CatecholO-Methyltransferase and the Clinical Applications, International Review of Neurobiology,
vol. 95, pp. 7−27, New York: Academic Press（2010）．
Yavich, Leonid, Markus M. Forsberg, Maria Karayiorgou, Joseph A. Gogos, & Pekka T.
Mannisto,

Site-Speciﬁc Role of Catechol-O-Methyltransferase in Dopamine Overﬂow

within Prefrontal Cortex and Dorsal Striatum, Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 27
（38）
, pp.
10196−10202（2007）．

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■

COMTの遺伝子型と認知機能に関する発見
科学文献では，COMTの遺伝的変異は通常，対立遺伝子の組み合わせを示す，「met-met」「val-val」「met-val」と呼ばれる． 2 つのメチオニン（met）からなる処理の遅い酵素を持つ者
は「met-met」，2 つのバリン（val）からなる処理の速い酵素を持つ者は「val-val」，バリンとメチオニンをそれぞれ 1 つずつ持つ者は「val-met」である．
Barnett, J. H., P. B. Jones, T. W. Robbins, & U. Müller,

Effects of the Catechol-O-

Methyltransferase Val 158Met Polymorphism on Executive Function: A Meta-Analysisof the Wisconsin Card Sort Test in Schizophrenia and Healthy Controls, MolecularPsychiatry, vol. 12（5）, pp. 502−509（2007）．
Barnett, Jennifer H., Jon Heron, Susan M. Ring, Jean Golding, David Goldman, Ke Xu,& Peter B. Jones,

Gender-Specific Effects of the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase

Val108/158Met Polymorphism on Cognitive Function in Children, American Journal of
Psychiatry, vol. 164（1）, pp. 142−149（2007）．
Blasi, Giuseppe, Venkata S. Mattay, Alessandro Bertolino, Brita Elvevåg, Joseph H. Callicott,Saumitra Das, Bhaskar S. Kolachana, Michael F. Egan, Terry E. Goldberg, & Daniel
R. Weinberger,

Effect of Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Val158Met Genotype on

Attentional Control, Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 25（20）, pp. 5038−5045（2005）．
Colzato, Lorenz, Florian Waszak, Sander Nieuwenhuis, Danielle Posthuma, & Bernhard
Hommel,The Flexible Mind Is Associated with the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase（COMT）Val158Met Polymorphism: Evidence for a Role of Dopamine in the Control of
Task-Switching, Neuropsychologia, vol. 48（9）, pp. 2764−2768（2010）．
Diamond, Adele, Biological and Social Inﬂuences on Cognitive Control Processes Dependent
on Prefrontal Cortex, In: O. Braddick, J. Atkinson, & G. Innocenti（Eds.）, Progress in
Brain Research, ch. 18, pp. 319−339（2011）．
Diamond, Adele, Lisa Briand, John Fossella, & Lorrie Gehlbach, Genetic and Neurochemical
Modulation of Prefrontal Cognitive Functions in Children,

American Journal of

Psychiatry, vol. 161（1）, pp. 125−132（2004）．
Doll, Bradley B., Kent E. Hutchison, & Michael J. Frank,

Dopaminergic Genes Predict

Individual Diﬀerences in Susceptibility to Conﬁrmation Bias, Journal of Neuroscience,
vol. 31（16）, pp. 6188−6198（2011）．
Farrell, Sarah M., Elizabeth M. Tunbridge, Sven Braeutigam, & Paul J. Harrison, COMT
Val158Met Genotype Determines the Direction of Cognitive Effects Produced by
Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Inhibition, Biological Psychiatry, vol. 71（6）, pp. 538−544（2012）．
Frank, Michael J.,

Cross-Talk Individual Differences in Error Processing: Neural,

Electrophysiological, and Genetic Components,

Cognitive, Affective & Behavioral

Neuroscience, vol. 7（4）, pp. 297−308（2007）．
Frank, Michael J., Bradley B. Doll, Jen Oas-Terpstra, & Francisco Moreno,

Prefrontal

and Striatal Dopaminergic Genes Predict Individual Differences in Exploration and
Exploitation, Nature Neuroscience, vol. 12（8）, pp. 1062−1068（2009）
．

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Herrmann, Martin J., Heidi Würflein, Theresa Schreppel, Saskia Koehler, Andreas
Mühlberger, Andreas Reif, Turhan Canli Marcel Romanos, Christian P. Jacob, KlausPeter Lesch, & Andreas J. Fallgatter,

Catechol-O-methyltransferase Val158Met

Genotype Affects Neural Correlates of Aversive Stimuli Processing,Cognitive,Aﬀective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, vol. 9（2）, pp. 168−172（2009）．
Lachman, Herbert M., Demitri F. Papolos, Takuya Saito, Yue-Min Yu, Carol L. Szumlanski,& Richard M. Weinshilboum, Human Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Pharmacogenetics:
Description of a Functional Polymorphism and Its Potential Application to
Neuropsychiatric Disorders, Pharmacogenetics, vol. （6 3）, pp. 243−250（1996）．
Marco-Pallarés, Josep, Wido Nager, Ulrike M. Krämer, Toni Cunillera, Estela Càmara, David
Cucureil, Rebecca Schüle, Ludger Schöls, Antoni Rodriguez-Fornells, & Thomas F.
Münte, Neurophysiological Markers of Novelty Processing Are Modulated by COMT
and DRD4 Genotypes, NeuroImage, vol. 52（3）, pp. 962−969（2010）．
Munakata, Yuko, B. J. Casey, & Adele Diamond, Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience:
Progress and Potential, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, vol. （8 3）, pp. 122−128（2004）．
Palmatier, Meg A., A. Min Kang, & Kenneth K. Kidd, Global Variation in the Frequenciesof Functionally Diﬀerent Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Alleles, Biological Psychiatry,
vol. 46（4）, pp. 557−567（1999）．
Tang, Yong, Jens. R. Nyengaard, Didima M. G. De Groot, & Hans J.rgen G. Gundersen, Total
Regional and Global Number of Synapses in the Human Brain Neocortex, Synapse, vol.
41（3）, pp. 258−273（2001）．
Ursini, Gianluca, Valentina Bollati, Leonardo Fazio, Annamaria Porcelli, Luisa Iacovelli, Assia
Catalani, Lorenzo Sinibaldi, Barbara Gelao, Raﬀaella Romano, Antonio Rampino, Paolo
Taurisano, Marina Mancini, Annabella Di Giorgio, Teresa Popolizio, Andrea Baccarelli,
Antonio De Blasi, Giuseppe Blasi, & Alessandro Bertolino, Stress-Related Methylationof the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Val158 Allele Predicts Human Prefrontal Cognition
and Activity, Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 31（18）, pp. 6692−6698（2011）．
■

COMTの2つの型と社会的・情緒的機能に関する発見
Warriors

W o r r i e r s「心配性型」のアナロジーを用いたのはGoldmanらである．
COMTに関して初めて「戦士型」
それ以来，このアナロジーは他の研究者にも使われるようになった．前章の注釈で説明した
ように，処理の速い酵素の「val-val」型の者が「戦士型遺伝子」を，処理の遅い酵素の「metmet」型の者が「心配性型遺伝子」を持つ．「val-met」型はこのスペクトルの中央あたりに位置することになる．
ルワンダでのPTSDの研究（Kolassaら）の結果と同様，ブラジル人の研究者による調査に
よって，心配性／met-met型の遺伝子を持つ者は，都市部での暴力事件に敏感であることがわ
かっている（Valenteら）．
さらに，met-met型の者は，val-val型よりも攻撃的であることも明らかになっている．metmet型の思春期の少女は，社会的関係での苦労が多く，攻撃的な行動によって関係を失敗させることが多い（Volavkaら，Waughら，Albaughらを参照）．一方，戦士型／val-val型の遺伝

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子を持つ者は，より利他的であることが明らかになっている．
Albaugh, Matthew D., Valerie S. Harder, Robert R. Althoff, David C. Rettew, Erik A.
Ehli, Timea Lengyel-Nelson, Gareth E. Davies, Lynsay Ayer, Julie Sulman, Catherine
Stanger, & James J. Hudziak,

COMT Val158Met Genotype as a Risk Factor for

Problem Behaviors in Youth, Journal of the American Academy of Child & Adolescent
Psychiatry, vol. 49（8）, pp. 841−849（2010）．
Bishop, Sonia J., Jonathan D. Cohen, John Fossella, B. J. Casey, & Martha J. Farah, COMT
Genotype Inﬂuences Prefrontal Response to Emotional Distraction, Cognitive, Aﬀective& Behavioral Neuroscience, vol. 6（1）, pp. 62−70（2006）．
Caspi, Avshalom, Terrie E. Moﬃtt, Mary Cannon, Joseph McClay, Robin Murray, Hona-Lee
Harrington, Alan Taylor, Louise Arseneault, Ben Williams, Antony Braithwaite, Richie
Poulton, & Ian W. Craig, Moderation of the Eﬀect of Adolescent-Onset Cannabis Use
on Adult Psychosis by a Functional Polymorphism in the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase
Gene: Longitudinal Evidence of a Gene X Environment Interaction,

BiologicalPsychiatry, vol. 57（10）, pp. 1117−1127（2005）．
Egan, Michael F., Terry E. Goldberg, Bhaskar S. Kolachana, Joseph H. Callicott, Chiara M.
Mazzanti, Richard E. Straub, David Goldman, & Daniel R. Weinberger, Eﬀect of COMT
Val108/158 Met Genotype on Frontal Lobe Function and Risk for Schizophrenia,
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 98（12）, pp. 6917−6922（2001）．
Goldman, David, Gabor Oroszi, & Francesca Ducci, The Genetics of Addiction: Uncovering
the Genes, Nature Reviews Genetics, vol. 6, pp. 521−532（2005）．
Kolassa, Iris-Tatjana, Verena Ertl, Cindy Eckart, Lamaro P. Onyut, Stephan Kolassa, &Thomas Elbert,

Spontaneous Remission from PTSD Depends on the Number ofTraumatic Event Types Experienced,

Psychological Trauma: Theory, Research,

Practice, & Policy 2, vol. 3, pp. 169−174（2010）．
Kolassa, Iris-Tatjana, Stephan Kolassa, Verena Ertl, Andreas Papassotiropoulos, &Dominique J.-F. De Quervain,

The Risk of Posttraumatic Stress Disorder afterTrauma Depends on Traumatic Load and the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Val158Met
Polymorphism, Biological Psychiatry, vol. 67（4）, pp. 304−308（2010）．
Lachman, Herbert,

Does COMT Val158Met Affect Behavioral Phenotypes: Yes, No,

Maybe?, Neuropsychopharmacology, vol. 33（13）, pp. 3027−3029（2008）．
Lonsdorf, Tina B., Christian Rück, Jan Bergström, Gerhard Andersson, Arne Öhman, Nils
Lindefors, & Martin Schalling, The COMTVal158Met Polymorphism Is Associatedwith Symptom Relief During Exposure-Based Cognitive-Behavioral Treatment in Panic
Disorder BMC Psychiatry, vol. 10, pp. 99 et seq.（2010）．
Reuter, Martin, Clemens Frenzel, Nora T. Walter, & Sebastian Markett, Investigating the
Genetic Basis of Altruism: The Role of the COMT Val158Met Polymorphism, Social
6 5）, pp. 662−668（2011）．
Cognitive & Aﬀective Neuroscience, vol. （Rujescu, Dan, Ina Giegling, Anton Gietl, Annette M. Hartmann, & Hans-Jürgen Möller, A
Functional Single Nucleotide Polymorphism（V158M）in the COMT Gene is Associated

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with Aggressive Personality Traits, Biological Psychiatry, vol. 54（1）, pp. 34−39（2003）．
Stein, Dan J., Timothy K. Newman, Jonathan Savitz, & Rajkumar Ramesar, Warriors versus
Worriers: The Role of COMT Gene Variants,

CNS Spectrums / Pearls in Clinical

Neuroscience, vol. 11（10）, pp. 745−748（2006）．
Tiihonen, J., T. Hallikainen, H. Lachman, T. Saito, J. Volavka, J. Kauhanen, J. T. Salonen,
O-P Ryynänen, M. Koulu, M. K. Karvonen, T. Phojalainen, E. Syvälahti, & J. Hietala,
Association between the Functional Variant of the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase（COMT）Gene and Type 1 Alcoholism, Molecular Psychiatry, vol. 4, pp. 286−289（1999）．
Valente, Nina Leão Marques, Homero Vallada, Quirino Cordeiro, Rodrigo Affonseca
Bressan, Sergio Baxter Andreoli, Jair Jesus Mari, & Marcelo Feijó Mello, CatecholO-Methyltransferase（COMT）Val158Met Polymorphism as a Risk Factor for PTSD
After Urban Violence, Journal of Molecular Neuroscience, vol. 43（3）, pp. 516−523（2011）．
Volavka, Jan, Robert Bilder, & Karen Nolan, Catecholamines and Aggression: The Role of
COMT and MAO Polymorphisms, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol.
1036, pp. 393−398（2004）．
Waugh, Christian E., Karen F. Dearing, Jutta Joormann, & Ian H. Gotlib,

Association

between the Catechol-O-Methyltransferase Val158Met Polymorphism and SelfPerceived Social Acceptance in Adolescent Girls,

Journal of Child and Adolescent

Psychopharmacology, vol. 19（4）, pp. 395−401（2009）．
Wichers, Marieke, Mari Aguilera, Gunter Kenis, Lydia Krabbendam, Inez MyinGermeys, Nele Jacobs, Frenk Peeters, Catherine Derom, Robert Vlietinck, Ron
Mengelers, Philippe Delespaul, & Jim van Os, The Catechol-O-Methyl Transferase
Val158Met Polymorphism and Experience of Reward in the Flow of Daily Life,
Neuropsychopharmacology, vol. 33（13）, pp. 3030−3036（2008）．
ストレスの多い状況での学習・成功にCOMTが及ぼす影響■

COMTおよび認知機能に関連する前述の引用も参照のこと．
Alexander, Nina, Roman Osinsky, Eva Mueller, Anja Schmitz, Sarah Guenthert, Yvonne
Kuepper, & Juergen Hennig,

Genetic Variants within the Dopaminergic System

Interact to Modulate Endocrine Stress Reactivity and Recovery, Behavioural Brain
Research, vol. 216（1）, pp. 53−58（2011）．
Alter, Adam L., Joshua Aronson, John M. Darley, Cordaro Rodriguez, & Diane N. Ruble,
Rising to the Threat: Reducing Stereotype Threat by Reframing the Threat as a
Challenge, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 46（1）, pp. 166−171（2010）．
．
Aronson, Joshua, 著者との文書通信（2012）
Blair, Clancy, & Adele Diamond, Biological Processes in Prevention and Intervention: The
Promotion of Self-Regulation as a Means of Preventing School Failure, Development &Psychopathology, vol. 20（3）, pp. 899−911（2008）
．

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Chang, Chun-Yen, 著者との文書通信（2012）．
Enoch, M.-A., J. F. Waheed, C. R. Harris, B. Albaugh, & D. Goldman, COMT Val158Met andCognition: Main Eﬀects and Interaction with Educational Attainment, Genes, Brain &Behavior, vol. 8（1）, pp. 36−42（2009）．
Frank, Michael J., & John A. Fosella,

Neurogenetics and Pharmacology of Learning,．
Motivation, and Cognition, Neuropsychopharmacology, vol. 36, pp. 133−152（2011）
Frank, Michael J., Ahmed A. Moustafa, Heather M. Haughey, Tim Curran, & Kent E.
Hutchinson,

Genetic Triple Dissociation Reveals Multiple Roles for Dopamine in

Reinforcement Learning, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 104（41）,
pp. 16311−16316（2007）．
Kennedy, Q., J. L. Taylor, A. Noda, M. Adamson, G. M. Murphy, J. M. Zeitzer, & J. A.
Yesavage, The Roles of COMT Val158Met Status and Aviation Expertise in Flight
Simulator Performance and Cognitive Ability, Behavior Genetics, vol. 41（5）, pp. 700−
708（2011）．
Kennedy, Quinn, 著者によるインタビュー（2011）．
Krugel, Lea K., Guido Biele, Peter N. C. Mohr, Shu-Chen Li, & Hauke R. Heekeren, Genetic
Variation in Dopaminergic Neuromodulation Influences the Ability to Rapidly and（42）,
Flexibly Adapt Decisions, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 106
pp. 17951−17956（2009）．
Malhotra, Anil K., Lisa J. Kestler, Chiara Mazzanti, John A. Bates, Terry Goldberg, & David
Goldman, A Functional Polymorphism in the COMT Gene and Performance on a Testof Prefrontal Cognition, American Journal of Psychiatry, vol. 159（4）, pp. 652−654（2002）．
Yeh, Ting-Kuang, Chun-Yen Chang, Chung-Yi Hu, Ting-Chi Yeh, & Ming-Yeh Lin,
Association of Catechol-O-Methyltransferase（COMT）Polymorphism and Academic
Achievement in a Chinese Cohort, Brain & Cognition, vol. 71（3）, pp. 300−305（2009）．
■

COMTに対するエストロゲンの効果／ストレス反応の男女差ストレスにおける男女の違いの詳細については，第 9 章の参考文献を参照のこと．

Brizendine, Louann, The Female Brain, New York: Three Rivers Press（2006）．
Chen, Jingshan, Barbara K. Lipska, Nader Halim, Quang D. Ma, Mitsuyuki Matsumoto,Samer Melhem, Bhaskar S. Kolachana, Thomas M. Hyde, Mary M. Herman, Jose Apud,
Michael F. Egan, Joel E. Kleinman, & Daniel R. Weinberger,

Functional Analysisof Genetic Variation in Catechol-O-Methyltransferase（COMT）: Effects on mRNA,
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25

High Estradiol Levels, European Neuropsychopharmacology（in press）（2012）．
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26

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アンソン・ドランスとノースカロライナ大学女子サッカーチーム■

Crothers, Tim, The Man Watching: Anson Dorrance and the University of North Carolina．
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Dateline: Greensboro, N.C., December 7, 1997,

Sports Illustrated, p. 34（12/15/1997）．
第５章
公職選への立候補にみられる男女差■

Adams, Brian E., & Ronnee Schreiber, Gender, Campaign Finance, and Electoral Success in
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Beck on Landrieu:

Weʼre with a High-Class Prostitute,Media Matters, http://bit.

ly/6NyzzV（11/23/2009）．
．
Begala, Paul, 著者によるインタビュー（2011）
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27

Bureau of Labor Statistics, U.S. Department of Labor, Occupational Outlook Handbook, 2012−
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Media Matters, http://bit.ly/PDenSA（11/23/2009）．

．
Eller, Jeﬀrey, 著者によるインタビュー（2011）
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Fox, Richard L., & Jennifer L. Lawless, Entering the Arena? Gender and the Decision to
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To Run or Not to Run for Office: Explaining（3）, pp. 642−
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Fulton, Sarah A., Running Backwards and in High Heels: The Gendered Quality Gap andIncumbent Electoral Success, Political Research Quarterly, vol. 65（2）, pp. 303−314（2012）．
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School Boards Circa 2010: Governance in the

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Emerson, Sowers Reach$1 Million in Campaign Funding,

Missourian, http://bit.ly/ODFCQV（7/18/2010）．

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28

Southeast

Keller, Rudi, Sowers Shrinking Fundraising Gap with Emerson, Southeast Missourian,
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Savage Dubs Sen. Snowe

Jezebelʼ for Finance Committee Health Care Vote,

Media

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Smith, Adrienne R., Beth Reingold, & Michael Leo Owens, The Political Determinants of
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U.S. House Missouri, District 8, MSNBC.com, http://on-msn.com/OMWJ19（8/31/2012）．
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状況に応じた競争心における男女差■

Adler, Amy B., Ann H. Huffman, Paul D. Bliese, & Carl Andrew Castro, The Impact of
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Risk Taking and Attractiveness in Chess, IZA Discussion Paper No. 5314, Institute for
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31

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男性よりも平均で 1 万ドル少ないことを明らかにしている）．
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Decision Making, Risk and Gender: Are Managers

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Gender Behavior in Betting

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32

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Negotiation

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Reback, Charles, & Kristin Stowe, Unnatural Experiments: The Case of the TelevisionGame Show, Applied Economic Letters, vol. 18（10）, pp. 919-923（2011）（『ジェパディ！』で勝利した女性の獲得賞金が，男性よりも平均で1000ドル少ないことを明らかにしているが，女性が男性よりもこのクイズの競争者として優れていないことがその理由である可能性があると主張している）．
Reuben, Ernesto, Pedro Rey-Biel, Paolo Sapienza, & Luigi Zingales, The Emergence ofMale Leadership in Competitive Environments,

Journal of Economic Behavior &Organization, vol. 83（1）, pp. 111−117（2012）．
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競争的教育環境への反応における男女差■

Angrist, Joshua, & Victor Lavy, The Effects of High Stakes High School Achievement
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Barankay, Iwan, Gender Diﬀerences in Productivity Responses to Performance Rankings:
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Cotton, Christopher, Frank McIntyre, & Joseph Price,

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Deming, David J., Justine S. Hastings, Thomas Kane, & Douglas Staiger, School Choice andCollege Attendance: Evidence from Randomized Lotteries, DHKS Draft（2009）．
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SchoolChoice, School Quality, and Postsecondary Attainment, American Economic Review（forthcoming）（July 2012）．
Dobbie, Will, & Ronald G. Fryer Jr.,Are High-Quality Schools Enough to Increase

Achievement Among the Poor? Evidence from the Harlem Childrenʼs Zone, American
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Guggenheim, Davis（dir.）, Waiting for Superman, Participant Productions / Walden Media /Paramount, Film（2010）．
Han, Li, & Tao Li,

The Gender Difference of Peer Influence in Higher Education,

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33

Economics of Education Review, vol. 28（1）, pp. 129−134（2009）（女性のルームメイト
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Hastings, Justine S., Thomas Kane, & Douglas O. Staiger,

Gender and Performance:

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American Economic

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ウォール街における男女差，100万分の1の確率への挑戦■

Begala, Paul, 著者によるインタビュー（2011）．
Bosquet, Katrien, Peter de Goeij, & Kristien Smedts, Trading on Gender Heterogeneity inAnalyst Recommendations: A Proﬁtable Investment Strategy? Paper Presentation at
Annual Meeting of Financial Management Assn., Denver（2011）．
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Carrey, Jim, Lauren Holly（perfs.）, Farrelly, Peter（dir.）, Bennett Yellin, Bobby Farrelly,Peter Farrelly（scrs.）, Dumb and Dumber, New Line Cinema, Film（1994）［ピーター・
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Harvey, Campbell R., Khalil Mohammed, & Sandy Rattray,

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to Audit Committee Directorʼs Gender: Evidence from U.S.-Traded Foreign Firms,
International Journal of Banking & Finance, vol. （8 1）, art. 4（2011）．
Ittonen, Kim, Johanna Miettinen, & Sami Vähämaa, Does Female Representation on Audit
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Kumar, Alok, 著者との文書通信（2011）．
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Kumar, Alok, 著者によるインタビュー（2011）
Kumar, Alok,

Self-Selection and the Forecasting Abilities of Female Equity Analysts,

Journal of Accounting, vol. 48（3）, pp. 393−435（Supp. 2010）．
Levi, Maurice, Kai Li, & Feng Zhang,

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Michalaszek, Agata, & Joanna Sokolowska, The Relative Input of Payoﬀs and Probabilities
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第６章
ムザファー・シェリフのロバーズ・ケイブ実験■

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集団の中での成長，2人組の中での成長■

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きょうだい間の争い■

私たちは共著『NurtureShock』［『間違いだらけの子育て』小松淳子訳（インターシフト，
2011）］の一章全体を，きょうだい間の争いについての考察に割いた．きょうだい間の争いの本質，きょうだい間の口喧嘩への対処方法についての研究結果などについて詳しく記載しているので，ぜひ同書の当該章をご覧いただきたい（本書で簡単に言及した，きょうだい間の争いの頻度についての 2 件の研究についても，詳しく取り上げている）．
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Punch, Samantha,

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Schade, Christian, & Sabrina Boewe, Characterizing the Female Entrepreneur: Comparing
Behavior in a Market Entry Experiment with Other Groups of Individuals, Frontiers ofEntrepreneurship Research, vol. 30（8）, art. 8.（2010）．
Stenstrom, Eric, Gad Saad, Marcelo V. Nepomuceno, & Zack Mendenhall, Testosterone
and Domain-Speciﬁc Risk: Digit Ratios（2D:4D and rel2）as Predictors of Recreational,
Financial, and Social Risk-Taking Behaviors, Personality & Individual Diﬀerences, vol.

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51
（4）, pp. 412−416（2011）．
Tobet, Stuart, J. Gabriel Knoll, Cheryl Hartshorn, Emily Aurand, Matthew Stratton, Pankaj
Kumar, Brian Searcy, & Kristy McClellan,

Brain Sex Differences and Hormone

Inﬂuences: A Moving Experience?, Journal of Neuroendocrinology, vol. 21（4）, pp. 387−
392（2009）．
Trahms, Cheryl A., Does Biology Matter? How Prenatal Testosterone, Entrepreneurial Risk
Propensity, Entrepreneur Risk Perception, Inﬂuence Venture Performance, Frontiersof Entrepreneurship Research, vol. 30（5）, art. 4（2010）．
Unger, Jens M., Andreas Rauch, Jayanth Narayanan, Sophie Weis, & Michael Frese, Does
Prenatal Testosterone Predict Entrepreneurial Success? Relationships of 2d:4d andBusiness Success（Summary）, Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, vol. 29（5）, art.
15（2009）．
Zheng, Zhengui, & Martin J. Cohn,

Developmental Basis of Sexually Dimorphic Digit

Ratios, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 108（39）, pp. 16289−16294（2011）．
第７章
スウォッチ，ファイターブランド，起業アプローチ■

The Amazing Adventures of the Second Watch,ʼ

Swatch Group, http://bit.ly/Rss6w2（u.d.）．
Barrett, M. Edgar,

Time Marches On: The Worldwide Watch Industry,Thunderbird

International Business Review, vol. 42（3）, pp. 349−373（2000）．
Burmeister, Katrin, & Christian Schade, Are Entrepreneursʼ Decisions More Biased? An
Experimental Investigation of the Susceptibility to Status Quo Bias, Journal of Business
Venturing, vol. 22（3）, pp. 340−362（2007）．
Hyatt, Josh, And in This Corner, the Price-Fighter, CFO Magazine, http://bit.ly/S3Ra3c（12/1/2008）．
Jost, Peter-J., The Use of Fighter Brands to Thwart New Entrants, GEABA Discussion
Paper 10−3（2010）．
Ketchen, David J., Jr., Charles C. Snow, & Vera L. Hoover,Research on Competitive

Dynamics: Recent Accomplishments and Future Challenges, Journal of Management,
vol. 30（6）, pp. 779−804（2004）．
Long, Mary M., & Leon G. Schiﬀman, Swatch Fever: An Allegory for Understanding theParadox of Collecting, Psychology & Marketing, vol. 14（5）, pp. 495−509（1997）．
Mattarella-Micke, Andrew, Jill Mateo, Megan N. Kozak, Katherine Foster, & Sian L. Beilock,
Choke or Thrive? The Relation between Salivary Cortisol and Math Performance
Depends on Individual Diﬀerences in Working Memory and Math-Anxiety, Emotion,
vol. 11（4）, pp. 1000−1005（2011）．
Mudambi, Ram, Branding Time: Swatch and Global Brand Management, ICFAI Journal ofManagement, vol. 2（2）, pp. 39−54（2005）
．

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43

Raasch, Christina,

Launching a Fighter Brand to Cushion Patent Expiry: The Case of

Zocor, Journal of Medical Marketing: Device, Diagnostic & Pharmaceutical Marketing,vol. 8, pp. 119−126（2008）．
Ritson, Mark, Is Your Fighter Brand Strong Enough to Win the Battle?, Advertising Age,
http://bit.ly/PTTkgi（10/13/2009）．
Ritson, Mark,One Fighter Brand Strategy that Just Might Work,

Branding Strategy

Insider, http://bit.ly/OwImgQ（12/1/2008）．
Ritson, Mark, Should You Launch a Fighter Brand? Harvard Business Review , reprint
R0910K（Oct. 2009）．
Swatch Group History（Yesterday）, Swatch Group, http://bit.ly/16lZW9（u.d.）．
Truong, Lynn, 5 Reasons Fighter Brands Fail, American Express OPEN Forum, http://
amex.co/JU4y0T（2/11/2010）．
Tutton, Mark,Businesses Hit Back withFighter Brands,ʼ

CNN.com, http://bit.

ly/14BDX3（10/5/2009）．
Wallace, J. Craig, Laura M. Little, Aaron D. Hill, & Jason W. Ridge, CEO Regulatory Foci,
Environmental Dynamism, and Small Firm Performance, Journal of Small Business
Management, vol. 48（4）, pp. 580−604（2010）．
スポーツにおける「勝つためのプレー」対「負けないためのプレー」■

テニスを題材にしたアルスター大学の研究は，政治家に立候補する女性についてのフルトンの研究に類似する，興味深い結果を導いている．グランドスラムにおいて，女子テニス選手は，
ネットプレーをするときに，男子選手よりも計算高く，確実にポイントがとれると判断したときにしか前に出ようとしない．これに対し，男子は女子よりもネットプレーをする割合が高く，そのために試合で多くのポイントを得ている（OʼDonoghue & Ingram）．
Amelie Mauresmo / Activity, Womenʼs Tennis Assn. / WTATennis.com, http://bit.ly/
N2CqhN（u.d.）．
Amelie Mauresmo, Wimbledon,

ASAP Sports Transcripts, http://bit.ly/PTTvZ4（7/8/2006）．
Combative Mauresmo Buries Demons to Prove Herself as Worldʼs Best, Scotsman, http://
bit.ly/T0tKsV（7/10/2006）．
Garber, Greg,

Exorcising Demons of Doubt,

ESPN.com, http://es.pn/QGOWoD（7/13/2006）．
Goﬀ, J., J. D. Foster, M. S. Gordon, & C. S. Brown, Regulatory Focus and the Goal Looms
Largerʼ Eﬀect in Major League Baseball, Paper Presentation at Annual Meeting of theSociety for Personality and Social Psychology, Tampa, FL（2009）．
Harlow, Phil, Gamewatch: Mauresmo v. Henin-Hardenne, BBC Sport, http://bbc.in/RvBrr2（7/8/2006）．
．
Highlights: Wimbledon Womenʼs Final, BBC Sport, http://bbc.in/O7Qxzp（7/8/2006）
Justine Henin / Activity, Womenʼs Tennis Assn. / WTATennis.com, http://bit.ly/OAN5fU（2012）
．

競争の科学

44

Justine Henin, Wimbledon, ASAP Sports Transcripts, http://bit.ly/PDccE3（7/8/2006）．
Match Statistics, Archive of Wimbledon Oﬃcial Site, http://bit.ly/R0cm30（2007）．
Mauresmo Overcomes Nerves, Wins Wimbledon, AP via NBC Sports, http://on.msnbc.
com/QGPkDL（7/9/2006）．
Mauresmo Wins Wimbledon for First Time, ESPN.com, http://es.pn/N2CDBx（7/8/2006）．
OʼDonoghue, Peter, Research Methods for Sports Performance Analysis, New York: Routledge（2010）．
OʼDonoghue, Peter, & Billy Ingram,

A Notational Analysis of Elite Tennis Strategy,

Journal of Sports Science, vol. 19（2）, pp. 107−115（2001）．
Paserman, M. Danielle, Gender Diﬀerences in Performance in Competitive Environments:
Evidence from Professional Tennis Players, IZA Discussion Paper No. 2834, http://bit.
ly/PvNd12（June 2007）．
Paserman, M. Danielle, Gender Diﬀerences in Performance in Competitive Environments:
Evidence from Professional Tennis Players, http://bit.ly/TCgsQY（2010）．
Pope, Devin G., & Maurice E. Schweitzer, Is Tiger Woods Loss Averse? Persistent Bias in
the Face of Experience, Competition, and High Stakes, American Economic Review,
vol. 101（1）, pp. 129−157（2011）．
Rally Propels Mauresmo to First Fitle at Wimbledon, AP via USA Today, http://usat.ly/
PDjLVP（7/14/2006）．
Tennis̶ List of Wimbledon Womenʼs Singles Champions, Reuters UK, http://reut.rs/
KPlZ8G（7/21/2012）．
■「獲得型志向」と「防御型志向」をめぐる心理学理論の歴史

Appelt, Kirstin C., & E. Tory Higgins,

My Way: How Strategic Preferences Vary by

Negotiator Role and Regulatory Focus, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol.
46（6）, pp. 1138−1142（2010）．
Atkinson, John W., The Achievement Motive and Recall of Interrupted and Completed
Tasks, Journal of Experimental Psychology, vol. 46（6）, pp. 381−390（1953）．
Atkinson, John W., Motivational Determinants of Risk-Taking Behavior, Psychological
Review, vol. 64（6）, pp. 359−372（1957）．
Brockner, Joel, E. Tory Higgins, & Murray B. Low, Regulatory Focus Theory and theEntrepreneurial Process, Journal of Business Venturing, vol. 19（2）, pp. 203−220（2004）．
Crowe, Ellen, & E. Tory Higgins, Regulatory Focus and Strategic Inclinations: Promotion
and Prevention in Decision-Making,

Organizational Behavior & Human Decision

Processes, vol. 69（2）, pp. 117−132（1997）．
Cunningham, William,

Motivation and the Amygdala: Goals Shape Activation,

Paper

Presentation at Annual Convention of Assn. for Psychological Science, San Francisco（2009）．
Cunningham, William A., Carol L. Raye, & Marcia K. Johnson,

Neural Correlates of

Evaluation Associated with Promotion and Prevention Regulatory Focus, Cognitive,

競争の科学

45

Aﬀective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, vol. 5（2）, pp. 202−211（2005）．
Cunningham, William A., Jay J. Van Bavel, & Ingrid R. Johnsen,

Affective Flexibility:

Evaluative Processing Goals Shape Amygdala Activity, Psychological Science, vol. 19（2）,
pp. 152-160（2008）．
Eddington, Kari M., Florin Dolcos, Amy Noll McLean, K. Ranga Krishman, Roberto Cabeza,& Timothy J. Strauman, Neural Correlates of Idiographic Goal Priming in Depression:
Goal-Speciﬁc Dysfunctions In the Orbitofrontal Cortex, Social Cognitive and Aﬀective
Neuroscience, vol. 4, pp. 238-246（2009）．
Elliot, Andrew J.,

Approach and Avoidance Motivation and Achievement Goals,

Educational Psychologist, vol. 34（3）, pp. 169−189（1999）．
Elliot, Andrew J., & Marcy A. Church, A Hierarchical Model of Approach and Avoidance
Achievement Motivation, Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, vol. 72（1）, pp.
218−232（1997）．
Elliot, Andrew J., & Martin V. Covington,

Approach and Avoidance Motivation,

Educational Psychology Review, vol. 13（2）, pp. 73−92（2001）．
Elliot, Andrew J., & Todd M. Thrash,

Approach-Avoidance Motivation in Personality:

Approach and Avoidance Temperaments and Goals, Journal of Personality & Social, pp. 804−818（2002）．
Psychology, vol. 82（5）Higgins, E. Tory, Beyond Pleasure and Pain, American Psychologist, vol. 52（12）, pp. 1280−
1300（1997）．
Packer, Dominic J., & William A. Cunningham, Neural Correlates of Reflection on Goal
States: The Role of Regulatory Focus and Temporal Distance, Social Neuroscience, vol.
（5）, pp. 412-425（2009）．
4
Rutherford, Helena J. V., & Annukka K. Lindell, Thriving and Surviving: Approach andAvoidance Motivation and Lateralization,

Emotion Review, vol. 3（3）, pp. 333-343（2011）．
Schlund, Michael W., Sandy Magee, & Caleb D. Hudgins, Human Avoidance and Approach
Learning: Evidence for Overlapping Neural Systems and Experiential Avoidance
Modulation of Avoidance Neurocircuitry, Behavioural Brain Research, vol. 225（2）, pp.
437−448（2011）．
Schmeichel, Brandon J., Cindy Harmon-Jones, & Eddie Harmon-Jones,

Exercising Self-

Control Increases Approach Motivation, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
vol. 99（1）, pp. 162−173（2010）．
Scholer, Abigail A., Xi Zou, Kentaro Fujita, Steven J. Stroessner, & E. Tory Higgins, When
Risk Seeking Becomes a Motivational Necessity,

Journal of Personality & Social

Psychology, vol. 99（2）, pp. 215−231（2010）．
Taylor Bianco, Amy, E. Tory Higgins, & Adena Klem,

How

Fun/Importanceʼ Fit

Aﬀects Performance: Relating Implicit Theories to Instructions, Personality & Social
Psychology Bulletin, vol. 29（9）, pp. 1091−1103（2003）．
Vickery, Timothy J., Marvin M. Chuh, & Daeyeol Lee,

競争の科学

46

Ubiquity and Specificity ofReinforcement Signals throughout the Human Brain, Neuron, vol. 72（1）, pp. 166−177（2011）．
Zhang, Shu, E. Tory Higgins, & Guoquan Chen, Managing Others Like You Were Managed:
How Prevention Focus Motivates Copying Interpersonal Norms, Journal of Personality& Social Psychology, vol. 100（4）, pp. 647−663（2011）．
■「脅威」対「挑戦」「脅威」と「挑戦」の違いについて詳しくは，Wendy Berry Mendes，Jim Blascovich，および脅威と挑戦の心理学に関する第 8 章の参考文献を参照のこと．
これを接戦についての前述の議論と結びつけるのが，PGAに出場するゴルフ選手が，接戦ではリスクを多く取る傾向があることを発見したBrownとLi の研究（2010）である．勝っている側が負ける可能性がほとんどない場合，勝っている側も，負けている側も，どちらも保守的にプレーをする傾向がある．
どちらが勝つかわからない接戦の場合，両者は競争を挑戦だと知覚する．しかし，実力差がある場合，どちらも脅威的状況にあると知覚する場合がある．つまり，下馬評が高い方は勝って当然というプレシャーを感じ（脅威），低い方は恥ずかしい結果を避けようとする（脅威）．
Worthyらは，NBAを対象にして，サッカーのPK戦を対象にした研究に相当する，興味深
い結果を見いだした．NBAの選手は，チームが 1 ポイントリードされているときとリードしている場合に，フリースローの成功率（選手生活全体の平均成功率との対比）が下がる．また同点時は，それよりもさらに下がる．
Aarts, Henk, Ruud Custers, & Rob W. Holland, Nonconscious Cessation of Goal Pursuit:
When Goals and Negative Aﬀect Are Coactivated, Journal of Personality and Social
Psychology, vol. 92（2）, pp. 165−178（2007）．
Berndt, Thomas J., Prosocial Behavior between Friends in Middle Childhood and Early
Adolescence, Journal of Early Adolescence, vol. （5 3）, pp. 307−317（1985）．
Berndt, Thomas J., T. Bridgett Perry, & Kristelle E. Miller,

Friendsʼ and Classmatesʼ

Interactions on Academic Tasks, Journal of Educational Psychology, vol. 80（4）, pp. 506−
513（1988）．
Brown, Jennifer, & Jin Li, Going for It: The Adoption of Risky Strategies in Tournaments,
Working Paper（2010）．
Chalabaev, Aïna, Brenda Major, Phillippe Sarrazin, & François Cury,

When Avoiding

Failure Improves Performance: Stereotype Threat and the Impact of Performance
Goals, Motivation & Emotion, vol. 36（2）, pp. 130−142（2012）．
Gramzow, Richard H., Greg Willard, & Wendy Berry Mendes, Big Tales and Cool Heads:
Academic Exaggeration Is Related to Cardiac Vagal Reactivity, Emotion, vol. 8
（1）
, pp.
138−144（2008）．
Grimm, Lisa R., Arthur B. Markman, & W. Todd Maddox, End-of-Semester Syndrome: How
Situational Regulatory Fit Affects Test Performance over an Academic Semester,
Basic & Applied Social Psychology, vol. 34（4）, pp. 376-385（2012）．
Halevy, Nir, Eileen Y. Chou, & Adam D. Galinsky, Exhausting or Exhilarating? Conflict

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47

as Threat to Interests, Relationships and Identities, Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, vol. 48（2）, pp. 530−537（2012）．
Halko, Marja-Liisa, Yevhen Hlushchuk, Riitta Hari, & Martin Schürmann, Competing with
Peers: Mentalizing-Related Brain Activity Reﬂects What Is at Stake, NeuroImage, vol.
46（2）, pp. 542−548（2009）．
Jones, Marc, Carla Mijen, Paul Joseph McCarthy, & David Sheﬃeld, A Theory of Challenge
and Threat States in Athletes, International Review of Sport and Exercise Psychology,
vol. （2 2）, pp. 1611−80（2009）．
Jordet, Geir,

When Superstars Flop: Public Status and Choking under Pressure inInternational Soccer Penalty Shootouts, Journal of Applied Sports Psychology, vol. 21（2）,
pp. 125−130（2009）．
Jordet, Geir, Why Do English Players Fail in Soccer Penalty Shootouts? A Study of Team
Status, Self-Regulation, and Choking under Pressure, Journal of Sports Sciences, vol. 27（2）, pp. 97−106（2009）．
Jordet, Geir, & Esther Hartman, Avoidance Motivation and Choking under Pressure in
Soccer Penalty Shootouts, Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, vol. 30（4）, pp. 450−457（2008）．
Jordet, Geir, Esther Hartman, & Einar Sigmundstad, Temporal Links to Performing under
Pressure in International Soccer Penalty Shootouts, Psychology of Sport & Exercise, vol.
10（6）, pp. 621−627（2009）．
Jordet, Geir, Esther Hartman, & Pieter Jelle Vuijk,

Team History and Choking under

Pressure in Major Soccer Penalty Shootouts, British Journal of Psychology, vol. 103（2）,
pp. 268−283（2012）．
Radke, Sina, F. P. de Lange, M. Ullsperger, & E. R. A. de Bruijn, Mistakes that Affect
Others: An fMRI Study on Processing of Own Errors in a Social Context, Experimental
Brain Research, vol. 211（3−4）, pp. 405−413（2011）．
Schapiro, Michelle, Barry H. Schneider, Bruce M. Shore, Judith A. Margison, & Stephen
J. Udvari, Competitive Goal Orientations, Quality, and Stability in Gifted and Other
Adolescentsʼ Friendships : A Test of Sullivanʼs Theory about the Harm Caused by（2）, pp. 71−88（2009）．
Rivalry, Gifted Child Quarterly, vol. 53
Schneider, Barry H., Joyce Benenson, Márta Fülöp, Mihaly Berkics, & Mónika Sándor,
Cooperation and Competition, In: P. K. Smith & C. H. Hart
（Eds.）, The Wiley-Blackwell
Handbook of Childhood Social Development, 2nd Ed., ch. 25, pp. 472−490（2011）．
Williams, Jay, Cutting Edge Research: PK Shootouts, Pressure, and Choking, Science of．
Soccer Online, http://bit.ly/OMY7Rq（9/4/2008）
Worthy, Darrell A., Arthur B. Markman, & W. Todd Maddox, Choking and Excelling at theFree Throw Line, International Journal of Creativity and Problem Solving, vol. 19, pp.
53−58（2009）．

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ミスの神経科学■

監視中の前帯状皮質（ACC）の役割については詳しく説明したが，エラー後の反応は神経回路網が関連する．たとえば，ACCの活性化に続いて活性化する脳領域の 1 つは扁桃体である（Pourtoisら，2010）．このことは，人間がミスを恐怖と結びつけて理解することの理由を説明するかもしれない．おそらく難しいのは，恐怖がミスの結果として生じたものなのか，ミスの原因なのかを区別することである．
より専門的な分析をすれば，ミス後の脳の電気的反応の低下は，科学論文では「エラー関連
陰性電位（ERN：Error-Related Negativity）」と呼ばれる．ERNの後，「Pe」（正の増加）が生じる．学習が生じると考えられているのは，このPeの前後である．また，ミスを外部から指摘された場合の「フィードバック関連陰性電位」（FRN：Feedback Related Negativity）もある．ただし，私たち筆者にとってより興味深かったのは，外部の警告なしに脳がエラーを知覚する頻度であった．
Boksem, Maarten A. S., Evelien Kostermans, & David De Cremer, Failing Where Others
Have Succeeded: Medial Frontal Negativity Tracks Failure in a Social Context,
Psychophysiology, vol. 48（7）, pp. 973−979（2011）．
Boksem, Maarten A. S., Kirsten I. Ruys, & Henk Aarts, Facing Disapproval: Performance
6 4）, pp. 360−368（2011）．
Monitoring in a Social Context, Social Neuroscience, vol. （Cavanaugh, James F., Michael J. Frank, & John J. B. Allen, Social Stress Reactivity Alters
Reward and Punishment Learning, Social, Cognitive, & Aﬀective Neuroscience, vol. （6 3）,
pp. 311−320（2011）．
Cavanaugh, James F., Michael J. Frank, Theresa J. Klein, & John J. B. Allen, Frontal Theta
Links Prediction Errors to Behavioral Adaptation in Reinforcement Learning, NeuroImage, vol. 49（4）, pp. 3198−3209（2010）．
Cavanaugh, James F., Laura Zambrano-Vazques, & John J. B. Allen, Theta Lingua Franca:
A Common Mid-Frontal Substrate for Action Monitoring Processes, Psychophysiology,
vol. 49（2）, pp. 220−238（2012）．
de Bruijn, Ellen R. A., Floris P. de Lange, D. Yves von Cramon, & Markus Ullsperger, When．
Errors Are Rewarding, Journal of Neuroscience, vol. 29（39）, pp. 12183−12186（2009）de Bruijn, Ellen R. A., Stephan F. Miedl, & Harold Bekkering,

Fast Responders Have

Blinders On: ERP Correlates of Response Inhibition in Competition, Cortex, vol. 44（5）,
pp. 580−586（2008）．
de Bruijn, Ellen R. A., Stephan F. Miedl, & Harold Bekkering,

How a Co-actorʼs Task

Aﬀects Monitoring of Own Errors, Experimental Brain Research, vol. 211（3−4）, pp.
397−404（2011）．
de Bruijn, Ellen R. A., Rogler B. Mars, & Harold Bekkering, Your Mistake Is My Mistake or
Is It? Behavioural Adjustments Following Own and Observed Actions in Cooperativeand Competitive Contexts, Quarterly Journal of Experimental Psychology, vol. 65（2）,pp. 317−325（2012）．
Decenty, Jean, Philip L. Jackson, Jessica A. Sommerville, Thierry Chaminade, & Andrew N.
Meltzoﬀ, The Neural Bases of Cooperation and Competition: An fMRI Investigation,

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NeuroImage, vol. 23（2）, pp. 744−751（2004）．
Dhar, Monica, Jan Roelf Wiersema, & Gilles Pourtois, Cascade of Neural Events Leadingfrom Error Commission to Subsequent Awareness Revealed Using EEG Source
Imaging, PLoS ONE, vol. 6（5）, e19578, doi:10.1371/journalpone0019578
Frank, Michael J., Christopher DʼLauro, & Tim Curran, Cross-Task Individual Diﬀerencesin Error Processing: Neural, Electrophysiological, and Genetic Components, Cognitive,Aﬀective, & Behavioral Neuroscience, vol. （7 4）, pp. 297−308（2007）．
Frank, Michael J., Brion S. Woroch, & Tim Curran,

Error-Related Negativity Predicts

Reinforcement Learning and Conﬂict Biases, Neuron, vol. 47（4）, pp. 495−501（2005）．
Gu, Ruolei, Yue Ge, Yang Jiang, & Yue-Jia Luo, Anxiety and Outcome Evaluation: The
Good, the Bad and the Ambiguous, Biological Psychology, vol. 85（3）, pp. 200−206（2010）．
Gu, Ruolei, Tingting Wu, Yang Jiang, & Yue-Jia Luo,

Woulda, Coulda, Shoulda: The

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Hajcak, Greg, & Dan Foti,

Errors Are Aversive Defensive Motivation and the Error-

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Holroyd, Clay B., Kaivon L. Pakzad-Vaezi, & Olave E. Krigolson, The Feedback CorrectRelated Positivity: Sensitivity of the Event-Related Brain Potential to Unexpected
Positive Feedback, Psychophysiology, vol. 45（5）, pp. 688−697（2008）．
Hyman, James Michael, Michael Erik Hasselmo, & Jeremy Keith Seamans,

What Isthe Functional Relevance of Prefrontal Cortex Entrainment to Hippocampal Theta
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Rhythms?, Frontiers in Neuroscience, vol. （Kang, Sonia K., Jacob B. Hirsh, & Alison L. Chasteen, Your Mistakes Are Mine: Self-Other
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Meyer, Alexandria, Anna Weinberg, Daniel N. Klein, & Greg Hajcak, The Development of
the Error-Related Negativity（ERN）and Its Relationship with Anxiety: Evidence from
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Moser, Jason S., Greg Hajcak, & Robert F. Simons, The Eﬀects of Fear on Performance
Monitoring and Attentional Allocation,

Psychophysiology, vol. 42（3）, pp. 261−268（2005）．
Moser, Jason S., Hans S. Schroder, Carrie Heeter, Tim P. Moran, & Yu-Hao Lee, MindYour Errors: Evidence for a Neural Mechanism Linking Growth Mind-Set to Adaptive
Posterror Adjustments, Psychological Science, vol. 22（12）, pp. 1484−1489（2011）．
Mowrer, Samantha M., Andrew A. Jahn, Amir Abdulhalil, & William A. Cunningham, The
Value of Success: Acquiring Gains, Avoiding Losses, and Simply Being Successful,
PLoS ONE, vol. 6（9）, e25307, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0025307
Petzold, Antje, Franziska Plessow, Thomas Goschke, & Clemens Kirschbaum,

StressReduces Use of Negative Feedback in a Feedback-Based Learning Task, Behavioral

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Neuroscience, vol. 124（2）, pp. 248−255（2010）．
Potts, Geoffrey F., Laura E. Martin, Philip Burton, & P. Read Montague, When Things
Are Better or Worse Than Expected: The Medial Frontal Cortex and the Allocation ofProcessing Resources, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, vol. 18（7）, pp. 1112−1119（2006）．
Pourtois, Gilles, Roland Vocat, Karin NʼDiaye, Laurent Spinelli, Margitta Seeck, & Patrik
Vuilleumier,

Errors Recruit Both Cognitive and Emotional Monitoring Systems:

Simultaneous Intracranial Recordings in the Dorsal Anterior Cingulate Gyrus andAmygdala Combined with fMRI, Neuropsychologia, vol. 48（4）, pp. 1144−1159（2010）．
Rigoni, Davide, David Polezzi, Rino Rumiati, Ramona Guarino, & Giuseppe Sartori, When
People Matter More Than Money: An ERPs Study,

Brain Research Bulletin, vol.

81（4− 5）, pp. 445−452（2010）．
Sailer, Uta, Florian Ph S. Fischmeister, & Herbert Bauer, Eﬀects of Learning FeedbackRelated Brain Potentials in a Decision-Making Task, Brain Research, vol. 1342, pp. 85−
93（2010）．
Unger, Kerstin, Jutta Kray, & Axel Mecklinger, Worse Than Feared? Failure Induction
Modulates the Electrophysiological Signature of Error Monitoring during Subsequent（1）, pp. 34−55（2012）．
Learning, Cognitive, Aﬀective & Behavioral Neuroscience, vol. 12
van der Helden, Jurjen, Maarten A. S. Boksem, & Jorian H. G. Blom, The Importance ofFailure: Feedback-Related Negativity Predicts Motor Learning Efficiency, Cerebral
Cortex, vol. 20（7）, pp. 1596−1603（2010）．
Van Meel, Catharina S., & Caroline A. A. Van Heijningen, The Effect of Interpersonal
Competition on Monitoring Internal and External Error Feedback, Psychophysiology,
vol. 47（2）, pp. 213−222（2010）．
Wilson, Timothy D., David B. Centerbar, Deborah A. Kermer, & Daniel T. Gilbert,
The Pleasures of Uncertainty: Prolonging Positive Moods in Ways People Do Not
Anticipate, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 88（1）, pp. 5−21（2005）．
Zhou, Zhiheng, Rongjun Yu, & Xiaolin Zhou, To Do or Not to Do? Action Enlarges the FRN
and P300 Eﬀects in Outcome Evaluation, Neuropsychologia, vol. 48（12）, pp. 3606−3613（2010）．
■

2007年世界フィギュアスケート選手権
Canadian Pairs Struggle in Tokyo, TSN, http://bit.ly/PDdajI（3/21/2007）．

Kaye, Rosaleen, Shen and Zhao Win Third World Title, GoldenSkate.com, http://bit.ly/
IDoKCq（3/22/2007）．
Pairs Free Skating Judges Details per Skater,

ISUResults.com, http://bit.ly/OMYf3o（2007）．
Polesʼ Mishap Contagious for Canadians,

Montreal Gazette, http://bit.ly/RvBJOB（3/22/2007）．
Smith, Beverley, Pandemonium Rules in Pairs Final, The Globe & Mail, http://bit.ly/

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51

ODJAsA（3/21/2007）．
U.S. Skaters Stumble through Day to Forget,

AP via ESPN, http://es.pn/NFHeoQ（3/21/2007）．
■「獲得型志向」対「防御型志向」

Bjørnebekk, Gunnar, Torgrim Gjesme, & Robin Ulriksen,

Achievement Motives andEmotional Processes in Children during Problem-Solving: Two Experimental Studies of
Their Relation to Performance in Diﬀerent Achievement Goal Conditions, Motivation &Emotion, vol. 35（4）, pp. 351−367（2011）．
Chiaburu, Dan S., Chief Executivesʼ Self-Regulation and Strategic Orientation: A Theoretical
Model, European Management Journal, vol. 28（6）, pp. 467−478（2010）．
Hertel, Guido, Henk Aarts, & Marcel Zeelenberg, What Do You Think Is Fair ? Eﬀects
of Ingroup Norms and Outcome Control on Fairness Judgments, European Journal ofSocial Psychology, vol. 32（3）, pp. 327−341（2002）．
Lee, Angela Y., Punam Anand Keller, & Brian Sternthal, Value from Regulatory Construal
Fit: The Persuasive Impact of Fit between Consumer Goals and Message Concreteness,
Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 36（5）, pp. 735−747（2010）．
McMullen, J. S., D. Shepherd, & S. Zahra, Regulatory Focus and Executivesʼ Intentions
to Commit Their Firms to Entrepreneurial Action,

In: A. Zacharakis et al.（Eds.）,

Frontiers of Entrepreneurship Research, pp. 661−74, Babson Park, MA: Babson College（2006）．
Miele, David B., Daniel C. Molden, & Wendi L. Gardner,

Motivated Comprehension

Regulation: Vigilant versus Eager Metacognitive Control, vol. 37（6）, pp. 779−795（2009）．
Norem, Julie K., & Edward C. Chang, The Positive Psychology of Negative Thinking,
Journal of Clinical Psychology, vol. 58（9）, pp. 993−1001（2002）．
Righetti, Francesca, Catrin Finkenauer, & Caryl Rusbult, The Benefits of Interpersonal
Regulatory Fit for Individual Goal Pursuit, Journal of Personality and Social Psychology,
vol. 101（4）, pp. 720−736（2011）．
Scholer, Abigail A., Xi Zou, Kentaro Fujita, Steven J. Stroessner, & E. Tory Higgins, When
Risk Seeking Becomes a Motivational Necessity,

Journal of Personality & Social．
Psychology, vol. 99（2）, pp. 215−231（2010）
Shu, Tse-Mei, & Shui-fong Lam,Are Success and Failure Experiences Equally

Motivational? An Investigation of Regulatory Focus and Feedback,Learning &Individual Diﬀerences, vol. 21（6）, pp. 724−727（2011）．
Smith, Jessi L., Jill Wagaman, & Ian M. Handley,

Keeping It Dull or Making It Fun:

Task Variation as a Function of Promotion versus Prevention Focus, Motivation andEmotion, vol. 33（2）, pp. 150−160（2009）．
Ten Velden, Femke S., Bianca Beersma, & Carsten K. W. De Dreu, When Competition
Breeds Equality: Eﬀects of Appetitive versus Aversive Competition in Negotiation,

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52

Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 47（6）, pp. 1127−1133（2011）．
Wan, Echo Wen, Jiewen Hong, & Brian Sternthal, The Eﬀect of Regulatory Orientation andDecision Strategy on Brand Judgments, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 35（6）, pp.
1026−1038（2009）．
Zhu, Rui, & Joan Meyers-Levy,

Exploring the Cognitive Mechanism that Underlies（1）, pp. 89−96（2007）．
Regulatory Focus Eﬀects, Journal of Consumer Research, vol. 34
ウェスティングハウス・エレクトリック社■

Hindo, Brian,

Rewiring Westinghouse,

Business Week, http://buswk.co/NAnF7s（5/8/2008）．
Liedtka, Jeanne, 著者との文書通信（2012）．
Liedtka, Jeanne, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Liedtka, Jeanne, Robert H. Rosen, & Robert Wiltbank, The Catalyst: How You Can Become
an Extraordinary Growth Leader, New York: Crown Publishing（2009）．
Spanjol, Jelena, & Leona Tam, To Change or Not to Change: How Regulatory Focus Aﬀects
Change in Dyadic Decision-Making, Creativity and Innovation Management, vol. 19
（4）
, pp.
346−363（2010）（ウェスティングハウスが獲得型志向に変わったことについて言及している）．
Westinghouse Announces New Organizational Structure,

Press Release, http://bit.ly/

PDdJtR（2010）．
World View: Interview with Meena Mutyala, Westinghouse World View, pp. 10−13（Oct.
2007）．
創造プロセスでの神経科学■

Benedek, Mathias, Sabine Bergner, Tajan Könen, Andreas Fink, & Ajoscha C. Neubauer,
EEG Alpha Synchronization is Related to Top-Down Processing in Convergent andDivergent Thinking, Neuropsychologica, vol. 49（12）, pp. 3505-3511（2011）．
Berkowitz, Aaron L., & Daniel Ansari,Expertise-Related Deactivation of the Right

Temporoparietal Junction during Musical Improvisation, NeuroImage, vol. 49（1）, pp.
712−719（2010）．
Chakravarty, Ambar, The Creative Brain̶ Revisiting Concepts, Medical Hypothesis, vol.
74（3）, pp. 606−612（2010）．
Fink, Andreas, Karl Koschutnig, Mathias Benedek, Gernot Reishofer, Anja Ischebeck,Elisabeth M. Weiss, & Franz Ebner, Stimulating Creativity via the Expression to Other
Peopleʼs Ideas, Human Brain Mapping, vol. 33（11）, pp. 2603−2610（2011）．
Fink, Andreas, Daniela Schwab, & Ilona Papousek,

Sensitivity of EEG Upper Alpha

Activity Creativity Interventions, International Journal of Psychophysiology, vol. 82（3）,
pp. 233-239（2011）．

競争の科学

53

第８章
■

FedEx，幸運，起業物語の価値

Berger, Johannes, & Petra Nieken, Heterogeneous Contestants and Effort Provision in
Tournaments̶An Empirical Investigation with Professional Sports Data, SFB/TR 15
Discussion Paper No. 325, http://bit.ly/Q67A7q（2010）．
Damisch, Lysann, Barbara Stoberock, & Thomas Mussweiler, Keep Your Fingers Crossed!
How Superstition Improves Performance, Psychological Science, vol. 21（7）, pp. 1014−
1020（2010）．
Ersner-Hershﬁeld, Hal, Adam D. Galinsky, Laura J. Kray, & Brayden G. King, Company,
Country, Connections: Counterfactual Origins Increase Organizational Commitment,
Patriotism, and Social Investment, Psychological Science, vol. 21（10）, pp. 1479−1486（2010）．
Federal Express Honors Day Oneʼ Employees, FedEx Press Releases, http://at.fedex.
com/NAnNDQ（9/22/98）．
．
Fred Smith: An Overnight Success, Entrepreneur, http://bit.ly/RstGhz（10/9/2008）
Frederick W. Smith, About FedEx, FedEx, http://at.fedex.com/ODJYaw（2012）．
Frederick W. Smith: No Overnight Success,Business Week, http://buswk.co/OMGfs0（9/20/2004）．
Frock, Roger, Changing How the World Does Business: FedEx s Incredible Journey to
Success, San Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.（2006）．
Kopko, Ed, & Jeﬀrey Sonnenfeld, Whatʼs in a Leader? Forbes, http://onforb.es/NAoaOH（8/7/2007）．
Kräkel, Matthias, Optimal Risk Taking in an Uneven Tournament Game with Risk Averse
Players, Journal of Mathematical Economics, vol. 44（11）, pp. 1219−1231（2008）．
Lutsky, Neil S.,

Whatʼs Luck Got to Do with It? Social Comparison May Account forSuperstitionʼs Eﬀect on Performance, Poster Presentation at Annual Meeting of the．
Society for Personality & Social Psychology, San Diego（2012）
Smith, Fred, How I Delivered the Goods, Fortune Small Business（Oct 2002/reprint）．
Teigen, Karl Halvor, Luck: The Art of a Near Miss, Scandinavian Journal of Psychology,
vol. 37（2）, pp. 156−171（1996）．
Wohl, Michael J. A., Croyance en un Soi Chanceux: Effet de la Croyance en la Chance
Personnelle sur lʼÉmergence et le Maintien des Conduites de Jeu de Hasard et dʼArgent（Belief in a Lucky Self: The Role of Personal Luck in the Facilitation and Maintenanceof Gambling Behavior）, Psychologie Francaise, vol. 53（1）, pp. 7−23（2008）．
■

NASAとニアミス・バイアス
エド・ロジャース（Ed Rogers）へのインタビューは極めて価値の高いものであった．

DillonおよびTinsleyの研究のバックストーリーを説明するだけではなく，「発射熱」など，
NASAの手順の他の側面を描写するうえでも有用だった．
Columbia Accident Investigation Board Press Brieﬁng, Transcript, Washington, DC, http://1.

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54

usa.gov/O7SLic（8/26/2003）．
Decision Making at NASA, Columbia Accident Investigations Board Report, vol. 1, ch. 6,
http://1.usa.gov/57zF6i（2003）．
Dillon, Robin L., & Catherine H. Tinsley, How Near-Misses Influence Decision Making
under Risk: A Missed Opportunity for Learning, Management Science, vol. 54（8）, pp.
1425−1440（2008）．
Kunerth, Jeﬀ, & Michael Cabbage, NASAʼs Safety Culture Blamed, Baltimore Sun, http://
bit.ly/OAPg3k（8/27/2003）．
Madsen, Peter M., & Vint Desai, Failing to Learn? The Eﬀects of Failure and Success on
Organizational Learning in the Global Orbital Launch Vehicle Industry, Academy ofManagement Journal, vol. 53（3）, pp. 451−476（2010）．
Morris, Michael W., & Paul C. Moore, The Lessons We（Donʼt）Learn: CounterfactualThinking and Organizational Accountability after a Close Call, Administrative Science
Quarterly, vol. 45（4）, pp. 737−765（2000）．
Rogers, Edward, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Tinsley, Catherine H., Robin L. Dillon, & Peter M. Madsen, How to Avoid Catastrophe,
Harvard Business Review（Apr. 2011）．
Understanding Near-Misses at NASA, NASA Ask the Academy, http://1.usa.gov/PDfCXz（8/17/2006）．
Wohl, Michael J. A., & Michael E. Enzle, The Eﬀects of Near Wins and Near Losses on SelfPerceived Personal Luck and Subsequent Gambling Behavior, Journal of Experimental
Social Psychology, vol. 39（2）, pp. 184−191（2003）
．
心的比較

■

Epstude, Kai, & Johanna Peetz, Mental Time Travel: A Conceptual Overview of Social
Psychological Perspectives on a Fundamental Human Capacity, European Journal ofSocial Psychology, vol. 42（3）, pp. 269−275（2012）．
Summerville, Amy, & Neal J. Roese, Dare to Compare: Fact-Based versus Simulation-BasedComparison in Daily Life, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 44（3）, pp.
664−671（2008）．
不安――生理学と IZOF
（個人の最適機能ゾーン）．

■

不安を研究している研究者の多くが，怒りがパフォーマンスに及ぼす影響についてのレビューも行なっている．このため，怒りについてのセクションの参考文献も参照すること．
Aidman, Eugene, Competitive Anxiety: From Coping to Harvesting the Power of Stress,
The Sporting Mind, vol. 3（2）, pp. 11−14（2005）．
Cerin, Ester,Anxiety versus Fundamental Emotions as Predictors of Perceived

Functionality of Pre-Competitive Emotional States, Threat, and Challenge in IndividualSports, Journal of Applied Sports Psychology, vol. 15（3）, pp. 223−238（2003）．
Cerin, Ester, Attila Szabo, Nigel Hunt, & Clive Williams,

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55

Temporal Patterning ofCompetitive Emotions: A Critical Review, Journal of Sports Sciences, vol. 18（8）, pp. 605−
626（2000）．
Esfahani, N., & H. Gheze Soflu, The Comparison of Pre-Competitive Anxiety and State
Anger between Female and Male Volleyball Players, World Journal of Sport Sciences,vol. 3（4）, pp. 237−242（2010）．
Eubank, Martin, & Dave Collins, Coping with Pre-and In-Event Fluctuations in Competitive（2）, pp. 121−
State Anxiety: A Longitudinal Approach, Journal of Sports Science, vol. 18
131（2000）．
Fishbein, Martin, Susan E. Middlestadt, Victor Quatti, Susan Straus, & Alan Ellis, Medical
Problems among ICSOM Musicians: Overview of a National Survey, Medical Problemsof Performing Artists, vol. 3, pp. 1−8（1988）．
Goodman, Gordon, Actors and Fear: The Role of Stage Fright, unpublished dissertation（2011）．
Goodman, Gordon, 著者との文書通信（2012）．
Hagtveta, Knut A., & Yuri L. Hanin, Consistency of Performance-Related Emotions in Elite
Athletes: Generalizability Theory Applied to the IZOF Model, Psychology of Sport &Exercise, vol. 8（1）, pp. 47−72（2007）．
Hanin, Yuri L., Performance Related Emotional States in Sport: A Qualitative Analysis,
Qualitative Research, vol. 4（1）, art. 5（2003）．
Hanton, S., O. Thomas, & I. Maynard, Competitive Anxiety Responses in the Week Leading
Up to Competition: The Role of Intensity, Direction and Frequency Dimensions,
Psychology of Sport & Exercise, vol. 5（2）, pp. 169−181（2004）．
Hanton, Shelton, Richard Neil, Stephen D. Mellalieu, & David Fletcher,Competitive

Experience and Performance Status: An Investigation into Multidimensional Anxiety
8 3）, pp. 143−152（2008）．
and Coping, European Journal of Sport Science, vol. （Jamieson, Jeremy P., Wendy Berry Mendes, Eric Blackstock, & Tori Schmader, Turning
the Knots in Your Stomach into Bows: Reappraising Arousal Improves Performance on
the GRE, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 46（1）, pp. 208−212（2010）．
Jones, Marc, & Mark Uphill, Emotion in Sport, In: Joanne Thatcher, Marc Jones, & David, Coping and Emotion in Sport, 2nd Ed., ch. 2, pp. 33−61, New York:
Lavallee（Eds.）
Routledge（2012）．
Kane, Kristin Leigh, An Examination into the Temporal Pattern of Emotions, Cognitions,and Coping Strategies of Instrumental Performers, unpublished dissertation（2008）．
Lane, Andrew M., Gordon Bucknail, Paul A. Davis, & Christopher J. Beedle, Emotions and（3）,
Emotion Regulation among Novice Military Parachutists, Military Psychology, vol. 24
pp. 331−345（2012）．
Papageorgi, Ioulia, Andrea Creech, & Graham Welch, Perceived Performance Anxiety in
Advanced Musicians Specializing in Diﬀerent Musical Genres, Psychology of Music,（inpress）doi:10.1177/0305735611408995（2011）．
Pellizzari, M., M. Bertollo, & C. Robazza, Pre-and Post-Performance Emotions in Gymnastics

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56

Competitions, International Journal of Sport Psychology, vol. 42（3）, pp. 278−302（2011）．
Raglin, James, & Yuri L. Hanin, Competitive Anxiety, In: Yuri L. Hanin（Ed.）, Emotions in
Sport, ch. 4, pp. 93−112, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics（2000）．
Robazza, Claudio, Laura Bortoli, Filippo Nocini, Giovanna Moser, & Carlo Arslan, Normativeand Idiosyncratic Measures of Positive and Negative Affect in Sport, Psychology ofSport & Exercise, vol. 1（2）, pp. 103−116（2000）．
Roland, David,

How Professional Performers Manage Performance Anxiety,Research

Studies in Music Education, vol. 2（1）, pp. 25−35（1994）．
Salminen, Simo, Jarmo Liukkonen, Yuri Hanin, & Ari Hyvönen,Anxiety and Athletic

Performance of Finnish Athletes: Application of the Zone of Optimal Functioning（5）, pp. 725−729（1995）．
Model, Personality & Individual Diﬀerences, vol. 19
Skinner, Natalie, & Neil Brewer, The Dynamics of Threat and Challenge Appraisals prior
to Stressful Achievement Events, Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, vol. 83（3）,
pp. 678−692（2002）．
Tenenbaum, Gershon, William A. Edmonds, & David W. Eccles,

Emotions, Coping

Strategies, and Performance: A Conceptual Framework for Defining Affect-Related（supp. 1）, pp. S11−S37（2008）．
Performance Zones, Military Psychology, vol. 20
Yoshie, Michiko, Eriko Kanazawa, Kazutoshi Kudo, Tatsuyuki Ohtsuki, & Kimitaka
Nakazawa,

Music Performance Anxiety and Occupational Stress among ClassicalMusicians, In: Janice Langan-Fo & Cary L. Cooper（Eds.）, Handbook of Stress in the
Occupations, ch. 20, pp. 409−429, Northampton, MA: Edward Elgar Publishing, Inc.
．
（2011）
Yoshie, Michiko, Kazutoshi Kudo, Takayuki Murakoshi, & Tatsuyuki Ohtsuki,

Music

Performance Anxiety in Skilled Pianists: Effects of Social-Evaluative Performance
Situation on Subjective, Autonomic, and Electromyographic Reactions, Experimental
Brain Research, vol. 199（2）, pp. 117−126（2009）．
Yoshie, Michiko, Kazutoshi Kudo, & Tatsuyuki Ohtsuki, Eﬀects of Psychological Stress on
State Anxiety, Electromyographic Activity, and Arpeggio Performance in Pianists,
Medical Problems of Performing Artists, vol. 23（3）, pp. 120−132（2008）．
Yoshie, Michiko, Kazutoshi Kudo, & Tatsuyuki Ohtsuki,

Motor/Autonomic StressResponses in a Competitive Piano Performance, Annals of the New York Academy of
Sciences, vol. 1169, pp. 368−371（2009）．
Yoshie, Michiko, & Kazuo Shigemasu, Eﬀects of State Anxiety on Performance in Pianists:
Relationship between the Revised Competitive State Anxiety Inventory-2 Sub-scales
and Piano Performance, Paper Presentation for 9th International Conference on Music
Perception & Cognition, Bologna（2006）．
Yoshie, Michiko, Kazuo Shigemasu, Kazutoshi Kudo, & Tatsuyuki Ohtsuki, Eﬀects of State
Anxiety on Music Performance: Relationship between the Revised Competitive State
Anxiety Inventory-2 Subscales and Piano Performance, Musicae Scientiae, vol. 3（1）, pp.
55−84（2009）．

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57

■

「ポジティブ思考」「夢想」「目標達成」の違い

Beattie, Stuart, David Lief, Mark Adamoulas, & Emily Oliver, Investigating the Possible
Negative Eﬀects of Self-Eﬃcacy upon Golf Putting Performance, Psychology of Sport &Exercise, vol. 12（4）, pp. 434−441（2011）．
Cohen, Patricia, Authorʼs Personal Forecast: Not Always Sunny, but Pleasantly Skeptical,
New York Times, http://nyti.ms/vRXAe（10/10/2009）．
．
Dennis, Paul, Interviews with Authors（2011）
Ehrenreich, Barbara, Bright-Sided: How Positive Thinking Is Undermining America, New
York: Picador（2010）［バーバラ・エーレンライク『ポジティブ病の国，アメリカ』中島由華訳（河出書房新社，2010）］．
Gawrilow, Caterina, Katrin Morgenroth, Regina Schultz, Gabriele Oettingen, & Peter
M. Gollwizter,

Mental Contrasting with Implementation Intentions Enhances Self-

Regulation of Goal Pursuit in Schoolchildren at Risk for ADHD, Motivation & Emotion,
online early release, doi:10.1007/s11031-012-9288-3（2012）．
Gollwitzer, Anton, Gabriele Oettingen, Teri A. Kirby, Angela L. Duckworth, & Doris Mayer,
Mental Contrasting Facilitates Academic Performance, Motivation & Emotion, vol. 35（4）, pp. 403−412（2011）．
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Elite Divers and Wrestlers: A Comparison

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Self-Regulation of Goal Setting:Turning Free Fantasies about the Future into Binding Goals, Journal of Personality &Social Psychology, vol. 80（5）, pp. 736−753（2001）．
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Self-Confidence andPerformance: A Little Self-Doubt Helps, Psychology of Sport & Exercise, vol. 11（6）, pp.
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Woodstock, Louise,

Think about It: The Misbegotten Promise of Positive Thinking

Discourse, Journal of Communication Inquiry, vol. 31（2）, pp. 166−189（2007）
．
反事実思考

■

減算的反事実思考について，別の視点を提供する研究がある．Medvecらは，オリンピックの銅メダリストは，銀メダリストより幸福感が高いことを明らかにした．その理由は，銅メダ
リストは「やった！

何かが少しでもうまくいっていなければ，メダルを取れなかっただろう！」と考え，銀メダリストは「たった 1 つのミスをしなければ，金メダルが取れていたのに」と考えるためである．
Barbey, Aron K., Frank Krueger, & Jordan Grafman, Structured Event Complexes in the

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59

Medial Prefrontal Cortex Support Counterfactual Representations for Future Planning,
Proceedings of the Royal Society of Biological Sciences, B, vol. 364, pp. 1291−1300（2009）．
Boorman, Erie D., Timothy E. Behrens, & Matthew F. Rushworth, Counterfactual Choice
and Learning in a Neural Network Centered on Human Lateral Frontopolar Cortex,．
PLoS Biology, vol. 9（6）, e1001093, doi:10.1371/journal.pbio.1001093（2011）
Epstude, Kai, & Neal J. Roese,

The Functional Theory of Counterfactual Thinking,

Personality & Social Psychology Review, vol. 12（2）, pp. 168−192（2008）．
Galinsky, Adam D., & Laura J. Kray, From Thinking about What Might Have Been to
Sharing What We Know: The Effects of Counterfactual Mind-Sets on Information．
Sharing in Groups, Journal of Experimental Psychology, vol. 40（5）, pp. 606−618（2004）
Galinsky, Adam D., Vanessa L. Seiden, Peter H. Kim, & Victoria Husted Medvec, The
Dissatisfaction of Having Your First Offer Accepted: The Role of CounterfactualThinking in Negotiations, Personality & Social Psycholology Bulletin, vol. 28（2）, pp.
271−283（2002）．
Kray, Laura, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Kray, Laura J., Adam D. Galinsky, & Keith D. Markman,

Adding versus Subtracting

What Might Have Been: The Impact of Counterfactual Activation on Integrative
Negotiations, IACM Meetings Paper, http://dx.doi.org/10.2139/ssrn.1080634（2007）．
Kray, Laura J., Adam D. Galinsky, & Keith D. Markman, Counterfactual Structure andLearning from Experience in Negotiations, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology,
vol. 45（4）, pp. 979−982（2009）．
Kray, Laura J., Adam Galinsky, & Elaine M. Wong, Thinking within the Box: The Relational
Counterfactual Mind-Sets, Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, vol. 91（1）, pp.
33−48（2006）．
Kray, Laura J., E. Layne Paddock, & Adam D. Galinsky, The Eﬀect of Past Performanceon Expected Control and Risk Attitudes in Integrative Negotiations, Negotiation andConﬂict Management Research, vol. 1（2）, pp. 161−178（2008）．
Joung, Wendy, Beryl Hesketh, & Andrew Neal, Using War Storiesʼ to Train for Adaptive
Performance: Is It Better to Learn from Error or Success? Applied Psychology, vol. 55（2）,
pp. 282−302（2006）．
Markman, Keith D., Matthew J. Lindberg, Laura J. Kray, & Adam D. Galinsky, Implicationsof Counterfactual Structure for Creative Generation and Analytical Problem Solving,．
Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 33（3）, pp. 312−324（2007）
Medvec, Victoria Husted, Scott F. Madey, & Thomas Gilovich,

When Less Is More:

Counterfactual Thinking and Satisfaction among Olympic Medalists,

Journal of

Personality and Social Psychology, vol. 69（4）, pp. 603−610（1995）．
Morris, Michael W., & Paul C. Moore,

The Lessons We（Donʼt）Learn: CounterfactualThinking and Organizational Accountability after a Close Call, Administrative Science
Quarterly, vol. 45（4）, pp. 737−765（2000）．
Naquin, Charles E., The Agony of Opportunity in Negotiation: Number of Negotiable Issues,

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Counterfactual Thinking, and Feelings of Satisfaction, Organizational Behavior andHuman Decision Processes, vol. 91（1）, pp. 97−107（2003）．
Platt, Michael L., & Ben Hayden,
Counterfactuals as Well,

Learning: Not Just the Facts, Maʼam, but the

PLoS Biology, vol. 9（ 6）, e1001092, doi:10.1371/journal.

pbio.1001092（2011）．
Sim, Damien L. H., & Michael W. Morris, Representativeness and Counterfactual Thinking:
The Principle that Antecedent and Outcome Correspond in Magnitude, Personality &Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 24（6）, pp. 69−84（1998）．
Uphill, Mark A., & Katie Dray, Giving Yourself a Good Beating: Appraisal, Attribution,
Rumination, and Counterfactual Thinking, Journal of Sports Science & Medicine, vol. 8（CSSI 3）, pp. 5−12（2009）．
Ursu, Stefan, & Cameron S. Carter, Outcome Representations, Counterfactual Comparisonsand the Human Orbitofrontal Cortex: Implications for Neuroimaging Studies of DecisionMaking, Cognitive Brain Research, vol. 23（1）, pp. 51−60（2005）．
Wong, Elaine M., Michael P. Haselhuhn, & Laura J. Kray,

Improving the Future by

Considering the Past: The Impact of Upward Counterfactual Reflection and Implicit
Beliefs on Negotiation Performance, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 48（1）, pp. 403−406（2012）．
挑戦と脅威の生理学■

第 7 章の挑戦と脅威に関する参考文献（特に Jonesら，2009），怒りの神経科学および生理学に関するデンソン（Denson）の研究も参照のこと．
Blascovisch, Jim, Wendy Berry Mendes, Brenda Major, & Mark Seery, Social Facilitationʼ
as Challenge and Threat, European Journal of Social Psychology, vol. 31（1）, pp. 477−
497（2001）．
Blascovisch, Jim, Wendy Berry Mendes, Joe Tomaka, & Kristen Salomon, The Robust
Nature of the Biopsychosocial Model Challenge and Threat: A Reply to Wright and
Kirby, Personality and Social Psychology Review, vol. （7 3）, pp. 234−243（2003）．
Devine, Dan, Under Pressure: What Big Games Do to Players and How They Cope, Yahoo!
Sports, http://yhoo.it/9LPyfz（7/3/2010）．
Ehrhart-Bornstein, Monika, & Stefan R. Bornstein, Cross-Talk between Adrenal Medulla
and Adrenal Cortex in Stress, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 1148,
pp. 112−117（2008）．
Goldstein, David S., Adrenaline and Noradrenaline, Encyclopedia of Life Sciences, John
Wiley & Sons（2010）．
Harrison, Lesley K., Samantha Denning, Helen L. Easton, Jennifer C. Hall, Victoria E. Burns,
Christopher Ring, & Douglas Carroll, The Eﬀects of Competition and Competitiveness（4）, pp. 601−606（2001）．
on Cardiovascular Activity, Psychophysiology, vol. 38
Italyʼs Weapon Is All in Their Heads, The Gazette（7/8/2006）．
Martin, Jennifer L., Jake Begun, Michael J. McLeish, Joanne M. Caine, & Gary L. Grunewald,

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61

Getting the Adrenaline Going: Crystal Structure of the Adrenaline-Synthesizing
Enzyme PNMT, Structure, vol. 9（10）, pp. 977−985（2001）．
Mendes, Wendy Berry, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Pohorecky, Larissa A., Michael Zigmond, Harvey Karten, & Richard J. Wurtman, Enzymatic
Conversion of Norepinephrine to Epinephrine by the Brain, Journal of Pharmacology &．
Experimental Therapeutics, vol. 165（2）, pp. 190−195（1969）
Seery, Mark D.,

Challenge or Threat? Cardiovascular Indexes of Resilience andVulnerability to Potential Stress in Humans, Neuroscience and Biobehavioral Reviews,
vol. 35（7）, pp. 1603−1610（2011）．
Seery, Mark D., Max Weisbuch, & Jim Blascovich, Something to Gain, Something to Lose:
The Cardiovascular Consequences of Outcome Framing,

International Journal of．
Psychophysiology, vol. 73（3）, pp. 308-312（2009）
Skinner, Natalie, & Neil Brewer, The Dynamics of Threat and Challenge Appraisals Prior
to Stressful Achievement Events, Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, vol. 83（3）,pp. 678−692（2002）．
Turner, Martin J., Marc V. Jones, David Sheﬃeld, & Sophie L. Cross, Cardiovascular Indicesof Challenge and Threat States Predict Competitive Performance, International Journal．
of Psychophysiology（in press）（2012）
Waugh, Christian E., Sommer Panage, Wendy Berry Mendes, & Ian H. Gotlib, Cardiovascularand Affective Recovery from Anticipatory Threat, Biological Psychiatry, vol. 84（2）,pp. 169−175（2010）．
Wurtman, Richard J.,

Control of Epinephrine Synthesis in the Adrenal Medulla by

the Adrenal Cortex: Hormonal Specificity and Dose-Response Characteristics,．
Endocrinology, vol. 79（3）, pp. 608−614（1966）
Yamaguchi-Shima, Naoko, Shoshiro Okada, Takahiro Shimizu, Daisuke Usui, Kumiko
Nakamura, Lianyi Lu, & Kunihiko Yokotani, Adrenal Adrenaline-and NoradrenalineContaining Cells and Celiac Sympathetic Ganglia Are Differentially Controlled byCentrally Administered Corticotropin-Releasing Factor and Arginine−Vasopressin in（1−3）, pp. 94−102（2007）．
Rats, European Journal of Pharmacology, vol. 564
Zaichkowsky, Leonard, Stephen R. Heyman Memorial Keynote Lecture, Speech at Annual
Convention of the American Psychological Assn., Washington, DC（2011）．
怒りについての理解■

前述したように，多くの場合，研究者は，影響を与える複数のタイプを同時に調べる．このため，怒りの原因について考える場合，前述した不安のセクションの参考文献も参照のこと．
Aarts, Henk, Kirsten I. Ruys, Harm Veling, Robert A. Renes, Jasper H. B. de Groot, Anna
M. van Nunen, & Sarit Geertjes, The Art of Anger: Reward Context Turns Avoidance
Responses to Anger-Related Objects into Approach, Psychological Science, vol. 21（10）,
pp. 1406−1410（2010）．
Ahmadia, Sanaz Saeed, Mohammad Ali Besharata, Korosh Azizia, & Roja Larijanib, The

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62

Relationship between Dimensions of Anger and Aggression in Contact and Noncontact
Sports, Procedia

Social & Behavioral Sciences, vol. 30, pp. 247−251（2011）．

Ballard, Chris, Where Does Greatness Come From?, Sports Illustrated, http://bit.ly/IYrwrs（5/14/2012）．
Berkowitz, Leonard, & Eddie Harmon-Jones,

Toward an Understanding of theDeterminants of Anger, Emotion, vol. （4 2）, pp. 107−130（2004）．
3 4）,
Boekaerts, Monique, Anger in Relation to School Learning, Learning & Instruction, vol. （pp. 269−280（1993）．
Chiodo, Keri,Anger Makes People Want Things More,

Press Release, Assn. for

Psychological Science（11/1/2010）．
Clarkson, Michael, Competitive Fire, Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics Publishers（1999）．
Cutler, Andy, 著者によるインタビュー（2011）．
D., Chuck, 著者によるインタビュー（2011）．
Davis, Paul A., Tim Woodman, & Nichola Callow, Better Out than In: The Influence ofAnger Regulation on Physical Performance, Personality & Individual Diﬀerences, vol.
49（5）, pp. 457−460（2010）．
Denson, Thomas, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Denson, Thomas F., Jessica R. Grisham, & Michelle L. Moulds,

Cognitive Reappraisal

Increases Heart Rate Variability in Response to an Anger Provocation, Motivation &．
Emotion, vol. 35（1）, pp. 114−122（2011）
Denson, Thomas F., William C. Pedersen, Malte Friese, Aryun Hahm, & Lynette Roberts,
Understanding Impulsive Aggression: Angry Rumination and Reduced Self-Control
Capacity Are Mechanisms Underlying the Provocation−Aggression Relationship,
Personality & Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 37（6）, pp. 850−862（2011）．
Denson, Thomas F., William C. Pedersen, Jacklyn Ronquillo, & Anirvan S. Nandy, The
Angry Brain: Neural Correlates of Anger, Angry Rumination, and Aggressive
Personality, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, vol. 21（4）, pp. 734−744（2009）．
Ford, Brent Q., & Maya Tamir, When Getting Angry Is Smart: Emotional Preferences andEmotional Intelligence, Emotion, vol. 12（4）, pp. 685-689（2012）．
Gable, Philip A., & Eddie Harmon-Jones, Attentional Consequences of Pregoal and Post-goalPositive Aﬀects, Emotion, vol. 11（6）, pp. 1358−1367（2011）．
Gadea, Marien, Raul Espert, Alicia Salvador, & Luis Martí-Bonmati, The Sad, the Angry,
and the Asymmetrical Brain: Dichotic Listening Studies of Negative Affect andDepression, Brain & Cognition, vol. 76（2）, pp. 294−299（2011）．
Halperin, Eran, Alexandra G. Russell, Carol S. Dweck, & James J. Gross, Anger, Hatred, andthe Quest for Peace: Anger Can Be Constructive in the Absence of Hatred, Journal ofConﬂict Resolution, vol. 55（2）, pp. 274−291（2011）．
Herrero, Neus, Marien Gadea, Gabriel Rodríguez-Alarcón, Raúl Espert, & Alicia Salvador,
What Happens When We Get Angry? Hormonal, Cardiovascular and Asymmetrical
Brain Responses, Hormones & Behavior, vol. 57（3）, pp. 276−283（2010）
．

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Lane, Andrew, Relationships between Perceptions of Performance Expectations and Moodamong Distance Runners: The Moderating Effect of Depressed Mood,

Journal of

Science & Medicine in Sport, vol. 4（1）, pp. 116−128（2001）．
Lane, Andrew M., & Peter C. Terry, The Nature of Mood: Development of a Conceptual
Model with a Focus on Depression, Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, vol. 12（1）, pp.
16−22（2000）．
Lane, Andrew M., Peter C. Terry, Christopher J. Beedie, David A. Curry, & Niall Clark, Moodand Performance: Test of a Conceptual Model with a Focus on Depressed Mood,
Psychology of Sport & Exercise, vol. 2（3）, pp. 157−172（2001）．
Lane, Andrew M., Gregory P. Whyte, Peter C. Terry, & Alan M. Nevill, Mood, Self-Set
Goals and Examination Performance: The Moderating Effect of Depressed Mood,
Personality & Individual Diﬀerences, vol. 39（1）, pp. 143−153（2005）．
Lelieveld, Gert-Jen, Eric Van Dijk, Ilja Van Beest, Wolfgang Steinel, & Gerben A. Van Kleef,Disappointed in You, Angry about Your Offer: Distinct Negative Emotions Induce
Concessions via Diﬀerent Mechanisms, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol.
47（3）, pp. 635−641（2011）．
Lerner, Jennifer S., & Dacher Keltner, Fear, Anger, and Risk, Journal of Personality &Social Psychology, vol. 81（1）, pp. 146−159（2001）．
Love, Andrew, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Martinent, Guilluame, Mickaël Campo, & Claude Ferrand, A Descriptive Study of Emotional
Process during Competition: Nature, Frequency, Direction, Duration and Co-Occurrenceof Discrete Emotions, Psychology of Sport & Exercise, vol. 13（2）, pp. 142−151（2012）．
Mayan, Iddo, & Nachson Meiran,Anger and the Speed of Full-Body Approach andAvoidance Reactions, Frontiers in Emotion Science, vol. 2, art. 22（2011）．
Overbeck, Jennifer R., Margaret A. Neale, & Cassandra L. Govan, I Feel, Therefore You
Act: Intrapersonal and Interpersonal Eﬀects of Emotion on Negotiation as a Function ofSocial Power, Organizational Behavior & Human Decision Processes, vol. 112（2）, pp.
126−139（2010）．
Peper, Erik, 著者によるインタビュー（2011）．
Reifen-Tagar, Michal, Christoper M. Federico, & Eran Halperin, The Positive Effect ofNegative Emotions in Protracted Conﬂict: The Case of Anger, Journal of Experimental
Social Psychology, vol. 47（1）, pp. 157−164（2011）．
Robazza, Claudio, & Laura Bortoli, Perceived Impact of Anger and Anxiety on Sporting（6）, pp. 875−896
Performance in Rugby Players, Psychology of Sport & Exercise, vol. 8（2007）．
Robazza, Claudio, Laura Bortoli, & Yuri Hanin, Perceived Effects of Emotion Intensity
on Athletic Performance: A Contingency-Based Individualized Approach, Research
Quarterly for Exercise & Sport, vol. 77（3）, pp. 372−385（2006）．
Ruiz, Montse C., & Yuri L. Hanin, Idiosyncratic Description of Anger States in Skilled
Spanish Karate Athletes: An Application of the IZOF Model, Revista de Psicología del

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Deporte, vol. 13（1）, pp. 75−93（2004）．
Ruiz, Montse C., & Yuri L. Hanin, Perceived Impact of Anger on Performance of Skilled
Karate Athletes, Psychology of Sport & Exercise, vol. 12（3）, pp. 242−249（2011）．
Sinaceur, Marwan, Gerben A. Van Kleef, Margaret A. Neale, Adam Hajo, & Christophe Haag,
Hot or Cold: Is Communicating Anger or Threats More Effective in Negotiation?
（5）, pp, 1018−1032（2011）．
Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 96
Sinaceur, Marwan, & Larissa Z. Tiedens, Get Mad and Get More Than Even: When and
Why Anger Expression Is Effective in Negotiations, Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, vol. 42（3）, pp. 314−322（2006）．
Steinel, Wolfgang, Gerben A. Van Kleef, & Fieke Harinck,

Are You Talking to Me?!

Separating the People from the Problem when Expressing Emotions in Negotiation,
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 44（2）, pp. 362−369（2008）．
Tamir, Maya, & Brett Q. Ford, Should People Pursue Feelings that Feel Good or Feelings
that Do Good? Emotional Preferences and Well-Being, Emotion, vol. 12（5）, pp. 1061−
1070（2012）．
Van Kleef, Gerben A., Christina Anastasopoulou, & Bernard A. Nijstad, Can Expressionsof Anger Enhance Creativity? A Test of the Emotions as Social Information（EASI）
Model, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 46（6）, pp. 1042−1048（2010）．
Van Kleef, Gerben A., & Stéphane Côté, Expressing Anger in Conﬂict: When It Helps andWhen It Hurts, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 92（6）, pp. 1557−1569（2007）．
Van Kleef, Gerben A., Eric Van Dijk, Fieke Harinck, Wolfgang Steinel, & Ilja Van Beest,
Anger in Social Conflict: Cross-Situational Comparisons and Suggestions for the
Future, Group Decision & Negotiation, vol. 17（1）, pp. 13−30（2008）．
第9章
攻撃性と試合中のホルモン■

ブース（Booth）らによるチェスを題材にした研究は，テストステロンレベル（Ｔレベル）
が，認知的行為の成功を予測できる可能性があることを示す，おそらくもっとも有名な研究であるが，それが唯一の研究ではない．たとえば2011年，Flegrは，難易度の高い科学系の科目の最終試験を受ける前に，大学生の唾液サンプルを採取した．その結果，試験前にＴレベルがもっとも高かった大学生の成績が，もっとも良かったことがわかった．
Booth, Alan, 著者との文書通信（2012）．
Booth, Alan, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Edinger, Kassandra L., & Cheryl A. Frye,

Testosteroneʼs Analgesic, Anxiolytic, andCognitive-Enhancing Effects May Be Due in Part to Actions of Its 5α-Reduced
Metabolites in the Hippocampus, Behavioral Neuroscience, vol. 118（6）, pp. 1352−1364（2004）．
Flegr, Jaroslav, 著者との文書通信（2011）．
Flegr, Jaroslav, 著者によるインタビュー（2011）．
Flegr, Jaroslav, & Lenka Príplatová,

Testosterone and Cortisol Levels in University

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65

Students Reﬂect Actual Rather Than Estimated Number of Wrong Answers on Written
Exam, Neuroendocrinology Letters, vol. 31（4）, pp. 577−581（2010）．
Frye, C. A., M. E. Rhodes, R. Rosellini, & B. Svare, The Nucleus Accumbens as a Site of
Action for Rewarding Properties of Testosterone and its 5α-Reduced Metabolites,
Pharmacology Biochemistry & Behavior, vol. 75（1）, pp. 119−127（2002）．
Hermans, Erno J., Peter A. Bos, Lindsey Ossewaarde, Nick F. Ramsey, Guillén Fernández,& Jack van Honk, Eﬀects of Exogenous Testosterone on the Ventral Striatal BOLD
Response during Reward Anticipation in Healthy Women, NeuroImage, vol. 52（1）, pp.
277−283（2010）．
Keenan D. M., & J. D. Veldhuis, Mathematical Modeling of Receptor-Mediated Interlinked
Systems, In: Helen L. Henry & Anthony W. Norman（Eds.）, Encyclopedia of Hormones,
pp. 286−294, San Diego: Academic Press（2003）．
Mazur, Allan, Alan Booth, & James M. Dabbs, Jr., Testosterone and Chess Competition,
Social Psychology Quarterly, vol. 55（1）, pp. 70−77（1992）．
Ostojic, Sergej M., Julio Calleja-Gonzalez, & Marko Stojanovic,

Steroid Prohormones:

Effects on Body Composition in Athletes, In: Gianluca Aimaretti, Paolo Marzullo &Flavia Prodam（Eds.）, Update on Mechanisms of Hormone Action

Focus on Metabolism,

Growth, and Reproduction, ch. 2, pp. 11−24, Rijeka, Croatia: InTech（2011）．
動機づけとしてのテストステロン，認知に与える影響，攻撃性■

Adolph, Dirk, Sabine Schlösser, Maren Hawighorst, & Bettina M. Pause, Chemosensory
Signals of Competition Increase the Skin Conductance Response in Humans, Physiology& Behavior, pp. 666−671（2010）．
Aleman, André, Erik Bronk, Roy P. C. Kessels, Hans P. F. Koppeschaar, & Jack van Honk, A
Single Administration of Testosterone Improves Visuospatial Ability in Young Women,
Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 29（5）, pp. 612−617（2004）．
Archer, John,

Testosterone and Human Aggression: An Evaluation of the Challenge

Hypothesis, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, vol. 30（3）, pp. 319−345（2006）．
Bhasin, Shalender, Androgen Eﬀects in Mammals, In: Helen Henry & Anthony W. Norman（Eds.）, Encyclopedia of Hormones, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 70 et seq.（2003）．
Blue, Jeﬀrey G., & John A. Lombardo, Steroids and Steroid-Like Compounds, Clinics inSports Medicine, vol. 18（3）, pp. 667−689（1999）．
Booth, Alan, 著者との文書通信（2012）．
Booth, Alan, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Booth, Alan, Douglas A. Granger, Allan Mazur, & Katie T. Kivlighan, Testosterone and（1）, pp. 179−204（2006）．
Social Behavior, Social Forces, vol. 85
Bos, Peter A., Erno J. Hermans, Nick F. Ramsey, & Jack van Honk, The Neural Mechanisms
by Which Testosterone Acts on Interpersonal Trust, NeuroImage, vol. 61（3）, pp. 730−
737（2012）．
Bos, Peter A., Jaak Pansepp, Rose-Marie Bluthé, & Jack van Honk, Acute Eﬀects of Steroid

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Hormones and Neuropeptides on Human Social−Emotional Behavior: A Review ofSingle Administration Studies, Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, vol. 33（1）, pp. 17−35（2012）．
Brennan, P. A., M. K. Herd, R. Puxeddu, R. Anand, L. Cascarini, J. S. Brown, C. M. Avery, R.
T. M. Woodwards, & D. A. Mitchell, Serum Testosterone Levels in Surgeons during
Major Head and Neck Cancer Surgery: A Suppositional Study, British Journal of Oral
& Maxillofacial Surgery, vol. 49（3）, pp. 190−193（2011）．
Carney, Dana R., Amy J. C. Cudy, & Andy J. Yap, Power Posing: Brief Nonverbal Displays
Aﬀect Neuroendocrine Levels and Risk Tolerance, Psychological Science, vol. 21（10）,pp. 1363−1368（2010）．
Carré, Justin M., Jenna D. Gilchrist, Mark D. Morrissey, & Cheryl M. McCormick,
Motivational and Situational Factors and the Relationship between Testosterone
Dynamics and Human Aggression during Competition, Biological Psychology, vol. 84（2）,
pp. 346−353（2010）．
Carré, Justin M., & Pranjal J. Mehta, Importance of Considering Testosterone−Cortisol
Interactions in Predicting Human Aggression and Dominance, Aggressive Behavior, vol.
37（6）, pp. 489−491（2011）．
Carré, Justin M., Susan K. Putnam, & Cheryl M. McCormick,

Testosterone Responses

to Competition Predict Future Aggressive Behaviour at a Cost to Reward in Men,
Psycho-neuroendocrinology, vol. 34（4）, pp. 561−570（2009）．
Denson, Thomas F., Richard Ronay, William von Hippel, & Mark M. Schira, Endogenous
Testosterone and Cortisol Modulate Neural Responses during Induced Anger Control,
Social Neuroscience, in press（2012）．
DiPaolo, Marc, War, Politics and Superheroes: Ethics and Propaganda in Comics and Film,
Jeﬀerson, NC: McFarland & Co.（2011）．
Eubank, Martin, Dave Collins, Geoff Lovell, Debra Dorling, & Steve Talbot,

IndividualTemporal Differences in Precompetition Anxiety and Hormonal Concentration,
Personality and Individual Diﬀerences, vol. 23（6）, pp. 1031−1039（1997）．
Geniole, Shawn N., Justin M. Carré, & Cheryl M. McCormick,

State, Not Trait,

Neuroendocrine Function Predicts Costly Reactive Aggression in Men after Social
Exclusion and Inclusion, Biological Psychology, vol. 87（1）, pp. 137−145（2011）．
Hasegawa, Masako, Masahiro Toda, & Kanehisa Morimoto,

Changes in Salivary

Physiological Stress Markers Associated with Winning and Losing, Biomedical Research,
vol. 29（1）, pp. 43−46（2008）．
Hasegawa-Ohira, Masako, Masahiro Toda, & Kanehisa Morimoto,Stress Hormone

Levels in Saliva after Shogi Competition Are Modiﬁed by Stress Coping Strategies,
Environmental Health & Preventive Medicine, vol. 16（6）, pp. 369−374（2011）．
Hermans, Erno J., Nick F. Ramsey, & Jack van Honk, Exogenous Testosterone Enhances
Responsiveness to Social Threat in the Neural Circuitry of Social Aggression in．
Humans, Biological Psychiatry, vol. 63（1）, pp. 263−270（2008）

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Janowsky, Jeri S., Thinking with Your Gonads: Testosterone and Cognition, Trends in
Cognitive Science, vol. 10（2）, pp. 77−82（2006）．
Kaplan, Arie, From Krakow to Krypton: Jews and Comic Books, Philadelphia: Jewish
Publication Society（2008）．
Mehta, Pranjal H., & Jennifer Beer, Neural Mechanisms of the Testosterone-Aggression
Relation: The Role of the Orbitofrontal Cortex, Journal of Cognitive Neuroscience, vol.
22（10）, pp. 2357−2368（2010）．
Peper, Jiska S., Martijn P. van den Heuvel, René C. W. Mandl, Hilleke E. Hulshoﬀ Pol, &Jack van Honk,

Sex Steroids and Connectivity in the Human Brain: A Review of

Neuroimaging Studies, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 36（8）, pp. 1101−1113（2011）．
Peterson, Carly K., & Eddie Harmon-Jones,

Anger and Testosterone: Evidence that

Situationally-Induced Anger Relates to Situationally-Induced Testosterone, Emotion,
vol. 12（5）, pp. 899−902（2012）．
Ronay, Richard, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Ronay, Richard, & Adam D. Galinsky,

Lex Talionis: Testosterone and the Law ofRetaliation, Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, vol. 47（3）, pp. 702−705（2011）．
Salvador, Alicia, Steroid Hormones and Some Evolutionary-Relevant Social Interactions,, pp. 74−83（2012）．
Motivation & Emotion, vol. 36（1）Schutter, Dennis J. L. G., & Jack van Honk, Decoupling of Midfrontal Delta-Beta Oscillation
after Testosterone Administration, International Journal of Psychophysiology, vol. 53（1）,
pp. 71−73（2004）．
Stanton, Steven J., OʼDhaniel A. Mullette-Gillman, R. Edward McLaurin, Cynthia M. Kuhn,
Kevin S. LaBar, Michael L. Platt, & Scott A. Huettel,

Low-and High-Testosterone

Individuals Exhibit Decreased Aversion to Economic Risk, Psychological Science, vol.
22（4）, pp. 447−453（2011）．
Terburg, David, Barak Morgan, & Jack van Honk, The Testosterone−Cortisol Ratio: A
Hormonal Marker for Proneness to Social Aggression, International Journal of Law &Psychiatry, vol. 32（4）, pp. 216−223（2009）．
Van der Meija, Leander, Abraham P. Buunk, Mercedes Almela, & Alicia Salvador,
Testosterone Responses to Competition: The Opponentʼs Psychological State Makes it
Challenging, Biological Psychology, vol. 84（2）, pp. 330−335（2010）．
Van Honk, Jack,

Testosterone Decreases Trust and Empathy in Humans,

Paper

Presentation at Annual Convention for the Assn. for Psychological Science, San
Francisco（2009）．
Van Honk, Jack, Dennis J. L. G. Schutter, Erno J. Hermans, & Peter Putnam, Testosterone,
Cortisol, Dominance, & Submission: Biologically Prepared Motivation, No Psychological
Mechanisms Involved, Behavioral Brain Sciences, vol. 27（1）, p. 160（2004）．
Van Honk, Jack, Dennis J. L. G. Schutter, Erno J. Hermans, Peter Putnam, Adriaan Tuiten,& Hans Koppeschaar,

Testosterone Shifts the Balance between Sensitivity for

Punishment and Reward in Healthy Young Women, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 29

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（7）, pp. 937−943（2004）．
Van Rijn, S., A. Aleman, L. de Sonneville, M. Sprong, T. Ziermans, P. Schothorst, H. vanEngeland, & H. Swaab, Neuroendocrine Markers of High Risk for Psychosis: Salivary
Testosterone in Adolescent Boys with Prodromal Symptoms, Psychological Medicine,vol. 41（9）, pp. 1815−1822（2011）．
Wu, F. C. W., Endocrine Aspects of Anabolic Steroids, Clinical Chemistry, vol. 43（7）, pp.
1289−1292（1997）．
Yildirim, Baris O., & Jan J. L. Derksen, A Review on the Relationship between Testosterone
and the Interpersonal/Aﬀective Facet of Psychopathy, Psychiatry Research, vol. 197（3）,
pp. 181-198（2012）．
ドッグショー／競争時のストレス対処をめぐる男女の違い■

女性のテストステロンレベルが男性の数分の 1 であることには，すべての研究者が合意しているものの，実際の測定値に基づくその比率は10分の 1 程度から 5 分の 1 と幅がある．
Stantonらは，この不一致が生じる理由が，季節によって，男女それぞれのテストステロンレ
ベルが大きく変動するためであることを明らかにした（平均すると，男女とも，テストステロ
ンは夏にもっとも低く，秋にもっとも高い）．重要なのは，一般的に，女性がテストステロンの影響を受けるパターンは，年間を通じて同じであるということである．
A Beginnerʼs Guide to Companion Events, American Kennel Club（2010）．
Colorful History of Americaʼs Dog Show, Westminster Kennel Club, http://bit.ly/w6FTj1（u.d.）．
Costa, Raquel, & Alicia Salvador, Associations between Success and Failure in a Faceto-Face Competition and Psychobiological Parameters in Young Women,

Psycho-, pp. 1780-1790（2012）．
neuroendocrinology, vol. 37（11）Denson, Thomas F., Pranjal H. Mehta, & D. Ho Tan,

Cortisol and Testosterone

Jointly Influence Reactive Aggression in Women,

Paper Presentation, Social

Neuroendocrinology Pre-Conference, San Diego（2012）．
Dugan, Michael, & Cathy Dugan, Seven Secrets of Show Dog Success, Pt. 4, Dogs in
Review（May 2011）．
．
Economic Beneﬁts of AKC Dog Shows, American Kennel Club ﬂyer（u.d.）Goetz, Stefan J., S. K. Putnam, & Justin M. Carré, Effect of Competition Ambiguity on
Testosterone Release and Willingness to Compete in Women,

Paper Presentation,

Social Neuroendocrinology Pre-Conference, San Diego（2012）．
Jiménez, Manuel, Raúl Aguilar, & José R. Alvero-Cruz, Eﬀects of Victory and Defeat on
Testosterone and Cortisol Response to Competition: Evidence for Same Response
Patterns in Men and Women, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 37（9）, pp. 1577−1581（2012）．
Jones, Amanda C., & Robert A. Josephs, Interspecies Hormonal Interactions between Man
and the Domestic Dog（Canis Familaris）, Hormones & Behavior, vol. 50（3）, pp. 393−
400（2006）．

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69

Kennedy Melia, Marilyn, Professional Dog Handler, Chicago Tribune, http://bit.ly/PvRtxL（4/2/2000）．
Mazur, Allan, Elizabeth Susman, & Sandy Edelbrock,Sex Difference in Testosterone

Response to a Video Game Contest, Evolution & Human Behavior, vol. 18（5）, pp. 317−
326（1997）．
McClarty, Barbara, In the Ring: The Life of a Dog Handler, Modern Dog, http://bit.ly/
S3TOpv（1992）．
．
Mehta, Pranjal, 著者との文書通信（2012）
Mehta, Pranjal, Interviews with Authors（2012）．
Mehta, Pranjal H., Stefan M. Goetz, & Justin Carré, The Social Neuroscience of Human
Aggression: Genetic, Hormonal, and Neural Underpinning, In: D. Frank & J. Turner,
Handbook of Neurosociology, ch. 5, pp. 47-65, New York: Springer（2013）．
Mehta, Pranjal H., Amanda C. Jones, & Robert A. Josephs, The Social Endocrinology of
Dominance: Basal Testosterone Predicts Cortisol Changes and Behavior Following
Victory and Defeat, Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, vol. 94（6）, pp. 1078−
1093（2008）．
Mehta, Pranjal H., & Robert A. Josephs,

Testosterone and Cortisol Jointly Regulate

Dominance: Evidence for a Dual-Hormone Hypothesis, Hormones & Behavior, vol. 58（5）,
pp. 898−906（2010）．
Mehta, Pranjal H., & Robert A. Josephs, Testosterone Change after Losing Predicts theDecision to Compete Again, Hormones & Behavior, vol. 50（5）, pp. 684−692（2006）．
Mehta, Pranjal H., Elizabeth V. Wuehrmann, & Robert A. Josephs,

When Are Low

Testosterone Levels Advantageous? The Moderating Role of Individual versusIntergroup Competition, Hormones & Behavior, vol. 56（1）, pp. 158−162（2009）．
Oliveira, T., M. J. Gouveia, & R. F. Oliveira, Testosterone Responsiveness to Winning and
Losing Experiences in Female Soccer Players, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 34（7）,pp. 1056−1064（2005）．
Stanton, Steven J., OʼDhaniel A. Mullette-Gillman, & Scott A. Huettel, Seasonal Variation of
Salivary Testosterone in Men, Normally Cycling Women, and Women Using Hormonal
Contraceptives, Physiology & Behavior, vol. 104（5）, pp. 804−808（2011）．
Taylor, Shelley E., Laura Cousino Klein, Brian P. Lewis, Tara L. Gruenewald, Regan A. R.
Gurung, & John A. Updegraﬀ, Biobehavioral Responses to Stress in Females: Tendand-Befriend, Not Fight-or-Flight,

Psychological Review, vol. 107（3）, pp. 411−429（2000）．
結果を重視するときのテストステロン反応／ホームアドバンテージにおけるテストステロン■

Bateman, Chris, & Lennart E. Nacke, The Neurobiology of Play, Paper Presentation at
Futureplay ʼ10 Proceedings of the International Academic Conference on the Future of
Game Design and Technology, New York（2010）．
Carré, Justin, 著者との文書通信（2012）．

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Carré, Justin, Interviews with Authors（2012）．
Carré, Justin M., No Place Like Home: Testosterone Responses to Victory Depend on Game
Location, American Journal of Human Biology, vol. 21（3）, pp. 392−394（2009）．
Carré, Justin, Cameron Muir, Joey Belanger, & Susan K. Putnam,

Pre-Competition

Hormonal and Psychological Levels of Elite Hockey Players: Relationship to the Home
Advantage,ʼ

（3）, pp. 392−398（2006）．
Physiology & Behavior, vol. 89

Fuxjager, Matthew J., Robin M. Forbes-Lorman, Dylan J. Coss, Catherine J. Auger, Anthony
P. Auger, & Catherine A. Marlera, Winning Territorial Disputes Selectively Enhances
Androgen Sensitivity in Neural Pathways Related to Motivation and Social Aggression,
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol. 107（27）, pp. 12393−12398（2010）．
Fuxjager, Matthew J., Gabriel Mast, Elizabeth A. Becker, & Catherine A. Marler, The Home
Advantageʼ Is Necessary for a Full Winner Effect and Changes in Post-Encounter
Testosterone, Hormones & Behavior, vol. 56（2）, pp. 214−219（2009）．
Oxford, Jonathan, Davidé Ponzi, & David C. Geary,

Hormonal Responses Differ When

Playing Violent Video Games against an Ingroup and Outgroup, Evolution & Human
Behavior, vol. 31（3）, pp. 201−209（2010）．
Putnam, Susan K., & Justin Carré, Game Location Moderates the Relationship between
Anticipatory Testosterone Changes and Athletic Performance, International Journal ofSports Physiology, vol. 7（3）, pp. 301-303（2012）．
Van Anders, Sari M., & Neil V. Watson,

Effects of Ability-and Chance-Determined

Competition Outcome on Testosterone, Physiology & Behavior, vol. 90（4）, pp. 634−
642（2007）．
Wagner, John D., Mark V. Flinn, & Barry G. England, Hormonal Response to Competition
among Male Coalitions, Evolution & Human Behavior, vol. 23（6）, pp. 437−442（2002）．
コルチゾールに関する新解釈■

ストレス反応について詳しくは，第 4 章の参考文献，および第 1 章で言及したローレダー（Rohleder）らやダインツァー（Deinzer）らの研究を参照のこと．また，前述した，不安および挑戦的／脅威的状況に関する生化学的な研究もこれと関連がある．
Akinola, Modupe, & Mendes, Wendy Berry,Stress-Induced Cortisol Facilitates Threat-

Related Decision Making among Police Oﬃcers, Behavioral Neuroscience, vol. 126（1）,pp. 167−174（2012）．
Bourdeau, Isabelle, & Constantine A. Stratakis, Pharmacology of Glucocorticoids, In: Helen
L. Henry & Anthony W. Norman（Eds.）, Encyclopedia of Hormones, pp. 104 et seq., San
Diego: Academic Press（2003）．
Ehrhart-Bornstein, Monika, & Stefan R. Bornstein, Cross-Talk between Adrenal Medulla
and Adrenal Cortex in Stress, Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences, vol. 1148,
pp. 112−117（2008）．
Ell, Shawn W., Brandon Cosley, & Shannon K. McCoy,

When Bad Stress Goes Good:

Increased Threat Reactivity Predicts Improved Category Learning Performance,

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Psychonomic Bulletin & Review, vol. 18（1）, pp. 96−102（2011）．
Filaire, Edith, Deborah Alix, Claude Ferrand, & Michel Verger,

PsychophysiologicalStress in Tennis Players during the First Single Match of a Tournament,
Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 34（1）, pp. 150−157（2009）．
Gonzalez-Bono, E., A. Salvador, M. A. Serrano, & J. Ricarte, Testosterone, Cortisol, andMood in a Sports Team Competition,

Hormones & Behavior, vol. 35（1）, pp. 55−62（1999）．
Het, Serkan, Daniela Schoofs, Nicolas Rohleder, & Oliver Wolf,

Stress-Induced Cortisol

Level Elevations Are Associated with Reduced Negative Aﬀect after Stress: Indications
for a Mood-Buﬀering Cortisol Eﬀect, Psychosomatic Medicine, vol. 74（1）, pp. 23−32（2012）．
Joëls, Marian, Gullen Fernandez, & Benno Roozendaal, Stress and Emotional Memory: A
Matter of Timing, Trends in Cognitive Sciences, vol. 15（6）, pp. 280−288（2011）．
Kivlighan, Katie T., Douglas A. Granger, & Alan Booth, Gender Diﬀerences in Testosterone
and Cortisol Response to Competition, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 30（1）, pp. 58−
71（2005）．
Koolhaas, J. M., A. Bartolomucci, B. Buwalda, S. F. de Boer, G. Flügge, S. M. Korte, P. Meerlo,
R. Murison, B. Olivier, Pl. Palanza, G. Richter-Levin, A. Sgoifo, T. Steimer, O. Stiedl, G.
van Dijk, M. Wöhr, & E. Fuchs, Stress Revisited: A Critical Evaluation of the Stress
Concept, Neuroscience & Biobehavioral Reviews, vol. 35（5）, pp. 1291−1301（2011）．
Kudielka, Brigitte M., D. H. Hellhammer, & Stefan Wüst,

Why Do We Respond So

Differently? Reviewing Determinants of Human Salivary Cortisol Responses to（1）, pp. 2−18（2009）．
Challenge, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 34
Kyrou, Ioannis, & Constantine Tsigos, Stress Hormones: Physiological Stress and Regulationof Metabolism, Current Opinion in Pharmacology, vol. （9 6）, pp. 787−793（2009）．
Montoya, Estrella R., David Terburg, Peter A. Bos, & Jack van Honk,

Testosterone,

Cortisol, and Serotonin, Motivation & Emotion, vol. 36（1）, pp. 65−73（2012）．
Putman, Peter, Niki Antypa, Panagiota Crysovergi, & Willem A. J. van der Does, Exogenous
Cortisol Acutely Influences Motivated Decision Making in Healthy Young Men,
Psychopharmacology, vol. 208（2）, pp. 257−263（2010）．
Putman, Peter, Erno J. Hermans, Hans Koppeschaar, Alexandra van Schijndel, & Jack van
Honk, A Single Administration of Cortisol Acutely Reduces Preconscious Attention（7）, pp. 793−802
for Fear in Anxious Young Men, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 32（2007）．
Putman, Peter, & Karin Roelofs, Eﬀects of Single Cortisol Administrations on Human Aﬀect
Reviewed: Coping with Stress through Adaptive Regulation of Automatic Cognitive
Processing, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 32（7）, pp. 793−802（2007）．
Rimmele, Ulrike, Roland Seiler, Bernard Marti, Petra H. Wirtz, Ulrike Ehlert, & Markus
Heinrichs,

The Level of Physical Activity Affects Adrenal and Cardiovascular

Reactivity to Psychosocial Stress, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 34（2）, pp. 190−198

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（2009）．
Soravia, Leila M., Markus Heinrichs, Amanda Aerni, Caroline Maroni, Gustav Schelling,
Ulrike Ehlert, Benno Roozendaal, & Dominique J-F de Quervain,

Glucocorticoids

Reduce Phobic Fear in Humans, Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, vol.
103（14）, pp. 5585−5590（2006）．
Van Peer, Jacobien M., Karin Roelofs, & Philip Spinhoven,

Cortisol Administration

Enhances the Coupling of Midfrontal Delta and Beta Oscillations, International Journalof Psychophysiology, vol. 67（2）, pp. 144−150（2008）．
Wurtman, Richard J., Stress and the Adrenocortical Control of Epinephrine Synthesis,
Metabolism

Clinical & Experimental, vol. 51（6）, Pt. B, pp. 11−14（2002）．

Zilioli, Samuele, & Neil V. Watson, The Hidden Dimensions of the Competition Eﬀect: Basal
Cortisol and Basal Testosterone Jointly Predict Changes in Salivary Testosterone afterSocial Victory in Men, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 37（11）, pp. 1855-1865（2012）．
オキシトシン

■

Baron-Cohen, Simon, The Essential Diﬀerence: Men, Women, and the Truth about Autism,
New York: Basic Books（2004）［サイモン・バロン＝コーエン『共感する女脳，システ
ム化する男脳』三宅真砂子訳（日本放送出版協会，2005）］．
Baron-Cohen, Simon, Sally Wheelwright, Jacqueline Hill, Yogini Raste, & Ian Plumb, The
Reading the Mind in the Eyes Test Revised Version: A Study with Normal Adults,
and Adults with Asperger Syndrome or High-Functioning Autism, Journal of Child
Psychology & Psychiatry, vol. 42（2）, pp. 241−251（2001）．
Bartz, Jennifer, Interactionist Perspective on the Prosocial Eﬀects of Oxytocin in Humans,
Paper Presentation, Social Neuroendocrinology Pre-Conference, San Diego（2012）．
Bartz, Jennifer, Daphne Simeon, Holly Hamilton, Suah Kim, Sarah Crystal, Ashley Braun,
Victor Vicens, & Eric Hollander,

Oxytocin Can Hinder Trust and Cooperation in

Borderline Personality Disorder, Social Cognitive & Aﬀective Neuroscience, vol. 6（5）,pp. 556−563（2011）．
Bos, Peter A., Jaak Pansepp, Rose-Marie Bluthé, & Jack van Honk, Acute Eﬀects of Steroid
Hormones and Neuropeptides on Human Social−Emotional Behavior: A Review ofSingle Administration Studies, Frontiers in Neuroendocrinology, vol. 33（1）, pp. 17−35（2012）．
Bullock, Sandra, Quinton Aaron（perfs.）, Hancock, John Lee（dir./scr.）, The Blind Side,
Warner Bros., Film（2009）［ジョン・リー・ハンコック監督・脚本，映画『しあわせの隠れ場所』（ワーナー・ブラザーズ，2010）］．
Churchland, Patricia S., & Piotr Winkielman, Modulating Social Behavior with Oxytocin:（3）, pp. 392−
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De Dreu, Carsten K. W., The Neuroendocrinology of Tend-and-Defendʼ Responding in

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San Diego（2012）．
De Dreu, Carsten K. W., Oxytocin Modulates Cooperation within and Competition between
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De Dreu, Carsten K. W., Oxytocin Modulates the Link between Adult Attachment and（7）,
Cooperation through Reduced Betrayal Aversion, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 37
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De Dreu, Carsten K. W., Lindred L. Greer, Michel J. J. Handgraﬀ, Shaul Shalvi, & Gerben A.
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De Dreu, Carsten K. W., Lindred L. Greer, Gerben A. Van Kleef, Shaul Shalvi, & Michel J.
J. Handgraﬀ, Oxytocin Promotes Human Ethnocentrism, Proceedings of the National
Academy of Sciences, vol. 108（4）, pp. 1262−1266（2011）．
Domes, Gregor, Markus Heinrichs, Jan Gläscher, Christain Büchel, Dieter F. Braus, & Sabine
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Fischer-Shofty, Meytal, Yechiel Levkovitz, & Simone G. Shamay-Tsoory,

Oxytocin

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Hahn-Holbrook J., M. Haselton, J. Holt-Lunstad, C. Holbrook, L. Glynn, & C. Dunkel Schetter,
The Role of Breastfeeding and Oxytocin in Shaping the Maternal Mind,

Paper

Presentation, Social Neuroendocrinology Pre-Conference, San Diego（2012）．
Hahn-Holbrook, Jennifer, Julianne Holt-Lunstad, Colin Holbrook, Sarah M. Coyne, & E.
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．

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Neuropeptides and Social Behaviour: Effects of

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Van Anders, Sari M., Katherine L. Goldey, & Patty X. Kuo, The Steroid/Peptide Theory
of Social Bonds: Integrating Testosterone and Peptide Responses for Classifying Social（9）, pp. 1265−1275（2011）．
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Oxytocin,

In: Anne M. Etgen & Donald W. Pfaff（Eds.）, Molecular Mechanisms of Hormones Actions on Behavior, ch. 25, pp. 783−802,
San Diego: Academic Press（2009）．
Zak, Paul J., The Moral Molecule: The Source of Love and Prosperity, New York: Dutton /Penguin Group（2012）［ポール・Ｊ・ザック『経済は「競争」では繁栄しない――信頼
ホルモン「オキシトシン」が解き明かす愛と共感の神経経済学』柴田裕之訳（ダイヤモンド社，2013）］．
テストステロンは社会的重要性に反応する■

Aarts, Henk, & Jack van Honk, Testosterone and Unconscious Positive Priming Increase
Human Motivation Separately, NeuroReport, vol. 20（14）, pp. 1300−1303（2009）．
Carré, Justin, The Social Neuroendocrinology of Human Aggression, Paper Presentation,
Social Neuroendocrinology Pre-Conference, San Diego（2012）．
Edwards, David A., Competition and Testosterone, Hormones & Behavior, vol. 50, pp. 681−683（2006）．
Edwards, David A., 著者との文書通信（2012）．
Edwards, David A., & Lauren S. Kurlander,

Womenʼs Intercollegiate Volleyball andTennis: Eﬀects of Warm-Up, Competition, and Practice on Saliva Levels of Cortisol andTestosterone, Hormones & Behavior, vol. 58（4）, pp. 606−613（2010）．
Edwards, David A., Jennifer Waters, Alexis Weiss, & Amalia Jarvis,

Intercollegiate

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Edwards, David A., Karen Wetzel, & Dana R. Wyner, Intercollegiate Soccer: Saliva Cortisol
and Testosterone Are Elevated during Competition, and Testosterone Is Related to
Status and Social Connectedness with Teammates, Physiology & Behavior, vol. 87（1）,
pp. 135−143（2006）．
Eisenegger, C., M. Naef, R. Snozzi, M. Heinrichs, & E. Fehr, Prejudice and Truth about theEﬀect of Testosterone on Human Bargaining Behavior, Nature, vol. 463, pp. 356−359（2010）．
Fannin, Noel, & James M. Dabbs, Jr., Testosterone and the Work of Fireﬁghters: Fighting
Fires and Delivering Medical Care, Journal of Research in Personality, vol. 37（2）, pp.
107−115（2003）．
Gesquiere, Laurence R., Niki H. Learn, M. Carolina M. Simao, Patrick O. Onyango, & Susan
C. Alberts, Life at the Top: Rank and Stress in Wild Male Baboons, Science, vol. 333（6040）, pp. 357−360（2011）．
Gleason, Erin D., Matthew J. Fuxjager, Temitayo O. Oyegbile, & Catherine A. Marler,
Testosterone Release and Social Context: When It Occurs and Why, Frontiers in
Neuroendocrinology, vol. 30（4）, pp. 460−469（2009）．
Gordon, Ilanit, Carina Martin, Ruth Feldman, & James F. Leckman, Oxytocin and Social
Motivation, Developmental Cognitive Neuroscience, vol. （1 4）, pp. 471−493（2011）．
Josephs, Robert A., Pranjal H. Mehta, & Justin M. Carré, Gender and Social Environment
Modulate the Eﬀects of Testosterone on Social Behavior: Comment on Eisenegger etal., Trends in Cognitive Sciences, vol. 15（11）, p. 509（2011）．
Josephs, Robert A., Jennifer Guinn Sellers, Matthew L. Newman, & Pranjal H. Mehta, The
Mismatch Eﬀect: When Testosterone and Status Are at Odds, Journal of Personality
and Social Psychology, vol. 90（6）, pp. 999−1013（2006）．
Liening, S. H., P. H. Mehta, & R. A. Josephs, Competition, In: Vilanayur S. Ramachandran（Ed.）, Encyclopedia of Human Behavior, New York: Academic Press（2012）．
Miller, Saul L., Jon K. Maner, & James K. McNulty, Adaptive Attunement to the Sex ofIndividuals at a Competition: The Ratio of Opposite-to Same-Sex Individuals Correlateswith Changes in Competitorsʼ Testosterone Levels, Evolution & Human Behavior, vol.
33（1）, pp. 57−63（2012）．
Ronay, Richard, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Sapolsky, Robert M., Sympathy for the CEO, Science, vol. 333（6040）, pp. 293−294（2011）．
Sellers, Jennifer, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Sellers, Jennifer Guinn, Matthais R. Mehl, & Robert A. Josephs, Hormones and Personality:
Testosterone as a Marker of Individual Diﬀerences, Journal of Research in Personality,
vol. 14（1）, pp. 126−138（2007）．
Stanton, Stephen, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Van Anders, Sari M., Katherine L. Goldey, & Patty X. Kuo, The Steroid/Peptide Theory
of Social Bonds: Integrating Testosterone and Peptide Responses for Classifying Social

競争の科学

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Behavioral Contexts, Psychoneuroendocrinology, vol. 36（9）, pp. 1265−1275（2011）．
Van Honk, Jack,

Testosterone Decreases Trust and Empathy in Humans,

Paper

Presentation at Annual Convention for Assn. for Psychological Science, San Francisco,CA（2009）．
Van Honk, Jack, Dennis J. L. G. Schutter, Erno J. Hermans, & Peter Putnam, Testosterone,
Cortisol, Dominance, & Submission: Biologically Prepared Motivation, No Psychological
Mechanisms Involved, Behavioral Brain Sciences, vol. 27（1）, p. 160（2004）．
Zitzmann, M., & E. Nieschlag, Testosterone Levels in Healthy Men and the Relation to
Behavioural and Physical Characteristics: Facts and Constructs, European Journal of
Endocrinology, vol. 144（3）, pp. 183−197（2001）．
第10章
ジェイソン・レザック／チームの一員であることの感情と神経科学■

レザックのパフォーマンスに関する情報については，第 1 章の引用を参照のこと．また，第7 章で言及した，ミスの神経科学に関する研究――特に，協力と競争についての研究（例：Bruijnら，およびDecentyらの研究）も重要な補足情報である．
Cikara, Mina, Matthew M. Botvinick, & Susan T. Fiske, Us versus Them: Social Identity
Shapes Neural Responses to Intergroup Competition and Harm, Psychological Science,
vol. 22（3）, pp. 306−313（2011）．
Lezak, Jason, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Molenberghs, Pascal, Veronika Halász, Jason B. Mattingley, Eric J. Vanman, & Ross
Cunnington, Seeing is Believing: Neural Mechanisms of Action−Perception Are Biased
by Team Membership, online early release, doi:10.1002/hbm.22044（2012）．
Schloss, Karen B., Rosa M. Poggesi, & Stephen E. Palmer, Eﬀects of University Aﬃliation
andSchool Spiritʼ on Color Preferences: Berkeley versus Stanford,

Psychonomic

Bulletin & Review, vol. 18（3）, pp. 498−504（2011）．
Walton, Gregory M., Geoﬀrey L. Cohen, David Cwir, & Steven J. Spencer, Mere Belonging:
The Power of Social Connections, Journal of Personality & Social Psychology, vol. 102（3）,
pp. 513−532（2012）．
チームワークの台頭，普及，利益■

Rise, Popularity and Rewards for Use of Teamwork:
Allen, Natalie J., & Tracy D. Hecht, The Romance of Teamsʼ: Toward an Understandingof Its Psychological Underpinnings and Implications,

Journal of Occupational and．
Organizational Psychology, vol. 77（4）, pp. 439−461（2010）
Bikfalvi, Andrea,

Teamwork in Production: Implementation, Its Determinants, andEstimates for German Manufacturing,

Human Factors and Ergonomics in

Manufacturing & Service Industries, vol. 21（3）, pp. 244−259（2011）．
Cain, Susan, Quiet: The Power of Introverts in a World that Can t Stop Talking, New York:
Crown Publishers（2012）［スーザン・ケイン『内向型人間の時代――社会を変える静か

競争の科学

77

な人の力』古草秀子訳（講談社，2013）］（アメリカにおける学級でのチームの使用について触れている）．
Erev, Ido, Gary Bornstein, & Rachely Galili, Constructive Intergroup Competition as a
Solution to the Rider Problem: A Field Experiment, Journal of Experimental Social
Psychology, vol. 29, pp. 463−478（1993）．
Garvey, Charlotte, Focus on Compensation-Steer Teams with the Right Pay, HR Magazine,
vol. 47（5）, http://bit.ly/O7TIHl（2002）（チームベースの競争を採用する企業の台頭に関する南カリフォルニア大学による分析について報告している）．
Gibson, Cristina B., Christine L. Porath, George S. Benson, & Edward E. Lawler III, What
Results When Firms Implement Practices: The Differential Relationship between
Speciﬁc Practices, Firm Financial Performance, Customer Service, and Quality, Journalof Applied Psychology, vol. 92（6）, pp. 1467−1480（2007）．
Maymin, Allan, Philip Maymin, & Eugene Shen, NBA Chemistry: Positive and Negative
Synergies in Basketball, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1935972（10/7/2011）．
Maynard, M. Travis, John E. Mathieu, Tammy L. Rapp, & Lucy L. Gilson, Something（s）
Old and Something（s）New: Modeling Drivers of Global Virtual Team Eﬀectiveness,
Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 33（3）, pp. 342−365（2012）．
Naquin, Charles E., & Renee O. Tynan,

The Team Halo Effect: Why Teams Are Not

Blamed for Their Failures, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 88（2）, pp. 332−340（2003）．
Rapp, Adam, Michael Ahearne, John Mathieu, & Tammy Rapp, Managing Sales Teams in
a Virtual Environment, International Journal of Research in Marketing, vol. 27（3）, pp.
213−224（2010）．
Staw, Barry M.,

Attribution of the Causes of Performance: A General Alternative

Interpretation of Cross-Sectional Research on Organizations, Organizational Behavior& Human Performance, vol. 13（3）, pp. 414−432（1975）．
Staw, Barry M., & Lisa D. Epstein,

What Bandwagons Bring: Effects of PopularManagement Techniques on Corporate Performance, Reputation, and CEO Pay,
Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 45（3）, pp. 523−556（2000）．
Tannenbaum, Scott I., John Mathieu, Eduardo Salas, & Debra Cohen, Teams Are Changing:
Are Research and Practice Evolving Fast Enough?

Industrial and Organizational

Psychology, vol. 5（1）, pp. 2−24（2012）．
Wageman, Ruth, Heidi Gardner, & Mark Mortensen, The Changing Ecology of Teams: New
Directions for Teams Research, Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 33（3）, pp. 301−
315（2012）．
West, Michael A., & Joanne Lyubovnikova, Real Teams or Pseudo Teams? The Changing,
Landscape Needs a Better Map, Industrial and Organizational Psychology, vol. 5（1）pp. 25−28（2012）．

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78

チームの大きさ，関係性，コミュニケーション■

Aubé, Caroline, Vincent Rousseau, & Sébastien Tremblay, Team Size and Quality of Group
Experience: The More the Merrier?, Group Dynamics: Theory, Research, and Practice,vol. 15（4）, pp. 357−375（2011）．
Barkan, Rachel, Ido Erev, Einat Zinger, & Mayan Tzach, Tip Policy, Visibility and Qualityof Service in Cafés, Tourism Economics, vol. 10（4）, pp. 449−462（2004）．
Barnes, Christopher M., John R. Hollenbeck, David T. Wagner, D. Scott DeRue, Jennifer D.
Nahrgang, & Kelly M. Schwind, Harmful Help: The Costs of Backing-Up Behavior inTeams, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 93（3）, pp. 529−539（2008）．
A Call for Raising Industry Benchmarks in IT Service Delivery,

Tata Consultancy

Services（TCS）, http://bit.ly/OwMc9N（2012）．
Carron, Albert V., Shauna M. Burke, & Kim M. Shapcott, Enhancing Team Eﬀectiveness,
In: Britton W. Brewer, Sport Psychology, ch. 7, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell（2009）．
Dalenberg, Sander, Ad L. W. Vogelaar, & Bianca Beersma, The Eﬀect of a Team Strategy
Discussion on Military Team Performance, Military Psychology, vol. 21（supp. 2）, pp.
S31−S46（2009）．
Driskell, James E., & Eduardo Salas, Groupware, Group Dynamics, and Team Performance,（Eds.）, Creating High-Tech Teams:
In: Clint Bowers, Eduardo Salas, & Florian Jentsch
Practical Guidance on Work Performance and Technology, Washington, DC: American
Psychological Assn.（2006）．
Ellis, Aleksander P. J., System Breakdown: The Role of Mental Models and Transactive
Memory in the Relationship between Acute Stress and Team Performance, Academyof Management Journal, vol. 49（3）, pp. 576−589（2006）．
Fincannon, Thomas, Joseph R. Keebler, Florian Jentsch, Elizabeth Phillips, & A. William
Evans III, Team Size, Team Role, Communication Modality, and Team Coordination in
the Distributed Operation of Multiple Heterogeneous Unmanned Vehicles, Journal of
Cognitive Engineering & Decision Making, vol. （5 1）, pp. 106−131（2011）．
Gardner, Heidi K.,

Performance Pressure as a Double-Edged Sword Enhancing Team

Motivation but Undermining the Use of Team Knowledge,

Administrative Science

Quarterly, vol. 57（1）, pp. 1−46（2012）．
Johnson, Michael D., John R. Hollenbeck, Stephen E. Humphrey, Daniel R. Ilgen, Dustin
Jundt, & Christopher J. Meyer, Cutthroat Competition: Asymmetrical Adaptation to
Changes in Team Reward Structures, Academy of Management Journal, vol. 49
（2）
, pp.
103−119（2006）．
Mueller, Jennifer S., Why Individuals in Larger Teams Perform Worse, Organizational
Behavior & Human Decision Processes, vol. 117（1）, pp. 111−124（2012）．
Noe, Raymond A., Ali McConnell Dachner, Brian Sexton, & Kathryn E. Keeton, Team
Training for Long-Duration Missions in Isolated and Confined Environments: A
Literature Review, an Operational Assessment, and Recommendations for Practice and．
Research, NASA/TM-2011-216162, Houston: NASA（2011）

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79

Nokes-Malach, Timothy J., Michelle L. Meade, & Daniel G. Morrow, The Eﬀect of Expertiseon Collaborative Problem Solving, Thinking & Reasoning, vol. 18（1）, pp. 32−58（2012）．
Salas, Eduardo, Diana R. Nichols, & James E. Driskell,

Testing Three Team Training

Strategies in Intact Teams: A Meta-Analysis, Small Group Research, vol. 38（4）, pp.
471−488（2007）．
Staats, Bradley R., 著者との文書通信（2012）．
Staats, Bradley R., Katherine L. Milkman, & Craig R. Fox, The Team Scaling Fallacy:
Underestimating the Declining Eﬃcacy of Teams, Organizational Behavior & Human
Decision Processes, vol. 118（2）, pp. 132−142（2012）．
60／30／10の法則，チームの役割を定義することの重要性，チームのパフォーマンスを改善する構造■

Carron, Albert V., Shauna M. Burke, & Kim M. Shapcott, Enhancing Team Eﬀectiveness,
In: Britton W. Brewer, Sport Psychology, ch. 7, Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell（2009）．
（4）,（Apr.
Edmondson, Amy C., Teamwork on the Fly, Harvard Business Review , vol. 90
2012）．
Hackman, J. Richard, Collaborative Intelligence: Using Teams to Solve Hard Problems, San
Francisco: Berrett-Koehler Publishers, Inc.（2011）．
Hackman, J. Richard,

From Causes to Conditions in Group Research,

Journal of

Organizational Behavior, vol. 33（3）, pp. 428−444（2012）．
（7）, pp. 24−31
Hackman, J. Richard, Why Teams Donʼt Work, Leader to Leader, vol. 1998
（1998）．
Hackman, J. Richard, & Ruth Wageman, When and How Team Leaders Matter, Researchin Organizational Behavior, vol. 26, pp. 37−74（2005）．
Klein, Cameron, Deborah DiazGranados, Eduardo Salas, Huy Le, & C. Shawn Burke, DoesTeam Building Work?, Small Group Research, vol. 40（1）, pp. 181−222（2009）．
Salas, Eduardo, Nancy J. Cooke, & Michael A. Rosen, On Teams, Teamwork, and Team
Performance: Discoveries and Developments,

Human Factors: The Journal of the

Human Factors and Ergonomics Society, vol. 50（3）, pp. 540−547（2008）．
Shuﬄer, Marissa L., Deborah DiazGranados, & Eduardo Salas, Thereʼs a Science for That,
Current Directions in Psychological Science, vol. 20（6）, pp. 365−372（2011）．
Valentine, Melissa, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Valentine, Melissa A., & Amy C. Edmondson,

Team Scaffolds: How Minimal In-Group

Structures Support Fast-Paced Teaming, Harvard Business School Working Paper, No.
12-062（1/18/2012）．
Weaver, Sallie J., Michael A. Rosen, Eduardo Salas, Karyn D. Baum, & Heidi B. King,
Integrating the Science of Team Training: Guidelines for Continuing Education,
Journal of Continuing Education in the Health Professions, vol. 30（4）, pp. 208−220．
（2010）
Woolley, Anita, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Woolley, Anita Williams, Responses to Adversarial Situations and Collective Intelligence,

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80

Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 32（7）, pp. 978−983（2011）．
チーム内の対立■

Bradley, Bret H., Bennett E. Postlethwaite, Anthony C. Klotz, Maria R. Hamdani, & Kenneth
G. Brown, Reaping the Beneﬁts of Task Conﬂict in Teams: The Critical Role of Team
Psychological Safety Climate, Journal of Applied Psychology, vol. 97（1）, pp. 151−158（2012）．
Driskell, James E., Gerald F. Goodwin, Eduardo Salas, & Patrick Gavan OʼShea, What Makes
a Good Team Player? Personality and Team Eﬀectiveness, Group Dynamics: Theory,
Research, and Practice, vol. 10（4）, pp. 249−271（2006）．
Feynman, Richard P., Surely, Youʼre Joking Mr. Feynman, New York: W. W. Norton（1997）［R. P. ファインマン『ご冗談でしょう，ファインマンさん』大貫昌子訳（岩波書店，
2000）］．
Fischer, Bill, & Andy Boynton, Virtuoso Teams, Harvard Business Review , vol. 83（7）, pp.
116−123（2005）．
Gelfand, Michele Joy, Jeanne M. Brett, Lynn Imai, Hwa-Hwa Tsai, & Daphne Huang, Team
Negotiation across Cultures: When and Where Are Two Heads Better Than One?
Paper Presentation at IACM 18th Annual Conference, Amsterdam, http://bit.ly/
O7TNuJ（2005）．
Gibson, Cristina B., & Dana M. McDaniel,

Moving beyond Conventional Wisdom:

Advancements in Cross-Cultural Theories of Leadership, Conflict, and Teams,
Perspectives on Psychological Science, vol. （5 4）, pp. 450−462（2010）．
Gleick, James, Genius: The Life of Science of Richard Feynman, New York: Vintage Books（1993）．
Hong, Sung-Mook, & Salvatora Faedda, Reﬁnement of the Hong Psychological Reactance
Scale, Educational and Psychological Measurement, vol. 56（1）, pp. 173−182（1996）．
［ドリス・カKearns Goodwin, Doris, Team of Rivals, New York: Simon & Schuster（2005）
ーンズ・グッドウィン『リンカーン』平岡緑訳（中公文庫，2013）］．
Kozlowski, Steve W. J., & Daniel R. Illgen, Enhancing the Eﬀectiveness of Work Groups andTeams, Psychological Science in the Public Interest, vol. （7 3）, pp. 77−124（2006）．
Leander, N. Pontus, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Leander, N. Pontus, Tanya L. Chartrand, & Wendy Wood,
Behavioral Mimicry Elicits Stereotype Conformity,

Mind Your Mannerisms:

Journal of Experimental Social

Psychology, vol. 47（1）, pp. 195−201（2011）．
Moll, Tjerk, Geir Jordet, & Gert-Jan Pepping,

Emotional Contagion in Soccer Penalty

Shootouts: Celebration of Individual Success is Associated with Ultimate Team
Success, Journal of Sports Sciences, vol. 28（9）, pp. 983−992（2010）．
Pierro, Antonio, Fabio Presaghi, E. Tory Higgins, Kristen M. Klein, & Arie W. Kruglanski,
Frogs and Ponds: A Multilevel Analysis of the Regulatory Mode Complementarity
Hypothesis, Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, vol. 38（2）, pp. 269−279（2012）
．

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Reiter-Palmon, Roni, Remarks at Session on Team Creativity in Science, Technology,
Engineering, & Mathematics（STEM）, Annual Convention of the American
Psychological Assn., Orlando（2012）．
Reiter-Palmon, Roni,

Team Creativity and Innovation: Current Findings and Future

Research Needs, Remarks at Annual Convention of the American Psychological Assn.,
Washington, DC（2011）．
［ト
Wolfe, Tom, The Right Stuﬀ, New York: Bantam / Farrar, Straus & Giroux（1979/1980）
ム・ウルフ『ザ・ライト・スタッフ――七人の宇宙飛行士』中野圭二・加藤弘和訳（中公文庫，1983）．フィリップ・カウフマン監督・脚本，トム・ウルフ原作，映画『ライトスタッフ』（ワーナー・ブラザーズ，1984）］．
Woolley, Anita Williams, Christopher F. Chabris, Alex Pentland, Nada Hashmi, & Thomas
W. Malone, Evidence for a Collective Intelligence Factor in the Performance of HumanGroups, Science, vol. 330（6004）, pp. 686−688（2010）．
ヒエラルキー，チームのスター■

Allmendinger, Jutta, & J. Richard Hackman, The More, the Better? A Four-Nation Study ofthe Inclusion of Women in Symphony Orchestras, Social Forces, vol. 74（2）, pp. 423−
460（1995）．
Allmendinger, Jutta, & J. Richard Hackman, Organizations in Changing Environments: The
Case of East German Symphony Orchestras, Administrative Science Quarterly, vol. 41（3）, pp. 337−369（1996）．
Allmendinger, Jutta, J. Richard Hackman, & Erin V. Lehman, Life and Work in SymphonyOrchestras, Musical Quarterly, vol. 80（2）, pp. 194−219（1996）．
Berri, David J., Michael A. Leeds, Eva Marikova Leeds, & Michael Mondello, The Role ofManagers, International Journal of Sport Finance, vol. 4, pp. 75−93（2009）．
Bucciol, Alessandro, & Marco Piovesan, Pay Dispersion and Work Performance, Harvard
Business School Research Paper Series, No. 12-075, http://ssrn.com/abstract=2012514（2012）．
Chan, Tat Y., Jia Li, & Lamar Pierce, Compensation and Peer Eﬀects in Competing Sales
Teams, http://ssrn.com/abstract=1367441（2012）．
Hackman, J. Richard,

Learning More by Crossing Levels: Evidence from Airplanes,

Hospitals, and Orchestras, Journal of Organizational Behavior, vol. 24（8）, pp. 905−922（2003）．
Hackman, J. Richard, & Nancy Katz, Group Behavior and Performance, In: S. T. Fiske,
D. T. Gilbert, & G. Lindzey（Eds.）, Handbook of Social Psychology, 5th Ed., New York:
Wiley（2010）．
Halevy, Nir, Eileen Y. Chou, & Adam D. Galinsky, A Functional Model of Hierarchy, Social
Psychological & Personality Science, vol. （3 4）, pp. 398−406（2012）．
Halevy, Nir, Eileen Y. Chou, Adam D. Galinsky, & J. Keith Murnighan, When Hierarchy
Wins Evidence from the National Basketball Association,

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82

Social Psychological &Personality Science, vol. 3（4）, pp. 398−406（2012）．
Holliday, Emma, Clifton David Fuller, Lynn D. Wilson, & Charles R. Thomas, Jr., Success
Breeds Success: Authorship Distribution in the Red Journal, 1975−2011, International
Journal of Radiation Oncology * Biology * Physics, in press（2012）．
Kuhn, Peter, & Marie Claire Villeval,

Do Women Prefer a Co-operative Work．
Environment? IZA Discussion Paper No. 5999（2011）
Oettl, Alexander, Productivity, Helpfulness and the Performance of Peers: Exploring the
Implications of a New Taxonomy for Star Scientists, University of Toronto, http://bit.
ly/PTVH2y（2009）．
Simmons, Rob, & David J. Berri, Mixing the Princes and the Paupers: Pay and Performancein the National Basketball Association, Labour Economics, vol. 18（3）, pp. 381−388（2011）．
Sitkin, Sim B., & J. Richard Hackman, Developing Team Leadership: An Interview with
Mike Kryzyzewski, Academy of Management Learning & Education, vol. 10（3）, pp.
494−501（2011）．
Stribeck, Agnes,

The Downside of Looking for Team Players̶An Empirical Analysisof the Eﬀects of Requiring Teamwork Skills in Job Advertisements on the Applicant
Pool, http://bit.ly/O0eaOC（2010）．
．
Stribeck, Agnes, & Kerstin Pull, Do Lame Ducks Sort into Teams, Working Paper（u.d.）Stribeck, Agnes, & Kerstin Pull,

Self-Selection into Teamwork, A Theoretical andExperimental Analysis, Beiträge zur Jahrestagung des Vereins für Socialpolitik 2010:Ökonomie der Familie̶ Session: Organisational Design, No. B15-V2（2010）
．
第11章
■

Linuxとトップコーダー
2012 Grand Prize Winners, Technology Academy of Finland, http://bit.ly/HVLu5t（2012）．

Andersen-Gott, Morten, Gheorghita Ghinea, & Bendik Bygstad,Why Do Commercial

Companies Contribute to Open Source Software?, International Journal of Information
Management, vol. 32（2）, pp. 106−117（2012）．
Boudreau, Kevin J., Nicola Lacetera, & Karim R. Lakhani,

Incentives and Problem

Uncertainty in Innovation Contests: An Empirical Analysis, Management Science, vol.
57（5）, pp. 843−863（2011）．
Corbet, Jonathan, Greg Kroah-Hartman, & Amanda McPherson, Linux Kernel Development:
How Fast It Is Going, Who Is Doing It, What They Are Doing, and Who Is Sponsoring
It, The Linux Foundation（2012）．
Crainer, Stuart, & Julian Birkinshaw, Who Needs Employees? Business Strategy Review,
vol. 19（3）, pp. 18−21（2008）．
David, Paul A., & Joseph S. Shapiro,

Community-Based Production of Open-Source

Software: What Do We Know about the Developers Who Participate? Information
Economics & Policy, vol. 20（4）, pp. 364−398（2008）
．

競争の科学

83

Goldberg, Corey, Linus Torvalds on Competition by Technical Merit, Goldb.org, http://bit.
ly/T0y2Rf（4/19/2007）．
Gulley, Ned, & Karim R. Lakhani,

The Determinants of Individual Performance andCollective Value in Private-Collective Software Innovation, Harvard Business School
Working Paper, No. 10-065（2010）．
Hertel, Guido, Sven Niedner, & Stefanie Hermann, Motivation of Software Developers inOpen Source Projects: An Internet-Based Survey of Contributors to the Linux Kernel,
Research Policy, vol. 32（7）, pp. 1159−1177（2003）．
Jdamato12,

TopCoder Celebrates 400,000 Members as Payments Top$36 Million,

TopCoder.com, http://bit.ly/O0ehd4（4/12/2012）．
Lakhani, Karim, 著者との文書通信（2011, 2012）．
Lakhani, Karim, 著者によるインタビュー（2012）．
Lakhani, Karim R., TopCoder（A）: Developing Software through Crowdsourcing, Harvard
Business School Teaching Note, No. 5-611-071（2011）．
Lakhani, Karim R., & David A. Garvin,

TopCoder（A）: Developing Software throughCrowdsourcing, Harvard Business School Case Study, No. 9-610-032（2010）．
Lakhani, Karim R., & Jill A. Panetta, The Principles of Distributed Innovation, Innovations,vol. （
2 3）, pp. 97−113（2007）．
McKeown, Jim,

TopCoder One of Inc. Magazineʼs 500 Fastest-Growing Companies in

America for Second Consecutive Year, Press Release（8/27/2008）．
Moon, Jae Yun, & Lee Sproull,

Essence of Distributed Work: The Case of the Linux

Kernel, First Monday, vol. 5（11）（2000）．
Noyes, Kathleen, Top Honor for Linus Torvalds Highlights Linuxʼs Importance, Operating
Systems Blog, PC World, http://bit.ly/HTceE4（4/19/2012）．
Peyrache, Eloic, Jacques Cremer, & Jean Tirole,

Some Reflections on Open Source

Software, Communications & Strategies, vol. 40, pp. 139−159（2000）．
Raymond, Eric, The Cathedral and the Bazaar: Musings on Linux and Open Source byan Accidental Revolutionary, Revised Edition, Sebastopol, CA: OʼReilly & Assoc., Inc.
（2001）．
Terwiesch, Christian, & Yi Xu,

Innovation Contests, Open Innovation, and Multiagent（9）, pp. 1529−1543（2008）．
Problem Solving, Management Science, vol. 54
Torvalds, Linus,

Re: [Announce] [patch] Modular Scheduler Core and Completely Fair

Scheduler [CFS], E-mail exchange, http://bit.ly/wxQVcQ（4/15/2007）．
Torvalds, Linus, & David Diamond, Just for Fun: The Story of an Accidental Revolutionary,
New York: Harper Business（2002）［リーナス・トーバルズ，デイビッド・ダイヤモンド『それがぼくには楽しかったから――全世界を巻き込んだリナックス革命の真実』中島洋監修，風見潤訳（小学館プロダクション，2001）］．
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Watson, Andrew, Reputation in Open Source Software, Working Paper（2005）
Who Uses TopCoder? http://bit.ly/GAJERz（u.d.）
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オープンソース開発の台頭■

Collaboration Is the New Revolution, The Guardian, http://bit.ly/RswGdC（8/17/2008）．
Lakhani, Karim R., InnoCentive.com（A）, Harvard Business School Case Study, No.9-608170（2009）．
Lakhani, Karim R., Threadless: The Business of Community, Harvard Business School
Teaching Note, No. 5-608-169（2008）．
McGann, Matt, Match Game, MIT Admissions Blog, http://bit.ly/R0hhAP（1/27/2005）．
Politicians Need to Learn Virtue of Collaboration, USA Today, http://usat.ly/rKwl2w（1/1/2012）．
von Hippel, Eric, & Georg von Krogh, Open Source Software and the Private-Collectiveʼ
Innovation Model: Issues for Organization Science, Organization Science, vol. 14
（2）
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209−223（2003）．
競争や個性が科学的イノベーションに果たす役割■

私たち現代人が当たり前のものとして日々，使用している技術革新の多くは，正式な競争の結果として生まれたものである．消火器は，1761年に行なわれた消火アイデアを募ったコンテ
ストで，アンブローズ・ゴッドフレイが受賞したアイデアが基になっている．マーガリンは，
ナポレオン 3 世が軍用にバターの代用品を募集したコンテストの 1 等となったイポリット・メージュ＝ムーリエ考案によるアイデアによって誕生した（また，ナポレオン 1 世が募集した軍隊の食料に関するコンテストに触発され，ニコラ・アペールは1809年に瓶詰めの保存食品という革新的技術を編み出した）．チャールズ・リンドバーグによる1927年の大西洋単独無着陸飛行は，フランスのホテル・オーナーであるレイモンド・オルティーグが賞金を出したコンテス
トでの賞金獲得を目指したものだった（オルティーグはこのコンテストを，フランスの旅行業
界とホテル業界の活性化のために実施した）．2006年，Apple ユーザーの 1 人が，Windows 用のソフトウェアをMac上でも動作するようにコンバートするソフトェアの開発コンテストの開
催資金の寄付を公に呼びかけた．寄付は大量に集まり，その結果，Apple自らがこのソフトウ
ェアの開発に取り組むことになった．
Beersman, Bianca, John R. Hollenbeck, Henry Moon, Stephen E. Humphrey, Donald E.
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Feist, Gregory J., How Development and Personality Inﬂuence Scientiﬁc Thought, Interest,（2）, pp. 163−182（2006）．
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Feist, Gregory J., A Meta-Analysis of Personality in Scientific and Artistic Creativity,
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Wigert, B., & R. Reiter-Palmon, The Inﬂuence of Perfectionism and Regulatory Focus on
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Paper Presentation for Annual Meeting of the Society for Industrial /Organizational Psychology, San Diego（2012）．
ルネサンス美術やバロック音楽における競争■

Brecht, Martin, Martin Luther: Shaping and Defining the Reformation, 1521−1532,
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Durant, Will, The Story of Civilization, vol. 5, The Renaissance, ch. 17, New York: Simon &Schuster（1953）．
Durant, Will, The Story of Civilization, vol. 6, The Reformation, ch. 34, New York: Simon &Schuster（1957）．
Eire, Carlos M. M.,

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In: James J. Buckley, Frederick Christian

Bauerschmidt, & Trent Pomplun（Eds.）, The Blackwell Companion to Catholicism, ch. 5,
pp. 64−80, Essex, UK: Wiley（2007）．
Geck, Martin, Bach（Anthea Bell, Trans.）, London: Haus Publishing Ltd.（2003）．
Geck, Martin, Johann Sebastian Bach: Life and Work（John Hargraves, Trans.）, Orlando:
Harcourt（2000）［マルティン・ゲック『バッハ』大角欣矢訳（音楽之友社，1995）］．
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Vaubel, Roland, 著者との文書通信（2011）．
Vaubel, Roland, The Role of Competition in the Rise of Baroque and Renaissance Music,
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Wolf, Christoph, Johann Sebastian Bach: The Learned Musician, New York: W. W. Norton &Co.（2000）．
統一後のドイツの挑戦■

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Carlin, Wendy,

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創造性の発達における競争，行為主体性の果たす役割ほか■

Abra, Jock C.,

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第12章
スポーツが民主主義と政治に与える影響■

古代オリンピックについてのさらなる参考文献については，第 1 章の参考文献を参照のこと．
Carr, David, On the Moral Value of Physical Activity: Body and Soul in Platoʼs Account of（1）, pp. 3−15（2010）．
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ブラックソックス事件の歴史，進歩主義時代ほか■

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自分を試すスリル■

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