iCopyright © 2017 by Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences
ISBN: 978-979-8163-25-8
Lake Ecosystem Health and Its Resilience: Diversity and Risks of Extinction
PROCEEDINGS of the 16th World Lake Conference
Editors:
Miratul Maghfiroh, Aan Dianto, Taofik Jasalesmana, Irma Melati, Octavianto Samir, Riky
Kurniawan
Published by:
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciencesii

List of reviewers:
Gadis Sri Haryani
Masahisa Nakamura
Mashhor Mansoor
I Nyoman Suryadiputra
HidayatCynthia Henny
Syahroma Husni Nasution
LukmanTri Retnaningsih Soeprobowati
Hidayat Pawitan
Nofdianto
Lennie Santos-Borja
Yustiawati
Tjandra Chrismadha
M. Fakhrudin
Jens Kallmeyer
Sulastri
Djamhuriyah S. Said
Ajit Pattnaik
Luki Subehi
Gunawan Pratama Yoga
Anurak Sriariyawat
Kosuke Mizuno
Livia R. Tanjung
Sekar Larashati
Hadiid Agita Rustini
Wan Maznah Wan Omar
Arianto Budi Santoso
Iwan Ridwansyah
Apip

Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
ILEC - Japan
Faculty Biology, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM)
Wetlands International Indonesia (WII)
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Diponegoro University, Indonesia
Bogor Agriculture University, Indonesia
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Laguna Lake Development Authority, Philippines
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
GFZ Potsdam, Germany
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
International Steering Committee - Ramsar Center, Japan
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Chulalongkorn University, Thailand
CSEAS – Kyoto University, Japan
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Faculty Biology, Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM)
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesia; Asia PacificCenter for Ecohydrology (APCE)

iii

Scientific Program Committee
A. Indonesian Scientific Advisory Board
Chair Person: Prof. Gadis Sri Haryani [Indonesia]
Co-chair:Dr. Ignatius D.A. Sutapa [Indonesia]
Members: Prof. Hery Harjono [Indonesia]
Prof. Robert Delinom [ndonesia]
Prof. Hidayat Pawitan [Indonesia]
Prof. Takehiko Fukushima [Japan]
Prof. Yasuyuki Kono [Japan]
Prof. Sin-ichi Nakano [Japan]
Prof. Sucharit Koontanakulvong [Thailand]Prof. Wan Maznah[Malaysia]
Prof. Kwansue Jung [South Korea]
Dr. Tri Widiyanto [Indonesia]
Dr. Tri Retnaningsih Soeprobowati [Indonesia]
Dr. Theo Ebbers [Germany]
Mr. Nyoman Suryadiputra [Indonesia]
B. ILEC Scientific Committee
Chair Person:
Ex-Chair Person:
Members:

Prof. Walter Rast [USA]Prof. Masahisa Nakamura [Japan]

Prof. Sandra Azevedo [Brazil]
Prof. Salif Diop [Senegal]
Dr. Zhengyu Hu [China]
Prof. Daniel Olago [Kenya]
Dr. Ajit Kumar Pattnaik [India]
Ms. Adelina Santos-Borja [Philippines]
Prof. Yoshihisa Shimizu [Japan]
Dr. Juan Skinner [Guatemala]Prof. Tsugihiro Watanabe [Japan]iv

Local Organizing Committee
Chair person:

Mr. Hermono Sigit
Dr. Fauzan Ali
Mr. Imam Santoso

Vice chair:

Dr. Luki Subehi
Mr Bob A. Lombogia
Mr. Djadid

Secretary general:

Ms. Ivana Yuniarti
Ms. Yasue Hagihara

Members:

Dr. Sekar Larashati
Dr. Gunawan Pratama Yoga
Ms. Fachmijany Sulawesty
Mr. Syamsuhari
Ms. Hadiid Agita Rustini
Ms. Yovita Lambang Isti
Ms. Inge Retnowati
Mr. Ali Cahyadi
Ms. Miratul Maghfiroh
Ms. Meti Yulianti
Mr. Octavianto SamirMr. Taofik Jasalesmana
Mr. Aan Dianto
Ms. Irma Melati
Mr. Riky KurniawanvForeword
Water, along with air, has always been the basic part of human’s life. Among the water bodies,lakes are of severe impacted ecosystems despite its importance to the surroundings. Lakes confer
numerous functional roles that may include defense over flood, recharge and storage ofgroundwater, biodiversity hot spot and the social economic services. Unfortunately, the alarming
signals of lakes being under stress are underway. Contamination and pollution, sedimentation,
wetland habitat degradation, alien species invasion, and other anthropogenic activities may havebeen the major stressors often associated with lake’s deterioration. Since the issues on lake’s
deterioration have been globally emerged, a collected commitment should be engaged tosupporting lake sustainability.
The World Lake Conference comes forward as an international forum serving to bridge
communication among multi-sectoral parties towards sustainable management in lakes andbasins. The 16th World Lake Conference, held from Nov 7th to 11th 2016 in Bali, Indonesia, invited
distinguished keynote speakers around the globe; Prof. Takehiko Fukushima from University ofTsukuba, Prof. David Hamilton from GLEON, Prof. Walter Rast from ILEC Japan, Prof. Soontak
Lee from IHP UNESCO, Dr. Fauzan Ali (Director of Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian
Institute of Sciences) and Mr. Alue Dohong from Peatland Restoration Agency (Indonesia). It wasalso delightful that we had Governor Mikazuki from Shiga Prefectural Government (Japan) and
Governor Hashimoto from Ibaraki Prefectural Government (Japan) to deliver their speeches.
The conference had also been completed nicely by the release of Bali Declaration. Anothersignificant output of the conference is the publication of proceedings. The total papers reviewed
and compiled in these proceedings are 83 which were broken up into several thematic sections.
The sections comprise (1) climate change and water crisis (2) lake environment under stress andtheir restoration challenges (3) lake and lake basin management and policies (4) multiple water
use purposes (5) water education, ecotourism, culture (6) database and knowledgebase systems,
informatics and monitoring technologies (7) biodiversity and conservation (8) ecotechnology andecohydrology (9) manmade lakes (10) limnology and limnological science fundamentals. Lastly,
we acknowledge the creditable efforts and dedications that editors, reviewers and the proceedingteam have been put forward.
July 2017
Prof. Gadis Sri Haryani
Chairperson of Scientific Advisory Boardvi

Table of contents
Topic 1. Climate change and water crisis ....................................................................1
CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON NATURAL RESOURCES AND COMMUNITIES: A GEOSPATIALAPPROACH FOR MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................. 1

R.N. Samal, A. Ojha, P.K. Mohan, J. Rout .................................................................................................. 1

Topic 2. Lake environment under stress and their restoration challenges................12
THE INCREASE OF FLOATING NET CAGES, AQUACULTURE AREA AND WATER QUALITY IN
MANINJAU LAKE, WEST SUMATERA-INDONESIA ................................................................. 12

Hafrijal Syandri, Junaidi, Ainul Mardiah, and Azrita .................................................................................... 12

BIO-ACCUMULATION OF MERCURY IN LAKE TALIWANG, WEST NUSA TENGGARA: IMPACT
OF TRADITIONAL GOLD MINING ........................................................................................... 19

Suwarno Hadisusanto, Dwinda Mariska Putri, Dini Dwi Amanda ................................................................. 19

INCREASING HUMAN-ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES ON CITARUM BASIN IN THE PAST
DECADES ............................................................................................................................. 23

Eka Fibriantika, Hidayat Pawitan, Robert Delinom ..................................................................................... 23

HEAVY METALS CONTENT OF SEDIMENT AND MOLLUSC IN LAKE MANINJAU, WEST
SUMATERA ........................................................................................................................... 31

Sigid Hariyadi, Muhamad Suhaemi Syawal, Yusli Wardiatno ...................................................................... 31

CHALLENGES IN THE RESTORATION OF LAKE MANINJAU: BRIDGING ACTORS’ INTERESTSFOR SUSTAINABILITY ........................................................................................................... 38

Putu Oktavia, Uly Faoziyah ..................................................................................................................... 38

TRANSFORMATION OF ZOOPLANKTON COMMUNITIES DUE TO THE LAKES RECOVERYPROGRAMS .......................................................................................................................... 47

Olga Derevenskaya, Nafisa Mingazova .................................................................................................... 47

CHANGES IN THE CHEMICAL ECOLOGY OF BLUE-GREEN ALGAE DURING PERIODS OF
ACTIVE GROWTH .................................................................................................................. 53

Ikuyo Makino, Yuji Yahagi, Takahiro Nakayama and Atsushi Kobayashi ...................................................... 53

TROPHIC AND POLLUTION STATUS OF JAWAHAR SAGAR IN SOUTHERN RAJASTHAN, INDIA
BASED ON WATER QUALITY AND MACROINVERTEBRATE FAUNA....................................... 59

N. Sarang, L. L. Sharma and H. K. Vardia ................................................................................................ 59

Topic 3. Lake and lake basin management and policies ............................................70
STRATEGY FOR CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF URBAN LAKES IN MUMBAI ......... 70

Pramod Salaskar; E.V. Muley .................................................................................................................. 70

POTENTIAL TRADE-OFFS BETWEEN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND MITIGATION IN
RIVER BASIN SCALE WATER MANAGEMENT ........................................................................ 77

Tiina Nõges, Peeter Nõges ..................................................................................................................... 77

PEOPLE’S ACTIVITIES IN LAKE DANAO, PACIJAN ISLAND, CEBU, PHILIPPINES ................... 84

Serapion N. Tanduyan, Genes M. Pasaje, Ricardo B. Gonzaga, Wilfredo G. Anoos, Homer Gaciano, Norberto
B. Andrade, Eva P. Muaña, Gabriel T. Muaña, Leif Erickson Tampus, Jonar Gonzales, Berenice T. Andriano,
Lorenzo B. Andriano and Aderito Gonzales II ............................................................................................ 84vii

EFFORTS TO IMPROVE WATER QUALITY IN LAKE KASUMIGAURA BY IBARAKI
PREFECTURAL GOVERNMENT ............................................................................................. 97

Kunika Soma, Tatsumi Kitamura, Takeshi Ouchi, Takuo Nemezawa, Hiroyuki Kashimura, Yoshinao Nakazawa
and Mieko Kuwana ................................................................................................................................. 97

THE GOVERNANCE OF LAKE RAWAPENING: AN INTERORGANIZATIONAL NETWORKANALYSIS ........................................................................................................................... 101

Evi Irawan ............................................................................................................................................ 101

CAGE CULTURE AND LAKE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN LAKE DANAO, SAN FRANCISCO,CENTRAL PHILIPPINES ....................................................................................................... 109

Serapion N. Tanduyan, Berenice T. Andriano and Ricardo B. Gonzaga ...................................................... 109

IDENTIFICATION OF LAKE SENTARUM'S POTENTIAL ECOSYSTEM SERVICES, SOCIAL AND
INSTITUTIONAL PROFILES TO SUPPORT ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT (A REVIEW PAPER)........................................................................................................................................... 117
Ivana Yuniarti........................................................................................................................................ 117

CONFIGURATION OF LAKE TOBA MANAGEMENT BASED ON PRESIDENTIAL REGULATION
NO. 81/2014 ......................................................................................................................... 123

Lukman ................................................................................................................................................ 123

PROMOTING INTEGRATED LAKE BASIN MANAGEMENT IN LAKE NAKURU WATERSHED,KENYA ................................................................................................................................ 130

Jackson Akama Raini, Richard Kipsang Rop, Timothy Murithi Kiogora ....................................................... 130

STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATORY ROLE IN MALAYSIAN ILBM INITIATIVES RESEARCHPERSPECTIVES .................................................................................................................. 136

Zati Sharip, Saim Suratman ................................................................................................................... 136

Topic 4. Multiple water use purposes......................................................................143
MOBILE DRINKING WATER TREATMENT PLANT (TYPE IG5M30) FOR DISASTER EMERGENCYRESPONSE ......................................................................................................................... 143

Ignasius D.A. Sutapa, Eka Prihatinningtyas, Eva Nafisyah and Hasan Fauzi ............................................... 143

Topic 5. Water education, ecotourism, culture .......................................................150
PRACTICE OF WATER ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN KASUMIGAURA WATERSHED BY
TSUCHIURA CITY ................................................................................................................ 150

Hiroki Nagamine, Takashi Fujiwara, Kazuhiro Mizuta ................................................................................ 150

POTENTIAL IDENTIFICATION OF FLORA AND FAUNA LAKE BUYAN AS BASIS FOR TOURISM
DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY BASED ON AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS ........................................ 160

I Wayan Restu, Gde Raka Angga Kartika, Made Ayu Pratiwi ..................................................................... 160

Topic 6. Database and knowledgebase systems, informatics and monitoring
technologies............................................................................................................167
SWAT APPLICATION TO ASSESS DIFFERENT FERTILIZATION EFFECTS ON WATER QUALITY
IN AN AGRICULTURAL WATERSHED .................................................................................. 167

Seiko Yoshikawa, Kazunori Kohyama, Yuta Shimizu, Saeko Yada, Kei Asada, Sunao Itahashi, Yasuhiro
Nakajima, Sadao Eguchi ........................................................................................................................ 167

ESTIMATING LAKE EXTENT AND WATER VOLUME OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OF KALIMANTANUSING RADAR IMAGES ....................................................................................................... 178

H. Hidayat, D.H. Hoekman, A.J. Teuling, G.S. Haryani, A.J.F. Hoitink ........................................................ 178

viii

SELF ORGANIZING MAP (SOM) AS CLUSTER MODELLING TOOL OF ALGAL BLOOMS RISK IN
MANINJAU LAKE ................................................................................................................ 184

Yuli Sudriani and Astried Sunaryani ........................................................................................................ 184

A LAND COVER MAP ACCURACY METRIC FOR HYDROLOGICAL STUDIES ......................... 191

Brian Alan Johnson, Isao Endo, Akio Onishi, Milben Bragais, Damasa B. Magcale-Macandog, Emily Skeehan........................................................................................................................................................... 191

INVESTIGATION ON RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LAND COVER AND WATER QUALITY
CHANGES IN LAGUNA DE BAY, THE PHILIPPINES, OVER THE 2007-2015 PERIODS ............ 196

Isao Endo, Brian Johnson, Emily Skeehan............................................................................................... 196

ASSESSMENT OF HYDROLOGIC ALTERATION WITHIN ECOSYSTEM IN A SAHALIANSHALLOW LAKE: LAKE GUIERS, SENEGAL ........................................................................ 200

Sambou Djiby, Diekkrüger Bernd, Gaye Adama, Gaye Amadou Thierno .................................................... 200

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECTRAL OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND OPTICALLY ACTIVE
SUBSTANCES (SUSPENDED MATTER) IN LAKE MANINJAU ................................................ 217

Fifia Zulti, Taofik Jasalesmana, and Tri Suryono ...................................................................................... 217

LAND USE CHANGE ANALYSIS AT SENTARUM CATCHMENT AREA, WEST KALIMANTANINDONESIA ......................................................................................................................... 222

Iwan Ridwansyah, Kenlo Nasahara and Chikako Nishiyama, Luki Subehi ................................................... 222

A CASE STUDY ON SIMPLE FLOODS OBSERVATION AND MAPPING SYSTEM BY IMAGE
INFORMATION .................................................................................................................... 232

Kiyoto Kurokawa ................................................................................................................................... 232

DEVELOPMENT OF SPATIAL PREDICTION MODEL TO IMPROVE LAKE WATER QUALITYMANAGEMENT IN KLANG VALLEY, MALAYSIA ................................................................... 240

Bashirah Fazli, Aziz Shafie, Azuhan Mohamed, Nasehir Khan E.M. Yahaya, Suriyani Awang, Azman Mat Jusoh,
Normaliza Noordin and Pauziah Hanum Abdul Ghani ............................................................................... 240

Topic 7. Biodiversity and conservation ...................................................................248
HABITATS CHARACTERIZATION FOR IHAN (Neolissochilus sp.) CONSERVATION PLANNING
AROUND LAKE TOBA, NORTH SUMATERA, INDONESIA ..................................................... 248

Sekar Larashati, Iwan Ridwansyah ......................................................................................................... 248

AVIFAUNAL AND RIPARIAN VEGETATION COMPOSITION IN AND AROUND THE MUSEUMLAKE IN GOVERNMENT ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN THIRUVANANTHAPURAM, KERALA INDIA 258

Anila. P. Ajayan, Ajit Kumar K G, Anoop Rajamony, Prasannan Krishnankutty, Ravinesh Raveendran .......... 258

FISH DIVERSITY OF THE SINGKARAK LAKE, INDONESIA: PRESENT STATUS ANDCONSERVATION NEEDS ..................................................................................................... 270

Ainul Mardiah, Azrita and Hafrijal Syandri ................................................................................................ 270

THE FISH COMMUNITIES OF ABKHAZIAN LAKES ................................................................ 276

Nail Nazarov, R. Mingaliev, Y. Badretdinova, N. Mingazova, R. Dbar, R. Zamaletdinov ................................ 276

EFFECT OF SEASONAL CHANGES ON SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF BACTERIAL PATHOGENSIN TILAPIA (Oreochromis niloticus) IN LAKE BATUR ........................................................... 279

Endang Wulandari Suryaningtyas, Devi Ulinuha ....................................................................................... 279

FLUCTUATING ASYMMETRY USING GEOMETRIC MORPHOMETRICS IN Glossogobius giuris(HAMILTON, 1822) FROM LAGUNA LAKE, PHILIPPINES ....................................................... 284

Lorenz J. Fajardo, Ma. Vivian C. Camacho and Pablo P. Ocampo ............................................................. 284

ix

EARLY DETECTION OF ICHTHYOFAUNA ALIEN SPECIES AT GAJAH MUNGKUR RESERVOIR,WONOGIRI, CENTRAL JAVA, INDONESIA ............................................................................ 293

Rikho Jerikho ........................................................................................................................................ 293

FECUNDITY OF THREE SPOT GOURAMI (Trichopodus trichopterus PALLAS) IN LAKE LANAO,LANAO DEL SUR ................................................................................................................. 296

Maida A. Atomar and Nazma D. Eza ....................................................................................................... 296

GUT CONTENT ANALYSIS OF Puntius tumba TAKEN FROM SELECTED RIVERS OF LANAODEL SUR, PHILIPPINES ....................................................................................................... 305

Aynie S. Mohammad, Husna A. Dimapalao ............................................................................................. 305

EFFECTS OF QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF WATER ON MACROINVERTEBRATES INTEMPORARY STREAM AT HARIPHUNCHAI EDUCATION CENTRE, THAILAND ..................... 314

Kitti Moolla and Decha Thapanya ............................................................................................................ 314

THE COMPOSITION OF A BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATE COMMUNITY IN HANJALUTUNGOXBOW-LAKE: AN ANALYSIS ............................................................................................. 320

Imroatushshoolikhah, Jojok Sudarso, Yustiawati, Laelasari ....................................................................... 320

PHYTOPLANKTON COMMUNITY AT LITTORAL ZONES OF LAKE MATANO IN RELATIONSHIPTO WATER QUALITY ........................................................................................................... 328

Fachmijany Sulawesty ........................................................................................................................... 328

EVALUATION OF GENETIC RELATIONSHIP AMONG SELECT SIX FISH SPECIES USING THE
PARTIAL FRAGMENT OF MITOCHONDRIAL CYTOCHROME C OXIDASE SUBUNIT-1GENE (CO1)........................................................................................................................................... 337
Arif Wibowo and Tuah Nanda Merlia ....................................................................................................... 337

BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION OF ENDEMIC FISH SPECIES IN SOME LAKES OF
SULAWESI .......................................................................................................................... 341

Syahroma Husni Nasution...................................................................................................................... 341

OCCURRENCE OF WATER-BORNE BACTERIAL PATHOGEN, Aeromonas sp., IN LAKE
MATANO, INDONESIA ......................................................................................................... 347

Miratul Maghfiroh, Eva Nafisyah, Nina Hermayani Sadi ............................................................................. 347

Topic 8. Ecotechnology and ecohydrology ..............................................................352
LAKE RESTORATION IN INDONESIA: A RISK BASED ECOHYDROLOGY APPROACH........... 352

Gadis Sri Haryani .................................................................................................................................. 352

ECO-FRIENDLY LARGE-SCALE TESTS TO REDUCE PHOSPHORUS IN RIVER WATER BY
ELUTING IRON ION SYSTEM ............................................................................................... 360

Naozo Fukuda, Toshiya Akasaki, Mikio Sugimoto, Kenkichi Maruyama, Tomohiro Ichikawa, Shigeru Endo,
Takeharu Konami .................................................................................................................................. 360

RESTORING INDONESIAN LAKE BUFFER ZONES USING NATIVE PLANT SPECIES ............. 366

Susi Abdiyani and Evi Irawan ................................................................................................................. 366

ECOHYDROLOGY MANAGEMENT OF LAKE AND WETLAND IN PUTRAJAYA URBANECOSYSTEM ....................................................................................................................... 375

Normaliza Noordin, Akashah Majizat, Zati Sharip, Ahmad Zubir Sapian ...................................................... 375

INTEGRATED MULTI TROPHIC AQUACULTURE AS SAFE ENVIRONMENT FOR FISHPRODUCTION IN SMALL RESERVOIRS ............................................................................... 388

Djamhuriyah S. Said, Tjandra Chrismadha, Triyanto ................................................................................. 388

x

A NEW METHOD TO ESTIMATE CONCENTRATIONS OF PHOSPHOROUS, NITROGEN AND COD
IN EUTROPHIC RIVERS ....................................................................................................... 395

Tsuyoshi Kinouchi, Yan Zeng ................................................................................................................. 395

MONOFILLAMENT GILLNET AS A CONTROL OF MIDAS CICHLID (Amphilophus citrinellus) AT
IR. H. DJUANDA RESERVOIR, WEST JAVA-INDONESIA ....................................................... 402

Andri Warsa , Endi Setiadi Kartamihardja, Joni Haryadi, Dimas Angga Hedianto ......................................... 402

PHYTOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATION TO CONTROL LAKE WATER QUALITY: A PRELIMINARY
TRIAL TO USE FLOATING PLANTS FOR CONTROLLING WATER QUALITY IN A SMALL LAKE
OF SITU CIBUNTU, CIBINONG, INDONESIA.......................................................................... 411

Tjandra Chrismadha, Tri Suryono, Yayah Mardiati, Endang Mulyana ......................................................... 411

Topic 9. Manmade lakes ..........................................................................................420
EVALUATION OF FLOOD MITIGATION AND WATER PURIFICATION EFFECT IN URBAN LAKE,
JABODETABEK................................................................................................................... 420

Koshi Yoshida, Ami Aminah Meutia, Satoru Itagawa, Hiroko Matsuda ........................................................ 420

EFFECTS OF CHECK DAM ON MACROINVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES IN HUAI TON KOKWATERSHED, CHIANG MAI PROVINCE, THAILAND ............................................................. 428

Varaphan Marueng, Weerasak Roongruangwongse, Decha Thapanya, Chitchol Phalaraksh........................ 428

NITROGEN LOAD INFLOW TO LARGE SCALE RESERVOIRS IN THE CITARUM RIVER BASIN,
INDONESIA ......................................................................................................................... 434

Yuki Jikeya, Koshi Yoshida, Shigeya Maeda, Hisao Kuroda ...................................................................... 434

Topic 10. Limnology and limnological science fundamentals ..................................442
TROPHIC STATE CHARACTERISATION FOR MALAYSIAN LAKES ........................................ 442

Zati Sharip, Fatimah M. Yusoff, Wan Ruslan Ismail .................................................................................. 442

CURRENT STATUS OF LAKE ARAL – CHALLENGES AND FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES .......... 448

N. Aladin, T. Chida, J.-F. Cretaux, Z. Ermakhanov, B. Jollibekov, B. Karimov, Y. Kawabata, D. Keyser, J.
Kubota, P. Micklin, N. Mingazova, I. Plotnikov, M. Toman ......................................................................... 448

IDENTIFYING SOURCES OF NITRATE IN AN IRRIGATED RICE PADDY WATERSHED, TSUKUBAJAPAN ................................................................................................................................ 458

Saeko Yada, Yasuhiro Nakajima, Takeshi Horio, Keiya Inao, Sunao Itahashi, Kei Asada, Seiko Yoshikawa andSadao Eguchi ....................................................................................................................................... 458

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TROPHIC STATES AND NUTRIENTS LOAD IN WATERS
SURROUNDING SAMOSIR ISLAND, LAKE TOBA, NORTH SUMATERA ................................. 469

Niken TM Pratiwi, Arif Rahman, Sigid Hariyadi, Inna Puspa Ayu, Aliati Iswantari ......................................... 469

ZOOPLANKTON DIEL VERTICAL MIGRATION IN LAKE LAUT TAWAR, ACEH, INDONESIA ... 476

Dwinda Mariska Putri, Suwarno Hadisusanto ........................................................................................... 476

WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS IN THE PLANKTOTHRIX DOMINANT YEARS IN
SHALLOW LAKE KASUMIGAURA ........................................................................................ 482

Takao Ouchi, Hisao Kobinata, Koichi Kamiya, Keita Nakagawa, Kazuhisa Sugaya and Morihiro Aizaki ......... 482

STUDY ON THE NITROGEN LEACHING MECHANISM FROM AGRICULTURAL LANDS .......... 487

Kuroda Hisao, Lin Xiaolan, Kitamura Tatsumi, Oouchi Takao and Sugaya Kazuhisa .................................... 487

THE ORIGINAL METHOD OF CLASSIFICATION OF WORLD LAKES BASED ON FORMULAS ANDRESULTS OF ITS APPLICATION .......................................................................................... 491

N.M. Mingazova, A.I. Galeeva ................................................................................................................ 491

xi

THE RELATIONSHIP OF RIPARIAN VEGETATION COMPOSITION WITH RAINBOWFISHABUNDANCE IN LAKE SENTANI, PAPUA, INDONESIA ......................................................... 500

I Gusti Ayu Agung Pradnya Paramitha, Riky Kurniawan ............................................................................ 500

DISTINCTIVE FLUCTUATION IN WATER QUALITY AND PLANKTON COMPOSITION IN THE
CENTER OF LAKE KASUMIGAURA, JAPAN SINCE 2001 ...................................................... 513

Atsushi Numazawa and Kazuo Okubo ..................................................................................................... 513

THEORETICAL PELAGIC TO BENTHIC PRIMARY PRODUCTION RATIOS IN TWO LAKES WITHCONTRASTING LIGHT CONDITIONS .................................................................................... 519

Fabien Cremona, Alo Laas, Toomas Kõiv, Margot Sepp, Peeter Nõges, Tiina Nõges .................................. 519

STUDY OF FISHERY LOAD CAPACITY IN SUTAMI AND LAHOR RESERVOIRS, EAST JAVA,INDONESIA ......................................................................................................................... 527

Winari, T., Hapsari, D., Windianita, K., Rahman, K.I., Hidayat, F.,Ruritan, R.V.,Sudaryanti ........................... 527

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS REGULATING THE DOMINANCE SPECIES OF PHYTOPLANKTONIN LAKE MANINJAU, WEST SUMATERA, INDONESIA........................................................... 536

Sulastri, Arianto Budisantoso and Sulung Nomosatriyo ............................................................................. 536

DIATOMS, WATER QUALITY OF TOBA LAKE AND ITS MANAGEMENT ................................. 549

Tri Retnaningsih Soeprobowati and Sri Widodo Agung Suedy ................................................................... 549

CARBON DIOXIDE AND METHANE ACCUMULATION IN A HIGHLY EUTROPHIC TROPICAL
LAKE, INDONESIA............................................................................................................... 557

Cynthia Henny, Arianto B. Santoso, Sulung Nomosatryo ........................................................................... 557

EVALUATION OF LAKE WATER QUALITY IN KLANG VALLEY USING MULTIVARIATESTATISTICAL TECHNIQUES ................................................................................................ 566

Isa Baba Koki, Sharifuddin Md Zain, Low Kah Hin, Hafizan Juahir, Azman Azid .......................................... 566

WATER QUALITY IMPACT ON FISH CULTURED IN LAKE TUTUD, NORTH SULAWESI,INDONESIA ......................................................................................................................... 577

Suzanne Lydia Undap, Reiny Tumbol and Sandra Tilaar ........................................................................... 577

WATER QUALITY AND DIVERSITY OF AQUATIC INSECTS IN HIGHLAND AGRICULTURAL
AREA, CHIANG MAI, THAILAND .......................................................................................... 582

Rungpailin Wongphutorn, Manoj Potapohn and Chitchol Phalaraksh ......................................................... 582

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENT IN LAKE TEMPE USINGMULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS APPROACH ............................................................................... 586

Siti Aisyah ............................................................................................................................................ 586

THE SEASONAL OF THERMAL STRATIFICATION AND WATER COLUMN STABILITY OF LAKE
MANINJAU, WEST SUMATERA ............................................................................................ 593

Taofik Jasalesmana, Fifia Zulti, Tri Suryono, Arianto Budi Santoso ............................................................ 593

WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS AT SAGULING RESERVOIR .................................................... 600

Luki Subehi .......................................................................................................................................... 600

WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF VASTRAPUR & SOLA LAKE OF AHMEDABAD CITY,
GUJARAT, INDIA ................................................................................................................. 605

Manisha Desai ...................................................................................................................................... 605

DISTRIBUTION AND DIVERSITY OF DIATOM IN SURFACE SEDIMENTS OF URBAN PONDS IN
CIBINONG BOTANICAL GARDEN ........................................................................................ 612

Aan Dianto, Luki Subehi, Ardo Ramdhani ................................................................................................ 612

xii

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON LEAD TROPHIC TRANSFER WITHIN THE PHYTOPLANKTON –ZOOPLANKTON – NILE TILAPIA/COMMON CARP FOOD WEB: A CASE STUDY FROM THE
CIRATA RESERVOIR, INDONESIA ....................................................................................... 618

Evi Susanti, Nurpilihan Bafadal, TB Benito Kurnani, Sunardi, Cynthia Henny .............................................. 618

WATER QUALITY STATUS OF SINGARVA LAKE AT AHMADABAD, GUJARAT, INDIA ........... 624

Sanjay Vediya ....................................................................................................................................... 624

xiii

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Topic 1. Climate change and water crisis
CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS ON NATURAL RESOURCES AND COMMUNITIES: A
GEOSPATIAL APPROACH FOR MANAGEMENT
R.N. Samal1, A. Ojha2, P.K. Mohan1, J. Rout1*
Chilika Development Authority, Bhubaneswar, Odisha, India, 2SPMU-ICZMP, India*Corresponding author: jajnasenirout@gmail.com

1

ABSTRACT
Climate change causes environmental depletion which became threats to the global economy. The
health and productivity of ecosystems underpins agriculture. Hence, stable ecosystems are thefoundation for livelihood and food security. The objective of the study is to propose adaptation measuresusing geospatial technology for conserving the natural resources and improving the livelihood of thelocal community from climate change scenario. Planning & decisions on policies and programs are
required for natural resource management need to be based on broad citizen participation and theengagement of rural communities. The adaptation measures will help the planning system to regulate
the development for the natural resources and socio-economic environment. The major natural
resources in the environment are land and water which destroyed by human interference and also by
climate change. With the use of geospatial technology, the various thematic maps are prepared, which
are helpful for the site suitability analysis for preparation of land & water management action plan andalso socio-economic development. The study area is one of the micro watershed of Ansupa lakecatchment under Cuttack district of Odisha, India. To reduce the impact of climate change on natural
resources and livelihood, some adaptation measures have been proposed i.e. for afforestation 68.9 ha,
gap plantation 13.94 ha., agro horticulture 389.62 ha., for farm pond, renovation of existing pond for
pisciculture and dockery etc. 11.33 ha., for land management and 5 nos. of bore well, 8 nos. dug well,
51 nos. LBS / check dam, 4 nos. WHS etc. for water management.
Keywords: Climate, Geospatial, natural resource, LBS, WHS
INTRODUCTION
Watershed management is the rational utilization of land and water resources for optimum production
with minimum hazard to natural resources (Tideman, 1996). Natural climate variability has always beena challenge to human livelihoods. Human-induced climate change has lent a complex new dimension
to this challenge. Evidences show that the natural climatic variability, compounded with climatechange will adversely affect millions of livelihoods around the world (IPCC, 2007). The ruralcommunities in the developing countries are expected to be affected more due to their extensive
dependence on climate sensitive livelihood options and limited adaptive capacity to adapt to thechanges. Climate change is a global phenomenon, however its manifestations and impacts vary locally,so do the adaptation capacities, preferences and strategies. Effective planning for climate change
adaptation programming requires an assessment of local vulnerabilities so as to bridge the gap
between community needs and priorities at the local level and policy processes at the higher level.
Climatic stresses and shocks such as sea level rise, flooding and land erosion displace millions ofpeople throughout the world (IPCC, 2007a) and their number is predicted to increase due to climatechange (Nicholls et al., 2011). Climate- induced migration is more likely in drought-prone areas, floodprone river valleys, low-lying coastal plains, deltas and small islands where livelihoods are dependent
on natural resources (McLeman and Hunter, 2010). Fishing communities typically live on low-lying
coasts and islands exposed to multiple climatic stresses and shocks (Daw et al., 2009). Thus they
may be subjected to climate-induced displacement and migration. Climate-induced migration may
reduce vulnerability or enhance adaptation to climate variability and change (Warner et al., 2008). On
the other hand, it may also lead to loss of assets, reduced opportunities and increased vulnerability(Hunter, 2005). Migration outcomes are influenced by the degree to which migrants depend on theenvironment for their livelihood and social factors mitigating or exacerbating the impact of climaticstresses and shocks (Kniveton et al., 2008). Migration distances are also important. Risks lessen when
migrants resettle within customary lands (Kuruppu and Liverman, 2011) but increase with migration
distance (Barnett and O'Neill, 2012). Sensitivity is the degree to which a system will respond to a givenchange in climate, it measures, for example, how much the composition, structure and functioning ofan ecosystem will respond to a given temperature rise.

1

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Study Area

Figure 1. Location map of the study area.
The study area is one of the micro watershed of Ansupa lake catchment under Cuttack district of Odisha,
India which is situated 20°26’37.864” to 20°29’59.228” N latitude and 85°34’52.697” to 85°37’19.271”
E longitude. Figure 1 indicates that the micro watershed situated in the border area of Banki andAthagarh block of Cuttack district. There are five numbers of villages has taken forstudy purpose in this micro watershed i.e. Kadalibadi, Podapada, Mahidharpur, Radhadarsanpur andBaidehipur, but Baidehipur village has no habitation. This paper will conduct an in-depth analysis of
the local level vulnerabilities by integrating quantitative analysis with qualitative information obtained
from primary field survey.
DATABASE
Primary Source
The primary data collected through the Focus group discussions (FGD) & Key informant interviews
technique.
Secondary Source
The Survey of India (SOI) Toposheet – 1:25,000 scale
High resolution satellite image (Cartosat II & Quickbird)
Demographic and data from Census of India.

2

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Geospatial approach for site suitability.
METHODS
Figure 2 indicates the geospatial methodology applied for preparation of maps. The SRTM data i.e.
SOI toposheet collection were used to delineate the micro watershed boundary. Collection of villagecadastral map digitization & mosaic the sheets. Plot wise land detail collected of all villages under the
study area from right of record website. Ground control points collected from study area for georeferencing the cadastral sheets & Cartosat II satellite image for preparation of existing land use,geomorphology, slope, soil, land capability with visual interpretation technique & site suitability analysis
for adaptation measures of land and water resource.
Focus group discussions (FGD)
FGD is also a participatory method of data collection, which has become increasingly popular as aqualitative research method in social science (Longhurst, 2003). Like other participatory methods, a
key characteristic of FGD is the interaction between the participants. However, being a participatory
method, FGD has some potential drawbacks which were addressed during data collection in a similarmanner as for the vulnerability matrix. The FGDs were conducted to gather the data on livelihood
vulnerability, coping and adaptation related to climate variability and change. The focus group
discussions sought to collect data on community perceptions about climate change and how thephenomenon had affected their livelihoods. Specific questions were asked on notable signs of climatechange in local communities focusing on precipitation, temperature trends, yields of water sources,
performance of crops, animals and the general ecosystem. Questions exploring how livelihoods had
been impacted and how communities were adapting to climate change as they experienced it were also
mainstreamed.
Key informant interviews
The key informants included individuals inside and outside of the communities. From inside thecommunities, community leaders and community members who were knowledgeable about the issues

3Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

for this study were selected. During the reconnaissance study, the goals of key informant interviews
were to develop the research objectives and methodology by exploring the research context and issues,
becoming acquainted with the study area and people and researching the sources of secondary
information. During the main data collection, the goals of key informant interviews were to collect dataon the issues in the research objectives or issues raised by respondents during the other datacollection methods key informant interviews were therefore conducted at a later stage of the main datacollection.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Micro watershed management aims to manage water supply, water quality, drainage water runoff andwater rights. It also incorporates overall planning processes for the micro watersheds. It comprises theplanning and coordination for sustainable use of water resources, agricultural resources, forest
resources and grazing land. Micro Watershed development in India is working towards developing micro
watersheds to create sustainable livelihood opportunities. Building on participatory approaches,increasing water availability, improving degraded environments, and choosing sustainable agriculturalactivities are key features. Micro watershed development is thus directly dependent on climateparameters like rainfall and temperature.
The major threats for the lake and the surrounding areas are degradation of physical habitat,
deterioration of water quality, depletion of natural / food resources. The sources are anthropogenic
interference, unregulated agricultural practices, erosion and deforestation of the catchment area,
environmental pollution, spread of invasive species and unregulated fisheries activities.
Indicators of Climate Change for the study area
For the study purpose to know the impact of climate change on livelihood, some indicators have beentaken for the analysis like rainfall, temperature, frequency of the calamity and soil erosion. For the study
area, these four numbers of indicators are important because it is surrounded by hills in three sides andanother one side is Ansupa lake. All the sediments are discharge to the lake and the lake has become
shallow which also affect the fish production.

Figure 3. Rainfall distribution pattern.

4Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. Temperature distribution pattern.
Figure 3 indicates that the average annual rainfall variation during 1987 to 2015. The graph shows thatthe annual total volume of rainfall has decreasing from the year 2005. Though the study area situatedin the river bank of Mahanadi but there is no irrigation facility. Hence, people depend on rainfall for
agricultural purpose. It is observed that the irregular rainfall is another factor for the loss of cropping.
Figure 4 indicates that the average annual temperature variation during the year 1987 to 2011. The
annual average temperature has regularly increasing from the year 2005. The figure indicates that the
average annual temperature has regularly increasing from the year 2007, but decreasing in the year
2011.
Table 1. Soil erosion status of the micro watershed
No

Name

1
2
3
4
5

Mahidharpur
Radhadarsanpur
Podapada
Kadalibadi
Badehipur

Geographicalarea (ha.)
239.12
75.71
68.72
717.4
80.51

Slighterosion (%)
39.16
62.89
8.27

Moderate
erosion (%)
45.47
71.61
22.26
78.73
70.26

SevereerosionVery severe
erosion (%)
10.88
0.94
2.44

Climate Change Perception Timelines of Local Communities
ClimateTrends
1960
1970
1980
1990
2000
Variables
RainfallErratic
Pattern
RainfallDecrease
VolumeTemperature
Increase
Frequency of Increase
the Calamity
Soil Erosion
Increase
Figure 5. Timeline graph of people’s perception about climate change

52010-15

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 5 defines people’s perception regarding climate change. The climate change perception timelineof local community shows that the trends of the climatic variables are increasing. The rainfall pattern
has become erratic from the year 2005 onwards and the volume of rainfall also decreasing from theyear 1995. The temperature has also increasing after 2005 onwards and the frequency of the calamity
also increasing after 1985. The soil erosion process has increasing from the year 1980.
Table 2. Housing status of the study area
House Type

Kadalibadi (%)

Mahidharpur (%)

Podapada (%)

Radhadarsanpur (%)

House Less

5

4

Kutcha

76

72

57

65

Semi-Pucca

3

8

36

5

Pucca

16

16

7

20

10

Source – Primary data collected from ground level by Questionnaire method

Table 2 defines the housing status of the study area. The study area has no urban type of settlement
and every village has maximum percentage of kutcha houses and Kadalibadi, Mahidharpur andRadhadarsanpur village has less percentage of semi pucca house but in Podapada village has lesspercentage of pucca house. The housing status defines the standard of the community in the study
area.
Table 3. Average monthly income of the study area
No

Average
Income1Monthly

Kadalibadi(%)

Mahidharpur(%)

Podapada(%)

Radhadarsanpur(%)

Less than 250

66

4

57

25

2

250 - 499

29

48

29

60

3

500 - 1499

3

40

7

5

4

1500 - 2500

5More than 2500

7

10

4
2

4

Source – Primary data collected from ground level by Questionnaire method

Table 3 indicates that total household can be differed into 5 types of income group. Most households
in Kadalibadi and Podapada village has average monthly income less than 250. Most households in
Mahidharpur and Radhadarsanpur village are in 250 to 499 categories. It shows that in Kadalibadi andPodapada village people are economically behind other two villages.

6Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Impact on Livelihood

Figure 6. Migration status of the study area
Figure 6 indicates the migration status of the study area. Community has getting heavy loss in agriculture
by irregular and non-monsoon rainfall and also unavailability of marketing strategy. There is no cold
storage facility for stocking the vegetables. For better economic benefit people migrate to outside of thestate and also many of them are working inside state. It is found that from the analysis there are 10
numbers of major problems in the study area and those problems are ranked as priority 1 to 10. The firstand major problem which hampers the livelihood is the natural resource management and second is theirrigation because people depend on rainfall for agriculture activity. The all problems are interlinked and theoverall livelihood depends on natural resources management of the community.
Community adaptation to cope with the impacts of climate change
Among the natural resource management tools that could be useful in addressing vulnerability to
climate change, there are many local-scale environmental management measures that have been
applied around the world. The first is soil management approach aimed for increasing the stability
and productivity of soil which involves a range of specific techniques such as fallow cycling, forest
buffering, selective planting, managed grazing etc. Soil management is recognized as central tocombating desertification. The second is water harvesting techniques that have been used as adrought-proofing tool to increase water available for households, irrigation, as well as baseline waterflow for watershed restoration. The third is intercropping technique of planting selected food crops
within stands of trees to provide local communities with added food security and income throughlivelihood diversification, while at the same time reducing deforestation and desertification.
Adaptation measures focused on enhancing natural resource management can also more beneficial
for the community. Thus, investing in the basic natural resource that sustains their livelihoods may
have a direct positive impact on their immediate lives and long-term resilience to climate variability.
The impacts of climate change grouped as three types which are related with natural resources andcommunities, i.e. ecological, economic and social. Present land use/land cover, geomorphology,
geology, ground water prospect, soil and slope layer, the site suitability analysis are important aspects
regarding adaptation measures for conserving land and water resources. These adaptation measures
are to reduce the impact of climate change and sustainable development of communities with analysisof the present infrastructure, health and communication facility.

7

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 7. Proposed Adaptation measures for Land and Water Management of Kadalibadi, Baidehipur
and Podapada village.
Figure 7 and 8 indicates all the village wise some adaptation measures which are adoptable byhousehold and community level have been proposed i.e. Social fencing may be advisable to restrict the
cattle grazing inside this area without any cost involvement or artificial bio fencing is to be provided.
An area of 42.55 ha. in Kadalibadi ,9.91 ha. in Baidehipur,7.81 ha. in Mahidharpur and 8.63 ha. in
Radhadarsanpur villages have suggested for afforestation in the micro watershed. Afforestation is theplanting of trees for commercial purposes, usually on land supporting non-forest types. In open forest
areas plantations should be taken up in priority to meet the demand for fuel, fodder and timber of local
people. Gap plantation is suggested in an area of 7.35 ha. in Kadalibadi ,6.59 ha. in Mahidharpur village
in the open forests (with canopy cover of 10-40%). Since there is a shortage of fuel - wood for domestic
use of the people in the micro watershed, it is necessary to take up plantation of fuel - wood species by
way of gap filling. The different fuel-wood species to be planted are Chakunda and Gambhari etc. A
plantation is a long, artificially established forest, where crops are grown for sale. The barren rocky
areas, inside the catchment can be taken up for plantations in consultation with the forest department
officials. It has suggested 0.21 ha. in Baidehipur and 0.47 ha. in Podapda village in the Kadalibadi
micro watershed. It has suggested for planting Cashew, Sal, Teak, Banyan and Neem etc. The lands

8Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferencewith scrub, without scrub, grazing land and also forest area with uplands which come under pediplain
and pediment have been planned for commercial plantation. An area of 29.54 ha. in Kadalibadi ,1.21
ha. in Baidehipur ,15.71 ha. in Mahidharpur ,2.44 ha. in Podapada and 3.1 ha. in Radhadarsanpur
villages is suggested for commercial plantation in the study area. It has suggested for planting Cashew,
Harida, Bahada, Amla, Cedar, Tamarind and Sal etc. and in between these trees Mushroom cultivation
can be suggested. The open grazing is to be restricted and stall - feeding is to be encouraged. An
area of 23.13 ha. in Kadalibadi,25.73 ha. in Baidehipur, 17.45 ha. in Mahidharpur ,1.41 ha. in Podapada
and 1.77 ha. in Radhadarsanpur villages have suggested for this purpose. Horticulture will serve as asustained source of regular income over very long periods and in addition to fruits, these trees provide
fuel, fodder and small timber. Field bunds are suggested on these lands to avoid soil erosion and formoisture conservation in dry seasons. Agro-horticulture is a combination of agriculture and horticulture.
It is very diverse in its activities, incorporating plants for food (fruits, vegetables, mushrooms, culinary
herbs) and non-food crops (flowers, trees and shrubs, turf-grass, hops, medicinal herbs). The
agricultural lands with pediplain area, inside the micro watershed have been suggested for agro horticultural practices. It has suggested 227.74 ha. in Kadalibadi , 20.82 ha. in Baidehipur, 97.46 ha.
in Mahidharpur, 5.83 ha. in Podapada, and 37.77 ha. in Radhadarsanpur villages. The nurseries shouldplan to produce healthy plants covering timber, fuel, fodder, fruits, non-wood forest produce and evenornamental species having good demand in the locality. It has suggested 4.42 ha. in Kadalibadi, 1.17
ha. in Mahidharpur and 5.31 ha. in Radhadarsanpur villages should developed under backyard
vegetable cultivation, kitchen garden and nursery development in household level. The degradedgrazing lands may also be used for managing the shortage of fodder for cattle for the following purposes.
Provide employment opportunities to the rural poor and strengthen their livelihood resource base &supply fodder for the landless cattle rearers. It has suggested 13.96 ha. in Baidehipur and 4.72 ha. in
Kadalibadi villages of the Kadalibadi micro watershed. It has suggested 3 nos. in Baidehipur, 11 nos.
in Kadalibadi, 5 nos. in Mahidharpur, 1 nos. in Podapada and 1 nos. in Radhadarsanpur village havesuggested for renovation. An area of 0.76 ha. in Baidehipur , 6.53 ha. in Kadalibadi , 3.18 ha. in
Mahidharpur ,0.62 ha. in Podapada and 0.24 ha. has suggested for pisciculture and duckery in the
micro watershed. The breeding, hatching and rearing of fish should be under controlled. The village
people will benefit from the fruit and flower of the tree. It has suggested for planting Neem, Kadamba,
Chakunda, Banyan, Mango, Bakula and Gulmohar etc. which make the road very beautiful with theirfruit and flower. It has suggested 8 km. in Baidehipur, 15 km. in Kadalibadi, 13 km. in Mahidharpur, 7km. in Podapada and 7 km. in Radhadarsanpur village in the study area for avenue plantation. There
are 5 numbers of bore well, 8 numbers of dug well, 51 numbers LBS/check dam, 4 numbers WHS etc.
for water management. These adaptation measures are required to community for depending on
climate–sensitive livelihoods and are especially vulnerable to climate change events.

9Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 8. Proposed Adaptation measures for Land and Water Managemen of Mahidharpur andRadhadarsanpur village.
CONCLUSIONS
Community participation is an essential feature of climatic disaster mitigation programmes. Women’s
self-help groups can play an important role in a large number of measures targeted for mitigation
programmes. Employment opportunities outside the agricultural sector such as engaging in construction
activities, poultry farming can reduce the impacts of irregular rainfall events on farmers. There is a needto generate community awareness about existing livelihood generation government programs and link
the community with respective government departments implementing these schemes. Crop insurance,
subsidies and pricing policies related to water and energy could help in coping with the disasters.
Enhanced natural resource management is playing a growing role in helping communities at all
decision-making levels address the sources of disaster.
Adaptation is moving from a theoretical concern to becoming a central issue in negotiations and policy
processes, with international legitimization in the form of a fund to assist developing countries, particularly
the least - developed countries, in their efforts to adapt to climatic hazards. Moreover, it has become
acknowledged that effective adaptation measures in regions and communities with the greatest
vulnerability will likely depend on enhanced natural resource management, consistent with broader
sustainable development planning objectives. The proposition shared by the disasters and climatechange communities that enhanced natural resource management is a critical tool in reducing
vulnerability to climatic hazards. It introduces the practice of natural resource conservation, describing
some particular examples of targeted management activities being used to reduce disaster risk. It
concludes that the cost-effective integration of multiple sustainable development objectives, disaster risk
reduction, conservation of biodiversity, mitigation of climate change and targeting of the poor - could
make targeted natural resource management a compelling “win-win” adaptation option, attractive topolicymakers and donors, even among cash-strapped developing countries.

10Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

REFERENCES
1. Bahinipati, Chandra Sekhar (2014). Assessment of vulnerability to cyclones and floods in Odisha,
India: a district level analysis, Current Science, 107(12), 1197-2007.
2. Bhatnagar, Devanu, & Goyal, Sandeep (2012). Ground water potential zones mapping throughmulti criteria analysis, a case study of sub watershed of Katni river basin, International Journal of
Remote Sensing & Geoscience (IJRSG), 1(1), 22-26.
3. Coulibaly, Jeanne Yekeleya, Mbow, Cheikh, Sileshi, Gudeta Weldesemayat, Beedy, Tracy,
Kundhlande, Godfrey, & Musau, John (2015). Mapping Vulnerability to Climate Change in Malawi:
Spatial and Social Differentiation in the Shire River Basin, American Journal of Climate Change,
4, 282-294.
4. Curtis, K.J., & Schneider, A. (2011). Understanding the demographic implications of climatechange: estimates of localized population predictions under future scenarios of sea-level rise,
Population Environment, 33, 28-54.
5. Dube, Thulani, & Phiri, Keith (2013). Rural Livelihoods under Stress: The Impact of Climate
Change on Livelihoods in South Western Zimbabwe, American International Journal ofContemporary Research, 3(5), 11-25.
6. Ekpo, F.E., & Agu, N.N. (2014). Impacts of Climate Change, Vulnerability and Adaptation
Opportunities on Gender Livelihoods Activities in Rural Communities of Akwa Ibom State, Nigeria,
Universal Journal of Environmental Research and Technology, 4(1),46-53.
7. Eniolorunda, Nathaniel Bayode (2014). Climate Change Analysis and Adaptation: The Role ofRemote Sensing (RS) and Geographical Information System (GIS), International Journal ofComputational Engineering Research, 4(1), 41-51.
8. Lyimo, James G., & Kangalawe, Richard Y.M. (2010). Vulnerability and adaptive strategies to theimpact of climate change and variability. The case of rural households in semi-arid Tanzania, 1(2),89-97.
9. Mary, A.L., & Majule, A.E. (2009). Impacts of climate change, variability and adaptation strategies
on agriculture in semi-arid areas of Tanzania: The case of Manyoni District in Singida Region,
Tanzania, African Journal of Environmental Science and Technology, 3(8), 206-218.
10. Narayanan K. & Sahu, Santosh K. (2016). Effects of climate change on household economy andadaptive responses among agricultural households in eastern coast of India, Current Science,
110(7), 1240-1250.
11. Nayak, Bibhu Prasad, & Maharjan, Keshav Lall (2013). Climate Variability, Local Environmental
Changes and Rural Livelihood Systems: A case Study of Three Coastal villages in India, 19(4),69-87.
12. Ojha, Adikanda, Rout, Jajnaseni, Samal, R.N, Rajesh. G., & Pattnaik, Ajit Kumar (2013). Role ofRemote Sensing & GIS in Integrated Rural Development Planning, Neo Geographia - AnInternational Journal of Geography, GIS & Remote Sensing, I (III), 18-26.
13. Rout, Jajnaseni, & Balabantaray, Sachikanta (2016). Geomatic based sustainable Microwatershed planning – a case study of Kadalibadi Micro watershed of Ansupa catchment, Cuttack
district, Odisha, Neo-Geographia - An International Journal of Geography, GIS & Remote Sensing,V(1), 43-62.
14. Rout, Jajnaseni, & Ojha, Adikanda (2012). Micro watershed Management using RS & GIS
Technology, Geospatial World (www.geospatial.net), 8(13) (Water Resource, Natural Resource
Management).
15. Rout, Jajnaseni, Ojha, Adikanda, Pradhan, Subhasis, & Samal, R.N. (2012). GIS for Rural
Development and Spatial Planning System, Geospatial World (www.geospatial.net), 8(13),(Overview, Utilities).

11

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Topic 2. Lake environment under stress and their restoration
challenges
THE INCREASE OF FLOATING NET CAGES, AQUACULTURE AREA AND WATERQUALITY IN MANINJAU LAKE, WEST SUMATERA-INDONESIA
Hafrijal Syandri*1, Junaidi1, Ainul Mardiah1, and Azrita2
Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science,
Bung Hatta University, West Sumatera, Indonesia, 2Department of Biology Education,
Faculty of Education, Bung Hatta University, West Sumatera, Indonesia.
*Corresponding author: syandri_1960@yahoo.com
1

ABSTRACTThis study was carried out to evaluate the increase of floating net cages, aquaculture area and water
quality parameter in Maninjau lake. The results showed that the total floating net cages in the years of2011 (15,000 units), 2012 (15,860 units), 2013 (16,120 units), 2014 (16,580 units) and 2015 (20,608
units) respectively. The location of floating net cages in Maninjau lake still dominant in littoral area, with
distance 25 to 100 meter from the edge of the lake. The aquaculture areas which are used for 20,608
units of floating net cages are 113.7 hectares. Meanwhile, based on the size of fish, stocking density
and oxygen used for aquaculture, the needed ideal area is 1416,04 hectares. The water quality aroundfloating net cages showed there was no significant differences (p > 0.05) between sampling sites. The
results obtained the levels of water transparancy was 1.91-1.99 meter, ammonia 0.35-0.65 mg/L, nitrite
0.210-0.254 mg/L and the total phosphorus 00.32-0.80 mg/L, respectively. We conclude that increasingof floating net cages around Maninjau lake is not suitable with aquaculture area which have negative
effect to sanity of fish and water quality parameter.
Keywords: Maninjau Lake, floating net cages, aquaculture area, water quality.
INTRODUCTION
Maninjau lake is one of the fifteen lakes in Indonesia which becomes very important priority lake to be
saved (Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Indonesia, 2012) because its plays an important roleas hydroelectric plants with power 64 MW and the economic value was IDR 71.8 billion/year, tourism
IDR 2.15 billion/year, fishing-capture IDR 1.12 billion/year (LIPI, 2009) and aquaculture activity of tilapia
dan carp species by using floating net cages is 4,316 units with an investment of IDR 112 billion/year(Syandri, 2003). The total floating net cages in Maninjau lake for tilapia and carp farming always
increase in every year. In the year 2001, the total floating net cages was 3,500 units, while in the year
2013 was increase to 16,120 units (Syandri et al., 2014a; Junaidi et al., 2014).
In this decade, the pressure of the environment condition in Maninjau lake not only caused by theincrease of floating net cages (Syandri et al., 2014a; Syandri et al., 2016) but also intensive land usedin the catchment area (Machbub, 2010) and used that area for settlement and conversion of paddy
fields into fish ponds (Government Agam Regency, 2012; Syandri et al., 2014a). That activity caused
directly increase of the organic loading in Maninjau lake and also have effect to the decrease of water
quality (Henny, 2009; Yusuf et al., 2011; Junaidi et al., 2014; Syandri et al., 2015a) and the diversity offish species (Dina et al., 2011; Syandri et al., 2014b).
In this work, we examined the used of Maninjau lake for the aquaculture of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus)
and carp (Cyprinus carpio) in the floating net cages in Agam Regency of West Sumatera Province,
Indonesia. We analyze the increase of floating net cages, aquaculture area and some physico-chemicalparameters.
METHODS
Study area
The Maninjau lake with a surface area 9,996 hectare is located in Tanjung Raya district of Agam
Regency, West Sumatera Province - Indonesia, the geographical position E:00012'26.63"-S:0o25'02.80"
and E:100007'43.74"-S:100o16'22.48", located at altitude 461.50 meter above sea level. The regional
climate is classified as Schmidth-Ferguson Climate. This lake has characteristics of climate types A andannually receives an average rainfall 3,490 mm, with two distinct seasonal periods of precipitation: a12

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

dry season that normally extends between April and September, and rainy season from October toMarch. During this study, the monthly precipitations of the rainy season varied between 120 and 200
mm, and in the dry season between 10 and 50 mm.
Data floating net cages and the aquaculture area
The data of floating net cages was collected from the year 2011 to 2014 from Department of Marine
and Fisheries science of Agam Regency, whereas the data in the year 2015 was calculated directlyfrom the field. The calculation of aquaculture area in each village were analyzed based on the stocking
density of fish, water temperature (26oC), oxygen used/kg fish/hour (0,7 g O2/kg fish/ hour), elevationof lake (461 meter above sea level), and the ratio of the oxygen used with the available oxygen in thewater body. The amount of oxygen used which generated in one day under normal circumstances withwater temperature is 26°C = 16.67g O2 / m2 which consists of photosynthesis 14.33g and 2.34g of air
diffusion, to fish oxygen only provided 22% (3.67 g O2 / m2).
ARCGIS 10.1 programme was used for making aquaculture area maps of floating net cages in Maninjau
lake. The data used in this study is a multi-temporal satellite image Landsat TM / ETM + and SPOT
image of the 4 during the period from the year 2014 to 2015, DEM SRTM resolution of 17 meter.
The water samples were collected every three months in the year of 2015 in four sites from the lake at
1.0 meter depth: A – Sungai Batang; B – Sungai Tampang; C – Bayur; D – Koto Kaciek (Figure 1). The
water samples in 2-litre per bottles were maintained at 4°C for up to 24 hours. The following physicochemical parameters of water was analyzed; temperature, pH, amount of ammonia, nitrite, total
phosphorus and dissolved oxygen according to the methods described by APHA (APHA, 1998).

Figure 1. Map of study area in Maninjau lake of Agam Regency-Indonesia

13Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSThe total of floating net cages
The total of floating net cages from the year 2011 to 2015 at Maninjau lake in the district of Tanjung
Raya, Agam Regency (Table 1).
Table 1. The total of floating net cages in Maninjau lake (units)No
Village
2011
2012
2013
2014
2015
1
Maninjau
1531
1,743
1,795
1,843
1,597
2
Bayua
2324
2,349
2,425
2,856
4,178
3
II Koto
816
907
1,050
866
866
4
Koto Kaciek
1013
1,013
1,060
1,260
1,409
5
Koto Gadang
202
202
190
200
200
6
Koto Malintang
2448
3,768
3,850
3,650
3,612
7
Tanjung Sani
5194
4,140
4,000
4,108
5,461
8
Sungai Batang
1472
1,741
1,750
1,797
3,285
Total
15,00015,86016,12016,58020,608Sources : Data in the year 2011- 2014 was secondary data and the year 2015 is the primary data.
If we compared the total floating net cages in the year 2015 with the year 2011-2014, the unit wasincreased in every year. The increased of floating net cages has positive impact on fish farmers, fish
feed traders, fish sales and other labor. According to (Nasution et al, 2011; Syandri et al., 2015a),business of tilapia and carp cultured on the floating net cages in Maninjau lake have positive impact toincrease society income in the district of Tanjung Raya, Agam Regency. Meanwhile, that activity havenegative impact on the water quality parameter (Henny, 2009; Syandri et al., 2014a; Syandri et al.,2015a; Syandri et al., 2016).
The aquaculture area around floating net cages in Maninjau lake still dominant in littoral area with
distance 25 to 100 meter from the edge of the lake. Floating net cages was placed on water depth
between 10 to 50 meter. The aquaculture area of floating net cages in Sungai Batang, Tanjung Sani,
Bayur, and Koto Kaciek village are presented in Figure 2,3,4,5, respectively.
The aquaculture areas which are used for 20,608 units of floating net cages are 113.7 hectares.
Meanwhile, based on the size of fish, stocking density and oxygen used for aquaculture, the needed
ideal area is 1416,04 hectares (Table 2).
Table 2. The total floating net cages, aquaculture area in the field and ideal aquaculture area
Village
Floating net cages
Aquaculture area in Ideal aquaculture area
(units)the field (hectare)(hectare)Maninjau
1,597
11.98
109.73
Bayur
4,178
31.34
287.08
II Koto
866
6.49
59.50
Koto Kaciek
1,409
10.57
96.82
Koto Gadang VI Koto
200
1.60
13.75
Koto Malintang
3,612
27.09
248.20Tanjung Sani
5,461
40.95
375.24
Sungai Batang
3,285
24.63
225.72
Total
20,608113.7
1,416.04
Source: Primary survey data, October 2015.

14

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. The aquaculture area of floating net cages in Sungai Batang village

Figure 3. The aquaculture area of floating net cages in Tanjung Sani Village

15

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. The aquaculture area of floating net cages in Bayur Village

Figure 5. The aquaculture area of floating net cages in Koto Kaciek Village
Water quality parameters in the floating net cages
The results on the physico-chemical parameters of the water samples from the four sampling sites on
the fish farm in Maninjau lake are presented in Table 3. The average water transparancy in all samplingsite varied between 1.91 m and 1.99 m. The temperature showed that strong fluctuations over the study
periode (Table 3), especially in the Bayur site (26-30oC). Throughout the experiment, the amount of16

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

pH, ammonia, nitrite, total phosphorous and dissloved oxygen in Maninjau lake did not showedsignificantly different between sampling site (p > 0.05). The levels of pH varied from 7.29 to 8.10, withthe higher means for the dominant of floating net cages (site C and D) (Table 3). The ammonia content
varied from 0.35 to 0.65 mg/L, with higher means for the site A. The nitrite content varied from 0.210 to0.254 mg/L, with similar means for all sites. The total phosphorus content ranged from 0.32 to 0.80
mg/L, and the highest concentrations refer to Sungai Tampang, due to many activities around floting
net cages. Dissolved oxygen content was slightly varied between sampling sites, with average values
between 6.14 and 6.80 mg/L (Table 3). The water quality of floating net cages was directly influences
the productivity and sanity of fish (Henny, 2009; Syandri et al., 2015a; Syandri et al., 2016). According
to Asir and Pulatsu (2008), intensive aquacultural activity causes release the organic waste and soluble
inorganic nutrients, such as nitrogen and phosphorus content, which can cause or accelerate
eutrophication in natural aquatic systems. Nutrient release (especially nitrogen and phosphorus)
consists of dissolved and particulate fraction. The differences water quality parameters is not only
between species, but also within species, depend on feeds employed, feeding regimes, culture systems,
productivity, sanity of the fish, and environmental parameters of the local area (Gorlach-Lira, 2013;
Junaidi et al., 2014; Syandri et al., 2015a; Syandri et al., 2016).
Table 3. Water quality parameters in floating net cages
Site A
Site B
Site C
Site D
Water transparancy (m)
Mean
1.96
1.98
1.99
1.91
Standart deviation
0.14
0.07
0.10
0.10
Median
1.85
1.98
2.01
1.94
Min-Max
1.80-2.10
1.90-2.08
1.85-2.10
1.90-2.00
Temperature (⁰C)
Mean
27.75
28.5
28.25
28.5.
Standart deviation
1.25
1.29
1.70
1.29
Median
28.5
28.5
28.5
28.5
Min-Max
26.0-29.0
27-30
26-30
27-30
pH
Mean
7.72
7.67
7.95
7.86
Standart deviation
0.35
0.33
0.23
0.16
Median
7.59
7.70
7.95
7.92
Min-Max
7.29-8.10
7.30-8.0
7.70-8.20
7.70-8.10
Ammonia (mg/L)
Mean
0.59
0.41
0.37
0.46
Standart deviation
0.06
0.03
0.02
0.05
Median
0.60
0.41
0.375
0.465
Min-Max
0.50-0.65
0.38-0.45
0.35-0.41
0.40-0.51
Nitrite (mg/L)
Mean
0.167
0.144
0.232
0.165
Standart deviation
0.017
0.044
0.018
0.047
Median
0.165
0.126
0.233
0.175
Min-Max
0.148-0.190
0.144-0.210
0.2100.100-0.210
0.254
Total phosphorus (mg/L)
Mean
0.565
0.716
0.485
0.392
Standart deviation
0.031
0.111
0.050
0.056
Median
0.540
0.705
0.475
0.400
Min-Max
0.53-0.60
0.59-0.80
0.44-0.55
0.32-0.45
Dissolved Oxygen (mg/L)
Mean
6.307
6.375
6.140
6.805
Standart deviation
0.617
0.302
0.384
0.308
Median
6.41
6.355
5.985
6.66
Min-Max
5.49-6.92
6.07-6.72
5.50-6.45
6.37-7.08
A = Sungai Batang; B = Sungai Tampang; C = Bayur; D = Koto Kaciek

17

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was funded by the Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education of the
Republic of Indonesia 2016, on the Excellent Research University Scheme.
Conflicts of Interest: There is no conflict of interest among the authors for the publication of this research
article.
REFERENCES
1. Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Indonesia. (2012). The Grand Design Rescue
Ecosystem Lakes in Indonesia.71 p.
2. Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia (LIPI). (2009). Blue Book Limnology Lake Maninjau.
Research Center for Limnology LIPI
3. Syandri H. (2003). Cage’s culture and problems in Maninjau Lake, West Sumatra Province. Journalof Fisheries and Maritime Affairs. 8(2):74-81
4. Syandri H, Junaidi, Azrita, and Yunus T. (2014a). State of aquatic resources Maninjau Lake West
Sumatra Province, Indonesia. Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 1 (5): 109-113
5. Junaidi, Syandri H, Azrita. (2014). Loading and distribution of organic materials in Maninjau LakeWest Sumatra Province-Indonesia. Journal Aquactic Research Development. 5:7.
6. Syandri. H, Azrita, Niagara. (2016). Trophic status and load capacity of water pollution waste fishculture with floating net cages in Maninjau Lake, Indonesia. Eco. Env. & Cons. 22 (1): 469-476
7. Machbub. B. (2010). Model calculations of water pollution load capacity of lakes and reservoirs.
Jurnal Sumberdaya Air, 2 (6) : 129-144
8. Government Agam Regency. (2012). Agam in Figures, Agam Regency Central Bureau of
Statistics, 120
9. Henny. C. (2009). Dynamics of biogeochemistry of sulfur in lake Maninjau. Limnotek, 16 (2) : 7587
10. Yusuf Y, Zaki Z, Lukman U, Rahmi F. (2011) Analysis of heavy metals Fe, Cu, Pb and Cd in
sediments around floating nets cages in the waters of Maninjau Lake. J Ris. Kim. 1(5): 94-100
11. Syandri, H., Azrita., Junaidi., Elfiondri. (2015a). Heavy metals in Maninjau lake, Indonesia: watercolumn, sediment and biota. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies; 3(2): 273-278
12. Dina, R, M. Boer, N.A. Butet. (2011). Profile length and level of maturity gonad Bada fish (Rasbora
argyrotaenia) on different fishing gear in Lake Maninjau. Oseanologi dan Limnologi di Indonesia,
37 (1): 105-118
13. Syandri, H., Azrita., and Junaidi. (2014b). Morphological characterization of asang fish
(Osteochilus vittatus, CYPRINIDAE) in Singkarak lake, Antokan river and Koto Panjang reservoir
West Sumatra Province, Indonesia. Journal of Fisheries and Aquaculture, 1 (5): 158-162.
14. APHA. (1998). Standard methods of the examination of water and wastewater. 20th Edn, American
Public Health Association, Washington, D.C., USA.
15. Nasution Z, Sari YD, Huda HM. (2011). Aquaculture in Lake Maninjau: Anticipation Handling Policy
Impact Mass death of fish. Journal of Social Policy Economics and Fisheries 1: 19-31
16. Asir.U, and Pulatsü.S. (2008). Estimation of the Nitrogen-Phosphorus Load Caused by Rainbow
Trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss Walbaum, 1792) Cage-Culture Farms in Kesikköprü Dam Lake: A
Comparison of Pelleted and Extruded Feed. Turk. J. Vet. Anim. Sci., 32 (6): 417-422
17. Gorlach-Lira, K, Pacheco, C, Carvalho, L.C.T, Melo Júnior, H.N, and Crispim, M.C. (2013). The
influence of fish culture in floating net cages on microbial indicators of water quality. Braz. J. Biol.,73, 3: 457-463.

18

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

BIO-ACCUMULATION OF MERCURY IN LAKE TALIWANG, WEST NUSA TENGGARA:IMPACT OF TRADITIONAL GOLD MINING
Suwarno Hadisusanto, Dwinda Mariska Putri, Dini Dwi Amanda
Laboratory of Ecology and Conservation, Faculty of Biology, UGM Yogyakarta, Indonesia
Corresponding author: suwarno_hsusanto@yahoo.co.id
ABSTRACT
Traditional gold mining in Taliwang used to flow their waste directly to environment. Traditional gold
mining separate gold from it rock using mercury for chelatting. Lake Taliwang recently suffered from
mercury pollution and high sedimentation. Organisms live in the lake accumulating mercury in theirbody. The aim of this research was studying the amount of bio-accumulation in plankton, fishes,
sediments, and measuring water quality of Lake Taliwang. Sampling took place in Lake Taliwang, West
Nusa Tenggara in February 2016. There were four species of fishes taken: Damselfish (Anabas
testudineus); Nile Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus); Eel (Monopterus albus); and Snakehead murrel(Channa striatus). Sediments and plankton was collected in inlet; intensive; and outlet area. Water
quality measured while collecting sediment samples. Water quality measured were Secchi depth, basin
depth, water temperature, pH, Dissolved Oxygen, CO2, and alkalinity. Samples were analyzed using
mercury analyzer in LPPT UGM. Only fish livers were analyzed for mercury concentration. The average
highest mercury bio-accumulation is in liver of damselfish, there were 204.6 µg/kg. Snakehead murrel
has 38.4 µg/kg; Nile Tilapia 9.3 µg/kg; and Eel 1.3 µg/kg. The higher concentration of mercury insediment was in inlet area. The lowest concentration of mercury was in outlet area. Plankton in Lake
Taliwang also accumulate mercury. The accumulation of mercury in plankton higher in inlet than outlet.
Keywords: bioaccumulation, Lake Taliwang, traditional gold mining
INTRODUCTION
Lake Taliwang is a tropical shallow lake situated in West Sumbawa, West Nusa Tenggara. This lake islocated in geographic position between 9°41’20” - 9°43’00” E and 117°51’-17°52’ S. The size of Lake
Taliwang is 8.12 km 2, water volume was 170.000.000 m 3. The maximum depth is 1.87 m and average
depth is 1.73 m. There are many illegal gold mining activities in south-eastern sector of Lake Taliwang(BLH, 2014). Lake Taliwang recently suffered from mercury pollution and high sedimentation. Lake
Taliwang lost 5 m of its depth and 300 acres of its size in 10 years. Traditional gold mining started from2010 until now. Traditional gold mining separated gold from its rock using mercury thus organisms livein the lake accumulating mercury in their bodies. This method called amalgation. Amalgation is illegal
in some countries while in Indonesia traditional people still use this method as it cheaper. Miners flow
the waste directly into the environment (Gammons et al., 2006).
Lake Taliwang used to be very clean. Local people can drink Lake Taliwang water directly. Now they
only use the lake for fisheries. A few local species of fish catches from the lake are sold to the local
community. Four dominant species of local fish were Damsel-fish (Anabas testudineus); Nile Tilapia(Oreochromis niloticus); Eel (Monopterus albus); and Snake-head murrel (Channa striatus). All of thesefish species consumed by Taliwang community. This case will threaten public health. Human as the top
predator accumulate the highest amount of mercury. Accumulation occurred as mercury progesively
enter organism system and almost none are secreted throughout the body (Connel & Miller, 1995). The
aim of this research is to study bio-accumulation in fish, plankton and sediments, and to find the wether
there are difference of mercury concentration between inlet, intensive and outlet in Lake Taliwang.

19

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. These pictures show different parts of Lake Taliwang. Left-top picture is an open water inintensive area, right-top picture shows weeds covered in intensive area. Bottom picture shows
weeds covered the whole water in outlet area.
METHODS
The sampling technique of this research was purposive sampling in three locations: inlet; intensive(center); and outlet zone. In each location, we use random sampling. This research aims to study theamount of mercury bioaccumulation in plankton, fish, sediments, and measuring water quality of Lake
Taliwang. Sampling took place in Lake Taliwang, West Nusa Tenggara in February 2016. The mainlaboratory kit used in this research is mercury analyzer in LPPT UGM.
Sediments and plankton was collected in inlet; utilization; and outlet area. There were two samples ofeach fish species were taken. Plankton samples were collected using water sampler. Fifty litters ofwater filtered then fixated with Formalin 4%. Sediment samples were collected using Ekman dredges.
Water quality measured while collecting sediment samples. Water quality measured were Secchi depth
using secchi disc, basin depth using water sampler, water temperature using mercury thermometer, pH
using pH meter, Dissolved Oxygen, CO2, and alkalinity with two replications. Dissolved Oxygen, CO 2,
and alkalinity were measured using microwinkler method. Mercury in organisms was analyzed using
mercury analyzer in LPPT UGM, only liver from fish were analyzed.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Traditional gold mining in Taliwang used to flow their waste directly to environment. Traditional gold
mining separate gold from it rock using mercury for chelatting. Lake Taliwang recently suffered from
mercury pollution and high sedimentation. Results shown that organisms live in the lake accumulating
mercury in their body. There were four species of fishes taken: Damsel-fish (Anabas testudineus); Nile
Tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus); Eel (Monopterus albus); and Snake-head murrel (Canna striatus). The
rate highest mercury bio-accumulation is in liver of damselfish, there were 204.6 µg/kg. Snake-headmurrel has 38.4 µg/kg; Nile Tilapia 9.3 µg/kg; and Eel 1.3 µg/kg (Table. 1). Kaonga et al., 2001 informed
there is effects of lead on reproduction systems in invertebrates. The Highest concentration of mercury
is in damsel-fish because its feeding habits. This fish is omnivorous fish. They like to stir sediment tofind food. Sediment is where mercury found the most.
The highest concentration of mercury in sediment is in inlet area (Fig. 2). This happens because
mercury tend to bound with sediment (Malczyk et al. 2015). Water quality showed Lake Taliwang
dissolved oxygen is very low (Fig. 3). It shows high rate of decomposition due to high sedimentation.
Only fish with labyrinth organ can survive live in Lake Taliwang. All the fish found in Lake Taliwang havethis organ and addapted to poor DO. Water pH is alkaline due to Lake Taliwang situated in karst
ecosystem. Karst ecosystem are well known as vulnerable ecosystem. When karst forest cutted down,20Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

the top soil will easily wash away by rain. As in Lake Taliwang watershed, people cutted down forest
for gold minning. Watershed then suplly high amount of sediment.
Table 1. Concentration of mercury in four fish species. A table with headings spanning two columns
and containing notesa. Leave 6 pts of space between the caption and the top of the table.
Fish
Local nameSpecies
Inlet
OutletDamselfish
Betok
A. testudineus
251.25157.95
Nile Tilapia
Nila
O. niloticus
12.61
6.05
Eel
Belut
M. Albus
1.86
0.66
Snakehead murrel Gabus
C. striatus
10.69
66.14

Figure 2. Mercury concentration in sediments.

Figure 3. Left picture is DO concentration in each zone. Right picture is water pH

21

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Concentration of mercury in plankton were inlet 6.30 µg/kg and outlet 4.53 µg/kg. Mercury concentrationthat recommended in open waters: 0.002 ppm; sediment: 0.5 -1.0 ppm (Anonimous 2001) but according
to Ministry of Environment Regulation is 0.001 ppm (Anonimous 2004). FAO/WHO by 2011 limit of
mercury consumed by human are 4 µg/Kg per week. People who consumed food contaminated bymethyl-mercury will rise its effects as human are to predator (Alfian 2006). The effect might not show
directly. Over exposed of mercury can caused cancer for human. As we can say fish from Lake Taliwang
can not be consumed. Mercury concentration in one fish gives more mercury allowed for consumed ina week.
CONCLUSIONS
There were bioaccumulations in Lake Taliwang. There were differences of mercury concentrations ineach fish species. The distribution of mercury concentration at inlet higher than oulet.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The first author is thankful to Dwinda and Amanda for the assistance.
REFERENCES
1. Alfian, Z. 2006. Mercury: useful and used effects on environment and public health. USU Press.
Medan.
2. Anonimous. 2014. Profile of Lake Taliwang, West Sumbawa, West Nusa Tenggara.Environment
Office, Government of West Sumbawa.
3. Balai Lingkungan Hidup. 2014. Profil Danau Lebo Sumbawa Barat.
4. Berra, T.M. 2001. Freshwater Fish Diatribution. Academic Press. San Diego, CA.
5. Chen, Y., R.S. Stembergen, B. Klau, J.B. Blum, P.C. Pickhard, C.L. Folt. 2000. Accumulation of
Heavy Metals in Food-web Components Across a Gradient of Lake. Limnology and Oceanography.
Vol. 45 (7): 25-36.
6. Connel. D. W. and Miller. 1995. Kimia dan Ekotoksikologi (translation). Universitas Indonesia.
Jakarta.
7. FAO/WHO. 2011. Evaluation of certain contaminants in food. Seventy-second report of the Joint
FAO/WHO. Expert Committee on Food Additives, Switzerland.
8. Gammons, C.H., D.G. Slotton, B. Gerbrandt, W. Weight, A. Young, R.L. McNearny, ECa’mac, R.
Caldero’n, H. Tapia. 2006. Mercury Concentrations of Fish, River Water, and Sedimentin the Rio
Ramis Lake Titicaca Watershed, Peru. Science of the Total Environment. 368: 637-648.
9. Kaonga, C.C., J. Kumwenda, and H.T. Mapoma. 2010. Accumulation of lead, cadmium, manganese,copper and zinc by sludge worms: Tubifex tubifex in sewage sludge. Int. J. Environment. Sci. Tech.
7(1): 119-126.
10. Malczyk, E.A. and B. A. Branfireun. 2015. Mercury in sediment, water, and fish in a managed
tropical wetland-lake ecosystem. Science of the Total Environment. 524-525.
11. Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Indonesia No. 51/2004. Manual on Waste Threshold andDangerous Regulation.

22

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

INCREASING HUMAN-ENVIRONMENTAL STRESSES ON CITARUM BASIN IN THE
PAST DECADES
1
Eka Fibriantika , Hidayat Pawitan*2,4, Robert Delinom3,4
Agency for Meteorology, Climatology and Geophysics (BMKG), Jakarta, Indonesia;
Department of Geophysics and Meteorology, Bogor Agricultural University (IPB), Bogor,
Indonesia; 3Research Center for Geotechnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI),
Bandung, Indonesia; 4The Asia-Pacific Center for Ecohydrology (APCE) under the auspicesof UNESCO, LIPI Cibinong Science Center, Indonesia
Corresponding author: hpawitan@ipb.ac.id
1

2

ABSTRACTThe study site is the Jatiluhur Reservoir – Downstream area of the Citarum Basin. The study focus
concerns the impacts of economic development in the past decades related to food production andavailability of water resources in the study area that have undergone significant changes creating
severe human-environmental stresses. The study approach and analysis were based on observedhydrologic data to reveal simple water balance of the basin and the long-term trends due to changing
environment that further be related to food production capacity in the past decades. Some discussions
on necessary management options were then given to deal with the sustainability issue by introducing
the crop-water productivity strategy as means to ensure efficient use of available resources. Key
findings on long term trends of decreasing rainfall of 28.3 mm/year that correspond to the increasing
river discharge of 13.8 mm/year, indicated deterioration of the basin environment with increasing runoff
coefficient in the past decades. On the demand side the basin is characterized by increasing populationand the needs to support Jakarta water supply that require to increase food production under
deterioration environment. Therefore, some basin management strategy need to be implemented assuggested.
Keywords: Human-environmental stresses, land and water degradation, simple water balance, foodproduction and food security, Citarum
INTRODUCTION
Availability of water resources in a region is key factor to the agricultural production system, especiallyto ensure the national food security such as in providing staple food crops. This is true for Indonesia,
a country blessed with abundant of water resources. However, with large population presently at 250
million people and still growing at a relatively high rate at 1.49% per year, producing enough food has
always been a major challenge. To make matter worse is the imbalance of available resources andlevels of economic development between regions in the country. Java Island with only 6.5% of landarea of Indonesia and 4.5% of the country water resources is residence of some 60% of the country
population. The increase of population in Java Island had been significant since early twentieth century.
The Boeke report (Boeke, 1941) stated that there was a tenfold population increase in Java Island fromfour million people in 1800 to forty million in 1930 when the first population census was conducted inIndonesia, with the implication of significant increase to provide sufficient amount of needed staple foodfor the people. Therefore, Java Island has a long history as rice producing island and technical irrigation
system had been introduced since the beginning of the Twentieth Century, while rice culture itself had
been known for a millennium as depicted in a relief at Borobudur Temple. The Citarum river is one of
the major river basins in Java Island that has the most developed water resources system in the country,with multi purposed dams for rice irrigation, flood control, domestic and industrial water supply, andelectric power generation. The amount of water being utilized in the system already passed 50% of its
annual river flow. Figure 1 depicts the recent distribution of water utilization of the Citarum river. The
river has been known with three large cascaded reservoirs that store about six billion cubic meters ofwater that generate electricity up to1,937.5 MWs, food production center for rice and fishes, and provide
raw water amounting to 16 m3/s for Jakarta drinking water treatment plant that serve almost 80 % ofdomestic water needs for Jakarta population.

23

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Distribution of Citarum reservoir water utilizations (Source: Perum Jasa Tirta II, 2014)
Increasing Human-Environmental Stresses were derived from high population in the basin areacrossing six districts and three municipalities that were residence to about fifteen million people in 2010that has become a major concern in economic development related to food production and availabilityof water resources. There has been a long-time concern to know the sustainability of these nexus
resources for the Citarum basin, as it has become the rice producing areas with significant contribution
to the country food supply system, while its proximity to good infrastructures supporting economic
development in the region has threatened its very existence.
METHODS
A simple and direct approach conducted to assess quantity of water resources of the Citarum basin as
the study area and how this limited resource to meet the increasing demand for human andenvironmental needs, especially in comparing the decreasing amount of water available due to progressof land use change and the likely climate change, and the increasing demands for food production
system under pressing population increase. Estimate of water quantity in the basin will be based on asimple water budget from the biophysical description of the basin that is derived from trends of observed
rainfall and river discharge data, and food production capacity is assessed from series of rice and fish
productions in the past decades with their trends. Other demands of water that include increasing
domestic and industrial water uses of the adjacent regions and the needs to neutralize grey water from
pollutions to the environment would be considered as increasing human-environmental stresses thatneed to be dealt with to ensure a healthy and sustainable ecosystem services. Discussions onnecessary management options will then be given.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSThe Citarum basin has maintained good hydrologic telemetering system with main station andsupported by 11 rainfall stations, three water level recordings, one station repeater and 17 warning
stations. Figure 2 showed the long-term trends of basin rainfall and river discharge at Plumbonhydrometric station from observed data between 1922-2008 that indicated a decreasing of annual
rainfall of about 28.3 mm/year from the linear trend that was corresponding to increasing river dischargeof 13.8 mm/year. Apparently, these rainfall and river discharge trends not only indicated thedeterioration of basin biophysical conditions with reduce infiltration capacity and the consequence ofincreasing runoff coefficient, but also the likely occurrence of climate change with decreasing basin
rainfall.

24

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Trends of annual rainfall and river discharge at Citarum-Plumbon station
Table 1. Linear regression discharge (Y) from respected rainfall (X) in mm at CitarumPlumbon station with basin area 4061.0 km 2 and simple water balance of the basin.
MonthRegression:
Estimated
Basin
Rainfalldischarge
losses[mm/mo][m3/s][mm/mo]Jan
Y=81.493+0.183(X)
293
236.1
130.0
Feb
Y=83.421+0.162(X)
255
245.9
106.7
Mar
Y=18.121+0.450(X)
304
264.4
173.0
Apr
Y=48.678+0.426(X)
262
285.3
78.0
May
Y=28.454+0.485(X)
184
211.5
50.1
Jun
Y=53.164+0.258(X)
106
114.1
30.6
Jul
Y=38.647+0.236(X)
85
67.9
34.9
Aug
Y=35.915+0.152(X)
70
51.4
35.3
Sep
Y=28.799+0.160(X)
104
50.4
67.2
Oct
Y=42.378+0.127(X)
191
96.2
127.2
Nov
Y=25.882+0.282(X)
291
174.4
117.9
Dec
Y=100.542+0.154(X)
297
256.1
128.9
Annual
Y=532.463+0.295(X)
2443
171.1
1096.4
Table 1 presents linear regressions of monthly river discharges from respected basin rainfall at
Plumbon station, and indicate that these trends of rainfall and river discharge were also occurring in theseasonal patterns. Also presented are the simple water balance of the basin for the monthly rainfall
and the generated river discharge at Plumbon hydrometric station and respected basin losses from
evapotranspiration.
Water resources systems development in the Citarum basin
Series of large-scale water resources systems had been developed in Java Island since earlynineteenth century, during the Dutch Colonial period. Many are still in operation along with the newly
constructed after Indonesia independence in 1945. Within the Citarum basin areas, these old water
infrastructures include the Walahar Irrigation System that was built in 1925 and irrigates 80,000 ha of
paddy field with gated weir across Citarum River at Karawang District, about 60 km from its estuary.
The Salam Darma Irrigation System constructed in 1930 with weir across Cipunegara River in Subang
District, about 40 km from its estuary and designed to irrigate 37,000 ha of paddy field. The systems
were operated separately and rely on run-off water from the rivers that limit the cropping intensity to130%, as not all of the paddy field area in the systems could be irrigated during dry season and became
the source of conflicts among that fight for the needed water. To increase this cropping intensity amidst

25

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

the existing potential paddy fields had encouraged the national government to build suitable reservoirs
that could extent irrigation in dry seasons. These development of water resources system in the Citarumbasin was first based on the study paper written by van Blomenstein that was presented in Paris
Seminar (1948) with the title “Integrated Water Resources Development in the Western Part of Java
Island“ (Idrus et al., 2014). The intended irrigation command areas covered about 514,000 ha. of paddy
fields that included some adjacent irrigation systems. Reviewed by van Schravendijk in 1956 in theform of “Integrated Water Resources Development in Citarum River Basin” indicated an irrigation of
240,000 ha of paddy field (Idrus et al., 2014). Realization of these plans was the construction of seriesof cascaded reservoirs along the Citarum river as given on Table 2 with descriptions of these threelarge cascaded reservoirs.
Table 2. Description of the three cascaded large dams in Citarum basin.
Description:

Unit

Jatiluhur

CirataSaguling

Construction
completed

-

1967

1984

1988

Maximum water
level

m

107

220

643

Total volume

million m3

3000

2160

881

Effective volume

million m3

2100

796

609

Sedimentation

million m3

140

1177

200

Electric power
generation

GWh/yr

790

1426

2156

Source: Revised from Indonesia Power (2011)
Each of the dams was constructed with different main purposes. Jatiluhur-Juanda dam being the first
constructed in time of scarcity not long after the country independence and revolution era wasrealization of long term plan to harness the might of Citarum river with targeted benefits of a multipurpose project, among others:
1) Flood every year inundated and endanger fertile area (20,000 ha) could be controlled andminimized,
2) Technically irrigated of agricultural area of 240,000 ha with two crops annually,3) Hydro-power electric generation with installed capacity of 187.5 MW,
4) Raw water supply for domestic, municipal, and industry.
General data of Jatiluhur dam:River name

Citarum

Catchment area

4.500 km2

Annual mean runoff

5.5 billion m3

Construction

1958 – 1967

Spillway structure type

Morning glory

Reservoir area at 107 m
normal level

83 km2

Reservoir perimeter at
107 m

150 kmFigure 3. View of Jatiluhur dam with Morning Glory spillway structure with general data.

26

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The operation of the Jatiluhur-Juanda dam was mandated to Jasa Tirta II Public Corporation under
Government Regulation No. 94/1999, with scope of Works:
1) Exploitate and maintain water resources infrastructures and hydro-electric power generation
2) Water resources and hydro-electric power utilization,3) Watershed management, such as: control, develop, and utilize water resources in Citarum River
Basin
4) Rehabilitate water resources infrastructures and hydro-electric power plant as well.
The Company Aim and Objective (Government Regulation No. 94 of 1999, article 6):
AIM: To operate water for public utilization and its qualifying water sources which sufficient to fulfill thenecessity of all the people and to carry out certain tasks given by the government in managing
the river basin and/or its sources including to give information, recommendation, consultationand guidance;
OBJECTIVE: to develop the national economy by participating in the program of national developmentin water management, water source and electric power.
There is another potential to build large hydroelectric power plant with 47 MW power
downstream from Saguling dam that is at Rajamandala site and certainly many with smaller
capacities.
Food production of Citarum basin
Rice productivity in the past decade for the region has not increased significantly, while total riceproductions that was also determined by the total land being harvested have reduced significantly,
especially for Bandung district (Figure 4).

(a)(b)
Figure 4. Trend of paddy productivity (a) and production (b) in Citarum command area (Source: WestJava Agricultural Food Crops Service Office, 2014).
Trend of freshwater fish production as given on Figure 5 showed a significant increase for Purwakarta
district where the Jatiluhur dam reside indicated expansion of the floating fish caged culture that affected
the water quality of the reservoir’s water greatly. West Java fish production is dominated by cultured
fish in floating fish caged (KJA= karamba jaring apung) which is operated mostly in open surface waters,such as in lakes and reservoirs.
KJA Production (Ton/year)

12000010000080000
Purwakarta

60000

Cianjur

40000

Bandung

20000
0
2004

2005

2006

2007

2008

2010

2011

Year

Figure 5. Trend of fish production in West Java, 2004-2011 (Source: Perum Jasa Tirta II)

27

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake ConferenceLand degradation and water related hazards
Land and water degradation have become common environmental issues in developing areas inIndonesia, including for Citarum basin, and some issues could be noted for Citarum basin as riceproducing center are as follows:(i) degradation and loss of carrying capacity of water and land resources due to increased pollutions;(ii) loss of irrigation infrastructure capacity in the middle of climate variability and change; and(iii) determination of proper agricultural development strategy.
Land and forest degradation have been the most obvious phenomenon in Citarum basin with loss offorest cover reached 86% between 71,750 hectares in 2000 to about 9,899 hectares in 2009, andincreasing critical land to 202 thousand hectares. During the period, increase of community settlements
is from 81,688 hectares in 2000 to 176,442 hectares in 2009 (Ministry of Public Works, 2012). These
progresses are as depicted in Figure 6. Obviously, the increase of settlements were not only cateredby conversion of forest areas, but also taking the agricultural lands, including the irrigated rice fields
that will reduce food production capacity of the areas from the upstream of Citarum basin down to
Purwakarta and Karawang areas where most conversions occur from rice fields.

Figure 6. Trends of areas of forest cover and settlements in Citarum basin 2000-2009 (Source: Ministryof Public Works, 2012).
Agus and Irawan (2006) noted that land conversion from paddy field to other uses in Java Island was
484 thousand hectares in 1981-1999 and 107 thousand hectares in 1999-2002, and these trends oflosing paddy fields was also occurring in the outer islands in the later period. This paddy fields
conversion in Java island was mostly occurring in the Citarum irrigation service areas that certainly
threaten to cut food production capacity of the areas. Conservative estimate of paddy fields loss was
30% or 30 thousand hectares occurring in Citarum basin.
Increasing human environmental stresses
Population pressure, especially in Java island, need to generate substantial food supply for its
overcrowded people, conditioned by degraded water and land resources, increased extreme weather
events with floods and droughts, increased pollution and exposure to water- and vector-borne diseases
with consequences in decreased water availability and quality. These resource management issues
had been adopted into the Water Law (Decree No.7/2004) that has been cancelled by the Constitution
Commission on Feb.18th, 2015. A new water law would be necessary to be enacted soon to fill in thelack of legal certainty, especially to related water corporations. The seasonal nature of rainfall climateof the Citarum basin with abundance of water during wet rainy seasons and drought stricken dry
seasons has limit water resources availability. The likely climate change with decreasing annual
rainfalls and land use changes that increase surface runoff are indicators of increasing humanenvironmental stresses to the basin that would certainly need serious attention from the different parties,
including academicians, natural and technical researchers.
There are strong evidences that Citarum water quality has been deteriorating severely as observed
from the three cascaded reservoirs. Very serious water quality conditions were experienced in theupper reservoirs of Saguling and Cirata that received heavy pollution wash loads from all different
sources, including agricultural, domestic and municipal, livestock and fisheries that already pass thewater quality standard. Figure 7 below showed the water quality of Cirata reservoir over a period of28

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

2007 to 2013. Regular fish kills were experienced on these upper reservoirs during certain drought
conditions due to upwelling events.
30
25

Mg/lt

20

Do

15

Treshhold of DO

10

COD
Treshhold of COD

5

BOD
Tw1_07
Tw2_07
Tw3_07
Tw4_07
Tw1_08Tw2_08Tw3_08Tw4_08
Tw1_09Tw2_09Tw3_09Tw4_09
Tw1_10
Tw2_10
Tw3_10
Tw4_10
Tw1_11
Tw2_11
Tw3_11
Tw4_11
Tw1_12
Tw2_12
Tw3_12
Tw4_12
Tw1_13
Tw2_13Tw3_130Treshhold of BOD

Quarterly Observation Year

Figure 7. Sampled water quality at Cirata reservoir 2007-2013 (Source: PJB BPWC, 2014)
Downstream area of the Citarum River as given by Jatiluhur-Juanda reservoir where water quality isvery important that determine the quality of raw water for WTP (water treatment plant) drinking water inJakarta. The fortunate position being the lower one of the three cascaded reservoirs has safe the qualityof water in Jatiluhur reservoir, as most of the sediment and pollutant loads from upstream areas alreadydeposited along the way from Bandung City to Saguling and Cirata reservoirs. However, thesedownstream positions due to its vicinity to economic development areas also has attracted investors tomake use the reservoirs as highly profitable enterprises in industrial estates, other commercial activities
and also in cultured freshwater fisheries using floating cages that have burgeoning in the past decades.
Strict regulations from dam operators and local government have been enforced, however effectivenessstill need to be observed.
To improve water quality, it is necessary to routinely conduct water quality monitoring of the Citarum
river through PROKASIH Program (Clean River Program). Routine water quality measurements at 25
points along Citarum river, 10 points along Bekasi river, other 13 points at non PROKASIH Program,
13 points on West Tarum Canal (WTC) and five points on North and East Tarum Main Canal, as wellas industrial liquid waste quality analysis for 110 industries, and the out-put should be reported to related
institutions periodically.
Challenging food security for the Citarum basin
Some questions still need to be asked concerning sustainability of food production capacity of Citarumbasin and its implication to national food security, as follows:➢ where and how is the state of agricultural land productivity in Citarum basin?
➢ what are the urgent issues need to be tackled with respect to its impacts on national foodsecurity?
➢ what are the factors that influence in the agricultural production subsector?
➢ what is suitable strategy and policy need to be taken?
The challenge of sustainable agricultural productivity in Citarum basin and its impact on national foodsecurity rely on the existing rice paddy areas. Citarum basin with its major reservoirs support almost
one-half of paddy areas in West Java and contribute about 17% to national rice production. With theestimate of losing 30 thousand hectares would be equivalent to about 10% of rice production capacity,while at the same time there is increasing food demand. Therefore, contribution of Citarum basin tonational food security would certainly reduce below the traditional 17%. Some ideas on challenges andopportunities of Citarum basin resource management:➢ Coordination among sectors and stakeholders (as the Citarum cascaded dams are managed
by the National Government and hydroelectric power generations by Indonesia Power
corporate company);➢ Improving bio-physical condition by introducing environmentally friendly technologiesecotechnology adopting ecohydrology approach/concept;

29

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Become national priority program of integrated approaches, including adoption of WaterEnergy-Food nexus concept.
➢ Introduce payment for environmental services in basin management➢ Multi-stakeholder coordination through Townhall type meetings➢ Community participation and empowerment
Establishment of conservation model such as an arboretum or protected forest for improving infiltration
capacity at Wayang Windu spring area, and a cooperation between Indonesia Forest Company (PT.
Perhutani), Government of Bandung District, NGO and communities was realized covering 40 hectares
area. Some resource management strategy need to be taken to face this challenge of limiting nexus
resources under increasing demand, among others, is with adoption of crop-water productivity strategy
to ensure efficient water use practices taking advantage of local resources. Main efforts to accomplish
this strategy are to improve productivity by producing more from less resource. In case of riceproduction, some practices have been implemented in the study area, such as the SRI (systems of riceintensification) and some of indigenous modifications that were adjusted to local conditions, including
the organic rice farming systems.
➢

CONCLUSIONS
Environmental degradation of the Citarum basin has reached an alarming level with rate of
sedimentation has already passed the design threshold and has reduced significantly the economic lifeof the reservoirs system. Accumulation of sediment that mixed with wastes from industrial, domestic,
and fish culture operations in the water bodies has threaten the sustainability of the existing reservoir
infrastructures, disrupting hydropower operation and other environmental services. Water quality of the
Saguling reservoir already reached level D criteria of limited uses, even for agricultural irrigation
purposes. Key findings from simple water balance analysis are the long-term trends with decreasing
rainfall of 28.3 mm/year that is accompanied by increasing river discharge of 13.8 mm/year, indicateddeterioration of the basin environment with increasing runoff coefficient.
Challenges of Citarum basin management is to ensure sustainability of the water resources and also
the food production systems to contribute to the national food security. To accomplish these, it isnecessary to establish integrated and collaborative management framework among stakeholders thatcan enhance environmental services of the Citarum basin and its water resources system throughrestoration of the reservoirs capacity using science based eco-technology.
REFERENCES
1. Agus, F. and Irawan (2006) Agricultural land conversion as a threat to food security andenvironmental quality. Jurnal Litbang Pertanian, 25(3) 90-98.
2. Boeke, J.H. 1941. Dari empat juta menjadi empat puluh empat juta jiwa di pulau Jawa. Tanah dan
Penduduk di Indonesia [From four million to fortyfour million in Java island. Land and Populationin Indonesia]. Bharata, Jakarta, pp. 28-44. [Translated from: Van vier totvienveertig million zielen
op Java. In: Daar werd iets groots versicht. [There was something great in sight]. Elsevier,
Amsterdam, pp. 346-356].
3. Idrus, H., A. Mardiyono, Andrijanto (2014) Water Resources Regulation on Several Region in
Citarum River Basin Indonesia. Jasa Tirta II Public Corporation – Indonesia, Purwakarta.
4. Indonesia Power (2011) Pengelolaan PLTA Waduk Saguling. Bahan presentasi Unit Bisnis
Pembangkitan Waduk Saguling. Bandung.
5. Kementerian PU (2012) Kebijakan Pengelolaan di Wilayah Sungai Citarum. Bahan presentasi
BBWS Citarum, Bandung.
6. Perum Jasa Tirta II (2014) Perkembangan Penambahan Populasi KJA di Waduk IR H.Juanda
Tahun 2000-2013. Purwakarta.
7. Perum Jasa Tirta II (2014a) General View Of Jasa Tirta II Public Corporation– Jatiluhur,
Purwakarta.
8. PJB BPWC (2014) Data Kualitas Air Waduk Cirata. Bandung.

30

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

HEAVY METALS CONTENT OF SEDIMENT AND MOLLUSC IN LAKE MANINJAU, WEST
SUMATERA
1
Sigid Hariyadi *, Muhamad Suhaemi Syawal2, Yusli Wardiatno3
Department of Aquatic Resources Management, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine
Sciences, Bogor Agricultural University, 2Research Center of Limnology, Indonesian Instituteof Sciences*Corresponding author: sigidh100@yahoo.com
1,3

ABSTRACT
Some evidence indicates that Lake Maninjau has been suffering from pollution in the last decade due
to increasing activities either in the catchment area or in the lake waters. The aim of the research was
to determine the stage of pollution of the lake through observation of Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr, and Fe content in
the sediment and molluscs in some river mouths entering to the lake. The three times observations
were conducted from March to September 2015 in seven (7) river mouths of Lake Maninjau. Sedimentand molluscs of each location were sampled for metals content analyses. Some water quality
characteristics were also observed. The molluscs are Corbicula moltkiana, Melanoides sp., andAnodonta woodiana. The metal contents of the sediment were Pb: 0.004-11.230 mg kg-1; Cd: 0.0050.019 mg kg-1; Hg 0.0006-0.0590 mg kg-1; Cr: undetected (<0.004 mg kg-1); and Fe: 1.173-3.573 mg
kg-1. While the metals content in the molluscs were Pb: 0.002-4.170 mg kg-1; Cd: 0.013-1.032 mg kg-1;
Hg: 0.0004- 0.1062 mg kg-1; Cr: 0.040-0.098 mg kg-1; and Fe: 0.040-0.948 mg kg-1. The content of lead(Pb) and cadmium (Cd) in the lake sediment and molluscs (C. moltkiana and A. woodiana) wereconsidered high or polluted. The lake water quality in the 7 stations seemed to be quite turbid with highcontent of nitrogen and phosphorus.
Keywords: heavy metals, Maninjau, mollusc, sediment
INTRODUCTION
Lake Maninjau, is a tecto-vulcanic lake in West Sumatra and is supplied by about 88 small rivers or
creeks from its catchment area, 34 rivers of it (38.6%) are flowing all year around (Fakhruddin et al.
2002). The lake was considered polluted, at least by nutrient and organic matter from various activities,
including in lake activity, such as fish cage culture (Sulawesty et al., 2011; Marganof et al., 2007), andthe activities in the catchment area including settlement, town activities, rice field and other agriculture,and plantation. Some mass fish killed were reported once or twice every year (Kompas, 2016; Tempo,
2014; NGI, 2014).
Heavy metals contamination of the inland waters has been widely reported, among others concerning
heavy metals in the reservoirs (Wu et al., 2014; Dabrowska, 2016), and in the lakes (Tampubolon et al.,2013; Hidayah et al., 2014). In Lake Maninjau, there has been reported the peresence of heavy metals
in the water column and sediment (Saputra et al., 2010), and also the containing of heavy metals in thesediment suroundings the cage cultures (Yusuf et al., 2011). Since some heavy metals may be released
from the settlement or domestic wastes and town activities (Weiner, 2008) among others are from carsand motors repaired shops and form transportation activities (Metcalf & Eddy, 1991), it is important todetermine the heavy metals content of the lake, especially in the sediments of some river mouths
inflowing to the lake and in the biota, especially molluscs. The objective of the research was todetermine the stage of pollution of the lake through observation the content of Pb, Cd, Hg, Cr, and Fe
in the sediment and molluscs in some river mouths of the Lake Maninjau.
METHODS
Sediment samples and mollusc were taken from 7 sampling points or stations, namely St. 1 (MukoMuko); St. 2 (Talao Tubo); St. 3 (Muaro Talao); St. 4 (Muaro Tanjung); St. 5 (Bayur); St. 6 (Muaro
Pisang); and St. 7 (Pandan), which each is the mouth of the inflowing river (Fig. 1). Observations andsamplings were conducted three times in the period of March to September 2015. Sediment samples
were collected by Ekman grab, about 1500 g sediment from each station was oven dried at 30 oC andthen extracted for further analyses. The sediment was then analysed using Atomic Absorption
Spectrometer (AAS) Hitachi Z6100 for lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), total chromium (Cr), total mercury (Hg)and iron (Fe) content according to APHA (2012). Samples of mollusc were also collected using Ekman
grab from each station, and then separated from sediment using surber net. The mollusc selected forheavy metals analyses are the kinds which are common to be consumed by local peoples, i.e. the31

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

species of Corbicula moltkiana (pensi), Melanoides tuberculate (trumpet snail), and Anodonta woodiana(swan-mussel). A sufficient amount of the shell content of each species were taken, and oven dried at
30 oC, weighted, and then extracted for heavy metals analyses as for the sediment.
Some water quality characteristics, namely turbidity, pH, and dissolved oxygen (DO) were also
observed. Turbidity, pH, and DO were observed using Water Quality Checker (HORIBA U 20).

Figure 1. Location of observations (sampling stations) at Lake Maninjau, West
Sumatra (From: Syawal et al. 2016)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Heavy metals in the sediment
Iron (Fe) concentration in the sediment averaging between 1.17 – 3.57 mg/kg. There is no quite
different between stations except relatively low concentration at St. 5 (Bayur) (Fig. 2). The highest ironcontent was found in the sediment of St. 1 (Muko Muko) (Table 1). The iron content in the sediment is
considered low and non-polluted compared to the sediment criteria of US EPA, Region V that set up
iron <17 mg/kg as non-polluted, and >25 mg/kg as heavily polluted in the sediment of Great Lake
Harbors (Department of Water Resources State of California - DWRSC, 1995).
Table 1. Average concentration (mg/kg) of iron (Fe), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg)in the sediment of each observation stations in Lake Maninjau (From: Syawal et al., 2016)
Location
Concentration in sediment (mg kg-1)
Fe
Pb
Cd
Cr
Hg
3.570 ±
4.150 ±
0.019 ±
0.001 ±
St. 1 (Muko-Muko)
<0.04
0.500
0.090
0.027
0.001
2.940 ±
4.634 ±
0.005 ±
0.0006 ±St. 2 (Talao Tubo)
<0.04
0.280
0.304
0.003
0.00052.823 ±
0.004 ±
0.006 ±
0.045 ±
St. 3 (Muaro Talao)
<0.04
0.289
0.002
0.002
0.007
2.453 ±
0.004 ±
0.005 ±
0.059 ±
St. 4 (Muaro Tanjung)
<0.04
0.491
0.002
0.002
0.013
1.173 ±
1.740 ±
0.006 ±
0.0004±0.00
St. 5 (Bayur)
<0.04
0.170
0.121
0.003
05
3.037 ±
11.23 ±
0.004 ±
0.004 ±
St. 6 (Muaro Pisang)
<0.04
0.520
1.004
0.002
0.001
3.047 ±
0.005 ±
0.006 ±
0.009 ±
St. 7 (Pandan)
<0.04
0.083
0.003
0.003
0.001
Heavily polluted forGreat Lake Harbors
25
0.06
0.006
0.075
0.001
(US-EPA Region V*)
Lowest Effect Level
31.0
0.60
26.0
0.20
(Burton, 2002)*DWRSC (1995).

32

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Lead (Pb) content of the sediment were highly varied among stations, relatively high in St. 1, St. 2, St.
5, and St. 6, from 1.74 mg/kg (St. 5) up to 11.230 mg/kg (St. 6, Muaro Pisang), and very low in St. 3,
St. 4 and St. 7 (Fig. 2 and Table 1). According to US EPA Region V for classifying sediments of Greta
Lakes Harbors (DWRS, 1995), lead content in the sediment >0.06 mg/kg is considered heavily polluted(Table 2). However, lowest effect level (LEL) of lead for aquatic biota according to Burton (2002) is 31
mg/kg, thus the lead content in the sediment at all stations were basically still below the standard that
may harm the environment.

Figure 2. Concentration (mg/kg) of iron (Fe), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd), and mercury (Hg) in thesediment of each observation stations in Lake Maninjau (From: Syawal et al. 2016)
Cadmium (Cd) in the sediments were observed between 0.004 – 0.019 mg/kg (Table 1). The highest
content of cadmium in the sediment was observed in St. 1 (Muko Muko), while in the other stations the
Cd concentrations were not quite different in the amount of around 0.004-0.006 mg/kg. The cadmium
content in the sediment of St. 1 was classified as heavily polluted (>0.006 mg/kg) by US EPA Region V
for Great Lakes Harbors, however, were considered low, far below the lowest effect level (LEL) of
Burton (2002) which is 0.600 mg/kg (Table 1).
Analysis of total chromium (Cr) in the sediment sample of all stations resulting of undetected or lessthan 0.04 mg/kg. This finding indicates that there is no chromium pollution from activities in thecatchment area of the lake, especially from the respected catchment area of the rivers of observation.
The mercury (Hg) content of the sediments varies among stations, from around 0.0004 mg/kg at St. 5(Bayur) up to about 0.059 mg/kg at St. 4 (Muaro Tanjung) (Table 1). At the St. 3 (Muaro Talo), mercury
content of the sediment was also quite high compare to other stations (Fig. 2). According to US EPA
Region V for Great Lakes Harbors (DWRSC, 1995), mercury content of sediment more than 0.001
mg/kg was considered heavily polluted. However, the mercury content of the sediment at all stations
were still far below 0,20 mg/kg as the Lowest Effect Level (LEL) for aquatic biota (Burton, 2002) andwere not considered polluted.
Heavy metals in the molluscs
In general, heavy metals content of trumpet snail (Melanoides tuberculate) was the lowest compare to
the other two molluscs, except for iron, Fe (Table 2). While pensi (Corbicula moltkiana) having thehighest lead (Pb) content (up to 4.17 mg/kg dry weight), and swan-mussel (Anondonta woodiana)
having the highest cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg) content (up to 1.032 mgCd/kg dry weight and
0.1062 mgHg/kg dry weight). Lead (Pb) content of swan-mussel was also considered high compared
to in other two molluscs. Perhaps the larger individual size of A. woodiana compared to the other two
species of mollusc, caused the higher accumulation in its tissue.
Iron concentration in A. woodiana quite varies among stations, the highest was at St. 1 (Muko Muko),
while in M. tuberculata the highest was at St. 7 (Pandan). Iron concentration in C. moltkiana which were33

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

considered low, the highest was at St. 2 (Fig. 2). Provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI)
for iron (Fe) is 0.8 mg/kg of body weight (WHO, 2011), it is meant that the maximum intake for personwith a body weight of 20 kg only around 16 mg of Fe per day. The highest content of iron in the mollusc
found was 0.948 mg/kg, i.e. in A. woodiana from St. 1 (Fig. 2), and it is still allowable to consume up to
16 kg/day of the mollusc. Therefore, the iron content in all the three mollusc species was categorized
as low and safe.
Table 2. Range and average (parenthetically) concentration (mg/kg) of iron (Fe), lead (Pb), cadmium(Cd), and mercury (Hg) in the molluscs in Lake Maninjau
Fe

Pb

Cd

Cr

Hg

(mg/kg)(mg/kg)(mg/kg)(mg/kg)(mg/kg)

Corbicula moltkiana

0.040-0.224(0.129)0.002-4.170(0.893)

0.236-0.580(0.440)<0.040(<0.040)0.0004-0.0502(0.0188)

Melanoides
tuberculata

0.120-0.640(0.347)0.002-0.098(0.032)0.013-0.580(0.261)<0.040(<0.040)0.0004-0.0668(0.0137)

Anodonta woodiana

0.320-0.948(0.632)

0.093-3.224(0.807)0.662-1.032(0.831)0.040-0.098(0.057)0.0049-0.1062(0.0478)

Mollusc species

The concentration of total chromium (Cr) in the three species of mollusc in general were undetected(<0.04 mg/kg) at all stations, except in A. woodiana at St. 1, St. 5 and St. 7 total chromium were detected
relatively low about 0.056 – 0.098 mg/kg (Fig. 2).
Lead (Pb) content in C. moltkiana was the highest and found at St. 1 (Muko Muko). The highest lead in
A. woodiana was also found at St. 1 (Muko Muko) (Fig. 2). According to WHO (2011), provisional
maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) for lead (Pb) is 1.9 µg/kg of body weight or it is only about
0.036 mg Pb for person with body weight of 20 kg. Considering the standard, the mollusc containingof about 0.19 mgPb/kg was categorized as high, since the allowable maximum daily intake was only
about 200 g of the mollusc. Therefore, lead content in C. moltkiana and in A. woodiana from all stations
except from St. 5 (Bayur) were considered high and the two species of mollusc from the mention
locations are having very high risk to be consumed.

34

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Chromium (Cr), iron (Fe) and lead (Pb) content of Corbicula moltkiana, Melanoides
tuberculata, and Anodonta woodiana at each observation stations in Lake Maninjau
Provisional maximum tolerable daily intake (PMTDI) for cadmium (Cd) is 0.8 µg/kg of body weight (WHO,2011), or it is only about 0.016 mg Cd for person with body weight of 20 kg. To have about 200 g ofmollusc per day and it is still below the PMTDI, the mollusc should contain Cd in an amount of as much
as 0.08 mgCd/kg. Therefore, cadmium content in the three species of mollusc from all stations wereconsidered high and not in compliance with the WHO standard to be consumed, except for M.
tuberculata from St. 1 (Muko Muko), St. 3 (Muara Talao) and St. 5 (Bayur) (Fig. 3).
For mercury (Hg), the provisional tolerable weekly intake (PTWI) is 1.6 µg/kg of body weight (WHO,2011), or it is only about 0.032 mg Hg for person with body weight of 20 kg. For the mollusc containing
0.11 mgHg/kg, the tolerable weekly intake is as much as 320 g. Therefore, the mercury content of all
the three species from all stations, in general were still in compliance with the WHO standard, with the
precaution limited number to be consumed for A. woodiana from St. 1 and St. 7 (Fig. 3). In this two
locations (Muko Muko and Pandan), the mercury content of A. woodiana was the highest, i.e. around
0.1 mg/kg.

35

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 3. Cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg) content of Corbicula moltkiana, Melanoides tuberculata,
and Anodonta woodiana at each observation stations in Lake Maninjau
CONCLUSIONS
Sediment content of total chromium (Cr) was very low or undetected at all observed inflowing rivermouth in Lake Maninjau. The content of iron (Fe), lead (Pb), cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg) in thesediment of the seven observed locations were also considered low and below the lowest effect level.
Considering the Provisional Maximum Tolerable Daily Intake (PMTDI) and Provisional Tolerable
Weekly Intake (PTWI) (WHO, 2011), heavy metals content of the three mollusks were categorized ashigh. Cadmium (Cd) content was high in all the three molluscs (Corbicula moltkiana, Melanoides
tuberculata and Anodonta woodiana) from all locations. The cadmium content in the molluscs in general
was more than 0.8 mgCd/kg. Lead (Pb) content was high in C. moltkiana and in A. woodiana from all
locations and the two species of mollusc are having very high risk to be consumed. The lead content in
the two mollusc spesies from each location was more than 0.19 mgPb/kg. Mercury (Hg) content in thethree mollusc species from all locations, in general was still in compliance with the PTWI of the WHO,with precaution to the molluscs from Muko Muko and Pandan. The content of iron (Fe) and total
chromium (Cr) in the three mollusc species were considered as low and very low.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Thanks to the Staff of UPT Maninjau of Limnology Indonesia Institute of Sciences: Mr. Agus Hamdani,
Mr. Sutrisno, Mr. Rudi and Mr. Roby for the help in collecting sample and data in the field.
REFERENCES
1. Burton GA, Jr. (2002). Sediment quality criteria in use around the world. The Japanese Society of
Limnology: Limnology 3:65–75.

36

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

2. Dabrowska, L. (2016). Chemical forms of heavy metals in bottom sediments of the Mitręga
Reservoir (Poland). Civil and Environmental Engineering Reports (CEER) 21 (2): 015-026.
3. DWRSC (Department of Water Resources, State of California). (1995). Compilation of Sediment& Soil Standards, Criteria & Guidelines. Quality Assurance Technical Document 7. Division of
Local Assistance, Department of Water Resources, The Resources Agency, State of California.
70p.
4. Fakhrudin M., Wibowo H., Subehi L., Ridwansyah I. (2002). Karakterisasi Hidrologi Danau
Maninjau Sumatera Barat. (Hydrological characterization of Lake Maninjau, West Sumatra).
Prosiding Seminar Nasional Limnologi. Pusat Penelitian Limnologi – LIPI.
5. Hidayah, A.M.; Purwanto; Soeprobowati, T.R. (2014). Biokonsentrasi Faktor Logam Berat Pb, Cd,
Cr dan Cu pada Ikan Nila (Oreochromis niloticus Linn.) di Karamba Danau Rawa Pening.
(Bioconcentration Factor of heavy metals: Pb, Cd, Cr and Cu in the nile fish of cage culture in Lake
Rawa Pening). BIOMA (Juni 2014) 16(1):1-9.
6. Kompas. (2016). Lagi, kematian massal ikan (Again, mass fish killed) 8 Des 2016(https://www.press reader.com/indonesia/kompas/20161208/281913067737868); Kematian ikan
sulit dihentikan (Fish killed hard to be stopped) 2 Sep 2016(https://www.pressreader.com/indonesia/ kompas/20160902/ 282067686369595).
7. Marganof, Darusman, L.K., Riani, E. Pramudya, B. (2007). Analisis beban pencemaran, kapasitas
asimilasi dan tingkat pencemaran dalam upaya pengendalian pencemaran perairan Danau
Maninjau. (Pollution load, assimilatif capacity and pollution stage of Lake Maninjau). Jurnal
Perikanan dan Kelautan (Fisheries and Marine Journal) 12 (1): 8-14.
8. Metcalf & Eddy, Inc. (1991). Wastewater Engineering: treatment, disposal, reuse. 3rd Ed.
(Revised by: G. Tchobanoglous and F.L. Burton). McGraw-Hill, Inc. New York, Singapore.1334 p.
9. NGI (National Geographic Indonesia). 2014. LIPI Ungkap Fenomena Kematian Ikan di Danau
Maninjau (LIPI reveal fish killed phenomenon in Lake Maninjau) 4 April 2014 (http://
nationalgeographic.co.id/berita/2014/04/lipi-ungkap-fenomena-kematian-ikan-di-danau-maninjau).
10. Saputra, A., Prasetio, A.B., Radiarta, I N. (2010). Distribusi logam berat dalam air dan sedimen di
perairan Danau Maninjau, Provinsi Sumatera Barat. (Heavy metals distribution in the water andsediment of Lake Maninjau, West Sumatra). Prosiding Forum Inovasi Teknologi Akuakultur 2010:
983-987.
11. Sulawesty, F., Sutrisno, Hamdani, A., Triyanto. (2011). Kondisi Kualitas Air Beberapa Daerah
Pemeliharaan Ikan Karamba Jaring Apung di Danau Maninjau. (Water quality of several cage fishculture area in Lake Maninjau). Limnotek 18(1):38-47.
12. Syawal, M.S., Wardiatno, Y. Hariyadi, S. (2016). Kualitas Air dan Kandungan Logam Berat dalam
Sedimen dan Moluska dalam Kaitannya dengan Aktivitas Antropogenik di Danau Maninjau,
Sumatera Barat. Thesis. Sekolah Pascasarjana, Institut Pertanian Bogor.
13. Tampubolon, H.S.; Bakti, D.; Lesmana, I. (2013). Studi kandungan logam berat tembaga (Cu) dan
timbal (Pb) di perairan Danau Toba, Provinsi Sumatera Utara (Study of heavy metals of copper(Cu) and lead (Pb) in Lake Toba, North Sumatera Province). Jurnal Aquacoastmarine Vol. 1, No.
1 (Dec. 2013). https://jurnal.usu.ac.id/index.php/aquacoastmarine/issue/view/362
14. Tempo. (2014). Cuaca Ekstrem, 100 Ton Ikan Mati di Danau Maninjau (Extreem wheather, 100
tons of fish killed in Lake Maninjau) 30 Dec 2014 (https://nasional.tempo.co/read/news/2014/12/30/058631879/cuaca-ekstrem-100-ton-ikan-mati-di-danau-maninjau).
15. Weiner, E.R. (2008). Applications of Environmental Aquatic Chemistry, A practical guide. 2 nd Ed.
CRC Press. Boca Raton. 436p.
16. WHO. (2011). Working Document for Information and Use in Discussions Related to Contaminants
and Toxins in The GSCTFF (Prepared by Japan and the Netherlands). Joint FAO/WHO FoodStandards Programme, Codex Committee on Contaminants in Foods. Fifth Session, The Hague,
The Netherlands, 21 - 25 March 2011. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nationsand World Health Organization. 89p.
17. Wu, B.; Wang, G.; Wu, J.; Fu, Q.; Liu, C. (2014). Sources of Heavy Metals in Surface Sediments and an
Ecological Risk Assessment from Two Adjacent Plateau Reservoirs. PLOS One Vol. 9, No. 7 (Jul2014).14p. http://journals.plos.org/plosone/article/file?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0102101&type=
printable
18. Yusuf, Y. Zuki, Z. Lukman, U. Rahmi, F. (2011). Analisis sedimen sekitar keramba jaring apung
di perairan Danau Maninjau terhadap kandungan logam berat Fe, Cu, Pb dan Cd. (Heavy metals
content of sediment surounding cage culture area of Lake Maninjau). J. Ris. Kim. Vol. 5, No. 1,
September 2011.

37

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CHALLENGES IN THE RESTORATION OF LAKE MANINJAU: BRIDGING ACTORS’INTERESTS FOR SUSTAINABILITY
Putu Oktavia1*, Uly Faoziyah1
Department of Regional and City Planning, Institut Teknologi Bandung*Corresponding author: putu.oktavia@students.itb.ac.id; putu.oktavia@gmail.com
1

ABSTRACT
Lake Maninjau, situated in Agam District West Sumatera, has many strategic functions ranging from
ecological to socio-economic for the surrounding areas. However, the lake condition in the last decades
shows progressive environmental damage caused by extensive fish cultivation, pollution from domestic
uses and degradation of the catchment areas. This condition if left unchecked, threatens not only
Maninjau biodiversity but also threaten the ability of the lake to sustain the social and economic life of
the surrounding community. The management of Lake Maninjau has become the interests of various
parties, including local people, governments, environmental activists, and investors. Unfortunately,
these interests are often not aligned, giving rise to conflicts. Broadly speaking, potential conflicts ofinterest in the management of Lake Maninjau is between economic interests and environmental
interests. Therefore, to provide input for decision making related to quality improvement efforts andmanagement of Lake Maninjau, this paper aims to identify the main problems of the lake management
by using stakeholder mapping. Specifically, this paper (i) highlights the challenges in the restoration of
the lake from stakeholders’ perspectives and (ii) describes the alternatives in bridging actors’ interestfor the successful lake management. This study offers one potential approach in the management of
the lake in Indonesia.
Keywords: lake management, Maninjau, stakeholder mapping
INTRODUCTION
Lake Maninjau is one of volcanic lakes in West Sumatera. It situated in Tanjung Raya, Agam District,Indonesia, at an altitude of 461.50 meters above sea level, with an area of 105 km2 and an average
depth of 105 meters. This lake is a caldera formed by the eruption of Mount Sitinjau about 52 thousand
years ago. Because it is formed from volcanic eruptions, land around the lake is fertile and is currently
used by the locals as the location of settlements and agricultural paddy and annual crops. Tourism
activities are also growing in this area which has implications for the widespread construction of
supporting facilities of tourism activities, such as hotels and restaurants. Whereas the lake waters isused for the cultivation of carp and tilapia through floating cages which are spread around the shoresof Lake Maninjau. This activity becomes the main livelihood of the local communities in the surroundingarea.
In terms of the environment, Maninjau contribute to maintaining biodiversity in the lake ecosystem.
Study conducted by Roesma (2013) said there are 45 species of plants in the lake and nine of them
are aquatic species. Some important species identified in the study are Najas marina var. sumatrana,
Mystacoleucos padangensis, Cyclocheilichthys dezwaani, and Psylopsis sp which are endemic of thelake. Other study by Nontji (2016) said that Maninjau is the only natural lake in Sumatera that has
Angulla bicolor, an eel species that spends its life in freshwater but as adult will be migrating to theocean.
Lake Maninjau also serve as a source of clean water for the surrounding community. Based on datafrom PSDA West Sumatera (2015, in Arjuna, 2016), the water that goes into Lake Maninjau consists ofrain water (281 million m 3/year), surface run-off (250 million m3/year), and groundwater recharge (4.18
million m3/year). While the water flowing out of the lake Maninjau via Batang Antokan River is 14.13
m3/s or amounted to 445.6 million m 3/year. The magnitude of the potential of existing water in Lake
Maninjau is proved not only to meet the needs of the community and provide clean water to the irrigationof agricultural land, but also used as a source of electricity generation in Maninjau hydropower plantwith an installed capacity of 66 MW. Hydropower is not only delivering electrical service to thecommunity in Agam, but also to the neighboring districts. Therefore, the change in water catchment
areas around Lake Maninjau will greatly affect water availability, which in turn has implications not only
on unmet demand for water but also energy needs.
Another thing that makes Maninjau increasingly strategic in terms of the environment is that theeconomic activities in the region are highly dependent on the quality of the existing environment.
Growing tourism activities rely on the beauty of its nature, so that if it was damaged then theattractiveness of tourism in the region will disappear. Fishing activity through the floating cages were38

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

strongly influenced by the quality of the water of Lake Maninjau. Similarly, agricultural activities of rice
fields and annual crops will be affected if the land around Maninjau were damaged.
However, some studies suggest that the quality of the ecosystem of Lake Maninjau has indeed beendamaged. Study conducted by Syandri (2015) showed that the waters of Lake Maninjau has been
contaminated with chemical compounds, such as cadmium, copper, lead, iron, and zinc due to theaccumulation of toxins in biota through atmospheric deposition, erosion and anthropogenic caused byindustry, domestic waste, as well as waste from fishing activities. It is also reinforced by research
conducted by Sulawesty et.al (2011) which stated the high content of nitrogen and phosphorus in thewaters of Lake Maninjau (Fig. 1), characterized by high levels of turbidity, low temperature anddissolved oxygen along with the increasing depth, as well as the pH of the water that is alkaline.
Sulawesty et.al (2011) added that with the current levels of phosphate (0.56 mg / liter), the water in
Lake Maninjau is already above the threshold of quality standards established (<0.2 mg / liter), so it is
not fit for use as a source of drinking water although it can still be used for aquaculture. Related withthe aquaculture, assessment from LIPI (2009) states that Maninjau can only accommodate 6,000
floating cages before exceeded its carrying capacity. However, data from Agam Government (2016, inJawa Pos 25 April 2016) states that there are already 20,620 units of floating cages so that if left
unrestricted, they would threaten the sustainability of the environment of the lake.

Figure 1. Water pollution in Lake Maninjau (Source: Sulawesty et.al, 2011)
The impact of environmental degradation of Lake Maninjau is already being felt by local communities.
Reduction in forest cover in the catchment area around Maninjau has implications for the growing
magnitude of the difference in water level of the lake between the rainy and dry seasons, thereby
disrupting the operation of hydropower plant as well as the availability of energy for the community.
Then, because of the severe pollution the water of Lake Maninjau also cannot be used by the local
community since it has foul smell and also cause itching.
Aquaculture activities that are growing rapidly in this area turned out to have been adversely affectedby the environmental damage. Tons of fish feed in the waters of the lake caused by less environmentallyfriendly fish breeding intensify water pollution that causes frequent catastrophic mass death of fish in
the lake. This is compounded by the morphometric characteristic of Lake Maninjau which caused
upwelling that stirred toxic substances from residual feed, fish feces and other substances from the lakebottom to the surface (Nasution et al., 2011), thereby increasing the risk of fish mortality. Over the past
two decades, it was reported that several catastrophic mass fish mortality have occurred. In 1997, thefirst time the disaster occurred, the number of dead fish reached 950 tons with the loss of Rp. 2.7 billion(Syandri, 2015). In 2009, it was reported around 13,413 tons of dead fish with the loss of Rp. 150 billion,
then in 2010 it was reported as 1,150 tons of dead fish (Nasution et al., 2011). Sari et al (2015) statedthe amount and frequency of mass fish mortality continues to increase from year to year. These

39

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

conditions have a significant impact on the income of floating cages owners in Lake Maninjau. Not only
fisheries, environmental damage of the lake also contribute to the decrease of tourists visiting the region,
as the water of the lake have strong foul smell due to pollution and algae outbreak as reported by
Sulawesty et.al (2011).
This condition if left uncontrolled, threatens not only the lake’s biodiversity but also threaten the abilityof the lake to sustain the social and economic life of the surrounding community. Related to this,comprehensive effort should be made for the restoration of Lake Maninjau and it should involve a variety
of stakeholders. The involvement of various stakeholders are particularly important given the diversityof their roles and respective interests in the use of resources in the lake which led to increasing conflictsof interest and eventually leads to the deterioration of environmental quality. Moreover, the restoration
efforts of Lake Maninjau that have been made by Agam District Local Government have not yet
considered nor involved all stakeholders so that implementation of the program was not running
optimally.
As a first step in the stakeholder-based environmental restoration of Lake Maninjau, this paper will focus
on identifying the role, interests, and challenges based on the perspective of each stakeholder. The
results of the analysis will be the basis for the formulation of alternatives in the successful management
and restoration of the lake.
METHODSThis study uses qualitative research that focuses on the process of examination and interpretation ofdata in order to acquire meaning, understanding and build empirical knowledge (Corbin & Strauss, 2014,2008; Dey, 2003) of the social phenomenon that consists of actors, events, places, and involve a lot of
research methods in identifying problems (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). The qualitative approach waschosen because it allows the researcher to comprehensively review all the dynamics of resource
utilization in Maninjau, mainly related to the role and interests of every stakeholder involved in it bylooking at the perspective of each of the relevant stakeholders.
To get information from each stakeholder, in-depth interviews were conducted on key stakeholders in
the utilization of resources in Lake Maninjau. According to various experts (i.e., Boyce & Neale, 2006;
Marshall & Rossman, 2014), in-depth interview is a qualitative research techniques that lead tointerviews of a small number of respondents to explore their perspectives in a certain situation, in thiscase related to the utilization of resources in the lake. In-depth interview in the study carried out by
using a semi-structured questionnaire that had been prepared in advance but did not rule out thedevelopment of new questions as responses from the respondents' answers. Furthermore, the selectionof respondents is done with the snowball method. With this method, the number of respondents
interviewed were initially small then enlarges with provided referalls from the initial respondents. Each
new referral is explored until primary data from sufficient amount of samples are collected.
Analysis were performed using stakeholder mapping to identify stakeholders and map the relative
strength, influence, and their importance in the utilization of resources in Lake Maninjau, thus showing
the pattern of relationships and priorities among stakeholders in achieving their respective goals. In thecontext of this study, stakeholder mapping become an important tool to achieve the discussion related
to optimal resource management through the identification of coalitions between stakeholders and thepattern of relationship, so as to establish the legitimacy of resource management in Lake Maninjau.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSManinjau as a resource can be used by local communities to meet their needs. First, in the form of
products that can be consumed directly, such as fish for food and water as a source of energy andagricultural irrigation. Second, the lake can give indirect functional benefits, such as ecological andhydrological functions, flood control, and protection of the surrounding areas. Third, the lake can provide
direct and indirect benefits for the future as storage media for biodiversity and ecosystems conserved.
The strategic role of the lake covering various aspects led to differing interests of stakeholders involvedin the utilization of its resources. In general, stakeholders interested in the utilization of resources of thelake, can be classified as government, private sectors, community, and other non-governmental
agencies, as described in Table 1.

40

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1 Classification of Stakeholders Involved in Resource Utilization in Lake Maninjau
Government
Private Sectors
Community
Other
1. Central Government:
1. Tourism
related 1. Local
1. Nonbusiness owners
community
governmental• Central government(hoteland2.
Local
organization• Indonesia
Instituteofhomestayowners,traditional
Sciencefood
andleaders• State Electricity Company
beverages
2. West Sumatra Province:owners)• Planning And Environment
2. Fish feed company
Control Agency
owners• Marine
andFisheries
3. FishrelatedAgencybusinessowners3. Agam Regency:(from outside of• Development
Planning
the region)
Agency• Marine
andFisheries
Agency• Planning And Environment
Control Agency• Agency for Sustainable
Management of the Lake
Maninjau• Nagari (Wali Nagari (village
trustee), KAN, MTTS)
From the interviews, some role, interests, resource and influence, and potential conflict of interests of
the actors involved in resource utilization of Lake Maninjau were identified (Table 2). Government role
is to formulate policies in accordance with their respective authorities. Central Government in this caseserves to formulate policies related to the strategic role of Lake Maninjau at the national level,
specifically as the National Tourism Strategic Area. Other central government agencies, such as LIPI
(Indonesia Institute of Science) provide support in terms of research and studies related to Lake
Maninjau which can be used as a basis for decision making related to resource management in Lake
Maninjau. Another is the State Electricity Company who operates Lake Maninjau hydropower plant
which granted authority related to the provision of energy by utilizing water resources in Lake Maninjau
to provide energy not only in Agam, but also its surrounding areas.
Government institutions at the provincial level, i.e. Planning and Environment Control Agency andMarine and Fisheries Agency of West Sumatra Province provide policy direction of environment andfisheries development at the provincial level. In addition, government at the provincial level also
distribute the deconcentration funds from the central government to the district when there is a national
government program conducted in Lake Maninjau.
In accordance with their respective duties, government institutions at the district level play greater rolein the management of Lake Maninjau due to their authority to directly intervene on the problems that
occurred there. Development Planning Agency, for example, contributes to spatial planning of Agam
including Lake Maninjau. Then there is Agency for Sustainable Management of the Lake Maninjau tocoordinate the management of and supporting the preservation of the lake. The role of this agency isactually significant in coordinating the interests between stakeholders in the utilization of resources in
Lake Maninjau, but instead the results of interviews conducted found that the agency is not optimal in
implementing its coordinating role.
Besides the government, there are other institutions that play important role in the utilization of
resources in Lake Maninjau. Fisheries and tourism entrepreneurs have an interest to increase businessturnover respectively. Local communities generally act as implementers of floating cage aquaculture
and farmers on lands that surround the lake, so they have a huge interest in the utilization of resources.
While the role of NGOs are to advocate the public in accordance with the evolving issues.
As noted in the previous section, the use of resources in the lake has led to various conflicts of interestin both the utilization of resources and authority of management that could threaten the sustainability

41

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferenceof the resources. Moreover, the lake is common resources so that everyone can use it freely according
to their needs. In general, potential conflicts of interest in Lake Maninjau is conflict between economicand environmental interests.
Conflicts between economic and environmental interests in Lake Maninjau develop into more complex
ones which involve various growing sectors in the region, i.e. the tourism, fisheries, and water resources.
From tourism, the natural beauty of the lake invites the presence of tourism activities in the region.
Besides, this region becomes one of destinations route of Tour de Singkarak, an annual international
event in West Sumatra. This event attracts entrepreneurs in the field of tourism, such asaccommodation and food and beverage to set up business in the region. Tourism business is also
supported by the policy of the Central Government that set this region as one of the National Tourism
Strategic Areas. The main requirement for growing tourism sector is the existence of environmental
sustainability in Maninjau. However, pollution in the lake has caused the rapidly growing environmental
degradation and decline in tourist attraction and reduced tourist arrivals in Lake Maninjau. Stipulationof detailed spatial plan of Maninjau which expected to provide more space for tourism activity is also
perceived by the tourism business as not able to limit fishery-related activities that have been growing
very rapidly. Therefore, it can be said that the growing tourism activities have been in line with efforts
to protect the lake, but contradictory to fishery.
Conflict in the fisheries sector starting from the growing use of floating cages that began to grow sincethe 1990s due to the rapid gains by the community from the activity. The prospect of profit obtained
from the use of floating cages later attract more fish feed businessmen and investors from outside of
Agam. Fish feed businessmen offer incentives in the form of profit sharing and ease in obtaining of fish
feed for all owners of floating cages. Although feed prices rise simultaneously, the amount of incentive
and the lack of public knowledge about environmentally-friendly fish cultivation causes people to feed
fish in excess, and ultimately worsen the pollution which has long occurred. On the other hand, local
communities increasingly marginalized because they ended up just working as laborers. This happens
because investors from outside of Agam dominate ownership of the floating cages 1. The absence ofanother alternative employment for local communities lead them to make defensive efforts against
government policies which seek to reduce floating cages. On the side of the government, there is also
conflict of interest between the Marine and Fisheries Agency that promote increased production offishery commodities with Planning and Environment Control Agency that promote environmental
sustainability of the lake. The outcome of this conflict is seen in the policy regarding floating net cages:
the Marine and Fisheries Agency promotes extensification of floating cages for livelihoods, while
Planning and Environment Control Agency tries to control the damage by reducing the floating cages
to reduce pollution and restore the condition of Lake Maninjau.
Conflicts also occur in the water resources sector. Lake Maninjau was chosen for hydropower plant due
to the increased demand for energy in West Sumatra and its potential of water resources. Maninjauhydropower development began in 1982 and started operating since 1992. However, the utilization of
the lake water as an energy source is causing problems for local people both for those living aroundthe lake and those living alongside Batang Antokan River, the main distributary of the lake. Research
conducted by Asnil (2012) stated that during the rainy season the land owned by the people who livearound the lake flooded due to damming at the river upstream which resulted in higher elevation of thelake that exceed normal conditions, while people living alongside Batang Antokan suffer losses becauseof their simple irrigation equipment and supplies drifted away when the floodgates opened to excessive
water discharge. In contrast in the dry season, community wells around the lake experience drought
due to lower water elevation of the lake while people living alongside Batang Antokan experiencing ashortage of water discharge for irrigation. Agam District Government has filed complaints addressing
the issues, especially since the hydropower plant which also serves other districts in West Sumatera
did not benefited the district in terms of revenue sharing. However, these complaints are not muchaddressed by the management of the plant.
Among the conflicts that have been described above, there are also relatively considered neutral
institutions, i.e. Wali Nagari (village trustee) and traditional leaders. Both actors can accommodate theinterests of various parties because both are in touch daily with communities and considered close to1 This information was obtained from interviews with community, district officials, and Marine and Fisheries Agency.

The interviewees made approximation of the investors’ composition by observation. Exact number of the investors,
both local and outside of Agam, were not mentioned nor written on any reports at the time of the interviews(February-March, 2015). However on April 2016, Marine and Fisheries Agency stated that around 5,520 floating
cages were owned by 134 local investors from five nagaries around the lake (posted in Singgalang Padang, 2016),
meaning that from total 20,620 units of floating cages in Maninjau only about 27% were owned by the locals.

42

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

the customs and culture that is considered good and embraced by the people. On the other hand, they
can also serve to oversee the government's policy and does not have opposition to government. Bothof these actors have the potential to amplify or amplified by the system in order to play a greater role inbreaking down and facilitate different interests over Lake Maninjau.
Table 2. Role, Interests, Influence, and Potential Conflicts of Interest of Each Stakeholders inResource Utilization in Lake Maninjau
Stakeholder
CentralGovernment

Indonesia
Institute of
Science (LIPI)

Role
Creating a national
policy directive
related to KSPN
(National Tourism
Strategic Area)
Providingenvironmental
studies related toManinjau

Interests
Realizing Maninjau
as a driving force of
tourism activities

Resource andInfluence
Tourism planningpolicy (destinations,industry, marketing,etc.)

Potential Conflict ofInterests
Conflicts of interest
between government
authority

Is the central
institution in chargeof providing
research study
related to sciences

There is no direct conflict.

Is a central
institution.
Is supported with
EIA.

Conflict with NGOs andpart of the community
because they considered
the company havedisrupted the flow ofwater.
Conflicts of interest
between conservationand fisheries productivity

State Electricity
Company

Providing a powersource from thewater of the lake

Improvingknowledge andprovide information
to the public andother stakeholders
in a certain fieldUtilizing the lakewater as a source ofelectrical power

Planning And
Environment
Control Agency– WestSumatera
Province
Marine andFishery Agency- West Sumatera
Province
Development
Planning
Agency - AgamDistrict

Creating
environmental policy
within the scope of
the province

Preserving theenvironment of thelake and its
surroundings

environmental
policyCreating marine andfishery policies
within the scope of
the province
Creating spatial
policy within thescope of the district

Increasing the
production of fisherycommodities

fisheries policy

Conflicts of interest
between conservationand fisheries productivity

Spatial planningpolicyConflict in accommodate
the interests of various
stakeholders

Marine andFishery Agency– Agam District
Planning andEnvironment
Control Agency– Agam District
Agency for
Sustainable
Management of
the Lake
Maninjau

Creating a fisheries
policy within thescope of the district
Creating
environmental policy
within the scope ofthe district
Coordinating theactivities of the
management of
Maninjau

Realizing thesustainableutilization of space
and able toaccommodate theinterests of various
stakeholders
Increasing the
production of fisherycommodities
Preserving theenvironment of thelake and its
surroundings
Coordinating theactivities of the
management of
Maninjau

fisheries policy

Conflicts of interest
between conservationand fisheries productivity
Conflicts of interest
between conservationand fisheries productivity

Tourism related
businessownersProvidingaccommodationneeds of tourist

Increase the highest
turnover

Influence on thedevelopment of
tourism

43

environmental
policyThe influence to thevillage head (as amember)

Conflicts of interest
between management
efforts to improve
people's economic
activities with efforts to
reduce KJA (floating net)
to preserve Lake
Maninjau
Conflicts of interest
between tourism
development with anincrease in floating net

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Stakeholder

Role

Interests

Resource andInfluence

Fish feed
company
ownersProvide for theneeds of fish feed

Increase the highest
turnoverDetermining theprice of feed

Fish related
businessowners (fromoutside of theregion)Wali Nagari(village trustee)(from 9 nagaries/villages)
NGOlarge-scaleaquaculture
entrepreneurs

Increase the highest
turnoverOwners of capitaland “big boss” offloating net

Coordinating theactivities of thenagari

Guarding
government policy

Influence to thesociety

Most conflict with NGOs

organize society

Intensive approach
to public

Community

agriculture andfisheries
businessman

Some obtain funds
from fishery relatedcompanies
earn income

Local traditional
leaders

Provide input tolocal communities
and coordinate
indigenous activities

Guarding
government policy

Influence to thesociety

Conflict with government
policy and StateElectricity Company
Defensive toward the
reduction of floating net
because it will reducerevenue
Most conflict with NGOs

Control over theirlands and livearound the lake

Potential Conflict ofInterests
Pro toward environmental
conservation
Defensive toward the
reduction of floating net
because it will reducerevenue
Defensive toward the
reduction of floating net
because it will reducerevenue

The utilization of resources in Lake Maninjau is involving various stakeholders and has led to various
conflicts of interests among stakeholders, as mapped in Figure 2. Economic activity in Lake Maninjau
which continue to increase along with the many development policies that make Lake Maninjau as one
tourism destination and center for the development of fisheries, as well as the low level of community
welfare around the lake has the potential to increase the exploitation of natural resources. On the otherside, growing economic activities in this region are economic activities that rely heavily on thesustainability of natural resources, so that damage to the ecosystem of the lake will have an impact on
the region's economy discontinuation. Discrepancies between stakeholders and needs of eachstakeholder to achieve their respective goals without considering the impact of their activities cause
severe environmental degradation in Lake Maninjau. If this continues, Maninjau will become a dead
lake.

44

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Stakeholder Mapping in Resource Utilization in Lake Maninjau
Various attempts have been made to overcome these problems. Agam District Government issued a
Local Regulation No. 5 of 2014 on the Management of Sustainability of Lake Maninjau regulating themanagement, restoration and preservation of the lake. Currently, some Regent’s Regulation (Peraturan
Bupati) are being prepared to regulate the technical implementation. In addition, there are also
management rules in accordance with the zoning area of Lake Maninjau through the Detailed Spatial
Plan and Zoning Regulations. These efforts are already well on initiating the quality improvement of
Lake Maninjau, but the toughest challenge in the implementation of these policies are the lack ofintegration and commitment among stakeholders to jointly promote the improvement of environmental
quality of the lake.
Integration among stakeholders in resource utilization of Lake Maninjau becomes a big task in
improving the quality of the environment in this region because of different perceptions, motives andinterests among the stakeholders. In an effort to encourage integration between stakeholders, theyneed to set up a new institution that serves to control the exploitation, lowers pollution, and restore theenvironmental condition of Lake Maninjau. Different with the current Agency for Sustainable
Management of the Lake Maninjau, this new institution will not only consist of government, but also thecommunity, traditional leaders, Wali Nagari (village trustee), private sectors, and experts or academics.
Community will be positioned as a manager who is responsible for the preservation of the lake, so that
community participation is expected to be more effective and optimal. This institution is temporary until
the condition of Lake Maninjau has recovered again.
CONCLUSIONS
From this study, it can be concluded that the utilization of resources in Lake Maninjau involves many
stakeholders who have different motives and interests. Various stakeholders have made every effort toachieve their respective goals without concern that it leads to more severe ecological damage in the45

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferencelake. These stakeholders also do not understand that those activities carried out at this time will lead tothe discontinuation of regional economic activities in the long run. In addition, the conflicting interestsof each stakeholder resulted in suboptimal efforts to improve environmental quality in Lake Maninjau.
On the other hand, the intensity of regional economic activity is increasing thus restoration of Lake
Maninjau become very urgent so that economic activity can continue in the long run. In this regard,
efforts to improve the quality of the lake needs to be done by integrating the interests of various
stakeholders in a new institution that was able to accommodate the interests of various parties. Thisinstitution will then serve to coordinate and integrate the planning of various sectors in Lake Maninjau.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank Dr. Dewi Sawitri and Dr. Djoko Suroso from Department of Regional and City Planning, Institut
Teknologi Bandung, for supporting and allowing us to work on the research although they may notagree with all of the interpretations/conclusions of this paper. We thank our colleagues from Regional
and Rural Planning Research Group, Department of Regional and City Planning, Institut Teknologi
Bandung, who provide support in data collection during the study, without which this study could nothave been completed. This study was conducted for 9 months from January to September 2015. Allinterviews and observations were completed on February – March 2015.
REFERENCES
1. Arjuna, J. (2016). Danau Maninjau, Kondisi Kekinian, Permasalahan, dan Pengelolaannya.
Retrievedfromhttps://www.academia.edu/7726239/DANAU_MANINJAU_KONDISI_KEKINIAN_PERMASALAHAN_DAN_PENGELOLAANNYA
2. Boyce, C., & Neale, P. (2006). Conducting in-depth interviews: A guide for designing andconducting in-depth interviews for evaluation input. Pathfinder International Watertown, MA.
Retrievedfrom
http://www.cpc.unc.edu/measure/training/materials/data-qualityportuguese/m_e_tool_series_indepth_interviews.pdf
3. Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2008). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures fordeveloping grounded theory. Thousand Oaks.
4. Corbin, J., & Strauss, A. (2014). Basics of qualitative research: Techniques and procedures fordeveloping grounded theory. Sage publications.
5. Dey, I. (2003). Qualitative data analysis: A user-friendly guide for social scientists. Routledge.
6. Jawa Pos. (25 April). 16.964 Keramba Ganggu Normalisasi Danau Maninjau. Jawa Pos. Retrieved
from
http://www.jawapos.com/read/2016/04/25/25344/16964-keramba-ganggu-normalisasidanau-maninjau
7. LIPI. (2009). Program Penyehatan Danau Maninjau dan Pemberdayaan Masyarakat di Sekitar
Danau: RIngkasan Kegiatan LIPI di Danau Maninjau Tahun 2001 - 2009. Jakarta: Pusat Penelitian
Limnologi LIPI. Retrieved from https://www.scribd.com/doc/209505406/Buku-Biru-LimnologiManinjau-2001-2009revisi-22-Des-09
8. Marshall, C., & Rossman, G. B. (2014). Designing qualitative research. Sage publications.
9. Nasution, Z., Sari, Y. D., & Huda, H. M. (2011). Perikanan Budidaya Di Danau Maninjau: Antisipasi
Kebijakan
Penanganan
DampakKematian
Masal
Ikan.
Retrievedfrom
http://bbpse.litbang.kkp.go.id/publikasi/jbijak/jurbijak_2011_v1_no1_(2)_full.pdf
10. Nontji, A. (2016). Danau Maninjau. Jakarta.
11. Roesma, D. I. (2013). Evaluasi Keanekaragaman Spesies Ikan Danau Maninjau. Prosiding
SEMIRATA 2013, 1(1). Retrieved from http://jurnal.fmipa.unila.ac.id/index.php/semirata/article/view/670
12. Sari, P. M., Darvina, Y., & Hamdi. (2015). Degradasi Kualitas Fisi Air Danau Maninjau terhadap
Variasi Jarak dan Jumlah Keramba. Pillar of Physics, 6, 41 – 48.
13. Singgalang Padang. (2016, April 5). 5.520 petak KJA Danau Maninjau milik investor. Padang.
Retrieved from http://hariansinggalang.co.id/5-520-petak-kja-danau-maninjau-milik-investor/
14. Sulawesty, F., Sutrisno, Hamdani, A., & Triyanto. (2011). Kondisi Kualitas Air beberapa Daerah
Pemeliharaan Ikan Keramba Jaring Apung di Danau Maninjau. LIMNOTEK Perairan Darat
Indonesia, 18(1), 38–47.
15. Syandri, H. (2015). Heavy Metals in Maninjau Lake, Indonesia: water column, sediment and biota.
Retrieved from http://www.fisheriesjournal.com/archives/2015/vol3issue2/PartD/3-2-12.pdf

46

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

TRANSFORMATION OF ZOOPLANKTON COMMUNITIES DUE TO THE LAKESRECOVERY PROGRAMSOlga Derevenskaya*, Nafisa Mingazova
Kazan Federal University*Corresponding author: oderevenskaya@mail.ru
ABSTRACT
Studies were carried out on three lakes in Kazan (Russia). The lakes were severely polluted due tosewage revenues of industrial enterprises. In the period of 1984-1995 two lakes have experienced
measures to restore water quality. According to the project, the majority of industrial waste water was
assigned to the treatment plant, bottom of contaminated sediment was cleaned, sewers were built,
temporary water flow was organized, and beach has been landscaped. Water quality in lakes has
improved considerably. We investigated changes in zooplankton communities during the recovery
measures, after their completion and 20 years later. We have found that the response of zooplankton
to reduce pollution represented in the increase in the number of zooplankton species, amount of
dominant species, abundance and biomass. Share of Cladocera increased in the Lake N. Kaban lake,
while Copepoda and Cladocera shares increased in S. Kaban. Enhanced development of these groupsof zooplankton caused corresponding changes in taxonomic indicators based on the ratio of the valuesof abundance and biomass of zooplankton major groups, saprobic index. Follow-up study of the lakes
showed that with existing high anthropogenic load repeated remediation is required in 15-20 years.
Keywords: zooplankton, restoration, lake, community
INTRODUCTION
If lakes are located in large cities they have strong anthropogenic influence, leading to their pollution
and eutrophication. These lakes need measures to restore lost quality of lake resources. However,examples of successful restoration of the lakes are few due to the complexity and the insufficientknowledge of process. In addition, there are even less studied of changes of zooplankton communities
during these processes.
The methods used for the restoration of water bodies can be divided into two groups: prevention, carriedout on the territory of the watershed and restoration. In most of the cases aerated water used for the
restoration of lakes. Another measure is removing sediment, the creation or strengthening of flowage,
chemical and mechanical methods to combat blue-green algae, phosphorus deposition in water, thecreation of bioplato of mollusks and higher water plants and biomanipulation (Jorgensen, 1985, Gulati,
Pires & Donk, 2008, Ma, Huang & Li, 2015). One of the most illustrative examples of complex problemsolving in recent years is the situation with the river Rhine, where measures significantly improved
ecological condition. Implementation included complex legislative, administrative, economic andtechnological measures taken jointly by the Netherlands, Germany, France and other countries in theriver basin (Hering, Borja, Carstensen et al, 2010, Hilt, Gross, Hupferi et al, 2006). A significant numberof projects and the restoration of water bodies as well as sustainable water management programs was
successfully implemented and realized in the Danube River Basin and River Thames (Hering, Borja,
Carstensen et al, 2010). In order to improve the condition of the Moscow River it is also encouraged togradually clear river beds, including the extraction of contaminated sediment, and river water aeration.
This study devoted to the lakes, situated in Russia, Kazan city. The system of Kaban Lakes includes
three lakes (Nizhnii, Srednii and Verchnii). Lakes Nizhnii and Srednii Kaban earlier had high water
quality, but due to the receipt of industrial and domestic waste water were heavily contaminated by the
1970-s. In order to improve water quality in the lakes rehabilitation project was designed and realized
in 1981-1995.
According to the project, the majority of industrial waste water was assigned to the treatment plant,bottom of contaminated sediment was cleaned, sewers were built, temporary water flow was organizedand beach have been landscaped. However, nowadays, rain sewage in lakes dumped from thewatershed. The lakes are located in the central part of the city and used for recreational, sports andother purposes. The aim of our study was to identify changes in the zooplankton communities of thelakes within the process of improving measures, directly after their completion and 25-30 years later inthe conditions of continuing anthropogenic impact.

47

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

METHODS
Studies were carried out from 1989 and 2014. Samples were taken at 1-3 deep stations on each of thelakes. In 1995-1997. and in 2001 samples were collected every 10-14 days during the vegetation period(from April to October), in 1989 - monthly, in 1991-1994, 2002, 2009-2010 - once in the main seasonsof the growing season, and in 2013-2014 - monthly throughout the summer. Until early 1995, integral
samples were taken from the water column using a Molchanov GR-18 bathometer, followed byaveraging and filtering through the Apshtein network. From 1995 to 2014, samples were collected by a
Jedi network with a mesh size of 90 μm. Water horizons were selected according to the watertemperature stratification. We calculated the abundance and the biomass of zooplankton at each station.
The abundance was calculated in 1 m 3 of water. Biomass was calculated according to degree equations
relating the length of an organism with its weigh (Guidelines, 1982).
We used indicators based on the assessment of the taxonomic structure of the zooplankton community
to identify changes in the community: the ratio of major zooplankton groups by abundance and biomass(Kryuchkova, 1987); ratio of Crustacea biomass to Rotifera biomass (B Cr/BRot); ratio of Cladocera
abundance to Copepoda abundance (NCl /NCop); ratio of Cyclopoida biomass to Calanoida biomass(BCycl/BCal); The value of the average individual mass of the zooplankton for the community as a wholeŵ = B/N (Andronikova, 1996). In relation to the plankton of eutrophic (E) and oligotrophic (O) species,
the index of trophic E/O was calculated (Hakkari, 1972). Species diversity of zooplankton was estimatedby the Shannon index (by number and biomass) (Shennon, Weaver, 1965) according to the following
formula:H=-kВi pi log 2 pi , where Н - Shannon index, pi - Ni or, where Ni и Вi – the abundance and
В
N
i 1

the biomass of i-th type, N and В - the abundance and the biomass of all individuals in the sample,
respectively.
Pantle and Bukka saprobic index in Sladechek modification was calculated using the following formula:S= ( sh), where S - saprobic index, s - individual value of saprobity, h - the frequency of occurredhindividuals (Sladecek, 1968).
A total of 732 quantitative samples of zooplankton were collected and treatment during the study period.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSIn Lakes Nizhnii and Srednii Kaban strengthening industrial pollution has caused a significant decreasein the number of species of zooplankton. Lakes were mostly dominated by rotifers genius Brachionus.
The species complex formed in this period can be considered resistant to the conditions of heavy
pollution. Decline of the number of species and the dominance of Brachyonidae family species is typicalfor heavy polluted lakes. During the recovery measures rotifers and crustaceans appeared as thedominate complexes. The number of species increased as a result of the restoration measures. The listof zooplankton species found in lakes during the study period is presented in the Appendix (Table 1).
The lowest average values of abundance and biomass of zooplankton were observed in the lake Nizhnii
Kaban during the most severe pollution. Lake Srednii Kaban has experienced lower zooplankton
abundance and biomass in a period of strong pollution. Parameters were higher in a period ofrestoration measures.
In lake Verhnii Kaban during the study period there was a gradual increase of zooplankton in thegrowing season. In the case of the lake Verhnii Kaban growth of quantitative indicators is the result ofintensive ongoing process of anthropogenic eutrophication.
Changing pollution levels at different stages of human impact caused a change in the proportion ofindicator species in communities and values of saprobic index. According to saprobity index all threelakes values were within the β-mesosaprobic zone corresponding to the state of moderatecontamination.
Our studies revealed trends in indicators of Kaban Lakes zooplankton at different stages and in different
types of human exposure and health (Table 1).

48

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1. Trends in zooplankton indicators in different types of anthropogenic impact.
Index
Eutrophica- Pollutiona N.Каban
S.Каbantiona
198419911989-1995 19971986
2014
2014
Number of species
=
=



Number of dominant
BCr/BRot
NClad/NCop
BCycl/BCalН (N)Н ( В)
ŵ
R:Cl:Cop (N)B total
S

=

































R

R

R

R

Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

Cop 
R=

Cop 

Cop 

Cop 

Cl 

R

R

R

Cl 

Cl 

Cl 

Cop 

Cop 

Cop 




















-

-









Cop 
R
Cl 

Е/O
N total

=









Cop 



 or 

R-Cl 
CopRCl 

Cop-






-

Cl 
R:Cl:Cop (B)

=




R





V.Каban
1994-2014

R=
Cl 
Cop 
R
Cl 
Cop 















Cop 






a according to the literature (Kryuchkova, 1987, Makrushin, 1974, Ivanova, 1976,

et al.)



Andronikova, 1996

CONCLUSIONS
Studies have shown that the restoration activities carried out in 1984-1995 significantly improved theecological condition of the lakes Nizhnii and Srednii Kaban. Reduction of the concentration of toxic
substances led to water quality improvement and there have been recovery of zooplankton communities.
Community response to pollution reduction showed an increase in the number of species, increase of
the number of dominant species with the inclusion in a dominant complex of all taxonomic groups ofzooplankton. The abundance and biomass of zooplankton have increased.
Therefore, such a range of restoration activities can be recommended for the recovery of water bodies
polluted by industrial waste water. However, studies have shown that in case of continuous highanthropogenic load, single implementation of restoration measures is not enough. Restoration activities
must be carried out in 15-20 years to maintain the ecosystem status.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We thank the staff and students of the Laboratory of Water Ecosystems Optimization of Kazan Federal
University, who participated in the collection and processing of samples of water and zooplankton.
REFERENCES
1. Andronikova I.N. (1996). Structural and functional organization of zooplankton of lakeecosystems of different trophic types. Sankt-Petersburg, 189 p.
2. Guidelines for the collection and processing of materials in hydrobiological studies in freshwater(1982). Zooplankton and its products. ZIN –GOSNIORH. Leningrad, 33 p.
3. Gulati R., Pires L. & Donk E. (2008). Lake restoration studies: Failures, bottlenecks andprospects of new ecotechnological measures. Limnologica, 38, 233–247.

49

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

4. Hakkari L. (1972). Zooplankton species as indicators of environment. Aqua fennica, - Helsinki.
p. 46-54.
5. Hering D., Borja A., Carstensen J., Carvalho L., Elliott M., Feld K., Heiskanen A., Johnson R.,
Moe J., Pont D., Solheim A. & Bund W. (2010). The European Water Framework Directive at
the age of 10: A critical review of the achievements with recommendations for the future.
Science of the Total Environment, 408,4007–4010.
6. Hilt S., Gross E., Hupferi M., Morscheid H., Mahlmann J., Melzer A., Poltz J., Sandrock S.,
Scharf E., Schneider S. & Weyerh K. (2006). Restoration of submerged vegetation in shallow
eutrophic lakes – A guideline and state of the art in Germany. Limnologica, 36, 155–171.
7. Ivanova M.B. (1976) Influence of pollution on plankton crustaceans and the possibility of theiruse for determining the degree of contamination of rivers. in Methods of biological analysis offresh waters. Leningrad, 68-80.
8. Jorgensen S.E. (1985). Management of the lake system. Moscow,157 p.
9. Kryuchkova N.M. (1987). Structure of the zooplankton community in water bodies of different
types. In Production-hydrobiological studies of aquatic ecosystems. Leningrad, 184-198.
10. Ma W., Huang T. & Li X. (2015) Study of the application of the water-lifting aerators to improve
the water quality of a stratified, eutrophicated reservoir. Ecological Engineering, 83, 281–290.
11. Makrushin A.V. (1974). Biological analysis of water quality. Leningrad. 60 p.
12. Shannon C.E., Weaver W. (1965). The mathematical theory of communication. Urbana, 117 p.
13. Sladecek V. (1968) System of water quality from biological point of view. Egetnisse derLimnologie. In Arhif fiir Hydrobiologie, Becheft, 7, 1-288.
Appendix 1

Table 1. Occurrence of zooplankton species in Kaban lakes.
Species
Asplanchna girodi de Guerne, 1888
A. priodonta Gosse, 1850
Ascomorpha ecaudis Perty, 1850
Brachionus angularis Gosse, 1851
B. calyciflorus Pallas, 1776
B. diversicornis (Daday, 1883)
B. quadridentatus Hermann, 1783
B. rubens Ehrenberg, 1838
B. urceus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Bipalpus hudsoni (Imhof, 1891) Ploesoma hudsoni
Conochilus unicornis Rousselet, 1892
Euchlanis dilatata Ehrenberg, 1832
E. oropha Gosse, 1887
E. triquetra Ehrenberg, 1838
Filinia longiseta (Ehrenberg, 1834)
F. terminalis (Plate, 1886)
Kellicottia longispina (Kellicott, 1879)
Keratella cochlearis (Gosse, 1851)
K. quadrata (Muller, 1786)
K. testudo (Ehrenberg, 1832)
K. valga (Ehrenberg, 1834)
Lecane (M.) lunaris (Ehrenberg, 1832)
L. (M.) quadridentata (Ehrenberg, 1832)
Lecane (s.str.) luna (Muller, 1776)
Mytilina mucronata (Muller, 1773)

50

N. KabanS. Kaban

V. Kaban

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

M. ventralis (Ehrenberg, 1832)
Notholca acuminata (Ehrenberg, 1832)
N. squamula (Muller, 1786)
Polyarthra dolichoptera Idelson, 1925
P. euryptera Wierzejski, 1891
P. major Burckhard, 1900
P. vulgaris Carlin, 1943
Platyias quadricornis (Ehrenberg, 1838)
Synchaeta pectinata Ehrenberg, 1832
S. stylata Wierzejskii, 1893
Trichocerca (D.) similis (Wierzejski, 1893)
Trichocerca (s.str.) capucina (Wierz et Zacharias,
1893)
T. (s.str.) longiseta (Schrank, 1802)
T. (s.str.) pusilla (Lauterborn, 1898)
T. (s.str.) rattus (Muller, 1776)
Trichotria pocillum (Muller, 1776)
Rotifera
Acroperus harpae (Baird, 1843)
Alona guttata G.O. Sars, 1862
A. intermedia G.O. Sars, 1862
A. quadrangularis (O.F.Muller, 1785)
A. rectangula G.O. Sars, 1862
Alonopsis elongatus Sars,1862
Bosmina (B.) longirostris (O.F.Muller, 1785)
Bosmina (Eubosmina) cf. crassicornis Lilljeborg, 1887
B. (Eubosmina) cf. longispina Leydig, 1860
Сanthocamptus rectirostris Sars, 1862
Ceriodaphnia laticaudata P.E.Muller, 1867
C. pulchella G.O. Sars, 1862
C. quadrangula (O.F.Muller, 1785)
C. reticulata (Jurine, 1820)
Chydorus latus Sars
C. ovalis Kurz, 1875
C. sphaericus (O.F.Muller, 1785)
Daphnia (Daphnia) cucullata Sars, 1862
D. (D.) longispina O.F.Muller, 1785
D. (D.) pulex Leydig, 1860
D. (С.) magna Straus, 1820
Diaphanosoma brachyurum (Lieven, 1848)
D. mongolianum Ueno, 1938
D. orghidani Negrea, 1982
Disparalona rostrata (Koch, 1841)
Eurycercus lamellatus (O.F.Muller, 1776)
Graptoleberis testudinaria (Fischer, 1851)
Leptodora kindtii (Focke, 1844)
Leydigia acanthocercoides (Fischer, 1854)

51

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
28
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
32
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

+
+
+
+
+
36
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
-

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

L. leidigii (Shoelder, 1863)
Macrothrix hirsuticornis Norman et Brady, 1876
M. laticornis (Jurine, 1820)
Moina brachiata (Jurine, 1820)
M. micrura Kurz, 1874
Monospilus dispar G.O. Sars, 1862
Pleuroxus aduncus (Jurine, 1820)
P. truncatus (O.F.Muller, 1785)
P. uncinatus Baird, 1850
Pseudochydorus globosus (Baird, 1843)
Scapholeberis mucronata (O.F.Muller, 1776)
Sida crystallina (O.F.Muller, 1776)
Simocephalus vetulus (O.F.Muller, 1776)
Cladocera
Acanthocyclops robustus (G.O. Sars, 1863)
A. venustus (Norman et Scott, 1906)
A. vernalis (Fischer, 1853)
Cyclops furcifer Claus, 1857
C. insignis Claus, 1857
C. kolensis Lilljeborg, 1901
C. lacustris Sars, 1863
C. strenuus Fischer, 1851
C. vicinus Uljanin, 1875
Diacyclops bisetosus (Rehberg, 1880)
Ectocyclops phaleratus (Koch, 1838)
Eudiaptomus gracilis (Sars, 1863)
Eucyclops macrurus (G.O. Sars, 1863)
E. serrulatus (Fischer, 1851)
E. speratus (Lilljeborg, 1901)
Macrocyclops albidus (Jurine, 1820)
M. distinctus (Richard, 1887)
M. fuscus (Jurine, 1820)
Megacyclops viridis (Jurine, 1820)
Mesocyclops leuckarti (Claus, 1857)
Paracyclops f. fimbriatus (Fischer, 1853)
Thermocyclops crassus (Fischer, 1853)
T. dybowskii (Landе, 1890)
T. oithonoides (Sars, 1863)
Copepoda
Total

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
29
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
17
74

52

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
34
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
18
84

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
27
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
19
82

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CHANGES IN THE CHEMICAL ECOLOGY OF BLUE-GREEN ALGAE DURING PERIODS
OF ACTIVE GROWTH
Ikuyo Makino1*, Yuji Yahagi2, Takahiro Nakayama3 and Atsushi Kobayashi4
Tohoku University, 2Shibaura Institute of Technology, 3Tohoku Chemical Co., Ltd.,
4
Nihon University* Corresponding author: ikuyo.makino.e1@tohoku.ac.jp

1

ABSTRACT
It is well-known that tremendous growth of blue-green algae during summer is one of the causes for
freshwater pollution all over the world. Although the importance of photosynthesis, nutrient, and watertemperature on the growth mechanism of blue-green algae is well recognized, chemical ecology ofblue-green algae has not been elucidated yet. To understand this, we elucidated the effect of chemical
ecology of blue-green algae in various water depth on the growth mechanism by quantifying 110
chemicals relating requisite biological activity. In August, the best energetically season for the bluegreen algae growing, we collected the stagnating water from a man-made lake including blue-green
algae. Based on our results, the effect of living depth in freshwater was more important than that ofsunlight exposure as to chemical ecology of blue-green algae. Indeed, higher concentration of nucleic
acid-relating compounds and dipeptides were detected at the surface water layer, while higher
concentration of free amino acids were found in mid-depth water layer. This correlation between thedepth and composition of metabolites must be a significant fact to reveal unknown biological event ofblue-green algae during periods of active growth.
Keywords: Blue-green algae, chemical ecology, water depth, metabolome, 110 chemicals required,photosynthesis
INTRODUCTION
The catchments area of water conservation forests for this study shown in Fig.1 is located Kanto
mountain aria covering west end Tokyo and east end Yamanashi. Rainfall exceeds 1,600mm/year.
Elevations of watersheds are from 1,300m to 2,000m. Year average temperature is approximately 10°C.
In the winter, the minimum temperature is below minus 10°C at watersheds. The total catchments area
is 262.9km2 and four rivers occupy 88.2% of the total river basin. In the basin, about 2,000 people areliving and more than 1,000,000 tourists are visiting every year. There are settlement, guest house,
campsite and fish breeding. Based on the biological characteristics observed, it is not believed that
Anabaena was originally present in this study area, and PCR for Anabaena results indicate a strong
connection with fisheries and tourism resources. in the same analysis Microcystis was detected at all
survey sites along the river from the upper to lower reaches (Makino et al. 2016). Some shallows of thisdam reservoir occurred in surface blooms of Microcystis and Anabaena from 1980s. The blooms in july
2015 were Anabaena, august change to Microcystis.
Development of blue-green algae due to an enormous proliferation of single-celled Microcystis inreservoirs in Japan has become a problem (Tomioka, N., Imai A. & Komatsu K., 2011). Microcystis,covered with biofilm caused by photosynthesis, form large met-like clusters at the surface water layer(Reynolds et al. 1988; Oliver et al. 2000). Meanwhile, blue-green algae underwater (in mid-depth waterlayers) are finely dispersed and transform into smaller clusters, more closely resembling the naturalappearance of Microcystis (Reynolds et al. 1981). To understand different behaviour of Microcystis celldepending upon living water layer, we conducted metabolite analysis toward Microcystis cells. Dynamic
range of Amino acids and Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) by the effects of water levels, on the basis ofthese two relationships, we discuss to metabolic product the cell division conditions.

53Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Catchments area and reservoir
METHODS
We collected blue green-algae during periods of active growth in man-made lake in August, in which
blue-green algae actively reproduce, on a sunny day between 10:00 a.m. to 2:00 a.m. at the surface
water layer (0.0 m depth) and mid-depth water layers (0.4 m depth) (Table 1). The samples blue-green
algae were analyzed with an Agilent CE-TOFMS (capillary electrophoresis-time of flight mass
spectrometry) system (Agilent Technologies) and the detected chemicals with a molecular weight ofless than 1,000 were grouped by relevance.
Table 1. Sampling points
Sample No.

123pm 14:00

4

5
a.m. 16:30

6

Sampling Timea.m. 10:00

a.m. 2:00

Sampling water layer

Surface

SurfaceMid-depth

SurfaceMid-depth

Mid-depth

Sampling water depth

0.0 m

0.0 m

0.4m

0.0 m

0.4m

0.4m

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Fig. 2 shows heat map analysis of CE-TOFMS metabolomics. The surface water layer samples(number 1, 2, and 4) contained more nucleic acids, and peptides compared to the samples from lower
layers regardless of the time of observation. The samples from the mid-depth water layers (number 3,5, and 6) contained more amino acids and metabolites associated with tricarboxylic acid cycle (TCA
cycle) compared to the surface water layer samples, irrespective of sampling time.
Nucleotides, which are essential substance for the synthesis of DNA and RNA, have an impact of thecellular division when lacking. The density of these nucleic acids (Adenine and Guanosine) was higher
in the surface water layer relative to the mid-depth water layers, suggesting that most cellular division
is taking place in the surface water layer (Fig. 3). Amino acids are precursors of secondary metabolic
products including proteins, nucleic acids, and ammonium ion (Nishizawa et al. 2000; Tillett et al. 2000).
Concentration of amino acids were observed at lower water layer, comparing with surface layer (Fig.
4). Higher concentration of amino acids such as Arginine and Asparagine were dense in all of the middepth water layers regardless of time and sparse in the surface water layers. TCA cycle is a circuit
producing ATP which is the primary energy source for the cells. The density of citric acid (Fig. 5), malateacid (Fig. 6) in TCA cycle was higher in the mid-depth water layer relative to the surface water layers.
Underwater attenuation in Microcystis spends a TCA cycle for production of ATP as a photosynthetic
substitute.

54

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Metabolomics heatmap of Microcystis in blue-green alga samples (n=3)

55

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Total Adenine [pmol/O.D.mL]

No.1

No.2

No.3

No.4

No.5

No.6

No.5

No.6

450
400
350
300
250
200
150
100
50

Total Guanosine [pmol/O.D.mL]

0

No.1

No.2

No.3

No.4

No.1

No.2

No.3

No.4

No.2

No.3

No.4

No.5

No.6

30
25
20
15
10
5
0

No.1

No.5

No.6

Figure 3. Total Adenine, Total Guanosine in Sample*Total Adenine: Adenosine monophosphate+ Adenosine diphosphate+ Adenosine triphosphate,
Total Guanosine: Guanylic acid+ Cyclic guanosine monophosphate+ Guanosine diphosphate+
Guanosine triphosphate

56

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. Rader chart of the twenty amino acid metabolism* Ala; alanine, Arg; arginine, Asn; asparagine, Cys; cysteine, Gln; glutamine, Glu; glutamic acid, Gly;
glycine, His; histidine, Ile; isoleucine, Leu; leucine, Lys; lysine, Met; methionine, Phe; phenylalanine,Pro; proline, Ser; serine, Thr; threonine, Trp; Tryptophan, Tyr; tyrosine, Val; valine

Citric acid
0.09

Relative Area

0.08
0.07
0.06
0.05
0.04
0.03
0.02
0.01
0

No.1 No.2 No.3 No.4 No.5 No.6
Figure 5. Citric acid in TCA cycle

57

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Malic acid

Relative Area

0.03
5
0.03
0.02
5
0.02
0.01
5
0.01
0.00
5
0

No. No. No. No. No. No.
1
2
3
5
6
4
Figure 6. Malic acid in TCA cycle

CONCLUSIONS
We investigated changes in the metabolites to Microcystis cells in blue-green algae in August, which isthe best month for biological activity of Microcystis. There was a pronounced indication that differencesin the consistency of chemical substances inherent to the cells arose due to differences in water level,
particularly for amino acids and nucleic acids. This implies that the exercise of at least some of cellfunction depends on water levels and could suggest that the enormous proliferation of Microcystis anddevelopment of blue-green algae could be due to: 1. the rising of the cells following biosynthesis oflarge amounts of amino acids in mid-depth water layers, 2. cellular division in the surface water layer
caused by the synthesis of nucleic acids using these amino acids, and 3. the repetition of this process.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 26420527 and the River Fund of The River
Foundation for Academic Research Number 26-1211-002.
REFERENCES
1. Makino, I. & Yahagi Y. (2016). Invasion course of Anabaena and Microcystis in the catchment
area. Journal of Environment and Safety 7, 213-219.
2. Tomioka, N., Imai A. & Komatsu K. (2011). Effect of light availability on Microcystis aeruginosablooms in shallow hypereutrophic Lake Kasumigaura. J. of Plankton Research 33, 1263-1273.
3. Reynolds, C.S. (1988). Functional morphology and the adaptive strategies of freshwater
phytoplankton, in “Growth and reproductive strategies of freshwater phytoplankton” (Ed. Sadgren
C.D.), Cambridge University Press Cambridge 388-433.
4. Oliver, R.L. and Ganf, G.G. (2000). Freshwater blooms, in “Ecology of cyanobacteria - theirdiversity in time and space-”, Eds. Whitton B.A., M. Potts, 149-194.
5. Reynolds, C.S., Jaworski, G.H.M., Cmiech, H.A. and Leedale, G.F. (1981). On the annual cycle ofthe blue-green alga Microcystis aeruginosa Kütz. Emend. Elenkin., Phil. Trans. R. Soc. Lond. B,
293, 419-77.
6. Tomoyasu Nishizawa, Akiko Ueda, Munehiko Asayama, Kiyonaga Fujii, Ken-ichi Harada, Kozo
Ochi, Makoto Shirai (2000). Polyketide Synthase Gene Coupled to the Peptide Synthetase Module
Involved in the Biosynthesis of the Cyclic Heptapeptide Microcystin, the Journal of Biochemistryvol. 127, No. 5, 779-89.
7. Tillett D, Dittmann E, Erhard M, von Döhren H, Börner T, Neilan BA. (2000). Structural organizationof microcystin biosynthesis in Microcystis aeruginosa PCC7806: an integrated peptide-polyketide
synthetase system, Chem. Biol. 7, 753-64.

58

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

TROPHIC AND POLLUTION STATUS OF JAWAHAR SAGAR IN SOUTHERNRAJASTHAN, INDIA BASED ON WATER QUALITY AND MACROINVERTEBRATE
FAUNA
1N. Sarang *, L. L. Sharma2 and H. K. Vardia3
1, 3

College of Fisheries (Chhattisgarh Kamdhenu Vishwavidyalaya) Kawardha, Kabirdham
491995 Chhattisgarh, India, 2 College of Fisheries (Maharana Pratap University ofAgriculture & Technology) Udaipur 313001, Rajasthan, India*Corresponding author: saranglimno@yahoo.com, sarangfish@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
Jawahar Sagar reservoir is the third reservoir in the series of Chambal valley projects, located 29 Km
up stream of Kota Barrage and 26 Km downstream of Rana Pratap Sagar dam across the river Chambal,a tributary of the Ganga River system in Rajasthan state of India. Water quality was analyzed for theperiod of one year (November 2004 to October 2005). Water of Jawahar Sagar indicated alkalinecondition (pH 7.6 in winter to 8.8 in summer). The water temperature ranged between (18.5°C in winterto 32.0°C in monsoon). On the basis of water quality and especially depth of visibility, Jawahar Sagar
could be categorized as “moderately eutrophic”. Nitrate nitrogen values in Jawahar Sagar indicated'Mesotrophic' status whereas orthophosphate levels in the Jawahar Sagar may be a sign of eutrophic
status. Jawahar Sagar reservoir could be categorized as 'moderately hard' water based on hardness.
In addition to water quality, benthic biodiversity of macroinvertebrates was also studied to indicate theirrole as bioindicator for assessing pollution status. From Jawahar Sagar 29 species ofmacroinvertebrates have been recorded. Among macroinvebrates most dominant five benthos in thedecreasing order were Melanoides tuberculata, Chironomus larvae, Bellamya bengalensis, Lymnaea
acuminata (Gracilior) and Goniobasis virginica in littoral zone. Total number of macroinvertebrates
depicted by various species of benthos ranged from 858 to 1188 (No./m2). The macrobenthic
community showed dominance of molluscs probably due to congenial environmental conditions andavailability of choice substratum. Organic pollution indicators viz: Lymnaea acuminata, Chironomus
larvae, Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri and Indoplanorbis exustus fairly dominated in the Jawahar Sagar
reservoir.
Keywords: Bioindicators, Macroinvetebrates, Pollution, Reservoir Jawahar Sagar and Water quality.
INTRODUCTION
Water is one of the abundantly available substances in nature which man has exploited more than any
other resource for the sustenance of life. Water is perhaps the most valuable intake necessary forsurvival. It is an essential constituent of all animals and plants and forms 75% of the matter of the earth’s
crust. Water of good quality is required for sustenance of living organisms. The industrial growth,urbanization and consequent pollution let into the freshwater systems, is a challenge for the fragile
freshwater ecosystem. The ability of water bodies to clean themselves may be affected adversely by
the anthropogenic activities in and around the reservoir. These may affect the physical, chemical andbiological nature of the freshwater system. The input of increasing load of pollutants and toxic
substances into the surface waters has been causing serious disturbances in the aquatic ecosystems.
The physico-chemical methods are used to detect the effects of pollution on the water quality (Kabir et.
al, 2012). Change in the water quality is reflected in the biotic community structure as shown by
occurrence, diversity and abundance pattern of species (Cairns, 1979).
Macroinvertebrates are important members of the food web and their well-being is reflected in the wellbeing of the higher forms such as fish. Many forms are important for digesting organic material andrecycling nutrients. A community of macroinvertebrates in an aquatic ecosystem is very sensitive tostress and this characteristic serves as a useful tool for detecting environmental perturbation resulting
from introduced contaminants. Apart from the normal ecological condition in polluted systems, naturalchanges induced by pollution are well manifested by certain organisms. The benthic biota acts as a bioindicator of pollution. Biological examinations done to provide more accurate picture than the physicochemical examination (Singh & Roy, 1991; Jana & Manna, 1995). In freshwater, the benthic
macroinvertebretes play an essential role in key ecosystem processes, such as food chain dynamics,
productivity, nutrient cycling and decomposition (Covich et. al, 1999). Usually various physicochemical
methods are used to detect the effect of pollution on the water quality changes. Such alterations in

59

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

water quality are also very well reflected in the structure and composition of biotic community as shownby occurrence, diversity and abundance pattern of species Kumar, (1994). The present investigation
is an attempt to examine the composition and seasonal variations of benthic macroinvertebrates toevaluate the impact of human interference on the water quality of Jawahar Sagar reservoir, Bundi(Rajasthan).
Study Area:
The state of Rajasthan has an area of 3, 42,239 Sq. Km and is situated in the north-western corner ofIndia. It is bounded by Punjab and Haryana states on north and north-eastern sides, Utter Pradesh andMadhya Pradesh on eastern, south-eastern and southern sides, while Gujarat is situated adjacent to
its southern and south-western sides. Along the north-western is the international border with Pakistan(Plate-1). The southern region of the state, embracing the districts of Banswara, Chittorgarh,Rajsamand, Jhalawar and Kota consists of stony uplands settings which are ideal sites for water
resources development. The maximum number of man-made lakes situated in this region. The Chambalravine region lies along the river Chambal forming the boundary between Rajasthan and Madhya
Pradesh states. Water released after power generation at Gandhi Sagar (Hydroelectric Power Station),
Rana Pratap Sagar (Atomic Power and Hydroelectric Power Station) and Jawahar Sagar (HydroelectricPower Station) is diverted by Kota Barrage for irrigation in Rajasthan and in Madhya Pradesh throughcanals (Plate-1& Fig.-1).
Jawahar Sagar dam is the fourth dam in the series of Chambal valley projects, located 29 Km up streamof Kota Barrage and 26 Km downstream of Rana Pratap Sagar dam, across the river Chambal. It is aconcrete gravity dam 45 meters high and 393 m long the work was completed in 1972. The total
catchment area of the dam is 27,195 km 2. The water of Jawahar Sagar dam is used for domestic andpublic supply, irrigation, industrial supply and hydroelectric power generation. Further details of thisdam pertaining to morphometric features are indicated in Table 1.
METHODS
Water Sample:
The sampling frequency was kept monthly for a total period of 12 months (from November 2004 to
October 2005). The water quality parameters such as temperature, pH, depth of visibility, alkalinity,
electric conductivity, free CO2 and dissolved oxygen were measured in the field. However, for thenitrate- nitrogen, orthophosphate, hardness (Calcium, Magnesium and total hardness) samples werebrought to the laboratory in and analysed within 6 hours. Methods such as (APHA, 1989 and Sharma& Saini, 2003) were followed.
Sample collection and preservation of Macroinvertebrates:
Macroinvertebrates samples were collected with the use of Ekman dredge and secured in a bucket.
Using US standard sieve No.40 the whole sample was sieved to obtain the macroinvertebrates(benthos). The residual organic matter etained in the sieve was transported to the laboratory with small
amount of water to it (50 to 100 ml). To this, 5 g of sucrose was added for easy collection of benthos.
In addition to this, 0.1 – 0.2 per cent eosin dye was also used to stain the benthos. Samples were
preserved in 70 per cent ethanol.
For qualitative analysis, animals were examined using inverted microscope and standard keys
(Needham and Needham 1962, Edmondson 1965, and Subba Rao, 1989). However, for quantitative
analysis, animals were counted individually species wise in the whole sample or sub samples. The
number of benthos per unit area was calculated as follows:N
Benthos No/m2 = ----------- x 104
A(N = Number of organisms per sample., A = biting area of sampler (15 x 15 cm)).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results on physicochemical parameters of surface water of Jawahar Sagar Reservoir are presentedin (Table 2 & 3 and Fig 2 & 3). The variations in water temperature were from 18.5°C in winter to
32.0°C in monsoon. It is evident that except for the month of January 2005 water temperature was
warm. The statistical analysis of temperature had positive significant correlation with EC, pH, dissolved
oxygen, bicarbonate alkalinity, total alkalinity, orthophosphate, calcium hardness, magnesium hardness
and total hardness (Table 3). In Jawahar Sagar water indicated mild alkaline condition with pH
variations between 7.4 (winter) to 8.8 (summer). In January 2005, lower pH coincided with higher freecarbondioxide (Fig. 2). pH also showed significant, positive correlation with EC, depth of visibility,60

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

dissolved oxygen, bicarbonate alkalinity, total alkalinity, calcium, magnesium and total hardness. The
values of electric conductivity showed variations between 0.183 to 0.257 mS during monsoon. This
Conductivity exhibited lowest average in monsoon followed by summer and winter with relatively higher
values. The EC also indicated significant positive relationship with depth of visibility, calcium hardness,bicarbonate alkalinity and total alkalinity. Water clarity values in Jawahar Sagar dam showed variations
from minimum of 60 to maximum 280 cm during monsoon. This parameter indicated positive
relationship with calcium hardness, bicarbonate and total alkalinity (Table 3).
It is satisfying to note that Jawahar Sagar maintained adequate of dissolved oxygen with over all
variations between 6.8 to 10.4 mg/l in winter. However, the lowest average dissolved oxygen was noted
for summer as compared to relatively higher values in winter and monsoon (Table 2 and Fig. 2). As
regard coefficient of correlation, dissolved oxygen had positive significant relationship with total
alkalinity, orthophosphate, calcium hardness and total hardness. Whenever present C0 2showed overallvariations between 4 to 14 mg/l in winter. It is interesting to see that during monsoon period CO2 was
altogether absent. Further, free CO2 indicated negative significant correlation with carbonate alkalinity(Table 3). Variations in total alkalinity were from 80 (monsoon) to 130 mg/l (summer), whereas averagevalues were between 95.0 (winter) to 103.5 mg/l (monsoon). Further, this parameter showed significant
positive relationship with calcium hardness and total hardness. The average values of nitrate nitrogenwere higher (0.008 mg/l) in monsoon as compared to winter and summer. In general, nitrate nitrogenvaried from 0.000 to 0.047 mg/l (summer). The level of orthophosphate recorded in Jawahar Sagar dam
during the study period was fairly high with variations between 0.156 (winter) to 1.070 mg/l (summer).
This parameter exhibited lowest average in winter followed by summer and monsoon with relatively
higher values. The orthophosphate values also indicated significant positive relationship withmagnesium hardness and total hardness.
From Jawahar Sagar 29 species of macroinvertebrates have been recorded (Table 4). Among
macroinvebrates most dominant five benthos were Melanoides tuberculata, Chironomus larvae,
Bellamya bengalensis, Lymnaea acuminata (Gracilior) and Goniobasis virginica in the littoral zone indecreasing order. From the data on microinvertebrates average density obtained for five benthos thefollowing order of dominance was evident at Jawahar Sagar dam ( Table :5 and Fig. 4 &5).
M. tuberculata > Chironomus larvae > B. bengalensis > L. acuminata > G. virginica
(194)
>
(187)
>
(180)
>
(62)
>
(44).
Table 5 shows the seasonal variations in quantity of benthos in Jawahar Sagar during the study period.
The total number of macroinvertebrates depicted by various species of benthos ranged from 858 to
1188 (No. /m2) in Jawahar Sagar.
Results of present study (Tables 1,2 & 3) revealed richness of macroinvertebrete biodiversity Jawahar
Sagar. In the present study, a positive relation between dissolved oxygen and temperature for Jawahar
Sagar was seen (Table 3). It is well known that the solubility of dissolved oxygen increases by lowering
the temperature (Mathew, 1978). This is supported by the present observations on Jawahar Sagar. It
is reported that waters of large lakes undergo relatively small seasonal changes in pH (Welch, 1952).
Alikunhi (1957) indicated that waters with pH values ranging from 7.5 to 8.5 are giving double the fish
production as compared to waters having pH from 6.5-7.5. Yusoff and Patimah (1994) recorded
comparatively low (6.77 to 7.93) pH in hypereutrophic water. Solomon (1994) also observed higher
average pH in Picchola Lake coinciding with higher productivity. In the present study, it has been
observed that pH of Jawahar Sagar was always on alkaline side. The total ionic load of water isrepresented by the electrical conductance values which may also be considered as an index of
productivity (Holsinger, 1955). As per Rawson (1960) criterion, Jawahar Sagar (0.238 mS) with EC
values well about 0.2 mS could be considered “eutrophic”. Sharma (1980) and Solomon (1994) also
assigned moderately eutrophic waters status to the lakes of Udaipur based on Water Clarity (101-200cm) values. In the present investigation, average water clarity of Jawahar Sagar (178.2 cm) could be
categorized as “moderately eutrophic” water.
As evident from (Table 2 and 3) during the study period dissolved oxygen increased with lowering oftemperature. The overall variations in dissolved oxygen (Table:2) indicate critical levels of dissolved
oxygen during the extreme summer period but the value increased in the subsequent period to attainsupersaturation by the end of June in Jawahar Sagar Thereafter, the sharp decline in the dissolved
oxygen was probably due to increased concentration of free carbondioxide. The presence of freecarbon- dioxide in little excess in water body is an important parameter to indicate the suitability of awater body for fish. As regards dissolved oxygen and water temperature the relationship was
significantly positive in Jawahar Sagar (Table 3). The inverse relationship of free CO2 and dissolved
oxygen is well established (Mathew, 1978) and once again justified in the present study on Jawahar

61

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Sagar (Table 4). Further, free CO2 also indicated negative significant correlationship with carbonate
alkalinity of Jawahar Sagar (Table 3). The total alkalinity has been considered as an indicator of
productivity (Alikunhi, 1957). On the lines of Alikunhi (1957) suggested the classification of water basedon their total alkalinity. This study further supports the findings on Udaipur waters which recorded
alkalinity values from 96 to 320 mg/l, falling under moderate to high productive waters (Sharma, 1980).
In the present investigation, total alkalinity was (101.2 mg/l) in Jawahar Sagar. Thus, on this basis, it
reservoir considered “Moderate high productivity”. Zhang and Chang (1994) found 0.54 to 0.77 mg/l
and 0.40 to 2.56 mg nitrogen per liter in the ‘mesotropic’ and ‘eutrophic’ lakes, respectively. Phosphorus
and nitrogen are the basic nutrients which are important to determine the productivity of lakes. Atkins(1913) stated that inorganic phosphate of more than 0.5 mg/l is an indicator of organic pollution. Hynes(1965) reported an average phosphate of 0.02 mg/l and noticed higher value of phosphate due tosewage contamination in certain American lakes. Jin (1994) also reported very high level of phosphorus
in Chinese lake.
Zhang and Chang (1994) studied oligotrophic, mesotrophic and eutrophic lakes and reported that inoligotrophic lake phosphorus and nitrogen levels were 0.01 and 0.21 mg/l respectively. While ineutrophic lake phosphorus and nitrogen levels were comparatively much higher (0.019 and 1.45 mg/l)
than critical stage (0.02 mg/l for phosphorus and 0.2 mg/l for total nitrogen). The present study toindicated relative orthophosphate levels in Jawahar Sagar (0.718 mg/l)). Thus, on this basis, Jawahar
Sagar reservoir may be considered “eutrophic”. Sawyer (1960) classified waters on the basis ofhardness as Soft water (Up to 75 mg/l), Moderate (75 to 150 mg/l), Hard water (150 to 300 mg/l), Very
hard water (above 300 mg/l). Based on this classification also Jawahar Sagar could be categorized as“moderately hard” water (Table 3).
Benthos are organisms attached or resting on the bottom or living in the bottom sediments (Odum,
1971). The role of bottom biota as fish food has been emphasized by several workers. However, there
exists difference of opinions with regards to the uses of bottom biota as an index to trophic level of thewater bodies. Considering average values of total benthos per unit area Sharma (1980) made thegroupings, Low (Average number of benthic animals upto 300/sq.m.), Moderate (Average number ofbenthic animals 300-600/sq.m.), High (Average number of benthic animals 600-1000/sq.m.) and Veryhigh (Average number of benthic animals exceeding 1000/sq.m.). In the present investigations, averagebenthic density was (975 No./m 2) in Jawahar Sagar reservoir (Table 4). The littoral fauna is mainly
shared by chironomids, annelids and molluscs in many Rajasthan waters. Similar observations for otherwater bodies were made by David et. ai, (1969) and Gupta (1976). In the present study benthos oflittoral zones were mainly comprised of molluscs, annelids, chironomids, hemiptera, coleoptera andisopods. Diversity, distribution and abundance of benthos in Mouri River, Khulna, and Bangladesh werestudies by (Khan, et. al, 2007)
Edgar and Moadows (1969) also reported random distribution in Chironomus larvae. Chironomid larvae
have also been used as pollution indicators by a number of workers (Curry, 1962 and Chakravorty, et.
a,. 2014). Thus, the high presence of chironomids in the benthic population may be due to an impact ofaltered nature of substrate due to organic pollution. This was also evident from the present study where
dominance of chironomid (Chironomus) in Jawahar Sagar was observed. Chironomids have been used
as indicator organisms for trophic characterization of lake. Many Chironomus species have ability totolerate low oxygen water condition with physiological and behavioural adaptations habitats and theirdifferent resistance to anoxia (Bairlein, 1989). The biomass of Chironomus was high on freshly flooded
land, for instance in new lowland reservoirs and ponds (Kajak, 1988). Effect of different physicochemical parameter on benthic community in the west region of Uttar Pradesh (Kabir et.al, 2012).
Impact of effluent on water quality and benthic macroinvertebrate fauna of Awba Stream and reservoir(Chakravorty at el 2014). The presence of Tubifex sp. Limnodrilus sp., Limnaea accuminata andChironomuswasm corroborates with the work of Mason (1981).
Barbosa et al. (2001) used benthic macroinvertebrates as indicators of water quality and health ofecosystem. Brinkhurst and Cook (1974) observed that the abundance of tubificids relative to otherorganisms as well as the relative abundance of various species of worms is of particular importance inpollution studies. Further, the two tubificids (Tubifex tubifes and Limnodrilus sp.) have been reported to
be indicators of pollution by mere their presence in considerable number by many workers in temperate
and tropical conditions. Benthic macroinvertebrates have been used as for assessing water quality: in
Karakaya Dam Lake Sengupta, (2008). Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri (48 No./m2) were evident bioindicator
at Jawahar Sagar. In the present investigation, a poor diversity of aquatic insect was observed with total
18 species belonging to 6 orders. The relative dominance of each constituent benthic group could besummarized in following order: mollusks (12), Diptera (05), Odonata (04 No/m 2), Annelids, (03 No/m2),

62

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Hemiptera (02 No/m2), coleopteran (02 No/m 2), and zygoptera (01No/m 2). Anitha et al. (2004) reported
macrozoobenthos in Miralam Lake of Hyderabad (A.P.) and observed various kinds of benthos. Kahan
and Auer (2002) reported dominance of Diporia (48%) followed by Chironomids (21.3), Oligochaetes(18.7) and others (8.4%). Further, abundance of Chironomids was seen in the month of September. in
the present study. The benthic community showed dominance of molluscs at Jawahar Sagar probably
due to congenial environmental conditions and availability of choice substratum. Organic pollution
indicator Lymnaea acuminata, Chironomus larvae, Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri and Indoplanorbis exustus
fairly dominated in Jawahar Sagar reservoir (plate:2).
For sustainable management of Jawahar Sagar following conservatoires measures are suggested:For long-term scientific management of surface waters constant monitoring of waters quality
should be undertaken. This may be helpful for sustainable use of these water resources forvarious human needs.

As large amount of silt together with organic matter is coming to the water bodies efforts should
be made to undertake periodical desilting operations. This will be helpful in maintaining water
holding capacity of the water bodies.

Pollution in various forms (liquid and solid wastes of diverse nature and magnitude) directly
affect the physico-chemical and biological characteristics of aquatic system which may beultimately injurious to the biota thus, all efforts be made to check only of pollutants.

The impact of pollution is most severe on sensitive species of plants, animals and benthic faunain particular because of their selective preference for habitat and limitations to migrate rapidly.
All efforts should be made to effectively monitor and control aquatic pollution for the substanceof biota as well as for maintaining the ecological balance in these surface water resources.

Scientific fisheries management in surface water can be helpful not only for conversion ofavailable fish food resources into fish protein but may be helpful in maintaining or improving
water quality. The modern technique of ecotechnology or biomanipulation may be applied fordesired restoration.

In present study based on assessment of available fish food resources in from of benthos
suitable capture fisheries strategy can be worked out for effectively harvesting the aquatic
productivities in the form of fish.
The role of fish in aquatic ecosystem is very significant and vital especially for maintaining thedelicate balance of ecosystem. These facts should be brought to the notice of masses throughappropriate formal and informal extension activities.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are thankful to the Dean, College of Fisheries, MPUAT, Udaipur for providing necessary
facilities and encouragement for the research work. We are also thankful to Dr. P.C. Verma, OIC,
Environmental Survey Laboratory (Bhabha Atomic Research Centre), RAPS, Kota for providing thelaboratory facilities. Authors are also indebted to Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, Zoological Survey of India,
Kolkata and his associates namely Dr. P. Mukhopadhyay, Dr. Animes Bal, Dr. R. Venkitesan and Dr.
A. Misra and Dr. (Mrs.) K. Mitra, Principal Scientist, CIFRI, Barrackpore, Kolkata in identification
oligochaetes and Dr. M.M. Saxena, Vice-chancellor, Tantia University Shri Gaganagar, Rajasthan
deserves special thanks for the identification of aquatic fauna.
REFERENCES
1. Alikunhi, K.H. (1957). Fish culture in India. Farm Bulletin Indian Council of Agricultural Research
20:144.
2. Anitha, G., Kodarkar, M.S., Chandrasekhar, S.V.A. and Nalini, G.G. (2004). Studies onmacrobenthos in Mirala Lake, Hyderabad, AP. Journal of Aquatic Biology 19:61-68.
3. APHA-AWW-WPCF, (1989). Standard methods for examination of water and waste water (17thed.). American Public Health Association, Washington, D.C.
4. Atkins, C. (1913). The phosphate contents of fresh and salt waters and its relationship to the growthof the algal plankton. Journal of Marine Biological Association, United Kingdom 13:119-153.
5. Bairlein, F. (1989). The respiration of Chironomus larvae (Diptera) from deep and shallow waters
under environmental hypoxia and at different temperature. Archives Hydrobiologia 115:523-536.
6. Barbosa, F.A.R., Callisto, M. and Galdean, N. (2001). The diversity of benthic macroinvertibrates
as an indicator of water quality and ecosystem health: a case study for Brazil. Aquatic Ecosystem
Health and Management 4:81-89.

63

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

7. Cairns, J. Jr. (1979). Biological indicators and water quality. John Wiley and Sons, New York 226227.
8. Chakravorty, P. P., Sinha, M. and Chakraborty, S. K. (2014). Impact of industrial effluent on water
quality and benthic macroinvertebrate diversity in freshwater ponds in Midanapore district of West
Bengal, India.Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 2(30: 93-101.
9. Covich, A.P., M. Palmer and T. A. Crowl. (1999). The role of benthic invertebrate species infreshwater ecosystem. Zoobenthic species influence energy flows and nutrient cycling .
Bioscience, 49:119-127.
10. Cook, D.C. and Johnson, M.C. (1974). Benthic macroinvertebrates of the St. Lawrence Great
Lakes. Journal of Fisheries Research Board of Canada 31:763-782.
11. Curry, L.L. (1962). A survey of environmental requirements for the midge (Diptera Tendipedidae).
In : Biological Problems in Water Pollution. Transactions of 3rd seminar (Ed. Tarzwell), USDHEW,
PHS, Robert, A. raft Sanitary Engineering Centre, Cincinnati.
12. David, A., Rao, N.G.S. and Rahman, F.A. (1969). Limnology and fisheries of Tungabhadra. Bulletinof Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Barrackpore Mimeo 13:188.
13. Edgar, W.D. and Moadows, A. (1969). Case construction, movement, spatial distribution andsubstrate selecti6n in the larvae of Chironomus riparius. Journal of Experimental Biology 50:247253.
14. Edmondson, W.T. (1965). Freshwater biology. John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York.
15. Gupta, S.D. (1976). Macrobenthic fauna of Loni reservoir. Journal of Inland Fisheries Society ofIndia 7:49-59.f
16. Holsinger, E.C.T. (1955). The plankton of three Ceylon takes. Hydrobiologia 1:8-24.
17. Hynes, H.B.N. (1965). The significance of macroinvertebrates in the study of mild river pollution.
In : Biological Problems in Water Pollution. 3d Seminar, U.S. Department of Health Education andWelfare, Cincinnati.
18. Jana, B.B. and Manna, A.K. (1995). Seasonal changes of benthic invertebrates in two tropical fish
ponds. Journal of Freshwater Biology 7:129-136.
19. Jin, X.C. (1994). An analysis of Lake Eutrophication in China. International Verein Limnology
24:207-211.
20. Kabir, H. A., Parveen Saltanat and Ahma, U. (2012). Effect of different physic-chemical factors onbenthic community in the west region of Uttar Pradesh. Journal of Sustainable Environment
Research 1(1): 57-60.
21. Kahn, J.E. and Auer, N.A. (2002). The abundance and distribution of benthic macroinvertebrate
along the Keweenaw Peninsula Lake Superior. Estuarine Research Federation 22-24.
22. Khan, A. N., Kamal , Kamal, D., Mahmmud, M. M., Rahma, M.A. and Hossain, M.A. (2007).
Diversity, Distribution and Abundance of benthos in Mouri River, Khulna, Bangladesh. Int. J.
Sustain. Crop prod. 2(5):19-, 23.
23. Kajak, Z. (1988). Considerations on benthos abundance in freshwater, it factors and mechanisms.
International Revue Gesamten Hydrobiologie 73:5-19.
24. Kumar, A. (1994). Role of species diversity of aquatic insects in the assessment of pollution inwetland of Santhan Paragnas (Bihar). Journal of Environmental Pollution 1:117-120.
25. Mason, C. F. (1981). Biology of fresh water pollution, Longman, London. Pp.209
26. Mathew, A. (1978). Studies on bottom macrofauna of Bhavanisagar reservoir (Tamil Nadu).
Journal of Inland Fisheries Society of India 11: 41-48.
27. Needham, J.G. and Needham, P.R. (1962). A guide of the study of freshwater biology. Holden Day
Inc., San Francisco, p.108.
28. Odum, E.P. (1971). Fundamentals of ecology. 3rd edition, W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia.
29. Rawson, D.S. (1960). A limnological comparison of twelve large lakes in northern Saskatchewan.
Limnology and Oceanography 5:195-211.
30. Sawyer, C.H. (1960). Chemistry of sanitary engineers. McGraw Hill Book Co., New York.
31. Sengupta, M and Dalwani, R. (2008). Bioindicator benthic macoinvertebrate for assessing water
quality: A case study on Karakaya Dam Lake. Proceeding of Taal 2007: The 12th World Lake
Conference: 2148-2153
32. Sharma, L.L. and Saini, V.P. (2003). Methods in aquatic ecology. Agrotech Publishing Academy,
Udaipur pp.240.
33. Sharma, L.L. (1980). Some limnological aspects of Udaipur water in comparision to the selectedwaters of Rajasthan. Ph.D. thesis submitted to University of Udaipur, Udaipur, Rajasthan.

64

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

34. Singh, J.P. and Roy, S.P.(1991). Seasonal change in the standing crop of some macroinvertebates
population of the Kawar Lake, Begusarai (Bihar). Journal of Freshwater Biology 3:59-64.
35. Solomon, I.J.J. (1994). Current trends in eutrophication of the lakes Pichhola and Fateh Sagar.
M.Sc. thesis submitted to Rajasthan Agriculture University, Bikaner, Rajasthan.
36. Subba.Rao, N.V. (1989). Handbook of freshwater molluscs of India. ZSI, Calcutta, pp.289.
37. Welch, P.S. (1952). Limnology. McGraw Hill Book Co. New York, p.538.
38. Yusoff, F.M. and Patimah, I. (1994). A comparative study of a phytoplankton population in two
Malaysian lakes. International Verein Limnology 24:251-257.
39. Zhang, H. and Chang, W.Y.B. (1994). Management of inland fisheries in shallow eutrophic,
mesotrophic and oligotrophic lakes in China. International Verein Limnology 24:228-229.

ON the River Chambal
Table 1. Morphometric features of Jawahar Sagar Reservoir, Rajasthan, India
S. No. Items
Jawahar Sagar
1.
Locations:
Latitude
24°82.792N
Longitude
76°52.072E
2.
Total Catchment area
27,195 km2
3.
Average rainfall (inch)
32
4.
Maximum depth (m)11.0
5.
Mean depth (m)8.0
6.
Length of dam (m)393.0
7.
Height of dam (m)45.08.
Nature of dam
Cement concrete
9.
Year of impoundment
1960-1962
10.
PurposeHydel power generation
12.
Village / Town / City
Jawahar Nagar
13.
Tehsil and district
Taleda – Bundi district, Rajasthan65

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 2. Seasonal variations in of water quality parameters of Jawahar Sagar
S.
No.

Parameters

1.

WinterSummerAverage

Temperature (°C)

Seasonalrange
18.5- 26.0

2.

pH

3.

Electric conductivity (mS)4.

MonsoonAverage

22.1

Seasonalrange
24- 31

Average

28.3

Seasonalrange
29.0- 32.0

7.4- 8.4

8.0

7.8- 8.8

8.3

7.9- 8.5

8.2

Depth of visibility (cm )0.2550.256

0.255

0.2180.255

0.232

0.1830.257

0.229

167-210192.0

118- 210164.5

60- 280

162.5

5.

Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)

6.8- 10 .4

8.4

7.6- 8.4

7.8

7.6- 10.0

8.6

6.

Free carbon dioxide (mg/l)

4.0- 14.0

10.0

Ni 10

5.0

Nil

Nil

7.

Carbonate alkalinity (mg/l)

Nil

Nil

Nil 10

4.5

6.0- 10.0

8.0

8.

Bicarbonate alkalinity (mg/l)

86.0- 10095.0

80- 12094.5

70.0-114.0

95.5

9.

Total alkalinity (mg/l)

86.0- 10095.0

80- 130

99.0

10.

Nitrate nitrogen (mg/l)

0.002

0.0- 0.047

0.002

11.

Orthophosphate (mg/l)

0.339

0.998

12.

Calcium Hardness (mg/l)

0.7431.070

13.

Magnesium Hardness (mg/l)

14.

Total Hardness (mg/l)0.0010.002
0.1560.675

80.0122.0
0.0010.019
0.7380.938

30.5

103.5
0.008
0.819

56.0- 61.0

59.0

50- 5452.5

50.0- 56.0

53.0

24.0- 36.0

28.0

36- 5444.2

14.0- 45.0

29.25

84- 92

87.0

86- 106

96.75

68.0-95.0

82.25

66

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Fig. 2 Variations in temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen, free carbon
dioxide and carbonate alkalinity at Jawahar Sagar
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
Nov

Dec

Jan

Mar

Apr

May

June

Temperature (°C)
Dissolved oxygen (mg/l)

July

Aug

Sept

Oct

Oct

pH
Free carbon dioxide (mg/l)

Fig.:3 Variations in electric conductivity, nitrate nitrogen andorthophosphate at Jawahar Sagar
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
Nov

Dec

Jan

Mar

Electric conductivity (ms)

S.No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.

Apr

May

June

July

Nitrate nitrogen (mg/l)

Aug

Sept

Orthophosphate (mg/l)

Table 4. Checklist of macro invertebrates of Jawahar Sagar

Name of species
Bellamya bengalensis
Goniobasis virginica
Melanoides tuberculata
Lymnaea acuminata (Typica)
Parreysia caerulea
Lymnaea acuminata (Gracilior)
Gyraulus convexiusculus

S.No.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.

67

Oct

Name of species
Berosus dolerosus
Chironomus larvae
Chaoborus larvae
Tabanus larvae
Psychoda larvae
Rhaphidalobis larvae
Erythrodiplax sp.

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.

23.
24.
25.
26.
27.
28.
29.

Corbicula striatella
Indoplanorbis exustus
Parreysia favidens
Scaphula deltae
Lamellidens marginalis
Laccotrephes griseus
Diplonyches rusticus
Cybister tocipunetatus asiateus

Sympetrum
Helocordulia uhleri
Argia sp.
Tachopteryx theoreyi
Herpobdelloidea lateroculata
Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri
Barbronia weberi

Table 4. Seasonal quantitative analysis of macroinvertebrates (No. /m 2) of Jawahar Sagar
S.
No.

Species of Macroinvertebrate

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
16.
17.
18.
19.
20.
21.
22.
23.
24.
25.
26.
27.

Bellamya bengalensis
Goniobasis virginica
Melanoides tuberculata
Lymnaea acuminata (T.)
Lymnaea acuminata (G.)
Parreysia caerulea
Scaphula deltae
Parreysia favidens
Gyraulus convexiusculus
Corbicula striatella
Indoplanorbis exustus
Lamellidens marginalis
Laccotrephes griseus
Diplonychus rusticus
Cybister tocipunetatus
Berosus dolerosus
Chironomus larvae
Psychoda larvae
Chaoborus larvae
Tabanus larvae
Rhaphidalobis larvae
Erythrodiplax sp.
Sympetrum
Helocordulia uhleri
Argia sp.
Tachopteryx theoreyi
Herpobdelloidea
lateroculata
Limnodrilus hoffmeisteri
Barbronia weberi
Total

28.
29.

WinterSummerSeasonalrange
132-440
197-220
176-440
88-132
0.0-132
0.0-0.0
0.0-0.0
0.0-0.0
0.0-44.0
0.0-0.0
0.0.-0.0
0.0-0.0
0.0-0.0
0.0-0.0
0.0-0.0
0.0-0.0
44.0-352
0.0-.0.0
0.0-0.0
0.0-0.0
0.0-0.0
0.0-0.0
0.0-880.0-0.0
0.0-0.0
0.0-0.0
0.0-44.0

Average

Average

275
99
231
55
33
0.0
0.0
0.0
11.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
143
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
0.0
22
0.0
0.0
0.0
11

Seasonalrange
88-1320.0
88-572
0.0-88132-220
0.0-176
0.0-880.0-880.0-880.0-880.0-132
0.0-44.0
0.0
0.0-44.0
0.0-44.0
0.0
176-3960.0-88
0.0-44.0
0.0
0.0
0.0-880.0-88
0.0-44.0
0.0-44.0
0.0-880.0

0.0-0.0
0.0-0.0748-1012

0.0
0.0
880

0.0-44.0
0.0-44.0
792-1540

68

MonsoonAveragedensity

Average

99.0
0.0
297
22
88
88
22
22
22
22
33
11
0.0
11
11
0.0
297
44
11
0.0
0.0
22
22
11
11
22
0.0

Seasonalrange
88-572
0.0-132
88-132
0.0-880.0-132
0.0-880.0-880.0-880.0-132
0.0
0.0-44.0
0.0-44.0
0.0-880.0
0.0-88
0.0-44.0
176-308
0.0-8844.0-88
0.0-44.0
0.0-88
0.0-44.0
0.0-880.0
0.0-880.0-132.0
0.0

165
33
55
22
66
22
22
22
33
22
11
11
22
0.0
22
11
121
44
33
11
22
11
22
0.0
22
33
0.0

180
44
194
33
62
37
14.6
14.6
22
14.6
14.6
7.3
7.3
3.6
11.0
3.6
187
22
14.6
3.6
7.3
11.0
22
3.6
11
18.3
3.6

11
11
1188

0.0-44.0
0.0
528-1408

11
0.0
858

7.3
3.6
975

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Bellamya

Fig.4 Seasonal quantitative analysis of macroinvertebrates (No./m2)
bengalensis
of Jawahar Sagar

Plate:2 Indicator Species of Macroinvertebrates

250275

297

297

200

Melanoides
tuberculata

150

Lymnaeaacuminata(Typica)
Lymnaeaacuminata(Gracilior)
Parreysia
caerulea100500WinterSummerMonsoonSeasonFig. 5 Average density of five prominent benthos (No./m 2) in Jawahar Sagar

200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

Bellamya
benghalensis

Melanoides
tuberculata

Lymnaeaacuminata(Gracilior)

Goniobasis
virginica

Goniobsis
virginica

69

Chironomous

Scaphula deltae

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Topic 3. Lake and lake basin management and policies
STRATEGY FOR CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF URBAN LAKES IN
MUMBAI
Pramod Salaskar1*; E.V. Muley2
Naushad Ali Sarovar Samvardhini (NASS), Powai Lake, Mumbai, 2Indian Association of
Aquatic Biologists (IAAB), India*Corresponding authorl: powai_mumbai@yahoo.co.in

1

ABSTRACT
Studies on impact of massive urban development and anthropogenic activities on trophic status of
Powai Lake, Vihar Lake, Bhavan’s Pond, and Rain Water Harvesting (RWH) Pond in Mumbai city reveal
deterioration of water quality leading to changes in the trophic status of these water bodies. Water
Quality characteristics and trophic status of Powai Lake indicate it as a hyper- eutrophic. The lake isfully infested with water hyacinth as well as blooms of blue green algae Microcystis aeruginosa. Primary
productivity studies on Vihar lake reveal that the lake is less productive with low plankton volume andlow respiratory rates indicating its mesotrophic status. Bhavan’s Pond and RWH Pond are relatively
more productive with high Plankton volumes and respiratory rates and can be categorized as eutrophic
in nature. Systematic efforts to evolve strategic action plan for conservation and management of thesewater bodies through stake holder and community participation are strongly recommended.
Keywords: Sarovar Samvardhini, trophic status, Water Quality, Urban lakes
INTRODUCTION
Sarovar Samvardhini or Conservation of Lakes, being implemented in India, is a concept based on
integration of various local, regional, national and initiated international efforts for conservation andmanagement of lakes in India. As a part of this initiative several lakes in the country have been identified
and action programs have been developed for their implementation through stake holder participation.
Studies on water quality characteristics covering various physico-chemical and biologicalcharacteristics of water quality of water bodies viz. Vihar Lake, Powai lake, Bhavan’s Pond, and RWH
Pond along with impact of urbanization and prolific growth of anthropogenic activities on the ecologicalstatus of these water bodies in Mumbai Metropolitan Region have been carried out for two consecutive
years (2010 -2012) as a part of this initiative.
An attempt has been made to evaluate these results in the light of findings of impact of urbanization onvarious other lakes in the country and an approach to develop a long-term action plan and strategy for
its effective implementation through stake holder participation is recommended based on the
Guidelines and approach developed by International Lake Basin Management (ILBM).
METHODS
Study Area
Mumbai, situated in the state of Maharashtra along the west coast of India, is a coastal megacity (withpopulation more than 10 million), as well as the commercial capital of the country. The study area
comprises four water bodies - Powai Lake, Vihar Lake, Bhavan’s Pond, and Rain Water Harvesting(RWH) Pond of the Mumbai city as depicted in Table 1.
Powai and Vihar are two artificial lakes situated in northern Mumbai. Both the lakes were created for
drinking water purpose by constructing dams between two hillocks across Mithi River.
Vihar Lake is located near Vihar village within the precincts of the Borivali National Park, also called theSanjay Gandhi National Park, and so protected. The lake is 157 years old and spreads across an areaof about 7.29 km2.
Lake Powai is located in the north-eastern suburb of Mumbai. The lake is 125 years old and spreads
across an area of about 2.1 km 2.Powai Lake is located downstream of Vihar Lake on Mithi River, whichbrings substantial discharge of exogenous nutrients and suspended solids into the lake. The lake water
is not used for drinking purposes though used for non-potable purposes like gardening, angling andindustrial use. This lake was included in "National Lake Conservation Plan" by the Ministry ofEnvironment and Forests (Government of India) in the year 1991.
Bhavan’s Pond is located in the western suburb of Mumbai.

70Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Maharashtra Nature Park Society constructed a Rain water harvesting pond (RWH Pond) on garbage
dump or land fill at Dharavi, Mumbai in year 2003 and did systematic plantation around it fordevelopment of Maharashtra Nature Park. The water spread area of the RWH Pond of MNP is about
4184.07 Sq.m. and the total area of the Municipal Solid Waste disposal site is about 37 Acres.
Table 1. Morphometry of four fresh water bodies of Mumbai, India
Particular

RWH Pond, MNP

Bhavan’s Pond

Vihar lake

Powai lake

Location

Dharavi, Mumbai

Western suburbanof Mumbai

North-eastern
suburb of Mumbai

North-eastern
suburbof
Mumbai

2003

….

1858

1891

Irrigation

Irrigation

Drinking water

Drinking water

Bhavan’s college

Mumbai Municipal
Corporation

Rain water
harvesting Pond
19°07,283’ N
72° 50, 057’ E

Fresh water
reservoir
19° 08, 384’ N,
72° 54, 360’ E

Mumbai
Municipal
Corporation
Fresh water
reservoir
19o07,862’N
72o53,153’E

4184.0675 sq.m

11,329.32 sq.m

7.29 sq.km

2.1 sq.km

Maximum depth

3.71 meter3 meter

34 meter

6.1 meter

Source of water

Rain Water

Rain Water

Rain Water

Rain Water

Main use ofwater

Irrigation

Irrigation

Drinking

Recreation andfishing

Year of
Impoundment
PurposeConstructed by
Lakes Types
Geographicalfeatures
Water spreadarea (Wetseason)Maharashtra
Nature Park
SocietyRain water
harvesting Pond
19o05,295’N
72o51,345’E

Collection and Analysis of Samples
Sampling was carried out on a monthly from 03 stations of each lake, usually between 09.00 and 10.00
hr. Sub-surface (0.3 m) water and plankton samples were collected from June 2010 to December 2012.
Surface water sampling was done using 0.5 liter polythene cans. The can was washed in ambient water
before sampling. Care was taken to preventing entry of air bubbles.
Standard methodology as per APHA (1981) has been used for sample collection, physicochemical andbiological analysis of lake water.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Powai lake, RWH Pond and Bhavan’s Pond are significantly suffering from eutrophication which isevident from the symptoms such as foul odors, algal blooms, mats of macrophytes.
The variation in pH is an important parameter in water body since most of the aquatic organisms are
adapted to average pH and do not withstand abrupt changes. Natural water with pH value of 6.0 to 8.0
can be considered as neutral water pH and of majority of potable water fall within this category. The
study has shown pH values greater than 7.0 for all four water bodies, which indicate alkaline nature oflake water with varying scale of alkalinity. The average values of pH in RWH Pond (7.73), Bhavan’sPond (7.82) Powai lake (6.9) and Vihar lake (7.92) were found beyond permissible limits for drinking
purposes. The data revealed no significant changes in pH of all the water bodies during study period.
The monsoon values of Hardness and chlorides of the water bodies were low indicating influence ofdilution of water caused by monsoon water flow.
The transparency of water body is affected by the factors like planktonic growth, rainfall and water level.
In the investigation transparency values were reduced in summer month which could be due to lesswater in the lake/pond saturated with more zooplankton and phytoplankton. The same trend wasobserved by Kedar and Patil (2002) in Rishi lake, Karanja in Maharashtra. Dissolved oxygen is the mostimportant parameter which can be used as an index of water quality, primary production and pollution.
The dissolved Oxygen varied from 4.5mg /l. to 7.3mg/l in RWH Pond, 3.1 mg/l to 7.2 mg/l in Bhavan’s

71Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Pond; Powai lake 3.9mg/l to 6.3mg/l and 6.2mg/l to 7.3mg/l in case of Vihar lake. Low content ofdissolved oxygen is an assign of organic pollution; it’s also due to inorganic reductants like Hydrogensulphide, Ammonia, Nitrates, Ferrous ions and other such oxidisable substances (Ara et al., 2003). The
higher Dissolved oxygen values of all four water bodies were in rainy season possibly due tocomparatively high mixing of Oxygen from the air into water because of stronger winds in the season.
The alkalinity varied from 52.7mg/l to 36.3mg/l in RWH Pond, 28 mg/l to 232 mg/l in Bhavan’s Pond,
for Powai lake 96mg/l to 167mg/l and 14 mg/l to 74 mg/l in Vihar lake. The high alkalinity is a functionof ions exchange that is calcium ions are replaced by Sodium ions and later contributed to alkalinity(Sharma and John 2009). Alkalinity may also be caused due to evolution of CO 2 during decompositionof organic matter. The steep fall during monsoon may be due to dilution of water.
Phosphates in water indicate degree of pollution. It is the key nutrient in the productivity of water inreservoirs (Piska, 2000). Phosphate values ranged from 0.07 – 0.49 mg/l in RWH Pond, 0.02 – 0.72
mg/l in Bhavan’s Pond 0.06 – 067mg/l in Powai lake and 0.02 – 0.21 mg/l in Vihar lake. During monsoon
period high values of phosphate were recorded. This was contributed by the surface run off and mixing
with the influent water of the pond.
Nitrate entering aquatic systems arises from a variety of sources that include point and non-point
sources of pollution, biological fixation of gaseous nitrogen, and the deposition of nitrogen oxides andammonium (John Stoddard, 1994).Nitrate nitrogen in water in Indian reservoirs is mostly in traces andseldom exceeds 0.5 mg/l. Water with 0.2 – 0.5 mg/l of nitrates is of high productive reservoirs, up to
0.2 mg/l nitrates is in medium productive reservoirs, and in low productive reservoirs, the nitrates are
negligible (Jhingran and Sugunan, 1990). The nitrate concentration ranged from 0.27 – 4.01 mg/l in
RWH Pond, 0.38 – 2.03 mg/l in Bhavan’s Pond 0.89 – 3.54mg/l in Powai lake and 0.08 – 1.45 mg/l in
Vihar lake. The main source of Nitrate is the run-off and decomposition of organic matter. The higher
inflow of water and consequent land drainage cause high value of Nitrate (Thilanga et al. 2005).
Chloride is one of the most important parameter in assessing the water quality. Munawar (1970) is of
the opinion that higher concentration of chloride indicates higher degree of organic pollution. The
Chloride contents varied from 22.33 mg/l to 124 mg/l for RWH Pond, 15.5 mg/l to 172 mg/l for Bhavan’sPond 39 mg/l to 76 mg/l in Powai lake and 10.9 mg/l to 28.6 mg/l in Vihar lake.
Sulphates are naturally occurring anion present in all kinds of natural water bodies and primarily related
to the types of minerals found in watershed and acid rain and are carried in to the lakes by rainfall. The
sulphates ranged from 2.2 – 90.3 mg/l in RWH Pond, 2.09 - 123 mg/l in Bhavan’s Pond, 2.8 – 21.6 mg/l
in Powai lake and 1.4 - 53 mg/l in Vihar lake.
The silica was very elaborate during monsoon probably due to runoff water carrying silicates to thewater body. The silica concentration ranged from 0.97 -28.18 mg/l in RWH Pond, 1.64 – 14.93 mg/l in
Bhavan’s Pond, 4.68 – 13. 86 mg/l in Powailake and 1.73 – 20.03 mg/l in Vihar lake. Concentration ofsilica was comparatively less in Powai lake, RWH Pond and Bhavan’s Pond as compared to Vihar lake.
There might be some non-natural source of silica concentration.
Biochemical oxygen demands (BOD) varied from 4 – 14 mg/l in RWH Pond, 3 – 14 mg/l in Bhavan’sPond, 6.9 – 13.9 mg/l in Powai lake and 1.22 – 4.0 mg/l in Vihar lake. The higher levels of BOD in theurban lakes can be attributed to sewage influx through storm water drains, reduced circulation in water
bodies. The BOD levels indicate higher levels of biodegradable organic matter, high oxygen
consumption by heterotrophic organisms, and a high rate of organic matter remineralization.
Primary productivity studies on Vihar lake reveal that the lake is least productive and characterized byhigh transparency, low plankton volumes, and low respiratory rates. RWH Pond and Bhavan’s Pond
are relatively more productive than Vihar lake. Plankton volumes and respiratory rates were higher andtransparency was less in both the water bodies. In contrast to the Vihar lake, plankton was abundant
and respiratory rates were very high in Powai lake, RWH Pond and Bhavan’s Pond.
The deteriorating water conditions in the lake was sorely reflected in the change of faunal and microflora
pattern of the lakes. In the case of microalgae, blooms of blue green algae Microcystis species havebecome dominant in all three water bodies except Vihar lake. The blue green algae reproduce very
quickly and they are not only known to deplete the dissolved oxygen level of water, especially during
early morning, but also increase toxicity. From amongst macrophytes, the flowering plant water
hyacinth in Powai lake, Nymphaea species (water lily) in Bhavan’s Pond and Pistia stratiotes (Water
lettuce) in RWH Pond develops dense growth at times, over the entire water surface. There are all theindicators of higher nutrient load, degrading water and sediment conditions.

72Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 2. Average values of Water quality of four water bodies
Sr.
No.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Water Temp.
Ambient Temp.
Transparency
Turbidity
Dissolved Solids
pH
Total Hardness
Total Chlorides
Dissolved Oxygen
Total Alkalinity
Phosphate
Calcium
Magnesium

cm
NTU
mg/l
…
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
mg/l

14

Sulphate

mg/l

15
16
17
18

SilicaFree Carbon Dioxide
Nitrates Nitrogen
Salinity

mg/l
mg/l
mg/l
%o

19

Sodium

mg/l

20
21

Potassium
Lead

mg/l
mg/l

22

a) Net Pri. Productivity

Parameters24b) Gross Pri.
Productivity
BOD (5-days at 20oC)

25

C.O.D.

RWH Pond

Bhavan's pond

Vihar lake

Powai lakeoC

27.2+ 3.06
28.9+ 2.49
65.6+15.71
0.63+0.37
595.5+174.6
7.7+0.43
229.6+69.94
58.7+23.09
5.8+0.96
205.6+108.5
0.23+0.12
48.32+24.14
24.59+ 7.66
35.25+
25.09
8.53+ 8.20
1.13+ 0.47
2.96+ 1.17
0.17+ 0.20
32.69+
15.13
11.78+ 8.84
0.01+ 0.04
756.83+304.52
1698.35+
416.21
6.28+ 2.78
44.67+
14.10
77.46(Hypereutrophic)

26.5+2.35
28.4+2.25
71.3+17.02
1.03+1.06
372.67+133.13
7.8+0.25
139.8+ 26.49
33.86+12.82
6.3+0.92
131.26+66.55
0.22+0.20
34.28+7.74
12.47+6.33

25.8+2.65
28.3+2.76
155.7+8.60
1.49+1.71
128.5+16.84
7.9+0.32
70.33+10.90
16.14+5.24
6.8+0.48
48.96+19.36
0.11+0.09
15.02+3.60
7.95+ 2.74

26.2+2.86
27.9+2.64
46.8+16.8
0.86+0.96
257.0+116.2
6.9+0.46
92.0+18.4
50.05+ 13.2
5.2+0.82
140.3+34.6
0.21+0.11
20.46+6.22
10.38+5.40

45.88+39.66

6.84+11.36

9.42+19.46

8.21+4.53
1.22+0.39
0.85+0.40
0.08+0.13

12.47+6.46
0.55+0.26
0.47+0.35
0.04+0.02

9.12+5.12
1.08+0.21
1.34+0.56
0.14+ 0.17

18.19+8.95

7.8+3.45

21.43+6.32

4.79+2.14
0.02+0.06

1.23+1.20
0.01+0.04

1138.5+525.00

509.96+237.61

7.73+4.10
0.0048+0.05
713.00+394.232222.22+762.95

816.66+352.13

1687.1+486.42

5.5+2.47

3.11+0.74

8.6+ 3.34

33.78+14.69

19.38+5.68

54.8+9.84

73.89((Hypereutrophic)

54.78(Mesotrophic)

69.24(Eutrophic)oC

mgC/m3/day
mgC/m3/day
mg/l
mg/l

Trophic State Index (TSI)
Based on Carlson’s Method
2500
mg C/m3 /day

23

Unit

2000
1500
1000

Gross Primary
Productivity

500

Net Primary Productivity0

Bhavans RWH Pond Powai lake Vihar lake
Pond
Fig.1 Average values of Primary Productivity of
RWH Pond, Bhavan's Pond , Vihar lake & Powai lake

73

mg/l

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

700
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

Alkalinity
Dissolved Solids

Fig. 2 Average values of Total Alkalinity and Dissolved
Solids

3.5
3

mg/l

2.5
2

RWH Pond
Bhavan's Pond

1.5
1Vihar lake

0.5

Powai lake

0
Phosphate

Nitrates Nitrogen

Fig. 3 Average values of Nitrate and Phosphate

60
50

mg/l

40
30
COD

20

BOD

10
0

RWH Pond

Bhavan's Vihar lake Powai lake
Pond
Fig. 4 Average values of COD and BOD

74

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Findings and arguments
Water quality characteristics of various physico-chemical parameters of Powai lake, Vihar Lake,
Bhavan’s Pond and RWH Pond are summarized in Table 1. Relatively higher values of dissolved solids,
nitrates and phosphates as well as COD and BOD and primary productivity along with significant
decrease in transparency in Powailake indicate hyper eutrophic conditions. This is further corroborated
with symptoms such as foul odors, prolific growth of water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipus) and bloomsof blue green algae (Microcystis sp.) Viharlake exhibits water quality with relatively low levels of BOD
and COD as well as poor nutrient levels indicating mesotrophic status of this lake.
RWH Pond and Bhavan’s Pond however can be classified as eutrophic in nature based on their water
quality during the period of observation.
Strategies and actions
Systematic efforts for monitoring of water quality of these water bodies through Naushad Ali Sarovar
Samvardhini are strongly recommended so as to evolve strategic planning and action plan forconservation and management through stake holder and community participation. During the last ten
years, action such as organizing training programmes, workshops, seminars in regional languages
involving local public and students, stakeholders were initiated for increasing awareness towards water
related problems.
Naushad Ali Sarovar Samvardhini made the following recommendations
1. Organise mass awareness training programmes for the locals about importance of the water
bodies
2. Create public participation and involve other water related agencies in maintenance of the lake
3. Involve educational and scientific institutions in periodically monitoring the quality of lake water andin conducting biodiversity survey
4. Collate the scientific data collected and make it available to everyone, so that management
strategies can be devised.
5. Complete involvement of all stakeholders is the necessary for conservation and management of lakeand stress on lake is not reduce by blaming the Municipal Corporation, Community or thegovernment. NGOs, residents and civic body can be roped in to conduct regular cleanup drives, only
then can the quality of lake be restored.
Lessons Learned
1. Since the water body with healthy environment has potential to bestow many benefits, protecting andenhancing its economical, ecological, cultural and aesthetic values is in the interest of one and all.
2. Regular harvesting of algae and macrophyte biomass can reduce nutrient load on the lake andthereby reversing the eutrophication. The harvest can be up to 50% or sometimes up to 70% of themacrophytes
3. Stocking the lake with major carps adds to the food security and protein availability to population andintroduction of larvivorous fishes reduces mosquito menace.
4. The harvested macrophytes can also be composted to produce fertilizer. However, this can be done
if the macrophytes are to heavily contaminated with heavy metals or pesticides. Macrophytes canalso be used for de-polluting the lake of pesticides, heavy metals and other pollutants
5. Desilting the Ganesh immersion sites, a month after the conclusion of the festival, has potential toreduce impact of this cultural siltation on the lake ecosystem.
6. Whenever there are good monsoon rains lake water should be released to remove bottom stagnation
This can be done for deep water bodies. The deep water can be flushed out (either by pumping out
from bottom or by opening the lower part of gates in case of dams) Care should be taken to avoid
mixing of the deep water in the Lake as it may prove hazardous.
7. Educating and creating awareness about limited nature of fresh water and need for protection oflakes among the common man goes a long way in protection of lakes.
8. Educating children about water-related issues is a beneficial long-term measure for achieving
sustainable lake use. It is necessary to educate use of free P detergents and also pre treatment ofdomestic wastes before releasing then in water bodies.
9. Propagation of World Lake Vision (WLV) through training programmes and other activities can be avery effective measure to implement Integrated Lake Basin Management (ILBM).
CONCLUSIONSThe physico-chemical and biological parameters thus revealed the present pollution level and trophic
status of the lakes. Primary productivity studies on Vihar lake reveal that the lake is least productive
and characterized by high transparency, low plankton volumes, and low respiratory rates. RWH Pond

75

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

and Bhavan’s Pond are relatively more productive than Vihar lake. Plankton volumes and respiratory
rates were higher and transparency was less in both the water bodies. In contrast to the Vihar lake,plankton was abundant and respiratory rates were very high in Powai lake, RWH Pond and Bhavan’sPond. Low productivity, high transparency etc. of Vihar lake can be mainly attributed to the more depth(34 m) of Vihar lake; due to which there are limitations of light – penetration and mixing of water bodies.
Powai Lake is polluted mainly by sewage disposal, growth, death and decay of aquatic weeds, andblooms in the lake. Regular cleaning of the macrophytes, enhancing public awareness, scavenging ofpolluted sediments, bioremediation, proper regulatory measures for anthropogenic waste disposal andstrict measures to prevent further encroachment to the catchment area are needed for the restorationof Powai Lake. Vihar Lake is comparatively less polluted and is suitable for public water supply.
However, it being deep lake, further research on the characteristics of the deeper layers of water column
has to be carried out to get proper idea of the metabolism in Vihar lake.
Considering the importance of water resource from the lakes, particularly in urban areas all such water
bodies we need to protect and conserve for their sustainable use for the benefit of communities andothers. To generate public interest and involvement in the lake's conservation, there is a need ofbringing together diverse groups of stake holders including NGOs, Civic body, Fishermen, Angler’s
Association and other organized sections of the society.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We acknowledge with sincere gratitude the valuable co-operation and prompt help received from
Dr R. P. Athalye, Naushad Ali SarovarSamvardhini (NASS), Powai Lake, Mumbai.
REFERENCES
1. APHA.AWWA, WPCP (1981)International standard methods for the examinations of Water andwaste water 15th edition, Washington D.C.
2. CPCB.(2000) Central Pollution Control Board, Review of water quality objectives, requirements
and zoning and classification for Indian waterbodies. Govt of India, Delhi. 11-17
3. Jhingran, A.G. and Sugunan, V.V. (1990) General guidelines and planning criteria for small
reservoir fisheries management. Proceedings of the national workshop on reservoirs fish pp. 1-8.
4. John Stoddard, (1994) Environmental Chemistry of Lakes and Reservoirs, Edition: Advances in
Chemistry Series Volume 237, Publisher: American Chemical Society, pp.223-284
5. Kodarkar. M.S. (2008) Methodology for water analysis, IAAB Publ., Hyderabad
6. Kedar, G.T., Patil, G.P. (2002)Studies on the Biodiversity and Physico-Chemical status of Rishi
lake, Karanja (Lad) M.S. Ph.D.Thesis, Amravati University, Amravati
7. Munawar, M. (1970) Limnological studies of freshwater ponds of Hyderabad, India. I – Biotope.
Hydrobiol., 35: 127-162.
8. Piska, R.S. (2000) Impact of stocking densities of major carp seed on fish production in a minor
reservoir, Fishing Chimes. 20 (9) : 38-41
9. Sharma, G. and R.V. John (2009). Study of Physcio-Chemical Parameters of waste water fromdyeing units in Agra city. Poll, Res., 28(3) : 439-442.10.
10. Thilanga, A.,Subhashini, S.Sobhana and K.L.Kumar (2005) Studies on nutrient content of the Ootylake with reference to pollution. Nat.Env. & Poll. Tech.,4(2) : 299-302
11. Wetzel, R.C. & G. Likens (1979): Limnological analysis. W. B. Saunders Co., Philadephia, London.
Toronto, 357.
12. WHO (1994) International standards for drinking water.

76

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

POTENTIAL TRADE-OFFS BETWEEN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION AND
MITIGATION IN RIVER BASIN SCALE WATER MANAGEMENT
Tiina Nõges1*, Peeter Nõges1
1

Centre for Limnology, Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Research, Estonian
University of Life Sciences, Rannu 61117, Tartu County, Estonia*Corresponding author: tiina.noges@emu.ee

ABSTRACT
Climate change mitigation measures aim at reducing greenhouse gas emissions while adaptation
measures should reduce the vulnerability of societies and ecosystems to adverse effects of climatechange. In respect of water resources and ecological status of water bodies, the two approaches areoften disconnected that, instead of synergies, can create trade-offs between them. In the present paper,
we review the circumstances in which trade-offs occur between CC adaptation and mitigation measuresand exemplify a number of cases when those measures may have adverse effects on water resources,
their quality and ecological status. Careful spatial planning should avoid trade-offs between mitigation
and adaptation, and make it possible to combine the reduction of vulnerability with mitigation ofgreenhouse gas emissions. Environmental impact assessment and strategic environmental
assessment should be applied to analyse the environmental effects of proposed measures.
Keywords: water, river basin management, climate change, nutrients, cross-sectorial trade-offs
INTRODUCTION
Climate change represents a major challenge for the management of freshwater resources as water isthe main channel through which the impact of climate change will be felt and the key to developing
successful adaptation strategies (OECD 2013). The carbon balance of aquatic and terrestrial
ecosystems is tightly linked with cycles of other nutrients, first of all with nitrogen and phosphorus, andwith the CNP stoichiometry in food webs (Peñuelas et al. 2013). All these processes are sensitive toclimate change (CC) and transform as a result of global trends. The recent study by Stips et al. (2016)
unambiguously shows that greenhouse gases (GHG), and specifically CO 2, are the main causal driversof the recent warming. Paradoxically, climate change itself could have a minor impact on water bodies
compared to indirect pressures from human responses to climate change (both adaptation andmitigation) (WFD CIS, 2009).
CC mitigation measures aim to reduce GHG emissions while adaptation measures should reduce thevulnerability of societies and ecosystems to adverse effects of CC. In respect of water resources andecological status of water bodies, the two approaches are often disconnected that, instead of synergies,
can create trade-offs between them. It is well-known that large-scale biofuel production increases water
demand and contamination, hydro-electric power plants fragmentise the river ecosystem integrity andaffect biodiversity, dams and water reservoirs can emit additional GHGs, and seawater desalination asa drought combating measure accelerates energy consumption. It is much less known that evenafforestration/reforestation, wetland reconstruction, floodplain restoration or creating buffer strips,
usually considered as win-win measures (Nixon, 2008), may locally become antagonistic to otheradaptation and mitigation measures. Given that ecosystems can provide mitigation and adaptation
services at the same time, policies and local initiatives related to ecosystem management have thepotential to contribute to both climate change strategies and to avoid trade-offs between them (Locatelli2016).
In the present paper, we review the circumstances in which trade-offs occur between CC adaptationand mitigation measures and exemplify a number of cases when those measures may have adverse
effects on water resources, their quality and ecological status.
METHODS
The review is based on recent scientific literature, some guidance documents and policy reports (e.g.
FAO, 2008; WFD CIS, 2009; UN, 2009; OECD, 2013), and the databases of CC mitigation andadaptation measures, represented in River Basin Management Plans (RBMPs) during their preparation
phase (Nixon, 2008) and after adoption (Nõges et al., 2010).

77

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Mitigation measures potentially impacting water resources and water quality
Carbon dioxide capture and storage. Carbon dioxide capture and storage is considered a crucial
strategy for meeting CO2 emission reduction target. Three different geological formations are commonly
considered for CO2 storage: depleted oil and gas reservoirs, coalbeds, and saline aquifers (Leung etal., 2014). Deep ocean storage is also a feasible option for CO 2 storage (Herzog & Golomb, 2004)
although environmental concerns such as ocean acidification and eutrophication will likely limit its
application. As potential impacts to water resources, the United Nations guidance (UN, 2009) mentions
the degradation of groundwater quality due to leakage of CO 2 from injection and abandoned wells,
leakage across faults and ineffective confining layers and as precaution and remediation measures –careful site selection, effective regulatory oversight, and appropriate monitoring of the condition of thestorage sites. The criteria and approaches for selecting suitable geological sites for storing CO 2 should
include the tectonic setting and geology of the basin, its geothermal regime, hydrology of formationwaters, hydrocarbon potential and basin maturity (Bachu, 2000).
Geothermal energy production. Use of drinking water aquifers for the generation of shallow geothermalenergy causes temperature perturbations far beyond the natural variations that may mobilize various
trace elements affecting groundwater quality. Column experiments with anoxic sandy sediments
showed a significantly increased of As concentration at 25 °C while at 60 °C, significant increases wereobserved in pH and DOC, P, K, Si, As, Mo, V, B, and F concentrations (Bonte et al. 2013). Besides
those mentioned, other pollutant chemicals in the liquid fraction may be hydrogen sulfide (H 2S), mercury(Hg) and other heavy metals such as Pb, Cd, Fe, Zn and Mn. Lithium (Li) and ammonia (NH3), as well
as aluminium, may also occur in harmful concentrations as well as brines, whose excessive salt
concentrations can cause direct damage to the environment (Kristmannsdottir & Armannsson, 2003).
Remediation techniques include appropriate spatial planning for the location of facilities, use of
appropriate techniques including those of re-injection (UN, 2009).
Biofuel production. Common feedstocks for sustainable biofuel production include (1) perennial plants
grown on degraded lands abandoned from agricultural use, (2) crop residues, (3) wood and forest
residues, (4) double crops and mixed cropping systems, and (5) solid municipal and industrial wastes(Tilman et al., 2010). As environmental challenges related to land-based biofuel production, the United
Nations guidance (UN, 2009) lists the increased water demand, enhanced leaching of pesticides andnutrients leading to contamination of water, biodiversity impacts, conflicts with food production and land
use changes, leading to indirect effects on water resources and increased vulnerability to droughts. A
specific water related branch in biofuel production is the use of microalgae for making biodiesel (Chisti& Yan, 2011). A life-cycle analysis on biodiesel production from microalgae (Yang et al., 2011)confirmed the competitiveness of microalgae-based biofuels and highlighted the necessity of recycling
harvested water and using sea/wastewater as water source. The authors showed that to generate 1 kg
biodiesel, 3726 kg water, 0.33 kg nitrogen, and 0.71 kg phosphate are required if freshwater is usedwithout recycling. Recycling harvest water reduces the water and nutrients usage by 84% and 55%.
Using sea/wastewater decreases 90% water requirement and eliminates the need of all the nutrients
except phosphate. To date, microalgae-based biofuel production has not yet been commercialized tolarge-scale due to potential impacts, especially on water usage.
Hydropower is the most important and widely-used renewable source of energy. However, fish
populations can be impacted if fish cannot pass impoundment dams and migrate upstream to spawning
grounds or if they cannot migrate downstream to the ocean (Hendry et al, 2003). Hydropower can also
impact water quality and flow. Hydropower plants can cause low dissolved oxygen levels in the water,a problem that is harmful to riparian (riverbank) habitats. The hydropeaking downstream of ahydropower installation caused by a variable operating water demand is also critical for the survival ofriver habitats (Shen & Diplas, 2010). Future changes in the occurrence of low flows and droughts may
also affect the output of hydroelectric power plants. New hydropower facilities lead to losses of natural
habitats and even human settlements and may compete with other forms of landuse. Those alternative
uses may be more highly valued than power generation. Local cultures and historical sites may be
impinged upon. Some older hydropower facilities may have historic value, so renovations of thesefacilities must also be sensitive to such preservation concerns and to impacts on plant and animal life.
It is urgent that an ecological compensation mechanism is established for hydropower to promote its
sustainable development. Ecological compensation can be defined as the substitution of ecological
functions or qualities that are impaired by human development (Cuperus et al., 1999) that at present
has developed into an effective measure to balance efficiency and equity during economic development

78Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

and environmental protection. Within a new compensation mechanism framework (Yu & Xu, 2016), thedisplaced people, inundated habitats, and regulated rivers are identified as the recipients, whereas thebeneficiaries from the hydropower development as the payers. The market-led and government-led
compensation should be integrated when designing natural habitat restoration, resettlementcompensation, and payment for ecosystem services in hydropower development.
Afforestation/reforestration. The process by which carbon sinks remove carbon dioxide from theatmosphere is known as carbon sequestration. During the 1980s and 1990s, global terrestrial
ecosystems took up carbon at a rate of 1–4 Pg y-1 offsetting 10–60% of the fossil-fuel emissions(Houghton, 2007). However, afforestation/reforestration of upland catchments with fast growing
plantations can have significant impact on local water use, with consequent impacts on water availability
downstream. If converted to forest, about 27% (200 Mha) deemed suitable for the Clean Development
Mechanism-Afforestation/Reforestation (CDM-AR) prevalent in drier areas would cause an 80–100%
decrease in runoff. Reduced emissions from deforestation as a mitigation measures, can threaten theland rights and livelihoods of rural people and undermine efforts to improve food security andsustainable development (FAO, 2008). It will become increasingly important to consider implications on
local to regional water resources, and how the hydrologic dimension of CDM-AR impacts sustainability,
local communities, and food security (Trabucco et al., 2008).
Wetlands and wetland restoration. Long regarded as wastelands, wetlands are now recognized asimportant features in the landscape that provide numerous beneficial services for people and for fish
and wildlife. Some of these services, or functions, include (US EPA, 2001): protecting and improving
water quality, providing fish and wildlife habitats, storing floodwaters, and maintaining surface waterflow during dry periods. In wetland restoration, large uncertainties are included in the possibilities tomaintain the necessary hydrological regime and loading of wetlands which determines their efficiency
as sites for carbon sequestration (Hefting et al., 2003) and denitrification (Mulholland et al., 2008).
Increased methane production and leaching of nitrogen and dissolved organic carbon may be expectedfrom drained fens after restoring their water regime (Urbanová et al., 2011).
Land management for soil carbon conservation. Soil management practices that minimize carbon loss,
the disruption of the soil’s structure and natural biodiversity known as ‘conservation tillage’ (CT) can
improve soil stability thereby facilitating better drainage and water holding capacity that reduces theextremes of water logging and drought (Holland, 2004). These improvements to soil structure also
reduce the risk of runoff and pollution of surface waters with sediment, pesticides and nutrients.
Although CT generally can prevent nutrient loss, long-term use of CT can cause compaction and, as aconsequence, phosphate can accumulate on the soil surface increasing loss via runoff (Rasmussen,1999). The risk is higher if phosphate applications continue (Baker & Laflen, 1983) but can be minimized
by adjusted fertilizer application rates that is an additional benefit from applying CT (Gilley, 1995). The
type of soil cultivation also strongly influences
nitrate leaching but the evidence that leaching losses are higher for inversion compared to CT iscontradictory (Holland, 2004).
Efficiency of riparian buffer zones questioned. In rural watersheds, the riparian land use remains a
crucial link between the agricultural lands and the stream environment. It has been widely believed thatthese riparian buffer zones are effective in reducing the nutrient concentrations in water that passthrough them. The first evidence for the role of riparian zones in buffering nutrient input from adjacent
fields was provided by Peterjohn & Correll (1984); since then, numerous studies have evaluated thecapacity of these channel-marginal wetlands to retain or remove nutrients and other pollutants. Studies
of perennial streams have identified denitrification within riparian zone as one of the dominantmechanisms removing nitrogen (Woodward et al., 2009), however, this process has intrinsic limitations.
In a field study in riparian zones of small Dutch streams, Hefting et al. (2003) found that nitrogen
buffering capacity decreased with nitrate load but that the rate of emission of nitrous oxide (N 2O), a
potent greenhouse gas, increased dramatically with nitrogen load. High nitrate availability inhibits orretards N2O reduction and, as a result, substantial quantities of N2O may be emitted from riparian bufferzones in agricultural environments. Also, an experiment with N addition to streams across multiple
biomes and land uses in the U.S. (Mulholland et al., 2008) showed that both total uptake velocity anddenitrification rate decreased with increasing nitrate concentration.
Floodplain restoration means large changes in the landscape and everyday life of the inhabitants.
Increased flooding upstream in the ‘flood expansion areas’ may affect the agriculture causing partial or
total destruction of crops and resulting in serious losses for the farmers. Norway has also pointed out(Nixon, 2008) that several flood protection measures may in some cases reduce drainage capacity ofrivers.

79

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Water abstraction. Global aridity has increased substantially since the 1970s due to recent drying overAfrica, southern Europe, East and South Asia, and eastern Australia (Dai, 2011) that together with the
doubling of the population number has multiplied water needs in agriculture and households. Althoughclimate change will aggravate hydrological impacts on river systems, currently high water abstraction
rates remain the principal contributor to reduced system flows (Grafton et al., 2012). Irrigation’s
additional water needs, such as in the Ganges region, reduce flows and affect seasonal spawning andfish productivity (Meyers et al., 2012). For lakes in endorheic areas which water budget is controlled by
the gentle balance between inflow and evaporation, any change of the inflow amounts results
immediately in changing water levels, the Aral Sea being an alarming example of devastating humanimpact (Micklin, 2007). Changes in governance, including sharing the variability between theenvironment and consumers, are urgently required to maintain or restore the health of these aquatic
systems.
Adaptation measures in the water sector which can have negative impacts on climate change mitigation
Desalinization of marine water or rainwater harvesting for water supply? The energy use in the watersector is increasing because, water resource adaptation will often require more energy to meet therising demand, regulatory standards and the effects of climate change (Rothausen & Conway, 2011).
The close link between water and energy is often referred to as the water-energy nexus (Stokes et al.,2014) and comprises the use of water in many processes of power generation, as well as the use ofenergy in water supply and wastewater treatment. Some adaptation options to climate change, such as
desalination and pumping, are very energy intensive. In water supply sector, there is a clear trade-off
between solutions containing rainwater tanks which are expensive and desalinated water supply which
greatly increases GHG emissions (Paton et al 2014). While desalination plants may be good adaptation
options to climate change due to their climate-independence, rainwater may be a better mitigation
response, albeit more expensive. As a possible beneficial solution, Paton et al. (2014) suggest applying
a multiobjective evolutionary algorithm (MOEA), which can evolve an approximation of entire trade-off
fronts of multiple objectives in a single run.
GHG emissions for water reservoirs. Besides adverse effects on freshwater ecological flow, river
habitats, fish movement and water quality, freshwater dams are a potential source of greenhouse gases(GHGs). Three GHGs are potentially emitted from lakes and reservoirs: carbon dioxide, methane, andnitrous oxide with methane fluxes having the greatest significance relative to global GHG budgets(MacKay et al., 2009). Variability in GHG fluxes from lakes and reservoirs has been attributed to theirage, residence time, nature and type of vegetation and soils inundated, quantity of biomass inundated,morphometry, operational conditions, nutrient status, and carbon sources, as well as climatic influences.
It is anticipated that fluxes of greenhouse gases to the atmosphere from all reservoirs will increase in
the future because they are needed as a relatively clean alternative to energy produced by fossil fuelcombustion and because of needs for water and food as well as the industrial and recreational demandsof a growing global population (St. Louis et al., 2000). The authors estimate that greenhouse gas fluxes
from hydroelectric reservoirs only, which comprise 25% of the surface area of all reservoir types, could
reach approximately 15% of the global warming potential of all other current anthropogenic emissions.
Trade-off between adaptation and mitigation for sea level rise. Sea level rise is threatening a numberof countries by 2100 with severe consequences. Analysis using the FUND model (Climate Framework
for Uncertainty, Negotiation and Distribution) showed that adaptation would reduce potential impacts
by a factor 10–100 (Tol, 2007) coming at a minor cost compared to the damage avoided whereas
mitigation can reduce impacts only to a limited extent. Stabilising carbon dioxide concentrations at 550
ppm would cut impacts in 2100 by about 10%. That basic insight shows that adaptation and mitigation
are not just alternative policy options for climate change. If mitigation is higher, less adaptation isneeded, but there is also less adaptation possible or desirable. Adaptation and mitigation strategies
should be studied together.
The United Nations guidance (UN, 2009) provides five pragmatic suggestions for broadening climate
policy to take into account the linkages between adaptation and mitigation: (1) avoid trade-offs when
designing policies for mitigation or adaptation, (2) identify synergies, (3) enhance response capacity byenhancing the generic capacity to both adapt and mitigate through non-climate policies (education,
institutional capacity, etc.), (4) develop institutional links between adaptation and mitigation – e.g. innational institutions and in international negotiations, and (5) mainstream adaptation and mitigationconsiderations into broader sustainable development policies.

80Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CONCLUSIONS
Careful spatial planning should avoid trade-offs between mitigation and adaptation, and make it possible
to combine the reduction of vulnerability with mitigation of GHG emissions. Environmental impact
assessment and strategic environmental assessment should be applied to analyse the environmental
effects of proposed measures and to find an optimal prioritisation of the Multiple Uses and Functions of
Water Services (MUFS).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to the 16th World Lake Conference organizing committee for having given
them the opportunity to present the results of their research in Bali. This research was supported by
IUT 21-2 of the Estonian Ministry of Education and Research, and by MARS project (Managing Aquatic
ecosystems and water Resources under multiple Stress) funded under the 7th EU Framework
Programme, Theme 6 (Environment including Climate Change), Contract No.: 603378(http://www.mars-project.eu).
REFERENCES
1. Bachu, S. (2000) Sequestration of CO2 in geological media: criteria and approach for site selection
in response to climate change. Energy Conversion and Management 41: 953–970.
2. Baker, J.L. & Laflen, J.M. (1983). Effect of tillage systems on runoff losses of pesticides, a rainfall
simulation study. J. Soil Water Conserv. 38: 186–193.
3. Bonte, M., van Breukelen, B.M. & Stuyfzand, P.J. (2013) Temperature-induced impacts on
groundwater quality and arsenic mobility in anoxic aquifer sediments used for both drinking waterand shallow geothermal energy production. Water Research 47: 5088-5100.
4. Chisti, Y. & Yan, J. (2011) Energy from algae: Current status and future trends Algal biofuels – A
status report. Applied Energy 88: 3277–3279.
5. Cuperus, R., Canters, K.J., de Haes, U.H,A & Friedman, D.S. (1999) Guidelines for ecologicalcompensation associated with highways. Biological Conservation 90: 41–51.
6. Dai, A. (2011) Drought under global warming: a review. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate
Change 2: 45-65.
7. FAO (2008) Climate change adaptation and mitigation in the food and agriculture sector. Technicalbackground document from the expert consultation held on 5 to 7 March 2008. FAO, Rome, 17 pp.
8. Gilley, J.E. (1995) Tillage effects on infiltration, surface storage & overland flow. In: Farming for abetter environment: A White Paper. Soil and Water Conservation Society, Ankeny, IA, pp. 46–47.
9. Grafton, R.Q., Pittock, J., Davis, R., Williams, J., Fu, G., Warburton, M., Udall, B., McKenzie, R.,
Yu, X., Che, N., Connell, D., Jiang, Q., Kompas, T., Lynch, A., Norris, R., Possingham, H., &Quiggin, J. (2012) Global insights into water resources, climate change and governance. Nature
Climate Change 3: 315-321.
10. Hefting, M. M., Bobbink, R., & de Caluwe, H. (2003). Nitrous oxide emission and denitrification inchronically nitrate-loaded riparian buffer zones. Journal of Environmental Quality, 32(4), 11941203.
11. Hendry, K., Cragg-Hine, D., O’Grady, M., Sambrook, H. & Stephen, A. (2003). Management of
habitat for rehabilitation and enhancement of salmonid stocks. Fisheries Research 62: 171–192.
12. Herzog, H. & Golomb, D. (2004) Carbon Capture and Storage from Fossil Fuel Use. Encyclopediaof Energy, Volume 1. Article Number: NRGY: 00422, Elsevier.
13. Holland, J.M. (2004) The environmental consequences of adopting conservation tillage in Europe:
reviewing the evidence. Agriculture, Ecosystems and Environment 103: 1–25.
14. Houghton, R. A. (2007). Balancing the global carbon budget. Annu. Rev. Earth Planet. Sci. 35,
313–347
15. Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014. Climate Change 2014–Impacts, Adaptation
and Vulnerability: Regional Aspects. Cambridge University Press.
16. Kristmannsdottir, H. & Armannsson, H. (2003) Environmental aspects of geothermal energy
utilization. Geothermics 32: 451–461.
17. Leung, D.Y.C, Caramanna, G. & Maroto-Valer, M.M. (2014) An overview of current status of carbon
dioxide capture & storage technologies. Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 39:426–443.
18. Locatelli B., 2016. Ecosystem Services and Climate Change. In: Routledge Handbook of
Ecosystem Services. M. Potschin, R. Haines-Young, R. Fish and R.K. Turner (eds). Routledge,
London and New York, pp.481-490.

81

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

19. MacKay, M.D., Neale, P.J., Arp, C.D., De Senerpont Domis, L.N., Fang, X., Gal, G., Jöhnk, K.,
Kirillin, G., Lenters, J.D., Litchman, E., MacIntyre, S., Marsh, P., Melack, J., Mooij, W.M., Peeters,F., Quesada, A., Schladow, S.G., Schmid, M., Spence, C. & Stokes, S.L. (2009) Modelling lakes
and reservoirs in the climate system. Limnology & Oceanography 54: 2315–2329.
20. Meyers, W.H. Ziolkowska, J.R., Tothova, M. & Goychuk, K. (2012) Issues Affecting the Future ofAgriculture and Food Security for Europe and Central Asia. FAO Regional Office for Europe andCentral Asia Policy Studies on Rural Transition No. 2012-3. 173 pp.
21. Micklin, P (2007). The Aral Sea disaster. Annual Review of Earth & Planetary Sciences 35:47-72.
22. Mulholland, P. J., Helton, A. M., Poole, G. C., Hall, R. O., Hamilton, S. K., Peterson, B. J., ... &Dodds, W. K. (2008). Stream denitrification across biomes and its response to anthropogenic
nitrate loading. Nature, 452(7184), 202-205.
23. Nixon, S. (2008). Summary of information received from Member States on best practices andapproaches for a climate check of the first Programmes of Measures. WRc Report to the Strategic
Steering Group on Climate Change and Water. Version no. 2, 21 August 2008.
24. Nõges, T., Nõges, P., & Cardoso, A. C. (2010). Review of published climate change adaptationand mitigation measures related with water. Scientific and Technical Research Series EUR, 24682.
25. OECD (2013), Water and Climate Change Adaptation: Policies to Navigate Uncharted Waters,
OECD Studies on Water, OECD Publishing. http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/9789264200449-en
26. Paton, F.L., Maier, H.R. and Dandy G.C. (2014), Including adaptation and mitigation responses toclimate change in a multiobjective evolutionary algorithm framework for urban water supply
systems incorporating GHG emissions, Water Resources Research 50: 6285–6304,
27. Penuelas, J., Poulter, B., Sardans, J., Ciais, P., van der Velde, M., Bopp, L., Boucher, O., Godderis,Y., Hinsinger, P., Llusia, J. & Nardin, E. (2013). Human-induced nitrogen–phosphorus imbalancesalter natural and managed ecosystems across the globe. Nature Communications, 4: 2934.
28. Peterjohn, W.T. & Correll, D.L. (1984) Nutrient dynamics in an agricultural watershed: observations
on the role of a riparian forest. Ecology 1984, 65:1466-75.
29. Rasmussen, K.J. (1999) Impact of ploughless soil tillage on yield and soil quality: a Scandinavian
review. Soil Till. Res. 53: 3–14.
30. Rothausen, S.G.S.A. & Conway, D. (2011) Greenhouse-gas emissions from energy use in thewater sector, Nature Climate Change 1: 210–219.
31. Shen, Y. & Diplas, P. (2010) Modeling unsteady flow characteristics of hydropeaking operations
and their implications on fish habitat. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering 136: 1053–1066.
32. St. Louis, V.L., Kelly, C.A., Duchemin, É., Rudd, J.W.M. & Rosenberg, D.M. (2000) Reservoir
Surfaces as Sources of Greenhouse Gases to the Atmosphere: A Global Estimate. BioScience 50:
766-775.
33. Stips, A., Macias, D., Coughlan, C., Garcia-Gorriz, E. and San Liang, X., 2016. On the causal
structure between CO2 and global temperature. Scientific reports, 6:21691, DOI:
10.1038/srep21691
34. Stokes, C.S., Simpson, A.R. & Maier, H.R. (2014) The cost–greenhouse gas emission nexus forwater distribution systems including the consideration of energy generating infrastructure: anintegrated conceptual optimization framework and review of literature. Earth Perspectives1:9
35. Tilman, D., Socolow, R., Foley, J.A., Hill, J., Larson, E., Lynd, L., Pacala, S., Reilly, J., Searchinger,
T., Somerville, C. & Williams, R. (2009) Beneficial biofuels — the food, energy, and environment
trilemma. Science 325: 270–271.
36. Tol, R.S.J. (2007). The double trade-off between adaptation and mitigation for sea level rise: anapplication of FUND. Mitigation and Adaptation Strategies for Global Change 12:741–753
37. Trabucco, A., Zomer, R. J., Bossio, D. A., van Straaten, O., & Verchot, L. V. (2008). Climate change
mitigation through afforestation/reforestation: a global analysis of hydrologic impacts with four casestudies. Agriculture, ecosystems & environment, 126(1), 81-97.
38. UN (2009) Guidance on water and adaptation to climate change. United Nations, New-York andGeneva, 144 pp.
39. Urbanová, Z., Picek, T., & Bárta, J. (2011). Effect of peat re-wetting on carbon and nutrient fluxes,
greenhouse gas production and diversity of methanogenic archaeal community. EcologicalEngineering, 37(7), 1017-1026.
40. US EPA (2001) Functions and values of wetlands. Factsheet EPA 843-F-01-002c.
41. WFD CIS (2009). River basin management in a changing climate. Common Implementation
Strategy for the Water Framework Directive (2000/60/EC). Guidance document No. 24. European
Commission. 141 pp.

82

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

42. Woodward, K.B., Fellows, C.S., Conway, C.L. & Hunter, H.M., (2009). Nitrate removal,
denitrification and nitrous oxide production in the riparian zone of an ephemeral stream. Soil
Biology and Biochemistry 41: 671-680.
43. Yang, J., Xu, M., Zhang, X., Hu, Q., Sommerfeld, M. & Chen, Y. (2011) Life-cycle analysis on
biodiesel production from microalgae: water footprint and nutrients balance. Bioresources
Technology 102:159–65.
44. Yu, B., & Xu, L. (2016). Review of ecological compensation in hydropower development.
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews, 55, 729-738.

83

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

PEOPLE’S ACTIVITIES IN LAKE DANAO, PACIJAN ISLAND, CEBU, PHILIPPINES
Serapion N. Tanduyan*, Genes M. Pasaje, Ricardo B. Gonzaga, Wilfredo G. Anoos, Homer
Gaciano, Norberto B. Andrade, Eva P. Muaña, Gabriel T. Muaña, Leif Erickson Tampus,
Jonar Gonzales, Berenice T. Andriano, Lorenzo B. Andriano and Aderito Gonzales II
Cebu Technological University, San Francisco Campus, San Francisco, Cebu, Philippines*Corresponding email: sntanduyan@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Pacijan Island is blessed to have Lake Danao as the largest and cleanest lake throughout Region 7
and one to the tourist destinations in Camotes islands. The study on people’s activity was made to findout their effects to the lake as well as their nature, problems and solutions. Actual interview with the
respondents and visits in the Lake Danao and workplace of the respondents was using an interview
guide to gather data throughout the barangays surrounding the lake namely, Northern Poblacion, Sta.
Cruz, Cabunga-an, Esperanza, Union and Campo. Results as to capture fisheries shows that pole andline dominates as the fishing gadget throughout the six barangays followed by spear fishing, fish pots,drag seine and gillnet. Fishes caught are tilapia, mudfish, freshwater catfish, climbing perch, therapon,
shrimps and goby. Aquaculture activities were only done by the BFAR-7 and D.A- Municipal Office.
Post-harvest processing of caught fishes were drying, frying, pickled, stewed, broiled and tinola.
Agricultural activities are planting corn, rice, coconut, cassava, vegetables and cow and chicken raising.
Recreational activities and business includes the construction and operation of Green Lake Park, White
Lake Park, bike trail, and sakanaw. Conservation and sustainability of Lake Danao as an aquatic site
involves Lake Danao Clean-up, clearing the area and tree planting. Problems encountered are stealingof caught fish in fish pots, restricting fishing, using gillnets becomes a problem because fishing is the
major livelihood of the people. Soli-soli weavers have no specific areas for gathering the raw materials.
Rainy season becomes their problem because the soli-soli is not thoroughly and immediately dried
resulting to poor quality of the product. Perceptions as to the conditions of the lake show that during
summer months water is shallower and during rainy days the water is very deep. Crocodiles, leeches
and land turtles are already gone and replaced by therapons. Species of birds are diminishing due todisturbance and hurting of birds which were stopped for the last 10 years. The people participate inmaintaining the lake for its sustainabilty
Keywords: Lake Danao, Pacijan Island
INTRODUCTION
There are millions of Filipinos who are dependent on fishing and fisheries as their livelihood. Thisaccounts on the fact that our country is rich in fishery resources and presently unemployment problem
besets the country. Furthermore, being an archipelago it as long and wider coastal and freshwater areas
where most of the Filipinos prefer to live in the fishing villages. Human population increases andCamotes island is not exempted of this social phenomenon. Camotes Island is having freshwater areas
where it inhabits flora and fauna which can be of use to the people economically and socially. Due tothis, Perez and Mendoza (1998) commented that the aquatic biodiversity is threatened because ahigher population which means more mouths to feed. Resource extraction has increased like fishingand gleaning including the types of implements used and the rate of extraction contributed to thedeclined catch in the lakes and other freshwater areas in the country. Pacijan lsand is one of islands inCamotes island has Lake Danao which is a picturesque eight- shaped inland body of water with an areaof 649 ha with a 1-acre (4,047 sq.m.) islet at the middle. It is the largest and longest lake in the Visayas(Tanduyan and Bontia, 2001). It is surrounded by six out of 15 barangays in the town of San Francisco,
Cebu. The lake supplies water to the rice fields in Sitio Danao and Patabog. Its shoreline ranges fromrocky to soft mud. The type of soil is coarse, silty and sandy. The depth of the water ranges from 27290C. Water has a pH of 8.5-9.0. Salinity ranges from 0-0.5 ppt. The lake water is free from pollutants,
except for some allochthonous materials (Station Profile of Carmen Lake Danao Fishery
Complex/Research Station for Freshwater Fisheries Development Zone, Union, San Francisco, Cebu.
1995). It has no definite inlet and outlet, but it is presumed that a subterranean spring supplies water tothe lake. Assorted vegetation such as hydrilla, water lily, water hyacinth, and kangkong “Ipomaea
aquatica are found in the lake. “Soli-soli”, palawan, nipa and coconuts grow along the periphery of thelake. The “soli-soli” plant (Typha latifolia) present in the lake are made into different articles like mat,hat, centerpiece, bags of different styles, wall décor and doormats to enhance the cottage industry of
the inhabitants. It has also some fishes and invertebrates inhabiting in Lake Danao. The lake is a tourist

84

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

attraction where boat trips could be for recreation. Majority of the households living nearby the lakecatch fish in the lake for food and for the market. The lake is also used for bathing and washing ofclothes.
Objectives of the study
The objectives of the study are to determine the activities of the people in Lake Danao which include
either fishing, aquaculture, post-harvest processing, agriculture and other businesses. To find out theeffects of the activities to the lake like environmental and socio-economic To find out the problems met
by the people on doing such activities and to find out the proposed solutions they made to solve theproblems
MATERIALS AND METHODS
Study Sites
Lake Danao of Pacijan Island with San Francisco as the municipality is the focus of the study. Pacijan
Island is one of the Islands of Camotes where it is located in the Northern part of the Cebu province
under 5th district. It has an area of 649 has and with six barangays surrounding it. People representing
the six barangays namely: Northern Poblacion, Sta Cruz, Cabonga-an, Esperanza, Union and Campowere interviewed to gather the data (Fig. 3).
Map of the Research Area

Fig. 1. Map of the Philippines

Fig. 2. Map of Cebu
Fig. 3. Map of Camotes Island

Fig. 4. Map of Lake Danao, San Francisco (Photofrom San Francisco Lake Danao Report)
METHODSThis study is a descriptive research using interview guide in gathering the data. Actual interview of the
respondents and field visits were done to get empirical data. A self-made questionnaire was usedreflective of questions related to the objectives sought.

85

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Fishing Activites
Table 1 presents the fishing activities in Lake Danao. It is noted that the use pole and line as the methodof gathering fishes in Lake Danao was the most dominant (149) followed by the use of gill net(144)the use of fishpo t(87) ;the use of fish scare (sinsin) comes next (36) and spear fishing is the last
(8).This is distributed throughout the six barangays surrounding the lake.
Table 1. Fishing Activities in Lake Danao San Francisco, Cebu
Barangay/
Natureof Pole and Line Fish
Pot GillNet
Fishing(Numberof (Numberof (Number ofUsers)
Users)
Users)

10

5
10
None

Fish
Care
(Sin-sin)(Number ofUsers)
5
10
None

5

17

22

12

-

15

18

15

-

-

2
5

3
7

5
7

4
5

5
3

5. Cabunga-an-Batang-Timobo
-Ubos

20
25
30

5
13
4

19
26
7

-

-

6. Esperanza
-Igot

15

10

28

-

-

Total

149

87

144

36

8

1. Union Proper- Patabog-Kantuwak

7
15
10

-

2. Campo-Canuche
3. Northern
Poblacion-Danao4. Sta. Cruz
-Li-ong-LawisFig.5. Pole and Line
used for fishing

Fig. 7. Hook and Line

Fig. 6. Fish pot

Spear
Fishing(NumberofUsers)-

Fig. 8. Gill net

Aquaculture Activities
Table 2 Presents the aquaculture activities in Lake Danao. It is noted that Union proper where the
BFAR Research Outreach Station is located has dominated the aquaculture facility which ranges from86

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

fish cages (31 units) followed by Northern Poblacion (10units). It has one fish pen and 12 units fishtanks.
Table 2. Aquaculture Activities in Lake Danao, San Francisco, Cebu, Philippines
Barangay/Aquaculture Facility
Fish Cage Hapa Net
Fish pen Fish Tank
1. Union Proper (BFAR)
30 units
3
1
12 units-SitioPatabog
1
None-SitioKantuwak
2. Campo-SitioCanuche
3. Northern Poblacion-SitioDanao
4. Sta. Cruz
-SitioLi-ong-SitioLawis
5. Cabunga-an-SitioBatang-SitioTimobo-SitioUbos
6. Esperanza-SitioIgot
Total

Fig. 9 Fish cages

10 units

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

41

3

1

12

Fig. 12 Fish pensFig. 11 Hapa net

Fig. 10 Fish Tank

Post-Harvest Activities
Table 3 presents the post-harvest activities of the people in Lake Danao. Stewed, pickled fishes andfried fish preparations dominated among other post-harvest fish preparation. This is followed by broilingand drying. Canning of tilapia and other fishes in Lake Danao was done experimentally by the students
in the Cebu Technological University.
Table 3. Post-Harvest Activities in Lake Danao, San Francisco, Cebu
Barangay/Households
DryingBroiling
Pickled fish
StewedFried
1. Union Proper (BFAR)
5
20
150
200
-SitioPatabog
35
25
94
94
-SitioKantuwak
22
22
91
91
2. Campo-SitioCanuche
3. Northern Poblacion-SitioDanao
4. Sta. Cruz
-SitioLi-ong-SitioLawis
5. Cabunga-an-SitioBatang-SitioTimobo-SitioUbos
6. Esperanza-SitioIgot
Total

5

20

60

60

5

25

68

70

3
12

30
30

67
69

67
69

25
4
15

25
10
40

63
20
85

63
30
85

30
161

42
289

121
887

121
950

87

855

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference.

Fig. 13. Fish processing done by the students of Cebu Technological
University, San Francisco Campus
Agricultural Activities
Table 4. presents the agricultural activities around Lake Danao. Rice farming dominated in Lake Danao
consisting of 51 families followed by corn farming which (42) and then vegetable gardening. Northern
Poblacion particularly in Sitio Danao and Sitio Canuche and Cabonga-an.
Table 4. Agricultural Activities in Lake Danao San Francisco, Cebu
Barangay
Corn
Rice
BananaKangk Ampa
onglaya
1. Union Proper (BFAR)
1
1
1-SitioPatabog-SitioKantuwak
3
3
1
5
3
2. Campo-SitioCanuche
3. Northern Poblacion-SitoDanao
4. Sta. Cruz
-SitioLi-ong-SitioLawis
5. Cabunga-an-SitioBatang-SitioTimobo-SitioUbos
6. Esperanza-SitioIgot
Total

Fig. 14 The corn farm

Egg
plant
1

Stringbeans-

Pepper

Okra

1

1

5
10

1
1

5
5

10
3

5

15

4

-

-

-

2

-

-

10

25

10

1

5

5

3

2

2

3
6

-

5
8

-

-

-

2
-

3
3

2
3

-

5
6

2
2
3

1
2

-

-

-

-

3
6

10
43

51

10
51

4

7

21

9

19

30

Fig. 15 Newly
harvested rice field

88

Fig. 16 Bananas
plantation

Fig. 17 Kangkong
plantation

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Fig. 21. Okra
Fig. 20. Pepper
Fig. 19. String
beans
Table 5 presents the different businesses activities engaged by the people of Lake Danao.Barangay
Union tops among the businesses activities in Lake Danao followed by Cabunga-an and Sta. Cruz andNorthern Poblacion. No business activities happened in Esperanza particularly in SitioIgot. Soli-soli
waving tops among the businesses followed by nipa shingles making. This plant (soli-soli and nipa) arecommonly found along the shores of Lake Danao that is why this business proliferates here.
Union Proper tops among the barangays surrounding Lake Danao it is because of the presents of theLake Danao Park and Green Lake Park. In here, boat tour around in Lake Danao happens using
Sakanaw (boat of Lake Danao) where tourist are moved around the Lake by this boat with a fare of
Php.500/trip. Several row boats and other boat rides were done so people usually are gathered here
for the viewing Lake Danao. Naturally other businesses like entertainment, food and hotel are present.
Green Lake Hotel is built near the Lake Danao Park. Barangay Cabunga-an has also a hotel where itis named as White Lake Hotel with some entertainment activities.
Fig. 18.
Egg plant
Other
Businesses

Table 5. Other Businesses in Lake Danao San Francisco, Cebu
Recreati FoodEntertain
Barangayonal
ment
1. Union Proper (BFAR)-SitioPatabog-SitioKantuwak
2. Campo-SitioCanuche
3. Northern Poblacion-SitioDanao
4. Sta. Cruz
-SitioLi-ong-SitioLawis
5. Cabunga-an-SitioBatang-SitioTimobo-SitioUbos
6. Esperanza-SitioIgot
Total

Fig. 22. Lake Danao Park

-

✓

-

✓

-

✓

Hotel

-

Nipa(Nyphafruticans)
ShinglesSoli-soli(Typhalatif
olia)
weaving

✓
✓

✓
✓

✓

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

-

✓

✓

-

-

-

-

✓
✓

✓
✓

-

-

-

-

1

2

2

✓

✓

-

✓

2

Fig. 23. Tandem boat and Sakanaw

89

7

✓

✓
✓

-

✓

7

Fig. 24. Duck raw
boatProceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Fig. 25. Green Lake Park

Fig. 27. Foodbusinesses

Fig. 26. Horseback

RidingFig. 28. White Lake Park and Hotel

Fig. 29. Kanlingiw swimming pool, Lake Danao Park

Fig. 31. Nipa plantFig. 34. The thoroughly
dried soli-soli ready forwaving into different articles

Fig. 32. Nipa shingles

makingFig. 35. Actual weavingof soli-soli into mats90

Fig. 30. Entertainment businessFig. 33. Drying soli-soli (Typhalatifolia)

Fig.36. Almost done
weaving of soli-solimatsFig. 37. Finishedproduct of soli-solimatsProceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Environmental Conservation Activities
Table 6 presents the Environmental activities of the People. Although there were extractions made by
the people they also participated in Lake Danao Clean-Up, tree planting and clearing of the lake
periphery. These are some of the positive values of the people.
Table 6. Environmental Conservation Activities in Lake Danao, San Francisco, Cebu
Activity
Date
1. Lake Clean-Up
In September 18, each year simultaneously withinternational Coastal Clean-Up
2. Cleaning the area.
The peripheral part of the Lake are As ordered by the LGU
cleared of its grasses and small shrubs
to widened the area for the bike trail
3. Tree planting
The people will engage in tree planting as As ordered by the LGUpart of the environmental conservation
program.
Effects of the Activities
Table 7 presents the perception of the people in Lake in term of environmental and socio economic
aspects. As perceived by the inhabitants in the Lake climate change has affected the abundance ofplants and animals especially during summer. There is low water level in the Lake during summer
people will go on fishing (especially the soli-soli weavers and soli-soli shingles maker) due to lessabundance of this plants during summer. However some pare occupied by these plants are developed
into bike trail and Lake Danao Park and White Lake Park this add livelihood options for the people.
Table 7. The effects of the activities to the Lake in terms of Environmental and Socio-Economic Aspects
Environmental Effects
Socio-economicEffects
Due to climate change during summer the The people went on fishing mostly when soli-soli
water level in Lake Danao is very much lower weaving and nipa shingles making have less market,
today than before. Many plants and animals A part of the area occupied by nipa and soli-soli are
were lost during this time unlike before.
now developed into bike trail, Lake Danao Park andWhite Lake Resort found in Ubos, Cabunga-an.

Fig. 38. Bike trail
Use of Water in Lake Danao
Table 8 presents the use of water in the Lake. Human and Animal bathing tops among the uses ofwater throughout the barangays around the Lake. Followed by washing, deep well pumping forhousehold use. Two water refilling stations were established in barangay Campo and Union.

91Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 8. Use of Water in Lake Danao, San Francisco, Cebu
Barangay/Water
Water
Washing Drinking Bathingrefilling
Human
Human
Human
1. Union
2. Campo
3.NorthernPob.
4. Sta. Cruz
5. Cabunga-an
6. Esperanza
Total

Fig. 39. Water
refilling station

✓
✓
2

-

4

Fig. 40. Washing
their clothes

Animal Bathing

✓

✓
✓

✓
✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓
✓
✓

✓
✓

✓
✓
✓

✓
✓
✓

4

6

Fig. 41. Bathing

6(Carabao and tied
domisticatedpigs )Fig. 42. Deep well
pumping

Deepwellpumping✓✓✓✓
4

Fig. 43. The deep well

Problems met by the People in Lake Danao
Table 9 presents the problems meet by the people of Lake Danao as they underwent on their activities.
It was shown that catching regulation of the fishes of the Lake was the no. 1 problem including size limitof mesh size of gill nets. Followed by pilferage of fishes caught and gill nets and fish pots and marketingof soli-soli during lean months.

92

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 9. Problems met by the People in Lake Danao
Inhabitants
Problems
Union
Campo
Northern
Sta.
Cabungaan
Esperanza
PoblacionCruz
1. Pilferage of fishes✓✓✓✓
caught in gill nets and fishpots
2. Periodic regulations on
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
banning of catching fishes
in the lake
3. Size limit of mesh size of
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
gill nets
4. total banning of the use✓✓of drag seine locally known
as sinsin
5. Unfavorable climatic✓✓condition in drying andprocessing of soli-soli
6. Stealing of dried and✓newly -harvested soli-soli
7. Marketing of soli-soli✓✓✓
during lean months from
June to September
8. Less guests during week✓✓days
experiencedbyresorts owners
9. Legality of ownership of✓videoke entertainment bar
10. Some people will get✓✓
the dried soli –soli
11. Difficulty of drying solisoli during rainy seasonshence
soli-soli
article✓✓✓✓✓✓making will be affected.
Total
10
7
4
4
6
4
Socio- Economic Effects of People’s Activities in Lake Danao
Table 10 presents the socio-economics effects of the people’s activities in Lake Danao. It shows that
their activities satisfy the food requirements of the people as well buying minor appliances. This wasfollowed by house-construction and other needs such as buying of fertilizers, clothes and others. Thismeans that the activities are purely for food consumption and buying of other minor necessities of thefamily. This further means that people living in Lake Danao are low income families.
Table 10. Socio- Economic Effects of People’s Activities in Lake Danao
Fishing1.
House
construction
2. Food
3. Purchase ofminor appliances
4.Aquasitionofmotorcycle throughthe activities
5.
Other basic
needs such as
buying of fertilizer,
clothes, etc.
Total

Agriculture✓✓✓

Business
resorts
✓

✓
✓

Parks

Entertainment

✓

✓
✓

✓
✓

✓

✓
3

3

✓
5

93

Soli-soli

✓
3

4

✓
✓

✓
✓

✓

✓

✓

✓
5

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Perceived Environmental Effects of People’s Activities in Lake Danao
Table 11 presents the perceived environmental effects of Lake Danao. There is over extraction of theresource through fishing. Same with soli-soli plants and cutting of trees. The use of fertilizer usually isleached into the Lake during rainy seasons and also bathing will contribute pollution of the water.
However, due to the monitoring of the physico-chemical components in the lake it showed that all valuesin pH, D.O. and transparency are still on normal values.
Table 11. Perceived Environmental Effects of People’s Activities in Lake Danao
Activities

Union

Campo

1. Over extraction of theresource
2. Cutting of Trees
3. Pollution of the Lake

✓

✓

✓

4. Fishing
5. Agriculture
6. Business
7. Parks
8. Entertainment
9. Soli-soli industry
10. Bathing and washing ofclothes
Total

✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓
✓

✓
Leaching of
fertilizers
into the Lake
✓
✓
✓

9

Northern
Poblacion

Sta. Cruz

Cabunga-an

Esperanza

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓
✓
✓

✓
✓
✓

✓
✓
✓
✓
✓

✓
✓
✓

✓

✓

✓

✓

✓
✓
7

5

5

7

5

Proposed Solutions in Solving the Problems by the People living in the Lake Danao
Table 12 presents the problems and proposed solutions by the people. It shows that on the banning
regulations on fishing, they just follow the ordinance. Drying of Soli-soli during rainy days was done intheir homes. Marketing problems of Soli-soli during lean months will be expanded to nearby Cities like
Ormoc City, Leyte and in Cebu City.
Table 12. Proposed Solutions in Solving the Problems by the People living in the Lake Danao
Problems
Proposed Solutions
1. Pilferage of fishes caught in gill nets and fish pots
None
2. Periodic regulations on banning of catching fishes in Just follow the ordinancethe lake
3. Size limit of mesh size of gill nets
Just follow the ordinance
4. Total banning of the use of drag seine locally known Just follow the ordinanceas sinsin
5. Unfavorable climatic condition in drying and Air drying of soli-soli strips in their homes or working area
processing of soli-soli
6. Stealing of dried and newly -harvested soli-soliHarvested soli-soli were brought directly to their work
place and dried with their close supervision
7. Marketing of soli-soli during lean months from June to Expanding their market outlet to Ormoc City or Cebu City
Septembersince there is less demand in the local market
8. Less guests during week days experienced by resorts Noneowners
9. Legality of ownership of videoke entertainment bar
Presenting authentic documents claiming as the legal
owner of the lot of videoke bar.
DISCUSSIONS
Fishing Activities in Lake Danao
The use of different fishing methods (Table 1) and the number of fishermen dominated in Barangay
Cabunga-an. This is so because the deepest part of the Lake was found in the place and usually deeper
part of the Lake usually serves as resting place of the fishes and other organisms. This is also the least
disturbed area in the whole lake. Pole and line tops among the fishing methods because the local

94

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

government of Pacijan Island prohibits the use of fine meshed net in fishing so people just adopt mostly
this fishing method.
Aquaculture Activities in Lake Danao
The LGU limits the construction of Aquaculture facility in Lake Danao and this is only given to BFAR,
CTU and DA. Only these 3 government agencies were allowed to establish aquaculture facilities in Lake
Danao. No private individuals or corporation are allowed. This is so because the LGU wanted tomaintain the natural freshness of the Lake environment. And by letting the government agencies
engage in it since these agencies serves also as a regulating body of the aquaculture activities in theLake. The LGU wanted this to be maintained since the Lake is a titlist as the first runner up of thecleanest and greenish Lake in the whole Philippines.
Post-harvest Activities in Lake Danao
Stewed, pickling and fried fish preparations dominated in post-harvest preparation of the fishes caught
in Lake Danao since this is more on family consumption. The fishes caught in lake Danao has somewhat
fishy odor so frying, stewing and pickling usually are the ones used by the people in cooking the fishsince usually this uses the vinegar and other condiments to ease away the fishy odor.
Agriculture Activities in Lake Danao
Rice farming was only done in Campo, Northern Poblacion and Cabunga-anit is because thesebarangays are the low elevated barangays surrounding Lake Danao. Other barangays are highly
elevated that is why the people resorted to the planting of corn and vegetables.
Uses of Water in Lake Danao
Bathing of human and animals are dominant uses of water in the Lake. However, this are not frequently
done since most of them have deep well locally known as “atabay” as a source of water for householdbathing, washing and other uses.
Problems met by the peoples in Lake Danao
Periodic regulation on banning the size limit catching of fishes and the use of small mesh size of gillnets are the number one problem of the people due to the desire of the LGU and other agencies in San
Francisco in Lake Danao Management banning was done so as not to deplete the resources in theLake. Although it has been explained to them the benefits of minimizing the catching activity, still there
and other individuals who really don’t understand the essence of the restrictions. People usually of thistype are thinking of the present needs not on the future effects of the activity. Maybe more explanation
through public hearing scheme be done to let the people fully knew the reasons of doing such
restrictions. Another problem is marketing of soli-soli during lean months. Vacation time like December
to January, during fiestas (March each year) and during summer soli-soli products and salable at thistime. Lean months include during the months of July to October. There is the problem of soli-soli
products dealers. However, it is suggested that the government will have to establish a marketing
scheme of these products and may provide other livelihood options for these as to solve problems
during lean months. Simultaneously, there are less guests on hotels on these months.
CONCLUSIONS
1. There are five major activities of people living near Lake Danao which are fisheries, agriculture,businesses, bathing and washing of clothes.
2. The dominant activities are the fishery activities followed by businesses, agriculture, bathing andwashing of clothes.
3. Extraction of fishery resources was great and are regulated by ordinance limiting size limits ofgears used.
4. Socio-economic effects of the fishing activities range from construction of their houses up to foodand other basic needs.
5. Pilferage of caught fishes in in the fishing gears, unfavorable climatic/weather condition felt bysolisoli weavers and periodic banning of the catching of the fishes in the lake are the major perceived
problems met by the people living near the lake.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Proper dissemination on ordinances relative to lake operations and resource extraction be madeso that the people will have a thorough knowledge of them.
2. Alternative livelihood be given to Lake Danao dwellers and users to prevent over extraction of theresource.

95

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

3. The Soli-soli weavers and other resource users in Lake Danao will be organized through theinitiative of the San Francisco LGU units to facilitate the marketing of the products out of soli-soliand other resources in the Lake.
REFERENCE
1. Araullo, DB. 2001. Aquaculture practices and their impacts on Philippine lakes In CB Santiago, ML
Cuvin-Aralar and ZU Basiao (Eds.). Conservation and Ecological Management of Philippine Lakes
in Relation to Fisheries and Aquaculture. Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center,
Aquaculture Department, Iloilo, Philippines; Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Researchand Development, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines; and Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources, Quezon City, Philippines, 187 pp.
2. Castillo, L.V. Lake Ecosystem p.10 In Palma A.L.; Bartolome B, Castillo L. Darwin L. (2005). Basic
Principles on the Management of Philippine Lakes. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
Quezon City, Philippines and Phil. Council for Aquatic and Marine research and Development. Los
Banos Laguna 154 pp.
3. Conlu, PV. 1986. Guide to Philippine Flora and Fauna. JMC Press Incorporated. Quezon City,
Philippines 493pp.
4. Guerrero III RD. 2001. Sustainable development of Philippine lake resources: An agenda forresearch and development, pp. 19-23. In CB Santiago, ML Cuvin-Aralar and ZU Basiao (Eds.).
Conservation and Ecological Management of Philippine Lakes in Relation to Fisheries andAquaculture. Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department, Iloilo,
Philippines; Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, Los Banos,
Laguna, Philippines; and Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Quezon City, Philippines,
187 pp.
5. L.S. Mendoza (unpublished report) Institute of Fish Processing Technology College of Fisheries
UPV.
6. PalmaA.L.Introduction p.1 In Palma A.L.; Bartolome B, Castillo L. Darwin L. (2005). Basic
Principles on the Management of Philippine Lakes. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
Quezon City, Philippines and Phil. Council for Aquatic and Marine research and Development. Los
Banos Laguna 154 pp.
7. Perez, F.F. and J.J. Mendoza. 1998. Marine Fisheries Genetic Effects and Biodiversity, NAGA, theICLARM Quarterly (October- December 1998) pp. 7-14
8. Platon RR. 2001. SEAFDEC Contribution to the ecological awareness of Philippine lakes, pp. 1317. In CB Santiago, ML Cuvin-Aralar and ZU Basiao (Eds.). Conservation and EcologicalManagement of Philippine Lakes in Relation to Fisheries and Aquaculture. Southeast Asian
Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department, Iloilo, Philippines; Philippine Council for
Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines; and Bureau ofFisheries and Aquatic Resources, Quezon City, Philippines, 187 pp.
9. Tanduyan, SN. and PC. Bontia. 2001. Fish Culture in Cages in Lake Danao, Cebu, pp. 109-112.
In CB Santiago, ML Cuvin-Aralar and ZU Basiao (Eds.). Conservation and Ecological Managementof Philippine Lakes in Relation to Fisheries and Aquaculture. Southeast Asian Fisheries
Development Center, Aquaculture Department, Iloilo, Philippines; Philippine Council for Aquaticand Marine Research and Development, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines; and Bureau of Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources, Quezon City, Philippines, 187 pp.

96

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

EFFORTS TO IMPROVE WATER QUALITY IN LAKE KASUMIGAURA BY IBARAKI
PREFECTURAL GOVERNMENT
1*
Kunika Soma , Tatsumi Kitamura1, TakeshiOuchi1, Takuo Nemezawa1, Hiroyuki
Kashimura1, Yoshinao Nakazawa1 and Mieko Kuwana1
Environmental management division, Ibaraki prefectural Government, Japan*Corresponding author: k.souma@pref.ibaraki.lg.jp

1

ABSTRACT
Lake Kasumigaura is the second largest lake in Japan and a million people lives Kasumigaura
watershed. Lake Kasumigaura is expected to support economic development of Ibaraki and themetropolitan area as precious water resources. However, the economy developed caused deteriorationof lake water quality. Therefore, Ibaraki Prefectural Government has placed Lake Kasumigaura water
purification at important prefectural administration and has formulated Lake Kasumigaura Water Quality
Conservation plan for 30years. The plan consists of various efforts i.e. Household Wastewater
Management, Livestock Waste Management, Agricultural Measures, etc. Ibaraki Prefecture make
Prevent Eutrophication in Lake Kasumigaura ordinance was established in 1982(reformed theOrdinance to Water Conservation in Lake Kasumigaura in 2007). The ordinance focused on the idea of
reducing the amount of nitrogen and phosphate in the wastewater and included a ban on the use andsale of phosphorus detergent and the strict wastewater standards for the factories. In 2005, Ibaraki
Kasumigaura Environmental Science Center was established to conduct the conservation of rivers andlakes, as an opportunity which the Governor propose its establishment during the 6th World Lake
Conference held in Ibaraki prefecture in 1995.Moreover, to be a financial source to conserve lake
Kasumigaura project, Ibaraki Prefectural Government introduced a local tax called ‘Forest and Lake
Environment Conservation Tax’ in 2008. As a result of these efforts, economy and population havebeen growing up whereas Lake Kasumigaura water quality remains on the same level recent years.
Keywords: Lake Kasumigaura, Water Quality Conservation plan, Eutrophication, Ibaraki
Kasumigaura Environmental Science Center, Forest and Lake Environment Conservation Tax
INTRODUCTION
Lake Kasumigaura is located in the plains of southern Ibaraki Prefecture (Fig.1). It is the second largest
lake in Japan. Lake Kasumigaura attracted attention early on as an important resource for thedevelopment of Ibaraki prefecture. This water is divided among agricultural use, industrial use, andpublic water supply. The region is a major agricultural production area, and is also experiencing marked
urbanization. As of 2010, about 973,000 people live in the basin (Table.1). It is extremely shallow lakeas the average depth is 4m. For this reason, Kasumigaura is at high risk of pollution.
Examining the trends in water quality, it can be noted that in the late1950s and 1960s, COD Mn (theamount of oxygen consumed when organic substances in water are decomposed by chemical oxidants)
hovered around 3~4 mg/L level. The increase of economic activities in the basin starting in the 1970s
rapidly brought pollution. In 1979, CODMn climbed 11 mg/L, the highest pollution level in the history of
the lake to date (Fig.2).
THE SYSTEM FOR WATER QUALITY IMPROVEMENT
The pollution process of Lake Kasumigaura is a complex one indeed. In order to come up with aneffective system to improve the Lake’s water quality, many different kinds of measures must be taken
to combat each factor causing the pollution. It is this kind of thinking that has given rise to a consolidated
system based on eutrophication in Lake Kasumigaura ordinance and the Water Quality Conservation
Plan for Lake Kasumigaura.

97

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Location of Lake Kasumigaura

10
8
6
2012

2007

2002

1997

1992

1987

1982

1977

4
1972

CODMn (mg/L)

12

Figure 2. CODMn
Table 1. Statistics Lake Kasumigaura
Category
Item
OriginMaximum Depth
Average Depth
Lake
Surface area
Shoreline
VolumeAverage water turnover
Surface area
Municipalities in the watershed
Watershed area
area
Watershed-area population

Unit
m
m
km2
km
Billion m3
days
km2

Lake Kasumigaura
Inland sea
7
4
220
252
Approx. 0.85
Approx. 200
2,157

-

24

-

Approx.973,000people(2011)

POLICY DETAIL
1. Household measures (Domestic wastewater)
It is very important to treat both black water (the waste water from toilet) and gray water (the waste
water from kitchen, washing and bathing) about household measures.
・Fundamental to household measures is the installation of sewage systems.Sewage systems are
required populous areas. The growth rate of the population supported by the sewage system serving
Kasumigaura Lake has increased.
・Integrated johkaso(a kind of septic tank) treatment systems are desirable in places where there are
no sewage systems. In kasumigaura watershed, Installation of Nitrogen and phosphorous removal type
Johkaso is required. Ibaraki prefectural government have established subsidies to promote this type
Johkaso.
Tandoku-shorijohkaso which is designed for treating wastewater from exclusively flush toilets wereforbidden in Kasumigaura watershed.

98Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

2. Agricultural measures
Essential guidelines have been established for fertilization, water control and healthy soil building
methods conducive to the prevention of fertilizer run-off from paddies and dry fields.
・Acknowledgement of eco-friendly farmers is to be promoted to reduce the use of chemical fertilizer
and agricultural chemicals.
・Advice is given using a computer tool called ‘Fertilizer Navigation’, so that the proper amount andtype of fertilizer is used.
・With this system, agricultural wastewater is recycled as irrigation water, preventing wastewater fromflowing directly into the lake.
3. Livestock farming measures
Essential guidelines for livestock farming businesses have been established for the basic purpose ofrecycling domestic animal excrement for agricultural use. Guideline is provided on the proper treatmentof such waste, while taking into consideration the stabilization of business management.
・In order to prevent wastewater from draining out of the barn, regulation is taken in modifying the barn
and wastewater treatment facilities. Proper management of these facilities is also promoted.
・The construction of facilities which turn livestock waste into fertilizer effectively and properly is
promoted by subsidizing construction costs.
・Distribution of compost outside the catchment area is promoted.
4. Measures for factories and businesses
All factories and plants are required to maintain wastewater standards based on the water pollution
control law by such practices on the spot inspection. The quality of corporate wastewater has beenstrictly regulated by effluent standards, but stricter effluent standards are being applied because of the
inclusion of small factories and other facilities not conventionally covered by these regulations in
Kasumigaura watershed.
5. Direct purification measures
Water quality will be improved by dredging river and lake subsoil, constructing vegetation-based
purification facilities, and removing and other algae.
・Lake Bottom Sediment Dredging. Nitrogen and phosphorous dissolving into the water from sedimentaccumulating on the bottom of the Lake is one cause of water pollution.
・ Vegetation-based purification involves the use of emerging aquatic plants endogenous to theshallows and shorelines of Lake Kasumigaura to improve its water quality.
FOREST AND LAKE ENVIRONMENT CONSERVATION TAX
Ibaraki Prefectural Government introduced the forest and lake environment conservation tax in 2008
and has promoted environmental conservation of the lake and responsible forestry management in the
Kasumigaura basin. The taxable period of the tax in Ibaraki Prefecture is ten years (2008–2017). The
tax rates for one year are 1,000 yen for an individual with an address in Ibaraki Prefecture, and 10% of
an equally divided prefectural corporation tax for corporations with an office in Ibaraki Prefecture. The
income from tax revenues for one year is about 1,600 million yen. Half the total tax revenues are used
for forest conservation, and the remaining half are used for measures against water pollution of Lake
Kasumigaura.
IBARAKI KASUMIGAURA ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE CENTER
Ibaraki Kasumigaura Environmental Science Center (IKESC) was founded in 2005, after advocation for
its establishment at the 6th World LakeConference held in 1995 in Tsukuba and Tsuchiura. IKESC aims
to effectively perform its four functions research and technical development, environmental education,
cooperation with and support for citizen’s activities, and information exchange. These functions
performed through partnership with citizens, researchers, businesses, andgovernments bodies in orderto tackle issues related to the conservation of lakes and riversin Ibaraki.

99

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 3. CODMn Pollutant Load
CONCLUSIONS
Ibaraki prefectural government drown up the water quality conservation plan since 1985. Although
Pollutant Load has tended to decrease (Fig.3), Lake Kasumigaura is still eutrophication. It is the earnest
wish of the citizens of Ibaraki that the water be purified, not only because the water of Lake Kasumigaura
has been and is a valuable resource supporting the development of the prefecture, but also because
the lake is the symbol of the abundance of nature. For these reasons, the national, prefectural, andmunicipal governments, as well as the residents in the basin, are working together to put forth the
maximum effort to improve the quality of the lake’s water.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Ibaraki Prefecture.

100Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

THE GOVERNANCE OF LAKE RAWAPENING: AN INTERORGANIZATIONAL
NETWORK ANALYSIS
Evi Irawan1*
Watershed Management Technology Centre, Ministry of Environment and Forestry,
Jl. A. Yani, Pabelan, P.O. Box 295, Surakarta, 57102, Indonesia. phone: +62-(0)271-716709*Corresponding author: evirawan17@gmail.com
1

ABSTRACT
Lake governance is an inherently complex process. Much of literature dealing with lake governancerelates to the limnological sciences and the technological dimensions. There is an increasing need tounderstand the multi-stakeholder governance arrangements that emerge from the cross-scale natureand multifunctional role of lake. This study aims to examine networks between organizations that either
directly or indirectly inﬂuence the sustainability of Lake Rawapening in Indonesia. The data werecollected using a questionnaire and semi-structured interviews of 47 organizations, including
community-based organization, governmental agencies, universities and NGOs. Results show that
there is no organization that coordinates activities related to lake-ecosystem governance at the lakecatchment scale. Furthermore, an important result is that environmental protection agency at provincial
level plays a crucial role linking otherwise disconnected actors. Instead of imposing institutionalarrangements, it is more promising to identify and build on existing inter-organizational network
structures. Social network analysis can help to identify existing social structures and points forinterventions to increase the problem-solving capacity of the governance network
Keywords: lake governance, social network analysis, Lake Rawapening, watershed, Indonesia.
INTRODUCTION
Lakes are fundamental component of freshwater resource potential of Indonesia. There are more than
1,000 natural and semi-natural lakes located on almost all over islands. The total volume of water held
is approximately more than 100,000 km 3 (Pusat Data dan Teknologi Informasi, 2016). They serve as
main sources of raw water of drinking water of municipalities or regencies; in particular those are locatedin nearby the lakes. In addition, the lakes are also important for hydropower generation, agricultural
irrigation, inland fishery production, flood control, biodiversity conservation and so on. It is therefore not
an exaggeration to say that lake conservation is imperative to sustaining their ecosystem services.
Although lake-ecosystem services have been well recognized, a number of lakes, in particular thoseare situated in ever-growing economic and population areas, are deteriorating due to sedimentation,
pollution and eutrophication. According to Indonesian Ministry of Environment and Forestry, there areat least 15 lakes demanding restoration or otherwise ceasing to provide ecosystem services (Ministryof Environment and Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia, 2016). To reverse the tendencies of lakeecosystem degradation, Indonesian government since 2011 has launched a national movement ofsaving Indonesian lakes (Gerakan Penyelamatan Danau abbreviated as GERMADAN). This movement
is similar to integrated lake basin management developed by International Lake Environment
Committee Foundation (ILEC) (Soeprobowati, 2015), which is an integrated approach and involving
many stakeholders with various interests. This movement, nevertheless, has not been running well as
it was planned. Likewise, a number of previous government efforts in restoring the lakes seem likely
only good on the planning paper, but lost its performance at implementation stages. One of the main
reasons frequently putted forward is the lack of coordination among governmental agencies at all levels.
Integrated approaches of lake-ecosystem management which are recently advocated by environmental
scholars are inherently complex processes since they encompass social-ecological systems andconsequently they involve many actors and sectors that either directly or indirectly influence lakeecosystem at multiple scales. Awareness of this complexity is a necessary but not sufficient condition
to improve lake-ecosystem management. Recently, different types of governance systems have been
advocated as solution to address socio-ecological interactions. Evidences derived from a number of
empirical research projects, however, show that there is no single governance system works across allcases and all scales (Ostrom, 2005, 2008, 2010). Attention has therefore been directed at governancesystems involving multiple actors to various degrees in the governing processes. These ideas arecaptured in the concept of polycentric and multi-level institutional arrangement, where the underlying
rationale is that by involving different actors in the governing process, the complexities inherent in both
ecosystems and the social arrangements constructed around these can be more adequately addressed.

101

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

However, realising polycentric and multi-level governance, as it is captured in GERMADAN, requires
solid coordination of activities among stakeholders and this, according to a number of empiricalevidences, is often difficult, albeit not impossible, to achieve in practice (Ananda & Proctor, 2013;
Blomquist & Schlager, 2005; Ostrom, 2005).
Governments and nongovernmental organizations have invested in building networks among
stakeholders of natural resources in order to improve coordination and cooperation among them. Crossscale linkages, horizontally across landscapes and vertically between actors from local to watershedscale, are especially important for shared resources, such as lake-ecosystem (Cash et al., 2006; Olsson,
Folke, Galaz, Hahn, & Schultz, 2007). Cooperation in inter-organizational networks can generate
benefits through sharing resources, knowledge and core competencies if involved actors, which maylead to accomplishment of common goals, increased performance and innovative behaviour. This has
led inter-organizational network forms of organization gained significance in the realm of natural
resource management (e.g. Rathwell & Peterson, 2012). In line with this reasoning this article is to
explore whether the structure of inter-organizational networks currently established in the Lake
Rawapening is likely to align with integrated approaches of lake management. The information gained
from this research is partly important to inform policy makers in fostering effective and efficient
cooperation among organizations in governing Lake Rawapening.
Description of Study Area
Lake Rawapening is a semi-natural lake, situated in the upper course of Tuntang River, about 40 kilometers south of Semarang, a capital city of Central Java (see Fig.1). The lake is fed by 9 rivers running
down the slopes of Merbabu, Telomoyo, and Ungaran Volcano, and by a number of springs in the lake.
Its altitude is around 463.9 meters above sea level (Goeltenboth & Kristyanto, 1994). This iscomparatively a small lake having maximum surface area from circa 26.7 km 2 in rainy season to 16.5
km2 in dry season, but in extreme situations the size can reduce up to 6.5 km 2 (Goeltenboth & Kristyanto,
1994; Hayashi, Pancho, & Sastroutomo, 1978). Like many other lakes, it is of considerable importanceto large number of people because it provides hydro-electric power, irrigation, recreational services,
raw water of drinking water and fishing. The volume of the lake can reach its maximum at 40 million m 3.
When water levels in the lake dropped due to the opening of water-gate at the outlet channel or during
dry season, between March and October, the lakeshore area is cultivated by the farmers who lived in
the villages in the vicinity of the lake. The productivity of rice field was from 10 to 13 tons per hectare
every planting season. The water body of the lake is mainly used for capture and cage fishery as wellas tourism.

Figure 1. Map of Lake Rawapening102Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

A recurrent problem of the Lake Rawapening is the explosive occurrence of aquatic weeds, in particularwater hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes). The weeds regularly clog the entrance channel to the hydropower station and parts of them would sink to the bottom. Furthermore, they also have induced a
reduction of fish population. Because of those problems, a number of policies and technologies havebeen suggested for its removal. Yet, none of those policies has shown positive results. Water hyacinth
causes a great nuisance, due to its high propagation capacity. It could grow at rate of 7.1 to 10% every
month at suitable conditions. Recent estimation showed the weeds have covered 70% of the lake’s
surface (Partomo, Mangkuprawira, Hubeis, & Adrianto, 2011).
METHODS
Data collection
This study generated data through a combination of semi-structured interviews and focus group
discussions of governmental agencies as well as non-governmental organizations at national, provincial
and local level, which were conducted between March to August 2016. The first step was to create alist of potentially relevant organizations to lake management. This list was derived from a number ofarchival documents and interviews with key-informants and it then came up with 60 potentially relevantorganizations directly or indirectly to lake management. The number of organizations in the list was
finally reduced to 47 organizations after a focus group discussion in which a number of duplication oforganizations has been identified by participants. This final list was then used as a basis for datacollection.
The interviews were targeted to high-level spokespersons from organizations on the list that had atleast 2 years of tenure in the organization as respondents. The respondents were given an alphabeticalroster of all organizations and asked about cooperative relations to each of these organizations. In
addition, respondents were asked about organizational attributes (e.g. governmental level oforganization, for-profit or non-profit orientation, and sector) and individual perception concerning
barriers to cooperation within the networks.
Data analysis
The cooperative relation between organizations was coded as a square matrix, so-called an adjacency
matrix, with 47 rows and 47 columns. The adjacency matrix was then symmetrized for data analysis inorder to capture the reciprocal nature of cooperative relations. Hence, the relations of organizations
were considered as undirected ties. This study used standard measurements of a social network
analysis. Degree of centrality and betweeness centrality were used to locate influential organizations or
actors (Freeman, 1978). The former means to identify those organizations that are extensively involved
in relationships with other organizations, whereas the latter means to be central in the sense of sittingdown in-between many others. Degree of centrality measurement proposed by Freeman (1978),
however, has its drawbacks. Having the same degree does not necessarily make an organization
equally important. To account for this disadvantage, Bonacich (1987) proposed a centrality measurethat is a function of the number of connections an actor has and the number of connections the actors
in the neighbourhood have. This study used this Bonacich’s centrality to complement Freeman’scentrality measure. The data was analysed using UCINET 6.0.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The analysed Lake Rawapening governance network consists of 47 organizations, linked through 186
cooperative ties. More than 80% is non-profit-oriented organizations. The governmental agencies at alllevels accounted for 61.7% of the network, where most of them were provincial and local agencies.
Only two organizations operated at river-basin level. Both of them were national agencies.
The network density is 0.086. It means only 8.6% of the potential ties present in the network. Yet, thenetwork is just one component, i.e. the whole network was held together and no isolates exist. Fig 2.
shows the complete network of organizational actors directly or indirectly involved in the governance of
Lake Rawapening. Furthermore, the average degree (indicating the average number of cooperative ties
per organizational actor) was 3.957 (SD = 0.280). By considering the value of network density andaverage degree, the organizational actors in the network is sparsely connected. The global clustering
coefficient was 0.454 indicating substantial clustering in the network or the tendency for two-paths toclose. This means that there is considerable cooperation in the inter-organizational governance of Lake
Rawapening that take place in triplets (i.e., between three actors). This clustering effect can also be
observed in Fig. 2. Besides a high number of closed triangles, the figure reveals that there are many103

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

peripheral organizations connected to the network only through one other organization acting as abridge to these otherwise unconnected organizations.

Figure 2. Inter-organizational network of Lake Rawapening

Moving to local scale, the network of organizations directly involved in the catchment and water bodyof the lake consists of 20 organizational actors. Fig 3. shows the reciprocated cooperative ties between
the organizational actors. The network consists of one component and two organizational actors are
isolated. The network density is 0.189 meaning that there are 18.9% of potential ties present in the
network. This value of density is higher than that of overall inter-organizational network provided in Fig
2. The average degree, which is a measure indicating the average number of cooperative ties perorganization, was 3.6 (SD = 0.392). Both network measures (network density and average degree)
point toward a sparse network. The global clustering coefficient was 0.212 indicating the existence of
substantial clustering, but it is less than that of overall inter-organizational network provided in Fig.2.
This means that the number of triplet cooperation ties between organizations at local scale is less thanin the overall inter-organizational network. Likewise, Fig. 3 reveals that there are four peripheralorganizations connected to the network only through one other organization acting as a bridge.

104Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 3. Inter-organizational network of Lake Rawapening at catchment scale

The integrated nature of natural resources or lake-ecosystem governance corresponds to horizontal
and vertical cooperation among different stakeholders at different scales in order to address lakeecosystem issues across scales (Varis, Enckell, & Keskinen, 2014). It means that the organizations
operate at catchment level should be able maintain cooperative ties with other organizations at higherlevel. To gain better understanding of how inter-organization network is structured at catchment andhigher level, the adjacency matrix was rearranged into two blocks. The first block constituted thecatchment level organizations directly involved in Lake Rawapening and the second block are higherlevel organizations that indirectly involved in the governance of the lake. The mean connectivity withincatchment level was 0.189, whereas the mean connectivity of higher-level organizations was 0.014.
The results suggest that the cooperative ties are stronger than that of within higher-level organizations.
The mean connectivity between two blocks was 0.096, considerably lower than within block 1, but six
times higher than block 2. This result importantly suggests that the network is not well integrated acrossspatial and administrative scales.
The structure of inter-organization network in Lake Rawapening can be further scrutinized to identify
the influential or central actors in the network. To do this we employed degree and betweenness
centrality measurements. Degree of centrality was measured using Freeman’s degree of centrality andBonacich power. Scores were calculated for all 47 actors in the network. The results centrality andbetweeness measures were depicted in Fig. 4, Fig.5 and Fig. 6, respectively. The size of the node in
the network represents the value of the index. The bigger the size of the node indicates the higher ofvalue of centrality index.
Based on degree of centrality of Freeman’s score, Provincial Environmental Protection Agency (Badan
Lingkungan Hidup Provinsi Jawa Tengah) having most ties to other actors represents the most central
actor with respect to activities related to lake management. The second most central position is held by
Provincial Development Planning Agency (Badan Perencanaan Pembangunan Daerah Provinsi Jawa
Tengah), followed by Environmental Protection Agency of Semarang Regency and Association of
Farmers and Fishers of Lake Rawapening (Paguyuban Petani dan Nelayan Sidorukun Rawapening).
The actors with the lowest score are the ones that had been connected to the network only through one
actor.

105

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. Inter-organizational network of Lake Rawapening based on Freeman’s Degree ofCentrality

Figure 5. Inter-organizational network of Lake Rawapening based on Bonacich Power of Centrality106Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 6. Inter-organizational network of Lake Rawapening based on Betweeness Score

The score of Bonacich power was used to identify which actors have power in the network. The higherscore indicates that the actor has more power than the actor. Based on the score of Bonacich power,
Provincial Agency of Environmental Protection (Badan Lingkungan Hidup Provinsi Jawa Tengah)
having most power to other actors indicated the most influential actor with respect to activities related
to lake management. Provincial Development Planning Agency and Pemali-Jratun Watershed
Management Agency were in the second and third place, respectively, in term of its power in influencing
other actors.
The results of analysis of Freeman degree and Bonacich power of centrality are largely consistent witheach other, as demonstrated in Fig. 4 and Fig. 5. Both measures suggested that Provincial
Environmental Protection Agency and Provincial Development Planning Agency were the mostimportant actors in the network. This reflects that the both actors were central actors that may havepower in influencing the effectiveness of the governance of Lake Rawapening.
While centrality degree is straightforward measure that considers the number of direct ties, indirect
measures of centrality can provide a deeper insight into central actors. Because cooperation andcoordination involves communication and the flow of information throughout the entire network, it isuseful to consider betweenness centrality. Fig.6 illustrates the result of betweenness scores calculationof the actors in the networks. Again, Provincial Environmental Protection Agency and Provincial
Development Planning Agency were the main actors having highest score of betweenness centrality.
This indicates that both actors held central position.
CONCLUSIONSThis article has demonstrated the inter-organizational network analysis of the governance of Lake
Rawapening. The social network analysis method used in this study provides a promising approach tomap out the inter-organizational complexity that underpins the governance of the lake. Results showthat there is no organization that coordinates the various lake resources related activities at the lakecatchment scale. Furthermore, an important result is that Environmental Protection Agency andDevelopment Planning Agency at provincial level plays a crucial role linking otherwise disconnected
actors. Instead of imposing institutional arrangements, it is more promising to identify and build on
existing inter-organizational network structures. Social network analysis can help to identify existingsocial structures and points for interventions to increase the problem-solving capacity of the governancenetwork107

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express a special thanks to all the interviewees and participants of focus group
discussions for giving time and openly sharing all their knowledge and information to this study andmaking it possible. This study was funded by Ministry of Environment and Forestry, Republic ofIndonesia.
REFERENCES
1. Ananda, J., & Proctor, W. (2013). Collaborative Approach to Water Management and Planning:
An Institutional Perspective. Ecological Economics, 86, 97–106.
2. Blomquist, W., & Schlager, E. (2005). Political Pitfalls of Integrated Watershed Management.
Society and Natural Resources: An International Journal, 18(2), 101–117.
3. Bonacich, P. (1987). Power and Centrality: A Family of Measures. American Journal of
Sociology, 92, 1170–1182.
4. Cash, D. W., Adger, W. N., Berkes, F., Garden, P., Lebel, L., Olsson, P., … Young, O. (2006).
Cross-Scale Dynamics: Governance and Information in a Multilevel World. Ecology and Society,11(2), 8–19.
5. Freeman, L. C. (1978). Centrality in social networks conceptual clarification. Social Networks,
1(3), 215–239.
6. Goeltenboth, F., & Kristyanto, A. I. A. (1994). Fisheries in the Rawa Pening Reservoir, Java,
Indonesia. International Review of Hydrobiology, 79(1), 113–129.
7. Hayashi, I., Pancho, J. V., & Sastroutomo, S. S. (1978). Preliminary report on the buried seedsof floating islands and bottom of Lake Rawa Pening, Central Java. Japanese Journal of Ecology,
28, 325–333.
8. Ministry of Environment and Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia. (2016). The Grand Designof Indonesian Lake Conservation and Rehabilitation. Jakarta, Indonesia: Ministry ofEnvironment and Forestry of the Republic of Indonesia.
9. Olsson, P., Folke, C., Galaz, V., Hahn, T., & Schultz, L. (2007). Enhancing the fit throughadaptive co-management: Creating and maintaining bridging functions for matching scales in
the Kristianstads Vattenrike Biosphere Reserve, Sweden. Ecology and Society, 12(1).
10. Ostrom, E. (2005). Understanding Institutional Diversity. Princenton, New Jersey: Princenton
University Press.
11. Ostrom, E. (2008). The Challenge of Common-Pool Resources. Environment: Science andPolicy for Sustainable Development, 50(4), 8–21.
12. Ostrom, E. (2010). Beyond Markets and States: Polycentric Governance of Complex Economic
Systems. American Economic Review, 100(3), 641–672.
13. Partomo, Mangkuprawira, S., Hubeis, A. V. S., & Adrianto, L. (2011). Lake Management Basedon Co-management : Case of Rawa Pening. JPSL, 4(1), 106–113.
14. Pusat Data dan Teknologi Informasi. (2016). Informasi Statistik Infrastruktur Pekerjaan Umum
dan Perumahan Rakyat 2015. Jakarta, Indonesia: Kementerian Pekerjaan Umum dan
Perumahan Rakyat.
15. Rathwell, K. J., & Peterson, G. D. (2012). Connecting social networks with ecosystem services
for watershed governance: A social-ecological network perspective highlights the critical role ofbridging organizations. Ecology and Society, 17(2).
16. Soeprobowati, T. R. (2015). Integrated Lake Basin Management for Save Indonesian Lake
Movement. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 23, 368–374.
17. Varis, O., Enckell, K., & Keskinen, M. (2014). Integrated water resources management:
horizontal and vertical explorations and the “water in all policies” approach. International
Journal of Water Resources Development, 30(3), 433–444.

108

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CAGE CULTURE AND LAKE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES IN LAKE DANAO, SAN
FRANCISCO, CENTRAL PHILIPPINES
Serapion N. Tanduyan, Berenice T. Andriano and Ricardo B. Gonzaga
Cebu Technological University, San Francisco Cebu, Philippines
Corresponding author: sntanduyan@yahoo.com
ABSTRACT
Lake Danao is a first runner up of the cleanest and greenest lake throughout the Philippines. This has
also become a tourist destination. Its aquaculture activities are controlled by the government so as tomaintain its status as a tourist destination. Cage culture was undertaken by the Bureau of Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), Department of Agriculture (DA) and the Cebu Technological University(CTU). Freshwater fishes like tilapia, carps, mudfish and catfish were stocked in the cages fed withboth commercial feeds and local feeds. The BFAR engaged in grow out and breeding of tilapia andother freshwater fishes and distributed throughout Central Visayas as seedlings and breeders for growout and propagation purposes. The Department of Agriculture reared tilapia until they reach marketable
sizes and were sold to tourists where it is placed in the cages for dispersal in Lake Danao Park and thetourists will catch them through hook and line and weighed and priced then they are cooked according
to the choice of the tourists. The CTU undergo research activities of tilapia cultivation and processing
using different types of feeds and processing techniques on the value-added products of tilapia andother freshwater fishes. The BFAR stocked 150,000 tilapia fingerlings into the Lake every quarter toreplenish the tilapia caught by fishermen in the lake. Fishing in the lake was regulated by imposing
ordinances on regulated mesh size of the gill net and banning fine meshed net fishing. Proper waste
disposal, banning the washing of clothes, tree planting, using paddle boats in fishing and no privateaquaculture activities in the lake except the three government agencies were imposed in the lake tosustain the lake as a tourist destination and as part of the management of Lake Danao.
Keywords: Cage culture, Lake Danao, Central Philippines
INTRODUCTION
Lakes are natural impoundments which are body of waters surrounded by land masses. Pacijan Islandof Camotes group of Islands has lake called as Lake Danao. They provide water of some humanactivities near the area and it provides source of food for humans and other animals especially thoseliving far from the sea. Lakes are also bodies of standing water surrounded by land (Palma 2005p.1). It
is also an inland body of water that occupies a depression (Castillo, 2005 p.10). Lakes have played asignificant role in man’s social, cultural and economic activities and as an ecosystem it supports different
biological communities. San Francisco where Lake Danao is located was established as a municipality
in 1963 (Socio-economic Profile of San Francisco, Cebu, 1996) with 15 barangays. It is located in the
Pacijan Island, one of the three islands comprising the Camotes group of islands. San Francisco is 38
nautical miles from Cebu City and has a total land area of 9,982 has.
Lake Danao is a picturesque eight- shaped inland waters body with an area of 649 ha with a 1-acre(4,047 sq.m.) islet at the middle. It is the largest and longest lake in the Visayas (Tanduyan and Bontia,
2001). It is surrounded by six out of 15 barangays in the town of San Francisco, Cebu. The lake supplies
water to the rice fields in Sitio Danao and Patabog. Its shoreline ranges from rocky to soft mud. The
type of soil is coarse, silty and sandy. The depth of the water ranges from 27-290C. Water has a pH of
8.5-9.0. Salinity ranges from 0-0.5 ppt. The lake water is free from pollutants, except for someallochthonous materials (Station Profile of Carmen Lake Danao Fishery Complex/Research Station for
Freshwater Fisheries Development Zone, Union, San Francisco, Cebu. 1995). It has no definite inlet
and outlet, but it is presumed that a subterranean spring supplies water to the lake. Assorted vegetationsuch as hydrilla, water lily, water hyacinth, and kangkong “Ipomaea aquatica are found in the lake. “Sulisuli”, palawan nipa and coconuts grow along the periphery of the lake. The “suli-suli” plant present in
the lake are made into different articles like mat, hat, centerpiece, bags of different styles, wall décorand doormats to enhance the cottage industry of the inhabitants. The lake is a tourist attraction whereboat trips could be for recreation. Majority of the households living nearby the lake catch fish in the lake
for food and for the market. The lake is also used for bathing and washing of clothes.
Lakes aside from having natural resources have been subjected to aquaculture where fish cages andpens are being constructed where different species of fishes are being stocked and fed with various
feeds grown up to marketable sizes or into breeders for reproduction. Lake Danao is not exempted fromthis although this was judged as the second placer for the greenish and cleanest lake throughout the109Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Philippine archipelago. However, the culture of fishes in Lake Danao has been controlled by different
agencies in order to maintain its national status and title as the cleanest and greenish lake throughout
the Philippines. Lake Danao was adjudged as the Cleanest Inland Body of Water for CY 1996 by the
Department of Interior and Local Government (DILG) on September 30, 1996 (Tanduyan and Bontia
2001). An Award of Recognition to Lake Danao as the 1996 Cleanest Lake of Region VII was given by
the Committee on Presidential Awards for the Cleanest Inland Bodies of Water in the Philippines for
Region VII on December 11, 1996. An award for excellence was conferred to Lake Danao as a national
finalist in the 1996 Search for the Cleanest Inland Bodies of Water. This lake is a potential area for
cultivation of fishes in pens and cages.
Objectives of the study
The following are the objectives of the study which are to find out the cage culture practices in Lake
Danao, San Francisco, Cebu in terms of type of cages used, fish stock stocking rates, feeds and feeding
and cage maintenance and management. Another is to determine the marketing and harvestingprocedures adopted by the cage owners in terms of harvesting techniques, marketing technique andtypes of buyers and recipients of the harvest product. Then another is to find out the lake management
practices adopted by the agencies of Pacijan for Lake Danao in terms of legal executive aspects,
research and development conservation and preservation aspects and tourism activities.
METHODSThis study is a descriptive research using interview guide in gathering the data. Actual interview of the
respondents and field visits were done to get empirical data. A self-made questionnaire was usedreflective of questions related to the objectives sought.
The Respondents
The respondents of the study consist of the different key personnel and project in charge of the different
agencies of Pacijan Island namely: The Local Government Units (LGU), Department of Agriculture (DA),
Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources (BFAR), the Cebu Technological University (CTU) andsome fisher folks and stakeholders of Lake Danao.
The Research Environment
Lake Danao of Pacijan Island with San Francisco as the municipality is the focus of the study. Pacijan
Island is one of the Islands of Camotes where it is located in the Northern part of the Cebu province
under 5th district. It has an area of 648 has and with six barangays surrounding it.
Profile of San Francisco
Based from the Municipality profile report the municipality of San Francisco is currently classified as a
3rd class municipality and belongs to the 5 th District of Cebu. It is located northeast of Cebu Province
which is approximately 38 nautical miles from Cebu City. It is bounded by Camotes Sea on the North,South and West and the Ponson Sea bound on the East (Fig.1). The major livelihoods of the people
are coconut and crop production, and fishing. Just recently, tourism starts to boom due to its acquired
beautiful, glistening and enameled white sand beaches that stretched along the western and northerncoasts of the island. There are also discovered beautiful caves and the enchanting lake Danao which
is a national major winner for inland bodies of water (municipal profile).

Fig.1. Map of San Francisco, Cebu

110

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Type of Cages in Lake Danao
Cages used in aquaculture activities in Lake Danao are rectangular shapes with dimensions of 2.5 x
3.5 meters. It uses polyethylene nets. The nets are sewn in an invented mosquito net which are attachedto the bamboo structures to tie on and permanently attached to the poles.
Agencies engaged in Aquaculture Activities in Lake Danao
As part of the preservation of the lake as a tourist destination only the Carmen Lake Danao Research
Outreach Station of the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Regional Office No. 7, Departmentof Agriculture (DA) and the Cebu Technological University are allowed engage in Aquaculture activities
in Lake Danao.
The BFAR 7 Carmen-Lake Danao Research Outreach Station
Fish Stock in the Cages
Tilapia, carps, catfish, etc are the fishes stocked in the cages. These are provided by the BFAR ROS
VII. Usually they are taken as fingerlings. They are placed in polyethylene bags inflated with oxygentied with rubber band and brought into the area in the lake where cages are set. The suggested stocking
density of tilapia is 450 pcs per cage.
GOVERNMENT AGENCIES
A. Carmen Lake Danao Fishery Complex Outreach Station
The Carmen Lake Danao Research Outreach Station under the Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources Regional Office No. 7 (Fig. 2) was established in San Francisco, Cebu particularly in
Barangay Union, San Francisco, Cebu. They are undergoing aquaculture activities and research where
they are producing fingerlings of tilapia (different varieties) (Fig. 4) hito and carp. They are tasked todevelop and promote appropriate technologies on freshwater hatchery management and grow out
system for the benefit of fisher folks, to propagate freshwater fingerlings and improve quality ofbroodstocks for dispersal, disseminate package of appropriate technologies on freshwater fisheries in
key research sites through linkages with LGUs/ NGOs and other institutions.
To attain their mandates, they conducted training for the prospective aquaculturists and provide
fingerlings for them to raise throughout Region 7, they also accept student trainees (practicum) all over
Region 7 to undergo the On the Job Training. The provide assistance to fishery technicians throughout
the islands in the implementation of fishery activities in the Department of Agriculture. Aside from theland based aquaculture tanks (Fig. 3) they are also rearing tilapia and other freshwater fishes in thelake (Fig. 4). They reared the fingerlings into breeder sizes for reproduction. Fingerlings are sold at
0.35 each to fish farmers so as to cover some of the administrative costs of the project. Culled breeders
are sold also at lower prices.
B. The Department of Agriculture (DA)The Municipal Agricultural Office of San Francisco (Figs. 6-7) is tasked also to implement the different
ordinance, rules and regulation in the lake aside from the specially created task forces including theBarangay Officials around the lake. They are engaging in aquaculture in cages (Figs. 27-28) to supply
tilapia and other freshwater fishes for tourist orders. They constructed their cages besides the cages of
the BFAR. They also placed their marketable cages in Lake Danao Park (Fig. 26) for direct orders fromthe tourists.

Fig. 2. The Carmen Lake
Danao Research Outreach
StationFig. 4. Fish cages in
the lake

Fig. 3. Land based
aquaculture tanks

111

Fig. 5. The tilapia indifferent varieties

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figs. 6-7. The office of the Department of Agriculture

Fig. 8. Marketable cages oftilapia in Lake Danao Park

Fig. 9-10. The fish cages of tilapia managed by the DA in Lake
Danao*) all pictures by S. N Tanduyan
C. Cebu Technological University (CTU), San Francisco, Cebu Campus
The Cebu Technological University (CTU), San Francisco, Cebu Campus is an academic institution andthe only state university in Camotes Islands (Figs. 11-12) was conducted researches on Fish Culture
in Cages in Lake Danao, San Francisco, Cebu (Fig. 13), Rate of Growth of Genetically Farm Tilapia
Fed with Ipomea aquatica (Kangkong) (Fig. 14) and Commercial Feeds in Cages in Lake Danao, San
Francisco, Cebu, Philippines and Socio-Economic Study of the Inhabitants Surrounding Lake Danao,
San Francisco, Cebu Basis For Livelihood Enhancement, Management and Conservation Options, The
Culture of Tilapia in Aquaria Fed with Kangkong and Sea Cucumber, The Acceptability of Bottled Tilapia
Using Different Canning Styles (Fig. 16) Fish Borne Concentrate out of Tilapia sp, Preparation of Tilapia
Longanisa (Tilapia mosambica) (Fig. 15) added with different levels of Pork: A Techno Guide andTilapia (Oreochromis niloticus Peters) Processing: Technology Transfer. It organized Lake Danao
Fishermen and Farmers Association (LDFFA) and presently conducted a research entitled LimnologicalStudies of Lake Danao. The vision of the CTU San Francisco, Cebu Campus is that by the year 2010,
the CSCST – Fishery and Industrial College is the center of educational training for Limnological,
Mariculture and Industrial Studies and to produce quality and competitive graduates in Limnological,
Mariculture, Industrial Technology, Marine Technology and Hospitality Management as part of thevision.

Figs. 11-12. The Cebu Technological University (CTU),
San Francisco, Cebu, Campus

112

Fig. 13. The fish culture incages of tilapia conducted by
the CTU

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Fig. 14. The research on theRate of Growth of Genetically
Farm Tilapia

Figs. 15-16. Researches on the post harvest processing ofTilapia*) all pictures by S.N Tanduyan
D. Municipality of San Francisco Local Government Unit (Fig. 35)
The LGU tilapia cages initially are 10 unit of cages with a stocking density of 450 fingerlings/ cage. It
measures 2.5 x 3.5 meters. The feeds used were feeds from the overseas feed mill with variants of fryash, starch grower and finisher using the fish conversion ratio (FCR) of 1.8 for 5 months. There is lessmortality encountered and they only experienced 5% mortality rate. Usually when they marketed thefish there is 3 pieces to a kilo with a price ranging from Php. 100.00 (2006); Php. 120.00 (2007-2009)
and Php. 150.00 (2001 to the present). There is no problem in marketing for this is only enough for thelake Danao Park Tourists. Problems encountered are overcrowding especially when they are almost
fully grown. Thinning was done separating the smaller ones from bigger ones. Delayed delivery of thefeeds is another problem due to governmental processes and procedure. Bad weather conditions
contribute to the delayed delivery. There was shifting of feed companies as suppliers and it was foundout that the latest feeds supplied gives less growth performance of the fishes. Another problem is safetyof the stock. So far, there is only 1 personnel in charge of the project and it is planned that additional
personnel be recruited but the number of cage units will be increased.
GOVERNMENT INITIATIVES
A. Lake Danao as the Fauna and Flora Sanctuary of the Municipality of San Francisco, Cebu
The members of Sangguniang Bayan of San Francisco declared Lake Danao as a Fauna Sanctuary
based on Resolution No. 68-93. The purpose was for the conservation of forests and wild life of themunicipality, promotion of ecotourism and to promote better level of environmental awareness where itis the duty of every Filipino citizen to protect and safeguard especially the endangered species. Thebarangays surrounding Lake Danao which are Sonog, Esperanza, Union, and Campo are the very
barangays included in the site where 50 meters from the lake shore are considered to be the extent of
the area covering the faunal sanctuary including the forest, lagoons and wetlands therein. This wasmade and approved last July 13, 1993 and was authored by Hon. Hilaria G. Nudalo SB member, Hon.
Aly A. Arquilano and Hon. Sixto A. Castardo, Jr. as Mayor and Vice Mayor respectively. This resolution
was fully implemented banning the catching of wild ducks (little grebe) locally known as gakit. The
catching of fish was controlled with a regulated mesh size of nets which is 7 inches.
B. Urging the Barangay Captains of the Six Barangays surrounding Lake Danao to Spearhead in theProtection of Lake Danao.
Resolution No. 73-99 entitled urging the barangay Captains of Campo, Union, Esperanza, Sonog,
Cabongaan and Northern Poblacion to spearhead the activities in the protection of Lake System, Lake
Danao, San Francisco, Cebu. This was made because Lake Danao is considered as a God given
prestigious natural resources that gives many benefits to the people. This is also made in order toprotect the lake from biodiversity degeneration, pollution, sedimentation and salt water intruism. This
also includes greening of the lake, maintenance on lakescape program and plans. This was approved
last September 6, 1999 during the incumbency of Hon. Aly A. Arquillano and Hon. Avelino S. Obenza
as municipal and vice mayors respectively.
C. Declaring every 18th day of September of every year as Municipal Coastal Clean up Day in all Marine
and Lake Waters of San Francisco, Cebu
Resolution No. 74-99, A resolution ordained by the Sangguniang Bayan members declaring every 18th
day of September of every year as Municipal Coastal Clean up Day in all Marine and Lake Waters of
San Francisco, Cebu under Municipal Ordinance No. 99-02. This is done in order to collect/ gather

113

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

debris or trash in the surface water, underwater and coastlines and lakeshores and finally a reportingof all data to proper and higher authorities on the standard data cards for the purpose. It is stipulatedon this resolution under section 2a; that leaders of the barangay living in the coastlines shell lead peopleof all walks of life volunteering to get and gather debris in their jurisdiction and in section 2b provides
that leaders of barangay surrounding Lake Danao shall likewise do the same in the lakeshores, water
surfaces and underwater. This resolution was approved by all SB members of the municipality of San
Francisco in the leadership of Mayor Aly A. Arquillano and Vice Mayor Avelino S. Obenza lastSeptember 2002. This is already adopted throughout the municipality.
D. Requiring all Soli -Soli Cutters/ Weavers to Secure Mayor’s Permit before they are Entitled to Full
Utilization of Soli Soli Materials
Resolution No. 93-011, A resolution requiring all soli-soli cutters/ weavers within the Municipality of San
Francisco, Cebu or any interested investor shall secure mayor’s permit before they are entitled to full
utilization of soli- soli raw materials and the right to sell their products by products of such, within or
outside the municipality, and selling/ bringing of soli-soli raw materials outside the municipality is strictly
prohibited and any body who violates this ordinance shall be penalized with a fine of Two hundred
pesos (Php. 200.00) for the first offense; Php. 300.00 for the second offense and for third offense
cancellation of the mayor’s permit and/ or imprisonment of not more than 6 months at the discretion of
the court. Soli soli is an indigenous plant grown within the lakeshores of Lake Danao and used to makemats, bags and other handicrafts industries. This resolution was approved last March 1993 by Hon. Aly
A. Arquillano as the municipal mayor. Already implemented and the weavers were charged Php
100/annum as permit fee.
This gathering of soli soli (Typha latifolia) was regulated by which gatherers will pay a permit fee of Php.
100.00 per annum.
E. Protection of Lake Danao and Imposition of Penalties
Resolution No. 48-96 provides the protection and imposition of penalties for those whose acts result in
the pollution of the lake.
This was supported by Municipal Ordinance No. 96-005 “An ordinance prohibiting the use of motorized
vessels in Lake Dana except by the use of outboard motorboats”. Anyone who violated this ordinancewill be fined Php. 500.00 for the first offense then Php. 1,000.00 for the second offense and for the thirdand succeeding offences a fine of Two thousand five hundred pesos (Php. 2, 5000.00). An entrance
fee of P15.00 and P10.00 for adult and children respectively are collected. This was done lastSeptember 11, 1996 under the leadership of Mayor Aly A. Arquillano and Vice Mayor Sixto A. Castardo.
No motorized boats were used by the people excluding the SAKANAO (Figs. 17-18) which is ownedby the LGU. All fishermen using paddle to traverse any part of the lake. The washing of clothes in thelake was totally implemented. There are minimal individuals doing this but the level of awareness ishigh since they really knew that washing was really prohibited.

Figs. 17-18. Signages on disallowing the use of motorized boats
except the SAKANAO during traversing any part of the lake.
*) all pictures by S.N Tanduyan
F. Adopting and Implementing Articles 51 and 52 of RA 1067 (prohibiting construction of dwellings andother structures twenty meters from lakeshore)
Municipal Ordinance No. 96-004 ordained by the Sangguniang Bayan of San Francisco, Cebu to adopt
and implements the Articles of RA 1067. Article 51 states that the banks of rivers and streams andshores of the lakes throughout their entire and within a zone of three (3) meters in urban areas, twenty(20) meters in Agricultural areas and forty (40) meters in forests areas, along their margins, are114

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

subjected to the easement of public use in the interest of recreation, navigation, flotage, fishing andsalvage or to build structures of any kind. Article 52 states the provisions of the Civil Code shall govern
the establishment, extent, form and conditions of easement of water, not expressly determined by theprovisions of this code. Anyone who violates these articles shall be penalized by a fine of not less One
thousand pesos (Php. 1,000.00) but not more than two thousands and five hundred Pesos (P2,500.00)
and/ or an imprisonment of not less than one (1) month but not more than six months at the discretionof the court. This ordinance was approved last April 1996 under the leadership of Mayor Aly A.
Arquillano. So far this was fully implemented and no more dwellers who constructed their houses in 20
meters buffer zone from the lakeshore. The Municipal Health Unit (MHU) of the municipality were tasked
to inspect the toilets of the dwellers following the standards set by the DOH and DENR.
The lake personnel including the visitors are already aware of this ordinance where a trash bin wasprovided and urinating usually done in the toilets not just anywhere else (Figs. 19-21).

Figs. 19-21. The trash bins provided near the lake and a toilet for the tourists to be
used.
*) all pictures by S.N Tanduyan
G. Creation of the San Fran Lake Watch
Executive Order No. 02-2003, an order issued by virtue of the powers vested to Hon. Alfredo A.
Arquillano, Jr. as the municipal mayor to create the San Fran Lake Watch to take the lead in all efforts
to preserve and clean the lake. This was done because Lake Danao as an important natural resource
needs to be preserved and nurtured. So, there is a need to unite all stakeholders especially those whointeract with the lake frequency or on a regular basis recognizing their vital role in protecting andcleaning the lake. The San Fran Lake Watch composed with the Chairman, the representative from theoffice of the Municipal Mayor (to be designated by the municipal mayor); the vice chair, the Head from
Carmen- Lake Danao Fishery Development Complex and the members are the President, Soli- soli
weavers association, President, Lake Danao Fishermen’s Association, President of the Lake Danao
Boatmen Association, Presidents from all Lakeside Residents Association, School Principal and the
SGO President of Lorenzo C. Tanza Memorial National High School. The San Fran Lake Watch havethe duties and functions as the primary planning body in the protection and clean up of the lake, takethe lead in all efforts to preserve the lake and protect it from all incriminating human activities, conduct
or cause to conduct a regular clean up on the lake shore and clear the lake of floating debris, perform
all other functions as maybe assigned by the municipal mayor and submit quarterly reports or as often
as necessary. This executive order was issued last February 2003.
Prospects of the Different Agencies
1. The Local Government Unit (LGU) of San Francisco who spearheads the lake conservation andsustainability plans to implement strictly the ordinances made and scouting more financers of the
project of Lake Danao and other activities.
2. The BFAR RO7 will continue to engage in aquaculture activities of the freshwater fishes including
their breeding and restocking the lake. Continued monitoring on pollution parameters will be madeto make the lake fit all the time.
3. The Department of Agriculture will from time to time extend support to the farmers and thefishermen introduce alternative livelihood to the users of the lake.
4. The Cebu Technological University (CTU) will continue to conduct limnological researches,
aquaculture techniques and post harvest processing techniques of tilapia and other freshwater
fishes so that maximum utilization of the catch of the fishermen will be made.

115

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CONCLUSIONS
1. The government agencies throughout the municipality of San Francisco are in one mission toconfront the activities of Lake Danao, sustain production and conserve the lake being the nature’s
gift to the San Franciscohanons.
2. All the agencies have specific role to play in Lake Danao Conservation and Sustainability.
RECOMMENDATIONS
1. Values reorientation should be done to all the workers in the lake in order to sustain commitment
and dedication.
2. More financial support be given to sustain and improve the lake as a tourist destination and as aresource.
3. Comprehensive and progressive plan on the biological, ecological, physical and anthropologicalstudies be made so as to maintain the lake where balance on every all aspects are gleaned.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Our sincerest thanks and indebtedness are extended to Mayor Aly A. Arquillano and Vice Mayor Alfredo
A. Arquillano, Jr. and their staff for the empirical data given to the researchers including the documents
and some pictures to support the data. To the BFAR personnel specifically the Carmen Lake Danao
Research Outreach Station Staff, to the Department of Agriculture staff, Tourism Staff and the fisher
folks who never failed us in giving their responses to the questions asked.
Thank you very much and God Bless!
REFERENCES
1. Araullo, DB. 2001. Aquaculture practices and their impacts on Philippine lakes In CB Santiago, ML
Cuvin-Aralar and ZU Basiao (eds.). Conservation and Ecological Management of Philippine Lakes
in Relation to Fisheries and Aquaculture. Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center,
Aquaculture Department, Iloilo, Philippines; Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Researchand Development, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines; and Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic
Resources, Quezon City, Philippines, 187 pp.
2. Castillo, L.V. Lake Ecosystem p.10 In Palma A.L.; Bartolome B, Castillo L. Darwin L. (2005). Basic
Principles on the Management of Philippine Lakes. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
Quezon City, Philippines and Phil. Council for Aquatic and Marine research and Development.,
Los Banos Laguna 154 pp.
3. Guerrero III RD. 2001. Sustainable development of Philippine lake resources: An agenda forresearch and development, pp. 19-23. In CB Santiago, ML Cuvin-Aralar and ZU Basiao (eds.).
Conservation and Ecological Management of Philippine Lakes in Relation to Fisheries andAquaculture. Southeast Asian Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department, Iloilo,
Philippines; Philippine Council for Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, Los Banos,
Laguna, Philippines; and Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources, Quezon City, Philippines,
187 pp.
4. Palma A.L. Introduction p.1 In Palma A.L.; Bartolome B, Castillo L. Darwin L. (2005). Basic
Principles on the Management of Philippine Lakes. Bureau of Fisheries and Aquatic Resources.
Quezon City, Philippines and Phil. Council for Aquatic and Marine research and Development.,
Los Banos Laguna 154 pp.
5. Platon RR. 2001. SEAFDEC Contribution to the ecological awareness of Philippine lakes, pp. 1317. In CB Santiago, ML Cuvin-Aralar and ZU Basiao (eds.). Conservation and EcologicalManagement of Philippine Lakes in Relation to Fisheries and Aquaculture. Southeast Asian
Fisheries Development Center, Aquaculture Department, Iloilo, Philippines; Philippine Council for
Aquatic and Marine Research and Development, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines; and Bureau ofFisheries and Aquatic Resources, Quezon City, Philippines, 187 pp.
6. Tanduyan, SN. and PC. Bontia. 2001. Fish Culture in Cages in Lake Danao, Cebu, pp. 109-112.
In CB Santiago, ML Cuvin-Aralar and ZU Basiao (eds.). Conservation and Ecological Managementof Philippine Lakes in Relation to Fisheries and Aquaculture. Southeast Asian Fisheries
Development Center, Aquaculture Department, Iloilo, Philippines; Philippine Council for Aquaticand Marine Research and Development, Los Banos, Laguna, Philippines; and Bureau of Fisheries
and Aquatic Resources, Quezon City, Philippines, 187

116

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

IDENTIFICATION OF LAKE SENTARUM'S POTENTIAL ECOSYSTEM SERVICES,SOCIAL AND INSTITUTIONAL PROFILES TO SUPPORT ECOTOURISM
DEVELOPMENT (A REVIEW PAPER)
Ivana Yuniarti
Research Centre for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences
Corresponding author: ana@limnologi.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACT
A memorandum of understanding of ecotourism development in Kapuas Hulu District has been signedby several institutions. Among some covered ecosystems, Lake Sentarum as a very unique ecosystemis the prime destination included in the tourism plan. This paper is aimed to review and identify thelake's potential ecosystem services (i.e. biodiversity, water supply) as well as social and institutional
profiles of the surrounding areas which are the main elements of the tourism plan. Moreover, a useful
information that can be easily read by the decision makers about the strengths, weaknesses,
opportunities, and threats is also presented in the paper. The information was obtained by reviewing all
possibly accessed papers and then they were analyzed by using a strength, weakness, opportunity andthreat (SWOT) analysis. The results of the analysis show that the biodiversity and uniqueecohydrological process are the main strength of the area. At the same time, limited access andinsfrastucture is identified as the main weakness. The main identified opportunity is the fast growth of
ecotourism in global scale. Whilst the identified main treats are both deforestation and land usechanging. Eventually, it is concluded that even though Lake Sentarum is significantly potential for
ecotourism development, structural and institutional improvement is imperative to be conducted tosupport the tourism plan.
Keywords: Lake Sentarum, ecotourism, ecosystem services
INTRODUCTION
The World Wide Fund (WWF) and Kapuas Hulu District Office of Tourism and Culture Ministry, Danau
Sentarum National Park (Taman Nasional Danau Sentarum/ TNDS), Kapuas Hulu Forest Management
Agency (Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan (KPH) Model Kapuas Hulu), and Melemba Village Government
have signed the memorandum of understanding of ecotourism development in Kapuas Hulu District.
The ecotourism plan is aimed to support both ecological and economical benefits. In the future, thedevelopment of ecotourism may include Lake Sentarum as the main tourist attractor. Lake Sentarum,
located in Central Kalimantan Indonesia, is a unique floodplain system impressively connected with its
surrounding ecosystem such as peat forests, peat swamps, and riparian forests and many otherecosystems. Moreover, cultural richness and social structure in the area are fascinating to be explored
and they provide valuable contribution for the development of the area. There have been tons ofresearches conducting in this area. The reasearches were mostly done by national and international
NGO (i.e. CIFOR), Universities (i.e IPB), and govermental research Institute (i.e Research Centre for
Limnology LIPI). In order to provide an elaborate paper and a guideline paper for the decission makers
in considering the best policies to manage the area, this paper is written. It is hoped that this paper can
provide a simple summary and a guideline to address such needs.
The main chapters of the paper will be divided into two main parts. The first part is the summary of all
possibly accessed literature comprising biological resources, non-biological resources (i.e.water andcarbon stock capacity), economic values, social profiles, institutional profiles, and resource use patterns.
Whilst, the second part will be the SWOT analysis identifying the useful and informative information
generated from the review materials and its discussion.
METHODS
The review is accomplished by reviewing all possibly accessed literatures such as the publications from
CIFOR, LIPI, as well as related online publications. Thereafter, SWOT analysis is performed to achieve
the objectives.

117Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSREVIEW
The Lake's main potential resources are its astonishing biodiversities and hydrological patterns. This
chapter will briefly describe those characteristics as well as explore the economic values, social profiles,
institutional profiles, and resource use patterns that can be summarized from various literature.
Biological Resources
Fin-FishSeveral researchers have identified the biological resources of Lake Sentarum and its surrounding
ecosystems. One of the most distinctive researches was a fishery survey conducted by Dudley (2000).
The author wrote about the fishery productivity based on 1992 to 1995 data, and he concluded that thelake can support up to 97.5-162.5 kg of fish catch per ha per year. Meanwhile, Kottelat et al. (2005)
identified that there were 303 fish species captured in the lake area and Kapuas River area in 1991.
This number increasing quite significantly become 315 species in the survey conducted in 1995 byKottelat et al. (1995). Jeanes (2000) stated that there were about 10 main fish species in the lake which
are Balantiocheilos melanopterus, Scleropages formosus, Kalimantania cf. lawak, Osteochilus
pentalineatus, Parachela cyanea, Puntius aff. binotatus 2, Puntius cf. lineatus, Rasbora aff. sumatrana,
Mystus, Silurichthys cf. hasseltii.
Non-Fin Fish
Tortoises and softshelled turtles are other biological resources that have been researched and exploitedbythe locals. Walter (2001) identified that at least three soft shell turtes living in the lake area; which are
Amyda cartilagenea, Dogania suplana, and Orlitia borneensis. The author also mentioned that there
were about 11 tortoises and turtles living in the lake area and none of them is native in Kalimantan.
They are Asian brown tortoise, Black marsh turtle, Asian box turtle, Asian leaf/stream turtle, Spiny turtle,
Ricefield/snail eating turtle, Malaysian giant turtle, Keeled box turtle, Asian softshelled turtle, Malayansoftshelled turtle, dan Asian giant softshelled turtle (Walter, 2000). On the other hand, other biotas suchas crabs, shrimps, and Gastropods are relatively barely observed by the researchers. Only few studies
can be found about the biotas. One of the study was done by Giesen (1987) cited in Jeanes (2000).
The study mentioned about several gastropod species that can be found; which are Pilla ampucea,
Ctenodesma sp., Schepmania sp., and 2 species of Bellamya. In addition, the study also describedabout 2 unidentified crab species. A study about the occurenc of a native prawn species(Macrobrachium sintangense) in the Lake was conducted by Said et al. (2014). They also concluded
that in the study year, there were no any introduced prawn and shrimp species found in the Lake.
Phytoplankton, as the primary producer in the lake area, also has been observed. Sulawesty (2013)
identified that Chlorophytes (38 species) in particular desmid group (i.e. Staurastrum) were mostly foundin the Lake compared to other groups. On the contrary, the least abundant group was Pyrrophytes (1species). It was stated by the author that the observation results are coherent with the lake's physicalcondition which is acidic.
Terestrial Flora and Fauna
Giesen (2000) conducted a survey that recorded 504 plant species. Several described main plantgroups are adalah Dipterocarpaceae (40 species), Euphorbiceae (10 species), Rubiaceae (35 species),
Myrtaceae (26 species), Fabaceae (21 species), and so on. In particular the author also lined up 13
wild orchid species from the area. These orchids have been managed as sustainable local economy in
the area (Prasetyo, et al., 2010). Whilst, Jeanes (2000) identified 293 bird secies and 143 mammal
species in the area. Moreover, the author also stated about 24 reptile species listed from the area.
Non-biological Resources
Water is the main non-biological resource supplied by the lake. The lake ecosystem absorbs 25%
Kapuas River's water in rainy season while in the dry season this lake flows 50% of its water to theriver (Yuliani et al., 2007). Giesen et al. (2000) stated that the lake hydrological system is a function of
rainfall rate which is about 3,900 mm/year in the lake area. At the same manner, the lake ecosyste isan enormous carbon sink. If the peat swamp conversion is minimized, the lake ecosystem (especiallypeat swamp forest area) can absorb 2,879 tonnes of carbon/ha or similar to 10,000 tonnes of CO2/ha(Anshari, 2010).
Social Profiles
Social Groups
There are to prime user groups around Lake Sentarum National Park. The first group is Moslem Malay
who mainly works as fishers. This group shares about 93% of total population in the area (Indriatmoko,
2010 cited in Wadley, dkk., 2010). The second group, Christian Iban, enggage as terrace farmers and118Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

hunters (Colfer, et al., 1999). The livelihood discrepancy further endorses different life styles between
the groups. The main difference is seasonal migration done by Malay group due to the fish harvestingseason. Meanwhile, Iban group experiences daily migration sue to their farming and hunting activities.
Economic Values
Roslinda (2013) conducted a research on several economic values of the lake ecosystem. The resultof the study is summarized in Table 1. The researcher calculated that total value generated by the lakeecosystem was 139.1 billion IDR with 2010 currency. Whilst, total cost spent by the government tomanage the lake ecosystem was 6.7 bilion IDR in 2010 currency. Specifically, Aglionby (1999) cited in
Dudley (2000) stated that capture fishery sector shared 1.5 Million USD and the aquacultue sector
provided 0.7 million USD.
Table 1. Economic Values of Lake Sentarum National Park (Roslinda, 2013) (all values are stated in2010 IDR/ year)
NO. Economic
Components
Value
Economic Value per ha
Value
IDR/ year%
Elements
1
Direct15,505,805,000
117,468.22
2.79• Capture Fisheryvalues729,630,000
5,527.5
0.07• Honey Production
2,218,796,000
16,809.06
0.15• Ruber
81,200,000
615.150.03• Paddyfield
3,329,492
25.22
0.00
• Firewood
14,426,000
109.290.00• Tourism
2
Indirect964,476,000
7,306.64
0.08• Domestic Use
Values28,736,100,000
217,697.73
5.72• Transportation
4,587,500,000
34,753.79
0.98• Fishery Use
431,636,400,000
3,269,972.73
75.19• Carbon Stock3
Option86,205,000,000
653,068.18
14.99• Option
ValuesTotal
570,703,707,492
4,323,353.51
100.00It can be summarized from the Table that indirect values in particular carbon stock dominated thecaculated value. This matter gets high interest from the internatioanl world since the Lake is a greatcarbon absorber in term of the concern for climate change. However, the discrepancy among direct andindirect values may threaten the conservation effort apllied in the lake cosystem. It may lead to theoccurence of land conversion into something providing instant access to economic impact. This matteris also shown by the relatively high calculated option value. Thus, various optional plans such as
ecoturism and alternative livelihood provision have to be planned ahead to improve the direct values ofthe lake ecosystem. Therefore, local people will receive the benefits of the lake occurence to limit suchthreads.
Institutional Profiles
Lake Sentarum Natural Resources Conservation Board (Balai Konservasi Sumber Daya Alam/BKSDA)
is the main institution involving in the management of the lake area. Other participating institutional areinternational and local NGOs, national agencies, and local governmental relationships are and theirroles are illustrated in Figure 1. It can be assumed from the Figure that there are two main groups who
actively enggage in the management process. BKSDA as the main decission maker and the prime
manager also act as the coordinator among the institutions. BKSDA is the permission letter issuer
agency is the legal representative of The Republic of Indonesia Government. Meanwhile, NGOs suchas CIFOR and Yayasan Riak Bumi participate in various conservation activities such as alternative
livelihood, conservation planning, and local coordination and cooperation. Both institutions (BKSDA andNGOs) actively provide fund for many activities conducted in the lake.
At the same manner, local people as the main stakeholders who use and manage the resources holds
the central role in the manangement process. Iban group, although only a minority group, employs
shifting cultivation, thus they relatively create significant land use changing. Moreover, they also hunt
their prey in the lake catchment area; therefore, their activities give direct impacts to the lake ecosystem.
The central role of Iban group was studied by Wadley (2002). Whilst, Malay activities are considered
not significantly impact to the changing of lake ecosystem since they mostly enggage on fishery
activitiesand they migrate along with harvesting season. Nevertheless, their roles in the management
should not be neglected since they are the dominant population.

119Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Local government shares the resposibility by both technical and non-technical efforts as well as
coordinating roles in managing the lake ecosystem. At the same time, the government also shares theirroles to the impacting activities as they hold the authority to issue permit for many activities such as
palm oil plantation. Roslinda (2013) found similar finding after conducting a stakeholder analysis. The
author revealed that BKSDA is the main stakeholder by empowering both high interest and influence.
On the other hand, local communities are categorized as the parties with hgh interest but low influences
since they do not have access to decission making process. Whilst, international oganzation; forinstances, CIFOR and CANOPY share low interest and influence. At the same time, local government
represented by Local Planning Agency (BAPPEDA) showed high influence and low interest. Thus, both
BKSDA and BAPPEDA should be the prime leader for good management movement. Moreover, local
community roles should be empowered and invited to participate more in the management processsince they have high interest to the resources and they acquire great knowledge about the resources.
SWOT ANALYSIS FOR ECOTOURISM DEVELOPMENT
To elevate local economic impact as well as to support conservation program in the lake's ecosystem,
The World Wide Fund (WWF) and Kapuas Hulu District Office of Tourism and Culture Ministry, Danau
Sentarum National Park (Taman Nasional Danau Sentarum/ TNDS), Kapuas Hulu Forest Management
Agency (Kesatuan Pengelolaan Hutan (KPH) Model Kapuas Hulu), and Melemba Village Government
have developed an initial process for ecotourism at Melemba Village. The tourism has to be supported
by various aspects; for examples: insfrastructure development and local people empowerment. In thispaper, a SWOT analysis is proposed for the improvement of the ecotourism plan. The analysis ispresented in Table 2. Overall, the main strength for ecotourism development is the lake's wonderful
biodiversity. Whilst, the main identified weakness is limited accessibiity and insfrastructure. This
statement is supported by a tourism expedition conducted by Kompas held in 2013.The journalist
member of the expedition wrote that it was relatively expensive, difficult, and dangerous to access thelake area (Kompas, 2013).
Table 2. SWOT analysis to support ecotourism development in Lake Sentarum
Helpfulforecotourism Harmful for ecotourism development
development
WEAKNESSESInternal factors STRENGTHS
•
•
•
•
•

Amazing biodiversity
Endemic species
Abundant water resources
Unique hydrologicalprocesses
Huge amount of carbon
sequestration

•
•

•
•
•

External factors

OPPORTUNITIES
•
•
•
•
•

Very limited infrastructure andtransportation/ Low Accessibility
Differences among dry and wet
season hydrological processes is athreat for water transportation
continuation
Acidic peat water limits tourism
activities
Limitationof
local
peopleinvolvement by the planning agency
Very few bridging research and or
discussion

THREATS

Emerging ecotourism trend in
the world
Various research availibility
Low
identified
directeconomic values from otheractivities
Supports from Governmental
Boards and private invitation
Supportfrombothinternational and local NGOs

120

•
•

Deforestation
Land use changing

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The success of ecotourism development cannot be separated with the increase of global ecotourism
demands. Ecotourism is becoming a worldwide new trend; thus, it should be optimized by promoting
Lake Sentarum as a unique ecotourism experience. In order to promote Lake Sentarum's ecotourism
globally, the available support from both governmental and international institutions is an opportunitythat should be captured by the tourism developer. At the same manner, it is also presented that low
identified direct economic value is the opportunity that should be seen since ecotourism
On the other hand, the development of ecotourism is mostly threatened by alteration of land use
surrounding the lake area. There are plenty popular articles (i.e. Kompas, 2015 and Republika, 2011)
citing that opening of palm oil plantation in the lake's catchment area created disturbances on theecosystem. Although some popular media have explored the danger of palm oil plantation to Lake
Sentarum's ecosystem, there is no scientific publication has been found to describe detail impacts ofpalm oil plantation to Lake Sentarum's ecosystem. Unfortunately, this lack of scientific research createsan opportunity for the local government to state that there is no interrelationship between palm oil
plantation with reduction of fish capture (Antaranews.com, no date available). Therefore, it is necessary
to be aware that expansion of palm oil plantation may be continuing. The threats of palm oil plantation
to the ecosystem in other areas actually have been well documented. One of the most recent studies
focusing on the impacts of alteration of secondary peat swamp forest into a mature palm oil plantation
was conducted by Tonks et al. (2017) in Malaysia. The study found that the conversion forfeited C
storage and water holding capacity of the swamp. Other studies such as Saswattecha et al. (2015) andSilalertruksa (2016) highlight some concerns related to green house, water footprint, and acidification
as the impacts that should be aware to be generated by the expansion of the plantation. Thus, theimpacts of palm oil expansion to the water holding capacity and C storage may pose great threats tothe development of ecotourism since the lake main strengths include aquatic biodiversity and carbon
stocks.
CONCLUSIONS
To succeed the ecotourism plan that have been signed, the moment of global ecotourism booming
should not be missed by the manager. Thus, some major threats should be resolved before they
devastate the occurring plan since the identified threat can disrupt the main strengths such as watercapacity and carbon sequestration which eventually impact the marvelous lake diversity. The identified
threats are land conversion and deforestation. In line with the plan development, a massive progressof infrastructure development as well as increment of local people involvement is a top priority work thatshould be finished promptly. All in all, should all aspects are synergies a well-developed and sustainableecotourism may be performed and in the end local people welfare may also be improved.
REFERENCES
1. Anshari, G.Z. 2010. Carbon content of the freshwater peatland forest of Danau Sentarum.
Borneo Research Bulletin vol. 41.
2. Antaranews.com. Nelayan Danau Sentarum Tak Terancam Perluasan Sawit. Retrieved fromhttp://www.antaranews.com/print/248716/nelayan-danau-sentarum-tak-terancam-perluasansawiton December 1st, 2016.
3. Colfer, C.J.P., J.Woelfel, R.L.Wadley, & E.harwell. 1996. Assessing people’s perception of forest
in Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve.CIFOR working paper no 13.
4. Colfer, C.J.P., R.L.Wadley, & P. Vekanteswarlu. 1999. Understanding local people’s use of time :a pre-condition for good management. Journal of Environmental Condition 26 (1): 41-52 pp.
5. Dudley, G.R. 2000. The fishery of Danau Sentarum. Borneo Research Bulletin vol. 31.
6. Giesen, W. 2000. Flora and vegetation of Danau Sentarum: unique lake and swamp forest
ecosystem of West Kalimantan. Borneo Research Bulletin vol. 31.
7. Giesen, W & J. Aglionby. 2000. Introduction to Danau Sentarum National Park, West Kalimantan,
Indonesia (Research Notes). Borneo Research Bulletin vol 31..
8. Jeanes. K. 2000. Danau Sentarum’s wildlife part 1: biodiversity value and global importance ofDanau Sentarum’s wildlife. Borneo Research Bulletin vol. 31.
9. Kottelat, M. 1995. Four new species from the middle Kapuas Basin, Indonesian Borneo(Osteichthyes: Ciprinidae and Belontiidae)
10. Kottelat, M. & E. Widjanarti. 2005. The fishes of Danau Sentarum National Park and Kapuas Lakes
Area, Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia
11. Kompas. 2013. Kecantikan Danau Sentarum yang Tak "Murah". Retreived fromhttp://travel.kompas.com/read/2013/04/10/11590472/Kecantikan.Danau.Sentarum.yang.Tak.Mur

121

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ah on October, 10th 2016.
12. Kompas. 2015. Sawit cemari danau Sentarum. Retreived fromhttp://regional.kompas.com/read/2015/04/13/17535651/Sawit.Cemari.Kawasan.Danau.Sentarumon December, 1st. 2016.
13. Minarchek, M. & Y. Indriatmoko. 2010. Possibility and perceptons of community micro-hydroproject in West Kalimantan. Borneo Research Bulletin vol. 41.
14. Prasetyo, L.B. & Zukifli, M.S. 2010. Orchids as a catalyst for conservation by the local communities
of Danau Sentarum. Borneo Research Bulletin vol. 41.
15. Republika. 2011. Dianggap Ganggu Ekosistem, Izin Sawit di Danau Sentarum Minta Dihentikan.
Retreivedfrom
http://www.republika.co.id/berita/regional/nusantara/11/05/20/breakingnews/lingkungan/11/03/06/167611-dianggap-ganggu-ekosistem-izin-sawit-di-danau-sentarumminta-dihentikan on December 1st,2016.
16. Roslinda, E. 2013. Pilihan kebijakan pengelolaan Taman Nasional Danau Sentarum Provinsi
Kalimantan Barat. Disertasi Sekolah Pasca Sarjana Institut Pertanian Bogor.
17. Said, S.D. N. Hermayani, H. Fauzi. I. Akhdiana, A. Waluyo, & Sahroni. 2014. Kondisi Biologis
Udang Alam Danau Sentarum-Kalimantan Barat dan Danau Matano-Sulawesi Utara. Prosiding
Seminar Nasional Limnologi VII – 2014.
18. Silalertruksaa, T., S.H. Gheewalaa, P. Pongpata, P. Kaenchana, N. Permpoola, N. Lecsiwilaja, &R. Mungkung. 2016. Environmental sustainability of oil palm cultivation in different regions ofThailand: Greenhouse gases and water use impact. Journal of Cleaner Production(2016).
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jclepro.2016.11.069
19. Saswattecha, K. C. Kroezea, W. Jawjitb, L. Heina. 2015. Assessing the environmental impact ofpalm oil produced in Thailand. Journal of Cleaner Production 100: 150-169.
20. Tonks, A.J., P. Aplin, D. J. Beriro, H.Cooper, S.Evers, C. H. Vane, S. Sjögersten. 2017. Impacts
of conversion of tropical peat swamp forest to oil palm plantation on peat organic chemistry,
physical properties and carbon stocks. Geoderma 289: 36–45
21. Wadley, R. L.2002. Iban forest management and wildlife conservation along Danau Sentarum
periphery, West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Malayan Nature Journal 56(1): 83-101 pp.
22. Wadley, R. L., C. J. P. Colfer, R. Dennis, and J. Aglionby. 2010. The ‘social life’ of conservation:
lessonsfrom Danau Sentarum. Ecology and Society 15(4): 39. [online] URL:
http://www.ecologyandsociety.org/vol15/iss4/art39/
23. Walter, O. 2000. A study of Hunting and trade of freshwater turtles and tortoises (order Chelonia)
at Danau Sentarum. Borneo Research Bulletin vol. 31.
24. Yuliani E.L., Y. Indriatmoko, V. Heri, S. Ernawati, L.B. Prasetyo.2007. Promoting good governancein Danau Sentarum National Park under decentralization. The international workshop on
strengthening community conserved area. Turkey (1-5 October 2007)
25. Yuliani, E.L., Y. Indriatmoko, M.A.Salim, I.Z.Farid, M.Muhajir, L.B Prasetyo, & V.Heri. 2010. Biofuel
policies and their impact on local people and biodiversity: A case study from Danau Sentarum.
Borneo Research Bulletin vol. 41.

122

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CONFIGURATION OF LAKE TOBA MANAGEMENT BASED ON PRESIDENTIAL
REGULATION NO. 81/2014
LukmanResearch Centre for Limnology-Indonesian Institute of Sciences
Corresponding author: lukman@limnologi.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACT
Utilization of lake area continues on expanding and, especially in multipurpose lake, has led to thevexing problems multi-dimensionally either in ecological, economical, and sociological aspect. Lake
Toba, known as the largest lake in Indonesia and located in seven districts in North Sumatra Province,
has a variety of functions with an intensive utilization rate. Management of the multifunctional lakerequires profound attention towards the existing interests. The Indonesian Government through theGovernment Regulation number 26/2008, on the National Spatial Planning, has set a list of areas
projected as National Strategy Region (NSR), and among them is Lake Toba area. The decision on
incorporating Lake Toba as NSA is based on lake’s location which is shared within seven regencies,
various sectors’ exploitation, as well as the presence of utilization associated with the national interest.
Lake Toba management is a comprehensive activity that relates to how to support the sustainability ofthe ecosystem and benefit values for the locals in the surrounding area. Presidential Decree No. 81/
2014 has authorized the management of Lake Toba area, which aims to: i) manage the catchment area
pertaining to the maintenance of the water resources sustainability, and minimize the erosion to prevent
sedimentation; ii) maintain the water quality and protect against the land and water contamination; iii)
sustain the biological resources and the stocks through the biodiversity and endemic biota protection,
as well as maintain the stability of biological production that bestows myriad benefit for locals. To
conclude, Presidential Decree number 81/2014 synergistically binds together scientific and local
wisdom aspects.
Keywords: Lake Toba, National Strategy Region, Presidential Regulation number 81/2014.
INTRODUCTION
Increasing utilization of waters, especially in multipurpose lakes, has arisen complicated problems withvarious dimension including in ecological, economic, and sociological aspects. Lake is common
property area, having potential of economic resource which can be a livelihood source for thesurrounding community. On the other side, lake as an ecosystem is a medium for inhabiting the varietyof life in which susceptibility to changes has strong association to human activities. Various interests
have utilized the available resources in the lake, which can cause conflicts because of different criterion
needs and sensitivity level of each use. Toba, as the largest lake in Indonesia has various functions
and intensive use. Lake Toba has a function as area of tourism and fishing area, Hydroelectric Power
Plant (HEPP) and a source of raw water (Fig. 1). Centre of tourism has been growing in Lake Toba
region and use its panoramic view as main object of the sites. In national policy, Lake Toba and several
other lakes such as Lake Maninjau and Lake Batur are the basis of the National Tourism Development
Master Plan (Ardika, 1999). The fishery activities in Lake Toba has been continuing for a long-time age,since 1950s, the dominant fish caught is tilapia (Tilapia mossambica) (Soerjani et al, 1979).
Another activity expanded in the Lake Toba is fish culture in floating net (cage aquaculture; CA), which
was first tried in 1988 (Dharma, 1988). The total production of fish from CA in 2010 was 47,478 tons,
which was dominant from the Regency of Samosir (24,420 tons), Toba Samosir (10,372 tons) and from
Simalungun (9,807 tons) (Anonymous, 2011). River Asahan, the outlet of Lake Toba, has been used
to support HEPP of Sigura-gura whose capacity reached 450 megawatts (MW). River Renun is thelake inlet and it has been used as another HEPP with capacity of 82 MW.
The utilization of the lake waters that is more concerning to the local community life is a source of raw
water for drinking water. Approximately 70% of villages around of Lake Toba utilize lake water as asource of raw water and drinking water, besides, three Regional Water Companies also utilize of Lake
Toba water for raw water, namely in Pangururan, Balige, and Laguboti cities.

123Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Map of Lake Toba water area utilization (Lukman, 2013).
In lake catchment area, the land use is intensive enough, not only agricultural but also the settlement.
Large areas of land utilization for cultivation activity is around 48.6% of the catchment area, which ismostly for agriculture in dry land (27.6%) and open land (20.6%) area. The composition of forest land
covered only 23% of catchment (BP DAS Barumun in Lukman et al., 2010). The agricultural activity inlake catchment reached 129,448 ha (Table 1), or approximately 53% of the total catchment area, withthe highest proportion in Toba Samosir Regency that reached 56 138 ha.
Table 1. Agriculture land area on Lake Toba catchment in each regency
No. Regency
Agriculture land area (Ha)1
Toba Samosir
56,1382
Samosir
48,971
3
Simalungun
12,6994
Humbang Hasundutan
7,908
5
Dairi
2,062
6
Karo
1,670
Total
129,448
Source: Calculate from Earth Image Map (Bakosurtanal Map)
According to Klessig (2001), the lake can only provide optimal social benefits if the policy setting
management fully recognizes the potential contribution of the lake for the community and the policy is
integrated to provide a balanced attention on all the values that the lake can give. Thus, the utilizationof the lake waters will be positive as long as its ecological balance, within the limits of carrying capacity
consider the interests of others.
TOBA LAKE AS A NATIONAL STRATEGY REGIONThe Government of Republic Indonesia through the Government Regulation number 26/2008 on the
National Spatial Plan, has set 76 regions throughout Indonesia into the National Strategy Region (NSR).
Lake Toba is one of 76 areas within NSR. The aim of Government Regulation declared was to achieve:i) the harmonization between the natural and manmade environment; ii) the integration of planning,utilizing and controlling of land use; iii) balance and harmonize of development between regions andbetween sectors. Categorization of Lake Toba as an NSR is appropriate because it refers to the lake
physical characteristics which belong to seven districts in North Sumatra (Fig 2), lake utilization byvarious sectors, as well as utilization related with the presence of national importance such ashydropower-Sigura-gura.
Since the status of Lake Toba is as NSR, therefore, the spatial plan is on authority of the central
government's. It refers to the National Spatial Plan (NSP), in which confirms the policy direction andutilization strategy of state space regions.

124Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. The map of regency distribution in Lake Toba area.
In article (Art.) 9 (1) of President Regulation No. 26/2008, it is stated about the policy of NSR
development, including the preservation and improvement of environment function and carrying
capacity, to maintain and improve the ecological balance, preserve biodiversity, maintain and improve
the function of protection area, preserving the uniqueness landscape and national cultural heritage;
To support policies that Lake Toba and surrounding area as a National Strategy Region (NSR) area ofnational strategy (KSN), the Lake Toba spatial planning, as direction of its area utilization, determinedby the Presidential Regulation number 81 of 2014, The Lake Toba Spatial Plan was set. Presidential
Regulation number 81/2014 serves, among others, as a guide of: i) Development plans preparation in
Lake Toba area; ii) Spatial planning at provincial and district area in Lake Toba; iii) Realization of theintegration, interrelation, and balance development between district area, as well as the harmonization
between sectors in Lake Toba area; iv) Determining the location and functionalism of investments in
Lake Toba area; iv) Management of Lake Toba area; and v) Achievement the development plan integrityof Lake Toba with the surrounding area.
TOBA LAKE MANAGEMENT WITH REFERENCE TO THE PRESIDENTIAL REGULATION
Lake Toba management is a comprehensive activity related to how to support the sustainability of theecosystem, the biota in it and utilization value for human being. Thus, such management should bedirected to: i) the management of catchment area related to the maintenance of the sustainability ofwater resources and minimize erosion to prevent silting; ii) maintain water quality and protect against
contamination from the land and water; iii) the sustainability of biological resources availability throughthe protection of biodiversity and endemic biota, as well as maintain the stability of the biologicalproduction for people utilization. President Regulation number 81/2014 of the President stated explicitlythat the purpose of arrangement mentioned is related to the management of the lake that includes thepreservation of the catchment region as the water of life the communities and ecosystems, as well as
fish culture control, that has to correspond on lake carrying capacity and integrate to tourism
development (Art. 6),
Watershed Management
Sustainability of the water supply is of major importance for the aquatic ecosystem of the lake, both inrelation to aspects of preservation of aquatic and biological resources in it or linkage with the need forwater resources for energy. Thus, catchment area management is directed at spatial arrangements thatis relevant to each region carrying capacity and the implementation of environmental friendly land use.
President Regulation number 81/2014 concerns both water body, catchment and ground water
recharge area (Art. 5). In Lake Toba area, there are 25 sub catchments (Art. 5; 3) and 9 water recharge
areas (Art. 5: 4). Management strategy of catchment area that will be implemented include: i) The
management of protected forest areas (Art. 8; 1a); ii) Management of groundwater recharge areas (Art.
8; 1b); iii) Control land use around water sources and riparian (Art. 8; 1c); iv) Setting an infiltration
function on the slope of > 40% (Art. 8, 1d); v) Built the sediment trap (Art. 8, 1i); v) Control the residential
development around protected forests (Art. 8 1h); vi) Control cultivation area in the ground water
recharge (Art. 8.1l); and v) Restructure the tourism area in lake border area and on the land with a slopeof > 40% (Art. 8.4.b). The strategy in the cultivation area for regional preservation of crop andhorticulture, through: i) Development of terracing system on lands with a slope of 25% -35% (Art. 8.6b);ii) Pollution control in cultivated areas by organic farming application (Art. 8.6d); iii) Control of protected125Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

forest destruction and water pollution from agricultural activity (Art. 8.7a); iv) The development ofenvironmental friendly farms (Art. 8.7b). Management strategies of watershed will also be realized
through maintenance cooperation pattern of environmental quality, in terms of: i) Management andmaintenance of water resources in the catchment and water recharge area (Art. 8.8a); ii) Application oflake water quality standards based on water quality standard Class I (Art. 8.8b); and iii) Integrated
management of waste water network system and solid waste (Art. 8.8g).
Pollution Management
The main concern of lake management is to maintain the water quality in a condition to fulfil qualificationof related the water purpose. People activities in the waters and also in the terrestrial area will give
impact on lake water quality. Activities in terrestrial area will increase the allochthonous matters into thewater. The agriculture impact is characterized by elevated nutrients and pesticide level and domestic
activities are characterized by increasing levels of organic material. Management to minimize the effects
of pollution includes the development of environmental friendly farming systems, to set the bordercorridor as a buffer or transition zone which role as filter the entry of various pollutants from the mainland,
and the development of waste management.
Activities on the lake that have the potential to provide pollution are transportation, cage aquaculture
activity and washing and bathing activity. The policy on pollution management is declared in President
Regulation number 81/2014, they are: i) Maintain the stability of lake water quantity and water quality
control (Art. 7; a); ii) Control of cage aquaculture area in the lake (Art. 7; e); c iii) Control of livestockarea, horticulture and development the community-based plantation and environmental friendly farming(Art. 7; g). The strategy to implement the pollution management policy, are: i) Provide the water quality
monitoring facility (Art. 8.1.f); ii) Pollutant emission reducing vegetation development on the banks oflake (Art. 8.1.g); iii) Development of bio filtration on rivers to reduce pollutant load (Art. 8.1 h); iv)
Development of wastewater treatment plant in the area of livestock (Art. 8.7c); v) Control of production
process on the agricultural area in watershed which produce waste and hazardous waste (Art. 8.1o);vi) Development of waste management systems and the wastewater network (Art. 8.1p); vii) control theuse of the lake water with reuse model (Art. 8.1k); viii) Control of lake space utilization for aquaculture(Art.8.1 m); viii) Recovery of lake water quality which polluted by fish farming activities (Art.8.1.r).
Management of pollutant on cage aquaculture activity becomes an important concern that is related totheir activity in water body and people economic source. Therefore, special strategy was developed in
President Regulation No.81/2014 through zone arrangement of cage location and the production thatrefers to carrying capacity of the lake. President Regulation mentioned the strategy for aquaculture
development in lake area through: i) Cage aquaculture area control and water quality on this area needto fulfil the water quality standard on class I (Art. 8; 5a); ii) Prohibition of aquaculture activity in the lakebanks until 30 m depth as littoral zone which has function as benthic animal habitats and fish spawningarea (Article 8; 5b); iii) Control of cage aquaculture activity in open water with a depth of 30-100 meters
and in lake outlet waters area, that refers to environment carrying capacity and the water quality needto meet the water quality standard on class I (Article 8; 5c); iv) Controlling cage aquaculture activity indepth waters (> 100 meters) as decomposer zone (Article 8; 5d);
Sustainability of Biological Resource Availability
Management is directed to ensure the sustainable utilization of biological resources through theestablishment of protection zones, especially for endemic biota, endangered species, as well as settings
the zone that keep reproduction processes continuity of biological resources, including establishmentof protected zones for migration route and fish spawning ground. Lake management to support
availability of biological resources continuously has been accommodated in President Regulation by
setting conservation of important ecosystem (Art. 7b). The strategy to implement those policy, will
execute by establishing the protected areas (Art..8.2 a), including conservation of local and naturalprotected area (Art. 30).
Local protected area consists of riparian (river bank) zone, around (bank) of lake, green open land area
(Art.32). Area of natural conservation for conserve of biodiversity, ecosystem type and genetic
resources, setting for spawning ground of Lake Toba endemic fish (Art. 33).
The implementation level of zone arrangement direction further has to consult to Detail Plan of Zone
Utilization which is put up through Regional Regulation (Art. 117). It is also related to Lake Toba area
located on seven of regency administration.
SCIENTIFIC REVIEW OF LAKE TOBA CONDITION
Direction of Lake Toba area utilization with refer to President Regulation No.81/2014, namely Space
Planning of Lake Toba Area, it is expected that lake resource utilization should be sustainable. Scienceand technological information and local wisdom are useful to suppot the implementation of policy, for126

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

instance: to increase the awareness of hidrological dan geological condition.
As known the
tophography of Lake Toba catchment characterized by slight elevation (slope degree 3-8%) it is just
30% from the total area, the rest is rather steep to very steep (70%) (BP DAS Barumun in Lukman etal., 2010). Regulation of land management have been written on President Regulation number 81/2014
stating that the use of land in the Lake Toba catchment must pay attention ton the hydrological factors.
President regulation in the utilization of land space, generally had regarded the nature susceptibility andecological specific of utilization areas that should be protected. However, we must keep in mind thatthe ecological characteristics of the lake waters are different from other ecological sites. In lake area,
there are some areas (habitat) need to be considered related to the purpose utilization regulation oflake space, such as the edges of the lake, littoral zone, lake inlets or area of rivers entering the lake,
and wetland areas. Ecological importance of the lake edge is an ecotone zone and energy supplier.
This area generally has high biotic diversity. The riparian vegetation that grows along the banks part isthought as fauna habitat land water specific, supplier of organic matter and nutrients to waters as lakeenergy source.
From the lake management point of view, the banks are part of border regions, which should be open
for public access to carry out various activities in the waters. The banks area can be an inspection
corridor and can be a hub to the processing of land-based activities, such as the treatment of sewage,
raw water intake and environmental monitoring. Littoral zone is part the waters generally located on
the lake edge, where the bottom waters are still on sunlight penetration (euphotic zone) which still
support the development of autotroph photosynthetic organisms. This region develops a variety ofaquatic plants, benthic biota, as well as being the main area of fish spawning zone. Littoral zone ofLake Toba is known to a depth of between 18-36 meters, or an average of 27 meters and its range isestimated at 10.64 km2 or 0.95% of the entire of lake area (Figure 3) (Lukman, 2011).
The inlet area where river goes into the lake needs to be considered because it is an area where theinflux of pollutants from land-based activities and fish migration way to spawning ground. Inlets of thelake can be used as monitoring stations of pollution from the land, and on the other hand, this area
should be open so that it will not disturb the fish migrating activity.
Wetland regions which are widely distributed on the lakes shores often become an important habitat ofwater birds, even among the migratory birds. The wetlands which also have quite high plant populations
are generally the habitat for many animals who live between land and water.
The utilization of water area for the development of cage aquaculture has to concern the lake carrying
capacity. Referring to Beveridge’s (1984) criteria, the carrying capacity is the maximum productionlevel that can be achieved based on the total phosphorus levels acceptable as appropriate of waters
utilization, particularly it is related to the impact namely eutrophication. In fact, the criteria are ignoring
the organic matter accumulation impact in the bottom waters causing anoxic conditions and changes inthe structure of benthic habitat. It also needs to pay attention to avoid habitat benthic damage,especially in the littoral zone. In a more specific point, Bengtson (2012) also imposed the aspect ofcarrying capacity which pays more attention to the ecological and sociological conditions.

Figure 3. The littoral zone of Lake Toba (Depth of 0-30 m; green) (Source: Lukman, 2011)127

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Several ecological factors and the waters space utilization become determining criteria of cageaquaculture development area (Lukman, 2011a; 2013), they are: i) Hydro morphometric character andwater mass flow patterns; ii) Outside the littoral zone; iii) Considering to the length of each regency
coastline; iv) Agricultural land area and their activity in each regency; v) Considering the number of local
residents; vi) Outside the territory of other activities that already exist such as raw water intake area,business activity and the port, outside of the tourism area and tourism potential; and outside the fish
reservation zone. Considering to the water quality, water mass circulation factors and the estimatedarea use both the existing and potential use in the future, the grading direction of potential development
area for cage aquaculture has been defined (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Potential area grade for cage aquaculture development in Lake Toba
(Sumber: Lukman et al, 2013).
Referring to the Government Regulation (PP) number 28/2009 that is related to Water Pollution Load
Capacity on Lake and/or reservoirs, with a range of phosphorus criteria for oligotrophic waters,
scenarios for fish production from cage can be achieved until 35,282 tons / year (Lukman and Hamdani,2012).
CONCLUSIONSThe Lake Toba which is included as one of the national strategy regions has become a major concern
from the central government of the republic Indonesia. The policy of Lake Toba management has been
directed to develop into one of the world's tourist destinations. Each activity will be and has been
growing in the Lake Toba and that should be in line with and support to those policies. Government
policies determined by Presidential Regulation are comprehensive and sufficient to keep the
implementation of target lake management also in line and accommodative to the characteristic thelake ecological and hydrological conditions. However, in implementation level has to consider the socialand economic development aspects and how to build the balance between the regions. Lake Toba isone ecosystem but there are seven regencies using Lake Toba with different policies and requirements.
On waters area utilization, especially for the cage aquaculture activities, we have to decide the targetof fish production, which refers to the total production level based of carrying capacity, and also thespecified allocation needed for each district. In addition, specific zones of cage aquaculture activity foreach regency shall be established and does not interfere with other activities that will grow and havebeen growing in the Lake Toba. Finally, the implementation of government policies related to the
management of Lake Toba should be the main mind set of stakeholders and the community. The
successful management of Lake Toba can hopefully be the reference to the management of other lakes
in Indonesia.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank Research Centre for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences which funded me
to attend the 16th World Lake Confence in Bali on 7-11 November 2016 and to present this paper.

128

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

REFERENCES
1. Ardika, G., 1999, Danau dan waduk dalam pengembangan pariwisata berkelanjutan (Lake andreservoir in sustainable tourism development), Prosiding Semiloka Nasional Pengelolaan dan
Pemanfaatan Danau dan Waduk, PPLH-IPB, Ditjen Bangda-Depdagri, Ditjen Pengairan-Dep.PU,
dan Kantor Men. LH. Bogor. Hal. IV (1–13) (In Indonesia)
2. Anonymous, 2011. Statistik Perikanan Budidaya Provinsi Sumatera Utara Tahun 2010
(Aquaculture statistic of North Sumatera Province 2010). Laporan Tahunan. Dinas Kelautan dan
Perikanan Provinsi Sumatera Utara. 148 hal. (In Indonesia)
3. Benston DA, 2012. Modeling Aquaculture Carryng Capacity in Common Water Body. Proseeding
International Conference on Indonesian Inland Waters III. Res. Inst. For Inland Fish, Ministry ofMarine Affairs & Fisheries, Republic of Indonesia. p15-22
4. Beveridge, 1984. Cage Aquaculture. Fishing News Books, Ltd. Fornham Survey, 352 p
5. Klessig, L.L 2001. Lakes and Society: The Contribution of Lakes to Sustainable Societes. Lakes& Reservoirs: Research and Management, 6: 95 - 101
6. Lukman. Badjoeri, M., Nasution, S.H., (2010). Antisipasi bencana lingkungan perairan Danau
Toba melalui penetapan daya dukung dan pemintakatan wilayah budidaya (Lake Toba waters
environmental dissaster anticipate through the determine of carrying capacity and zoning of
aquaculture) . Laporan Akhir Tahun 2010 Kegiatan Program Kompetitif – LIPI. Puslit LimnologiLIPI. 70 hal. (In Indonesia)
7. Lukman. (2011_. Ciri wilayah eufotik perairan Danau Toba (Euphotic zone characteristic of Lake
Toba). Prosiding Seminar Nasional Hari Lingkungan Hidup 2011. PPLH –LPPM Unsoed, Ikatan
Ahli Lingkungan Hidup Indonesia. Hal. 130 – 139 (in Indonesian)
8. Lukman. (2011a). Hydrology and morphometry characteristic consideration on determining Lake
Toba carrying capacity for cage aquaculture. Prosiding Simposium Nasional Ekohidrologi.
“Integrity Ecohydrological Principles for Good Water Governance” APCE. UNESCO – LIPI.
Jakarta 25 September 2011. p. 185 - 187
9. Lukman & Hamdani, A. (2011). Estimasi daya dukung perairan Danau Toba Sumatera Utara untuk
pengembangan budidaya ikan dengan karamba jaring apung. (Carrying capacity Estimation of
Lake Toba Waters North Sumatera for development of cage aquaculture). Limnotek, 18(2): 59 -67
10. Lukman. (2013). Danau Toba. Karakteristik limnologis dan mitigasi ancaman lingkungan daripengembangan karamba jaring apung (Lake Toba. Limnological Characteristics and ofEnvironmental Threats Mitigation for Cage Aquaculture Development). LIPI Press. (In Indonesia)
11. Lukman, Nasution, S.H., & Ridwansyah, I. (2013). Arahan lokasi pengembangan karamba jaring
apung di Danau Toba (Direction of cage aquaculture develompment zone in Lake Toba). Prosiding
Pemaparan Hasil Penelitian Puslit Geoteknologi – LIPI 2013. Hal. 373-384. (In Indonesian)
12. President of Republic Indonesia. (2014). Peraturan Presiden Republic Indonesia Nomor 81
Tahun 2014 (Regulatian President of Republic Indonesia Number 81 2014). Tentang: Rencana
Tata Ruang Kawasan Danau Toba dan sekitarnya (About: Spacial Planning in Lake Toba Area
and Surrounding).
13. Soerjani, M., Wargasasmitha, S., Djalil, A., & Tjitrosoedirdjo, S. (1979). Survey ekologi Danau
Toba (Ecological survey of Lake Toba). Laporan Akhir. Tahun.1978 – 1979. Univ. Indonesia- Dep.
PU. 24 hal. (In Indonesian)129Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

PROMOTING INTEGRATED LAKE BASIN MANAGEMENT IN LAKE NAKURUWATERSHED, KENYA
1*Jackson Akama Raini , Richard Kipsang Rop2, Timothy Murithi Kiogora2
FlamingoNet, P.O Box 13493-20100, Nakuru. Tel: +254712165699
County Government of Nakuru, Min. of Environment, Natural Resources, Energy & Water*Corresponding author: jraini2002@yahoo.com
1

2

ABSTRACT
Lake Nakuru National Park lies between longitude 36o05’ E and Latitude 0o24’ S, and is located within
Nakuru County in Rift Valley region of Kenya. Lake Nakuru is a shallow alkaline-saline (soda) lake witha surface area of approximately 40-60 km2 and the catchment covering 1,800 km2. The lake basin uses
include; biodiversity conservation, tourism, urban development, rural human settlements, water supply,
geothermal prospects, agriculture and livestock, prehistoric sites, waste water treatment and waste
assimilation, education centres, learning institutions, research stations, transport networks, and small scale mining. The lake now faces various challenges, ranging from climate change, land use/ land coverchanges, deforestation & degradation of forested areas, environmental degradation, pollution, loss of
biodiversity, urbanization, water shortage, flooding, landslides, poor crop yields and damaged
infrastructure, loss of tourism revenue, poverty. To address the above issues, Integrated Lake BasinManagement (ILBM) and its platform process was formally launched in Nakuru in December 2011. The
first ILBM activity was the preparation of the Lake Nakuru Brief which described the current state ofLake Basin Management. We conducted analysis of issues, needs, and challenges regarding six
Governance Pillars using the Issue-Challenge- Six pillar matrix, followed by adoption of integrated ways
and means for meeting the challenges and implementing the agreed actions.
ILBM has evolved as an important approach for achieving sustainable management of Lake Nakuru
through gradual, continuous and holistic improvement of basin governance, including sustained efforts
for integration of institutional responsibilities, policy directions, stakeholder participation, scientific andtraditional knowledge, technological possibilities and funding prospects. We are seeking to integrate
ILBM into the Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM) approaches, enhance a cooperative
framework among the participants by sharing information and knowledge and planning to develop a
National Lake Basin Management Strategy that echoes the ILBM achievements and challenges.
Keywords: Biodiversity, Governance, Lake Basin, Landuses, Integrated Management
INTRODUCTION
Lake Nakuru (Figure 1) location 360 05’ E, 000 24’ S; and at 1860m asl. (Lake Nakuru Ecosystem
Management Plan, 2002-2012). The lake with an area of 44 km 2 is part of a 188-km2 National Park thatis located close to a rapidly growing urban center, Nakuru City. The catchment is a unique ecosystem
containing a variety of habitats that include an alkaline lake which is home to thousands of flamingos
previously referred to as “the greatest ornithological spectacle on earth”, the largest Euphorbia forest
stand in East Africa, a wildlife rich savannah and highland moist forests. The vegetation comprises ofgrasslands and scrublands at the lower parts of the basin with acacia bush land along the lakeshore
and flood plains and riverine vegetation along the river courses. Lake Nakuru alone forms 0.008% of
Kenya’s land area, while the lake together with its catchment composes 0.316% of Kenya’s surface
area. Lake Nakuru is a discrete ecosystem and there is no ecosystem fragmentation. Lake Nakuru
National Park is an important habitat for about 450 birds and 50 mammalian species, and is a closed
ecosystem. It is also the first wetland to be declared a Ramsar Site in the country (listed sites or
wetlands of international importance for the management of migratory waterfowls) and a popular tourist
attraction point, particularly so because of the presence of the world-famous flamingos. In 2005, KWS
branded Lake Nakuru as the Bird Watchers Paradise. In 2009, Lake Nakuru was declared an Important
Bird Area (IBA). In 2011, the park was designated as a UNESCO World Heritage Site.

130Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Map of Lake Nakuru catchment basin
The saline-alkaline Rift Valley lake has mean pH of 10.5, high conductivity, as well as other climatic,
physicochemical, and biological features, which permit only a small variety of life forms to survive(Vareschi, 1982). The main primary producer in the saline-alkaline lakes is a species of cyanobacterium
Arthrospira fusiformis (formerly known as Spirulina platensis), which forms the major food base for thefilter-feeding lesser flamingo and tilapia fish. The lesser flamingo (Phoenicopterus minor), and the tilapia
fish (Sarotherodon alcalicus grahami), are both filter-feeders and share the same food base formed by
A. fusiformis. The lesser flamingo is the only known waterfowl that feeds almost entirely on Arthrospirafusiformis. The flamingo species migrate from one saline-alkaline lake to another within and beyond thecountry at will. There is a strong indication that one of the major factors attributable to the inter-lakemovements is algal density and other physicochemical factors in the water (Vareschi, 1978). The
breeding and fledgling site in the region, however, is Lake Natron in Tanzania (Brown, 1959). There isa possibility that these birds could be migrating as far north as Ethiopia and Southern Africa. There has
been no confirmation so far as to the exact migratory area or range in the region. The tilapia fish wasintroduced into Lake Nakuru during the fifties and sixties, from Lake Magadi, for the purpose ofcontrolling the mosquito menace (Brown, 1959). The fish in Lake Nakuru was reported to haveincreased to an estimated biomass of up to 400 tons dry weight in the seventies (Vareschi, 1979). One
impact of tilapia introduction was an increase in the local biodiversity associated with a new populationof a number of fish-eating birds. In the 1970s, the major consumer of the primary producer (Arthrospirafusiformis) was the lesser flamingo (72 +/- 6.5 gm /bird/day), followed by the tilapia fish, copepods, androtifers (Vareschi, 1978). Algal blooms have been known to produce lethal toxins, and consequent dieoffs in some aquatic and terrestrial vertebrates (Beasley et al, 1991). A comparison of watersheds
surrounding the Rift Valley lakes in Kenya would indicate that levels of environmental pollution withpesticides and heavy metals as well as eutrophication is higher in the Lake Nakuru catchment basin. In
the recent past, Lake Nakuru has been flooded, a factor that has significant impact on the lake’s ecology.
However, within the catchment, land subdivision has occurred for agricultural uses hence causing land
fragmentations with severe ecological consequences i.e. extremes of flooding and dry-outs (Raini 2009,
Koyo, 2000; Lake Nakuru Ecosystem Management Plan, 2002-2012; Githaiga, 1997). This is one of
the factors contributing to the observed frequent and unexpected outmigration of the lesser flamingos

131

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

to other areas. The lesser flamingo population in the region migrates from one saline-alkaline lake toanother, depending on the climatic, physical, chemical, and biological changes which determine theavailability of their food base, as well as the quality and quantity of fresh water available for drinking.
Factors associated with flamingo densities include pH, conductivity, and algal density. Arthrospirafusiformis which is the major food base is very sensitive to physicochemical and biological changes.
METHODS
Stakeholders in Nakuru have been championing the Integrated Lake Basin Management (ILBM) as an
approach for improving lake basin governance since the official launch in December 2011. Integrated
Lake Basin Management is an approach for achieving sustainable management of lakes and reservoirs
through continuous and holistic improvement of basin governance, including sustained efforts for
integration of institutional responsibilities, policy directions, stakeholder participation, scientific andtraditional knowledge, technological possibilities and funding prospects.
Based on comprehensive surveys conducted over the past decade, relevant review questions havebeen categorized into six thematic pillars. They are (1) Institutions to manage a lake and its basin forthe benefit of all basin users; (2) policies to govern people’s use of lake resources, and its impacts onlakes; (3) involvement of people; (4), technological possibilities and limitations that often dictate longterm decisions; (5) knowledge and information as origins of informed decisions; and (6) sustainablefinances to support implementation of all the above noted activities.
To further the ILBM Platform Process, the International Lake Environment Committee Foundation
sponsored two East African Expert Group meetings. The objectives for the expert group meetings are:(a) To help initiate the ILBM platform process targeted at specific lakes in Kenya (Lakes Nakuru,
Naivasha, Baringo, Elementeita and Victoria),b) To strategize how to integrate ILBM into the integrated water resource management (IWRM)
approaches which national or county governments to ensure sustainable management of lake basinsin Kenya and its neighboring countries; andc) To enhance a cooperative framework among the participants by sharing information and knowledge
on ILBM.
RESULTS

Figure 2. Six Pillars of Lake Basin GovernanceA brief analysis of the Six Governance Pillars as they relate to Lake Nakuru Basin is as below:
Institutions
The project has been actively working to build the partnership for Lake Nakuru watershed management.
Key institutions include; the County Government of Nakuru, Kenya Wildlife Service, Kenya Forest
Service, National Environment Management Authority, Nakuru County Government, Nakuru Water &Sanitation Services Co. Ltd, Water Resources Management Authority, Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock& Fisheries, Rift Valley Water Services Board, Geothermal Development Company Ltd and Rift Valley132

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Water Services Board. Each organization has its own mandate and working modalities. Therefore, inany project requiring the involvement of more than one organization, it is recommended that a formal
agreement be concluded to clarify the roles and responsibilities of each organization in the project
before it commences. A series of meetings/seminars were organized, inviting County Government of
Nakuru (CGN), NAWASSCO, KWS, KFS, Egerton University and NGOs, to exchange information as
well as to facilitate the cooperation among the stakeholders. The ILBM secretariat has been engaging
in collaborative efforts with various stakeholders for integrated and participatory environmental
management of the catchment, identification of key stakeholders/lead organizations, clarification of
responsibility demarcation, maximum utilization of the existing coordination arrangement andcontinuous awareness raising for better participatory management. Effective environmental education,awareness and advocacy is best achieved with partnerships, practical demos of successful models,
formal groups, vocal and respected members of the community.
Policies
The Constitution of Kenya 2010 distributes functions between the National government and the County
Governments. Environmental Institutions are regulated by several legal instruments and policies, themain ones being the Environmental Management & Coordination Act 1999, which sets the requirements
and procedures for obtaining permits and licenses, and the National Water Policy of 2012 (NWP 2012)that has been developed in response to the mandate, vision and mission of the ministry responsible forwater affairs in Kenya. It is informed by the gains made during the past decade of implementation ofreforms in the water sector anchored on the National Water Policy of 1999 (NWP 1999) also referred
to as Sessional Paper No. 1 on National Policy on Water Resources Management and Development,
the Water Act 2002, existing related policy documents, and the globally recognized Integrated Water
Resources Management (IWRM) approach. These reforms have culminated into the development of
the WSSP 2010 – 2015, which is designed to institutionalize a stakeholder and participatory approachto the management of water affairs in the country.
This policy takes into account requirements of the new Constitution of Kenya 2010 (CoK, 2010); withregard to (1) consideration of water body as public land, and (2) the right to water by all; the Kenya
Vision 2030; the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), SDGs and other national policies andStrategies. In this regard, it will inform the development of the new Water Act 2012 which will replace
the Water Act 2002.
Challenges include; ineffective enforcement of policies and legislation, weak
institutional linkages to undertake participatory & multidisciplinary approaches, lack of political support
and conflicts of interest. Projects’ functionalities are dependent upon the existing relevant policies as
governed by the legal framework and institutions. The policies dictate the application of the projectprocesses’. Projects identity is acquired by registering with relevant authorities. Such a registration
provides a mechanism for participation in formulation of resource management plans e.g. forest
management plans, EIAs; community exploitation of resources e.g. WRUAs; etc.
Participation of stakeholders
The Constitution places public participation at the core of the devolved system of governance. In thepast, the trend in the practice of public communication in government has been one-way, top-down,
and focused on instructions from government to citizens. The content has also been about government
activities and decisions rather than the exchange of ideas between citizens and government, andamong citizens. This resulted in exclusion of citizens’ contributions in decision-making processes andinfluence in the development agenda.
The constitution provides for “participation of the people” as a national value and principle of governance.
This pre-supposes that the citizens ought to; by right participate in determining how they are governed.
The need for a Nakuru County policy framework on citizen participation is anchored on the Constitutionof Kenya 2010 and relevant Acts of parliament particularly the County Government Act 2012. Though
the Constitution has clearly provided for the participation of citizens in the affairs of their governments,
it does not provide a clear framework for their participation. For this lack of clarity, citizen participationin various governance processes has hitherto been haphazard.
Participation in lake basin management is enhanced through Civil Society Organisations such as
FlamingoNet, Community Forest Associations and Water Resource Users Associations. Participatory
planning approaches are used as a tool to reconcile key stakeholders’ interests through developmentof mutually enforceable agreements and decision-making that defines their respective roles, rights,
responsibilities and authority in Lake Basin management. This requires individual attitude andleadership changes that include; transparent and accountable collaboration between government
agencies, CSOs and communities, positive attitudes by everyone involved, working with available
resources to avoid stereotype that donor funding is the only way to manage lake basins, involve133

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

stakeholders using an integrated approach, and change from control and command to dialogue andadaptive management.
Technological interventions
Technology has mainly been applied to address the challenge of wastewater management. Nakuru
City has two conventional sewage treatment plants (STPs) managed by NAWASSCO. The two STPs
were rehabilitated and expanded to target design 16,200m 3/day capacity in 1990s through the yen loanbudget for GNWSP & and grant aid by the Japanese government. Recent findings indicate that the
Njoro STP receives only 52.8% of the target sewage discharge volume while the Town STP receives
only 42.2%. Tertiary treatment at the Town STP is not effective; there is inadequate maintenance ofgrassplots and damage of grassplots by wild animals. Primary and secondary stages of sewage
treatment at Njoro STP are not effective and Facultative Ponds are functioning anaerobically. While
seepage loss at the Town STP insignificant, leakage at Njoro STP approximately 100%. Leaking points
are located under concrete culverts and are controlled by fault line plane boundaries.
Knowledge and information
Both scientific and indigenous knowledge and information occupies a core place guiding multistakeholder initiatives towards Lake Basin management. If well-coordinated, data and information cancreate linkages among the stakeholders in addressing issues from various angles and in acomplementary way. One hundred publications on Lake Nakuru were reviewed recently as part ofliterature review study of scientific and technical publications on Lake Nakuru. Substantial information
on several disciplines already exists to aid lake management efforts. Indeed, there is knowledge dearth
especially on a sustained long-term basis in almost all disciplines but current information gaps need nothinder management efforts, as these gaps do not amount to the ostensible general paucity of
information. Especially the results of ILBM-ESSVA (Ecosystem Service Shared Value Assessment)
which was conducted at Lake Nakuru last year will be very important in further strengthening theinformation and Participation pillar. ILBM-ESSVA is an important methodology for the effectivefunctioning of the ILBM platform process. In the methodology, residents evaluate the current status ofecosystem services in their basin, including lakes and rivers, and the effects on their lives. And theresults of their evaluation will be intended to reflect in the improvement of the basin governance.
FinancingFunding is critical to sustainable lake basin management. Lake Nakuru basin has three categories offunds; locally generated funds, national funding and external funding. Locally generated revenues
consist of payment for user fees, permits and services provided by the lake basin. Lake Nakuru National
Park generates about Ksh.2 billion annually from gate entry fees. However, the legal framework requiresthat all money collected from user fees from the Kenya Wildlife Service and Kenya Forest Service etc.
has to go to the national treasury. Local corporate firms occasionally support reforestation of the Mau
forest as part of the CSR. Most external funding sources in the past 5 years have closed. Currently,
only three small community projects are ongoing funded the government through CDTF, hence theneed to secure sustainable local and external funding to undertake ILBM in the Nakuru basin.
The ILBM Secretariat is institutionalized at the Nakuru County Government. Representatives from thefollowing institutions were elected: Chairman-Kenya Wildlife Service, Vice Chairperson-NEMA,
Secretary –County Government, Vice Secretary-KFS, and Coordinator-FlamingoNet.
CONCLUSIONSILBM is a conceptual framework for assisting Lake Basin managers and stakeholders in achieving
sustainable management of lakes and their basins. It takes into account the biophysical features of alake as well as managerial requirements for Lake Basin systems that are associated with the lentic(standing or static) water properties of lakes as well as the inherent dynamics between humans andnature in the process of development, use and conservation of lake and basin resources. ILBM aims toachieve sustainable management of Lake Nakuru through continuous and holistic improvement of basingovernance, including sustained efforts for;(I) sharing knowledge and information broadly among thevarious lake basin stakeholders; (II) developing the necessary institutional framework; (III) a new policy
framework that goes beyond the existing sectoral approach; (IV) wide participation of stakeholders toattain balance in policy development; (V) investigation of the potential technological options; (VI) andpossible restructuring of the financing mechanism. Especially the results of ILBM-ESSVA (Ecosystem
Service Shared Value Assessment) will be very useful in supporting effective functioning of the ILBM
platform process to the future.

134

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We acknowledge the financial support from the International Lake Environment Committee Foundation(ILEC), Japan, the Embassy of Sweden in Kenya -through the Civil Society Urban Development
Platform and the County Government of Nakuru for availing an office for the ILBM Secretariat.
REFERENCES
1. Bennun, L.A. and Nasirwa, O. (2000). Trends in water bird numbers in the Southern Rift Valley
Lakes of Kenya. Ostrich, 71 (1&2): 220-226.
2. Brown, L.H. 1973: The Mystery of Flamingos. East African Publishing House, Nairobi, 1995. East
Africa. In Flamingos. J. Kear and N. DuPlaix-Hall (eds.). T&A.D. Poyser, Hertfordshire, England.
3. Childress, B., Nagy, S. and Hughes, B. (Compilers) 2007. International Single Species Action Planfor the Conservation of the Lesser Flamingo(Phoenicopterus minor). AEWA Technical Series,
Bonn Germany.
4. Githaiga, J.M. 1997. Utilization patterns and inter-lake movements of the Lesser Flamingo and theirconservation in Saline Lakes of Kenya. In In: Conservation of the Lesser Flamingo in Eastern Africa
and beyond. G. Howard (eds.), Nairobi, Kenya: IUCN Lake Bogoria. Pp. 11-21.
5. Kock, N.D., Kock, R.A., Wambua, J., Kamau, G.J. and Mohan, K. (1999). Mycobacterium aviumrelated epizootic in free ranging lesser flamingos in Kenya. J. Wildl. Diseases. 35: 297-300.
6. Lake Nakuru Ecosystem Management Plan, 2002-2012.
7. ILEC and RCSE-Shiga University.2012. “Primer: Development of ILBM Platform Process, Evolving
Guidelines Through Participatory Improvement”, 26p.
8. Nelson. M., Thampy, R. J, Motellin, G. K., Raini, J. A., Disante, C. J and Lion L. W. (1998). Modelfor trace metal exposure in filter feeding flamingos at an alkaline rift valley lake, Kenya. Env. Tox.
and Chem. 17(11):2302-2309.
9. Raini Jackson Akama (2009). Impact of land use changes on water resources and biodiversity of
Lake Nakuru catchment basin, Kenya. African Journal of Ecology. 47 (Supp.1) 39-45.
Onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.111/j.1365-2018.2008.01048.../abstract.
10. RCSE-and ILEC 2014. “Development of ILBM Platform Process: Evolving Guidelines throughParticipatory Improvement 2nd Edition”.
11. Vareschi, E. (1979). The ecology of Lake Nakuru ll: Biomass and spatial distribution of fish
(Sarotherodon alcalicus Boulenger). Oecologia (Berl.), 37: 321-335.

135

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

STAKEHOLDER PARTICIPATORY ROLE IN MALAYSIAN ILBM INITIATIVESRESEARCH PERSPECTIVES
Zati Sharip1*, Saim Suratman2
Lake Research Unit, Water Quality and Environment Research Centre,
National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia
2
Independent Consultant*Corresponding author: zati@nahrim.gov.my

1

ABSTRACTThis paper explores the status and challenges in adopting the lake basin heartware concept in
Malaysian integrated lake basin management initiatives. Realizing the importance of interacting withstakeholders to buy-in their supports, stakeholder consultative approach has been used to develop anational research agenda and a management tool for lake. This work is based on review of thedevelopment process of three national studies over the period of 2.5 years to strengthen the research
pillars to support the national ILBM initiatives following to the implementation of the strategic plan forsustainable management of lakes in the country. The study confirmed the positive involvement ofvarious stakeholders in developing together the research agenda and national water quality criteria forlakes. A case study on the challenges in strengthening the ILBM process of Chini Lake throughstakeholder consultative approach is also discussed.
Keywords: Heartware, Malaysia, Stakeholder participation, Sustainable management.
INTRODUCTION
Integrated lake basin management (ILBM) initiatives in Malaysia has started since 2004 after thecompletion of a national desk study on the status of lake eutrophication. Similar to the integrated water
resources management (IWRM) and integrated river basin management (IRBM) concept, the adoptionof ILBM approach requires stakeholders’ participatory involvement. Stakeholder participation has also
been identified as one of the important pillars of ILBM. Stakeholders were defined by the International
Lake Environment Committee as ‘individuals or groups who make use of, have an impact on, or are
impacted by, decisions regarding the use and management of lake basin resources’ (ILEC 2005). By
this definition, stakeholders include all users as well as decision makers and managers of the lake andthe basin resources. Lake users can be local communities that lives within the lake basin and dependon the lake resources for living or enjoying the aesthetic and recreational potential. Public at large thathave interest on lake for its ecosystem services or also known as communities of interest is also
considered as stakeholders by ILEC (2005). Authorities and managers are another important groups ofstakeholders as they exert decisions pertaining to management of lake. Stakeholder participation canbe perceived as involvement of stakeholders through information sharing or engaging them to partakeor contribute over decisions or management related to lake (RSCE - Shiga University and ILEC 2011).
Therefore, to support sustainable management of lake basin, National Hydraulic Research Institute of
Malaysia (NAHRIM) has embarked in undertaking few national-based research on lakes since 2014
following endorsement by the National Water Resources Council in 2012 as national centre for lake
research. Stakeholders have been identified as major component in the implementation of national
studies, which include the lake basin heartware elements in the research. According to Harashima(1996), the term “heartware” includes heart, culture, mind and memory. This “heartware” term has been
embedded by ILEC in their proposition to strengthen the governance in lake basin management besides
the “hardware” and “software” terms. The term “hardware” refers to physical pillars of ILBM namely
science and technology while “software” refers to pillars of institutions, policies, finance, information andparticipation. Sergio (2014) further elaborated that the lake basin heartware as a concept thatincorporate Lake Basin beliefs, interests, concerns and positions in the basin management (Sergio A.
2014). It promotes stakeholder collaboration in finding and working to achieve joint solutions towards
environmental preservation. Stakeholder participation can be viewed as an enabler to strengthen the
ILBM pillars. Few country and researchers have used heartware approaches in promoting catchment
management (Mohamad, et al., 2015) however as of this written paper, there is limited data showing
the role of stakeholder in ILBM research to support effective response to lake problem specifically in
Malaysia. This paper explores the status and challenges in adopting the lake basin heartware concept
in three of the Malaysian ILBM initiatives namely development of the (i) Blueprint for lake research anddevelopment (ii) National lake water quality standards (iii) Chini Lake management plan. Realizing the136Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

importance of interacting with stakeholders to buy-in their supports, stakeholder consultative approachhas been used in every study. In general, stakeholders in Malaysia can be categorised into four focus
groups namely (i) government departments and regulatory bodies, (ii) universities and research
institutes, (iii) local communities and (iv) private sectors and non-government organisations. The aimsof the stakeholder consultations is to attain consensus from all types of stakeholders in national or basin
management studies.
METHODSIn the first part of this work, the process of the stakeholder engagement in national projects including
challenges in adopting the basin heartware was presented. The focus group of stakeholders was
identified and their role were described (Table 1). In the second part, the process of the stakeholder
engagement including challenges in adopting the basin heartware concept in a localized environment
was presented through a case study in one specific lake at the Pekan district levels. In all research,levels of participation were based on one-way presentation, two-way consultation and collaboration.
National Projects
1. Blueprint for lake research and development
Stakeholders for the study on ‘Blueprint for lake research and development’ involves scientist as wellas lake managers. Selection of stakeholders were selected based on their expertise in different
disciplines of lake studies. Earlier, seven disciplines were proposed in the action plan by Academy of
Sciences Malaysia, NAHRIM and NRE, and the research subject were harmonized by a Researchcommittee on lake. Based on the disciplines, 85 participants of the workshop were grouped into sevenresearch cluster and moderated by expert leaders. The grouped discussed based on specific templates.
Collaborative decisions were carried out through three deliberations with the National ResearchCommittee on Lakes.
2. National Lake Water Quality Standards
Stakeholders for the study on ‘National Lake Water Quality Standards’ were divided into three
categories namely (i) regulator, water authority or state authority (ii) researchers and scientists (iii)
private sectors including water industry and laboratory service providers. A total of three series ofconsultations were carried out involving the various stakeholders over the year 2015. Specific meeting
was made with two key departments administrating environment and health. A dedicated committee
comprising key stakeholders and water quality experts refined the standards and criteria. The findings
were presented to stakeholders through various forums and seminars which formed as second roundof consultative sessions. Finally, the standard was presented at the Permanent Committee on Lakes
for endorsement.
Case study: Chini Lake Management study
This specific study was part of ILBM evolvement process that has been undertaken for Chini Lake. The
development of the lake brief for this lake was completed in 2010. Continuing development pressuressurrounding the lake basin has led to negative perceptions among communities and deterioration of theenvironment. An intensive study that includes stakeholder engagement is needed to adopt the basin
heartware approach for the lake basin. Stakeholders for this study were divided into two group’s namely
local communities and technical departments. Local communities involve the native communities(Orang Asli), resort operators, fisherman, miners and FELDA farmers. A total of 12 technicaldepartments in Pekan District were identified. Consultations were carried out separately for the two
focus groups. Two series of consultations were carried out for each group; the first is to gain inputs on
threats and issues whilst the second targeted to gain feedback on the proposed solution to address thechallenges. The study was carried out between June to December 2014.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSIn all studies, information sharing such as presentations and consultation were undertaken withrespective stakeholders. Advocacy was also performed to share research findings with various
stakeholders. Table 1 presented the aim, participatory process and challenges in the ILBM initiatives.

137

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Study

Table 1: The aim, participatory processes and challenges in the ILBM initiatives

Stakeholder consultation
aim
Consensus on• research goals andtimelines• Focus disciplines andresearch program• Focus study areas andprojects

Focus groupi.

Government
departments
ii. Universities
researchersiii. Private
consultants

1. Consultation
2. Information sharing
3. Collaboration

No. ofconsultation
One
Three
Three

Standards

Consensus on• Classifications,• Monitoring parameters• Threshold limitsi.

Government
department
ii. Universities/
Researchersiii. Private sector
incl. laboratory
service providers
and waterindustries

1. Consultation
2. Information sharing
3. Collaboration

Chini Management
Plan

Consensus on• Identifying strength,
weakness, opportunity
and threats• Identifying ‘champion’for Chini Lakemanagement• Developing an
operational
management plani.

1. Consultation
2. Information sharing

Blueprint

Technical
department
ii. Universities/
Researchersiii. Communities
incl. orang asli,villagers
iv. Private sectors
i.e. mining
companies

Type of participation

138

Challenges

Heart-ware essence

Participation ofresearchers constraint by
funding availability

Research agenda
towards sustainable
management of lakes

Three
Four
One

• Setting a threshold limit
due to unavailability offield data;• Differences in opinion
on threshold limits forcertain parameters;• Classification of lakes
based on intendeduses.

Common direction onlake monitoring

Two
One

• Some sceptics from
native communities

Sustainable
management of lakebasin

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Blueprint for lake research and development
The need to develop blueprint for lake research and development stems from the need to implement
Strategy 2 of National Strategy Plan and Strategy 11 of Lake Management Action Plan (LMAP).
Strategy 2 of the strategic plan emphasize the need to establish a National Lake Resource Centre toundertake ILBM research and stock-taking lake information (Akademi Sains Malaysia and NAHRIM,
2009) while Strategy 11 of LMAP specify the need to enhance research, development and innovationon lakes (NAHRIM 2016). At present, there is limited research supporting sustainable lake management(NAHRIM 2009, NAHRIM 2014a). Research on lakes were sporadic and based on researches specificinterests rather than lake basin focused research that meet stakeholder’s need (Sharip et al 2016). The
overall stakeholder engagement process is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Stakeholder consultative process in the development of blueprint for lake research. SC stakeholder consultation; RC - research committee
Since the blueprint study was aimed to enhance the research activities towards sustainable lake
management, stakeholder consultations were focused to gain agreement between researchers andmanagers on research goals, research program and focus disciplines and areas. The discussion focus
on short, medium and long term objectives, primary thrust and research matrix and kind of studies. The
essence of the heartware is research agenda towards sustainable management of lakes. Both focus
groups deliberated on the needs of research to support lake management specifically research areas
much needed by the lake managers to support ILBM.
The outputs of this study include list of studied areas and projects to be implemented in the coming
Malaysia Development Plan (NAHRIM 2014a). The only challenge that affect the study was theconstraint on funding availability to encourage participation from various experts and researchers toundertake collaborative research. The study was successfully presented at four seminars organized by
NAHRIM and other agencies.
National Lake Water Quality Standards (NLWQS)
The research need for developing a standard on lakes water quality stem around on the limited water
quality monitoring data for lakes. These lack of measurable water quality standards may represents a
serious threat to the lake’s water quality and its ecosystem. Being a national document that could help
monitoring the water quality of lakes, the consultation for the standard document was targeted towards
lake managers. Many lakes, however, were not monitored in terms of water quality. Lake that are used
for water supply were monitored by the water industry to ensure the quality of supply prior to treatment.
Parameters measured includes pH, ammonia and turbidity. Measurement by the Ministry of Health weretargeted for health purposes. These measurements are not representative of ambient level. Few
researchers have measured water quality of lakes. These measurements, which were limited to funding
availability, are carried out over a one-year period. Consultations with the stakeholders were required
on classifications, monitoring parameters and their threshold limits. In this research, the heartware
essence is to achieve common direction on monitoring water quality in lakes. Promoting water quality
monitoring is necessary to ensure the understanding of the actual ecosystem state of the lake as well139

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

as to aid in decision making for management and/or rehabilitation. The overall stakeholder engagement
process is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2: Stakeholder consultative process in the development of NLWQS. SC - stakeholder
consultation; S-seminar; numbers indicate number of seminar; RC - research committee; NC –National committee on Lakes
The biggest challenges in this study is to attain consensus on the classification and setting the threshold
limits for some parameters due to unavailability of data and differences in opinion between experts
based on their past experiences on different water bodies. Among the parameter that were difficult todecide as parameters for classification includes e-coli, faecal coliform and enterococci. There areconflicting findings on the use of these parameters for tropical freshwater system (Sharip and Suratman2016). The output of the study was a classification that comprises four categories of criteria (NAHRIM
2015). The aim is to promote monitoring of parameters that are of concern for human health (Category
A and B) and environment (Category C and D). A total of 17 parameters were identified to determine
the classifications. The threshold limits for each category were listed for all the parameters.
Chini Lake Management study
Based on the observations and surveys of past studies, Chini Lake is one of the well-studied lake in the
country. Catchment pressures through conversion of forest for agriculture and mining remain a biggest
threat due to unavailability of core institution with appropriate enforcement and legislation requirement.
Stakeholder consultations using strength, weaknesses, opportunities and threats (SWOT) analysis
were aimed to make the stakeholders identified the issues and viewed possible solutions based onstrengths and opportunities provided by Chini Lake. Limited communication among various technicaldepartments and universities were identified as some of the weaknesses in Chini management(NAHRIM 2014b). Sectoral management focusing on short term based goal with no single authority
responsible for managing the lake basin remain the biggest challenges for Chini Lake (Sharip and Jusoh2010). The overall stakeholder engagement process is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Stakeholder consultative process in the development of Chini Lake Management Plan. SCTD - stakeholder consultation with technical departments; SC-LC - stakeholder consultation
with local communities.
The same group of people were involved in the consultative sessions. The first session was aimed to
inform the stakeholder about the study whilst the second session was to get an agreement on the
proposed findings of the research (Figure 4). Sceptics by the local communities on the study were140

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

observed during the first consultation but eventually the communities supported the forum throughdiscussion in second consultation. Based on the consultation, the heartware essence is sustainable
management of Chini lake basin. The output of the study includes recommendation for the setting up
of Centre of Excellence for Chini Lake to be led by Pejabat Daerah and Tanah of Pekan (District office)(NAHRIM 2014b). The strengthening of the function of the Pejabat Daerah and Tanah of Pekan is thebest approach to ensure the department to act as the manager for Chini Lake Basin.

Figure 4. Stakeholder consultative process in the development of (a) Blueprint for lake research anddevelopment (b) National lake water quality standards (c) Chini Lake management plan
CONCLUSIONS
Based on our research, positive involvement of various stakeholders was observed in developing
together the research agenda and national water quality criteria for lakes. Similarly, we managed to getfull participation from the stakeholders in developing the Chini Lake operational plan. The stakeholder
provided important feedback to improve in the findings of the studies.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors gratefully acknowledge all stakeholders involved in various researches specifically Datuk
Ir. Ahmad J. Shaaban, Akashah Majizat, and Dr. Salmah Zakaria. We are grateful to various study teamspecifically Akashah Majizat, Gopinath Nagaraj, Normaliza Noordin, Dr. Susheel Kaur, Dr. Zaki
Zainuddin, Dr. Yusof Ishak, Dr. Zelina Zaiton Ibrahim for their contributions. The funding of the study
was provided by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Malaysia (No.
P23170009000421).
REFERENCES
1. Akademi Sains Malaysia, NAHRIM (2009) Sustainable Management and Development Strategies
for Lakes and Reservoir in Malaysia Akademi Sains Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur.
2. ILEC (2005) Managing Lakes and their Basins for Sustainable Use: A Report for Lake BasinManagers and Stakeholders Managing Lakes and their Basins for Sustainable Use: A Report for
Lake Basin Managers and Stakeholders, Kusatsu, Japan.
3. Harashima S (1996) Evolving State of Environmental Planning and Policy Research. Discussion
Paper 96-6. Dept. of Social Engineering, Tokyo Institute of Technology, Tokyo.
4. Mohamad ZF, Nasaruddin A, Kadir SNA, Musa MN, Ong B, Sakai N (2015) Community-based
shared values as a ‘Heart-ware’ driver for integrated watershed management: Japan-Malaysia
policy learning perspective. Journal of Hydrology 530: 317–327.

141

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

5. NAHRIM (2014a) Blueprint for Lake Research and Development in Malaysia. In: National HydraulicResearch Institute of Malaysia (ed), Seri Kembangan.
6. NAHRIM (2014b) Ecosystem Assessment of Tasik Chini towards Sustainable Management
NAHRIM, Seri Kembangan.
7. NAHRIM (2015) The development of lake water quality criteria and standards for Malaysia. In:
National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (ed), Seri Kembangan.
8. RSCE - Shiga University, ILEC (2011) Development of ILBM Platform Process: Evolving
Guidelines through Participatory Improvement Research Centre for Sustainability andEnvironment, Shiga University, Otsu, Japan.
9. Sergio A. SM (2014) Collaboration: The Rationale behind the Lake Basin “Heartware” Concept.
Some Personal Views. Paper presented at the World Lake Conference 2014, Perugia, Italy.
10. Sharip Z, Jusoh J (2010) Integrated lake basin management and its importance for Lake Chiniand other lakes in Malaysia. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research & Management 15: 41-51.
11. Sharip Z, Suratman S (2016) Formulating a specific Water Quality Criteria for Lakes – a
Malaysian perspective, In: Water Quality (In press).
12. Sharip Z, Suratman S, Shaaban A (2016) A national research and development blueprint forsustainable lake basin management in Malaysia. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research & Management
20: 1-15 (In press).

142Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Topic 4. Multiple water use purposes
MOBILE DRINKING WATER TREATMENT PLANT (TYPE IG5M30) FOR DISASTER
EMERGENCY RESPONSE
Ignasius D.A. Sutapa*, Eka Prihatinningtyas, Eva Nafisyah and Hasan Fauzi
Research Centre for Limnology - LIPI
Cibinong Sciences Centre, Jl. Raya Bogor Km 46 – Cibinong Bogor, West Java – Indonesia*Corresponding author: ignasdas@yahoo.co.id
ABSTRACTEmergency conditions due to floods, landslides and droughts cause shortages of clean water anddrinking water to meet daily needs. These conditions require immediate solution to provide clean waterand drinking water to the people in the disaster area. This research activity aims to develop mobile
drinking water treatment system beeing capable for processing of marginal raw water into drinking waterin the affected areas, in order to help people in the region to access water. Development of systems
URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30 is an important step to address the needs of water services in the disasterareas, especially floods. URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30 has been completed and the results of operating
system and installation testing were satisfied. The quality of water produced has met the standard.
Some adjustments and system improvements URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30 still needed in order to
optimalize the installation function.
Keywords: mobile plant, operating systems, water quality, clean water, RO system
INTRODUCTION
Clean water is a basic need for human life, where the source can be obtained either from surface wateror groundwater. Utilization of water to meet the needs of clean water becomes an important factor forthe development and improvement of people's welfare. Water use is increasing in line with population
growth and standard of life. In general, the source of water needs is coming from surface water, except
several marginal areas such as flooding, or polluted area (Sutapa (2014), Sutapa 2015).
Emergency situations such as floods, landslides and droughts make basic needs (foods, drinking waterand other logictics) are difficult to obtain. This condition requires a rapid solution for the people in thedisaster area. Surface water conditions after disaster (floods, tsunamis, landslides) generally has acharacteristic: brown to blackish colour, muddy and smelly. Such raw water is considered as marginal
water, basically not eligible to serve for drinking water or used directly to meet their daily needs.
Development of mobile drinking water treatment system will help people in the disaster region in
obtaining clean water and drinking water required.
Water treatment is an important solution to overcome the shortage of drinking water. The processes ofwater treatment are the removal of contaminants from untreated water to produce pure water for humanutilization (Faisal Siddiqui, M. et al.(2015), Tran, N.H. et al. (2015)). Three main substances that arewithdrawn during the procedure of drinking water treatment are (Tran, N.H et al. (2015), Särkkä, H., etal (2015)): suspended solids, dissolved matter and biological matter. Several types of watercontaminant are mineral pollutants, organic pollutants, biological pollutants, suspended solids,
dissolved matter or biological organisms (Liu, X.et al., (2013), Särkkä, H., et al (2015)).
Other strategies to deliver water supply different form wellsprings are progressively investigated andused especially in waterfront areas. One of them is desalination of brackish or saline water (Sadhwani,J.J et al (2005), Miri, R. and Chouikhi, A. (2005), Van Dam, R. and Chapman, J. (2002)). Thermal,
membrane reverse osmosis (RO) and ion exchange methods are the three main techniques fortreatment for this kind of water (Lattemann, S. and Höpner, T. (2008), Trousdale, S. and Henderson, E.
(2009) , Mitchell, E.J.(2002), Chapman, P.M. (2000)). The system of reverse osmosis has turned out
to be the most reduced cost strategy concurring to numerous studies (Falkenberg, L.J. and Styan, C.A.
(2015)). Several other advantages of RO system are: simple operation, reduced sizes, low ecologicaleffects. Water treatment using reverse osmosis system may withdraw inorganic particles as well as
natural matters, infections and microorganisms (Tularam, G.A. and Ilahee, M. (2007), Falkenberg, L.J.
and Styan, C.A. (2015)).
Osmosis is a natural phenomenon which can be defined as the movement of pure water through a semi
permeable membrane from a low to a high concentration solution. The membrane is permeable to waterand some ions but rejects almost all ions and dissolved solids. This process (movement of water) occurs
until the osmotic equilibrium is reached, or until the chemical potential is equal on both sides of the143Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

membrane (http://lewabrane.com/). Reverse osmosis is a membrane separation process for removing
solvent from a solution. When a semi permeable membrane separates a dilute solution from a
concentrated solution, solvent crosses from the dilute to the concentrated side of the membrane in an
attempt to equalize concentrations. The flow of solvent can be prevented by applying an opposinghydrostaticpressure
totheconcentrated
solution.
(https://www.aquatechnology.net/reverseosmosistheory.html). In order to use reverse osmosis as a water purification process, the feedwater is pressurized on one side of a semi permeable membrane. The pressure must be high enoughto exceed the osmotic pressure to cause reverse osmotic flow of water. If the membrane is highly
permeable to water, but essentially impermeable to dissolved solutes, pure water crosses themembrane and is known as product water and the concentration of dissolved impurities increases in
the remaining feed water.
The purpose of this research activity is to develop a mobile drinking water treatment plant in order tocover clean water and drinking water need in disaster areas as emergency response to overcome thewater crisis. Reverse osmosis system is the main component in the moblie plant.

Figure 1. Basic mechanisms of osmosis (A) and reverse osmosis (B) (Sunil J. Wimalawansa (2013)

144

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

METHODS
System of URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30
The planning design for the Rapid Response Unit - Installation of Mobile Drinking Water Treatment(URC-IPAMB) Type IG5M30 with Brackish Water Reverse Osmosis system (BWRO) is designed tolimit the produced water conditions as follows (Table 1).
Tabel 1. Design of water quailty treated by URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30
No
Parameter
Standard
1
ColourNo colour2pH
6.5 – 8.5
3
Turbidity< 5 NTU
4
Smell
No smelly
5
Taste
No taste
6Fe
0
7
Fat and oil
08Organic bacterial
09Chlorine and other toxic
010
Clean Water Flow
60 L/mn
11
Drinking water flow
20 – 30 L/mn
12Total Dissolved Solid< 80 mg/l
Five (5) main componens of the mobile plant for drinking water treatment are : pretreatment, BBRO
system, disinfection system, distribution system and electrical system.
a. Pretreatment. The main components of the pretreatment process consist of raw water pumps,
sand filter, activated carbon filter and clean water tank as shown in Table 2.
b. BWRO system. Brackish Water Reverse Osmosis (BWRO) System is composed by several
components including: feeder pump, filter, booster pump, membranes, control panel, producttank and pump.
c. Disinfection system. Disinfection system used in URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30 consists of ozone
sterilizer and UV sterilizer.
d. Water Distribution System . The main components of water distribution system in URC-IPAMB
Type IG5M30 is Posh tretment Cartridge and Charging Filler.
e. Electricity system. Electrical systems of the URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30 consists of: Control
Panel Electric System, 3 Phase Generator Set and 1 Phase Generator Set.
Technical devices URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30 compiled and assembled in mobile containers in the formof a trailer with two (2) wheels. The trailer has dimensions of 300 cm long, 180 cm wide and 150 cm
high. Distance basis trailer to the ground is made high enough (60 cm), which allows the unit to reacha flood disaster area. Figures 1 and 2 show a schematic URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30 with the container.
Figure 3 shows the components of URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30.

Figure 2. Scheme of operation URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30

145

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 3. Schematic container of URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30

Figure 4. Mobile Plant System of URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30
Location of mobile plant testing
The testing location of mobile plant was arround Cibinong Science Centre area in Bogor District. Water
samples analysis were conducted in the Laboratory of Research Centre for Limnology LIPI Cibinong
Bogor, West Java.
Sampling and analysis of samples
As describe by Sutapa (2015), the method for water samples analysis is based on APHA 2005 andconsists of several stages:
Direct observation on some potential area to select the location that meets the standards to beprocessed as a raw water source.
Physical parameters include; color, taste, conductivity or electrical conductivity to TDS meter,
turbidity using turbidimetry, temperature, and salinity using Water Quality Checker (WQC) insitu measurement.
Chemical parameters include mainly the content of non-metallic. Analysis of non-metal content;
pH, sulfate content, total organic matter (TOM), ammonia, nitrate, nitrite, hardness, cyanide,
fluoride, total N, Phosphate, Total P, and phenol with titrtimetri method.
Biological parameter that is based on the presence or absence of pollution indicator bacteria
E. coli and Coliform. 0:45 nm porous cellulose membranes placed on a sterile filter tools byusing tweezers. Filtered water samples with a volume of 100 ml and 50 ml.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Physical Parameter Analysis
Table 2 summarizes the result of physical parameter analysis. Water color intensity of raw water has arange of 20 - 25 TCU (Total Color Unit). This color intensity decrease up to 4 – 5 TCU and meet thestandard Regulation of Health Minister RI No. 492 of 2010, setting the standard normal threshold ofclean water a maximum of 15 TCU. Slightly tasty raw water becomes tasteless after treatment as shown146

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferencein the Table 4. Some other physical parameters showed same trend in decreasing: turbidity form 15 –20 NTU to 0.0 – 1.0 NTU, TDS form 60 – 65 mg/l to 20 – 22 mg/l and temperature in the range of 30 –32 C. In general, all physical paramaters analysis of water quality after treatment meet the standard.
Tabel 2 Physical parameter analysis of water quality
Physical Parameter
Raw Water

Treated Water

Standard(Minister of Health Regulation
No. 492/2010)

Total Dissolved Solid (ppm)

60 – 65

20 – 22500

Turbidity (NTU)

15 – 20

0.0 – 1.0

5

Color (TCU)

20 – 25

4–5

15

Taste

Slightly Tasty

No taste

No tasteTemperature (oC)

30 – 31

31 – 32

Air temp. +/- 3

Chemical Parameters Analysis
The results of chemical analysis of water before and after treatment are shown in Table 3. The normal
range of several chemical parameters is summarized. The treatment process tend to increase thequality of water and meet the standard. The pH value of raw water which is in the range of 7.5 – 7.8,
slightly decreases to 6.9 – 7.1. This value is in the water quality standards of 6.5-8.5. Sulfate
concentration of raw water is in the range of 15.50 - 17.54 mg / l and becomes 8.20 - 10.99 mg/l after
treatment. The concentration of Total organic matter (TOM) is between 6.36 - 8.50 mg / l and anddecreases to 2.40 - 3.97 mg/l. Some other parameters are below the standard after treatment : ofammonia 0.75 - 1.00 mg/l (from 2.50 - 3.79 mg / l), nitrate 0.06 – 0.10 mg / l (from 0.12 – 1.5 mg/l), andnitrite <0.00001 – 0.001 mg / l (from 0.01 – 0.15 mg/l), Total N 1.90 - 2.17 mg/l (from 3.30 - 4.46 mg/l)
and Total P 0.09 – 0.10 mg/l (from 0.07 – 0.26 mg/l). The result of chemical parameters analysis showthat mobile plant increases water quality of raw water and meet the standard for drinking water.
Tabel 3. Result of chemical analysis
Chemical Parameter
Raw Water

Treated Water

Standard(Minister of Health Regulation
No. 492/2010)pH

7.5 - 7.8

6.9 – 7.1

6.5 – 8.5

Nitrate(mg/L)

0.12 – 1.5

0.06 – 0.1050Nitrite(mg/L)

0.01 – 0.15

<0.00001 – 0.001

3Ammonium (mg/L)

2.50 - 3.79

0.75 - 1.00

1.5

Total N (mg/L)

3.30 - 4.46

1.90 - 2.17

naTotal P (mg/L)

0.07 – 0.26

0.09 – 0.10naSulphate (mg/L)

15.50 - 17.54

8.20 - 10.99

250

Total Organic Matter (mg/L)

6.36 – 8.50

2.40 - 3.97

10

Biological Parameters Analysis
Analysis of the biological quality of drinking water requirements follows the rules by using theparameters of E. coli and total coliform bacteria (Sutapa 2015). Coliform is a group of bacteria used as
an indicator of pollution, waste and bad conditions of water, food, milk and dairy products. Table 4shows the result of bacterial analysis. Raw water contents 75 – 100 70 Col / 100 ml of E. Coli and 200

147

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference- 250 Col / 100 ml of Coliform. These results indicate that the water does not meet the standard inaccordance with Regulation of Minister of Health No. 492 in 2010. The quality of treated water by mobile
plant increases and does not content either E. Coli or Coliform.
Tabel 4 Result of biological parameter analysis
Biological Parameter
Raw Water

Treated Water

Standard(Minister of HealthRegulation No. 492/2010)

E-coli (cfu/ml)

70 – 10000Total Coliform (cfu/ml)

200 – 250

00

CONCLUSION
This study shows that mobile device URC-IPAMB installation Type IG5M30 can increase the quality
raw water up to drinking water quality in accordance to Minister of Health Regulation No. 492/2010. The
results of laboratory analysis related to physical, chemical and biological parameters are inline with theregulation standard. The development of mobile drinking water treatment system that is capable fortreating of marginal raw water into drinking water is very promoting. This mobile plant can be alternatif
in the affected area to help people in the region in obtaining clean water and drinking water required.
However, some adjustments and system improvements URC-IPAMB Type IG5M30 are still needed inorder to optimalize the installation function. Beside this, water quality test should be conductedperiodically to ensure that the installation is functioning properly.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank to Research Center for Limnology - LIPI which has facilitated the research activities
that can be run properly. The authors also give high appreciation to Gunawan and Nopiansyah who
had helped the water sampling in the field.
REFERENCES
1. Chapman, P.M. (2000) Whole Effluent Toxicity Testing-Usefulness, Level of Protection, and Risk
Assessment.
Environmental
Toxicology
andChemistry,
19,
3-13.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/etc.5620190102
2. Faisal Siddiqui, M., Rzechowicz, M., Harvey, W., Zularisam, A.W. and Anthony, G.F. (2015)
Quorum Sensing Based Membrane Biofouling Control for Water Treatment: A Review. Journal of
Water Process Engineering, 7, 112-122.http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jwpe.2015.06.003
3. Falkenberg, L.J. and Styan, C.A. (2015) The Use of Simulated Whole Effluents in Toxicity
Assessments: A Review of Case Studies from Reverse Osmosis Desalination Plants. Desalination,
368, 3-9. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2015.01.014
4. Liu, X., Wang, M., Zhang, S. and Pan, B. (2013) Application Potential of Carbon Nanotubes in
Water Treatment: A Review. Journal of Environmental Sciences, 25, 1263-1280.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/S1001-0742(12)60161-2
5. Lattemann, S. and Höpner, T. (2008) Environmental Impact and Impact Assessment of Seawater
Desalination. Desalination, 220, 1-15. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.03.009
6. Miri, R. and Chouikhi, A. (2005) Eco-Toxicological Marine Impacts from Seawater Desalination
Plants. Desalination, 182, 403-410. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2005.02.034
7. Mitchell, E.J., Burgess, J.E. and Stuetz, R.M. (2002) Developments in Eco-Toxicity Testing.
Reviews
inEnvironmental
ScienceandBio/Technology,1,
169-198.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1023/A:1020842718996
8. Särkkä, H., Bhatnagar, A. and Sillanpää, M. (2015) Recent Developments of Electro-Oxidation in
Water Treatment— A Review. Journal of Electro analytical Chemistry, 754, 46-56.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.jelechem.2015.06.016
9. Sadhwani, J.J., Veza, J.M. and Santana, C. (2005) Case Studies on Environmental Impact of
Seawater Desalination. Desalination, 185, 1-8. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2005.02.072
10. Sánchez-Lizaso, J.L., Romero, J., Ruiz, J., Gacia, E., Buceta, J.L., Invers, O., FernándezTorquemada, Y., Mas, J. Ruiz-Mateo, A. and Manzanera, M. (2008) Salinity Tolerance of theMediterranean Sea Grass Posidonia oceanica: Recommendations to Minimize the Impact of Brine

148Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Discharges
from
Desalination
Plants.
Desalination,
221,
602-607.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.desal.2007.01.119
11. Sunil J. Wimalawansa (2013 : Purification of Contaminated Water with Reverse Osmosis: Effective
Solution of Providing Clean Water for Human Needs in Developing Countries, International Journalof Emerging Technology and Advanced Engineering Website: www.ijetae.com (ISSN 2250-2459,
ISO 9001:2008 Certified Journal, Volume 3, Issue 12, December 2013) 75
12. Sutapa I.D.A. (2014), : COAGULATION-FLOCCULATION EFFICIENCY LEVEL OF WATERTREATMENT PLANT PROTOTYPE, Jurnal Teknologi Indonesia, Volume 37, No. 2, 2014. pages
100-105. ISSN 0126-1533
13. Sutapa I.D.A. (2015), : CLASSIFICATION OF PEAT WATER QUALITY IN GIAM SIAK KECIL
BUKIT BATU BIOSPHERE RESERVE, PROVINCE OF RIAU, Jurnal Teknologi Indonesia, Volume
38, No. 2, 2015. pages 82-92. ISSN 0126-1533
14. Technology, M (2011), What is membrane technology? . 2011; Available from:http://www.euromemhouse.com/Principles-of-Membrane-Technology/Membrane
Technology.html.
15. Tran, N.H., Ngo, H.H., Urase, T. and Gin, K.Y.-H. (2015) A Critical Review on Characterization
Strategies of Organic Matter for Wastewater and Water Treatment Processes. Bio Resource
Technology, 193, 523-533. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.biortech.2015.06.091
16. Tularam, G.A. and Ilahee, M. (2007) Environmental Concerns of Desalinating Seawater Using
ReverseOsmosis.JournalofEnvironmental
Monitoring,
9,805-813.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1039/b708455m
17. Trousdale, S. and Henderson, E. (2009) Innovation Addresses Environmental Issues at Sydney
Desalination Plant. IDA Journal of Desalination and Water Reuse, 1, 52-63.
http://dx.doi.org/10.1179/ida.2009.1.1.52
18. Van Dam, R. and Chapman, J. (2002) Direct Toxicity Assessment (DTA) for Water Quality
Guidelines in Australia and New Zealand, Australasia. Australasian Journal of Ecotoxicology, 7,
175-198.
19. (http://lewabrane.com/)
20. (https://www.aquatechnology.net/reverseosmosistheory.html)

149

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Topic 5. Water education, ecotourism, culture
PRACTICE OF WATER ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATION IN KASUMIGAURAWATERSHED BY TSUCHIURA CITY
Hiroki Nagamine1*, Takashi Fujiwara1, Kazuhiro Mizuta1
Environmental conservation division /Tsuchiura City
*Corresponding author: k-kasumi@city.tsuchiura.lg.jp
1

ABSTRACT
Lake Kasumigaura is a symbol of Tsuchiura city, and supports the lives of its 140,000 citizens. The city
is situated along the western shore of the lake with inflowing 56 rivers and the lakesides are rich indiversity. However, the lake has been giving citizens negative impression including offensive odors
caused by putrid aoko (blue green algae) and debris in and around the lake. Therefore, the citizen has
been concerned about water environment as familiar issue for a long time. As regards to the eight rivers
in Tsuchiura city, which started water quality observation in 1970s, these rivers water quality tend to
improve in recent years. The city has been carrying out practical water environmental education for
purposes of creating awareness of familiar water environment and experience at first hand even for the
citizens inhabiting off-site waterfront. The three major education themes are to Know, to Touch and to
Communicate through a real experience. The paper shows some Tsuchiura city’s programs thatprovide elementary school students opportunities for learning good place and water environment
including ‘Sakura-river Eco Adventure tour’.
Keywords: Lake Kasumigaura, Water environmental education
INTRODUCTION
Lake Kasumigaura (the general term for Lake Nishiura, Lake Kitaura and Hitachi Tone River), is in
Ibaraki prefecture and located north-east of Tokyo. The lakes watershed stretches over threeprefectures “Ibaraki”, “Chiba”, and “Tochigi. Most of watershed is vast and it extend over southern
Ibaraki prefecture. The region of watershed is 2,157km 2 that contains population of over 970,000
people and 24 municipalities. Tsuchiura city faces the west side of Lake Kasumigaura (Lake Nishiura).
(Table 1, Figure1) Therefore the city is known as “Waterfront” city (Photo1).
Table1. Outline of Kasumigaura watershed and Tsuchiura city
Class / Item
Kasumigaura Watershed
Tsuchiura City
Size of Region
2,157km2
123km2
Approximate Population
970,000
140,000(Ibaraki, Chiba, Tochigi)
Municipality
24 (City, Town, Village)
1/24
Inflowing Rivers
56
8

Figure 1. Map of Kasumigaura watershed in Ibaraki Prefecture

Photo1. “Waterfront Tsuchiura”

However, the lake has been giving citizens negative impression including offensive odors caused byputrid aoko (blue green algae) and debris in and around the lake. Therefore, the citizen has been
concerned about water environment as familiar issue for a long time.

150Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

In 1991, Tsuchiura city was designated as Priority Area of Domestic Wastewater Measure, based on
Water Pollution Control Law. That means the pollution and eutrophication of Lake Kasumigaura
caused by domestic wastewater has been serious and Tsuchiura city has needing to tackle on thisproblem (Figure 2). It was the first case in Ibaraki prefecture. Concomitantly, the city has been making
promotion plans for domestic wastewater measure since 1993 (Figure 3).

Figure 2. Pollutant load of Lake Kasumigaura

Figure 3. Outline of promotion plan for domestic wastewater measure of second late term by Tsuchiura
city, since 2014
As regards to the rivers in Tsuchiura city, these water quality (BOD) tend to improve (Figure 4) throughvarious counterplan: e.g. promotion plan for domestic wastewater measure by Tsuchiura city.

151Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. Water quality (BOD) of eight rivers in Tsuchiura city (1989-2015)
Table 2. Diffussion ratio of sewage treatment population in Tsuchiura city (2011-2015)
PSS
RCSS
Johkasou
Diffussion Sewerage Diffussion Sewerage Diffussion
Year Population Sewerage
ratio
ratio
ratio
treatment
treatment
treatment
population
population
population
(％)
(％)
(％)
2011
142,993
126,405
88.4
4,806
3.4
8,749
6.1
2012
145,843
126,712
86.9
4,311
3.0
11,2777.7
2013
145,125
126,808
87.4
4,291
3.0
11,3337.8
2014
144,532
126,855
87.8
4,211
2.9
11,3777.9
2015
143,726
126,263
87.8
4,107
2.9
11,433
8.0
PSS: Public sewerage system
RCSS: Rural community sewerage system
Johkasou: Combined domestic wastewater treatment “Johkasou”

Figure 5. Connected population of public sewerage system in Tsuchiura city

152

Total
diffussion
ratio
(％)
97.9
97.6
98.1
98.6
98.7

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 3. Rural community wastewater treatment facilities in Tsuchiura city
SBRASP: Sequencing Batch Reactor Activated Sludge Process
Average
Treatment
PlanedRegionStart of Treatment
sewerage
SystemPopulation
Volume (m3/day)Takaoka
1989
940
254
SBRASP
+SB
+FS
+RSF
Seibu
1992
780
211
SBRASP+SB+FS+RSF
Sawabe1993
850
230
SBRASP+SB+FS+RSF
Hokubu1995
950
257
SBRASP
+SB
+FS
+RSF
Tobu
1999
1,770
478
SBRASP(ATT)+PRP
Nishine
2009
690
186
SBRASP(ATT)

Connection Ratio(2015)
(％)
92

90

85

88

77
50

+PRP
SB: Submerged Biofilter
FS: Flocculation and sedimentation
RSF: Rapid Sand Filter
ATT: Advanced Treatment Type
PRP: Phosphorus removal process using iron ions
Table 4. Financial assistance for installation of advanced treatment types “Johkasou” in Tsuchiura city
Total
Type
2011 2012 2013 2014 2015(2003-2015)
Nitrogen removal types

21

18

21

21

23

279

Cases

Nitrogen and Phosphorus removal types

0

0

0

0

0

4

Cases

PRACTICE OF WATER ENVIRONMENTAL EDUCATIONAs a software measure, the city has been carrying out water environmental education programs (Table
5). Because, to solve problems, it is essential to improve residents’ consciousness on water purification
for citizen. Citizens be given the opportunity to think about the familiar water environment themselves
by various programs (Table 5).

153Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 5. Water environmental education programs by Tsuchiura city (Data of Tsuchiura city,2016)
Program
TargetStyle
Number of participants“Kasumigaura doctor” training course
9-10 years oldClass
500 (6 schools)
LectureExpert of Kasumigaura
8-12 years oldand
20 (1 time)
Experiment
Survey on the rivers flowing into
8-12 years old
Experience
15 (2 times)
Kasumigaura
LectureExchange Meeting about water
9-12 years oldand
30 (1 time)for Elementary students
Experiment6-12 years old
Sakura River Eco Adventure tour
andExperience
80 (3 times)
parentJunior high school students water
12-15 years old
Experience
30 (1 time)environment workshop
On the lake seminar for the general
General public
Experience
60 (2 times)
publicTable 6. Number of students and class for elementary school in Tsuchiura city (Data of Tsuchiura
city,2016)
Total/
Grade
1
2
3
4
5
6
19
schools
(Age)
(6-7)
(7-8)
(8-9)
(9-10)(10-11)(11-12)
Number of students 1,056
1,146
1,097
1,209
1,148
1,183
6,839
Ordinary class
41
43
38
42
38
42
244
Table 7. Number of students and class for junior high school in Tsuchiura city (Data of Tsuchiura
city,2016)
Grade
１
２
３
Total/(Age)
8 schools(12-13)(13-14)(14-15)
Number of students
Ordinary class

1149
37

1171
32

1152
33

Photo 2. ”Kasumigaura doctor” training course

3472
102

Photo 3. Expert of Kasumigaura

154

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Photo 4. Survey on the rivers flowing into
Kasumigaura

Photo 5. Exchange Meeting on water for Elementary
students

Photo 6. Junior high school students water environment workshop
Especially, it is very important for children is to Know, to Touch and to Communicate through their realexperience. In the next section shows Tsuchiura city’s new programs since 2015 that has been provided
elementary school students opportunity for learning good place and water environment, that is named
as ‘Sakura River Eco Adventure tour’.
SAKURA RIVER ECO ADVENTURE TOURThe concept of this program is to learn comprehensively about the water environment around us
through real experience. The program has four steps, i.e. which has story that series of experiencesfrom upstream to downstream (Figure 6)

155Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 6. Outline of Sakura River Eco Adventure tour
First, going to upper reach of the river, and exploring spring water. In the upper reach of the river’s step,
students climb the hill and on the way they look for living creatures and landform change. When they
arrive at spring water, they conduct simplified water quality analysis. Then they look for living creatures
around spring water (Figure 7).

Figure 7. The state of students at first step
Second, walking into the river and learning about familiar riverside as well as going down the river in a
canoe and seeing the city from the river. Then staff of Sakura river fishermen’s union give them lecture
on living creatures in the river (Figure 8).

156

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 8. The state of students at second stepThird, going to the lakeside of Kasumigaura and learning Kasumigaura, where our domestic wastewater
enters (Figure 9).

Figure 9. The state of students at third step157

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Finally, Students complete the ideas what they experienced in this program, especially paying attention
to the changes from river to lake. In this step, the most important point is to let students thinking
themselves through real experience. We sometimes give “Hint words” for students as their own ideas
promote (Figure 10).

Figure 10. Discussion and conclusion
CONCLUSION
Lake Kasumigaura has symbolic meanings for the municipals in the Kasumigaura watershed and it’s
the source of people’s life. It is very important to recognize its importance, preciousness, andrelationship to our life of Kasumigaura in their childhood. We hope that the children, who are responsible
for the future, will conserve the environment of Kasumigaura, the resource of our life, sustainably. These
environmental education programs are not only our idea. These contents are considered by taking
activities of other municipals, opinions of specialists, and suggestion of the residents into account. For
the environmental education for children, it is necessary to upgrade the programs constantly andcarrying out sustainably.
Every municipal in the Kasumigaura watershed, not only Tsuchiura, has been making use of theircharacteristic as closest government to people to carry out many kinds of programs, including water
environmental education or activities that consist of both private and government.
We will continue to work hard to conserve the better water environment in cooperation with governmentof Japan, Ibaraki prefecture, municipals in the Kasumigaura watershed, residents, companies, andresearch institutions.

Photo 7. Sakura River(http:// www.tsuchiura-pr.jp)

Photo 8. Tsuchiura harbor

158

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

REFERENCES
1. Kasumigaura mondai kyougikai (2016).Kiyorakana mizu no tameni,15(Council to Resolve Pollution Problem of Lake Kasumigaura (2016).LAKE KASUMIGAURA A
PRECIOUS SOURCE OF PURE WATER FOR OUR DAILY LIFE,15)
2. Ibaraki ken(2016).Ibaraki ken kankyou hakusyo heisei 28 nendo ban siryou hen,hyou2-57(Ibaraki prefecture (2016).Annual Report on the Environment in Ibaraki prefecture 2016,Table257)
3. Tsuchiura si (2016).Tsuchiura si kankyou hakusyo heisei 27 nendo houkoku syo,24-31(Tsuchiura city (2016).Annual Report on the Environment in Tsuchiura city 2015,24-31)

159Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

POTENTIAL IDENTIFICATION OF FLORA AND FAUNA LAKE BUYAN AS BASIS FOR
TOURISM DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY BASED ON AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMSI Wayan Restu1, Gde Raka Angga Kartika1*, Made Ayu Pratiwi1
Aquatic Resources Management Department, Marine and Fisheries Faculty, Udayana
University, Kampus Bukit Jimbaran, Bali-Indonesia*Corresponding author: raka.angga.k@gmail.com

1

ABSTRACT
Lake Buyan is located in the Sub district of Sukasada District of Buleleng is a highland lake in Bali which
has been used for a variety of human activities quite intensive, such as fishing, aquaculture, tourism
and recreation. Water Tourism is one of the great potentials that has been developed in the Lake Buyan
includes boat trips, recreation and fishing. The development of tourism activities in Lake Buyan havedone quite intensive and it is feared that it may decrease the potential and diversity of aquatic resources.
As a system of natural resources, the waters of Lake Buyan contain the potential of biological and nonbiological resources that have not been recorded and inventoried adequately in order to empower thedevelopment of multi-activity and general water conservation. Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a
research entitled "The Potential of Flora and Fauna in Lake Buyan as a Basis for Ecosystem-BasedTourism Development of Water". The purpose of this study was to identify the flora and fauna as a basis
for tourism development strategy in Lake Buyan. The research was conducted during the two months
from June to July 2015. Sampling of aquatic plants parameter was carried out in 9 sites of observation
using 1 x 1 m transects, while the parameters of fish resources was conducted in all waters by boatwith fishing equipment and fishing nets. There were eight kinds of aquatic plants found namely Scirpus
mucronatus (L.) Palla, Salvinia molesta D. Mitch., Myriophyllum brasiliense, Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.)
Stapf, Cyperus odoratus L., Eichornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms solms, Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H. Hara,
Salvinia natans (L.) All., Ceratophyllum demersum L.. Species S. molesta is a species found at eachpoint of observation, whereas S. natans was only found in one site of (site 8). There were six types offish catches, namely Ostheocillus hasselti (Valenciennes, 1842), Amatitlania nigrofascia (Günther,
1867), Orechromis niloticus (Linnaeus, 1758) tilapia, Oreochromis mosambicus (W. K. H. Peters, 1852),
fresh water shrimp, Cyprinus carpio Linnaeus, 1758 Nilem, Zebra, Tilapia, Shrimp, Mujair, and Goldfish. The number of fish catches the most was zebra fish species (218 animals) and the type of fish
catches the least found was carp (1).
Keywords: Aquatic Plant, Fish, Lake Buyan, Tourism Development.
INTRODUCTION
Bali has four lakes, namely Lake Batur in Bangli, Lake Beratan in District of Tabanan, Lake Buyan andLake Tamblingan in District of Buleleng. Lake Buyan and Tamblingan located in the Subdistrict ofSukasada District of Buleleng is a highland lake in Bali as the water reserve important for North Bali.
As a system of natural resources, the waters of Lake Buyan contain the potential of biological and nonbiological resources that have not been recorded and inventored adequately in order to empower thedevelopment of multi-activity and conservation of public waters. Fisheries development as analternative to community activity has a strategic significance in the context of economic empowermentof communities around the lake, nature tourism development and biodiversity conservation lake.
To know the resource potential of the lake to support the plans for development and community
empowerment plans need the basic data (base data) of the potential resource of biological and nonbiological affecting capacity levels. All lakes in Bali do not yet have sufficient data and information on
the potential of its natural resources for the development of fisheries, tourism and others including Lake
Buyan. It became one of the factors that hinder optimal policy interventions in developing fisheries,
tourism, and other alternatives in the lake sustainably and as the principles of sustainable use of natural
resources. In addition, a variety of strategic issues and environmental problems that also affect thecarrying capacity of the lake waters for development in the future.
Aquatic plants are plants that part or whole of their life-cycle are in water, has a role as primary
producers in the waters which are food source for primary consumers or biofag (this includes fish). In
addition, aquatic plants also assist aerated waters through photosynthesis, regulates the flow of water,
cleaning polluted streams through the process of sedimentation, as well as particles and mineralabsorption, aquatic plants are nurseries for fish, insects, and other animals. Some types of aquaticplants also provide a direct food source for humans such as kale (Ipomoea aquatica) (Utomo et al.,2001). In addition, some aquatic plants also have negative impacts on the ecosystem Room (1984);

160

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Soerjani (1978) said that water weed is a plant that can interfere with water usage by humans andaquatic plants as aquatic weeds in a state and a certain time are not desired, because they result in
losses that exceed a favorable role. Specific ecosystem makes the potential of Lake Buyan quite goodwith a variety of organisms that live in it, especially the fish. Lake Buyan is rich in fish species, among
the fish there are economically valuable fish. Today, with the increasing number of activities around andintroduced fish like zebra fish and tilapia from other areas in Lake Buyan the changing structure of fish
communities in terms of both as well as the number of fish in Lake Buyan. The presence of data andinformation on the characteristics of fish and aquatic plants in Lake Buyan is expected to become an
input for the management of tourism in the future
METHODSThis study was conducted in Lake Buyan for 3 months starting from June to August 2016. The
determination of research’s location was done by method of pusporsive sampling on 9 sites of sampling(Figure 1).

Figure 1. Research Location in Lake Buyan
Sampling of Aquatic Plants
The sampling of aquatic plants parameter was done on 9 sites of observation using plot 1 x 1 m, thetype of aquatic plants contained in the plot were identified and counted? on each plot was done by three
repetitions. Various types of aquatic plants in Lake Buyan was retrieved as a sample such as roots,
branch, vine stems, leaves, flowers, and fruit, and then selected with most undamaged shape andcleaned from dirts such as mud, especially on the roots and then left open to dry. Samples of aquaticplants were put into a plastic bag and labeled, written on tracing paper using pencil 2B. The label
recorded the serial number or code, local name, place and date of sampling, the label is inserted in aplastic bag and tied with a rubber band quite strong and tight. Furthermore, it was packed in bags neatly
and kept for identification (Burnawi & G. Subroto, 2010). Identify aquatic plants with the following steps:
a. several observations of aquatic plants like shape of the fruit, seeds, roots, stems, branches, vine
stem, leaf shape and leaf length. b Examples of aquatic plants were matched to the image based on
the method said by Room (1984); Soerjani (1978) and identified too with www. with plant list.org
Sampling of Fish
Samples of fish, obtained by capturing them using different types of fishing gear (gill nets, net, Bubu)..
The data taken includes the number, type, standard length and weight of each species of fish catches.
Samples were photographed and then preserved in alcohol 70% and were identified by using the key
determination according to Saanin, (1968) and Kottelat, et al. (1993).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Results
Aquatic plants
During the observation in Buyan Lake to 9 areas of observation, obtained 9 types of aquatic plants. The
types of aquatic plants found were Scirpus mucronatus (L.) Palla, Salvinia molesta D.Mitch.,
Myriophyllum brasiliense, Brachiaria mutica (Forssk.) Stapf, Cyperus odoratus L., Eichornia crassipes(Mart.) Solms solms, Ludwigia adscendens (L.) H. Hara, Salvinia natans (L.) All.[1], Ceratophyllum
demersum L.. Salvinia molesta is a type of aquatic plant found in each observation station. There were161

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

species only found in one observation station, such as Ludwigia adscendens in station 3 and Salvinia
natans in station 8 (Table 1).
Table 1. Types of aquatic plant found in every station of observation in Buyan Lake
Danau Buyan

Jenis Tumbuhan Air

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

√

√

√

√

√

Scirpus mucronatus√

Salvinia molesta

√

√

√

Myriophyllum brasiliense

√

√

√

Brachiaria mutica

√

√

√

Cyperus odoratus

√

√

√

√

√

Eichornia crassipes solms

9
√

√
√

√

√

√
√

√

√

√

√

Ludwigia adscendens√

Salvinia natans√

Ceratophyllum demersum L.

√√

The number of aquatic plants mostly found were in observation station 1, 2, and 3, as well as the least
aquatic plants found was in station 7. This was may be due to the location of station 1, 2, and 3 thatwere close to residential areas, making plants to obtain sufficient nutrient input. Whereas in station 7, it
was close to forest, thus the nutrition input was lacking. The presence of nutrition for plants is one of
the important factors in the growth of aquatic plants.
Fish resources
In Buyan lake It was found six species of fish, there were Ostheocillus hasselti, Amatitlania nigrofascia,
Orechromis tilapia, Oreochromis mosambicus, fresh water shrimp, Cyprinus carpio. The most fish
catches in Buyan lake was Amatitlania nigrofascia (218 animals) and the lowest was Oreochromis
niloticus (1 fish). The originally fish species from buyan lake only Ostheocillus hasseltii, and fresh water
shrimp. The other fish species come from other place and one species is become a pests in buyan lakeis Amatitlania nigrofascia (Figure 2)
0%
5%
2%

13%

Osteochilus hasselti

14%

Amatitlania nigrofasciata
Oreochromis niloticus
Fresh water Shrimp
Oreochromis
mossambicus
Cyprinus carpio

66%

Figure 2. Composisiton of Fish Catch on the Lake Buyan
Fish Growth
Growth is a change of length, weight, or volume that occurs within a specified time. The study of thegrowth is basically the determination of body size as a function of age (Sparre and Venema 1999).
Weight can be considered as a function of length. The relationship of length weight is described by W
= a Lb, where a and b are constants obtained from the calculation of regression, whereas W is weightand L is length. The relationship of length weight is following the law of cubic namely that the weight offish as the cube of its length (Effendie 1997).

162

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The relationship between the two variables can be known by using the analysis of regression. Analysisof regression is useful to obtain functional relationship between two variables or more or obtain an
influence between the variable of Predictor against criterion variable or predicts the influence ofpredictor variable against criterion variable (Usman and Akbar 2006). The relationship of length weightof Ostheocillus hasseltii can be seen in Figure 3.
200
180

W = 0.0005L2.3298
R² = 0.5478

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
100

120

140

160

180

200

220

240

Figure 3. Relationship of Length and Weight of Ostheocillus hasseltii (n=48)
Similarities of the relationship of length and weight of Ostheocillus hasseltii ie W = 0.0005L2.3298. The
value of t count obtained >ttab, which means that reject H0. The value of slope (b) obtained is < 3, thus
the pattern of Ostheocillus hasseltii growth is allometric negative. Allometric negative means that thelength growth is more dominant than the weight gain. This indicates that Ostheocillus hasseltii has aslender body. Effendie (2002) stated that the growth is influence by internal and external factors.
External factors that affect growth is the amount of available food and water quality (Pratiwi, 2013).
Status of Water Quality in Lake Buyan including heavily polluted (STORET Index) and lightly polluted(Pollution Index) (Saputra, 2016). This model has a value of R2 amounted to 54.78%, thus this model
can be said to represent the real situation on the nature of 54.78%.
Similarities of the relationship of length and weight of Amatitlania nigrofascia is W = 0.0002L2.4442.
Value of t >ttab, which means that reject H0 and the value of slope (b) obtained < 3, thus the pattern of
Amatitlania nigrofascia growth allometric negative.. This indicates that the Amatitlania nigrofascia has
a slender body. This model has a value of R2 amounted to 53.89%, thus this model can be said torepresent the real situation on the nature of 53.89% (Figure 4). Lengh and Weigh have a non linier
relationship, which mean that the increase of lenght not always follow by the increase of weight.
25
W = 0.0002L2.4442
R² = 0.5389

20
15
10
5
0
40

60

80

100

120

Figure 4. Relationship of Length Weight of Zebra Fish
Discussions
Potential of Aquatic Plants and Fish Resources
The potential of flora or aquatic plant contained in Lake Buyan has a considerable number of species,
namely 9 kinds of aquatic plants. Aquatic plants species found in Danau Buyan was quite low when163

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferencecompared with aquatic plants in Tondano Lake found 14 species of Aquatic plannts (Nebath,2008),
Lutan Lake Palang Karaya found 10 species of aquatic plants (Augusta, 2015). The variety of aquaticplants located in Lake Buyan can be caused by nutrient inputs received by the waters of Lake Buyan
derived from a variety of sources. The input source of nutrients in Lake Buyan such as agriculturalactivities, settlements, aquaculture systems Keramba Jaring Apung (KJA) or floating net and tourism.
The inputs of nutrients can increase the fertility of Lake Buyan. Aquatic plant is a plant that can live well
if there are sources of nutrients. The high nutrient input to the waters of Lake Buyan also can cause
negative effects such as the occurrence of eutrophication (deepening of waters). Wijaya 2010, the water
quality of Lake Buyan is based on several parameters measured showed was polluted and otherparameters show has not been contaminated and eutrophication process of lakes Buyan involving
agricultural activities and natural phenomena thus increasing the fertility of the lake ecosystem. Thissiltation is caused by the abundance or density of aquatic plants. However, management activities
appropriate to the diversity of aquatic plants can improve the efficiency of the local community economy.
The composition of fish catch most dominant is the species of Amatitlania nigrofascia. This species is
an introduced fish catch to the waters of Lake Buyan. Amatitlania nigrofascia is a fish that has good
adaptation ability and the presence Amatitlania nigrofascia found in Lake Beratan, Bali is almost evenin every location of observation (Rahmat et al., 2012). This indicates that there has been a competition
inpopulating an area and food and Amatitlania nigrofascia fish has successfully dominating against thenative fish from Lake Buyan (Ostheocillus hasseltii).
The composition of fish catch type in Lake Buyan is dominated by an introduction fish. There are only
two types of fish catch that are native form Lake Buyan namely Ostheocillus hasseltii, and fresh water
shrimp. This is almost similar to the condition of fish catch in Lake Batur consisting of 12 types that theoverall are introduced fish (Sentosa and Wijaya, 2013). A variety of factors causing the decline in thediversity of freshwater fish can be classified into six main categories namely: alteration ordisappearance of habitats, exploitation, introduction of foreign fish, pollution, competition of water use
and global warming. Most of freshwater fish that extinct are caused by the change / disappearance ofhabitat (35%), introduction of foreign fish (30%), and exploitation (4%) (Reid & Miller 1989; VIoyle ct
Leidy 1992; Dudgeon (2000). In Buyan Lake there were several factors causing the diversity of fish,
introduction of foreign fish, pollution, and blooming of aquatic plant.
Study of growth patterns can describe the condition of the fish in a body of water. In Nilem and Zebra
fish both of them have the same b value smaller than 3, thus that growth is allometric negative.
Rochmatin et al. (2014) states that Nilem fish growth pattern (Osteochilus hasselti) contained in thewaters of Rawa Pening, Semarang is allometric negative with a value of 0.0000296 and b value of
2.8392. Meanwhile, the research conducted at the Lake Beratan found that the growth pattern of Zebra
Fish (Amatitlania nigrofasciata) is isometric with the value of b = 3 (Sentosa and Wijaya 2013). The
difference of growth patterns of Zebra Fish (Amatitlania nigrofasciata) in Lake Buyan and Lake Beratan
can be caused by internal and external factors, such as food availability, water quality and genes.
Effendie (2002) states that the growth of is influenced by internal factors (race, sex, age, and disease.)
And external (the amount of available food and water quality).
If the value of b is smaller than 3 showed slower weight gain than the increase in length (Effendie 2005).
This indicates that the fish are relatively thin which may be caused by competition of food and space intheir habitat. Bagenal and Tesch in Kunto (2005) adds that the value of the constant b is also influenced
by geographical location, environmental conditions such as the season, the level of fullness of thestomach, diseases and parasites that show the growth pattern of fish.
The potential of Aquatic Water and Fish Resources as Nature Tourism
Aquatic plants have been regarded as a weed, because the abundance of aquatic plants can cause
silting. However aquatic plant is a plant that is special because besides being able to live in the waters
they are also having a particular shape and beautiful flowers. The correct management of aquatic plants
to make the aquatic plants as a tourist attraction will be able to bring direct economic benefits for thesurrounding communities. The potential of fish catch Amatitlania nigrofascia is also seen as week fish
which threatened endemic fish resources in Lake Buyan. So, Amatitlania nigrofascia can be utilized asa tourist attraction in Lake Buyan. Suggestions for the management of tourism activities in the Lake
Buyan recommended are;a) Making aquatic plantsas tourism attraction especially for educational tourism. Aquatic plants
have unique characteristic and Buyan Lake have 10 species of aquatic plant.
b) Making fishing activities with traditional boats and traditional fishing gear as tourist activities.
The activities of fishing done in Lake Buyan are still done traditionally by rowboat. It becomesunique for tourists and can be used as a tourist attraction in Lake Buyan.

164

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferencec)Making the species of Amatitlania nigrofascia as biota for tourist destination especially fishingtourism Tourism activities at Lake Buyan performed is like fishing has long been done and canlead to a positive economic impact. Many tourists who are fishing caught Amatitlania
nigrofascia. The species of Amatitlania nigrofascia is also the dominant species of fish caught
in Lake Buyan. This species also has particularly beautiful shape (black stripe) like ornamental
fish, thus it would be fine to be used as a tourist attraction in Lake Buyan.

CONCLUSIONS
1. There are nine species of aquatic plants found; Scirpus mucronatus, Salvinia molesta, S.
natans, Myriophylum Brasiliense, Brachiaria mutica, Cyperus odoratus, Eichornia crassipes
Solms, Ludwigia adscendens, and Ceratophyllum demersum. L. Salvinia molesta was found inevery observation point, whereas S. natans found only in one observation point (point 8). It was
found six species of fish, there were Ostheocillus hasselti, Amatitlania nigrofascia, Orechromis
nilocromis, Oreochromis mosambicus, fresh water shrimp, Cyprinus carpio. The most fish
catches was Amatitlania nigrofascia (218 animals) and the lowest was Orechromis nilocromis(1 fish).
2. The growth pattern of Amatitlania nigrofascia and Ostheocillus hasseltiis is allometric negative.
This indicates that they will be less fish growth both in nature and in competition to occupy the
space and feeding, so that the fish are a skinny. Thus need the regulation about fishing activity
such as mesh size of fishing gear and size of the capturing fish.
3. The development strategy that can be done at Buyan lake is; a) Making aquatic plants as amajor tourist attraction, b) Making fishing activities with traditional boats and traditional fishinggear as a tourist activities, and c) Making zoning area for fisheries and tourism utilization.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our gratitude to the Lembaga Penelitian dan Pengabdian Masyarakat
Udayana University n for providing udayana research grant 2015 for the first author and special thanks
to Marine and Fisheries Faculty of Udayana University for providing facilities during the study
REFERENCES
1. Augusta, T S. 2015. Identifikasi Jenis dan Analisa Vegetasi Tumbuhan Air di Danau Lutan
Palangka Raya. Jurnal Ilmu Hewani Tropika ISSN 2301-7783. (4) 1
2. Dudgeon, D. 2000. The Ecology of Tropical Asian Rivers and Streeam in Relation to
Biodiversity Conservation Annu. Rev. Ecol. syst.,31: 239- 263
3. Effendie MI. 1997. Biologi perikanan. Yayasan Pustaka Nusantara. Yogyakarta. 163 hal.
4. Effendie MI. 2002. Biologi Perikanan. Yogyakarta (ID): Yayasan Pustaka Nusantara. 163 hal
5. Kottelat, M., A.J. Whiterrn, S.N. Kartikasari, dan S. Wirjoatmodjo.1993. Ikan Air Tawar
Indonesia Bagian Darat dan Sulawesi. Edisi Dwi Bahasa Inggris Indonesia: Periplus Editions(HK) Ltd6. Kunto et al. 2005. Pertumbuhan, mortalitas, dan kebiasaan makan ikan tawes (Barbodes
gonionotus) di Waduk Wonogiri. Jurnal Penelitian Perikanan Indonesia. 11(2):1-7
7. Moyle, P.B. & R.A. Leidy. 1992. Loss of Biodiversiry in aquatic ecosystems: Evidence from fish
taunas. In: Fiedler, P.L. & S.K. Jain (eds). Conservation Biology: The theory and practice of
nature conservation, preservation and management. Chapman and Hall, New York.
8. Nebath, J. 2008. Kelimpahan Tumbuhan Akuatik Di Danau Tondano. EKOTON ISSN 14123487. 8, (2): 25-29
9. Pratiwi MA. 2013. Studi Pertumbuhan Undur-Undur Laut Emerita emeritus (Decapoda:
Hippidae) di Pantai Bocor, Kecamatan Buluspesantren, Kebumen. [Skripsi] Departemen
Manajemen Sumberdaya Perairan, Institut Pertanian Bogor
10. Rahman A, Sentosa A A, Wijaya D. 2012. Sebaran ukuran dan kondisi ikan zebra Amatitlania
nigrofascia (Günther, 1867) di Danau Beratan, Bali. Jurnal Iktiologi Indonesia.12 (2):135-145
11. Reid, W.V. and K.R. Miller.1989. Keeping options alive the scientific basis for conserving
biodiversity. World Resoulces Institute, Washington, D.C., 128 pp
12. Rochmatin S Y, Solichin A, Saputra S W. 2014. Aspek Pertumbuhan Dan Reproduksi Ikan
Nilem (Osteochilus Hasselti) di Perairan Rawa Pening Kecamatan Tuntang Kabupaten
Semarang. Diponegoro Journal of Maquares. (3) 3: 153-159
13. Room, P. M. 1984. Biological Control of Aquatic Weeds. Lectore Note in Training Course on
Aquatic Weeds. March 12-ApriI1984. Biotrop. Bogor. Indonesia. 12 pp.
14. Saanin, H. 1968. Taksonomi dan Kunci Identifikasi Ikan I dan II. Bogor: Bina Cipta

165

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

15. Saputra, IWRR. 2016. Analisis Kualitas Air Danau Sebagai Dasar Perbaikan Manajemen
Budidaya Perikanan Di Danau Buyan Kabupaten Buleleng, Provinsi Bali. [Skripsi] Program
Studi Manajemen Sumberdaya Perairan, Fakultas Kelautan dan Perikanan, Universitas
Udayana, Bali
16. Sentosa dan Wijaya. 2013. Komunitas Ikan Introduksi Di Danau Batur, Bali Community of
Introduced Fish in Lake Batur, Bali. Widyariset. 16 (3): 403–410
17. Soerjani, M. 1978. Aquatic Weed Problems and Thier Control. Philippine Journal of Weed
Science. 5: 44- 53.
18. Sparre P &Venema SC. 1999. Introduksi pengkajian stok ikan tropis buku e-manual (Edisi
Terjemahan). Kerjasama Organisasi Pangan, Perserikatan Bangsa- Bangsa dengan Pusat
Penelitiaan dan Pengembangan Perikanan, Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pertanian.
Jakarta. 438 pp.
19. Usman H, Akbar RPS. Pengantar Statistika-Edisi Kedua. 2006. Jakarta [ID]: PT Bumi Aksara
20. Utomo, A. D., Asyari, & S. Nurdawati. 2001. Peranan suaka perikanan dalam peningkatan
dengan pola pengembangan daerah aliran sungai. Prosiding Seminar Perikanan Perairan
Umum. Badan Penelitian dan Pengembangan Pertanian. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan
Perikanan
21. Wijaya N. 2010. Analisis Kualitas Air dan Eutropikasi Danau Buyan Kecamatan Sukasada
Kabupaten Buleleng. Jurnal Penelitian dan Pengebangan Sains & Humaiora ISSN 1979-7095.
4 (1)

166

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Topic 6. Database and knowledgebase systems, informatics andmonitoring technologies
SWAT APPLICATION TO ASSESS DIFFERENT FERTILIZATION EFFECTS ON WATERQUALITY IN AN AGRICULTURAL WATERSHED
Seiko Yoshikawa1*, Kazunori Kohyama1, Yuta Shimizu1, Saeko Yada1, Kei Asada1, Sunao
Itahashi1, Yasuhiro Nakajima1, Sadao Eguchi1
National Agriculture and Food Research Organization(NARO), Japan*Corresponding author: seikoyo@affrc.go.jp

1

ABSTRACTTo study the desirable balance of agriculture and water conservation, SWAT (Soil and Water
Assessment Tool) was applied to estimate water, sediment (SED), and nutrient discharges, and toassess effects of different fertilizations on water quality in an agricultural watershed (335km2) leading
to the Lake Kasumigaura, Japan. For model calibration and validation, daily stream water flow rate, andsediment (suspended solid), total nitrogen (T-N), total phosphorus (T-P), nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N),
phosphate phosphorus (PO4-P) concentrations measured a few times a month at a downstream
observatory station were used, and 3 years (2000~2002) were assigned to the warm-up, 3 years and 7
months (2003~Jul. 2006) to the calibration, and the following 2 years and 5months (Aug. 2006~2008)
to the validation. By simulations with adjusting several parameters, good estimations for daily stream
water flow and SED with R2>0.6, NS (Nash-Sutcliffe efficiency coefficient)>0.6, and almost acceptableestimations for NO3-N, organic phosphate (Org-P) with R2 from 0.5~0.9 and NS from 0.1~0.3 wereattained for the validation period. By introducing improved fertilizations (smaller and more frequentfertilizations with 0~50% decreased N-amount) to paddy, upland, and pasture fields, equal or greater
crop yields and mitigated stream NO3-N discharge by 21% were estimated.
Keywords: SWAT, Non-point source pollution, fertilization, Sakura River
INTRODUCTION
Human activity, especially agriculture, and environment, especially water conservation, are apt toconflict. The Lake Kasumigaura; the second largest lake in Japan is also no exception. Its water isused for domestic, agricultural and industrial purposes in spite of insufficient water purity.
To study the desirable balance of agriculture and water conservation, SWAT (Soil and Water
Assessment Tool) was thought to be promising. The model has been used to estimate the impacts ofclimate and management on water use, non-point source loads, and has been extensively validated
across the United States for the stream flow and sediment yields (Arnold et al, 1988). The SWAT model
has proven to be an effective tool for a wide range of scales and environmental conditions across the
glove (Gassman et al., 2007). However, SWAT is still not popular in Japan. The reason seemed to be
insufficiency of data sets on soil properties such as volcanic ash soils, on paddy fields structure andrelated properties, and on crops growth such as paddy rice which are popular in Japan but not in the
United States. Recently, Soil-Profile Physical Properties Dataset “Solphy-J” has been furnished by
NARO, Japan (Eguchi et al, 2011). Studies on application of SWAT to paddy fields basins have been
increasing. Julien et al. (2014) reported SWAT application to paddy fields by using “pothole” function
which is for pond water movement originally. Geometrical change for paddy fields was tried for water
movement (Sakaguchi et al. 2014). Sangjun et al. (2007) reported SWAT to paddy fields by adjustment
CN value to reflect paddy’s high-water retention and to fit experiment results. Here. we applied SWAT
to an agricultural watershed leading to the Lake Kasumigaura, To characterize paddy fields in SWAT,
parameters like USLE_P (USLE practice factor) and CN2 (curve number) etc. were adjusted to fit total
stream flow and sediment. The main aim of this study is to validate SWAT model for stream flow andsediment flow and nutrient (mainly NO3-N) flow in an agricultural watershed in Japan, and thereafter toassess the effects on nitrogen discharge after application of revised fertilization to agricultural fields.
METHODSThe Study watershed description
The study area was the Sakura River basin, one of the river basins leading to the Lake Kasumigaura,
located in the central part of Ibaraki, Japan (Fig 1).

167

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Lake Kasumigaura

Google map

Figure 1. Location of the studied watershed
The Sakura River basin was 335 km2 and was in humid temperate climate with an annual mean
rainfall of 1283 mm and an annual mean temperature of 13.8 ℃. The 29% of the basin was paddy fields
and 20% was upland fields, 34% was forest and 14% was urban area. The soil of the basin was 32%
of Andisol, 20% of Glay lowland soil, 29% of Brown forest soil, 9% of Gley soil, 5% of Andic gley soil
and others.
The altitude of the basin ranges from 0 m to 877 m which is the peak of a mountain located in the
middle-east part of the basin, and decreases from north to south basically (Fig.2). Though the water
quality of the Sakura River was relatively good among rivers leading to the Lake Kasumigaura, it
seemed to be sensitive to fertilization because of relatively high ratio of cropland fields of the basin
among river basins leading to the lake. Population in the basin was estimated 126 thousands at 2000.
And Sewage coverage was still low in the study period from 2000 to 2008. Upland crops cultured in
the basin were Chinese cabbage, sweet potato, lettuce, green pepper etc. Most of paddy fields were
irrigated by Kasumigaura Yousui Canal.

168

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Sakura River Watershed
2

Area 335km , ⊿H 877m, subbasin 35, HRU 424 (Threshold: LandUse/Soil/Slope = 5% /10% /20%)
LundUse：Forest 34%, Paddy (RICE) 29%, Upland fileds (AGRL) 20%, Urban (residence，road etc.) 14%, Water
2%, Pasture 1%，others 1%
Soil：Andisol 32%, Glay lowland soil 20%, Brown forest soil 29%, Gley soil 9%, Andic gley soil 5%, Black soil
2%, others 3%
Figure 2. Outline of the studied watershed
SWAT model description
Theoretical explanation of Soil and Water Assessment Tool (SWAT) is described in the “Soil and Water
Assessment Tool Theoretical Documentation Version 2009” (Neitsch et al, 2011). SWAT was ahydrologic/water quality model developed by United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural
Research Service (USDA-ARS) (Santhi et al. 2001). It was a continuous time model that operates ona daily time step mainly. SWAT was developed to predict the impact of management on water,
sediments and agricultural chemical yields in large ungauged basins with GIS technology (Grizzetti2005). Based on the spatial data on topography, land use and land cover, soil properties, climate,management practices, the model could simulate the water, sediments, agricultural chemicals
movements. The basin spatial variability was represented by a semi-distributed approach. The basin
area of study was subdivided into a number of sub-basins, which were characterized by one or morehydrological response units (HRUs). The major components simulated by SWAT include hydrology,
weather, erosion, crop growth, agricultural management, and nutrients and pesticide fate. For predicting
surface runoff yield, a modified version of the soil conservation science curve number (SCS CN) method
was used in SWAT (USDA-SCS 1972). Erosion and sediment yield were estimated for each sub-basinwith the Modified Universal soil loss equation (MUSLE) (Williams and Laseur 1975). Channel routing
consists of flood and sediment routing. The flood routing model uses a variable storage coefficientmethod developed by Williams (1969). As for nitrogen cycle, three major forms of nitrogen in mineralsoils are organic nitrogen associated with humus, mineral forms of nitrogen held by soil colloids, andmineral forms of nitrogen in solution. Nitrogen may be added to the soil by fertilizer, manure or residue
application, fixation by symbiotic or nonsymbiotic bacteria, and rain. Nitrogen is removed from the soil
by plant uptake, leaching, volatilization, denitrification and erosion. Fate of nitrogen among the threemajor forms is ruled by physical, chemical, biological, and empirical parameters in relation todecomposition of fertilizer, manure and humus etc., nitrogen fixation, denitrification, solubility,
absorption by plants and so on in SWAT (Arnold et al. 1998, Bradbury et al. 1993). As for phosphorus
cycle, the three major forms of phosphorus in mineral soils are organic phosphorus associated withhumus, insoluble forms of mineral phosphorus, and plant available phosphorus in soil solution.
Phosphorus may be added to the soil by fertilizer, manure or residue application. Phosphorus isremoved from the soil by plant uptake and erosion. Fate of phosphorus among the three major forms is169Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ruled by physical, chemical, biological, and empirical parameters in relation to decomposition of fertilizer,
manure and humus etc., solubility, absorption by plants, sorption to soil particle and so on in SWAT
(Barrow and Shaw 1975, Jones et al. 1984).
Preparation of SWAT simulations
For modelling the basin characteristics, digital data including DEM (10m mesh, Ministry of Land,
Instructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT), Japan, 2000), land use and land cover data (100m mesh,
MLIT, Japan, 2005), and soil map data (1/50000, MILT, Japan, 2000) were used (Fig. 1). Weather datafrom 3 meteorological stations (Tateno, Makabe, and Iwase; cf. 3 Blue Points in DEM map in Fig.2).
Soil-Profile Physical Properties Dataset (“Solphy-J” by NARO, Japan), irrigation water supplying data
(Kasumigaura Yousui Canal O & M Office), and general crop managements were used for model
configuration. Solphy-J was constructed based on all-japan soil survey data, and including averagevalues on common soil physical properties for each soil series and each soil layer with the average
thickness. Domestic discharge such as water, sediment (SED in SWAT), organic nitrogen (ORGN in
SWAT), nitrate nitrogen (NO3N in SWAT), organic phosphorus (ORGP in SWAT), and inorganic
phosphorus (MINP in SWAT) were assumed to constantly flow out from each sub basin in proportion
to its urban area. For model run, “Daily Rain/CN (curve number) / Daily Route method” was used forthe surface runoff, and “Priestley-Taylor method” was used for estimation of the potential
evapotranspiration (Priestley and Taylor, 1972). Priestley-Taylor method was developed for humid
conditions in which soil surface are wet. The precondition of the method was thought to suit to Japan
climate and soil surface condition including paddy fields. Three years (2000~2002) were assigned to
the warm-up, 3 years and 7 months (2003~Jul. 2006) to the calibration, and the following 2 years and5 months (Aug. 2006 ~ 2008) to the validation.
Other Input data for model configuration
Weather data・・・precipitation, temperature, radiation etc. at 3 meteorological stations
Soil-profile physical properties data (Solphy-J, NARO)・・・thickness of soil layers, bulk density, sand-silt clay
contents, pore ratio, volumetric water contents at several water potentials, saturated water permeability, and total
carbon content for 60 soil series, for 5 Landuses such as paddy field, common upland field, orchard, pasture, andprotected horticulture based on amount of data gathered from all of japan during 1979 ~1998.
Irrigation water supplying data (calculated from Kasumigaura Yousui M&O Office data)

General management (fertilization, tillage etc. by standard fertilization of the regions by hearing from farmers etc.)
Domestic discharge (cf. Ibaraki Pref. data）Septic diffusion ratio was low in the watershed. Most of domestic discharge
was processed by septic tank and discharged to canal to river. Constant flow out from each sub basin in proportion to its
urban area was settled.
water 0.2m3, SED 1g, TN 2g, TP 0.2g /capita/day“Daily Rain/CN (curve number)/Daily Route” method“Priestley-Taylor” method
Calibration
Comparing modelled FlOW, SED, ORGN, NO3N, ORGP, MINP with observed data from Ministry of theEnvironment and Ibaraki Pref.
Parameterization
Fine adjustment of parameters using SWAT-CUP (SWAT Calibration and Uncertainty Programs)
Validation
Comparing modeled values with observed data
Evaluation by R2 and NS（Nash-Sutcliffe model efficiency coefficient ）Warm-up (2000~2002), Calibration (2003~Jul.2006), Validation (Aug.2006~2008)
Figure 3. Modelling procedure

170Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

For model calibration and validation, modelled flow (FLOW), sediment (SED), organic nitrogen (ORGN),
nitrate nitrogen (NO3N), organic phosphorus (ORGP), and mineral phosphorus (MINP; that is inorganic
phosphorus) were compared with daily stream water flow, suspended solid, total nitrogen (T-N) minus
nitrate nitrogen (NO3-N), NO3-N, total phosphorus (T-P) minus phosphate phosphorus (PO4-P), andPO4-P measured a few times a month at a downstream observatory station. For parameterization,
default values or adequate values from SWAT database were settled. For fine adjustment SWAT CUP(SWAT Calibration and Uncertainty Programs) (Abbaspour 2015) was used step by step in the order;
Flow, SED, ORGN/NO3N, and ORGP /MINP consecutively. Regression correlation coefficient (R2) andthe Nash-Sutcliffe coefficient (NS) (Nash and Sutcliffe 1970) were used to evaluate simulation accuracy.
NS remained the most commonly used good-of-fit indicator in assessing hydrologic prediction, and
0.5≤NS≤ 1 is sufficient, 0≤NS≤ 0.5 is not bad and acceptable, NS< 0 is bad. SWAT simulation
procedure is shown in Fig.3.
For the water quality items whose modelling accuracies were acceptable, several scenario analyses
were conducted on fertilization methods’ changes. The settled scenario on fertilization change areshown in Fig. 4. Current fertilization is set as basal and additional fertilization, that is, 1 or 2 times
fertilization for cultivation period. Revised fertilization is set as small and frequent fertilization. In SWAT,‘Auto fertilization’ conducts small and frequent fertilization harmonized with crop’s demand. Max
nitrogen applied was set as the same for paddy, and half for upland fields, and 10% reduced for pasture.

Figure 4. Scenario with fertilization changes
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Modelled FLOW
The results are shown in Fig. 5. The average annual rainfall from 2003 to 2008 was 1375mm, andaverage river water run-off rates were 59% for both modelled flow and observed flow. Counting irrigationwater into input water like rainfall, the run-off rate decreased to 52%. Regression correlation coefficient(R2) and the NS were 0.64 and 0.63 for the calibration period, and 0.64 and 0.72 for the validation
period, respectively. In the chart graph, green shows modelled values, red shows observed values.
Sufficient modelling accuracy was obtained for river flow.

171Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 5. Comparison of modelled Flow with observed Flow
Modelled SED
The results are shown in Fig.6. The 89 observed SS (Suspended Solid) data for 6 years were multipliedwith the daily flows observed, and compared with modelled daily SED. Regression correlation
coefficient (R2) and the NS were 0.65 and 0.60 for the calibration period, and 0.88 and 0.75 for thevalidation period, respectively. In the chart graph, green shows modelled values, red shows observed
values. Sufficient modelling accuracy was obtained for SED, however accumulation of data especiallyat the time of the flood were thought to be needed.

Figure 6. Comparison of modelled SED with observed SED

172

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 7. Comparison of modelled ORGN with observed ORGN
Modelled ORGN
The results are shown in Fig.7. The 71 observed “T-N – NO3-N” data for 6 years were multiplied withthe daily flows observed, and compared with modelled daily ORGN. Here, NO 4-N and NO2-N were nottaken into consideration, because those concentrations were found to be very low or not detected in
the river. Regression correlation coefficient (R2) and the NS were 0.73 and 0.59 for the calibration
period, but 0.37 and - 0.79 for the validation period, respectively. In the chart graph, green showsmodelled values, red shows observed values. Insufficient modelling accuracy was obtained for ORGN
though it was not so low.
Modelled NO3-N
The results are shown in Fig.8. The 90 observed NO3-N data for 6 years were multiplied with the daily
flows observed, and compared with modelled daily NO 3N. Regression correlation coefficient (R2) andthe NS were 0.91 and 0.15 for the calibration period, but 0.87 and 0.10 for the validation period,
respectively. In the chart graph, green shows modelled values, red shows observed values. Although
the NS values were not sufficient, the modelling results for NO3N were thought to be acceptablebecause of the high R2 values.

173

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 8. Comparison of modelled NO3-N with observed NO3-N
Moddeled ORGP
The results are shown in Fig.9. The 27 observed “T-P – PO4-P” data for 6 years were multiplied withthe daily flows observed, and compared with modelled daily ORGP. Regression correlation coefficient(R2) and the NS were 0.50 and 0.35 for the calibration period and 0.47 and 0.33
for the validation period, respectively. In the chart graph, green shows modelled values, red showsobserved values. The modelling accuracy for ORGP was not so low however more data are desirable.

Figure 9. Comparison of modelled ORGP with observed ORGP

174

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Modelled MINPThe results are shown in Fig.10. The 27 observed PO4-P data for 6 years were multiplied with the daily
flows observed, and compared with modelled daily MINP. Regression correlation coefficient (R2) andthe NS were 0.29 and -8.44 for the calibration period and 0.35 and - 0.73 for the validation period,
respectively. In the chart graph, green shows modelled values, red shows observed values. The
modelling accuracy was low. Modelled MINP were overestimated the PO4-P observed. It might becaused from high phosphoric acid absorptivity of Andosols which spread widely in the watershed.

Figure 10. Comparison of modelled MINP with observed PO4-P
Scenario analysis for agricultural management change
Almost acceptable estimation for FLOW, SED and NO3N and ORGP, scenario analysis with fertilization
change was conducted. The results were shown in Fig.11. By introducing improved fertilizations(smaller and more frequent fertilizations with 0 ~ 50% decreased N-amount) to paddy, upland, andpasture fields, equal or greater crop yields were estimated. By introducing revised fertilization, equal or
greater crop yields were estimated (Fig.11). The results showed that paddy rice and grass pastureyields changed little, but upland crop yield increased largely under the revised fertilization. Large partof basal fertilized nitrogen was thought not to be absorbed by upland crops by those still-poor root
development and easiness of runoff or denitrification of chemical nitrogen fertilizer. NO 3-N discharge
was calculated to be decreased by 21% (Fig.12), however ORGP discharge were not decreased.

175Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 10. Estimated dry matter change

Figure 11. Change in NO3-N flows by management changes; NO3_sim (under current
managements) NO3rev_sim (under revised managements)
CONCLUSIONSSWAT was applied to assessing effects of different fertilizations on water quality in an agricultural
watershed. After calibration and validation, good estimations for daily stream water flow and SED, andreasonable estimations for NO3N and ORGP were attained. The results of scenario analysis for
agricultural management changes showed that smaller and more frequent fertilization is effective forcrop production and mitigation of NO3-N pollution.
REFERENCES
1. Arnold J.G., Srinivasan R., Muttiah R.S.and Williams J.R. (1998) Large area hydrologic modelling
and assessment. part 1: model development. J. Am. Water Resour. Assoc. 35(2):73-89.
2. Barrow, N.J. and Shaw T.C. (1975) The slow reactions between soil and anions. 2 Effect of time andtemperature on the decrease in phosphate concentration in soil solutions. Soil Sci. 119:167-177
3. Bradbury N.J., Whitmore A.P., Hart P.B.S. and Jenkinson D.S. (1993) Modelling the fate of nitrogenin crop and soil in the years following application of 15N-labelled fertilizer to winter wheat. J. Agric.
Sci. 121:363-379.
4. Eguchi S., Aoki K. and Kohyama K. (2011) Construction of Solphy; Soil Physical properties
database. NIAES Research Executive Summary for 2011.

176

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

5. http://www.niaes.affrc.go.jp/sinfo/result/result27/result27_60.html
6. Gassman P.W., Reywa M.R., Green C.H. and Arnold J.G. (2007) The Soil and Water Assessment
Tool: Historical development, applications and future research directions. Transactions of ASABE,
50(4):1211-1250
7. Grizzetti B., Bouraoui F., De Marsily G. (2005) Modelling nitrogen pressure in river basins: acomparison between statistical approach and the physically-based SWAT model. Phys. Chem.
Earth. 30:508-517
8. Jones, C.A., Cole C.V. Sharpley A.N. and Williams J.R. (1984) A simplified soil and plant phosphorus
model. 1. Documentation. Soil Sci. Am. J. 48:800-805.
9. Julien B., Watanabe H., Inao K., Iwafune T., Zhang M., Luo Y., and Arnold J. (2014) Development
and validation of a basin scale model PCPF-1@SWAT for simulating fate and transport of rice
pesticides. J. Hydrology 517:146-156.
10. Abbaspour K.C. (2015) SWAT-CUP SWAT Calibration and Uncertainty Programs - User manual.
11. Eawag: Swiss Federal Institute of Aquatic Science and Technology.
12. http://swat.tamu.edu/media/114860/usermanual_swatcup.pdf
13. MILT(2016):
GIS
data
download
service,
http://nrbwww.mlit.go.jp/kokjo/inspect/landclassification/download/
14. Nash J.E. and Sutcliffe J.V. (1970) River flow forecasting through conceptual models, part 1. A
discussion of principles. J, Hydrol. 10(3):282-290
15. Neitsch S.L., Arnold J.G., Kiniry J.R., Williams J.R. (2009) Soil and Water assessment Tool
Theoretical Documentation Version 2009, Texas Water Resources Institute TR-406, USA
16. Priestley C.H.B. and Taylor R.J. (1972) On the assessment of surface heat flux and evaporation
using large-scale parameters. Mon. Weather Rev. 100:81-92
17. Im S., Park S. and Jang T. (2007) Application of SCS curve number method for irrigated paddy field.
18. Water Engin. 11:51-56
19. Sakaguchi, A., Eguchi S., Kato T., Kasuya M., Ono K., Miyata A. and Tase N. (2014) Development
and evaluation of a paddy module for improving hydrological simulation in SWAT Agricultural Water
Management 137:116-122. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.agwat.2014. 01.009
20. Santhi C., Arnold J.G., Williams J.R. Dugas W.A., Srinivasan R. and Hauck L.M. (2001) Validationof the SWAT model on large river basin with point and nonpoint sources. J. Am. Water Resour.
Assoc. 37(5): 1169-1188
21. USDA-SCS (1972) National engineering handbook, hydrology sect 4, chap 4-10. US Dep. ofAgriculture, Soil conservation service, Washington
22. Williams J.R (1969) Flood routing with variable travel time or variable storage coefficients. Trans
ASAE 12(1):100-103
23. Williams J.R. and Laseur W.V. (1975) Sediment routing for agricultural watersheds. Water Resour.
Bull. 11(5):965-974
24. Williams J.R. and Laseur W.V. (1976) Water yield model using SCS curve numbers. J. Hydraulics
Div. ASCE 102:1241-1253

177

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ESTIMATING LAKE EXTENT AND WATER VOLUME OF FLOODPLAIN LAKES OFKALIMANTAN USING RADAR IMAGES
H. Hidayat12*, D.H. Hoekman3, A.J. Teuling2, G.S. Haryani1, A.J.F. Hoitink11
Research Centre for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia,
2
Hydrology and Quantitative Water Management Group, Wageningen University,
Wageningen, The Netherlands, 3Earth System Science and Climate Change Group,
Wageningen University, The Netherlands*Corresponding author: hidayat@limnologi.lipi.go.id

1

ABSTRACT
Lakes hold about 80% of global liquid surface freshwater and encompassing crucial contributors tobiodiversity. In time of increasing water demand and climate uncertainty, establishing fundamental
patterns of natural variability of water resources including those in lakes is vital. Currently, storage
capacity of tropical lakes is rarely reported due to the lack of data. In this contribution, we use radar
images from the Phase Array Synthetic Aperture Radar (PALSAR) with a pixel spacing of 75m for theyears 2007 through 2010 and lake level data to quantify the volume of floodplain lakes in the Mahakam(East Kalimantan) and the Kapuas (West Kalimantan) lakes region. From flooded pixels , we obtainareas of lakes inundation. Area of floodplain lakes is following seasonal inundation pattern as a resultof variable rainfall rate; we use rainfall estimates from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission for thisanalysis. The period of the Mahakam lakes depth measurements was coincided with part of PALSAR
data acquisition dates. Therefore, we are able to derive a depth-area relationship that is used toestimate lake’s water levels beyond our measurement period. Correlation analysis reveals that depthof the lakes is well-correlated with two-month moving average of areal rainfall. We obtained a linear
depth–rainfall relation that was applied to approximate depth of the Kapuas lakes. An estimate of total
volume of lakes is derived from total area of flooded pixels and lake’s depth. Within the study period,
the highest estimated total volume of water in the Mahakam lakes is 6.5 billion m 3 during the PALSAR
data acquisition on 4 May 2007, while that of the Kapuas is about 3 billion m3 during the PALSAR dataacquisition on 8 April 2009.
Keywords: Floodplain lakes, volume estimation, PALSAR, Mahakam, Kapuas.
INTRODUCTION
The flood-pulse of the large rivers triggers ecological processes of the floodplain systems inducing asevere seasonality in the annual cycle between the aquatic and the terrestrial phase (Schongart & Junk
2006). It is not only important as subsidy of organic matter to the main channel, but it plays a role indefining floodplain’s plant community composition and distribution, affecting ecosystem processes suchas methane emissions, and in serving as a (temporary) habitat for diverse assemblage of fish andinvertebrates (Benke et al., 2000).
Lake Sentarum National Park is located in the upper Kapuas River, West Kalimantan (Fig. 1). It
represents one of old tropical peat formations in Late Pleistocene (Anshari et al 2001, 2004). The
Kapuas wetlands are important for their respective local communities not only as a source of water fordomestic purposes, but also to sustain the livelihood of the people especially in the open water fisherysub-sector. The Kapuas wetland with its seasonally inundated lakes produces about 18,000 tons offreshwater fish annually (BPS-Kalbar, 2015). These fishing industry figures express the high economic
value of the wetland areas we study. The unique tropical wetland ecosystems are rich in biodiversity of
typical aquatic as well as terrestrial flora and fauna, which is why they are listed as a Ramsar site.
The wetlands act as hydrological buffers and hence contribute to natural flow regulation, which has
rarely been quantified. There is a lack of knowledge on processes involved in seasonal flooding in
tropical lowland areas, including backwater effects. Not with standing their ecological, hydrological andeconomical importance, the Kapuas and Mahakam wetlands in particular and the two river basins ingeneral have been increasingly threatened by a variety of factors including pollution, forest fires,
deforestation, and mono cultures (Rautner et al., 2005; Chokkalingam, 2005).

178Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. The Kapuas catchment upstream of the city of Sintang (red line) in West Kalimantan,
featuring the catchment of the Sentarum lakes area (black line) delineated using SRTM
digital elevation model.
The aims of the study were to estimate the extent and storage capacity of two floodplain lakes areas in
Kalimantan, Indonesia. This paper continues with description of the study area, data collection, andmethod of lake volume estimation in Sect 2. In Sect. 3 we present the results followed by conclusions
in Sect. 4.
METHODS
Inundation maps were obtained from the analysis of Phase Array L-band Synthetic Aperture Radar(PALSAR) images of 2007—2010. Lake inundation areas were mapped following the method for flood
mapping of open water (Hidayat et al. 2012). Crucial in this method is the determination of the upper
threshold for open water. Radar backscatter statistics from regions covering the main river and lakes
known to be permanently inundated were taken to determine threshold values for open water flood
occurrence mapping. The mean plus one standard deviation was taken as the upper threshold for open
water flooding. From area of inundation and lake’s water level, we estimated the total volume of waterin the lakes region.
From area of inundation and lake’s water level, we estimated the total volume of water in the lakes
region. Areas of floodplain lakes are following the seasonal inundation pattern as a result of variable
rainfall rates. The period of Mahakam water level measurements coincided with part of the PALSAR
data acquisition dates. Therefore, we were able to derive a lake depth (h) - area (A) relationship thatwas used to estimate the lakes’ water levels beyond the period of our measurements (Fig. 2). For the
Kapuas, our water level measurement did not coincide with the PALSAR observation period. With anassumption of uniform distribution of depths, we develop a depth-rainfall relationship. Correlation
analysis reveals that the depth of the lakes is well-correlated with the two-month moving average ofareal rainfall (P2m). We obtained a linear depth–rainfall relation that was applied to approximate waterlevels of the Kapuas lakes, reading: h = 0.021 * P2m – 2.4 (Fig. 3).

179

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Relationship between measured depth of lake in the
middle Mahakam area and area of open water inundationfrom PALSAR images.

Figure 3. Relationship between measured depth of lake andrainfall (2-month moving average).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSThe lake extent of the Kapuas and Mahakam floodplain lakes are highly dynamics. Figure 4 and 5
show the extent of floodplain lakes in the Mahakam and those of the Kapuas during dry period (green)
overlaid on top of that during high water period.

180

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. Extent of lakes in the Mahakam during dry period (green) overlaid on topof that during high water period on 5 April 2009 (blue).
Estimates of total volume of lakes in the Mahakam lakes area are shown in Table 1. The highest
estimated total volume of water the Mahakam lakes is about 6.5 billion m 3 during the PALSAR dataacquisition on 12 May 2010. The highest estimated total volume of water in the Kapuas lakes is about
3 billion m3 during the PALSAR data acquisition on 8 April 2009 (Table 2). Considering the extent offlooding under vegetation cover, the maximum total volume of water stored in these wetlands can betwice as much as the abovementioned values. Note that stream network was not removed during theflood count assessment, which renders the area of inundation to be somewhat overestimated.

Figure 5. Extent of lakes in the middle Kapuas area during a relatively dry period(green) overlaid on top of that during wet period (blue).

181

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1. Estimates of total volume of lakes in the Mahakam lowlands derived from flooded pixels of
PALSAR images.
PALSARdate

Image noFlooded pixel

Area (m2)Depth (m)Vol (m3)

19/Mar/07

0

78441

4.41E+08

0.43

1.91E+08

4/May/071264498

1.49E+09

4.30

6.4E+09

4/Aug/07

2111896

6.29E+08

1.13

7.11E+08

19/Sep/07

3103972

5.85E+08

0.96

5.64E+08

4/Nov/07

4105421

5.93E+08

0.99

5.89E+08

20/Dec/07

5

87947

4.95E+08

0.63

3.12E+08

4/Feb/08

682759

4.66E+08

0.52

2.43E+08

21/Mar/08

7125363

7.05E+08

1.41

9.94E+08

6/May/088245561

1.38E+09

3.91

5.4E+09

21/Jun/08

9159131

8.95E+08

2.11

1.89E+09

6/Aug/08

10109242

6.14E+08

1.07

6.6E+08

21/Sep/08

111113096.26E+08

1.12

6.99E+08

22/Dec/08

12240312

1.35E+09

3.80

5.14E+09

9/May/09

131495498.41E+08

1.91

1.61E+09

24/Sep/09

141459488.21E+08

1.84

1.51E+09

9/Feb/10

15245934

1.38E+09

3.92

5.42E+09

27/Mar/10

16

96125

5.41E+08

0.80

4.33E+08

12/May/10

172666481.5E+09

4.35

6.52E+09

27/Jun/10

181370797.71E+08

1.65

1.27E+09

27/Sep/10
1996914
5.45E+08
0.82
4.45E+08
Table 2. Estimates of total volume of lakes in the Kapuas lowlands derived from flooded pixels of
PALSAR images.
PALSARdate

Image noFlooded pixel

Area (m2)depth (m)Vol (m3)

2/16/2007

0

90238

5.E+08

3.58

1.81E+09

5/19/2007

1

90107

5.E+08

4.19

2.13E+09

7/4/2007

292744

5.E+081.60

8.36E+08

8/19/2007

3

83070

5.E+08

1.47

6.86E+08

10/4/2007

4

81590

5.E+082.07

9.50E+08

1/4/2008

5131906

7.E+082.21

1.64E+09

4/5/2008

6133101

7.E+082.73

2.04E+09

5/21/2008

7

85980

5.E+08

4.57

2.21E+09

7/6/2008

875295

4.E+08

4.27

1.81E+09

10/6/2008

9

94211

5.E+08

3.54

1.88E+09

11/21/2008

10116585

7.E+082.45

1.61E+09

2/21/2009

111045896.E+082.06

1.21E+09

4/8/2009

121025196.E+08

5.12

2.95E+09

7/9/2009

13

76651

4.E+082.50

1.08E+09

10/9/2009

14

79288

4.E+080.01

3.02E+06

2/24/2010

15126777

7.E+082.87

2.05E+09

4/11/2010

16115874

7.E+082.64

1.72E+09

5/27/2010

17119436

7.E+083.63

2.44E+09

7/12/2010

18130571

7.E+08

3.03

2.23E+09

10/12/2010

19

177314

1.E+092.63

2.62E+09

182

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CONCLUSIONSAn estimate of total volume of lakes is derived from total area of flooded pixels and lake’s depth. Within
the study period, the highest estimated total volume of water in the Mahakam lakes is 6.5 billion m3
during the PALSAR data acquisition on 4 May 2007, while that of the Kapuas is about 3 billion m3
during the PALSAR data acquisition on 8 April 2009.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research has been funded by The Royal Netherlands Academy of Arts and Sciences (KNAW)
through the Kapuas Scientific Programme Indonesia – Netherlands (SPIN) III project and SPIN II
Mahakam East Kalimantan Project. ALOS PALSAR data have been provided by JAXA EORC within
the framework of the ALOS Kyoto & Carbon Initiative.
REFERENCES
1. Anshari, G. Z., Kershaw, A. P., and van der Kaars, S.: A Late Pleistocene and Holocene pollen
and charcoal record from peat swamp forest, Lake Sentarum Wildlife Reserve, West
Kalimantan, Indonesia, Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 171, 213–228,
doi:10.1016/S0031-0182(01)00246-2, 2001.
2. Anshari, G. Z., Kershaw, A. P., van der Kaars, S., and Jacobsen, G.: Environmental change andpeatland forest dynamics in the lake sentarum area, West Kalimantan, Indonesia., J. Quaternary
Sci., 19, 637–655, doi:10.1002/jqs.879, 2004.
3. Bayley P. B.: Understanding Large River: Floodplain Ecosystems, BioScience, Vol. 45, No. 3,
Ecology of Large Rivers, pp. 153-158, 1995.
4. BPS-Kalbar: Kalimantan Barat In Figures, BPS-Statistics of Kalimantan Barat,
http://kalbar.bps.go.id/website/pdf_publikasi/Kalimantan-Barat-Dalam-Angka-2015.pdf, 2015.
5. BPS-Kaltim: Kalimantan Timur in Figures, BPS-Statistics of Kalimantan Timur,
http://kaltim.bps.go.id/webbeta/website/pdf_publikasi/Kalimantan-Timur-Dalam-Angka-Tahun2015.pdf, 2015.
6. Chokkalingam, U., Kurniawan, I., and Ruchiat, Y.: Fire, livelihoods, and environmental change in
the Middle Mahakam peatlands, East Kalimantan, Ecology Society, 10(1), 1–17, 2005.
7. IUCN: Species of the Day: Irrawaddy Dolphin, Tech. rep., International Union for Conservation of
Nature, http://support.iucnredlist.org/sites/default/files/species_pdf/orcaella-brevirostris.pdf, 2016.
8. MacKinnon, K., Hatta, G., Halim, H., and Mangalik, A.: The ecology of Indonesia series - The
ecology of Kalimantan., Oxford University Press, 1996.
9. Rautner, M., Hardiono, M., and Alfred, R. J.: Borneo: Treasure Island at Risk, WWF Germany,Frankfurt am Main, assets.panda.org/downloads/treasureislandatrisk.pdf, 2005.

183

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

SELF ORGANIZING MAP (SOM) AS CLUSTER MODELLING TOOL OF ALGAL BLOOMSRISK IN MANINJAU LAKE
Yuli Sudriani* and Astried Sunaryani
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI)*Corresponding author: yuli@limnologi.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACTManinjau Lake is a vital water resource for West Sumatera Indonesia providing a home to aquatic
species and has been used for hydropower plant, irrigation, tourism and fisheries. At the same time,
Maninjau Lake suffered a catastrophic eutrophication by algal blooms for several years. It caused mass
death of fish and reduce the water quality. The process of algal blooms mechanism in a lake is very
complex with uncertainty in space and time. This study uses Self Organizing Map (SOM) to cluster ofthe water quality with uncertainty condition. SOM has advantages for information extraction without
prior knowledge ( unsupervised ) and the efficiency of pattern classification, clustering and visualization.
The input layer on-site monitoring data of water quality from 2013 to 2014 in 8 stations in Maninjau Lakewere used in rainy and dry season.Findings indicate that the higher status of eutrophication, the lower
accuracy that was achieved and most severe blooms outbreaks occured in rainy season.
Keywords: algal blooms, lake Maninjau, risk uncertainty, Self Organizing Map.
INTRODUCTION
The study of algal blooms is important because it provides indication to assess water quality inecosystem especially in Maninjau Lake. Maninjau Lake is a volcanic lake in West Sumatera - Indonesia,
providing a home to aquatic species and has been used for hydropower plant, irrigation, tourism andfisheries. The lake suffered a catastrophic eutrophication, algal blooming of Mycrocystis aeruginosaand hundreds ton of fish were killed (Syandri, 2000). Several researches found that those tragedies
caused by cage aquaculture activity that has been increased rapidly. Cage aquaculture activity havean impact of organic materials load and increase nutrient content that stimulate algal growth. The
trophic state index of Maninjau Lake tended to increase, it was mesotrophic between 2001 and 2007
and eutrophic between 2008 and 2014 (Sulastri et al., 2015). In 2011, Maninjau Lake was classified asa hypereutrophic lake (Tanjung, 2013) that caused taste and odor problems, oxygen depletion, and fishkills. The condition gets worse and mass death of fish happened again in 2013. The number of mass
death of fish was about eight tons in Lake Maninjau (loss: IDR 200 Million) and fish kill happened again
in 2014 with about 747,38 tons (loss: IDR 22,42 Billion) (Lukman et al., 2015).
The advance of computational technology has helped numerical algal blooms models (Hu et al.,2008).
The validation of result from model application rise a problem because of slight change in parameters
and add number water quality data lead to a quite different result. It is important to characterize andclassify the spatial and temporal pattern of algal blooms to monitor water quality data in Maninjau Lake.
Studies about algal blooms remain a significant challenge to researcher. Moreover, the study of algal
blooms is a difficult task because of uncertainty condition and influenced by complex of biotic and abiotic
factor and there has been little previous research conducted about algal blooms risk.
Machine learning technique such as Artificial Neural Network (ANN) has been used to solve thecomplexity of algal blooms process. There are two types of ANN, namely supervised and unsupervised
method. SOM is one of unsupervised ANN method. The advantages of it are the efficiency of pattern,classification, clustering and visualization. SOM is used to classify blooms status with water quality data.
Fuzzy Risk (FR) is used to analyse blooms risk after result of SOM is obtained.
This paper describes about SOM to present the classify and visualize of water quality data in 8 sites
across a large spatial-temporal scale. The specific studies was to evaluate the cluster analysis of algal
blooms data.
METHODS
Data Description
Water quality data and phytoplankton data from 8 permanent monitoring sites in Maninjau Lake (Table
1) from 2013 to 2014 (dry and rainy season) were collected from previous researches that have been
conducted by the Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences. For each site, fiveparameters of water quality were taken, including chlorophyll a (Chl-a), water temperature (T),Dissolved Oxygen (DO), Concentration of Total Nitrogen (TN) and Total Phosphorus (TP).

184

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

No
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8

Table 1. The Location of 8 Stations in Maninjau Lake
Sampling Area
LatitudeLongitude
Mukomuko
0o17'10.6" S
100o09'13.8" E
Pandan0o22'29.1" S
100o13'13.6" EoRambay0 16'14.5" S
100o09'43.5" E
M. Tanjung
0o15'17.4" S
100o11'1.4" E
Lubuk Anyir
0o16'16.4" S
100o12'52.0" E
Lubuk Kandang
0o17'02.8" S
100o13'26.8" EoBancah0 19'04.3" S
100o13'27.7" EoBanda Gadang
0 20'14.3" S
100o13'10.2" E

Self Organizing Map (SOM) to classify bloom status
For each pattern x one neuron n will "win" (which means that wn is the weights vector more similar to x)
and this winning neuron will have its weights adjusted so that it will have a stronger response to the
input the next time it sees it (which means that the distance between x and wn will be smaller. The
training algorithm can be summarized as follows (Kohonen,2001):• Initialize the weights of each neuron. Initialize t= 0, t is the current time-step (iteration of theloop)• Randomly pick an input x from the dataset . Determine the winning neuron i as the neuron suchthat•(w = Weights between every nodes data which is 0<w<1)
Adapt the weights of each neuron n according to the following rule

• Increment t by 1. if t < tmax go to step 3
η(t) is called learning rate and h(i) is called neighborhood function which has high values for i and theneurons close to i on the lattice (a Gaussian centered on i is a good example of neighborhood function).
When t increases η decreases and h decreases its spread. This way at each training step the weightsof the neurons close to the winning one are adjusted to have a stronger response to the current pattern.
After the training process, the locations of the neurons become ordered and a meaningful coordinate
system for the input features is created on the lattice.
Import modules
Input data samples
print 'size of data set:
Initialize weights//Training data
For 0 to X number of training epochs
Select a sample from the input data set
Find the "winning" neuron for the sample input
Adjust the weights of nearby neurons

Figure 1. Algorithm module for SOM
End for loop
Fuzzy Risk (FR) to analyze algal blooms risk
Fuzzy risk calculates the possibility and probability risk by interior-outer set model (IOSM). IOSM wasapplied to calculate the probability and possibility risk of the various bloom statuses. The possibility–
probability risk calculated using the IOSM is referred to as fuzzy risk. IOSM was applied to calculate thepossibility–probability risks of the various bloom statuses. Let X={xi | i=1, 2,…, n} represents theobserved records of bloom status evaluated by the SOM network, where xi ∈ R (real number set) andn was the number of records. Since X represented the bloom status that was normalized into [0, 1], theuniverse of X was [0, 1], and was donated as U. Let u1, u2,…, uj,…, um represent discrete points witha given step length Δ, and use the same U to represent the discourse domain,we had U = { uj | j=1,
2,…, m}. From an information distribution point of view, observation xi can allocate its information witha value of qij to point uj, as expressed by the following equation (Chen,2014) :185

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

where xi is the bloom status value, uj is a controlled point, and Δ is the step length of the controlled
point. Define an interval Ij as the following:

For the purpose of computation, the definition of the interior set and outer set of Ij is as follows:∀ xi ∈ X, if ∀ xi ∈ Xin ‐ j, it loses information by gaining at 1 − qij to other interval, denoted as qij −; if ∀xi ∈ Xout ‐ j, it gives information by gaining at qij, denoted as qij +. So for Ij with information gain at qij,
the possibilities can be formulated as follows:

With IOSM method, the possibility–probability distribution of different bloom statuses was estimated foreach specific site. Although the fuzzy risks can show the uncertainty of bloom occurrence, sometimes
the composite risk that transforms the fuzzy risks into crisp risks was required.
The risk can be calculated by the alpha-cut fuzzy approach:1. the higher the value of α, the lower the degree of uncertainty
2. the lower the value of α, the higher the degree of uncertainty, resulting in lower probability
serviceability.

SOM

TN,TP,Chl-a,DO,T
Classification& Clustering
Water Quality
Data
Parameter

ResultVisualisation Result

ProgrammingValidationof result

Figure 2. Data flow diagram

186

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Based on location of stations, algal blooms risk map was divided into 5 regions: I (Mukomuko andRambay), II (M. Tanjung), III (Lubuk Anyir and Lubuk Kandang), IV (Bancah), and V (Banda Gadang
and Pandan) as shown in Fig 3.

Figure 3. Algal blooms risk map in Maninjau Lake

I

II

IV

III

V

Figure 4. SOM Nearest Neighbour Distance Result 2013-2014 for (I) TN, (II) TP, (III) chlorophyll a,(IV) Temperature, (V) DO

187

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

As shown in Fig 4, the blue hexagons represent the neurons. The red lines connect neighbouring
neurons. The colours in the regions containing the red lines indicate the distances between neurons.
The darker colours represent larger distances, and the lighter colours represent smaller distances. A
band of dark segments crosses from the lower - center region to the upper-right region. The SOM
network appears to have clustered data into two distinct groups.

I

II

III

V

IV

Figure 5.
SOM Plot hits Result 2013-2014 for (I) TN, (II) TP, (III) chlorophyll a,(V) Temperature, (VI) DO

I

II

III

IV

V

VI

Figure 6. SOM Weight Point Position Result 2013-2014 for (I) TN, (II) TP, (III) chlorophyll a,(IV) Temperature, (V) DO

188

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 2. Characteristic values of water quality factors for different bloom statuses
Bloom
Characteristic
Chl-a
T (oC)TN (mg/L)
TP (mg/L)
StatusValues(µg/L)No
Bloom
Std. Deviation
1.95930.26450.03380.0078DO (mg/L)
0.2646

Light
Bloom

Std. Deviation

2.56690.26460.02340.00360.1732Moderate
Bloom

Std. Deviation

0.2306

0.05770.03870.00720.3500

SevereBloom

Std. Deviation

5.67360.31090.68340.03440.2872

Table 2 shows that the more serious the bloom status, the higher the concentration of chlorophyll a,
TN, and TP. These conditions represent the fact that algal blooms sometimes are natural phenomena,
but their frequency, duration and intensity are increased by nutrient pollution. Algae can multiply quickly
in waterways with an overabundance of nitrogen and phosphorus (Wetzel, 2001). Furthermore, Wetzel(2001) said that algal blooms tend to increase when the water is warm, but the T mean values in Table
2 decreased with the higher bloom status and T median values were fluctuate.
DO concentration in Table 2 increase aligned with the bloom status. According to ESA (2008), algae
produce oxygen during the daylight hours as a by-product of photosynthesis. This is usually a major
source of oxygen in lake. In darkness, however, all plants consume oxygen, including algae. Algae
blooms in natural water bodies normally produce much more oxygen in the daylight than they consume
during the night, but some situations reduce the amount of oxygen a bloom produces without reducing
its night time oxygen consumption. Trace minerals or nutrients needed by the algae are occasionallyused up, causing some or even all, of the bloom to die back temporarily. The resulting bacterial
decomposition and loss of normal oxygen production can lead to oxygen depletions and fish kills.
The status for Algal blooms was classified into four categories : No bloom, light bloom, moderate bloom
and severe bloom. The existence of fish cages in Maninjau Lake is a major factor of anthropogenic
influence that contribute to water quality. It contributes to nutrient supply in water body. Algae tend togrow very quickly under high nutrient availability. Therefore, these location of cages were classified asmoderate and severe bloom. Hypoxic or very low oxygen condition may result when algae die anddecompose stripping water of dissolved oxygen, leading to fish kills and degrading the aesthetic andrecreational value of the lake (ESA, 2008). One of fish killed incident was happened on August, 2014
with the loss of 350 tons of fish in Mukomuko. That was the fifth tragedy in 2014, previous tragedy offish killed was happened on January (twice), March and in early August 2014 (Maulana, 2014).
Table 2, Chl-a content in Maninjau Lake was in the range of 11.95 to 27.40 µg/L. According to Wetzel(2001), Maninjau Lake was classified as eutrophic because the content of Chl-a was more than 11 µg/L.
Temporal variation analysis showed that most severe bloom outbreaks in rainy season than dry season.
This can cause more nutrient runoff into water bodies. Several locations in Maninjau Lake areasurrounded by agriculture lands, hotel, restaurant and residential area. Anthropogenic factors candramatically increase the concentration of nutrients in water bodies, a phenomenon known as “cultural
eutrophication” (Hasler, 1974). In Maninjau Lake, human-induced pollution and accelerating
eutrophication through the impacts of runoff from residential and agricultural areas which carries
fertilizer, pesticides, detergent wastes, effluents from hotel and restaurant. The water quality of inflows
from the southeast area is better than that from the north. Therefore, more effort should be taken to
manage moderate and severe blooms in the north area of the lake.
CONCLUSIONS
SOM was successfully used to search for suitable membership and clustering from the data. The
method has proved to be a promising modeling tool for algal bloom risk in Maninjau Lake. The Resultof algal bloom risk is depended on complexity of data. One of the deficiencies in this model is lack ofdata. It must be decision-makers with deeper insight and a more comprehensive overview of algal
bloom risk and uncertainty, which is helpful for practices for monitoring algal bloom. For more details
about fuzzy risk in eutrophication lake Maninjau will be present in the future.

189

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank Dr. Lukman, Tri Suryono, M.Si., Dr. Livia R. Tanjung, and Sulung Nomosatriyo,
M.Si. from Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences for providing us data andinformation from their previous researches in Maninjau Lake. We greatly appreciate Dr. Apip for his
expert advice for this study and Muhammad Anwar for his help. And also our sincere thanks to oursupervisor M. Fakhrudin, M.Si. and Dr. Cynthia Henny.
REFERENCES
1. Chen, Q., Han, R., Weifeng, L., and Yanhui Z. (2014). Analysis of Algal Bloom Risk With
Uncertainties in lakes by integrating Self Organizing Map and Fuzzy Information Theory. Scienceof Total Environment. 318-324.
2. EPA (Environmental Protection Agency). (2016). Nutrient Pollution, Harmful Algal Blooms.
3. ESA (Ecological Society of America). (2008). Hypoxia. Washington DC: Ecological Society ofAmerica. 1.
4. Feng L., Gao, L.Y. (2009). Analysis of Fuzzy Risk of Landfall Typhoon in Zhejiang Province ofChina. Mathematics and Computers in Simulation. 79. 3258-3266.
5. Hasler, A.D. (1947). Eutrophication of Lakes by Domestic Drainage. Ecology. 28. 383-395.
6. Hu, W., Zhai, S., Zhu. Z., Han. H. (2008). Impacts of the Yangtze River Water Transfer on the
Restoration of Lake Taihu. Ecol Eng. 34(1). 30-49.
7. Lukman, Setyobudiandi, I., Muchsin, I., and Hariyadi, S. (2015). Impact of Cage Aquaculture on
Water Quality Condition in Lake Maninjau, West Sumatera Indonesia. Int. Journ. of Sci: Basic andApplied Research. 23(1). 120-137.
8. Maulana, A. (2014). 350 ton of fish killed in Maninjau Lake. Antaranews.com.
9. Sulastri, Sulawesty, F., and Nomosatriyo, S. (2015). Long Term Monitoring of Water Quality andPhytoplankton Changes in Lake Maninjau, West Sumatra, Indonesia. Oseanologi Dan Limnologi
di Indonesia. 41(3). 339-353.
10. Syandri H. (2000). The Impacts of Cage Aquaculture to Water Quality in Maninjau Lake. Paper
presented in Diskusi Panel Press Club (PPC). Padang 22 November 2000. p 13.
11. Tanjung, L.R. (2013). Current Condition of Lake Maninjau Water Quality and Trophic State.
Oseanologi dan Limnologi di Indonesia. 39. 1. 31-48.
12. Wetzel, R.G. (2001). Limnology: Lake and River Ecosystems. San Diego: Academic Press.
13. Zhou, Q., Zhou, J., and Zhou, C. (2012). Fuzzy Risk Analysis of Flood Disaster Based on DiffusedInterior Outer Set Model. Expert System Application. 39. 62. 13-20.
14. Kohonen, Tenvo. (2001). Exploration of very Large Database by Self Organizing Maps. ISBN: 9783-540-67921-9 (Print) 978-3-642-56927-2 (Online)

190Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

A LAND COVER MAP ACCURACY METRIC FOR HYDROLOGICAL STUDIESBrian Alan Johnson1*, Isao Endo1, Akio Onishi2, Milben Bragais3, Damasa B. MagcaleMacandog3, Emily Skeehan1
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies, 2108-11 Kamiyamaguchi, Hayama,
Kanagawa 240-0115, Japan
2
Faculty of Environmental Studies, Tokyo City University, 3-3-1 Ushikubo-nishi, Tsuzuki-ku,
Yokohama, Kanagawa 224-8551, Japan, 3Institute of Biological Sciences, University of thePhilippines Los Baños, College, Laguna 4031, Philippines*Corresponding author: johnson@iges.or.jp
1

ABSTRACTLand cover (LC) has a significant impact on rainfall-runoff dynamics of a watershed, so LC maps areoften incorporated into hydrological models to simulate how changes in climate or land management
will affect water quantity/water quality within the watershed. The accuracy of a LC map can thus affectthe accuracy of hydrological modelling results. However, because LC maps are not typically produced
specifically for hydrological studies, the conventional LC map accuracy metrics may not be the most
relevant. In this study, we proposed a new metric for LC map accuracy assessment, calculated as the
root-mean-square-deviation (RMSD) of the mapped (i.e. estimated) and “ground truth” runoff curve
numbers (CN) at randomly-sampled locations. The new metric, CN-RMSD, assesses the accuracy ofthe direct runoff estimates derived from the LC map, and its benefit over the traditional LC accuracy
assessment metrics is that it more heavily weights LC classification errors that cause greater errors inestimated runoff. Ground truth CN data can be collected much in the same way as ground truth data iscollected for the traditional accuracy metrics, although a soil map can improve the accuracy of theground truth CN values. Some potential applications of CN-RMSD, e.g. for LC map selection and LC
map fusion, are also discussed.
Keywords: hydrological modelling, land cover accuracy assessment, rainfall-runoff, remote sensing,
SCS curve number
INTRODUCTION
Hydrological models are often used to estimate the water quality and/or water quantity of lakes andrivers under different climate and land/water management scenarios (Thirel et al., 2015). In terms ofwatershed land management, land cover (LC) conditions have a significant impact on hydrologicalprocesses (e.g. rainfall runoff and infiltration), so many hydrological models incorporate LC maps as
input datasets. For this reason, the accuracy of a LC map can also affect the accuracy of hydrologicalmodelling results (Cotter, Chaubey, Costello, Soerens, & Nelson, 2004). LC maps are typically
produced by classifying pixels in a satellite or aerial image into different LC classes using an image
classification algorithm (Jensen, 2005), and the LC map’s accuracy is then calculated by comparing the“classified” LC type with the “ground-truth” LC type at a number of randomly-sampled pixel locations(Congalton, 2009). Ground truth LC data for this accuracy assessment is either obtained in-situ (througha field survey) or remotely (by visual image interpretation). Accuracy assessment is an importantresearch topic for both LC map producers and LC map users, and although we just briefly introduce thetopic here, readers can refer to some recent studies for a better understanding of various issues related
to accuracy assessment (Castilla, 2016; Congalton, 2009; Johnson, 2015; Olofsson et al., 2014).
Several conventional LC map accuracy metrics exist, with the most common being overall accuracy (#of correctly classified sample pixels / total # of sample pixels) (Congalton, 1991). However, the existing
metrics do not take into account that some types of classification errors are more problematic thanothers when it comes to simulating hydrological processes. As an example, consider two cases: In Case
1, a pixel in a LC map is classified as “built-up/impervious area” but in truth contains “forest”, and inCase 2, a pixel is classified as “built-up/impervious area” but in truth contains “bare soil”. Of these twocases, Case 1 is the more serious error due to the greater difference in runoff rates of impervious andforested lands (Soil Conservation Service, 1986).
Due to the limitation of the existing LC map accuracy metrics, the objective of this study was to develop
a new metric more relevant to hydrological processes. This new metric is based on the well-known U.S.
Soil Conservation Service runoff curve number (CN) approach for calculation of direct runoff (i.e.
surface and immediate subsurface runoff), which takes into account the LC and soil properties of theland (Soil Conservation Service, 1986). Before describing the new metric, we first briefly introduce the191Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CN. CN is related to the maximum potential soil moisture retention of the land (S), and the CN
calculation method was developed by the USDA from an empirical analysis of rainfall (P) and runoff (Q)measurements at field test sites. S and CN values were calculated using the measured values of P and
Q and an estimate of the initial abstraction (Ia), i.e. the amount of rainfall that could be retained in thesoil or vegetation before runoff begins (assumed to be = 0.2S) (Soil Conservation Service, 1986). CN
is given by:𝑄=
and(𝑃 − 𝐼𝑎)2(𝑃 − 0.2𝑆)2=
𝑃 − 𝐼𝑎 + 𝑆
𝑃 − 0.8𝑆

𝐶𝑁 =𝑃 > 𝐼𝑎1000
10 + 𝑆

Higher CN values indicate higher potential runoff rates (see Table 1 for some examples for different
LC/soil types). A spatially-explicit CN map can be produced by overlaying a LC map and a soil map
using Geographic Information Systems (GIS) software. The CN is the foundation of many hydrology
algorithms, including those in most simulation models developed by the U.S. Department of Agriculture
for hydrology, soil erosion, and nonpoint water quality estimation (Garen & Moore, 2005).
Table 1. Runoff Curve Number (CN) values of four common types of land cover (LC), adapted from theTable 2-2 of Soil Conservation Service (1986). Higher CN values indicate higher runoff potential.
Hydrologic Soil Group (HSG)A
C
DLand cover (LC)
Built-up/impervious area
98
98
98
98
Bare soil
77
86
91
94
Pasture, grassland, or range (>75% ground
39
61
74
80
vegetation cover)Forest (litter and brush covering the soil)
30
55
70
77
Because of the importance of the CN for various types of hydrological analysis, our proposed LC map
accuracy metric is calculated as the root-mean-square-deviation (RMSD) of the mapped (i.e. predicted,
or estimated) and ground truth (i.e. actual) CN values at randomly-sampled pixel locations. This new
metric, CN-RMSD, assesses the accuracy of the direct runoff estimates derived from a LC map, making
it a better indicator of the LC map’s suitability for studies related to rainfall-runoff dynamics. To ourknowledge, CN-RMSD is the first LC map accuracy metric developed specifically for hydrologicalapplications. In the remainder of this paper, we provide a step-by-step approach to calculating CNRMSD (Methods section) and identify some possible ways in which the new metric can be used inpractice (Results and Discussions section).
METHODS
There are seven main steps for calculating CN-RMSD, and they can be performed using many free (e.g.
QGIS) or commercial (e.g. ESRI ArcGIS) GIS software packages:
1. Obtain or create a LC map of a study area watershed;
2. Overlay the LC map onto a hydrologic soil group (HSG) map of the study area (more information
related to HSGs given below after the main steps);
3. Generate a CN map of the study area using the LC map, the HSG map, and the lookup tableprovided in Soil Conservation Service (1986);
4. Randomly generate n sample points within the study area;
5. Extract the “mapped CN values” at these sample point locations from the CN map;
6. Identify the “ground truth CN values” at these sample point locations. A field survey or visual
image interpretation can be conducted to identify the ground truth LC. The HSG map can beused to identify the ground truth soil properties (although the HSG map is unlikely to be 100%
accurate, it is usually the best reference data available); and7. Calculate the RMSD of the mapped (CNmapped) and ground truth CN (CNGT) values at these nsample point locations. CN-RMSD is calculated as:
CN-RMSD = √∑(𝐶𝑁𝑚𝑎𝑝𝑝𝑒𝑑 −𝐶𝑁𝐺𝑇 )2𝑛192

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Regarding the HSG map (step 2), soils can be generally classified into one of four HSGs – ‘A’ (“sand,loamy sand, or sandy loam”), ‘B’ (“silt loam or loam”), ‘C’ (“sandy clay loam”), or ‘D’ (“clay loam, silty
clay loam, sandy clay, silty clay, or clay”) – based on the minimum infiltration rate of the soil (SoilConservation Service, 1986). A lookup table for identifying the HSG of many different soil types has
also been provided by the U.S. Soil Conservation Service (1986). If a reliable soil map is not available
for a watershed, the entire watershed area can alternatively simply be assigned to the dominant HSGof the watershed based on the hydrologist’s knowledge of the typical soil conditions of the area. For
easier understanding of the CN map generation process, a CN lookup table for a few selected LC
classes is shown below in Table 1, and a LC map and its corresponding CN map are shown in Fig. 1
to allow for a visual comparison. Regarding the appropriate number of sample points needed for
calculating CN-RMSD (i.e. value of n in step 4), although no hard rules exist, for conventional LC map
accuracy assessments a good “rule of thumb” is to collect a minimum of 50 samples for each LC class(Jensen, 2005), so this same rule of thumb could probably also be applicable for accuracy assessments
based on CN-RMSD.

Figure 2. Land use/land cover map of the Silang-Santa Rosa sub-watershed in The Philippines (a)and the corresponding CN map (b) [soil map not shown for illustration simplicity]. LC classes withgreater impervious surface area (e.g. “Residential” and “Industrial”) appear red in the CN map (highCN values), while LC classes with greater vegetation cover (e.g. “Scrub/broadleaf forest” and“Coconut”) appear green or yellow (very low CN values) depending on the hydrologic soil group of
the underlying land.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSIn this section, we discuss some ways in which the proposed metric, CN-RMSD, could be used inpractice for hydrological studies.
If multiple LC maps exist for a watershed of interest, a commonly occurrence nowadays with the growing
number of global/regional/national LC maps available, there are a few ways in which the CN-RMSD
metric can be useful. As one example, CN-RMSD values could be calculated for each of the available
LC maps, and the map with the lowest CN-RMSD value could be selected as the most appropriate map
to use for hydrological analysis. Alternatively, CN-RMSD could be utilized for fusing, or combining, theCNmapped values derived from multiple LC maps (i.e. CNmapped_1, CNmapped_2, …). As a simple example, if
CN-RMSD is calculated locally pixel-by-pixel, e.g. based on the nearest 10 sample points with CNGT
information as shown in Fig. 2, then the most locally-accurate CN map can be identified at each pixel
location. All of the most locally-accurate CNmapped values could then be combined to produce a “fused”
CN map with higher accuracy (lower CN-RMSD). Aside from this simple example, various othermethods for geographic data fusion exist, including geographically-weighted regression based fusion

193Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

methods (See et al., 2015) and machine-learning based fusion methods (Johnson, Scheyvens, &Shivakoti, 2014). For all of the map fusion methods, the different LC maps would first need to beresampled to a common spatial resolution and coordinate system.
x
x
x

x

x

x
x

x

x

x
x
x

x

x

x

x

Figure 2. Simple approach for fusing multiple CN maps basedon local CN-RMSD calculations. The red cell indicates the pixel
for which the local calculation is being performed, and cells with“x” indicate sample pixels containing ground truth CN
information. The 10 nearest sample pixels (shown in red) could
be used to calculate CN-RMSD locally, and the map with thelowest CN-RMSD value could be identified as the most accurate
at the red pixel location. [Note: we use the nearest 10 sample
points for demonstration purposes only].
In addition to its usage to select or combine information from multiple LC maps, CN-RMSD could also
be used to help better understand sources of uncertainty in a hydrological model’s results, which may
be affected by various other factors including errors in the precipitation data, errors in the digital
elevation model, and errors in water level or streamflow data. Finally, CN-RMSD may be helpful for thecalibration of hydrological models with parameters related to CN. For hydrological model calibration, it
is useful to have an idea before-hand of the realistic range of values of different model parameters (toavoid setting parameter values that are physically unrealistic or impossible), so CN-RMSD could be
used to define a realistic range of values for the CN parameter(s) in a hydrological model. Several
commonly-used hydrological models have CN parameters (e.g. The Soil and Water Assessment Tool
(Neitsch, Arnold, Kiniry, & Williams, 2011)).
CONCLUSIONSIn this study, a new land cover (LC) map accuracy metric was developed with hydrological studies inmind. The metric is calculated as the root-mean-square deviation (RMSD) of the mapped (i.e. estimated)and ground truth runoff curve numbers (CNmapped and CNGT, respectively) at randomly-sampled
locations in the LC map. Unlike conventional LC map accuracy metrics, the new metric, CN-RMSD,
more heavily penalizes LC classification errors that cause greater errors in predicted runoff, making ita better indicator of a LC map’s suitability for hydrological analysis. Some potential uses of CN-RMSD
for LC map selection, map fusion, and uncertainty analysis are also discussed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTBrian Johnson’s and Isao Endo’s conference attendance was kindly supported by the Institute for Global
Environmental Strategies (IGES) Strategic Research Fund, and this paper is generally based upon
outputs produced under the “Adaptation Initiative” project for the fiscal year 2016, commissioned workof the Japanese Ministry of the Environment.

194Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

REFERENCES
1. Castilla, G. (2016). We Must All Pay More Attention to Rigor in Accuracy Assessment:
Additional Comment to “The Improvement of Land Cover Classification by Thermal Remote
Sensing”. Remote Sens. 2015, 7, 8368–8390. Remote Sensing, 8(4), 288.
http://doi.org/10.3390/rs8040288
2. Congalton, R. G. (1991). A review of assessing the accuracy of classifications of remotelysensed data. Remote Sensing of Environment, 37(1), 35–46.
3. Congalton, R. G. (2009). Assessing the Accuracy of Remotely Sensed Data: Principles andPractices. Boca Raton, USA: CRC Press.
4. Cotter, A. S., Chaubey, I., Costello, T. A., Soerens, T. S., & Nelson, M. A. (2004). Water Quality
Model Output Uncertainty As Affected By Spatial Resolution of Input Data. Knowledge Creation
Diffusion
Utilization,
72701(August),
977–986.
http://doi.org/10.1111/j.17521688.2003.tb04420.x
5. Garen, D. C., & Moore, D. S. (2005). Curve number hydrology in water quality modeling: Uses,
abuses, and future directions. Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 41(6),1493–1494. Retrieved from <Go to ISI>://000234615100018
6. Jensen, J. R. (2005). Introductory Digital Image Processing - A Remote Sensing Perspective(3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River, USA: Pearson Prentice Hall.
7. Johnson, B. A. (2015). Scale Issues Related to the Accuracy Assessment of Land Use/Land
Cover Maps Produced Using Multi-Resolution Data: Comments on “The Improvement of Land
Cover Classification by Thermal Remote Sensing”. Remote Sens. 2015, 7(7), 8368–8390.
Remote Sensing, 7(10), 13436–13439. http://doi.org/10.3390/rs71013436
8. Johnson, B. A., Scheyvens, H., & Shivakoti, B. R. (2014). An ensemble pansharpening
approach for finer-scale mapping of sugarcane with Landsat 8 imagery. International Journalof Applied Earth Observation and Geoinformation, 33, 218–225.
9. Neitsch, S. ., Arnold, J. ., Kiniry, J. ., & Williams, J. . (2011). Soil & Water Assessment Tool
Theoretical Documentation Version 2009. Texas Water Resources Institute, TR-406. Retrieved
from http://swat.tamu.edu/media/99192/swat2009-theory.pdf
10. Olofsson, P., Foody, G. M., Herold, M., Stehman, S. V, Woodcock, C. E., & Wulder, M. A.
(2014). Good Practices for Assessing Accuracy and Estimating Area of Land Change. Remote
Sensing of Environment, 148, 42–57.
11. See, L., Schepaschenko, D., Lesiv, M., McCallum, I., Fritz, S., Comber, A., … Obersteiner, M.
(2015). Building a hybrid land cover map with crowdsourcing and geographically weighted
regression. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 103, 48–56.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.isprsjprs.2014.06.016
12. Soil Conservation Service. (1986). Urban Hydrology for Small Watersheds. In TechnicalRelease 55.
13. Thirel, G., Andréassian, V., Perrin, C., Audouy, J.-N., Berthet, L., Edwards, P., … Vaze, J.
(2015). Hydrology under change: an evaluation protocol to investigate how hydrological models
deal with changing catchments. Hydrological Sciences Journal, 60(7-8), 1184–1199.
http://doi.org/10.1080/02626667.2014.967248

195

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

INVESTIGATION ON RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LAND COVER AND WATER QUALITY
CHANGES IN LAGUNA DE BAY, THE PHILIPPINES, OVER THE 2007-2015 PERIODS
Isao Endo1*, Brian Johnson1, Emily Skeehan1
Institute for Global Environmental Strategies
Corresponding author: endo@iges.or.jp

1

ABSTRACTIn this study, we assessed the relationship between land cover change and changes in water quality inthe Laguna de Bay area of the Philippines. Land cover changes occurring between 2007 and 2015 were
mapped using a combination of optical (Landsat-7/-8) and synthetic aperture radar (ALOS Palsar-1/-2)
satellite imagery, and time-series water quality data from five different stations situated in the Lagunalake were obtained from the Lake Laguna Development Authority. To study the effects of land coverchanges on water quality at these different stations, the lake and its surrounding watershed area was
first subdivided into five non-overlapping zones based on the generation of Thiessen polygons. Then,in each of these five zones, regression modelling was performed to assess the correlation between thechanges in land cover (annual changes of "built-up" land cover type in ha.) and the change in water
quality parameters. In future work, we plan to use the regression modelling results to predict somepotential impacts of future land cover changes in each zone as well as in in the entire Laguna de Bay
area. We also explore other explanatory factors of the lake water quality changes (e.g. other types ofland conversions, changes in agricultural and industrial practices).
Keywords: land cover change, water quality, watershed, eutrophication, ecosystem services
INTRODUCTION
While they provide numerous ecosystem services, including water resources, flood control, ecosystem,and habitats for biodiversity, lakes are increasingly threatened by human activities such as theintensified use of surface waters; the exploitation of shoreline properties; and the pollution fromdomestic, agricultural, and industrial activities (ILEC, 2016). One of the most widespread environmental
problems of lakes is water quality degradation, which can affect the health of humans and theenvironment (UNEP, 2001).
Runoff from intensive land-use areas such as urban developments and agricultural fields are a major
source of nutrient pollution, leading to lake water quality degradation (Trolle et al., 2014; Wu, Long, Liu,
& Ma, 2013; Xu & Zhang, 2016). For example, high levels of nitrogen (N) and phosphorus (P) are foundin runoff from agricultural lands due to the applications of fertilizers, pesticides, etc., which are thentransported to rivers during storms (Ahearn et al., 2005; Fisher, Breeze, Boynton, & Williams, 2006).
Runoff from urban areas is also high in pollutants (Johnes, 1996; L. B. Johnson, Richards, Host, &Arthur, 1997). The change in land cover from vegetated areas to built-up areas contributes to this byincreasing runoff.
In the Laguna de Bay area of the Philippines, land-use and land cover has changed significantly in thelast few decades, and serious water degradation has been observed. Algal blooms frequently occur,for which nitrogen is considered as the main factor (Santos-Borja & Nepomuceno, 2004). Land
conversion and land-use intensification are still occurring rapidly in many areas around the lake, so inthis study we assessed the relationship between recent land cover changes and changes in water
quality (Total N concentration). Unlike other previous studies that qualitatively described urbanizationand industrialization as the cause of water degradation, this study quantified their impacts on the lakewater quality by examining historical data.
METHODS
Study area
Laguna de Bay, located 15 km southeast of Metro Manila, is the largest lake in the Philippines (Figure1), and its basin is one of the most important economic bases in the country (Laguna Lake Development
Authority, 2016). The total area of the lake, including its watershed area, is approximately 3,813.2 km 2
(Lasco & Espaldon, 2005), and the surface area of the lake is 900 km2 with the water volume of 2.19
billion m3 and an average depth of 2.5-meters (Tongson & Faraon, 2012). There are 66 local
governments in the lake basin where about six million people reside (Santos-Borja & Nepomuceno,2004).

196

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Laguna de Bay, Philippines (Santos-Borja & Nepomuceno, 2004)
Land cover change in the basin
Due to urbanization and industrialization, there has been a significant land conversion in the basin in
the past few decades. Vegetated areas were converted to built-up areas for residential, industrial, andcommercial purposes (Figure 2). This change is obvious particularly in the western part of the lakebasin where woodlands and croplands/grasslands were altered for the other economic activities.

Figure 2. Land cover changes between 2007 and 2015 in
the Laguna de Bay area. Points in light green in the lakeindicates the location of five sampling stations for lakewater quality. The lake and its watershed are divided into
five zones according to the stations. The point with red
circle is Station V whose data were used for this study.

197

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Regression analysis
The general form of the empirical watershed model (Ryding & Rast, 1989) that this study employed is:Y  a0  a1 X1

where Y = average annual nutrient load to a waterbody;
X1 = area (ha) of watershed with land use 1; anda0, a1 = coefficients.
Time-series water quality data from five monitoring stations (i.e. Stations I, II, IV, V, and VIII) situatedin the lake were obtained from Laguna Lake Development Authority. Land cover changes between 2007
and 2015 were mapped using a combination of optical (Landsat-7/-8) and synthetic aperture radar(ALOS Palsar-1/-2) satellite imagery (for further information, see Johnson et al. (in review). To study
the effects of localized land cover changes on water quality, the lake and its surrounding watershedarea were subdivided into non-overlapping zones based on the generation of Thiessen polygons (Figure2). In each zone, regression modelling was performed to assess the correlation between the changes
in land cover (annual changes of "built-up" land cover type in ha.) and the change in water quality
parameters. Only Station V data was used finally because the other stations did not have data for along enough timeframe to coincide with our land cover change data. For the same reason, N data wasused as a water quality parameter for the analysis.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The regression analysis shows a relatively strong correlation (R2 = 0.731) between the change in builtup area near Station V and the change in mean annual N concentrations of Station V (Figure 3). This
indicates that lake water quality (total N) has been decreasing at a near-linear rate with the increase inbuilt-up area (in ha.). If we assume that the built-up area increases at a similar rate in the future, we
can extrapolate that N concentrations would increase over the next decade to 2.8 in 2025. To preventthe lake water quality from deteriorating, measures should be taken not only to conserve existing
vegetated areas, but also to mitigate runoff from built-up areas if vegetated areas are converted. Suchrunoff-mitigation measures include tree planting, water-permeable paving, and vegetated roofs. In the
future, we plan to expand our study to consider additional water quality parameters, other causal factorsof water quality degradation (e.g. other types of land conversions, changes in agricultural and industrial
practices), and alternative approaches for monitoring water quality (e.g. using satellite remote sensing
technology).

Figure 3. Relationship between land cover change and lake water quality at Station V
CONCLUSIONSThis study examined the relationship between the changes in land cover of the Lake Laguna basin andthose in the lake water quality. The regression analysis indicates that there is a positive correlation
between the change in built-up area and change in N concentrations, suggesting that as vegetated198

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

areas (e.g. croplands, forests) become built-up areas for other uses such as residences, the meanannual N concentrations of the Laguna de Bay increase. To prevent further degradation of the lakewater quality, measures to alleaviate runoff from built-up areas (e.g. tree planting, water-permeablepaving) are necessary. Given the projected future land cover of the basin, the estimated regression
model could project the additional degradation or improvement of the lake water quality.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to express our appreciation for the support of Laguna Lake Development Authority,
Philippines. This study was conducted in cooperation with University of the Philippines Los Baños.
REFERENCES
1. Ahearn, D. S., Sheibley, R. W., Dahlgren, R. A., Anderson, M., Johnson, J., & Tate, K. W.
(2005). Land use and land cover influence on water quality in the last free-flowing river draining
thewestern
SierraNevada,California,
313,
234–247.
http://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhydrol.2005.02.038
2. Fisher, T. R., Breeze, G., Boynton, W. R., & Williams, M. R. (2006). Cultural eutrophication in
the Choptank and Patuxent estuaries of Chesapeake Bay. Limnology and Oceanography,
51(Newell 1988), 435–447.
3. ILEC. (2016). 16th World Lake Conference: First anouncement.
4. Johnes, P. J. (1996). Evaluation and management of the impact of land use change on thenitrogen and phosphorus load delivered to surface waters: The export coefficient modelingapproach. Journal of Hydrology, (August 2016). http://doi.org/10.1016/0022-1694(95)02951-6
5. Johnson, B. A., Iizuka, K., Bragais, M., Endo, I., & Magcale-Macandog, D. (n.d.). Land coverchange monitoring using a combination of crowdsourced geographic data and multitemporal/multi-sensor satellite imagery. Computers, Environment and Urban Systems.
6. Johnson, L. B., Richards, C., Host, G. E., & Arthur, J. W. (1997). Landscape influences on waterchemistry in Midwestern stream ecosystems. Freshwater Biology, (37), 193–208.
7. Laguna Lake Development Authority. (2016). Laguna de Bay basin master plan 2016 andbeyond: Towards climate-resiliency and sustainable development.
8. Lasco, R. D. L., & Espaldon, M. V. O. (2005). Ecosystems and people: Philippine millennium
ecosystem assessment sub-global assessment. GEN, Los Baños, Philippines: Environmental
Forestry Programme, College of Forestry and Natural Resources, University of the Philippines
Los Baños.
9. Ryding, S.-O., & Rast, W. (Eds.). (1989). The control of eutrophication of lakes and reservoirs.
Parthenon Publishing Group.
10. Santos-Borja, A., & Nepomuceno, D. N. (2004). Laguna de Bay: Experience and lessons
learned brief.
11. Tongson, E. E., & Faraon, A. A. (2012). Hydrologic Atlas of Laguna de Bay 2012.
12. Trolle, D., Spigel, B., Hamilton, D. P., Norton, N., Sutherland, D., Plew, D., & Allan, M. G. (2014).
Application of a three-dimensional water quality model as a decision support tool for the
management of land-use changes in the catchment of an oligotrophic lake, 479–493.
http://doi.org/10.1007/s00267-014-0306-y
13. UNEP. (2001). Water quality: The impact of eutrophication. Lakes and Reservoirs, 3.
http://doi.org/10.1002/9780470670590.wbeog931
14. Wu, L., Long, T., Liu, X., & Ma, X. (2013). Modeling impacts of sediment delivery ratio and land
management on adsorbed non-point source nitrogen and phosphorus load in a mountainousbasin of the Three Gorges reservoir area , China, 1405–1422. http://doi.org/10.1007/s12665013-2227-0
15. Xu, E., & Zhang, H. (2016). Aggregating land use quantity and intensity to link water quality inupper catchment of Miyun Reservoir, (August). http://doi.org/10.1016/j.ecolind.2016.02.002

199

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ASSESSMENT OF HYDROLOGIC ALTERATION WITHIN ECOSYSTEM IN A SAHALIANSHALLOW LAKE: LAKE GUIERS, SENEGAL
Sambou Djiby1*, Diekkrüger Bernd2, Gaye Adama3, Gaye Amadou Thierno4
WASCAL- GRP Climate change and water resources / University of Abomey Calavi, Benin,
2
Institute of Geography / University of Bonn, Germany, 3Office du lac de Guiers / Ministèrede l’Hydraulique et de l’Assainissement, Sénégal, 4LPAO-SF/ Université Cheikh A Diop,
Dakar, Sénégal*Corresponding author: samboudjiby@outlook.com

1

ABSTRACTIn this study, daily streamflow data of 35 years records and water quality data were investigated todetermine Lake Guiers hydrologic alteration within its ecosystem. The Range of Variability Approach(RVA) was used to quantify the modification of the Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) and thetrophic State Indices (TSIs) was calculated to characterize the eutrophication level. Results show thatthe flow pattern at Lake Guiers is reversed from the pre-impact with high alteration on most of indicators.
These changes on flow have greater impacts on the lake ecological functioning and on water quality.
The trophic State Indices (TSIs) of Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) indicate respectively a eutrophic
and hypereutrophic state. Lake Guiers hydrological alteration endanger its ecological integrity. Its
restoration requires more than ever to reconcile economic needs and ecological requirements.
Keywords: Environmental flow, hydrologic alteration, indicator, Lake Guiers, Senegal, streamflow
INTRODUCTION
River flow regimes are considered to be the primary driving force of the river ecosystem (Poff et al.,1997). The integrity and stability of river ecosystems is largely dependent on the natural dynamicchange characteristics of the streamflow (Poff et al., 1997). The development and management of water
resources by humans has altered the natural flow of rivers around the world (Richter et al,.1997). Taking
the example of Senegal River Basin (SRB), the downstream flow regime has been widely affected when
the Senegal River Development Organization (OMVS), a regional cooperative management body of theSenegal River built along the river two dams (Diama 1985 and Manatali 1987) and structures (sluices,dikes, irrigation systems) in order to meet economic and social development needs for water resources.
In Lake Guiers, one component of the Senegalese River system, several studies have been carried out
on first-order impacts in hydrology resulting from dam’s operation. Water quality and environmental
hazards in general are among the focus of research in the last twenty years. Bouvy et al., (2006)
describes the phytoplankton/environment relationships and provides valuable information on algal
strategies in a shallow tropical lake like Lake Guiers. Seasonal variations of zooplankton communities
and their interactions with phytoplankton and environmental parameters has been investigated by Ka
et al. , (2011). They find out the existence of seasonality in zooplankton communities and confirm theimportance of using biological indicators such as phyto- and zooplankton to monitor Lake Guiers water
quality. Sané, et al., (2013); Varis & Jussila, (2002) focused on Lake Guiers’s eutrophication level andconclude that its management has to be revised because of changes in water quality and ecosystem
and increasing pressure on its water resources. Berger et al., (2006) point out seasonal dynamics thatwill constitute an increasing challenge in Lake Guiers.
The impact of dams and the multipurpose use and water quality challenge in Lake Guiers has been
investigated by Cogels et al., (1997; 2001). They describe the water quality effects on the managementof the lake, with special emphasis on salinity and eutrophication. Recently by remote sensing tools(Diop et al., 2008; Merem & Twumasi, 2008) assess water quality. They compared the FUB-predicted
image and study results with those from earlier studies and revealed good correlation.
As we can notice a large number of studies carried out have been focusing on water quality, hydrobiology, invasive aquatic plants, while limited research in view streamflow pattern (magnitude, duration,
frequency, timing, and rate of change). Assessment of these streamflow characteristics is essential forunderstanding and predicting the biological impact of both natural and altered flow regimes on riverine
biota (Zuo & Liang, 2015). In Lake Guiers this assessment is particularly important since 2013, the Lake
Guiers authority has undertaken a wide project that aim to “restore the ecological and economic
functions of the Lake”. The main actions planned are: dredging channel, rehabilitating dyke,
constructing water supply network and a crossing structure. How are the physical components expected
to change after the re-planned development and what is the expected effect on ecological condition?

200

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Accordingly, researchers have developed and applied methods to quantify indicators and to assess
alteration in a flow regime through time. A great number of methods has been suggested for thispurpose. The 33 Indicators of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) (Richter et al., 1996) are intended to represent
each of the major facets of the flow regime (Olden & Poff, 2003). As one set of proposed hydrologic
indices assessment, the Streamflow Analysis and Assessment Software (SAAS) 4.0 (Metcalfe et al.,2013) was developed based on/focusing on hydrology-based environmental flow methods. It calculateshydrological indicators through time with respect to a reference condition, and relate hydrologicalalteration to changes in ecological condition (Metcalfe & Schmidt, 2014). The Range of Variability
Approach (RVA) was established to evaluate the hydrologic alteration caused by hydraulic control
structures (Richter et al., 1997, 1998). In this study, we focus on changes in the hydrologic regime andits potential impacts on ecosystem caused by dam’s operation. To assess this particular impact, timeseries of daily mean discharge for Ngnith station (water treatment plant) were evaluated using the
Indicators of Hydrologic Alterations (IHA) (Richter et al., 1996; 1998) and RVA associated SAAS
(Metcalfe et al., 2013). Comparison of pre- and post-dams periods allows evaluation of their effects onhydrology and ecosystem. The ability to assess the condition of lake and river ecosystems, evaluatesensitivity to alteration, and identify potential changes to the ecosystem resulting from different
development and redevelopment options is important to inform decision maker. In this perspective, thisstudy focuses on variables of a flow regime strongly associated with ecological condition and, therefore,
most suited to serve as indicators of hydrologic alteration. It aims to quantify and assess Lake Guiershydrologic alteration arising from in-stream development. This assessment will inform a decisionmaking process and the implementation of a post-alteration monitoring program; and build knowledge
that can inform future policy and management directions by allowing the analysis of informationcollected in a standard way across sites consistent with an adaptive management approach.
Study Area
Lake Guiers is an important fresh water reserve for Senegal. Its water is used for irrigating crops anddrinking water resource for urban centres, including Dakar, the capital city, as well as for continental
fishing and livestock breeding. It is located in the north of Senegal on the right bank of the Senegal
River, between latitudes 16'23 N and 15'55 N, and longitudes 16'12 W and 16'04 W. It lies on thedownstream of the Ferlo hydrological Basin (Fig 1).
Hydrology
The lake is 53.5 km long and up to 7 km wide, with a surface area of 274 square kilometers (measured
and calculated with Google earth Pro and GIS). Its maximum depth is 4m and average depth is 2 m.
Like most of the sahelian lakes, it is classified as a ‘’shallow lake’’.

Figure 1. Study area: Lake Guiers within its hydrologic Basin and the main hydraulicinfrastructures.

201

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Lake Guiers hydrological system is composed of the following hydrological units (Fig.1):• Taouey canal: It connects Lake Guiers to the Senegal River at Richard Toll city. Originally
Taouey was a winding stream of 26 Kilometers, rectified by a canal long to 17 kilometers. It
supplies 88% of the total water into Lake Guiers from Senegal River (Cogels, Fraboulet-Jussila,
et al., 2001) .
• Yetty Yone: Situated on west of Lake Guiers, it is a 28 kilometers hydraulic axis which supplies
the Ndiael depression.
• Ndiael: it is a depression designated as wetland area by the RAMSAR convention in 1977. The
great expanse that is the core of the Ndiael covers 10,000 hectares. The site is listed on theMontreux record (endangered sites) since 1990.
• Lower Ferlo: Located in the southern part of the lake, it is complemented by the Ferlo valley. A
dyke built in Keur Momar Sarr regulates the outflow from the lake into the lower Ferlo region.
Climate
The climate in the basin of Lake Guiers is similar to much of the Sahel and characterized by two main
seasons: a dry season that lasts nine months from October to June, and a rainy season of three months(July–August-September). Total annual rainfall is generally low, but highly variable among years. In thebasin, the average of total annual rainfall from 1982-2012 is estimated to 225 mm. The mean annual
temperature oscillates around 27.6°C and fluctuates between a maximum average of 30.6°C in themonth of June and a minimum of 23°C in the month of January (Fig.2).
Lake Guiers hydrological functioning before and after dam’s construction
Before the construction of dams, Senegal River used to be a typical rainfall runoff river (Henny,2012).The river’s flow regime depends mostly, on rain that falls in the upper basin in Guinea (about
2,000 mm/year). In the river, this creates a high-water period or flood stage between July and October,and a low-water period between November and May to June (Cogels et al., 1997). Furthermore, sea
water intrusion up to 250 kilometers inland occurs in Senegal River during four or five months per year
due to low flow rates and a very slight slope (Cogels et al., 1997).

Figure 2. Climate graph (Precipitation and Temperature) 1982-2012, Lake Guiers
Area, Senegal. Data source: (http://de.climate-data.org; average 19822012).
In Lake Guiers, the hydrology depended on these situations described above. During high water period
the lake was filled once a year from the Senegal River and the damming up of the northern region andthe closing of the southern and western outflows made it into the largest water reservoir which can beused extensively as a stable freshwater source throughout the dry season (Cogels et al., 1997). Under
the combined effect of insufficient filling (during drought years in the whole basin), increased pumping
for irrigation, and evaporation (2.2 meters per year), the level of the lake in certain years went below
the threshold levels. Extreme conditions were reached during water year 1983- 1984 when the lake
was almost completely dried up (Cogels et al., 1997).
In order to meet economic and social development needs for water resources, OMVS has undertaken
the construction of Diama and Manantali Dams along the Senegal River. The Diama Dam is located 30
kilometers upstream of the city of Saint Louis. It was built in 1985 in order to stop the dry season
intrusion of seawater along the river bed and to irrigate 375,000 hectares of former flood plain for
production of two crops per year, especially for rice production (Cogels, Fraboulet-Jussila, et al.,2001).The second dam, the Manantali, was completed in 1987 and is located in Mali 1,200 kilometers202

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

upstream from the Senegal River outlet. Its storage capacity is 12.8 km 3. It was built on the river, which
supplies approximately 60% of the annual flow of the Senegal River in a reservoir.
Since 1986, the operation of the Diama Dam has prevented any seawater intrusion upstream and fresh
water is available all the year at the Taouey - Lake Junction ( Cogels et al., 1997). Since 1992, thesteady and continuous operation of the Manantali Dam and the regulation of the river have changed
the hydrological conditions in the lower valley and the delta region. There is now a constant supply offresh water, sufficient to fill the lake several times a year. From 1986 to 1991, as before 1986, the lake
was filled only once a year during the annual flood. However, water levels became clearly higher than
before 1986 with an average levels of 0.8 m, compared with 0.4 m prior to 1986 (Cogels et al., 1997).
Since 1992, the partial regulation of water flow by the Manantali Dam has further altered the hydrologicalregime of the Lake Guiers, which may now be filled several times a year. The annual average level has
reached 1.5 m and its annual range is not greater than 0.96 m. Since 2002, the annual average level
has reached 1.9 and the range of water level in the Lake is between 1.9 and 2.5 m.
METHODSThe daily flow data were used to analyse the variation of the flow regime at Ngnith station (water
treatment plant). We collected observed water level data from 1976 to 2011, a total of 35 years ofhydrological data, provided by Lake Guiers Authority (OLAG). Discharge has been calculated from dailywater level using Manning- Strickler equation:
Q= K*RH * i (1)Q: Discharge in m/s
K: Roughness coefficient
RH: Hydraulic flow radius
i: Flow slope in m/m
A literature review allowed us to determine the following variables in the flow calculation: hydraulic flow
radius (RH) = 7 m; the flow slope in Ngnith station (i) m / m = 0.001; and the roughness coefficient (K)= 35.
The stream flow data from 1976 to 2011 was divided into pre-impact period (1976–1986) and postimpact period (1987–2011), representing the stream flow under natural conditions (before dams) andchangeable conditions (after dams), respectively. To address hydrologic regime alteration, weinvestigated stream flow through Stream flow Analysis and Assessment Software (SAAS) 4.0
developed by Metcalfe et al., (2013).
SAAS is a tool based on/focusing on hydrology-based environmental flow methods. Comparison of preand post-dam’s periods allows evaluation of the dam’s effects on hydrology and ecosystem. Table 1
shows input data and time periods used for the analysis.
To determine the flow regime target, the Range of Variability Approach (RVA) (Richter et al., 1997) wasused to evaluate the hydrological alterations. The RVA was formulated to quantify the modification of
the Indicator of Hydrologic Alteration (IHA) by comparing the frequencies within three fixed intervals.
The RVA is a milestone in the hydrologic alteration assessment and has been widely used (e.g.: (Chen,
2012); (Irwin & Freeman, 2002); (Shiau & Wu, 2004); (Zuo & Liang, 2015)). Richter et al., (1998) usedthe degree of hydrologic alteration as a measure to quantify a deviation of the post impact flow regime
from the pre-impact one. The degree of alteration D is defined as:
D = [(Post-Pre) / (Pre)]*100%.

(2)Where “Post” is the median flow of the post-impact period, “Pre” is the median flow of the pre-impact
period. Richter et al., (1998) further suggested that the value of D ranging between 0 and 33%
represents little or no alteration (i.e. low alteration); 33-67% represents moderate alteration, and 67100% represents high alteration. In order to characterize water quality alteration, we use monthly water
quality data from 2008 to 2010 provided by Direction de la Gestion et de la Planification des Ressources
en Eau du Sénégal (DGPRE), a national management body of Senegalese water resources. These
data were observed in 7 sites in Lake Guiers from nord to south (Richerd Toll, Mbane, Téméye, Syer,
Gnith, Keur Momar Sarr, and Lower Ferlo). However, in this study the focus in water quality analysis is
primarily on salinity and eutrophication.

203

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

To characterise the trophic state in Lake Guiers, we calculate the Trophic State Indices (TSIs) of Secchi
Disque (SD), Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) by using Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)’s
nutrient criteria technical guidance manual (Gibson et al., 2000).
The results were interpreted according to EPA’s criteria. It suggested that the value of TSI <40
represents oligotrophic state. The value of TSI ranging between 50 and 60 represents a eutrophic state
and the value of TSI>60 represents a hypertrophic state.
Table 1. Input data and time periods used for streamflow analysis
Input data and time periods
Months
Before impact (dams)
After impact (dams)
Flow time interval
Daily
Daily
Drainage Area
273 Km2
273 Km2
Annual analysis period
January 1 to December 31 January 1 to December 31
Total period of record (POR) (for
12 years
26 years
Seasonal Analysis)
Number of data values loaded
4380
9490
Number of data values loaded
4380
9490
Season 1
180 days (Jan 1 to June 29) 180 days (Jan 1 to June 29)
Season 2
185 days (June 30 to Dec 31) 185 days (June 30 to Dec 31)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Indicator of Hydrologic Alteration
Streamflow
The operation of Diama and Manatali Dams has significantly modified the flow regime of Lake Guiers
over the past 30 years. The annual flow increased by more than 269% at Ngnith station. Table 1 showsa summary record of stream flow statistics. The maximum flow during pre-impact (15.6 m3/s) is far lessthan in post impact (30.7 m 3/s). It can be noticed that zero flow days, decreased drastically between
the pre- and post-impact periods, from 1041 to 153 days and has been eliminated since 1991.
Table 2. Stream flow statistics in Lake Guiers before and after dams construction
Before dams
After dams
Streamflow statistics
construction
construction
Unit
Maximum
15.6 (27 Sept-1981) 30.7 (01-Nov-2007) m3/s
Minimum0 (Multiple Date)
0 (Multiple Date)
m3/s
Mean
4
15.1
m3/s
Standard Deviation
4.1
6.2
m3/s
Coefficient of variation (SD/Mean)
1
0.4
m3/s
Median3
17.1
m3/s
Upper quartile
6.9
19.8
m3/s
Lower quartile
0.1
11.2
m3/s
Relative Dispersion (IQR/mean)
2.2
0.5
m3/s
Number of zero flow days
1041
153--The flow pattern in Lake Guiers is reversed from the pre-dam. Significantly greater median flows
occurred almost during all twelve months (increases of 14 m 3/s), which were the typical high flow that
occurred in September - October during the pre-dam period (Fig.3).

Figure 3. Monthly alteration with RVA in Lake Guiers 1976-2011204

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Flow duration
A flow-duration curve (FDC) represents the relationship between the magnitude and frequency of daily,
weekly, monthly (or some other time interval) of stream flow for a particular river basin, providing an
estimate of the percentage of time a given stream flow was equaled or exceeded over a historical period(Vogel & Fennessey, 1994). Fig.4 compares annual and seasonal median of FDCs at Lake Guiers
using two different periods of record (pre- and post impact). The FDC for these two periods are
significantly different. For instance, i.e. in pre-impact period the highest Q = 11.4 m 3/s and thepercentage of exceedance equal to 0.01%; and the lowest Q= 0.00m3/s and the percentage of
exceedance equal to 99.9%. For Post impact, the highest Q = 21 m 3/s and the percentage of
exceedance equal to 0.01%; the lowest Q = 13.7 m 3/s and the percent exceedance equal to 99.9%.
Comparable changes are also observed on seasonal median FDCs.

(a)

(b)

(c )

(d)

Figure 4. Annual (a) and (b) and seasonal median (c) and (d) FDCs at Lake Guiers before
impact (a, c) and after impact (b, d)Base flow index (BFI)
Base flow is defined as the stream flow portion generated by persistent slowly varying sources (i.e.
groundwater, lakes, and wetlands) between precipitation events (Dingman, 1994). SAAS separates
base flow from stream flow using a recursive digital filtering as described by Nathan & McMahon, (1990).
The filter parameter recommended by Nathan and McMahon of 0.9 is used in the SAAS daily stream
flow and base flow separation analysis with three filter passes. Base flow separation technique wasused to estimate Base flow Index (BFI). Base flow index (BFI) is the ratio of the base flow to the total
stream flow. The value ranges from 0 to 1. Therefore, a BFI of 0.5 indicates that 50% of total stream
flow can be attributed to base flow for the respective time period (i.e. period of record, month or season).
In Lake Guiers, before the dam’s operation BFI for the entire period of record was 0.73 which is lessthan after dam operation (BFI= 0.92). This implies that 73.9 % of total stream flow can be attributed tobase flow for the respective time period. In the post impact period it’s 92.6% that can be attributed tobase flow. Before and after impact periods, base flow constitutes the highest part on total stream flow.
High and low flow.

205

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference(a)Figure 5. Seasonal High Flow Frequency(b)This figure show the seasonal High flow frequency on pre-impact (a) and post impact (b). For pre-impact,
the total events equal to 133 and the number of year = 12. During season 1, the 25 % ile = 3; Median =5.5 and 75% ile= 7; during season 2, the 25 % ile = 3; Median = 4.5 and 75% ile= 8. For post-impact
period, the total events equal to 655 and the number of year = 26. During the season 1, the 25 % ile = 6;
Median = 11.5 and 75% ile= 17 and during season 2, the 25 % ile = 6; Median = 11.5 and 75% ile= 15.

Fig. 5 shows extreme hydrologic event (high and low flow). The extreme low flow during 1976- 1986
was more than twice the average number during 1987-2011 at Ngnith station. By using the high flow
events, we explore the frequency and duration of those events on seasonal basis Fig. 5 and 6. The
frequency refers to how often a flow above a given magnitude recurs over some specified time interval.
The duration is the period of time associated with a specific flow condition. Duration can be defined
relative to a particular flow event or a composite expressed over a specified time period ( Richter et al.,1996).

(a)Figure 6. Seasonal High Flow duration(b)

This figure show the seasonal High flow duration on pre-impact (a) and post impact (b). For preimpact, the total events equal to 133 (S1 = 63; S2 =70). During season 1, the 25 % ile = 7; Median= 17 and 75% ile= 24.75 and during season 2, the 25 % ile = 11; Median = 29 and 75% ile= 57.
For post-impact period, the total events equal to 655 (S1= 339; S2=316) and during the season 1,
the 25 % ile = 4; Median = 8 and 75% ile= 16 and during season 2, the 25 % ile = 5; Median = 9
and 75% ile= 21.

While seasonal high flow frequency has increased by 109% during season 1 and 130% during season
2, high flow duration has decreased to (-53 %) during season 1 and, (- 69%) during season 2 in Lake
Guiers (Table 3).
Rate of change (ROC)
Rate of change represents the change between stream flow data points. Fig. 7 and 8 show POR andseasonal raw rate of change. Its duration curves was created using the unfiltered rates of change (i.e.
all rates including low flows) (Metcalfe & Schmidt, 2014). For daily input data, these hourly rates arecalculated by dividing the daily rates of change by 24, assuming a linear rate of change throughout each206

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferenceday. Raw ROC curves terminate at less than 100 percentage of exceedance because the percent
exceedance is calculated using all rates (i.e. positive, negative and zero) (Metcalfe & Schmidt, 2014).
In Lake Guiers, for pre-impact the POR ROC duration curves show that 21% of the time the rates are
positive and 49% of the time they are negative, implying that 2% of POR rates are zero. Compared topost impact period ROC duration curves show that 27% of the time the rates are positive and 36% of
the time they are negative, implying that 1% of POR rates are zero.

(a)(b)
Figure 7. POR and seasonal raw rate of change on pre-impact period. It shows the positive
POR and seasonal raw rate of change (a) and negative POR and seasonal raw rate of change(b) on pre-impact period(a)(b)
Figure 8. POR and seasonal raw rate of change on pre-impact period. It shows the positive
POR and seasonal raw rate of change (a) and negative POR and seasonal raw rate of change(b) during post-impact period.
Trends in hydrologic indicator
The Mann-Kendall non-parametric trend test is used to statistically assess whether there is an upward
or downward monotonic trend in a variable. The temporal variability (summarized annually) of a variety
of hydrologic metrics (annual median stream flow, annual median base flow, and annual number of highflow events) were tested (Fig. 9). The Mann-Kendall τb (tau-b) test statistic, similar to the correlation
coefficient in regression analysis, and the associated p-value used to test the zero-slope hypothesis (at95% confidence a p-value of 0.05 or less allows the zero-slope hypothesis to be rejected). During post
impact period, the stream flow shows an increased trend of 93% with 95% confidence. In addition, baseflow and number of high flow events show respectively trends 91% and 42%. They are statisticallysignificant. However, temporal trend was not detected in the annual median rate of change.

207

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

(a)

(b)

(c)
(d)
Figure 9. Temporal variability of hydrologic metric. It shows trends in stream flow (a), base flow(b) rate of change (c) and number of high flow events (d) during post impact period in Lake
Guiers. Trend lines are shown in red if the slope of the line is significantly different from a slopeof zero (i.e. temporal trend detected) with 95% confidence.
Hydrologic alteration magnitude
The median flow was used to quantify a deviation of the post impact flow regime from the pre-impact
ones for Lake Guiers. The results show that the reservoir was strongly affected by the construction andoperation of Diama and Mananatli Dams (Table 3). The hydrologic regime of Lake Guiers has beenaltered over the past 30 years. Annual flow increased more than 100% at Ngnith station. Monthly flows
for May in dry season and monthly flows for October in flood season were selected to analyse monthly
water condition alterations, which indicated magnitude alteration in Lake Guiers reservoir. Medianmonthly flows for May, the driest month, at Lake Guiers increased up to 100 %, (Table 3). Medianmonthly flows for October, the month in which, the flood pick occurs, account for 33.3% of the total
annual flows. The increasing trend of flow is obvious. During all months, flow increased and the largest
monthly alterations occurred during the dry season.

208

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 3 Hydrologic alteration at Ngnith station, Lake Guiers, 1976-2011.
Indicator of Hydrologic Pre-Impact
PostRVA
Deviation %Alteration
Impact(target)(Magnitude)

Class

Lower
Upper

Stream flow
Mean
Maximum
Zero Flow Days

04.0
15.6
1041

15.1
30.7
153

269
96.3
-85.3

H
H
H

POR BFI

0.7

0.9

25.5

L

Seasonal BFI
Season 1
Season 2

0.8
0.7

0.9
0.9

18.9
27.5

L
L

Monthly High flow
frequency (median)January
February
March
April
May
June
July
AugustSeptember
OctoberNovember
December

2
1
1
0
0.5
0
0
1
1
1.5
1
0.5

2
2
1.5
2
1
2
2
2
1.5
2
1
2

0.5
0
0
0
0
0
0
1
0
1
0
0

3
3
4
4
3
3
4
3
2
2
3
3

0
100
50
100
100
50
33.3
0
300

L
H
M
H
H
M
M
L
H

10.5

23

7.5

31

119

H

5.5
5

11.5
11.5

3
3

17
15

109
130

H
H

20

9

4

43

-55

M

POR High Flow
Frequency(median)Seasonnal High Flow
Frequency (median)Season 1
Season 2
POR High Flow
Duration(median)Seasonnal High
Flowduration(median)Season 1
17
8
4
24.7
-52.9
M
Season 2
29
9
5
56.7
-68.9
H
RVA lower and upper targets are 25th and 75th percentiles value of pre and post impact hydrologic
parameters. L, M, H represent Low, Moderate and High alterations respectively.

209

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Water quality alteration indicator
Secchi disque (water transparency)
Variation in Secchi disque (water transparency) are quite low between 54 cm to 86 cm (coefficient ofvariation= 24%) with an average of 66 cm (Fig. 10). Throughout the study period, Secchi values
remained less than 100 cm. However, they seem to draw a slight difference from year to year and show
a seasonal trend. In addition, the fluctuations in water transparency seem to follow water volume
variation in the lake. The increase in lake’s water volume resulted in a decrease of transparency andvice versa.

Figure 10. Water transparency with water volume in Lake Guiers,2008-2010
Salinity
The results of surveys between 2008 and 2010 indicates an average salinity in Lake Guiers of 199ppt(392 μS /cm) with a maximum of 257 ppt (506 μS /cm) and a minimum of 124 ppt (244 μS /cm). Fig. 11
shows the evolution of the salinity during this period, superimposed with water volume in the lake. We
can notice that the salinity increases when lake’s water volume is low and decrease when lake’s water
volume is high.

Figure 11. Evolution of salinity in Lake Guiers with water volume 2008-2010.

In addition, there is a spatial and temporal distribution of salinity into the lake. The results show a north- south gradient of salinity. The measurements observed from Richard Toll increase significantly as wemove towards Keur Momar Sarr. They are even more (10 times higher) towards lower Ferlo
They also indicates a seasonal trends of salinity. Higher concentrations were noticed in August 2009
(Figure 11).
The main source of salt concentration into the Lake is an inappropriate discharge outlet in lower Ferloand a high evaporation rate. The irrigated crop drainage water discharged into the northern part of thelake is the second main source of salts accumulation. It accounts for 56% of the salt influx (Cogels,
2001).

210

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 12. Spatial and temporal distribution of salinity in Lake Guiers 2008-2010
Nutrients concentration
Results of nutrient surveys between 2008 and 2010 show stabilized concentrations not exceeding 1 mg
/ L.
Total Nitrogen (N) during the study period ranged from 0.74 to 0.90 mg/L with an average of 0.75 mg /L. Total Phosphorus (P) ranged from 0.15 to 0.27 Mg/L with an average of 0.19 mg/L (Fig. 13).

Figure 13. Evolution of Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) in Lake Guiers, 2008-2010.
In addition, Fig. 14 show during the study period, Total Ammonia (NH3 & NH4+ (mg/L)) varying between
0.1 mg/L and 0.09 mg/L with an average of 0.1 mg/L. Nitrates (NO3 (mg/L)) range from 0.7mg/L to 0.5
mg/L. Concerning pH, it varies between 8.5 and 6.3. However, no correlation was found between NH3
and pH.
These results did not reflect the spatial tendency of the nutrients which change from the Taouey canal,
the northern part of the lake towards the south and Ferlo211

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 14. Evolution of ammonia with pH in Lake Guiers, 2008-2010.
Trophic State Indices (TSIs) in Lake Guiers
Throughout the study period, the low measured water transparencies reveal a TSI of Secchi disque of
65.91, which would indicate a hypertrophic state. Total N measured show a TSI of 50.22 indicating aeutrophic state. Finally, total P measured indicate a TSI of 79.57 which would indicate a hypertrophic
state.
DISCUSSIONSLake Guiers hydrologic alteration
Key ecosystem components that have important functions in determining the integrity of river
ecosystems include hydrologic regime, sediment regime, water quality, thermal regime, and biologic
components. However, this study focuses on hydrologic regime and water quality factors that moststrongly shape the ecological condition of river systems and that are often of greatest importance tothe health of valued ecosystem components. Components of flow regimes considered important for
maintaining the ecological condition of riverine ecosystems are described in Table 4, while importantcharacteristics commonly used to define their pattern are (magnitude, duration, frequency, timing, andrate of change).
Table 4. Environmental flow components important for maintaining the integrity of aquatic ecosystems
Flow component
Overbank flows

High flow pulses

Low flows

Subsistence flows

Description
Ecological function
Infrequent, high flow events that These flows shape and redistribute physicalexceed the normal channel.
habitats, purge invasive species, provide
lateral connectivity between the channel andthe active floodplain, provide life-cycle cues
for various species, and facilitate exchangeof nutrients, sediments and woody debris.
Short-duration, in-channel, high These flows maintain physical habitat byflow events.
flushing silt and fines and preventing theencroachment of riparian vegetation into thechannel, providing lateral connectivity tooxbows and providing life-cycle cues forvarious species.
Normal flow conditions between These flows maintain water tables forhigh flow events sustained through riparian vegetation (lateral connectivity),
the release of surface and provide longitudinal connectivity, andgroundwater storage.
provide a range of suitable habitat conditions
that maintain the diversity of the natural
biological community.
Infrequent, naturally occurring low These flows maintain sufficient water quality
flow events of long duration andprovidesufficient
habitatand(occurring over seasons).
connectivity to prevent direct mortality ofaquatic species and ensure survival oforganism
populations
capableofrecolonising the river system once normalbase flow returns.

212

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

In Lake Guiers, flow regimes pattern considered important for maintaining the ecological condition ofriverine ecosystems have been investigated. Results show that hydrology in Lake Guiers depend innatural conditions on the filling and discharge phases following the rhythm of floods and low flows of
the Senegal River. These hydrologic events played an important role in regulating the structure andfunction of the lake and flood plains. Low flows are necessary for many processes in riverine ecosystem
functioning. If the low flow situation reaches extremely low levels, however, ecological communities are
impaired. Low frequency but high intensity events, such as severe floods or droughts that used to occur
in Lake Guiers had long lasting effects on the structure and function of lotic ecosystems. Extreme low
flows may be necessary to dry out floodplain areas and enable certain species of plants to regenerate.
On the other hand, water chemistry and dissolved oxygen availability can become highly stressful tomany organisms during extreme low flow (Chícharo et al., 2009).
Since 1986, in-stream developments along Senegal River and Lake Guiers has changed the distributionof flow magnitude, duration, frequency, seasonality, and rates of flow increase and recession. The
steady and continuous operation of dams and its regulation have changed the hydrological conditions.
These new conditions have favored a few years after the proliferation of invasive aquatic plants.
Faye et al., (2016) show that aquatic plants has settled on a surface area of 7,458ha in Lake Guiers
from 1988-2010. This has led to a decrease of 2,339 ha on open water and 4,021 ha on flood plains
area.
Lake Guiers‘s water salinity
During the study period, results indicates an average salinity in Lake Guiers of 199ppt (392 μS/cm) withnorth / south gradient. This result is supported by studies carried out in September 2004 by DHI waterand environment and TROPIS under the Long-Term Water Project (Projet Eau Long Terme). They
showed a salinity gradient of about 30 μS/cm in Taouey channel entry until about 550 μS/cm to Keur
Momar Sarr dyke and a strong rise about 992 μS/cm in lower Ferlo.
Studies carried out before Diama dams showed large variations in salinity in Lake Guiers. Indeed, thesalts concentration from the Senegal River was relatively low with a salinity of 20-50 μS/cm (Carl Bro
International c / o in Sané et al., ( 2013). However, it gradually increased in the Taouey before becoming
constant in northern part of the lake. Then it increased again in lower Ferlo due to high evaporation rateand increase of dissolved salts in water.
The large variations in salinity (from 1972 until 1985) were therefore due to the intrusion of seawater.
After Diama dam, the oscillations were due to the opening and closing of the valves at Richard Toll.
The Lake was still subject to relatively large salinity oscillations until 1992.
These continuous variations were probably due to salt discharges stored in Lake Guiers’s sediments.
Since 1992 with Lake Guiers water level regulation (between 1.90 m and 2.50 m), annual variations insalinity are limited to minor seasonal variations
However, Sané et al.,( 2013).noted that the water salinity in Lake Guiers did not show a significant
difference between 2002 and 2003 with respectively average value of 180.5 and 178.4 μS / cm.
However, a significant increase occurred in 2004 and 2005 with respectively an average of salinity of
220.6 and 207.0 μS / cm. This is probably due to water level elevation and a low water renewal.
Eutrophication level in Lake Guiers
Nutrient surveys during the study period show stabilized concentrations not exceeding 1 mg /. These
results do not reflect those obtained previously. According to (Cogels et ,al., 2001) eutrophication isalready a serious problem in Lake Guiers. Total N and nitrates are quite higher into the lake. They areeven higher in the Taouey canal. However, they tend to decrease and stabilize in the central andsouthern parts of Lake Guiers. Mean concentrations of nitrogen (N) range from 1 to 2.5 mg/L in the lake
and Ferlo, whereas in the Taouey they are estimated to be 6.5 mg/L (Cogels, et al., 2001). The Taouey
channel provides significant amount of phosphorus (24%) and nitrogen (25%) into the lake, especiallyduring the rainy season (Cogels, et al., 2001). This could probably be attributed to agricultural activities
around the lake. (Faye et al., 2016) indicates that irrigated agriculture is currently the most common
activities in the area. The irrigated areas comprise a large-scale irrigation field and peri-urban irrigatedhorticulture. About 20,063 hectares of land are now cultivated around Lake Guiers.
In this study, the TSIs of N (50.22) and P (79.57) would indicate a eutrophic and hypertrophic state,
respectively. These results are likely due to over-use of nutrients by algae and plants. (Sané et al.,2013-3) also describe a eutrophic state from 2002 to 2004 and hypertrophic since 2005, based on
chlorophyll estimation. According to them, their production has tripled in 2005.

213

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CONCLUSIONS
Daily streamflow data of 35 years records and water quality data were investigated to determine Lake
Guiers hydrologic alteration within its ecosystem. Comparison of pre- and post-dam’s periods allows
evaluation of their effects on hydrology and ecosystem. The results show that dams and sluices
profoundly affect the hydrologic conditions in the Lake Guiers. They reduced high monthly variability ofdischarges, increased the range of daily discharges, altered the timing of high and low flows, andchanged the timing of the yearly maximum and minimum flows.
Hydrologic features demonstrated obvious changes during the post-impact period. The flow magnitude
was smaller and the frequency of low flow events decreased during all the year; and the maximum flows
and minimum flows increased. The number of high flow events presented increasing trend. Annual
median rate of change appeared as a decreasing trend. Base flow remains low both in pre- and post
impact. The trophic State Indices (TSIs) of Nitrogen (N) and Phosphorus (P) indicated respectively aeutrophic and hypereutrophic state. These new features in hydrology regime resulting to in stream
development lead to changes to the ecosystem. The flood plain ecosystems have been mostly affected.
After 1986, Diama dam blocked seawater intrusion. The water into the Lake is now fresh year-round,creating ecological conditions favoring the proliferation of freshwater plants (Typhas australis, Pistia
startioles, Salvinia molesta and various alga species). Recent studies show that invasive plants
currently occupy 7,458 hectares in Lake Guiers. These are very invasive and eutrophication has begun
at some places in the Lake. Downstream of the Diama dam, perturbations in the functioning of
ecosystems takes the form of an increase in salinity and/or a drying-up during part of the year (Ndiael
wetlands) due to the reduction of flooding or the destruction of water inflow channels during constructionof hydrologic infrastructures (dikes, irrigated areas).
With the permanent standing freshwater, aquatic plants developed to excess and now prevent accessto the water at some places. The Typha australis constitutes a refuge and a spawning area for fish.
However, the abundance of vegetation also constitutes an obstacle for fishing. In addition, infrastructure
installations represent obstacles for fish migration to spawning areas.
Lake Guiers’s hydrological alteration endanger its ecological integrity. Each aquatic ecosystem requires
a certain amount of water to maintain its ecological integrity. These environmental water requirements
can be defined as the quantity and quality of water required to protect the structure, function, andspecies composition of that ecosystem. Therefore, to ensure ecologically sustainable development, we
propose the following recommendation: After an alteration in the flow regime, a hydrometric monitoring
program should be implemented to provide a thorough assessment of the degree of alteration. This
would include measurement of continuous discharge using a data recording frequency that adequately
captures the pattern of flow in the altered flow regime.
Continuous discharge measurements of inflows to the structure should also be estimated using backcalculations or measured directly. This will be particularly important where there are no upstreamalterations, providing an indication of the natural variability in streamflow during the assessment period
of interest. We also encourage the implementation of best management practices on water resources
and landscapes to reduce non-point sources of phosphorus transport in the Lake. Also, we recommendthat water resources manager work with municipalities to protect the lake shorelines and floodplains inorder to better accommodate their natural processes as well as to improve resilience to flooding and to
improve water quality. Finally, water resources managers should increase public education and provide
resources for local residents regarding impacts of fertilizer use on water quality and the benefits ofvegetated buffers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank the West African Service Center on Climate Change and Adapted Land Use(WASCAL) for funding this work, and the University of Abomey Calavi-Benin which hosts the Graduate
Research Program on Climate Change and Water Resources. We are further thankful to Lake Guiers
Authority (Senegal) where this work was mainly conducted and for their various supports.
REFERENCES
1. Berger, C., Ba, N., Gugger, M., Bouvy, M., Rusconi, (2006). Seasonal dynamics and toxicity of
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii in Lake Guiers (Senegal, West Africa): Seasonal dynamics andtoxicity of Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii. FEMS Microbiology Ecology, 57(3), 355–366.
https://doi.org/10.1111/j.1574-6941.2006.00141.x
2. Bouvy, M., Ba, N., Ka, S., Pagano, M., & Arfi, R. (2006, November). Phytoplankton community
structure and species assemblage succession in a shallow tropical lake (Lake Guiers, Senegal).
aquatic microbial ecology Aquat Microb Ecol, 45, 147–161.

214

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

3. Chen, H. (2012). Assessment of hydrological alterations from 1961 to 2000 in the Yarlung Zangbo
River, Tibet. Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology, 12(2), 93–103. https://doi.org/10.2478/v10104-01200094. Chícharo, L., Ben Hamadou, R., Amaral, A., Range, P., Mateus, C., Piló, D., Alexandra Chícharo,
M. (2009). Application and demonstration of the Ecohydrology approach for the sustainable
functioning of the Guadiana estuary (South Portugal). Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology, 9(1), 55–71.
https://doi.org/10.2478/v10104-009-0039-3
5. Cogels, F. X., Coly, A., & Niang, A. (1997). Impact of dam construction on the hydrological regime
and quality of a Sahelian lake in the River Senegal basin. Regulated Rivers: Research &Management,13(1),27–41.https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1646(199701)13:1<27::AIDRRR421>3.0.CO;2-G
6. Cogels, F. X., Frabouiet-Jussiia, S., & Varis, O. (2001). Multipurpose use and water quality
challenges in Lac de Guiers (Senegal). Water Science and Technology: A Journal of theInternational Association on Water Pollution Research, 44(6), 35–46.
7. Dingman, S. L. (Ed.). (1994). Physical hydrology. [Hauptbd.]: [...] (1. printing). Englewood Cliffs,
N.J: Prentice Hall.
8. Diop, S., wade, S., & Tijani, M. N. (2008). Analysis of meris data for assessing the water quality inlake guiers (senegal): preliminary results. In Proc. of the ‘2nd MERIS / (A)ATSR User Workshop’,Frascati, Italy 22–26 September 2008 (ESA SP-666, November 2008). Frascati, Italy: (ESA SP666,
November2008).Retrievedfrom
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228902691_analysis_of_meris_data_for_assessing_the_water_quality_in_lake_guiers_senegal_preliminary_results
9. Faye, V. M., Mbow, C., & Thiam, A. (2016). Évolution de l’occupation et de l’utilisation du sol entre
1973 et 2010 dans la zone agropastorale du lac de Guiers (Sénégal). VertigO, (Volume 16 Numéro
1). https://doi.org/10.4000/vertigo.17206
10. Henny, A.. (2012). A probabilistic design of a dike along the Senegal River (Master). Delft
University of Technology, Netherlands. Retrieved from http://resolver.tudelft.nl/uuid:40b0012478d2-41b0-9465-6f1ceb8c9292
11. Irwin, E. R., & Freeman, M. (2002). Proposal for Adaptive Management to Conserve Biotic Integrityin a Regulated Segment of the Tallapoosa River, Alabama, U.S.A. Conservation Biology, 16(5),1212–1222.
12. Ka, S., Bouvy, M., Sané, S., & Pagano, M. (2011, September). Zooplankton Communities in the
Shallow Lake Guiers (Senegal, West Africa). Internationale Revue Der Gesamten Hydrobiologie
Und Hydrographie, 96(4), 405–424.
13. Merem, E. C., & Twumasi, Y. A. (2008). Using Spatial Information Technologies as Monitoring
Devices in International Watershed Conservation along the Senegal River Basin of West Africa.
International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health. https://doi.org/1661-7827
14. Metcalfe, R. A., Ontario, & Aquatic Research and Development Section. (2013). Aquatic
ecosystem assessments for rivers. Peterborough, Ontario: Aquatic Research and Monitoring
Section, Science and Research Branch, Ministry of Natural Resources.
15. Metcalfe, R. A., & Schmidt, B., (2014). Streamflow Analysis and Assessment Software (version 4):
Reference Manual. Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources and Forestry.
16. Nathan, R. J., & McMahon, T. A. (1990). Evaluation of automated techniques for base flow andrecession
analyses.
Water
Resources
Research,
26(7),
1465–1473.
https://doi.org/10.1029/WR026i007p01465
17. Olden, J. D., & Poff, N. L. (2003). Redundancy and the choice of hydrologic indices forcharacterizing streamflow regimes. River Research and Applications, 19(2), 101–121.
https://doi.org/10.1002/rra.700
18. Poff, N. L., Allan, J. D., Bain, M. B., Karr, J. R., Prestegaard, K. L., Richter, B. D., Stromberg, J. C.
(1997, December). The Natural Flow Regime: A paradigm for river conservation and restoration.
BioScienc, 47(11). Retrieved from http://www.fs.fed.us/stream/Poffetal_1997.pdf
19. Richter, B., Baumgartner, J., Wigington, R., & Braun, D. (1997). How much water does a riverneed? Freshwater Biology, 37(1), 231–249. https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1365-2427.1997.00153.x
20. Richter, B. D., Baumgartner, J. V., Braun, D. P., & Powell, J. (1998). A spatial assessment ofhydrologic alteration within a river network. Regulated Rivers: Research & Management, 14(4),329–340. https://doi.org/10.1002/(SICI)1099-1646(199807/08)14:4<329::AID-RRR505>3.0.CO;2E
21. Richter, B. D., Baumgartner, J. V., Powell, J., & Braun, D. P. (1996). A Method for Assessing
Hydrologic Alteration within Ecosystems. Conservation Biology, 10(4), 1163–1174.

215

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

https://doi.org/10.1046/j.1523-1739.1996.10041163.x
22. Sané, S., Bâ, N., Samb, P. I., & Arfi, R. (20131-2-3). Artificialisation et evolution du statut trophiqued’un lac sahelien peu profond : le lac de Guiers (Senegal). Sécheresse, (1), 64–77.
https://doi.org/10.1684/sec.2013.0372
23. Shiau, J.-T., & Wu, F.-C. (2004). Feasible Diversion and Instream Flow Release Using Range of
Variability Approach. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 130(5), 395–404.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9496(2004)130:5(395)
24. Varis, O., & Jussila, S. F.-. (2002). Analysis of eutrophication level and critical loads of Lac deGuiers, Senegal. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol., 28, 1–5.
25. Vogel, R. M., & Fennessey, N. M. (1994). Flow‐Duration Curves. I: New Interpretation andConfidence Intervals. Journal of Water Resources Planning and Management, 120(4), 485–504.
https://doi.org/10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9496(1994)120:4(485)26. Zuo, Q., & Liang, S. (2015). Effects of dams on river flow regime based on IHA/RVA. ProceedingsoftheInternational
AssociationofHydrological
Sciences,368,
275–280.
https://doi.org/10.5194/piahs-368-275-2015

216

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SPECTRAL OPTICAL PROPERTIES AND OPTICALLYACTIVE SUBSTANCES (SUSPENDED MATTER) IN LAKE MANINJAU
Fifia Zulti*, Taofik Jasalesmana, and Tri Suryono*Research Center for Limnology, Infonesia Institute of Science
Jl. Raya Bogor-Jakarta KM 46, Cibinong, Bogor, West Java, Indonesia*Corresponding author: fifia.zulti@limnologi.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACTLight conditions in water are very important for primary production. Optical properties play a major rolein the ecological structure and functioning of lakes. This study aims to investigate the relationshipbetween spectral optical properties with optically active substances (transparency, suspended solid andvolatile suspended solid concentration). The study has been conducted at eight stations during themonth of May and August 2015 in Lake Maninjau. The attenuation coefficient of light is influenced bysecchi depth. The shallowest Secchi depth was found in Koto Gadang (1.65 m) with attenuation
coefficient of 0.764. For each station, suspended solid concentration ranges 0.83 – 3 mg/L and VSS
value ranges 0.75 – 2.38 mg/L. The attenuation coefficient and depth correlated with VSS concentration.
The concentration of organic suspended matter has a strong influence on the rate of attenuation of lightinto the lake.
Keywords: attenuation coefficient, depth, suspended solid, volatile suspended solid.
INTRODUCTION
Lake Maninjau is located in the district of Tanjung Raya, Agam, West Sumatra, and the position is
located between 0°19'41"N 100°11'18"E. Maninjau is a caldera lake formed by a volcanic-tectonic
activity, is situated at an altitude of 461.5 m above sea level and a maximum depth of 165.5 m (Merina,2014). People use the lake for their daily needs, hydropower and floating net. Intensive activity will
greatly affect water quality both in physics, chemistry and biology. Water quality in physics of the lake
can be seen from the optical properties of water. Color changing in water of lake indicate opticalproperties water that is impact to water quality in lake. The optically active substances (OAS: suspended
particles and dissolved organic matter) determine the penetration of light to the water. Matter suspended
in water consist of live organic material (phytoplankton), dead organic (detritus) and inorganic material(Reinart, 2004).
Studies on the optical properties of water have been done by some researchers in the sub-tropicalregion like in the Lake Peipsi, Estonia (Reinart et al., 2004), Lake Verevi, Estonia (Reinart et al., 2005),
Lake Taupo, New Zealand (Belzile et al., 2004). As for the tropics, this study has not been done in detail.
In this paper, the authors analyze the optical characteristics of lakes in the tropics, a preliminary casestudy on Lake Maninjau. Related to this, the composition of a water body will affect the content of thetransmitted light, absorbed, or scattered from the signal propagation. It shows that the behavior of lightis strongly influenced by the nature of the medium that is passed or the characteristics of the watercolumn. Based on this, the knowledge of the attenuation of light can be used to determine thecharacteristics of the water column and bio-optical modeling of the lake.
METHODS
Survey has been conducted in Lake Maninjau at 8 stations with 84 samples. Sampling sites are shownin Figure 1. Selection of sampling sites based on the results of previous studies (Lukman, et al 2014;
Suryono 2016). Transparency score is obtained by measuring water transparency using a Secchi disc.
The intensity of sunlight on the surface of the lake was measured by using a lux meter. Light intensity
is measured in Maninjau just the intensity on the surface of the lake. Light attenuation coefficient wascalculated using the following equation (William, 1980):

zs states secchi depth at each sampling point on the lake, K states attenuation coefficient of light.
The concentration of suspended solid matter is measured by filtering water samples as much as 250800 ml with Whatman GF/A filter with known the empty weights. The filtrate is then heated in an ovenat 105 °C and weighed. Furthermore, the filtrate is heated to a temperature of 550 oC for 1 hour. The
sample is weighed and the concentration obtained was suspended organic matter or known as volatile217

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

suspended solid (VSS) . The calculation of the concentration of Total Suspended Solid (TSS) and VSS
according to the procedure in standard method book of APHA-AWWA 2012 (page: 2-66 and 2- 67).

Figure 1. Sampling Location in Lake Maninjau (Souce of Map : Research Center for Limnology LIPI)RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The weather at the time of sampling are relatively flat at sunny - cloudy, so the Secchi depth has beenmeasured value does not differ much between May and August, with the value range 1.65 - 2.2 m.
Besides the weather condition (sunny-cloudy), Secchi depth is closely related to the process of lightabsorption in the waters affected by biomass in lake. The greatest value of sechi depth is in the bluegreen wavelength region (Markager & Vincent, 2000). From Figure 2 it can be seen that in Augustslightly higher than in May. The average of Secchi depth to its lowest in Koto Gadang station with adepth of 1.65 m.

218

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Secchi Secchi depth profile in Lake Maninjau 2015
The transparency level of the waters of lake indicates a period which sunlight can be absorbed by thelake to sustainability photosynthesis process. The deeper the Secchi depth means more sunlight energy
is absorbed by the lake and vice versa. Decreased energy of sunlight entering the lake is indicated by
the light attenuation coefficient.
Figure 3 shows the relationship between Secchi depth with the light attenuation coefficient (K), which
regression value is 0.99. The Secchi depth inversely with K, if the Secchi depth increasingly in the lightattenuation rate will be smaller. Attenuation of light shows the accumulation of the loss of light energy
due to absorption or scattering of light straight into in the lake. Light attenuation coefficient value thatindicates an incoming light energy to the surface of the lake was not up to the deepest part of the lake,
it will have an effect on the rate of photosynthesis in the lake and aquatic primary production. The
average of Secchi depth in Koto Gadang is the shallowest, it is 1.68 m, the value of K = 0.764 m -1 while
in Tandirih, which the average of Secchi depth is 2.2 m, it is the deepest, the value of K = 0.619 m -1
(Figure 4).

2.50
2.00

Sechi depth
(m)

1.50
y = -3.6896x + 4.4639
R² = 0.9918

1.00
0.50
-

0.10

0.20

0.30

0.40

0.50

0.60

0.70

0.80

0.90

1.00

Figure 3. Relationship between Depth and Attenuation coefficient (K)219

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. Relationship between Secchi Depth and Attenuation coefficient (K)1200002.00

100000
80000

0.50

20000

1.50

60000

1.00

40000

-

0
Bayur

Muko-Muko

Koto
GadangPandanSungai
BatangSigiranTandirih

Figure 5. Relationship between Depth and Light intensity

220

intensity of light
(lux)

2.50

Sechi depth(m)

The amount of light energy that goes into a body of water can be seen from the amount of value theintensity of sunlight coming into the medium. Tandirih with a value of 107 500 lux intensity, depth of 2.2
m while koto Gadang with a depth of 1.65 m Secchi 60500 lux light intensity value (Figure 5). The lightintensity at Pandan station and Sungai Batang amounted to 23 000 lux while Secchi depth of 1.95 m
and 1.73 m. This suggests there are other factors that contribute to low levels of brightness on Koto
Gadang Due to the intensity of light at the surface is quite large with a large attenuation coefficient sothat the intensity of light coming into the lake is reduced in the appeal on the surface of the lake. Factorsthat led to the decline in energy of light into the lake called optically active substance such as the valueof suspended matter, chlorophyll and yellow substance concentration.

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Z vs TSS

Z vs VSS

mg/L

mg/L

3.5

2.5

3

TSS

2

1.5

1.5

1

1

VSS

2

2.5

0.5

0.5
0

0
1.65

1.7

1.73

1.75

1.9

1.95

2.1

2.2

m

Sechi depth
Figure 6. Relationship between Total Suspended Solid (TSS), volatile suspended solid (VSS),andSecchi depth (Z)The average of concentration of suspended matter in Koto Gadang is 0.83 mg/L, the concentration oforganic matter is 0.75 mg/L with a Secchi depth of 1.65 m. Sigiran station at a Secchi depth of 2.2 m
has the highest suspended matter (2.81 mg/L) and organic matter 2.38 mg/L. The number of floating
net cages is very high in Sigiran. The residue from feed and fish feces cause the high content of thesuspended solids and organic matter that settle in the waters. High TSS concentrations can be causedby the high number of biomass and suspended solids that are characteristic of eutrophic lakes (Reinart,2004). The concentration of suspended solids and organic matter in Tandirih and Sungai Batang
sequentially is 1.83 mg/L and 1:58 mg/L, 3 mg/L and 1.5 mg/L. VSS values indicate the amount ofconcentration of organic matter that is in the water. This value is usually correlated with yellow
substance concentration which will be greater in shallow areas (Davies-Colley and Vant 1987).
CONCLUSIONS
The results showed an interesting correlation between the optical properties of the spectra and optically
active substances in the lake. The rate of light transmission to the lake decreases exponentially withincreasing depth which is indicated by the coefficient of light attenuation. The amount of light intensity
on the surface indicates the Secchi depth. Secchi depth is also strongly correlated with organic
substances present in the lake but not absolute because many other factors that affect the organic
content in Lake.
REFERENCES
1. Anonymous. (2012). Standard Method For the Examination of the Water and Waste Water. 17 th
Edition. APA-AWWA-WPCF. Page: 4.122-163
2. Belzile C,et al. (2004). Relationships Between Spectral Optical Properties and Optically Active
Substances in a Clear Oligotrophic Lake. Water Resources research. Vol. 40: 1-12
3. Davies-Colley, R.J and Vant, W.N. (1987). Absorption of Light by Yellow Substance in FreshwaterLakes. Limnology and Oceanography Journal.Vol. 32(2): 416-425
4. Markager, S & Vincent, W.F. (2000). Spectral Light Attenuation And The Absorption Of UV And
Blue Light In Natural Waters. Limnology and Oceanography Journal.Vol. 45(3): 642-650
5. Merina G, Afrizal S and Izmiarti. (2014). Composition and Sturcture of Phytoplankton Community
in Lake Maninjau West Sumatera. Jurnal Biologi Universitas Andalas. Vol. 3(4): 267-274
6. Reinart, A, Paavel B, Pierson D, Strombeck N. (2004). Inherent and Apparent Optical Propertiesof Lake Peipsi, Estonia. Boreal Environment Research. Vol. 9: 429-225
7. Reinart A, Arst H, Pierson D.C. (2005) . Optical Properties and Light Climate in Lake Verevi.
Hydrobiologia. Vol 547: 41-49
8. Williams, D.T., Drummond, G.R., Ford, D.E., Robey, D.L. (1980). Determination of light extinction
coefficients in lakes and reservoirs. In: Stefan, H.G. (Ed.), Proceedings of the Symposium on
Surface Water Impoundments, June 2–5. Minneapolis, Minnesota. American Society of Civil
Engineers, New York, pp 1329–1335

221

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

LAND USE CHANGE ANALYSIS AT SENTARUM CATCHMENT AREA, WEST
KALIMANTAN-INDONESIA
Iwan Ridwansyah1*, Kenlo Nasahara2 and Chikako Nishiyama2 Luki Subehi1
RC Limnology – Indonesian Institute of Science 1, University of Tsukuba 2*Corresponding author: iwanr@limnologi.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACT
Lake Sentarum (800 km2) is one of 15 national priority lakes in Indonesia. As a floodplain lake, it hasvarious seasonal changes those affect in the extents area and the depth between rainy and dry seasons.
Lake Sentarum as included in the list of Ramsar sites, is the largest and the most important part of thewetland ecosystem in Asia since 1994. Sentarum catchment area (4000 km2) is directly adjacent to thenational boundary of Malaysia. Currently, Indonesian government is improving the economy in borderareas. The economic growth will trigger the land demand for residential areas and cultivation.
Therefore, it is important to identify land use changes that will have impacts on hydrologicalcharacteristics and floodplain ecosystem of the lake. Meanwhile, the land use changes in the catchment
arise quickly, especially in forests loss and development of oil palm plantations. The purpose of thisstudy is to analyze the land use changes in Sentarum catchment area. The identification of land usechanges was using classification based on data utilized such as Landsat-5 (2001) and Landsat-8 (2013).
Analysis of land use changes used cross tabulation methods to compare both of land use data series.
Results of the analysis showed the land use in 2013 was still dominated by forests with area of 2,320
km2 (56.6%) after decrease of 143 km 2 for 12 years, while settlement area still only 4.9 km 2 (0.1%)
which was a result of increase of 3.8 km2. Major changes occurred in the development of oil palm
plantations which covers 280 km2 and the majority comes from the area originally covered by forests(140 km2).
Keywords: Lake Sentarum, land use, catchment area, classifications, landsat
INTRODUCTION
Land is the basic material of an environment, which is defined by a number of natural characteristics,
namely climate, soil geology, topography, hydrology and biology (Aldrich, 1981 in Lo, 1995). Also, land
cover depicting the artificial construction of vegetation and land surface (Burley, 1961 in Lo, 1995).
Construction is entirely visible directly from remote sensing imagery. Three classes of data in general
are included in land cover: physical structures built by man, biotic phenomena such as naturalvegetation, crops and animal life and the type of development. The spatial and temporal distribution ofland use is important parameters to correct their characteristics. Numerous applications rely on
information about land use classification levels, from hydrologic and climate models to techniques
aimed at optimizing best management practices in agricultural watersheds. Remote sensing
techniques can be used to obtain the spatial distribution of the land use content over large areas,
reducing expensive and time-consuming field measurements.
Land use associated with human activities in certain areas, land cover information can be recognizeddirectly by using the appropriate remote sensing technique. Moreover, information about humanactivities on the land cannot always be interpreted directly from the closure of the land (Lillesand andKiefer, 1993). Land use changes include a shift towards the use of land to different land use (conversion)or intensification on existing land use. In general, changes in land use will influence: (a) the
characteristics of the river flow, (b) the amount of surface runoff, (c) the nature of the relevant regionalhydrological (Mayer and Turner, 1994, Ferry, 2007). The various of land use and land cover data needs
is exceedingly broad. Land use and land cover existing data are needed for equalization of tax
assessments in many states. Land use and land cover data also are needed by federal, state, andlocal agencies for water- resource inventory, flood control, water-supply planning, and waste-water
treatment. Many federal agencies need current comprehensive inventories of existing activities on
public lands combined with the existing and changing uses of adjacent private lands to improve themanagement of public lands (Anderson et al, 1976).
Nowadays, it is widely-known that land-use changes can be accurately monitored at a global, regional
and local scale using satellite remote sensing imagery. One of the most commonly used satellite
sensors for such purposes is the Thematic Mapper (TM) on board of Landsat series satellite platforms.
The spatial and temporal resolution, the availability, the coverage and the overall quality of the Landsat
data, provide a useful informational background for detailed land-use change studies.

222

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Lake Sentarum is one of the 15 national priority lakes in Indonesia for the conservation period 20102014, based on the National Conference of Indonesia Lake II in Bali in 2009 on the sustainable
management of the lake (Soeprobowati, 2015). Lake Sentarum is one of the lake exposures to floods
since 1994 designated as a conservation and sustainable use of wetlands (Ramsar site) in Indonesia
via the UNESCO convention (Giesen, 1996; Ashari et al, 2002). The Ramsar Convention is anagreement among member states to commit to maintaining the ecological processes of wetlands ofinternational importance and seeks to manage wetlands in the region wisely with the principle ofsustainable utilization. Common problems in Sentarum National Park are the change in land use in thewatershed, riparian damage and water contamination originating from anthropogenic activities (Ministryof Environment of the Republic of Indonesia, 2011). Another problem, which is the exploitation of thefisheries sector, is mainly done in the dry season. Catching fish is done on a permanent puddle in thenational park area. This puddle should be protected as a refuge for species of water at a time whendry. The purpose of this study is to analyze the land use changes in Sentarum catchment area. The
analysis also identified patterns of changes to build the model projections of land use.
METHODS
Study Area
Lake Sentarum was located in 111o 35’ 42.598” – 112o 31’ 12.317” E and 0o 38' 20.249 - 01o 22' 0.861”
N. Administratively, this lake are in Kapuas Hulu District, West Kalimantan Province (Sub-District ofBatang Lupar, Badau, Embau, Bunut Hilir, Suhaid, Selimbau and Semitau). There are two National
Parks in the Sentarum watershed, namely Lake Sentarum National Park and Betung Kerihun National
Park which is located in upstream area. In 2016, both of National Parks combined into one management.
Figure 1 shows location of study area.
Sentarum catchment area is wet tropical climate type. According to Schmidt and Ferguson
classification, it is Type A with Q values ranged from 50% to 84.3%. The range of annual rainfall is
2,307 – 4,616 mm, temperatures during the day is 29 0C – 36 0C and at night the temperature range
between 12 0C – 29 0C. Dry season occurs between July to September, the monthly rainfall about 100
mm. Topography around Lake Sentarum mostly flat with a slope of less than 5%, is surrounded by hills
that can reach 400 meters above sea level. Vegetation in highland area has different habitat types withlowland forest vegetation in the vicinity which is always flooded. But in general, this area is a basin andcatchment area unit Kapuas River.

Figure 1. Study area in Sentarum watershed
Image Classification
Analysis of land use is divided into two parts: land use change analysis (change detection) and landuse change prediction models. For the analysis and simulation of the dynamics of change in land use,
data required include; distribution of land use at some period, biophysical parameters and socioeconomic variables were considered as potentially important factors of land use patterns. These factors
describe the demographic situation, soil, geomorphology, climate and infrastructure.

223

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake ConferenceLand use analysis generally begins with the processing of satellite imagery as the basis data. Image
processing consists of two parts: pre-processing and image classification. Pre-processing the image
consists of a process for preparing image data for subsequent analysis which tries to correct orcompensate for systematic errors, like as atmospheric, radiometric and spatial error. The image
classification method is used supervised classification and the training sample area is derived fromground check data which is collected by Camera GPS, reference data from Lake Sentarum wascollected by boat and in the upstream area by vehicle.
Any supervised classification does not complete until an assessment of its accuracy has been
performed, an appropriate technique of accuracy assessment needs to be performed. Accuracy
assessment can be defined as a comparison of a map produced from remotely sensed data withanother map from some other source or base on ground check data. How closely the new map
produced from the remotely-sensed data matches to the source map is important analysis (Sense man
et al,, 1995). Kappa coefficients were used to estimate the similarity between the two maps. Values >80% are categorized as the same, 60% -80% of high similarity, almost the same 40% - 60% and < 40%
do not have a common (Landis and Koch, 1977).
Comparing the results of classification by cross tabulation is used to analyze changes in the researcharea of land, land use change on two series of maps will be detected by comparison of pre-classification.
Cross tabulation is done in a series of land use in 1991 and 2013. Comparisons will observe changes
in each pixel (Lunetta and Elvidge, 1999). Figure 2 shows flow chart of the study. The result of thestudy are rate and distribution of land use changes, and then compared with interview data the patternof land use change in Sentarum catchment area also delivered.
LandsatImage 2001

LandsatImage 2013

Pre-Processing

Image Classification
Reclass LU
2001

Training site
data

Reclass LU
2013

Groundcheck data

No

Kaffa Indeks
>80%

Yes

LU2001

Reference dataYes

LU2013

Change detection(Cross Tabulation)
Rate and distribution of
Landuse change

Figure 2. Flow chart of landuse change in Sentarum Watershed

224

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The first step in this research is data collection, Landsat image and ground check data field. Landsat
image is derived from USGS and ground check data retrieval using GPS Camera and conductedinterviews with people in the field. A time sequence of multi-spectral Landsat 7 ETM+ images was used
to identify spatial/temporal changes in the vegetative cover of Sentarum watershed. The Landsat 5 andLandsat 8 create images with 30 m × 30 m pixel size. The satellite orbital profile operates on a 16-day
cycle, with each image covering a swath 183 km wide. The results of retrieval data is plotted by GIS
applications and is used classification process (Figure 3). Results of the land use identification in the
Sentarum watershed are shown in Figure 4. There are eleven land use class that are; forest, rubber
tree, paddy, bush, dry agriculture, settlement, oil palm, grass, barren and water.

Figure 3. Reference data for landuse classification

225

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. Land use class in Sentarum Watershed
In this study, the identification of land use used supervised classification, and visualization was madealso in natural color composite bands. The Landsat 5 in 2001 used composition of the band 542, while
the Landsat 8 in 2013 using the composition of the band 752. From the appearance of the second
series of Landsat imagery found striking differences mainly in the west and northwest visible openings
are expected to oil palm plantations. Figure 5 shows the RGB Composite band Landsat imagery in the
Sentarum watershed. Composite band also shows the distribution of the water body of the lake is alake of flood exposure, there is some vast lake and found also lakes with an area of only a few hectares.

Figure 5. RGB composite band image, 542 for Landsat TM 2001 and 752 for Landsat 8 2013 (Red line:
Catchment boundary).
Classification of land use in the Sentarum watershed performed on Landsat-8 imagery in 2013. Training
sample reference data obtained from the results of field trips during the year 2015 - 2016. The results

226

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferenceof image classification in 2013 are shown in Figure 6, which gained 11 land use classes. Based on the
kappa index classification results are included in the same category, which shows a match with thereference data is 85%. The results also show the use of forest classification is still quite wide reaching
56.6% of the total area (2,316 km 2), and shrubs 14.6% (596 km 2). Plantations in the watershed
Sentarum is Perennials such as: rubber, fruits and oil palm, in 2013 the area of oil palm plantations hasreached 6.7% of the total watershed area (275 km 2). Location of oil palm plantations mostly found in
the northwestern part of the watershed, or more precisely on Sub-catchment Seriang River that flows
into Lake Sentarum.
The results of the classification of Landsat 5 in 2001 shows the forest area reached 60% of the total
watershed area (2459.7 km 2), most of the forest is included in the Lake Sentarum National Park andBetung Kerihun National Park. An area of shrubbery was 20% (837 km 2) resulting in a vast reduction
in both classes, the forest is reduced 133 km 2, while the area of plantations in 2001 was only 6% (263km2) which is a rubber plants and fruits, oil palm plantations have not found on land use in 2001. Timberindustry, such as plywood, timber, furniture, paper pulp rapidly evolving in the 1980-1990s led to a large
number of natural forest in Borneo to be cut down (Velasquez and Shimizu 2001; Butler 2005; Engeland Palmer 2008). The area of the body of water is 8% (328.2 km 2), decreased compared with thearea in 2013, which reached 9.6% (392 km 2). It is common condition on the lake-type flood exposure.
Figure 7 shows a map of the watershed land use Sentarum 2001.

Figure 6. Land use Sentarum Catchment Area 2013

227

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 7. Land use map of Sentarum Catchment Area (2001)
Rate of land use change in Sentarum watershed were shown in more detail in Table 1, where the shrub
was missing approximately 240 km 2. Based on the analysis of cross tabs on some of the region grows
into a forest but in other areas of forests are converted into a thicket. Great changes found in palm oil
plantations cover, where for 10 years of oil palm plantations increased 275 km2, while the cover oflading for 10 years farmland increased by 126 km 2. Field observations in the form of agricultural fields
were conducted, such as: upland rice, pepper, and some cassava. The patterns of land use change ineach class are shown in Table 2.
Tabel 1. Rate of Land use changes in Sentarum Catchment area
Landuse 2013ID

LanduseArea(Km2)

Landuse 2001%

Area(Km2)

Changes (Km2)%1Forest2316.556.6

2459.760.1

2

Plantation

179.5

4.4

253.5

6.2

-74.0

3

Dry Agriculture

128.2

3.1

2.2

0.1

126.0

4

Paddy

1.0

0.0

1.1

0.0

0.0

5

Settlement

4.9

0.1

1.1

0.0

3.8

6

Bush

596.1

14.6

837.0

20.5

-240.97Open area/barren

41.4

1.0

18.3

0.4

23.0

8

Water

392.5

9.6

328.2

8.0

64.3

9

Oil palm

275.0

6.7

0.0

0.0

275.0

10

Grass

65.1

1.6

19.8

0.5

45.3

11

Swamp

91.1

2.2

170.5

4.2

-79.4

4091.4100.0

4091.4

100.0

Total

228

-143.2

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Landuse 2013

Tabel 2. Cross tabulation on land use 2001 and 2013Landuse 2001
Landuse
Class
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
1.
Forest2.
Plantation
3. DryAgricult
ure
4.
Paddy
Field
5.
Settlement

6. Bush7. Open
Area
8.
Water
Area
9. Oil
Palm
10.
Grass
11.
Swamp
Total
Area

1952.
74

69.5
6

0.2
1

0.0
9

264.
42

2.93

8
12.5
6

83.88

25.1
3

0.6
7

0.2
9

63.9
6

2.08

34.60

27.5
9

0.6
0

0.1
1

61.2
2

2.64

0.09

0.21

0.0
1

0.4
9

0.20

0.02

1.23
185.0
0

0.32
80.6
6

0.0
1
0.0
8

1.39
223.
00

0.38

4.29

0.19

0.1
2
0.4
9
0.0
1

9.62

25.80
140.9
4

0.36
42.2
8

23.75

7.13

7.36

0.08

2459.
69

253.
51

0.0
9

2.1
9

1.1
0

58.0
5
87.3
4
23.5
4
44.2
6

0.0
0

1.0
7

1.1
0

837.
00

9

Total
Area

10

11

4.76

9.26

2316.
52

0.72

0.90

1.88

179.5
1

0.28

0.39

0.78

128.2
1

0.02

1.05
4.87
596.1
2

392.4
9
275.0
1

0.01

4.11

0.01
12.7
9

0.55

1.51

2.54

0.31
84.0
6
22.6
6

0.28

289.
67

2.22

16.1
2

3.23

0.16

1.62

1.17

1.55

0.48

9.31

18.3
3

328.
19

5.93

1.06

0.0
0

41.36

65.07

1.47

6.21
28.1
8

19.7
6

170.
54

4091.
36

91.15

Gogo rice is a traditional activity of the Dayak people, where they burn back into the forest areas thathave been planted with rice, they will always move from one place to another. The pattern of land usechanges in the Sentarum watershed was shown in Figure 8. This pattern was obtained from thecrosstab analysis and interviews with people in the study site. Shifting cultivation is mainly found in
highland forests. In a system of shifting cultivation, the main crops cultivated are gogo rice (Setiawan,2010). Shifting cultivation is a system that builds on people's experiences in preparing the land andland practiced hereditary (Febriani, 2016). Shifting cultivation is an old traditional way of farming. The
relationship between the local communities with traditional knowledge of forest resources is often
referred to as local wisdom (Zakaria 1994 in Sardjono, 2004). Land use with the traditional pattern
known as the cultivation where the Dayak community in these activities is a major source of meetingthe needs of the family. This fact was expressed also by all Dayak tribes that are in parts of Kalimantan/
Borneo inland (Dove, 1988). The practice of shifting cultivation has a strong correlation with the damage
to the forest ecosystem. Shifting cultivation has impacts that may affect farming and forest ecosystems.
Drastically reduced soil fertility, traces farming area has become scrub or grasslands. When the rainyseason, many layers of topsoil are eroded and washed away, thus decreasing soil fertility conditions(Febriani, 2016). But according to Setiawan (2010) in the last 300 years, this system has little effect on
the destruction of forests, the tropical forests, the largest content of phosphorus stored in the trees, so
to release it by forest fires. Nutrients released into the soil can be used for growing upland rice, until
absorbed, then cultivators opening a new forest, while the long-abandoned land (fallow) to become theback woods (for 20-25 years). Land clearing sequence, causing the formation of the mosaics of landwith a succession of ages and diverse biodiversity. This process is often coupled with agroforestry(forest gardens multicultural), where the fields to be abandoned planted with various trees useful thatcan be integrated on forest ecosystems, especially rubber and fruits.

229

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ForestSecondaryForestBushBurn

Uplandpaddy

Agriculture

PapperSettlement

Plantation(Fruits)

Rubber tree

Oil Palm

Figure 8. Landuse changes pattern in Sentarum Catchment area
In the present state of shifting cultivation becomes more complicated due to forest area reduced due toother causes, in the river basin itself area reduced Sentarum 145 km 2 largely converted into oil palm
plantations and shrubs. So, the Dayak people who do shifting agriculture become difficult because theland has changed function. Another influential factor is the migration of the population into the territory
Sentarum watershed triggered by the acceleration of development in the boundary region by thegovernment. This leads to the changing dynamics of land, creation of infrastructure such as road
networks, as well as consideration of labor and land availability.
External trigger factor that plays a big role in land use changes dynamics in the Sentarum watershed,
as influential as well in various places in Indonesia, are the needs of industry and exports of palm oiland paper. This request triggers the issuance of policies specific forestry and land use that supports
the development of two of these commodities through land conversion is realized through the forest.
Cultivation right policy for industrial forest plantation and exploitation permits.
CONCLUSIONSLake Sentarum Ecosystem have anthropogenic pressure by land use changes, such as; deforestation(-143 Km2) Expansion of oil palm (+275 Km2), urban growth. The results from land use change analysis
should support the development economic plan and settlement problem, and still pay attention inconservation for biodiversity in Sentarum catchment.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank The Research Center for Limnology (RCL) - Indonesia Institute of
Science for the funding the research project. Many thanks to my partners in Hydro-informatics
Laboratory-RCL who provided data and assistance and to JPSP-LIPI program.

230

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

REFERENCES
1. Dove, M. (1988). Sistem Perladangan di Indonesia. Suatu Studi Kasus dari Kalimantan Barat.
Gadjah Mada University Press. Yogyakarta.
2. Feri T. (200. Analisis Perubahan Lahan dan Keterkaitannya Dengan Fluktuasi Debit Sungai di SubDas Antokan Propinsi Sumatera Barat, Thesis, SPS-IPB.
3. Giesen W. (1987). Danau Sentarum Wildlife Reserve: Inventory, ecology and management
guidelines. World Wildlife Fund Report.
4. Giesen W. (1995). The Flood Forest and Black Water Lake of Sentarum Wildlife Reserve, West
Kalimantan. AWB-PHPA. Bogor. 73 pp
5. Lunetta R. S. and Elvidge C. D. (1999). Remote sensing change detection, London: Taylor &Francis.
6. Lillesand TM and Kiefer FW. (1993). Penginderaan Jauh dan Interpretasi Citra. Alih bahasa
R.Dubahri. Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University Press.
7. Lo C.P. 1995. Automated population and dwelling unit estimation from high-resolution satellite
images: a GIS approach, International Journal of Remote Sensing, 16:17–34.
8. Meyer W. B. and B. L. Turner II. 1992. Human population growth and global land- use/coverchange. Annu. Rev. Ecol. Syst. 23: 39-61.
9. Anderson J. R, Ernest E. Hardy, John T. Roach, and Ricard E. Witmer. (1976). A Land Use And
Land Cover Classification System For Use With Remote Sensor Data. Geological Survey
Professional Paper 964.
10. Gary M. Senseman, Calvin F. Bagley, and Scott A. Tweddale, 1995, Accuracy Assessment of theDiscrete Classification of Remotely-Sensed Digital Data for Landcover Mapping, Department of
the Army CONSTRUCTION ENGINEERING RESEARCH LABORATORIES, 31 pages.
11. Landis J.R. and Gary G. Koch. (1977). The Measurement of Observer Agreement for Categorical
Data. Biometrics, Vol. 33, No. 1. page 159-174.
12. Soeprobowati TR. 2015. Integrated Lake Basin Management For Save Indonesian Lake
Movement. International Conference on Tropical and Coastal Region Eco-Development 2014
(ICTCRED). Procedia Environmental Sciences, 23: p 368 – 374.
13. Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup. 2011. Profil 15 Danau Prioritas Nasional 2010-2014. Kementerian
Lingkungan Hidup Republik Indonesia. Jakarta
14. Setiawan, A.D. (2010). Review: Biodiversity conservation strategy in a native perspective; casestudy of shifting cultivation at the Dayaks of Kalimantan. Bioscince, Vol2, No.2, pp 97-108.
15. Velasquez J, Shimizu H. (2001). The values of forest. United Nations University. Tokyo.

231

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

A CASE STUDY ON SIMPLE FLOODS OBSERVATION AND MAPPING SYSTEM BY
IMAGE INFORMATION
Kiyoto Kurokawa1
Ritsueikan University
Corresponding author: kkr10060@fc.ritsumei.ac.jp
1

ABSTRACTIn the Philippines, flood disasters are increasing. And the governments and many donors are trying to
mitigate it by introducing monitoring stations. However, many systems cannot work well to protect theregional community. The local people did not react well for the warnings. Why does this happen? The
warnings issued by the authorities said to be quite general. This is due to limited monitoring systems.
In addition, people treated floods as a part of normal life. To tackle the difficulty, we started our
researches with LLDA (Laguna Lake Development Authority) from 2013. Simple web cameras havebeen installed to four rivers just for visual surveillance. This study analysed the effectiveness of thesimple floods monitoring and mapping system to improve the economic resilience of the local
community and provided some policy recommendations to the local governments and donororganizations to increase the people’s response to the floods. For river systems, we have installed somemonitoring stations with smartphones. For disaster management team, we have provided smartphones
with a special application for mappings and photo images. The method of the effectiveness evaluationon the simple monitoring system is including number of images, maps and warnings from the authorities
and other social issues including security of the town, traffic jam, and illegal waste disposal. And we
examined technical sustainability of the system under bad internet environments. We had a series of
discussions with the target LGUs (Local Government Units), LLDA, private companies including
Japanese factories and other stakeholders. We have found that the system can never be effective
without education and community’s involvement. We found that the simple observation system canincrease people’s involvement.
Keywords: Flood around Laguna Lake, Web camera monitoring, Early warning, Waste management,
Problem Mapping by smartphone
INTRODUCTION
Background
This paper aims to investigate the possible flood risk management by focusing on simple floods
observation and mapping system by smartphones. The most important aspect of the web camera
monitoring system is easiness to show potential risks to local people. Everybody can easily watch river
flow condition via web site. When the local authority issues a flood warning, people try to see present
conditions of the river side. It is dangerous situation but people want to see the real condition bythemselves. This system provides a real view of the potential risk area via web site and at the sametime, the hazard map on the same web pages will guide the people to evacuation spots. (See Figure1). However, the cost of the CCTV camera is quite high and unable to cover all the risk area. In Japan,
there are some simple water level monitoring system (See Figure 2). It has only simple water sensor,
which detects just high, middle and low water level. It has a red light with siren alarm. This system canbe an independent alarming system since it can automatically alarm the surrounding community in caseof risky situation. This is why our simple web camera system has been widely appreciated recently. To
install this system, the collaboration between local authority and community is essential.

232Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. CCTV Camera in Nagaoka City, Japan

Figure 2 Simple Water level sensor withalarm, installed by Unimation Inc.,Japan
Floods are natural and inevitable, and large cities like Metro Manila cannot be protected from all flooding.
However, some floods are extreme and others are not extreme. We aim to minimize their risk to people,
property, industry and infrastructure by empowering community capacity. There are so manymeasurements to reduce flood risk such as construction of dikes, protection of river banks andrehabilitation of river system, however, we focus on community awareness since it is the most effective
way to reduce food risks to the community itself. We are developing supporting education system andawareness programs for communities in flood prone areas, in collaboration with local government units(LGUs), Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA) and University of the Philippines Los Baños(UPLB). The flood prone area lacks flood prevention infrastructure. Furthermore, residents are
economically vulnerable to flood as they have limited options for relocation, improvement of theirhousing, or insurance methods. Although the community had an evacuation plan in the event of typhoon,
the absence of reliable property security systems prevented the community from mobilizing quickly
enough to avoid injuries and loss of valuable assets. Prior to the intervention, residents would rely on
the word-of-mouth to determine if river levels were high enough to warrant evacuation. And thecommunity people receive frequent warnings from the government authority and they were insensible
to the warnings.
Research question and Significance of the Study
The impact of flood is heavily depending upon the floating dangerous matter such as woods and solid
wastes. And the quality of flood water is another course of damages of the floods. The flood waste risks

233

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

we observed in the Philippines are related to the risk of Tsunami in terms of secondary risks caused byfloating matters. “Metro Manila’s dump sites are dangerous, exposed, and generate potentially toxic
liquids called “leachate.” As these toxins flow along the surface and seep into the earth, they risk
poisoning the surface and groundwater that are used for drinking, aquatic life, and the environment.”(ADB 2004) And now, urbanization is all around the Lake Laguna. Up to now, we identified the following
facts;i) Flood is a part of their life.
ii) Flood water was clean and it was not so dangerous.
iii) Flood brings solid wastes, foul-smelling and dark color.
iv) water color of the flood was changed.
v) In case of evacuation, people cannot leave their house since they have to protect their property.
In the Philippines, the number of river basins where flood control works have been implemented isincreasing year by year. However, they had serious damages caused by flood disasters every year,
especially in rapidly developing areas.
PREVIOUS STUDY
Lessons learned from the East Japan Great Disaster in 2011 (EJGD)
In this chapter, we will examine lessons learned from EJGD in the field floods disaster. There are somedifferences between Tsunami and Floods, but we have learned the most important factor to activate
people’s response to the warnings. The warning system was mostly perfect. It includes web based
information, mobile e-mail notification, warning siren and loud speaker systems. However, more thanhalf of the people at the risk area recognized the warning via TV news. Based on lessons learned fromthe EJGD, the Japanese government plans to take the revised approaches while issuing a warning:➢ the information should be clear and timely, emphasize crucial messages, and encourage
evacuation. (Easy to understand, but reaction of the people still unknown)➢ Issue the first warning quickly and revise it according to observed data. (Technical improvement,
it takes much costs and time.)➢ Provide tsunami height predictions qualitatively instead of numerically, considering the uncertainty
of tsunami estimates. (Easy to understand, but reaction of the people still unknown)
However, these small improvements are not yet perfect. The messages to encourage people toescape the Tsunami risk were modified practically. But, no matter how advanced technology becomes,
the guiding principle is that people should take the initiative to escape or tackle the potential risks ontheir own. While warnings must be delivered to everyone at risk, only half of the affected residents
actually received the information following the EJGD.
Lessons learned from the Thai Floods in 2011
Flood protection is important in the industrial zones because of the risk of large scale damage to industry
and private property. Dikes were constructed downstream of the Chao Phraya together with a numberof pumping stations. In June 2011, heavy rainfall occurred in many locations throughout the monthcaused by the influence of the active southwest monsoon. Moreover, during late June 2011, Thailand
was dominated by the remnant of tropical depression "Haima" led to heavy rainfall in several areas
especially in the northern part where flash floods and landslides was reported. In July 2011, downpour
rain continued in many areas in addition to tropical depression "Nock-Ten" moved into the area of Nanprovince on 31 July 2011 before weakening to low pressure cell covering the northern part. This brought
heavy rain to several areas resulted in widespread flooding in north and northeast parts.
However, associated with high tide, severe flood and extensive damage was extended to most areasof northern, eastern and western Bangkok and its vicinity. The rainfall amount of Thailand since 1
January to 31 October 2011 was 1822.4 millimetres, about 28 percent above normal. Seasonal rainfall
from May to October in 2011 was above normal of 20 – 60% in northern part, but of 10 - 40% with below
normal in some areas in central part.
We must understand the man-made causes of floods as well. The most common man-made causes offlood in Thailand are deforestation, uncoordinated urban development, over-abstraction of groundwater,and destruction of flood embankments (Hoang 2011). One of large man-made reasons is deforestation.
Forest area was reduced from 166,000 km2 in 1942 to 106,000 km2 in 1983 and to 92,000 km2 in 1995.
But, the entire region is usually flooded during the monsoon season, part of the ecological cycle thatcauses Thai people to adapt their lifestyles accordingly. Boats become the vehicle of transport andbecome a necessity for the rice harvest. Their houses in the Central Plains sit atop stilts. In addition,
we must understand a common phrase used in Thailand, “Mai pen rai”, which translates to ‘it’s nothing’in English, and it sums up the Thai philosophy fairly well (Plocher 2011). During our survey in Vietnam,
we heard the last floods in Thailand in 2011 will be forgotten instantly. But people in Central Vietnam
are always preparing the coming floods. We believed that a popular water puppet show in central

234

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Vietnam could be a hint for their good awareness for flood risks. We understand that visualization offlood can motivate people to take positive actions for floods. This difference should be revealed in the
coming surveys.
Flood Disaster Related Project by Major Donors
We recognized various flood projects in the Philippines since they had continuous flood disasters.
Those projects can be classified by the Donors as Table-1. Bilateral donors including JICA, US, Spanish,
Australia, UK and Canada are commonly to improve the monitoring and furcating systems for the floods.
Multilateral donors including World Bank, ADB and UNDP are working together with some bilateral
donors and providing necessary funds to the government agencies in the Philippines.
Table-1 Flood related projects in the Philippines
Project name and related organization in the Philippines
Disaster Risk Reduction and Management (DRRM) Capacity
Enhancement, Office of Civil Defense (OCD). (2012-2015)
A Simple and Community Friendly Independent Floods Observation
System for the Laguna Lake district and National Capital Region, The
University of the Philippines Los Baños (UPLB), Laguna Lake
Development Authority (LLDA) (2013-2016)
ASEAN – US Cooperation on Disaster Management, ICS(Incident
Command System) Phase 2 (2009-2012)
Program for Enhancement of Emergency Response (PEER) Phase 3
Establishment of Reconstruction Monitoring and Evaluation System(RMES)
Climate Change Adaptation Project Study to establish impact ofclimate change in the agriculture sector in two pilot areas (Bicol
Region and Region 2), Department of Environment and Natural
Resources (DENR)
Integrated Disaster Risk Management Framework – Disaster Risk
Profiling and Development of Risk Models

JICA

Donor

JICA

US State Department,
USAID
USAID, Office of U.S.
Foreign Disaster
Assistance (OFDA)
World Bank, US State
Department, USAID
Spanish Government,
World Bank
ADB

Hazards Mapping and Assessment for Effective Community-based
Disaster Management (READY), DENR, Department of Science andTechnology (DOST)Greater Metro Manila Area Risk Analysis Project

UNDP, AusAID,

Building Community Resilience and Strengthening Local Government
Capacities for Recovery and Disaster Risk Management

UNDP, CIDA

Flood Early Warning System in Metro Manila, Philippines, Center for
Disaster Preparedness, University of Philippines (2012- )Christian Aid
UK Government

AusAid, UNDP

(Source: Adopted by the author from the various website information.)
The PAGASA Rainfall Warning System (RWS) under UNDP is in operational mode since its launchingon June 20, 2012. The initial color coding: YELLOW, ORANGE, RED was used based on the color
coding scheme of the Community-Based Flood Early Warning System (CBFEWS) under the UNDP
project. These colors are generally associated with awareness, preparedness and emergency
respectively. JICA started to improve the Office of Civil Defense (OCD) capacity in responding todisaster risks. Before this, OCD’s main function was just to recover the damages of the disaster. And
JICA has also started our new project, “A Simple and Community Friendly Independent Floods
Observation System for the Laguna Lake district and National Capital Region in the Republic of
Philippines.” The uniqueness of this simple system for flood observation is to observe river systems byusing smartphone camera, powered by solar panel.
All projects are providing training program since the importance of risk perception in shaping people’s
behavior is essential. Slovic (1987) emphasized the role of risk perception by indicating that the public
relies on risk perception to evaluate hazard situation. Risk perception can inﬂuence both the design andoperational aspects of disaster risk management. Accordingly, perception could be viewed as a processof transforming inputs (e.g. ﬂood warning) to output (e.g. public mitigation response). People who

235

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

perceive that they are vulnerable are more likely to respond to warnings and undertake protective
measures. Thus, understandings of the people’s risk perception will inﬂuence the effectiveness of theﬂood management strategy.
The continuous floods in the surrounding Metro Manila and Laguna basin became a new challenge tohave sustainable growth. Simple measures can be taken beforehand to strengthen the resilience ofcommunities, to save lives, to secure livelihoods and to prevent the loss of investments anddevelopment gains. When a natural hazard threatens a nation, public facilities and private businesses
alike have to protect their assets, their workforce, and their supply and distribution chains in order forsociety and the economy to keep functioning.
Participatory Mapping
Nowadays, all the donors and government agencies have introduced this mapping operations with thecollaborations of the local community. The Participatory Mapping is the most popular and effective
methods to ensure the effectiveness of the floods preparation operation. In order to minimize theincreasing potential hazards and rising vulnerability, flood disaster risk managers need to first identify
who and what are exposed to floods disaster risks. Basic data for flood disaster risk management are
sometimes limited, unobtainable, incomplete, inaccurate, outdated, contradictory, or expensive.
Disaster risk managers, especially those in local governments, therefore face many barriers toaccessing and utilizing up-to-date and accurate hazard and risk data (Chapman 2013). In Nagaoka city,
we have recognized similar activities and they have developed it on the web site.
How to activate local people: A case of Shiga prefecture, Japan
In Japan, all the measures are based upon “Disaster Countermeasure Basic Act” in 1961. All the local
governments including prefecture and city government are responsible to manage flood risks under theact. The Central Disaster Management Council was to formulate the overall policy for DRM and tofunction as the national coordinating body for disaster management. (Government of Japan 2015) Directcommunications from the local governments are very limited and only official announcement via official
home pages is the main measures to the community. Recently, Takashima and Kusatsu city introduced
daily e-mail services including Typhoon, flood risks and other community problems including
unexpected witness the bear in the community and fire accidents. Especially, Takashima city
government is quite actively announced all the problems and events directly informing to the registered
readers of the e-mail, called “Real time Takashima”. The basic idea is to include warning information
into their daily life.
METHODS
Basic Idea for the effective monitoring
To expand the monitoring points, it is necessary to reduce the cost of the monitoring station. The
Nagaoka City Crisis Management and Disaster Prevention Headquarters introduced some simple
systems to do so. The system has a different idea. A large number of cameras have been installed tovarious rivers just for visual surveillance. It reduced the numerical monitoring items such as river heights
and water flow velocity.
The basic idea for people’s action can be illustrated as follows. (See Figure 3) The community people
can understand the warnings from the authority, but it does not always bring action of the people. But,
if they can compare the photos between regular and present photos, then they can easily understandthe present situation.
Regular river
image

Catastrophic river image

Public Warnings

Belief / Self-confidence

Action / Counter measures

Figure 3 Impact of Photos to action
On the contrary, we can observe traditional limited expensive monitoring systems in the surroundingarea of the Philippines. In Banaba, Metro Manila, they are trying to establish an accurate flood predictionand early-warning system with funding and support from Christian Aid and UK Government. University
scientists trained residents to monitor and collect information related to flooding, particularly river height,
speed of river rise, and meteorological information such as rainfall. This approach is a typical traditional
expensive method and takes much funds and time to install. Obviously, the local communities are236

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

economically vulnerable to disasters as they have limited options for relocation, improvement of theirhousing, or other financial insurance methods.
FACE project
We conducted field surveys from 2014 both in Nagaoka city, Japan and surrounding rural area of Lake
Laguna and Metro Manila in the Philippines to compare the effectiveness of the flood monitoring system.
Our target was Santa Rosa and Calamba city in Laguna and Tanay, Angono and Taytay city in Rizal
provinces. We have interviewed city officials of the flood prevention sections in the local government.
And we have checked their preparedness by using check lists including floods hazard maps, training
programs, communication systems, periodical evacuation drills, food and clean water stocks and any
records of the previous floods. After that, we have started the Flood Awareness and Community
Empowerment (FACE) project under JICA grassroots project in the Philippines from October 2014 to
October 2016. The report below described FACE project under the authority of LLDA. (See Figure 4)

Figure 4 Simple Web Camera on FACE project
Source: LLDA, Laguna de Bay Environment Monitor 2013-2014
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The flood warning systems were able to reduce economic damages and loss of life by providing leadtime for people to take protective measures. But it is not perfect still needs some improvement toactivate people’s response to the warnings. All the donors are trying to introduce new sophisticatedtechnologies to improve these system, especially early warning system. Using warning systems totrigger community response is the key to flood disaster management. Nowadays, the speed of thefloods are increasing because of the rapid urbanization. No matter how advanced technology becomes,
the guiding principle is that people should take the initiative to understand the potential risks of the floodon their own. Warning information has the limitations of the forecasting technology. Inaccurate or
inappropriate warning information could mislead or delay evacuation and increase the loss of lives.
Disaster risk communication must be practiced regularly, so that people are able to better understandthe flood warning system.
Findings from the FACE project
There were several findings from the pilot project, FACE project in the Philippines. One of the important
finding was to identify the very regional risks such as intensive rains. (See Figure 5).

237

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 5 Simple Web Camera on FACE project
Source: LLDA, Laguna de Bay Environment Monitor 2013-2014
A comparison between CCTV and Smartphone camera
We can summarize the characteristics of the two system, CCTV and smartphone as follows (See Table
1).
Table 1. A Comparison between CCTV and Smartphone Camera System
CCTV Camera
Smartphone
1.Basic equipment➢ CCTV camera with
➢ Smartphone with Solar panel.
communication and power➢ Photo only (interval shots)
supply lines.
➢ For night vision, additional lights➢ For night vision, additional lights
required
and/or Infrared camera required➢ Movie record available.
2.Costsof
US$300,000 to 500,000
US$20,000 to 30,000
Instalments
3. Advantage➢ Clearer visions➢ Cheaper installation and O/M costs➢ Movie➢ Easier and quicker installation works➢ Widely spread establishedand O/Mtechnology➢ No power and no communicationlines
4. Dis-advantages➢ Higher installation and O/M➢ Mobile communication available area
costs
only
➢ Limitation caused by power and➢ Interval of images depend upon thecommunication lines
speed of communication system (3G➢ No function caused by no power
or 4G)and disruption of power and➢ No internet availability in case of hugecommunication line
disaster
5. Other expected➢ Town security➢ Town security (Limited)
monitoring➢ Illegal dumping monitoring (in➢ Illegal dumping monitoring
functionsthe act)
Source: Prepared by the author

238

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The flood warning systems were able to reduce economic damages and loss of life by providing leadtime for people to take protective measures. But it is not perfect still needs some improvement toactivate people’s response to the warnings. Using smartphones images to trigger community responseis the key to flood disaster management. Nowadays, the speed of the floods is increasing because of
the rapid urbanization. No matter how advanced technology becomes, the guiding principle is thatpeople should take the initiative to understand the potential risks of the flood on their own.
CONCLUSIONS
Conclusions
The flood warning systems were able to reduce economic damages and loss of life by providing leadtime for people to take protective measures. But it is not perfect still needs some improvement toactivate people’s response to the warnings. Most donors are trying to introduce new sophisticatedtechnologies to improve these system, especially early warning system with expensive devices. Using
warning systems to trigger community response is the key to flood disaster management. Nowadays,
the speed of the floods are increasing because of the rapid urbanization. An effective floods warning
system always requires continuous public education about the purpose of the system. As we saw acase of Shiga prefecture, Japan, daily communication with the community is the most important issue.
A system can never be totally effective without education, no matter how expensive or sophisticated.
We found that the simple web camera observation system can reduce the setup time, costs dramaticallyand increase the people’s involvement. This simple method can be much more practical for poor
communities.
Remaining Issues
From this survey, we found out some useful findings such as the cultural aspects to understand the
preparedness of the flood risk. This implies that flood warnings should be tailored to the characteristicsof the target people. That is why the participatory mapping was introduced to ensure the effectivenessof floods preparedness.
A conclusion drawn from this research focused on industrial area is the importance of joint risk
education initiative among communities, industries and local government. When it comes to theformulation and implementation of floods management strategies, identification of the local risks are
essential. Factors influencing the decision of risk management can be; the possibility to evaluate priorfloods accurately. Factors influencing the decision of a local adaptation strategy of the floods risks canbe; cultural differences, history and better knowledge of the prior and neighboring flood experiences.
REFERENCES
1. Chapman Kate, (2013) Humanitarian Open Street Map Team, Indonesia “Filling the Data Gap
with Participatory Mapping for Effective Disaster Preparedness” Disaster Risk Management inEast Asia and the Pacific Distance Learning Seminar Series 2013 Session 2 (June 18, 2013)https://hotosm.org/projects/indonesia-0
2. Government of Japan, (2015) Cabinet Office, Disaster Management in Japan,
http://www.bousai.go.jp/1info/pdf/saigaipanf_e.pdf
3. Hoang T.H., Bang S., Kim K.W., Nguyen M.H., Dang D.M. (2010). Arsenic in groundwater andsediment in
1. the Mekong River delta, Vietnam. Environmental Pollution, Volume 158, Issue 8, August 2010,Pages
2. 2648-2658.
3. Plocher Darcie (2011), “‘Mai Pen Rai’, A Cultural Ecology of Thailand.” Social Sciences
Department, College of Liberal Arts, California Polytechnic State University
http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1063&context=socssp
4. Slovic, Paul. (1987), “Perception of risk”, Science, Vol. 236, pp. 280-285.
5. UNDP (2004), Reducing disaster risk: A challenge for development. UNDP, Geneva
http://www.undp.org/content/dam/undp/library/crisis%20prevention/Reducing%20Disaster%20Ri
sk_undp_english.pdf

239

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

DEVELOPMENT OF SPATIAL PREDICTION MODEL TO IMPROVE LAKE WATERQUALITY MANAGEMENT IN KLANG VALLEY, MALAYSIA
Bashirah Fazli1*, Aziz Shafie1, Azuhan Mohamed2, Nasehir Khan E.M. Yahaya2, Suriyani
Awang2, Azman Mat Jusoh2, Normaliza Noordin3 and Pauziah Hanum Abdul Ghani4
Department of Geography, Faculty of Arts and Social Sciences, University of Malaya, Kuala
Lumpur, Malaysia, 2National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM), Ministry of
Natural Resources and Environment, Jalan Putra Permai, Seri Kembangan, Selangor,
Malaysia, 3Environment, Lake and Wetland Division, Perbadanan Putrajaya, Putrajaya,
4
Department of Environmental Management, Faculty of Environmental Studies, Universiti
Putra Malaysia, 43400,Serdang, Selangor, Malaysia.
*Corresponding author: bashirah.fazli@gmail.com

1

ABSTRACT
Water quality of a lentic system is highly dependent on the intensities of land use activities of its
surrounding area. Hence, integrated management approach is obligatory in order to sustainably
manage lake water quality. Due to complex nature of lake with its ability to absorb pollutant over a long
period of time, it is quite an arduous task to comprehend types and strengths of pressures that influence
the water quality status. Therefore, by using management support tool, lake managers are able todetermine drivers that significantly affecting lake water quality conditions. The existing traditional
evaluation practice of lake water quality that is based on quick assessment with paucity on seasonal
succession and land use transition will never be accurate. The major hurdle of limited information anddata scarcity also strongly affect effective strategies to overcome water quality deterioration whichescalates with time. In addition, relying on water quality monitoring alone based on a few fixedparameters may not be sufficient to analyze lake water quality status. Currently, the significancecontribution of the vicinity of land use activities and spatial distributions that are affecting lake water
quality are still minimally studied. Thus, the aim of this paper is to illustrate the design framework of thedeveloped similarity based water quality prediction model. The developed spatial model incorporates
the physical, social and water quality variables within 1km buffer radius of selected lakes. The expectedmodel output is a guideline comprises of index indicating lake water quality status to facilitate proximityscale planning strategies between land use activities and lake waterbody, especially in identifying
vulnerable areas with high risk of pollution impact, for highly developed or urbanized area.
Keywords: GIS, integrated management, lake water quality, similarity index, spatial modelling.
INTRODUCTION
The lentic nature of lakes has caused it to act like a sink or sponge absorbing all the pollutants whichaccumulate without any symptom being noticed at early stage and escalating over period of timecausing symptoms to only appear at later stage (WLC, 2007 and ILEC, 2005). In addition, lakeecosystem is also unable to operate in self-sustaining ways because of interferences or damages overa period of time exceedings their capacity for self-repair (WLC, 2007 and ILEC, 2005). Land use
activities, changes of land cover, rapid urbanization, socio-economic demands and growth of population
density, and climate have been identified and proven as imminent factors in contributing to the degreeof severity of lake water quality, and eventually impacting the aquatic ecosystem well-being (Dai et al.,2017; Elliot et al., 2016; Zessner et al., 2016). In addition, the shape and size of a lake basin or
watershed have also been acknowledged to highly affecting lake water quality and ecosystem within it(Lytras, 2007). However, the geomorphology of lake which play a major role in determining the water
quality condition is always kept in sideline. Lake area, lake volume, maximum and average depth areparameters that are related with nutrient cycling, (Matisoff et al., 2017; Erol and Randhir, 2013; Lytras,
2007) seldom included in pollution impact measurement.
The deeper lakes are characterised by thicker surface layer which determines the photosyntheticallyavailable irradiance, the efficiency of nutrient cycling and the vertical distribution of organisms (Lytras,
2007). On the other hand, smaller and shallow lakes are strongly affected by wind-induced sedimentre-suspension which results to significant changes in the water chemistry and geochemical cycles(Lytras, 2007). Mean depth is also an important factor for controlling productivity while the size of lake
is related to the depth of thermocline (Lytras, 2007). Moreover, the shape of the lake can be associatedwith bottom dynamic conditions (ILEC, 2005; Lytras, 2007). The slope of littoral zone has a great
influence on the biomass and the distribution of submerged macrophytes communities (ILEC, 2005;
Lytras, 2007). A gently sloped littoral allows the deposition of fine materials and can modulate the wave

240

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

action in favour of establishment of aquatic macrophytes (Dunalska et al., 2015; Erol and Randhir,2013).
The fragmented approach of lakes and their various values being governed and managed did not allow
comprehensive understanding of the hydrological and ecological dynamics of the lakes and the manner
they changed over time and prevented the development of sustainable management regimes based onlong term trends and requirements (WLC, 2007 and ILEC, 2005). Most importantly is the lack of
coordination and integration of data between stakeholders that has prevented the values of these lakes
to be adequately quantified (Dunalska et al., 2015; Kibena et al., 2014; Duggan, 2012; Evers, 2008), asa consequence of which planners and managers have little understanding of the full value of lake
importance.
Deficiency in the aspect of legal framework governing Malaysian lakes also leads to an unnoticeable
exceedance to the assimilative capacity of the lakes. The closest to legislative proposals is merely aseries of guidelines including National Water Resources Policy, Integrated Lake Basin Management(ILBM) and Strategic Planning of Sustainable Management of Lake developed by Ministry of Natural
Resources in 2007. Thus, key reason of why sustainable management of lake water quality facing agreat challenge to achieve effective implementation and ILBM principle is yet to fully realize.
Another major obstacle is the extemporary approach taken by lake managers of “wait until it turns bad”
towards lake water quality leads to severe deterioration of resources within the lake ecosystem, causing
high cost of restoration on both financial and time (Chea et al., 2016; Dunalska et al., 2015; Aglanu,
2014; Duggan, 2012). Because of its lentic nature, it will take years for lake to being restored back to
its original condition (WLC, 2007 and ILEC, 2005). Even if only a segmented issue such as water quality
or sedimentation or algae bloom is to be regarded, the fact that lakes are close ecosystems means thata comprehensive analysis is necessary so as to include all the activities and landscape patterns withinlake watershed concerned (Lin et al., 2015; Niswonger et al., 2014).
Thus, the major reason on why a continuous and regular monitoring of lake water quality for both dry
and wet season is compulsory. Long term regular monitoring provides trends and sufficient data to beanalyzed in order to fathom the dominant pollution sources either point sources or non-point sources,
how much nutrients coming in from the catchment activities, what are the prominent stressors (ordrivers), how strong the impacts of watershed activities influence water quality status and which land
use types profoundly affect lake water body (Lin et al., 2015; Liu et al., 2015; Leon-Munoz et al., 2013).
Without a complete data and information, lake managers and watersheds stakeholders would not beable to comprehend or have an absolute understanding on how the driving factors would impact thewater quality status which is the theoretical principle of Driver-Pressure-State-Impact-Response(DPSIR) in achieving sustainable integrated watershed-waterbodies management (Tsuzuki, 2015).
The concern of how lake water quality being managed is due to the fact that health status of lake water
quality especially natural and recreational lakes has significant impact on the public well-being, property
values and the number of tourist visits (Tuttle and Heintzelman, 2014; Larsona et al., 2013). A clean
and pristine lake is one of the key indicator on measuring the sustainable development and the qualityof life of a community (Tuttle and Heintzelman, 2014; Larsona et al., 2013). In addition, natural andrecreational lakes are also a tangible reflection of the quality of life in a given community (Tallis et al.,2015). A major contributing factor of amenity and aesthetic values of a community livelihood especiallyin urban areas. Studies by Dunalska et al., 2015; Kandulu et al., 2014 and Larsona et al., 2013 haveshown that there is a significant correlation to reductions in stress, lowered blood pressure, andapparent physical health to the length of stay and frequency of visits to recreational parks and being
with nature.
It is also important to be aware that most changes happened in lake water quality is unobservable tothe naked eye. Low dissolved oxygen, high total coliform, increase of water acidity of alkalinity, highconcentration heavy metals such as lead, mercury, zinc and copper, and high nutrients loads can never
be detected through visible eye view. Only when high pollutants concentrations combine with otherfactors causing algal blooms, fish kills, appearance of colour or turbid water, will physical evidence tobe noticed. The severity of pollutants concentrations in lake water quality can only be determinedthrough measurement with specific scientific equipment. Furthermore, the value of pollutants reading
must comply with standard water quality index before the actual condition of lake water quality is known.
The main reason why referring to the available standard developed specifically for river or industrial
effluent is not accurate, which is a common practice at the moment in Malaysia because lake water
quality standard is at development stage. The current practice is for lake managers or researchers tofollow Water Quality Index (WQI) developed by Department of Environment (DOE) Malaysia intended
to assess industrial discharge into rivers and streams, and/or either combining it with Carlson 1977
Trophic State Index. In addition, pathogenic indicators such as E. Coli and Total Coliform are missing241Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

in both standard, which is quite inapt as pathogenic parameters is important in permitting body contact
recreational activities with lake water and its pointing towards any possible leakages of sewer orwastewater treatment pipeline within close vicinity of lake areas.
Therefore, the aim of this paper is to illustrate on the model development framework of spatial based
water quality prediction model as a supporting tool to be used intently by lake managers, and generally
by relevant stakeholders in implementing sustainable lake water quality management. The model
facilitates understanding of parameters that affect lake water quality, the quantitative relationships
between all the variables, and integrates all the leading drivers within designated surrounding activitiesof lake environment, to measure alteration in lake water quality and forecast the water quality changes
with the changes of the identified variables. In addition, they may information to support sustainable
planning and lake restoration, on which funding decisions are made, providing prioritization on financial
allocation in order to avoid unnecessary surplus towards any particular lake.
Overview of Water Quality Modeling
Looking at a global scale, there are many types of prediction model developed or commercially used to
manage lake water quality, controlling pollution, managing the lake ecosystem, ecology and economic
assessment. Some of these models were developed to suit the geographical and lake morphologicalcondition of a particular country such as China, Turkey, New Zealand, USA, Canada, Switzerland,
Denmark and Japan. However, rest of the world rely heavily on the commercially developed model byadopting or adapting the model input to suit their targeted environmental goals. Most of the water quality
models developed focuses on eutrophication issues, nutrient fluxes due to agricultural activities,
sedimentation loads, and urban expansion of land areas in the lake shoreline or fringes (Nyamrumbu
and Magadza, 2016; Xue et al., 2015; Zou et al., 2014;). Integration between land-use activities, socioeconomic demand, hydrological factors, pollution sources and lake morphology, being calculated in one
database to assess current water quality status or forecasting the impacts on lake water quality is
usually non-existence.
At the regional level of ASEAN countries, Laguna De Bay of Philippines (Barbosa et al., 2007) andTonle Sap of Cambodia (Chea et al., 2016) are good examples of regional success in developing
specific model that meet the countries’ lakes need instead of just relying on using commercial model.
The purpose of developing water quality prediction model that tailored to the Malaysia’s need is to help
us to better reflect on our understanding of lake water quality interactions and their behavior, and we
can improve from the current traditional management practice, including cost saving on medium to longterm scale. In a long run, we would be able to share knowledge gained from our own experiences withother lake managers at regional and global scale.
GIS infrastructure existed in every government agencies and department is the major reason ofchoosing ARC-GIS as a platform of model set-up, with minimal financial implication in contrast tocommercially existed model such as PAMOLARE, InfoWorks, CENSIS and MIKE. The system alsocatered to standardize water quality parameter monitored by all lake managers, hence providing a
guideline on selecting suitable types of water quality parameter in regular monitoring. This is crucial inpromoting effective implementation of Integrated Lake Basin Management which has been introduced
to Malaysia since 2007 but has taken a slow ride in implementation scale. GIS is also chosen becauseof its ability to store, retrieve, manage and analyse spatially and temporally varied data (Kim et al.,2012). The system provides the best platform to integrate both spatial and non-spatial data into decision
support system. Its ability to perform interpolation and extrapolation at large spatial scales also playhuge advantages (Liu et al., 2015; Lee and Chung, 2007).
Once the lake managers and stakeholders are enlightened about the medium to long term hazards oflake mismanagement to the whole lake ecosystem health and well-being, they likely would form a strongpressure groups to facilitate effective implementation of established policies and strategic planning.
Through this model they would also be able to make a responsive and affirmative decision.
METHODS
Previous studies of model development in Malaysia mainly focusing on sustainable rivers management
only. A handful of studies on model development with regards to lake are only concentrating on nutrient
response model for shallow tropical lake (Sharip et al., 2012), eutrophication (Ishak, 2012) and water
quality assessment of urban recreational lake which omit the watershed and surrounding land use
factors (Oyekanmi et al., 2014). Recent studies (Sharip et al., 2016; Sharip and Yanagawa, 2016; Aliet al., 2013) deliberated on the subject of water demand issues, assessment of spatial water quality
dynamics, and lake ecosystem dynamics in response to nutrients fluxes respectively, using theapplication of commercial software. Most of the existing studies on lakes in Malaysia for the past five
years only concentrated on pollution determination especially sedimentation, runoff, nutrient fluxes and242

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

eutrophication; including their impact on aquatic ecosystem. The variables of population density,
expansion of development and urbanization close to lake water, prospect of changes in land use
activities within lake watershed and how it has affected the lake water quality are the common missing
link and minimally studied.
Conceptual Framework
Similarity based modelling is adopted in this particular research due to severe data limitation in water
quality parameter and lake geomorphology. The principle of similarity based modelling is introducing
similarity measure between a series of given or known values of an element with similar options (Chen,
2009; Wegerich, 2004 and Duch, 2000). The theory is to postulates water quality status of other lakes
using similarity index quantified based from lake with comprehensive series of data.
The currently developed model is only focusing on spatial distribution of three major independent
variables which are the social factor, the water quality parameter and the physical factors as illustrated
in Figure 1. This similarity based model is complimenting the non-spatial factors that consists ofestablished guidelines, policy and strategic planning by serving as management or decision support
tool.

Figure 1. Conceptual Framework of the developed Spatial Prediction Model.
Model Design and Structure
A geodatabase was developed to integrate the rainfall, population density, water quality, catchment
area, land-use types, pollution sources and drainage network in one platform. Arc-GIS 10.3 software isused in model development. The percentages of built up area, rainfall distribution and population density
was calculated within specified range of 1km buffer (Wardropper et al,2015, Liu et al., 2015, Dunalska
et al, 2015, Kibena et al, 2014) radius surrounding the selected lakes. The 1km buffer was clipped withland use map of the lakes and served as modeling database. The rainfall data and river basin network
for this study were obtained from National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM). The
2013 land use map was acquired from Department of Town and Rural Planning, and 2010 population
density data were obtained from Department of Statistic. Seventeen water quality parameters wereselected based on systematic literature review of previous researches from 2000 to 2016 which are;pH, temperature, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD), Dissolved
Oxygen (DO), Total Phosphorus, Total Nitrogen, Ammonia, E. Coli, Total Coliform, Turbidity,
Suspended Solids, Chlorophyll a, Nitrate, Nitrite. Correlations between land use types and water quality
were tested using Pearson’s correlation coefficient or Principal Component Analysis (PCA) withstatistical significances at p<0.01 using SPSS to measure the association between the independent
variables.

243

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

In order to measure the status of lake water quality and variables that affecting it, an equation based
from y=mx+c is formed (equation 1).
LWQI=f (S+W+P)(1)

LWQI = Lake Water Quality Index;
f = Coefficient; S = Social Factor; W = Water Quality Factor and P = Physical Factor
Lake Putrajaya because of its comprehensive long-term water quality data has been selected as basedmodel to develop the similarity index. 5 years data set of lake water quality from 2010 to 2015 obtained
from Perbadanan Putrajaya was calculated to produce range of values, categorizing each range ofvalues in classes of bad, poor, medium, good and excellent. 85 recreational lakes in Selangor and 8
recreational lakes in Kuala Lumpur were selected in prediction model development. Those with missing
or incomplete data, interpolation technique is applied using spatial analyst tool. Secondary data of
selected recreational lakes in Selangor and Kuala Lumpur is engaged to calibrate and validate thedeveloped similarity based water quality prediction model. In addition, for measurement of model
sensitivity, sampling of lake water of selected lakes was conducted and the measured data will be runusing the developed model. This is to ensure the model achieves its key objective of development aswell as to gauge the uncertainties factor and percentage of accuracy.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSThe expected result from this research is a spatial water quality prediction model to predict water quality
status with changes of variables within the specified 1 km buffer, as well as displaying current status of
the lake water quality. A range of numerical values in index form categorizing the lake water quality
status from bad, poor, good and excellent, served as guideline for lake managers to determine theirlakes water quality status. The similarity index is also presented in visualization form depending onwater quality status (Figure 2).

a

b

C
c
Figure 2. The example of expected visualisation output of the developed model based from thecalculated index, indicating lake water quality status a) poor; b) medium; c) good (images used are
just as an example, source: Google Image)244

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The sparse data availability especially water quality data during model development is seriously
considered during model development. It is generally very difficult if not impossible, to acquire enoughdata sets to sufficiently calibrate and validate a model as the basis of effective decision making.
Uncertainty will occur in calibration process due to data deficiencies, which lead to significant
interpretations among parameters. Lin, P. et al., 2015, Xue et al., 2015, and Zou et al., 2014 havecontemplated that water quality model developed through the traditional trial and error calibration andvalidation process will encounter great uncertainties in both simulations and predictions, especially withscarcity of data. The targeted output of this research is not only about water quality prediction, but also
to demonstrate the major advantages of applying GIS spatial analysis technique as a cost-effective anduser-friendly tool in sustainable water quality research and management to promote effective ILBM
implementation with diverse kind of disparity and limitations. It is also expected that model output canbe emulated in other lakes serving different role such as flood mitigation, irrigation and water supply,
but potentially facing risk of water quality impairment with any changes of land use activities within lakeareas.
CONCLUSIONS
The developed water quality model is for the lake water quality managers to meet the water quality
targets and reversing deterioration trend. The approach of similarity based technique is to predict a
range of possibilities in water quality response to external drivers which include quantifying the spatial
variability and to produce an effective management tool that, in spite of severe data limitations, would
be able to assists lake managers to establish water quality monitoring regime within a period of time.
The model is useful in decision making, for it helps to understand the features and behaviours of lakewater and its surrounding environment relationship. It also allows policy makers and stakeholders toassess the effects exerted by activities based on distance, hence using proximity as a basis ofsustainable planning. It helps them to better relate to the lake water quality problems directly andindirectly affecting them, which eventually facilitates the process of developing a shared vision for thewatershed and lake waterbody. Moreover, the model also acts as communication tool that bridge
barriers and gap between lake managers and key stakeholders to make good decision with regards tolake and its ecosystem.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Special appreciation and big thanks to National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia (NAHRIM),
Federal Department of Town and Country Planning Peninsular Malaysia, Department of Statistics
Malaysia and Environment, Lake and Wetland Division, Perbadanan Putrajaya for their support andkind assistance in providing technical help as well as sharing important data and information.
REFERENCES
1. Agalanu, L.M., 2014. Watersheds and rehabilitation measures – A review. Resources andEnvironment 4(2),104-114.
2. Ali, M.F., Saadon, A., Abd Rahman, N.F., Khalid, K.(2013). An Assessment of Water Demand in
Malaysia Using Water Evaluation and Planning System. InCIEC 2013,743-755.
3. ASM and NAHRIM (2010). Managing Lakes and Their Basins for Sustainable Use in Malaysia. Lake
Brief Report Series 1, 2010.
4. Barbosa, O.B., Hernandez, E.C., and Santos-Borja, A. (2007). Decision Support System and GIS
as Tools for Integrated Management of the Laguna De Bay Basin. Proceedings of Taal 2007: The
12th World Lake Conference, 2212-2219.
5. Chea., R., Guo, C., Grenouillet, G., and Lek, S. (2016). Toward an ecological understanding of aflood-pulse system lake in a tropical ecosystem: Food web structure and ecosystem health.
Ecological Modelling, 323, 1-11.
6. Chen, Y., Garcia, K.E., Gupta, R.M., Rahimi, A., Cazzanti, L. (2009). Similarity-based Classification:
Concepts and Algorithms. Journal of Machine Learning Research, 10, 747-776.
7. Dai, X., Zhou, Y., Ma, W., and Zhou, L. (2017). Influence of spatial variation in land-use patterns andtopography on water quality of the rivers inflowing to Fuxian Lake, a large deep lake in the plateau
of southwestern China. Ecological Engineering, 99,417-428.
8. Duch, W. (2000) Similarity-based methods: a general framework for classification, approximation
and association. Control and Cybernetics 29 (4). http://www.fizyka.umk.pl/publications/kmk/00cckn.pdf.
9. Duggan, I. C. (2012). Urban planning provides potential for lake restoration through catchment revegetation. Urban Forestry & Urban Greening, no. 11, pp. 95– 99, 2012.

245

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

10. Dunalska, J.A, Grochowska, J., Wiśniewski, G., and Napiórkowska-Krzebietke A., (2015). Can we
restore badly degraded urban lakes? Ecological Engineering,82, 432-441.
11. Elliott, A.H., Annette F. Semadeni-Davies, Ude Shankar, John R. Zeldis, David M. Wheeler, David
R. Plew, Gerald J. Rys, Simon R. Harris. (2016). A national-scale GIS-based system for modelling
impacts of land use on water quality, Environmental Modelling & Software,86, 131–144.
12. Erol, A. and Randhir, T.O. (2013). Watershed ecosystem modeling of land-use impacts on water
quality. Ecological Modelling,270, 54-63.
13. Evers, M. (2008). An analysis of the requirements for DSS on integrated river basin management.
Management of Environmental Quality: An International Journal, 19(1),37-53.
14. International Lake Environment Committee Foundation (ILEC) (2005). Managing Lakes and their
Basins for Sustainable Use: A Report for Lake Basin Managers and Stakeholders.Technical
Report,12-13.
15. Ishak MY (2012) Predictive modelling of eutrophication and algal bloom formation in tropical lakes.
PhD thesis, The University of Adelaide Australia.
16. Kandulu, J.M, Connor, J. D, and MacDonald, D.H. (2014). Ecosystem services in urban water
investment. Journal of Environmental Management. 145, 43-53.
17. Kazi, T.G., Arain, M.B., Jamali, M.K., Jalbani, N., Afridi, H.I., Sarfraz, R.A., Baig, J.A., and Shah, A.
Q. (2009). Assessment of water quality of polluted lake using multivariate statistical techniques: A
case study. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety.72, 301-309.
18. Kibena, J., Nhapi, I. Gumindoga, W. (2014). Assessing the relationship between water quality
parameters and changes in landuse patterns in the Upper Manyame River, Zimbabwe. Physics andChemistry of the Earth, 67,153–163.
19. Kim, J., Noh, J., Son, K., and Kim., I. (2012). Impacts of GIS data quality on determination of runoff
and suspended sediments in the Imha watershed in Korea. Geosciences Journal, 16(2), 181-192.
20. Larsona, E.K. and Perrings, C., (2013). The value of water-related amenities in an arid city: Thecase of the Phoenix metropolitan area. Landscape and Urban Planning, 109, 44-55.
21. Lee, K.S. and Chung, E.-S. (2007). “Development of integrated watershed management schemes
for an intensively urbanized region in Korea”, Journal of Hydro-environment Research,1, 95-109.
22. Leon-Munoz, J. Echeverria, C., Marce, R, Riss,W.,Sherman,B.,Iriarte,J.L. (2013).The combined
impact of land use change and aquaculture on sediment and water environmental quality inoligotrophic Lake Rupanco. Journal of Environmental Management,128, 283–291.
23. Lin, B., Chen, X., Yao, H., Chen, Y., Liu, M., Gao, L., and James, A. (2015). Analyses of landusechange impacts on catchment runoff using different time indicators based on SWAT model.
Ecological Indicators, 58, 55-63.
24. Lin, P., Yang, Z-L, Cai, X. and David, C.H. (2015). Development and evaluation of a physicallybased lake level model for water resource management: A case study for Lake Buchanan, Texas.
Journal of Hydrology: Regional Studies, 4, Part B,661–674.
25. Liu, Y., Long, H., Li, T., and Tu, S, “Land use transitions and their effects on water environment in
Huang-Huai-Hai Plain, China”’ Land Use Policy, no. 47, pp. 293 – 301, 2015.
26. Lytras, E. (2007). Developing models for lake management. Desalination, 213,129-134.
27. Matisoff, G., Watson, S.B. Guo, J., Duewiger, A. Steely, R. (2017). Sediment and nutrient distribution
and resuspension in Lake Winnipeg, Science of The Total Environment, 575, 173–186.
28. NAHRIM and NRE (2005). A Desk Study on the Status of Eutrophication of Lakes in Malaysia.
Technical Report,85– 90.
29. Niswonger, R.G., Allander, K.K., and Jeton, A.E. (2014). Collaborative modelling and integrated
decision support system analysis of a developed terminal lake basin. Journal of Hydrology, 517,
521-537.
30. Nyamrumbu, T.O., and Magadza C.H.D (2016). Using the Planning and Management model of lakes
and reservoirs (PAMOLARE) as a tool for planning the rehabilitation of Lake Chivero, Zimbabwe.
Environmental Nanotechnology, Monitoring and Management 5 ,1-12.
31. Oyekanmi, Adeleke Abdulrahman and Nik Daud, Nik Norsyahariati and Ahsan, Amimul and Pradhan,
Biswajeet. (2014). Water quality assessment of UPM lake and the impact of geographic information
system. International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 2 (3).158-162. ISSN 23287659; ESSN: 2328-7667.
32. Sharip, Z., Saman, J.M., Noordin, N. et al. (2016). Assessing the spatial water quality dynamics in
Putrajaya Lake: a modelling approach. Model. Earth System Environment, 2: 46.
doi:10.1007/s40808-016-0104-z
33. Sharip, Z., Yanagawa, R. & Terasawa, T. (2016). Eco-hydrodynamic Modelling of Chini Lake: Model
Description. Environ Model Assess 21: 193. doi:10.1007/s10666-015-9464-4

246

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

34. Sharip, Z., Schooler, S. S., Hipsey, M. R., & Hobbs, R. J. (2012). Eutrophication, agriculture andwater level control shift aquatic plant communities from floating-leaved to submerged macrophytes
in Lake Chini, Malaysia. Biological Invasions, 14(5), 1029–1044.
35. Tallis, H., Kennedy, C.M., Ruckelshaus, M., Goldstein,J. and Kiesecker, J.M. (2015). Mitigation for
one & all: An integrated framework for mitigation of development impacts on biodiversity andecosystem services, Environmental Impact Assessment Review, 55, 21–34.
36. Tsuzuki, Y. (2015). Relationships between pollutant discharge and water quality in the rivers from“better” to “worse” water quality. Ecological Indicators, 52,256-269.
37. Tuttle, C.M, and Heintzelman, M.D. (2014). A loon on every lake: A hedonic analysis of lake water
quality in the Adirondacks”, Journal of Environmental Economics and Management, 57(1),21-44.
38. Wardropper, C, B., Chaoyi Chang, Adena R. Rissman (2015). Fragmented water quality
governance: Constraints to spatial targeting for nutrient reduction in a Midwestern USA watershed.
Landscape and Urban Planning, 137,64-75.
39. Wegerich, S.W. (2004). Similarity based modeling of time synchronous averaged vibration signals
for machinery health monitoring. Proceedings of Aerospace Conference.IEEE Xplore. ISBN
Information ISSN: 1095-323X. DOI: 10.1109/AERO.2004.1368182
40. World Lake Vision Action Report Committee (2007). Implementing the World Lake Vision for the
Sustainable Use of Lakes and Reservoirs. International Lake Environment Committee (ILEC).
41. Xue, C-H, Yin, H-L, Xie, M. (2015). Development of integrated catchment and water quality model
for urban rivers. Journal of Hydrodynamics, 27(4),593-603.
42. Zessner, M., Martin Schönhart, Juraj Parajka, Helene Trautvetter, Hermine Mitter, Mathias Kirchner,
Gerold Hepp, Alfred Paul Blaschke, Birgit Strenn, Erwin Schmid. (2016). A novel integrated
modelling framework to assess the impacts of climate and socio-economic drivers on land use andwater quality. Science of The Total Environment, http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2016.11.092
43. Zou, R., Zhang, X., Liu, Y., Chen, X., Zhao, L., Zhu, X., He, B., Guo, H. (2014). Uncertainty-based
analysis on water quality response to water diversions for Lake Chenghai. Journal of Hydrology 514,
1-14.

247

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Topic 7. Biodiversity and conservation
HABITATS CHARACTERIZATION FOR IHAN (Neolissochilus sp.) CONSERVATIONPLANNING AROUND LAKE TOBA, NORTH SUMATERA, INDONESIA
Sekar Larashati1*, Iwan Ridwansyah1
Research Center for Limnology-Indonesian Institute of Sciences*Corresponding author: asti@limnologi.lipi.go.id

1

ABSTRACT
Lake Toba is home for some Indonesian native fishes including the endemic species. Ihan
(Neolissochilus sp.) is a local name for a fish inhabiting Lake Toba and rivers in North Sumatera which
has high economic and sociocultural value. However, the population of ihan in the wild has declined
because of several factors such as overfishing and habitat degradation. Conservation program for ihan
is required to prevent them from extinction. Our previous study has identified ihan (N. cf sumatranus)from some rivers surrounding Lake Toba. The present study aimed to physically and chemicallycharacterize some ihan habitats potentially developed as conservation areas. Tulas, Bonandolok, andBoho rivers in Samosir District and Binangara River in Dairi District were selected. Habitat mapping andmeasurement of the physical and chemical parameters were conducted at the locations. Mapping wasdone by Geographic Information System (GIS) and direct measurement in the field. Water quality wasmeasured by Water Quality Checker and laboratory analysis. Based on the physical conditions andwater quality data, the four rivers support the growth and development of ihan. However, Bonandolok
River is the most suitable site for conservation because two thirds of the sub-catchment areas are
dominated by natural forests. Still, the riparian zone of Bonandolok River needs to be restored withsome vegetation preferable for ihan. The existing local wisdom in Bonandolok related to ihan capture
will play a role in the conservation program and sustainable utilization of ihan.
Keywords: Neolissochilus, Lake Toba, habitat characteristics, conservation area
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is one of the world mega biodiversity countries with high fish species diversity. There areapproximately 1218 freshwater fish species, of which 1700 are native species and 630 of them areendemic (Hubert et al., 2015). Ihan or ikan batak is one of the native fish species with high economic
and sociocultural value. The fish inhabiting Lake Toba and rivers surrounding it. Genera of Tor and
Neolissochilus are known as ihan by the local people. The fishes are sold with a high price in the local
market reaching up to approximately Rp 300,000/kg.
According to the published reports, the population of Tor and Neolissochilus are declining in the wildbecause of overexploitation, habitat degradation, water pollution, and the introduction of exotic species(Kottelat et al., 1993; Haryono & Tjakrawidjaja, 2006). Therefore, some efforts need to be made toprotect the fish from extinction which can be conducted ex situ and in situ. The in situ approach may
include local wisdom which exists in the community and developing the conservation area (Maskur,
2002).
Krismono and Sarnita (2013) reported that there are 19 locations scattered around Lake Toba whichhave been categorized as conservation areas. However, Lukman (2013) mentioned that those locations
were established for fish restocking managed by Department of Marine and Fisheries. Some of thoseareas were not suitable for conservation sites because of several activities which may harmfully impact
the environment or fish habitats such as the cage aquaculture, port, and tourism (Lukman, 2013).
Nasution et al., (2013) mentioned that the 19 locations have been reevaluated and only 11 locations
meet the criteria for conservation areas. Nevertheless, those potential locations have not beenthoroughly studied.
Selection of potential habitats for conservation area should be based on the bioecological characteristicof the fish. Habitat quality and land use change greatly influence the presence and abundance of fish
and other aquatic biota in the river (Diana et al., 2006). Our study aimed to physicochemically andmorphologically characterize some rivers as recommended by Nasution et al., (2013) for developing
ihan conservation areas around Lake Toba. Four rivers from two Districts were selected and the study
included the geographic information system (GIS), remote sensing, and measurement in the field. The
GIS has been widely used as a rapid, objective, and cost-effective tool to map fish habitat forconservation and restoration project (Fisher and Toepfer, 1998; Lunetta et al., 1997).

248

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

METHODS
Habitat mapping and water physicochemical measurement
Four rivers inhabited by ihan were selected for characterization (Fig. 1). Three rivers (Tulas,
Bondandolok, and Boho) are located in Samosir District and one river (Bonandolok) is in Dairi District.
Except for Bonandolok River, the three rivers are among the proposed conservation areas around Lake
Toba (Nasution et al., 2013). We added in Bonandolok River because our previous study showed ihan
was captured in this river. Habitat mapping and physicochemical measurement were done at thelocations during the dry season (June 2016) (Table 1). The coordinates of Lake Toba are 98o 28’ 8.194”
E - 98o 12’ 36.65” E and 20 55’ 23.828” N - 20 11’ 22.795” N.

Figure 1. Location of the selected rivers for habitats characterization
Remote sensing and GIS (spatial and 3D analysis) were conducted to determine the conservation zone.
The parameters to be analyzed are shown in Table 1. Remote sensing was used to identify the riparianvegetation condition in river segment. The digit on screen method based on the visualization of satellite
images (SPOT 6 and SPOT 7 2014-2015) was used for the identification procedure. The satellite
images were also used to classify the land use in each potential sub-catchment for conservation areas.
Pre-processing including atmospheric correction, geometric and composite of the RGB band on natural
color composite were conducted to obtain better visualization on the satellite image. The green color in
the image exhibits vegetation and the reddish color exhibits settlement area.
Morphometric parameters are important for describing the physical condition of ihan habitat. Digital
elevation model (DEM) SRTM 30m was performed for subcatchment morphometry. This dataset canbe accessed here http://dds.cr.usgs.gov/srtm/version2_1/SRTM30//srtm30 (Farr et al., 2007). Digital
elevation model data was analyzed with GIS application ArcGIS 10.2 and 3D Analyse tools to obtainslope and river network in sub-catchments. Habitat characterization was analyzed using GIS application
combined with a visual map of Indonesia 1:50,000 published by Geospatial information Agency. The
analysis was integrated with DEM and land use map was classified using ALOS 6 and ALOS 7 satellite
images.
The hydrological condition observed in this study was discharged and flow velocity of the rivers segment
selected for the conservation areas. Discharge volume influences the thermal and hydrologic stabilityof habitat characteristics (Gordon et al. 1992). The flow velocity was measured using a current meterand discharge was measured using the velocity-area method. Water quality is important to sustain fish
growth and in relation to the land use at sub-catchment area. Water quality parameters were measured
in the field using Water Quality Checker YSI Professional Plus (USA) and by laboratory analysis.

249

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1. Measurement methods of different parameters.
No
Parameter
1
Subcatchment area

Measurement method
GIS

2

Length and width of river

GIS and on site measurement

3River gradient and subcatchment

GIS

4Discharge and flow velocity

On site measurement

5Riverbed and riparian vegetation

On site measurement and sampling

6

Water quality (temperature, pH, dissolved
oxygen, conductivity, turbidity, oxidation
reduction potential, total nitrogen, total
phosphate, total suspended solid)

On site measurement with Water Quality
Checker (WQC) dan and laboratory
analysis

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Sub-catchment characterization
Land use in subcatchment area of the river has an important role in fish habitat preservation. Humanactivities on the land use may influence stream ecosystem and water quality (Diana et al., 2006). We
characterized the types of land use in sub-catchments of selected rivers which were obtained from
SPOT-6 and SPOT-7 satellite image.
We defined the borders of selected rivers using Automatic Watershed Delineation (AWD) to getmorphometric calculations, slope, and shape of sub-catchments. Figure 2 shows the results of AWD
as sub-catchment polygon of the selected rivers. There are three sub-catchments mutually bounded, ie
Tulas, Bonandolok, and Boho which have similar watershed characteristics compared to Binangara
sub-catchment. The three sub-catchments have similar soil type composition as well as the shape andslope.

DEM Toba Watershed

Sub-Catchment map

L. Toba

L. TobaBinangara
Bonandolok
Tulas
Boho

Figure 2. Automatic Watershed Delineation on DEM of Toba Subcatchment.
Physical Characteristics of the selected rivers
Binangara River
The river is located in the west part of the lake at Dairi District. The point of measurement andobservation were at one of the pools situated along the river. The averages of width and depth are 8 m
and 0.6 m, respectively. The water flows continuously with slow velocity (0.17 m/s) and discharge of
0.6 m3/s. A waterfall is formed in the upstream. The river was dominated by igneous rock sized of 10
cm – 0.5 m. Some banyan trees (Ficus sp.) grow in the riparian zone. Paddy field and bushes were
found in the location adjacent to ihan habitat (Fig. 3B). The overall land use of Binangara subcatchment250

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

was dominated by natural forest (92%) (Fig. 3). The distance from the river mouth to the upstream is 1
km and a steep part was formed close to the upstream (Fig. 3C).

2%

6%

ForestPlantation
Pasture92%

A
B

Land use map of Binangara

Elevasi (m asl)

Waterfall

1

C

2

3

4

5

Km

Profile of Binangara River
Figure 3. Land use map (A, B) and profile of Binangara River (C). Red color in the graph (C) is ihan
habitat. Land cover of sub-catchment area is dominated by forest. River bed is dominated by boulder
and sand.
Bonandolok River
Bonandolok River flows continuously with river bed dominated by gravel or boulder, lumps, and igneousrock. A waterfall named Sitapigagan is situated in the upstream. The averages of width and depth of
the river were 9 m and 0.4 m, respectively. The river flows slowly and continuously with high gradientreached to 0.12 m/s and discharge of 0.7 m 3/s. The composition of land use and morphology of thesubcatchment are shown in Figure 4. Overall, 66% of Bonandolok subcatchment was covered by theforest which is predominantly located in the upstream and the remaining was covered by industrial
plantation. The percentage of forest area already exceeded the minimum area of forest by government
regulation No. 104 in 2015 (30%). The satellite image showed that the vegetation buffer at the side of
Bonandolok River was 10-22 m. Riparian vegetation with 10-30 m forested buffer is able to maintainstream temperatures which are important to certain fish species (Osborne and Kovacic, 1993). The
types of land use adjacent to fish habitat were pasture and agriculture.

251

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

0.1%

0.2%

0.0%

0.3%

Bush
Dry
Agriculture
Forest0.0%

Paddy
Pasture32.0%

Plantation
Settlement

66.2%
A

Water

1.1%
Land use map of Bonandolok

Elevation (m asl)

B

1

2

3 4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12 Km

C

Profile of Bonandolok River
Figure 4. Land use map (A,B) and profile of Bonan Dolok River (C). Red color in the graph is ihan
habitat. Land use of sub-catchment area is dominated by forest. River bed is dominated by boulder. A
pool was formed between the waterfall and the main river.
Tulas River
The river is located in the west part of the Lake Toba with points measured in the area next to the churchof Tulas Village. The width of the river was 5.1 m with depth average of 0.3 m. The river flows
continuously with the high gradient shown by strong flow with a velocity of 0.9 m/s and discharge of 0.6
m3/s. The river was dominated by igneous rock with the size of 10 cm – 0.5 m. Main river segment hasmoderate flow with slope gradient in the middle of the segment (Fig. 5). The riparian vegetation at theside of the river was dominated by banyan trees. Based on the satellite image, the vegetation buffer at
the side of Tulas River was 5-10 m. Subcatchment area surrounding the ihan habitat was dominatedby paddy field, coffee plantation, and settlement area. However, overall land use in the subcatchment
was dominated by the forest (Fig. 5). Tulas River is among the list of rivers proposed for fish
conservation zone (Nasution et al., 2013). However, subcatchment of Tulas has been further developed
into settlement and agriculture areas.

252

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

0%

Bush

0%
2%

5%

Dry
Agriculture
Forest

1%

Paddy

32%
Pasture53%

Plantation

7%

Settlement
Water

Elevation (m asl)

A: Land use map of Tulas

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8 Km

B: Profile of Tulas River
Figure 5. Land use and profile of Tulas River. Red color in the graph is ihan habitat. Land use of
subcatchment area is dominated by forest. River bed is dominated by ignaeous rock.
Boho River
The river is situated at the west part of Lake Toba. Points measured were approximately 1.5 km fromthe bridge at river mouth to the office of Boho Village head community. The width and depth of the river
were 5.6 m and 30 cm, respectively. The river flows continuously with high gradient reached to 0.3 m/s
and discharge of 0.3 m 3/s. The river bed was dominated by igneous rock with the size of 20 cm – 1.5
m. The riparian vegetation dominates the river edge and banyan trees were found in some area of theriparian zone. Other areas of the riparian zone were used for settlement and agriculture. Overall land
use in sub-catchment is mostly dominated by forest (41%), followed by pasture (32%), agriculture which
includes paddy field, and coffee plantation (24%), and settlement (1%) (Fig 6).

253

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

1%

0%

2%

Bush

6%

Dry Agriculture

11%

ForestPaddy

32%

Pasture41%

Plantation
Settlement

7%

Elevation (m asl)

A: Land use map of Boho

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11 Km

B: Profile of Boho River
Figure 6. Land use map (A) and profile of Boho River (B). Red color in the graph is ihan habitat. Landuse of sub-catchment area is dominated by forest, however very large areas are used for pasture andagriculture.
Water quality
The results of measurement on water quality parameters of the selected inlets are summarized in Table
2. In general, the water conditions of the four rivers support the growth and development of ihan.
Temperatures of selected rivers were between 19.9 – 29⁰C and the lowest temperature was found in
Bonandolok River (19.9⁰C). Dissolved oxygen (DO) concentrations were between 8.2 – 8.9 mg/L andthe highest was in Tulas River which has rapid water flow and cascade. The pH of the selected rivers
ranged between 7- 8.

254

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 2. Physical condition and water quality of the selected rivers.
No Parameters
Binangara
Bonan Dolok
Tulas
PhysicalBoho

1Sub-catchment area(ha)Type of the rivers

809.9

2487.51229.12737.7

Continue

Continue

Continue

Continue

Length of main river(km)
Width of river (m)Depth of river (m)Gradient of river (%)

6.04

9.3

6.5

16.3

8
0.6
11.9

9
0.4
18.5

5.1
0.3
25.3

5.6
0.3
14.1

14.7

24.9

35.8

17.8

8

Gradient of subcatchment (%)
Discharge (m3/s)

0.6

0.7

0.6

0.3

9

Flow velocity (m/s)

0.17

0.12

0.9

0.3

10

Riverbed

11

Boulder,gravelWaterfallSand,gravel-Boulder,gravel-ForestForestForestAgriculture

6

2

0,3

1

14

Predominate
morphology
Dominancy of land
use at the upstream
Distance to settlement(km)
Riparian vegetation

Boulder, sand,gravelWater fall

Agriculture

Forestforest15

Local Wisdom

-

exist

-

Settlement
and Road
-

2
3
4
5
6
7

12
13

Water quality
16

Temperature (⁰C)

23.47

19.95

24.14

23.51

17

DO (mg/l)

8.29

8.26

8.9

8.8

18

pH

7.48

7.61

7.18

7.68

19

Conductivity (m/cm)

0.037

0.043

0.065

-

20

Turbidity (NTU)

2.78

4.4

-

15.6

21

ORP (mv)

113

108

172

107

22

2.1

2

20.5

14.6

23

Total Suspended solid(TSS) (mg/L))
Total N (mg/L)

0.149

0.465

0.362

0.355

24

Total P (mg/L)

0.083

0.084

0.122

0.081

Mahseer of Tor and Neolissochilus or Tambra of Tor sp. live in the same water condition. Hoàng et al.,(2015) reported that the water condition where Neolissochilus stracheyi lives were 17-26⁰C, pH
6.5−7.66, DO 79−88.6% (7.49-8.4 mg/L), conductivity 10–34 µS/cm and flow velocity 0.17−0.77 m/s,
while Tor lives in rivers where temperatures were 21−26⁰C, pH 7−7.66, DO 79−80.6% (7.49-7.64 mg/L),
conductivity 32−34 µS/cm and flow velocity 0.20−0.77 m/s. Tambra of Tor sp. inhabit water with atemperature between 25-26⁰C, pH between 6-7, and DO 5.8-8.5 mg/L (Haryono & Subagja, 2008).
Genera Tor and Neolissochilus live in rapid flow and clear water. Haryono and Subagja (2008)
characterized tambra (Tor sp.) habitat according to their size. Adult fish inhabits deep pools, slow tomoderate water flow, 15-20 m width, >1.5 m depth, river beds composed of sand and gravel. Fry lives
in moderate to rapid water flow, 15-20 m width, < 1 m depth, riverbed composed of rocks with diametermore than 50 cm, sand and gravel. Juvenile inhabits river bank with sand-river bed and calm or slow
flow.

255

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Water clarity is the most important factor for the living organism which provides food source for the fish
including tambra or mahseer (Desai (2003) in Haryono & Tjakrawidjaya, 2009). Generally, sampling
locations of the selected rivers have clear water except for Boho River, slow to strong flow, riverbeds
consist of boulder and sand, and upstream which are predominantly covered by natural forests except
in Boho River.
In sub catchment of Boho River, the land along the river is used as settlement and agriculture areas.
The upstream of Boho River is dominated by production forest which is managed for the timber industry.
Higher turbidity in Boho River (Table 2) was the result of input from domestic and agricultural activities
to the water. Although the turbidity value was still in the recommended limit for fish (Wardoyo,1994),
the tendency of high anthropogenic pressure along Boho River would constrain the development ofconservation area in Boho River. Land use changes adjacent to the streams may have severe effects
on the lifecycle of fish such as loss of breeding, feeding, and resting sites (Paul and Meyer 2001). In
addition, the flow of Boho River is also used for hydroelectric power generation. Boho River may not besuitable for the conservation area.
According to Syahroma and colleagues (2013), Binangara River is one of the potential areas for fish
conservation site. However, there are some agricultural activities in the upstream (Fig. 4B) which may
become a problem when developing the conservation area in this river. Moreover, further study on thewater flow condition of Binangara River is needed because some has observed no water flow during
the dry season. Continous water flow is required for fish conservation area. Land-use disturbances inwatersheds can negatively affect the stream water chemistry and aquatic biota (Morgan and Phillipp,1986). Farming activities which release the nutrients and pesticides to adjacent water bodies can leadto eutrophication. In freshwater systems, it affects fish and fisheries by changing the availability andtype of food for the fishes (Richardson, 2001). The TSS value of Tulas River was the highest among
the four rivers (Table 2) which was the result of agricultural activities in the riparian zone and othersubcatchment area. Much effort needs to be made to develop Tulas, Binangara, and Boho River into a
conservation area, such as replacing chemical fertilizer with the organic one and pesticide banning for
agricultural activities.
Subcatchment of Bonandolok River showed less agricultural or plantation activities compared to otherselected rivers. Moreover, the percentage of forest area in Bonandolok was greater than the other river
sub catchments. The quality of riparian vegetation is important for the fish because it has an effect on
the light and water temperature, as well as to provide the food and habitat (Zalewski et al., 2001).
Genera Tor and Neolissochilus feed on some fallen fruits from the riparian zone, insects, mollusks, andplant matter (Khaironizam et al., 2015; Roberts & Khaironizam, 2008). According to the local people
around Lake Toba, fruit from Ficus sp. is favored by ihan. Ficus trees were found in the riparian zoneof the selected rivers. Preserved riparian vegetation buffer was observed only in Bonandolok (Table 2).
Some vegetation preferable for ihan such as Ficus sp. should be planted in the riparian zone of
Bonandolok River. Bonandolok River and its surrounding have physical characteristics which support
for the development of ihan conservation areas such as a strong water flow and preserved riparianvegetation.
In addition, the village community living near Bonandolok River implements a local wisdom to preserve
the nature. One of the local wisdom roles is for managing ihan captured in the river. The local people
have conducted some rituals near the river before doing some activities in or surrounding the river. The
existing local wisdom could be one of the strengths which should be retained as a part of ihan captured
management.
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the physicochemical characteristics on the selected habitats, Bonandolok River is potential
for the development of ihan habitat conservation area. More than two-thirds of the subcatchment isnatural forests. The existing local wisdom in the Bonandolok village might be a keypoint for the fishery
management and conservation. The sub-catchment areas of Tulas and Boho River have been changed
into the agriculture and settlement areas. However, it is still possible to develop Tulas and Boho Rivers
as ecotourism site with some infrastructures restoration. Further study on the biological characterizationis required to get a comprehensive description of the selected rivers.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
This research was supported by a grant from DIPA. The authors wish to thank colleagues from the
Research Center for Limnology-Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Lukman for the fruitful discussion andSumi Fajar Lestari for analyzing the water quality parameters.

256Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

REFERENCES
1. Diana, M., Allan, J. D., & Infante, D. (2006). The Influence of Physical Habitat and Land Use on
Stream Fish Assemblages in Southeastern Michigan. American Fisheries Society Symposium, 48,
359–374.
2. Farr, T. G., Rosen, P. A., Caro, E., Crippen, R., Duren, R., Hensley, S., Kobrick, M., Paller, M.,
Rodriguez, E., Roth, L., Seal, D., Shaffer, S., Shimada, J., Umland, J., Werner, M., Oskin, M.,
Burbank, D., and Alsdorf D. (2007). The shuttle radar topography mission, Rev. Geophys., 45,
RG2004, doi:10.1029/2005RG000183.
3. Fisher, WL and Toepfer, CS. (1998). Recent trends in Geographic Information Systems educationand fisheries research applications at U.S. Universities. Fisheries Education 23(5): 10 –13.
4. Gordon, N. D., T. A. McMahon, and B. L. Finlayson. (1992). Stream hydrology: an introduction for
ecologists. Wiley, New York.
5. Haryono, & Subagja, J. (2008). Populasi dan Habitat Ikan Tambra , Tor tambroides ( Bleeker , 1854
) di Perairan Kawasan Pegunungan Muller Kalimantan Tengah. Biodiversitas, 9(4), 306–309.
http://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d090414
6. Haryono, & Tjakrawidjaja, A. H. (2006). Morphological Study for Identification Improvement ofTambra Fish ( Tor spp .: Cyprinidae ) from Indonesia. Biodiversitas, 7(1), 59–62.
http://doi.org/10.13057/biodiv/d070115
7. Katherine Richardson. (2001). Antropogenically-Induced Change in The Environment: Effect on
Fisheries, Reykjavik Conference on Responsible Fisheries in the Marine Ecosystem, p 1 – 15.
8. Khaironizam, M. Z., Zakaria-Ismail, M., & Armbruster, J. W. (2015). Cyprinid fishes of the genus
Neolissochilus in Peninsular Malaysia. Zootaxa, 3962(1), 139–157.
9. Lunetta, RS, Cosentino, BL, Montgomery, DR, Beamer, EM and Beechie, TJ. (1997). GIS based
evaluation of salmon habitat in the Pacific Northwest. Photogrammetric Engineering and Remote
Sensing 60 (10): 1219 – 1229.
10. Maskur. (2002). Pogram Pelestarian Plasma Nutfah Ikan-Ikan Perairan Umum. Akuakultur
Indonesia, 1(3), 139–143.
11. Meyer, J. L., M. J. Paul, and W. K. Taulbe. (2005). Stream ecosystem function in urbanizing
landscapes. Journal of the North American Benthological Society 24:602–612.
12. Morgan, M. D. and K. R. Philipp. (1986). The Effect of Agricultural and Residential Development on
Aquatic Macrophytes in the New Jersey Pine Barrens. Biological Conservation 35:143-158
13. Nasution, S. H., Sulastri, Lukman, Koeshendrajana, S., Ridwansyah, I., & Dina, R. (2013).
Penyusunan Konsep Konservasi Danau Towuti dan Danau Toba melalui Pendekatan Enam
Komponen Konservasi. In Prosiding Pertemuan Ilmiah Tahunan MLI I (pp. 417–440).
14. Nicolas Hubert, Kadarusman, Arif Wibowo, Frédéric Busson, Domenico Caruso, Sri Sulandari, Nuna
Nafiqoh, Laurent Pouyaud, Lukas Rüber, Jean-Christophe Avarre, & Fabian Herder, Robert Hanner,
Philippe Keith, R. K. H. (2015). DNA barcoding Indonesian freshwater fishes: challenges andprospects. DNA Barcodes, 3(1), 144–169. http://doi.org/10.1515/dna-2015-0018
15. Osborne, L.L., and Kovacic, D.A. 1993. Riparian vegetated buffer strips in water-quality restorationand stream management. Freshwater Biol. 29: 243–258.
16. Roberts, T. R., & Khaironizam, M. Z. (2008). Trophic Polymorphism in the Malaysian Fish. Nat. Hist.
Bull. Siam Soc., 56(1), 25–53.
17. Wardoyo, S.T.H. (1982). Water Analysis Manual Tropical Aquatic Biology Program BiotropSeameo, Bogor, 81pp.
18. Krismono, A.S.N. dan A.S. Sarnita. (2003). Penilaian Ulang Lima Suaka Perikanan di Danau Toba
Berdasarkan Kualitas Air dan Parameter Perikanan Lainnya. Jurnal Penel. Perik. Indonesia, 9(3):111.
19. Zalewski, M., Thorpe, J.E., & Naiman, R.J. (2001). Fish and riparian ecotones – a hypothesis.
Ecohydrology and Hydrobiology 1: 11-24.
20. Lukman. (2013). Danau Toba: Karakteristik Limnologis dan Mitigasi Ancaman Lingkungan dariPengembangan Karamba Jaring Apung. Jakarta, LIPI Press.
21. Kottelat, M. (2013). The fishes of the inland waters of Southeast Asia: a catalogue and core
bibliography of the fishes known to occur in freshwaters, mangroves and estuaries. Raffles Bulletinof Zoology Supplement, (27), 1–663. Retrieved from papers://838fcd4f-424d-4cac-ae85bc4755cc911f/Paper/p914.

257

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

AVIFAUNAL AND RIPARIAN VEGETATION COMPOSITION IN AND AROUND THE
MUSEUM LAKE IN GOVERNMENT ZOOLOGICAL GARDEN THIRUVANANTHAPURAM,
KERALA INDIA
1*
1
Anila. P. Ajayan , Ajit Kumar K G , Anoop Rajamony2, Prasannan Krishnankutty3, Ravinesh
Raveendran 4
Department of Botany Mahatma Gandhi College, Thiruvananthapuram 695 004, 2LivestockResearch Station, Kerala Veterinary and Animal Sciences University, Thiruvazhamkunnu,
Palakkad 678 601, 3Department of Zoology Mahatma Gandhi College, Thiruvananthapuram
695 004, 4Department of Aquatic Biology & Fisheries University of Kerala,
Karyavattom Campus Thiruvananthapuram 695 581*
Corresponding Author: anila.dehradun@gmail.com

1

ABSTRACTThis study considers with species composition, diversity and IUCN threat status of avifaunal population
along with earmarked riparian vegetation in and around the lentic ecosystem inside the Government
Zoological Garden, Thiruvananthapuram Kerala. Of the total 60 bird species identified during the study
period June 2013 to June 2015, 88% (S=53) are resident breeders and 23% (S=14) are winter migrants.
The order Passeriformes shows an exceptional gradient of species diversity with 26 species (43%). 17%(S=8) of the total 46 plant species belongs to the family Poaceae followed by Araceae andLecythidacaea. Nesting ground of Oriental darter (Anhinga melanogaster), a near threatened species
enlisted in the IUCN Red List ignites the indispensability of biodiversity conservation and effective
resource management. The Thiruvananthapuram zoo which is located in the heart of the city acts as abuffering zone for the captured, exhibited and native avian fauna. The maximum number of bird species
was observed in winter season as compared to the summer and monsoon. Highest numbers of birds
were recorded during the month of November(n=423) and lowest in August (n=193) which may be dueto the availability of food and favourable climatic conditions for nesting, roosting and boosting for mostof the bird species in the winter season. This watery ecosystem and the surrounding vegetation is an
abode of diverse fauna which emancipates the global concept of conservation and ecological duty, even
if it is being landscaped at the heart of the overcrowding city. The distribution of birds shows the statusof this aquatic ecosystem.
Keywords: Avifauna, Kerala, Oriental darter, Riparian Vegetation, Zoological garden.
INTRODUCTION
India which shares 2.4% of the world’s land area covers 8.1% of the global species diversity that makes
our country one of the 12 mega biodiversity countries of the world (Praveen et al., 2016). A recent report
recorded 1263 species of avifauna i.e., 12.5% (Praveen et al., 2016) of that of the worlds is in India.
Kerala records a total of 500 species of birds of which 17 of them are endemic to Western Ghats and
25 of them are included under IUCN threatened categories and 32 are categorized under NearThreatened whereas, 443 are listed under the schedules of Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act and 71 arelisted under the appendices of CITES (Praveen, 2015). Ecologically, birds are of tremendous
importance because of their key roles as pollinator and agents of seed dispersal (Bibi and Ali, 2013).
Urbanisation (Czech et al., 2000), habitat loss (Blair and Launer, 1997; Marzsluff and Ewing, 2001) andpollution (Lovett et al., 2009) are the major causes of biodiversity loss. The loss of natural habitats due
to various pressures in urban areas has increased the emphasis upon the capacity of zoos and parks
in contributing towards the conservation of biodiversity of native fauna (Kuruvilla, 2014). Therefore,
understanding the diversity and structure of bird communities is essential to define the importance of
avian conservation in those areas (Kattan & Franco, 2004). Lakes, rivers and riparian vegetation provide
favourable conditions to birds for their habitat for feeding, roosting, nesting and breeding (Ali, 1969;
Vyas & Singh, 2004; Bijukumar, 2006; Rias et al., 2011; Singh and Laura, 2012). Riparian ecosystems
have been found to be among the most productive and valuable wildlife habitats wherever they occur(Hubbard, 1977; Schrupp, 1978). There is a dazzling array of freshwater wetlands- inland water bodies
in India yet to be explored in terms of its biodiversity. These studies on biodiversity will help in the
management of those lakes and also helps in the biodiversity conservation.
In this context, a study was carried out to obtain some preliminary checklist of bird community and theirrelation to the riparian vegetation around the Museum Lake in Thiruvananthapuram Zoo. Moreover, thefeeding habits of the birds are assigned as described by Ali and Ripley (2007). This information isrequired for proper planning of management towards sustainability of the ecosystem as a whole.

258

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

METHODSThe Thiruvananthapuram museum and zoo is one of the oldest of its kind in India located at the heartof the city (08˚30' N, 076˚57’E). The lake is extended over an area of 2 acres. A total of 60 bird species
were identified during the study period from June 2013 to June 2015. Field studies were carried out
mainly during the early morning hours from 7.00 am to 9.30 am when the birds were most active.
Identification of birds was done by both sight and sound, direct observations were done periodically andspot identification was done based on standard field guides such as, Ali and Ripley, (2007) Grimmet etal., (2011) and Kazmierczak, (2000). Plant taxa were identified in the field and photographs were taken
for further identification and closer examination following Gamble (2011). The scientific and common
names follow Manakadan & Pittie (2002). The feeding habits of the birds were assigned as describedby Ali and Ripley (2007).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Avifaunal Diversity
During the study period, a total of 60 bird species belonging to 33 families and 14 orders were recorded
around the Museum Lake. Among them, 51 of the birds recorded were included in the Schedule I and
IV of the Wildlife Protection Act 1972. 53 bird species in them are resident breeders, 14 of them are
winter migrants. List of Bird species observed around the Museum Lake is given in Table.1 and thepercentage of Order of species is shown in Figure.1.

Anseriformes
2%

Podicipediformes 1

2%

Ciconiformes
5%

10%

43%

2%
3%

7%
5%

3%

8%

5%

5

Pelicanoformes 3
Gruciformes

1

Falconiformes

2

Columbiformes 2
3%

2%

Psittaciformes

2

Cuculiformes

4

Strigiformes

1

Figure 1. Order-wise percentage of birds observed around Museum Lake.

259

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1. List of Avifauna Recorded in and around the Museum Lake, Thiruvananthapuram.
Sl.
No
1

2

3

4
5
6
7
8
9

10
11
12

Classification
Order: Anseriformes
Family: Anatidae
Dendrocygna javanica(Horsfield, 1821)
Order: Podicipediformes
Family: Podicipedidae
Tachybaptus ruficollis (Pallas,
1764)
Order: Ciconiiformes
Family: Ciconiidae
Anastomus
oscitans(Boddaert,1783)
Family: Ardeidae
Nycticorax
nycticorax(Linnaeus, 1758)
Ardeola grayii (Sykes, 1832)
Bubulcus ibis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Mesophoyx intermedia(Wagler, 1829)
Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus,
1766)
Order: Pelicaniformes
Family: Annhingidae
Anhinga melanogaster(Pennant, 1769)
Family: Phalacocoracidae
Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot,
1817)
Phalacrocorax
fuscicollis(Stephens, 1826)
Order: Falconiformes
Family: Accipitridae

NonBreeding
Resident

IUCN
StatusBreeding
Resident

LC

X

X

Schedule IV

Little Grebe

LC

X

X

Schedule IV

Asian Openbill Stork

LC

Black-crowned Nightheron

LC

X

Indian Pond-heron
Cattle Egret
Intermediate Egret

LC
LC
LC

X
X
X

X
X

Schedule IV
Schedule IV
Schedule IV

Little Egret

LC

X

X

Schedule IV

Oriental Darter

NT

X

Little Cormorant

LC

X

Schedule IV

Indian Cormorant

LC

X

Schedule IV

Common Name (BLI)

Lesser Whistling-duck

WinterMigrant

X

260

SummerMigrant

Passage
Migrant

Category in
WPA

Schedule IV
Schedule IVProceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

13
14
15

16
17
18

19
20
21
22
23
24

25

Milvus migrans(Boddaert,
1783)
Haliasturindus(Boddaert,
1783)
Accipiter badius (Gmelin,1788)
Order: Gruiformes
Family: Rallidae
Amaurornis
phoenicurus(Pennant, 1769)
Order: Columbiformes
Family: Columbidae
Columba livia Gmelin, 1789
Treron pompadora (Gmelin,
1789)
Order: Psittaciformes
Family: Psittacidae
Psittacula krameri (Scopoli,
1769)
Psittaculacyanocephala(Linnaeus, 1766)
Order: Cuculiformes
Family: Cuculidae
Cuculus varius (Vahl, 1797)
Cuculus micropterus Gould,
1837
Eudynamys
scolopaceus(Linnaeus, 1758)
Centropus sinensis (Stephens,
1815)
Order: Strigiformes
Family: Strigidae
Glaucidium radiatum (Tickell,
1833)
Order: Apodiformes
Family: Apodide
Cypsiurus balasiensis (Gray,
1829)

Black Kite

LC

X

Brahminy Kite

LC

X

Schedule I

ShikraLC

X

Schedule I

White-breasted
Waterhen

LC

X

Schedule IV

LC

X

LC

X

Schedule IV

Rose-ringed Parakeet

LC

X

Schedule IV

Plum-headed Parakeet

LC

X

Schedule IV

CommoncuckooIndian Cuckoo

LC
LC

X
X

Asian Koel

LC

X

Schedule IV

Greater Coucal

LC

X

Schedule IV

Jungle Owlet

LC

X

Schedule IV

Asian Palm-swift

LC

X

Blue Rock Pigeon
Pompadour
pigeonGreen-

Hawk-

261

X

Schedule I

X

Schedule IV
Schedule IVProceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

26
27
28
29
30
31
32

33
34
35

36
37
38
39
40

Apus affinis affinis (Gray, 1829)
Order: Coraciiformes
Family: Alcedinidae
Ceryle rudis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Pelargopsis
capensis(Linnaeus, 1766)
Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus,
1758)
Alcedo atthis (Linnaeus, 1758)
Family: Meropidae
Merops orientalis (Latham,
1802)
Order: Piciformes
Family: Ramphactidae
Megalaima viridis (Boddaert,
1783)
Megalaima
haemacephala(Müller, 1776)
Family: Picidae
Dinopium
benghalense(Linnaeus, 1758)
Order: Passeriformes
Family: Aegithinidae
Aegithina tiphia (Linnaeus,
1758)
Family: Campephagidae
Coracina macei (Lesson, 1830)
Family: Oriolidae
Oriolus oriolus (Linnaeus, 1758)
Oriolus xanthornus (Linnaeus,
1758)
Family: Dicruridae
Dicrurus macrocercus (Vieillot,
1817)
Family: Monarchidae
Terpsiphoneparadisi(Linnaeus, 1758)

House Swift

LC

X

Pied Kingfisher
Stork-billed Kingfisher

LC
LC

X
X

Schedule IV
Schedule IV

White-throated
Kingfisher
Common Kingfisher

LC

X

Schedule IV

LC

X

Schedule IV

Little Green Bee eater

LC

X

LC

X

Schedule IV

Coppersmith Barbet

LC

X

Schedule IV

Black-rumped
Flameback

LC

X

Schedule IV

Common Iora

LC

X

Schedule IV

LCXBlack-hooded Oriole

LC
LC

X

Black Drongo

LC

X

Schedule IV

LC

X

Schedule IV

White-cheeked Barbet

Large Cuckooshrike
Eurasian Golden Oriole

Asian
flycatcher

Paradise-262

Schedule IV
X

Schedule IV
Schedule IVProceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

41
42
43
44

Family: Corvidae
Dendrocitta
vagabunda(Latham, 1790)
Corvus splendens Vieillot, 1817
Corvus levaillantii Lesson, 1831
Family: Pycnonotidae
Pycnonotus jocosus (Linnaeus,
1758)

Rufous Treepie

LC

X

House Crow
Jungle Crow
Red-whiskered Bulbul

LC
LC
LC

X
X
X

X

45

Family: Cisticolidae
Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant,1769)

Common Tailorbird

LC

46

Family: Phylloscopidae
Phylloscopus
trochiloides(Blyth,1843)

Greenish Leaf Warbler

LC

47

Family: Leiothricnidae
Turdoides affinis (Jerdon, 1845)

48

Family: Sturnidae
Acridotheres tristi (Linnaeus,
1766)

49

Yellow-billed Babbler

Schedule IV

Schedule IV

X

Schedule IV

LC

X

Schedule IV

Common MynaLC

X

Schedule IV

Acridotheres fuscus (Wagler,
1827)

Jungle MynaLC

X

Schedule IV

50

Sturnia malabarica (Gmelin, JF,
1789)

Chestnut-tailed Starling

LC

X

51

Sturnus
1758)

Rosy Starling

LC

52

Family: Muscicapidae
Copsychus saularis (Linnaeus,
1758)

Oriental Magpie-robin

LC

53

Muscicapa
1811

Asian Brown FlycatcherLCroseus(Linnaeus,

dauurica

Pallas,X

Schedule IV

X

Schedule IV

X

Schedule IV
X

263

Schedule IVProceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

54

Family: Irenidae
Chloropsis(Temminck, 1829)

55

Family: Dicaeidae
Dicaeum
erythrorhynchos(Latham, 1790)

56

Family: Nectarinidae
Nectarinia zeylonica (Linnaeus,
1766)

57

Nectarinia lotenia (Linnaeus,
1766)

58

Family: Motacillidae
Dendronanthus(Gmelin, 1789)

59
60

Golden-fronted
Leafbird

LC

X

Pale-billed
Flowerpecker

LC

X

Schedule IV

Purple-rumped Sunbird

LC

X

Schedule IV

Long-billed Sunbird

LC

X

Schedule IV

Forest Wagtail

LC

Motacilla
maderaspatensis
Gmelin, JF, 1789

White-browed Wagtail

LC

Motacilla cinerea Tunstall, 1771

Grey WagtailLC

aurifrons

indicus

X
X

Schedule IV
Schedule IV

X

Schedule IV(LC: Least Concern; NT: Near Threatened)
A maximum number of bird species was observed in winter season as compared to the summer and monsoon. Highest numbers of birds were recorded during
the month of November and lowest in July and August. This may be due to the availability of food and favourable climatic conditions for nesting; roosting andboosting for most of the bird species in the winter season (Bhat et al., 2009; Singh and Laura, 2012). Moreover, the water body which is abundant in fish species
like Grass Carp (Ctenopahryngodon idella), Rohu (Labeo rohita), Catla (Catla catla) and Tilapia (Oreochromis mossambica) provides food resources for thebirds. The presence of some of the exclusive piscivores like Oriental Darter and Cormorants were conspicuous due to their good numbers and ideal feeding
condition for these birds. Similar observation was also made by Vyas and Singh (2004).The abundance of birds from the Museum Lake is given in (Fig. 2).

264

No. of Bird Encounters

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. The abundance of avifauna recorded from Museum Lake during the study period.
The distribution of birds reflects the status of the aquatic ecosystem and the surrounding vegetation. A
good number of birds are insectivores followed by piscivores and frugivores (Fig.3). Increased numberof insectivores birds are related to the increased phytophagus insects from the riparian vegetation.
Lovejoy et al., (1986) observed the influence of these phytophagus insects on the bird diversity. A
similar observation was made by Rathore and Sharma (2000). Moreover, the waterbirds recorded fromthe lake showed an increase in number especially with the Oriental Darter (Anhinga melanogaster) (Fig:4) a bird enlisted in the Red Data Book of IUCN as a RET species. The Museum Lake within the zoo
provides a potential habitat for the bird. A significant sighting of Asian Openbill Stork (Anastomus
oscitans) a migratory bird shows importance of this critical habitat and the availability of necessary
resources from this water body. The resources obtained from this area makes them resident breeder
and migratory ones.

No. of Birds

25
20
15
10
5
0
Piscivores Insectivores Frugivores Carnivores Omnivores Nectivores
Figure 3. Feeding Guilds of the avifauna around the Museum Lake.

265

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. k dominance plot showing the waterbird diversity from Museum Lake for the study period.
(LWD; Lesser Whistling Duck; LG: Little Grebe; BCNH: Black Crowned Night-Heron; IPH: Indian PondHeron; CE: Cattle Egret; LE: Little Egret; IE: Intermediate Egret; AOS: Asian Openbill Stork; LC: Little
Cormorant; IC: Indian Cormorant; OD: Oriental Darter).
Riparian Vegetation
Riparian communities with diverse vegetation are best for promoting bird diversity (Schell and King).
Among the tree species, rain tree- Samanea saman (Fabaceae) and Bamboo varieties like Bambusa
bambos var. gigantea, B. multiplex, B. ventricosa, B. vulgaris, Dendrocalamus giganteus, D.
membraneus, D. strictus and Gigantochloa nigrociliata (Poaceae) were common. Hydrophytes wererepresented insignificant with Pistia sp and Lemna minor only. These plant varieties are providing cooland comfort zone for the birds and making it a haven for them. For the nectar feeding birds, seasonal
flowering varieties like Pongamia pinnata, Pteocarpus marsupium and Peltophorum peltocarpum are
attracting them. The shrub and herbaceous varieties like Quisqualis indiaca, Heliconia angusta, H.
restrata, Etlingera elatior, Alternanthera philoxeroides and Ipomea were common there. The rain tree
Samanea saman provides landing and roosting place for many bird species especially for the Asian
Openbill Storks.
Table 2. List of Plants associated with the Museum Lake.
FamilyMonodora myristica (Gaertn.) Dunal

Indigenous/
ExoticExoticPolyalthia longifolia (Sonner) Thw

IndigenousNE

Menispermaceae

Coscinium fenestratum (Gaertn.) Colebr

IndigenousNE

Sterculiaceae

Gauzuma ulmifolia Lam.

ExoticNE

Eleocarpaceae

Muntingia calbura L.

ExoticNE

Oxalidaceae

Averroha carumbula L.

ExoticNE

Annonaceae

Botanical Name/Authority

266

IUCN
StatusNE

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Anacardiaceae

Mangifera indica L.

IndigenousNE

Leguminosae
Pappilionaceae

Pongamia pinnata (L.) Pierre
Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.

Indigenous
Indigenous

LC
V

Mimosaceae

Albezzia saman (Jacq.) Merr.
Adenanthera pavonia L.

ExoticExoticNE
NE

Caesalpiniaceae
Combretaceae

Leucaena leucocephala (Lam.) de Wit.
Quisqualis indica (L.) DeFilipps
Terminalia catappa L.

ExoticExoticExoticLC
NE
NE

Barringtonia asiatica (L.) Kurz
Barringtonia racemosa (L.) Spreng
Careya arborea Roxb.
Cauropita gynensis Aubl.

ExoticIndigenous
ExoticExotic

LC
NE
NE
NE

Lagestromia flos – reginae Retz.
Carica papaya L.
Millingtonia hortensis L.f.
Spathodea campanulata P. Beauv.
Tecoma stans (L.) Juss.ex Kunth

ExoticExoticExoticExoticExotic

NE
NE
NE
NE
NE

Citharexylum spinosum L.
Alernanthera philoxeroides Griseb.
Dryptes conferiflora (Hook.f.) Pax & K.
Hoffm.
Sauropus androgynus (L.) Merr

ExoticExoticIndigenous

NE
NE
NE

IndigenousNE

Trema orientalis (L.) Blume
Antiaris toxicaria Lesch
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lam.
Artocarpus hirsutus Lam.

ExoticExoticExoticIndigenous

NE
NE
NE
NE

Etlingera elatior (Jack) R.M. S
Heliconia angustata Vell.
Heliconia rostrata Ruiz & Pav.
Epipremnum aureum (Linden and
Andre) G.S. Bunting
Epipremnum pinnatum (L.) Engl.
Lemna minor L.
Pistia sp
Bambusa bambos var. gigantea(Bahadur) Bennet & R.C. Gaur
B. multiplex (Lour.) Raeusch.ex SchultB. ventricosa McClure.
B. vulgaris Schrad.ex J.C. Wendl
Dendrocalamus giganteus Munro
D. membraneus Munro
D. strictus (Roxb.) Nees
Gigantochloa nigrociliata (Buse) Kurz

ExoticExoticExoticExotic

NE
NE
NE
NE

ExoticExoticExoticExotic

NE
LC
LC
NE

ExoticExoticExoticExoticExoticExoticExotic

NE
NE
NE
LC
NE
NE
NE

Lecythidaceae
Lythraceae
Caricaceae
Bignoniaceae
Verbinaceae
Amaranthaceae
Euphorbiaceae
Ulmaceae
Moraceae
Zingiberaceae
Musaceae
Araceae

Poaceae

CONCLUSIONSThe study reveals better role of conservation areas as habitat for the avifauna. The Thiruvananthapuram
zoo which is located at the heart of the city acts as a buffering zone for the captured, exhibited andnative avian fauna. As urbanization is making depletion of the natural habitats, this ex situ conserved
area well nourished with exotic and indigenous floras and perennial water body inside could provide
shelter for the winged beauties. The increasing population of Oriental Darters enlisted in the IUCN Red
List ignites the necessity of biodiversity conservation and effective resource management of conditions
to birds for their habitat for feeding, roosting, nesting and breeding and there is an urgent need to study

267

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

on the biodiversity of those unexplored water bodies which ensures the conservation of diverse floraand fauna of the Museum Lake. The study emphasises that lakes, rivers and riparian vegetation provide
favourable conditions to the birds for their feeding, roosting, nesting and breeding.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Sincere thanks to the Director Museum and Zoo Department, Zoo Superintendent and the Zoo
Veterinarian for making necessary facilities during this survey. Thanks are due to Prof T K Dinesh
Kumar (Retired Professor, University College Thiruvananthapuram) for helping in plant identification.
REFERENCES
1. Ali S, Ripley SD. (2007). Handbook of the birds of India and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History
Society and Oxford University Press. 301.
2. Ali, Salim (1969). Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press. Delhi. 444.
3. Bhat, P.I., Cristopher, S.S. & Hosetti, B.B. (2009). Avifaunal diversity of Anekere Wetland,
Karkala, Udupi district, Karnataka, India. Journal of Environmental. Biology, 30(6),1059-1062.
4. Bibi, F and Ali, I. (2013). Measurement of diversity indices of avian communities at Jaunsa
Barrage Wildlife Sanctuary, Pakistan Journal of Animal and Plant Sciences. 23, 469-474.
5. Bijukumar, A. (2006). A checklist of avifauna of the Bharathapuzha river basin, Kerala. Zoos’
Print 21(8), 2350-2355.
6. Blair, R.B and Launer A.E. (1997). Butterfly diversity and human land use; species
assemblages along an urban genetic gradient. Biol Conservat. 80, 93-106.
7. Czech, B., P. R. Krausman, P. K. Devers. 2000. Economic associations among causes of
species endangerment in the United States. BioScience 50, 593-601.
8. Gamble,J.S. (2011) Flora of the Presidency of Madras Vol.1-3 : Bishen Singh Mahendra Pal
Singh, Dehra Dun . 1389.
9. Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp and T. Inskipp (2015). Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Oxford
University Press, Delhi, 527.
10. Hubbard, John P. (1977). Importance of riparian ecosystems: Biotic considerations. In
Proc.Symposium on importance, preservation, and management of riparian habitat. USDA For.
Serv. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-43, Rocky Mt. For. an~ Range Exp. Stn., Fort Collins, CO. 14-18.
11. Karmierczak,K. (2000). A Field Guide to the Birds of India. Pica Press, U.K., 351.
12. Kattan GH, Franco P. (2004). Bird diversity along elevation gradients in the Andes of Colombia:
area and mass effects. Global Ecology and Biogeography 13, 451-458.
13. Kuruvilla. K (2014), Role of an Ex-situ conservation site in sustaining the biodiversity of urban
bird population. Journal of Entomology and Zoology Studies 2 (5), 01-06.
14. Lovejoy, T.E., R.O.. Bierregaard Jr., A.B. Rylands, J.R. Malcom, C.E. Quintcla, L.I.I Harper,
K.S. Brown Jr., A.H. Powell, G.V.N. Powell, H.O. Schudart and M.B. Hays (1986). Edge andother effects of isolation in Amazon forest fragments. Pp: 257-285. In: Soule, M.E. (Ed.)
Conservation Biology, The Science of Society and Diversity. Sinauer Associated Publishers.
Sunderland, NA USA.
15. Lovett, Gary M., Timothy H. Tear, David C. Evers, Stuart E.G. Findlay, B. Jack Cosby, Judy K.
Dunscomb, Charles T. Driscoll, and Kathleen C. Weathers. (2009). Effects of Air Pollution on
Ecosystems and Biological Diversity in the Eastern United States. Annals of the New York
Academy of Sciences. 1162, 99-135.
16. Manakadan, R. & Pittie.A (2001). Buceros (ENVIS Newsletter. Standardised common andscientific names of the birds of the Indian subcontinent. 6(1): I–IX,1–37.
17. Marzluff, J.M and Ewing K. (2001). Restoration of fragmented landscapes for the conservationof birds: a general framework and specific recommendations for urbanizing landscapes.
Restor.Ecol. 9, 157-177.
18. Praveen, J. (2015). A Checklist of Birds of Kerala, India. Journal of Threatened Taxa. 7(13).
7983-8009.
19. Praveen, J. Rajah Jaypal and Asheesh Pittie. (2016). A Checklist of the birds of India. Indian
Birds. 11 (5&6), 113-172.
20. Praveen, Praveen Kumar, Subha Ganguly and Rajesh Wakchaure. (2016). Environmental
Pollution and Safety Measures- International Issues and its Global Impact. Pp: 40-65. In: M.M.
Abid Ali Khan, Murtaza Abid, S Rais Haider, Abdeen Mustafa Omer and Raaz K Maheshwari(eds). Global Progress in Development of Sustainable Environment.

268

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

21. Rathore, Vinita and R.K.Sharma. (2000). Avifauna of a Lake in District Etawah, Uttar Pradesh,
India. Zoo’s Print Journal. Vol. 15(6). Pp: 275-278.
22. Rias, M., Anwar, M., Mahamood, T & Hussain, I (2011). Bird diversity and conservation of Kahar
Lake with special reference to water birds. Pakistan J. Zool., 43 (4), 673-681.
23. Schell, Robert and Morgan A. King: Riparian Vegetation: Structural Diversity Benefits Birds.
Downloaded on 21 February 2015.
https://watershed.ucdavis.edu/education/classes/files/content/flogs/structuralvegetation.pdf
24. Schrupp, Donald L. (1978). The Wildlife values of Lowland River and stream habitat as related
to other habitats in Colorado. In Lowland river and stream habitat in Colorado: a symposium.
Colo. Chap. Wildl. Soc. and Colo. Audubon Council, Greeley, CO. 42-51.
25. Singh, A and Laura J.S (2012). Avian and Plant Species Diversity and their Inter
relationship in Tilyar Lake, Rohtak (Haryana). Bulletin of Environment, Pharmacology and Life
Science 1(9), 65 – 68.
26. Vyas, Rakesh and Himmat Singh. (2004) Biodiversity survey of Gandhisagar Reservoir,
Madhya Pradesh. Zoo’s Print Journal 19(7), 1525-1529.

269

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

FISH DIVERSITY OF THE SINGKARAK LAKE, INDONESIA: PRESENT STATUS ANDCONSERVATION NEEDS
Ainul Mardiah1*, Azrita2, and Hafrijal Syandri1
Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science,
Bung Hatta University, West Sumatera-Indonesia, 2Department of Biology Education,
Faculty of Education, Bung Hatta University, West Sumatera, Indonesia*Corresponding author: a_mrdh@yahoo.com
1

ABSTRACTSingkarak Lake is one of the priority lake in Indonesia which needs to be restored in terms of fish
production and source of income for many fishermen living. This study has been conducted fromJanuary to April 2016. This study aimed to reveal the existing of fish species and their composition
along with diversity and conservation needs. The results of present investigation reveal the occurrenceof fish belonging to 5 orders, 9 families, 16 genera and 19 species. Among the collected species, order
Cypriniformes was the most dominant consist of 42.10%, followed by order Perciformes 21.05%, order
Siluformes 10.52%, and order Tetraodontiformes and Synbranchiformes 5.26%, respectivelly. Among
19 species, bilih fish (Mystacoleucus padangensis) is endemik species in Singkarak Lake. Now, thisspecies has been introduced to Lake Toba and grow well in this lake. This species has economic value
to society around Singkarak Lake. The bilih status is endangered now, due to over fishing by gillnet andliftnet. Furthermore, needs to be conservation regarding the mess size and the total fishing gear usedin Singkarak Lake.
Keywords: Singkarak Lake, fish, diversity, conservation, economic value
INTRODUCTION
West Sumatera Province has total area 42297.3 km 2, which has natural conditions with plateau
mountains. The 15% of that area was used for agriculture. These Province has five major lakes i.e.
Maninjau Lake (9,950 ha), Singkarak Lake (11,220 ha), Diatas Lake (3,500 ha), Dibawah Lake (1,400ha), and Talang Lake (500 ha) (Suryono et al., 2008).
Singkarak Lake is one of the fifteen lakes priorities in Indonesia which needs to be saved from over
exploitation (Ministry of the Environment, 2011). This lake has a surface area of 11,200 ha and theaverage depth of 136 m. Singkarak Lake is a tectonic lake originate from the tectonic eruptions that
occurred during the quarter. The elevation of lake is 360.86 to 362.20 above sea level. Singkarak Lakeis located in Solok and Tanah Datar, West-Sumatera Province. The water sources of lake come from
Sumpur River, Paninggahan River, Baing River, Muara Pingai River, Saning Bakar River, and Sumani
River with the area 129,000 hectares (Syandri, 1996). The Singkarak Lake water naturally flow into
Ombilin River, and ended to estuary of east coast of Sumatera Island. Since the year of 1998, Singkarak
Lake water flowed through PLTA (hydropower) tunnel of Singkarak with the diameter 3.4 meters alongthe 17 km from January to October 2013. The discharge ranged from 17.02 to 52.66 m 3/sec to turn theturbine to produce electricity energy with 175 MW (PT. PLN Bukittinggi Power Sector, 2013). Singkarak
Lake was also used for capture fisheries, aquaculture, tourism, and irrigation. The number of fish
species found in Singkarak Lake was 19 species, and the most dominant populations is bilih (Syandri
et al., 2013). Recently, the populations of bilih in Singkarak Lake has declined and become an
endangered species characterized by the size of smaller fish was an average of 6.5 cm (Purnomo &Sunarno, 2009). Syandri et al., (2011) reported that the total length of bilih ranged from 6 -7 cm.
Furthermore, Syandri et al., (2013) states that the size of female of bilih ranged from 60-69 mm andmale of bilih ranged from 50-59 mm. There is no species caught on the size less than 50mm and bigger
than 109 mm. The size of bilih published by the researchers was smaller than the size of fish caught inthe years of 1996, which ranged from 10-15 cm (Syandri & Effendie., 1997, Syandri et al., 2001). Basedon the data, it is important to do an analysis the diversity of fish species and conservation need to bilih
fingerlings in Lake Singkarak.
METHODS
Study area and duration
The study was conducted in Singkarak Lake with geographical position S: 00⁰32′01"-00⁰42′32" and E:
100⁰28′28"-100⁰36′08", include the area of Sumpur, Paninggahan and Sumani sub-district of Tanah

270

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Datar and Solok district West-Sumatera. Observation was conducted for four months from January to
April 2016.
Sampling framework
Fish was collected at three stations named Sumpur, Paninggahan, and Sumani sub-district. Fishsamples were obtained from local fishermen caught using different type of fishing gear such as gill nets,
lift net, traps nets, and fishing pole. All fishing gears were operated at the same spot within the area of
0.5 km. It is to ensure that the maximum species was found in this study site. Gill net and lift nets were
set up in the late afternoon and left overnight, then its check in the morning. The fish samples weretransferred to laboratory for taxonomic study. Fish specimen were preserved with 10% formalin solution
and put in separate specimen jars as according to the size of species. The small size fish were directly
placed in 10% formalin solution while, preservation for the big size of fish by giving an incision in theirabdomen.
Fish Identification
The meristic and morphometric characteristic of fish were measured, and identified with the standard
keys books as according to Weber and de Beaufort, (1913; 1916; 1922 and Kottelat et al., (1993).
The data was collected from Singkarak Lake, and the species status based on IUCN red list.
The composition of daily catch by lift net was calculated by the following equation (Akiyama, 1997)
The number of fish catches (individual) species to i
The composition of fish catches =𝑥 100%
Total fish catch (individual)

Total daily fish catch =Total fish catch (individual)
Fishing Trip

x 100%

Primary catch
The percentage of the main catch was calculated by using the following equations.
∑ 𝑀𝐶
MR = ∑
x 100%
𝑇𝑁𝐺

Where: MR
Σ MC
ΣTNG

= The number of main catches;= The total number of main catches;= The total catches

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSThe composition of fish fauna
Fish composition and their status in Singkarak Lake, Indonesia were given in Table 1. The total of fish
belonging to 5 orders, 9 families, 16 genera and 19 species. The family of Cyprinidae was dominantcatches which are consist of 42.10% from total catch. Other families were Bagridae (10.52%),
Osphronemidae (10.52%), Channidae (10.52%), Tetrodontidae (5.26%), Anabantidae (5.26%),
Mastacembelidae (5.26%), Chiclidae (5.26%), and Gobiidae (5.26%), respectively (Figure 1). Aryani(2015) found the order of Cypriniformes in Kampar Kanan river were 13 species (36.11%), include
Cyprinus carpio, Leptobarbus hoeveni, Oreochromis niloticus and Osphronemus gourami. Fish
composition in Kampar Kiri River was also dominated by the order of Cypriniformes as many as 35
species (40.7%) (Simanjuntak et al., 2006). According to Kottelat et al., (1993) the species belong to
the family Cyprinidae is the largest freshwater fish species in worldwide; except Australia, Madagascar,
New Zealand, and South America. In Koilsagar reservoir Mahbubnagar district Telangana India foundthat the order Cypriniformes were 13 species (43.33%) (Laxmappa et al., 2015). In Betwa river Madhya
Pradesh India, the order Cypriniformes were 29 species (56.86%) (Vyas et al., 2012), then in the
Narmada river, Western Zone found that 28 species (54.90%) (Bakawale & Kanhere., 2013).
Based on IUCN status, nine species (47.36%) were not evaluated, eight species (42.10%) were least
concern, and two species (10.52%) were deficient data (Table 1). At Lima Puluh Kota river, from 43
species were identified. Based on the IUCN status, 20 species (46.51%) were categorized NOT
Evaluated, 18 species (41.86%) were categorized LEAST Concern, 4 species (9.30%) werecategorized Data Deficient, and one species (2.32%) was categorized Near Threatened (NT) (Statistic
data Fisheries Lima Puluh Kota Regency, 2013).
The utility of each fish species is diverse such as for consumption, bait, larvivous fish, medicinal value,ornamental fishes, and biological agents. In the point of tropical food level, fish species living in
Singkarak Lake consist of herbivores, carnivores, omnivores, and planktivores (Syandri et al., 2011).

271

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Mastacembelide
5.26%

Chiclidae
5.26%

Gobiidae
5.26%

Anabantidae
5.26%

Cyprinidae
42.10%

Tetrodontidae
5.26%
Channidae
11.52%
Bagridae
11.52%

Osphronemidae
11.52%

Figure 1. The percentage of fish family in Singkarak Lake, Indonesia
The composition of fish caught by lift net
The main purpose of lift net operated in Singkarak Lake is to catch bilih fish. However, based on thefish resources species identification, from 21 trip catches of fish was obtained 10,926 individual which
are consist of Mystacoleucus padangensis (81.17%), Puntius swanefeldi (4.26%), Hampala
macrolepidota (5.34%), Cyclocheilichthys dezwani (1.70%), Penaeus sp (6.68%), and Tetraodon
palembangensis (0.70%), respectively (Figure 2). Furthermore, composition based on the growth ofbilih caught by lift net, there were larvae (24.56%), juvenile (32.93%), and broodstock (47.33%),
respectively (Figure 3).
Cyclocheilichthys Paneus sp
de Zwani
6.68%
Hampala1.70%
macrolepidota
5.34%

Tetraodon
palembangensis
0.78%

Puntiusswanefeldi
4.26%

Gambar 2. The percentage of fish species caught by lift net

Mystacoleucus
padangensis
81.17%

Larva
24.56%

Broodstock
47.33%

Juvenil
32.99%

Figure 3. Composition of Bilih based on the growth stages caught by lift net

272

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The different size of Bilih caught by lift net or light fishing was due to very small mess size of nets (0.1
– 0.2 cm) for monofilament net, and (0.5 cm) for multifilament nets (0.5 cm) operated for fishing. It
means that mesh size of the gears used for fishing was not selective. Selective fishing gear means thatnet of the gear used for fishing is suitable for fish size, did not injure and kill other fish size (Sudirman
et al., 2011). The selective of lift net is very important for implementation of sustainable fishing activities
of Bilih fish in Singkarak Lake. According to Syandri et al., (2011) there are three points strategies toimplement the sustainability of Bilih fish fisheries in Singkarak Lake; (1) Management of fishing gear
through publishing a rule that gillnet used for fishing in mesh size of 1.0 inches, (2) Fish habitat
management through implementation of fisheries co-management, and (3) The management of fish
populations through development of fish hatchery and fish restocking. The improvement of selective
fishing gear is one of the efforts to implement the friendly environment lift net in Singkarak Lake, It is
expected that the fish catch have been on the decent size. At least currently fish on the size is the firstripe gonads (Length at first maturity / LFM).

273

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1. The status and utility of fish fauna in Singkarak Lake
Order

FamilyScientific Name

Local
English Name
Fish utility
Name
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Mystacoleucus padangensis Bilih
FD, MD, BT
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Osteochilus brachmoides
Nilem
Bonylip barb
FD, BA
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Osteochilis vittatus
Asang
Bonylip barb
FD, BA
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Cyclocheilichthys de Zwani
Turiq
FD
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Hampala mocrolepidota
Sasau
Hampala barb
FD, OF
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Tor douronensis
GaringSemah mahseer
FD, OF
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Puntius shwanefeldi
KapiekTinfoil barb
FD, OF
Cypriniformes
Cyprinidae
Puntius belinka
Balingkah FD
Cypriniformes
GobiidaePsilotris sp
RinukFD
Siluformes
Bagridae
Hemibagrus nemurus
Baung
Asian redtail catfish
FD
Siluformes
Bagridae
Clarias batrachus
KalangPhillipine catfish
FD
Tetraodontiformes
Tetraodontidae
Tetraodon palembangensis
Jabui
FD, OF
Perciformes
Osphronemidae
Osphronemus gurami
Kalui
Giannt gourami
FD
Perciformes
Osphronemidae
Trichogaster trichopterus
Sepat
Sneskin Gourami
FD, OF
Perciformes
Anabantidae
Anabas testudeneus
Puyu
Climbing perch
FD, LV
Perciformes
Mastacembelidae Mastacembelus unicolor
Tilan
FD
Perciformes
Channidae
Channa striata
Bakok
Striped snakehead
FD, MD
Perciformes
Channidae
Channa lucius
Bujuksnakehead
FD, OF
Cypriniodontiformes Chiclidae
Oreochromis niloticus
Nila
Nile tilapiaFD
FD = Food fish; BT = bait; OF =Ornamental fishes; LV =Larvivous fish; MD=Medicinal value; BA= Biological agents
IUCN Red List Status: NE = Not Evaluated; LC = Least Concern; DD = Data Deficient; NT = Near threatened274

Price/kg(IDR)
40.00025.00030.00030.00050.00050.00025.00025.00050.00050.00050.00030.00035.00030.00035.00035.00040.00040.00020.000IUCN Red
List Status
NE
LC
LC
LC
LC
NE
NE
NE
NE
LC
NE
DD
NE
LC
DD
NE
LC
LC
NE

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CONCLUSIONS
Among 19 species of fish in Singkarak Lake, bilih (Mystacoleucus padanggensis) was the most dominant
population, and categorized as endemik species in Singkarak Lake. This species has economic value tosociety around Singkarak Lake. The fish status is endangered now, due to over fishing by gillnet and liftnet,
local name Bagan. Furthermore, It needs to be conservation regarding the mess size and the total fishing gear
used in Singkarak lake.
REFERENCES
1. Akiyama, S. (1997). Discarded catch of set-net fisheries in Tateyama Bay. Journal of the Tokyo Universityof Fisheries.
2. Aryani, N. (2015). Native species in Kampar Kanan River, Riau Province Indonesia. International Journalof Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 2 (5) : 213-217.
3. Bakawale, S., & Kanhere, R. R. (2013). Study on the fish species diversity of the River Narmada inWestern Zone. Research Journal of Animal, Veterinary and Fishery Sciences, 1(6) : 18-20.
4. Dinas Perikanan Kabupaten Lima Puluh Kota. (2013). Statistic data of Fisheries Lima Puluh Kota
Regency.
5. Ministry of the environment. (2011). Grand design rencana pengelolaan danau di Indonesia.
6. Kottelat, M., Whitten, A. J., Kartika, S. N., & Wirjoatmodjo, S. (1993). Freshwater fishes of western
Indonesia and Sulawesi. Periplus Edition (HK), Jakarta.
7. Laxmappa, B., Jithender, K. N. S., & Vamshi, S. (2015). Ichthyofaunal diversity of Koilsagar reservoir in
Mahbubnagar district, Telangana, India. International Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Studies, 2(3) : 2330.
8. Purnomo, K., & Sunarno, M.S.D. (2009). Beberapa aspek biologi ikan bilih (Mystacoleucus padangensis
Blkr) di Danau Singkarak. Bawal, 2 (6 ) : 265-271
9. PT. PLN Bukittinggi Power Sector. (2013). Laporan kegiatan pemantauan dan pengelolaan Lingkungan
Danau Singkarak. Kerjasama antara PT. PLN. Sektor Pembangkitan Bukittinggi dengan Lembaga
Penelitian dan Pengabdian Masyarakat Universitas Bung Hatta Padang.
10. Simanjuntak, C.P.H., Rahardjo, M. F., & Sukimin, S. (2006). Iktiofauna rawa banjiran Sungai Kampar Kiri
(Ichthyofauna in Floodplain of Kampar Kiri River). Jurnal Ikhtiologi Indonesia 6 (2) : 99-109.
11. Sudirman., Hade, A. R., & Sapruddin. (2011). Perbaikan tingkat keramahan lingkungan alat tangkap
bagan tancap melalui perbaikan selektivitas mata jaring. Buletin Penelitian LP2M Universitas Hasanuddin
1(2) : 47-64.
12. Suryono, T., Nomosatryo, S., & Mulyana, E. (2008). Tingkat kesuburan danau-danau di Sumatera Baratdan Bali. Limnotek , XV (2) : 99 – 111.
13. Syandri. H. (1996). Aspek reproduksi ikan Bilih (Mystacoleucus padangensis Blkr) dan Kemungkinan
Pembenihannya di Danau Singkarak. Disertasi Program Doktor IPB Bogor.
14. Syandri, H., & Effendie, M. I. (1997). Distribusi umur dan pertumbuhan ikan bilih, Mystacoleucus
padangensis Blkr di Danau Singkarak. Terubuk, 67 (XVIII) : 2-16.
15. Syandri, H., Murniwira., & Azrita. (2001). Kebijakan pengelolaan plasma nutfah ikan Bilih endemik di
Danau Singkarak untuk kelestarian alam dan pembangunan berkelanjutan. Prosiding Seminar Nasional
Limnologi 2002. Pusat Limnologi Indonesia, Bogor.
16. Syandri, H., Junaidi., & Azrita. (2011). Pengelolaan sumber daya ikan bilih (Mystacoleucus padangensis
Blkr) berbasis kearifan lokal di Danau Singkarak. Jurnal Kebijakan Perikanan Indonesia, 3 (2) : 11-18.
17. Syandri. H., Aryani, N., & Azrita. (2013). Distribusi ukuran, reproduksi dan habitat pemijahan ikan bilih(Mystacoleucus padangensis Blkr.) di Danau Singkarak. Bawal, 5 (1):1-8.
18. Vyas. V., Dinesh, D., & Vivek, P. (2012). Fish biodiversity of Betwa River in Madhya Pradesh, India withspecial reference to a sacred ghat. International Journal of Biodiversity and Conservation, 2012; 4(2),71-77.
19. Weber, M., & de Beaufort, L.F (1913). The fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago. II. Malacoptergii,
Myctophoidea, Ostariophysi: I. Siluroidea. Brill Ltd. Leiden, 1913;.404 p.
20. Weber, M., & de Beaufort, L.F. (1916). The fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago. III. Ostariophysi: II.
Cyprinoidea, Apodes, Synbranchii. Brill Ltd. Leiden, 1916; 455 p.
21. Weber, M., & de Beaufort, L.F. (1922). The fishes of the Indo-Australian Archipelago IV. Heteromi,
Solenichthyes, Synentognathi, Percesoces, Labirynthici, Microcyprini. Brill, Leiden, 1922; 410 p.

275

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

THE FISH COMMUNITIES OF ABKHAZIAN LAKES
Nail Nazarov1*, R. Mingaliev1, Y. Badretdinova1, N. Mingazova1, R. Dbar2, R. Zamaletdinov1
1Kazan Federal University, Russia, 2 Ecology Institute of the Abkhazian Academy of Sciences, Abkhazia*Corresponding author: nail-naz@yandex.ru

ABSTRACTThe aim of this work was to assess the fish community's status of the Abkhazian lakes with different
anthropogenic pressing. In the work following tasks have been: a study of the species composition of the lake’s
fish fauna, assessment of species diversity of fish communities with the aid of standard indexes, analysis of
the environmental groups of fish communities in lakes. The material was collected by fishing on lakes using
fishnet with length of 3 m and a mesh size of 5 mm. Assessment of species diversity indices was carried out
by Margalef-, Menhinik- and Shannon-indexes. The study as a part of the fish communities of lakes Skurcha,
Ritsa, Mayak found 16 fish species of four units (Gasterosteiformes, Cephaloformes, Cypriniformes,
Perciformes). Skurcha’s fish communities to the following types by their feeding regime: 60% of benthophages,
planktophages (30%) and 10% of detritophages. Lake Mayak is fully represented by benthophages. The Lake
Ritsa is represented by planktophages (60%) and benthophages (40%). Skurcha had freshwater (46%),brackish water (36), and marine fish (18%). Lake Mayak is fully represented by freshwater species. The Lake
Ritsa is represented by brackish water species. Skurcha had rheophilic (60%) and limnophilic fish (40%). Lake
Ritsa is fully represented by rheophilic fish while Lake Mayak fish communities contain of limnophilic fish
(100%). By habitat types, fish communities of the lakes of Skurcha and Ritsa represented by demersal (50%)
and pelagic species (50%). Only demersal species (100%) live in the Lake Ritsa.
Keywords: Abkhazian lakes, Caucasus lakes, ichthyofauna, Lake Ritsa.
INTRODUCTION
Abkhazia is a partially recognised state on the eastern coast of the Black Sea and the south-western flank of
the Caucasus. It covers near 9000 square kilometres. In Abkhazia, there are more than 50 lakes. The largestof them are Lake Ritsa and Amtkel. The aim of this work was to assess the fish community of Lake Ritsa,
Skurcha and Lake Mayak. Most of the lakes of Abkhazia are underexplored and unexplored as a result of
military events from 1992 to 2008. In this regard, the study of ichthyofauna of lakes of Abkhazia is a particularly
relevant scientific task. Study of the ichthyofauna is an important aspect of the study of aquatic ecosystems
and assessment of its ecological status. Fish make a significant contribution to the function and energy balanceof aquatic ecosystems due to participation in trophic relationships, and often being on the end of food networks.
Data about fish fauna can be used for monitoring purposes. Anthropogenic impact leads to the transition of
the fish fauna of certain regions in an unstable and depressive state.
Currently to achieve our aim the following tasks were:
1. The study of species composition of ichthyofauna of the lakes.
2. Assessment of species diversity of the ichthyofauna using conventional indexes.
3. Analysis of ecological groups of ichthyofauna of the lakes.
Ritsa is a mountain lake in Abkhazia. It located in Ritsa Nature Reserve on 950 m above the sea-level. Lakesurrounded by mixed mountain forests and subalpine meadows. Mountains with heights of 2200 to 3500 m
surround the lake. The lake has a tectonic origin. Ritsa is an oligotrophic freshwater lake. Area – 1,27 km²,
length – 2,5 km, width - from 270 to 870 meters. The average depth is 63 m, maximum - 131 m. Power supply
are rains and snow (Elanidze, 1983) .
Lake Skurcha is located on the left bank of the river Kodor in Ochamchira district of Abkhazia. From the BlackSea it separates narrow coastal strip in widths since 100 to 200 meters. Skurcha is an artificial origin lake,
which was formed from the quarry. The area is 140 hectares with depth of 26 meters. In the lower layers of
the lake there is a very high concentration of hydrogen sulphide. The lake receives water from the river Kodor
and connected by channel with the Black Sea. Skurcha is an mesotrophic brackish water lake (Elanidze, 1983).
Lake Mayak is located in the south-western part of the city of Sukhum. Mayak is an artificial origin lake. The
area is 10 hectares with depth of 3.5 meters. Mayak is a mesotrophic freshwater lake. The lake has a low
value of recreation for the local population. On the banks of the lake marked the illegal dumping of household
and organic waste (Elanidze, 1983).
METHODSIn the 2015-2016 years the staff of Kazan University and Abkhazian Academy of Sciences investigated thefish fauna of the three lakes in Abkhazia. Ichthyologic material has been collected by fishing with a whitebaitscraper with a length of 6 m and mesh step of 5 mm and a fishing net. It was determined the species
composition of fish (Veselov, 1977) and sorted by species. The average number of each species was counted

276

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

on the basis of quantitative indicators of catches. The structure of the fish community was described by
calculating the share of each species in the catches. To assess the status of fish communities, we calculated
the Margalef and Menhinick indexes of species richness and Shannon index of species diversity(Magurran,2004).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSWe revealed 16 species in the composition of ichthyocenosis of studied lakes (Table 1). Most of them belongs
to the order of Cypriniformes (nine species), four species of Perciformes, one species – Mugiliformes, two Gasterosteiformes.
Table 1. The list of ichthyofauna species.

Lake
Skurcha+Species
Alburnus alburnus
Barbus ciscaucasicus
Barbus tauricus escherichii
Cobitis taenia
Gambusia affinis
Gasterosteus aculeatus
Gobio gobio
Mugil cephalus
Mullus barbatus
Neogobius melanostomus
Parablennius sanguinolentus
Phoxinus percnurusPhoxinus phoxinus colchicus
Proterorhinus marmoratus
Romanogobio сiscaucasicus
Syngnathus typhle

+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

Lake
Ritsa

Lake
Mayak

+
+
+
+
+
+
+

The ichthyofauna of Lake Skurcha is the most diverse and is represented by 10 species of order Mugiliformes,
Gasterosteiformes, Cypriniformes and Perciformes. The ichtyofauna of the Lake Ritsa is represented by fivespecies from order Cypriniformes. The ichthyofauna of the Lake Mayak is presented by two species of order
Cyprinodontiformes and Perciformes (Table 2).
Table 2. The number of taxonomic groups of of ichthyofauna
Lake
Class
OrdersFamilies
Skurcha
Osteichthyes
4
8
Ritsa
Osteichthyes
1
1
Mayak
Osteichthyes
22Species1052The highest values of diversity parameters obtained in Lake Skurcha. The lowest indexes of species diversityof the ichthyofauna was observed in Lake Mayak (Fig.1). It can rather be explained by the high eutrophicationof the reservoir and its contaminant organic and household waste. The Lake Ritsa has the highest indicatorvalues of species diversity (Fig.2).

Figure 1. Biodiversity parameters in some of the lakes

277Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Shannon index in some of the lakes
We can divide (Ilmast, 2005) Skurcha’s fish communities to the following types by their feeding regime: 60%of benthophages, planktophages (30%) and 10% of detritophages. Lake Mayak is fully represented bybenthophages. The Lake Ritsa is represented by planktophages (60%) and benthophages (40%). Skurcha
had freshwater (46%), brackish water (36) and marine fish (18%). Lake Mayak is fully represented by
freshwater species. The Lake Ritsa is represented by brackish water species. Skurcha had rheophilic (60%)
and limnophilic fish (40%). Lake Ritsa is fully represented by rheophilic fish while Lake Mayak fish communities
contain of limnophilic fish (100%). By habitat types, fish communities of the lakes of Skurcha and Ritsa
represented by demersal (50%) and pelagic species (50%). Only demersal species (100%) live in the L. Ritsa.
CONCLUSIONS
The ichthyofauna of Lake Skurcha is the most diverse and is represented by 10 species of order Mugiliformes,
Gasterosteiformes, Cypriniformes and Perciformes. The ichtyofauna of the Lake Ritsa is represented by fivespecies from order Cypriniformes.The ichthyofauna of the Lake Mayak is presented by two species of order
cyprinodontiformes and perciformes. The highest values of diversity parameters obtained in Skurcha lake. The
lowest indexes of species diversity of the ichthyofauna was observed in lake Mayak. It can rather be explainedby the high eutrophication of the reservoir and its contaminant organic and household waste. The lake Ritsa
has the highest indicator values of species diversity. The fish communities of investigated lakes are
significantly different from each other by environmental groups and biodiversity. This is related with different
ecological and limnological conditions.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was supported by grant of Russian found of basic researches № 13-05-90308.
REFERENCES
1. Elanidze, R.F. (1983). Ichtiofauna of rivers and lakes of Georgia. Tbilisi, 320.
2. Veselov, E.A. (1977). Keys to the fish fauna of the USSR. Moscow, 368.
3. Magurran, A.E. (2004). Measuring biological diversity. Blackwell Publishing, London.
4. Ilmast N.V. (2005). Introduction to Ichthyology. Moscow

278Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

EFFECT OF SEASONAL CHANGES ON SPATIAL DISTRIBUTION OF BACTERIALPATHOGENS IN TILAPIA (Oreochromis niloticus) IN LAKE BATUR
Endang Wulandari Suryaningtyas1, Devi Ulinuha2
Aquatic Resource Management Study Program, Faculty of Marine Science and Fisheries,
Udayana University, Bali, Indonesia
Corresponding author: endangwulandari.unud@gmail.com

1,2

ABSTRACTThe aquaculture production of tilapia in Lake Batur is decreasing due to infection of some potentiallypathogenic bacteria. Bacterial infection happens when the tilapia immune system weakens which may causeby the changing of water quality during the dry season. Diseases by pathogenic bacteria damage the skin,flesh, gills and internal organs. The spread of bacterial diseases in fish are fast and can lead to a high mortality.
The economic loss from bacterial disease is quite large. Lesions in the flesh of infected fish reduce the quality
which lower fish price in the market. The aim of the research was to determine the seasonal distribution ofpathogenic bacteria presented in tilapia samples collected from farming locations in Lake Batur. Tilapia(Oreochromis niloticus) samples were collected from five floating net cages (FNC) in Lake Batur. Three fish
were collected from each station with fish sized ranged from 100-200 g. Identification of bacteria wasconducted by Gram staining method while the observation of colors and shapes of the cells were performed
using a microscope at 1000 magnification. Finally, the bacteria were inoculated using a streak plate techniqueon SSA (Salmonella Shigella Agar), EMBA (Eosin Methylene Blue Agar) and TCBS (Thiosulphate Citrate
Bilesalt Sucrose). The results showed that the seasonal change affects the spatial distribution of pathogenic
bacteria in tilapia. The types of pathogenic bacteria in the dry season aremore varied than in the rainy season.
In the dry season, there are 5 types of potentially pathogenic bacteria that cause the disease namely
Aeromonas, Streptococcus, Salmonella sp., Shigella sp., and E. coli. While in the rainy season, Pseudomonas
alcaligenes and Aeromonas salmonicida are the types of pathogenic bacteria which infected the Tilapia.
Keywords: Oreochromis niloticus, seasonal change, spatial distribution, potential bacteria pathogenic
INTRODUCTION
Seasonal changes which leads to changes in water quality is one of the factors causing disease problems infish farming. Generally, the quality of water in the dry season is relatively low. The decrease in water quality
causes the bacteria to grow rapidly and the number of species increases. According to Hambali et al. (2005),
the number and type of pathogenic bacteria in tilapia are more varied in the dry season compared to the rainyseason. The decrease in water quality makes the fish stress, and weaken the immune system making it more
susceptible to disease causing high mortality and large economic loss. Another disadvantage is the decreaseof fish meat quality because of ulcers or injury which is not preferred by consumers. This lowers the selling
price of the fish.
Diseases caused by pathogenic bacteria can result in the death of approximately 50% - 100% (Frerichs, 1984).
While the research by Barnes et al. (2003) stated that one of the bacterial infectious diseases which are foundin Floating Net Cages (FNC), particularly in those cultivating tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), is infection by
Streptococcus. Pathogenic bacteria cause damage to the skin, flesh, gills and internal organs. The spread ofbacterial diseases in fish are generally very fast and may lead to a very high mortality in infected fish. Resultsof research by Supriyono and Wiwit (2011) showed that the performance of a bacterial disease found in tilapia
farmed in fish net in Riam Kanan River consisted of some types of bacteria which are Aeromonas hydrophila,
Bordetella sp., Streptococcus sp., Acinetobacter sp., Pasteurella sp., Pseudomonas sp., Actinobacillus sp.,
Citrobacter sp. and Enterobacter sp. The prevalence of the outbreaks ranges between 90-95%.
A fish farming system with Floating Net Cage (FNC) in waters such as lake is one of the activities in thefisheries sector, which has high economic value. Fish farming activities using FNC system at Lake Batur has
been familiar since the 1990s. In 2014, there were about 560 FNC managed by 950 fish farmers. Each FNC
consists of 9 plots extending in several places, namely Desa Kedisan and Toya Bungkah, also Trunyan,
Buahan, and Songan. All these places are located on the edge of Lake Batur (Trobos, 2014). The fish farming
activities have increased the economic growth for the local community.
The death of tilapia caused by pathogenic bacteria in Lake Batur has long been identified, but the publicationof official data on the identification of potentially pathogenic bacteria which infects tilapia is not yet available.
Losses caused by the bacterial infection are highly influential on the development of fish farming in Lake Batur.
Therefore, it is necessary to conduct a research on the effects of seasonal change on the partial distributionof potentially pathogenic bacteria in tilapia fish farming locations in Lake Batur, Bali, Indonesia.

279

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

METHODS
Fish Sampling
The study was conducted in August 2014. Samples were collected directly from the tilapia fish farming in
Floating Net Cage (FNC) of Lake Batur. Three fish which shows clinical symptoms such as an ulcer on the
body or swim weakly were collected from each station with sized ranged from 100 -200 g. Measurement ofwater quality parameter included pH, Dissolved Oxygen (DO), temperature, salinity, and turbidity. Data ofbacteria during rainy season obtained from Fish Quarantine and Inspection Agency Class I of Denpasar Bali,
in March 2014 that taking samples of Tilapia in Lake Batur.
Isolation and Identification of Bacteria
Organs of tilapia used for isolation were the head, stomach, intestines and tails. Sections were weighed asmuch as 10 grams and put into 90 ml of sterile distilled water, then homogenized using vortex for 3-5 minutes.
The media used for bacterial growth was NA (Nutrient Agar). Pour plate methods and the dilution test tube up
to 104 were used to inoculate the bacteria. After 24 hours incubation, the total abundance of bacterial colonies
was enumerated using Total Plate Count and dilution techniques.
Identification includes morphological observation of bacterial cells inoculated in the NA by Gram staining
reaction test, using 2% crystal violet, lugol, acetone alcohol, and saffranin 0.25%. The Gram-positive and theGram-negative bacteria are differentiated at the end of staining. The colors and shapes of cells were observed
using a microscope Binocular Olympus CX-21 at a magnification of 1,000 x.
The determination of typical bacteria presented in the body of the fish were performed by inoculating thebacteria isolated from NA on media SSA (Salmonella Shigella Agar), EMBA (Eosin Methylene Blue Agar), andTCBS (Thiosulphate Citrate Bilesalt Sucrose). A red color of inoculant in the SSA media indicates Salmonella
sp. and a yellow color indicates Shigella sp. A metallic green in EMBA media indicates E. coli. The color of
TCBS media turned into yellow when Vibrio sp. was grown.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Waters Quality Parameters
Differences in the water quality of the five stations during the dry and rainy seasons were shown in Table 1.
Water quality parameters that change was the temperature, pH, DO, and turbidity. Temperature indirectly
influences the solubility of CO2 used for photosynthesis and O2 solubility used for respiration by fish and otheraquatic animals. O2 solubility decreases with the increasing of water temperature. Temperatures in the dry
season were 23.4 to 25.7°C, meanwhile it decreased in the rainy season from 22.2 to 25°C. Tilapia can growoptimally at temperatures of 25-33°C, however temperature below 25°C may hamper Tilapia (Table 1).
Table 1. Water Quality Parameters in Dry and Rainy Seasons
Dry Season
Rainy Season
Water Quality
StationStationParameters
1
2
3
4
5
1
2
Temperatur
23,4
23,9
25
25,7
24,3
22,2
23,2
(ºC)
pH
8,6
8,56
8,55
8,6
8,61
7,53
7,82
DO
9,2
8,5
9,3
7,2
9,1
7,2
7,7
Turbidity
3,1
2,44
3,2
2,15
3,7
5,13
4,33
(NTU)

3
25

4
25

5
24

7,11
6,73
4,45

7,61
7,2
3,39

7,82
6,43
5,2

According to Cahyono (2000), the optimal pH range for tilapia (O. niloticus) is 7-8, however tilapia tolerates pH
between 5-11. Afriyanto and Liviawati (2006) explain that the decrease in pH harm fish metabolism. Thechanges in pH value also affect the levels of CO 2 in the water, the higher the pH value, the lower level of
freeCO2. Conversely, the lower the pH value, the higher level of free CO 2.
In the rainy season, the normal water pH for fish to live is equal to 7.11 to 7.81. The pH value increases during
the dry season of 8.55 to 8.61. At such pH conditions, the bacterial growth is increasing. Boyd (1979) explainsthat the growth of bacteria would be better off in normal pH until relatively alkaline.
The level of turbidity shows the optical characteristic of water which is determined by the amount of lightabsorbed and emitted by the materials contained in the water. Turbidity is caused by the presence of organicand non-organic material that are suspended and dissolved in water, as well as plankton and othermicroorganisms. The maximum standard of turbidity for aquaculture is 5 NTU (Boyd, 1979). Turbidity in Lake
Batur in the dry season ranged from 2.15 to 3.7 NTU and 3.39 to 5.13 NTU in the rainy season. In the rainyseason, the turbidity level was higher than standard values due to the input of colloids, organic and non-organic
materials from the river mouth, as well as the erosion of the land. Turbidity value above 5 NTU can disrupt fishosmoregulation system, hamper light penetration into the water. High turbidity values will influence the280Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

dissolved oxygen because inhibit photosynthesis process (Effendi, 2003). As a result of water quality
degradation, the fish are easily stressed and are susceptible to disease and bacteria are more pathogenic.
Isolation of Bacteria
After incubation for 24 hours at 37° C, the colonies of bacteria with various quantities were visible. The total
amount of bacterial colonies grown on NA media varied from 1.10 5 to 45.105 CFU/mL. The result of thecalculation showed that the lowest average number of bacterial colonies was at Station 2 (2.10 5 CFU/mL),
while the highest was at Station 5 (21. 105 CFU/mL) (Figure 1).
The Abundance of Bacteria in Dry Season
25
20
TPC 15(cfu/mL)(105) 10
5
0
1

2

3

4

5

StationFigure 1. Abundance of Bacteria in Dry Season
The Gram staining results showed that the Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria were dominated by rodshaped and coccus shapes. At Stations 1, 3, and 5, the bacteria were Gram negative with rod-shaped. The
Gram-negative bacteria with coccus shape were found at Station 4. Gram-positive bacteria with streptococcus
shape were found at Station 2 and 4 (Table 2). The results from selective media showed Salmonella werepositive in fish samples found in Station 3 (sample 2 and 3) and Station 5 (sample 1 and 2). Meanwhile,
Shigella were found in Station 3 (sample 1 and 3) as well as Station 5 (sample 1 and 2). E. coli were found in
Station 3 (sample 1) and Station 5 (samples 1 and 2). The results on media SSA and EMBA are presented in
Figure 2.
Table 2. Gram-Staining Results at Station 1-5
StationFish sample

Form

Gram

Bacteria

1

1
2
3

Rod-shaped
Rod-shaped
Rod-shaped

Negative
Negative
Negative

Aeromonas
-

2

1
2

Streptococcus
Rod-shaped

Positive
Negative

Streptococcus
-

3

1
2
3

Rod-shaped
Rod-shaped
Rod-shaped

Negative
Negative
Negative

Shigella, E. coli
Salmonella
Salmonella, Shigella

4

1
2
3

Rod-shaped, coccus Negative
Streptococcus
Positive
Coccus
Negative

Streptococcus
-

5

1
2
3

Rod-shaped
Rod-shaped
Rod-shaped

Salmonella, Shigella, E. coli
Salmonella, Shigella, E. coli-

Negative
Negative
Negative281

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference(b)
Figure 2. Bacterial colonies on the selective media (a) SSA (Salmonella Shigella Agar) (b) EMBA (Eosin
Methylene Blue Agar)
Effect of Seasonal Changes on the Distribution of Pathogenic Bacteria in Tilapia
Changes in water quality due to the seasonal change affect changes in the quality the fish on sampling sites
in Lake Batur. It affected the spatial distribution of pathogenic bacteria. This type of bacteria increased in thedry season due to a decrease in water quality. The spatial distribution of pathogen bacteria in tilapia during the
dry and rainy seasons were shown in five Floating Net Cage (FNC) locations in Lake Batur.
Five types of bacteria isolated from fish cultured in Floating Net Cage (FNC) in Lake Batur during the dry
season (August 2014) were identified as Aeromonas, Streptococcus, Salmonella, Shigella and E. coli. Basedon the recapitulation data of monitoring results by Fish Quarantine and Inspection Agency Class I of DenpasarBali, two types of bacteria on tilapia were obtained during the rainy season (March 2014), namely
Pseudomonas alcaligenes and Aeromonas salmonicida (Table 3).
Table 3. Types of Bacteria in Dry Season and Rainy Season
Season1.
Dry Season(August 2014)*Rainfall 64 mm

2.

Bacteria
Aeromonas sp.
Streptococcus sp.
Salmonella sp.
Shigella sp.
E. coliRainy Season(March 2014)
Pseudomonas alcaligenes*Rainfall 210 mm
Aeromonas salmonicida*Data Indonesian Agency for Meteorology, Climatological and Geophysics, 2014
Descriptively, it seems that there is a tendency that the distribution of pathogenic bacteria in the dry season ismore varied than in the rainy season. This is a result of changes in water quality in the dry season, which is
generally relatively poor or decreased compared to the rainy season. This is supported by Hambali, et al. (2005)
which found seven species of bacteria in the dry season and four species of bacteria in the rainy season thatcause disease to tilapia in FNC of Cirata reservoir. Concentration of organic matter increases in the dry season,
affecting the bacterial diversity. High fluctuations on water quality in dry season makes the fish stress andsusceptible to disease.
CONCLUSIONS
Seasonal change affects the spatial distribution of pathogenic bacteria on tilapia in Lake Batur.
The type of pathogenic bacteria in the dry season is more varied than in the rainy season. In the dry season,
there are five types of pathogenic bacteria that can potentially cause disease, such as Aeromonas,
Streptococcus sp., Salmonella sp., Shigella sp., and E. coli; while in the rainy season, there are two types ofpathogenic bacteria, such as Pseudomonas alcaligenes and Aeromonas salmonicida.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by Research and Community Service for Prosperity, Udayana University, Bali.
Indonesia.
Fish Quarantine and Inspection Agency Class Iof Denpasar Bali.

282

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

REFERENCES
1. Afriyanto, E., Liviawaty, E. 2006. Pengendalian Hama dan Penyakit Ikan. Penerbit Kanisius. Yogyakarta.
2. Barnes, A.C., Young, F.M., Horne, M., and Ellis, A.E. 2003. Streptococcus in Infection of Tilapia,
Oreochromis niloticus in Recirculation Production Facility. J. of the World Aquaculture.
3. Boyd, C. 1979. Water Quality in Warm water Fish Pond. Auburn University Agricultural Experiment
Station.
4. Cahyono, B. 2000. Budidaya Ikan Air Tawar. Kanisius.Yogyakarta.
5. Effendi, H. 2003. Telaah Kualitas Air Bagi Pengelolaan Sumber Daya dan Lingkungan Perairan. Kanisius.
Yogyakarta.
6. Frerichs, N.G. 1984. The Isolation and Identification of Fish Bacterial Pathogens. 1st Ed. Institute ofAgriculture, University of Stirling, Scotland.
7. Hambali. S., Widiyati, Sunarto, Heru. 2005. Keragaan Penyakit Bakterial Ikan Nila (Oreochromis niloticus)
pada Karamba Jaring Apung di Lokasi Berbeda. Jurnal Penelitian Perikanan Indonesia. 11(7).
8. Supriyono dan Wiwit. 2011. Keragaan Penyakit Bakterial Ikan Nila (Oreochromis niloticus) pada Budidaya
Karamba di Sungai Riam Kanan. Universitas Lambung Mangkurat. Kalimantan.
9. Trobos. 2014. Budidaya KJA Nila di Danau Batur. http://www.trobos.com.

283

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

FLUCTUATING ASYMMETRY USING GEOMETRIC MORPHOMETRICS IN Glossogobius
giuris (HAMILTON, 1822) FROM LAGUNA LAKE, PHILIPPINES
Lorenz J. Fajardo1,2*, Ma. Vivian C. Camacho2,3 and Pablo P. Ocampo2,3†
College of Fisheries, Central Luzon State University, Nueva Ecija, Philippines, 2School ofEnvironmental Science and Management, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Laguna,Philippines, 3Institute of Biological Sciences, University of the Philippines Los Baños, Philippines*Corresponding author: renz4881@gmail.com
1

ABSTRACTWhite goby, Glossogobius giuris, is a native and an economically important fish which is of declining populationin Laguna Lake, Philippines. The study investigated fluctuating asymmetry in fish samples (n=118) obtained
from two predominantly agricultural sites (Bay and Santa Cruz, Laguna) in the East Bay of the lake and froma reference site, where gobies were reared in concrete tanks. Nineteen anatomical landmarks were digitizedon fish images and were subjected to an advanced tool for shape asymmetry (Symmetry and Asymmetry inGeometric Data (SAGE) version 1.04). Procrustes two-way mixed model ANOVA revealed significant levels ofboth directional and fluctuating asymmetries (FA) among populations and between sexes. Fluctuating
asymmetry, the small, random differences between the left and right sides of a bilaterally symmetrical organism,is widely reported as a measure of developmental stability and as an early-warning tool in monitoring the healthof aquatic ecosystems. Overall FA variations based from two major principal components were higher in wild
than in reared population. FA levels detected may imply that deviations from perfect symmetry could be
attributed to environmental stress. Findings may indicate the contributory effects of environmental conditions
associated with anthropogenic pressures on the developmental instability of goby populations.
Keywords: environmental stress, fluctuating asymmetry, geometric morphometrics, Laguna Lake, white goby
INTRODUCTION
Laguna Lake is the largest freshwater lake in the Philippines and is a vital natural resource providing various
ecosystem services like fisheries and aquaculture production, navigation, hydroelectric power generation,
temporary storage of floodwater, source of irrigation and domestic water, and recreation (Lasco and Espaldon,2005). However, through the years, the lake has become a huge sink for discharge from industries andresidential areas in the western bay whereas fertilizer and pesticides runoff from agricultural land uses in theeastern bay. Fish production in the lake and its river tributaries declined due to pollution and contributory
factors such as destructive harvesting and introduction of exotic species ((Lasco and Espaldon, 2005).
Several studies have shown that biomarkers, functional measures of exposure to various stressors (Adams etal., 2001), are useful tools in monitoring biotic ‘health’ and therefore give an indirect measure of possible
environmental pollution or degradation (Sole et al., 2006; Richardson et al., 2010). Fluctuating asymmetry (FA),small, random differences which occur between the left and right sides of a bilaterally symmetrical organism
due to subtle variations in the developmental environment (Palmer and Strobeck, 2003), is a potential
biomarker of stress within populations. It is widely used as a measure of developmental stability (DS) or
developmental instability (DI) (Godet et al., 2012) where DI can be viewed as the sensitivity of a developing
system to random perturbations (Knierim et al., 2007). Developmental instability results from internal (genetic)or external (environmental) stressors that disturb the development of structures along their normal
developmental pathway in a given environment and produce developmental “noise” (Palmer, 1994). The
presence of stress during ontogeny may reduce the efficiency of normal developmental processes, this beingreflected by an increase in the level of FA (Ambo-Rappe et al., 2008). Significantly increased levels of FA in a
population may indicate that individuals are having more difficulty maintaining precise development, resulting
in negative effects on the population over time (Markow, 1995). Several studies have shown positive
relationships between environmental stress and FA level in different fish species (Franco et al., 2002;
Romanov and Kovalev, 2004; Marques et al., 2005; Ozsoy et al., 2012; Hermita et al., 2013; Mabrouk et al.,2014; Pojas and Tabugo, 2015).
White goby, Glossogobius giuris, (locally known as “biyang puti”), is one of the native fish species thriving in
Laguna Lake and is reported to be of declining status. It is considered as commercially important and has apotential for aquaculture. It has a unique feature of having a fused pelvic fin at the antero-ventral portion of the
body that serves as a suction-like disc and dwells at the bottom substrate or attaches into rocks. Much of theresearches on G. giuris in the Philippines focused on body shape variation within and among populations using
landmark-based geometric morphometrics (Nacua et al., 2010; Dorado et al., 2012; Unito-Ceniza et al., 2012).
Geometric morphometry is an advanced tool in determining shape variation. In this technique, data arerecorded in the form of coordinates of landmark points (Rohlf and Marcus, 1993), which are morphologicalpoints of specimens that are of biological interest (Richtsmeier et al., 2002).

284

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The present study investigated fluctuating asymmetry in reared (8 to 12 months) and wild white goby
populations using landmark-based geometric morphometrics. The technique and analyses of FA is simple,
non-lethal, cost-effective, has broad application across biological systems and stressors, and can beassociated with life history traits and fitness (Lens et al., 2002; Lens and Eggermont, 2008). With these featuresof FA, it may be used as an early warning tool for monitoring the Laguna Lake’s ecological status.
METHODS
Study area
Laguna Lake (also known as Laguna de Bay), situated within latitudes of 13º 55’ to 14º 50’ N and longitudesof 120º 50’ to 121º 45’ E in Luzon Island, Philippines (Fig 1), occupies a total land area (administrative
jurisdiction) of 3,880 km 2 (LLDA, 2013). Its morphometric features include a total surface water area ofapproximately 900 km 2, shoreline of 220 km, average depth of 2.5 m, maximum water holding capacity of
about 2.9 billion m 3 and watershed area of 3,820 km2 (Lasco and Espaldon, 2005). The lake is divided into
three distinct bays: the West, Central, and East bays that converge towards the south resembling a large prehistoric bird’s footprint. The study focused in the East Bay of the lake, where the main landuse is agricultural,limiting to Bay and Santa Cruz in Laguna province.

Figure 1. Map of study area (top) and location of study sites (bottom).

Fish sample collection285

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Wild populations of G. giuris were obtained from the East Bay of Laguna Lake, particularly in Bay and Santa
Cruz, whereas reference population was obtained from the University of the Philippines, LimnologicalResearch Station (UPLB-LRS) (Fig 1). Samples were collected with the aid of fishermen, using gill nets, fyke
nets and cover pots, from June to October 2015 (coinciding with wet season). Reference samples were thosecaught from the lake, reared in concrete rectangular tanks for 8 to 12 months at UPLB-LRS, and fed withshrimps bought from the local fish market.
Image acquisition and landmark selection
Both left and right sides of 118 fish samples from three sites (Reference, n=31; Bay, n=42; Santa Cruz, n=45)
were photographed using a Sony DSC-W290, 12.1 megapixels, camera. The samples were positioned withfins teased in order to show their natural position in swimming.
A total of 19 anatomical landmarks with both evolutionary and functional significance were selected and werebased from previous studies on body shape variations in G. giuris (Nacua et al., 2010; Dorado et al., 2012).
Location and description of anatomical landmarks are shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Location and description of anatomical landmarks in white goby, G.
giuris, used in fluctuating asymmetry analysis. 1) snout tip, 2) anterior insertion of
first dorsal fin, 3) anterior insertion of second dorsal fin, 4) posterior insertion of
second dorsal fin, 5) point of maximum curvature of the peduncle, 6) posterior body
extremity, 7) point of maximum curvature of the peduncle, 8) posterior insertion ofanal fin, 9) anterior insertion of anal fin, 10) anterior insertion of the pelvic fin, 11)insertion of the operculum at the lateral profile, 12) posterior extremity ofpremaxilla, 13) center of the eye, 14 – 17) contour of gill cover, 18) superior
insertion of pectoral fin, 19) inferior insertion of pectoral fin.
Image digitization and fluctuating asymmetry analyis
Captured images were digitized using TPS Dig version 2.12 (tpsDig2) (Rohlf, 2008) where landmark points
were plotted to obtain the 2D (“x” and “y”) coordinates of the corresponding morphological landmark points.
Fluctuating asymmetries among populations and between sexes were determined by subjecting the paired
landmark coordinates to Procrustes ANOVA following the method of Klingenberg et al. (2002) and using
Symmetry and Asymmetry in Geometric Data (SAGE) software version 1.04 (Marquez, 2007). The software(SAGE) analyzed the x and y coordinates of the landmarks per individual, using a configuration protocol forboth lateral sides of the goby. Procrustes superimposition analysis was performed with the original andmirrored configurations of the right and left lateral sides simultaneously to produce an overall mean shape(Savriama and Klingenberg, 2011). Procrustes two-way mixed model ANOVA with three replicates was used
to quantify shape asymmetry. Fisher's exact test (F-test) determined the significance of null hypothesis of nodifference between variance products (XY) in both left and right sides. Effects can be interpreted as follows(Savriama and Klingenberg, 2011): The main effect, sides, indicates the variation between sides and presenceof directional asymmetry (DA) while the effect, individuals, refers to the variation of individuals. The mixed
effect, individual-by-side-interaction, refers to the failure of the individuals to be the same between sides (leftand right) and represents fluctuating asymmetry (FA). The measurement error, replications within sides by
individuals, is a random effect. Deformation grids were generated through Principal Component Analysis (PCA)
in order to visualize patterns in shape variability.

286

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Procrustes ANOVA of white goby populations (Table 1) revealed highly significant (P<0.01) F values for bothsides and individuals-by-sides interaction in all sites. Thus, results can be interpreted that deviations fromperfect symmetry were present among G. giuris populations in all sites and these were significantly due to
directional (DA) (P<0.01) and fluctuating asymmetries (FA) (P<0.01). However, it seemed that asymmetry waslargely due to FA in two study sites (Reference and Santa Cruz).
Table 1. Procrustes ANOVA results of white goby, G. giuris, populations from three sites.
Effects

SS

df

MS

F

0.104
0.016
0.088
0.046

1020
34
1020
4216

0.00010.00050.00010.00001.185**
5.620**
7.969**
--

0.209
0.029
0.186
0.178

1394
34
1394
5712

0.00020.00090.00010.00001.123*
6.578**
4.273**--

Reference Site (n=31)
Individuals
Sides (DA)
Individuals x sides (FA)
Measurement error
Bay (n=42)
Individuals
Sides (DA)
Individuals x sides (FA)
Measurement error
Santa Cruz (n=45)
Individuals
0.169
1496
0.0001
1.411**
Sides (DA)0.019
34
0.0006
7.121**
Individuals x sides
0.119
1496
0.000111.852**
Measurement error
0.041
6120
0.0000-DA - directional asymmetry; FA - fluctuating asymmetry; ** - highly significant, P < 0.01;* - significant, P < 0.05. Significance was tested with 99 permutations.
Directional asymmetry is a tendency for a trait to be consistently developed in different manners on the left
and right body sides (Klingenberg, 2015). The difference between left and right sides may be large or small,but the average left–right difference varies from zero. DA may have a genetic basis (Palmer, 1994) or may
arise due to differential use (left vs. right handedness). Few studies clearly demonstrated the influence ofgenetic stress on developmental stability (Blanco et al., 1990; Batterham et al., 1996; Brakefield and Breuker,
1996 as cited by Fessehaye et al., 2007). A meta-analysis by Vǿllestad et al. (1999) showed thatheterozygosity explained only a very small (1%) amount of variation in FA, and most investigators appear toagree that there is very little additive genetic variation for FA in most characters (Fessehaye et al., 2007).
Meanwhile, fluctuating asymmetry denotes small differences between the left and right sides due to random
imprecisions in developmental processes (Klingenberg, 2003). It is symmetrically distributed about a mean ofzero and a stochastic component of phenotypic variation (Graham et al., 2010). When one partitions total
phenotypic variation into genetic and environmental components, FA is part of the environmental component(Falconer 1996 as cited by Graham et al., 2010). FA is widely associated with developmental instability, which
results from internal (mainly genetic) or external stressors (environmental) that disturb the development ofstructures along their normal developmental pathway in a given environment and produce developmental“noise” (Palmer, 1994). Because the left and right sides of the same organism share the same genome andusually nearly the same environment, organs on the left and right sides can be expected to share the sametarget phenotype (assuming that there is no directional asymmetry) and therefore differ only by developmental
instability (Godet et al., 2012).
In the present study, FA detected in G. giuris from all sites may reflect the inability of individuals to maintainhomeostasis during development (Møller and Swaddle, 1997) due to the presence of stressors. Environmental
stress can give rise to decreased developmental stability of individuals, which may result in reduced
performance of fitness components (Møller and Swaddle, 1997). Stress causes a reduction in the efficient useof energy, causing a reduction in developmental homeostasis, and finally reducing long-term, total inclusive
fitness (Escos et al., 2000).
Notably higher FA than DA was also revealed by Procrustes ANOVA results between sexes of G. giuris except
in Bay male (Table 2). In localized trait asymmetry analysis, high number of characters exhibiting trait FA

287

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

supported these high F values of FA. Bay males had the least number of trait FA, with only 5 out of 16
characters. All populations showed significant FA in three traits: snout tip, center of the eye, and superior
insertion of pectoral fin. Differences in the levels of FA among characters may indicate the variation on theability of traits to buffer developmental noise and achieve homeostasis (Graham, 2010). Similarly, Angeles etal. (2014) found significant differences in FA mostly in the mouth, eyes and operculum part of females, whilein the operculum and pectoral region of males. These were associated with stress in food competition andwater turbidity which might have affected visibility and respiration (Angeles et al., 2014).
Principal component analysis (PCA) on the tangent coordinates derived from Procrustes analysis assists to
examine the variability of landmark points in tangent space. Table 3 shows the percent variations or level ofvariability in the data among G. giuris populations. Based on the percentage of overall variation explained by
two major principal components (PC 1 and PC 2), Bay G. giuris population exhibited the highest variation(54.72%) followed by Santa Cruz (49.77%) and Reference Site (41.77%). It could be observed that higher
overall variation was detected in wild populations (Bay and Santa Cruz) than reared population (Reference).
Table 2. Procrustes ANOVA results between sexes of white goby, G. giuris, populations fromthree sites.
Effects
SS
df
MS
F
Reference Site
Female (n=15)
Sides (DA)0.009
34
0.00032.732**
Individuals x sides (FA)
0.045
476
0.000112.017**
Male (n=16)
Sides (DA)0.009
34
0.00033.075**
Individuals x sides (FA)
0.048
510
0.0001
11.526**Bay
Female (n=23)
Sides (DA)0.009
34
0.00032.713**
Individuals x sides (FA)
0.078
748
0.000113.846**
Male (n=19)
Sides (DA)0.022
340.00073.805**
Individuals x sides (FA)
0.105
612
0.00022.866**
Santa Cruz
Female (n=26)
Sides (DA)0.016
340.0005
6.117**
Individuals x sides (FA)
0.066
850
0.0001
11.293**
Male (n=19)
Sides (DA)0.005
340.00021.753**
Individuals x sides (FA)
0.053
612
0.0001
13.190**DA - directional asymmetry; FA - fluctuating asymmetry; ** - highly significant, P < 0.01.
Significance was tested with 99 permutations.
Table 3. Variations based on two major principal components in G. giuris
populations from three sites.
Site
PC 1 (%)
PC 2 (%)
Overall (%)
Reference (n=31)
27.24
14.53
41.77
Bay (n=42)
37.21
17.51
54.72
Santa Cruz (n=45)
32.29
17.48
49.77
Principal component analysis implied deformation for individual x side interaction or fluctuating asymmetry of
G. giuris populations in the three study sites are shown in Figure 3. In the Reference population (Fig 3A), PC
1 (27.24%) shows slight compression along the anterior end (head region) due to minimal movement at
landmarks 1, 13, 14, 15, 18 and, along the posterior trunk region (at landmark 8). In contrast, slight expansion
along the anterior trunk and caudal peduncle region (posterior end) are shown. PC 2 (14.53%) displays minimal
expansion along the anterior end (head region) while slight compression along the posterior end (tail region).

288

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

A

PC 1

PC 2

B

C

Figure 3. PCA implied deformation for individual x side interaction (fluctuating asymmetry), as explained by
two principal components (PC1, left; PC2 right) of G. giuris populations from three sites: A) Reference, B) Bay,C) Santa Cruz. Red dots represent landmark points whereas blue arrows represent magnitude and directionof variation.
Extreme deformation or warping can be observed in Bay population (Fig 3B). Warps are prominent at the headregion (anterior end) in PC1, which accounts 37.21% of the total variation among samples. Notable magnitude
and direction of fluctuation are depicted by longer blue arrows pointing downward primarily at landmarks 1, 12
and 13. Warping is also influenced by upward movement at the opercular region (landmarks 14, 15) andpectoral fin insertion (landmarks 18, 19). These magnitude and direction of vectors have caused compression
from the posterior toward the trunk region, and a strong downward shift along the anterior region. Although PC
2 only accounts 17.51% of the variation, magnitude and direction of vectors as shown by arrows were greater.
Compression was intense or extreme at the head region, as shown by longer arrows that tend to meet.
Displacement of landmarks from the grids is evident. Deformation grids for FA of Santa Cruz population weresimilar to Reference population with slight compression at the opercular region (PC 1, 32.29%). However,vectors along the head region, particularly at landmarks 1 and 2, tend to move upward. For PC 2 (17.48%),slight compression along the anterior end could be observed. Overall, most variations were detected at thehead region or anterior end across populations, although these were more notable in wild populations (Bayand Santa Cruz). These configurations were able to show the dynamics in overall shape changes in G. giuris
populations from the three sites. According to Beasley et al. (2013), studies that used geometric morphometricapproaches to FA in shape and size were more sensitive to changes in environmental quality compared tolinear and meristic measures and thus showed larger effects on FA.
Fluctuating asymmetry is a useful indicator of stress, not because it is more sensitive to stress than phenotypicmodification, but because it reveals the average individual’s robustness and stability in the face of stress(Graham et al., 2010). Stress is any environmental factor that causes a reduction in the efficient use of energy,
causing a reduction in developmental homeostasis, and finally reducing long-term, total inclusive fitness(Escos et al., 2000). Furthermore, while the general definition of a stressor encompasses any biotic or abiotic
factor that interferes with an individual’s energy allocation toward its reproduction and development, novel,
anthropogenic stressors may have stronger effects on FA levels because they more actively interfere with
developmental pathways (Parsons, 2005) and more directly limit the mass and energy available compared tonaturally occurring stressors, against which adaptive responses are expected to have evolved (Graham et al.,2010).
Detected fluctuating asymmetry in the Reference population of this study could be explained that artificial
environmental conditions can affect morphology, physiology and behavior of fishes (Kihslinger and Nevitt,289

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference2006). This could be attributed to both the restrictions to their ecological requirements (Barber, 2007) and thelack of natural physical, chemical or biological stimuli, which would trigger mechanisms of their life history
strategies (Patterson et al., 2004). Glossogobius giuris dwells at the bottom substrate (sandy or muddy
substrate) and attaches into rocks in the wild whereas at the bottom of concrete tanks with attached algae inreference population. It is carnivorous and cannibalistic in nature feeding on various types of fishes,
crustaceans, insects and molluscs (Rao and Rao, 2002; Achakzai et al., 2015). The carnivorous habit of G.
giuris is well evidenced by its large head with a large mouth and strong sharp teeth (Nacua et al., 2010).
Juveniles feed on crustaceans as their major food while adults of this species prefer fish (Islam, 2004). Reared
population in the present study was only fed with thawed small shrimps purchased from the local market.
Similar sizes of individuals were maintained in each tank to avoid cannibalism. Food diversity and natural
behavior of catching for prey were therefore limited. Moreover, FA could be sensitive to different levels of
individual density in captive conditions (Leary and Allendorf, 1989).
Results of this study could imply that wild G. giuris populations experienced more developmental perturbations
or more stressed due to exposure to various stressors. The east bay area of the lake is predominantly
agriculture wherein the use of pesticides for intensive farming along the lakeshore is widespread. Agriculturalactivities are non-point sources of water pollution. Excessive use of fertilizer results in eutrophication in manyaquatic habitats because precipitation carries dissolved nutrients (nitrogen and phosphorus compounds) intoriver tributaries and lakes. Water used to flush irrigated land to get rid of excess salt in the soil carries a heavy
load of salt that degrades the water body. Agriculture dominates the existing landuse categories in Bay, inwhich nine barangays are considered agricultural lands while five are coastal areas. Santa Cruz, ideallysituated on a plain land area, has 13 agricultural barangays and eight coastal barangays. Based from Key
Informant Interviews (KII) and Focus Group Discussion (FGD) with individual rice and vegetable
farmers/growers, farmers’ associations from selected barangays and Municipal Agriculture Office (MAO)
technicians, herbicides were applied once to twice per cropping at a rate of half to one liter per hectare whereas
insecticides were applied once to thrice per cropping with the same rate of application in Bay and Santa Cruz.
However, spray loading or application per hectare of both herbicides and insecticides was greater in Santa
Cruz (10 to 16 tank loads) than in Bay (4 to 6 tank loads), in which a tank load is equivalent to 16 L. Pesticides
can enter water through surface runoff, leaching, and/or erosion. Moreover, drift, evaporation, and wind erosion
can carry pesticide residues into the atmosphere that can lead to contamination of surface waters via
precipitation (Dubus et al., 2000). Whether they are dissolved in water or carried by sediment, pesticides thatare carried off-site can contaminate surface waters (Hamers et al., 2001). Pesticides runoff can persist for daysin the environment but their action on tissues of non-target organisms such as fishes and other aquatic fauna
may last for weeks (Assis et al., 2012). Furthermore, solid and liquid domestic wastes from coastal barangays
along the lakeshore could contribute to the water quality of the lake.
These results support previous studies in fish at individual and population levels of bilateral asymmetry whichhave been shown to relate positively to a wide range of stresses such as acidification (Øxnevad et al., 2002),
toxic chemicals or heavy metals (Franco et al., 2002; Estes et al., 2006; Romanov and Kovalev, 2004). Stresssuch as chemical pollutants including metals or pesticides can cause developmental perturbations that can
notably induce an increase of the FA level in invertebrates (Chang et al., 2007).
CONCLUSIONSPatterns of asymmetry in body shape are present both in reared and wild G. giuris populations and seemed tobe largely attributed to fluctuating asymmetry. Significant levels of fluctuating asymmetry across populations
may indicate that individuals’ developmental homeostasis is disturbed. Developmental instability in G. giuris
populations could be possibly attributed to stressors environmental in origin such as artificial environmental
conditions in reared whereas agricultural chemicals and wastes associated with other anthropogenic pressuresin wild populations.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study is part of the primary author’s dissertation funded by ASTHRDP-NSC, DOST-SEI, Philippines. The
authors would like to thank Dr. Sharon Rose M. Tabugo-Rico and Prof. Muhmin Michael E. Manting of DBS,
MSU-IIT for their assistance in using the software and data analysis. The study also benefited from theresearch grants provided by SEARCA and NRCP.
REFERENCES
1. Achakzai WM, SWM Achakzai, WA Baloch, GR Qambrani, AN Soomro (2014). Length-weight relationshipand condition factor of white goby Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton and Buchannan, 1822) from Manchar
Lake District Jamshoro, Sindh, Pakistan. Sindh University Research Journal (Science Series) 46 (2): 213216.

290

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

2. Adams SM, JP Giesy, LA Tremblay, CT Eason. (2001). The use of biomarkers in ecological risk
assessment: recommendations from the Christchurch conference on biomarkers in ecotoxicology.
Biomarkers 6:1-6.
3. Ambo-Rappe R, DL Lajus, MJ Schreider. (2008). Increased heavy metal and nutrient contamination does
not increase fluctuating asymmetry in the seagrass Halophila ovalis. Ecological Indicators 8:100-103.
4. Angeles ADJ, JG Gorospe, MAJ Torres, CG Demayo. (2014). Length-weight relationship, body shapevariation and asymmetry in body morphology of Siganus guttatus from selected areas in five Mindanao
bays. International Journal of Aquatic Science. 5 (1):40-57.
5. Assis CRD, AG Linhares, VM Oliveira, RCP França, EVM Carvalho, RS Bezerra, LB De Carvalho Jr.
(2012). Comparative effect of pesticides on brain acetylcholinesterase in tropical fish. Science of the Total
Environment 441:141–150.
6. Barber I. (2007). Parasites, behaviour and welfare in fish. Appl. Anim. Behav. Sci. 104 (3–4), 251–264,
doi:10.1016/j.applanim.2006.09.005.
7. Beasley DE, A Bonisoli-Alquati, TA Mousseau. (2013). The use of fluctuating asymmetry as a measureof environmentally induced developmental instability: A meta-analysis. Ecological Indicators, 30: 218-226.
8. Chang X, B Zhai, X Liu, M Wang. (2007). Effects of temperature stress and pesticide exposure on
fluctuating asymmetry and mortality of Copera annulata (selys) (Odonata: Zygoptera) larvae.
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 67:120-127.
9. Dorado EL, MJ Torres, CG Demayo. (2012). Describing body shapes of the white goby, Glossogobius
giuris of Lake Buluan in Mindanao, Philippines using landmark-based geometric morphometric analysis.
International Research Journal of Biological Sciences, 1(7): 33-37.
10. Dubus IG, JM Hollis, CD Brown. (2000). Pesticide in rainfall in Europe. Environ. Pollut. 110, 331–344.
11. Escós JM, CL Alados, FI Pugnaire, J Puigdefábregas, JM Emlen. (2000). Stress resistance strategy inarid land shrub: interaction between developmental instability and fractal dimension. J. Arid Environ.45,
325-336.
12. Estes EC, CR Katholi, RA Angus. (2006). Elevated fluctuating asymmetry in eastern mosquito fish
(Gambusia holbrooki) from a river receiving paper mill effluent. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 25(4):1026-1033.
13. Fessehaye Y, H Komen, MA Kezk, JAM Van Arendonk, H Bovenhuis. (2007). Effects of inbreeding on
survival, body weight and fluctuating asymmetry (FA) in Nile tilapia, Oreochromis niloticus. Aquaculture
264, 27–35.
14. Franco A, S Malavasi, F Pranovi, C Nasci, P Torricelli. (2002). Ethoxyresorufin O-deethylase (EROD)
activity and fluctuating asymmetry (FA) in Zosterisessor ophiocephalus (Teleostei, Gobiidae) as indicatorsof environmental stress in the Venice lagoon. Journal of Aquatic Ecosystem Stress and Recovery, 9: 239247.
15. Godet JP, S Demuynck, C Waterlot, S Lemière, C Souty-Grosset, F Douay, A Leprêtre, C Pruvot. (2012).
Fluctuating asymmetry analysis on Porcellio scaber (Crustacea, Isopoda) populations living under metalscontaminated woody habitats. Ecological Indicators 23: 130-139.
16. Graham JH, S Raz, H Hel-Or, E Nevo. (2010). Fluctuating Asymmetry: Methods, Theory, andApplications. Symmetry. 2: 466-540; doi:10.3390/sym2020466
17. Hamers T, MGD Smit, AJ Murk, JH Koeman. (2001). Biological and chemical analysis of the toxic potencyof pesticides in rainwater. Chemosphere 46, 609–624.
18. Hermita ZM, JG Gorospe, MAJ Torres, GJ Lumasag, CG Demayo. (2013). Fluctuating asymmetry in the
body shape of the mottled spinefoot fish, siganus fuscescens (houttuyn, 1782) collected from different
bays in Mindanao Island, Philippines. Sci.Int.(Lahore),25(4):857-861.
19. Islam MN. (2004). Eco-biology of freshwater gobi Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton) of the river Padma in
relation to its fishery: a review. Journal of Biological Sciences. 4(6):780-793.
20. Kihslinger RL, GA Nevitt. (2006). Early rearing environment impacts cerebellar growth in juvenile salmon.
J. Exper. Biol. 209, 504–509, doi:10.1242/jeb.02019.
21. Klingenberg CP, M Barluenga, A Meyer.(2002). Shape analysis of symmetric structures: quantifying
variation among individuals and asymmetry. Evolution, 56 (10):1909–1920.
22. Klingenberg CP. (2015). Analyzing fluctuating asymmetry with geometric morphometrics: concepts,
methods, and applications. Symmetry, 7, 843-934; doi:10.3390/sym7020843
23. Knierim U, S Van Dongen, B Forkman, FAM Tuyttens, M Špinka, JL Campo, GE Weissengruber.(2007).
Fluctuating asymmetry as an animal welfare indicator — A review of methodology and validity. Physiology
and Behavior. 92:398–421.
24. Laguna Lake Development Authority (LLDA). (2013). Restoring Balance in Laguna Lake Region (2013
Ecological Footprint Report), 41 p.
25. Lasco RD, MVO Espaldon. (2005). Ecosystems and People: The Philippine Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (MA), Sub-global Assessment. Environmental Forestry Programme, College of Forestry andNatural Resources, University of the Philippines Los Baños.

291

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

26. Leary RF, FW Allendorf. (1989). Fluctuating asymmetry as an indicator of stress: implications forconservation biology. Tree 4 (7).
27. Lens L, S Van Dongen, E Matthysen. (2002). Fluctuating asymmetry as an early warning system in thecritically endangered Taita Thrush. Conserv. Biol. 16:479-487.
28. Lens L, EggermonT, H., (2008). Fluctuating asymmetry as a putative marker of induced stress in avian
conservation. Bird Conserv. Int. 18, 125–143.
29. Mabrouk L, T Guarred, A Hamza, I Messaoudi, AN, Hellal. (2014). Fluctuating asymmetry in grass goby
Zosterisessor ophiocephalus Pallas, 1811 inhabiting polluted and unpolluted area in Tunisia. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 85:248-251.
30. Marques JF, JL Costa, HN Cabral. (2005). Variation in bilateral asymmetry of the Lusitanian toadfish
along the Portuguese Coast, J. Appl. Ichthyol. 21, 205–209.
31. Marquez E. 2007. SAGE: symmetry and asymmetry in geometric data. Ver 1.04. http://wwwpersonal.umich.edu/~emarquez/morph/.
32. Møller AP. (1997). Developmental stability and fitness: a review. Am. Nat. 149, 916-932.
33. Møller, AP, JP Swaddle. (1997). Developmental stability and evolution. Oxford Univ. Press, U.K.
34. Nacua SS, EL Dorado, MAJ Torres, CG Demayo. (2010). Body shape variation between two populationsof the white goby, Glossogobius giuris (Hamilton and Buchanan). Research Journal of Fisheries andHydrobiology, 5(1): 44-51.
35. Øxnevad SA, E Heibo, LA Vøllestad. (2002). Is there a relationship between fluctuating asymmetry andreproductive investment in perch (Perca fluvialtilis)? Can. J. Zool. 80, 120–125, doi:10.1139/Z01-215.
36. Ozsoy DE, B Erkmen, C Ozeren, D Kolankaya. (2012). Detection of aquatic pollution in Meric River by ameasure of developmental instability, fluctuating asymmetry, in the fish Cyprinus carpio
37. Palmer AR. (1994). Fluctuating asymmetry analyses: a primer. In: Markow, T.A. (Ed.), Developmental
instability: its origins and evolutionary implications. Dordrecht, Kluwer, pp. 355–363.
38. Palmer AR, C Strobeck. (2003). Fluctuating asymmetry analyses revisited. In: Polak, M. (Ed.),
Developmental Instability: Causes and Consequences. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 279–319.
39. Parsons PA. (2005). Environments and evolution: interactions between stress, resource inadequacy andenergetic efficiency. Biol. Rev., 80, 589-610.
40. Patterson DA, JS Macdonald, SG Hinch, MC Healey, P Farrell. (2004). The effect of exercise and captivity
on energy partitioning, reproductive maturation and fertilization success in adult sockeye salmon. J. Fish
Biol. 64, 1039–1059, doi:10.1111/j.1095-8649.2004.00370.x.
41. Pojas RG, SRM Tabugo. (2015). Fluctuating asymmetry of parasite infested and non-infested Sardinella
sp. from Misamis Oriental, Philippines. Aquaculture, Aquarium, Conservation & Legislation International
Journal of the Bioflux Society, 8(1):7-14
42. Rao LM, PS Rao. (2002). Food and feeding habits of Glossogobius giuris from Gosthani estuary. Indian
J. Fish., 49(1): 35-40.
43. Richardson N, AK Gordon, WJ Muller, BI Pletschke, AK Whitfield. (2010). The use of liver histopathology,
lipid peroxidation and acetylcholinesterase assays as biomarkers of contaminant induced stress in theCape stumpnose, Rhabdosargus holubi (Teleostei: Sparidae), from selected South African estuaries.
Water SA, 36(4): 407-416
44. Richtsmeier JT, VB Deleon, SR Lele. (2002). The promise of geometric morphometrics. Yearb Phys
Anthrop 45: 63–91.
45. Rohlf FJ, LF Marcus. (1993). A revolution in morphometrics. Trends Ecol Evol 8: 129–132.
46. Rohlf FJ. (2008). TPS Dig Version 2.12, Dept. of Ecology & Evolution, Stony Brook University, Stony
Brook, NY 11794-5245.
47. Romanov NS, MY Kovalev. (2004). Fluctuating asymmetry in goldfish Carassius auratus gibelio(Cyprinidae) from some water bodies of the Far East. J. Ichthyol. 44, 101–108.
48. Savriama Y, CP Klingenberg. (2011). Beyond bilateral symmetry: geometric morphometric methods forany type of symmetry. BMC Evolutionary Biology 2011, 11:280.
49. Sole M, J Kopecka, LM Garcia, DE La Parra. (2006). Seasonal variations of selected biomarkers in Sand
Gobies Pomatoschistus minutus from the Guadalquivir Estuary, Southwest Spain. Arch. Environ. Contam.
Toxicol. 50:249-255.
50. Unito-Ceniza KM, MAJ Torres, CG Demayo. (2012). Describing body shape of goby, Glossogobius giuris(Hamilton, 1822), from Lake Mainit; Surigao del Norte using landmark-based geometric morphometrics.
Paper presented during the 1st Mae Fah Luang University International Conference.
51. Vǿllestad LA, K Hindar, AP Mǿller. (1999). A meta-analysis of fluctuating asymmetry in relation toheterozygosity. Heredity 83, 206–218.

292

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

EARLY DETECTION OF ICHTHYOFAUNA ALIEN SPECIES AT GAJAH MUNGKURRESERVOIR, WONOGIRI, CENTRAL JAVA, INDONESIA
Rikho Jerikho1*
Department of Aquatic Resources Management, Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Science, Bogor
Agricultural University*Corresponding author: rikhojer@apps.ipb.ac.id

1

ABSTRACT
Alien species is one of the threats to the ecosystem. Alien fish species could lead to the extinction of native
species and ecosystem disturbance. Distribution through human activities allows alien species spread easily.
Early detection of alien fish species provides information about the types and existence of alien fish species.
This research was held at Gajah Mungkur Reservoir, Wonogiri in July 2015 to August 2015. A collection ofdata held by direct sampling and observations of angler’s catches in 7 locations. Results showed 5 of 19
species were alien fish species. Cyprinus carpio, Clarias gariepinus, Pterygoplichthys pardalis, Pangasanodon
hypophthalmus, and Oreochromis niloticus were observed as alien species. Pterygoplichthys pardalis is aforbidden species to enter the territory of Indonesia based on the Regulation of Minister of Maritime Affairs andFisheries Number 41 The Year 2014. The alien species have been detected in Gajah Mungkur Reservoir andneed urgent treatment to control the alien species.
Keywords: alien species, detection, threat, reservoir.
INTRODUCTION
Gajah Mungkur is one of the vastest (90km2) artificial lake in Java Island (Whitten, Soeriaatmadja, & Afiff,
1996). This reservoir is one of the headwaters of Bengawan Solo River, the longest river on Java Island (Utami& Trilaksana, 2015). This reservoir functions as a provider of clean water, flood mitigation control, and provide
mainly the fishery products in the province of Central Java. Various non-indigenous fish species Sutchi catfish
Pangasianodon hypophthalmus and Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus deliberately introduced in the Gajah
Mungkur to take advantage (Riverine into Lacustrine) of ecological niches created after the construction of thedam is completed (Department of Fisheries Wonogiri, 2015; Utami & Trilaksana, 2015).
In addition to the introduction, the development of technology facilitates the spread of alien species as ademand of ornamental fish and various other tourist activities such as recreational fishing (Rahardjo, 2011.
The distribution of alien fish species tends to be difficult to find and are often detected when it has becomeinvasive. Alien fish species could become invasive and lead to the extinction of native species and ecosystem
disturbance (Grabowska & Witkowski, 2010). Distribution through human activities allows alien species tospread easily. Early detection of alien fish species provides information about the types and existence of alienfish species (Koehn & MacKenzie, 2004; Leunda, 2010). The availability of information about potential impacts
and the existence of alien fish species makes it possible to understand the worst possible of an alien fish
species impact and as the basis for management of alien fish species in Gajah Mungkur Reservoir.
METHODSThe Collection of data conducted in July 2015 - August 2015 at Gajah Mungkur Reservoir (Figure 1). The
station set intentionally at seven locations by considering human activity and floating aquaculture cages in the
Gajah Mungkur Reservoir. A collection of data included direct observation and the angler’s catch.
Direct observation conducted with 4 hours fishing effort for each sampling in seven locations. Sampling method
conducted with two (2) modified net trap and two (2) modified hooks & line for each sampling. Specification of
the modified net trap is using 2-5cm mesh size and for the modified hook & line is using five (5) hooks size
#12 (IGFA standart) and one (1) hook size #5 (IGFA standart). The fish identified based on (Kottelat, Whitten,
Kartikasari, & Wirjoatmodjo, 1993) and justified with present taxonomic at fishbase.org. Each sample of fish
species fixed in 90% alcohol.

293

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Sampling Sites at Gajah Mungkur Reservoir
Source : Private MapsRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSThe community of fish in the Gajah Mungkur reservoir commonly by freshwater fish that was once a communityof fish in the Bengawan Solo River. Establishment of the reservoir resulted in a transformation of the type ofwaters (riverine) turned into a type of artificial lake waters (lacustrine). Some stream-river fish (Stream catfish,
Acrochordonichthys sp.; Glyptothorax sp.) tend to be difficult to find because of the modification of types waters(Adjie, 2009; Sriwidodo, Budiharjo, & Sugiyarto, 2013). The composition of the fish community structure andthe list of fish in the Gajah Mungkur can more clearly in the Table. 1. The collection of data showed five (5)species of fish alien species, Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, Catfish Sutchi Pangasianodon hypophthalmus,
Amazon Sailfin Catfish Pterygoplichthys pardalis, African Catfish Clarias gariepinus, and Carp Cyprinus carpio.
The catches dominated by Tilapia which almost found throughout the sampling locations. This shows theintroduction carried out in 1981 was a success. Tilapia were recorded in some previous studies (Purnomo,
2000; Adjie, 2009; Sriwidodo, Budiharjo, & Sugiyarto, 2013) indicate that these fish are able to survive until
today. It tends to be the same with the Pangasianodon hypophthalmus. This fish also deliberately introduced
in 2002 and is still found in some previous studies (Purnomo, 2000; Adjie, 2009) found in this study.
Pterygoplichthys pardalis suspected accidentally released in Gajah Mungkur Reservoir. This fish found only inlocation 1 and never recorded in the list of introduced fish in Wonogiri District Fisheries Office. Clarias
gariepinus were found in two locations (2 & 6) and suspected released inadvertently from aquaculture ponds(interview). Cyprinus carpio ecorded in the list of introduced fish in Wonogiri District Fisheries office, but in aprevious research by other author (Purnomo, 2000; Adjie, 2009; Sriwidodo, Budiharjo, & Sugiyarto, 2013)never recorded and only one individual was found in this sampling. Based on Regulation of Minister of Maritime
Affairs and Fisheries Number 41 The Year 2014, Pterygoplichthys pardalis is a forbidden species to enter the
territory of Indonesia.

294Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Tabel 1. List of species and location of fishes at Gajah Mungkur Reservoir
No

Scientific Name

Family

1
66
8

2
2
2

3

1
Barbonymus balleroides
Cyprinidae
2
Barbonymus gonionotus
Cyprinidae
3
Channa striata
Channidae
4
Clarias gariepinus*
Clariidae
1
5
Cyprinus carpio*
Cyprinidae
16Hamibagrus nemurus
Bagridae
16
1
7
Hampala macrolepidota
Cyprinidae
38
Pterygoplichthys pardalis*
Loricariidae
1
9
Labiobarbus leptocheilus
Cyprinidae
301410
Mystacoleucus marginatus
Cyprinidae
2411
Mystus singaringan
Bagridae
9812Mystus nigriceps
Bagridae9
13
Nemacheillus sp.
Balitoridae
114
Oreochromis niloticus*
Cichlidae
170 1015
Osteochilus vittatus
Cyprinidae
61
16
Oxyeleotris marmorata
Gobiidae2
17
Pangasianodon hypophthalmus* Pangasiidae
13
3
18
Rasbora argyrotaenia
Cyprinidae
319Trichopodus trichopterus
Osphronomidae
7
Total
19
10
344 3811
Asteriks (*) indicate the alien fish species at Gajah Mungkur Reservoir.

Location
4
5
36
5
5
1

6
25
2

4

3

11

1
2

6
4

3

2
2
2

120

5

1
1

2

188

16

7
15

2

4
1

52

25

91

47

Total
149
17
1
4
1
26
4
1
59
10
25
16
1
382
7
3
19
3
7
735

CONCLUSIONS
Observed five alien species, Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus, Sutchi Catfish Pangasianodon hypophthalmus,
Amazon Sailfin Catfish Pterygoplichthys pardalis, African Catfish Clarias gariepinus, and Carp Cyprinus carpio.
Pterygoplichthys pardalis is a forbidden species to enter the territory of Indonesia based on the Regulation of
Minister of Maritime Affairs and Fisheries Number 41 The Year 2014.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research is a part of preliminary study of potential impacts of alien fish species at Gajah Mungkur
Reservoir, Wonogiri. Participation at World Lake Conference funded by the Bogor Agricultural University andsupported by the Wonogiri District Governance.
REFERENCES
1. Adjie, S. (2009). Fish Community at Bengawan Solo River. Forum Perairan Umum Indonesia ke-VI (pp.
1-6). Jakarta: Balai Riset Perikanan PPerairan Umum.
2. Department of Fisheries Wonogiri. (2015). Brief Report of Fisheries Management at Gajah Mungkur
Reservoir. Wonogiri: Wonogiri Distric Governance.
3. Grabowska, J. K., & Witkowski, A. J. (2010). Alien Invasive Fish Species in Polish Waters: An Overview.
Folia Zool, 59(1), 73-85.
4. Koehn, J. D., & MacKenzie, R. F. (2004). Priority Management Actions for Alien Freshwater Fish
Species in Australia. New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Research, 38(3), 457-472.
5. Kottelat, M., Whitten, A. J., Kartikasari, S. N., & Wirjoatmodjo, S. (1993). Freshwater Fishes of Western
Indonesia and Sulawesi. Jakarta: Periplus Edition.
6. Leunda, P. M. (2010). Impacts of Non-native Fishes on Iberian Freshwater Ichthyofauna: Current
Knowledge and Gaps. Aquatic Invasions, 5(3), 239-262.
7. Purnomo, K. (2000). Kompetisis dan Pembagian Sumberdaya Pakan Komunitas Ikan di Waduk
Wonogiri. Jurnal Penelitian Perikanan Indonesia, 16-23.
8. Rahardjo, M. F. (2011). Invasive Aquatic Alien Species. Forum Nasional Pemacuan Sumber Daya Ikan
III, (pp. KSI-31). Jakarta.
9. Sriwidodo, D. W., Budiharjo, A., & Sugiyarto. (2013). Keanekaragaman jenis Ikan di Kawasan Inlet dan
Outlet Waduk Gajah Mungkur Wonogiri. Bioteknologi, 10(2), 43-50.
10. Utami, S., & Trilaksana, A. (2015). Development of Gajah Mungkur Reservoir at 1976-1986. AVATATA
e-journal Pendidikan Sejarah, 3(1), 82-90.
11. Whitten, T., Soeriaatmadja, R. E., & Afiff, S. A. (1996). The Ecology of Java and Bali: Volume II.
Jakarta: Periplus Editions.

295

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

FECUNDITY OF THREE SPOT GOURAMI (Trichopodus trichopterus PALLAS) IN LAKELANAO, LANAO DEL SUR
Maida A. Atomar1* and Nazma D. Eza1*
Biology Department, College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Mindanao State University,
Marawi City, Lanao del Sur, Philippines*Corresponding Email: maidaatomar@gmail.com, nazmaeza@gmail.com

1

ABSTRACTThe study aimed to assess the fecundity of T. trichopterus and determine its relationship to body length, bodyweight, egg diameter, and gonadosomatic index (GSI). A total of fifty-five (55) samples (24 males and 31
females) of non-native three spot gourami (T. trichopterus) were collected from Lake Lanao, Lanao del Sur in
February 2016. The collection represents the first documentation of this species in Wato, Lanao del Sur. The
correlation coefficient analysis of each parameter of the said species was obtained through Pearson-Productmoment correlation. Result showed that there was a very high positive and significant correlation between
body length and body weight in male (r = 0.967, P = 0.01) and female (r = 0.952, P = 0.01) T. trichopterus. The
fecundity showed a high positive and significant relationship with both body length (r = 0.857, P = 0.01) andbody weight (r = 0.939, P = 0.01). Egg diameter showed low positive and no significant relationship with bodylength (r = 0.344, P = 0.05), body weight (r = 0.369, P = 0.05) and fecundity (r = 0.405, P = 0.05). The fecundity
showed a moderate positive correlation with GSI (r = 0.599, P = 0.01). The findings of this study showed that
T. trichopterus has a relatively high fecundity compared to other studies.
Keywords: fecundity, Lake Lanao, Trichopodus trichopterus.
INTRODUCTION
Ancient lakes are usually home to endemic fish species flocks and contain the highest known density of fish
species in the world (Goulden, 2001). Lake Lanao is one of the world’s 15 ancient lakes, located in the provinceof Lanao del Sur, Philippines particularly in southern island of Mindanao (Ismail et al., 2013). Jordan andRichardson (1965) stated that a large number of cyprinids species is found in the Philippine lakes and rivers.
The endemic cyprinids of Lake Lanao consisted of five genera and 18 (or more) species. However, in thefinding of Ismail et al. (2013) the poor dispersal capacity, low fecundity and small populations of many of theendemics make them vulnerable to extinction that at least two endemic cyprinids remain in Lake Lanao. The
ecological health of Lake Lanao has been categorized in an alarming stage. However, no updated studies
have been done. The often cited reasons were the unstable peace and order condition in the area (Naga,
2010). Ever since, the lake plays vital roles in socio-economic and religious lives of the Meranaos (lakedwellers). Lake Lanao serves as source of water for ablution and domestic use, as transport route and, mostimportantly, as source of freshwater fishes and shellfishes for local consumption (Rosaragon, 2001).
According to a landing survey of Ismail et al. (2013) in the landing sites of Marawi City, Ganassi and Lumbatan,
one of the 10 introduced species is the Trichopodus trichopterus. The survey indicated that there is a decline
number of T. trichopterus since year 1963-2008. A market survey that was conducted which serves as basis
for comparison of the lake's fisheries production showed an evident that all the endemic and introduced species
in Lake Lanao are in a precarious situation (Rosagaron, 2001).
The objective of this study is to present the fecundity of one of the genus of the family Osphronemidae, the T.
trichopterus, commonly known as the Three Spot Gourami. Rosagaron (2001) stated the introduction of T.
trichopterus was brought into the Philippines in 1938 from Bangkok, Thailand and was later stocked into thelake. In the meantime, the future of the T. trichopterus in Lake Lanao is uncertain but there is hope that they
will survive. The concerns for Lake Lanao are diverse and aimed at increasing fisheries production, utilizationof the lake water for various purposes, and conservation/preservation of its commercial endemic finfishes andwatershed (Rosagaron, 2001). Through understanding reproductive behavior, sex ratio, and fecundity of fishes
is not only important for elucidating the basic biology of the fishes but it can also help in their management,
conservation and aquaculture of fish species.
METHODS
Collection of Samples
Fifty-five (55) individuals of T. trichopterus from Wato, Lanao del Sur (Fig.1) were randomly collected using
gill nets having mesh size of 3.5 cm with the help of local fisherman. The samples collected were identified
based on the description found in www.fishbase.org (Froese and Pauly, 2007) and randomly assigned a
specimen number without determining their sexes. The samples were carried using an ice box to the Biology
Department’s Research laboratory for the measurements of its length, weight, egg diameter and fecundity.

296

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Wato
Figure 1. Map of Wato, Lanao del Sur, showing the location of Lake
Lanao in the Philippines (Inset)
Measurement of the Specimen and Sex Determination
Body length of each specimen was obtained by measuring from its anterior tip of the snout to the tip of its
caudal fin with the aid of transparent ruler having 0-150 mm scale. Body weight of each specimen was also
obtained using digital weighing scale. Sexing of the sample was done by opening its abdomen through cuttingwith a pair of scissors, a pair of forceps and a scalpel to expose the gonads. The gonads of the male andfemale T. trichpoterus can be easily distinguished. The ripe ovaries are larger in size, yellowish in color andlobular in shape while the testes are smaller, whitish and elongated.
Fecundity Estimation
The fecundity of ripe gonads was estimated gravimetrically (Mirzaei et al., 2013).The gonads were preservedin Gilson’s fluid (17 ml Nitric acid, 4 ml Glacial Acetic acid, 20g Mercuric Chloride, 70 ml 95 % Ethanol, 900 ml
Distilled water). Mercuric chloride was dissolved first before adding other ingredients. Three subsamples weretaken from the anterior, middle and posterior parts of the ovary. Samples were weighed and average numbersof eggs in each subsample were directly counted. Actual counting of eggs was done by spreading the egg
uniformly on a petri plate (10 cm diameter) and using a dissecting pointer together with the aid of magnifying
glass to avoid error in continuous counting. The plate was divided into sixteen equal sized wedges. Eggs withineach wedge were counted to estimate the total number of eggs.
The Absolute fecundity (F) and Relative fecundity (R) were obtained using the following equations (Mirzaei etal., 2013): F1 = n1 ×G/g1, F2 = n2 ×G/g2, F3 = n3 ×G/g3; F = (F1 + F2 + F3 )/ 3; where F= absolute fecundity,n= average number of eggs in each subsample, g= subsample weight (g), and G= Ovarian dry weight (g).
Relative fecundity was calculated by the following equation: R =F/TW, where: R= relative fecundity, F=absolute fecundity, and TW= Total body weight (g).
Determination of Egg DiameterIn each female sample, a number of fifty (50) eggs were randomly chosen from the total number of eggs todetermine the egg diameter. A compound microscope with a calibrated micrometer eyepiece was used inmeasuring egg diameter. The stage micrometer was laid over the hole of the microscope stage and was
focused on the 10x objectives into place to get the calibration and estimate the diameter of the field of view.
Gonadosomatic Index
Gonadosomatic index (GSI) was determined by using the equation (Mirzaei et al., 2013): GSI =Weight ofgonads/Body weight x 100.
Statistical Analysis
Pearson Product-moment correlation coefficient was used to measure the strength of the degree of linear
relationship between two variables (i.e., fecundity-weight and fecundity-length), and denoted by r. That is, rmeasures the extent to which the points cluster about a straight line {(x, y); 1, 2,, n) in a random sample, one
is able to draw certain conclusion concerning r.
Below is the formula that was used in computing correlation coefficient, r, where; n is the number of sample; x
is the weight in gram of the sample, y is the length in mm of the sample.

297

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Interpretation of the correlation value followed the classification of Deauna (1982) as follows:
An r value of 0.00 indicates no correlation
An r from ± 0.01 to ± 0.30 indicates very little correlation
An r from ± 0.31 to ± 0.50 indicates low positive correlation
An r from ± 0.51 to ± 0.70 indicates a moderate positive correlation
An r from ± 0.71 to ± 0.90 indicates a high positive correlation
An r from ± 0.91 to ± 0.99 indicates very high positive correlation
An r value of 1.00 indicates perfect correlation
Statistical analyses of the data were carried out with SPSS software package by Dr. Sonny M. Magno, an
expert statistician from Mindanao State University - Institute of Science Education – Science High School.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Body Length - Body Weight Correlation of T. trichopterus
The body length and body weight of the twenty-four (24) male and thirty-one (31) female samples of T.
trichopterus ranged from 58 mm to 115 mm and 3.01 to 19.97 g respectively. The largest fish recorded wasfrom the male group having a length of 115 mm long weighing 19.97 g. The smallest fish recorded was fromthe female group having a length of 58 mm long weighing 3.18 g. Figure 2 shows the result of length-weightcorrelation analysis. The correlation coefficient for males was 0.967. There was a very high positive
relationship that was significant at 0.01 level. This suggests that as the length increases there is an increase
in weight. Table 1 shows the body lengths (TL) in millimeters with corresponding weights for male and female
samples.

Length-weight (male) r = 0.967, P = 0.01

140

Length (mm)

120
100
80
60
40
20
0
0

5

10

15

20

25

Weight (g)Figure 2. A scatter chart showing the body length (TL) - body weight
relationship of male T. trichopterus

298

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1. Data of female T. trichopterus with its corresponding body length, body weight, egg diameter,absolute fecundity, relative fecundity and gonadosomatic index (GSI)

SpecimenNo.

Total
Length(mm)

Body
Weight (g)Egg Diameter(mm)

Absolute
fecundity (F)Relative
Fecundity (R)

GSI
(%)

3
5
31
34
32
37
53
6
35
36
33
10
11
13
39
41
48
19
42
17
20
28
27
22
44
45
55
23
50
49
52

96
90
90
90
87
87
86
84
84
84
81
79
79
76
75
74
74
71
71
70
70
70
69
68
68
68
66
63
62
59
58

13.001
9.564
9.673
10.162
8.346
8.317
8.019
8.555
8.128
7.791
6.722
6.801
6.761
5.612
7.241
5.732
7.211
5.222
5.172
4.182
3.983
4.322
4.242
3.723
4.812
4.312
4.163
3.443
3.253
3.963
3.183

0.695
0.700
0.646
0.650
0.638
0.648
0.569
0.705
0.653
0.644
0.657
0.656
0.621
0.627
0.657
0.629
0.623
0.663
0.627
0.602
0.667
0.654
0.616
0.668
0.634
0.698
0.661
0.574
0.604
0.682
0.545

6179.404476.134110.564917.324028.084069.37
3627.414187.743696.693596.01
3317.024137.153485.01
3156.52
3327.223481.81
3486.313128.523067.122928.032859.132977.822980.722749.933040.223053.722888.032860.732623.833071.822835.73

47525
46826
42531
48423
48324
49020
45330
49021
45529
46227
49419
60814
51618
56317
46028
60813
48423
59915
59316
7019
7186
68410
7038
7405
63212
7087
69411
8322
8073
7764
892

7.39
7.44
7.04
7.58
6.84
7.11
6.49
8.10
6.65
6.29
5.95
6.60
6.21
6.77
5.66
8.03
6.52
6.70
6.38
5.74
5.03
6.48
6.37
4.84
6.24
6.73
5.05
4.07
3.69
7.83
3.15

The correlation coefficient r of 0.952 obtained for the females (Fig.3 and Table 1) indicates a very high andsignificant positive relationship between body length and body weight. This means that there is acorresponding increase of length as the weight increases.

299

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Length-weight (female): r = 0.952, P = 0.01

120
100

Length (mm)

80
60
40
20
0
0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

Weight (g)Figure 3. A scatter chart showing the body length (TL) - body weight
relationship of female T. trichopterus
Fecundity - Body Length and Body Weight Relationship
Thirty-one female samples of T. trichopterus were enumerated for the study of fecundity and they were foundto range between 2623.8 to 6179.4 ova. The lowest count was from the sample, having a length of 58 mm andweight of 3.18 g; while the highest was from sample having a length of 96 mm and weight of 13.00 g (Table1).
Fecundity and body length was found to have a high positive and significant correlation (r = 0.857) at 0.01
level (Fig.4). This means that as the body length increases, the fecundity of the species is more likely toincrease.

Fecundity - length: r = 0.857 , P = 0.01

7000

Fecundity

6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0

20

40

Length60(mm) 80

100

120

Figure 4. A scatter chart showing the fecundity - body length (TL)
relationship of female T. trichopterus
Fecundity and body weight was found to have a very high positive and significant correlation (r = 0. 939) at
0.01 level (Fig.5 and Table 1).

300

Fecundity

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Fecundity - weight: r = 0.939 P = 0.01

7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0.00

5.00

10.00

15.00

Weight (g)Figure 5. A scatter chart showing the fecundity - body weight
relationship of female T. trichopterus
Egg Diameter - Body Length, Body Weight and Fecundity Relationship
From each of the thirty-one samples, fifty ova were randomly taken from each subsample. The diameter of a
total of 2200 ova was measured using the calibrated micrometer. The diameter of the ova (Table1) ranged
from 0.5450 mm to 0.7046 mm with a mean of 0.6424 and standard deviation of 0.3788.

Egg diameter (mm)0.80000.70000.60000.50000.40000.30000.20000.10000.0000
0

20

40

60

Length (mm)Egg diameter - length: r = 0.344, P = 0.05

80

100

120

Egg diameter (mm)Figure 6. A scatter chart showing the egg diameter - body length (TL)
relationship of female T. trichopterus

Egg diameter - weight: r = 0. 369, P = 0.05

0.80000.70000.60000.50000.40000.30000.20000.10000.00000.00

5.00

Weight (g)

10.00

15.00

Figure 7. A scatter chart showing the egg diameter - body weight
relationship of female T. trichopterus
The egg diameter of female T. trichopterus had a low and no significant correlation with body weight and bodylength (Fig.6 & 7). The results indicate that body length and body weight do not influence the egg diameter.
The result also shows that there is a low positive and no significant (r = 0.405, P = 0.05) correlation between
egg diameter and fecundity (Fig.8). This implies that fecundity does not influence egg diameter.

301

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Egg Diameter (mm)0.80000.70000.60000.50000.40000.30000.20000.10000.0000
0

2000

4000

6000

Fecundity
Egg diameter-fecundity: r = 0.405, P = 0.05

8000

Figure 8. A scatter chart graph showing the egg diameter fecundity relationship of female T. trichopterus
The results show that correlation between the egg diameter and three parameters are very weak. According
to Sangcaan (2014), this simply implies that there is a little relationship which might be due to other variable
such as environmental factors aside from the fecundity, length and weight which are affecting the diameter ofthe egg.
Degani (2001) stated that the habitats affected by seasonal rains influence the standing water where the fish
breed. There is no detailed description of conditions in natural habitats; however, extensive study has been
made regarding the adaptation to growth and reproduction under artificial conditions. Bindu et al. (2014)concludes that changes in salinity and conductivity levels from underground water affects hormone control
reproduction and is in agreement with what was found regarding the hormone most involved in the sexual
behavior of three spot gourami males.
T. trichopterus is a tropical fish and multiple spawner (Degani, 1990). The sexual behavior of T. trichopterus isa very important factor in preparing the female for spawning. During courtship and nest building, the ovary
develops sensitivity to hormones, both growth hormone and steroid (Degani, 1991).

Fecundity

Fecundity - GSI Relationship
The weight gonads of each fish sample was divided by its body weight then multiplied by 100 to obtain the
GSI. In this study, the GSI recorded (Table1) for females ranged from 3.15 to 8.10 with a mean of 0.629. The
fecundity has a mean of 3494.9748 and standard deviation of 752.66. The value of r between the fecundity
and GSI which was 0.599 indicated that there is a moderate positive and significant correlation (Fig.9). Thismeans that as fecundity increases, GSI tends to increase.
7000
6000
5000
4000
3000
2000
1000
0
0.00

2.00

4.00

GSI6.00
Fecundity-GSI r = 0.599, P = 0.01

8.00

10.00

Figure 9. A scatter chart showing the fecundity - GSI relationshipof female T. trichopterus
Absolute fecundity is the number of ripe eggs produced by a female in one spawning season or year andrelative fecundity is the number of eggs produced in a season per unit somatic weight of the fish (i.e.,
eggs/gram), and is useful if it is shown that the fecundity of a fish is proportional to its weight, which is not302

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

uncommon. Bindu et al. (2014), stated that there was not much variation in the behavior, spawning and larvalrearing of blue and gold populations of T. trichopterus. They are easy to breed. Experiments by Pollak et al.
(1981) and personal experience suggests that multiple mating can take place. Egg production in T. trichopterus
is prodigious and probably does not severely limit the frequency of mating. Both males and females are clearly
capable of mating with as little as 24 hours separating successive spawning. T. trichopterus is a tropical fishthat exists in a habitat having a relatively constant temperature range in this habitat. This fish reproduces all
year round in the 23°C - 31°C temperature range. In this habitat, water is highly affected by rain (Degani &Levy, 2013). In the study of Bindu et al. (2014), spawning fecundity of T. trichopterus, was higher after breedingand early development spawning occurred simultaneously and the male fertilized the eggs. The eggs werelighter and the male picked up those eggs that sink and those that have floated outside the nest in its mouthand placed into the nest.
Some of the complications of fecundity data are the relationship between the fecundity and (i) fertility (ii)frequency of spawning (iii) parental care (iv) egg size (v) population density and (vi) environmental factors(Bagenal, 1978). In addition, fish can exhibit atresia (oocyte degeneration) in response to poor nutritional state.
Pollution increases the level of atresia and has been shown experimentally (Lawrence, 2013). Benjamin et al.
(2010) stated that there is a negative impact of polluted area on the liver weights, fish size, and reproductive
traits (gonadal weight and number of mature eggs, adjusted for fish size). The cyprinid fauna of Lake Lanao,
Mindanao presents a widely acknowledged but controversial example of adaptive radiation. The declining
fecundity of cyprinid species might be because of the increasing pollution and over exploitation by the people
around the lake.
The result of this present study shows that T. trichopterus has a relatively high fecundity compared to the studyof Pethiyagoda (1991) on the same species found in Sri Lanka with a relative fecundity of 300-400 up to 1000
and Richter (1988) also on the same species in Neptune City of United States with absolute fecundity of 10004000. Ecological factors affect the biological and the reproduction characteristics of fish population, and sothese kinds of investigations should be carried out periodically.
The finding of this study is contradictory to the declining fecundity of Lake Lanao cyprinids. One possible
reason is that T. trichopterus is known to be very tolerant of wide ranges of environmental conditions including
varying pH, temperature and dissolved oxygen levels (Priest, 2002).
CONCLUSIONS
Based on the results, it can be concluded that as weight of T. trichopterus increases the length increases. As
the body length and body weight increase, the fecundity of the species is likely to increase. Body length, bodyweight and fecundity do not influence the egg diameter. Fecundity is more or less directly proportional to GSI(gonadosomatic index). Finally, the fecundity of T. trichopterus collected in Wato, Lanao del Sur is relatively
high compared to the study of (Pethiyagoda, 1991) and (Ritcher, 1988).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank and appreciate Dr. Cesar A. de la Seña and Dr. Sherwin S. Nacua for their excellent
advice during the preparation of this study. Deep thanks also to the Mindanao State University, Biology
Department, CNSM, for allowing us to use the fish laboratory room and materials for the study.
REFERENCES
1. Bagenal, T. B. (1978), Aspects of fish in ecology of freshwater fish production (S.D Gerkinged.) Oxford
City, Mississippi: Blackwell Publishing Ltd.
2. Benjamin, L. Benito J. & Berthou E. G. (2010), Decreases in Condition and Fecundity of Freshwater Fishes
in a Highly Polluted Reservoir. Water Air Soil Pollut (2010) 210:231–242
3. Bindu, L,A., Linsha, S., Sreelekshmi, R., & Archana, P. L., (2014), Breeding and early development of thenest building gourami Trichogaster trichopterus (Family Osphronimidae). International Journal of Researchin Fisheries and Aquaculture, 4(4): 175-180
4. Degani, G. (2001) Blue Gourami (Trichogaster trichopterus) Model for Labyrinth Fish. Laser Pages
Publishing, Israel.
5. Degani, G. (1990), Effect of different diets and water quality on the growth of the larvae of Trichogastertrichopterus (B&S 1801), Aquaculture Engineering, 9 367-375.
6. Degani, G., 1991. Effect of diet, population density and temperature on growth of larvae and juveniles ofTrichogaster trichopterus (Bloch & Schneider 1801). Journal of Aquaculture in the Tropics, 6: 135–141
7. Degani G., & Levy G. (2013), Underground water affects sexual behavior and gene expression of hormones
related to reproduction in blue gourami males. Advances in Biological Chemistry 3 133-140.
8. Froese R. and Pauly D. (Eds.), (2007).FishBase [online] version (01/2007).
9. Goulden, C. E (2001) Ancient Lakes: their cultural and biological diversity. LimnolOceanogr 46(6):1579–
1580

303

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

10. Ismail, G.B.,Sampson D.B., & Noakes, D.L. (2013), The status of Lake Lanao endemic cyprinids (Puntius
species) and their conservation. Environ Biol Fish, (2014) 97; 424-434
11. Jordan, D. S., & Richardson, R. E. (1965), Check-list of the species of fishes known from the Philippine
archipelago. Manila Bureau of Printing
12. Lawrence A. J (2003), Effects of Pollution on Fish: Molecular Effects and Population Responses. Black well
Science Ltd a Blackwell Publishing company.
13. Mirzaei, M. R., Valinasab, T., Yasin, Z., & Hwai1, A. T. (2013), Reproduction characteristics and lengthweight relationships of the sand whiting (Sillago sihama) in the south coastal of Iran (Persian Gulf andOman Sea). Annals of Biological Research, 4 (5); 269-278
14. Naga, P. O (2010), Lake Lanao: An ancient lake in distress. Paper presented in the 13 th World Lake
Conference in China
15. Pethiyagoda, R., (1991), Freshwater Fishes of Sri Lanka. Wildlife Heritage Trust of Sri Lanka. Pp 270.
16. Pollak, E-I., Thompson, T., Stabler, A.L., & Keener, D., (1981), Multiple Matings in the Blue Gourami
Trichogaster trichopterus (pisces, Beloniidae) Animal Behaviour 29(1): 55-63.
17. Priest, A. 2002) When two are three and gold is blue. Osphronemid, 4, 6-11.
18. Richter, H. J. (1988), Gouramis and other anabantoids. T.F.H. Publications, Inc. Ltd., Neptune City, NJ.
19. Rosagaron, R.P. (2001). Lake Lanao: Its past and present status. In CBSantiago, ML Cuvin-Aralar and ZU
Basiao (Eds.). Conservation and Ecological Management of Philippine Lakes in Relation to Fisheries andAquaculture (pp. 29-39).
20. Sangcaan, S. D. (2014), Fecundity of Katolong (Hypseleotris agilis, Herre) In Lake Lanao, Lanao del Sur.
An Undergraduate Thesis. Mindanao State University, Marawi City

304

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

GUT CONTENT ANALYSIS OF Puntius tumba TAKEN FROM SELECTED RIVERS OF LANAODEL SUR, PHILIPPINES
Aynie S. Mohammad1*, Husna A. Dimapalao2
World Assembly of Muslim Youth (WAMY), Mindanao State University, 2Faculty of Biology
Department College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Mindanao State University*Corresponding author: Ladyhinasaki73@gmail.com

1

ABSTRACT
Gut content analysis of Puntius tumba, one of the two remaining endemic cyprinids in Lake Lanao, was carriedout to gather additional information that could be used for any planned scheme to develop appropriate culture
techniques for the prevention of the extinction of this fish. The guts from 60 samples of P. tumba taken fromthe river along Ramain, Saguiaran, and Marantao were examined and analyzed. With the use of
stereomicroscope, macroscopic gut contents were identified. Data on gut contents were subjected to frequencyof occurrence and were analyzed by points (volumetric) method. Costello’s method was used to determine
whether the fish species is a generalists or specialists. The body length and the gut length measurement wereanalyzed and plotted in Microsoft Excel to determine whether there is a correlation between the length
measurements. Body length is plotted as the x values and the gut length as the y values. Macrophytes arefound to be the most frequent gut contents consumed by P. tumba. The least in frequency of occurrence arebivalve juveniles. The gut contents with the highest volume percentage are macrophytes and the least are finesand grains, bivalve juveniles, and detritus. Other food items found include gastropod fragments, bivalve
fragments, and gastropod juveniles. Costello's method indicated that P. tumba is a generalist fish species. In
addition, only a slight correlation was determined between gut length and body length of P. tumba.
Keywords: Puntius tumba, gut content analysis, endemic to Lake Lanao, Costello’s method, generalist
INTRODUCTION
Puntius tumba is a species of cyprinid fish endemic to Mindanao, Philippines where it is found in Lake Lanao
and associated water systems. This species can reach a length of 12.8 centimeters (5.0 in). Lake Lanao, as
one of the ancient lakes of the world, is the deepest and second lake in the Philippines. It is located in theisland of Mindanao in the province of Lanao del Sur. Based on historical surveys, most of the 18 endemic
cyprinid species in Lake Lanao are now believed to be extinct. Puntius lindog and Puntius tumba are the only
two endemic species recorded in 2008 (Ismael et al., 2014), accounting for 0.01 % and 0.04 %, respectively,of the total weight harvested. The rest are no longer seen in the Marawi City market today. Several significant
historical fish market and landing surveys have been conducted in the region of Lake Lanao (Villaluz, 1966;
Sanguila et al., 1975; Escudero et al., 1980; Escudero and Demoral, 1983; Escudero, 1994) showing an
alarming decline in the number of endemic species and one of those species is Puntius tumba. The study ofgut content analysis and feeding habits of fishes are a continuous exercise because it provides information forsuccessful fisheries Management. With paucity of information on gut content analysis of Puntius tumba, thisstudy is aimed to determine the gut content of Puntius tumba in Lake Lanao to be used for any planned scheme
to develop appropriate culture techniques for the prevention of the extinction of this fish.
METHODS
Collection and Identification of Sample
Freshwater samples of Puntius tumba were taken from the rivers located in Ramain at 8°0’4 N and 124°20’51
E, Marantao at 7°57’39 N and 124°11’56 E, and Saguiaran at 8°1’0 N and 124°13’51 E , using gillnets, traps
and hooks. These three places are where Puntius tumba species are reported to occur and they are the bestplaces to conduct the research. A series of collection or sampling was done from February 7 to 10, 2016.
Twenty individuals of Puntius tumba from each site were collected and then stored immediately inside an
icebox prior to further examination.
The collected samples were brought to Biology Department of Mindanao State University for the identificationand verification of the fish. The samples were identified based on meristic characteristics and othermorphological features as indicated in Fish base and were further verified by Prof. Escudero, a retired
professor from College of Fisheries, Mindanao State University-Marawi. Counting of the samples’ scales forthe meristic characteristics of the species was made possible with the expertise and aid of Dr. Alicante,
professor from Biology Department College of Natural Sciences and Mathematics, Mindanao State UniversityMarawi.
Dissection and Preservation
The fish samples were washed first in flowing water carefully to remove any dirt on their bodies. They werethen put in the tray and their lengths were measured. Each fish sample was dissected viscerally from mouth

305

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

to anus to expose the internal organs. The whole process was done very carefully so as to ensure that the gut
is intact and to prevent disintegration of the gut contents. The gut is a tubular structure beginning at the mouthand ending at the anus. After the careful dissection, the whole gut was preserved in petri dish containing 5%of buffered formalin solution so as to harden the soft wall of the gut.
Analysis and Identification of Gut Contents
After dissecting the alimentary system, different components of the stomachs were recorded. They were split
open by a pair of scissors, blade, forceps, and scalpel and emptied in a petri dish for examination. The fooditems were identified, counted, scaled, and enumerated. Each food item was scaled from 0 to 16 by points as
described in the study of Zacharia (2004). Contents were placed in vials and transferred to a slide for
examination and observation. The grouping was based on the information obtained in Fish base. After
identifying the contents, they were placed again in vials for storage and future use.
Data Analysis
Data on gut contents were subjected to frequency of occurrence analysis as described in the study ofAgbabiaka (2012), Ahlbeck et al. (2012), Badamasi (2014), and Bob-manuel (2011) and were analyzed bypoints (volumetric) method (Zacharia, 2004).
The used formulas to get the frequency of occurrence and volume percentage are written below:
Points (Volumetric) method =𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡 𝛼
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑝𝑜𝑖𝑛𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑒𝑑 𝑡𝑜 𝑠𝑢𝑏 𝑠𝑎𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑒

Frequency of the occurrence (FO) =𝑥 100

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑎 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑢𝑙𝑎𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑑 𝑖𝑡𝑒𝑚
𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑔𝑢𝑡 𝑤𝑖𝑡ℎ 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑑𝑥 100

Costello's method
In determining whether the fish species is a generalists or specialists, Costello’s method (Lima-Junior, 2001;
Eya et al., 2011) was used. The method consists of a scatter plot of percentage volume values in the y axis
and frequency of occurrence in the x axis. Points located near 1% of occurrence and 1% of volume showedthat the predator consumed different preys in low quantity. On the other hand, points located near 100% of
occurrence and 100% volume show that the predator is a specialist for a given prey. Hence, in this study theprey items in the diet of the fish species were plotted in a graph so as to determine whether the fish in thisstudy is a generalists or specialists (Amundsen et al., 1996).
Gut and Body Length Correlation
The body length and the gut length measurement were analyzed and plotted in Microsoft EXCEL to determine
whether there is a correlation between the two length measurements. Body length is plotted as the x values
and gut length as the y values. There is a correlation if the coefficient R 2 is above 0.5 or nearing to 1.0 but if
the coefficient R2 is below 0.5; there is no correlation.
Documentation
Photo documentation was done throughout the research using a digital camera (Kodak EASYSHARE).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Identification of the Gut Contents FoundThe observed gut contents from the gut of P. tumba were grouped into eight (8) categories, namely: gastropod
juveniles, gastropod fragments, bivalve juveniles, bivalve fragments, macrophytes, water insect appendages,
and fine sand grains. The rest of the gut contents were classified as unidentified or detritus since most of thegut contents were nearly digested completely.
Frequency of Occurrence of the Gut Contents
The frequencies of occurrence of gut contents in the gut of Puntius tumba are shown in Table 1. The
examination of the gut samples taken from Ramain showed that the most frequent gut contents were detritus
and macrophytes, which formed 70% and 65%, respectively followed by bivalve fragments and gastropod
fragments (45%), water insect appendages (40%), bivalve juveniles (30%), and fine sand grains (25%). The
least frequent gut content with a value of 20% was recorded for gastropod juveniles.The result supports thefindings of several workers who reported gut contents in cyprinids species. In the study of Petr (2000), he
found out that cyprinids such as Puntius tumba thrive in the benthopelagic freshwater environment of lakesuch as Lake Lanao. Arimoro and Orogun (2010) found that detritus appear to be taken in automatically alongwith the food items associated with them, when the fish feeds on the bottom.

306

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1. The percentage frequency of occurrence of the contents found in the gut of 20 P. tumba samples
taken from Ramain, Saguiaran, and Marantao.
GUT
No. of Gut
CONTENTS
containing the item
Animals
Gastropod
4
juveniles
Gastropod
9
fragments
Bivalve
6
juveniles
Bivalve
9fragments
Water insect
8
appendages
PlantsMacrophytes
13
Other materials
Detritus
14
Fine
sand
5
grainsRAMAIN%SAGUIARAN
No. of Gut
containing the item%

MARANTAO
No. of Gut
containing the item

%

20

1

5

5

25

45

2

10

4

20

30

1

5

2

10

45

2

10

4

20

40

4

20

2

10

65

10

50

17

85

70
25

8
8

40
40

6
3

30
15

From Saguiaran, the most frequent gut contents were macrophytes with the value of 50% followed in rank by
detritus and fine sand grains which have the same value of 40%, and water insect appendages (20%) . Next
were bivalve fragments and gastropod fragments, which formed 10%, and with the value of 5%, both gastropod
juveniles and bivalve juveniles were the least in frequency of occurrence.
From Marantao, the most frequent gut contents were macrophytes (85%), detritus (30%), and gastropod
juveniles (25%). Next were gastropod fragments and bivalve fragments having the same value of 20% andfine sand grains (15%). The least in frequency of occurrence with a value of 10% were water insect
appendages and bivalve juveniles.
250
200
150
100
50
0

MARANTAOSAGUIARAN
RAMAIN

Figure 1. The total percentage composition of the contents found in thegut of Puntius tumba from the three selected areas.
Combining the results obtained from Ramain, Saguiran, and Marantao, the most frequent gut contents were
macrophytes followed in rank by detritus, fine sand, gastropod fragments and bivalve fragments, water insect
appendages, gastropod juveniles, and least was the bivalve juveniles as shown in Figure 1.
This result supported the study of Petr (2000) who found out that the reason why cyprinids frequently feed on
macrophytes is because it is the most preferential fish habitat where they spawn and nest their eggs. Somecyprinids tend to thrive in the deeper limits of the littoral zone where they pick up the food items such as thegastropods and bivalve.
Point (Volumetric) Method
Results of the Point (Volumetric) Method of the 8 gut contents found in the gut of P. tumba from the 3municipalities were shown in Figures 2a, 2b, and 2c.

307

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

45
40
35
30
25
20
39.97
15
24.5
10
18.03
5
5.9
3.35
2.95 2.17
0 3.05

45
40
35
30
25
40.9
20
15
10 17.1
11.3
10.2
5
8.77
4.57 5.15
2.01
0

2a

2b

60
50
40
30
20
10
0

55.6
6.69

11.4

2.61

13.2

6.61

1.94

1.97

2c
Figure 2. Volume percentage per content found in the gut of P. tumba
collected from Ramain (2a), Saguiaran (2b) and Marantao (2c).
In Ramain (Fig. 2a), the most consumed gut contents were macrophytes (39.97%), gastropod fragments(24.58%), and bivalve fragments (18.03%). Next in rank were water insect appendages (5.90%), bivalve
juveniles (3.35%), gastropod juveniles (3.05%), and detritus (2.95%). The least consumed gut content wasfine sand grains with the value of 2.17%.
In Saguiaran (Fig. 2b), macrophytes and gastropod juvenile were the most consumed gut contents with thevalue of 40.9% and 17.1%, respectively. Bivalve fragments, bivalve juveniles, and detritus were the least
consumed gut contents with the value of 5.15%, 4.57%, 2.01%, respectively.
In Marantao (Fig. 2c), the most consumed gut contents were macrophytes (55.6%), bivalve fragments (13.2%),
and gastropod fragments (11.4%). Next in rank were gastropod juveniles (6.69%), water insect appendages(6.61%), bivalve juveniles (2.61%), and fine sand grains (1.97%). The least in the list was detritus with a valueof 1.94%. Lumping Figures 2a, 2b, and 2c, macrophytes were the most consumed gut content found in thegut of P. tumba followed by gastropod fragments, bivalve fragments, and gastropod juveniles as illustrated in
Figure 3. Water insect appendages, fine sand grains, bivalve juveniles, and detritus have the lowest
percentage being recorded and observed in the gut of P. tumba. This result again is in concordance with thestudy of Petr (2000) who found out that macrophytes are the most abundant food source of cyprinids and they
are benthopelagic species.

308

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0

MARANTAOSAGUIARAN
RAMAIN

Figure 3. Combined volume percentage per content found in the gut of P. tumba
collected from Ramain, Saguiaran, and Marantao

Volume Percentage

Costello’s method
The Costello’s method was used to determine whether P. tumba is a generalist or specialist. Figures 4 a, b,
and c showed the scatter plot utilizing the frequency of occurrence which is the x-axis and volume of eachfood item as the y-axis.

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

macrophytes

gastropodfragments

bivalvefragments
water insectfine sand grains
appendages
gastropod
bivalve juveniles
juveniles
0

10

20

30
40
50
Frequency of Occurrence

detritus
60

70

80

Gut contents
Figure 4a. A graphical representation of the contents found in the gut of P. tumba
taken from Ramain based on Costello’s method.
In Ramain (Fig. 4a), the points of gastropod fragments, bivalve fragments, water insect appendages,
gastropod juveniles, bivalve juveniles, detritus, and fine sand grains were located below 35% and macrophytes
were below 45% for volume percentage while only the points of detritus and macrophytes were plotted 70%
and 65%, respectively for frequency of occurrence. Most of the gut contents had low quantity both in volume
percentage and frequency of occurrence. Therefore, P. tumba is categorized as generalist based on Costello’s
method.

309

Volume Percentage

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

45
40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

macrophytes
gastropod
juveniles
bivalvejuveniles
0

gastropodfragments

water insect
appendages

bivalvefragements
10fine sand grains
detritus

20
30
40Frequency of Occurrence

50

60Gut contents
Figure 4b. A graphical representation of the contents found in the gut of P.
tumba taken from Saguiaran based on Costello’s method.
The result from Saguiaran (Fig. 4b above) showed that the points for macrophytes, gastropod juveniles, water
insect appendages, gastropod fragments, fine sand grains, bivalve fragments, bivalve juveniles, and detritus
were located below 45% for volume percentage while only the points of macrophytes was plotted 50% forfrequency of occurrence. The result shows P. tumba is a generalist based on Costello’smethod.
In Marantao (Fig. 4c), the points of gastropod fragments, bivalve fragments, gastropod juveniles, water insect
appendages, bivalve juveniles, fine sand grains, and detritus were plotted below 20% for volume percentage
and only macrophytes was plotted above 80% of frequency of occurrence. The result suggests P. tumba is a
generalist based on Costello’s method.

Volume Percentage

60
50

macrophytes

40
30
20
10
0

water insect
appendages

bivalve fragments
gastropod fragments

gastropod juveniles
bivalve juveniles
fine sanddetritus

0

20

40
60
Frequency of Occurrence

80

100

Gut contents
Figure 4c. A graphical representation of the contents found in the gut of P. tumba
taken from Marantao based on Costello’s method.
Gathering all the data obtained from three selected areas, the points of most of the gut contents of Puntius
tumba were located below 35% of volume percentage and below 50% of frequency of occurrence. Since mostof the gut contents had low quantity in terms of volume percentage and frequency of occurrence, P. tumba isclassified as a generalist based on Costello’s method.
Body length and gut length correlation
Figures 5a, b, and c showed the correlation between body length and gut length of P. tumba obtained fromthe three selected areas.
Sixty (60) samples were measured as to body length and gut length. Data collected for the body length from
Ramain samples ranged from 92cm to 132cm with a gut length ranging from 95cm to 207cm. For the bodylength of data collected from Saguiaran ranged from 91cm to 134cm with a gut length ranging from 110cm to310

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

213cm. Ranging from 96cm to 133cm was the body length for Marantao samples with a gut length of 104cm
to 240cm.

250
y = 1.9071x - 44.486
R² = 0.6777

Gut Length

200
150
100
50
0

0

50

100
Body Length

150
LengthFigure 5a. Correlation between body length to gut length of P. tumba takenfrom Ramain
Figure 5a above showed the gut to body correlation in P. tumba taken from Ramain. The value of R2 was
0.677 and it showed a slight correlation. The correlation equation generalization was Y= 1.9071x-44.486 where
X is the body length and Y is the gut length.
Figure 5b showed the gut to body correlation in P. tumba taken from Saguiaran. The coefficient R2 has thevalue of 0.774 and it showed a slight correlation. The correlation equation generalization was Y= 1.9275x52.038 where X is the body length and Y is the gut length.
250
Gut Length200

y = 1.9275x - 52.038
R² = 0.7746

150
100
50
0

0

50

100
Body Length

150
LengthFigure 5b. Correlation between body length to gut length of P.
tumba taken from Saguiaran
Figure 5c revealed a slight correlation between gut length and body length of P. tumba since the coefficientR2 had the value of 0.505 where Y is equal to 2.290x-87.88.
Lumping all the obtained data, Figure 6 below illustrated the gut to body length correlation in P. tumba obtained
from the three selected areas. The plot showed a slight correlation since the value of R 2 was equal to 0.628.
The body length Y was equal to 2.007x- 57.42. The relationship between body length and gut length for the
samples taken from Ramain, Saguiaran, and Marantao was significant as illustrated in Figure 7. As the fish
increases in size the gut length also increases in size.

311

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference300
Gut Length250

y = 2.2907x - 87.888
R² = 0.5054

200
150
100
50
0

0

50

100
Body Length

150
LengthFigure 5c. Correlation between body length to gut length in
P. tumba taken from Marantao
300
250
Gut Lengthy = 2.0078x - 57.423
R² = 0.6286

200
150
100
50
0

0

50

100
Body Length

150
LengthFigure 6. The total correlation between body lengths to gut
lengths taken from three selected areas

Food Diet
Dissected guts of Puntius tumba samples taken from three selected areas namely, Ramain, Saguiaran, andMarantao, revealed that this fish feeds on both plants and animals such as gastropods, bivalves, and water
insect appendages. Other materials such as detritus and fine sand grains were also found and observed intheir gut. Apparently, these fine sand grains are accidentally swallowed by the fish while feeding on detritus
and algae (Arimoro and Orogun, 2010). Their low percentage and occasional occurrence presumably point tothis conclusion. Almost all of the food items obtained from the gut had undergone complete digestion. In thisstudy P. tumba is proved to be omnivorous which feed on both plants and animals which is in agreement withthe findings of Aba-Conding (1998), who reported P. tumba was an omnivore. As illustrated in Figures 4a, b,
and c by Costello’s method, Puntius tumba is a generalist since most of the gut contents were located below
35% of percentage volume and below 50% of frequency of occurrence. In general, generalist animals such as
P. tumba appear to be more successful than specialists, as they can take advantage of a wider range ofcircumstances. P. tumba being generalist is probably the reason why until now it survives because it is notselective or choosy when it comes on the food it consumes. When food resources become scarce, it can divert
to another food resources. The downsides of generalist according to Deus and Petrere-Junior (2003) are stressand competition — because they compete in crowded biological niches, generalists have to elbow othergeneralists out of the way to survive on a fixed amount of nutrients. The examination of the gut samples takenfrom Ramain showed that most frequent gut contents were detritus and macrophytes while gastropod juveniles
were the least frequent. In terms of percentage volume, macrophytes were the most consumed gut contents
and fine sand grains were the least consumed one. Results from Saguiaran revealed that macrophytes werethe most frequent and consumed contents in the gut of P. tumba in terms of the frequency of occurrence andpercentage volume. Gastropod juveniles appeared to be the least frequent content in terms of the frequencyof occurrence while detritus were the least consumed one in terms of the percentage volume. A similar result
was observed in Marantao where in terms of frequency of occurrence and percentage volume, macrophytes
ranked as the first. The least was bivalve juveniles and water insect appendages for the frequency ofoccurrence while detritus were the least for the percentage volume. In general, collected P. tumba samples
taken from three selected areas were observed and found to share almost the same food resources mainly onplants such as macrophytes, which is in line with the study by Petr (2000) who stated that the reason why most312Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

cyprinids frequently feed on macrophytes is because macrophytes use to be the most preferential fish habitat
and they are abundant as food source. Body length and gut length for the Puntius tumba were notably thesame in the three selected areas. There is a slight correlation between body length and gut length of P. tumba.
As the fish increase in size, the gut length also increases.
CONCLUSIONSThe study was carried out to determine the gut content of Puntius tumba in three selected areas. The gut
contents of Puntius tumba showed that they feed on a wide variety of food items ranging from animals andplants as well as detritus and fine sand grains, thus, it is omnivorous and a generalist.
Puntius tumba feeds on both plants and animals such as water insect appendages, gastropods, and bivalves.
There is a positive slight correlation between the body length and gut length. As the fish grows, the gut length
also increases.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to convey their most heartfelt gratitude to the people who helped in the identification of
their fish species and for the refinement of the paper. Thank you to Dr. Caesar dela Seña, Ms. Nazma Eza,
Dr. Paul Alicante, all three from the Biology Department and Prof. Pedro Escudero, from the college ofFisheries of the Mindanao State University, Philippines.
REFERENCES
1. Aba-Conding, I. (1998). Relationship between body size and feeding habits in two endemic cyprinids ofLake Lanao. Undergraduate Thesis, MSU: Marawi City.
2. Agbabiaka, L.A. (2012). Food and feeding habits of Tilapia zilli (Pisces: Cichlidae) in river otamiri Southeastern Nigeria. Bioscience Discovery 3(2):146-148
3. Ahlbeck, I., Hansson, S., Hjerne O. (2012). Evaluating fish diet analysis methods by individual-basedmodeling. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 69:1184-1201
4. Amundsen, P.A., Gabler H.M., Staldvik, F.J. (1996). A new approach to graphical analysis of feeding
strategy from stomach contents data-modification of the Costello (1990) method. Journal of Fish Biology.
48(4):607-614
5. Arimoro, F.O., Orogun, E.O. (2010). Food and feeding habits of Auchenoglanis biscutatus in River
Orogodu, Delta State, Nigeria. Journal of Fisheries International. 5(4): 67-71
6. Badamasi, I. (2014). Distribution of Stomach food content of fish species collected from industrial waste
water effluents a case study of Jakarta dam, kano, Nigeria. International Journal of Innovation,
Management and Technology 5(2): 499
7. Bob-Manuel, F.G. (2011). Food and feeding ecology of the mudskipper Periopthalmus koelreuteri(PALLAS) gobiidae at Rumuolumeni Creek, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Agricultural and Biology journal of North
America 2(6): 897-901
8. Deus, C.P., Petrere-Junior, M. (2003). Seasonal diet shifts of seven fish species in an Atlantic rainforest
stream in Southeastern Brazil. Braz. J. Biol. 63:4
9. Escudero, P.T, Gripaldo, O.M, Sahay, N.M (1980) Biological studies of the Glossogobius giurus (Hamilton& Buchanan) and the Puntius sirang (Herre) in Lake Lanao. J Fish Aquac. 1(1):11–154
10. Escudero, P.T, Demoral, M.A (1983) Preliminary studies on the Biology and Fishery of Hypseleotris agilis
Herre. J Fish Aquac 4:3–89
11. Escudero, P.T (1994) Lake Lanao fisheries: problems and recommendations. Philipp Biota 27(1):8–18
12. Eya, A.A.A., Lacuna, D.G., Espra, A.S. (2011). Gut Content Analysis of Selected Comercially Important
Species of Coral Reef Fish in the Southwest Part of Iligan Bay, Northern Mindanao, Philippines.
Publication of the Seto Marine Biological Laboratory. 41: 35-49
13. Herre, A.W (1933). The fishes of Lake Lanao: a problem in evolution. Am Soc Nat. 67(709): 154-162
14. Ismael, G.B., Noakes, D.L.G. (2014). The status of Lake Lanao endemic cyprinids (Puntius species) andtheir conservation. Environmental Biology of Fishes. 97: 425-434
15. Lima, S.E., Goitein, R. (2001). A new method for the analysis of fish stomach contents. Acta Scientiarum.
23(2): 421-424
16. Petr T. (2000). Interaction between fish and macrophytes in inland waters. Fao fisheries technical paper.
92-5:396
17. Sanguila, W.M, Rosales, A, Tabaranza B Jr, Mohamad, S (1975) Notes on the Food Habits of Puntius
sirang and Glossogobius giurus. Mindanao J. 1:3–11
18. Villaluz, D.K (1966) The Lake Lanao fisheries and their conservation. Bureau of Printing, Manila
19. Zacharia, P.U., Abdulrahiman, K.P. (2004). Methods of Stomach content analysis of fishes. Central
Marine Fisheries Research Institute 148-158

313

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

EFFECTS OF QUALITY AND QUANTITY OF WATER ON MACROINVERTEBRATES INTEMPORARY STREAM AT HARIPHUNCHAI EDUCATION CENTRE, THAILAND
Kitti Moolla1and Decha Thapanya2*
Environmental Science Program, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai Univ., Chiang Mai 2Departmentof Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand*Corresponding author: thapanya2@hotmail.com

1

ABSTRACT
A temporary stream that delivers water to a reservoir in Hariphunchai Education Centre, Lamphun Province,
was subjected to study the effects of the quality and quantity of water on the macroinvertebrates from October
2015 to September 2016. Four study sites were selected and monitored. The study showed that the average
flow of water discharge into the reservoir was 0.03 m3/s. In November 2015, the water level in the stream
began to decrease. The flow stopped towards the end of the month and became a small pool which dried out
consequently. The stream began to flow again in late June 2016. The measurements of water qualities are as
follow: pH ranged from 6.31 to 8.10, Dissolved Oxygen was 0.35–8.2 mg/L. Water temperatures ranged 22.0–
37.0°C. Total Dissolved Solid was 62.0–312.0 mg/L. Conductivity was 117.0–576.0 µS/cm. Concentrations ofNH3, NO-3, and PO4 in the water were under the Thailand standard for surface water quality.
Macroinvertebrates found belonged to 11 orders and 33 families. The first study site was the most abundantin Chironomidae and Beatidae. In the second study site, Ceratopogonidae and Chironomidae were found as
the dominant groups, while in the third study site, the most dominant taxa were Chironomidae in October 2016.
But, in November 2016, this study site became dried out. The fourth study site showed that the most abundantfamily was Chironomidae. The changes in discharge for 10 months caused the stream to dry out especially inthe downstream area. This caused many macroinvertebrate taxa to disappear when the stream became apool. Chironomidae and Caratopogonidae were the only well adapted group to this condition. Finally, allaquatic macroinvertebrates disappeared when the stream completely dried.
Keywords: Reservoir, Temporary stream, Macroinvertebrates, Water Discharge, Hariphunchai
INTRODUCTION
Water is an important resource for establishment the new campus of Chiang Mai University in Lamphunprovince. The aquatic environmental information of water input is important for solving the water shortage in
the new campus area. This research was about the aquatic ecosystems in the Hariphunchai Education Centre
related to quality and quantity of stream flowing into the campus reservoir. There were several streams flowing
into the reservoir, but in the dry season there was only one stream that continue to flow into the reservoir.
These streams were temporary streams, which flowed during the flood season and stopped flowing during thedry season (McDonough et al., 2011).
Temporary streams are channels that dry and stop flowing during some portion of the year. This type of stream
is the interface between aquatic and terrestrial ecosystems. They are abundant, widely distributed, and play
an important role for the organisms, and as a regulator of freshwater ecosystem (Comin and Williams,1994).
Temporary stream imposes a special set of problems upon their inhabitants. The most obvious of these is thecycle of flood and drought conditions. In temporary streams, there are three phases (Williams and Hynes,
1976). The first phase is the period where the stream flows. The second is the pool phase where the flow hasceased and isolated pools remain. The third is the dry phase where the column disappeared to become aterrestrial ecosystem. These changes of phase can be expressed into the pattern and level of stream water
discharge.
Discharge is the most critical flow-related variable when assessing habitat conditions for fish and benthic
organisms in the streams with flows of up to 0.14 m 3/s, while velocity is more important in the streams andrivers with greater flows (Plafkin et al., 1989). Measurement of discharge and stage is important in situations
where water management is a priority concern. For example, state legislation in Florida required the South
Florida Water Management District (SFWMD) to establish the minimum flows and levels for Lake Okeechobee(SFWMD, 2000). A basic step in planning of stream and riparian restoration is to obtain information on thehydrology of the project area (USEPA, 1993).
The purpose of biological monitoring is to continuously assess both water quality and quantity based on thepresence of living organisms such as macroinvertebrates. The abundance and diversity of macroinvertebrates
can indicate the overall stream quality (Karr and Chu, 1999). Macroinvertebrates include aquatic insects,
crustaceans, and mollusks that live in various stream habitats and derive their oxygen from water (Rosenberg
and Resh, 1993). These insects and crustaceans are impacted by all the stresses that occur in a stream
environment, both man-made and natural (Nelson and Roline, 1996). The basic principle of the study on
macroinvertebrates for biomonitoring is that some species are more sensitive to pollution and disturbance than314

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

the others. The species that are very sensitive to pollution will not be able to survive in degraded waters, while
those which are tolerant to pollution will be the dominant and are usually found in the degraded aquatic
ecosystems.
The reservoir in campus faces the problem of water shortage in the dry season. Thus, this study focuses on
the physical, chemical, biological, and the changes of the amount of water in the streams that flow into thereservoir, including the changes in the diversity of macroinvertebrates in each season. The result of this study
can be used as a database of aquatic ecosystem in campus that can be applied for the planning andmanagement of the aquatic ecosystems of Hariphunchai Education Centre, Lamphun Province. Therefore, anappropriate management will produce a sustainable reservoir.

[3]

[2]
[1]

Figure 1. Location of the study sites on a temporary stream in Hariphuchai Education Centre,
Lamphun Province, Thailand. Site 1 (18°31'16.37"N, 99°6'53.25"E, Altitude 374 m), Site 2(18°31'8.92"N, 99°6'52.63"E, Altitude 373 m), Site 3 (18°31'5.47"N, 99°6'52.60"E, Altitude 371 m),
located in Lamphun Agriculture Extension and Development Centre[3], and Site 4 (18°31'3.26"N,99°
6'50.96"E, Altitude 370 m), located in the reservoir [1] of Hariphunchai Education Centre[2]. (Source:
Google Map)
METHODS
The study was carried on a temporary stream in Lamphun Agriculture Extension and Development Centre forSites 1, 2, and 3, and in Hariphunchai Education Centre, Lamphun Province for Site 4 (Figure 1). This stream

315

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

has an irregular hydrological regime, with severe droughts in the dry period and floods in the rainy season.
The stream was also exploited for agricultural irrigation. The wet phase or rainy period occurs from June to
September. On the other hand, the rainfall amount decreases during the dry phase (late October to May). This
event causes some part of stream to dry or becoming a series of isolated pools.
Macroinvertebrate communities along the stream were sampled monthly from October 2015 to September
2016 from all four sites using a bottom kick net (500 μm mesh). The samples were taken from an area of 3 m2
in 5 minutes, included all possible microhabitats at each site. In some areas where large stones were present,
the sample was taken after these were discarded. All macroinvertebrate samples were fixed in 70% ethyl
alcohol, the samples were then sorted and identified to the lowest possible taxon (families and order)(McCafferty, 1981) and counted under a stereomicroscope in the laboratory.
Temperature, Conductivity (EC), Total Dissolved Solid (TDS), and pH were measured in the field using a
portable multiparameter analyser (Consort C533). On each site, a 500-ml water sample was collected, filtered(Whatman Cat No 1001 090), and analysed in the laboratory for N-nitrate (Cadmium reduction method), Orthophosphate (ascorbic acid method), and Ammonium (Nesslerization technique) by spectrophotometer (HACH
DR-2000). Using Azide Modification of Iodometric method the Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biochemical
Oxygen Demand (BOD) were analysed (APHA, AWHA, WPCF, 1998)
The discharges of stream were calculated using velocity-area method. Discharge is computed as the productof the area and velocity. The measurement is made by subdividing a stream cross section into segments(sometimes referred to as partial areas, sections, subareas, verticals, stations, profiles, panels, or ensembles),and by measuring the depth and velocity vertically within each segment. The total discharge is the sum of the
products of the partial areas of the stream cross section and their respective average velocities. This
computation is classically expressed by the equation (Horner et al., 1994)n

Q = ∑ a i vi
i=1

Where Q: total discharge, (m3/s)
a: cross-section area, (m2), for the ith segment of the n segments into which the cross section
is divided,v: corresponding mean velocity, (m/s) of the flow normal to the ith
segment, or vertical.

Figure 2. Amount of water discharge of temporary stream at each site316

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1. Characteristics of stream water at each site and each month.

Site 1

Oct-15

Nov-15

Dec-15Jan-16

Feb-16

Mar-16

Apr-16May-16Jun-16

Jul-16Aug-16 Sep-16

LothicLenthic

Lenthic

Lenthic

Lenthic

Lenthic

Lenthic

Lenthic

LothicLothicLothicLothicLothicLenthic

Lenthic

Lenthic

Lenthic

Lenthic

Lenthic

Lenthic

LothicLothicLothicLenthic

Lothic

Dry

Dry

Dry

Dry

Dry

Dry

Dry

LothicLothicLenthic

Lenthic

Lothic

Dry

Dry

Dry

Dry

Dry

Dry

Dry

LothicLenthic

Lenthic

Lenthic

Site 2Site 3Site 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The water qualities monitored were DO, BOD, pH, nitrate, ortho-phosphate, and ammonia. Their values werecategorized as fairly good based on Thailand Standard for surface water, except DO. The average value of
DO in Site 2 was the lowest due to its slow flow that sometimes it became still water (Table 2). This stream
was classified as Type 4 “Fairly clean fresh surface water resource suitable for consumption, but requires
special treatment before using” (National Environmental Board, 1 9 9 2 ) . The water discharge shown were oftwo periods: wet phase and dry phase. Wet phase starts in June which is the start of the rainy season in
Thailand, during which the amount of water is abundant in the stream with strong current in all study sites. The
average of water discharge flowing into the reservoir was approximately 0.03 m3/s. In August, we were unable
to measure the values of water discharge in the Sites 2, 3, and 4 because the stream changed from lotic tolentic ecosystem. In late September, the amount of water gradually decreased until mid-November, where
the water flow stopped. That was the change to the dry phase that lasted from November to May (Figure 2).
Table 2. Physico-chemical characteristics of the study sites.

Site
S1
S2
S3
S4

Air
temperature(°C)
30.25 ± 0.62a
29.46 ± 0.64a
29.00 ± 1.13a
28.60 ± 0.77a

Water
temperature(°C)
28.69 ± 0.65ab26.88 ± 0.46a
27.33 ± 0.69a
30.80 ± 0.82b

TDS(mg/L)

Conductivity(µS/cm)pH

167.86 ± 4.72a
238.00 ± 9.66b
176.60 ± 17.86a
181.33 ± 14.17a

316.72 ± 8.96a
446.89 ± 17.79b
332.27 ± 33.50a
340.87 ± 26.48a

7.38 ± 0.05b6.84 ± 0.02a
6.98 ± 0.08a
7.31 ± 0.06b

Ortho-phosphate(mg/L)
0.29 ± 0.04a
0.28 ± 0.02a
0.23 ± 0.03a
0.29 ± 0.03a

Ammonia(mg/L)
0.30±0.02a
0.42±0.04a
0.35±0.06a
0.38±0.06a

DO
BOD
Nitrate(mg/L)(mg/L)(mg/L)
S1
5.8 ± 0.25c
1.8 ± 0.14b
0.83 ± 0.05aS2
2.3 ± 0.23a
1.3 ± 0.11a
0.90 ± 0.05abaS3
3.9 ± 0.55
3.0 ± 0.11
1.03 ± 0.07abc
aS4
5.0 ± 0.66
4.0 ± 0.13
0.91 ± 0.05a*The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level
Site

A difference in the quality and quantity of water can cause the difference in the macroinvertebrate communities.
In Site 1 Chironomidae and Beatidae were found to be the most abundant. In Site 2 Ceratopogonidae andChironomidae were found to be the dominant groups, while Site 3showed that the most abundant taxa was
Chironomidae. In Site 4, it was found that Chironomidae and Culicidae were the dominant groups (Table 4).
In this temporary stream the Diptera (Chironomidae, Ceratopogonidae and Culicidae) were the dominantgroups, while Odonata (Libellulidae and Gomphidae) and Ephemeroptera (Baetidae) were the second and thethird dominant groups (Table 4). These three macroinvertebrate orders were tolerant groups, that can adapt
to the discharge changes in the stream. Dipterans can adapt to survive in standing water, so the stream wasa suitable habitat for these insects. For these macroinvertebrates, the samples S211 and S212 from Site 2
showed the highest Shannon’s diversity and Evenness indexes (Table 3) This is due to the fact that a wetland
is located behind this site, where the water gradually fills into Site 2 the entire period. So, almost a full year
Site 2 has a pool where Diptera was found during sample collection (Table 4).

317

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 3. Shannon’s diversity and Evenness indexes of macroinvertebrates in each site and month.
*S1 = Site 1, S2 = Site 2, S3 = Site 3, S4 = Site 4, 01 = January, 02 = February,03 = March, 04 = April, 05 =May, 06 = June, 07 = July,08 = August,09 = September,10 = October, 11 = November, 12 = December.
Sample
S101
S102
S103
S104
S105
S106
S107
S108
S109
S110
S111
S112
S201
S202
S203
S204
S205

Diversity
index
1.461
1.800
0.704
0.514
1.415
0.443
0.918
1.227
1.117
0.240
1.689
0.823
1.699
1.239
0.637
0.346
0.260

Evenness
Index
0.815
0.866
0.438
0.371
0.879
0.213
0.662
0.630
0.694
0.173
0.868
0.511
0.873
0.637
0.918
0.250
0.236

Sample
S206
S207
S208
S209
S210
S211
S212
S306
S307
S308
S309
S310
S406
S407
S408
S409
S410

Diversity
index
1.568
0.243
0
0.600
0.750
1.703
1.730
0.067
1.146
1.416
1.352
1.315
0.736
1.172
1.076
1.583
1.222

Evenness index
0.806
0.221
0
0.546
0.466
0.775
0.832
0.096
0.64
0.645
0.615
0.548
0.531
0.509
0.601
0.884
0.759

Table 4 Proportion of number of individuals, taxa, and Shannon’s diversity index in each site.
FamilyAthericidae
Atyidae
Baetidae
CaenidaeCaratopogonidae
Chironomidae
Coenagrionidae
Corixidae
Culicidae
Cyclestheriidae
Dytiscidae
Filopaludina
GerridaeGomphidae
Halipidae
Helodidea
Hydrophilidae
Hydropsychidae
Isolapotamidae
Lampyridae
Libellulidae
Lymnaeidae
Naucoridae
Nepidae
Palaemonidae
Planorbidae
Protoneuridae
Stratiomyidae
Tabanidae
Thiaridae
Unknown1(Coleoptera)
Unknown2(Coleoptera)
Viviparidae

Site 1
3
19
152
28
1
496
1
1
5
7
1
11
43
3
3
9
1
14
5
2
19
18
13
-

Site 2
10
8
112
105
6
3
3
7
3
2
2
3
28
1
19
2
1
49
3
1
1

318

Site 3
1
1
6
2
6
195
3
1
1
1
4
6
3
27
10
1
7
1
1
-

Site 4
12
27
696
5
2
172
3
3
3
28
1
21
13
8
3
4
6
1

Total
4
42
193
30
119
1492
15
4
181
11
3
1
25
55
3
2
33
4
9
4
90
5
13
2
28
50
3
11
2
63
9
1
2

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Total
Taxa number
Diversity index
Evenness index

855
23
1.583
0.505

369
21
2.004
0.685

277
19
1.293
0.439

1008
18
1.156
0.400

2509

CONCLUSIONS
A temporary stream in Hariphunchai Education Centre flowed from June to October 2016 after which thestream became isolated pools that finally completely dried. The macroinvertebrates that survived in thiscondition were Diptera, Odonata, and Ephemeroptera. The quality of stream was not different among sites,
except DO in Site 2 was different from the other sites. Sites 1 and 2 showed higher diversity than Sites 3 and4, because the water in the upstream dried slower than in the downstream. The well adapted
macroinvertebrate families in this stream were Chironomidae and Ceratopogonidae.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
We would like to thank the Environmental Science Program ,Graduate School, Hariphunchai Education Centre,
Lamphun Agriculture Extension, and Development Centre and Aquatic Insect Research Unit of Chiang Mai
University.
REFERENCES
1. APHA, AWHA, WPCF. (1998). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater.20thed.
Washington DC: American Public Health Association.
2. Comin F.A., and Williams,W.D.(1994). Parched continents: our common Future? Pages473-527in R.
Margalef, ed. Limnology Now: A Paradigm of Planetary Problems. Elsevier Science,
Amsterdam,Netherlands
3. Haase, P., (1999). Zoozönosen, Chemismus und Struktur regionaler Bachtypen imNiedersächsischen
und nordhessischen Bergland. Universität – Gesamthochschule Kassel (ed.), Ökologie undUmweltsicherung 18/99, Witzenhausen, 158 pp.
4. Horner, R.R., J.J. Skupien, E.H. Livingston, and H.E. Shaver. (1994). Fundamentals of urban runoff
management: technical and institutional issues, Terrene Institute, Washington, DC.
5. Karr JR, Chu EW (1999). Restoring life in running waters- Better biological monitoring. Washington:Islandpress, p. 206.
6. McCafferty, W.P. (1981). Aquatic Entomology. Science Books International, Inc, Boston, Mass.448p.
7. McDonough, O.T.,Hosen, J. D. And Palmer, M. A. (2011). Temporary Streams: The Hydrology,
Geography,And Ecology Of Non-Perenneially Flowing Water.River Ecosystems: Dynamics,Managemant
and Conservation. Nova Science Pulishers, Inc.
8. Nelson, S. M. and Roline, R. A. (1996). Recovery of a stream macroinvertebrate community frommine
drainage disturbance. Hydrobiologia 339: 73-84, 1996. © 1996 Kluwer Academic Publishers. Printed in
Belgium.
9. National Environmental Board, No. 8, B.E. 2537 (1994), issued under the Enhancement and Conservationof National Environmental Quality Act B.E.2535 (1992), published in the Royal Government Gazette, Vol.
111, Part 16, dated February 24, B.E.2537 (1994).
10. Plafkin, J.L., M.T. Barbour, K.D. Porter, S.K. Gross, and R.M. Hughes. 1989. Rapid
bioassessmenprotocols for use in streams and rivers: benthic macroinvertebrates and fish, EPA/444/489-001, Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Washington, DC.
11. Rosenberg D, Resh V (1993). Freshwater Biomonitoring and Benthic macroinvertebrates. Chapman hallpubl.
12. SFWMD. 2000. Minimum flows and levels for Lake Okeechobee, the Everglades, and the Biscayne
Aquifer, South Florida Water Management District, http://my.sfwmd.gov, retrieved September 11,2016.
13. Sommerhäuser, M., B. Robert and H. Schuhmacher, 1997. Flight periods and life strategies of caddisfliesin temporary and permanant woodland brooks in the Lower Rhine Area (Germany). Proc. 8th Int.
Symp.Trich.Optera 1995: 425–433.
14. USEPA. 1993. Guidance specifying management measures for sources of nonpoint pollution in coastal
waters. 840-B-92-002, Office of Water, U.S. Environmental Protection Agency,Washington, DC.
15. Williams, D. D. and Hynes, H. B. N. 1976. The recolonization mechanisms of stream benthos. – Oikos
27: 265-272

319

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

THE COMPOSITION OF A BENTHIC MACROINVERTEBRATE COMMUNITY IN
HANJALUTUNG OXBOW-LAKE: AN ANALYSIS
Imroatushshoolikhah1*, Jojok Sudarso1, Yustiawati1, Laelasari1
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences,
Jl. Raya Jakarta - Bogor km 46 Cibinong, Indonesia*Corresponding author: imroa@limnologi.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACT
Benthic macroinvertebrates play important role in the ecosystem of a lake, in the food chain system, nutrient
cycle, and in the state of water quality. This preliminary research project was explored the composition of abenthic macroinvertebrate community in the Hanjalutung Oxbow-lake, in Central Kalimantan and therelationship to physical and chemical water quality parameters. The study was conducted in Hanjalutung, ashallow oxbow lake located in Palangkaraya, Central Kalimantan, Indonesia. In addition, we also conductedsampling at Rungan River, which is the source of input for Hanjalutung. A total of 14 taxa of benthic
macroinvertebrates was determined during the research. The study showed that the values of ShannonWiener diversity index were ranged from low to moderate, the evenness index was in low to high, and the totalabundance in each location ranged between 18-960 individuals/ m2. The water quality showed in normal range
and 60% of taxa were characterized by pH, DO, and TDS. Five others were characterized by temperature. It
can be concluded from this research that Hanjalutung oxbow lake has lack of benthic macroinvertebrates bothin diversity and abundance in dry season, which are composed by groups of Insects and Oligochaetes, anddominated by Insects groups. This research can be used as basic information on lake management.
Keywords: oxbow lake, hanjalutung, macroinvertebrate, kalimantan
INTRODUCTION
The oxbow lake is an ecosystem which has an important role as a habitat for biodiversity. These lakes arenaturally formed when a meandering river is separated due to erosion. These horshoe-shaped lakes can beseparated from the main water course either permanently or non-permanently. Glińska-Lewczuk (2009)
divided the oxbow lake into three types based on morphology and connectivity aspects of hydrology: open lotic
oxbow, semi-open semi-lotic, and closed-lentic oxbow lake, as can be seen in Figure 1 (Obolewski, 2011).
Based on that type, Lake Hanjalutung has a simple form morphologically and is a closed lentic type in the dry
season because it is disconnected to the river during the dry season. However, it changes to a semi-open
semi lotic, or even an open lotic type during the wet season with inflows stream from Rungan River. Waterfrom the river flows through one or both sides. From those conditions, the Hanjalutung oxbow lake can be
categorized as a floodplain also. Some type of oxbow lakes can be seen in Figure 1. The pattern of dark on
the figure 1 shows the habitat of macroinvertebrates in different types of oxbow lakes based on connectivity to
the main river. Therefore, the distribution of macroinvertebrates in the habitat needs to understand.
Palangkaraya city has many oxbow lakes with a total lake area of ±13.63 km 2. One of them is Hanjalutung, in
the Petuk Katimpun Village, Jekan Raya District, Province of Central Kalimantan (Local government
unpublished report, 2009). There are two other oxbow lakes, namely, Lake Burung and Lake Rangas in Petuk
Katimpun. Hanjalutung is temporarily disconnected from the main river, Rungan River, especially during thedry season. When it comes to the wet season, the water flows into the lake through one or both sides.

320Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Oxbow lake types (Glińska-Lewczuk, 2009 in Obolewski, 2011)
Hanjalutung oxbow lake has important values ecologically and economical. For example, provides benefits forsociety in the fishery. Productivity of the fishery in Petuk Katimpun village ranged between 2-5 kgs daily, withdaily average of production is 3,92 kgs and daily average of income gained of Rp 45129 (Susila, 2012).
Ecologically, the oxbow lake is a habitat for biodiversity, such as for benthic macroinvertebrates. These aquaticorganisms are often used to study the condition of the freshwater ecosystem. They confer significant roles in
the lake ecosystem, for example, as a part of the food chain system, and nutrient cycles, and they give an
indication of the ecosystem and/or water quality (Yule and Sen, 2004). Benthic macroinvertebrates are one offood source for fish population; this community lives on the bottom, with the size ranging between 200 - 500
μm. They include both epifauna and infauna (Sudarso and Wardiatno, 2015; Odum, 1993; Rosernberg andResh, 1993). Their community consists of group of worms, mollusks, crustaceans, and Insects/ Insects larvae.
Informations or documentations of macroinvertebrates in the Oxbow Lake Hanjalutung in Palangkaraya arelimited, therefore this preliminary research aims to explore the community and to investigate the water quality
condition.
MATERIALS AND METHODSThis research project used a survey method. The survey was conducted in Hanjalutung oxbow lake,
Palangkaraya, Central Kalimantan. The aim of this research was to explore macroinvertebrates along the lake
so the location chosen was purposive. Five locations were chosen; four were on the inside and one on theoutside of the lake (in the Rungan river near the inlet) (Figure 2). An oxbow lake shape is like a horseshoe oralmost a U-shape. Due to the shape, two locations were chosen near the U-end-site of the lake (A and D).
These were assumed to connected to the river during rainy season because of flooding. However, thisresearch was conducted in the dry season in only one leg connected to the river. Two other locations were in
the middle, near the curved-site (sites C and B).

321

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. The Hanjalutung Oxbow Lake
Macroinvertebrates were collected using the Ekman grab tool, with three repetitions at each location as acomposite sample. Sediments containing macroinvertebrates were filtered, stored in a plastic bag andpreserved in 10% formaldehyde. The samples were then sorted and identified in the laboratory. Sorting andidentification were done using microscopes. To identify all groups, the books of identification were used (Epler,
2001; Kathman and Brinkhurst, 1999; Merrit and Cummins, 1995; Yule and Sen, 2004). Groups of Oligochaeta
and Diptera larvae were mounted by using CMCP 10 before they were identified (Kathman and Brinkhurst,
1999).
The analysis of macroinvertebrates included the number of taxa, abundance, diversity index (H), evenness
index (E), and feeding behaviour. The relationship between macroinvertebrates with water quality wasassessed by Canonical Correspondence Analysis (CCA). Diversity index, Evenness index, and CCA wereanalyzed using the MVSP program. The abundance was determined using the formulation below:
1. Abundance: shows the composition of species in the community:
Number of individu
Abundance =m2
2. Shanon- Wiener diversity index (H)The index is used to determine the diversity of the ecosystem. The value ranged between 0 to 5. Here's theformulation (Fachrul, 2007): H = − ∑ Pi ln Pi
3. Evenness Index (E)Rated E ranged from 0-1, where the value is 1 illustrates a state in which all species are spreading fairly toH′prevail. Here's the formula for calculating the evenness index (Astuti and Satria, 2009): E =ln S

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Number of Taxa, Diversity and Evenness Index
A total 14 taxa were found in Hanjalutung oxbow lake consisting of groups Arthropods and Annelida. The
classifications of benthic macroinvertebrates can be observed in Table 1. Thirteen were classified at the genus
level and one was at the family level. Benthic macroinvertebrates were collected from four locations from thelake and one from a segment of the Rungan River. Insects were the most common found, with about 11 taxa.
They are represented in four orders: Diptera, Hemiptera, Trichoptera and Ephemeroptera. Diptera consists of
two families, Chironomidae and Ceratopogonidae. Chironomidae was the most varied. Hemiptera had only
one family, Corixidae, it was the most abundant in the lake. Trichoptera consists of three taxa and only one
taxa in Ephemeroptera. Annelida was represented by a group of Oligochaetes. It consists of two families,
Naididae and Tubificidae.

322

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table1. The Classification of Benthic Macroinvertebrates
Phylum Arthropods
Class Insects
Order Hemiptera
Family Corixidae
Genus Micronecta
Order Trichoptera
Family Ecnomidae
Genus Ecnomus
Order Ephemeroptera
Family Caenidae
Genus Caenis
Order Diptera
Family Chironomidae
Genus Clinotanypus,
Genus Cryptochironomous,
Genus Goeldichironomous,
Genus Kiefferulus,
Genus Parachironomous,
Genus Polypedilum,
Genus Tanytarsus
Phylum Annelids
Class Oligochaeta
Order Tubificida
Family Naididae
Genus Nais
Family Tubificidae
Genus Aulodrilus
The number of taxa ranged between 1 and 7 in each location. The Location D yielded the most with seventaxa, location E had six taxa, while B had only one taxa (Figure 3). The total number of taxa in the lake was
12 and in the Rungan river the total number was six (Table 2).

Num. Of Taxa

8
6
4
2
0
A

B

C

D

E

Figure 3. The number of taxa in each location. A-D in lake, E in River
The diversity of benthic macroinvertebrates in Lake Hanjalutung was analyzed by Shanon-Wiener diversity
index. It ranged from 0 to 2.439 ± STD 0,97 (the analysis using log base 2). The diversity indexes in fivelocations, A-E were: 1,053; 0; 2,12; 1,96; and 2,439. The evenness index shows that benthic
macroinvertebrates were distributed from among the less to homogeny (E = 0- 0.944 ± STD 0,39). Based on
the result, it can be summarised that Hanjalutung was low in diversity. The connectivity between the lake andthe river had probably been one of the reasons. Similarly, a previous study showed that, when the diversity ofbenthic macroinvertebrate in the river was high recorded, so does with the lake (Trichkova et al, 2013).
However, our research showed that, benthic macroinvertebrates both in the lake and the river were in low
diversity.

323

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Abundance, Composition, and Functional Feeding Group
Total abundance of the community ranged between 18-960 indv/ m 2. It varied from each location. Location D
was the most abundant, with about 960 indv/m 2 while location B was the lowest, with 18 indv/m 2. In location
E, we found 54 indv/m 2. From those findings, the abundance of Arthropods (Insects) was 84% and Annelida(Oligochaetes) was 16%. Most Insects families were found in Hanjalutung: Chironomidae (42%) and Corixidae(56%). Chironomidae was distributed among the four locations A,C,D, and E; Corixidae was distributed in threelocations C, D, and E (Figure 4). The three other families of Insects were found : Ecnomidae, found in two
locations (D and E), Caenidae and Ceratopogonidae, only found in location D. Three benthic
macroinvertebrates dominated : Micronecta (795 indv / m2); Tanytarsus (380 indv / m2), and Aulodrilus sp (226indv / m2), but they were not distributed well among all locations.

Figure 4. Families (left) and taxa (right) Compotition of Benthic Macroinvertebrates
Generally, insects dominated almost in all locations. This group was more abundant and varied probably
because there are many vegetations. The vegetation function as habitat for adult insects. They provide foodand shelter for insects. Eventhough they more in composition compared to Oligochaetes, benthic
macroinvertebrates were low in diversity and abundace compared to those from other lake in Indonesia.
At the location A, benthic macroinvertebrates represented mostly Chironomidae, especially Tanytarsus. There
were also Oligochaetes (Aulodrilus). Location A was the leg of the lake, which during the rainy season flooded
with the water from the Rungan river. When the research was conducted, there has only a little water in thislocation. The location C was in the curve of the lake and was the only location where Oligochaetes (bothTubificidae and Naididae) were found, with the number of Naididae: Tubificidae = 2: 1. At this location there
was a fishery-cage called keramba. At the location B, located between the locations A and C, benthic
macroinvertebrates were only represented by one taxa, which Nais. It is located between the location A andC.
At location D, there were seven kinds of benthic macroinvertebrates and all of those were within the insects
group. It was dominated by Micronecta. In contrast to the other locations, we did not find any Oligochaetes
here. It became the only location without Oligochaetes. A and D were located in the leg of the Oxbow-lake,
opposite each other. B was in the curved-shape, and E was in the river. As the inlet which is the nearest
location to the main river, A and D have a different condition not only in abundance but also in number offamilies or taxa. We assumed this was a transition zone between river and oxbow lake. This difference needs
to be investigated, in terms of the hydrological connectivity and flooding.
The presence of vegetation or riparian might have also influenced the abundance of benthic
macroinvertebrates indirectly through the habitat. As shown in previous study in peatland that the abundanceof vegetation is an important factor affecting the habitat of this community (Passuni and Fonken, 2014). We
knew that the oxbow lake is in peatland area which is surrounded by swamp vegetation either trees or shrub.
The relationship between macroinvertebrates community and vegetation needs to be studied further.
We also collected data from additional locations between C and D but we did not find any benthic
macroinvertebrates. This is probably because of the succession process, the process of reforming of the litteris ongoing in this patch so the substrate was unsuitable for benthic macroinvertebrate to live in. Hanjalutung
might also act as a floodplain lake during the rainy season. Local people said that the lake area was increasing
due to water flow from the Rungan river. This increase has probably changed the condition of the substrate in
the bottom.
We grouped the benthic macroinvertebrates based on the functional feeding to understand the feeding
behaviour of the community. We used the following literature as a reference to grouping (Merrit and Cummins(1996), Zilli (2008), Mandaville (2002), Heino (2000 and 2008), Sudarso and Wardiatno (2015). Thosefunctional feeding groups can be observed in Table 2.

324

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 2. Distribution and Functional Feeding Group of Benthic Macroinvertebrates
Num
Taxa
Oxbow lake
Rungan River1
Goeldichironomous
+

FFG*
CO

2

Parachironomous

+

+

PD

3
4
5
6
7
8

Clinotanypus
Kiefferulus
Tanytarsus
Cryptochironomous
Polypedilum
Cullicoides

+

+
+

PD
CO
CO
PD
SH
PD

9

Micronecta

+

10
11

CaenisEcnomus++12

Aulodrilus

+

CO

13

Nais

+

CO

14

Tubificid immature

+

+
+
+
+

+

PD
CO
CO

+

+

CO

Noted: CO = collector, PD= predator, SH= Shredder
From the table above, it can be seen that most of them were in the group of Predator, with about 58,26%. Allof the predators were Insects and belonged to three families: Chironomidae (Parachironomous, Clinotanypus,
Cryptochironomous), Ceratopogonidae (Cullicoides), and Corixidae (Micronecta). There were also a small
number of Collectors (41,13%) and Shredders (0,59%). Predators get food by eating other organisms.
Meanwhile, collectors get food from fine-sized particles or FPOM. The presence of predators can be indicatedfrom the water clarity. Predators will be present not only because of the abundance of the prey but also theenvironmental factors. They can see prey clearly if the water clarity is good (Adeyemi in Orwa et al, 2014). In
Lake Hanjalutung the average water clarity by the secchi depth measurement was about 30,26 cms. When wecompared benthic macroinvertebrates from the lake and the river, the composition of the lake sites represented
13 taxa with 1618 individuals/m 2, while in the river site were only 6 taxa with 57 individuals/m 2, and 4 of thesetaxa live in both lake and river. It seems that the lake has more macroinvertebrates in number than the river.
In this case, we ignored the number of locations in each.
CCA of Benthic Macroinvertebrates – Water quality
According to water quality parameters assessment, some of it were recorded in low range: pH and DO (in 3locations). The low of pH may be because the Hanjalutung oxbow lake is located in peatland area. Meanwhile
the low of DO, in previous research showed that it can be caused by the result of decomposition, but in thiscase, it can not be clearly described because the temperature was in normal ranged. However, the water
quality parameters were recorded in normal ranged (Table 3).
Table 3. The Water Quality Parameters
Num

Locations

Temp (°C)

DO (mg/L)

pH

TDS (gr/L)

1

A

29,47

8,88

5,38

0,006

2

B

26,65

7,78

4,99

0,007

3

C

26,49

3,61

5,14

0,007

4

D

28,80

5,32

4,92

0,007

5

E

28,60

5,50

5,80

0,009

Based on the results of CCA between water quality parameters and benthic macroinvertebrates, it can beobserved that pH, DO, and TDS were closer to the axis 1, while the temperature parameters were closer tothe axis 2. There were nine taxa were characterized by pH, DO, and TDS, which included Clinotanypus,
Tanytarsus, Polypedilum, Cryptochironomous, Cullicoides, Micronecta, Caenis, Ecnomus, and Aulodrilus.
While five other taxa were characterized by temperature parameters: Goeldichironomus, Parachironomous,
Kiefferelus, Nais, and Tubificid immature. From graph result in Figure 5, it can be seen that location B and C
were closer to the axis 2, but tend to be negatively correlated to axis 2, position far from the center of the axis.
It means that in this case, the higher temperature might tend to lower the abundance of those benthic
macroinvertebrates. Meanwhile locations A, D, and E, were closer to axis 1 and have a positive correlation to325

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

axis 1.We used CCA analysis only to see the tendency towards the environmental factors of benthic
macroinvertebrate, however, we did not determine the correlation between these parameters and benthic
macroinvetebrates.
B
CCA joint plot

8.0

6.4

Nais communis

4.8
GoeldichironomousC
sp

Axis 2

3.2
TDS (gr/L)

-4.8

-3.2

1.6
Parachironomous SP
Tubificid
Kiefferulus
Eimmature
Clinotanypus
EcnomusspspspMicronecta
Cryptochironomous
Cullicoides
Polypedilum
CaenisD spspAulodrillus
Tanytarsus
A sp
sp
-1.6
1.6

pH
3.2

4.8

6.4

8.0

DO(mg/L)-1.6
Temp (°C)

-3.2

-4.8
Axis 1Figure 5. Scatter
Plot Graph of CCA Between
Macroinvertebrates and Water Quality
Vector scaling: 3,95

CONCLUSIONS
It can be concluded from this research that generally, the hanjalutung oxbow lake has lack of benthic
macroinvertebrates in dry season. Nevertheless, we highlight, the insect groups have potential as a foodsource of fish populations due to the higher composition compares to the other group. However, our research
was preliminary and only conducted in dry season. We predict that in different season might be more benthic
macroinvertebrates will be recorded. We suggest to exploring benthic macroinvertebrates in the rainy season
in further research and more water quality parameters used as variables.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors would like to thank to Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences for funding
and supporting the research.
REFERENCES
1. Anonim. 2009. Evaluasi Daya Dukung Perairan Danau Untuk Uji Coba Budidaya Ikan di Perairan Terbuka(Culture Based Fisheries) Di Kawasan Kota Palangka Raya. Laporan Akhir tidak dipublikasikan.
Pemerintah Palangka Raya dan Lembaga Penelitian Universitas Palangka Raya.
2. Astuti, L.P. dan H. Satria. 2009. Kelimpahan dan Komposisi Fitoplankton di Danau Sentani, Papua.
Limnotek Vol. XVI (2): 88-98
3. Brower J. Jerold, Z., Von Ende, C. 1990. Field and Laboratory Methode for General Ecology. Third edition.
USA : W.M.C Brown Publisher.
4. Cummins, K.W., Merritt, R.W., and Andrade, P.C.N. 2005. The Use of Invertebrate Functional Groups toCharacterize Ecosystem Attribute In Selected Streams and Rivers in South Brazil. Studies in Neotropic
Fauna and Environment: 40(1): 69-89.
5. Epler, J.H. 2001. Identification Manual For The Larval Chironomidae (Diptera) pf North & South Carolina.
6. Fachrul, M.F. 2007. Metode sampling Bioekologi. Jakarta : Bumi Aksara. 198 hlm.
7. Georgieva, G., Varadinova, E., and Uzunov, Y. 2012. Distribution of Non-Indigenous Tubificid Worm
Branchiura sowerby (Beddard, 1892) In Bulgaria. J.Biosci. Biotech : 105-113.
8. Gillet, D. J., Holland, A.F., and sanger, D.M. 2007. On TheEcology of Oligochaetes : Monthly Variation ofCommunity Composition and Environmental Characteristics in Two South Carolina Tidal Creeks.
Estuaries and Coasts Vol 30 (2) 2007 : 238-252.
9. Kathman, R.D. and Brinkhurst, R.O. 1999. Guide to The Freshwater Oligochaetes.USA.
10. Maltchik, L., Flores, M.L.T., and Stenert,C. 2005. Benthic Macroinvertebrate Dynamics In A Shallow
Floodplain Lake in The South of Brazil. Acta Limnol.Bras 17 (2): 173-183.
11. Merritt, R.W. and Cummins, K.W. 1995. An Introduction To The Aquatic Insectss of North America.Kendal/
Hunt Publishing Company.
12. Obolewski. 2011. Functioning of Aquatic Invertebrates Communities in Oxbow Lakes With Various
Connection on Riverbeed. Contemporary Problems of Management and Environmental Protection, No.
7,“Issues of Landscape Conservation and Water Management in Rural Areas”. 7 (2011): 249-265.
13. Obolewski. 2011. Biodiversity of Macroinvertebrates in Oxbow-Lakes of Early Glacial River Basins inNorthern Poland, Ecosystems Biodiversity: 139-170.
14. Odum, E.P.1993. Dasar-Dasar Ekologi. Yogyakarta : Gadjah Mada University Press

326

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

15. Passuni, E.O. and Fonken, M.S. 2015. Relationship Between Aquatic Invertebrates, Water Quality, andVegetation in An Andean Peatland System. Mires and Peat (2014/15) Vol 15, article 14: 1-21.International
Mire Conservation Group and International Peat Society.
16. Pennak, R.W. 1989. Fresh-water Invertebrates of The united States : Protozoa to Mollusca 3rd edition.
John wiley and Sons, Inc. United States of America.
17. Rosenberg, D. M. Dan Resh, V. 1993. Freshwater Biomonitoring and Benthic Macrozoobenthic. USA:
Chapman & Hill, Inc.488 hlm
18. Sudarso, J, dan Wardiatno, Y. 2015. Penilaian Mutu Status Sungai Dengan Indikator Makrozoobenots.
Pena Nusantara.
19. Susila, N. 2012.Analisis Sosial Ekonomi Masyarakat Petuk Ketimpun dalam Mendukung Pemanfaatan
Danau Hanjalutung Sebagai Kawasan Alternatif Pengembangan Usaha Perikanan di Kota Palangka
Raya. Jurnal Ilmu Hewan Tropika Vol 1. No. 2 : 53-57
20. Thorp, J.P and Covich, A.P. 2001. Ecology and Classification of North American Freshwater
Invertebrates. Academic Press. United States of America.
21. Trichkova, T., Tyufekchieva,
V., Kenderov,L., Vidinova,Y., Botev,I.,
Kozuharov, D.,
Hubenov,Z.,Uzunov,Y., Stoichev,S., and Cheshmedjiev, S. 2013. Benthic Macroinvertebrate Diversity in
Relation to Environmental Parameters, and Ecological Potential of Reservoirs, Danube River Basin,
North-West Bulgaria. Acta Zoologica Bulgaria 65(3): 337-348.
22. Odum,E.P.1993. Dasar-Dasar Ekologi. Gadjah Mada University Press. Yogyakarta.
23. Orwa, P.O., Omondi, R. Okuku, E., Ojwang W., and Njuguna S.M. 2014. Composition, Abundance, andFeeding Guilds of Macroinvertebrates in Lake Kenyatta, Kenya. International Journal of Environmental
Monitoring and Analysis 2 (5) : 239- 243.
24. Wetzel, R.G. 1983. Limnology 2nd edition. Saunders College Publisher. United States of America.
25. Work, K and Miles, C. 2013. Rapid Population Growth Countered High Mortality in A Demographic Studyof The Invasive Snail, Melanoides tuberculata (Muller,1974) In Florida. Aquatic Invasions (2013)Vol 8,
Issue 4: 417-425.
26. Yule, C. M.dan Sen, Y.H. 2004. Freshwater Invertebrates of The Malaysian Region. Malaysia : Universiti
Sains Malaysia

327

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

PHYTOPLANKTON COMMUNITY AT LITTORAL ZONES OF LAKE MATANO IN
RELATIONSHIP TO WATER QUALITY
Fachmijany Sulawesty
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences
Corresponding author: fachmi@limnologi.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACT
Research on phytoplankton in Lake Matano has been carried out, however observations of phytoplankton in
the littoral zone have not been done, even though the role of the littoral zone is important. This study aimed
to find out the composition and abundance of phytoplankton at littoral zone of Lake Matano in relationship to
the water quality. Observations were made in April and August 2015 at six locations in littoral zone of Lake
Matano. Water samples were taken 10 - 20 L at surface water and Secchi depth, filtered using a plankton net
no. 25, and preserved with Lugol 1%. Water quality parameters measured were temperature, pH, dissolved
oxygen, conductivity, and turbidity. Phytoplankton abundance was calculated using the Sedgwick Rafter
method. Phytoplankton community structure was analyzed by Diversity Index (H'), Evenness Index (E) andSimpson Dominance Index (D).There were five phyla and 57 species of phytoplankton found in Lake Matano,comprised of Chlorophyta (16 species), Dinophyta (2 species),Bacillariophyta (34 species), Chrysophyta (1species), and Cyanophyta (6 species). The abundance of phytoplankton in April and August 2015 ranged
between 198 – 1.281 x 104 individual/L, dominated by Peridinium inconspicuum and P. Cinctum. Diversity
Index ranged from 0.719 to 2.632 indicates low to moderate community stability. Evenness Index ranged from
0.065 to 0.216 which indicated low uniformity among species. Dominance Index ranged from (0.216 to 0.749),
species dominance occured in some observed locations at Lake Matano, especially in April 2015. Dissolved
oxygen, pH, temperature and conductivity influenced the existence of phytoplankton on the surface area
especially in April 2015.
Keywords: abundance, composition, Matano, phytoplankton, water quality.
INTRODUCTION
Phytoplankton response to the environment changes can be seen from the changes in species diversity andabundance. Diversity will be low if a community is dominated by one or a few species of phytoplankton. Thisoccurres due to environmental disturbances in the waters, so that only certain species are able to adapt theenvironmental changes for survival. This condition is usually accompanied by the high abundance ofphytoplankton which is usually found in eutrophic waters, while the low abundance of phytoplankton found inoligotrophic waters. Low diversity of phytoplankton is an indicator of oligotrophic waters. Light penetration,
temperature, nutrient enrichment, toxic substances, mixing of water, parasites, herbivores and heterotrophic
microorganism activities influence phytoplankton growth (Reynolds, 1984). The continuous light andtemperature contribute substantially to the phytoplankton community (Kolayli & Sahin, 2007). Biomass anddiversity of algae and animals are higher in the littoral zone than in the pelagic, so it is important to understandwhat drives littoral productivity. Littoral zones are also characterised by having high inputs of allochthonous
carbon from fringing vegetation (France 1995).
Lake Matano is located in the Malili Lakes Complex (South Sulawesi) and is the deepest lake compared withLake Mahalona, Lake Towuti, Lake Lantoa, and Lake Masapi. Lake Matano is categorized as tectonic andancient lake (Haffner et al, 2001); ultraoligotrofik lake by a low rate of carbon fixation (Crowe et al, 2008) andbased on the trophic status of a single parameter or composite parameters (Nomosatryo et al, 2014). The lake
is also categorized as oligotrophic based on total nitrogen and total phosphorus content at a depth of over
100 m (Sabo et al , 2008) and based on phytoplankton abundance (Sulawesty, 1994).
Several studies on phytoplankton in Lake Matano have been carried out, such as by Sulawesty (1994)
concerning planktonology character, Sabo et al (2008) regarding factorsaffecting to the composition andrelative abundance of plankton, and Snook (2009) about limiting factors of the abundance and composition of
pelagic phytoplankton. But observations of phytoplankton in the littoral zone of the lake Matano has not been
done, even though the role of the littoral zone are important. Most of the fish in Lake Matano live in the littoralzone. A study on the habitat of Telmatherina sarasinorum showedthat fish prefers shading places provided
by any trees existing on the lake sides as spawning sites, the fish was not observed to spawn in places covered
by dense cobbles and open waters exposed directly to sunlight (Nilawati et al, 2010). Herder et al (2012)
showed that flowerhorns (Amphilophus) were found from the shoreline out to >13 m depth, eggs depositedon the surface of stones and schools of immature individuals found mostly in the shallow lake habitats.
Observations on 2010 showed that breeding pairs and numerous juveniles recorded at the southern shore of
Lake Matano at Salona Beach (Southern Soroako) (Herder et al, 2012). This study is aimed to understandphytoplankton community structure and its relationship to water quality at littoral zones of Lake Matano.

328

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

METHODS
Sampling Site
Lake Matano is located in South Sulawesi between 2°28’90” Sand 121°17’90” E.Lake Matano is one of the
deepest lakes in the world with a maximum depth of ~ 590 m, and an altitude of 380 m above sea level. The
maximum area of the lakes is 16,408 ha (Nomosatryo et al, 2012; Hafner et al, 2001).
Phytoplankton Analysis
Phytoplankton data were collected in April and August 2015 at several littoral zones of Lake Matano (Figure1), a description of the sampling locations are presented in Table 1. Phytoplankton sample was collected witha Van Dorn bottle in surface waters and in the Secchi depth by filtering 10 - 20 L through a plankton net no.
25 (53 µm mesh size), and preservedwith Lugol 1%. Phytoplankton species was identifiedaccording to
Prescott (1951), Scott & Prescott (1961), Prescott (1962), Mizuno (1970), Vyverman (1996), Gell, et al (1999)
and Bellinger & Sigee (2010) using an inverted microscope with a magnification of 400x. Phytoplankton
abundance was calculated using the Sedgwick Rafter method (APHA, 2012). Phytoplankton community
structure was analyzed by Diversity Index (H'), Evenness Index (E) and Simpson Dominance Index (D) (Odum,
1971).
Water Quality Parameters
Water quality parameters data were collected at Secchi depth and surface water in several littoral zones of
Lake Matano. Water temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), conductivity, and turbidity were collected using
a water quality checker YSI, while water transparency was examined by the measurement of the Secchi depth.
Multivariate analysis was used to determine the grouping of phytoplankton at sampling sites based on thecondition of the water quality using software Multivariate Statistical Package (MVSP V 3.1).

Figure 1. Sampling position at Lake Matano (Source : Haffner et al, 2001)

329

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1. Description of Sampling Sites at Lake Matano
Code
Location
Position
Habitat description
MT. 1
Elawa
121o13'28.7" E Lake Matano inlet form Lawa River. Sampling site
02°25'52.2" Sarea is still forested, until 2 meters depth thesubstrate was rocky gravel, at the depth of 5 and
10 meters dominated by sand, disturbance fromanthropogenic activities (settlements) are veryminimal .
MT. 2
Nuha
121o19'28.06"
The location is close to Nuha Village, a fisherman
Evillage, boat docks, a boat crossing from the
02°26'23.1" S
village of Nuha to Sorowako or vice versa. Aroundthe village there are natural vegetation cover(forest) , until 2 meters depth the type of basic
substrate was small gravel, a depth of 5 and 10
meters is sand.
MT. 3
Tanah
121o23'58.5"
Location named Tanah Merah, around the lake
MerahEthey found the native vegetation (forest), there are
02°28'21.2” Sseveral former landslide, anthropogenic activities
are still very minimal, from 0 to 1 meter thesusbtrates were rocky gravel and hardpan (hardground), substrate from 2 meters to 10 meters issand .
MT. 4
Petea
112o27'55.4” E Location named Petea, more open area, there is
02°31'16.8" S
a former forest clearing in order to be converted
into plantation areas. Formerly a former area ofnickel tailings disposal, from a depth of 0 to 2
meters the base substrates were fine mud andsand, depth of 5-10 meters is sand . There areswamps.
MT. 5
Pantai121o24'46.1"
Location named Pantai Impian, the natural
ImpianE
vegetation is still there, the location of settlements
02°32'23.9" S
populatins and settlements workers of PT Valeand close to Sorowako Village, berth of the fishingboats, from 0-2 meters the base substrate weregravel and pebble stone, depth of 5 to 10 meters
is sand.
o
MT. 6
Pantai
121 19'27.7" E Location named Pantai Kupu-Kupu or Bubble
Kupu-Kupu 02o30'11.2" S
Beach, habitat around the site still dominated by(Bubblenative vegetation, on the basis habitat often
Beach)
encountered gas bubbles are suspected of H2S,
a depth of 0-2 meters is dominated by gravel, 5
and 10 meter depth of the base substrate is sand
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
There were five phyla and 57 species of phytoplankton found in Lake Matano, comprised of Chlorophyta (16species), Dinophyta (2 species), Bacillariophyta (34 species), Chrysophyta (1 species), and Cyanophyta (6species) (Table 2). This result is quite different than the observations by Sulawesty (1994), but almost thesame as Haffner et al. (2001), Sabo et al. (2008) and Snook (2009). Bacillariophyta were the dominant
type/group reaching up to 59.65% of the total taxa (Table 2). Bramburger et al. (in press a) in Bramburger etal. (2008) demonstrated that the planktonic diatom community of Lake Matano may be considereddepauperate, with only 31 of the lake’s 191 observed taxa reported from the plankton. Meanwhile, the total
taxa richness of diatoms (include benthic diatom) found at Lake Matano is 140, 22% of which are endemic
species (Bramburger et al, 2004 in Bramburger et al, 2008). Complex interactions between nutrient limitationand metal toxicity may influence plankton community dynamics within Lake Matano (Sabo et al., 2008). In
Malili Lakes, stochastic processes related to biogeography and colonization have had little influence on the
diatom flora of the lakes, and deterministic processes related to competition, selection, speciation, andadaptive radiation, functioning on very small spatial scales, have contributed greatly to the diversity, community
structure, and endemismof the system (Bramburger et al, 2008).

330

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake ConferenceCentric diatoms were not found in Lake Matano at April and August 2015, Bramburger et al. (2008) also
reported that centric diatoms are absence both in the pelagic zoneand in the littoral zones around the Lake
Matano. Meanwhile, centric diatoms are found in other lakes on the island of Sulawesi, Sabo et al. (2008)
explained that the absence of these cosmopolitan planktonic groups supports the conclusion that Lake
Matano’s water chemistry is playing an important role in regulating both the composition and biomass of thephytoplankton community.
Species composition of phytoplankton at Lake Matano in April and August 2015

30

MT 1

MT 2

MT 3

MT 4

MT 5

MT 6

25

20
15

10
5

Secchi Depth

Apr-15

Augst 2015

Apr-15

Augst 2015

Augst 2015

Apr-15

Apr-15

Apr-15

Augst 2015

Surface Area

Augst 2015

Apr-15

Augst 2015

Apr-15

Augst 2015

Apr-15

Augst 2015

Apr-15

Augst 2015

Apr-15

Augst 2015

Apr-15

Augst 2015

Apr-15Species Richness

16.00014.00012.00010.000
8.000
6.000
4.000
2.000
Augst 2015

Abundance (Ind./L)

Table 2.

Surface Area
MT 1

MT 2

MT 3

MT 4

MT 5

MT 6

Secchi Depth

Figure 2. Phytoplankton abundance and species richness at Lake Matano in April and August 2015

331

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The abundance of phytoplankton in April and August 2015 ranged between 1.98 x 102– 1.281 x 104
individual/Liter (Figure 2), where Dinophyta was higher than the others, i.e. Peridinium inconspicuum andPeridinium cinctum. Figure 4 shows that the percentage abundance of Dinophyta is the highest compared toother groups on each observation, with a value of 61.05 to 96.38%. Pollingher (1988) in Queimalinos et al.
(2002) mentioned that dinoflagellates are also favored in oligotrophic environments due to their feeding modeand their movement capacity, since they can screen the whole water column for nutrients through verticalmigration.This is evidenced also by Queimalinos et al. (2002) in his research on the lake Andean(ultraoligotrophic lake) in Argentina, where he obtained the same results with the results of Pollingher,
obviously this is also related to the presence of a source of food which is phytoplankton such as cyanobacteria,
cilliata, and other dinoflagellates. Sellers & Markland (1983) also mentioned that the oligotrophic lake withneutral to alkaline and nutrient poor characteristic Dinoflagellata especially Peridinium and Ceratium. Lake
Matano is a nutrient poor lake (Sabo et al., 2008) with a neutral to alkaline pH (Nomosatryo et al., 2014) and(Figure 5). Although the abundance of phytoplankton was high in Lake Matano, it was dominated by
Peridinium which is an unpalatable species and is not that well suited as a food source. Sabo et al. (2008)
mention that the phytoplankton assemblage of Lake Matano largely consists of unpalatable species, such as
Peridinium and Tribonema cf. sp., and therefore Lake Matano does not have the capacity to sustain asignificant zooplankton community.Diversity Index ranged from 0.719 to 2.632 indicates low to moderatecommunity stability (Figure 3). Evenness Index ranged from 0.065 to 0.216, this value is close to zero means
the uniformity among species in a community is lower, and there is usually a species that dominates.
Dominance Index (0.216 to 0.749) indicates that species dominance occurred in some locations of observation
at Lake Matano, i.e. Peridinium inconspicuum and Peridinium cinctum from Dinoflagellata (Figure 4).
2,5

MT 1

MT 2

MT 3

MT 4

MT 5

D

MT 6

MT 1

MT 2

MT 3

MT 4

MT 5

Augst 2015

Apr-15

Apr-15

Augst 2015

E

Apr-15H'

Augst 2015

Apr-15

Augst 2015

Apr-15

Apr-15

Augst 2015

Augst 2015

Apr-15

Augst 2015

Apr-15

Apr-150
Augst 2015

0Augst 2015

0,5

Apr-150,5Apr-151

Apr-151

1,5

Augst 2015

1,5

Augst 2015

Value

2

Value

Secchi Depth

2

Augst 2015

Surface Area

3
2,5

H'
E

D

MT 6

Figure 3. Diversity Index (H’), Evenness Index (E) and Simpson Dominance Index (D) at Lake Matano in April
and August 2015
MT 1 (Elawa)
0,13

MT2 (Nuha)
0,42

12,66

MT 3 (Tanah Merah)
1,23

8,02

5,70

2,81

1,67

6,96

24,89

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

87,21

85,89

91,56

MT 1 (Elawa)
1,51

MT 6 (Pantai Kupu-Kupu)

MT 5 (Pantai Impian)

MT 4 (Petea)
0,82

12,88

MT2 (Nuha)
0,41

3,86

87,34

96,38

MT 3 (Tanah Merah)

1,51

0,21

Bacillaryophyta (%)
Cyanophyta (%)

73,29

MT 5 (Pantai Impian)

MT 4 (Petea)

MT 6 (Pantai Kupu-Kupu

0,31 2,45

6,19

0,64

4,47

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

95,53

97,25

93,55

98,08

Bacillaryophyta (%)
Cyanophyta (%)

94,89

a. April 2015
MT 1 (Elawa)
22,67

0,89

15,38

7,52

17,11

0,80

MT 5 (Pantai Impian)

8,65

7,78

0,26

MT 6 (Pantai Kupu-Kupu)
1,73 1,15

9,43

17,16

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Chrysophyta (%)

Chrysophyta (%)

Chrysophyta (%)

Chrysophyta (%)

Chrysophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

MT 1 (Elawa)
0,75

2,16

18,70

Chlorophyta (%)

MT2 (Nuha)
5,91 0,18

11,82

MT 3 (Tanah Merah)
8,63

10,48

Cyanophyta (%)

82,52

MT 4 (Petea)
3,51 0,37 6,56

5,76

Chrysophyta (%)

79,96

88,38

72,62

75,83

6,51

1,16

Chlorophyta (%)

61,05

80,86

0,34

MT 4 (Petea)

MT 3 (Tanah Merah)

MT2 (Nuha)
6,72

MT 5 (Pantai Impian)

MT 6 (Pantai Kupu-Kupu

2,83 0,71

6,75

8,65

0,54

17,60

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Chlorophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Dinophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Chrysophyta (%)

Chrysophyta (%)

Chrysophyta (%)

Chrysophyta (%)

Chrysophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

Cyanophyta (%)

83,84

85,61

89,56

87,80

Bacillaryophyta (%)

Chrysophyta (%)
Cyanophyta (%)

75,11b. August 2015
Figure 4. Phytoplankton division percentage at surface area (upper) and Secchi depth area (below) at Lake
Matano in April 2015 (a) and August 2015 (b)332Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Matano lake water quality conditions in April and August 2015 can be seen in Figure 5. Temperatures ranged
from 26.6ºC – 30.5ºC, this result is similar to observations by Nomosatryo et al. (2012), Nomosatryo et al.
(2014) and Snook (2009), which ranged 27.3 - 29.62ºC. Water temperatures tend to be higher in April
compared to August 2015, however the phytoplankton abundance and taxa richness were higher in August
compared to April 2015 (Figure 3 and 5). Schabhiittl et al (2013) mentioned that the growth and diversity ofphytoplankton are also affected by changes in seasonal temperatures and increased water temperature.
Temperature is one of the major determining factors that affect the rate of growth of phytoplankton, nutrient
stoichiometry and spatial and temporal distribution in freshwater. Changes in the availability of light andnutrients accompanying climate change, qualitatively affect the species composition and diversity at the levelof primary producers, which in turn can have an impact on higher trophic levels (Vincent, 2009).
The pH values ranged from 8.23 to 9.61 indicating that D. Matano is alkaline waters. Alkaline nature is also
the same as mentioned by Nomosatryo (2014) and Snook (2009). Dissolved Oxygen value ranged between
6.44 – 7.76 mg/L, this value shows aerobic condition and still support phytoplankton life. Nomosatryo et al.
(2014) mentioned that the aerobic condition in Lake Matano is found to a depth of 95 m, while the state iscompletely anaerobic starting from a depth of 100 m to the bottom. Conductivity value of Lake Matano washigh ranging between 0.134 – 0.177 mS/cm. Snook (2009) mentioned that conductivity in Lake Matano washigh reflecting high ground water input.

MT1

MT3

MT 6

9,00

4

8,50

pH

2

0

0,2

MT3

MT 5

MT 6

Apr-15
Augst 2015

Stasiun

SD

SD

MT 5

SurfaceSD

MT 4

SurfaceSD

MT3

StasiunSurfaceSD

MT 2

SurfaceSD

MT1

Surface

Surface

SD

SD

SD

MT 4

SurfaceSD

SurfaceSD

MT 2

SurfaceSD

MT1

Apr-15

Conductivity

8,00

7,50

Augst 2015

StasiunMT 6

Apr-15
Augst 2015

Turbidity

25
20

0,15

15

MT3

Stasiun

MT 5

MT 6

Apr-15
Augst 2015

5

MT1

SD

SD

MT 5

SurfaceSD

MT 4

StasiunSurfaceSD

MT3

SurfaceSD

MT 2

Surface0
SurfaceSD

Surface

SD

SD

MT 4

SurfaceSD

SurfaceSD

MT 2

SurfaceSD

MT1

Surface

0

10

SD

0,05

Surface

Turbidity (NTU)

0,1

Surface

Conductivity (mS/cm)

9,50

Surface

SD

SD

MT 5

SurfaceSD

MT 4

SurfaceSD

SurfaceSD

MT 2

Surface

Surface

SD

24,0

pH

10,00

6

Surface

26,0Dissolved Oxygen

8

Dissolve Oxygen (mg/L)

28,0SurfaceTemperature (°C)

30,0SurfaceTemperature

32,0

MT 6

Apr-15
Augst 2015

Figure 5. Value of temperature, DO, pH, conductivity, and turbidity at Lake Matano in April 2015 and August
2015
The result of CCA ordination in Lake Matano is shown in Figure 6. In general, water quality parameters
affected the abundance of phytoplankton in the surface waters of Lake Matano. Dissolved oxygen, pH,temperature and conductivity influenced the existence of phytoplankton on the surface area especially in April
2015. At a Secchi depth, it can be seen that the abundance of phytoplankton tend s to converge in the wholeobservation, this indicates that there are no circumstances that characterize the area. Similarly, with water
quality parameters, there is a little effect on the abundance of phytoplankton at a Secchi depth.

333Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferencea. Surface Areab. Secchi depth
Figure 6. CCA ordination at surface area (a) and Secchi depth (b)CONCLUSIONS- There were five phyla and 57 species of phytoplankton found in Lake Matano, comprised ofChlorophyta (16 species), Dinophyta (2 species), Bacillariophyta (34 species), Chrysophyta (1species), and Cyanophyta (6 species).
- The abundance of phytoplankton in April and August 2015 ranged between 1.98 x 102– 1.281 x
104ind/L, where Dinophyta was higher than other species, i.e. Peridinium inconspicuum andPeridinium cinctum.
- Phytoplankton abundance and taxa richness were inversely proportional to the temperature, whentemperatures was high (April 2015) the abundance and taxa richness were low, when the temperature
was low (August 2015) the abundance and taxa richness were high.
- Dissolved oxygen, pH and temperature influenced the existence of Ulothrix, Navicula radiosa andNitzschia, while conductivity impacted on the Spirulina on the surface area in April 2015.

334

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
1. This research is financed by Competitive Research ofIndonesia Institute of Sciences, Mitigation ofDisaster and Climate Change Program fiscal year 2015.
2. Many thanks are to Tri Suryono for CCA ordination analysis.
REFERENCES
1. APHA / American Water Work Association / Water Environment Federation. (2012). Standard methods
for examination of water and wastewater, 19thed, Washington DC, USA, ISBN.0875532233 DDC:628.161
2. Bramburger, A.J., Hamilton, P.B., Hehanussa, P.E., & Haffner, G.D. (2008). Process regulating
community composition and relative abundance of taxa in the diatom communities of the Malili Lakes,
Sulawesi Island, Indonesia. Hydrobiol. 615: 215 – 224. Retrieved in Oct 27, 2015
3. Bellinger, E.G. & D.C. Sigee. (2010). Freshwater algae: identification and use as bioindicators. ISBN 9780-470-05814-5. John Wiley and sons, Ltd.Oxford. 271 pp.
4. Crowe, Sean A., Carri Ayne Jones, Sergei Katsev, Cé dricMagen, Andrew H. O’Neill, Arne Sturm, Donald
E. Canfield, G. Douglas Haffner, Alfonso Mucci, BjørnSundby, and David A. Fowle. (2008).
Photoferrotrophs thrive in an Archean Ocean analogue. PNAS, vol. 105, no. 41, Pp. 15938 –15943.
Retrieved in Oct 26, 2015 from http://www.pnas.org/content/105/41/15938.full.pdf
5. France, R.L. (1995). Makroinvertabrate standing crop in littoral regions of allochthonous detritus
accumulations for forest management. Biological Conservation, 71: 35-39. Elsevier Science Limited.
6. Gell, Peter A., Jason A. Sonneman, Michael A. Reid, Marie A. Illman, & Adam J. Sincock. (1999). An
Illustrated Key to Common Diatom Genera from Southern Australia. Cooperative Research Centre forFreshwater Ecology. Identification Guide No. 26. Cooperative Research Centre for Freshwater Ecology,
Thurgoona, NSW. 63 pp.
7. Haffner GD, Hehanussa PE, Hartoto DI. (2001). The biology and physical processes of large lakes ofIndonesia: Lakes Matano and Towuti. InMunawar M, Hecky RE, (ed): The Great Lakes of the World:
Food-web, Health, and Integrity. Leiden: Backhuys Publishers. hlm 183–194.
8. Herder, Fabian., Ulrich K. Schliewen, Matthias F. Geiger, Renny K. Hadiaty, Suzanne M. Gray, Jeffrey S.
McKinnon, Ryan P. Walter and JobstPfaender. (2012). Alien invasion in Wallace’s Dreamponds: recordsof the hybridogenic “flowerhorn” cichlid in Lake Matano, with an annotated checklist of fish species
introduced to the Malili Lakes system in Sulawesi. Aquatic Invasions (2012) Volume 7, Issue 4: 521–
535. doi: http://dx.doi.org/10.3391/ai.2012.7.4.009. 2012 The Author(s). Journal compilation © 2012REABIC. From http://www.aquaticinvasions.net/2012/AI_2012_4_Herder_etal.pdf
9. Kolayli, Saadet & Bülent Şahin. (2007). A Taxonomic Study on the Phytoplankton in the Littoral Zone of
Karagöl Lake (Borçka-Artvin/Turkey). Turkish Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 7: 171-175.
Short Paper. From http://www.trjfas.org/uploads/pdf_329.pdf
10. Mizuno, T. (1970). Illustration of the freshwater plankton of Japan. Hoikusha Publishing Co. Ltd. 313
pp.
11. Nilawati, Jusri., Sulistiono, Djadja S. Sjafei, M.F. Rahardjo, &IsmudiMuchsin. (2010). Spawning habitatof Telmatherinasarasinorum (Family: Telmatherinidae) in Lake Matano. Jurnal Iktiologi Indonesia,
10(2):101-110. Masyarakat Iktiologi Indonesia.
12. Nomosatryo, Sulung., Cynthia Henny, Eti Rohaeti & Irmanida Batubara. (2012). Fraksinasi fosforus padasedimen di bagian litoral Danau Matano Selatan. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Limnologi VI tahun 2012.
Pusat Penelitian Limnologi LIPI. Bogor. Pp. 493 – 510. Retrieved in June 17, 2015.
13. Nomosatryo, Sulung, Cynthia Henny, Carry Ayne Jones, Celine Michiels and Sean A. Crowe. (2014).
Karakteristik dan klasifikasi trofik di Danau Matano dan Danau Towuti Sulawesi Selatan. Prosiding
Pertemuan Ilmiah Tahunan MLI. Masyarakat Limnologi Indonesia. Hal. 493 – 507.
14. Odum, E.P. (1971). Fundamentals of Ecology. W.B. Sounders. 574 pp.
15. Prescott, G.W. (1951). Algae of the western Great Lakes area. Cranbrook Institute of Science. Bulletin
No. 31. 946 pp.
16. Prescott, G.W. (1962). How to know the freshwater algae. W.M.C. Brown Company Publisher. Iowa.
348 pp.
17. Queimalinos, Claudia., Gonzalo Perez & Beatriz Modenutti. (2002). Summer population development
and diurnal vertical distribution of dinoflagellates in an ultraoligotrophic Andean Lake (Patagonia,
Argentina).
Algological Studies 107: 117 – 129.
Retrieved in Oct 27, 2015 fromhttp://investigadores.uncoma.edu.ar/Lab_Limnologia/publicaciones/queimalinos%20et%20al%20%28A
S%29.pdf
18. Reynolds, C.S. (1984). The Ecology of Freshwater Phytoplankton. Cambridge University Press.
London. 383 p.
19. Sabo, Elisabeth., Denis Roy, Paul B. Hamilton, Peter E. Hehanussa, Roger McNeely, & G. Douglas
Haffner. (2008). The plankton community of Lake Matano: factors regulating plankton composition and335

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

relative abundance in an ancient, tropical lake of Indonesia. Hydrobiologia, 615: 225–235. DOI
10.1007/s10750-008-9560-4.
20. Schabhiittl, Stefanie., Peter Hingsamer, Gabriele Weigelhofer, Thomas Hein, AchimWeigert,&MarenStriebe. (2013). Temperature and species richness effects in phytoplankton communities.
Oecologia,
171:527–536.
DOI
10.1007/s00442-012-2419-4.
From
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3548109/pdf/442_2012_Article_2419.pdf
21. Scott, Arthur M., & Gerald W. Prescott. (1961). Indonesian Desmids. HYDROBIOLOGIA, Vol. XVII,
No. 1 - 2. 132 pp, 63
22. Sellers, B-Henderson & H.R. Markland. (1983). Decaying Lakes. John Wiley and Sons. New York. 254
pp.
23. Snook, Amy., (2009). Investigation of Factors Limiting Pelagic Phytoplankton Abundance andComposition in the Ancient Malili Lakes of Indonesia. Electronic Theses and Dissertations. Paper 368.
Retrieved
in
June
17,
2015
from
http://scholar.uwindsor.ca/cgi/viewcontent.
cgi?article=1367&context=etd
24. Sulawesty, F. (1994). Evaluasi karakteristik planktonik danau – danau di Sulawesi. Prosiding Proyek
Penelitian dan Pengembangan Sumberdaya Perairan Darat. pp: 46 – 49.
25. Vincent, W.F. (2009). Effect of climate change in lakes. In: Pollution and Remediation. Elseiver Inc. Pp.:
55 – 60. From http://www.cen.ulaval.ca/warwickvincent/PDFfiles/229.pdf.
26. Vyverman, Wim. (1996). The Indo-Malaysian North-Australian phycogeographical region revised.
Hydrobiologia 336 : 107 – 120. Kristiansen, Jorgen (ed.) : Biogeography of Freshwater Algae. Kluwer
Academic Publisher. London.
27. Wetzel, Robert G. (2001). Limnology. Lake and River Ecosystems. 3 rd edition. Academic Press. San
Diego. 1006 p.

336

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

EVALUATION OF GENETIC RELATIONSHIP AMONG SELECT SIX FISH SPECIES USING THE
PARTIAL FRAGMENT OF MITOCHONDRIAL CYTOCHROME C OXIDASE SUBUNIT-1GENE(CO1)
Arif Wibowo1* and Tuah Nanda Merlia1
1Research Institute for Inland Fisheries, Agency for Marine and Fisheries Research, Ministry ofMarine Affairs and Fisheries, Jl. Beringin 08 Mariana, Palembang, South Sumatera Indonesia
Corresponding author: wibowo@daad-alumni.de

ABSTRACTIn modern conservation and sustainable management approaches of species, it is important to haveknowledge about biodiversity, population structures and dynamics. In the present study, the genetic
relationship among select fish species in Lubuk Lampam floodplain region was investigated, utilising partial
fragment of mitochondrial Cytochrome C Oxidase Subunit-1gene (CO1). The aim of the study was (1) to reveal
genetically relevant relationship of fish species in the Lubuk Lampam floodplain and (2) to find more
pronounced substructures on the fine scale analysis. Tissue samples from 10 specimens of fish species werecollected during several field trips in 2012 at sample sites across Lubuk Lampam floodplain Ogan Komering
Ilir regency South Sumatra Province. The results showed different species that are deviated relatively new
from a similar ancestor. The molecular marker, a 570 bp region of the mitchondrial cyctochrome c oxidase I
gene (COI) has been successfully found to be species-specific, and was also more variable between species
than within species. In summary, the present study represents an important step understanding evolution
relationship for teleost fish living in tropical peat swamp in Sumatra. Producing of a COI sequences from the
Lubuk Lampam system also assist to the global DNA barcoding library.
Keywords: Phylogeny, Lubuk Lampam and species assignment
INTRODUCTION
In modern conservation and sustainable management approaches of species, it is important to haveknowledge about biodiversity, population structures and dynamics. Moreover, the detection of genetic variation
at the species, population and within population level is of great importance for sustainable aquaculture
practices. Especially in freshwater species, direct measurements about connectivity and differentiation are
difficult to obtain, which is why indirect measures with the help of phylogeographic and population genetic
approaches can be very helpful and necessary.
Genetic variation at species level helps to identify the taxonomic units and to determine the species
distinctiveness. Variation at the population level can provide an idea about different genetic classes, thegenetic diversity among them and their evolutionary relationship with wild relatives. The genetic variability
within population is extremely useful to gather the information on individual identity, breeding pattern, degreeof relatedness and disturbances of genetic variation among them (Schierwater et al. 1994). In order to evaluate
biodiversity correctly it is important to clarify species boundaries, integrities, and phylogenetic relationships(Frankham et al., 2002).
The genetic tools available to date, vary from mitochondrial or plasmid DNA, to nucleus DNA, sequence based
to length or single nucleotide polymorphism markers, and differ in the ways of possible analyses andinformation gain, all afflicted with different advantages and disadvantages (Timm et al., 2012). Mitochondrial
sequence markers are widely used for phylogenetics of fish (e.g., Kochzius et al., 2003; Santini & Polacco
2006; Timm et al., 2008). As certain regions show high variability and the procedure for amplification andsequencing is comparably easy (Timm et al., 2012). Sequencing of the mitochondrial cytochrome-c oxidasesubunit 1 (COI) gene fragment in animals has become one of the most widely used and effective tools for
species identification and discovery. This approach, known as DNA barcoding, has been shown to provide
unprecedented accuracy for the identification of various taxonomic groups of fish (Kochzius, 2009)
Not much is known about connectivity of freshwater populations in the Indonesia floodplain in general andespecially for fish, despite the fact that such information is important to understand evolutionary and ecologicalprocesses in the centre of biodiversity. Data on connectivity are also urgently required to design effective
conservation strategies for these living freshwater resources.
In the present study, the genetic relationship among select fish species in Lubuk Lampam floodplain region
was investigated, utilising partial fragment of mitochondrial Cytochrome C Oxidase Subunit-1gene (CO1). This
study aims (1) to reveal genetically relevant relationship of fish species in the Lubuk Lampam floodplain and(2) to find more pronounced substructures on the fine scale analysis.

337

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

METHODS
Sampling
Tissue samples from 10 specimens of fish species were collected during several field trips in 2012 at sample
sites across Lubuk Lampam floodplain Ogan Komering Ilir regency South Sumatra Province. A small piece oftissue was cut off from each specimen. Tissue samples were preserved in 96% of ethanol and later stored at
40C.
DNA extraction, amplification and DNA sequencing
Genomic DNA was isolated from the muscle tissue using extraction kits from GENEAID, following the
manufacturers’ protocols. A fragment of around 550 bp from the mitochondrial Cytochrome C Oxidase Subunit1gene (CO1) was amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using the primers Fish-COI-F (5'-ACT TCA
AAC TTC CAY AAA GAY aty GG-3) and COI-Fish-R (5'-TAG ACT TCT GGG TGG CCR AAR Aay CA-3 ')(Ivanova et al., 2007). Polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was carried out in a total volume of 50 µL. PCRs
contained 5 µL DNA samples, 16 µL double distillate water, 2 µL of each primer and 25 µL of PCR readymixture solution (KAPPA). The following temperature profile was used for the PCR, an initial denaturation
phase at 95°C for 10 min, followed by 35 cycles at 94°C for 1 min, 48°C for 1 min and 72°C for 1.5 min andended with a final extension at 72°C for 7 min. The PCR products were purified using the The GenepHlow™
Gel/PCR Kit (GENEAID), following the manufacturer’s protocol. Both strands of the purified DNA wereautomatically sequenced in both directions at First Base, Singapore (www.firstbase.com).
Genetic diversity DNA extraction, amplification and DNA sequencing
All sequences were edited with the program sequence navigator (version 7.0.1; Applied Biosystems) (Hall,
1999) and checked manually by eye. The sequences were translated to amino acids in order to exclude
mistakes in sequencing and to verify if a functional mitochondrial DNA sequence was obtained and not a
nuclear pseudogene. A multiple sequences alignment was obtained by using clustal w (Thompson et al. 1997)
as implemented in the software bioedit (version 7.0.4.1; Hall 1999). Phenetic reconstruction was done using a
distance based method, Neighbor-Joining (NJ), carried out in MEGA5 software (Tamura et al., 2007) with theK2P model of substitution. Support for nodes in NJ analyses was assessed using non-parametricbootstrapping with 100 full heuristic pseudo-replicates. For comparative purposes, we used the several
sequences of the freshwater fish species in Genbank (Accession Number view in figure) to root the tree.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Information on the evolutionary relationships of genetic lineages can be obtained from DNA sequences throughthe reconstruction of phylogenies (Freeland, 2005). At the beginning, DNA was isolated from 20 specimens
but amplification of the 501-bp target DNA fragment was successful only for 8 samples (voucher), despite
multiple attempts to amplify DNA. The positioning of organisms on a tree is generally based on their genetic
similarity to one another. This is illustrated in Figure 1, which shows a phylogeny tree showing the inferred
evolutionary relationships among some fish species, genus and family. Organisms of different species ofthe same genus will be close to each other on the tree, different genera, such as Barbichthys andBelodontichthys (Fig 1), futher distance on the phylogeny tree.
The tree reflects how much genetic change has occurred and therefore roughly how much time has passed,
since lineages split from one other, because branch lengths reflect the evolutionary distance between two
points on a tree. Phylogenetic analyses have been invaluable in evolutionary biology, trees are appropriate fortaxonomic groups at the species level and beyond, which have experienced a period of reproductive isolation
long enough to allow for the fixation of different alleles (Freeland, 2005).

338

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference
Voucher 66
KT001022.1| Barbichthys laevis
Voucher 63
JF915633.1| Osteochilus hasseltii
Voucher 52
gi|558611191 Thynnichthys polylepis
Cyprinidae
Voucher 64
JQ700301.1| Cyclocheilichthys enoplos
Voucher 55
Voucher 56
JF781171.1| Hampala macrolepidota
Voucher 53
Cichlidae
KT307785.1| Oreochromis niloticus
Voucher 65
Siluridae
JF781186.1| Belodontichthys dinema

0.02

Fig. 1. A phylogeny of 15 fish species based on the partial fragment of mitochondrial Cytochrome C Oxidase
Subunit-1gene DNA gene. First species names, then family names, are shown to the right of the tree.
One way in which we can measure the genetic similarly of two individuals is by estimating the genetic distance
between them. There are many different ways in which this can be done, one of most common being Nei’s(1972) genetic distance, D. The primer pair Fish-COI-F and COI-Fish-R used in this study was found to produce
different number of base pairs with an average 570 bp.
The molecular marker, a 570 bp region of the mitchondrial cyctochrome c oxidase I gene (COI) has beensuccessfully found to be species-specific, and was also an average of 18 times more variable between species(7.05-7.93 per cent) than within species (0.27-0.43 per cent) (Table 1; Herbert et al., 2004b). This suggests
the existence of a separate gene pool for these species. Similar results were obtained when genetic distancecalculated for other fish species (Lakra et al., 2007). However, low levels of genetic diversity among species
or impoverishment of genome variability could be a threat for the future survival of the species (Sengupta &Homechaudhuri, 2012).
Table 1. Pairwise distance between fish species studied

CONCLUSIONS
The molecular marker, a 570 bp region of the mitchondrial cyctochrome c oxidase I gene (COI) has beensuccessfully found to be species-specific, and was also more variable between species than within species.
In summary, the present study represents an important step understanding evolution relationship for teleostfish living in tropical peat swamp in Sumatra. Producing of a COI sequences from the Lubuk Lampam system
also assist to the global DNA barcoding library.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Financial support was provided by the Research Institute for Inland Fisheries (RIIF), Agency of Marine andFisheries Research, Ministry of Marine Affairs and Fisheries, Institutional research funding project 2013.

339

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

REFERENCES
1. Frankham, R., Ballou, J.D., & Briscoe, D.A. (2002). Introduction to Conservation Genetics. Cambridge
Univ. Press, UK. pp. 617.
2. Lakra, W.S., Goswami, M., Mohindra, V. Lal, K.K., & P. Punia. (2007). Molecular identification of five
Indian sciaenids (pisces: perciformes, sciaenidae) using RAPD markers. Hydrobiologia 583: 359–363.
3. Freeland, J.R. (2005). Molecular Ecology. John Wiley & Sons Ltd, The Atrium, Southern Gate, Chichester,West Sussex PO198SQ, England. pp. 388.
4. Hall, T.A. (1999). BioEdit: a user-friendly biological sequence alignment editor and analysis program for
Windows 95/98/NT. Nucleic Acids Symp Ser 41: 95–98.
5. Ivanova, N.V., Zemlak, T.S., Hanner, R.H., & Hebert. P.D.N. (2007). Universal primer cocktails for fish
DNA barcoding. Molecular Ecology Notes 7: 544–548.
6. Hebert, P.D.N., Stoeckle, M.E., Zemlak T.S., & C.M. Francis. (2004). Identification of birds through DNA
barcodes. Plos Biology 2: 1657-1663.
7. Kochzius, M. (2009). Trend in fishery genetics. In: Beamish R, Rothschild B (eds) The future of fisheriesscience in north America, fish & fisheries series. Springer, Dordrecht, p. 453–493.
8. Kochzius, M., Soller, R., Khalaf M.A., & Blohm, D. (2003). Molecular phylogeny of the lionfish genera
Dendrochirus and Pterois (Scorpaenidae, Pteroinae) based on mitochondrial DNA sequences. Mol
Phylogenet Evol 28: 396–403.
9. Nei, M. (1972). Genetic distance between populations. American naturalist 106: 283-292.
10. Santini, S & Polacco, G. (2006). Finding Nemo: molecular phylogeny and evolution of the unususal life
style of anemonefish. Gene 385: 19–27.
11. Schierwater, B., Streit, B., Wagner, G.P & Desalle, R. (1994). Molecular Ecology and Evolution:
Approaches and Applications. BirkhauserVerlag, Basel, Switzerland, p. 495-508.
12. SenGupta, S & Homechaudhuri, S. (2012). Analysis of phylogenetic relationship between some resident
foodfishes in a shallow riverine template. Proc Zool Soc 65(1): 45–51. DOI 10.1007/s12595-012-0030-7.
13. Tamura, K., Dudley, J., Nei, M., & Kumar, S. (2007). MEGA4: Molecular Evolutionary Genetics Analysis(MEGA) software version 4.0. Molecular Biology and Evolution 10.1093/molbev/msm092.
14. Thompson, J.D., Gibson, T.J., Plewniak, F., Jeanmougin, F., & Higgins, D.J. (1997). The clustal X
windows interface: Flexible strategies for multiple sequences alignment aided by quality analysis tool.
Nucleic Acid Res 25(24): 4876-4882.
15. Timm, J., Figiel, M., & Kochzius, M. (2008). Contrasting patterns in species boundaries and evolution ofanemonefishes (Amphiprioninae, Pomacentridae) in the centre of marine biodiversity. Mol Phylogenet
Evol 49: 268–276.
16. Timm, J., Plane, S., & Kochzius, M. (2012). High similarity of genetic population structure in the false
clown anemonefish (Amphiprion ocellaris) found in microsatellite and mitochondrial control region
analysis. Conserv Genet 13: 693–706. DOI 10.1007/s10592-012-0318-1.

340

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

BIODIVERSITY AND CONSERVATION OF ENDEMIC FISH SPECIES IN SOME LAKES OF
SULAWESI
Syahroma Husni Nasution
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Insitute of Sciences
Cibinong Science Center, Jalan Raya Jakarta Bogor, km 46, Cibinong, 16911
Corresponding author: syahroma@limnologi.lipi.com
ABSTRACTThe diversity of freshwater fish in Indonesia is the second highest after Brazil. Biodiversity include diversity of
ecosystem, species and genetic. There are 1300 of fish species found in Indonesian inland waters and in lakesof Sulawesi there are 68 species (52 endemic). The high fish diversity in inland water of Sulawesi could decline
and even extinct because of over exploitation, water pollution, habitats degradation, species invasion, andwater flow modification. The distribution of fish endemic species in several lakes of Sulawesi show that in Lake
Matano has 14 endemic fish species, in Lake Towuti, there are 21 endemic fish species, and Lake Poso, there
are eight (8) endemic fish species. There is one native fish species Anguilla marmorata found in Lake Poso.
The act of protection to endemic and native species will be discussed on manuscript.
Keywords: Distribution, endemic, native, lakes, Sulawesi
INTRODUCTION
The number of lakes in Indonesia is approximately 1575 consists of 840 large lake and 735 small lake (Ministry ofEnvironment and Forestry, 2014) has many type of lakes such as tectonic lake that the basin formed from earthquake
activity; volcanic lake originated from volcanic activity; floodplain; and the karst (limestone lake). The profile anddimensions of some Indonesian lakes was presented in Figure 1.This figure, show that there are three ancient lakes
named Lake Matano, LakeTowuti located at Malili Complex, South Sulawesi) and Lake Poso (located in Central
Sulawesi). The age of those lake is estimated 4-12 million years (Fernando, 1984 in Whitten et al. 1997). Lakes in
Malili Complex give an attention in the world because of its uniqueness, so it should be conserved. Those lakes areoligotrophic and save as either a high biodiversity of plankton, fish, shrimp, crabs, and molluscs.
In Malili Complex, there are three lakes connected each other or in a cascade stage, the uppermost is Lake Matanoin the District of Nuha, and then Lake Mahalona and the lowermost is Lake Towuti in the District of Towuti. Those lake
was established by the Ministry of Forestry and Environment of Republic Indonesia as a Natural Recreation Park
(Anonymous, 1990). Lake Towuti conditions is classified as a natural waters and oligotrophic lake (Haffner et al. 2001).
However, the conditions of lake need to be maintained continually in order to anticipate the threat of the damage asfound in some other Indonesian Lake.

Figure 1. The profile and dimensions of some lakes in Indonesia (Source: P. Hehanussa)
Besides having endemic fish resources as economic potential, Lake Towuti and Matano is also used forhydroelectric power plant, source for ornamental fish, consumption fish, animal feed sources, transportation,341

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ecotourism and for domestic use (Nasution, 2006). This manuscript explains biodiversity and conservation ofichthyofauna on ancient lake.
ENDEMIC FISH IN ANCIENT LAKESIn Indonesia, there are about 4834 kinds of fish (http://www.fishbase.org). Freshwater fish of Sulawesi was recognizedmany endemic species. Lake Matano, Lake Towuti in South Sulawesi, and Lake Poso are known as the heart of
Sulawesi because the biggest and the ancient lake in this island preserves a great amount of endemic species (MacKinnon, 1994). Whitten et al. (1987); according to Kottelat (1990) and Soeroto (1995), that Sulawesi have 69 freshwater
fish species where 52 species (77%) are endemic. Counted were 15 Telmatherina species live in lakes at Malili
Complex, all of them are endemic species (Kottelat et al. 1993).
Some of fish have recorded in the IUCN list as a threatened species. Red List Threatened Species in 2003, namely:
Oryzias marmoratus, O. matanensis, O. nigrimas, O. ortognatus, O. profundicola, Dermogenys megarrhamphus, D.
weberi, Nomorhamphus celebensis, Paratherina cyanea, P. labiosa, P. striata, P. wolterecki, Telmatherina
abendanoni, T. celebensis, T. lagidesi, T. bonti, Glossogobius intermedius, G. matanensis, Tominanga aurea, T.
sanguicauda, Mugilogobius latifrons, Stupidogobius flavipinnis, Tamanka sarasinorum, and Weberogobius amadi.
According to Wirjoatmodjo et al. (2003), there are 29 fish species in Lake Towuti from 13 families which is samplingfrom 12 locations. From 29 species, there are 19 endemic fish species which are presented in Table 1, along with thestatus of IUCN (IUCN, 2003 and Froese and Pauly, 2004). All of these endemic fishes are caught by the people aroundthe lake for consumption (Nasution, 2006).
Table 1. Endemic Fish Species in ancient lake
No

Familia1

Hemirhamphidae

2

Hemirhamphidae

3

Hemirhamphidae

4Oryziidae

5

Oryziidae

6

Oryziidae

7

Oryziidae

8

Oryziidae

9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19

Species

Local name

Dermogenysmegarrhamph
Dui-duiusNomorhamphustowoeti
N. cf brembachi
Oryzias matanensis

Padi

O. marmoratus
O. profundicola

Lake
MatanoEndemic
Endemic,
VU

Padi

-

Padi

-

O. nigrimas-

O. orthognathus-

Telmatherinidae

Telmatherinaantoniae

Telmatherinidae

T. prognatha

Telmatherinidae

T. opudi

Telmatherinidae

T. sarasinorum

Telmatherinidae

T. obscura

Telmatherinidae

T. abendanoni

Telmatherinidae

T. wahjui

Telmatherinidae

T. bonti new record

Telmatherinidae

Telmatherinasp. new sp.

Telmatherinidae

T. celebensis

Telmatherinidae

T. bonti

Opudi
Opudi
Opudi
Opudi
Opudi
Opudi
Opudi
Opudi
Opudi

Endemic,
VU
Endemic,
VU
Endemic,
VU
Endemic,
VU
Endemic,
VU
Endemic,
VU
Endemic,
VU
Endemic,
VU
Endemic,
VU

Pangkilangkasar/kuning
Pangkilang
-

342

Lake
TowutiEndemic

Lake
Poso
-

Endemic,
VU--

Endemic,
VU
Endemic,
VU
Endemic,
VU
Endemic,
VU--

Endemic,
VU--

Endemic-

Endemic-

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

20
21
22
23
24
25
26

Telmatherinidae
Telmatherinidae

Paratherinastriata
P. cyanea

Telmatherinidae
Telmatherinidae
Telmatherinidae
Telmatherinidae

P. labiosa
P. wolterecki
Paratherinanew sp.
Tominangasanguicauda

Telmatherinidae

T. aurea

Bonti-bontibiru
Bontibontisiripmerah
Bonti-bonti
Bonti-bonti
Bonti-bonti
Pangkilankasar/merah
Pangkilankasar/merah
Endemic
Endemic
Boto-boto
ButiniEndemic
Bungo
Anggori-

Endemic-

Endemic-

Endemic
Endemic
Endemic-

Endemic-

Endemic-

27
Gobiidae
Mugilogobiuslatifrons
28
Gobiidae
M. rexi
Endemic 29
GobiidaeM. adeiae
30
GobiidaeM. lepidotus
Endemic 31
GobiidaeM. sarasinorum
Endemic
32
GobiidaeM. amadi
Endemic
33
Gobiidae
Mugilogobiussp.
Endemic 34
GobiidaeGlossogobiusflavipinnis
Endemic 35
Gobiidae
G. matanensis
Endemic
36
GobiidaeG. intermedius
Endemic 37
GobiidaeG. giuris
Endemic 38
Adrianichthyidae
Adrianichtthys kruyti
Endemic39
drianichthyidae
Xenopoecillus poptae
Endemic40
Adrianichthyidae
X. sarasinorum
Endemic
41
Adrianichthyidae
X. oophorus
Endemic
Note: VU= vulnerable species
Small fish (Paraterina, Telmatherina, Oryzias, etc.) in Lake Towuti are called as “Pangkilang” fish and in Lake Matano
called as “Opudi”. To catch these fishes, people use dip net (“bagan”). Hauled fish are dried and sold as dry fish, whereas
big fish like “butini” (Glossogobius) is demersal fish, that catch by using seine or hook and line (“rawai”), they are sold as
fresh or dried fish. Some of the endemic fishes especially Telmatherina, is a potential trade as ornamental fish because
they have beautiful body color (Figure 2), among others of Telmatherinidae is Telmatherina like T. celebensis in Nasution
and Sulistiono (2003) and Paratherina sp. There are 19 fish species found in Lake Towuti, 14 species found in Lake
Matano, and eight found in Lake Poso (Table 1) (Wirjoatmodjo et al. 2003). Telmatherina antoniae dominates the fish
population at Lake Matano, followed Glossogobius matanensis. At Lake Towuti, Paratherina striata dominate the lake
followed by Telmatherina celebensis (Nasution, 2004 and Nasution, 2008). One species has been reported to be extinct,
that is Muglogobius amadi. Table 2 showed the function and problems of ancient lake in Indonesia.

Figure 2. Ichthyofauna endemic of Lake Matano, Towuti, and Mahalona in South Sulawesi

343

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 2. Function and problems of ancient lake in Indonesia
Lake

Fuctions

Poso

Source of water for domestic
uses, agriculture, fisheries,
power, tourism

MatanoSource of water for domestic uses, tourism,fishing, rich of the endemic fish species (usedfor consumption and ornamental fish), the lake
the world heritage designate.

Towuti

Problems/indication of damage
Decreasing production of native fish (eel),hydroelectric nearly extinct the population of endemic fish
species.

Infected non-native fish species that threat
endemic fish species, the potential threat offish species is and sedimentation and pollution
due to mining activities in water catchment
areas
Source of water for domestic uses, rich of Infected not native fish species that threat theendemic fish species used for consumption, conservation of endemic species, sawmill, andornamental fish and raw material for animal sedimentation
feed (Nasution, 2006), capture fisheries, andhydroelectric power

Important Issues and Threats to Inland water fish Biodiversity
Some issues of inland waters degradation Biological diversity lost and declining such as:
1. The environmental degradation by soil erosion is caused by logging and bad land management;
2. The disposal of waste from the habitat, industries, mining and agriculture gave an impact on the water pollutionof inland water;
3. Introducing of invasive/alien species;
4. Over exploitation of fish that caused not environmental friendly in fishing method;
5. Habitats destruction by sedimentation, decline in surface area and depth of lake;
6. Declining of the water quality because of pollution load from the river flow, water catchment areas, surroundingarea and activities in the inland water such as fish aquaculture;
7. A The change of water flow;
8. The loss of the local wisdom in relation to inland water conservation.
CONSERVATION OF ICHTHYOFAUNA EFFORTIn development of conservation in the last decade (The 20th century) has been lead into the understanding ofconservation in the world to the use of biodiversity in conservation activity. Redford and Richter (1999) definesconservation is the effort to manage the benefits of natural resources (biosphere) in order to obtain the benefits
that maximum and sustainable generation for now while retaining the potential to meet the needs andaspirations of future generations.
The conservation of the fish resources and their ecosystems has been set on the Government Republic Indonesia
Regulation No. 60, 2007 on the chapter I articles 1 and 2. Fish resources conservation is defined as a refuge,preservation, and fish resources utilization including the ecosystem, sex and genetic to guarantee the existence,
availability, of sustainability and to keep, maintain, enhance the quality and diversity of resources. Ecosystemconservation is an effort to protect, conserve and utilize the functions of ecosystems as habitat of fish resourcesin maintaining their life in the present and the future.
The activity of conservation is also part of sustainable development that having three dimensions, it was,economical sustainability, ecological compatibility and socio-politic acceptability (Hartoto, 2009). Sustainable
development related to the inland waters is an integrated three dimensions those are the developments ofinland water have to push economic growth; the developments socio politically acceptable and thedevelopments have to consider ecological sustainability. In implementation of conservation activity should bebased on the scientific information and combined with the local ecological wisdom, formulate the right policy
in sustainable use of natural resources.
Participating of people is keyword in taking care of natural resources. The way is to give income alternative
and utilization of the natural resources but do not bother the sustainability of resources. It is confessed that it
is not easy to look for the alternative income, but the idea is that domestication of endemic fish species as
ornamental fish commodity needs to be developed. The example of quite succeed in conservation of fish atsome locations in Indonesia is hat entangling role of people such as management of “Bilih” fish (Padangensis
mystacoleucus) in Lake Singkarak, conservation of “Semah” fish (Tor sp) in Pasaman-West Sumatra and
Kerinci, and conservation of “Kancra” or “Dewa” fish (Tor soro) in Kuningan-West Java. Whereas, In West
Kalimantan was assessed successfully in taking care of continuity of fish of Red Arawana (Scleropages
formosus) through culture activity for ornamental fish trade. But, endemic fish from ancient lake has not344Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

cultivated yet, so still rely on fish catch from lake for animal protein source of local community. If they do not
conduct an effort such as development of endemic fish domestication, then the endemic fish will haveexperience extinction.
THE SPATIAL ARRANGEMENT FOR UTILIZATION OF LAKE
The aquatic ecosystem in Sulawesi is generally a conservation area managed under Division of Conservation of
Natural Resources, Ministry of forestry and environment. From several existing water bodies the high biologicalendemicity was found in three lake namely Lake Poso (Central Sulawesi), Matano and Towuti (South Sulawesi). As aconservation area, the status of those three Lakes are classified into National Tourism Park (NTP) Area.
The rules of management efforts of lake ecosystem were only focused on terrestrial are around the lake by zoning theutilization of terrestrial area, while management of water resources has not conducted yet.
NTP is a natural conservation area especially used for recreation and nature tourism. In fact, around the NTP areas is
not t only used for tourism, but also used for economic activity such as mining activities, the opening of the forest,
agriculture, and settlement development. The economic activities in the lake system are hydroelectric power station,
smelting the ore of nickel industry, and fisheries.
The effort fishery resources preservation in those three lakes is to establish the conservation area include both waterarea or lake and terrestrial area around the lake. The changes of the region could change the ecosystem and needs
the technological development to resolve the problem affecting of fish diversity. As an example, the logging activity
around lake will affect the quality and quantity of the water and disturbing the endemic fish migration as opudi fish
(Telmatherina wahjuii) in Lake Matano. The success of technology for example fish hatchery of lake system with ahigh endemicities biodiversity should be one level higher than the status of terrestrial area.
The study of extinction species included in CITES or Red data book (IUCN). Study of habitats done by the institutions
related e.g. LIPI, University, fisheries research institutions who cooperate with some societies as
underwriters/superintendentthe preservation of aquatic resources. The study relating to the function economical basedon value to a species in domestic and for export activities.
The spatial arrangement based on bio-economi utilization
Some aspect of fishing arrangement includes: 1) number of species and characteristic a fishing gear, 2) spawningseason, and 3) spawning site. Information from fisherman that there are various types of a gear used for fishing in
Sulawesi. There are selective gill nets and hook and line and there is less selective fishing gear such as deep net,
palawang, bungka toddo, and boso. Related to the economic sustainability a fishing gear which are not selective
should be discussed together with the fisherman or if it is used, the fisherman had to follow the regulation publishedby local government.
From 17 species of fish found hat is in lakes and inland water of Sulawesi, only around 5 percent of the biologicalcondition of fish was observed. This situation is a challenge to do activities of fishing based on fish resources
sustainability. Several species have been known the habitat of reproduction and feeding habit. Some researchersreported that there was a group species have experienced of spawning with the peak season in March or April,
September – November those species are known to the spawning peak more than twice a year. Based on the
reproduction information, it is recommended to do fishing not in those peak seasons of spawning.
Spawning habitat of fish species has an appropriate requirements condition for species. There is species spawn in theaquatic plants (fitofil) substrate, stone (litofil), sand (psamofil), and shells (ostracofil). From the observation in Lake
Matano and Towuti, there have been known that the spawning from group of Telmatherina celebensis and T. bonti
related to aquatic plants (Nasution, 2000 and 2004). The spawning habitat of gobies group (Glossogoius spp.)
suspected using sand or gravel as a substrate as a spwaning, meanwhile the T. wahjuii use sand for spawning.
Activities of forest logging and mining would have an impact on water turbidity. It will influence the hatching ofTelmatherina eggs attached toaquatic plants and a stone substrate (Nasution, 2001). The construction of dam
in Lake Poso also indicates that migration of catadromus specis (eel) is disturb (Muchsin et al. 2003). The
condition of eco-biological has been known, therefore, it is suggested to the conservation areas an effort for
preservation of germ plasm of endemic fish.
The implantation of lake conservation is needed local regulations published by local government Local regulation
establish the zoning area for conservation and for fishing activity. The local legislation and policy should be establishedbased on scientific and mutual agreement between. It is not easy to apply the local rule for local institution;
therefore, it needs to develop co-management to implement fish endemic conservation.
REFERENCES
1. Anonymous. (1990). Code Republic of Indonesia Number 5 year 1990 concerning Conservation of naturaland ecosystem. (In Indonesian).
2. Froese, R. and D. Nauly. (2004). Fishbase. World Wide Web electronic publication.www.fishbase.org,
version (06/2004).

345

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

3. Haffner, G.D., P.E. Hehanussa, and D. I. Hartoto. (2001). The biology and physical process of large lakesof Indonesia: Lakes Matano and Towuti. In M. Munawar and R.E. Hecky (Eds.). The Great Lakes of The
World (GLOW): Food-web, health, and integrity, Netherlands. p 183-192.
4. Hartoto, (2009). Konservasi perairan daratan dalam dunia pemanfaatan: Pelestarian sumber daya alam berbasis
budaya Indonesia. Makalah disajikan dalam Pertemuan dengan Pemerintah Daerah Kabupaten Luwu Timur,
Sulawesi Selatan, 30 Juni 2009. Tidak di publikasikan.
5. http://www.fishbase.org/summary/10364
6. IUCN. (2003). 2003 IUCN Red list of threatened species www.redlist.org. Download on July 16, 2004.
7. Kottelat, M. (1990). The rice fishes (Oryziidae) of Malili Lakes, Sulawesi, Indonesia with description of a
new species. Ichtiol. Explor. Freshwater.
8. Kottelat, M., A.J. Whitten, S.N. Kartikasari, dan S. Wirjoatmodjo. (1993). Freshwater fishes of Western
Indonesia and Sulawesi. Published by Periplus Edition (HK) Ltd. in collaboration with the Environmental
Management Development in Indonesia (EMDI) Project, Ministry of State for Population and Environment,
Republic of Indonesia, Jakarta. 293 p.
9. Mac Kinnon, K. (1994). Nature’s treasure house. The Wildlife of Indonesia. PT. Gramedia. Jakarta.
10. Muchsin I, Zairion, S Ndobe. (2003). Beberapa aspek biologi larva ikan sidat (Anguilla sp.) di Muara
Sungai Poso, Sulawesi Tengah. Prosiding Sumberdaya Perikanan Sidat Tropik. Jakarta, UPT Baruna
Jaya, BPPT. Hala. 77-83.
11. Nasution, S.H. (2000). Ikan Hias Air Tawar RAINBOW. Penebar Swadaya. 96 hal.
12. Nasution, S.H. dan Supranoto. (2001). Ikan Hias Air Tawar KONGO TETRA. Penebar Swadaya. 80 hal.
13. Nasution, S.H. dan Sulistiono. (2003). Gonad maturity of endemic fish rainbow selebensis (Telmatherinacelebensis Boulenger) in Lake Towuti. Indonesian Journal of Aquatic Sciences and Fisheries, 10 (2):7177 (In Indonesian).
14. Nasution, S.H. (2004). Conservation of endemic fish species Telmatherina celebensis in Lake Towuti,
South Celebes. Proceedings of the International Workshop on Human Dimension of Tropical Peatland
Under Global Environmental Changes. A. Iswandi, H.C. Widjaja, S.Guhardja, H. Segah, T.Iwakuma, andM.Osaki (Eds.). Bogor, Indonesia, December 8-9, 2004. p 35-42 (In English).
15. Nasution, S.H. (2006). Pangkilang (Telmatherinidae) Ornamental Fish: An Economic Alternative for
People Around Lake Towuti. Proceedings International Symposium on The Ecology and Limnology of the
Malili Lakes on March 20-22, 2006 in Bogor – Indonesia. p 39-46.
16. Nasution, S.H. (2008). Distribusi Spasial dan Temporal Ikan Endemik Bonti-bonti (Paratherinastriata) di
Danau Towuti, Sulawesi Selatan. Jurnal Biologi Indonesia, IV(1):91-104.
17. Soeroto, B. (1995). Some notes concerning freshwater fish distribution in area Kolonedale, Eastern ofCenter Sulawesi. Journal Faculty of Fishery, III (1):1-6 (In Indonesian).
18. Whitten, A. J M. Mustafa, and G. S. Henderson. (1987). Ecology Sulawesi. Translated by Gembong
Tjitrosoepomo, Faculty of Biological, Gadjah Mada University. University Press. 844 p (In Indonesian).
19. Wirjoatmodjo, S., Sulistiono, M.F. Rahardjo, I.S. Suwelo, R.K. Hadiaty. (2003). Ecological distribution ofendemic fish species in Lakes Poso and Malili Complex, Sulawesi Island. Founded by the Asean Regional
Center for Biodiversity Conservation and the European Commission. Bogor. 30 p.

346

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

OCCURRENCE OF WATER-BORNE BACTERIAL PATHOGEN, Aeromonas sp., IN LAKE
MATANO, INDONESIA
Miratul Maghfiroh1*, Eva Nafisyah2, Nina Hermayani Sadi3
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences*Corresponding author: miratul@limnologi.lipi.go.id

1,2.3

ABSTRACT
Water-borne pathogens can be threatening substances if adequate surveillance is not routinely carried out.
Pathogens in water can grow at a rapid rate if environmental factors permit. Aeromonas is one of the eminent
water-borne pathogens which has a cosmopolitan distribution in various environmental settings including
freshwater lake. This genus has also been associated with a variety of diseases and infections in humans andanimals. Although the updates on this genus have increased and intensified, the research on this genus inIndonesian freshwater lakes is still sparse. We investigated the possible occurrence of the genus Aeromonasfrom water samples collected from Lake Matano, Indonesia. In August 2016, five sampling sites in Lake
Matano were determined. The water samples were plated on M-Aeromonas media. After an incubation at 350C
for 24 hours, colonies of interest were screened. Biochemical assay was performed following single colony
isolation. Of five presumptive isolates, we managed to identify one candidate which showed remarkably similar
biochemical features to those from our reference Aeromonas. MALDI TOF technique revealed that thiscandidate belongs to Aeromonas group. It is surprising that this Aeromonas isolate, STASATU, originated froma depth of 175 m. Even though its functional and ecological role is still unclear, this finding permits the notionthat the genus Aeromonas is diverse in distribution.
Keywords: Aeromonas sp., Lake Matano, water-borne pathogen.
INTRODUCTION
The genus Aeromonas has been of interest to science since its first reported occurrence in 1891 (Ewing et al.,1961). The association of this genus with a variety of diseases and infections in humans and animals (e.ggastrointestinal tract syndromes, infections of soft tissue, eye and skin, respiratory and urogenital tract
infections, blood-borne dyscrasias) makes it difficult not to simply ignore its existence. In the past, research on
Aeromonas has identified and described outbreaks. For example, isolates of Aeromonas were identified fromsamples of dead fish seemingly killed by microbial infections in Yadkin and Catawba Rivers, North Carolina(Miler and Chapman, 1976). Identification of this genus was also done elsewhere in Sweden (Krovacek et al.,1995) and in China (Nielsen et al., 2001) from similar background settings. Additionally, Aeromonas was able
to be recovered from broader ranges of environment which suggests that this genus shows a cosmopolitan
distribution in the microbial biosphere (Janda and Abbott, 2010). It was reported that Aeromonas could
successfully be recalled from diverse environmental samples such as faeces (Esteve et al., 2012), vertebrates(fish, birds, ticks, insects, amphibians), invertebrates, and water environment either in fresh or saline water(Janda and Abbott, 2010). With the advent of sequencing technology, the updates on this genus haveincreased and intensified.
In Indonesia, the research on Aeromonas is still sparse. The earliest reports associated with it date back to
the 1980’s, when a bacterial outbreak in Indonesia caused a notable effect on carp industries at that time
(Hardjoutomo et al., 1981), while another study conducted by Japanese researcher also detected Aeromonas
in water samples tested from Java, Kalimantan and Sumatra (Okuwaki et al., 1982). While most reports byIndonesians are not published in English, only nationally, research on Aeromonas in Indonesia has beenongoing. The monitoring and surveillance of Aeromonas in the surrounding environment, i.e lake in particular,
through research is indispensable since it enables us to understand its behaviour and set up a better
management plan to mitigate the worst outbreaks in the future.
In this study, we investigated the possible occurrence of the genus Aeromonas from water samples collectedfrom Lake Matano, Indonesia. Of five presumptive isolates of interest, we managed to identify one candidate
which showed remarkably similar features to those from our reference. It is surprising that this Aeromonas
isolate, STASATU, originated from a depth of 175 m. Even though its functional and ecological role is still
unclear, this finding permits the notion that the genus Aeromonas is diverse in distribution.
METHODS
Sample Collection
Lake Matano, a tectonic type lake, is located in South Sulawesi, Indonesia. It stretches from 2 029’7” S to121020’0” E. Water samples were collected from five designated stations throughout the lake (Figure 1). In
situ measurements were done to record Dissolved Oxygen and pH level using Water Quality Checker (YSI,
USA). Only in STASATU did we take water samples from the surface (0 meter) and the 175-m depth. We used347

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

the surface water for the remaining stations. ~300 ml of water was collected at each station and kept in a sterile
container. This was intended for the microbiological analysis. Another ~300 ml of water was also sampled forchemical analysis (total phosphorus and total nitrogen). All water samples were stored in cool conditions (~40C)
during transportation to the laboratory for further analysis.

Figure 1. Locations of sample collection.
The description of each station is summarized in Table 1. Station numbers 2, 4 and 5 were chosen because
they are close to residential areas and were likely to have been influenced by anthropogenic activities. Stations
1 and 3 are seemingly away from direct contact with any anthropogenic influences.
Table 1. Description of the sampling stations
StationGPS
Coordinates (N, E)

Remarks

1 (STASATU)
2 (DESANUHA)
3 (STATENGAH)
4 (DESAMATANO)
5 (DESASOROWAKO)-2.51027, 121.36531-2.44968, 121.34013-2.46671, 121.28385-2.46330, 121.24482-2.52350, 121.36472

North-western part
Residential area
South-eastern part
Residential area
Residential area

Bacterial isolation and biochemical assay
Water samples were subsampled aseptically by dispensing 150 µL and spreading on to M Aeromonas media(Himedia, India). The plates were incubated at 34-350C for 24 hr. Each had duplication. The colonies whichappeared were screened according to the instructions in media usage. One representative colony was selectedfrom each sample and underwent single colony isolation. The pure isolates were then maintained on NA(Nutrient Agar) for further analysis. NA (1 L) was composed of 5 g peptone, 3 g beef extract, 15 g agar. The
incubation was at 34-350C for 24 hours. We used HilMViC KB001 (Himedia, India) kit to reveal biochemical
features for all isolates. The preparation of inoculum, inoculation of the kit and incubation (at 35-360C for 24hours) were administered according to the instructions for use. The results were tabulated by marking thepositive reaction with 1 and negative with 0. The determination of positive-negative result referred to theinterpretation chart given in the instruction sheet (Himedia). Our reference Aeromonas culture was Aeromonas
hydrophila B464 attained from InaCC (Indonesia Culture Collection) LIPI.
Bacterial identification
Prior to bacterial identification, isolates of interest were determined by a dendrogram generated using R
software. Dendextend packages (Galili, 2015) were chosen to provide the Euclidean weighing uponbiochemical features for all isolates. Isolate performing the closest features to those from reference Aeromonas
was then identified using MALDI TOF (Matrix Assisted Laser Desorption Ionization Time of Flight) technique.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Five isolates of interest from five sampling sites were determined based on their morphological features (i.eyellow colonies on M Aeromonas media). Single colony isolation was done simultaneously to obtain pureculture. Prior to bacterial identification using MALDI TOF technique, all isolates were biochemically checked
for their features in utilizing eight types of carbohydrate (glucose, adonitol, arabinose, lactose, sorbitol,
mannitol, rhamnose, and sucrose). A dendrogram generated from R shows their similarities based on
biochemical test result (Figure 2).

348

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Cluster dendrogram of five isolates (blue dots highlight the cluster of interest)
According to Figure 2, isolate from STASATU clusters together with reference Aeromonas, Aeromonas
hydrophila, whereas four other isolates cluster within different clades. This also means that STASATU isolate
has more common biochemical features with those of the reference as compared to those from other isolates.
STATENGAH isolate shares more similar biochemical features with those from DESANUHA isolate but notnecessarily similar with the features of DESAMATANO isolate. While DESASOROWAKO isolate is grouped
separately since this isolate is likely to possess relatively more dissimilar features among all.
The reference Aeromonas and STASATU isolates were able to utilize glucose, mannitol and sucrose. However,other isolates could metabolise different other carbohydrate sources. Isolates from DESANUHA andSTATENGAH were able to take up glucose and arabinose but did not show the ability to use mannitol andsucrose. All isolates were shown to give positive reactions on Citrate utilization.
Since the dendrogram clustering revealed that STASATU isolate exhibited more similar features to those fromthe reference, bacterial identification was specifically done for this isolate using the MALDI TOF technique(Singhal et al., 2015). This technique is quite common to analyse fragile biomolecules that tend to get
fragmented easily. In contrast to 16S rRNA sequencing method, the MALDI TOF technique does not require
the cells to be DNA extracted and screened on gel electrophoresis, which can save time.

Figure 3. Spectral ionization of STASATU bacterial cells349

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 3 shows the spectra taken from MALDI TOF ionisation of STASATU isolate. After being compared tothe database, the pattern of the spectra is 88% identical to Aeromonas sobria.
Aeromonads are among the eminent pathogens widely distributed in various environmental settings (Janda
and Abbott, 2010). The members of this genus can be detected either in an aquatic environment (Beaz-Hidalgo
et al., 2015) or a terrestrial habitat (Hayase et al., 2000). Others can also be found in vegetables (Mcmahon
and Wilson, 2001), food (Stratev and Odeyemi, 2016) and faeces (Waldridge et al., 2011). While most isolatesof Aeromonads can be predominantly attained from the surface water of aquatic habitats (Hazen et al., 1978;
Rhodes and Kator, 1994), here, we show evidence that this genus could also be recovered from a depth of
175 m in a freshwater lake. The likelihood of this finding was underestimated because we initially expected to
identify Aeromonads in the water samples taken from the sampling sites near the residential areas (Nuha,
Matano and Sorowako). This is because the water quality of these sites might be biochemically influenced byanthropogenic activities rather than autochthonous effects. Even though we observed yellowish Aeromonadlike colonies on the plates from residential area-related water samples, interestingly, the biochemical test andthe dendrogram clustering revealed that STASATU isolate was the only isolate sharing similar features as
those from the reference Aeromonas hydrophila. This result suggests that the failure to see the expectedclustering may have been due to a need for more Aeromonas reference.
The water quality analysis of five sampling sites (Table 2) shows that the amount of total nitrogen (TN) of
STASATU was 1.09 mg/L while those from other four sites ranged from 0.1 - 0.2 mg/L. Total phosphorous (TP)of STASATU was < 0.1 mg/L however TP from other sites varied around ~ 0.01 mg/L. This result may suggestthat STASATU site favors a suitable niche for the growth of Aeromonads since nitrogen, as one of the essential
nutrients for most heterotrophs, is available in a greater amount as compared to those from other sites. Even
though Aeromonad existence is evident in Lake Matano, a further investigation needs to be carried out since
its ecological and/or functional roles in this habitat remain unclear.
Table 2. Water quality parameters
Station1 (STASATU) at 175 m depth
2 (DESANUHA)
3 (STATENGAH)
4 (DESAMATANO)
5 (DESASOROWAKO)

DO(mg/L)
1.55
7.68
7.62
7.71
7.70

pH
7.6
7.96
7.7
8.06
8.06

Total Phosphorus(mg/L)< 0.010< 0.010
0.012
0.016
0.011

Total Nitrogen(mg/L)
1.09720.21670.17150.15690.2590

CONCLUSIONS
An isolate of Aeromonas sp. was successfully recovered and confirmed from 175 m depth water sample. Even
though Aeromonads can be commonly isolated from the surface water of freshwater lake, this study
demonstrated that this group could also be found at such depth. Further investigation may help reveal its
ecological and functional roles and address the question whether these bacteria are solely tourists.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This study was possible to run with the support from SBK (LIPI) funding. The authors thank InaCC LIPI for
providing the MALDI TOF analysis.
REFERENCES
1. Beaz-Hidalgo R, Latif-Eugenín F, Hossain M.J., Berg K, Niemi RM, Rapala J, Lyra C, Liles MR, Figueras
MJ. (2015). Aeromonas aquatica sp. nov., Aeromonas finlandiensis sp. nov. and Aeromonas lacus sp.
nov. isolated from Finnish waters associated with cyanobacterial blooms. Syst Appl Microbiol 38(3):1618. doi: 1016/j.syapm.2015.02.005
2. Esteve, C., E. Alcaide, M. D. Blasco. (2012). Aeromonas hydrophila subsp. dhakensis Isolated from Feces,
Water and Fish in Mediterranean Spain. Microbes. Environ. 27(4): 367-373. doi:10.1264/jsme2.ME12009
3. Ewing, W.H.; Hugh, R.; Johnson, J.G. (1961) Studies on the Aeromonas Group. United States
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, Public Health Service, Communicable Disease Centre,
37p.
4. Hayase, N., K. Kouno., K. Ushio. (2000). Isolation and characterization of Aeromonas sp. B-5 capable ofdecolorizing various dyes. J. of Biosc. And Bioeng 90(5):570-573.
5. Hardjoutomo, S., P. Taufik, and S. Koesoemadinata. (1981). Isolation and identification of pathogenic
bacteria from samples of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) and Java carp (Puntius gonionotus). Bulletin
Penelitian Perikanan. ISSN: 0216-745X.

350

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

6. Hazen, T. C., C.B Fliermans, R. P. Hirsch, G.W. Esch. (1978). Prevalence and distribution of Aeromonas
hydrophila in the United States. App. And Env. Microb. 36(5):731-738.
7. Janda, J.M and S. L. Abbot (2010). The Genus Aeromonas: Taxonomy, Pathogenecity, and Infection.
Clinical Microb. Reviews 23(01):35-73. doi:10.1128/CMR.00039-09.
8. Krovacek, K., S. Dumontet, E. Eriksson, S.B. Baloda (1995). Isolation, and virulence profiles, ofAeromonas hydrophila implicated in an outbreak of food poisoning in Sweden. Microbiol. Immunol 39(9):655-661.
9. McMahon M. A., Wilson I. G. (2001). The occurrence of enteric pathogens and Aeromonas species inorganic vegetables. Int. J. Food Microbiol. 70 155–162. 10.1016/S0168-1605(01)00535-9
10. Nielsen, M.E., L. Hoi, A.S. Schmidt, D. Qian, T. Shimada, J.Y. Shen. J.L. Larsen. (2001). Is Aeromonas
hydrophila the dominant motile Aeromonas species that causes disease outbreaks in aquaculture
production in the Zhejiang Province of China? Dis Aquat Org 46:23-29.
11. Okuwaki, Yoshiyuki, et al. (1982). Bacteriological and chemical study of the drinking water in Indonesia.
Japanese Journal of Tropical Medicine and Hygiene 10.1: 33-39.
12. Rhodes, M.W., and H. Kator (1994). Seasonal occurrence of mesophilic Aeromonas spp. as a function of
biotype and water quality in temperate freshwater lakes. Wat. Res. 28(11):2241-2251.
13. Roy W. Miller & Wayne R. Chapman. (1976). Epistylis and Aeromonas hydrophila Infections in Fishes
from North Carolina Reservoirs, The Progressive Fish-Culturist, 38:3, 165-168, doi: 10.1577/1548
8659(1976)38[165: EAAHII] 2.0.CO;2.
14. Singhal, N., M. Kumar, P. K. Kanaujia, J. S. Virdi. (2015). MALDI TOF mass spectrometry: an emerging
technology for microbial identification and diagnosis. Front Microbiol 6:791.
15. Stratev, D and O. A. Odeyemi (2016). Antimicrobial resistance of Aeromonas hydrophila isolated fromdifferent food sources: A mini-review. Journal of Infection and Public Health. 9(5):535 - 544.
16. Tal Galili (2015). dendextend: an R package for visualizing, adjusting, and comparing trees of hierarchicalclustering. Bioinformatics. doi: 10.1093/bioinformatics/btv428
17. Waldridge, B. M., A. J. Stewart., D. C. Taylor, W. J. Saville. (2011). The Incidence of Aeromonas Species
in the Feces of Nondiarrheic Horses. Journal of Equine Veterinary Science, 31(12):700 - 702

351

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Topic 8. Ecotechnology and ecohydrology
LAKE RESTORATION IN INDONESIA: A RISK BASED ECOHYDROLOGY APPROACH
Gadis Sri Haryani
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences
Corresponding author: gadis@limnologi.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACT
Lakes are the last frontier in the survival and resilience of our society in that they provide us with more thanjust precious fresh water resources and other ecosystem services, but the health of lake’s ecosystem would
reflect how we value our present civilization and future wealth of our descendants. What may commonly bemisperceived is that lakes in many respects are not part of rivers, e.g. their unshared features like longer
retention time, different geological histories, and many lakes have no rivers and the presence of thermocline
as well. 15 lakes in Indonesia have been considered to have acquired their critical stage and they sufferedfrom a range of direct and indirect anthropogenic as well as the aggravating climate change impacts. Attempts
to address some ecosystem deterioration in a number of lakes in Indonesia by introducing ecohydrologicaland ecotechnological measures will be described in this paper. This paper will eventually highlight therestoration within the light of risk and future uncertainties impacts reduction at the center of our sustainablelake management, in which ecohydrology remains at the core of seamless reconciliation between development
and aquatic environmental conservation efforts.
Keywords: lake restoration, ecohydrology
INTRODUCTION
Indonesia is the fifth largest country in the world with fresh water resources (3,221 billion m 3/year), blessedwith an extraordinary number of multi origin (tectonic, volcano-tectonic, oxbow, and enclosed) lakes,
amounting to 840 lakes (covering 685,000 ha), 735 ponds and 162 reservoirs (National Committee on Wetland
Ecosystem Management, 2004). Lake Toba (North Sumatra) is the largest (110,260 ha and 505 m deep), Lake
Matano is the deepest (600 m) and Lake Sentarum (West Kalimantan, 126.000 ha) is richest with 10 months
wet, 2 months dry 266 fish species, 18 are endemic (Haryani, 2013).
Such a huge volume of some selected lakes in Indonesia are presented in this Table 1, in which the ecosystemof the lake should be should be managed seriously in order to meet the needs of the people and theenvironment for their services
Table 1. Basic information of some selected lakes in Indonesia (Ministry of Environment, 2012)
Max Depth
VolumeNo
LakeArea (km2)
Category volume(m)(billion m3)
1
Batur
15,9
88
820
Medium2
Bratan
3,85
22
49
Small
3
Buyan
3,9
87
160
Medium4
Kerinci
46
97
1600
Medium5
Limboto56
2,5
159.566
Large
6
Maninjau
97,9169
10.400Large
7Matano164,1
590
55.015
Large
8
Ranau
125,9
229
21.950Large
9Rawa Pening
25
14
52
Small
10
Singkarak
107,8
268
16.100Large
11Tamblingan
1,9
90
27
Small
In entering the 21st century, there exist increasingly complex problems of the lakes whereby the function isdecreasing over time due to both increasing utilization of the resources of the lake and in line with population
growth. The overall lake ecosystem in the catchment area, water bodies and in the riparian are heavily affectedby human activities. Lakes ecosystem suffers from heavy pollution, siltation, ecosystem deterioration and fish
killed. Sewage, sludge, garbage, and even toxic pollutants are all dumped into the inland water ecosystem.
These have resulted in the decline in the carrying capacity of the ecosystem to support the productivity ofwater. The water crisis is not only from water scarcity, but also from a lack of access to affordable clean water.
During the First National Conference of Indonesian Lakes in 2009, an important agreement by 9 line Ministries:
Environment, Home Affairs, Public Works, Agriculture, Energy and Mineral Resources, Research and352

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Technology, Maritime and Fisheries Affairs, Culture and Tourism, and Forestry has been achieved to
Sustainably Managed the lakes. The Bali Agreement has stipulated 7 programs for 15 priority lakes: lakeecosystem management; thorough science, technology and impact based analysis in the use of lake resources;
the development of lake monitoring, evaluation and information systems; preparation of adaptation andmitigation measures on the impact of environmental changes to the lakes; capacity building, regulation andcoordination; improvement of community participation; and sustainable funding.
The 15 National Priority Lakes (NPL) have been chosen based on 6 criteria:
1. Lake degradation: sedimentation, pollution, eutrophication, as well as the decreasing quality andquantity;
2. Lake Utilization: hydropower, agriculture, fisheries, raw water, religious and cultural values, tourism(including the uniqueness of the lake, accessibility, infrastructure, and the surrounding communities);
3. Commitment of Local Government and the community in the management of the lake (Master Plan,
Legislation, the Management Board);
4. Strategic value/uniqueness of Lake: how strategic is its function in the national interest;
5. Biodiversity (endemic fish communities, birds, and flora diversities);
6. Disaster and climate change risks.
These 15 national priority lakes are 4 lakes in Sumatra (Lake Toba, Maninjau, Singkarak, Kerinci), 5 lakes in
Sulawesi (Tondano, Limboto, Poso, Tempe, Matano), 2 lakes in Kalimantan (cascading Mahakam SemayangMelintang-Jempang, Sentarum), 1 lake in Papua (Sentani), 1 lake in Banten (Rawa Danau), 1 lake in Bali
(Batur), and 1 lake in Central Java (Rawapening).
Inescapable use of lake water for hydropower energy plants has been done in 9 large lakes of 15 priority lakes
such as Lake Toba, Maninjau Lake, Lake Kerinci, and Lake Singkarak, These 15 priority lakes are also of
tourism value, given their natural beauty. There are still many other lakes apart from the 15 lakes that giveincomparable natural beauty, and these will be the next and to be rescued in the next batch of our national
priority lakes.
Lakes in Indonesia are global heritage that must be restored and protected to enhance their life-supporting
ecosystem services, including those associated with their linkages to other aquatic ecosystems. Therefore,
the management and sustainable use require a wise and adequate scientific foundation, including the likelyinterdisciplinary adaptation and mitigation efforts and the active societal role in maintaining the inland water
conservation in Indonesia as well. Hence, a reformed management of the lakes in Indonesia is inescapable inorder to comply with the sustainable use of different end users like clean and drinking water supply,transportation, fishery and agriculture, industrial use, waste disposal, energy generation, natural habitat for
fauna and flora, climate regulator and cultural activities. Yet, referring back to the agreed 6 criteria to selectany inclusion of a lake into the 15 NPL, the disaster and climate change risks is likely the least known aspect.
It is therefore the strategic intention of this paper to highlight the disaster and climate change risks factor to beincorporated in the future selection and restoration of the NPL, in which ecohydrology will be at the heart of
the approach. An example of how this has been attempted in Limboto Lake (North Sulawesi) is presented.
This will be preceded by a review of the ecosystem of lake and the anthropogenic and climate change impacts.
Finally, a paradigm shift and the need to develop a national rapid as well as long term preparedness capacity
on lake resilience will be presented.
ECOSYSTEMS OF LAKE: UNIQUENESS AND THE ROLE AS HABITAT OF FRESH WATER FISH AND
HUMAN LIFE SUPPORTThe unique lake ecosystem settings, which are not always be part of any river system, are typified by theirwater retention time, their geologic history, the presence of thermocline layer, their depths which could bemuch lower than the sea level and they formed crypto depressions.
Lake ecosystems are unique when compared with other water resources, especially river ecosystems. First,
the lake's water retention time can reach yearly or even decades, while rivers and reservoirs are in days,
weeks to months. This difference in retention time creates a very fundamental difference in preparing themanagement plans, especially when dealing with the prevention and control of pollution. Second, lake is notpart of the river because it is formed through a different geological process. Many lakes do not have rivers thatflow its water into the sea, and these are called enclosed lakes, such as Lake Batur, Bratan-Buyan-Tamblingan
Lake complex in Bali, crater lake in Kelud and Galunggung volcanoes, lake Subsidence in limestone areas in
the islands of Eastern Indonesia (all in Saparua Island, Kei Kecil, and Biak).
Third, and this is especially found in the lakes in Indonesia, i.e. the existence of thermocline layers in somelakes reaching the depths of greater than 100 m. Thermocline is a water layer with a very sharp watertemperature drop (greater than 1o C). The thermocline layer is between the warmer and relatively stableepilimnion layer and the cooler and homogeneous layer of the hypolimnion, all of which constitute the verticallake temperature stratification. Examples are Lake Toba, Lake Poso and Lake Matano. The temperature profileat Lake Matano shows the presence of a thermocline with a water temperature difference between the surface353

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

layer and those at a depth of 80 m to 270 m, and this goes further to the bottom of the lake at 590 m with nosignificant temperature difference. The surface temperature of 27.7 o C decreases to 27.3o C at a depth of 80m, then dropped to 25.6o C at a depth of 270 m. No visible temperature drop from this depth to the deepestbase. The presence of small anomalies of the curve at 80 m and 120 m gives an indication that there are two
strata of water columns leaving little marks on the temperature curve at the depth.
Fourth. The depth of a lake can be below the sea level or cryptodepression. For example, Lake Sentani witha lake base located 70 m below sea level. Matano Lake forms cryptodepression with a depth of 595 m or alake bottom which is 203 m below sea level. Tolire Lake in Ternate is also a lake that is essentially 19.9 m
below sea level, whose formation is related to the ancient Gamalama volcanic processes. Apart from theuniqueness mentioned above, each lake basically has a different behaviour or trait, due to their specificformation.
There are 10 classes (Table 2) of lake type/morphogenesis proposed by Hehanussa & Haryani (2009): tectonic
lake (eg D. Matano), volcano-tectonic lake (eg D. Toba), caldera lake (eg D. Batur), subsidence lake (D Tolire),floodplain lake (D. Semayang) and oxbow lake (D. Teluk), strike slip fault lakes (eg D. Singkarak), dilutionallakes (eg D. Kei Kecil), estuary lakes (eg. Aiduna, Segara tillers), artificial lakes/reservoirs (eg Sagulingreservoir), mine remnant/excavation/bottom (in Bangka Island). Such a morphogenetic classification should
form the basis in the lake ecosystem management planning, whereby a lake should be treated differently,
depending on the characteristics and condition of the lake.
Table 2. Indonesian lake morphogenesis (Hehanussa and Haryani, 2009)
No
Type/Lake Morphogenesis
Examples1.
Tectonic lake
Lake Kerinci, Matano, Paniai
2.
Volcano-tectonic lake
Lake Toba, Maninjau, Tondano3.
Caldera lake
Lake Batur, Bratan, Buyan
4.
Collapse/subsided lake
Lake Tolire
5.
Oxbow lake and floodplain
Lake Semayang, Melintang, Lake Teluk
6.
Faulted lake
Lake Singkarak, Ranau
7.
Dissolved lake
Lake Kei Kecil
8.
Estuarine lake
Lake Aiduna, Segara Anakan
9.
Artificial lake/reservoir
Saguling, Jatiluhur, Rawa Pening reservoirs
10.
Abandoned mining pit
Kolong in Bangka
The lakes in Indonesia also become the habitat of various freshwater fish. Even a place to live Indonesian
native fish such as bada fish (Rasbora argyrotaenia) in lake Maninjau, West Sumatera, Telmatherina type only
found in Malili Lake complex, M. praecox only found in Iritoi and Dabra Irian. Lake Sentarum area which is thesite of Ramsar is a habitat for 250 species of fish such as native fish and highly commercial ornamental fish
Arwana, botia, jelawat, belida, and semah. The volume of capture fisheries production in lakes throughout
Indonesia in 2011 reached 56,006 tons with a value of more than Rp. 640 billion. The economic and nutrition
values of the lake have been tremendous when added to the production of aquaculture the source of animal
protein, mainly because of the large volume of water in the lake in Indonesian lakes. From the fishery point ofview, the presence of eel populations living in Lake Poso has added another uniqueness of Indonesian lakes.
There are five types of eels in the estuary of the bay forming the downstream of Poso River: Anguilla
marmorata, A. celebesensis, A. bicolor pacifica, A. interioris and A. borneensis, of which eel of Anguilla
marmorata is the dominant species in Lake Poso. The past production has once reached 41.5 tons in 1990
and this, however, has been continuously decreased due to: (i) overfishing, especially during the downstream
or seaward eel migration to spawn, and (ii) the lake ecosystem degradation. Annual eel production decreased,in 2009 the eel production only about 6.49 ton, and the volume of eel catches in public waters since 2007 –2011 decreased by 8.06%, and in the year 2010-2011 decreased by 51.52%. The recent development ofhydropower downstream of Poso Lake will make the situation even worse to the eel population and may end
up with the extinction of the eel population from the Lake Poso.
ANTHROPOGENIC AND CLIMATE CHANGE IMPACTS
The problems of the lake can be attributed to both natural phenomena and anthropogenic related activities,
such as intensive exploitation in fishing and cultivation, the impact of water transport mechanization, andindustrial, agricultural and domestic waste disposal, as well as the cumulative impact of land use change inthe upstream and in watershed areas. Whole lake ecosystem consists of the catchment area of the lakeecosystem, the body of water and the affected lake border by direct human activities. The impacts are present
in the decline of chemical and physical quality of the water, and the indirect impact is the decline in the carrying
capacity of the ecosystem to support the aquatic productivity. Four limnological impacts have been identified354

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

by Haryani & Hehanusa (2002) when dealing the lake’s ecosystem carrying capacity is surpassed: (a)reduction in fisheries productivity, (b) growth of weeds, (c) contamination of water resources and germplasm,(d) siltation of the lake leading to the limited use of the water for transportation during the dry season and,otherwise, flooding in the rainy season. These increasing threats and their impacts on the economy and thepreservation of natural resources are described herewith.
The decline of fishery productivity in the lake includes pollution, siltation, overfishing and destruction of riparian
areas. Pollution leads to a decrease in lake water quality and this may have gone beyond the tolerance of theaquatic organisms including fishes. Suspended solids in water could cause water turbidity and influence thefishery resources in spawning areas and in fishing areas. Pollution, turbidity, and siltation would also bringindirect effects on the life of fish with the loss of other aquatic organisms which form the food web like
phytoplankton, zooplankton, benthos, etc. Siltation causes a decrease in the living space of fish, especially inwetland and will increase the water temperature. Eventually these will cumulatively destroy the special
environment of the spawning area of the fish. Such a situation had happened in Lake Tempe, South Sulawesi,
where fishery production in 1948 of 58,000 tons has decreased to 10,000-15,000 tons alone due to reducing
depth and the shrinking lake by sedimentation.
In addition to providing the source of protein in lakes like Lake Tempe, South Sulawesi, other lakes in
Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Papua are also habitat of germplasm of ornamental fish. Several endemic
ornamental fish producers are lakes in Jambi, Malili Lake complex: Matano, Mahalona, and Towuti in South
Sulawesi Province. Some well-known species from Papua include Iriatherina werneri, Sclerophages jardini,
Glossolepis, Chilaterina and Melanotaenia. The high diversity of ornamental fish plays a direct role to thepeople's economy and local income sources. Human activity in the Poso river banks and surrounding
tributaries causes the loss of habitat for elver eel, resulting in a decrease in the elver population of eels thatwill migrate back to Lake Poso.
Rapidly growing aquatic plants such as water hyacinth (Eichornnia crassipes) in some lakes, has made thelake becomes too fertile because of the input of nutrients from domestic waste as well as uncontrolled use
fertilizer. If most of the surface of the lake is covered by plants, this will inhibit the penetration of sunlight into
the water, resulting in disruption of the photosynthesis processes and lower the water productivity as well as
disturbance to water transportation. Organic and non-organic pollution related to human activities such as
domestic waste disposal, agricultural wastes, and industrial wastes from the surroundings
Rampant algae or algae blooming have disrupted the fish life as well as other biota in the lake and, naturally,
will influence the scenic beauty of the lake. Algal blooming and mass mortality of fish in Lake Maninjau happens
almost every year since 2001, partly due to natural processes of sulphuric outburst accompanied by a surge
in activity aquaculture floating cage which exceeds the carrying capacity of the lake, have all made theaccumulation of organic matter from the residu of the fish feed and trigger excessive growth of phytoplankton.
This is also exacerbated by the changes in lake surface water flow due to the damming of outflows forhydropower purposes. This condition resulted in the decrease of water quality of the lake thus affecting theutilization of lake water as a source of drinking water, recreation, industrial purposes, tourism, and fisheries.
Fish life in the lake is also disrupted because of the reduced levels of dissolved oxygen in the water due to theuse of oxygen by bacteria for the decomposition of dead algae populations.
Heavy metal pollutants are extremely hazardous for human life that consume lake water well as the indirect
effects from consuming the fish and other aquatic organisms that accumulate heavy metals. Silting in the lake
sediments occur due to input both from the surrounding lakes (riparian zones Lakes) as well as river-borne
erosion due to erosion in the watershed area. Erosion occurs naturally and as a result of human activities suchas intensive logging and cultivation of land around the lake for agricultural land. Lake siltation has influenced
the transportation activities through the lake, the fish habitat loss, disruption of the reproductive processes withthe consequent decrease fisheries productivity, and can further trigger the growth or water weed emergence,and reduced the space for fish / aquatic mammals. Examples of these phenomena occurred in flood plain
lakes of cascading Semayang – Jempang – Melintang, East Kalimantan, wherein the Mahakam dolphin
mammal populations (Orcaella brevirostris) decreases because of continuously decreasing habitat, which inturn interfere their food web.
The climate change impact on the lake ecosystem can be grouped into four, namely: (i) impacts on the physicalcharacteristics of the lake, (ii) impacts on lake chemical characteristics, (iii) impacts on lake biologicalcharacteristics, and (iv) impacts based on lake genes type. Climate change affects the ability of the lake as a
productive resource for humans. Increasing air temperature, changes in the duration of dry season or the rainyseason will affect the volume fluctuations in of the surface water of the lake. Rainfall system and patternschange in a season may potentially shift of lake connectivity. A lot of oxbow lakes in Kalimantan are connectedwith the river periodically or permanently depending on the seasons. The lakes are the shelter, the feeding
place, and the reproduction site for the fish. When the connection with the river is cut off due to the long dry
season, the ecosystem will be disrupted resulting in a decrease in fishery productivity. Example of this can befound in Kapuas Hulu District, in which 115 lakes with an area of 120,000 ha, mostly are flood related lakes or355

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

flood swamps connected to the river. Decrease in rainfall as a variable input of watershed components due toglobal climate irregularities will affect the input of river flow which will eventually affect the lake water level. The
shift of precipitation (P) relative to evaporation (E) (P/E ratio) causes changes in the lake's water balance andlake water retention time, as well as depth and extent. Flood plain lake is particularly susceptible to P/Echanges due to the relatively shallow depth in comparison with the size of the area to the volume (Ludwig &Moench, 2009).
The effects of climate change coincide with the increasing need for irrigation during the drought conditions,and the use of water by humans will lead to a 50% reduction in lake area. Increasing the temperature andspeed of evaporation will affect the stratification of Lake Matano, Lake Toba and Lake Batur. The extent towhich the effects of climate change and the rise in global temperatures on the shift of thermocline layers inIndonesian lakes still require more in-depth research. The impact of climate change on the lake's most basic
chemical characteristics is the increasing frequency of heavy rains that increase the flow of water into lakes.
This will lead to increasing rate of contaminants and sediments into the lake or river resulting in degradationof water quality. Water retention time in the lake affects the chemical composition of lake water as well as theprocess and duration of biogeochemical interactions with lake sediments and littoral regions. In lakes thattypically have an anoxic lake floor, with longer water retention due to reduced precipitation will lead tophosphorus accumulation and eutrophication. This happened in Lake Maninjau which has a long water
retention time of about 27 years and Lake Toba about 90 years (Haryani, 2013). The opposite situation occurs
when the precipitation and inflows increases. This will be increase the nutrient and phytoplankton leaching thatwill decline in productivity of algae.
Further effect is to increase erosion of catchment areas and enrichment of soil nutrients entering the lake.
Temperature changes will affect the function of ecosystems especially when interacting with chemical
contamination. When warmer water is associated with excessive nutrients derived from agricultural fertilizers(brought to the lake by rain), eutrophication and explosive plankton growth in the surface of the lake will
decrease dissolved oxygen in the waters, thus endangering the life of other organisms in the lake ecosystem.
Small changes in lake water levels due to water balance shifts cause this environment to be vulnerable toclimate change. Changes in connectivity between aquatic habitats due to lowering or rising water levels willaffect the composition of aquatic biota species, especially fish communities, such as in the flood plain lakes
and swamps in Kalimantan. The light and nutrient changes available due to climate change have a qualitative
influence on composition and diversity at the primary producer level which in turn induces a higher trophic
level. Changes in the lake also affect the composition of macrophyte community species in the littoral zone,
which implicate birds, fish, and other biota that depend on the existence of the plants. Many fish species are
sensitive to slight temperature changes, and an increase in temperature due to global warming is thought tocause a shift in the distribution of the geography of various taxa.
Climate change also affects the migration behaviour of some species of fish due to changes in rainfall andseasonal patterns that have implications for shifting lake connectivity to rivers that function as migratory
pathways of the species, due to the disruption of fish migration paths from lake to river to sea or vice versa.
Fish will ultimately have difficulty to feed or reproduce according to their migration purpose. The interruptionof the migration processes will endanger the migratory fish species to extinction.
The impact of climate change to lake water conditions depends on the type of lake (volcanic, tectonic, andflooding), the ratio of the lake area to the area of the catchment area, and the height of the sea level. Possible
impacts of climate change on lakes have been analyzed in two types of lakes: Lake Maninjau-West Sumatra
as volcanotectonic lake and Semayang – Melintang Lakes in East Kalimantan as a flood plain lake (Haryani,2009). The degradation of lake water quality induced by climatic changes is clearly of a magnitude that should
be incorporated into long-term management strategies for all lakes, as demonstrated for the New Zealandlakes (Trolle et al.,2011).
LAKE RESILIENCE, DISASTER RISK REDUCTION AND ECOHYDROLOGY
A resilient system is one that tends to maintain a given state when subject to disturbance (Holling, 1973 in
Carpenter and Cottingham, 1997). Lakes are routinely disturbed by many kinds of events. Inputs of solar
radiation fluctuate from second to second. Pulses of chemical inputs occur with storms (at intervals of days toweeks). Fluctuations in climate affect seasonal phenologies and budgets of heat, water, and nutrients fromyear to year. Exceptionally large cohorts of fishes recruit every few years and restructure the food web for their
lifetimes. Fires or other disturbances alter watershed vegetation at intervals of decades to centuries, thereby
causing a pulse of nutrients to the lake and changing the water budget (through changes in evapotranspiration)
as the vegetation regrows. Extreme changes in climate (with cycles of centuries) change hydrologic
connections, water level, the shape of the lake, or even cause the lake to disappear for a period of time. In thenormal dynamics of lakes, ecosystem processes are maintained despite moderate and continuous
disturbances originating in the lake, its watershed, and its airshed (Fig. 1). This resilience involves several

356

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

mechanisms, which have different ecosystem components and distinctive spatial locations, spatial extents,
and return times (Holling, 1973 in Carpenter and Cottingham, 1997).

Figure. 1. Major interactions in the normal dynamics of lakes as a function of spatial extent (xaxis) and return time (y-axis). Boxes enclose 3 commonly-recognized subsystems: thewatershed (largest box), lake (medium-size box), and pelagic zone (smallest box)
(Holling, 1973 in Carpenter and Cottingham, 1997)
When talking about disaster risk reduction, there are several vocabularies we are dealing with, i.e.hazards,
vulnerability and risks. Vulnerability refers to exposure of any system to physical and socio-ecological threats
and inadequate capacity of the system to cope with the probable external hazard which threat the system.
While risk is basically the entity which may be borne by the system which is proportional to the hazard
probability and the estimated lost. The better the preparedness of the system, the smaller the risk. However,
we will have to keep in mind that risk is decision maker’s and analysts’s perception and interpretation. Thismeans, for example, although the risk is high, the decision maker or the person may ignore it and disaster
could then happen.
The problems which are suffered by the lake ecosystem we are dealing with today is mainly due to “opposing”
views between the so-called the “environmentalist” and “developmentalist”, in a way that the two camps tend
to stick themselves in their conventional believes and practices. The environmentalist tends to think and movetheir actions within the strict preservation and conservation terms, mainly due to the facts that degradation has
impacted the severe consequences to the environment and their services. On the other hand, thedevelopmentalist continues to pursue their economic benefit by neglecting the negative impacts of theirunsustainable practices that eventually have created (ecological) disasters and environmental pollution. These
two opposing camps can be united if both parties reconcile themselves in preparing for the future plausible
jeopardizing impacts in the forms of disasters, pollution, and other forms decreasing environmental services
as well as diminishing natural resources. The two parties can meet their interest when they mutually are talking
in risk language, the ecosystem risk assessment. Ecosystem risk is the thing that will be shared by the
conflicting parties, in that:• The developmentalist will reduce the probabilities of the disaster events and the pollution, while they
can still enjoy the growth and economic benefit, and• The environmentalist will be confident that the ecosystem services will not be jeopardized and theecological integrity remains intact
This paper proposes ecohydrology to be placed within the framework of Lake Resilience. Risk assessment is
the instrument that will be beneficial for both development purposes and environmental conservation. Risk isa major factor in dealing with resilience.
There are three components when we are talking about Lake Resilience: Lake’s ecosystem integrity, (LakeDisaster) Risk Management, and Climate Change (CC) (Fig. 2). Lake’s ecosystem integrity deals with
intactness, completeness and integration. Ecosystem Integrity is a framework of precaution of ecological risks,preserving the power of nature, long-term development basis for human life, protection of processes and357

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

structures being precautional for self-regulation. Lake disaster risk management is an analytical-to-application
process that can be integrated and leveraged to help achieve lake resilience. The climate change frameworkbuilds the resilience to withstand impact of climate change, including but not limited to lake’s ecosystemchange and diminishing aquatic resources. These three elemental constitutions will finally form the Lake
Resilience, that is about being prepared for a host of unforeseen shocks and stresses, far beyond those
attributable to climate change. Ecohydrology will then be positioned in this Lake Resilience framework in that
it is the common field shared by the previous three major components (ecosystem integrity, Disaster Risk
Reduction-DRR, and CC) and a powerful tool towards building the Lake Resilience. It is proposed that in the
future, ecohydrology will not be only dealing with ecosystem integrity, but also to address the disaster risk
reduction and the adverse impacts of climate change. This is our common and emerging challenge to jointly
build the resilience of our previous lakes. An initial effort to attempt restoring the Lake Limboto, North Sulawesi,
by implementing ecohydrology has been described elsewhere by Chrismadha et al. (2007, 2011). With theforest area in Limboto catchment 14.893 ha (16,37% of the total catchment), this is far below the minimum of
30%. Forest degradation aggravates the soil erodibility to become critical land covering 26.097 ha (12.573 ha
in the forest and 13.524 ha outside). Erosion rate in Limboto catchment is 9.902.588,12 ton/yr or on average
108,81 ton/ha/yr and the sedimentation in Lake Limboto is 0,438 mm/yr. These have ultimately changed thedepths as well as the surface area of the lake (Fig. 3).

Figure. 2. Lake resilience framework which integrate the lake ecosystem integrity, Lake Risk
Management and Climate Change. Ecohydrology is the compromising and solution toaddress and improve the lake resilience.

Changes in Lake Limboto

Depth (m)

35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

1932 1934 1950 1952 1962 1982 1993 1999 2002 2007

Surface (1000ha)

77.222 6.875 6.873 4.25 3.362 3.022

3

3

2.571

Depth (m)30

14.2 12.27 12.27

4

3

2

10

2.52

1.8

Figure. 3. Diminishing depths and surface area over time (1932 – 2002) in Lake Limboto, North
Sulawesi (data after Chrismadha et al, 2007)
Since the main problem of the lake is sedimentation, the most current morphometry status was taken to be thefirst consideration, followed by the hydro-climatological conditions as well as the biotic community and358

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

productivity and anthropogenic activities surround the lake area. Chrismadha et al. (2007) mentioned that morethan 1000 ha emerging lands has to be removed. A ‘cut and fill’ method is suggested for the most efficient landremoval, as it particularly avoids the needs of dumping area and transportation cost. In this case, land cutting
is directed to form some bays which retain the hydrological function, while the uptaken soil dumps out next tothe bays to form some extended inlake piled up lands that can be functional for both settlement or agriculturalarea. This is to find a balance between preservation and utilization of the ecosystem to generate livelihoods
for people without compromising environmental values. It is and ecohydrological approach which integrates
rehabilitation of the lake hydrology and habitat functions to restore Lake Limboto in a more effective andefficient way.
CONCLUDING REMARKS
Given the critical status of many of our lakes, notably the National 15 Priority Lakes, it follows that a paradigm
shift is inevitable, due to the serious impacts of lake degradation and the extremely poor ecosystem services
which we have had benefited in the past. The paradigm shift moves forward our conventional framework from
Lake Conservation through Lake Risk Reduction to finally Lake Resilience. In disseminating the need toconserve our lakes while sustainably use them, we should develop scenarios of the likely escalating ecologicaldisasters and the disrupting ecosystem services in the endangered lakes. We would foresee that ecohydrology
will play its role as part of the risk management. We should then develop the capacity and the culture ofpreparedness by building and installing environmental EWS (Early Warning System) to safeguard aquatic
environmental services and livelihood, as well as a tool to identify which related terrestrial environment thatshould be restored. It should be emphasized that Ecohydrology be positioned as part of disaster preparedness
tool. We should further plan and strengthen the institutional development to accommodate the paradigm shift
along with the continued and consistent public awareness.
REFERENCES
1. Carpenter, S. R., and K. L. Cottingham. (1997). Resilience and restoration of lakes. Conservation Ecology,[online]1(1): 2. Available from the Internet. URL: http://www.consecol.org/vol1/iss1/art2/
2. Chrismadha T., M. Fakhrudin, Lukman, I. Ridwansyah, & G.S. Haryani. (2007). Ecohydrology Approachfor Lake Lake Water Management: A Case Study at Lake Limboto. Proceedings of Colloquium Researchand Development of Water Resources, Bandung. 13-17 November 2007. H.III-127-137.
3. Chrismadha, T., Haryani, G.S., Fakhrudin, M., Hehanussa, P.E., (2011). The application of ecohydrology
in lake management. In: Proc Nat. Sym- pos. Ecohydrology on Integrating Ecohydrological Principles for
Good Water Governance (in Indonesian). Res. Center for Limnology-LIPI, pp. 25–44.
4. Haryani, Gadis Sri and P.E. Hehanussa. (2002). Problems, Challenges and Constraints of LakeManagement in Indonesia. In Opportunities and Challenges of Water Resource Management inIndonesia. Sutopo P.N., Adi S., Setiadi B. (eds). P3-TPSLK BPPT & HSF, Jakarta. 183-211.
5. Haryani, G.S., (2009). Prediction and impact of climate change on lake ecosystem. In: Proceedings on
National Conference of Indonesian Lakes, Ministry of Environment, Bali, pp. 125–140.
6. Haryani, Gadis Sri. (2013). Lake as a Basic of Sustainable Fish Resources Management. ScientificOration on Inauguration of Research Professor. LIPI. 52 p.
7. Hehanussa, Peter E. & Haryani, Gadis Sri. (2009). Classification of Lake Morphogenesis in Indonesia for
Climate Change Mitigation Impacts. Proceedings of the First National Conference of Indonesian Lake,
Bali, 13-15 August 2009. Pp.290-302.
8. Ludwig, F. & M. Moench. (2009). The Impact of climate change on Water dalam Climate change
adaptation in the water sector. Eds. Ludwig, Pavel Kabat, Henk van Schaik & Michael van der Valk. 274
p.
9. Ministry of Environment Republic of Indonesia, (2012). Grand Design for Save Indonesian Lake
Ecosystem. Ministry of Environment, RI. Jakarta. 72 p.
10. National Committee on Wetland Ecosystem Management, (2004). National strategy and action plan ofIndonesia's wetland management. Jakarta. Ministry of Environment. 154 pp.
11. Trolle D, D. P. Hamilton, C. A. Pilditch, I. C. Duggan, E. Jeppesen, (2011). Predicting the effects of climatechange on trophic status of three morphologically varying lakes: Implications for lake restoration andmanagement. Environmental Modelling & Software 26: 354-370.

359

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ECO-FRIENDLY LARGE-SCALE TESTS TO REDUCE PHOSPHORUS IN RIVER WATER BY
ELUTING IRON ION SYSTEM
Naozo Fukuda1*, Toshiya Akasaki1, Mikio Sugimoto2, Kenkichi Maruyama3, Tomohiro Ichikawa3,
Shigeru Endo4, Takeharu Konami5
Fukken Co. Ltd. Consulting Engineers, 2Move Research Laboratory, 3Geodeign Co., Ltd., 4Get
Incorporate, 5Okasan Livic Co., Ltd.
*Corresponding author: fukuda@fukken.co.jp

1

ABSTRACTA large-scale demonstration tests were performed. The purpose was to confirm a reduction in phosphorus inriver water using technology of eluting iron ion bodies and to suppress generation of phytoplankton and water
purification in the rivers flowing into The Lake Kasumigaura, Ibaraki Prefecture, Japan. The system consisted
three processing 25 m3 tanks as 10m3, 10m3 and 5m3 were developed based on a system of rolling dram
cartridge in order to elute iron ions, Fe2+ continuously. The flow rate of treatment water was 100-300m3/day
and the volume 384kg of eluting iron ion bodies were referred from a middle scale demonstration test of 3m 3
single processing tank and laboratory column tests. The reduction rate of PO 4-P of treatment raw water
recorded 31-47% relative to the flow rate. This ensured the authors achieved the targeted value of reduction
over 30% of PO4-P through the series of tests. These tests found that it is important a deposition process to
reduce PO4-P and TP under gentle velocity of treatment flow. DO and pH of the treated water to be discharged
into the river was a value that fully satisfies the environmental regulations. Through the results, the authors
aim to develop a more cost-effective system construction through effective iron ion elution.
Keywords: eluting iron ions, large scale tests, phosphorus reduction, phytoplankton, water purification
INTRODUCTION
The water quality of ponds and lakes has deteriorated due to the phenomenon of eutrophication. An outbreakof phytoplankton has resulted as part of this process. In order to improve the water quality of these park ponds
and dam lakes, the authors have been working on technology to elute iron ions (Fukuda, N. et al., 2014, 2015).
Fig. 1 shows an example of field tests on the improvement of water quality in a dam lake through a floating
system which elutes iron ions.

Figure 1. Field tests on water quality improvement in dam lake by eluting iron
ions (Fukuda, N., et al., 2014, 2015).
Figure 2. Changes of annual average of TN and TP in the Lake Kasumigaura

360Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The phenomenon of eutrophication by phytoplankton has also long been a problem in the Lake Kasumigaura.
Fig. 2 shows the increase trend of annual average of TP and TN in the Lake Kasumigaura from 1972 to 2010
(Ibaraki Kasumigaura Environmental Science Center, 2012). Through the decrease of PO4-P by eluting iron
ions, Fe2+ could suppress generation of phytoplankton in the rivers flowing into the Lake Kasumigaura. To
confirm this effect, the authors have been conducting laboratory and field tests for eutrophic ponds and lakeof dam. Fe2+ can be generated by submerging iron ion eluting bodies (hereafter, D-material) in water. Basedon the results, middle scale demonstration test using the 3m 3 water treatment tank that was conducted from2013 to 2014 (Fukuda, N., 2015) and large-scale demonstration tests using three water treatment tanks of
25m3 was conducted from 2015 up to now. The results of decrease effect of PO 4-P and TP during large scaledemonstration tests under flow rate from 100 to 300 m 3/day are mainly reported in the paper.
METHODS
Principle 1. How to elute iron ionsFig. 3 shows how to elute iron ions in water. When metallic iron and carbon are attached together underwater,
local current is generated by a difference in electro-negativity that occurs between both materials. From thismechanism, metallic iron ions will be eluted into the water (Patented technology by Sugimoto)Figure 3. Mechanism of eluting iron ion by attaching
metallic iron and carbon in the water.

Figure 4. Eluted Fe2+ is immediately changed toferric hydroxide Fe(OH)3 (Fukuda, N. et al., 2013)

Principle 2 How to decrease phosphorus in water
Equation (1) shows how the mechanism decrease s dissolved phosphorous (PO4-P) in the water. Iron ions
(Fe2+) are eluted from D-material composed of iron and carbon particles. Fe2+ is changed to ferric hydroxide
Fe(OH)3.as shown in Fig. 4. Fe(OH)3 and PO43- form a chemical adsorbent (suspended state). The chemical
adsorbent, Fe(OH)3≡PO43- will be deposited to bottom of water as shown in Equation (1). The concentration of
PO4-P and TP will be reduced from the process. Therefore, it will be effective in reducing the nutrients requiredfor phytoplankton growth.
Fe 2+ → Fe(OH)3 → Fe(OH)3≡PO43-(1)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Bucket test under non-flow condition
Fig. 5 shows an effective reduction of PO4-P of dam water during bucket test. This first involved placing 100g
of D-material into 10L water bucket. The concentration of dissolved phosphorus was then reduced to 10% in
7 days.

Figure 5. Reduction of dissolved phosphorous (PO4-P) of dam lake water by eluting iron ions361

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Column test under flow condition
To determine appropriate testing conditions for large scale demonstration tests under flow condition, a seriesof column tests were conducted using the setup of apparatus as shown in Fig. 6. The diameter and length ofthe column are 19 mm and 100 mm respectively, and 17.9 g of D-material was encapsulated within the column.
Fig. 7 shows the relation of concentrations between PO 4-P, D-Fe and flow rate from 0.033 to 0.385 mL/s. Initialconcentration of PO4-P was adjusted to 1.0 mg/L. By eluting Fe2+ concentration of PO4-P was decreased
immediately to 70% under 0.1 mL/s as shown in Fig. 7. The results show immediate reaction effect just after
flowing water or solution.

Figure 6. Setup of column test and column capsuled Iron Ion eluting bodies (D-material)(a) Case-1 Tap water(b) Case-2 1.0 mg/L PO4-P solution
Figure 7. Concentration of D-Fe and PO4-P under flow condition by column tests (Fukuda, N., 2015)
Configuration of demonstration tests
To confirm the effect of phosphorous reduction in river water, middle and large-scale demonstration tests wereconducted from 2013. Fig. 8 shows plan view of large scale demonstration testing site of the iron ion eluting
apparatus and the existing water purification facility to reduce BOD managed by Tsuchiura City. Raw water
pumped up from settling tank of existing facility was treated through iron ion eluting apparatus (Fig. 9) anddischarged to bio-module tank of the existing facility.

362

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 8. Plan view of Iron ion eluting aparatus and existing bio-module facility to reduce BOD

Figure 9. Overall composition of apparatus and iron ion eluting equipment
Determination of specification of iron ion eluting equipment
At first required volume of D-material under practical treatment flow rate was analysed from column tests
shown in Fig. 7. Reduction rate of PO4-P was planned to 30％ then the flow rate was set at 0.1 mL/s (Qcol30,
0.00864 m3/day). The design flow rate of 30% reduction treatment Q d30 was set 175 m3/day, half flow rate ofexisting facility. The mass of D-material was 17.9g (Mcol, 0.0179kg) in the column tests, thus required total
mass Mdreq30 of D-material can be calculated from a proportional relationship as Equation (2).
Mdreq30 = (Qd30 x Mcol) / Qcol30 = (175 x 0.0179) / 0.00864 = 362.1 kg(2)Therefore D-material mass of one set of equipment was determined 96 kg; consisting of 8 rolling drams asshown in Fig. 9. And total mass of D-material was 384 kg for four sets of equipment. The flow rates of large
scale demonstration tests were determined from 100 to 300 m 3/day in case of 2015.
Results of large scale demonstration tests
Fig. 10 shows representative results of concentration decreases of TP and PO 4-P by eluting iron ions under aflow rate of 200m 3/day. Fig. 11 shows decrease of TP and PO4-P through the treatment process by iron ion
eluting systems under each flow rate. Concentrations of TP from treatment water 1 to 3 were around 0.8 – 0.7
mg/L and were gently decreased through the treatment process. However Concentration of composite
treatment water 4 in existing water purification facility remarkably decreased to around 0.4 mg/L. This resultmeans that the suspension of the chemical adsorbent, Fe(OH)3≡PO43- suggests that it is deposited to thebottom of the tank in the existing facility under low velocity of flow. On the other hand, concentration of PO 4-P
was decreased through treatments 1 to 3 by eluting iron ions, and the concentration of composite treatment
water 4 was in the same order of treatment water 3.

363

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 10. Decrease effect of concentrations of TP and PO 4-P by eluting iron ion under 200m 3/day

Figure 11. Annual average concentration of TP and PO4-P of raw water and treated water in each flow rate

Figure 12. Reduction ratios of annual avarage of TP and PO4-P through the treatment in each flow rate
Fig. 12 shows reduction ratios of annual average of TP and PO 4-P through the treatment processes. Because
the difference in the number of iron ion eluting equipment sets between 2 sets in 1 st tank and 4 sets total in 2ndtank, reduction ratios of treatment water 1 were smaller than treated water 2. PO4-P reduction ratios were44~31% at the maximum flow rate of 300m 3/day. The result achieved the original target of 30%, creating an
immediate and satisfactory effect under those flow conditions. However, TP reduction ratios in treated water 3
were 14.8 ~ 5.1%, lower than the target of 30%, so the solution to facilitate sediment process is under study
at present. Because the suspension of the chemical adsorbent, Fe(OH)3≡PO43- will easily re-elute under poor
oxygen environment, therefore stable reduction of TP is necessary by sedimentation in the system.
Confirmation of environmental load. To confirm of environmental load of discharged water to rivers, pH and
DO values were checked for safety as shown in Fig. 13. Values of pH ranged from 7.3 to 8.1 (average 7.8),
which were within living environmental standard from 6.5 to 8.5. Values of DO ranged from 7.0 to 9.5 mg/L,
indicating that the system did not cause undue stress to the river environment.

Figure 13. pH and DO values of discharged water treated by iron ion elution system364

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CONCLUSIONS
The water quality of ponds and lakes has deteriorated due to the phenomenon of eutrophication. An outbreakof phytoplankton has resulted as a part of this process. In order to improve the water quality of park ponds anddam lakes by applving eluting iron ion method, the authors have been challenges through laboratory and field
experiments for many years. The phenomenon of eutrophication by phytoplankton has also long been aproblem in the Lake Kasumigaura. The technologies for effective and economically efficient to reduce
phosphorous have been challenges for many years. Therefore, the authors proposed the method todecrease of PO4-P by eluting iron ions, Fe2+ could be suppressed of generation phytoplankton in the rivers
flowing into the Lake Kasumigaura.
The followings are the results from the series of large scale demonstration tests that carried out from October
2015 to March 2016.
 Under the flow condition such as in rivers, by continuously eluting iron ions to reduce the nutrient source
PO4-P and TP for phytoplankton, laboratory tests, mid-scale field tests and large-scale field tests weretaken with improved equipment.
 The reduction ratios of PO4-P were 44 ~ 31% at the flow rate of 300m 3/day. The result achieved theoriginal target of 30%, showing the technology has an immediate effect.
 Also, the reduction ratio of the existing water purification facility was 33 ~ 59%. The result may be causedby the deposition effect of suspended bodies as a result of the decreased flow velocity.
 The TP reduction ratio in treated water 3 was 14.8 ~ 5.1%, which is lower than the goal of 30%, so thesolution to facilitate sediment is under study at present.
 The eco-friendliness of the system which decreases phosphorous by eluting iron ions is confirmed byenvironmental loads as evidenced by pH and DO values though the series of field tests.
Based on above results under flow rate from 100 to 300 m 3/day, additional demonstration tests using an
increased flow rate from 400 to 550m 3/day are in process to develop the practicality of the system. The authors
will show the results at the next opportunity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The project received supports and advises from Environmental Management Division and Kasumigaura
Environmental Science Center of Ibaraki Prefecture and Tsuchiura City managing existing water purification
facility. In addition, engineers from each company made great efforts to assist on the project. The authors
express appreciation for this exceptional support.
REFERENCES
5. Fukuda, N., Sugimoto, M., Nishimoto, H., & Aoyama, Y. (2013). Laboratory Experiments on Water Quality
Improvement of Eutrophic Park Ponds by eluting divalent iron ions, 70th Annual Conference of JSCEWest, VII-036, 71-72 (in Japanese)
6. Fukuda, N., Sugimoto, M., Matsuyama, T., Nishimoto, H., Aoyama, Y., Sugano, T., & Endo, S. (2014).
Field Experiments on Water Quality Improvement of Eutrophic Dam Lake by Eluting Iron Ions, 71st Annual
Coference of JSCE-West, II-032, 183-184 (in Japanese)
7. Fukuda, N., Aoyama, Y., Kiyokawa, H., Matsuyama, T., Sugimoto, M., &Nishimoto, H., Aoyama, Y.,
Sugano, T., & Endo, S. (2015). Secondary Field Experiment on Water Quality Improvement of Eutrophic
Dam Lake by Eluting Iron Ions, 72nd. Annual Coference of JSCE-West, II-008, 135-136 (in Japanese)
8. Fukuda, N., Okazaki, Y., Sugimoto, M., Konami, T., Endo., S., & Maruyama., K. (2015). Field
Demonstration Experiments on Water Purification of River Waters by Eluting Iron Ions, 70th Annual
Coference of JSCE, VII-036, 71-72 (in Japanese)
9. Fukuda, N., Okazaki, Y., Sugimoto, M., Konami, T., Endo., S., & Maruyama., K. (2015). Field
Demonstration Experiments on Water Purification of River Waters by Eluting Iron Ions, 70th Annual
Coference of JSCE, VII-036, 71-72 (in Japanese)
10. Fukuda, N., Okazaki, Y., Maruyama, K., Ichikawa., T., Endo, S., Ide, H., Konami., T., Ichikawa, N., &Sugimoto, M. (2016). Large Scale Experiments on Water Purification of River Waters by Eluting Iron Ions,
71st Annual Coference of JSCE, VII-134, 267-268 (in Japanese)
11. Ibaraki Kasumigaura Environmental Science Center. (2012). An Introduction of Kahology, p.174 (inJapanese)365

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

RESTORING INDONESIAN LAKE BUFFER ZONES USING NATIVE PLANT SPECIES
Susi Abdiyani1* and Evi Irawan2
Research and Development Institute for Watershed Management Technology*Corresponding author: jengsusi@gmail.com
ABSTRACT
Lake buffer zones are essential area to protect freshwater from pollutants originating from the catchment area.
Empirical research projects on the restoration of lake buffer zones’ function as pollutants trappers have been
undertaken in some sub-tropical countries with mixed results. Most projects agreed that vegetated lake bufferzones significantly reduce pollutants depending on the width of buffer area and vegetation types. In tropicalcountry including Indonesia, empirical research projects attempted to measure buffer zones effectiveness in
reducing pollutants are still limited. Existing regulations only consider buffer sizes; meanwhile few research
projects on plant species that are capable in trapping pollutants have been exposed. This paper aims to explore
potential plants for restoring buffer zone functions. Nitrogen accumulator plants were chosen, as Nitrogen is
one of major pollutant sources on some Indonesian lakes. The exploration on Nitrogen accumulator plants
was carried out to gather information on the species. All collected plants were then sorted into species
distributed and native to Indonesia. Result from World Agroforestry Database explained that there are 125
Nitrogen accumulator plants, 45 of which are distributed in Indonesia and 22 of them are native. The nativeplants consist of timber sources from genus Acacia, Albizia, Casuarina, Dalbergia, Dipterocarpus and Intsia;
food sources such as Cajanus cajan, Gnetum gnemon and Sesbania grandiflora; medicine sources like
Cajanus cajan, Erythrina variegate, Flemingia macrophylla, Peltophorum pterocarpum and fodder such as
Flemingia macrophylla and Sesbania grandiflora.
Keywords: Indonesia, lake buffer zones, native plant species, rehabilitation
INTRODUCTION
Lake buffer zones are essential area adjacent to the lakes which provide numerous ecosystem services. They
function as shoreline stabilization, water quality protection, flood attenuation and wildlife habitat (Buffler, 2005;
Fischer & Fischenich, 2000). In water quality protection, vegetated buffers play important roles on filtering
sediment, sediment-bound and soluble nutrients, pesticides, microbes (Buffler, 2005). Vegetation can capture
pollutants by slowing down runoff through stems and leaf litter which automatically filtering pollutants (BRPC,
2003). As water retention is extended longer, plants have more chances to absorb nutrients and pollutants andtransform them into less harmful forms (BRPC, 2003). Pollutants are usually coming from the catchment area
(BRPC, 2003).
Empirical research projects on the restoration of lake buffer zones’ function as pollutants trappers have been
undertaken in some sub-tropical countries with mixed results. Fischer and Fischenich (2000) analysed resultsfrom various research and summarised them into four main functions of buffer zones with different width andspecies composition. The authors explained that for stream stabilisation, the buffer can be between ten to
twenty meters, while from five to thirty meters buffer width planted with grass, herbaceous, shrubs and trees
is recommended for water quality protection. Buffer sizes for flood attenuation and riparian habitat are wider
than the previous functions that are 20-150 m and 30->500 m respectively. Buffler (2005) focusing on buffer
functions as water quality protection illustrated matrixes on buffer width for each contaminant types such as
sediment, pesticides, phosphorus, pathogens and nitrogen. For Nitrogen filtering, the buffer width
recommended was from three meters planted with grass and it was claimed to reduce 65% of N contaminant(Chaubey et. al., (1994) in Buffler, (2005)). Most projects above agreed that vegetated lake buffer zones
significantly reduce pollutants depending on the width of buffer area and vegetation types.
In tropical country including Indonesia, empirical research projects attempted to measure buffer zones
effectiveness in reducing pollutants are still limited publicly. The earliest and most straightforward publicationis Presidential Decree Number 32 Year 1992 on Protected Area Management. The decree considers buffer
sizes for beach, rivers, lake, reservoirs and springs. For lake and reservoirs, the obligated buffers are from 50
to 100 m from the highest tide. The buffers aim to protect lakes from activities harming the sustainability oflake function. However, at least five lake buffers have suffered from serious degradation indicated by massive
residential occupation, intensive cultivation, fertilizer use, waste disposal and pollution exceeding lake capacity(MoEF, 2016).
Since 2009, nine ministries have agreed to rehabilitate damaged or threatened lakes throughout the country,
particularly 15 lakes that were categorised as high priority (MoEF, 2016). Various efforts have been undertaken,
from zoning lakes, calculating lake carrying capacity, remediating lake water, researching lake social economy,
eliminating sediment and algae and establishing coordination forum for each lake. However, lake degradationis still happening and the status of 15 lakes has very little improvement. In 2016, the Ministry of Environment

366

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

and Forestry suggested several programs, one of which was tree planting along buffer zones, called green
belt.
Besides planting trees for riparian has been recommended by many research in other countries, Indonesia’s
mega biodiversity provides many options for plant selection. MoF (1994) in BAPPENAS (2003) claimed that
there were 38,000 flowering plant species in Indonesia, 55% of which was endemic. Later in 2010, Kartawinata
mentioned that from 30.000 species, 60% have been described (Kartawinata, 2010). The latest is from Widjaja
et. al. (2014) updating the number . They said that there were 1,500 algae, 80,000 cryptogram, 595 lichens,
2,197 ferns and 30,000-40,000 flowering plants. All those numbers show how rich biodiversity in Indonesia
is. On the other hand, few research projects on plant species that are capable in trapping pollutants have been
exposed. Therefore, the aim of this paper is to explore potential native plants for restoring lake buffer zonefunctions, particularly on filtering Nitrogen.
METHODS
Indonesia prioritizes 15 lakes for conservation and rehabilitation, 13 of which are experiencing severe
eutrophication. They are Toba, Singkarak, Kerinci, Rawa, Batur, Tondano, Limboto, Mahakam (Semayang,
Melintang, Jempang), Sentarum, Sentani, Maninjau, Rawapening and Tempe (MoEF, 2016). The last three
are at the top rank of eutrophication. Nitrogen is one of main pollutants in those lakes, therefore plants which
are able to fix Nitrogen are chosen.
Almost all information was gathered from World Agroforestry Database through their website
http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb/index.php (Orwa C., A. Mutua, Kindt R., Jamnadass R., & S. Anthony,2009). The database provides 670 tree species commonly used in agroforests. Steps to explore potential
species as follows:
1. On the web page, Environmental Services was clicked/chosen (Fig. 1.a.)
2. Within Environmental Services, choose menu Soil conditioners (Fig. 1.b.)
3. Within menu Soil conditioners, choose menu Nitrogen Fixation (Fig. 1.c. and 1.d.)4. Distribution areas of all Nitrogen Fixing species were recorded then were diffe rentiated into
Indonesia and non-Indonesia.
5. From species lists distributed in Indonesia, their origins whether native or exotic are studied.

a.

b.

367

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferencec.

Figure 1. Sequences in data exploration.

d.

For species that is familiar to the writer but according to the database, distribution area is outside Indonesia,
further investigation was done using information provided by E-Prosea (PROSEA) and other sources.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results show that there are 125 species in the Agroforestry Database which have capability in fixing
Nitrogen (Table 1.). They are dominated by Fabaceae (103 species ≈ 82.4%). The other are 5 species from
Casuarinaceae, 4 species from Betulaceae, 2 species Moraceae, and a species from Apocynaceae,
Dipterocarpaceae, Eleagnaceae, Ginkgoaceae, Gnetaceae. Guttiferae, Magnoliaceae, Meliaceae,
Sapotaceae, Ulmaceae and Verbenaceae.
Table 1. N-fixing plant species from Agroforestree Database
No
1
2
3
4

Species
Rauvolfia vomitoria
Alnus acuminata
Alnus japonica
Alnus nepalensis

Fam
Apo
Bet
Bet
Bet

No
43
44
45
46

Species
Albizia anthelmintica
Albizia chinensis
Albizia coriaria
Albizia ferruginea

Fam
Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab

No
85
86
87
88

5
6

Alnus rubra
Casuarina
cunninghamiana
Casuarina
equisetifolia
Casuarina glauca
Casuarina
junghuhniana
Casuarina oligodon

Bet
Cas

47
48

Albizia gummifera
Albizia julibrissin

Fab
Fab

Cas

49

Albizia lebbeck

Cas
Cas

50
51

Cas

52

7
8
9
10

Fam
Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab

89
90

Species
Cupressus torulosa
Dalbergia latifolia
Dalbergia sissoo
Dichrostachys
cinerea
Erythrina abyssinica
Erythrina berteroana

Fab

91

Erythrina caffra

FabAlbizia odoratissima
Albizia procera

Fab
Fab

92
93

Fab
Fab

Albizia saman

Fab

94

Erythrina edulis
Erythrina
poeppigiana
Erythrina
sandwicensis

368

Fab
Fab

Fab

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

11

Dipterocarpus
grandiflorus
Hippophaerhamnoides
Hardwickia binata
Intsia bijuga
Parkinsonia aculeata

Dip

53

Albizia versicolor

Fab

95

Erythrina variegata

Fab

Ele

54

Albizia zyga

Fab

96

Fab

Fab
Fab
Fab

55
56
57

Fab
Fab
Fab

97
98
99

Fab

58

Fab

100

Fab

59

Inga vera

Fab

101

Fab

Fab

60

Leucaena collinsii

Fab

102

Ougeinia
dalbergioides
Pongamia pinnata

19

Peltophorum
pterocarpum
Piliostigma
malabaricum
Schizolobium
parahybum
Senna atomaria

Calliandra calothyrsus
Entada abyssinica
Enterolobium
cyclocarpum
Inga edulis

Flemingia
macrophylla
Gliricidia sepium
Millettia thonningii
Myroxylon
balsamum
Olneya tesota

Fab

61

Leucaena diversifolia

Fab

103

Fab

20

Acacia aneura

Fab

62

Leucaena esculenta

Fab

104

21

Acacia angustissima

Fab

63

Fab

105

22

Acacia aulacocarpa

Fab

64

Leucaena
leucocephala
Leucaena pallida

Pterocarpus
angolensis
Pterocarpus
erinaceus
Pterocarpus indicus

Fab

106

Fab

23

Acacia auriculiformis

Fab

65

Leucaena trichandra

Fab

107

24

Acacia cincinnata

Fab

66

Mimosa scabrella

Fab

108

25

Acacia crassicarpa

Fab

67

Fab

109

26

Acacia ferruginea

Fab

68

Fab

110

27

Acacia karroo

Fab

69

Fab

111

Sesbania grandiflora

Fab

28
29
30
31
32
33
34
35
36

Acacia koa
Acacia lahai
Acacia leptocarpa
Acacia leucophloea
Acacia mangium
Acacia mearnsii
Acacia melanoxylon
Acacia pachycarpa
Acacia pennatula

Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab

70
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78

Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab

112
113
114
115
116
117
118
119
120

Sesbania macrantha
Tephrosia candida
Tephrosia vogelii
Tipuana tipu
Ginkgo biloba
Gnetum gnemon
Mesua ferrea
Michelia champaca
Lovoa trichilioides

Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab
Gink
Gnet
Gutt
Mag
Mel

37

Acacia saligna

Fab

79

Paraserianthes
falcataria
Pentaclethra
macroloba
Pentaclethra
macrophylla
Pithecellobium dulce
Prosopis africana
Prosopis alba
Prosopis chilensis
Prosopis cineraria
Prosopis glandulosa
Prosopis juliflora
Prosopis tamarugo
Pseudosamanea
guachapele
Andira inermis

Pterocarpus
rotundifolius
Pterocarpus
santalinoides
Pterocarpus
soyauxii
Robinia
pseudoacacia
Sesbania bispinosa

Fab

121

Mor

38
39
40

Acacia senegal
Acacia sieberiana
Acacia tortilis

Fab
Fab
Fab

80
81
82

Fab
Fab
Fab

122
123
124

41 Acacia xanthophloea
42 Adenthera pavonina
Fam: Family
Apo: Apocynaceae
Bet: Betulaceae
Cas: Casuarinaceae
Dip: Dipterocarpaceae

Fab
Fab

Ateleia herbert-smithii
Cajanus cajan
Chamaecytisus
palmensis
83 Crotalaria juncea
84 Crotalaria micans
Ele: Eleagnaceae
Fab: Fabaceae
Gink: Ginkgoaceae
Gnet: Gnetaceae
Gutt: Guttiferae

Musangacecropioides
Myrianthus arboreus
Madhuca latifolia
Celtis australis

Fab
Fab

125

Vitex doniana

Verb

12
13
14
15
16
17
18

369

Mag: Magnoliaceae
Mel: Meliaceae
Sapo: Sapotaceae
Ulm: Ulmaceae
Verb: Verbenaceae

Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab

Fab

Fab
Fab

Fab
Fab
Fab
Fab

Mor
Sapo
Ulm

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Among 125 species, 45 are reported in Indonesia and 22 of which are native (Fig.2) The 45 are also dominatedby Fabaceae (36 ≈ 80%) with still having 4 species from Family Casuarinaceae, 2 from Betulaceae, and a
species from Dipterocarpaceae, Gnetaceae, and Magnoliaceae. Fabaceae (17 ≈ 77.3%) were also dominant
within 22 native species with still having 3 species from Family Casuarinaceae, and a species from
Dipterocarpaceae and Gnetaceae (Table 2.).

• 125
• Fabaceae: 103 ≈ 82,4%

Distributed inIndonesia• 45• Fabaceae: 36 ≈ 80%

Nitrogen Fixing• 22• Fabaceae 17 ≈77,3%Native to Indonesia

Figure 2. The number of N-fixing species from Agroforestree Database370

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 2. Indonesian native N-fixing plant species and suitability for the 15 priority lakes

1

Intsia bijuga

merbau asam

Fabaceae

2

Peltophorum pterocarpum

soga jambal/soga

Fabaceae

3

Piliostigma malabaricum

Fabaceae

4

Acacia aulacocarpa

Fabaceae

5

Acacia auriculiformis

6

Acacia crassicarpa

7

Acacia leucophloea

pilangFabaceae

8

Acacia mangium

mangge hutan

Fabaceae

9
10
11
12

Albizia chinensis
Albizia lebbeck
Albizia procera
Paraserianthes falcataria

Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae
Fabaceae

13

Cajanus cajan

Fabaceae

all

14
15

Dalbergia latifolia
Erythrina variegata

Fabaceae
Fabaceae

all
all

16

Flemingia macrophylla

Fabaceae

all

17
18

Sesbania grandiflora
Casuarina equisetifolia

sengontekik
weru, ki hiyang
sengon laut, jeungjing
kacang Bali, kacanggudesonokeling/brits
dadap ayam
pok-kepokan,
hahapaanturiaru, cemara laut

Suitability for the 15priority lakesa
Maninjau, Singkarak,
Limboto, Poso,
Tempe, Matano,Kaskade Mahakam,
Sentarum, Sentani,
Rawapening
all
Maninjau, Singkarak,
Limboto, Poso,
Tempe, Matano,Kaskade Mahakam,
Sentarum, Sentani,
Rawapening
all except Batur
Maninjau, Singkarak,
Limboto, Poso,
Tempe, Matano,Kaskade Mahakam,
Sentarum, Sentani,
Rawapening
Singkarak, Limboto,
Tempe, Matano,Kaskade Mahakam,
Sentaniall except Toba and
Batur
all except Toba and
Batur
all
all
all
all

Fabaceae
Casuarinaceae

19

Casuarina junghuhniana

kasuari, cemara
gunungCasuarinaceae

20

Casuarina oligodon

kilu

Casuarinaceae

21

Dipterocarpus
grandiflorus

keruing

Dipterocarpaceae

all except Baturall
Toba, Kerinci,
Tondano,Rawadanau andBatur
Toba, Kerinci,
Tondano and Baturcatchment
Maninjau, Singkarak,
Limboto, Poso,
Tempe, Matano,Kaskade Mahakam,
Sentarum, Sentani,
Rawapening

No

Scientific nameIndonesian nameakasiaFamilyFabaceae

Fabaceae371

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

22

Gnetum gnemon

melinjoGnetaceae

allaThe Government of Indonesia has prioritized 15 lakes for rehabilitation: Toba, Maninjau, Singkarak,

Kerinci, Tondano, Limboto, Poso, Tempe, Matano, Cascade Mahakam, Sentarum, Sentani, Rawadanau,
Batur and Rawapening
Products
The Database provides information not only tree products but also environmental services. Regarding tree
products, the 22 native species have various products such as food, fodder, medicine, fibres, timber,tannin/dyestuff and apiculture (Orwa C., et al., 2009). Almost all natives (21) are timber sources except
Flemingia macrophylla as it is a shrub with height 1-4 m.
Food sources consist of eight species: Intsia bijuga, Piliostigma malabaricum, Acacia leucophloea, Acacia
mangium, Albizia procera, Cajanus cajan, Sesbania grandiflora and Gnetum gnemon. The last three are wellknown and widely used in some area in Indonesia. However, Cajanus cajan (pigeonpea) is still minor important
legume crops compared to peanuts and soybean (Mula & Saxena, 2010). In Java, Bali, Madura, and Sulawesi,
pigeonpea is usually intercropped with other food crops, only in Flores Island, the monocrop pigeonpea
between 150-195 days period was found. The main product of pigeonpea is seeds which are used to maketempe (Indonesian traditional food made from fermented soybean) and ketchup (Mula & Saxena, 2010). The
other uses are for different side dishes in West and Central Java which use fresh pods or seeds (Mula &Saxena, 2010). As the used parts are the fresh ones, the need for mature dry grain and the importance of
pigeonpea in Indonesian dietary are difficult to estimate (Mula & Saxena, 2010). However, Haliza et. al. (2007)
founded that Pigeonpea can be a potential soybean substitute for tempe production in the country.
The most popular species among those above three is Gnetum gnemon which is also called melinjo (Fig. 3).
The seeds are raw material for an important and famous cracker called emping (Fig. 3), which is produced
mostly in Java and northern Sumatera (Orwa et al, 2009). From 2009 to 2013, the production was relatively
stable around 220s T/year, but the next following year, there has been a slight by 10% decrease in melinjo
production, from 220 to 197.6 T (Dirjen Hortikultura, 2015). Although almost all provinces in the country
cultivate the species (except west Sulawesi and Gorontalo because no information has been available), 75%
production in 2014 were from Java. Besides the seeds, melinjo young leaves, flowers and fruits are consumed
as vegetables.

Source: Aryanto (2011)
Source: Crawford (n.d.)Figure 3. Gnetum gnemon flower (left) and emping (right).
Sesbania grandiflora, which is also named turi in Indonesia, is another species that has been known
particularly in Java. Flowers of turi are the most widely consumed compare to leaves, seeds, pods and flowers
which are also edible. In 2015, ten trees can earn IDR 10,000-20,000/day (Seputar Pertanian, 2015). In Java,the boiled/steamed flowers together with other vegetables were used in pecel (traditional Javanese dishconsisting of steamed vegetables served with peanut sauce (made from fried peanut, chili, garlic, Kaempferia
galanga, tamarind, palm sugar and salt) (Fig. 4).

372

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Source: (http://bungahias.net/turi-putih/)
Source: Retno (2014)
Figure 4. Sesbania grandiflora flower (left) and pecel (right)
Site suitability
Almost all species have a wide range of altitude distribution, for example Cajanus cajan and Flemingia
macrophylla which are suitable for elevation 0-2000 m above sea level (asl). There are also two species forhigh altitude i.e. Casuarina junghuhniana (550-3100 m asl) and Casuarina oligodon (1500-1800 m asl). Only
five species have elevation limitation up to 450 and 600 m asl. They are Acacia crassicarpa (maximum 450 masl), Dipterocarpus grandiflorus, Instia bijuga, Peltophorum pterocarpum, and Piliostigma malabaricum.
Lakes in Indonesia are spread throughout islands, from low elevation to relatively high. Among 840 big andsmall lakes in the country, 521 of them sizing more than ten hectares and hundreds of them are in Sumatera
and Kalimantan. Among 15 National Priority Lakes, only Batur Lake in Bali and Toba Lake in North Sumatera
which are located on high elevation, 1050 m asl and 900-200 m asl respectively, while the other are below
1000 m asl (MoE, 2011).
Ministry of Environment and Forestry of Republic Indonesia (2016) stated that good lake buffer zones shouldbe free from buildings, land management, fertilizers and waste. Only structures for lake protection are allowed.
If tree planting is included in rehabilitation programs; almost all species in this paper can be used for particularly
the 15 lakes. Even Casuarina junghuhniana (550-3100 m asl) and Casuarina oligodon (1500-1800 m asl) arestill suitable for planting program in Batur and Lake Toba.
CONCLUSIONS
There are 22 potential native species for rehablitation lake buffer zones in Indonesia which have bothproduction and environmental functions. Almost all species can be used in 15 national priority lakes as they
can grow on a wide range of elevation. Casuarina junghuhniana and Casuarina oligodon which have higher
elevation distribution still can be planted in Batur Lake and Lake Toba.

373

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work was resulted under research titled The Governance of Rawapening Lake Restoration funded by
Research and Development Institute for Watershed Management Technology. Authors thank to all researchteam members: Nana Haryanti, Faiqotul Falah, Nunung Puji Nugroho, Santi Fandriani, Asep Hermawan andSiswo for all discussion and suggestion.
REFERENCES
1. Aryanto, T. (2011). Emping Melinjo, Rasanya Sungguh Nikmat (Gnetum crackers, so delicious) Retrieved
7 December, 2016, from http://www.kompasiana.com/bibitjabon/emping-melinjo-rasanya-sungguhnikmat_55018844a333115b745131ba
2. BAPPENAS. (2003). Indonesian Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Jakarta: Badan Perencanaan
Pembangunan Nasional (BAPPENAS)/The National Development Planning Agency.
3. BRPC. (2003). The Massachusetts Buffer Manual: Using Vegetated Buffers to Protect our Lakes andRivers. Massachusetts USA: the Berkshire Regional Planning Commission (BRPC).
4. Buffler, S. (2005). Synthesis of Design Guidelines and Experimental Data for Water Quality Function in
Agricultural Landscapes in the Intermountain West. Nebraska USA: National Agroforestry Center (NAC).
5. Crawford, J. (n.d.). Gnetum gnemon. In S. Trees (Ed.). n.a.: Photobucket.
6. Dirjen Hortikultura. (2015). Statistik Produksi Hortikultura Tahun 2014 (The Statistic of Horticulture
Production 2014). Jakarta: Direktorat Jenderal (Dirjen) Hortikultura.
7. Fischer, R. A., & Fischenich, J. C. (2000). Design Recommendation for Riparian Corridors and Vegetated
Buffer Strips EMRRP Technical Notes Collection (ERDC TN-EMRRP-SR-24): U.S. Army Engineer
Research and Development Center, Vicksburg, MS.
8. Haliza, W., Purwani, E. Y., & Thahir, R. (2007). Pemanfaatan kacang-kacangan lokal sebagai substitusi
bahan baku tempe dan tahu (Using local beans for tempe and tofu material substitue). Buletin Teknologi
Pascapanen Pertanian, 3.
9. Kartawinata, K. (2010). Dua abad mengungkap kekayaan flora dan ekosistem Indonesia (Two centuries
reveals Indonesia flora and ecosystem). Paper presented at the Sarwono Prawirohardjo Memoria Lecture
X,Jakarta.
http://www.unesco.or.id/download/KUSWATA_DUA_%20ABAD_FLORA_and_EKOSISTEM.pdf
10. MoE. (2011). Profil 15 Danau Prioritas Nasional (The Profile of 15 National Priority Lakes). Jakarta:
Ministry of Environment (MoE) of the Republic Indonesia.
11. MoEF. (2016). The Grand Design of Indonesia Lake Ecosystem Conservation and Rehabilitation. Jakarta:
Ministry of Environment and Forestry (MoEF) of the Republic Indonesia.
12. Mula, M. G., & Saxena, K. B. (2010). Lifting the Level of Awareness on Pigeonpea-A Global Perspective.
Patancheru 502 324 Andhra Pradesh India: International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid
Tropics.
13. Orwa C., A. Mutua, Kindt R., Jamnadass R., & S. Anthony. (2009). Agroforestree Database:a treereference and selection guide version 4.0. from ICRAF http://www.worldagroforestry.org/treedb/index.php
14. PROSEA. from http://proseanet.org/prosea/e-prosea.php
15. Retno. (2014). Aneka Menu “Ndeso” Bercitarasa Kota yang Dapat Anda Jumpai di Jogja (Rural disheswith urban tastes you can find in Yogyakarta)
Retrieved 7 December, 2016, fromhttp://yogyakarta.panduanwisata.id/pusat-oleh-oleh/aneka-menu-ndeso-bercitarasa-kota-yang-dapatanda-jumpai-di-jogja/
16. Seputar
Pertanian.
(2015,
29
July).
Turi.
Retrievedfrom
http://tipspetani.blogspot.co.id/2015/04/tanamanturiuntuktambahanpenghasilan. html
17. Widjaja, E. A., Rahayuningsih, Y., Rahajoe, J. S., Ubaidillah, R., Maryanto, I., Waluyo, E. B., et al. (2014).
Kekinian Keanekaragaman Hayati Indonesia (The Update of Indonesia Biodiversity). Jakarta: LIPI Press.

374

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ECOHYDROLOGY MANAGEMENT OF LAKE AND WETLAND IN PUTRAJAYA URBANECOSYSTEM
Normaliza Noordin1*, Akashah Majizat2, Zati Sharip3, Ahmad Zubir Sapian4
Perbadanan Putrajaya, 2Eco Development Facilities Sdn Bhd, 3National Hydraulic ResearchInstitute of Malaysia*Corresponding author: liza@ppj.gov.my

1,4

ABSTRACT
Putrajaya has successfully implemented the creative ecohydrology concept of ‘ecosystem exploitation’ toachieve the targeted ‘hydrological quantity and quality’ of water in its urban drainage system by constructing a
600 ha of Lake and Wetland. The appropriately managed and conserved constructed wetland leads to theevidently functioning ecosystem services that benefit to the wellbeing of the communities. It has not only
produced the high quality of water, help in flood mitigation but also creates amazingly numerous benefit suchas functioning as breeding grounds, nurseries and homes to numerous flora and fauna. The diverse aquaticorganism that has been amazingly improving since it was created 15 years ago, represents a good sign of abalance ecosystem. In addition, the lake has now supporting the healthy lifestyle and become a renowned
venue to community, national and international high-profile events, though an attraction for domestic andinternational tourism as well. In 2015 and 2016 various management innovative applications has been appliedin order to achieve healthy, balance ecosystem the expected conservation status. Among all an innovative
method of algae removal through the non-destructive micro-bubble technology, a study of Economic
Assessment of Ecosystem Services and the integration of Putrajaya Lake Model and catchment management
models becomes the long-term initiative towards conserving the Putrajaya Lake and wetland resources.
Another innovative management effort that are taking place is the formation of the Lake Network. In January
2016, three other ASEAN countries members were invited to join the International Seminar of Lakes in
Putrajaya. The idea for Lake Network were than agreed as prospective way forward to encourage informationand experience exchanges among members. Such fairly similar lake environment in the region provide a good
platform for this kind of relationship.
Keywords: eco-hydrology, Putrajaya Lake and Wetland, integrated lake management, catchment
INTRODUCTION
It was decided by the Malaysian Government that administrative function of Federal Government should be
moved to a new area prompted by the dire need to balance and disperse development to areas outside of thecongested capital city of Malaysia, Kuala Lumpur. The move would improve the efficiency of the government
services to the public, the urban environment and its quality of life, as well as easing the pressure on theoverstretched infrastructure of Kuala Lumpur. In the early 90s a site was chosen for the new administrativecity. It was located 20 km south of Kuala Lumpur and 25 km north of Kuala Lumpur International Airport (KLIA).
Subsequently a Master Plan was prepared for the new administrative city called Putrajaya.

375

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

LAND USE%

GOVERNMENT

4.57

RESIDENTIAL

14.42

COMMERCIAL

2.83

MIXED USE

0.83

SPECIAL USE

2.80

SERVICE INDUSTRY

0.23

PUBLIC

6.98

PARKS & OPENSPACEINFRA & UTILITY

39.
15
9.7

ROAD

18.40

Figure 1. Putrajaya Masterplan
A Garden City, the unique of Master Plan (Figure 1) is its vast open spaces and water bodies which constituteof nearly 40% of the total city. Putrajaya has been planned with high environmental design standards and now
after 20 years, it still stands as a development hard to surpass.
One of the main challenges of developing a modern city is managing its storm water, especially in the tropicalareas where rainfall is high. As a solution to the surface runoff management, Putrajaya has successfully
implemented the ecohydrological concept of ‘ecosystem exploitation’ to achieve the targeted ‘hydrologicalquantity and quality’ of water in its drainage system. This is possible by the construction of the Putrajaya Lake
and Wetland.
PUTRAJAYA LAKE AND WETLAND (PLW)
The development of PLW was started in 1996 and the lake was fully inundated in 2002. The 650 hectares’
man-made lake and constructed wetland with 38km of water front created along the lake are the very basic
key feature of the master plan. Putrajaya Wetland is the first man-made wetlands in Malaysia and the largest
constructed freshwater wetlands in the tropics. The wetland system is about 200 hectares, comprises of fivearms with 23 cells, namely Upper West (UW), Upper North (UN), Upper East (UE), Lower East (LW) and Upper
Bisa (UB). It is as illustrated in Figure 2. They straddle the water courses of Chuau river, Bisa river and threeother tributaries.

376

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Putrajaya Wetland system
All the arms (except for Upper Bisa) eventually discharge to Central Wetland, which make up 24 cells in total,
before the water flows down into Putrajaya Lake. Although all cells are functioning in the same manner, theydiffer in size, depths, plant communities and pollutant loads that it is designed to handle. Their primary function
is to filter, absorbing the nutrients and cleansing the surface runoff from its catchment, ensuring that the water
quality is improved before entering the lake at downstream area meets the standard that suitable for water
body contact activities. To achieve this, the wetland has been planted with more than 20 species of wetland
plants that enable to treat and act as a natural filtration system.
The filtered water from Putrajaya Wetland flows down into an urban lake, the Putrajaya Lake. The lake is about
400 hectares of surface area and it contains nearly 25 million cubic meters of clean freshwater with its depth
is in the range of 2 to 14 meters. 60% of the source of the water is from the wetland and the remaining 40%
comes from the surface runoff of surrounding land directly flows into the lake.
THE MANAGEMENT OF PUTRAJAYA LAKE AND WETLAND
According to Zalewski et al.,1997, Ecohydrology is a scientific concept applied to environmental problemsolving. It quantifies and explain the relationships between hydrological processes and biotic dynamics at acatchment scale. The concept is based upon the assumption that sustainable development of water resources
is dependent on the ability to restore and maintain evolutionarily established process of water and nutrient
circulation and energy flows at the basin scale.

377

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Putrajaya Lake Catchment

Putrajaya
Lake Catchment

2

The Putrajaya Lake Catchment (51 km )2
is part of the bigger Langat River Basin (2350 km )Figure 3. Putrajaya Lake Catchment lies within the bigger Sungai Langat Basin
Putrajaya Lake Catchment consists of 51 km square lies within the bigger Sungai Langat Basin of 2350 km
square. Figure 3 illustrates the inter-relation Putrajaya Lake Catchment and the bigger Langat River Basin.
To control the quality of the surface runoff, considerations were given to the possible source of all pollutant in
the catchment areas (watershed) of the lake and wetland. The catchment’s stakeholders, activities as well as
the possible source of pollutant were scrutinised and identified. This is part of the strategic planning exercises
for implementing the ecohydrology concept for the Integrated Putrajaya Lake and Wetland Basin Management.

378

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. Layout of Putrajaya Lake Catchment and its
stakeholder’s boundaries
The extent of the catchment’s areas lies within three (3) different municipalities: Areas under the jurisdiction ofPPj, Sepang District Council and Subang Jaya Municipal Council (Figure 4). Roughly 70 % of the Putrajaya
Lake Catchment is in Putrajaya and the remaining 30% lies in Selangor. There are nine main stakeholders ofdifferent entities including individual ownership. Various types of uncontrolled activities in the catchment areas
will expose Putrajaya Lake to the runoff pollution. Therefore, it is very crucial to ensure all the stakeholders
being aware of the importance of the Putrajaya Lake and Wetland from the planning stage, even though, every
one of them is having their own need and reasons.
Routine and Schedule Maintenance, Monitoring Activities, Ecosystem Assessment and Management Measure
The main activities of Putrajaya Lake and Wetland operation are amongst others comprising of routine andschedule maintenance activities, regular monitoring and survey exercises, and diversity assessment.
Monitoring activities for the lake and wetland system include water quality and biological aspects, hydrology,
sedimentation survey and dam integrity monitoring. Diversity assessment activities are carried out and include
terrestrial fauna survey of birds, insects, reptiles, mammals and amphibians. Development of biodiversity
profiles, enhancement and establishment of a balance habitat for communities is also undertaken at regularintervals.
Surveillance and evaluation of plants growth, fish species determination and population control are done which
also ensure conformation to “zero threat” from mosquitoes breeding within the wetland systems.
Table 1 shows the main management activities of Putrajaya Lake and Wetland, comprising of routine andschedule maintenance activities, regular monitoring and survey exercises, diversity assessment and also the
management measures which are human disturbance to ensure the development and sustainability of thehealthy ecosystem within the catchment. Whereas Table 2 shows the findings of the monitoring exercise thathas been carried out.

379

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

All the maintenance programs are of minimal disturbance to the system except some activities that required‘intervention’. ‘Intervention activities’ are considered as ‘management measures’. The management measure
works that need to do is based on the result from the monitoring exercise and also the ecosystem assessment
exercise.
Example of ‘management measures’ carried out are plant harvesting, transplanting, and replacement of plants,
replanting, and desilting of wetland cells. Fish management is done on regular basis by fish stocking (juvenile)
exercise and elimination process for population control of invasive aquatic species. Whereas the lake system
refitting including desilting works, harvesting and replanting of wetland plants is done periodically whenevernecessary.
Table 1. The management activities of Putrajaya Lake and Wetland
Activities
Details Scope of Work
Maintenance Activities• Up-keeping and cleaning;• Maintenance of structures and facilities (weir, jetty,
pontoon, lake shorelines, dam)
• Management of plants in nursery/cells;• Prunning/Trimming/Thinning of ZII plants;• Manual weeding• Plants Pest & Disease Control
Monitoring Exercises• Physico-chemical and biological of water• Hydrological monitoring• Rainfall and weather monitoring• Dam safety monitoring
Ecosystem (Diversity) Assessment• Terrestrial Fauna survey including birds, insects, reptiles,
mammals and amphibians;• Surveillance & Evaluation of Plants Growth;• FishManagement Measures• Habitat Enhancement – for birds, fish
• Ensuring the health of aquatic life;• Fish Stocking;• Elimination of unwanted species of fish
• Protection of rare and endangered bird species;• Refitting – Desilting / Plant Harvesting / Replanting• An integrated system of the wetlands and lake
management
Table 2. Number of species of different fauna found at Putrajaya Lake and Wetland
Species
EIA Report
Baseline data 2010
2015
(year)
No of species
Phytoplankton 100 (2006)
140
106
Zooplankton
42 (2006)
61
51
Macrobenthos 09 (2006)
16
16
Fish
10
17 (2008)
16
11
Birds
34
80 (2007)
147
119
Insects
21 (2007)
21
924
Amphibians
2 (2007)58
Reptiles5 (2007)
15
8
Mammals24
789Inventory
until 2015
202
111
20
55
187
1421
13
21
17

Communities and Stakeholders Participation
The responsibility of maintenance and taking care of the city ecosystem does not fall on authorities alone. It
needs involvement of its citizen, the communities, visitors and workers to care and love the ‘built-up nature’ of
Putrajaya. In this regard, PPj had started on programs with active participation from the communities throughLocal Agenda 21 (LA 21) initiatives.
The spirit of partnership (initiated by LA 21) between local authority, community and private organisation/NGOs
to undertake the responsibility that normally lies with the government will ensure sustainability and a strong
sense of belonging from the residents.

380

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

There is also the management activity with the concept of Environment, Ecosystem and Educational Programs(3EP) that is being implemented on regular basis all year round. 3EP activities are designed and implemented
to create awareness, sense of belonging and ownership especially amongst young people who live within thecatchment areas. A series of awareness programs (awareness camp, dialogue, workshops, etc.) areconducted periodically with school children, universities and college students.

Figure 5. 3EP activities which involves school and university students conducted at Putrajaya Lake andWetlandThe ‘know your ecosystem’ program is part of 3EP that is a field-based learning through actual monitoring ofwater quality, survey of vertebrates and invertebrates, know-what are the biological indicators of a healthy
ecosystem. During the programs, students are being taught how to collect sample, assess and interpret thedata. Discussion also take place to discuss on how they, the small citizen can help the management to sustain
the good ecosystem
Communities and stakeholders are also involved for inventory, record and data collection as well as for surveys
purposes. All the activities conducted with the communities are part of the Healthy Communities, Healthy
Ecosystem (HCHE) programs where presentations, discussions and dialogs are carried out in every part ofthe city.
Public participation exercise also been carried out through Intellectual Discourse where we share ideas andthought among the participants and experts. These activities are jointly organized by PPj with othergovernment agencies, stakeholders, private sector and NGOs. Series of PLW seminar, workshops,
colloquiums, consultative forums are among activities that has been conducted so far.

Figure 6. Public participation activities are carried out all year round involving all walks of life381

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ECOSYSTEM SERVICES INTEGRATED INTO DEVELOPMENT AND OPERATION
Ecosystem services are the beneficial outcomes, for the natural environment or people, that result fromecosystem functions. Since these valuable ecosystem services are often invisible in the national and local
accounts and budgets, the policy makers and market forces often fail to adequately consider the value of thesegoods and services. Therefore, development co-operation should integrate biodiversity and ecosystemservices into development plans and programmes, and mainstream biodiversity into all aspects of development
co-operation. The important link of this need is the water within the catchment. The blue and green concept,
ie the blue water and green flora, ought to inter-related and should be promoted in any urban ecosystem.
The ecosystem services provided by PLW has not only produced the high quality of water, help in flood
mitigation but also creates amazingly a lot of benefit and healthy lifestyle to the communities and wellbeing.
The constructed wetland acts as breeding grounds, nurseries and homes to numerous flora and fauna. The
diversity of aquatic organism shows a good sign of a healthy and balance ecosystem. The number of species
for phytoplankton, zooplankton, macro benthos, insects, amphibians, fish and birds, that has been monitored
since the last 15 years is amazingly improving for such a built-up city area. In addition, the lake has now
become a renowned venue to community, national and international high-profile events, though an attraction
for domestic and international tourism as well.
The ‘ecosystem services’ provided by the PLW is in line with the achievable outcome of the project such as:✓
Improved high water quality: suitable for water body contact activities;✓
Venue for national and international water sports events: more than 30 events in a year;✓
Location for recreational activities (lake cruising, fishing, bird watching etc);✓
A popular and beautiful tourist attraction and destination;✓
Habitat creations that involved the ability to enhance the ecosystem - more or less towards natural
surroundings;✓
Successful and unique flood mitigation system;✓
Utilising the water for irrigation (landscape area);✓
The centre of reference for the best managed ecosystem of lakes and wetlands practices in this region;
and✓Finally, the ecosystem contributes to the ‘well-being’ of the people of Putrajaya and its visitors.
The urban ecosystem development approach in Putrajaya is also in line with the one recommended by theMillennium Ecosystem Assessment 2005 that suggested the overall outlook of ‘ecosystem services’.
THE IMPACT AND OUTCOME
PLW contributes to environmental conservation, economic development and nation-building by:✓
Establishing the understanding and the ability of creating and maintaining acceptable ecosystem inthe urban surroundings by applying the integrated management of lake and wetland;✓
Contributing significantly to the government’s efforts to promote eco-tourism in Malaysia;✓
Innovative creation of various activities, functions and programs to get the involvement of communities,
stakeholders and the public participation in our integrated management approach;✓
Enhancing awareness of the city’s ecosystem services and its values to be enjoyed together especiallyamong Malaysians and the younger generation;✓
Introducing the rich bio-diversity of Malaysia’s flora in the city/urban area to the rest of the world; and✓Providing an opportunity to professionals in various fields to appreciate and get acquainted to theconcept of ecosystem management in their business.
SUSTAINABILITY MANAGEMENT EFFORTS
In 2015 and 2016, various management innovative applications have been applied in order to achieve healthy,balance ecosystem the expected conservation status.
Economic Assessment Ecosystem Services Study
Economic Assessment of Ecosystem Services is hardly being done on water body such as lakes. In 2015,
PPj has won a grant from UNESCO-IHP Jakarta, through Malaysia Fund in Trust (MFIT) to implement the
Economic Assessment of Putrajaya Lake and Wetland Ecosystem Services study. The economic assessment
will enable understanding and resolve the delicate balance of water for livelihoods and water for maintaining
the resource base. The assessment includes ecosystem functions and ecosystem services. Ecosystem
functions are the physical, chemical, and biological processes or attributes that contribute to self-maintenanceof an ecosystem. On the other hand, ecosystem services are the beneficial outcomes, for the naturalenvironment or people that result from ecosystem functions. These services are resource provision services,
regulating services, cultural services and supporting services.

382

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

As for the man-made Putrajaya Lake and Wetland, over time, is turning into a more natural setting andenhancing its own ecosystem services. Therefore, many aspects of its ecosystem services need to beassessed in terms of its economic values.
There are numbers of assessment methods used in this study. This included the Direct Market Value (DMV)
and the Benefit Transfer Method (BTM) was applied for 10 different ecosystem services, in which the actual
assessment was done elsewhere. All those values were then being transferred to the benefit for Putrajaya
Lake. Finally, the Contingent Valuation Method (CVM), Travel Cost Method (TCM) and Hedonic Pricing Method(HPM) were also applied to determine the conservation, recreational and aesthetic value.
In this study, DMV was applied for the benefit of Cruise Tasik Putrajaya ridership, the value for water supply
and the value of fish. DVM was estimated using the market price of measured item. The total of DMV fromthree aspects revealed a value of RM48,205,100.00 (USD11,315,751.17).
On the other hand, the BTM value for 10 different ecosystem services economic value done elsewhere creating
the value of RM223,568,845.00 (USD52,480.949.53).
While for the CVM and TCM, field survey and data collection works was done for around Putrajaya areas.
Number of respondent for both CVM and TCM surveys are 793 each. For the HPM, information for houses
along the shorelines and various house types has been studied. All data for CVM, TCM and HPM wereanalysed by using the specified statistical software.
Obviously, the conservation management efforts have raised the value of the ecosystem services to
USD1,381,296,965.96 (RM5,888,325,075.00). his value will justify for a sustainable fund for its operation,
maintenance and management from various beneficial organisations. The economic value of each assessment
applied in this research is tabulated in Table 3
Table 3. Findings of the ecosystem
Putrajaya Lake and WetlandNO
ITEM
ECOSYSTEMSERVICES
DIRECT MARKET VALUE
Selling the lake water Provisional
for drinking- Water
Rent
1.2
Use of the cruise Cultural
Tasik
Putrajaya
boating service
1.3
Fish harvest
Provisional/
Cultural
Sub Total DIRECT MARKET VALUE
2.0
BENEFIT TRANSFER METHOD
2.1
Water
quality Regulating
Improvement
2.2
Local
climate Regulating
influence
2.3
Nuisance prevention Regulating
1.0
1.1

2.4
2.5

Reduce flow energy

Regulating

Slowing down the Regulatingflow
2.6
Retention
time Regulating
control
2.7
Pest
or
disease Regulating
control
2.8
Breeding ground
Habitat
2.9
Genetic
materials Habitatand resources
2.10 Educationand culturalresearch
Sub Total BENEFIT TRANSFER METHOD
3.0
INDIRECT VALUE – SURVEY

services

economicassessment

research

done

VALUATIONTECHNIQUES

VALUE
(RM)

USD

Direct value

19,162,500.00

4,495,139.25

Direct Value

24,176,000.00

5,671,206.08

DirectPrice

4,866,600.00

1,141,607.03

48,205,100.00

11,315,751.17

Waste Treatment

2,363,334.00

554,390.89

Climate regulating

6,167,416.00

1,446,752.45

Disturbancemoderation
Regulatingofwater flows
ErosionPrevention
Nutrients Cycling

37,737,511.00

8,852,465.33

70,849,460.00

16,619,866.33

32,947,653.00

7,728,860.44

21,649,148.00

5,078,457.14

Biological control

11,980,965.00

2,810,494.77

Nursery Service
Genetic Diversity

16,265,297.00
14,761,357.00

3,815,513.37
3,462,719.13

Inspiration

8,846,704.00

2,075,259.82

223,568,845.00

52,480,949.53

383

Marketat

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

NO
3.1

ITEM

ECOSYSTEMSERVICES

Willingness to pay – Regulating/Conservation efforts Cultural
ILBM
3.2
Events – Recreation Provisional/
in lake
Cultural
3.3
Aesthetics – Lake Provisional
front house price
Sub Total INDIRECT VALUE - SURVEYTOTAL ESTIMATION – 31 OCTOBER 2015

VALUATIONTECHNIQUES
CVM – Contingent
Valuation Method
TCM – Travel
Cost Method
Hedonic Pricing
Model

VALUE
(RM)
1,027,356,375.00

USD
241,163,468.31

2,254,018,125.00

529,112,235.92

2,331,176,630.00

547,224,561.03

5,612,551,130.00
5,884,325,075.00

1,117,500,165.26
1,381,296,965.96

Algae Removal exercise
With the high temperature of tropical climate, the shallow lake experiencing very active metabolism of its
aquatic organisms. The algae growth in the last 15 years has shown that such lake need to be improved byremoving it’s organic and overflow of excessive nutrients. PPj has introduced an innovative method of Algae
Removal System (ARS), that involves the main process of micro-bubble generating device and principle of floatingby spraying of zeta-potential micro-bubble complex to cohere with algae of negative zeta and colloidal matter quickly
to float and will be removed on the surface of water. Water quality sampling shows clear improvement of theturbidity, ammoniacal nitrogen, nitrate and chlorophyll-a. This practical technology has proven to be applicablefor tropical lakes. Figure 8 shows some images of how the machine looks like. While Figure 9 indicates thelocations of Algae Removal System (ARS) Operational Sites. Table 4 and 5 detail out the Removal Efficiency(%) of Algae and Nutrient Removal Technology and also the weight in kilograms of algae been removed atselected sites at Putrajaya Lake.

Figure 8. The Algae Removal System (ARS) ‘non-destructive micro-bubble technology’ machine

Figure 9. Location of Algae Removal
System (ARS) Operational sites.
(A= Inlet P10, GPT 33,
B= Inlet P1Taman Botani,
C= Inlet P9 Puspanita Puri; and
D= Inlet P3, GPT 02-03

384

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 4. Removal Efficiency (%) of Algae and Nutrient at selected sites, Putrajaya.
Location
Parameter
Unit
BeforeAfter(sampling date)
(a)
(b)

%
RemovalEfficiency(a-b)/aInlet P10
Turbidity
NTU
18.7
17.9
4.28
GPT 33
NH3N
mg/l
0.1
0.06
40.00
(27-Jul-16)
Nitrate
mg/l
1.54
1.41
8.44
Chlorophyll-a
μg/l
<0.5
<0.5
0.00
Inlet P1
Turbidity
NTU
17.3
18.0
- 4.05
Taman Botani
NH3N
mg/l
0.08
0.01
87.50
(17-Aug-16)
Nitrate
mg/l
0.6
0.26
56.67
Chlorophyll-a
μg/l
19
16.1
15.26
Inlet P1
Turbidity
NTU
17.3
18.0
- 4.05
Taman Botani
NH3N
mg/l
0.08
0.01
87.50
(17-Aug-16)
Nitrate
mg/l
0.6
0.26
56.67
Chlorophyll-a
μg/l
19
16.1
15.26
Inlet P9 Puspanita Puri
Turbidity
NTU
16.3
15.0
7.98
(22-Aug-16)
NH3N
mg/l
0.03
0.01
66.67
Nitrate
mg/l
<0.01
<0.01
0.00
Chlorophyll-a
μg/l
5.8
<0.5
100.00
Inlet P3
Turbidity
NTU
16.0
15.2
5.00
GPT 02-03
NH3N
mg/l
0.05
0.05
0.00
(24-Aug-16)
Nitrate
mg/l
1.44
0.06
95.83
Chlorophyll-a
μg/l
<0.5
<0.5
0.00
Table 5: Total amount (kg) of removal sludge at selected operational sites at Putrajaya Lake
Total Number
Location
Weight (kg)of operation days
29
610
Inlet P10 - GPT 33
Inlet P1 - Taman Botani
265
Inlet P9 - Puspanita Puri
1
25
Inlet P3 - GPT 02-03
5
29
Eco-hydrological modelling
Recent global approach of managing lakes through the application of eco-hydrological modelling has enable
scientists and engineers to better understand lake characteristics under changing environment and supports
effective decision-making. The integration of Putrajaya Lake Model and Catchment Management Models
through a collaborative effort with the National Hydraulic Research Institute of Malaysia becomes the longterm initiative towards conserving the Putrajaya Lake and wetland resources. Figure 10 (a) and (b) show
Bathymetry of Putrajaya Lake and also possible spread of pollutant under high wind events.

Figure 10. (a) Bathymetry of Putrajaya Lake (b) Spread of pollutant under high wind events385

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The numerical simulation provided a good match with the monitoring data (Sharip et. al. 2016). The model wasable to provide the lake water quality characterisation under different scenarios. By linking with the catchment,
the model is useful to enhance the management efforts to maintain the lake water quality by demonstrating
the impact of the point source discharges to the water bodies.
Formation of Lake Network
Another innovative management effort that are taking place is the formation of the Lake Network. In January
2016, the lake managers and researcher from three other ASEAN countries members representing Lake
Lanao in the Philippines, Rawa Pening Lake in Indonesia and the Lake of Prince of Songkla of Thailand wereinvited to join the International Seminar of Lakes in Putrajaya. Some of the photographs taken during theseminar are showed at Figure 11.
The idea for ASEAN Lake Network were than agreed as prospective way forward to encourage informationand experience exchanges among members. Such fairly similar lake environment in the region provide a good
platform for this kind of relationship.
Creating a regional platform will certainly provide opportunities to exchange information and improve ideas ofmanaging our natural resources especially related to water and management of pollution. Together we will learn
the better way of getting everybody involve in the concept of ecohydrology and the integrated manner our lakes
and wetlands should be managed. Another important thing is that it will create the excitement among the young
scientists, managers and engineers to understand our different culture and way of life while at the same timetaking care of our lakes and wetlands.

Figure 11. Photographs taken during seminar on lake and wetland, Putrajaya
CONCLUSIONS
The application of an innovative ideas of ecohydrology management concept had enabled to bringing back‘the lost nature’ into the urban surrounding with sustainability as the primary aim. This creative ecohydrology
approach presents Malaysians with a new experience where nature and technology come together to benefit
the communities. The creation of the lake and wetland as the basis of its biodiversity enhancement is aimed
to boost the healthy and balance urban ecosystem within the area. The city now provides an environment thatis conducive to quality urban living and pursuit of economic activities. The economic value of the ecosystemservices and conservation is worth of USD1,381,296,965.96 (RM5,888,325,075.00). With the continuous
management effort together with the latest initiatives comprising the Algae Removal System (ARS) ‘nondestructive micro-bubble technology’, eco-hydrology lake modelling and formation of Lake Network, it is hoped
to showcase Putrajaya Lake and Wetland as the best of Malaysian expertise in creating and maintaining anurban ecosystem suitable for modern living and benefiting its communities. This innovative project is able tosupport ecosystem-friendly city that will become a global city and hopefully to achieve a Global Reference Siteof UNESCO-IHP Ecohydrology Programme in the near future.

386

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

REFERENCES
1. AKASHAH Majizat. (2000). Water Quality Management Using Constructed Wetland Systems in Putrajaya
Development., 6th International Conference On “Pollution In Metropolitan Cities”.
2. AKASHAH Majizat., BADLISHAH Ahmad., NORMALIZA Noordin. (2003). Integrated Catchment
Management of Urban Man-Made Lake And Wetlands – Putrajaya Experience World Lake Conference,
Wuhan, China.
3. AKASHAH Majizat. (2003). Operation and Management of Putrajaya Lake and Wetland, National Seminaron Constructed Wetlands, Putrajaya Shangri-La.
4. AKASHAH Majizat., NORMALIZA Noordin., NURLIYANA Abdul Rahaman. (2012). Ecohydrology
Management of Lake and Wetland in Putrajaya Urban Ecosystem – paper presented in Livable
Community Awards 2012, Al-Ain, UAE.
5. AKASHAH Majizat., MAIMON Abdullah., NORHAYATI Ahmad., NORMALIZA Noordin., NURLIYANA
Abdul Rahaman. (2012). Coffee Table Book of Biodiversity in an Urban Ecosystem – Putrajaya Lake andWetland.
6. AKASHAH Majizat., AWANG NOOR Abd Ghani., NORMALIZA Noordin., AHMAD ZUBIR Sapian.,
NURLIYANA Abdul Rahaman. (2015). Demonstration of Ecohydrology Biotechnologies in Putrajaya Lake
and Wetland, Ecosystem Services Economic Assessment.
7. Angkasa GHD Engineers Sdn. Bhd. (1996)., Putrajaya Lake Phase 1, Concept Design Report – Wetland
Component: PJ Holdings Sdn. Bhd.
8. Ecosystem Management Programme, Division of Environmental Policy Implementation United Nations
Environment Programme (UNEP) P.O. Box 30552 Nairobi, 00100 Kenya E-mail: depiinfo@unep.org.
www.unep.org/depi/
9. Leopold, Luna B. (1968). Hydrology for Urban Land Planning – A Guidebook on the Hydrological Effects
of Urban Land Use., Washington, DC: Geological Survey Circular 554.
10. Lawrence, R. (2011)., LESTARI UKM, Bangi., Public Lecture No.11, Challenges for Environmental
Diplomacy: Moving Forward.
11. Perbadanan Putrajaya. (2001 – 2015). Physico-chemical aspect of water quality at the Putrajaya Lake
and Wetland Report.
12. Perbadanan Putrajaya. (2001 – 2015). Biological aspect of water quality at the Putrajaya Lake andWetland Report.
13. Perbadanan Putrajaya. (2001 – 2015). Terrestrial fauna survey report at the Putrajaya Lake and Wetland.
14. Sharip, Z., Saman J.M, Noordin N, Majizat A, Suratman S, Shaaban A.J. (2016). Assessing the spatial
water quality dynamics in Putrajaya Lake: a modelling approach. Modelling earth and environment system
2(46), 1-14.
15. The Putrajaya Master Plan. (1997). Perbadanan Putrajaya., Malaysia.
16. Zalewski, M., Janauer, G.A., Jolankai, G. (Eds.). (1997). Ecohydrology. A new paradigm for sustainable
use of aquatic resources. UNESCO International Hydrological Programme – V Technical Documents in
Hydrology 7, Paris, 58p.

387

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

INTEGRATED MULTI TROPHIC AQUACULTURE AS SAFE ENVIRONMENT FOR FISHPRODUCTION IN SMALL RESERVOIRS
Djamhuriyah S. Said*, Tjandra Chrismadha, Triyanto
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences
Corresponding author: djamhuriyah@limnologi.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACT
Integrated Multi Trophic Aquaculture (IMTA) is a technique of aquaculture in which the organisms of varying
trophic levels are cultured to maximize the system’s energy and nutrient utilization efficiency. IMTA systems
have been implemented as an effort to utilize the water from small reservoirs. This study assessed the growthof duckweeds (Lemna perpussila), catfish (Clarias sp.), tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), and the water qualityof IMTA system. Application of the IMTA systems by utilizing the two treatments in different small reservoirs
was conducted from April to August 2016 at Enrekang Botanical Gardens, South Sulawesi. First small reservoir
located inside the botanical garden was a fish pond with a volume of 20x25x1.5 m 3. Catfish with an average
total length of 5.6 cm and an average weight around 1.34 g were cultured in a net (2x5x1 m3 with stocking
density of 180 fish/m2. L. perpussila was grown in two nets of the same size as that for catfish and placed on
both sides of the catfish nets. Tilapia with an average total length of 6.93 cm and an average weight of 6.10 g
were cultured outside the net, with stocking density of 2,000 fish. The second reservoir located outside thebotanical garden was a new pond consisting of two units (30x30x1.5 m 3 and 20x40x1.5 m3 respectively).
Catfish with a length of 4.9 cm an average weight of 0.84 g were reared in a 4 x4x1m3 net, with stocking densityof 188 fish/m2. Tilapia with an average total length of 6.5 cm and an average weight of 5.3 g were cultured withthe density of 2,000 fish separately in another small reservoir having water connection to catfish reservoir. The
feed was administered as much as 5% of the total weight per day, while tilapia was fed with Lemna.The results
showed that the Specific Growth Rate (SGR) of catfish and tilapia reached 3.53--4.02%/day and 2.06-2.60%/day respectively. L. perpussila grew well and it could be used as feed source for tilapia. The water
quality observed in IMTA systems was considered appropriate to support the life of fish. Elimination rate of TN
and TP was 14.76--15.63% and 35.00--52.00% respectively. This suggested that IMTA system can promotea safe environment for aquaculture with high efficiency. To conclude, IMTA can be recommended for wider
implementation to conserve water resource and inland water ecosystem.
Keywords: aquaculture, feed efficiency, IMTA, small reservoir
INTRODUCTION
Enrekang Massenrempulu Botanical Garden with an approximate area of 300 ha is located in the Batumila
village Maiwa district, which is about 22 km south of the Enrekang city in the province of South Sulawesi Thisbotanical garden is one of the best botanical gardens among 7 (seven) botanical gardens in Indonesia. Thesegardens are situated in the tropical (Wallaceae) region and are intended for education, environment
conservation, and tourism. In the botanical gardens, there are many unused ponds or reservoirs. The idea is
to utilize these reservoirs to be beneficial to the society such as setting them up for aquaculture. However, twomajor problems resulted from aquaculture activity are the production of waste and the high cost of feed.
Therefore, our main goals is to minimize the waste and feed cost. In this context, the integrated multi trophic
aquaculture (IMTA) can be an alternative solution. Originally, multitrophic refers to the explicit incorporation of
species from different trophic positions or nutritional levels in the same system (Soto, 2009). It can also be
defined as a technique in fish culture which integrates some biotic components in a system of aquaculture
based on the trophic levels to maximize the energy in the system and increase the efficiency level of nutrient
utilization.
IMTA’s history started from a system of marine aquaculture in the 1990s. Shawn Robinson, a researcher fromthe Department of Fisheries and Oceans in Canada and his friend, Thierry Chopin, a professor from the
University of New Brunswick, cultivated salmon, shellfish, and seaweed which were integrated in a bay of New
Brunswick. The settling wastes generated from the maintenance of salmon were utilized by clams which werealso the basic biota to be the source of nutrients, while the particles on the surface of the water were used by
the seaweed as the nutrient to grow. Three commodities together provide economic value(http://www.theecologist.org/News/news_analysis/340409/can_salmon_farming_be_suistanabel.html).
Integrated aquaculture has been widely practiced by small households in freshwater environments, mainly in
Asia (Soto, 2009). The concept of IMTA, developed through an ecological approach to manage the structureof the food chain in micro-aquatic ecosystem pond, primarily directed to the utilization of wastes fromaquaculture activity mainly by other suitable organisms. It can be seen from the economic aspect and thecapability improvement of environmental quality. Aquaculture waste is actually a manifestation of metabolic
inefficiency of fish feed given. It was generally known that the average fish is only able to convert a maximum388

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferenceof 40% of feed into the body (Chrismadha, 2014), while the rest is discharged into the water system in the formof organic matter and nutrients. Efforts on using this waste to improve feed efficiency and increase productivityof the water column have been carried out at the Research Center for Limnology-LIPI. The use of Lemna
perpussila in carp culture proved to control the degradation of water quality due to the fish waste itself.
Elimination of nutrients in the water exceeded 70% whereas theTotal Suspended Solid (TSS) eliminated wasmore than 85% (Chrismadha, 2014), Other trials also demonstrated the ability of lemna as an alternative of
feed source in aquaculture of tilapia and catfish. For each trial, lemna replaced up to 50% of artificial feed
without a significant reduction in the growth rate (Chrismadha, 2014). The IMTA concept is extremely flexible.
It can be applied to open-water and land-based systems, marine and freshwater systems (Barrington et al.,2009) and its capability enables the development of aquaculture in closed system which can reduce waterrequirements up to ~85% (Chrismadha, 2014). The objective of this study was to obtain the growth of catfish(Clarias sp.) and tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), the production of Lemna with an optimum water quality in the
IMTA system of small reservoirs.
METHODS
The research was conducted during April-August 2016 in the Enrekang Botanical Garden, South Sulawesi.
This study consisted of two experiments within different types of small reservoirs. First small reservoir locatedinside the botanical garden was a fish pond with a volume of 20x25x1.5 m3. In this reservoir, the catfish were
cultured in the net (2x5x1 m 3). The duckweeds (Lemna) planted inside the two nets of the same size as thecatfish nets were placed on both sides of the catfish nets. Surrounding catfish nets and duckweed nets were
installed plastic tarps to capture the wastes from the catfish and to limit the water from catfish culture which
mixed directly with the water outside the net. The tilapia was cultured outside the net (Figure 1). The days ofculture (DOC) were 114 days (Table 1)

Figure 1. Performance of system in 1st reservoir
The second reservoir located outsidebut near the botanical garden was a new pond consisting of two units(30x30x1.5 m3 and 20x40x1.5 m 3 respectively). Catfish were cultured in the net (4x4x1m 3), of the first unit,
while Tilapias were reared with the initial stock of 2,000 fish separately in the second unit, that connected tothe catfish reservoir (Figure 2). The fish culture was conducted from June to August 2016, and the approximatedays of culture (DOC) were 63 days. The stock fry, stocking density, average size of Catfish and Tilapia, andthe days of culture (DOC) are shown in Table 1. The Catfish in the two reservoirs were fed with fish pellets asmuch as 5% of their body weight per day, while Tilapias were fed daily with 400 g (w/w) of duckweed grown inthe system.

389

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Clariasnet

Tilapia
Tilapia

Lemna

Lemna

ClariasFigure 2. Setting up of the system in the 2nd reservoir
Table 1. Stock of fry, stocking density, the size, and DOC of fish in two reservoirs
1st Reservoir
2nd Reservoir
Parameter
CatfishTilapia
CatfishTilapia
Stock (fry)
1,800
2,000
3,000
2,000
stocking density(fry/m2)

180

nd

188

3.0

average total length
(cm)

5.6

6.93

4.9

6.5

1.34

6.10

0.84

5.3

114

114

63

63

average weight (g)DOC (days)nd = no data

The components of observation includedthe survival rate (SR/%) of Clarias sp. (in 30 days) only in the firstreservoir, growth of fish, and lemna. Observation of fish growth was conducted by taking the sample of 30 fishof each species in all reservoirs and measuring their length and weight. Fish growth parameters were basedon the length (growth rate of length/ GR-L) and weight (growth rate of weight/GR-W). Subsequently, thespecific growth rate for length (SGR-L) and specific growth rate for weight (SGR-W) were calculated.
Observation of survival rate is only done on catfish in the first reservoir. We did not observe this parameter forother reservoirs due to technical limitation.
Calculation of Survival Rate (SR)SR =SR = Survival Rate (in %)Nt = The number of surviving fish after t period
No = The number of initial fish at t0

Nt
x 100
No

Calculation of Growth Rate (length, GR-L) and (weight, GR-W)

GR– L =

Xt − XoDOC

GR– W =

Xt − Xo
DOC

GR-L = Growth Rate (length) in cm/day
Xt = average length after t period;
Xo= average length at t0;
DOC = Total days of culture

GR-W = Growth Rate (weight) in g/day
Xt = average weight after t period;390

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Xo= average weigh at t0; DOC = Total days of culture
Calculation of Specific Growth Rate (SGR) which refers to the formula as follows (Eppley, 1977)µ = Specific Growth Rate (SGR); xt = biomass after t period; x0 = initial biomass; t = time of observation
Lemna growth was observed daily by calculating the biomass weight/m2 in 5 m2. Other observations covered
organic components (Total Nitrogen/TN in mg/L), Total Phosphate/TP in mg/L), and Total Suspended Solid(TSS in mg/L). These were analyzed three times (April, May, August) in the Chemistry Laboratory of the
Research Center for Limnology-LIPI. The parameters of water quality such as pH, dissolved oxygen (DO inmg/L), temperature (oC), were observed in situ using Water Quality Checker [Horiba-Japan]. Sampling of thoseparameters was conducted inside and outside the nets of catfish. The elimination rate of nutrients (TN and TP)
was calculated using the following formula:
Xt-Xc
Elimination Rate of TN or TP (%) = ------------ x 100%
Xc
Xc = Value of TN or TP in the Catfish net culture; Xt = Value of TN or TP in Tilapia net culture
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSSurvival rate and growth of fish
Fish survival rate and growth conditions onboth reservoirs are shown in Table 2. Survival rate of Catfish during
30 days of observation was 76% (Table 1). This value is higher than that from Marnani et al. (2011) whichshowed the SR of Catfish ranged 30–70%. Fish feed used was fish pellet. Generally, the common survival rateof Catfish ranges from 60% to 70%, and according to Sarma (2004), the survival rate of Catfish is consideredgood if the value is higher than 50%.
Table 2. Observations of Catfish and Tilapia in two reservoirs
1st Reservoir
2nd Reservoir
Parameter
CatfishTilapia
CatfishTilapiaSR (%-30days)
76
nd
nd
nd
GR-L (cm/day)
0.15
0.07
0.14
0.07
GR-W (g/day)
0.71
0.51
0.34
0.30
SGR-L (%/day)
1.24
0.65
1.41
0.79
SGR-W (%/day)
3.53
2.06
4.02
2.60
nd= No data
Growth conditions and growth parameters of catfish and tilapia in both reservoirs are summarized in Table 1.
In the first reservoir after 114 days of culture, the average length of Catfish becomes 23.04 cm with GR-L of
0.153 cm/day and SGR-L of 1.24%/day. The average weight is 87.94 g with GR-W of 0.711 g/day and SGRW is 3.53% per day. The average weight is 82.94 g. The average length of tilapia is 14.57 cm with GR-L of
12.07 cm/day and SGR-L of 0.65%/day). The average weight recorded is 64.04 g with GR-W of 0.51 g/day,and SGR-W of 2.06%/day (Table 1, Figure 3). In the second reservoir, after 63 days of culture, the average
length of catfish is 13.47 cm with GR-L of 12.14 cm/day and SGR-L of 1.41%/day. The average weight ofCatfish is 22.182 g with GR-W of 0.34 cm/dayand SGR-W of 4.02%/day. The average length of Tilapia is 11.34
cm with GR-L of 0.07 cm/day and SGR-L of 0.79%/day. The average weight of Tilapia is 25.52 g with GR-W
of 0.30 g/day and SGR-W of 2.60%/day (Table 2; Figure 4).
Catfish and tilapia are fish for consumption and their body weight is the significant parameter for the growth.
Therefore, it is reasonable that this paper focuses on the weight observation. In the first reservoir, the average
weight of catfish is 82.94 g with SGR of 3.53%/day, while the average weight of tilapia is 64.04 g with SGR of
2.06%/day (Table 2, Figure 3). Whereas in the 2nd reservoir, the average weight of catfish is 22.18 g with
SGR of 4.02%/day and the average weight of Tilapia is 25.52 g, with SGR of 2.60%/day (Tabel 2, Figure 4).
SGR value of catfish in this study is relatively good. This suggests that catfish grow well in the IMTA systemcreated. The results from Said et al. (2016) in an IMTA system set at Ligarmukti village in Bogor, the SGR of
Catfish was 3.11%/day after DOC of 72 days. Research by Marnani et al. (2011) showed the SGR of catfish
was 0.87-5.21%/day by various frequency of feeding and tank settings.

391

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Growth of Catfish in 1st Reservoir

Growth of Tilapia in 1st Reservoir

Figure 3. Average size of Catfish and Tilapia in the 1st reservoir during 114 days
Tilapia is a herbivorous fish that utilizes the biomass of duckweed as the food source. Tilapia has notableadvantages, among others, they have a comprehensive response to food (Yuliati et al., 2003). In this research,
the value of SGR (W) tilapia that ranges 2.06–2.60%/day is considered good. These results are similar to
those from previous research by Said et al. (2016), that the SGR of tilapia was 2.70%/day which was fed with
Lemna during 72 days of culture. Another study showed SGR of tilapia by feed pellets with recirculation system
was in the range of 1.76–2.45%/day (Diansari et al., 2013).
Similarly to the SGR value, the average weight of tilapia in the first reservoir is 64.04 g with GR-W of 0.51
g/day (DOC-14 days), while in the second reservoir, the average weight is 25.52 g and GR-W is 0.30g/day
after 63 days (Table 2, Figure 3-4). This result is higher than the research of Yuliati et al. (2003) that obtained
the daily growth of tilapia after 8 weeks of 0.17g/day, (fed by pellets). This shows that in this study, tilapia canbe grown using Lemna as feed.
Growth of Catfish in 2nd Reservoir

Growth of Tilapia in 2nd Reservoir

Figure 4. Average size of Catfish and Tilapia in the 2nd reservoir during 63 days
Growth of duckweed is observed per day and obtained the average amount of 400 gper 5 m2 which isequivalent to 800g per10m2 or as much as 0.8 kg/net per day. This result is lower than the output from Said etal (2016) in an IMTA system, in which the productivity of Lemna ranged 1.46–1.69 kgper10 m2. This ispresumably due to differences in the culture systems. In this research, the application net caused all wastes
of Catfish might not be utilized by Lemna for growth. In Said et al. (2016), Lemna culture in ground pool was
associated directly with the catfish pond. Therefore, it was assumed that the waste was captured by Lemna in
relatively large amounts for growth.
This study used Lemna plants as feed for tilapia. Lemna perpussila is an aquatic plant that has a high protein
content ~38.86% (Leng et al.,1995; Tavares et al., 2008) (Table 3) making it suitable as feed for herbivorous
fish, as was done by Said et al. (2016). The protein content of Lemna perpussila is higher than of Lemna minor
who has a protein content of 22.4--25.16% (Nophriani et al., 2014). Aside from being the source of feed, Lemna
also serves as a water purifier. According to Chrismadha’s study (2014), Lemna can eliminate the nutrient witha rate of more than 70%.

392

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 3. The nutritional value of Lemna perpusilla Torr.
Composition of amino acidContents/composition
Composition
dryComposition% of total Composition % of total
weightproteinprotein(%)
water content
3.00
Lysin
3.7
Valin
5.8
Protein
38.86
Histidin
1.7
Methionin
1.5
Fat
3.80
Arginin
5.1
Isoleusin
4.3
Fiber
13.22
Aspartat
Leusin
7.8
Ash
16.00
Threosin
4.2
Triptophan
4.2
Calorie
325.70Serin(kcal/100g)(Leng et al.,1995; Tavares et al., 2008)
Water quality
Fish growth are also influenced by external factors, such as temperature, pH, and more importantly, dissolved
oxygen (DO). Water temperature affects processes in the body either directly or indirectly as much as the needfor feed and fish activities (Brett, 1979). Table 4 shows some key water quality parameters for fish farming.
Values of pH, DO, and temperature in this research are within the range that meets the needs for the growthof fish and Lemna as stated by Alabaster & Lloyd (1982) for aquatic lives. It requires relatively neutral pH, highDO, and ambient temperature.
Table 4. Parameters of water quality measured
1st reservoir

2nd reservoir

Parameter

CatfishTilapia

CatfishTilapiapH

7.18±0.53

6.84±0.33

7.13±0.19

6.72±1.17

DO (mg/L)

5.93±2.08

5.86±2.45

4.95±3.22

7.09±3.27

Temp (oC)

29.42±1.58

29.81±1.4130.42±4.1329.75±2.99

TN (mg/L)

1.49 ±0.75

1.27±0.12

0.96±0.05

0.81 ±0.11

TP (mg/L)

0.25 ±0.23

0.12±0.12

0.02±0.003

0.013 ±0.036

TSS (mg/L)

27.02±6.07

32.89 ±11.47

27.7±13.71

41.22±11.32

In both reservoirs, it is shown that the values of nutrient [Total nitrogen (TN) and Total phosphate (TP)] in theCatfish nets was higher than that of Tilapia’s (Table 3). It means TN and TP have been reduced in Tilapia’s
system. Elimination rate of TN in both reservoirs ranged 14.76--5.63% and TP ranged 35.00-52.00% (Table5). It also means that Lemna perpussila absorbs the nutrients from the Catfish’s wastess for their growth.
According to the results of Amalia (2014), Lemna perpussila is able to absorb nitrogen and phosphate fromthe excretion of catfish with the absorption capacity of nitrogen and phosphate is around 2.4 mg N g biomass1 day-1 and 0.3 mg P g biomass -1 day-1 respectively. According to the research of Umaruddin et al. (2015),
Lemna perpussila is a suitable agent for phytoremediation to improve the water quality in the fish cage of Cape
Semarang. The value of Total Suspended Solid (TSS) in the Tilapia nets is higher than that of Catfish nets
(Table 4), while according to Chrismadha (2014), it can be vice versa. This happened presumably because
Tilapias were reared directly in the ground reservoir that made their movement stirred the bottom waters.
Conversely, catfish were reared inside the nets slightly above the bottom of reservoir.
Table 5. The Elimination rate (%) of TN and TP
Parameter
Elimination rate (%)
1st Reservoir
2nd Reservoir
TN (mg/L)
14.76
15.63
TP (mg/L)
52.00
35.00
CONCLUSIONS
Catfish culture can be synchronized with the cultivation of Lemna to produce the biomass used to feed the
Tilapias. Lemna can also reduce the water pollution from fish culture. It means that IMTA system is successfully
able to promote a safe environment and high efficiency aquaculture. Therefore, IMTA can be a recommended
alternative for wider implementation to conserve water resource and inland water ecosystem.

393

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors thank Techno Park Enrekang Program, Center for Plant Conservation Botanical Gardens-LIPI,
Government of Enrekang, Head and staff of Enrekang botanical gardens, Miss Ari Nidhi, Miss Anita Khoiriyah,
Mr Erwin, Miss Miratul Maghfiroh, and the others who have helped this research run successfully.
REFERENCES
1. Alabaster, J.S & R. Lloyd. 1982. Water Quality Criteria for Freshwater, Second ed. FAO-United Nation,
Butterworth 361 hal.
2. Amalia, F. (2014) Kapasitas Fitoremediator Lemna perpusilla dalam Mereduksi Limbah Nitrogen dan
Fosfat pada Sistem Resirkulasi Budidaya ikan lele (Clarias gariepinus). Thesis Sekolah PascaSarjana
Institut Pertanian Bogor. Xx+48 pp
3. Barrington, K., Chopin, T. and Robinson, S. (2009). Integrated multi-trophic aquaculture (IMTA) in marine
temperate waters. In D. Soto (ed.). Integrated mariculture: a global review. FAO Fisheries andAquaculture Technical Paper. No. 529.
4. Rome, FAO. pp. 7–46. Brett J.R. 1979. Enviromental Factors and Growth. In: Fish Physiology, vol. 8 (edsW.S Hoar, D.J.
5. Brett J.R. 1979. Enviromental Factors and Growth. In: Fish Physiology, vol. 8 (eds W.S Hoar, D.J.)6. Chrismadha, T. (2014). Pemanfaatan Lemna (Lemna perpusilla Torr) sebagai Sumber Pakan Alami dan
Agen Fitoremediasi untuk Mendukung Usaha Perikanan Budidaya yang Murah dan Ramah Lingkungan.
Laporan Akhir Kegiatan Kompetitif 2014. Pusat Penelitian Limnologi-LIPI, Pusat Penelitian Biologi – LIPI,
Bogor 43 pp.
7. Diansari RVRR., Arini E., dan Elfitasari T. (2013). Pengaruh kepadatan yang berbeda terhadap
kelulushidupan dan pertumbuhan ikan nila (Oreochromis niloticus) pada sistem resirkulasi dengan filter
zeolit. Journal of Aquaculture Management and Technology Volume 2, (3): 37--45.
8. Eppley, R.W. (1977). The growth and culture of diatoms. In: Werner, D. (Ed.). The Biology of Diatoms.
University of California Press, Berkeley: 24-65.
9. Leng, R.A., J.H. Stambolie and R. Bell. 1995. Duckweed - a potential high-protein feed resource fordomestic
animals
andfish.
Livestock
Researchfor
Rural
Development7(1):http://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd/lrrd7/1/3.htm.
10. Marnani
S.,
Listiowati
E.,
Santoso,M.
(2011).
FrekuensiPemberianPakan
Dan
KondisiPemeliharaanBerbedaTerhadapLajuPertumbuhanLele Dumbo (Clariasgariepinus). OmniAkuatika Vol. X (12) Mei 11: 7 – 13
11. Nopriani U., Karti PDMH, Prihantoro I. (2014). Produktivitas duckweed (Lemna minor) sebagai hijauan
pakan alternatif ternak pada intensitas cahaya yang berbeda. JITV Vol 19 (4); 2014:272-286
12. Said. D.S, T. Chrismadha, Triyanto, dan A. Waluyo. (2016). Implementasi Teknologi budidaya terpadu
multi trofik untuk produksi ikan konsumsi . Studi kasus di Desa Ligarmukti , Kabupaten Bogor Prosiding
Konferensi dan Seminar Nasional Teknologi Tepat Guna-LIPI, Solo-Indonesia tahun 2015 hal 115 --130
13. Sunarma A. (2004). Mengenal Ikan Lele Sangkuriang. Balai Budidaya Air tawar (BBAT), Sukabumi.
14. Soto, D. (ed.). (2009). Integrated mariculture: a global review.
15. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 529. Rome, FAO. 2009. 183 pp.
16. Tavares, F.A., J.B.R. Rodrigues, D.M. Fracalossi, J. Esquivel, and R. Roubach. (2008). Dried duckweed
and commercial feed promote adequate growth performance of tilapia fingerlings. Biotemas 21(3):91--97.
17. Umaruddin, Jumriah Nur, Ayu Wulandari dan Munifatul Izzati. (2015). Efektivitas tanaman Lemna (Lemna
perpusilla Torr) sebagai agen fitoremediasi pada karamba jaring apung (KJA) di sekitar Tanjungmas
Semarang. Bioma, Vol. 17(1):1-8. Juni 2015.
18. Yuliati, P., Titik Kadarini, Rusmaedi dan Siti Subandiyah. (2003). Pengaruh padat Penebaran terhadap
Pertumbuhan dan Sintasan Dederan Ikan nila Gift (Oreochromis niloticus) di Kolam. [Effect of Stocking
Density on Growth and Survival Rates of Oreochromis niloticus in the Pond]. Jurnal Iktiologi Indonesia,
Vol 3, (2): 63--66, Desember 2003

394

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

A NEW METHOD TO ESTIMATE CONCENTRATIONS OF PHOSPHOROUS, NITROGEN AND
COD IN EUTROPHIC RIVERS
Tsuyoshi Kinouchi1*, Yan Zeng1
School of Environment and Society, Tokyo Institute of Technology*Corresponding author: kinouchi.t.ab@m.titech.ac.jp

1

ABSTRACTA new method was proposed to estimate the concentration of total phosphorous (TP), total nitrogen (TN) andchemical oxygen demand (COD) in eutrophic river streams as an alternative to the conventional rating method(LQ method). The method was formulated and parameterized based on the water quality data obtained froma number of water samples collected from six rivers flowing into Lake Kasumigaura. For estimating TP and
COD, the ratio of particulate phosphorous (PP) and particulate COD (PCOD) to the total constituents (PP/TP
and PCOD/COD, respectively) was represented as a function of concentration of suspended sediments (SS).
Furthermore, the ratio of constituent per unit weight of SS is represented by a function of SS with a correction
factors depending on the ratio of particulate component to the total concentration (PP/TP and PCOD/COD).
These equations are combined to calculate TP and COD from observed SS given as a single input variable.
For TN, we proposed a method to estimate dissolved nitrogen (DN) from the monitored (or measured) Nitrateconcentration (NO3-N) and particulate nitrogen (PN) from SS. The estimated concentrations of TP, TN and
COD well agreed with those observed with the root mean square error (RMSE) less than that calculated fromthe rating method. We concluded that by using monitored SS, NO3-N and the flow rate, we can obtain reliable
estimates of the concentration and load of TP, TN and COD in the eutrophic streams.
Keywords: COD, Estimates of Concentration, Suspended Sediment, Total Nitrogen, Total Phosphorous.
INTRODUCTION
Eutrophication of impounded water is a major environmental concern in Japan (Kim et al., 2012) as well as
many other countries. For water quality management and mitigation of eutrophication, it is highly demanded
to monitor the nutrient loading to the impounded water. Typically, periodical sampling and chemical analysis
have been conducted in many streams to quantify the concentrations of phosphorus, COD and nitrogen that
may affect the eutrophication of the effluent water body. Due to its time consuming and labor intensive works,
automated water quality monitoring stations have been installed as an alternative to the conventional sampling
method although the sampling method is still regarded as feasible approach for quantifying the nutrient load.
The most widely-used method for the loading estimation is called LQ method, which is based on therelationship between flow rate Q and nutrient load L. If a good correlation between Q and L is found, it ispreferred to apply the LQ method, but in many examples the correlation is not acceptable beyond our
expectation. Therefore, alternative method is highly demanded to better estimate the loading from inflowing
streams.
In this study, we develop a new method to estimate concentrations (and loadings) of TP (total phosphorus),
TN (total nitrogen) and COD (chemical oxygen demand) of stream water flowing in eutrophic rivers. For TP
and COD, equations were formulated and parameterized based on SS (suspended sediments) concentration
as input variable. For TN, in addition to SS concentration, we proposed a method to use measured NO 3-N(nitrate) concentration as input data. We finally show the comparison of the proposed method with theconventional LQ method.
STUDY AREA AND WATER QUALITY DATA
Introduction of study area
Our proposed method was applied to streams that are flowing to Lake Kasumigaura, which is located in thesouth east of Ibaraki prefecture (Figure 1). Lake Kasumigaura is the second largest lake in Japan which has
water surface of 167.63 km2 and catchment area of 2,156.7 km 2. It consists of two lakes, the West Lake andthe North Lake. Both of them are regarded as eutrophic lakes. Figure 1 shows six rivers focused in this study,
namely, Sakura River, Koise River, Ono River, Seimei River, Tomoe River, and Hokota River. The Sonobe
River was excluded in this paper due to data limitation. The red point plotted on each river stream shows theobservation site. The land use of the Koise and Sakura catchments is dominated by paddy fields and forests.
Tomoe and Hokota catchment is characterized by high proportion of farmland and orchards. Urban areas
occupy a large proportion in Tomoe and Ono catchments.

395

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Kasumigaura Lake and inflowing river catchments.
Water quality data
The water quality data used in this study was collected by the local office of MLIT from 2006 to 2014. It includes
data obtained during the flood season and non-flood season. Among them, data from 2006 to 2009 was used
for developing the new method and calibrating parameters, and data from 2010 to 2014 was used for validation.
The water quality components used in this study include suspended sediments (SS), total phosphorus (TP),particulate phosphorus (PP), total nitrogen (TN), particulate nitrogen (PN), dissolved nitrogen (DN), nitrate(NO3-N), COD and particulate COD (PCOD) among others.
DEVELOPMENT OF ESTIMATION METHOD
Framework of the estimation method
We used SS concentration and flow rate as input to estimate loads of total phosphorus and COD. The load of
total nitrogen was estimated from observed SS, nitrate (NO3-N) and flow rate. The framework for estimating
total phosphorus load and total COD load is shown in Figure 2.
The ratio between the particulate component (PP, PCOD) and total constituent (TP, COD) were found to berelated to SS concentration. The ratio of particulate components to SS concentration are estimated from SS
concentration with a correction factor . Combining the results from these steps, the total nutrient
concentration is estimated. Finally, nutrient loads are calculated from the concentration of SS and flow rate.
For nitrogen, the estimation procedure is shown in Figure 3. Firstly, concentration of dissolved nitrogen (DN)
is estimated by using observed nitrate concentration (NO 3-N). Secondly, PN is calculated from SS
concentration. Thirdly, by summing up the result from step one and two, the total nitrogen concentration (TN)can be estimated. Finally, same as TP and COD, nutrient loads are estimated by multiplying flow rate Q (mg/L)
and the estimated nitrogen concentration.
As explained above, if functions g1, g2, g3, f1, f2 and f3 are determined, time series of concentrations andloads of TP, TN and COD are estimate only by inputting monitored time series of SS concentration, flow rate
and nitrate concentration data.
Observed SS concentration
PP/TP = g1(SS)PCOD/COD= g2(SS)

PP/SS = f1 (SS)×
PCOD/SS = f2 (SS) ×

Observed flow rate

Estimated TP concentration
Estimated COD concentration

Estimated TP and COD loads

396

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Framework of TP and COD estimation.
Observed NO3-N
concentration

Observed SS concentration

DN = f3 (NO3-N)

PN = g3(SS)Observed flowrate

Estimated TN concentration
Estimated TN loads

Figure 3. Framework of TN estimation.
Estimation method of TP and COD
The ratio between the concentration of nutrient in particulate and dissolved forms was formulated. Nutrient
concentration C (mg/L) is equals to the sum of concentrations of nutrient in particulate form Cp (mg/L) anddissolved form Cd (mg/L), shown as Equation 1.

C  Cd  C p (1)The concentration of suspended sediments is expressed as SS (mg/L). The amount of particulate form
component contained in the unit amount of SS (= Wp) is expressed by Equation 2.

W p  C p SS (2)In river water, if the adsorption and leaching is at an equilibrium state, or the actual amount of adsorption issmall enough compared to the saturated adsorption amount of the particles, Equation 3 can be established.

W p  K d C d (3)where, Kd (mg/L) is the distribution coefficient. By equating the right hand side of Eqs. 2 and 3 and combining
with Equation 1, the ratio between the concentration of particulate form and the total concentration is expressedas Equation 4. Nutrients in particulate form flow into the river from different kinds of sources, leading to complex
interactive adsorption-desorption processes in actual situation of river water. So, a constant b is introduced to
fit the actual data used in this study.

Cp
C



bK d SS(4)
1  K d SS

From data analysis, we found that both PP/SS and PCOD/SS show little correlation with DP or DCOD, while
Wp is negatively correlated with SS. Therefore, we introduced Equation 5 to relate Wp with SS with a correction
factorto give better correlation between them by considering other factors. Here, we found that thecorrelation is affected by the ratio of Cp to C (Fig. 4). Thus, the equation linking Wp and SS takes the form
given by Equation 5 through 7.

CpSS f (SS )   (5)f ( SS )  F1 

F2  SS(6)
SS  F3  C p C A (7)where F1, F2, F3 and A are the constants which are determined based on the observed data. Cp/C is calculated
from Equation 4. Combining Eqs. 4 through 7 results in Equation 8.

F  SS   bK d SS   
C  SS   F1  2
1

SS

F
K
SS
3  
d



397

A1

(8)

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. The relationship between Wp and SS (Ono river, Left: PP, right: PCOD).
Estimation method of TN
The low correlation between PN and SS prevented us to apply the same method used for PP and PCOD. In
addition, most of nitrogen in the studied streams is in dissolved form, which is quite different from phosphorus
or COD. Thus, we tried to establish a different method for TN estimation.
Since a large proportion of DN is nitrate, a strong correlation was observed between DN concentration andnitrate concentration. Therefore, if nitrate concentration is directly monitored, DN concentration is estimatedfrom nitrate. The equation is established by applying linear regression as shown in Equation 9,

DN  a1 NO3  N  a2 (9)where a1 and a2 are constants; NO3-N is the concentration of nitrate (mg/L).
Since the concentration of particulate nitrogen (PN) is not strongly correlated with SS, an alternative method
for PN estimation was examined. We finally used a simple regression line to relate the concentrations of PN
to SS (Equation 10).
PN  cSS (10)As a consequence, TN is estimated by combining Eqs. 9 and 10. As mentioned above, our data suggested
that PN does not show a good correlation with SS as PP or PCOD does. Therefore, a further investigation isnecessary to find factors that affect PN concentration for improving the estimation of PN.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSFor TP and COD estimation, parameters appeared in each equation were calibrated to give a smallest RMSE.
The calibrated parameters for each river are listed in Table 1. Figures 5 and 6 show the results of fitting toEquation 4 and Equation 5, respectively. For the estimation of DN, observed nitrate concentration was used.
As shown in Figures 7 through 12, good agreements were observed between the observed TP, COD and TN
concentrations and those estimated from the proposed method.
Comparing with the results obtained from LQ method, it can be seen that the new method has greatly improved
the estimation results. Table 2 listed the root mean square error (RMSE) of the estimation results from the
proposed method as well as LQ method. It indicates that the new methods have improved the estimation
results of TN, COD and TP about 54%, 64% and 32% respectively, relative to the result from LQ method.

398

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

TP

COD

DN

Table 1. Parameters for nutrients estimation.
Sakura Koise Tomoe Hokota
Ono
b
0.93
0.92
0.93
0.97
0.97
Kd 0.114
0.049
0.118
0.06
0.094
A
2.4
1.7
1.7
1.4
2.1
F1
1
1
1
1
1
F2 0.9985 0.9982 0.9972 0.997 0.9988
F3
0.13
0.19
0.1
0.13
0.15
b
0.92
0.97
0.9
0.89
0.95
Kd 0.018
0.015
0.03
0.027
0.027
A
1
1.2
1.3
1.1
1.4
F1
10
10
10
10
10
F2
9.94
9.92
9.89
9.9
9.93
F3
0.3
0.5
0.6
0.6
0.7
a1 0.9057 0.8186 0.9420 1.1106 0.9109
a2 0.5506 1.0345 0.6555 0.5608 0.7602
c0.0042 0.0066 0.0138 0.0142 0.0060

Seimei
0.96
0.064
2.2
1
0.9992
0.33
0.95
0.025
1.7
10
9.95
1.4
0.80110.80880.0063Figure 5. Relationship between Wp and SS concentration (Ono River).

Figure 6. Relationship between Cp/SS/α and SS concentration (Ono River).

399

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

R2=0.640

0.8
0.6

0.4
0.2
0

R2=0.434

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

R2=0.432

0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Observed TP (mg/L)
Observed TP (mg/L)
Figure 7. Comparison of observed TP concentration with that estimated by L-Q method.
1
0.7
0.7
0.6
0.6
0.8
0.5
0.5
0.6
0.4
0.4
0.3
0.3
0.4
0.2
0.2
0.2
0.1
0.1
R2=0.922
R2=0.893
R2=0.9123
00
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7
Observed TP (mg/L)
Observed TP (mg/L)
Observed TP (mg/L)
Figure 8. Comparison of observed TP concentration with that estimated by the new method.
40
30
40
35
35
25
30
30
20
25
25
20
15
20
15
15
10
10
10
5
5
5
R2=0.688
R2=0.438
R2=0.465
000
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
Observed COD (mg/L)
Observed COD (mg/L)
Observed COD (mg/L)
Figure 9. Comparison of observed COD concentration with that estimated by L-Q method.

Estimated COD (mg/L)

Estimated TP (mg/L)

Estimated TP (mg/L)

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Observed TP (mg/L)

Estimated COD (mg/L)

Estimated COD (mg/L)

Estimated TP (mg/L)

0

0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0

Estimated TP (mg/L)

1

Estimated TP (mg/L)

Estimated TP (mg/L)

Table 2. Comparison of RMSE of the estimation results by the proposed method and LQ method.
SakuraKoise
Tomoe
HokotaOno
SeimeiTP
LQ
0.12730.15310.10480.2287
0.09500.1768NEW
0.05850.06470.04450.1046
0.03620.1073COD
LQ
4.73935.33064.56167.03084.93727.6862NEW
1.81591.4906
1.66992.52871.41953.5233TN
LQ
0.60970.60101.02292.08900.87130.9455NEW
0.32020.54080.83001.57750.48030.5422400

30

R2=0.954

25
20
15

10
5

R2=0.907

Estimated COD (mg/L)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

Estimated COD (mg/L)

Estimated COD (mg/L)

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

0

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0

R2=0.956

4
32

1R2=0.252

0

10

8
6
4
2

R2=0.443

0

Estimated TN (mg/L)

5

Estimated TN (mg/L)

Estimated TN (mg/L)

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 40
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Observed COD (mg/L)
Observed COD (mg/L)
Observed COD (mg/L)
Figure 10. Comparison of observed COD concentration with that estimated by the new method.
6
12
6
5
4
3

2
1
0

R2=0.157

4
32
1

R2=0.851

0

10
8
6

4
2

R2=0.683

Estimated TN (mg/L)

5

Estimated TN (mg/L)

1 2 3 4 5 6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0 1 2 3 4 5
Observed TN (mg/L)
Observed TN (mg/L)
Observed TN (mg/L)
Figure 11. Comparison of observed TN concentration with that estimated by L-Q method.
6
12
6

Estimated TN (mg/L)

0

6

5
4

3
2
1

R2=0.784

00
1 2 3 4 5 6
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Observed TN (mg/L)
Observed TN (mg/L)
Observed TN (mg/L)
Figure 12. Comparison of observed TN concentration with that estimated by the new method.

0

CONCLUSIONS
A new method was developed to estimate concentrations and loads of TP (total phosphorus), TN (total nitrogen)and COD (chemical oxygen demand) in river streams flowing into Lake Kasumigaura. By applying this method,
TP and COD concentrations are estimated solely from SS concentration. Besides, observed Nitrateconcentration (NO3-N) is necessary for estimating TN concentration. Further study is needed to monitor SS
and NO3-N for better estimation of TP, TN and COD.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This work has been financially supported by the River Foundation. Authors express sincere gratitude for this
support.
REFERENCES
1. J.Kim, Y.Nagano and H.Furumai (2012). Water Science & Technology,. Vol. 66 Issue 5, p1015-1021.
7p.

401

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

MONOFILLAMENT GILLNET AS A CONTROL OF MIDAS CICHLID (Amphilophus citrinellus)
AT IR. H. DJUANDA RESERVOIR, WEST JAVA-INDONESIA
Andri Warsa 1*, Endi Setiadi Kartamihardja1, Joni Haryadi1, Dimas Angga Hedianto1
Research Institute for Rehabilitation and Fish Conservation*Corresponding author: andriwarsa@yahoo.co.id1

ABSTRACT
Midas cichlid (Amphilophus citrinellus) is an invasive alien species in the Ir. H. Djuanda Reservoir. The
presence of these fish is one of the factors leading to the decline of fish species diversity. The purpose of thisstudy was to gain control techniques of Midas cichlid populations in the Ir. H. Djuanda Reservoir, West JavaIndonesia. The results showed for the control these population can be to do with catching using gillnet withmesh size of 3.8 cm (1.5 inch). The use of mesh sizes can catch fish on the size of the first length of maturity
are 11.3-13.5 cm (average 12.4 cm) for male and 11.6-12.7 cm (average 12.0 cm) for female. Optimal length
was caught with mesh size 3.2; 3.8; 4.4; 5.1 and 5.7 cm are 8.3; 9.9; 11.7; 13.3 and 14.8 cm respectively.
Mesh size of 3.8 cm was also just catch fewer another importantce economic fish spesies. Gillnet installation
can be done at the aquaculture location like zone 5 (Baras Barat). At the location of the aquaculture of anumber of Midas cichlid caught was high and most have mature. Catching with mesh sizes and the exact
location is expected to break the reproductive cycle of the fish.
Keywords: control, Midas cichlid, gillnet selectivity, Ir. H. Djuanda Reservoir
INTRODUCTION
Ir. H. Djuanda Reservoir has area 8,300 ha and multipurpose reservoir with main fuction are irrigation andflood control, while other functions are drinking and industrial water sources, generated hydroelectric power,
sport, tourism and fisheries. This reservoir has a high diversity of fish species, but now tend was decrease. Its
caused by the introduction of alien species and pollution from anthropogenic activities (Tjahjo, 1994; Innal,2012). Ir. H. Djuanda Reservoir is often carried out the stocking with exotic species (Krismono, 1989). The
introduction of exotic fish species is not careful will cause harm both the environment and economically (Gozlan,2009) and for capture fisheries at this reservoir (Tampubolon et al., 2005). it is caused by competition for feed
utilization and habitat, predation, and the introduction of parasites and diseases (Rocha & Freire, 2009;
Grabowska et al., 2010). The midas cichlid was dominant in Lake Panjalu and Kedung ombo Reservoir (Warsa& Purnomo, 2013).
Alien fish species in ecosystems will have an impact on native fish community structure, which in the end theexotic species can be dominant. It also occurred at the Lake Banyoles, Spain (Berthou & Amich, 2002). Hencethe need for an effort to control the population of the invasive alien species. The technique can be used in an
attempt eradication and control of invasive alien fish in a water body include fishing, habitat manipulation, use
poison (chemistry) and the introduction of predators (biological) (Corfield et al., 2008). The purpose of thisstudy was to known control techniques midas cichlid fish populations using gillnets in Ir. H. Djuanda Reservoir,West Java-Indonesia.
METHODSTime and Location
The study was conducted in Ir. H. Djuanda in May, June, and July 2012. The fish sample was catch using
monofilament gillnets with mesh sizes from 3.2 to 6.4 cm by 0.6 cm intervals (3.2; 3.8; 4.4; 5.1; 5.7 and 6.4
cm). Experimental fishing was conducted at Dam, Pelabuhan Biru and the aquaculture location (floating cagesnet) Zone 4 and zone 5 (Baras Barat) (Figure 1). Dam site is free of cage and deep near outlet. Pelabuhan
Biru is capture area by local fisherman. Installation gillnet was conducted at 17.00 pm and lifted at 05.00 am.
Mesh size used in the experiment were random. The fish are caught, after that measured using a board
measuring with an accuracy of 0.1 cm. Observed maturity level of gonad based on Cassie methods (Effendi,
1979). Fish sample was preserved using formalin 10% and was identified by Kullander (2003), and the site
Fishbase (Froese & Pauly, 2012).

402

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Location of experimental fishing using gillnet
Data analysis
Length frequency of fish sample was separated by mesh size and the location. Gillnet selectivity was analyzed
using the indirect method. This method is used by Ozyurt & Avsar (2005) to determine the selectivity of gillnet
for common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in Seyhan Dam Lake, Turkey. Estimating of selectivity parameters of bycomparing the catch from two different mesh sizes, m a and mb (example 3.2 cm vs 3.8 cm; 3.8cm vs 4.4 andetc based on mesh size). cm for the same length class (Sparre & Venema, 1999). The natural logarithm of thenumber of each class, Ca and Cb for gillnets with different mesh sizes, ma and mb is linear to the length of thefish:ln (Cb/Ca) = a +bL
where:
L= lenght class of fish (cm)a= interceptb= Slope
The optimum length (Lma and Lmb) for mesh sizes ma and mb
Lma = -2[ama/b(ma + mb)]
Lmb = -2[amb/b(ma + mb)]
Selection factor (SF) and standard deviation (SD) of experimental gillnet using more than two meshsizes use the following equation:
SF = -2

2]

SD = {1/n – 1)
(mi+1 – mi)]/bi2(mi + mi + 1)]}1/2
The probability of capture (P) of fish with a length (L) on gill nets with mesh sizes (m) was determinedby the equation:
P = exp[-(L-Lm)2/(2SD)2]
The optimum length (by probability of capture is 100%) for each mesh size is obtained:
Lm = SF x m
Determination of length at first mature was estimated using logistic curve (King, 2007). The number ofindividual fish that have matured gonads (TKG III and above) was included. The logistic equation used is asfollows:
P = 1/(1+exp[-r(L-Lm)
Where:P=
The proportion of mature fish gonad (%)
Lm =Length at first maturity (cm)L=
Total length (cm)
r
=
Slope
Curve linear constant of a relationship between the proportion of fish mature with a number of examples of thesame length class can be used to determine the value of r and Lc where r = -b and Lc = a/r. Logistic equation403

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferenceis also used by Hutubessy et al. (2005) to determine the length of the first mature of bony flyingfish(Hirundichthys oxycephalus) in Naku, Ambon Island.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Gillnet is dominant fishing gear that was widely used by fishermen at Ir. H. Djuanda and contribute as muchas 43% of total fish production (Kartamihardja, 1987). 17 species of fish was caught using gillnet experimental
during the study namely Marble goby (Oxyeleotris marmorata), Spotted barb (Puntius binotatus), Mexican
mojarra (Cichlasoma urophthalmus), Banded jewel cichlid (Hemichromis elongatus), Hampala barb (Hampala
macrolepidota), Parambassis siamensis, Beardless barb (Cyclocheilichthys Apogon), Two spot catfish (Mystus
nigriceps), Puntius bramoides, Jaguar guapote (Parachromis managuensis), Common carp (Cyprinus carpio),
Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus), Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), Bonylip barb
(Osteochilus vittatus), Midas cichlid (Amphilopus citrinellus), Striped catfish (Pangasianodon hypophthalmus)
and Snakeskin gourami (Trichopodus pectoralis). The composition of the fish by the time of arrest is presented
in Figure 2.
100

Trichopodus
pectoralis
Trichopodus
pectoralis

Amphilopus
citrinellus
Amphilopus
citrinellus

90

Pangasianodon
hypophthalmus
Pangasianodon
hypophthalmus

Komposisi hasil tangkapan (%)

Composition of capture (%)

80

Osteochilus
vittatus
Osteochilus
vittatus
Oreochromis
niloticus
Oreochromis
niloticus

70

Oreochromis
mossambicus
Oreochromis
mossambicus
Cyprinus
carpioCyprinus
carpio60

Parachromis
managuensis
Parachromis
managuensis

50

Puntiusbramoides
Puntiusbramoides
Mystusnigriceps
Mystusnigriceps

40

Cyclocheilichthys
apogonCyclocheilichthys
apogonParambassis
siamensis
Parambassis
siamensis

30

Hampalamacrolepidota
Hampalamacrolepidota
20

Hemichromis
elongatus
Hemichromis
elongatus
Cichlasoma
urophthalmus
Cichlasoma
urophthalmus

10

Puntiusbinotatus
Puntiusbinotatus

Oxyeleotris
marmorata
Oxyeleotris
marmorata0

May Mei

June Juni

July

Juli

Figure 2. Catch composition of based on temporal
Midas cichlid is a dominant species that predominantly caught by 73.9 to 91.8% based on the month. Other
dominant fish are Mexican mojarra and banded jewel cichlid is also an alien species. For economicallyimportant fish caught in considerable numbers include Nile tilapia and beardless barb.
Midas Cichlid were caught with gillnet at mesh size of 3.2; 3.8; 4.4; 5.1; 5.7 and 6.4 cm respectively has a total
length around 7.2-12 cm; 8.1-16.6 cm; 9.5-15.2 cm; 11.5-15.6 cm; 13.5-17.5 cm, and 10.5-19.5 cm. The total
length of Midas cichlid was caught for each mesh shown in Table 1.

404

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1. Total lenght distibution of Midas cichlid at Ir. H. Djuanda Reservoirs
Mesh size (cm)Mid length (cm)

3.20

3.80

4.40

5.10

5.70

6.40

3.5
4.5
5.5
6.5
7.5

57

8.5

91

76

9.5

114

239

8

10.5

74

173

61

2

11.5

16

52

74

1

12.5

9

34

25

13.5

2

16

17

3

1

14.5

1

2

8

7

1

15.5

1

1

2

4

13

16.5

1

1

9

1

5

2

17.5
18.5

1

19.5

1

20.5
Total

352

561

179

60

16

36

The total length of Midas cichlid male was caught during the study around 6.0-19.5 cm for male and 6.5-17.0
cm for females. Number of Midas cichlid was caught in all mesh size experimental gillnet as shown in Figure
3.
600

Trichopodus pectoralis

Trichopodus pectoralis

550

Amphilopus citrinellus

Amphilopus citrinellus

Pangasianodon hypophthalmus

Jumlah individu (ekor)

Number (individual)

500
450

Pangasianodon hypophthalmus
Osteochilus
vittatus
Osteochilus
vittatus

400

Oreochromis
mossambicus
Oreochromis
mossambicus

350

Cyprinus
carpiocarpio
Cyprinus

Oreochromis
niloticus
Oreochromis
niloticus

Parachromis
managuensis
Parachromis
managuensis

300

Puntiusbramoides
Puntiusbramoides

250

Mystusnigriceps
Mystusnigriceps

Cyclocheilichthys
Cyclocheilichthys
apogonapogon

200

Parambassis
siamensis
Parambassis
siamensis

Hampalamacrolepidota
Hampalamacrolepidota

150

Hemichromis
elongatus
Hemichromis
elongatus

100

Cichlasoma
urophthalmus
Cichlasoma
urophthalmus
Puntiusbinotatus
Puntiusbinotatus

50

Oxyeleotris
marmorata
Oxyeleotris
marmorata

0
3.2

3.8

4.4

5.1

5.7

6.4

Figure 3. Catch composition of fish based on mesh size
The gillnet with mesh size of 3.2 cm and 3.8 cm gives catches were highest. Mesh size of 3.2 cm also catchother species with a considerable amount include beardless barb and two spot catfish is native species. For amesh size of 3.8 cm, other species are also caught including Mexican mojarra and banded jewel cichlid. Bothof these fishes are a fish species of potentially invasive alien species in the waters Ir. H. Djuanda.
Midas cichlid is also the dominant species was caught in all locations experimental gillnet with a percentage
of 33.3-84.5% (Figure 4).

405

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference
100

Trichopoduspectoralis
pectoralis
Trichopodus

Amphilopus
Amphilopuscitrinellus
citrinellus

90

Pangasianodon
Pangasianodon hypophthalmus
hypophthalmus

Compositionof capture(%)(%)
Komposisi
hasil tangkapan

80

Osteochilusvittatus
vittatus
Osteochilus
Oreochromis niloticus
niloticus
Oreochromis

70

Oreochromis mossambicus
mossambicus
Oreochromis
Cyprinuscarpio
carpioCyprinus

60

Parachromismanaguensis
managuensis
Parachromis

50

Puntiusbramoides
bramoides
Puntius
Mystusnigriceps
nigriceps
Mystus40

Cyclocheilichthys apogon
apogonCyclocheilichthys
Parambassissiamensis
siamensis
Parambassis

30

Hampalamacrolepidota
macrolepidota
HampalaHemichromis elongatuselongatus
Hemichromis

20

Cichlasoma urophthalmus

Cichlasoma urophthalmus

10

Puntius binotatus
Puntiusbinotatus
Oxyeleotrismarmorata
marmorata
Oxyeleotris

0
Pelabuhan biru

DamBaras Barat

Pasir Jangkung

Figure 4. Catch composition of fish based on research stations
Zone 5 (Baras Barat) is located with highest catch of Midas cichlid. That is aquaculture location and perhaps
the fish will be associated with aquaculture activity. Based on field study the fish using the loose feed as a foodand using the cages as nursery ground.
Selectivity factors and standard deviation of gillnet with two mesh size combination shown at Table 2.
Selectivity factors for gillnet with combination all mesh size 3,2; 3,8; 4,4; 5,1 dan 5,7 cm is 2,5987 with standar
deviation is 1,0921.
Table 2.Regression constant and selectiviy parameters of gillnet for Midas cichlid
Mesh size (cm)regression constants
Selectivity prameters
ma

mb

a

b

r2

Lma (cm)

Lmb (cm)

SF

SD

3,2

3,8

-18,1072,16530,98457,6

9,1

0,6621

0,81373,8

4,4-21,100

1,96100,93069,9

11,7

0,92550,96204,45,1-18,760

1,39600,999912,614,31,2033

1,09695,1

5,7-15,228

1,01110,932214,215,9

1,6551

1,2865

Fraksi tertahan (%)

Kumulative (%)

The total length with the highest probability of capture for combination of mesh sizes of 3.2 and 3.8 cm is
7.6-9.1 cm. For a combination of mesh sizes of 3.8 and 4.4 cm is 9.9-11.7 cm; to a combination of mesh sizes
from 4.4 to 5.1 cm is 12.6-14.3 cm while the combination of mesh sizes of 5.1 and 5.7 cm is 14.2-15.9 cm.
Optimal total length was caught in the mesh of 3.2; 3.8; 4.4; 5.1 and 5.7 cm respectively 8.3; 9.9; 11.7; 13.3
and 14.8 cm (Figure 5)

1.0
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0.0

3.2
3.8
4.5
5.1
5.7

0

2

4

6

Total length (cm)

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22
Panjang total (cm)Figure 5. Selection curve of midas cichlid at Ir. H. Djuanda Reservoir

406

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

1.0

1.0

0.9

0.9

0.8

0.8

0.7

0.7

Kumulative (%)

0.6% kumulatif% kumulatif

Kumulative (%)

The length at first maturity ranged from 11.3 to 13.5 cm with an average of 12.4 cm for males, while for females
ranged from 11.6 to 12.7 cm with an average of 12.0 cm ( Figure 6).

0.5

0.4
0.3
0.2

0.6
0.5

0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1

0.1

0.0

0.0

0

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

0

Panjang total (cm)

2

4

6

8

10

12

14

16

18

20

22

Panjang total (cm)Totallength (cm)

Total length (cm)FemaleMale
Figure 6. Length at first maturity (Lm) of midas cichlid
Total lenght of male with mature condition was caught around 11.0-19.5 cm and 10.0-17.0 cm for female. Its
dominant capture in Zone 5 using gillnet with mesh size 4.4-5.7 cm.
Gillnet is a fishing gear with high selectivity and size of the fish was captured depending on the mesh size
(Ozekinci, 2005). Control of invasive alien species can be done with gillnets. Control of alien fish populationsin Lake Mizoro Ga Ike in Japan conducted by using net fishing and damage of spawning ground give theimpact on the population decrease as much as 40-60% in 4 years (Abekura et al., 2004).
Similar results were obtained from studies Hedianto & Purnamaningtyas (2011) in which the dominant fishcaught with gillnet in Ir. H. Djuanda is Midas cichlid. The dominant species was caught using gillnets in Ir. H.
Djuanda was changes, in 1982-1989 dominant fish caught Hampala barb and Mystacoleocus marginatus(Krismono, 1989; Azizi & Sadili, 1994). Its a native species that has spread most widely in Ir. H. Djuanda
Reservoir (Tjahjo & Umar, 1994), but now its existence was replaced by Midas cichlid. Midas cichlid is also
the dominant fish species in some other waters, such as Situ Panjalu and Kedung Ombo (Purnomo, 2010;
Warsa, 2011). Negatively impact of Midas cichlid dominance for fish communities in Reservoir Ir. H. Djuanda,
namely a decrease in the diversity of fish species (Hedianto & Purnamaningtyas, 2011). Optimal length ofMidas cichlid was caught in Ir. H. Djuanda in the mesh size of 3.2; 3.8 and 4.4 cm smaller than the size caught
in Situ Panjalu namely 10; 11.5 and 14 cm (Warsa & Purnomo, 2013). The total length of the Midas cichlid
biggest caught in Ir. H. Djuanda (19.5 cm) smaller than caught in Australian waters is 24 cm (Corfield et al.,2008). Selectivity factor of gillnet for midas cichlid at Ir. H. Djuanda also smaller in comparison with situ Panjalu
is 3.0745. The total length was caught on two mesh sizes combination is 3.2 and 3.8 cm, and 3.8 and 4.4 cm
fish Oskar in Ir. H. Djuanda smaller than in Situ Panjalu ie 10.7 and 12.8 and 11.2 cm and 13.3 cm (Warsa &Purnomo, 2013). Hamley (1975) states that the total length of fish caught is 20% longer or shorter than the
optimum length. In theory, total length was caught on mesh sizes are presented in Table 3.
Table 3. Theoritically of total length at difference of mesh size
Mesh size (cm)
Total length (cm)
3,2
6,6-10,03,8
7,9-11,9
4,4
9,4-14,0
5,1
10,6-15,9
5,7
11,0-17,8
Research from Purnomo & Warsa (2013) showed that the size of the head girth, HG and the maximum girth,
MG of Midas cichlid in Ir. H. Djuanda each ranging from 5.7 to 12.0 cm and 6.6 to 13.3 cm. The relationshipbetween head circumference and weight to the total length (TL) of Midas cichlid is:
MG = 0,801 TL + 0,296
R2 = 0,920
HG = 0,788 TL - 0,248
R2 = 0,889
Head girth, HG and the maximum girth, MG positively correlated with the total length and the factor that
determine the size was caught in gillnet (Kurkilahti et al., 2002; Stergiou & Erzini, 2002). Fish caught will havethe size of Head girth, HG and the maximum girth, MG that is equal to or slightly larger than the circumferenceof mesh sizes (Carol & Garcia-Berthou, 2009). Head girth, HG and the maximum girth, MG estimation of Midascichlid and comparison against the circumference of mesh size is presented in Table 4.

407

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 4. Estimation and ratio head and maximum girth versus mesh perimeter for Midas cichlid
Mesh size (cm)
HG:MP
MG:MP
3,2

0,79-1,41 (1,02 ±0,12)

0,91-1,14 (1,14 ±0,14)

3,8

0,90-1,29 (1,05 ±0,10)

1,00-1,40 (1,1 ±0,11)

4,5

0,76-2,00 (1,1 ±0,13)

0,76-2,10 (1,2 ±0,14)

5,1

0,62-1,52 (1,01 ±0,1)0,70-1,70 (1,1 ±0,11)

5,7

0,69-1,20 (1,0 ±0,69)

0,70-1,20 (1,1 ±0,12)

6,4

0,63-1,22 (0,98± 0,63)

0,70-1,10 (1,0± 0,11)

Midas cichlid was caught in mesh sizes from 3.2 to 5.1 are generally caught on the head. For Midas cichlid
was caught in mesh sizes from 6.4 to 7.1 cm will be trapped in the body. Generally, fish will be caught in themesh with a mesh ratio of the circumference to the head and maximum girth ranging from 1.0 to 1.1 (Reis, &Pawson, 1999). The ratio between head circumference and maximum girth to the circumference of mesh size
can be used to estimate the position of the fish when caught in gill nets (Marais, 1985; Jawad et al., 2009).
The size of Midas cichlid before first mature dominance caught at mesh size ≥ 3,8 cm. The size of first maturesmaller when compared with the results of research Purnamaningtyas & Tjahjo (2010), which ranges from 1221 cm. Therefore, control of Midas cichlid can be done using gillnets with a mesh size of 3.8 cm. In the meshsize, native fish caught was low (<3%) and most are alien fish that could potentially become invasive, ie
Mexican mojarra and banded jewel cichlid. Mesh size that is most efficient for caught of fish have lower
selectivity curve compare with another mesh size (Hamley, 1980). Mesh size with the lowest selectivity was
3.8 cm, so that gillnets with a mesh size of 3.8 cm is more efficient to catch fish compared to other mesh sizes(Purnomo & Kartamihardja, 1983). The location for setting gillnet which aims to control Midas cichlid populationin Ir. H. Djuanda Reservoir is in the aquaculture zone. The catch with using gillnets indicates that theaquaculture location zone 5 (Baras Barat) is the location with the highest Midas cichlid catches. The fish withmature gonads is dominant caught at that location. The gillnet installation can be done by surrounding thefloating cages net.
CONCLUSIONSThe control of Midas cichlid populations can be done using gillnets with a mesh size of 3.8 cm (1.5 inches).
The use of mesh sizes can catch of Midas cichlid before reaching the first of maturity size that is 7.9 to 11.9
cm. With this mesh sizes are also lower catches another economically important fish. Location of gillnet
installation for the control of Midas cichlid at aquaculture location likes Baras Barat (zone 5).
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This paper is part of Fish Population Biology Research and Alternative Technology for the control of Invasive
Alien Species at Ir H Djuanda (West Java), Sermo (D. I. Yogyakarta), and Kedung Ombo and Sempor (Central
Java).
REFERENCES
1. Abekura, K., Hori M.& Takemon Y. (2004). Changes in fish community after invansion and control of alienfish population in Mizoro-Ga-Ika. Kyoto City. Global Environmental Research 8(2). p. 145 – 154.
2. Azizi, A & Sadili D. (1994). Analisa usaha alat tangkap gillnet di Waduk Jatiluhur. Bul. Perik. Penel. Darat
12(2), 90–95.
3. Berthou, E. G., & Amich R. M. (2002). Fish ecology and conservation in Lake Banyoles (Spain): The
neglected problem of exotic species. in Cowx, I. G Edt: Management and ecology of lake and reservoir
fisheries. Blackwell science. p. 223–241.
4. Carol, J & Garcia-Berthou E. (2009). Gillnet selectivity and its relationship with body shape for eightfreshwater fish species. J. Appl. Ichthyol. 23, 654–660
5. Corfield, J., Diggles, B., Jubb, C., McDowall, R. M., Moore, A., Richards, A. & Rowe, D. K. (2008). Reviewof the impacts of introduced ornamental fish species that have established wild populations in Australia.
Prepared for the Australian Government Department of the Environment, Water, Heritage and the Arts.
Commonwealth of Australia. 277p
6. Effendie, M. I. (1979). Metode biologi perikanan. Yayasan Dewi Sri. Bogor. 112p.
7. Froese, R. & Pauly D. Editors. (2012). FishBase. World Wide Web electronic publication.
www.fishbase.org, version (10/2012).
8. Gozlan, R. E. (2009). Biodiversity crisis and the introduction of non-native fish: Solution, not scapegoats.
Fish and fisheries 10. p. 109–110

408

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

9. Grabowska, J., Kotusz J., & A. Witkowski. (2010). Alien invansive fish species in Polish waters: an
overview. Folia Zool 59(1), 73–85
10. Hamley, J. M. (1975). Review of gillnet selectivity. J. Fish. Res. Board. Can 32,1943–1969
11. Hamley, J. M. 1980. Sampling with gill nets. In Backiel T. &. R.L. Welcome (eds). Guidelines for samplingfish in inland waters, EIFAC Tech. Pap., (33), 37–53.
12. Hedianto, D. A., & Purnamaningtyas S. E. (2011). Penerapan Kurva ABC (Rasio Kelimpahan/Biomassa)
untuk mengevaluasi Dampak introduksi terhadap komunitas ikan di Waduk Ir. H. Djuanda. In
Kartamihardja, E. S., M. F. Rahardjo & K. Purnomo (Eds). Forum Nasional Pemacuan Sumberdaya Ikan
III: 1-11p
13. Hutubessy, B. G., Syahailatua A., & Messe, J. W. (2005). Selektivitas gillnet dalam penangkapan ikan
terbang di perairan Naku, Pulau Ambon. Torani 15(6) Edisi Suplemen: 356-360
14. Innal, D. (2012). Alien fish spesies in reservoir system in Turkey: a review. Management of BiologicalInvansions 3(2), 115–119
15. Jawad, L. A., McKenzie A., & Al-Noor S. S. (2009). Relationships between opercular girth, maximum girthand total length of fishes caught in gillnets in the estuarine and lower river sections of Shatt al-Arab River(Basrah Province, Iraq). J. Appl. Ichthyol. 25, 470–473
16. Kartamihardja, E. S. (1987). Pemantauan gillnet untuk menduga produksi ikan di Waduk Djuanda. Bull.
Penel.Perik. Darat 6(1), 85–91
17. King, M. (2007). Fisheries biology, Assessment and Management. Blackwell Publishing. United States Of
America. 382p.
18. Kottelat, M., Whitten J. A., Kartikasari S. N. & S. Wirjoatmodjo. (1993). Freshwater fishes of Western
Indonesia And Sulawesi. Periplus Edition (HK) Ltd. Hongkong. 377 p.
19. Krismono. (1989). Komunitas ikan di Waduk Jatiluhur selama 5 tahun (1982-1986). Bull. Penel. Perik.
Darat 8(2), 40–49
20. Kullander, S. O. (2003). Family cichlidae (cichlids). p. 605-654. In R.E. Reis, S.O. Kullander & C. J.
Ferraris, Jr. (eds.) Checklist of the Freshwater Fishes of South and Central America. Porto Alegre:
EDIPUCRS, Brasil.
21. Kurkilahti, M., Appelberg. M., Hesthagen. T.& M Rask. (2002). Effect of fish shape on gillnet selectivity: astudy with Fulton’s condition factor. Fisheries Journal 54,153–170
22. Marais, J F. K., (1985). Some factor influence the size of fishes caught in gillnets in eastern Cape estuaries.
Fish. Res., 3, 251–261
23. Ozekinci, U. (2005). Determination of the selectivity of monofilament gillnets used for catching the annularsea bream (Diplodus annularis L., 1758) by lenght-girt relationship in Izmir Bay (Aegen Sea). Turk J Vet
Anim Sci 29, 375–380
24. Ozyurt, C. E & Avsar. D. (2005). Investigation of the selectivity parameter for Carp (Cyprinus carpio
Linnaeus, 1758) in Syhan Dam Lake. Turk J Vet Anim Sci 29. 219–223 p
25. Purnamaningtyas S.E & Tjahjo D.W.H. (2010). Beberapa aspek biologi ikan oskar (Amphilophus
citrinellus) di Waduk Ir H Djuanda, Jatiluhur, Jawa Barat. Bawal 3(1), 9–16
26. Purnomo, K & Kartamihardja E. S. (1983). Efesiensi alat tangkap gillnet di Waduk Jatiluhur, Jawa Barat.
Bull.Pen. PD 4(1), 41–48
27. Purnomo, K. (2010). Konservasi Sumberdaya Ikan di Waduk Kedungombo Provinsi Jawa Tengah. In
Djumanto., H. Saksono., Probosunu, N., R. Widaningroem & Suadi: Eds. Prosiding Seminasr Nasional
Tahunan VII.Universitas Gadjah Mada: p. 1-10
28. Purnomo, K & Warsa A. (2013). Hubungan lingkar kepala dan badan terhadap panjang total oskar(Amphilophus citrinellus) di Waduk Ir. H. Djuanda, Jawa Barat. In Kartamihardja, E.S., M.F. Rahardjo.,
Krismono., O.Suhara & K.Purnomo.Forum Nasional Pemulihan dan Konservasi Sumberdaya Ikan IV:1-5
29. Reis, E. G., &. Pawson, M.G. (1999). Fish morphology and estimating selectivity by gillnets. Fisheries
Research 39, 263–273
30. Rocha, G. R. A., & Freire. K. M. F (2009). Biology and dominance relationships of the main fish species
in the Lake Encantada, Ilheus, Brazil. Acta Limnol Bras 21 (3):p. 309 – 316
31. Sparre, P & Venema, S. C (1999). Introduksi pengkajian stok ikan tropis. FAO. 438p
32. Stergiou, K. I & Erzini. K., (2002). Comparative fixed gear studies in the Cyclades (Aegen Sea): size
selectivity of small-hook longlines and monofilament gillnets. Fisheries Research 58, 25–40
33. Tampubolon PARP., IH Pradana & A. Warsa. 2015. Determining monofilament gillnet optimum mesh size
to mitigate Amphilophus citrinellus population outbreaks in Ir. H. Djuanda Reservoir. Ind. Fish. Res.J
21(2):67-74
34. Tjahjo, D. W. H. (1994). Studi pemanfaatan pakan oleh juvenil hampal (Hampala macrolepidota) di Waduk
Jatiluhur, Jawa Barat. Bull. Penel.Perik.Darat 12(2) Supplemen, 54–66
35. Tjahjo, D. W. H & Umar. C., (1994). Interaksi beberapa jenis ikan Di Waduk Jatiluhur, Jawa Barat. Bull.
Penel.Perik.Darat 12(2) Supplemen, 67–77

409

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

36. Warsa, A. (2011). Komposisi dan keragaman jenis ikan hasil tangkapan gillnet di Situ Panjalu, Kabupaten
Ciamis-Jawa Barat. In Isnansetyo, I., Djumanto & Suadi: Eds. Prosiding Seminasr Nasional Tahunan
VII.Universitas Gadjah Mada: p. 1-7
37. Warsa A & K Purnomo. 2013. Selektivitas gilnet monofilamen dan aspek biologi ikan oskar (Amphilophus
citrinellus) di Situ Panjalu, Ciamis. J. Lit. Perikanan. Ind 19(2): 65-72
38. Warsa, A & Purnomo, K. (2013). Seleltivitas jaring insang monofilamen dan aspek biologi ikan oskar(Amphilophus citrinellus) di Situ Panjalu. J. Lit. Perikan. Ind 19(2), 65–72

410

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

PHYTOTECHNOLOGY APPLICATION TO CONTROL LAKE WATER QUALITY: A
PRELIMINARY TRIAL TO USE FLOATING PLANTS FOR CONTROLLING WATER QUALITY IN
A SMALL LAKE OF SITU CIBUNTU, CIBINONG, INDONESIA
Tjandra Chrismadha, Tri Suryono, Yayah Mardiati, Endang Mulyana
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences
Corresponding author: tjandra@limnologi.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACTA preliminary trial to use aquatic plants for controlling small lake – Situ Cibuntu in Cibinong, West Java,
Indonesia - water quality has been carried out. A phytotechnology pond system consisted of 2 tarpauline pondseries, each contained 1 reservoir pond, 4 phytoremediation ponds, and 1 buffer pond. The phytoremediaalfunction was facilitated by some floating plants which were planted in the phytoremediation ponds. The
experimental floating plants were minute duckweed (Lemna perpusilla), greater duckweed (Spirodellapolyrizha), water lettuce (Pystia stratiotes) and water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes). The phytoremediation
capacity was evaluated according to some water quality parameters monitored at points of the reservoir pond,
phytoremediation ponds, and buffer pond. They included pH, DO, conductivity and turbidity measured twice a
week, as well as total suspended solid (TSS), total organic matter (TOM), total nitrogen (TN) and total
phosphorous (TP) which sampled and analysed every week. There were variations in ability to absorp andeliminate water contaminats among the experimental plants which appeared to be associated with their growthand biomass productivity. A remarkable high phytoremediation capacity was shown by water hyacint and water
lettuce, which under the experimental condition able to eliminate TSS, TOM, TN and TP up to 81.48 %,51,21 %, 85.82 %, 24.07%, and 79.63 %, 26.18 %, 78.95%, 100 %, respectively. The results shows thatfloating aquatic plants can be potentially used for lake water phytoremediation agents. Meanwhile, theobserved variation among the plants phytoremedial capacity emphasizes the important of plant selection indeveloping the phytotechnology for lake water quality control. This selection has to consider the lake water
trophic status and in particular has also optimized by appropriate phytotechnology pond design.
Key words: phytotechnology, aquatic plants, lakes, water quality
INTRODUCTION
Water contamination has been a major problem in inland waters, which is mainly caused by input of waste
water to the river stream that flows through dense populated and industrial area. As an example, Garno (2001)
has reported that contamination load from domestic and industrial activities in the high Citarum River watershed
was up to 338.92 tons BOD/day and 545.11 tons COD/day which enter to the Saguling reservoir water. At thesame time, load of nutrients enter the Saguling Reservoir water was approximately 34.032 tons N/day and 5.5
tons P/day. There was still some more additional load from floating cage aquaculture activities which accounted
up to 10.952 tons organic/year, 478 ton N/year, and 68 ton P/year (Garno, 2002). The high nutrient input hascaused water eutrophication in the reservoir, as has been reported that the water contain 0.684-3.460 mg/L
TN and 0.067-0.364 mg/L TP, while the chlorophyll content 5.364-71.126 mg/m3 (Hart et al., 2002; IHPUNESCO, 2011).
Even though it has been occurred since a long time ago, the problem of water contamination and eutrophication
has not yet been able to overcome effectively, due largely to its complexity. This is particularly related to thedense population which give a consequency of high demand on land and water for housing, agriculture,
aquaculture, and industrial purposes. It is considered, therefore, the need of a strong breakthrough measurethat can be more effectively and efficienly overcome this problem in line with local community empowerment
programmes, particularly in terms of economic development sectors. One of the effort is by application ofphytotechnology, which is using aquatic plants to become water quality phytoremedial agents (UNEP, 2003).
Aquatic plants give advantage in controlling water pollution due to the natural properties so as less side impacts
imposed to the environment. . Indeed, aquatic vegetation can be potentially served as habitat for some aquaticorganisms, so that can also be useful to increase the biodiversity over there. Some aquatic plants has also
known to have high nutrition value and can be used for protein source and natural feed (Chrismadha et al.,2013).
Efforts to employ aquatic plants for water pollution control has been widely innitiated. For examples, someduckweeds has been employed for domestic and industrial waste water treatments (Cheng et al., 2002; ElKheir et al., 2007; Ansal et al., 2010; Ferdoushi et al., 2008; Schroder et al., 2007). Cedergreen & Madsen(2002) reported the ability of Lemna minor to absorp NH4 and NO3 through the roots and leaves. Under in vitro
condition, the absorption rate of nitrogen and phosphorous compounds was up to 3.36 g/m 2/day and 0.20
g/m2/day, respectively, while in the field the absorption rate was up to 2.11 g/m 2/day and 0.59 g/m2/day (Cheng

411

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

et al., 2002). In the mean time, El-Kheir et al. (2007) reported the capacity of Lemna gibba to eliminate somewater quality parameters, including total suspended solid, BOD, COD, NO 3, NH4, o-PO4, Cu, Pb, Zn, and Cd
as much as 96.3 %, 90.6 %, 89.0 %, 100.0 %, 82.0 %, 64.4 %, 100.0 %, 93.6 %, and 66.7 %, respectively.
Alaert et al. (1996) reported that duckweed could eliminate 74% TKN (Total Kyeldahl N) in a waste water
treatment pond with retention time of 21 days, to produce output of relatively low nutrient content water, which
was 2.7 mg/L TKN and 0.4 mg/L TP.
At the same time, water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) has been reported to remove as much as 190-329 kg N/haand 25-34 kg P/ha annualy, and potentially eliminate some heavy metals as well as some water contamination
parameter, such as COD, BOD, suspended solid, and nutients (Khan et al., 2014; Fonkou et al., 2002; Lu etal., 2010; Chakraborty, 2015). Meanwhile, other floating aquatic plant of water hyacinth (Eichornia crassipes)
has pointed out to be potential for river water improvement, water pollution controll in palm oil industry, andalso heavy metals ellimination (Weiliao & Chang, 2004; Hammad, 2011; Swain et al., 2014; Chukwunonso etal., 2014; Maulion et al., 2015; Moyo et al., 2013; Omondi et al., 2015).
Beside as waste water treatment agent, some aquatic plants has also been known to have high potential fornatural feed, such as those of belong to duckweeds (Hasan & Chakrabarti, 2009; Chrismadha et al. 2014).
This duckweed species has high protein content, which is 10-43 % of the dry weight (Leng et al., 1995;
Landesman, 2005), as well as supporting by high biomass productivity up to 13-38 ton dry weight/Ha/year(Ansal et al., 2010). Some experiments has been carried out to use these aquatic plants for feeding someanimals, including duck, pig, and nile tilapia fish (Leng et al., 1995). A trial in Brazil has shown the potential ofdried duckweed biomass for supplement feed to replace commercial pellet up to 50% without any detrimental
effect on the growth (Tavares et al., 2008). Feed convertion ratio (FCR) of Lemna gibba biomass for feedingtilapia fish was 1.5, while the specific growth rate was up to 0.71 (El-Shafaia et al., 2004).
Situ Cibuntu is a small lake located in Cibinong Science Center and Botanical Garden of Indonesian Instituteof Sciences (CSCBG-LIPI) Cibinong, West Jawa, Indonesia. It has a wide of 15.026 m 2, maximum depht of
1.6 m, total water volume 13.460 m 3, and water retention time of about 10 days (Nugroho, 2002). Some
previous studies reported that the lake water was in classification of mesotrophic – eutrophic. For examples,
Tarigan (2000) reported the lake water condition was eutrophic with TN and TP content 2.30 mg/L and 0.33
mg/L in average, respectively. Damayanti (2001) reported the water NO 3 and o-PO4 content in the range of
0.22-1,62 mg/L and 0.0004-0.988 mg/L, respectively, followed by phytoplankton abundance of 58,74611,543,786 individu/L and water tranparency of 22.7-85.0 cm. Nugroho (2002) reported that the NO3 content
was 0.54-1.13 mg/L, o-PO4 was 0.02-0.03 mg/L, and chlorophyll content was 25.55-87.61 mg/L, and classified
the water was suitable for fishery purposes. Accoding these facts, it is considered the need efforts to improve
Situ Cibuntu water quality by controlling nutrient content in the water. In this study, a trial of phytotechnology
application was carried out to reduce nutrient concentration in the lake water, by chanelling the water into a
series of phytoremedial ponds where some floating aquatic plants was grown. The study aims to figure out thecapacity of various floating aquatic plants in eliminating nutrients, which were TN and TP from the lake water.
METHODS
The phytotechnology pond system consisted of 2 tarpauline pond series, each contained 1 reservoir pond
(RP), 4 phytoremediation ponds (FP-1 and FP-2), and 1 buffer pond (BP). The reservoir pond has a function
to collect water from the lake, which then channelled into the phytoremediation ponds before it flows out to thebuffer pond and discharged back to the lake. The average water debit was 35 m 3/day which set up the water
residence time of 27,42 hours. A set of solar cell system was employed to enable the water circulation bymeans of a water pump (Shimizu® 128 bit). Under low irradiance the source of power was switched to publickelectricity to maintain the continuous flow. The schematic of phytotechnological pond is presented in Figure
1.

412

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Schematic (left) and field lay out of the experimental phytotechnology pond (middle) with various
floating aquatic plants (right)
The phytoremedial function was facilitated by some floating plants which were planted in the phytoremediation
ponds, all obtained from aquatic plants collection of Research Center for Limnologi – Indonesian Institute of
Sciences in Cibinong, Indonesia. The experimental floating plants were minute duckweed (MD; Lemna
perpusilla), greater duckweed (GD; Spirodella polyrizha), water lettuce (WL; Pystia stratiotes) and water
hyacinth (WH; Eichornia crassipes). Each plant was reared in one line consisted of 4 tarpauline ponds, andthe growth and biomass productivity were observed fortnightly for minute duckweed and greater duckweed
and every 2 weeks for water lettuce and water hyacinth. The plants specific growth rate (µ) was calculated
according to a formula as follow:

in which: µ= specific growth rate (%/day), Xo = innitial biomass, Xt = biomass at day t, and t = time (day).
Meanwhile, the plant biomass productivity (P) was calculated following formula:in which: P = biomass productivity (kg/day), Xo = innitial biomass, Xt = biomass at day t, and t = time (day).
The phytoremediation capacity was evaluated according to some water quality parameters monitored at pointsof the reservoir pond (RP), phytoremediation ponds (FP-1 and FP-2), and buffer pond (BP). They included
total suspended solid (TSS), total organic matter (TOM), total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorous (TP) whichsampled and analysed every week, be analysed according to APHA (1998). The plants capacity to eliminate
contaminants (ER) was calculated according a formula below:

in which: ER = ellimination rate (%), Xo = innitial contaminant concentration, Xt = contaminant concentration
at day t.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Observation on water inlet from the lake into experimental phytotechnology ponds shows average TN, TP and
TSS content were 4.06-5.21 mg/L, 0.041-0.054 mg/L, and 28-36 mg/L, respectively. This observed TN andTP content was higher than that was reported by Tarigan (2000) and confirms that Situ Cibuntu water wasunder eutrophic condition. According to Figure 2, however, this trophic status was not enough to vapor growthof all the experimental plants. The minute duckweed grew only at specific growth rate of around 4.51 %/day,which is remarkably lower than those grown in Saguling Reservoir water that grrew at rate of 12-24 %/day(Chrismadha & Mardiyati, 2012), and in ponds received aquaculture waste containing water of more than
30 %/day (Chrismadha et al., 2013; Chrismadha, 2014). At the same time, greater duckweed growth wasrecorded at around 4,94 %/day, while previous reports stated doubling time of the plant was 27.5-40.1 %/day

413

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference(Olah et al., 2014). Similarly, water lettuce grew at rate of 5.30 %/day, also remarkably lower than that waspreviously reported by Fonkou et al. (2002) whose observed doubling time of the plant at averege of 5 days(equivalent to SGR value of 34 %/day) base on sewage water. Water hyacinth grew at rate of 2,47 %/day,considerably low compared to those reported by Christanty et al. (2016) of 2.82-3.56 %/day in swamp waterand Gupta et al. (2012) of around 3.10 %/day. These spesific growth values made up the plants biomas
productivity which was observed to be the highest in water lettuce (3.71 kg/week), followed by water hyacinth(2.59 kg/week), greater duckweed (0.69 kg/week) and minute duckweed (0.32 kg/week), respectively. Thiscan be attributed to the plants size, in which the biger size made up population density higher than the smaller
ones, and then together with the spesific growth value it contributed to the plant biomass productivities. The
highest biomass producivity observed in water lettuce was apparently due to its biger population density up to
12.2 kg/m2 and higher growth rate of 5.3 %/day.

Figure 2. Growth and biomass productivity of various floating aquatic plants in the experimental
Growth rate and biomass productivity were appeared to determine the ability of aquatic plants to absorp andeliminate water pollutants. As it is shown by Figure 3, even though a consistent progresive reduction in mostof observed water quality parameters from inlet to final outlet of the phytoremediation ponds were occurred,
the rate of reduction was varied among the plants. Water hyacinth and water lettuce was observed to haveremarkably higher capability to eliminate TSS, TOM, TN and TP, comparing to those of minute duckweed andgreater duckweed. Under the experimental condition, water hyacinth and water lettuce were oberved toeliminate TSS up to 81.48 % and 79.63 %, respectively, while minute duckweed and greater duckweed only
eliminated 39.29 % and 46.43 % TSS from the water, respectively. Whereas, in terms of TN, elimination rateof 85.82 % and 78.95 % were oberved in water hyacinth and water lettuce, respectively, while in minuteduckweed and greater duckweed the elimination rates were as lower as 29.45 % and 12.45 %, respectively.
At the same time, in the reared water hyacinth and water lettuce phytoremediation ponds, the trend of
progresive decline in TOM and TP content were still consistently occurred, in which the elimination rate were
accounted of 51.21% and 26.18 % for TOM, and 24.07 % and 100 %, for TP, respectively. However, in these414Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

cultivated minute duckweed and greater duckweed phytoremediation ponds there were even increases in TOM
and TP content were observed, means that there were releases of both organics and phosphorous substances
into the water. This particularly due to low capability of these two duckweed species in eliminating both TOM
and TP from the water, as well as the interfere of leaves garbage from some trees standing surounding theexperimental ponds. Although there was a net spreaded out above the ponds to prevent leaf fall from standing
trees around, there was stiil some wind driven leaves come into the ponds, particularly those in the side ofminute duckweed and greater duckweed phytoremediation ponds. The accumulated leaves biomass in theponds led to biodegradation proccesses which increase the TOM and TP content over the initial concentrationin the inlet water. Apart from this, this experimental results shows the ability of aquatic plants, particularly water
hyacinth and water lettuce to improve lake water quality, as well as to highlight the important of plant biomass
productivity aspect in selection of aquatic plants for water quality phytoremediation.
Success of using floating aquatic plants for phytoremediation of water quality has been widely reported. For
examples, Chrismadha & Mardiati (2012) reported the ability of minute duckweed (Lemna perpusilla) toeliminate nitrate and phosphate substances from eutrophic water of Saguling reservoir. In addition, El-Kheiret al. (2007) reported the capacity of L. gibba to eliminate TSS, NO3, NH4, and o-PO4, as much as 96.3%,
100.0%, 82.0%, and 64.4%, respectively. At the same time, Fonkou et al. (2002) observed water quality
improvement by employing water lettuce to control water pollution from domestic sewage, in which more than
70% reduction in nitrate and phosphate substances was obtained. It is in line with Hermawati et al. (2005) thatreported the ability of water lettuce to eliminate phosphate up to 41.9 % from detergent comtaminated water,and Lu et al. (2010) that reported reduction in inorganic ammonium and nitrate by more than 50 % using thesame plant species to treat eutrophic waterstorms. Similarly, Gamage & Yapa (2001) also reported reduction
up to 83.5 % and 52.9 % of TN and TP content by aplication of water hyacinth to treat waste water from textile
mill, while TSS was removed up to 59 %. These three floating aquatic plants have also been reported to havepotential capacity for phytoremediation of heavy metals and some other water contaminations, such as BOD,
COD, turbidity, PCB, etc. (El-Kheir et al., 2007; Cheng et al., 2002; Ansal et al., 2010; Ferdoushi et al., 2008;
Schroder et al., 2007; Khan et al., 2014; Fonkou et al., 2002; Lu et al., 2010; Chakraborty, 2015; Hammad,2011). Unfortunately, less information was obtained for greater duckweed capacity for phytoremediation
purposes.
This experiment reveals the high potential of using floating aquatic plants, particularly water lettuce and water
hyacinth for phytoremediation small lake water quality, although some improvements in terms of operational
design still being required. For example, prolonging the water rediential time in the phytoremediation can bevery useful to improve the phytoremedial capacity, as the water residential time in this experiment was
remarkably shorter than that was apllied by Allaert et al. (1996) whose obtained 76 % TKN reduction duckweed
phytoremediation at 21 days residential time. Fonkou et al. (2002) also pointed out the important of maintaining
plant population by regular harvesting which has to be carried out according to the plant life span. This
experiment has also high lighted the important of ambient water trophic status in selecting plants being
employed for water phytoremediation purposes. Employing a combination of some plants with various
characteristics might also be worth to anticipate dynamic of water and environmental conditions. In addition,
improving value of phytoremediation can also be conducted by application of plants having additional usages,
such as for alternative feed (Ilyas et al., 2014; Hasan & Chakrabarti, 2009; Leng et al., 1995; Landesman, 200;
Tavares et al., 2008; El-Shafaia et al., 2004), organic fertilizer (Sebayang et al., 2010; Moi et al., 2015), andenegy (Yonathan et al., 2013).

415

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 3. Growth performance and phytoremedial capacity of various floating aquatic plants: (MD minuteduckweed; GD greater duckweed; WL water letuce; WH water hyacinth)416

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CONCLUSION
Phytotechnology can be applied to control lake water quality, which evidence in this experiment by applicationof floating plants to improve lake water quality. This phytoremediation capabilites, however was varied among
species and largely detemined by the biomass productivity. Therefore, as far as for water quality improvement
concern, it is suggested to use bigger size floating aquatic plants, such as water hyacinth and water lettuce forefective phytoremediation to improve lake water quality.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was conducted under scheme of Thematic Reseacrh Programme of Research Center for
Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, year 2015. Thanks also to Mr. B. Teguh Sudiono which very
helpful in preparing the experimental ponds.
REFERENCES
1. Alaerts, G. J., M. D. Rahman Mahbubar, and P. Kelderman. 1996. Performance analysis of a full–scale
duckweed–covered sewage lagoon. Water Research,30(4): 843–852.
2. Ansal, M.D., A. Dhawan and V.I. Kaur. 2010. Duckweed based bio-remediation of village ponds: An
ecologically and economically viable integrated approach for rural development through aquaculture.
Livestock Research for Rural Development, 22(7). http://www.lrrd.org/ lrrd22/7/ansa22129.htm
3. APHA, 1998. Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 20th ed. Washington DC:
1231 pp.
4. Cedergreen, N. and T. V. Madsen. 2002. Nitrogen uptake by the floating macrophyte Lemna minor. New
Phytologist 155: 285–292
5. Chakraborty, S. 2015. Environmental sustainability in wastewater treatment by phytoremediation with Pistia
stratiotes L. (water lettuce) in East Kolkata Wetland. International Journal of Bio-resource, Environment andAgricultural Sciences (IJBEAS), 1(4): 132-139.
6. Cheng, J., L. Landesman, B. A. Bergmann, J. J. Classen, J. W. Howard, and Y. T. Yamamoto. 2002.
Nutrient removal from swine lagoon liquid by Lemna minor 8627. Transaction of the ASAE 45(4): 1003–
1010
7. Chrismadha, T. 2014. Growth performance of minute duckweed (Lemna perpusilla) in an integrated
common carp (Cyprinus carpio) closed recirculation aquaculture. Proceeding International Conference on
Aquaculture Indonesia (ICAI) 2014, Bandung 20-21 Juni 2014
8. Chrismadha, T., Fachmijani Sulawesty, Awalina, Gunawan Pratama Yoga, Yayah Mardiati. 2013.
Pemanfaatan lemna (Lemna perpusilla Torr) pada budidaya perikanan sistem aliran tertutup: Produktivitas,
nutrisi, dan kinerja fitoremediasi. Oseanologi dan Limnologi di Indonesia. 39(2): 201-210.
9. Chrismadha, T. & Y Mardiati. 2012. Uji tumbuh lemna (Lemna perpusilla Torr.) dan penyerapan unsur haradalam media air Waduk Saguling. Oseanologi dan Limnologi di Indonesia. 38(3): 369-376
10. Chrismadha, T., F. Sulawesty, Awalina, Y. Mardiati, E. Mulyana, M.R. Widoretno. 2014. Phytotechnology
application for enhancing water conservation: Use of minute duckweed (Lemna perpusilla) for
phytoremediator and alternative feed in a water closed recirculation aquaculture. Proceeding International
Conference on Ecohydrology. Yogyakarta, 10-12 November 2014. p 153-166
11. Christanty, Y., T.A. Barus, Desrita. 2016. Hubungan kandungan nitrat dan fosfat terhadap pertumbuhan
biomassa basah eceng gondok di Rawa Kongsi Sumatera Utara. Jurnal Aquacoastmarine, 13(3): 1-12.
12. Chukwunonso, O.I., S.H. Fauziah, Redzwan. 2014. The Utilization of Water Hyacinth (Eichhorniacrassipes)
as Aquatic Macrophage Treatment System (AMATS) in Phytoremediation for Palm Oil Mill Effluent (POME).
International Journal of Sciences: Basic and Applied Research (IJSBAR), 13(2):31-47
13. Damayanti, Ani. 2001. Struktur komunitas fitoplankton di Situ Cibuntu, Kabupatem Bogor, Jawa Barat.
Skripsi. IPB. 64 hal.
14. El Kheir, W.A., G. Ismail, F.A. El-Nour, T. Tawfik, and D. Hammad. 2007. Assessment of the Efficiency of
Duckweed (Lemna gibba) in Wastewater Treatment. International Journal of Agriculture and Biology 9(5):681-687.
15. El-Shafaia, S.A., F.A. El-Goharya, F.A. Nasra, N. P. van der Steenb, and H.J. Gijzenb. 2004. Chronicammonia toxicity to duckweed-fed tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus). Aquaculture 232: 117–127
16. Ferdoushi, Z., F. Haque, S. Khan, and M. Haque. 2008. The effects of two aquatic floating macrophytes(Lemna and Azolla) as biofilters of nitrogen and phosphate in fish ponds. Turkish Journal of Fisheries andAquatic Scences 8: 253-258
17. Fonkou, T., P. Agendia, I. Keng, A. Akoa, J. Nya. 2002. Potentials of water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes) indomestic sewage treatment with macrophytic lagoon systems in Cameroon. Proceedings of International
Symposium on Environmental Pollution Control and Waste Management 7-10 January 2002, Tunis(EPCOWM’2002), p.709-714.

417

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

18. Gamage, N.S. & P.A.J. Yapa. 2001. Use of water hyacinth [Eichornia crassipes (Mart) Solms] in treatment
systems for textile mill effluents – A case study. Journal of National Science Foundation Sri Lanka, 29(1&2):
15-28
19. Garno, Y.S. 2001. Status dan karakteristik Pencemaran di Waduk Kaskade Citarum. Jurnal Teknologi
Lingkungan 2(2): 207 - 213
20. Garno, Y.S. 2002. Beban Pencemaran Limbah Perikanan Budidaya dan Yutropikasi di Perairan Waduk
Pada DAS Citarum. Jurnal Teknologi Lingkungan 3(2): 112-120
21. Gupta, P., S. Roy, A.B. Mahindrakar. 2012. Treatment of Water Using Water Hyacinth, Water Lettuce andVetiver Grass - A Review. Resources and Environment, 2(5): 202-2015. DOI: 10.5923/j.re.20120205.04
22. Hammad, D. 2011. Cu, Ni and Zn Phytoremediation and Translocation by Water Hyacinth. Plant at Different
Aquatic Environments. Australian Journal of Basic and Applied Sciences, 5(11): 11-22
23. Hasan, M.R. & R. Chakrarbarti. 2009. Use of algae and aquatic macrophytes as feed in small scaleaquaculture: A review. FAO Fisheries and Aquaculture Technical Paper. No. 531.
24. Hart, B.T., W. van Dok, and N. Djuangsih. 2002. Nutrient budget for Saguling Reservoir, West Java,
Indonesia. Water Research, 36: 2152–2160.
25. Hermawati, E., Wiryanto, Solichatun. 2005. Fitoremediasi Limbah Detergen Menggunakan Kayu Apu (Pistia
stratiotes L. ) dan Genjer (Limnocharis flava L.). Biosmart, 7(2): 115-124.
26. IHP-UNESCO. 2011. Sediment deposition system on Saguling Reservoir, West Java. Final Report Year2011. IHP-UNESCO. Jakarta. 51 p.
27. Ilyas, A.P., K. Nirmala, E. Haris, T. Widiyanto. 2014. Pemanfaatan Lemna perpusilla sebagai pakan
kombinasi untuk ikan nila (Oreochromis niloticus) pada sistem resirkulasi.
28. Khan, M.A., Marwat, K.B., Gul, B., F. Wahid, Khan, H., Hashim, S. Pistia stratiotes L. (Araceae):
Phytochemistry, use in medicines, phytoremediation, biogas and management options. Pakistan Journalof Botany, 46(3): 851-860.
29. Landesman, L., N.C. Parker, C.B. Fedler and M. Konikoff. 2005. Modeling duckweed growth in wastewater
treatment
systems.
Livestock
Researchfor
Rural
Development
17
(6):
from
http://www.lrrd.org/lrrd17/6/land17061.htm
30. Leng, R.A., J.H. Stambolie and R. Bell. 1995. Duckweed - a potential high-protein feed resource fordomestic animals and fish. Livestock Research for Rural Development 7(1): fromhttp://www.cipav.org.co/lrrd/lrrd7/1/3.htm
31. Lu, Q., He, Z.L., Graetz, A., Stoffella, P.J., Yang, X. (2010). Phytoremediation to remove nutrients andimprove eutrophic stormwaters using water lettuce. Environ Sci Pollut Research, 17: 84-96. DOI
10.1007/s11356-008-0094-0
32. Rhonalyn, V.M., K.B. Hiwatig, C.J.L. Rhonalyn, E.M.C. Torrano. 2015. Utilization of Water Hyacinth(Eichhorniacrassipes) for Phytoremediation of Hexavalent Chromium in Simulated Wastewater. Asia Pacific
Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 3(4): 117-123
33. McCann (2016), Response diversity of free-floating plants to nutrient stoichiometry and temperature: growth
and resting body formation. PeerJ 4:e1781; DOI 10.7717/peerj.1781
34. Moi, A.R., D. Pandiangan, P. Siahaan, A.M. Tangapo. 2015. Pengujian pupuk organik cair dari eceng
gondok (Eichhornia crassipes)terhadap pertumbuhan tanaman sawi (Brassica juncea). Jurnal MIPAUNSRAT Online, 4(1): 15-19
35. Moyo, P., L.Chapungu, B. Mudzengi. 2013. Effectiveness of water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) inremediating polluted water: The case of Shagashe river in Masvingo, Zimbabwe. Advances in Applied
Science Research, 2013, 4(4):55-62
36. Nugroho, N. 2002. Analisis beberapa aspek limnologis Situ Cibuntu. Skripsi. IPB. 49 hal.
37. Olah, V., A. Hepp, G. Lakatos, I. Meszaros. 2014. Cadmium-induced turion formation of Spirodela polyrhiza(L.) Schleiden. Acta Biologica Szegediensis, 58(2): 103-108 http://www2.sci.u-szeged.hu/ABS
38. Omondi, E.A., P.K. Ndiba, P.G. Njuru. 2015. Phytoremediation of Polychlorobiphenyls (PCB’s) in Landfill
E-Waste Leachate with Water Hyacinth (E.Crassipes). International Journal of Scientific & Technology
Research. 4(5): 147-156
39. Rhonalyn, V.M., K.B. Hiwatig, C.J.L. Rhonalyn, E.M.C. Torrano. 2015. Utilization of Water Hyacinth(Eichhorniacrassipes) for Phytoremediation of Hexavalent Chromium in Simulated Wastewater. Asia Pacific
Journal of Multidisciplinary Research, 3(4): 117-123
40. Schröder, P., J. Navarro-Aviñó, H. Azaizeh, A.G. Goldhirsh, S. DiGregorio, T. Komives, G. Langergraber,
A. Lenz., E. Maestri, A.R. Memon, A. Ranalli, L. Sebastiani, S. Smrcek, T. Vanek, S. Vuilleumier, and F.
Wissing. 2007. Using Phytoremediation Technologies to Upgrade Waste Water Treatment in Europe.
Environmental Science and Pollution Research 14(7): 490–497.
41. Sebayang, H.T., A. Suryanto, T.I.D. Kurnia. 2010. Pengaruh Pemberian Kayu Apu (Pistia stratiotes L.) dan
Dosis Pupuk N, P , K pada Pertumbuhan dan Hasil Padi Sawah (Oryza sativa L.). Jurnal Agronomi
Indonesia 38 (3) : 192 - 198

418

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

42. Swain, G., S. Adhikari, P. Mohanty. 2014. Phytoremediation of Copper and Cadmium from Water Using
Water Hyacinth, Eichhornia Crassipes. International Journal of Agricultural Science and Technology(IJAST) Volume 2 Issue 1, February 2014 www.seipub.org/ijast doi: 10.14355/ijast.2014.0301.01
43. Tarigan, T. 2000. Perencanaan pengelolaan daerah tangkapan untuk pelestarian Situ Cibuntu Cibinongmenggunakan model AGNPS. Thesis. IPB. 90 hal.
44. Tavares, F.A., J.B.R. Rodrigues, D.M. Fracalossi, J. Esquivel, and R. Roubach. 2008. Dried duckweed andcommercial feed promote adequate growth performance of tilapia fingerlings. Biotemas 21 (3): 91-97.
45. UNEP (2003) Phytotechnologies: A Technical Approach in Environmental Management. IETC Freshwater
Management Series 7. 120 pp. http://www.unep.or.jp/ietc/Publications/ Freshwater/FMS7/index.asp
46. Weiliao, S & Chang W.L. 2004. Heavy metal phytoremediation by water hyacinth at onstructed wetlands in
Taiwan. Journal of Aquatic Plant Management, 42:60-68
47. Yonathan, A., A.R. Prasetya, B. Pramudono. 2013. Produksi biogas dari eceng gondok (Eichornia
crassipes): Kajian konsistensi dan pH terhadap biogas dihasilkan. Jurnal Teknologi Kimia dan Industri,2(2): 211-215. http://ejournal-s1.undip.ac.id/ index.php/jkti

419

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Topic 9. Manmade lakes
EVALUATION OF FLOOD MITIGATION AND WATER PURIFICATION EFFECT IN URBAN
LAKE, JABODETABEK
Koshi Yoshida1*, Ami Aminah Meutia2, Satoru Itagawa3, Hiroko Matsuda2
Ibaraki University, Japan, 2Research Institute for Humanity and Nature, Japan, 3Keio University,
Japan*Corresponding author: koshi.yoshida.agri@vc.ibaraki.ac.jp

1

ABSTRACT
Recently, severe flood occurred in Jakarta city in almost every year and water quality level in rivers flowing
through Jakarta Metropolis became worse because only 3.0% of living households connected wastewater
treatment system. In Jakarta, about 1000 urban lakes were existed before, however number of them decreasedaround 300 until now caused by urbanization. Reduction of urban lakes will accelerate the degradation of water
environment in Jakarta, because urban lakes have multi-functionality for keeping water environment in suitablecondition. Therefore, in this study, to conserve those lakes in adequate condition and in sustainable, multifunctionalities were evaluated in the view point of water purification and flood control in this region. Firstly, we
selected 9 urban lakes and collected water samples from inlet and outlet of urban lakes. Average nitrogen
purification rate was 21.2% in rainy season and 45.5% in dry season. In rainy season, most of nitrogen runoff
was Nitrate form originated from agriculture, however in dry season, most of nitrogen runoff was Ammonium
form originated from housing. Secondly, flood mitigation effects were evaluated by using SCS-Curve Number
method and hydraulic structure of the outlet also considered in calculation. Estimated flood peak cut ratio was
44.9% in average and most of urban lake had significant flood mitigation function.
Keywords: lake water environment, land use change, GIS, JAVA, Jakarta
INTRODUCTION
As rapid population increase and economic growth, land use was drastically changed from agricultural land tourbanized built-up area especially in outer edge of Jakarta Metropolis. Jakarta lies in low-lying deltas servedby the Ciliwung River and many other small rivers. Due to overpopulation in Jakarta, green open spaces arediminishing. Since infiltration capacities of land in Jakarta have decreased, surface runoff has become more
extensive. As a result, Jakarta is often stricken by flood disasters which affect human life, property, and urban
infrastructures (Hartono et Al., 2010). Before, sever flood occurred in every 5 years (1996, 2002, 2007).
However, recently, severe flood occurred in Jakarta city in almost every year (2012, 2013, 2014). The effectof the land use change in the area of Jakarta on the local climate was investigated (Tokairin et al., 2010). In
the past few decades, the surroundings of the initially urbanized area (the old city) of Jakarta, Indonesia, wasrapidly urbanized and the daily mean air temperature increased by approximately 1 ℃. In addition, degradationof water environment in Jakarta became severe and water quality level in rivers flowing through Jakarta
became worse because only 3.0% of living households connected wastewater treatment system (GWI, 2011).
According to JICA feasibility reports, several flood controlling facilities or wastewater treatment plants wereplanned to construct, however settlement of living people relocation and land expropriation was very difficultin highly populated region. In surrounding of Jakarta metropolis, about 300 urban lakes exist. Effective use ofurban lakes as a water storage or water purification facilities is one countermeasure to prevent becoming water
environment more badly. Urban lakes constitute vital components of the regional hydrological cycle. They arehighly productive, support exceptionally large biological diversity, and provide a wide range of ecosystemservices such as food, fibre, waste assimilation, water purification, flood mitigation, erosion control,
groundwater recharge, micro climate regulation, enhance the aesthetics of the landscape, and support many
significant recreational, social and cultural activities, aside from being a part of our cultural heritage (Pradhan
et al., 2008). However, it was acknowledged that most urban lakes or wetlands are seriously threatened byconversion to non-wetland purposes, encroachment of drainage through landfilling, pollution (discharge ofdomestic and industrial effluents, disposal of solid wastes), hydrological alterations (water withdrawal andinflow changes), and over-exploitation of their natural resources. This results in loss of biodiversity anddisruption in goods and services provided by urban lakes (Naselli et al., 2008; Ramachandra et al., 2012). Withurban development and economic growth, the conflicts between urban development and land shortage are
becoming increasingly striking. An urban development featuring land shortage due to high population andurban expansion are leading to endangered urban water environment; human beings’ asking for land fromwater bodies inevitably causes serious damage to urban lakes (Wu and Hao, 2011). In this study, we focusedon multi-functionality of urban lakes (situ and waduk) which is naturally or artificially developed. In Jakarta,

420

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

about 1000 urban lakes have been existed before, however number of them decreased around 300 until now.
Reduction of urban lakes will accelerate the degradation of water environment in Jakarta, because urban lakes
have multi-functionality for keeping water environment in suitable condition. Therefore, to conserve those lakes
in adequate condition and in sustainable, quantitative evaluation of multi-functionalities were quite importantin the view point of water purification and flood control in this region.
METHODS
Study Area
Jakarta is the economic, cultural, and political center of Indonesia. It is also capital of Indonesia and has thelargest city population in Southeast Asia, estimated at 9.5 million. Jakarta’s metropolitan area, called
JABODETABEK (Jakarta, Bogor, Depok, Tangerang, Bekasi), is the sixth-largest in the world with over 24
million population. Jakarta covers 662 km 2 and is located on the northwest coast of Java island at the mouthof the Ciliwung River on Jakarta Bay. Jakarta also The topography of Jakarta varies, with the northern part justmeters above current sea level and lying on a flood plain. Subsequently, this portion of the city frequently
floods. The southern part of the city is hilly. In addition to the Ciliwung River, there are about 12 other rivers
that drain the hilly southern part of the city into the sea. The Ciliwung River is the most significant river anddivides the city West to East. Jakarta’s economy depends heavily on financial services, which contribute almost
a quarter of the national GDP. While there is significant wealth in Jakarta, the city has massive problems
because of the extreme population growth, high levels of poverty, and inequitable distribution of wealth (WWF,2010). Jakarta has struggled to provide basic needs such as water, shelter and waste management for someof its poorest residents. Jakarta has an equatorial tropical climate having rainy and dry season. Temperaturesare very consistent, ranging from 23°C to 32°C. The city is humid throughout the year. Jakarta gets significant
amounts of precipitation, totaling almost 2,200 mm annually. Jakarta’s wet season peaks with an average 400
mm of precipitation during January and a dry season average rainfall of 70 mm during August. Heavy rainfall
in rainy season is one of the reason of severe flood, however recently, floods occur even in drying season
when there is high intensity rainfall. Land use change is also the significant reason of severe floods. Land useof JBODETABEK was drastically changed (shown in Figure1) and the number of urban lakes also decreaseabout 300. In this study, The urban lakes in megacity Jakarta can have mixed urban and other types ofwatershed, such as rural, industrial and even agricultural area. The impact of urban development in these
distinct surrounding inhabited areas on urban lakes in megacity Jakarta have been so pervasive that makes
the lakes very vulnerable to environmental disturbances. Land expansion is needed for housing as a result ofurban development which has caused extensive lake shoreline development even reaching to the water bodies
that causes serious damage to urban lakes and even disappearance of lakes due to land use change. Lakes
are often used as a dumping place for garbage and collecting untreated sewer and storm water runoff.
Moreover, lack of concern of the public and lack of management of the government have aggravated thedamage of environmental conditions of urban lakes (Cynthia and Ami, 2014). In this study, 9 urban lakes wereselected for the analysis of multi-functionality such as water purification and flood mitigation functions. Figure
2 shows location of surveyed urban lakes and Table1 shows general information about each urban lakes.

Figure 1. Land use map of JABODETABEK in 1930 and 2000

421

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Location of surveyed urban lakes①Pluit, ②Hutan Kota Surenseng, ③Gintung, ④Babakan, ⑤Kerapa Dua Wetan,⑥Rawa Dongkal, ⑦Binong, ⑧Tonjong, ⑨Cihuni
Table 1. General information of surveyed urban lakes

Evaluation of Water Purification Function
To evaluate water quality condition, lake waters were sammpled at the inlet and outlet of urban lakes (shownin Figure 3). Field observation was conducted in rainy season (March 2014) and dry season (August 2014) tograsp the influence of water discharge from upstream area. Measured water quality parameters are soil
sediment (SS), total nitrogen (TN), nitrate nitrogen (NO 3-N), ammonium nitrogen (NH4-N), chemical oxygen
demand (COD), dissolved oxygen (DO), water temperature and PH. To calculate water purification rate, we
assumed that discharges of inflow and outflow are balanced and water purification rate was calculated in eq(1).
Water purification rate(%) = TN concentration at outlet / TN concentration at inlet ×100
(1)

422

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 3. Inlet and outlet of situ Gintung (for example)
Evaluation of Flood Mitigation Function
In this study, rainfall data of February 2007 was used which had 440 mm during 1 Feb to 2 Feb 2014. Floodin Feb 2007 was most severe one historically. To evaluate the flood mitigation effect of each urban lakes,
water balance in each lakes were calculated as following eq(2).
𝑑𝑆𝑢𝑙= 𝑄𝑖𝑛 − 𝑄𝑜𝑢𝑡(2)𝑑𝑡
where Sul is water storage in urban lake, Qin is inflow from upstream catchment, Qout is outflow from outletof urban lakes.
Rainfall-runoff model was used to calculate inflow discharge Qin from upstream catchment area. SCS Curve
Number method (CN method) was employed for surface runoff analysis. This CN method is developed by theUnited States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Soil Conservation Service (SCS) and is a method of
estimating rainfall excess from rainfall (USDA-SCS, 1985). The CN method is widely used, efficient methodfor determining the approximate amount of direct runoff from a rainfall event in a particular area and is acceptedin numerous hydrologic studies. This method was developed for agricultural watersheds in the mid-western
United States; however, it has been used throughout the world far beyond its original developers would haveimagined. The runoff curve number is based on the area's hydrologic soil group, land use, treatment andhydrologic condition. References, such as from USDA indicate the runoff curve numbers for characteristic land
cover descriptions and a hydrologic soil group.
The basic assumption of the SCS curve number method is that, for a single storm, the ratio of actual soil
retention after runoff begins to potential maximum retention is equal to the ratio of direct runoff to available
rainfall. This relationship, after algebraic manipulation and inclusion of simplifying assumptions, results in thefollowing eq (3).
(𝑃−0.2𝑆)2

𝑄𝑖𝑛 =
(3)
𝑃+0.8𝑆
where Qin is runoff from catchment area, P is Rainfall, S is the potential maximum soil moisture retention after
runoff begins. S is calculated by eq (4).
1000
S=
− 10
(4)
𝐶𝑁
where CN is runoff curve number which having a range from 30 to 100; lower numbers indicate low runoff
potential while larger numbers are for increasing runoff potential.
In this study, CN number were evaluated from land use and soil characteristic condition from GIS analysis. At
first, catchment area of each urban lakes were evaluated from DEM (Digital Elevation Map) and then, land use
and FAO soil data were extracted by catchment boundary (shown in Figure 4). Paddy water storage also
considered in runoff calculation.

423

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. Land use extraction of Tonjong catchment area (for example)
Outflow Qout from outlet of urban lake was calculated based on the hydraulic structure of lake outlet. There
were several types of outlet structure such as normal type weir, labyrinth type weir (Photo 1) or siphon typeoutlet (Photo 2).

Photo1. Outlet of situ Gintung

Photo2. Outlet of situ Cihuni

In this study, flood peak cut ratio were calculated as a index of flood mitigation function.
Rpc(%) = maximum inflow discharge / maximum outflow discharge ×100
where Rpc is flood peak cut ratio in % unit.

(5)

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Figure 5 shows observed Total Nitrogen (TN) concentration at inlet and outlet of each urban lake in rainyseason (March) and dry season (August). The value superscripted upper of bar graph means nitrogen
purification ratio in % unit calculated by eq (1).

424

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 5. Observed TN concentration at inlet and outlet of each urban lake in rainy season(March) and dry season (August)As a result, TN concentration reduced at outlet in most of lakes so that urban lakes have nitrogen purification

function. Average purification rate was 21.2% in rainy season and 45.5% in dry season. TN concentration was
higher in dry season, because wastewater from housing was not so diluted by runoff water from other landuse. And retention time of inflow water in dry season was also relatively longer than rainy season. That is thereasons why average purification rate is greater in dry season.
Figure 6 shows observed NO3-N and NH4-N concentration at inlet and outlet of urban lakes in rainy season
and dry season. In rainy season, NO3-N was dominant, on the other hand NH4-N was dominant in dry season.
In dry season, small amount of rain, which fall to the land surface, evaporate or transpire rapidly, therefore
wastewater contained much NH4-N from housing was not so diluted by runoff water from other land use. On
the other hand, large amount of rain infiltrated to surface soil layer and runoff with soluble NO 3-N in rainyseason. The main source of NO3-N was fertilizer in agricultural land.

425

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 6. Observed NO3-N and NH4-N concentration at inlet and outlet of urban lakes
in rainy season and dry season
Figure 7 shows inflow and outflow discharge change from 2/1 0:00 to 2/2 24:00 in each urban lake. Red line
shows inflow and blue line shows outflow discharge. The values scripted in Figure6 shows flood peak cut ratio
Rcp. Rcp was estimated the range of 0.6 – 91.0 % and average was 44.9%. Most of urban lake had significant
flood mitigation function. However, in situ Gintung, Rcp is small 0.6% because width of outlet labyrinth typeweir is relatively longer than other urban lakes. In 2009, dam brake accident r in situ Gintung. And current dam
outlet was reconstructed after the accident. Therefore, hydraulic structure of outlet labyrinth type weir was
designed in safety condition. In situ Cihuni, Rcp is 91.0% because lake surface area is relatively large compare
to upstream catchment area. Therefore, lake water level did not increase so much even during heavy rainfall
period, and most of inflow can be storage in situ Cihuni during heavy rainfall period.

Figure 7. Inflow and outflow discharge from 2/1 0:00 to 2/2 24:00 in 2007

426

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CONCLUSIONSIn this study, multi-functionality of urban lakes in JABODETABEK was evaluated focused on it’s water
purification and flood mitigation function. Firstly, we selected 9 urban lakes and collected water samples frominlet and outlet of urban lakes. Average nitrogen purification rate were 21.2% in rainy season and 45.5% in dry
season. In rainy season, most of nitrogen runoff was Nitrate form originated from agriculture, however in dry
season, most of nitrogen runoff was Ammonium form originated from housing. Secondly, flood mitigation
effects were evaluated by using SCS-Curve Number method and hydraulic structure of the outlet also
considered in calculation. Estimated flood peak cut ratio was 44.9% in average. As a results, most of lakes
have effective function to purify the wastewater flowing from upstream area and to mitigate flood discharge
outflowing to downstream region. The performance of multi-functionality can be improved under the adequate
maintenance of urban lakes.In fact, Jakarta metropolis has been facing many problems of severe flash floods
from the upstream region during rainy season. In addition, the exploitation of groundwater usage and polluted
surface water has caused shortage of fresh water during the dry season. In current condition, the urban lakes
in Jakarta have lost their capacity to support their function as flood control, water supply, and for water
purification. The negative impacts of urbanized catchment area can be minimized by optimizing the functionof urban lakes such as flood control, ground water recharge and water purification. The solution of the problems
faced by urban lakes in Jakarta requires a comprehensive management plan that is not only effective inmaintaining the stability of lake ecosystem but also effective in improving urban life, such as socio-cultureeconomic conditions of people around the lakes.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Grant-in-Aid for
Scientific Research (KAKENHI) no. 16K15002.
REFERENCES
1. Cynthia H. and Ami A. M., “Urban Lakes in Megacity Jakarta: Risk and Management Plan for Future
Sustainability”, Procedia Environmental Sciences, vol. 20, pp. 737–746, 2014.
2. GWI(Global Water Intelligence), “Global Water Market”, 2011.
3. Hartono, D. M., E. Novita, I. Gusniani and I. I. D. Oriza, “THE ROLE OF WATER SUPPLY ANDSANITATION DURING FLOODS: CASE STUDY OF FLOOD DISASTER IN FIVE REGIONS OF
JAKARTA,” , International Journal of Technology, vol. 1, pp. 29–37, 2010.
4. Naselli L., “Urban Lakes: Ecosystems at Risk, Worthy of the Best Care,” Proc. Of The 12th World Lake
Conference, pp. 1333–1337, 2008.
5. Pradhan M. and P. Latkar, “Shallow Lakes in Urban Areas: Ecological Restoration of Lakes in Thane
City” Proc. Of The 12th World Lake Conference, pp. 1628–1634, 2008.
6. Ramachandra T V,* Bharath H. A., and Uttam K., “Conservation of wetlands to mitigate urban floods”
Resources, Energy, and Development, vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 1–22, 2012.
7. USDA-SCS, National Engineering Handbook, Section 4 - Hydrology., Washington, D.C., 1985.
8. Tokairin T., Asep S. and T. Kitada, “Effect of land use changes on local meteorological conditions in
Jakarta, Indonesia: toward the evaluation of the thermal environment of megacities in Asia,”
INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF CLIMATOLOGY, vol. 30, pp. 1931–1941, 2010.
9. WWF, “Mega-Stress for Mega-Cities, A Climate Vulnerability Ranking of Major Coastal Cities in Asia”,
2010.
10. Wu, J. nad Hao X., “Research on characteristics of changes of lakes in Wuhan’s main urban area” (inGerman), Procedia Engineering, vol. 21, pp. 395–404, 2011.

427

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

EFFECTS OF CHECK DAM ON MACROINVERTEBRATE COMMUNITIES IN HUAI TON KOKWATERSHED, CHIANG MAI PROVINCE, THAILAND
Varaphan Marueng1, Weerasak Roongruangwongse1, 2, Decha Thapanya1, 2, Chitchol
Phalaraksh1,2*Environmental Science Program, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200,
Thailand, 2Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai, Thailand*Corresponding author: chitchol.p@cmu.ac.th
1

ABSTRACTCheck dam is a construction used for water and soil conservation. However, following the check dam
construction, the river ecosystem changes. The aim of this research was to obtain the comparation of thephysico-chemical parameters and macroinvertebrate communities before and after check dam construction.
The study was carried out in three check dam sites including above and below check dams and one non-checkdam site as reference site in Huai Ton Kok watershed, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. Physico-chemicalparameters including DO, BOD5, pH, electric conductivity, water velocity, and inorganic nutrients were
measured and the macroinvertebrates were collected between June 2015 and April 2016. It was found thatcheck dam had no significant effect on physico-chemical factors, except velocity, BOD5, and nutrients. The
BOD5 and inorganic nutrients of the below check dam sites were lower than above check dam sites. In addition,
the BOD5 and inorganic nutrients increased after check dam construction. Similarly, following the constructionof check dam, the macroinvertebrate communities changed. The insects of order Trichoptera, Coleoptera, andEphemeroptera were dominant before the check dam was constructed. However, after the construction, theColeopterans, Hemipterans, and Dipterans were dominant in above check dam sites which were different fromthe below check dam sites where Trichoptera, Odonata, and Ephemeroptera were dominant orders. In
addition, according to the Thailand Standard for Surface Water Quality, both before and after check dam
construction, the water quality was classified as moderate clean level. However, the water velocity and habitat
types changed following the check dam construction, which affect the macroinvertebrate communities.
Keywords: check dam, macroinvertebrate, water quality, Huai Ton Kok
INTRODUCTION
Population and economic growth lead to change natural forest areas into anthropogenic agricultural lands.
Therefore, global deforestation has been increasing which affects the water supply. It is well known that forest
catchments supply a high proportion of water for human and environments. In the present time, forest
destruction in Thailand has affected the water resources. However, there are ways to restore the natural
resources and impose the sustainable management, such as check dam construction in highland streams(Kositpon and Phalaraksh, 2012). Check dam is an important engineering measure to retain the floodwater,intercepting sediment, increasing farmland for agricultural production, and reducing sediment transport in thedownstream (Li Erhu et al., 2016). Check dam slows down the flow of water in the stream. It can also change
the sediment types and aquatic life forms. Following a check dam construction, the forms of sedimentschanged from gravel, stone, and sand to silt, clay, and mud that affected the macroinvertebrates and aquaticplant communities (Phanittawongsa, 2007). In addition, Harding (1992) found lower diversity and density ofaquatic insect orders of Plecoptera, Ephemeroptera, and Diptera in the streams with post-impoundment sites.
Ban Pong community is located in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. The Ban Pong Royal Project forconservation of the forest and ecosystem was selected as a study area in the upstream of Huai Ton Kok
watershed. The aim of this research was to obtain the comparison of physico-chemical parameters andmacroinvertebrate communities before and after check dam construction in Huai Ton Kok watershed, Chiang
Mai Province, Thailand.
METHODS
Study sites
The Huai Ton Kok watershed is located in Pa Phai Sub-district, Sansai District, Chiang Mai Province. Fourstudy sites in Huai Ton Kok watershed (Figure 1) consisted of one site of no check dam area (Reference site,R) at approximately 18°56'56'‘N 99°3'58''E, altitude 426 meters above sea level and three check dam sites
which were divided into above and below check dams. These check dam sites consisted of Site 1 (S1) atapproximately 18°56'58''N 99°3'59'' E, altitude 420 meters above sea level, Site 2 (S2) at approximately
18°56'57'‘N 99°3'58'' E, altitude 380 meters above sea level, and Site 3 (S3) at approximately 18°56'56'‘N
99°3'58'' E, altitude 410 meters above sea level (Figure 1). The data were collected before check dam

428Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

construction in June 2015 to compare with the ones after check dam construction in August, October, andDecember 2015.

Reference site

Site1
(s1)
Site2
(s2)

Thailand
Site3
(s3)

Chiang Mai Province

Check dam site

Huai Ton Kok watershed

Figure 1 Study location at Huai Ton Kok watershed in Sansai District, Chiang Mai Province.
Physico-chemical properties
Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) were measured following the Azide
Modification Method (APHA, AWHA, WPCF, 1998). Whereas, the pH, electric conductivity (EC), and Total
Dissolved Solid (TDS) were measured at 10 cm depth using Multi-Parameter Analyser (Consort C533).
Inorganic nutrients such as nitrate-nitrogen was determined by employing the Cadmium Reduction Method,whereas ammonia-nitrogen was determined by the Nesslerization technique. In addition, the ortho-phosphate
was determined by Ascorbic Acid Method (APHA, AWHA, WPCF, 1998). Water velocity was measured bymanual flow stop watch.
Biological properties
Macroinvertebrate samples were collected using pond net and following the Kick and Pick method (McCafferty,1981). All macroinvertebrate samples were preserved in 70% alcohol prior to sorting and identification to familylevel in the laboratory using the classification books of McCafferty (1981), Merritt and Cummins (1984),
Dudgeon (1999), Mustow (2002), and Sangpradup and Boonsong (2006).
Data analysis
The one-way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) was used to compare the physico-chemical parameters. In
addition, Shannon-Weiner Diversity index was applied to study species diversity and evenness after
morphological identification. The macroinvertebarte-based Biomonitoring Working Party (BMWP) Score andthe Average Score Per Taxon (ASPT) were applied to determine the water quality of each study site. The
cluster analysis was also applied to compare all data sets according to study site and collecting period basedon biological data.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Water quality analysis
The physico-chemical parameters of the water in Huai Ton Kok watershed before check dam construction are
shown in Table 1 and after check dam construction are shown in Table 2, 3, and 4 from measurements taken
in August, October, and December respectively. The physico-chemical parameters changed after the checkdam was constructed.
The results of physico-chemical parameter measurements were compared between above and below checkdams, which found that DO, BOD5, and nutrients were different at each study site. Most of DO values in below
check dams were higher than the above check dams. The highest DO was detected in December in which thewater temperature was lower than other collecting times. In addition, the BOD5 and nutrients at below checkdam sites were also lower than above check dam sites. Furthermore, the BOD5 values were also significantly
different between before and after the check dam was constructed. It was found that the check dams slowed
down the water current and blocked the sediment and leaf litter from above the check dams. The trend ofnutrients increased after check dam construction in December. The physico-chemical parameters did notexceed the Thailand Standard for Surface Water Quality (1995). This result also showed that by slowing down
the water velocity the check dams affected the other parameters such as DO and electric conductivity. The

429

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

DO, turbidity, BOD5, and nutrients in dry and wet seasons were different at each study site because the checkdams blocked the water from point to point, making the stream to be divided into sections (Kositpon andPhalaraksh, 2012).
Table 1 The physico-chemical parameters before check dam construction at each study site.
Study
site

DO
(mg/L)

BOD(mg/L)

S1

5.8± 0.0 0.63±0.1

6.45±0.2 15.53±0.1 31.10±0.1 0.63±0.1 0.10±0.0

0.18±0.0

0.29±0.0S2

6.2± 0.0 0.56±0.1

6.44±0.1 15.43±0.1 31.06±0.1 0.50±0.0 0.08±0.0

0.21±0.0

0.27±0.0S36.0± 0.0 0.40±0.1

6.51±0.1 15.63±0.1 31.56±0.1 0.26±0.1 0.10±0.0

0.20±0.0 0.34±0.0

pHTDS(mg/L)

Conductivity Nitrate Phosphate Ammonia(µS/cm)(mg/L)(mg/L)(mg/L)

Velocity(m/s)

Table 2 The physico-chemical parameters after check dam construction (August)
Study
site
R
S1. A
S1. B
S2. A
S2. B
S3. A
S3. B

DO
(mg/L)

BOD(mg/L)pH

TDS(mg/L)

Conductivity(µS/cm)6.47±0.
1
6.20±0.
1
6.40±0.
1
6.20±0.
1
6.27±0.
1
6.40±0.
16.60±0.
1

0.40±0.
1
0.27±0.
00.37±0.
00.27±0.
10.53±0.
10.60±0.
00.47±0.
16.52±0.
35.88±0.
1
6.16±0.
26.32±0.
36.37±0.
26.24±0.
1
6.11±0.
218.30±0.
219.07±0.
019.83±1.
219.33±0.
220.43±0.
120.57±0.
121.03±0.
436.60±0.238.23±0.039.70±2.338.57±0.1
40.97±0.2
41.13±0.1
41.77±0.7

Nitrate(mg/L)
0.30±0.
00.20±0.
1
0.50±0.
1
0.40±0.
00.20±0.
00.40±0.
00.30±0.
0

Phosphate (mg/L)
0.16±0.0
0.19±0.0
0.32±0.0
0.20±0.0
0.23±0.0
0.21±0.0
0.21±0.0

Ammonia (mg/L)

Velocity(m/s)

0.20±0.
00.10±0.
00.17±0.
00.11±0.
00.09±0.
00.16±0.
00.15±0.
00.26±0.
1
0.00±0.
00.36±0.
2
0.00±0.
00.22±0.
00.00±0.
00.38±0.
1

Table 3 The physico-chemical parameters after check dam construction (October)
Study
site

DO
(mg/L)

BOD(mg/L)pH

TDS(mg/L)

Conductivity(µS/cm)Nitrate(mg/L)

Phosphate(mg/L)

Ammonia(mg/L)

Velocity(m/s)

R

6.93±0.2

0.40±0.0

6.53±0.3

15.10±0.030.43±0.4

0.50±0.1

0.12±0.0

0.14±0.0

0.13±0.2S1. A

5.87±0.5

0.40±0.0

6.27±0.3

16.10±0.2

32.20±0.4

1.30±0.0

0.12±0.0

0.09±0.0

0.00±0.0S1. B

6.50±0.1

0.30±0.0

5.92±0.1

16.90±1.433.77±2.9

0.30±0.0

0.15±0.0

0.08±0.0

0.19±0.0S2. A

6.37±0.1

0.23±0.1

6.46±0.3

16.17±0.5

32.57±1.2

0.60±0.0

0.14±0.0

0.09±0.0

0.00±0.0S2. B

6.60±0.4

0.27±0.1

6.12±0.1

16.27±0.1

32.67±0.1

0.40±0.0

0.15±0.0

0.08±0.0

0.12±0.0S3. A

6.13±0.1

1.20±0.1

6.42±0.2

16.73±0.233.47±0.2

0.30±0.0

0.13±0.0

0.12±0.0

0.00±0.0S3. B

6.60±0.1

0.43±0.1

6.09±0.0

17.20±0.234.53±0.4

0.30±0.0

0.20±0.0

0.17±0.0

0.12±0.1

430Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 4 The physico-chemical parameters after check dam construction (December)Phosphat
Study
DO
BOD
TDS
Conductivit
NitratepHesite(mg/L)(mg/L)(mg/L)y (µS/cm)(mg/L)(mg/L)
8.33±0.
0.20±0.
6.13±0.
0.40±0.
R
1
01
12.23±0.224.53±0.3
00.37±0.1
7.80±0.
0.60±0.
6.29±0.
0.60±0.
S1. A
12
2
12.93±0.2
25.57±0.3
00.33±0.1
7.80±0.
0.33±0.
5.88±0.
0.37±0.
S1. B
12
112.83±0.125.70±0.2
60.41±0.1
7.80±0.
1.80±0.
6.68±0.
0.50±0.
S2. A
1
1
4
13.23±0.626.40±1.400.37±0.1
7.93±0.
1.13±0.
6.10±0.
0.57±0.
S2. B
1
1
1
13.20±0.226.50±0.3
10.28±0.1
7.80±0.
0.33±0.
6.44±0.
0.57±0.
S3. A
1
1
3
14.53±1.628.33±2.110.37±0.1
8.00±0.
0.27±0.
5.94±0.
0.60±0.
S3. B
11
014.30±0.3
28.67±0.5
00.20±0.1

Ammonia (mg/L)

Velocity(m/s)

0.27±0.
1
0.25±0.
1
0.18±0.
2
0.21±0.
1
0.24±0.
1
0.19±0.
00.44±0.
1

0.57±0.
3
0.00±0.
00.25±0.
1
0.00±0.
00.36±0.
00.00±0.
00.19±0.
2

Macroinvertebrate analysis
The dominant macroinvertebrate orders before the check dam construction were Trichoptera, Coleoptaera,and Ephemeroptera (Figure 2). After the check dams were constructed, the composition of macroinvertebrate
communities changed following the changes in habitat. The dominant orders changed to Diptera,
Ephemeroptera, and Coleoptaera (Figure 3A) in above check dam sites, while in the below check dam sites,
Trichoptera, Ephemeroptera, and Diptera were dominant (Figure 3B). The macroinvertebrate communities
were not clearly different before and after check dam construction in the below sites. However, during before
to after check dam construction, the trend of individual numbers of Dipterans increased which indicated thatthe composition of macroinvertebrate communities changed, especially in the above check dams. Check damschanged the substrate on the bottom of the stream that might change the habitat of macroinvertebrates.
Organic matters and substrate types are important to macroinvertebrates which used them as shelter and foodsources. Culp and Davis (1985) reported that the addition of organic materials into inorganic sediments ofseveral particle sizes generally resulted in an increase of the number of individuals or total invertebratebiomass. The diversity index of the below check dam sites was higher than the above ones (Figure 4). In
addition, the macroinvertebrate diversity did not clearly change from before the check dam construction. Thisis due to the fact that macoinvertebrates usually change in composition by seasonal variations. In Figure 5,
the cluster analysis of dendrogram showed the four groups. Group 1 consisted of all below check dam areas.
Group 2 consisted of most of above check dam areas, and Site 3 at below check dam in December. Group 3
consisted of Site 1 and Site 2 at above check dams in December and the Group 4 consisted of Site 1 above
check dam and Site 3 below check dam in August.
Trichoptera39.78%

Coleopterta22.00%
Diptera5.91%

Ephemeroptera
21.47%

PlecopteraOdonata
3.76%
1.61%

Hemiptera
4.30%
Figure 2. Percentages of macroinvertebrate orders before check dam construction431

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Decapoda
7%

Trichoptera
2%

Coleoptera
2%
Diptera37%

Odonata2%
Hemiptera
20%

Ephemeroptera30%

Ephemeroptera 30%(A)
Coleoptera
1.35%

Diptera7.83%
Ephemeroptera
30.08%
Odonata
7.21%

Decapoda
2.25%
Trichoptera
63.48%

Plecoptera
0.45%

(B)
Figure 3. Percentage of macroinvertebrate orders after check dam construction: above (A) andbelow (B) check dam respectively.

Figure 4 Diversity index of macroinvertebrates in Huai Ton Kok watershed

432

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference
U P G M A

S1 A A u g
S3 B A u g
S2 B O c t
S1 B D e c
S3 B O c t
S1 B O c t
S1 B A u g
S2 B D e c
S2 B A u g
S1 A D e c
S3 A D e c
S3 B D e c
S2 A O c t
S2 A D e c
S3 A O c t
S2 A A u g
S1 A O c t
S3 A A u g

4
1

3

2
4

20

36

52

68

84

10 0

P e r c e n t S im ila r it y

Figure 5 Cluster analysis of stations based on similarities of macroinvertebrate communities.
CONCLUSIONS
Check dam had affected some physico-chemical parameters in Huai Ton Kok watershed. Water velocity ateach study site changed from running water to standing water in above check dam sites. The physico-chemicalparameters did not exceed the Thailand standard for surface water quality. Check dam had affected themacroinvertebrate communities after its construction. This research showed that the check dams had unclear
effects on diversity of macroinvertebrate communities in Huai Ton Kok watershed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Authors would like to thank the Freshwater Biomonitoring Research Laboratory, the Environmental Science
Program, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University and the Graduate School, Chiang Mai University for
financial and laboratory supports.
REFERENCES
1. APHA, AWHA, WPCF. (1998). Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater. 20 thed. Washington DC: American Public Health Association.
2. Chiangthong, K., & Phalaraksh, C. (2007). Use of Aquatic Insects as Bioindicators of Water Quality of
Mae Kham Watershed, Chiang Rai Province.
3. Culp, J. M, Davis, R. M. (1985). Responses of macro-invertebrate species to manipulation of interstitial
detritus in Carnation Creek, British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences. 42,
139–146.
4. Dudgeon, D.D. (1999). Tropical Asian Streams: Zoobenthos, Ecology and Conservation. Hong Kong
University Press, Hong Kong.
5. Harding, J.S. (1992). Discontinuities in the distribution of invertebrates in impounded South Island River,
NewZealand. Regul River., Research & Management 7(4), 327–335.
6. Kositpon, T., & Phalaraksh, C. (2012). Effects of check dams on water quality and macroinvertebrate
diversity of Hom Jom stream, Lamphun Province, Thailand. Suranaree J. Sci. Technol. 19(2), 113-123.
7. Li, E., Mu, X., Zhao, G., & Gao, P. (2016). Effects of check dams on run off and sediment load in asemi-arid river basin of the Yellow River. Stochastic Environmental Research and Risk Assessment.
8. McCafferty, W.P. (1981). Aquatic Entomology. Science Books International, Inc,,Boston, Mass.
9. Merritt, R.W. & Cummins, K.W. (1984). An Introduction to the Aquatic Insects of North America.
10. Mustow, S.E. (2002). Biological monitoring of rivers in Thailand: use and adaptation of the
BMWP score. Hydrobiologia 479(1), 191-229.
11. Phanittawongsa, N. (2007). The Upstream Dam Construction and Its Impact on Stream Ecosystems.
Availible from: www.siamensis.org/files/checkdam_stream.pdf. Accessed date: May 9, 2007. (in Thai)
12. Sangpradup, N., & Boonsong, B. (2006). Identification of Freshwater Invertebrates of the Mekong River
and Tributaries. Mekong River Commission, Vientiane, 276p.

433

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

NITROGEN LOAD INFLOW TO LARGE SCALE RESERVOIRS IN THE CITARUM RIVER
BASIN, INDONESIA
Yuki Jikeya1, Koshi Yoshida1*, Shigeya Maeda1, Hisao Kuroda1
Faculty of Agriculture, Ibaraki University, Japan*Corresponding author: koshi.yoshida.agri@vc.ibaraki.ac.jp
1

ABSTRACT
Citarum River Basin, West Java, Indonesia is important watershed for Bandung city and also for Jakarta
Metropolis, however severe water pollution occurred caused by waste water inflow from housing andagricultural land. To estimate the annual inflow of the eutrophic nutrients to reservoirs, quantitative evaluation
is important and simulation model is useful to test the future scenarios. In this study, a nitrogen-load estimation
model, which has three nitrogen pools, was developed and applied to the Citarum River Basin. Simulated riverdischarge and nitrogen load were in good agreement with observed data, and the proposed model successfully
estimated nitrogen inputs into reservoirs. Estimated Nitrogen inflow to Saguling, Cirata, Jatiluhur reservoirs
were 5973, 8064, 4123 t/year respectively. Next, we investigated the future variation of nitrogen load in thisbasin under population growth scenarios. Future population growth increased the nitrogen inflow to allreservoirs, but the magnitude of the increase varied between the different scenarios. Simulated results
indicated that a spread-type population increase is desirable for the water environment of the Citarum River.
Keywords: Nitrogen balance, Population growth, Urban and rural areas, Reservoir, West JavaINTRODUCTION
Human population growth has led to increases in energy and food production, use of fertilizers, and wastewaterflows. Enhanced availability of nitrogen is a cause of eutrophication of rivers, lakes, and estuaries worldwide;
however, quantitative evaluation of the impact of population growth on nitrogen load has been insufficient indeveloping countries because data are often unavailable.
The Citarum River Basin is a most important basin in West Java, supplying water for Bandung and Jakarta
City, with 80% of domestic water in Jakarta being withdrawn from this basin. The river has three large dams:
the Saguling dam in the upstream reach, Cirata dam in the middle reach, and Jatiluhur dam in the downstream
reach. As the population and economic growth in this basin, sediment accumulation and eutrophication havebecome serious issues in downstream reservoirs due to inflows of wastewater from urban areas and fertilizer
components from hilly upland fields into the river (Hart, 2002).
In this study, a nitrogen-load estimation model, which has three nitrogen pools, was developed and applied to
the Citarum River Basin, West Java, Indonesia. Simulated river discharge and nitrogen load were in good
agreement with observed data, and the proposed model successfully estimated nitrogen inputs into reservoirs.
Next, we investigated the future variation of nitrogen load in this basin under population growth scenarios.
METHODS
Study Area
Having a length of 350 km and catchment area of 6,600 km2 (Figure1), the Citarum River is the largest riverin West Java. Annual mean precipitation varies from 1,600 to 2,800 mm/year, and 70% of the annual
precipitation falls during the rainy season from November to March. Bandung city is located along the upstream
reach of the Citarum River. The river has three large dams: the Saguling dam in the upstream reach, Cirata
dam in the middle reach, and Jatiluhur dam in the downstream reach. Table 1 lists the characteristics of the
Saguling, Cirata, and Jatiluhur reservoirs. The Citarum River is the most important river in West Java. It
supplies water for the cities of Bandung and Jakarta, with 80% of the domestic water in Jakarta being
withdrawn downstream of the Jatiluhur dam (Loebis and Syamman 1993; Fares 2003). The land uses in the
Citarum River Basin are paddy (35%), upland crop (25%), forest (23%), urban (12%), water (2%), and others
(3%).

434

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Citarum river basin
Table 1. Characteristics of the three reservoirs in the Citarum River basin
Characteristics
Catchment area (km2)
Dam height (m)Volume (million m3)
PurposeSurface area (ha)Effective volume (million m3)
Installed capacity (turbins × MW)

Saguling Reservoir

Cirata Reservoir

Jatiluhur Reservoir

2283
99
603
Electricity
4869
598.4
700 (4 × 175)

4061
125
1927
Electricity
6200
784.9
1000 (8 × 125)

4500
96
2448
Multiple/irrigation
8200
1869
180 (6 × 30)

TOPMODELTo evaluate nitrogen transportation according to the river water flow, a distributed water-cycling model wasdeveloped and applied to analyse the water balance in the basin (Yoshida, 2011). TOPMODEL was employed
for the rainfall-runoff analysis. This distributed model can include the spatial distributions of topography, landuse, and soil characteristics. Therefore, TOPMODEL is used widely for hydrological characteristic analysis,
water management, water quality analysis, and future forecasting. TOPMODEL was proposed by Beven andKirkby (1979) based on the contributing area concept in hillslope hydrology. Figure2 illustrates the conceptual
structure of the water cycle as estimated by TOPMODEL. TOPMODEL includes three soil layers: the root zone,
unsaturated zone, and saturated zone. The water contents of the root zone and unsaturated zone arecalculated by distributed parameters, whereas the water content of the saturated zone is normally calculated
by lumped parameters. Because TOPMODEL requires only three parameters (i.e., m, To, and Srzmax),435

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. TOPMODEL structure
the model is easy to link with GIS data (for details, see Ao et al. 1999 and Nawarathna et al. 2001). In addition,
a dam operation model was combined with TOPMODEL to calculate water storage in the reservoirs (Hanasaki
et al. 2007, Juthithep, 2014).
Nitrogen balance model in soil of non-point sources (diffuse pollution)
For a nitrogen dynamics analysis in soil, Lin, et.al. (2000) or Suga (2005) mentioned that three type of nitrogensuch as organic, ammonium, nitrate should be considered. In this study, a conceptual nitrogen balance model
was developed by considering three pools in soil, organic N, ammonium N, and nitrate N, as shown in Figure3.
In this study, organic N here is assumed as nitrogen contained in relatively firstly decomposed organic matter
which can be obtained by autoclave-extractable nitrogen test. The soil N, present mainly in organic form, isalmost unavailable for plants. The vegetation uses mostly inorganic forms of N, which are made available bydecomposition of organic matter. Soil microorganisms convert the N contained in the organic matter throughthe process of mineralization. Although plants can use both forms of inorganic N, nitrate is used in preference
to ammonium because of its greater solubility in water. In other words, nitrates dissolve quickly in pore solution,
which is taken up by plants. On the other hand, this also means that nitrate is easily leached to groundwater.

Figure 3. Structure of the nitrogen balance model in soil

436

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Ammonium N is less mobile because it is strongly adsorbed on clay minerals because of its positive charge.
Denitrification is the anaerobic microbial reduction of N, which is used as an electron acceptor, resulting in atransfer of soil nitrogen to the atmosphere.
Population change and future growth scenarios
In this study, population data and distribution of population density data were available only in 2010; therefore,
population in the upper Citarum River Basin was estimated by using the population increase ratio of West Java
Province and the distribution rate in 2010 was applied to the entire analysis period. Only the total population
amount was changed each year. According to the future population prediction of the United Nations in 2010,
the population of Indonesia will increase 1.3 times by 2050. In this study, the effect of the population increases
on nitrogen loading in the upper Citarum River Basin was evaluated. In 2010, the total population of the upper
Jatiluhur Basin was 9.82 million. Therefore, a population increase of 3 million people by 2050 was assumed
and used for the impact analysis. In addition, two scenarios, one for the urban increase case and one for therural increase case, were employed and evaluated. For population increase in the urban case, 3 million people
were additionally distributed to the urban area (7,194 persons/km 2 were added to 417 urban cells at 1 km × 1
km resolution). For population increase in the rural case, 3 million people were additionally distributed to therural area (702 persons/km 2 were added to 4,269 rural cells at 1 km × 1 km resolution). Figure4 shows
population density maps for both cases.

Figure 4. Population density maps of the population growth scenarios
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
By using the proposed model, water and nitrogen balances in the Citarum Basin were calculated at a resolutionof 1 km × 1 km. The calculated river discharge was in good agreement with the amounts observed at the
Nanjung and the Cirata stations from 1996 to 2009 (Figure5). The first 5 years of data were used for parameter
calibration, and the latter 9 years of data were used for validation. At the Nanjung station, Nash-Sutcliff
efficiency (NSE) were 0.59 and 0.55 in the calibration and validation periods respectively. Model performancecan be evaluated as “satisfactory”, if NSE > 0.50 (Moriasi et. al., 2007). At the Cirata station, Nash-Sutcliff
efficiency (NSE) were 0.62 and 0.57 in the calibration and validation periods respectively.
The observed and calculated daily nitrogen load change at the Nanjung station is shown in Figure6. EstimatedNash-Sutcliff efficiency in calibration and verification period were 0.55 and 0.51, respectively. The agreement
between observed and simulated values is good, especially for the low-nitrogen-loading period. The data of
total nitrogen concentration in the Citarum River Basin were measured only once in the wet season and oncein the dry season; therefore, there is a possibility that peak nitrogen load might not be observed in such data.
The current monitoring system of water quality data is manual, so if the frequency of monitoring were to be
improved by using an automatic monitoring system, the model parameters also could be calibrated throughbetter fitting.

437

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 5. Comparison of observed and calculated river discharges (1996–2009)

Figure 6. Comparison of observed and calculated nitrogen load change at the Nanjung (1996-2009)
Figure 7 shows observed and calculated nitrogen load inflow at Saguling, Cirata and Jatiluhur reservoirs from2007 to 2009. Only 3 years water quality data was available, however sampling frequency were improved. In
this study, three different nitrogen trap ratio at dam reservoir were tested, which were 45%, 55% (literature
value) and 65%. As a result, 55% case shows a best coefficient of determination so that 55% trap ratio casewas shown in Figure 7, and that value was used for impact analysis also. The coefficient of determination R 2
were 0.50, 0.35 and 0.23 respectively. Model accuracy became worse in downstream reservoir. Figure 8
shows the result of the change in annual average nitrogen load from the current situation to the inputted
population growth scenarios for each reservoir. Future population growth increased nitrogen inflow to allreservoirs, but the magnitudes of the change were different between the scenarios.

438 nitrogen load inflow to the reservoirs
Figure 7. Comparison of observed and calculated

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

In both cases, the nitrogen increase at the Jatiluhur reservoir was relatively small compared to those at theother reservoirs because most of the nitrogen was trapped and stored in an upstream reservoir. In the case of
population increase in the rural area, nitrogen load increase was not significant compare to the case of
population increase in the urban area. In the rural area, nitrogen leaves septic tanks primarily as ammonium
in leachate. Some of the ammonium is adsorbed to soil particles and is effectively immobilized from furthertransport; thus, this nitrogen stays relatively longer in the soil. On the other hand, population density in theurban area is quite high, so the nitrogen load from the point source exceeded the capacity of decomposition
and absorption in soil. In addition, surface runoff occurs easily in the urban area because of concrete pavingof the land surface. Surface runoff is a main factor transporting nitrogen to the stream, as is soil erosion. For
the water environment in the Citarum River Basin, spread-type population increase is desirable; however,
population increase normally occurs mainly in urban areas because living in the city is more convenient for
housing, finding employment, accessibility of public services.

Figure 8. Annual nitrogen load inflow in current and population growth cases
CONCLUSIONSIn this study, a nitrogen-load estimation model was developed and applied to the Citarum River Basin, West
Java, Indonesia. Simulated river discharge and nitrogen load were in good agreement with observed data, andthe nitrogen-load estimation model successfully estimated nitrogen inputs into the reservoirs. By using the
proposed model, two future population-increase scenarios were tested. One was a 30% of basin population(≒ 3 million people) increase in the rural area, and the other was a population increase in the urban area until
2050 based on the estimation of the United Nations. As a result, the nitrogen inflow to the Cirata reservoir waslargest among the three reservoirs, and its annual variation was also large. On the other hand, most of thenitrogen flow into the Saguling and Cirata reservoirs was trapped and removed by fishes used for aquaculture
or removed by denitrification, so the Jatiluhur reservoir, which is the source of the water supply for the Jakarta
metropolis, was not strongly affected even under increased population in the future. In this study area, longterm water quality data were available only at the Najung monitoring station, but monitoring frequency wasquite poor (twice per year). Therefore, this distributed-type nitrogen-load estimation model is useful forevaluating the nutrient inflow to the reservoirs and for assessing the distribution of nitrogen sources within thewatershed. For future research, an impact analysis of global climate change on nitrogen load is required toevaluate the vulnerability of the mainstream and tributary water environments.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was supported by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS) Grant-in-Aid for
Scientific Research (KAKENHI) no. 16K15002.
REFERENCES
1. Abery, N.W. (2005) Fisheries and cage culture of three reservoirs in west Java, Indonesia: a case studyof ambitious development and resulting interactions. Fisheries Manag. Ecol, 12, pp. 315–330.

439

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

2. Adamus, C.L. and Bergman, M.J., (1995) Estimating non-point sources pollution loads with a GIS
screening model. Water Res. Bull., 31, pp. 647–655.
3. Ao, T., Ishihira, H. and Takeuchi K. (1999) Study of distributed runoff simulation model based on the block
type Topmodel and Muskingum-Cunge methods (in Japanese). Annual Journal of Hydraulic Engineering,
JSCE, 43, pp. 7–12.
4. Arheimer, B. and Brandt, M., (2000) Watershed modelling of nonpoint nitrogen losses from arable land to
Swedish coast in 1985 and 1994. Ecol. Eng., 14, pp. 389–404.
5. BBWSC (Balai Besar Wilayah Sungai Citarum), (2011) Profil BBWSC (in Indonesian).
6. Behrendt, H., and Opitz, D., (2000) Retention of nutrients in river systems: dependence on specific runoff
and hydraulic load. Hydrobiologia, 410, pp. 111–122.
7. Beven, K.J. and Kirkby, M.J., (1979) A physically based variable contributing area model of hydrology.
Hydrol. Sci. Bull., 24(1), pp. 43–69.
8. Billen, G. and Garnier, J., (2000) Nitrogen transfers through the Seine drainage network: a budget basedon the application of the Riverstrahler’ model. Hydrobiologia, 410, pp.139–150.
9. Conan, C., Bouraoui, F., Turpin, N., de Marsily, G., Bidglio, G., (2003) Modelling flow and nitrate fate atcatchment scale in Britany (France). J. Environ. Qual., 32 (6), pp. 2026–2032.
10. Delpla, I., Jung, A.V. and Baures, E, (2009) Impacts of climate change on surface water quality in relation
to drinking water production. Environ. Int., 35(8), pp. 1225–1233. DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.2009.07.001.
11. DGWR (Directorate General of Water Resources), (2007) Integrated Citarum water resourcesmanagement project: Report on roadmap and program development. In: Technical assistanceconsultant’s report.
12. Fares, Y.R., (2003) Water resources management in tropical river catchments. J. Environ. Hydrol., 11(14),1–11.
13. Gallee, H., Moufouma-Okia, W., Bechtold, P., Brasseur, O., Dupays, I., Marbaix, P., Messager, C., Ramel,
R., Lebel, T., (2004) A high-resolution simulation of a West African rainy season using a regional climate
model. J. Geophys. Res., 109, D05108. DOI: 10.1029/2003JD004020.
14. Grizzetti, B., Bouraoui, F., de Marsily, G., Bidoglio, G., (2005) A statistical method for source
apportionment of riverine nitrogen loads. J. Hydrol., 304, pp. 302–315.
15. Hanasaki, N., Utsumi, N., Yamada, T., Shen, Y., Bengtsson, M., Kanae, S., Otaki, M., Oki, T, (2007)
Development of a global integrated water resources model for water resources assessments underclimate change (in Japanese). Annual Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, JSCE, 51, pp. 229–234.
16. Harashina, K., Takeuchi, K., Tsunekawa, A., and Arifin, H.S., (2003) Nitrogen flows due to humanactivities in the Cianjur–Cisokan watershed area in the middle Citarum drainage basin, West Java,
Indonesia: a case study at hamlet scale. Agr. Ecosyst. Environ., 100(1), pp. 75–90.
17. Hart B.T., van Dok W., and Djuangsih N., (2002) Nutrient budget for Saguling reservoir, West Java,
Indonesia. Water Res., 36, 2152–2160.
18. Hirano M., Kuroda H., Kato T. and H. Nakasone, (2006) Nitrogen Removal Capability in Wetland Soils
under Light Condition (in Japanese), Trans. JSIDRE,, 74(5), 713-720.
19. IPCC (Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change), (2007) IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4).
20. Johnes, P.J., 1996: Evaluation and management of the impact of land use change on the nitrogen andphosphorus load delivered to surface waters: the export coefficient modelling approach. J. Hydrol., 183,
pp. 323–349.
21. Johnsson, H., Bergstrom, L., Jansson, P. E., and Paustian, K. (1987) Simulated nitrogen dynamics andlosses in a layered agricultural soil. Agr. Ecosyst, Environ., 18, pp. 333–356.
22. Juthitep V., T. Masumoto, H. Minakawa and R. Kudo, (2014) Application of a DWCM-AgWU Model to the
Chao Phraya River Basin with Large Irrigation Paddy Areas and Dams, Applied Hydrology, Vol.26,11-22.
23. Lee M.S., Lee, K.K., Hyuna, Y., Clement, T.P., and Hamilton, D., 2006: Nitrogen transformation andtransport modeling in groundwater aquifers. Ecol. Model., 192, pp. 143–159.
24. Lin B.L., Sakoda A., Shibasaki R., Goto N. and Suzuki N. 2000: Modelling a global biogeochemical
nitrogen cycle in terrestrial ecosystems. Ecol. Model., 35(1), pp. 89–110.
25. Loebis, J. and Syamman, P., 1993: Reservoir operation conflict in Citarum river basin management. IAHS
Pub. 213, pp. 455–459.
26. Moriasi, D.N. , Arnold, J.G. , Van Liew, M.W. , Bingner, R.L. , Harmel, R.D. and Veith, T.L. 2007: Modelevaluation guidelines for systematic quantification of accuracy in watershed simulations, Transactions of
the ASABE, vol.50(3), pp.885-900.
27. Nawarathna, N.M.N.S.B., Ao, T.Q., Kazama, S., Sawamoto, M. and Takeuchi, K., 2000: Influence ofhuman activity on the BTOPMC model runoff simulations in large-scale watersheds. 29th IAHR Congress
Proc., Theme a, pp. 93–99.
28. Park J.H., Duan L. and Kim B., 2009: Potential effects of climate change and variability on watershedbiogeochemical processes and water quality in Northeast Asia. Environ. Int., DOI: 10.1016/j.envint.

440

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

2009.10.008.
29. Pieterse, N.M., Bleuten, W. and Joergensen S.E., 2003: Contribution of point sources and diffuse sources
to nitrogen and phosphorus loads in the lowland river tributaries. J. Hydrol., 271, pp. 213–225.
30. Saroinsong, F., Harashina, K., Arifin, H., Gandasasmita, K. and Sakamoto, K., 2007: Practical applicationof a land resources information system for agricultural landscape planning. Landscape Urban Plan., 79,
pp. 38–52.
31. Skop, E. and Srensen, P.B., 1998: GIS-based modelling of solute fluxes at the catchment scale: a casestudy of the agricultural contribution to riverine nitrogen loading in the Vejle Fjord catchment, Denmark.
Ecol. Model., 106, pp. 291–310.
32. Smith, R.A., Schwarz, G.E. and Alexander, R.A., 1997: Regional interpretation of water-quality monitoringdata. Water Resour. Res., 33, pp. 2781–2798.
33. Suga Y., Hirabayashi Y., Kanae S. and Oki, T., 2005: Changes in river nitrate transport of the world
resulting from increase in fertilizer use (in Japanese). Annual Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, JSCE,
49(1), pp. 495–500.
34. Tanaka K., Yoshida, K., Noda, K., Azechi, I. and Kuroda, H., 2013: Estimation unit of nitrogen andphosphorous pollution loading in Mekong River Basin (in Japanese). Trans. JSIDRE, 81(2), pp. 193–199.
35. WSP (Water and Sanitation Program), 2013: Downstream Impacts of Water Pollution in the Upper
Citarum River.
36. Whitehead, P.G., Wilby, R.L., Butterfield, D. and Wade, A.J., 2006: Impacts of climate change on instream nitrogen in a lowland chalk stream: An appraisal of adaptation strategies. Sci. Total Environ, 365,
pp. 260–273.

441

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Topic 10. Limnology and limnological science fundamentals
TROPHIC STATE CHARACTERISATION FOR MALAYSIAN LAKES
Zati Sharip1*, Fatimah M. Yusoff2, Wan Ruslan Ismail3
Lake Research Unit, Water Quality and Environment Research Centre, National HydraulicResearch Institute of Malaysia, 43300 Seri Kembangan, Selangor, Malaysia, 2 Institute of
Bioscience/Department of Aquaculture, Faculty of Agriculture, Universiti Putra Malaysia, 43400
UPM, Serdang, Malaysia, 3 Geography Section, School of Humanities, Universiti Sains Malaysia,
11800 Penang, Malaysia*Corresponding author: zati@nahrim.gov.my
1

ABSTRACTThis study investigated the trophic conditions and water quality of three selected lakes of different trophy
namely Dayang Bunting Lake (oligotrophy-mesotrophy), Subang Reservoir (mesotrophy-eutrophy) andSembrong Reservoir (eutrophy-hyper eutrophy) with the objective to characterize a trophic classification for
Malaysian lakes. The study assessed various environmental variables including chlorophyll-a, total
phosphorus, total nitrogen, dissolved oxygen, pH, turbidity and water transparency. Our results showed a lowtransparency in all lakes which ranged from 0.2 to 3.7 m. Dayang Bunting Lake has the highest transparency,
salinity and conductivity among the lakes. Mean concentration of chlorophyll-a was below 10 µg/L while mean
Secchi depth transparency exceeded 3.0 m indicating oligotrophic-mesotrophic environment. TP
concentrations were lowest in Dayang Bunting compared to other lakes. Sembrong Reservoir has the highest
turbidity and chlorophyll-a, and lowest transparency among the lakes. Mean concentration of chlorophyll-a inthis reservoir exceeded 25 µg/L, indicating eutrophic to hyper-eutrophic environment. The physical-chemical
properties of Subang reservoir, such as turbidity, transparency, dissolved oxygen and nitrate, were in between
the two lakes. TSI differences indicated both Subang and Sembrong reservoirs are non-phosphorus limited
while Dayang Bunting Lake is phosphorus limited. Sembrong Reservoir was dominated by cyanobacteria, suchas Planktothrix and Oscillatoria spp while Subang Lake was dominated by green algae. The most common
algae in Dayang Bunting Lake were dinoflagellates and diatoms, indicating the influence of the adjacent marine
waters.
Keywords: lakes, reservoirs, eutrophication, Malaysia, trophic state
INTRODUCTION
Eutrophication, is a global issue that impacted the quality of water in lakes and their ecosystem services.
Lake eutrophication has been reported to be of concern in Malaysia with more 60% out of the 90 major lakes
were categorised as eutrophic while the rest was mesotrophic (NAHRIM 2009). Characterising trophic state inlakes were mostly carried out using nutrient-chlorophyll-a relationship as measured by the Carlson trophic
state index. The index which is based on chlorophyll-a, total phosphorus and Secchi depth transparency wasdeveloped on the assumption of linear relationship between the three variables (Carlson 1977). The growth ofalgal growth is assumed to be in proportion to the increased in nutrients specifically phosphorus (Carlson 1977).
Carlson trophic state index was developed for temperate environment and the use of this index for tropicalsetting has been cautioned to be non-accurate due to the differences of temperature and solar irra diance inthe threshold limits. Biological productivity specifically phytoplankton and zooplankton were dependent on
nutrient availability and overall aquatic food web structure. In a tropical reservoir, water quality, phytoplankton
biomass and zooplankton changed along the river-lacustrine continuum which in turn are related to nutrient
availability (Yusoff et al. 2002). Phytoplankton species such cyanobacteria have been associated witheutrophication (Yusoff and McNabb, 1997) while some diatom species, such as Cyclotella are known todominate in oligotrophic lakes (Ofem et al. 2011; Romo et al. 2013). Similarly, zooplankton species such as
some species of cladocerans (i.e. Bosmina longirostris) and some species of rotifers (i.e. Synchaeta longipes)
were identified as indicators of oligotrophic and mesotrophic conditions (Ofem et al. 2011). Changes in aquatic
environment such as nutrients and water level may affect the plankton structure and dominance (Reynold 1987;
Hoyer et al. 2005).
This study was undertaken to investigate the trophic conditions and water quality of three selected lakes ofdifferent trophy in Malaysia, and specifically to evaluate the chlorophyll-a-nutrient relationship, to identify theexisting plankton community and their relationship with the trophic state. The focus of this study, however, isgiven to shallow lakes due to limited resources to monitor the deeper lake systems.

442

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

METHODS
Study area
Three lakes of varying trophy were selected for this study namely the Dayang Bunting Lake in Kedah, The
Subang Lake in Selangor and the Sembrong Lake in Johor (Figure 1). The characteristics of the lakes are
given in Table 1. Both Dayang Bunting and Subang lakes are smaller compared to Sembrong reservoir.
Dayang Bunting Lake is a natural lake that is widely used for recreational purposes. The lake was thought tobe of a doline origin of geological significance. Both Sembrong and Subang are man-made lakes; Sembrong
Lake was created for flood mitigation in 1984 and later was used for water supply (JPS and UTHM 2012) while
Subang Lake was completed in 1950 and used for water supply.
Table 1: Morphometric characteristics of the Malaysian three lakes with different trophy
Details

Dayang Bunting

SubangSembrong

Function

Recreation

Water supply

Water supply, flood mitigation

Origin

DolineImpoundment

Impoundment

Surface are (ha)

28

76

850

Mean depth (m)

12.0

8.5

3.0

Shape

Oval

Dendritic

Dendritic

Perimeter (km)

2.2

19.1

42.3

Total storage (m3)3,300,000

3,500,000

18,000,000

0.6

10.2

130

Catchment area (km 2)

Figure 1: Location map of study areas
Data collection and analysis
In-situ measurements of temperature, pH, dissolved oxygen (DO), salinity, turbidity and conductivity werecarried out using a multi-parameter probe (YSI 6600) whilst water samples for chemical analyses werecollected using van dorn sampler. Measurements were performed at three locations (Figure 1) in each lake.

443

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Additionally, water transparency (SD) was measured using a Secchi disk. Water samples were analysed for
total phosphorus, nitrate-nitrogen and chlorophyll-a (Chl-a) in accordance to APHA (1995). Samplings in both
Subang and Sembrong reservoirs were carried out bi-monthly between the period of December 2014 to August
2015 while samplings in Dayang Bunting Lake were performed between the period of April 2015 to February
2016.
Phytoplankton samples were collected in all three lakes at the sampling stations. In all lakes, phytoplankton
samples were collected by taking water samples using a Van Dornsampler at two depths (surface, mid-depth).
All phytoplankton samples were immediately preserved in the field with Lugol’s solution. Zooplankton samples
were collected by vertical tows from the bottom (30 cm from the sediment) to the surface using 60µm meshconical net. All zooplankton samples were preserved with 5% buffered formalin. Both phytoplankton andzooplankton samples were processed, identified and enumerated in the laboratories. Pearson correlation wasused to measure association between the trophic state index and environmental variables.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
Environmental variables
Our results showed low transparency readings in all lakes which ranged from 0.2 to 3.7 m (Table 2). Dayang
Bunting Lake had the highest transparency, salinity and conductivity levels among all the lakes. Mean
concentration of chlorophyll-a was below 10 µg/L while mean Secchi depth transparency exceeded 3.0 m
indicating oligotrophic-mesotrophic environment. Total phosphorus concentrations were lowest compared toother lakes. High salinity, conductivity, transparency and pH levels in Dayang Bunting have been reported to
be associated by its location in a limestone area bordering the sea. The south-western end of the lake isseparated from the sea only by a narrow strip of land of about 3 m wide (Fig. 1) (FRI 1996). The transparency
levels found in this study were much lower compared to previous study where the Secchi depth transparency
were reported to exceed 6 m (FRI 1996). Salinity levels also has decreased indicating some changes in water
quality of Dayang Bunting Lake since the last report in 1996, probably due to the increased anthropogenic
activities associated with tourism in the lake basin.
Sembrong Reservoir had the highest turbidity and chlorophyll-a, and lowest transparency among all the lakes.
Mean concentration of chlorophyll-a in this reservoir was 65.4 µg/L, indicating eutrophic to hyper-eutrophic
environment (Table 2). Transparency levels were very low (below 0.5 m) while TP concentration was extremely
high. The transparency and TP levels in this study were consistent with prior studies by other researchers(Singh et al. 2013; Sharip et al. 2014; Baharim et al. 2016). However, in this study, the transparency levels
were consistently low throughout the year whereas findings by Singh et al (2013) showed an increase intransparency level during the wet season. The physical-chemical properties of Subang reservoir, such as
turbidity, transparency, dissolved oxygen and nitrate, were in between the values found in Dayang Bunting
and Sembrong lakes (Table 2).
Table 2. Mean ± standard deviation SD of environmental variables in Dayang Bunting, Subang
and Sembrong lakes
Parameter

Lake
Dayang Bunting

SubangSembrong

Water transparency (m)3.2±0.3

1.1±0.1

0.3 ±0.1

Temperature (°C)

30.7±0.930.3±0.730.3±0.5

DO (mg/L) – day time

6.7±1.87.8±1.3

8.2±1.4pH

7.8±0.4

6.7±0.88.2±0.7

Salinity (ppt)

0.70±0.06

0.01±0.00

0.14±0.08

Conductivity (mS/cm)

1.58±0.0

0.01±0.0

0.12±0.04

Nitrate-N (mg/L)

0.02±0.01

0.01±0.02

nd

TP (mg/L)

0.002±0.00

0.040±0.06

0.125±0.18

Turbidity (NTU)

1.6±1.4

4.0±8.025.5±10.3

Chl-a (µg/L)

8.8±7.0

11.3±4.8

65.4±45.3

nd is non-detectable444

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Trophic state index
The calculation of trophic state based on Carlson Index is given in Table 3. The TSI for all the three parameters
showed consistent values for Subang and Sembrong lakes suggesting linear relationship between the nutrientand biological productivity in both reservoirs. Yusoff et al (1997) reported that tropical lake trophy, similar totemperate lakes, was very closely related to the nutrient input. In fact, Osborne (2004) reported that tropicallakes are more sensitive to nutrient inputs compared to temperate lakes. TSI (Chl-a) showed divergent with
TSI phosphorus in Dayang Bunting Lake and thus require further investigation. Estimation of TSI differencesindicated Dayang Bunting Lake is phosphorus limited. Yusoff and McNabb (1989) reported that inorganic
nitrogen to orthophosphate-P ratio of >36 indicated phosphorus limitation in a tropical pond. Positive deviationof TSI (Chl-a) from TSI (SD) in both Sembrong and Subang reservoir indicate light limitation by non-algal
turbidity such as clay. Both Subang and Sembrong are man-made lakes, and reservoirs are known to belimited by turbidity (Rast and Lee 1978). Yusoff (1989) also reported that light became a limiting factor in aturbid fish pond. Positive divergent of TSI (Chl-a) from TSI (TP) in both reservoirs indicated that Subang andSembrong lake maybe non-phosphorus limited, although nitrogen values are necessary to confirm the limiting
factors.
Table 3. Trophic State Index*
DayangBunting

SubangSembrong

TSI (SDtransparency)

43.4

58.6

77.4

TSI (TP)

14.1

57.4

73.8

TSI (Chl-a)

51.9

54.4

71.6

Details

Note: * based on Carlson TSI
In the eutrophic Sembrong reservoir, TSI (chl-a) was correlated to conductivity and DO (P<0.05) while in
Subang, TSI (chl-a) was correlated to temperature (P<0.01) (Table 4). In Dayang bunting, TSI (TP) was
correlated to turbidity while in Sembrong, TSI (TP) was correlated to turbidity, pH, conductivity and temperature.
Table 4. Correlation coefficient between trophic state index and environmental variables
Correlations
TSI(SD)
Parameter

DayangBunting

SubangSembrong

TemperaturepH
Turbidity
DO
ConductivitySalinityTDSD-0.4480.294-0.489*Dayang
Bunting-0.1930.151
0.311-0.185-0.227-0.139-0.0130.182-0.381-0.2150.123
0.060-0.478*

0.409
0.051
0.218

TP

-0.115-0.1850.921**
0.106

Chl-a
Nitrate-N

TSI(Chl-a)

TSI(TP)
SubangSembrong

0.273

0.536*

Dayang
Bunting-0.0400.279
0.570*-0.033-0.1230.006
0.091-0.1660.094

0.605**-0.578*0.451
0.530*

0.515*
0.362-0.150-0.081-0.441-0.054-0.1300.174
0.113-0.409-0.142-0.2590.528*-0.3600.862**
0.149-0.179-0.354

0.210

0.092

SubangSembrong

0.216-0.248-0.074-0.0900.691**
0.387
0.067-0.4530.100

0.378-0.4570.518*
0.013-0.557*-0.2850.074-0.0710.144
0.083-0.151
0.035
0.041-0.3230.078
0.272-0.378-0.244

0.073

0.175

0.007

0.455

0.315

-0.147-0.086-0.308-0.0030.974*
*
0.339

0.249

0.159

-0.019Note: Values in bold denote significant correlations: * correlation is significant at 0.05 level, ** correlation issignificant at 0.01 level445

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Plankton analysis
In terms of phytoplankton analysis, blue-green algae (cyanobacteria) were the most dominant group in
Sembrong reservoir with densities contributed more than 95.0% of the total phytoplankton during the study
period. Excessive inflow of nutrients, especially nitrogen and phosphorus from the surrounding agriculture
lands caused the increased phytoplankton abundance with cyanobacterial dominance (Yusoff and Patimah,
1994; Yusoff and McNabb, 1997). The most dominant species were planktothrix and Oscillatoria spp. The
dominance of Oscillatoria spp. was also reported in the past such as written in Sembrong Lake Brief (JPSand UTHM 2012). In fact a work by Singh et al (2013) also showed that Planktothrix was the most dominant
species in the reservoir during her study in 2013. The dominant species could be attributed to the mixing
regime, season and organic and nutrient contents in the lakes (Elliott 2010; Yang et al. 2016).
In Subang Lake, Chlorophyta (green algae) formed the most dominant group contributing to more than 60%of the total phytoplankton in the Lake. The most dominant species were the desmids which are normallyassociated with oligo-mesotrophic waters such as Cosmarium, Closterium and Staurastrum. Yusoff et al(1998) also reported that the desmids (Cosmarium and Staurastrum) were dominant in Kenyir mesotrophic
metalimnetic layer. The most common algae in Dayang Bunting Lake were dinoflagellates and diatoms,
probably due to the influence of the adjacent marine environment. The dominant phytoplankton species
was a dinoflagellate, Peridinium sp. The low nutrient level contributed to the low phytoplankton densities inDayang Bunting Lake. The high salinity levels in this lake could also influence the type of plankton species.
The phytoplankton results in this study indicate variation in the dominance of phytoplankton species withtrophic levels.
CONCLUSIONSThis study showed that lakes of different trophy have different physical and biological characteristics.
Oligotrophic-mesotrophic lakes such as Dayang Bunting has low nutrient level and the phytoplankton
community structure was dominated by diatoms and dinoflagellates. The mesotrophic-eutrophic Subang
lake was mostly dominated by green algae whilst the eutrophic-hyper-eutrophic Sembrong lake wasdominated by blue-green algae. In addition to different trophic conditions, the limiting factor for the lakevaried with other environmental variables such as pH and salinity.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The funding of the study was provided by the Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment of Malaysia(No. P23170009000421). The authors would like to thank NAHRIM staff (A. Taqiyuddin A. Zaki, and Mohd
Azril Hilmi Shapiai), UPM staff/students (Umi Wahidah, Nur Suhayati, Mohd Shukri Abu Bakar) and allundergraduate students of Universiti Sains Malaysia for their assistance in the field. We are grateful to Dr.
Saim Suratman and Datuk Ir. Ahmad Jamaluddin Shaaban for their management support.
REFERENCES
1. APHA (1995) Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water American Public
Health Association (APHA), Washington,DC
2. Baharim NB, Yusop Z, Yusoff I, Tahir WZWM, Askari M, Othman Z, Abidin MRZ. (2016). The
Relationship between Heavy Metals and Trophic Properties in Sembrong Lake, Johor. Sains
Malaysiana 45, 43-53.
3. Carlson RE. (1977). A trophic state index for lakes. Limnol. Oceanogr. 22, 361-369.
4. Elliott JA. (2010). The seasonal sensitivity of Cyanobacteria and other phytoplankton to changes influshing rate and water temperature. Global change biology 16, 864-876.
5. Hoyer MV, Horsburgh CA, Canfield DE, Bachmann RW. (2005). Lake level and trophic state variables
among a population of shallow Florida lakes and within individual lakes. Canadian Journal of Fisheries
and Aquatic Sciences 62, 2760-2769.
6. JPS, UTHM. (2012). Tasik Empangan Sembrong, Batu Pahat Johor, Managing lakes and their basins
for sustainable use in Malaysia (Lake Briefs Report Series III). NAHRIM, Seri Kembangan.
7. Oberholster PJ, Botha AM, Cloete TE. (2006). Toxic cyanobacterial blooms in a shallow, artificiallymixed urban lake in Colorado, USA. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research & Management 11, 111-123.
8. Offem BO, Ayotunde EO, Ikpi GU, Ada FB, Ochang SN (2011). Plankton- Based Assessment of theTrophic State of Three Tropical Lakes. Journal of Environmental Protection 2, 304-315.

446

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

9. Osborne PL. (2004). Eutrophication of Shallow Tropical Lakes, in The Lakes Handbook, Volume 2:
Lake Restoration and Rehabilitation (eds P.E. O'Sullivan and C.S. Reynolds), Blackwell Science Ltd,
Oxford,10. Rast W, Lee GF. (1978). Summary analysis of the North American Project: Nutrient Loading - Lakes
response relationships and trophic state indices, in: Agency, U.E.P. (Ed.), Ecological Research Series,
Corvallis, Oregon, USA, p. 481.
11. Reynolds C. (1987). The response of phytoplankton communities to changing lake environments.
Aquatic Sciences - Research Across Boundaries 49, 220-236.
12. Romo S, Soria J, Fernandez F, Ouahid Y, Baron-Sola Á. (2013). Water residence time and the
dynamics of toxic cyanobacteria. Freshwater Biology 58, 513-522.
13. Sharip Z, Zaki ATA, Shapai MAH, Suratman S and Shaaban AJ. (2014) Lakes of Malaysia: Water
quality, eutrophication and management. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research & Management 19, 130-141
14. Singh GKS, Kuppan P, Goto M, Sugiura N, Noor MJMM, Ujang Z. (2013). Physical water quality andalgal density for remediation of algal blooms in tropical shallow eutrophic reservoir. Journal of Novel
Carbon Resource Sciences 7, 33-41.
15. Yang J, Lv H, Yang J, Liu L, Yu X., Chen H. (2016). Decline in water levels boost cyanobacterial
dominance in subtropical reservoirs. Science of the Total Environment 557-558, 445-452.
16. Yusoff FM, McNabb CD. (1989). Effects of nutrient availability on primary productivity and fish
production in fertilized tropical ponds. Aquaculture, 78:303-319.
17. Yusoff FM (1989). Light availability for phytoplankton production in turbid tropical fish ponds. Pertanika,
12(3):329-333.
18. Yusoff FM, Patimah I. (1994). A comparative study of plankton populations in two lakes. Mitt. Internat.
Verein. Limnol. 24, 251-257.
19. Yusoff FM, McNabb CD. (1997). The effects of phosphorus and nitrogen addition on phytoplankton
dominance in tropical ponds. Aquaculture Research, 28, 591-597.
20. Yusoff FM, Ismail MS, Law AT, Anton A. (1997) Nutrient availability in tropical lakes of varying trophy.
Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 26, 420-426.
21. Yusoff FM, Happey-Wood CM, Anton A. (1998). Vertical and seasonal distribution of phytoplankton ina tropical reservoir, Malaysia. Internat. Rev. Hydrobiol. 83 (special issue), 121-134
22. Yusoff FM, Matias HM, Nather Khan. (2002). Changes of water quality, chlorophyll a and zooplankton
along the river-lacustrine continuum in a tropical reservoir. Verh. Internat. Verein. Limnol. 28, 295-298

447

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CURRENT STATUS OF LAKE ARAL – CHALLENGES AND FUTURE OPPORTUNITIES
N. Aladin1, T. Chida2, J.-F. Cretaux3, Z. Ermakhanov4, B. Jollibekov5, B. Karimov6, Y.
Kawabata7, D. Keyser8, J. Kubota9, P. Micklin10, N. Mingazova11, I. Plotnikov1*, M. Toman12
Zoological Institute of RAS, St. Petersburg, Russia, 2Nagoya University of Foreign Studies,Japan, 3LEGOS/CNES, Toulouse, France, 4Aral branch of Kazakh Research Institute ofFishery, Aralsk, Kazakhstan, 5 Institute of Bioecology, Nukus, Uzbekistan, 6Tashkent Institute
Irrigation and Melioration, Tashkent, Uzbekistan, 7Tokyo University of Agriculture andTechnology Koganei, Tokyo, Japan, 8 Hamburg University, Germany, 9 Research Institute for
Humanity and Nature, Kyoto, Japan, 10Western Michigan University, Kalamazoo, USA, 11Kazan
Federal University, Kazan, Russia, 12University of Ljubljana, Slovenia*Corresponding author: igor.plotnikov@zin.ru
1

ABSTRACTThe Aral Sea was the fourth largest lake in the world before 1960. However, it is now four separate water
bodies, fed mainly by collector-drainage waters because of excessive upstream irrigation water withdrawals
from the two main influent rivers, the Syr Darya and Amu Darya, which is clearly shown on satellite images.
The resulting rapid increase in salinity has caused a dramatic decrease in the lake biodiversity and loss ofa once thriving fishery. Only a small part of the indigenous biota has survived. The regression of the Aral
Sea also has had profound socioeconomic and human impacts on the lake riparian populations. Accordingly,
it is encouraging to note the reversal of the degradation of the Northern (Small) Aral Sea after the erectionof a dike at Berg’s Strait in 1992. This first dike was washed out in 1999, but was replaced with the new
structurally-sound Kok-Aral dam in 2004-2005. The water level in the Northern Aral has increased several
meters and its salinity has returned to levels that can sustain the pre-1960 ecosystem. The biodiversity also
has been somewhat rehabilitated, and the commercial fisheries have revived. The remnants of thehyperhaline Southern (Large) Aral continue their retreat and salinization. The Large Aral contains no fish
species, and almost all the invertebrate species have been lost. To restore the Aral Sea to its former state
would be very difficult, if not impossible, in the foreseeable future. However, a partial restoration of its
separate parts is possible. Plans for further rehabilitation of the Small Sea and possible restoration of someparts of the Southern (Large) Aral Sea are discussed.
Keywords: Aral Sea, salinity, biodiversity.
INTRODUCTION
The Aral Sea is a terminal, or closed basin (endorheic) lake, lying amidst the vast deserts of Central Asia.
Its drainage basin encompasses more than two million km2 (Fig. 1). As a terminal lake, it has surface inflow
but no outflow. Therefore, the balance between inflows from its influent rivers, the Amu Dar’ya and Syr
Dar’ya and net evaporation (evaporation from the lake surface minus precipitation on it) fundamentally
determine its level. In 1960 the Aral Sea was the 4th largest lake in the world by surface area. The main
parameters of the Aral Sea in the middle of the 20th century: area: 67,499 km 2 (Large Aral 61,381 km 2 andSmall Aral 6118 km2), volume: 1089 km 3 (Large Aral 1007 km 3 and Small Aral 82 km 3), level: +53.4 m
above sea level (actually above the Kronstadt gage near St. Petersburg, Russia, maximal depth: 69 m,
salinity: about 10 g/l (Aladin, et al., 2008).

448

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. The Aral Sea basin
Prior to the modern desiccation, the Aral Sea was inhabited by about 20 species of fishes and about 200
species of free-living invertebrates (Plotnikov et al., 2014a). Between the middle of the 19th century and
1961, the shape and salinity of the Aral Sea practically did not change. We must note, however, that due
to both the intended and the accidental introductions that started in the 1920s, the number of free-living
animals grew substantially. In the Aral Sea appeared 10 species of new invertebrates and 17 species of
new fishes (Plotnikov et al., 2014b).
METHODS
The results presented here are based on data gathered in annual expeditions to the shores of the Aral Sea,
conducted since 1960. Zoological and botanical samples were taken and the hydrological parameters
measured. Additionally, satellite images have been used to monitor the changing geographical features.
The results of different projects conducted around and on the Aral Sea have been critically evaluated andincorporated into this paper. Also, available official information and data concerning the Aral Sea and its
surrounding have been used.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Since 1960 the Aral Sea has steadily shrunk and become shallower (Fig. 2) owing overwhelmingly toirrigation withdrawals (Fig. 3) from its influent rivers (Amu Dar’ya and Syr Dar’ya). At the end of the 1980s,
when the water level had dropped by about 13 m and reached about +40 m, the Aral Sea divided into twolakes – the Large and the Small Aral. At that time, the total area of the Aral Sea (Large Aral and Small Aral)
was 40,000 km2 with a volume of 333 km 3 and a salinity of 30 g/l (Aladin et al., 2008). By September 2009,
the total Aral area was only 8410 km 2, with a volume of 85 km 3. The Large Aral area had a surface of 4922
km2 with a volume of 58 km3 and a salinity >100 g/l. The Small Aral area at that date was 3487 km 2, volume
27 km3 and salinity 10-14 g/l.

449

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Since 1960 the Aral Sea has steadily shrunk and become
shallower (left image from Corona spy satellite right from MODIS
250-meter sensor).
After the division of the Aral Sea, the Northern/Small Aral Sea started to have a positive water balance.
Therefore, water from the Syr Dar’ya River, ground inflow, and precipitation on the sea’s surface havecontributed in total more water than evaporated from the surface of the Small Aral. In the case of the Large
Aral Sea, the water balance continued to be negative. Thus, evaporation from its surface continued to besignificantly higher than the total amount of water reaching it. Due to the positive water balance in the
Northern/Small Aral Sea, there was a flow of excess water from it to the Large Aral Sea at that time. This
discharge of water from the Small Aral occurred primarily in spring-early summer and corresponded to thehigh flow period on the Syr Dar’ya River. Consequently, it was decided to build a dam on the Berg Strait(Fig. 4) to keep the water in the Northern/Small Aral Sea. In August 1992, a basic dam was built. (Aladin
et al., 1995). This dam helped preserve the Small (Northern) Aral and rehabilitate its biodiversity.

Figure 3. Irrigation development in the Aral Sea basin.

450

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. Dam in Berg strait.
The basic dam in the Berg Strait was partly destroyed a number of times by the high spring water levels
but the broken parts of the dike were always restored by local people. Unfortunately, in April, 1999, when
the Small Aral Sea water level rose by more than 3 m and reached +43.5 m (Fig. 5), the dam completely
failed with the loss of two lives (Micklin, 2010).
43.5

North Aral

43

Satellite altimetry:

Water height above Baltic Sea (m)

42.5

42
41.5

41
40.5

40

39.5
1992 1994 1996 1998 2000 2002
2004
2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016
Date(year)

Figure 5. The Small Aral Sea level (data from satellite altimetry:
Topex/Poseidon, Jason1, Jason2 and Jason3).

451

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 6. New Kok-Aral“Zarubezhvodstroy” in 2005

dam

built

by

Russiancompany

A new Kok-Aral dam (Fig. 6) was built by the Russian company “Zarubezhvodstr oy”. As a result, sinceAugust 2005, outflow has been controlled by a discharge structure (gates) in the dam. When the water
gates are open at the Kok-Aral dam and there is heavy outflow, all the remaining southern water bodies of
the Aral Sea are connected for a period of time (Micklin, 2014).
This dam on the Berg Strait was funded by the World Bank using funds from GEF (Global Environmental
Facility) and the Kazakhstan government for the purpose of improving the brackish water environment of
the Small (Northern) Aral Sea. Local people call this dam “Dam of life”. The Kok-Aral dam has allowed anincrease of the water level in the Small (Northern) Aral Sea in 6 months to +42 m a.s.l., and with “forcing”
to 42.5 m (Cretaux et al., 2013). The present average salinity in the Small (Northern) Aral Sea is less than
10 g/l (Micklin, 2010). it will decrease even more in the near future.
It is possible to make the present dike higher and thus raise the water level to +45 m a.s.l. (recent researchby P. Micklin, indicates it may even be possible to maintain the level at 48 m). This increase will allow theenlargement of the volume and area of the Small (Northern) Aral Sea. An alternative 2nd phase of the
project would raise the level only of the Saryshaganak Gulf. For further increases in the inflow from the Syr
Darya, significant improvements in irrigation efficiency are needed.
The second phase of the project would allow further improvement in the health of the local people, adecrease in poverty and unemployment, an increase in living standards as well as additional income for
local families. The local economy also will be improved (fishery, aquaculture, shipping, etc.). The local
microclimate around the Small (Northern) Aral Sea is expected to be much better than now.
When the basic first dam in the Berg Strait was built in 1992, fishing on the Small Aral recommenced. After
construction of the Kok-Aral dam, conditions for fishing improved tremendously (Fig. 7) (Ermakhanov et al.,2012).

452

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 7. Commercial fish catches on the Small Aral Sea.
Since the Aral Sea divided into 2 lakes at the end of the 1980s, the level of the Large Aral Sea has declined
intensively. In early 2003, when the level of the Large Aral Sea dropped by 22 m and fell to about +31 m,
the Large Aral Sea divided into the Eastern Large and Western Large Aral (Fig. 8). In September 2009, thearea was 4922 km 2 (8% from 1960), the volume 58 km 3 (6% from 1960), and the salinity in the Westernpart of the Large Aral Sea and Tschebas Bay >100 g/l, whereas salinity in the Eastern part was >200 g/l(Micklin, 2014). The level of the Eastern Large Aral Sea is always higher than the level of Western Large
Aral Sea. In both lakes, salinity increased so much that all the fish disappeared (Fig. 7) and only a few freeliving invertebrates survived. In the Eastern part of the Large Aral only one species of invertebrates – brine
shrimp Artemia (represented here by parthenogenetic clones) – has survived. At the end of the 20th
century, this species appeared in the Large Aral Sea (Plotnikov et al., 2014b). Today, industrial harvestingof brine shrimp cysts has started. Artemia cysts (or eggs) is a semi-product and is nourishing food forfingerlings and small fish or shrimp.

32

South Aral from satellite altimetry

31

West Aral

30

East Aral

Height above Baltic Sea (m)

29
28
27
26
25
24
2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

2016

Date (year)
Figure 8. The Large Aral Sea level (data from satellite altimetry: Topex/Poseidon,
Jason1, Jason2 and Jason3).

453

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Since the completion of the Kok-Aral dam in 2005, excess water has been released southward creating alarge lake that extends westward and southward and in some years extend sufficiently far south to aid inrefilling the Eastern Basin of the Aral Sea. This lake also reaches what was formerly Tschebas Bay andsupplements its water balance. It also provides some water through the connecting channel to the Western
Basin of the Aral Sea. Fish from the Small Sea are carried into it by outflow from the Kok-Aral dam. Thiswater body has been named the Central Aral by some experts (Fig. 9, 10, 11).

Figure 9. The Central Aral (Oct. 10, 2015).
However, the Central Aral is large, very shallow (the eastern part is now more a wetland than a true lake)and has extensive areas of reeds contributing to high rates of evapo-transpiration and thus significant water
loss. Also, the western part has salinity levels too high (~70 g/l) for fish to survive. Finally, the area of thelake experiences great annual variation (Fig. 9, 10): enlarging greatly during the winter/spring period ofheavier inflow from the Syr Darya and shrinking rapidly during the summer and autumn (and some years
entirely disappearing).

Figure 10. The Central Ara (Jan. 23, 2016)454

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

In the Central Aral at the end of the dry season (July-November) (Fig. 9), when it receives little water fromthe Small Aral Sea, salinity is probably quite high. The Central Aral during the winter/spring season (fromDecember to June) (Fig. 10) has a large surface area when large volumes of water discharge into it fromthe Small Aral Sea due to the large winter water releases into the Syr Darya through the Toktogul dam on
the Naryn River in Kyrgyzstan for power generation and normal spring flooding (Cretaux et al., 2015).
Mineralization of the lake at this time is low. The lake is covered with ice during winter as a result of thediminished salinity.

Figure 11. The Aral Sea on August 19, 2014.
1 - dried Eastern Basin of the Large Aral Sea; 2 Western Basin of the Large Aral Sea; 3 - New Central
Aral Sea; 4 - Small Aral Sea; 5 - Tsche-Bas Bay; A Kokaral dam (Central dam) B – Proposed Northerndam; C – Proposed Southern dam.
The Small (Northern) Aral Sea (Fig. 11) acquired a common name – in its short form, the “Kazaral Sea” or“Kazakhstan Aral Sea”. While the correct scientific name is – Northern Aral Sea derived from the brackishwater regulated reservoir. The Western Large (Southern) Aral Sea (Fig. 11) also acquired a common name– in short, the “Western Uzaral” or “Uzbekistan Aral Sea”. The correct scientific name is Western Basin of
the Southern Aral Sea derived from the southwest hyperhaline non-regulated lake. Likewise, the Large(Southern) Aral Sea (Fig. 11) acquired a common name, in short, “Eastern Uzaral” or “Eastern Uzbekistan
Aral Sea”. The correct scientific name is Eastern Basin of the Southern Aral Sea derived from the southeast
hyperhaline non-regulated lake. The former Tschebas Bay (Fig. 11) also acquired a common name –“Tschebas-Kul”. The correct scientific name is – Southern Aral Sea derived from Tschebas hyperhaline
non-regulated lake. The strait between the Eastern and Western Large Aral (Fig. 11) has a common name– “Uzun-Aral”. The correct scientific name is the natural channel between the Eastern and Western Large
Arals.
The Eastern Large (Southern) Aral periodically receives inflow from the Amu Darya during high flow years
on that river (e.g. 2010). Unfortunately, the newly reborn Eastern Large Aral is very shallow and dries up

455

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

soon after water inflow from the Amu Darya ceases. It is unfortunate that this event is occasional and is notrepeated annually.
The Large Aral Sea is the most ecologically devastated part of the lake. In the beginning of the 21st
century, it divided into three parts: Western Large Aral Sea, Eastern Large Aral Sea and Tsche-Bas Bay(Plotnikov et al., 2014a, 2014b). The future of the Large Aral Sea is most connected with oil and gas
extraction from the dry seabed and with brine shrimp cysts harvested in the Western Large Aral Sea.
Currently only the Small (Northern) Aral Sea can be used for fishing.

Figure 12. Discharge of Syr Darya water to the Eastern Large
Aral (May 5, 2015)
The new Kok-Aral dam (Fig. 11) could be made higher. In this case, the volume of this reservoir would
increase and more fish could be caught. To the north of the New Kok-Aral dam in the entrance toSaryshaganak Gulf one more dam could be built (Fig. 11), too (Micklin, 2014). Moreover, to the south of
the New Kok-Aral dam a third dam could be constructed (Fig. 11). If in the future two more dams were built,
it would be possible to have year-round fishing in all reservoirs controlled by these dams, as we have now
year round fishing in the Small (Northern) Aral Sea. Three dam systems: Kok-Aral dam (Central dam),
Saryshaganak Gulf dam (Northern dam) and the proposed third dam (Southern dam) would help not justthe fishermen, but everyone live better. Construction of the Saryshaganak Gulf dam (Northern dam) would
allow water to be brought back to the large city of Aralsk (town of Aralsk district). Local people would liketo call it Dam of Happiness. Construction of the third dam (Southern dam) (Fig. 11, 12) would prevent theescape of residual water southward and improve fishing in the so-called Central Aral Sea. Local people
would like to call it Dam of Despair. Currently, due to the lack of this dam, the Central Aral Sea dries up
during periods of water shortage.
CONCLUSIONS
Considering the positive effect of the Kok Aral dam for the wildlife and for the population inhabiting this area
what should be done for the additional conservation of biodiversity and biological resources of the Aral Sea?
First, as soon as possible a raising rise of the dam by 2-3 m would increase the water level throughout the
Small Aral. This will improve the fishery and the husbandry as well. It also will give the population easieraccess to the lake and the settlements will be closer to the sea.
A further suggestion is to build in the next few years a dam in the entrance to Saryshaganak Gulf. After thatis finished, a simple dam to the south of Kulandy peninsula is needed to keep the water from the Central

456

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Aral from overflowing to the vast area of the big Aral, where it only evaporates and increases the salinity of
the former seafloor.
Regarding the Southern Aral Sea and Amudarya River delta region in accordance with ideas of someleading Aral researchers (Lvovich, Tsigelnaya, Micklin and some others), we should not refill shallow
reservoirs in Amu Darya delta, but redirect the residual Amu Darya flow to the Western Large Aral Sea.
However, most of Uzbek researchers have an opposite position, i.e. they consider using excess of riverwater for the watering of former sea bays (Jiltirbas, Sarbas, Muynak, Adjibay) and Lake Sudochye, as well
as Mejdurechye reservoir on the delta of Amu Darya river. It must be noted that in the Republic of
Karakalpakstan these water bodies are viewed as environmentally and economically vital. These measures
will allow improving local microclimate and partly rehabilitating Southern Aral fishery and animal husbandry,create ecological conditions for the conservation of flora and fauna, and generate additional jobs andincome sources for the local people.
REFERENCES
1. Aladin, N. V., Plotnikov, I. S. & Potts, W. T. W. (1995). The Aral Sea desiccation and possible waysof rehabilitating and conserving its Northern part. Int. J. Environmetrics, 6, 17–29.
2. Aladin, N.V., Crétaux, J.-F., Plotnikov, I.S., Kouraev, A.V., Smurov, A.O., Cazenave, A., Egorov,
A.N., Papa, F. (2005). Modern hydro-biological state of the Small Aral Sea, Environmetric, 16(4),375–392. DOI: 10.1002/env.709.
3. Aladin, N., Micklin, P. & Plotnikov, I. (2008). Biodiversity of the Aral Sea and its importance to thepossible ways of rehabilitating and conserving its remnant water bodies. In NATO Science for
Peace and Security Series – C: Environmental Security. Environmental Problems of Central Asiaand their Economic, Social and Security Impacts. Edited by Jiaguo Qi, Kyle T. Evered. – Springer.
P. 73–98.
4. Cretaux, J.-F, Letolle, R. & Bergé-Nguyen, M. (2013). History of Aral sea level variability and current
scientific debates, Global and Planetary Changes, 110, Special Issue SI, 99–113.
5. Cretaux, J.-F., Biancamaria, S., Arsen, A., Bergé-Nguyen, M. & Becker, M. (2015). Global surveys
of reservoirs and lakes from satellites and regional application to the Syrdarya river basin,
Environmental Research Letter, 10(1). AN: 015002, DOI: 10.1088/1748-9326/10/1/015002.
6. Ermakhanov, Z. K., Plotnikov, I. S., Aladin, N. V., Micklin, P. (2012). Changes in the Aral Sea
Ichthyofauna and Fishery During the Period of Ecological Crisis. Lakes & Reservoirs: Researchand Management, 17, 3–9.
7. Micklin, P. (2010). The past, present, and future Aral Sea. Lakes & Reservoirs: Research andManagement, 15, 193–213.
8. Micklin, P. (2014). Efforts to Revive the Aral Sea // Part III, Chapter 15 / The Devastation and Partial
Rehabilitation of a Great Lake Series: Springer Earth System Sciences, Vol. 10178 // Eds. Micklin,
P., Aladin, N. V. & Plotnikov, I. Hardcover. XII. Pp. 361–379.
9. Micklin, P. (2016). The Future Aral Sea: hope and despair. Environmental Earth Science, 75(9), 1–
15. http://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12665-016-5614-5.
10. Plotnikov, I. S., Aladin, N. V., Ermakhanov, Z. K. & Zhakova, L. V. (2014a). Biological Dynamics
of the Aral Sea Before Its Modern Decline (1900-1960). // Part I, Chapter 3 / The Aral Sea / The
Devastation and Partial Rehabilitation of a Great Lake Series: Springer Earth System Sciences,Vol. 10178 // Eds. Micklin, P., Aladin, N. V. & Plotnikov, I. Hardcover. XII. P. 41–76.
11. Plotnikov, I. S., Aladin, N. V., Ermakhanov, Z. K. & Zhakova, L. V. (2014b). The New Aquatic
Biology of the Aral Sea // Part II, Chapter 6 / The Aral Sea / The Devastation and Partial
Rehabilitation of a Great Lake Series: Springer Earth System Sciences, Vol. 10178 // Eds. Micklin,
P., Aladin, N. V. & Plotnikov, I. Hardcover. XII. P. 137–170.

457

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

IDENTIFYING SOURCES OF NITRATE IN AN IRRIGATED RICE PADDY WATERSHED,TSUKUBA JAPAN1
1,2
Saeko Yada *, Yasuhiro Nakajima , Takeshi Horio1, Keiya Inao1, Sunao Itahashi1, Kei Asada1,
Seiko Yoshikawa1 and Sadao Eguchi1
Institute for Agro-Environmental Sciences, NARO, 2Advanced Analysis Center, NARO
*Corresponding author: helios02@affrc.go.jp

1

ABSTRACTThe objective of this study is to identify sources of nitrate (NO 3−) in river water using the stable isotope
ratios of NO3− nitrogen (δ15NNO3) and oxygen (δ18ONO3) in an irrigated rice paddy watershed where irrigationwater is supplied from outside of the watershed as well as the upstream mountain area. The study was
conducted in a rice paddy watershed which covers 9.9 km 2 in the southern foot of Mt. Tsukuba, Ibaraki,
Japan. We determined δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 of NO3− for river water, hillside stream water, foothill stream
water, irrigation water, and drainage water every other month. Stable isotopes were analyzed by isotoperatio mass spectrometer (IRMS) after converting NO3− to N2O by the denitrifier method. Analysis of δ15NNO3
and δ18ONO3 from this watershed showed that the decrease in NO 3− concentration in the mainstream riverwater occurred mainly because of the mixing of NO 3− from different sources (foothill stream water anddrainage water) during irrigation period. Our data suggested that denitrification is a lesser contributor to thedecrease in NO3− concentrations in this watershed, because enrichment of isotopic transformation (positive
relationship between δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3) with decreasing NO3− concentration was not apparent. Differenthydrological components suggest that NO3− in the mainstream river water in this watershed consisted
mainly of mountain stream-derived NO3− during the non-irrigation period. The research highlights that theδ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 can be used as a powerful tool, in order to evaluate nitrogen cycling in a watershedlevel agricultural field where irrigation water is supplied from outside of the watershed.
Keywords: Agriculture, Irrigation, Nitrate, Stable Isotope, Watershed
INTRODUCTION
It is important to identify actual nitrogen (N) sources and understand the dynamics of N in surface waters
and groundwater system if we are to develop effective watershed management practices for conserving
water quality against nitrate (NO3−) pollution and plan to remediate sites where the waters are alreadypolluted by N. The stable isotopes of NO3− nitrogen (δ15NNO3) and oxygen (δ18ONO3) are utilized in identifying
different sources of N (e.g. atmospheric deposition, chemical fertilizers, and animal wastes) and evaluating
the extent of isotopic fractionation during different N-transformation processes (i.e. nitrification anddenitrification) have distinct δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 values (Kendall et al., 2007; Baily et al., 2011; Kaushal etal., 2011; Jin et al.,2012). However, this approach has not been applied to an irrigated rice paddy watershedbecause of its complex hydrology.
In rice paddy watersheds, N dynamics are influenced markedly by artificial alteration of the hydrologicalcycle by irrigation, ponding, and drainage practices. Generally, the drainage water from rice paddies has a
low NO3− concentration because on denitrification in ponded rice paddies and assimilation by rice plants
during the irrigation period (Tabuchi & Kuroda, 1991; Park et al., 1998; Takeuchi et al., 2005; Hitomi et al.,2005; Eguchi et al., 2009). Irrigation may also decrease NO3− in each rice paddy and in the drainage water.
A major question regarding irrigated rice paddies is the relative importance of denitrification versus
assimilation by rice plants as N nutrient uptake (Park et al., 1998; Hitomi et al., 2005). However, as yet
there is no comprehensive collection of isotopic composition data from these water components in ricewatershed because, isotope ratio mass spectrometry (IRMS) analysis of a series of surface water samples
is costly. Previous study has fastened the fully automated IRMS system for quantifying δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3
in water samples and reduced operational costs by saving on carrier helium gas (He) and liquid nitrogen(LN2)(Yada et al., 2016). The objective of this study is to identify sources of NO3− in river water using
improved IRMS determination of δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 in an irrigated rice paddy watershed where irrigationwater is supplied from outside of the watershed as well as from the upstream mountain area.

458

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

METHODS
Study area
The study was conducted in an irrigated rice paddy watershed (the Sakasagawa River watershed) at thesouthern foot of Mt. Tsukuba, Ibaraki, Japan (Fig. 1(a)). The watershed has an area of 9.9 km 2 and islocated in the eastern Kanto plain, about 70 km northeast of Tokyo. The elevation of the watershed extends
from the lowlands (St.1; 23 meters above sea level, m.a.s.l.) to the peak of Mt. Tsukuba (877 m.a.s.l.) (Fig.
1(b)). The mean annual precipitation is about 1,283 mm and the temperature, 13.8°C (according to the
Automated Meteorological Data Acquisition System of the Japan Meteorological Agency at Tsukuba).
Basement rocks in the area consist of granitic and gabbro forming the Mt. Tsukuba and metamorphic rocks(Fig. 1(c)). The base of the Mt. Tsukuba is alluvial fan as debris of flow deposits. The watershed consistsof two dominant land-use types: one is the quasi-national park (6.3 km2), which is mostly forested by beech
and conifer, and the other is agricultural area (3.0 km 2) consisting mainly of irrigated rice paddy fields (Fig.
1(d)).
(a)・. (877 m .a.s.l.)
Mt. Tsukuba

(b)
Tokyo

Lake Kasumigaura
N36°11’ 45’’

Study area

Hillside stream
Foothill stream
Irrigation water
Drainage water
Mainstream river

St.5

Sakasagawa River

St.1 St.2 St.3 St.4
601−800 m
401−600 m
301−400 m
201−300 m

20 km

E140°5’ 22’’101−200 m

・. (877 m .a.s.l.)
Mt. Tsukuba(c)00−100 m(d)

1 km・. (877 m .a.s.l.)
Mt. Tsukuba

Golf course
Residential area
Upland field
Rice paddy field
Forest area

Hillside stream
Foothill stream
Irrigation water
Drainage water
Mainstream river
Hotel

Hotel

0

1 km
Sakasagawa River
GabbroSt.1 St.2 St.3 St.4

Sakasagawa River

St.5

St.1 St.2 St.3 St.4

St.5

GraniteUnconsolidated
sediments

Metamorphic
Volcanic ash
Alluv ial

Hillside stream
Foothill stream
Irrigation water
Drainage water
Mainstream river

0

1 km

Figure 1. Watershed maps of the Sakasagawa River, showing (a) location, (b) river network,
sampling points, and topography, (c) geology, and (d) land use.
The former area includes two large (0.8 km 2 and 1.4 km2) grasslands (golf courses) created on the easternand southern hillsides. The rest is occupied by residential areas and accommodation facilities (Hotels) for
tourists (0.6 km 2). The Sakasagawa River, which is the main river, runs from the northeast to the west of
the watershed and is formed from seven major tributaries or foothill streams. Five water sampling stations(St.1 to St.5) were selected to collect water from the main river. The most upstream station in the river, St.5

459

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference(43 m.a.s.l.) collected water mainly from the forest area. St.1 (23 m.a.s.l.) was at the outlet of the watershed.
The downstream station, St.4 (32 m.a.s.l.), was surrounded mostly by rice paddies and located in a lowland
area. Sample of water exporting NO3− into the main river were taken from each water component as follows:
hillside stream water (n=5), foothill stream water (n=7), drainage water (n=15), and paddy irrigation water(n=9). About 50 mL of each water sample was filtered immediately on site with a pore size of 0.2 µm(25CS020AN, ADVANTEC, Tokyo), put in ice box to carry to the laboratory, and stored at −28°C until IRMS
analysis for δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3.
In the lowland area, drainage water ditches lay below the level of the paddy fields, and a portion of thedrainage water was recycled for irrigation after being mixed with water from Lake Kasumigaura (the intakeof which was outside this watershed) via National Kasumigaura Water Conveyance (WEPA Database 2015)
and irrigated-water pumping stations (Fig. 2(a)). The irrigation-water pumping stations (n=5) (not shown in
Figs 1b, 1c and 1d) convey 760 mm of irrigation water in total (calculated by monitoring the flow at eachpumping station (m 3 day −1), the total number of days of operation (days), and the size of the catchment
area (km2) during the irrigation period (from April t o August 2012)).
IRMS determination of δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 in water samples
We determined δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 for mainstream river water, hillside stream water, foothill stream water,
drainage water, and irrigation water every second month during April 2012 to April 2013. At St.1, we
determined δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 in mainstream river water weekly during irrigation period.

460

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference(a) Irrigation period(b) Non-irrigation period

Figure 2. Schematic of the water circulation systems inside and outside of the rice paddy
watershed during the (a) irrigation period and (b) non-irrigation periods. The black
dotted line boundary shows the Sakasagawa watershed. Each arrow shows thewater flow direction. The round frames show the key components affecting water
and/or nitrogen cycles inside and outside of the watershed. The waters in the roundframes were investigated in this study.

461

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Samples were analyzed by using the rapid procedure for IRMS determination of δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 (Yadaet al., 2016). A culture of denitrifying bacteria which lack N 2O reductive activity was used in the enzymaticconversion of the NO3− to N2O in a vial. After 24 hours of incubation to complete the conversion, N 2O ispurged from the vial, and introduced to a pre-GC (gas chromatograph) concentration device (PreCon;
Thermo Scientific, Bremen, Germany) in LN2 with the introduction system with CombiPAL autosampler(Thermo Scientific, Waltham, MA, USA). The cryofocused gas is warmed to 25°C and then trapped gases
are released into the separation column (GS-Carbon PLOT, Agilent Technologies, Santa Clara, CA, USA)for chromatographic separation of trace CO2 from the sample N2O gas which are separately introduced into
IRMS system (MAT252, Thermo Scientific).
Nitrate isotope standards (IAEA-N3, USGS32, USGS34, and USGS35) are typically made to aconcentration of 30 µM in KNO3 in pure water; the volume injected into each sample designed to result inthe same amount of N2O as the water samples. The slope and intercept of the reference materials(normalized to AIR and VSMOW by using an N2O reference gas tank) and the known isotopic values of thereference materials (vs. AIR and VSMOW) were then used to calculate the absolute δ 15NNO3 and δ18ONO3
values of the water samples (vs. AIR and VSMOW) from the measured values.
One-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed for Cd content in crop seedlings among applicationof different alkaline materials by using R version 3.2.2 (The R Foundation for Statistical Computing, Vienna).
Tukey’s HSD test at a 95% family-wise confidence level was conducted on those treatments for which there
were significant differences in the ANOVA.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Spatial and temporal variability of nitrate during irrigation and non-irrigation periods
Nitrate concentration of the mainstream river water at St. 1 showed marked temporal variation as impacted
by rice paddy irrigation. The NO3− concentration decreased significantly from 1.29 to 0.47 mg N L −1 during
the irrigation period (late April to end of August); after that, the NO 3− concentration returned to higher than
1.0 mg N L−1 and was relatively stable during the non-irrigation period (beginning of September to midApril) (Fig. 3(a)). In contrast, NO3− concentration at St. 5 was almost stable throughout the year with 0.90
to 1.22 mg N L−1 (Fig. 3(a)). The upstream area of St. 5 does not have paddy fields; therefore, the riverwater NO3− concentration was not affected by rice paddy irrigation.
The mean NO3− concentration in the mainstream river water at St. 1 to St. 5 during the irrigation period(0.87 ± 0.26 mg N L−1), was lower than that during non-irrigation period (1.11 ± 0.13 mg N L−1) (Table 1).
This is partly due to the input of irrigation water with lower NO 3− concentration (0.81 ± 0.46 mg N L−1, Table
1) from outside of the watershed; furthermore, the drainage water with the lowest NO3− concentration (0.56± 0.41 mg N L−1, Table 1) in the watershed should have had much more of a significant effect on thedecrease in NO3− concentration of mainstream river water. Some nitrate removal process by assimilation
or denitrification in the irrigated paddy field should have played a significant role on decreasing NO 3−
concentration of the drainage water to almost half of that during the non-irrigation period (1.24 ± 0.77 mg N
L−1, Table 1). The foothill stream water had the highest NO3− concentration (1.31 to 1.40 mg N L−1, Table
1) in the watershed throughout the year, suggesting that there is a major source of NO 3− around the foot ofmountain. The NO3− concentration of hillside stream water was almost stable (1.00 to 1.06 mg N L−1, Table
1) during the observation period.

462

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

(b)

(a)
1.5

10

NO3-N

δ
St.1

15

0.5
St.1

0.0

NNO3

St.5

NNO3(‰)

1.0

δ

-1

NO3-N (mg L )

8

15

6
St.5

4
2

Non-irrigation period

Irrigation period0Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug Sep. Oct. Nov.Dec. Jan. Feb. Mar. Apr.

2013

2012

Irrigation period

Non-irrigation period

Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug Sep. Oct. Nov.Dec. Jan. Feb.Mar. Apr.

2012

2013

(c)
6
St.1

δ

18

ONO3

St.5

2

δ

18

ONO3(‰)

40-2

Irrigation period

Non-irrigation period

Apr. May Jun. Jul. Aug Sep. Oct. Nov.Dec. Jan. Feb.Mar. Apr.

2012

2013

Figure 3. Changes in the (a) nitrate concentration,1518(b) δ NNO3 and (c) δ ONO3 values in themainstream river water (St.1 and St.5) from
April 2012 to April 2013.
Seasonal patterns of dual isotopic composition of nitrate
Seasonal patterns of δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 values of mainstream river water were different between St. 1
and St. 5 (Figs. 3b and 3c). δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 values were relatively stable at St. 5. That is, the δ15NNO3
and δ18ONO3 values, were 3.63 to 6.00 ‰ and 1.68 to 3.15 ‰, respectively, whereas those at St. 1 varied
largely from 1.05 to 8.58 ‰ and −0.05 to 3.82 ‰, respectively. The NO3− concentration at St. 1 (Fig. 3(a))
significantly decreased with the increase of δ15NNO3 (Fig. 3(b)) and with the decrease of δ18ONO3 (Fig. 3(c)).
This indicates that denitrification was not the major factor for decreasing the NO3− concentration at St. 1
and that the major factor was the dilution effect by mixing with some end-member of lower NO3−
concentration, higher δ15NNO3, and lower δ18ONO3 values. The irrigation water showed lower NO 3−
concentration (0.81 ± 0.46 mg N L−1), the highest δ15NNO3 (8.19 ± 2.79 ‰), and the lowest δ18ONO3 values(1.44 ± 2.51 ‰)(Table 1 to 3). This suggests that the decrease in NO3− concentration at St. 1 during theirrigation period is attributable to the dilution effect of the water from Lake Kasumigaura (the intake of which463

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

was outside of the watershed) via the National Kasumigaura Water Conveyance, in association with theNO3− removal effect of the paddy fields. NO3− removal in these fields is probably mainly as a result of plantor algae NO3− uptake rather than denitrification.
The hillside stream water had the smallest δ15NNO3 (3.15 to 3.21 ‰) and the highest δ18ONO3 (5.00 to 5.42‰) values in the watershed (Tables 2 and 3) and there were no significant seasonal variations between
irrigation and non-irrigation periods. This is partly affected by atmospheric NO 3− input to the mountain, that
had a δ15NNO3 value of almost zero (Table 2) with the highest δ18ONO3 (Table 3). The foothill stream water
also showed relatively stable δ15NNO3 (5.69 to 6.02 ‰) and δ18ONO3 (2.16 to 2.37 ‰) values (Table 2 and
3).
These results suggest that the major sources of NO 3− in hillside and foothill stream water did not change
largely throughout the year.
The δ18ONO3 versus δ15NNO3 plots in the rice paddy watershed
The δ18ONO3 versus δ15NNO3 relationship (Figs. 4a and 4b) was used to identify sources of mainstream riverwater NO3− in this watershed. Fig. 4(b) shows all the δ18ONO3−δ15NNO3 plots in this watershed during nonirrigation period, including that of the mainstream river water δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 values that may be simply
regarded as a mixture of two end-members: foothill stream water and drainage water.
−1

Table 1. Arithmetic mean, range and standard deviation of NO3−N (mg L ) in
the rice paddy watershed (23 April 2012−28 April 2013) .
NO3-N (mg L−1)
Mean

Minimum

MaximumStandard
deviation

0.46 bc

0.06

0.74

0.28

(n=5)

Irrigation period(23 Apr . 2012 to 31 Aug.
2012)

0.87 ab

0.47

1.20

0.26

(n=10)

Non-irrigation period

1.11 ab

0.90

1.24

0.13

(n=15)

1. Hillside stream

1.06 ab

0.41

1.67

0.46

(n=10)

2. Foothill stream

1.31 abc

0.59

2.48

0.58

(n=14)

3. Drainage water

0.56 b

0.13

1.53

0.41

(n=30)

4. Irrigation water

0.81 bc

0.07

1.71

0.46

(n=19)

1. Hillside stream

1.00 ab

0.50

1.70

0.43

(n=15)

2. Foothill stream

1.40 a

0.65

2.84

0.72

(n=21)

3. Drainage water

1.24 abc

0.03

3.50

0.77

(n=45)

Precipitation:(18 Jan. 2013
to 23 Apr. 2013)
Mainstream river water:

InputsIrrigation period

Non-irrigation period464

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference
15

Table 2. Arithmetic mean, range and standard deviation of δ NNO3 (‰) in therice paddy watershed (23 April 2012−28 April 2013)δ15NNO3 (‰)

Precipitation:(18 Jan. 2013
to 23 Apr. 2013)

Mean

Minimum

MaximumStandard
deviation

0.90 d

-2.21

2.94

2.06

(n=5)

6.43 abc
5.72 abc

3.63
5.00

8.16
6.84

1.39
0.51

(n=10)

3.15 cd

1.43

6.71

1.66

6.02 abc

2.90

14.16

3.10

7.25 ab

3.07

14.50

2.53

8.19 ab

4.04

15.03

2.79

3.21 cd

1.40

7.94

2.13

5.69 ab

2.75

11.90

2.56

8.19 a

2.20

16.09

3.43

Mainstream river water:
Irrigation period(23 Apr. 2012 to 31 Aug.
2012)
Non-irrigation period(n=15)

InputsIrrigation period
1. Hillside stream
2. Foothill stream
3. Drainage water
4. Irrigation water
Non-irrigation period
1. Hillside stream
2. Foothill stream
3. Drainage water(n=10)(n=14)(n=30)(n=19)(n=15)(n=21)(n=45)
18

Table 3. Arithmetic mean, range and standard deviation of δ ONO3 (‰) in therice paddy watershed (23 April 2012−28 April 2013).
δ18ONO3 (‰)

Precipitation:(18 Jan. 2013
to 23 Apr. 2013)

Mean

Minimum

MaximumStandard
deviation

73.50 a

59.90

83.92

9.95

1.96 bcd

0.39

2.91

0.86

2.54 bcd

1.72

3.50

0.59

5.00 bc

2.43

8.08

1.62

2.16 cd

-0.70

4.27

1.36

1.90 cd

-1.92

6.80

1.98

1.44 d

-3.27

5.67

2.51

5.42 b

2.75

7.70

1.51

2.37 cd

-0.37

4.46

1.38

3.00 bcd

-2.98

20.94

3.52

(n=5)

Mainstream river water:
Irrigation period(23 Apr. 2012 to 31 Aug.
2012)
Non-irrigation period(n=10)(n=15)

InputsIrrigation period
1. Hillside stream
2. Foothill stream
3. Drainage water
4. Irrigation water
Non-irrigation period
1. Hillside stream
2. Foothill stream
3. Drainage water465(n=10)(n=14)(n=30)(n=19)(n=15)(n=21)(n=45)

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The higher NO3− concentrations (up to 3.50 mg N L−1) in these two end-members appears to be derived
from household wastewater with δ15NNO3 values of about 10 to 15 ‰ and δ18ONO3 values of about 0 to 5 ‰,and also from chemical fertilizer with δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 values of less than 5 ‰ (Fig. 4(b)). The chemicalfertilizer may have been used in the grasslands of the golf course.
During the irrigation period (Fig. 4(a)), the drainage water NO3− concentrations decreased and the NO3−
concentrations of foothill stream waters remained higher (values up to 2.48 mg N L−1) as impacted byhousehold wastewater and the application of chemical fertilizers on the golf course. At St. 1, chemicalfertilizer impacted δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 values that were observed in late April 2012 as well as 2013 (Figs.
3b, 3c and 4a); however, the NO3− concentration was low (0.99 to 1.23 mg N L−1). Therefore, the effect ofchemical fertilizer N used in paddy fields on the mainstream river water NO 3− concentration was very limited.
Moreover, Fig. 4(a) also shows that irrigation water gradually impacted isotopic composition of NO 3− inmainstream river water as the paddy irrigation and drainage waters are quantitatively dominant in thehydrological cycle during the irrigation period.
These results indicate that the major sources of mainstream river water NO 3− in this watershed werehousehold wastewater drained from the foot of the mountain and chemical fertilizer in the hillside golf course.
The chemical fertilizer applied in paddy fields appears to have a very limited effect on the effluent NO 3−
load. This study demonstrates that the dual-isotope approach is a powerful tool to identify sources of NO 3−
on a watershed scale, even in a hydrologically very complicated area such as irrigated rice paddy
watersheds where irrigation water is supplied from outside of the watershed.

466

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference(a) Irrigation period15

δ N-δ18O relationship during irrigation period

15
15○Mountainstream
Hillside stream○(hillside)○Mountainstream
Foothill stream○(foothill)
Irrigation water●Irrigationwater○Drainagewater
Drainage water
○

10
10

●Riverwater
Mainstream
river●(mainstream)

ONO (‰)

NO3−N mg L−1
3.0

3

5
5

δ

18

2.5
2.0

0
0

1.5
1.0
0.5

-5
−5

00

55

20
20

10
15
10
15
15
15
15
NNO (‰)（‰）
δ δN
N
NO3
NO3（‰）
318(b) Non-irrigation
δ15N-δperiod
O relationship during non-irrigation period

15
15○Mountainstream
Hillside stream○(hillside)○Mountainstream
Foothill stream○(foothill)○○Drainagewater
Drainage water●(mainstream)●Riverwater
Mainstream
river

10
10

3

δ18ONO (‰)

NO3−N mg L−1
3.0

55

2.5

2.0

00

1.5
1.0
0.5

−5
-5

00

5

10

δ1515N

15
15

20
20

δ NNO
(‰) （‰）
NO3
3

15

18

Figure 4. Dual isotopic composition (δ NNO3 and δ ONO3) of the key hydrologic
components in the rice paddy watershed during the (a) irrigation and (b)non-irrigation periods.

467

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CONCLUSIONSThe natural abundance of nitrogen (δ15NNO3) and oxygen (δ18ONO3) isotopes of nitrate (NO3−) was used to
identify sources of mainstream river water NO3− in an irrigated rice paddy watershed where irrigation water
is supplied from outside of the watershed. Different hydrological components suggest that NO 3− in themainstream river water in this watershed consisted mainly of mountain stream-derived NO3− during the nonirrigation period.
The research also highlights that the δ15NNO3 and δ18ONO3 can be used as a powerful tool, in order toevaluate nitrogen cycling in a watershed-level agricultural field where irrigation water is supplied fromoutside of the watershed.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I acknowledge the support of Ibaraki prefecture in the form of an International Travel Grant, Which enabled
me to participate the 16th World Lake Conference, Bali-Indonesia.
REFERENCES
1. Baily, A., Rock, L., Watson, C. J. & Fenton, O. (2011) Spatial and temporal variations in groundwater
nitrate at an intensive dairy farm in south-east Ireland: insights from stable isotope data. Agriculture,
Ecosystems & Environment 144 (2011), 308–318.
2. Eguchi, S., Nakajima, Y., Yabusaki, S., Kasuya, M., Shibayama, H., Tsunekawa, A. & Imai, K. (2009)
Denitrification during vertical upwelling at an alluvium–diluvium interface below the upland perimeterof a riparian paddy. Journal of Environmental Quality 38 (6), 2198–2209.
3. Hitomi, T., Yoshinaga, I., Feng, Y. W. & Shiratani, E. (2006) Nitrogen removal function of recycling
irrigation system. Water Science & Technology 53 (2), 101–109.
4. Jin, Z., Pan, Z., Jin, M., Li, F., Wan, Y. & Gu, B. (2012) Determination of nitrate contamination sources
using isotopic and chemical indicators in an agricultural region in China. Agriculture, Ecosystems &Environment 155 (2012), 78–86.
5. Kaushal, S. S., Groffman, P. M., Band, L. E., Elliott, E. M., Shields, C. A. & Kendall, C. (2011) Tracking
nonpoint source nitrogen pollution in human-impacted watersheds. Environmental Science &Technology 45 (19), 8225–8232.
6. Kendall, C., Elliott, E. M. & Wankel, S. D. (2007) Tracing anthropogenic inputs of nitrogen to
ecosystems. In: Stable Isotopes in Ecology and Environmental Science (Michener, R. H. & Lajtha K.,eds), 2nd edn, Blackwell Publishing, Malden, USA, pp. 375–449.
7. Park, K. L., Hidaka, S. & Kumazawa, K. (1998) Concentration of nitrate nitrogen and its δ15N value inthe surface water of a paddy field irrigated with spring water from the kushibiki plateau in saitama
prefecture. Japanese Journal of Soil Science & Plant Nutrition 69 (3), 287–292 (in Japanese withEnglish abstract).
8. Tabuchi, T. & Kuroda, H. (1991) Nitrogen outflow diagram in a small agricultural area having uplands
and lowlands: research on outflow load from an agricultural area without a point source (III). The
Japanese Society of Irrigation, Drainage & Rural Engineering 154, 65–72 (in Japanese with English
abstract).
9. Takeuchi, M., Itahashi, S. & Saito, M. (2005) A water quality analysis system to evaluate the impact ofagricultural activities on N outflow in river basins in Japan. Science China Life Sciences 48 (suppl. I),
100–109.
10. WEPA
Database(2015)
Water
Utilization
atKasumigaura.
http://www.wepadb.net/policies/cases/kasumigaura/02-5.htm (accessed 7 December 2016).
11. Yada, S., Nakajima, Y., Itahashi, Asada, K., Yoshikawa, S. & Eguchi, S. (2016) Procedure for rapid
determination of δ15N and δ18O Values of nitrate: Development and application to an irrigated rice
paddy watershed. Water Science & Technology 73.9, 2108–2118.

468

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TROPHIC STATES AND NUTRIENTS LOAD IN WATERS
SURROUNDING SAMOSIR ISLAND, LAKE TOBA, NORTH SUMATERA
Niken TM Pratiwi1*, Arif Rahman1, Sigid Hariyadi1, Inna Puspa Ayu1, Aliati Iswantari1
Department of Aquatic Resources Management, FFMS, IPB*Corresponding author: niken_tmpratiwi@yahoo.com

1

ABSTRACT
Lake Toba as the largest lake in Indonesia is fast developed in fish aquaculture, tourism, agriculture, andhuman settlement. These activities will produce organic and inorganic materials that will affect water quality
and can cause eutrophication. Some indicators of eutrophication in Lake Toba are nutrients increasing andtrophic states changing. The aim of this study was to analyze the effect of nutrients load to the trophic statesin waters surrounding Samosir Island, Lake Toba, North Sumatera. This study was conducted at 23 stations
around Samosir Island. Water samples were taken for water quality, nutrient (P and N), and phytoplankton
analysis. Data analyses were conducted for nutrients load, trophic states, and spatial distribution mappingof those and dominant species of phytoplankton. Result showed that P and N load in waters surround
Samosir Island mainly sourced from floating cage aquaculture and land activities. P and N load from floating
cage aquaculture activity was higher than land activity. Those P and N load had increased P and N
concentration in waters surround Samosir Island. The P and N concentration showed high trophic states(eutrophic). Biological trophic states index (Nygaard) also showed that waters surround Samosir Island
have already in eutrophic states. This was strengthened by high abundance of Anabaena (Cyanophyceae)that indicates eutrophic condition.
Keywords: Lake Toba, nutrients, phytoplankton, trophic states
INTRODUCTION
Lake Toba is the biggest natural lake in Indonesia. The lake was formed as caldera of eruption of Mount
Toba at 75000 years ago. There was also formed relatively big ‘pseudo-island’ with an isthmus inside oflake that came from resurgent cauldron process, namely Samosir Island. The Samosir became a realisland when Dutch government constructed channel along the isthmus that separated it from the mainisland. Lake Toba lay on 905 m msl, with total area of 1 124 km 2, volume of 256,2 x 109 m3, average depthof 228 m, and residence time of 81 years. The north part of lake was separated from the south part by
Samosir Island. The maximum depth of the north past is 508 m, and the south part is 420 m. From therelative depth (Zr = 1.34%), Lake Toba indicates as an unstable lake, especially for the the surface layer,
while at the depth of more than 100 m, the waters are stable (Lukman&Ridwansyah 2010). There is about3.700 km2 catchment area of Lake Toba with 26 sub-catchment area. From 289 rivers surrounded the lake,
112 from Samosir Island and 117 from main-island. 222 of them are intermittent and 57 permanent; and19 directly outfall to the lake (BLHPP 2014). There are also other sources of materials came into the lake,from some activities in lake especially floating cage activityand tourism. Meanwhile, other materials sourced
from landuse runoff and sediment erosion (Boyd 1990).
The organic and inorganic materials thatenter into the lake could influence the water quality, or even to leadeutrophication. The eutrophication occurred in Lake Toba, that was indicated by nutrientsincrease in last
few years and change the trophic statesbecome eutrophic or hypertrophic condition (Lukman 2011;
Nomosatryo&Lukman 2011). In eutrophic condition, the enrichment of nitrogen and phosphorous will
increase the growth of specific group of microalgae or phytoplankton, that related to the concentration andratio of N:P. Eutrophication is a natural process in all kind of waters, that could be hasten by anthropogenic
involved (Rohlich 1969).
The variation of the density and composition phytoplankton related to the water quality changing, especiallynutrients, it indicatethe level of the trophic states inwaters. The dominance or high density of phytoplankton
could indicate oligotrophic, mesotrophic, or eutrophic state. Lake Toba has been reported as eutrophic
lake, it is presumably to be dominated by phytoplankton as eutrophic indicators (Rahman et al. 2016).
Therefore, it is very important to estimate the trophic state of Lake Toba related to the community structureof phytoplankton. This study was conducted in the waters surrounding ofSamosir Island. The waters receive
material inputs fromSamosir Island and the mainland (Sumatera Island), and also from cage culture469

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

activities. Based on these backgrounds, the aim of this research was to analyze the influence of nutrientsloading to the trophic states and community structure of phytoplankton in the waters surroundingSamosirIsland of Lake Toba, North Sumatera. The results are expected, it could provide the ecological reference
as scientific base for the implementation of lake management in Lake Toba.
METHODS
The observation was conducted at October 2014 that consist of two collecting data activities, for field
primary data and desk secondary data (from Haranggaol distric and the whole Lake Toba). Primary datacollection consists of direct water collection for water quality and phytoplankton analysis from 23 sites
surround Samosir Island (Figure 1). Secondary data collection consists of recording the result of last
observations and water quality monitoring data of Lake Toba from the office of BLHPP Samosir. There
was also observation of mainland activities and inside of the lake itself, which might add nutrient load to thelake. Phosphorous loads were come from floating cage activity, mainland domestic community waste, andother land use activities. The highest P loads were recorded in Haranggaol, the waters surroundingSamosirIsland, and the lake itself.
The water quality analysis was based on APHA (2012). The load of P, especially from land activities, wasestimated followed Jorgensen and Vollenweider (1988) and Rast& Lee (1983), with formulation as
described below. Furthermore, the load from floating cage was based on observation result of Oakley(2015).
IPt = A×EPwith:
IPt : land use load of P (mg/y)
A : land use area (m2)
EP: P export coefficient

Sumatera
IslandSampling station
Lake Toba
Settlements
Agriculture
ForestShrubbery

Figure 1. Sampling site surround Samosir Island, Lake Toba
The phytoplankton identification was referred Prescott (1970) and Mizuno (1979). The sampling site cluster
analysis was followed Brower et al. (1990). Furthermore, the estimation of trophic state of waters wasbased470

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

on nutrients condition (Goldman and Horne 1983) and phytoplankton community structure (Nygaard 1949in
Rawson 1956).
FINDING AND ARGUMENT
The anthropogenic activities at land and water area surround Lake Toba could affect its water quality. The
domestic activities in land area and floating cage and transportation in water area, support organic materials
into lake water, and increased nutrients. The total area of Lake Toba watershed is 3658 km 2, with around
28% people was concentrated in Samosir District, Samosir Island (Moedjodoet al. 2003; BPS 2013; Oakley2015). The high P source loads to Lake Toba came from cage activities, residential wastes, and land use
activities, such as agriculture. There were some spots of cage activities in the lake, and Haranggaol is themost active spot. Based on the loads estimation, in the whole lake, the highest P loads came from cage
activities of Haranggaol. The load of P at waters surround Samosir Island was mainly came from cage
culture, that highly similar to the load fromresidence wastes (Table 1). Generally, the load of the input will
increase water body nutrients. Furthermore, the nutrients affected the community structure ofphytoplankton. There was not only phosphorous that was measured as nutrient parameter in the waters
surround Samosir Island, but also nitrogen (Figure 2). The concentration of orthophosphate and total
phosphate were in range 0.06-0.73 mg/L and 0.12-1.53 mg/L, respectively. Besides, the concentration of
DIN was in range 0.12-1.53 mg/L, the average is 0.74 mg/L. The nutrients concentration was relatively
higher than that was reported by Baruset al. (2008). The nutrient values indicated eutrophic condition oflake water (Lukman 2011; Nomosatryoand Lukman (2011).
Table 1. The source and loads of P in Lake Toba

Load of P (mg/m3/year)
WatersHaranggaol
surroundSamosirwatersIsland
4.76
1.70
1.67
1.69

Source of P

Lake Toba

Cage culture
Residence wastes

1.14
0.50

Agricultural

0.43

1.28

1.16

Total

2.08

7.70

4.55

4.50
Amonium

Concentration of Nutrient (mg/L)

4.00

NitratDIN

Ortoposphate

3.50
3.00
2.50
2.00
1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23
StationFigure 2. Nutrient in the waters surrounding Samosir Island471

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23

2.0
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1.0
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0.0

Phytoplankton Index

Abundance (x106 cell/m3)

The water condition of waters can be estimated by density and composition of phytoplankton. The densityof phytoplankton was in the range of 216-68 319 716 cell/m3; that consist of 35 genera and included in fourclasses (Figure 3). The density and composition of phytoplankton was influenced by the environmental
condition, such as organic materials (May et al. 2003), nutrients concentration, light intensity, temperature,
pH, and predators (Lau & Lane 2002; Yu 2010 in Jiang et al. 2014). The community structure ofphytoplankton shows that the diversity was moderate, evenness and the dominance relatively low to high.
Those were quite lower that observed byYazwar (2008), butrelatively similar to the result of Astuti & Satria(2009). It seemed that only few species aretolerable withthis water condition (Soedibjo, 2006). Based on
phytoplankton species density¸ there were constructed three groups of sampling site. Group I wascharacterized by the domination of Anabaena sp., Group II dominated by Gloeotilasp., and Group III by
Sphaerocystis sp.
The high density of phytoplankton was shown by Anabaena (Cyanophyceae), Gloeotila, andSphaerocystis(Chlorophyceae), with the total of 68.319.716 cell/m 3 (42,53%)34.534.869 cell/m 3(21,50%)
dan 31.917.017 cell/m3 (19,87%), respectively. There were some genera that found at all stations, i.e.
Botryococcus, Gloeocystis, Anabaenopsis and Melosira.

StationCyanophyceae
Indeks Keanekaragaman
ShannonDiv Index

Chlorophyceae
Indeks Keseragaman
Eveness
Index

Bacillariophyceae
Indeks Dominansi
Simpson’s
Dominance Index

Dinophyceae

Figure 3. Phytoplankton density and the biological indices
The phytoplankton was composed by Chlorophyceae (14 genera), Cyanophyceae (4 genera),
Bacillariophyceae (16 genera), and Dinophyceae (1 genus). Cyanophyceae was the most abundant inspite of less number of taxa. Furthermore, the Nygaard Index was 3.5-5.5 in ranged (Figure 4). It was
indicated that waters surround Samosir Island, Lake Toba, was in eutrophic state.

EutrofikMesotrofik
Oligotrofik

Figure 4. Nygaard Index of waters surround Samosir Island472

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Based on nutrients concentration and phytoplankton performance, Lake Toba was stated as eutrophic lake
in some areas. Generally, the map of trophic states, the nutrients condition, and species dominance isshown in Figure 5. Figure 5 shows that the eutrophication was spread similarly throughout all ofobservation sites. It was indicated that eutrophication in Lake Toba was categorized as cultural
eutrophication.
Some previous research reported that the eutrophication of Lake Toba was led by high human activity,
such as cage culture, and residential wastes (Lehmusluoto, 2000), and mismanagement of catchment area
(Saragih & Sunito 2001). Eutrophic states of waters are an indication of the human activity impact to thewaters (Kagalou et al. 2008). Total phosphate increases gradually by time as reported by some researchers(Table.2). Based on some research, the trophic state of Lake Toba was increasing from 1929 to 2014 asshown in Table 3.
Table 2. General description of total phosphate of Lake Toba (1951-2014)Year
Total Phosphate
References
1991
0,240 mg/L
Schmittou 1991 in Wijoprionoet al. 2010
2005

0,550 mg/L

Wijoprionoet al. 20102014

0,740 mg/L

This research

Figure 5. Site cluster of waters surround Samosir Island, Lake Toba, based on (A) trophic states: < 1(oligotrophic), 1-2.5 (mesotrophic),>2.5 (eutrophic);(B) orthophosphate: 0.003-0,01 mg/L, 0.0110.03 mg/L, 0.031-0.1 mg/L; (C) nitrate: < 0.1 mg/L; 0.1-0.2 mg/L; > 0.2 mg/Land (D) phytoplankton:
Group I, Group II, Group III

473

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 3. The change of Lake Toba trophic statesYear
Trophic State

References

1929

Oligotrophic

Ruttner 1930 inLukman 2011

2005

Mesotrophic

Purnomoet al. 2005 inLukman 20112009

Mesotrophic

Nomosatryo&Lukman 20112014*
Eutrophic*restricted to surround Samosir Island

This research

There were found a specific condition of the relationship between nutrients and phytoplankton, especially
the N:P ratio and community of phytoplankton. The N:P ratio was varied in range 0.82-31.91, with rates of
7.39. This study revealed that the different level of N:P ratio in eutrophic state condition was not followedby different community structure of phytoplankton. Usually, the high N:P ratio willfollowed by the dominanceof diatoms (Pratiwiet al. 2013 )CONCLUSIONSThe highest nutrients loading in the waters surroundingSamosir Island was sourced from floating cage
activities. This condition willlead increasing of trophic states to eutrophic level, with phytoplankton structurethat dominated by Anabaenasp. The high ratio of N: P from nutrient load that entered this eutrophic level
was not affect the phytoplankton community structure, which mainly dominated by Cyanophyceae.
REFERENCES
1. [APHA]American Public Health Association. (2012). Standard Method for the Examination of Water
and Wastewater. 22nd ed. American Public Health Association/American Water Work
Association/Water Environment Federation, Washington, DC, USA.
2. [BLHPP] Badan Lingkungan Hidup, Penelitian, dan Pengembangan Kabupaten Samosir. (2014).
Laporan tahunan kegiatan pemantauan kualitas air Danau Toba wilayah Kabupaten Samosir tahun
anggaran 2014.
3. [BPS] Badan Pusat Statistik. (2013). Samosir Dalam Angka. Badan Pusat Statistik Kabupaten
Samosir. 492 p.
4. Astuti LP, Satria H. (2009). Kelimpahan dan komposisi fitoplankton di Danau Sentani, Papua.
Limnotek. 16(2): 88-98.
5. Barus TA, Sinaga SS, Tarigan R. (2008). Produktivitas primer fitoplankton dan hubungannya dengan
factor fisik-kimia air di perairan Parapat, Danau Toba. Jurnal Biologi Sumatera. 3(1): 11-16.
6. Boyd CE. (1990). Water Quality in Ponds for Aquaculture. Alabama Agriculture Experiment Station,
Auburn University. Birmingham Publishing Co. Alabama. 482 p.
7. Brower JE, JH Zar, CN Von Ende. (1990). Field and Laboratory Methods for General Ecology. 3rd ed.
Wm.C. Brown Co. Publisher. Dubuque lowa.
8. Goldman CR, Horne AJ. (1983). Limnology. United States of America: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
9. Jiang YJ, He W, Liu WX, Qin N, Ouyang HL, Wang QM, Kong XZ, He QS, Yang C, Yang B, Xu FL.
2014. The seasonal and spatial variations of phytoplankton community and their correlation withenvironmental factors in a large eutrophic Chinese lake (Lake Chaohu). Ecological Indicators. 40: 5867.
10. Jorgensen SE, Vollenweider RA. (1988). Guidelines of Lake Management Volume 1, Principles of
Lake Management. International Lake Environment Comittee. United Nations Environment
Programme.
11. Kagalou I, Papastergiadou E, Leonardos I. (2008). Long term changes in the eutrophication process
in a shallow Mediterranean lake ecosystem of W. Greece: Response after the reduction of externalload. Journal of Environmental Management. 87: 497-506.
12. Lau SSS, Lane SN. (2002). Biological and chemical factors influencing shallow lake eutrophication: along-term study. The Science of the Total Environment. 288: 167-181.
13. Lehmusluoto P. (2000). Lake Toba, the first sound science initiative to abate change in the lake
environment. Research and Monitoring for Basin Management Decisions. 1-12.

474

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

14. Lukman, Ridwansyah I, Nomosatryo S, Badjoeri M, Syahroma HN, Dina R. (2012). Pertimbangandalam pengembangan budidaya ikan pada karamba jaring apung di Danau Toba. Prosiding Seminar
Nasional Limnologi VI. 65-78.
15. Lukman. (2011). Ciri wilayah eufotik perairan Danau Toba. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Hari
Lingkungan Hidup. 131-139.
16. May CL, Koseff JR, Lucas LV, Cloern JE, Schoellhamer DH. (2003). Effects of spatial and temporalvariability of turbidity on phytoplankton blooms. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 254: 111-128.
17. Mizuno T. (1979). Illustrations of the Freshwater Plankton of Japan. Osaka (JP): Hoikusha Publishing
Co Ltd.
18. Moedjodo H, Simanjuntak P, Hehanussa P, Lufiandi. (2003). Lake Toba. Experience and Lessons
Learned Brief. 389-405.
19. Nomosatryo S, Lukman. (2011). Ketersedianhara nitrogen (N) danfosfor (P) di peraiaran Danau Toba,
Sumatera Utara. Limnotek. 18(2): 127-137.
20. Oakley J. (2015). Modelling the aquaculture carrying capacity of Lake Toba, North Sumatra, Indonesia.
[A Major Paper]. University of Rhode Island.
21. Pratiwi NTP, Adiwilaga EMA, Amalia FJ. (2013). Komposisi Fitoplanton dan Status Kesuburan
Perairan Danau Lido, Bogor Jawa Barat Melalui Beberapa Pendekatan. Jurnal Biologi Indonesia,
Perhimpunan Biologi Indonesia bekerjasama dengan PUSLIT BIOLOGI - LIPI No. ISSN: 0854-4425;
Vol.9; No.1; Juni; 2013; Hal.111-120.
22. Prescott GW. (1970). How to Know the Freshwater Algae. Montana (US): Wm. C. Brown Company
Publishers.
23. Rahman A, Pratiwi NTM, Hariyadi S. (2016). Struktur Komunitas Fitoplankton di Danau Toba,
Sumatera Utara. Jurnal Ilmu Pertanian Indonesia. 21 (2): 120-127.
24. Rast W, Lee GF. (1983). Nutrient loading estimates for lakes. Journal of Environmental Engineering.
109(2): 502-518.
25. Rawson DS. (1956). Algal indicators of trophic lake types. J. Fish Res. 1(1): 18-25.
26. Rohlich GA. (1969). Eutrophication: Causes, Consequences, Correctives. National Academy of
Sciences. Washington DC (US).
27. Saragih B, Sunito S. (2001). Lake Toba: Need for an integrated management system. Lakes andReservoirs: Research and Management. 6: 247-251.
28. Soedibjo BS. (2006). Struktur komunitas fitoplankton dan hubungannya dengan beberapa parameter
lingkungan di perairan Teluk Jakarta. Oseanologi dan Limnologi di Indonesia. 40: 65-78.
29. Vollenweider RA, F Giovanardi, G Montanari, A Rinaldi. (1998). Characterization of the trophic
conditions of marine coastal waters with special reference to the NW Adriatic Sea: Proposal for a
trophic scale, turbidity and generalized water quality index. Journal Environmetric, 9 (1): 329 – 357.
30. Wijopriono, Purnomo K, Kartamihardja ES, Fahmi Z. (2010). Fishery resources and ecology of Toba
Lake. Indonesian Fisheries Research Journal. 16(1): 7-14.
31. Yazwar. (2008). Keanekaragaman plankton dan keterkaitannya dengan kualitas air di Parapat Danau
Toba. [Tesis]. Medan (ID): Universitas Sumatera Utara.

475

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ZOOPLANKTON DIEL VERTICAL MIGRATION IN LAKE LAUT TAWAR, ACEH, INDONESIA
Dwinda Mariska Putri1, Suwarno Hadisusanto2
Faculty of Biology, Gadjah Mada University
Laboratory of Ecology and Conservation, Faculty of Biology, Gadjah Mada University
Correspoding author: dwinda.mariska@gmail.com
1

2

ABSTRACT
Lake Laut Tawar is located in the tropical sub-alpine area with high light intensity throughout the year andlow air temperature. Watershed supplies high sediment input during the rainy season while floating cages
culture and domestic wastes supply nutrients. The aim of this research was to study zooplankton dielvertical migration (DVM) pattern and physical factors that drive it in Lake Laut Tawar, Aceh. Sampling took
place in the center of the lake using water sampler in March and June 2015. Sampling was conducted threetimes a day, before dawn at 03.00 WIB, before culmination at 11.00 WIB, and after the sun sets at 20.00
WIB. Samples were collected in 0, 1, 3, 5, 8, 15, 30 and 60 meters with 5 replications. Physicochemicalfactors measured were Secchi depth, air temperature, vertical water temperature, DO, CO 2, nitrate andphosphate. Zooplankton in Lake Laut Tawar showed temporal DVM. Zooplankton did not perform DVM in
March, however strong DVM was observed in June. Zooplankton DVM in Lake Laut Tawar was driven by
the presence of predators and light penetration. March is the end of spawning season for Depik (Rasbora
tawarensis). Zooplankton density increased in June after spawning season ended. The increase of
zooplankton density caused the decrease of phytoplankton density. Copepods had the widest diel verticalmigration. It could reach up to 30 m to avoid predators. Diel Vertical Migration was also driven bycompetition over species and functional groups
Keywords: cascade migration, trophic cascade, temporal diel vertical migration, tropical subalpine lake
INTRODUCTION
Plankton is free-living microorganism with limited locomotion. Plankton disperses in water column mostly
by turbulence and other water movement. Plankton locomotion is a strategy to adapt to environmental
conditions. These movements can cause changes in species composition in each depth creating plankton
vertical distribution (Hylander et al., 2009). Zooplankton perform active vertical migration to avoid predators.
They can move vertically and horizontally in finding the right niche. Zooplankton vertical migration affects
phytoplankton abundance and density in the water column. They are also responsible for nutrient cycling
in a lake (Hylander et al., 2009; Silva, 2006). Zooplankton diel vertical migration (DVM) is an adaptation to
respond to environment condition. Diel vertical migration is a habitat selection mechanism and reaction to
intra and inter-species interaction (Williamson et al., 2011). Zooplankton migrate to deeper water column atnoon. They avoid sunlight to hide from predators’ sight. After the sun sets, zooplankton swim to the water
surface where phytoplankton is abundant. Small zooplankton tend to avoid bid zooplankton. They mightshow reverse migration (Easton & Gophen, 2003; Williamson et al., 2011).
Zooplankton DVM is also driven by several physicochemical factors. The main factor is light penetration.
The oligotrophic lake has clear water that allows sunlight to penetrate deeper in the water column.
Otherwise, eutrophic lake only allows sunlight to penetrate in the surface area. Deeper light penetration
caused zooplankton swim deeper to avoid predators. In oligotrophic lakes, zooplankton swim deeper thanin eutrophic lakes. Zooplankton DVM amplitude is narrow in a eutrophic lake. Sunlight penetration is shallow
in the eutrophic lake (Aguilera et al., 2006). Zooplankton DVM is also affected by biological factors, which
are food and predators (Legnani et al., 2005).
Zooplankton such as Daphnia performs strong DVM. Daphnia pulex shows DVM even in a fishless lake.
This behavior showed that sunlight plays an important role in driving Cladocerans DVM. In a lake with fish,
zooplankton DVM is driven by predators and sunlight. Pigmented zooplankton like Boechella neverperforms DVM. They always hide under Secchi depth. Transparent zooplankton can swim freely in thewater column (Aguilera et al., 2006). Zooplankton predators are comprised of bigger zooplankton, fishlarvae, and planktivorous fish. Planktivorous fish in Lake Laut Tawar are Depik (Rasbora tawarensis) which
is an endemic fish that lives only in Lake Laut Tawar. Depik spawns in a rainy season thus it decreases
zooplankton density (Muchlisin et al., 2010).

476

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Factors which drive DVM are different at each lake. The subalpine lake has high sunlight radiation
throughout the year. In this lake, sunlight is the main factor controlling zooplankton DVM. High sun radiation
inhibits phytoplankton photosynthesis in the lake surface. This condition creates Deep-water Chlorophyll
Maximum (DCM) which is a condition where phytoplankton dense is deeper due to ultraviolet radiation.
Deep-water Chlorophyll Maximum can cause phytoplankton and zooplankton abundant in the same depth
at noon. This event only happens in an oligotrophic lake or alpine lake due to high ultraviolet penetration(Beklioglu et al., 2008; Hylander & Hansson, 2009).
Lake Laut Tawar is a subalpine tropical lake located in the middle Aceh, surrounded by Bukit Barisan
Mountains. It is hypothesized that zooplankton performs the diel vertical migration in Lake Laut Tawar. The
DVM shows cascading migration over predatory and nutrient. The purpose of this research was to study
zooplankton DVM pattern, predation, competition, physicochemical factors which affect DVM, and water
quality condition of Lake Laut Tawar.
METHODS
Lake Laut Tawar is a subalpine lake located in the eastern part of Takengon city, Middle Aceh, Aceh
Province, Indonesia. Lake Laut Tawar ends in Malacca Strait through Peusangan River. Lake surface area
is 54.72 km2, average depth of 51.13 m, and a maximum depth of ±70 m. Lake lies at an elevation of 9001000 m above sea level. There are 25 inflows and only one outflow. Total water debit flowing into the lakeare 10.043 L/second, and water debit going out through Peusangan River are 5664 L/second.
Two kinds of samples were taken, plankton and physico chemical samples, in the center of the lake on 13
March and 5 June 2015. Sampling was conducted three times a day, before sun rise at 03.00, before
culmination at 11.00, and after the sun sets at 20.00. Samples were collected at depths 0, 1, 3, 5, 8, 15, 30,
and 60 meters with 5 replications. Depths were chosen for the light regime. Plankton was sampled with
Varn Dorn water sampler and plankton net size 20 mesh, fixated with 4% formaldehyde. Samples wereidentified based on Shirota (1966), and Edmonson (1959) and counted in the laboratory of Ecology andConservation Gadjah Mada University by strip counting method using a light microscope with SRCC
(Sedgwick Rafter Counting Chamber) (40x10 magnification). Physicochemical factors measured were
Secchi depth, water temperature, ambient temperature, dissolved oxygen (DO), carbon dioxide (CO2),
Nitrate (NO3), Phosphate (PO4), and pH.
Water temperature was measured vertically at the same depth where plankton samples were collectedusing mercury thermometer. Secchi depth was measured with Secchi disc. Dissolved oxygen and carbon
dioxide were measured vertically using micro Winkler method. Water nutrient was measured in thelaboratory. Plankton density and abundance were analyzed using ordination to show temporal difference inMarch and June.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
There were four functional groups of zooplankton found in Lake Laut Tawar. They were Copepods,
Cladocerans, Protozoa, and Rotifers. The number of zooplankton were 17 species. Zooplankton were lessabundant in March 2015 and did not perform DVM. Zooplankton were mostly dense in 1m depth at 11.00
WIB, reaching up to 2.1 ind/L. The highest density of zooplankton at 20.00 WIB were in 8 m depth, they
were 1.64 ind/L. While at 03.00 WIB, they were most dense in 1 m depth, 0.86 ind/L (Fig. 1).
Zooplankton density increased in June 2015. The highest density at 03.00 were in 1 m depth, they were
10.42 ind/L. While at 11.00, the highest abundance was in 5 m depth, they were 9.04 ind/L. And at 20.00,
the highest density was in 3 m depth, they were 11.04 ind/L. Zooplankton showed DVM patterns in June2015 which were quite different from March.
The reason that zooplankton did not perform DVM in March was probably because of the presence ofplanktivorous fish. There are several endemic fishes live in Lake Laut Tawar. The fishes are all planktivores.
Previous research was only exploring Depik (Rasbora tawarensis), while other planktivorous fishes lived inthis lake remain unknown. Depik are mostly found in epilimnion to metalimnion. Their spawning seasons
are in January to March. Spawning decreases rapidly in April and starts to peak in July (Muchlisin et al.,2010).

477

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Zooplankton Diel Vertical Migrations in Lake Laut Tawar, the upper image is DVM
in March 2015, the lower image is DVM in June 2015.

Figure 2. The physical and chemical characteristics of Lake Laut Tawar

478

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 3. Zooplankton DVM per functional groups479

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Copepods showed different DVM behavior in the months where samples were taken (Fig.3). It wasobserved that Copepods avoided water surface in March, they did not swim to the surface at dawn.
Copepods were abundant in 1 m and 3 m depth. After the sun sets, Copepods were dense in 1 m depth.
Cladocerans showed DVM in June 2015. At 30.00, Cladocerans were mostly abundant in 1 to 8 m. At 11.00,
they were dense in 5 to 8 m. At 20.00, they were up to the water surface where density was the highest in
3 to 5 m. Cladocerans were mostly more abundant in March than in June.
Lake Laut Tawar environment conditions are unique. It is characterized by high light intensity throughout
the year, low air temperature, high rainfall, and strong winds. Lake is surrounded by almost barren pine
forest. The rocks are granite, which are poor nutrient but contributing high sediments in the rainy season.
Many floating cages culture are found at the lake side. These floating cages supplied nutrient to the lake
thus decreasing water transparency. Lake Laut Tawar Secchi’s depth were 5 m in March, and 5.5 m in June.
Water temperature profile in Lake Laut Tawar showed stratification in both months. Epilimnion was between
0-5 m depths. Metalimnion was in 5-8 m where temperature shifted from 24°C to 23°C. The hypolimnion
was less than 15 m (Fig. 2). Lake Laut Tawar is a huge lake that surrounded by mountains. Strong waves
always occur after 13.00. Takengon area was in a wet month in March with 113.11 mm rainfall whereas inJune the rainfall was 66.71 mm.
Predators give huge effect on DVM patterns in Lake Laut Tawar. Zooplankton were avoiding predators byhiding below Secchi depth. They did not swim to the surface at night or at dawn. This behavior is the viceversa of DVM real pattern where zooplankton are mostly abundant in the surface area. Diel verticalmigration in March could probably be best explained by Game Theory. Game Theory mentioned that
predator and prey can change their behavior to adjust one another. Predators have the ability to optimize
their grazing by following prey behavior (Sainmont et al., 2014). Planktivorous fish also perform DVM byswimming to epilimnion after the sun sets. This would decrease zooplankton density, and zooplankton did
not perform DVM in March.
Zooplankton showed strong DVM in June. They hide below Secchi depth at noon and go upward to
epilimnion at night. Zooplankton were mostly abundant in 0-3 m and decrease rapidly after 5 m at 03.00.
The absence of predators causes widening of DVM amplitude. Zooplankton Migrate vertically from 0-15 m
in June which resulted in high zooplankton densities compared to March. This could also happen in theabsence of predators.
Copepods densities were very low in March. This could be because Copepods are fish favorite prey.
Copepods contain high protein that provides good nutrition for fish. While in June, when spawning season
has ended for 3 months, Copepods were abundant in epilimnion at night. Copepods are a good swimmer(Sainmont et al., 2013), they can swim to hypolimnion at noon avoiding predators. After the sun sets,
Copepods swim to the surface to prey for phytoplankton and small zooplankton.
Cladocerans did not perform DVM in March. They were highly abundant only in 1 m with a peak slightly atnoon where they were abundant in 5 m. They are also favored by the fishes, their abundance decreased atdawn. Cladocerans showed DVM in June. They were abundant in 1-8 m at 03.00. At 11.00 they wereabundant in 5-8 m. After the sun sets, they were abundant in 3-5 m. Cladocerans abundance were higher
in June than in March. These were probably because of planktivorous fish grazing or the water quality wasbetter in June. Cladocerans and Copepods behavior performed differently. Cladocerans abundance werehigher than the Copepods. Cladocerans prefer water with low turbulence. Lake Laut Tawar has waves atnoon, this could be the reason Cladocerans avoided surface area. Also, rainfall is higher in March, causing
high turbulence which resulted in a low abundance of Cladocerans.
Rotifers have different DVM pattern compared to Copepods and Cladocerans. Rotifers are normally doing
reverse DVM to avoid bigger zooplankton like Copepods and Cladocerans. While in March, Rotifers
performed normal DVM. This was because Copepods and Cladocerans abundant were low. Bigger
Copepods graze on Rotifers, this is why Rotifers abundance were lower in depth where Copepods weredense. Rotifers in June were highly abundant. They showed strong normal DVM. At 03.00, they were mostly
dense in the surface area. Rotifers are competing with Cladocerans in grazing phytoplankton Cladocerans
are very good filter feeders (Cooke et al., 2008).. Rotifers cannot compete with Cladocerans when they
were abundant. Phytoplankton are mostly abundant above water transparency, this is why Rotifers weredense in the epilimnion. Rotifers were found at 60 m in Lake Laut Tawar. This might happen because thedissolved oxygen was sufficient for respiration.
Protozoan did not show DVM in Lake Laut Tawar. Protozoans are very bad swimmers. They are mostly

480Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

moved by the mercy of the current. They are also very hard to identify under the light microscope (Ahmad& Sharma, 2009).
CONCLUSIONS
Zooplankton performs temporal DVM in Lake Laut Tawar in March and June. They did not show DVM in
March, however a very strong DVM was observed in June. Zooplankton DVM was driven mostly by lights
penetration and predator in Lake Laut Tawar. Diel Vertical Migration also driven by the competition over
species and functional groups.
REFERENCES
1. Aguilera, X., Crespo, G. Declrech, S. and Meester, L. D. (2006). Diel vertical migration of zooplanktonin tropical high mountain lakes (Andeas, Bolivia). Polish Journal of Ecology. 54, 453-464
2. Ahmad, T. and Sarman, A. K. (2009). A study of freshwater protozoans with special reference to theirabundance and ecology. Journal of Applied and Natural Science. 2, 166-169
3. Beklioglu, M. Gozen, A. G. Yildirm, F. Zorlu, P. and Onde, S. (2008). Impact of food concentration ondiel vertical migration behaviour of Daphnia pulex under fish predation risk. Hydrobiologia. 614, 321327
4. Cooke, S. L. Williamson, C. E. Leech, D. M. Boeing, W. J. and Torres, L. (2008). Effects oftemperature and ultraviolet radiation on diel vertical migration of freshwater crustacean zooplankton.
Canada journal of fish and aquatic science, 65, 1144-1152
5. Doulka, E. and Kehayias, G. (2011). Seasonal vertical distribution and diel migration of zooplankton
in a temprate stratified lake. Biologia, 66 (2), 308-319
6. Easton, J. and Gophen, M. (2003). Diel variation in the vertical distribution of fish and plankton inlake kinneret. Hydrobiologia, 491, 91-100
7. Hays, G. C. (2003). A review of the adaptive significance and ecosystem consequences ofzooplankton diel verticall migrations. Hydrobiologia, 503, 163-170
8. Hylander, S. Larsson, N. and Hansson, L. A. (2009). Zooplankton vertical migration and plasticity ofpigmentation arising from simultaneous UV and predation threats. Limnology and Oceanography, 54,
483-491
9. Legnani, E. Copetti, D. Oggioni, A. Tartari, G. Palumbo, M. T. and Morabito, G. (2005). Planktothrix
rubescens’ seasonal dynamics and vertical distribution in lake Pusiano (North Italy). Journal of
Limnology, 64 (1), 61-73
10. Muchlisin, Z. A. Musman, M. and Siti-Azizah, M. N. (2010). Spawnng seasons of Rasbora Tawarensis(Pisces: Cyprinidae) in Lake Laut Tawar, Aceh province, Indonesia. Reproductive Biology &Endocrinology, 8, (49)
11. Sainmont, J. Thygesen, H. and Visser, W. (2013). Diel vertical migration arising in a habitat selection
game. Theory of Ecology, 6, 241-251
12. Sainmont, J. Gislason, A. Heuschele, J. Webster, N. C. Sylvander, P. Wang, M. and Varpe, O. (2014).
Inter and intra specific diurnal habitat selection of zooplankton during the spring bloom observed byvideo plankton recorder. Marine Biology, 161, 1931-1941
13. Silva, E. I. L. (2006). Ecology of phytoplankton in tropical waters: introduction to the topic andecosystem changes from Sri Lanka. Asian Jurnal of Water, Environmental and Pollution, 41, 25-35
14. Williamson, C. E., Fischer, J. M. Bollens, S. M. Overholt, E. P. and Breckenridge, J. K. (2011). Toward
a more comprehensive theory of zooplankton diel vertical migration: integrating ultraviolet radiation
and water transparency into the biotic paradigm. Limnology and Oceanography, 56, 1603-1623

481

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

WATER QUALITY CHARACTERISTICS IN THE PLANKTOTHRIX DOMINANT YEARS IN
SHALLOW LAKE KASUMIGAURA
1*
Takao Ouchi , Hisao Kobinata1, 2, Koichi Kamiya1, Keita Nakagawa1, Kazuhisa Sugaya1 andMorihiro Aizaki1
Ibaraki Kasumigaura Environmental Science Center, Japan, 2 Fisheries Administration
Division, Department of Agriculture, Forestry, and Fisheries, Ibaraki Pref. Government, Japan*Corresponding author: ta_oouchi@pref.ibaraki.lg.jp
1

ABSTRACT
Cyanobacterial blooms in lakes cause serious problems in the world. In Lake Kasumigaura, a eutrophic
lake located in Japan, the bloom of Planktothrix (one of the filamentous cyanobacterium) occurred during
winter and spring from 2007 to 2011. In this study, we analyzed characteristics of lake water quality during
the Planktothrix dominant years (2007-2010) by comparing with that in the succeeding years without
Planktothrix blooms (2012-2015) at the center of Lake Kasumigaura. Average phytoplankton biovolume inthe dominant years was larger than that in the succeeding years. This would attribute to high chemical
oxygen demand (CODMn; 9.7 mg/L in annual average) in the dominant years as compared to the succeeding
years (7.6 mg/L). Total phosphorus (TP) concentration peaked in spring and summer in the dominant years
but only in summer in the succeeding years, whereas the seasonal variation in total nitrogen (TN)concentration between two periods was relatively small. Annual average of Secchi disk depth increased
before the dominant years by the decrease of fixed suspended solids (FSS) concentration which is mainlycomposed of inorganic materials. The change of irradiance condition seems to affect in occurrence of the
Planktothrix blooms.
Keywords: filamentous cyanobacteria, Lake Kasumigaura, Planktothrix suspensa, shallow
INTRODUCTION
Occurrence of cyanobacterial blooms have been recognized in many lakes and reservoirs around the world
and caused serious problems such as toxic production. The most common blooms in eutrophic lakes,
mainly formed by Microcystis, Anabaena, and Aphanizomenon, occur in the epilimnion. Most of
cyanobacteria have gas vesicles enabling cells to regulate their buoyancy to maintain vertical position in
response to physical and chemical factors (Reynolds, 2006). On the other hand, the bloom of Planktothrix,
one of a filamentous cyanobacterium, appears in the dysphotic zone and does not accumulate in theepilimnion. In the lake of European countries, Planktothrix bloom is typically encountered (e.g. Lake
Steinsfjorden in Norway, Halstvedt et al., 2007). The bloom was also known in North American lakes(Konopka et al., 1993). Some Planktothrix species produce toxic and musty odor compounds, causing
serious problems in lakes as a drinking water source. The Planktothrix bloom has occurred in many lakes
in the world. In Lake Kasumigaura, located in the eastern part of Japan, the Planktothrix blooms haveoccurred during 1992 to 1999 and 2007 to 2010 after heavy bloom of Microcystis (Takamura & Nakagawa,2012). After the latter bloom, Microcystis blooms occurred again. In this study, we focus on the lake water
quality during the Planktothrix bloom period (2007-2010) to understand the reason and results ofoccurrence of Planktothrix bloom. We analyzed the characteristics of the lake water quality during the bloom
period by comparing with that in the succeeding period without Planktothrix blooms (2012-2015).
METHODS
Study area
Lake Kasumigaura (Fig. 1), located in Ibaraki Prefecture in the eastern part of Japan, about 50 km northeastof Tokyo, is the second largest lake in Japan (219.9 km 2 as the total lake area). This lake is relatively
shallow (4 m as the average depth), polymictic and eutrophic lake. The watershed area is 2,157 km 2.
975,000 people live in the watershed. The dominant landscapes in the lake watershed are paddy fields(~31,400 ha), ploughed fields (~31,400 ha), forests and others (~83,000 ha) in 2010. The lake water is usedas drinking, industrial, and agricultural water. Drinking water is supplied to about one million people. And
the irrigation area is about 35,000 ha.

482Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferencelake center

40°N

30°N

130°E

Lake Kasumigaura

140°E

Figure 1. Location of Lake Kasumigaura and the sampling point.
Sampling and chemical analysis
The survey was carried out from January 2007 to December 2015. Lake water samples were collected fromthe surface layer (0.5 m below the water surface) at the lake center (shown in Fig. 1) by a peristaltic pump.
Samples for phytoplankton biovolume measurement were fixed by glutaraldehyde fixative immediately after
the collecting.
Chemical oxgen demand (CODMn) was analyzed according to the standard method (Japanese Industrial
Standards Committee, 2016). Concentrations of total nitrogen (TN) and total phosphorus (TP) were
measured by the continuous flow analysis (CFA) method using an autoanalyzer (BRAN+LUEBBE
AutoAnalyzer3). The data of Secchi disk depth (SD) and suspended solids (SS) concentration taken by
Freshwater Branch Office, Fishery Research Institute, Ibaraki Prefecture were used. The SS concentration
was separated as volatile SS (VSS) which is mainly composed of organic materials and fixed SS (FSS)
which is mainly composed of inorganic materials by heating to 450 °C for 2 hours.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Temporal variation of phytoplankton biovolumes
Figure 2 shows temporal variation of phytoplankton biovolumes at the lake center since 2007. Planktothrix
blooms have occurred during 2007 and 2010. We divided the study period into the two periods for analysis
of water quality characteristics in Planktothrix dominant period. The Planktothrix dominant period, 2007 to
2010, is defined as “dominant years”. The period after dominant years, 2012 to 2015, is defined as“succeeding years”. In the dominant years, Planktothrix bloom occurred during winter and spring. In the
succeeding years, bacillariophyceae had dominated in the lake center area, and heavy Microcystis blooms
also occurred in bay areas. According to Takamura and Nakagawa (2012), bacillariophyceae (e.g.
Aulacoseira, Nitzschia) had dominated for about 5 years before 2007.
dominant years
succeeding years
Biovolume (mm3/L)

60

Cyanophyceae (except Planktothrix)
Planktothrix
Bacillariophyceae
Chlorophyceae
Others

50
40
30
20

10
0

.
2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

2013

2014

2015

Figure 2. Temporal variation of phytoplankton biovolumes at the lake center.

483

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Changes in CODMn, TN and TP concentrations
Figure 3 shows monthly mean values of CODMn and phytoplankton biovolumes in each period. CODMn washigh in the dominant years (annual average of 9.7 mg/L, whereas annual average of 7.6 mg/L in the
succeeding years at lake center). Especially, high CODMn was observed during winter and spring in thedominant years. The phytoplankton biovolumes during winter and spring in the dominant years were also
larger than that in the succeeding years due to the occurrence of Planktothrix bloom. Thus , high CODMn inthe dominant years would be largely explained by large biovolumes of phytoplankton, especially
Planktothrix.
The seasonal variation in TN concentration between the two periods was relatively small (Fig. 4(a)).
Average TN concentrations of each period were 0.94 mg/L. On the other hand, the seasonal variation in
TP concentration was different between two periods (Fig. 4(b)). Average TP concentrations in the dominantand succeeding years were 0.091 and 0.074 mg/L, respectively. Two peaks of TP concentration were
dominant years
succeeding years
observed in dominant years, but only one peak in summer was observed in the succeeding years.
CODMn :

dominant years

succeeding years

Biovolume :dominant years

succeeding years

14
12
108
64
20

12
CODMn (mg/L)

10
8

14
12
108
64
20

6
4
2

70
succeeding years
60 70
60
50
40
30
20
0
50 10
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
40
Month
70
30 60
50
40
30
20
10
20 0
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
10Monthdominant years

Biovolume (mm3/L)

14

0

0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12MonthFigure 3. Monthly mean values of CODMn and phytoplankton biovolumes in the Planktothrix
domonant years (2007-2010) and succeeding years (2012-2015).
The peak in summer of both periods would be due to the phosphate release from the bottom sediment (Ishii
et al., 2009). However, TP concentration during winter and spring was higher in the dominant years than
the succeeding years. Occurrence of Planktothrix bloom would have a relationship with the high TP
concentration, although the mechanism of this interaction has not been clearly resolved.
2.0

0.15

(a)
TP (mg/L)

TN (mg/L)

1.5
1.0

0.5
0
0.0

(b)

0.12

0.09
0.06
0.03

dominant years
succeeding years0

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12

Monthdominant years
succeeding years

1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12MonthFigure 4. Monthly mean concentrations of (a) TN and (b) TP during the Planktothrix dominant
years (2007-2010) and succeeding years (2012-2015).

484

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Changes in SD and SS concentration
Figure 5(a) shows the change in annual average of SD from 2004 to 2013. Since the difference of SD
would be related to the reasons and results of the occurrence of Planktothrix bloom, we indicated as annual
average before and after the dominant years in Fig. 5(a). The SD increased before and after the dominant
years, and the SD was maintained about 0.8 m in the dominant years. Figure 5(b) shows the change inannual average concentration of SS. The SS concentration indicated roughly inverse correlation with SD.
SS concentration was about 20 mg/L throughout in the dominant years.
Figure 6 shows the concentrations of VSS and FSS. They also changed before and after dominant years.
FSS which is mainly composed of inorganic materials decreased before the dominant years. The decreaseof inorganic materials seems to relate to occurrence of Planktothrix blooms. From 1998 to about 2005, thelake water had white turbidity in Lake Kasumigaura, called “whiting period” (Naya & Kitamura, 2006,

dominant years

SD (m)

1.2

(a)

1.0

0.8
0.6

SS (mg/L)

0.4
30

(b)

25
20

15
10

2004
2007
2010
2013
Figure 5. Changes in annual average of (a) SD, (b) SS.

Utagawa & Takamura, 2007). According to Takamura and Nakagawa (2012), bacillariophyceae had
dominated in this period. Nakamura et al. (2012) demonstrated Planktothrix can be dominant at low lightintensity condition, or dysphotic zone, in Lake Kasumigaura. The increase of SD caused by the decreaseof FSS concentration before dominant years would expand dysphotic zone, and it would result in
Planktothrix bloom. On the other hand, the VSS concentration decreased after the dominant years. This
result indicated the decrease of organic materials such as Planktothrix. At this time, Daphnia, one ofzooplankton, increased significantly, and Planktothrix may be taken by Daphnia.
dominant years

SS (mg/L)

25

FSS

20

VSS

15
10
5
2004

2007

2010

2013

Figure 6. Changes in annual average concentrations of FSS and VSS.

485

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CONCLUSIONSWe analyzed characteristics of water quality in Lake Kasumigaura during the Planktothrix dominant years(2007-2010) by comparing with that in the succeeding years (2012-2015). Average phytoplankton
biovolume in the dominant years was larger than that in the succeeding years. This would attribute to high
CODMn in the dominant years as compared to the succeeding years. TP concentration peaked in springand summer in the dominant years but only in summer in the succeeding years, whereas the seasonalvariation in TN concentration between two periods was relatively small. Annual average of SD increased
before the dominant years by the decrease of FSS which is mainly composed of inorganic materials. The
increase of SD caused by the decrease of FSS concentration would expand dysphotic zone, and it would
bring the Planktothrix bloom.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Freshwater Branch Office, Fishery Research Institute, Ibaraki Prefecture forproviding the data of SS and SD. We also thank members of Ibaraki Kasumigaura Environmental Science
Center for helpful discussion and kindly support.
REFERENCES
1. Halstvedt, C. B., Rohrlack, T., Andersen, T., Skulberg, O., & Edvardsen, B. (2007). Seasonal
dynamics and depth distribution of Planktothrix spp. in Lake Steinsfjorden (Norway) related toenvironmental factors. Journal of Plankton Research, 29(5), 471-482.
2. Ishii, Y., Yabe, T., Nakamura, M., Amano, Y., Komatsu, N., & Watanabe, K. (2009). Effect of nitrateon phosphorus mobilization from bottom sediment in shallow eutrophic lakes. Journal of Water andEnvironment Technology, 7(3), 163–176.
3. Japanese Industrial Standards Committee (2016). Testing methods for industrial wastewater JIS K
0102, 38-41. [in Japanese]
4. Konopka, A. E., Klemer, A. R., Walsby, A. E., & Ibelings, B.W. (1993). Effects of macronutrients
upon buoyancy regulation by metalimnetic Oscillatoria agardhii in Deming Lake, Minnesota.
Journal of Plankton Research, 15(9), 1019-1034.
5. Nakamura, K., Hanamachi, Y., Kitamura, T. (2012) Why did oscillatoriales Planktothrix Suspensa
dominate in shallow hypertrophic lake (Lake Kasumigaura, Nishiura, Japan)?, ASLO Aquatic
Sciences Meeting, Shiga, Japan
6. Naya, T., & Kitamura, T. (2006). Spatio-temporal variation in median diameter of suspended
particles and its relation to the turbidity of filtrate in Lake Kasumigaura. Annual Report of Ibaraki
Kasumigaura Environmental Science Center, 1, 107-113. [in Japanese]
7. Reynolds, C. S. (2006). Chapter 2 - Entrainment and distribution in the pelagic. In Ecology of
Phytoplankton. Cambridge University Press (pp. 38-92).
8. Takamura, N., & Nakagawa, M. (2012). Phytoplankton species abundance in Lake Kasumigaura(Japan) monitored monthly or biweekly since 1978. Ecological Research, 27(5), 837.
9. Utagawa, H., & Takamura, N. (2007). Specification of compounds causing white turbidity in Lake
Kasumigaura. Japanese Journal of Limnology, 68, 425-432. [in Japanese].

486

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

STUDY ON THE NITROGEN LEACHING MECHANISM FROM AGRICULTURAL LANDS
Kuroda Hisao1*, LIN Xiaolan2, Kitamura Tatsumi3, Oouchi Takao3 and Sugaya Kazuhisa3
Ibaraki University/College of Agriculture, 2Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology/
United Graduate School of Agricultural Science, 3 Ibaraki Kasumigaura Environmental Science
Center*Corresponding author: hisao.kuroda.agr@vc.ibaraki.ac.jp
1

ABSTRACTIn Lake Kasumigaura basin, agricultural production value is the top class in Japan. As a result, agricultural
non-point source loads measures have become a big problem. It is an object to clarify the mechanism of
the nitrogen pollution. In the Hokota river basin, there are many cultivation, such as melons and tomatoes
and strawberries that use a large amount of nitrogen fertilizer. In addition, livestock is also very large.
Therefore, livestock compost is produced in large quantities, large amounts of compost is thought to be
fertilizer to agricultural lands. As a result, the total nitrogen concentration of the HOKOTA river has been
increased to about 10mgL-1 was observed. This case was similar to the results of measurement of thenitrogen pollution spring water by compost put in the past. Therefore, although nitrogen fertilizer reduction
was intended for chemical fertilizers, it was found to cause nitrogen contamination over an extended periodof time even organic fertilizers. Moreover, we were core boring the agricultural lands subsoil until 10m, andanalysed the nitrogen component. Therefore, it was found that it is necessary to solve the threemechanisms shown below as nitrogen pollution mechanism of agricultural simultaneously. 1) Reduction of“the total input nitrogen” (the total amount of chemical fertilizers and organic fertilizers), 2) Reduction of “thenecessity nitrogen leaching” (minimum required soil residual nitrogen content for the crop harvest), 3)
Countermeasure of “the accumulated nitrogen” (inorganic nitrogen content which is present in less than orequal to about 1m subsoil).
Keywords: accumulated nitrogen, necessity nitrogen leaching, nitrogen pollution, non-point source load,
total input nitrogen
INTRODUCTION
Lake Kasumigaura is located 70 km northeast of Tokyo and the second largest lake in Japan (Figure 1.
and Figure 2.). The lake has a surface area of 219.9 km 2, a basin area of 2,157 km2. Water from the lake
is used for urban consumption, industry, agriculture and recreation, and is an important water resource for
the Tokyo area. However, since the 1970's, eutrophication of Lake Kasumigaura (ILEC 2017) has becomea serious problem.

Figure 1. The map of Ibaraki prefecture location.

487

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. The map of Lake Kasumigaura and Hokota river basin
Recently, water quality of the lake is improving. Of the three basins that feed the lake, the water quality
from the Kitaura basin has not improved, with high nitrogen loads continuing. Figure 3. shows change ofTotal Nitrogen (TN) concentration at 4 main rivers (Sakura, Koise, Tomoe and Hokota River) in Lake
Kasumigaura basin from 1972 to 2015 (Ibaraki Pref. 2016). Change of TN concentration in the Hokota riveris increasing extremely. In this river basin of agricultural production value is the top class in Japan. And, pig
farming is thriving and a large amount of compost (organic nitrogen fertilizer: compost) is generated. And it
seems that over using organic nitrogen fertilizer put into agricultural land. From 1994 to 1997 we haveobserved similar phenomena. Our investigated area is illustrated in Figure 4. We had observed a similar
phenomenon of nitrogen concentration variation. From Figure 5. (Kuroda 2013) a peak of nitrogenconcentration appeared 3 years after organic nitrogen fertilizer input. "Livestock manure Control Act" cameinto force on November 1, 2004 three years before the nitrogen concentration peak of the Hokota River. It
is an object to clarify the mechanism of the nitrogen pollution.

Figure 3. Temporal change in TN concentration of four major rivers (Sakura,
Koise, Tomoe and Hokota River) in Lake Kasumigaura basin.

488

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. Location of spring waters for NO3-N conc. monitoring

Figure 5. Change of NO3-N concentration in spring waters
METHODSWe were core boring different types subsoils (undisturbed soil) until 10m, and analyzed the nitrogencomponent. On top of this upland fields to about 30 years ago, a swimming pool was built. This pool has
been dismantled in 2011. Therefore, this period, rain, did not infiltrated downward. Three years later in 2014,
undisturbed soil core samples were collected by a boring to a depth of 10m. And we brought the sample tothe laboratory. The sample was divided into the following 8 parts based on soil texture: 0 - 115 cm, 115 290 cm, 290 - 325 cm, 325 - 536 cm, 536 - 640 cm, 640 - 737 cm, 737 - 830 cm, 830 - 1,000 cm.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Figure 5. is a result of a lot of horses’ compost (organic nitrogen fertilizer) put into agricultural land in
December 1995, the nitrate nitrogen concentration increased after six months, the nitrogen concentrationshows a state in which peaked after 3 years. Figure 3. shows that a peak TN concentration in 2007.
Livestock manure Control Act has been enacted in 2004. In Japan. In order to escape the penalties of thislaw we think that livestock farmer processed a large amount of organic nitrogen fertilizer excretion to489

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

agricultural land before enforcement. Results of the core sample analysis (Figure 6.), the nitrogen was
found to be lowered by 1 m year-1. This was the same as the rain of the penetration rate. From these results,
nitrogen removal has been found can not be expected in the upland subsoil. From the results of Figure 3.
and Figure 5, the use of excessive organic fertilizer has been found to cause serious nitrogen pollution ofgroundwater. Organic farming, but are considered as environmentally friendly, nitrogen pollution fromexcess manure is also the same as nitrogen pollution of chemical fertilizer.

Figure 6. Vertical distribution of each nitrogen conc. in soil pore
In order to reduce the nitrogen pollution that agriculture cause is considered in three ways. 1) We need torecognize that nitrogen pollution mechanism of organic fertilizer and chemical fertilizer is the same.
Reduction of chemical fertilizer in Japan are believed to environment conservation agriculture. Therefore ,the reduction of “the total input nitrogen” is the most effective. In particular, in the livestock there are many
areas it is important balance of organic fertilizer and chemical fertilizer. 2) Vegetables and fruit trees, it isnecessary that the remaining nitrogen in the soil at the time of harvest. It is necessary amount of fertilizer
to minimize excess nitrogen in the soil. As a result, “necessity nitrogen leaching” remain in the soil it isimportant to tolerate. 3) The cause of the high nitrogen concentration region as the HOKOTA area, due toexcessive total input amount of nitrogen. Measures of “accumulated nitrogen” from previous to take two
measures of the above is required. Accumulated nitrogen measures in order to improve the HOKOTA riverwater quality is considered as an important problem.
CONCLUSIONS
It is important to reduce the nitrogen inflow from agricultural watershed in order to prevent the eutrophicationof the lake. In particular, agriculture and livestock is one of the causes of nitrogen pollution. The agricultural
nitrogen pollution three mechanisms shown below are considered to be important.
1) Reduction of “the total input nitrogen” (the total amount of chemical fertilizers and organic fertilizers),2) Reduction of “the necessity nitrogen leaching” (minimum required soil residual nitrogen content for thecrop harvest),
3) Countermeasure of “the accumulated nitrogen” (inorganic nitrogen content which is present in less thanor equal to about 1 m subsoil).
REFERENCES
1. ILEC,World Lake Database(2017),http://wldb.ilec.or.jp/Details/lake/ASI-35
2. Ibaraki prefecture Home page(20160907), http://www.pref.ibaraki.jp/seikatsukankyo/kantai /suishitsu/water/kokyoyosuiiki.html
3. Kuroda H (2013). The subject of the water quality conservation about agriculture, 705-708, Water,
Land and environmental engineering Vol.81, No.9. (in Japanese).

490

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

THE ORIGINAL METHOD OF CLASSIFICATION OF WORLD LAKES BASED ON
FORMULAS AND RESULTS OF ITS APPLICATION
N.M. Mingazova*, A.I. Galeeva
Kazan (Volga region) Federal University, Kazan, Russia*Corresponding author: nmingas@mail.ru
ABSTRACTIn world practice, there are many classifications of lakes, based on the use of 1-2 parameters. The aim of
the present study was to develop a new method of classification of lakes and identifying opportunities for
its application. During large-scale studies of lakes in different regions of the world original way to classifyof lakes the authors was developed. The method allows to classify each lake on the feature set using special
formulas. The structure formulas contain geographical, hydrological, hydro-chemical and hydro-biologicalindicators. Each indicator is denoted by a specific letter. Each feature is indicated by the numeral index.
The set of indicators and signs gives a certain formula. With the help of this method and formulas was
carriers the typing and classification of lakes for several regions of the world. For Russia, the inventory oflakes in Kazan Republic of Tatarstan was held. The study of 180 lakes showed that the main type of citylakes are small floodplain lakes, with increased salinity, eutrophic trophic status. In the Republic of Mari El(Russia) has an inventory of more than 100 lakes. Here, among the lakes of karst origin meets a wide
variety of types. With the use of this method are classified as lowland lakes Abkhazia (Caucasus), somelakes in Italy (Trazimeno) and Turkey (Iznik, Yuzla). During the testing of the method it is proved that it canbe used both to refer to the individual lakes (identification of the formula), and for large-scale typing in theregions, with the identification of belonging to one or another type.
Keywords: Lake classification, method of classification, lake, formula of lake.
INTRODUCTION
One of the most complex theoretical problems of limnology should be named a problem of lakeclassification. Nowadays there is a plenty of limnological classifications in which separate parameters oflakes are put. Among limnological classifications it is possible to allocate genetic (formation, genesis oflakes), physical, chemical, hydrological, biological, etc. as which it is possible to consider classification
which has only one parameter. There are plenty enough of lake classification with one parameter. But lakeclassifications with more than one parameter are extremely rare and are as a matter of fact universal.
The aim of the present study was to develop a new method of classification of lakes (the universal limnoecological classification (ULEC), allowing to typify lakes on a global scale, using of formula. and identifying
opportunities for its application (Mingazova and Galeeva, 2011).
METHODS
Research in the given area have been begun in 1990th by results of ecological studying 600 lakes of the
Middle Volga region and other regions by the Laboratory of water ec osystems in Kazan University. During
large-scale studies of lakes in different regions of the world original way to classify of lakes the authors wasdeveloped (the universal limno-ecological classification - ULEC).
The structure formulas of lakes by ULEC contain 15 geographical, hydrological, hydro-chemical and hydrobiological indicators. Each parameter includes from 4 up to 18 attributes. Each parameter has
substantiation, being in the appendix of classification with reference. The type of lake could be generalized
by graphical way or is designated by the formula. Having designated parameters in letters and attributes infigures, it is possible to receive the formula describing type of lake. Offering universal classification of lakes
considers all basic components of lakes, describes type of lake in the form of the uniform formula and suits
for the use on a global scale.
Parameters (Table 1): Geographical zone - Z (1-4); Height above sea level - SL (1-5); Genesis of lakeholes – G (1-16); Area – A (1-5); Depth – D (1-5); Water balance - W (1-4); Temperature – T (1-5); Mixing
type – Mix (1-5); Transparence – Tr (1-5); Hydrogen parameter – Ph (1-3); Mineralization – M (1-6); Ion
composition - I (1- 3); Trophic status - TS (1-6); Flora – Fl (1-4); Fauna – Fa (1-4).

491

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1. Structure of Universal limno-ecological classification (ULEC)
Geographical zone -Z (1-4)

Height above sea level - SL (1-5)

Genesis of lake holes - G (1-18)

Z1 ТropicalZ2 SubtropicalZ3 Temperate
Z4 Аrctic

SL1 Very low
SL2 Low
SL3 Moderate
SL4 High
SL5 Very highG1 Теctonic
G2 Volcanic
G3 Glacial
G4 Flood-plain
G5 Oxbow ....
G6 Каrst
G7 Тhermokarst
G8 Formed between sand dunes
G9 Suffozic
G10 Relictical
G11 Gravitational
G12 Formed due to windprocesses
G13 FluviaticG14 Моraine
G15 Hydrogenic
G16 Liman
G17 Меteoritic
G18 Artificial

Area – A (1-5)

Depth – D (1-5)

Water balance - W (1-4)А1 Very large
А2 Large
А3 Moderate
А4 SmallА5 Very small

D1 Very deep
D2 Deep
D3 Moderate
D4 Small
D5 Very small

W1 Flowing
W2 Inflowing
W3 Drain
W4 Enclosed lake

Temperature – T (1-5)

Mixing types of water - Mix(1-5)

Transparence – Tr (1-5)Т1 Cold
Т2 ModerateТ3 WarmТ4 Very warm
Т5 Hot (thermal) lakes

Mix1 Dimictic
Mix2 Meromictic
Mix3 Monomictic
Mix4 Amictic
Mix5 Polymictic

Tr1 Very highTr2 High
Tr3 Moderate
Tr4 Low
Tr5 Very low

Mineralization – M (1-6)

Ion composition - I (1- 3)

Hydrogen parameter – Ph (1-5)

M1 Very low
M2 Low
M3 Moderate
M4 High
M5 Very highM6 Division on salinity

I1 Hydrocarbonate – HCO3
I1(1) CaI1(2) Mg
I1(3) Na K
I2 Sulfate – SO4
I2(1) CaI2(2) Mg
I2(3) Na K
I3 Chloride - Cl
I3(1) CaI3(2) Mg
I3(3) Na K

Ph1 Neutral
Ph2 Above acidic
Ph3 Under alkaline
Ph4 Acidic
Ph5 Alkaline492

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Trophic status TS (1-6)

Flora Fl (1-4)

Fauna Fa (1-4)

TS1 Ultraoligotrophic
TS2 Оligotrophic
TS3 Меsotrophic
TS4 Eutrophic
TS5 Hypertrophic
TS6 Dystrophic

Fl1 Low number aquatic plant
vegetation
Fl2 Маcrophyte lakes with highbiodiversity
Fl3 Маcrophyte lakes with low
biodiversity
Fl4 Planktic lakes

Fa1 Fish with rare species
Fa2 Fish with rich biodiversity
Fa3 Fish with widespread species
Fa4 Fishless lakes

Designations and a substantiation of ULEC classification (Mingazova and Galeeva, 2011):
1. GEOGRAPHICAL ZONE – Z (1-4). The Zafar’s classification is used for division lakes on geographicalzone and height above sea level [6]. Depending on a geographical zone of lake are subdivided on Z1tropic, Z2 - subtropic, Z3 - temperate and Z4-arctic.
2. HEIGHT ABOVE SEA LEVEL– SL (1-5). Lake classification on height above sea level has been takenfrom the physical atlas of the world and subdivided on SL1-very low (0-200 m); SL2-low (200-500 m); SL3moderate (500-1000 m); SL4-high (1000-2000 m); Sl5-very high (above 2000 m)/
3. GENESIS OF LAKE HOLES - G (1-18). The classification of Hutchinson and Muraveiskiy has been used
for gradation of lakes on genesis of lake holes [6]. Genesis of lake holes are subdivided on: tectonic - G1,
volcanic - G2, glacial - G3, flood-plain -G4, oxbow-G5, karst - G6, thermokarst-G7, formed between sanddunes-G8, suffozic -G9, relictical-G10, gravitational-G11, formed due to wind processes -G12, fluviatic G13, moraine -G14, hydrogenic-G15, liman -G16, meteoritic-G17, artificial-G18.
4. AREA – A (1-5). Division of lakes on the areas are divided on [5]: А1 - very large- above 1000 km2; А2 –large - from 101 up to 1000 km 2; А3 – moderate - from 10 up to 100 km 2; А4 – small - from 1 hectare up to
10 km2. The category - very small A5 (up to 1 hectare) - has been brought in addition from regionalclassifications.
5. DEPTH (DEPTH)-D (1-5). Division of lakes on depths are divided on (GOST, 1977): D1 - very deep –over 100 m; D2 - deep - from 51 up to 100 m; D3 - moderate - from 11 up to 50 m; D4 - small - from 5 up
to 10 m; D5 - very small - up to 5 m. The category D1 - very deep (over 100) - has been brought inaddition.
6. WATER BALANCE – W (1-4). Division of lakes on water balance are divided on (GOST, 1977): W1 flowing-the lake having both a constant drain and inflow within all year; W2 - inflowing-the lake having
constant inflow within all year; W3 - drain- the lake having a constant drain within all year, W4 - enclosed
lake - the lake having no constant drain or inflow within all year.
7. TEMPERATURE – Т (1-5). The temperature mode has been taken from Kitaev’s classification [6] where
the average integrated temperature of water during the years period (tmod) is used: Т1 - cold: tср <10 °C;
Т2 - moderate: tmod = 10-15 °C; Т3 - warm: tmod = 15-20 °C; Т4 - very warm: tmod = 20-30°C. The
additional category – Т5 - hot (thermal) lakes has been added with: tmod> 30 °C.
8. MIXING TYPES OF WATER- Mix (1-5). The classification of Hutchinson and Kevern’s classification [6]have been used for gradation of lakes on mixing water types: Mix4 - amictic - never mixing, usually ice
covered year around, in the polar regions; Mix2 - meromictic - lakes that may mix once or more annually,
but do not mix completely; Mix5 - polymictic - these lakes have many periods of mixing annually, evenapproaching continuous mixing and are influenced more by daily temperature changes than seasonal; Mix
3 -monomictic - one period of mixing annually, the cold monomictic lakes are ice covered most of the year
and mix during a brief summer, while the warm monomictic lakes are the opposite with a brief ice-free winterperiod of mixing. Mix1 - dimictic - lakes that usually mix twice annually in the spring and in the fall. This
category covers the lakes in the temperate zones of our globe and includes the majority of our lakes.
9. TRANSPARENCE – Tr (1-5). The classification of Kimstach on a transparence (Konstantinov, 1986) has
been used: Tr1 - very high – more than 12 m; Tr2 - high-from 6-12м; Tr3 - moderate-from 3-6 m; Tr4 - low– from 1.5 – 3 m; Tr5 - very low – less than 1.5 m/
10. MINERALIZATION–M (1-6). Classification of Alekin and the Venetian system of water salinity
classification [3] are put in a basis of division on a mineralization of waters: M1-very low – up to 100 mg/l;

493

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake ConferenceM2-low – 100-200 mg/l; M3-Moderate – 200-500 mg/l; M4-high – 0.5-5 g/l; M5-very high –above 5 g/l; M6division on salinity.
11. ION COMPOSITION – I (1-3). The gradation of lakes on ionic composition has been taken fromclassification of Schukarev and Kurlov (1986). Waters of lakes concern to three chemical formations – I1HCO3, I2- SO4 and I3- Cl, each of which is in turn subdivided on 1- Ca, 2- Mg and 3- Na-K – these
designations are specified in brackets.
12. HYDROGEN PARAMETER – Ph (1-5). On a hydrogen parameter of lake are subdivided on: Ph1 neutral (6.5-8.5); Ph2- above acidic (6.4-5); Ph3 - under alkaline (8.6-9.5), Ph4 - acidic (below 5); Ph5 alkaline (above 9.5).
13. TROPHIC STATUS - TS (1-6). Tinemann and Nauman's classification has been put in a basis [6]: TS2- oligotrophic, TS4 - eutrophic, TS6 - dystrophic. Nowadays additional categories are in use: TS3 mesotrophic and TS5 - hypereutrophic lakes. Category TS1 - ultraoligotrophic (from Jadin and Gerd's
classification (1961)).
14. FLORA – FL (1-4). Division on flora has been used from ecology-limnological classification (Mingazova,
2001): Fl1 - low number aquatic plant vegetation; Fl2 - macrophyte lake with rich biodiversity; Fl3 macrophyte lake with low biodiversity; Fl4 - planktic lakes.
15. FAUNA – Fa (1-4). Division on fauna has been used from ecology-limnological classification(Mingazova, 2001): Fa1 - fish lakes with rare species; Fa2 - fish lakes with rich biodiversity; Fa3 - fish lakes
with widespread species; Fa4 - fishless lakes (Mingazova and Galeeva, 2011).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSWith the help of this method and formulas was carriers the typing and classification of lakes for several
regions of the world. Opportunities of use universal limno–ecological classification (ULEC) are shown toon an example of Middle Volga region lakes, the Russian Federation lakes and lakes of the world fromdifferent continents. For Russia, the inventory of lakes in Kazan Republic of Tatarstan was held. The studyof 180 lakes showed that the main type of city lakes are small floodplain lakes, with increased salinity,eutrophic trophic status.
For the Middle Volga region, it has shown formulas of widely known lakes of Kazan: Lower Kaban (Fig. 1),
Big Lebyajie (Fig. 2), Big Glubokoe (Table 2).

494

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 2. Formulas of Kazan lakes (Russia) by ULEC
Name of lake
FormulaDescription of lake
Lower Kaban

Z3 SL2 G5-6 A4 D3 W4
T3 Mix1 Tr5 M4 I2(1)Ph3 TS5 Fl3 Fa3Big Lebyajie

Z3 SL2 G8 A4 D5 W4
T2 Mix3 Tr5 M2 I1(1)Ph1 TS4 Fl3 Fa3

Big Glubokoe

Z3 SL2 G6 A4 D3 W4
T2 Mix1 Tr4 M1 I1(1)Ph1 TS3 Fl3 Fa3Geographically temperate with low height above sea level,oxbow-karst, small (56 he), with moderate deep depth (upto 16 m), enclosed, with warm water, dimictic, with very lowtransparence, with high mineralization, SO4-Ca, alkaline
water, hypertrophic, macrophyte with low biodiversity (20plant species), fish lake with widespread species.
Geographically temperate with low height above sea level,
formed in sand hole, small (13 he), with very low deep
depth (2 m), enclosed, moderate on water temperaturescale, monomictic, with very low transparence, with low
mineralization, HCO3-Ca, with neutral water, eutrophic,
macrophyte with low biodiversity, fish lake with widespread
species.
Geographically temperate with low height above sea level,
karst, small (11 he), with moderate deep depth (12 m),
enclosed, moderate on water temperature scale, dimictic,
with low transparence, with very low mineralization, HCO 3Ca, neutral water, mesotrophic, macrophyte with low
biodiversity, fish lake with widespread species (5 fish
species).

Figure 1. Lake Lower Kaban (Kazan city, Russia)

495

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Lake Lebyajie (Kazan city, Russia)
In the Republic of Mari El (Russia) has an inventory of more than 100 lakes. Here, among the lakes of karst
origin meets a wide variety of types. In the Mari El Republic of the Russian Federation dominated by thetype of the lakes with the formula G6 A4 D3 W1 T1 Mix1 S4 M2 – karst lakes, small, with an average depth,
flow, cold, dimiktic, low transparency, low mineralization (Mingazova, 2001). To this type belongs karst Lake
Gluhoe in the national park "Mari Chodra" in Mari El Republic (Fig. 3).

Figure 3. Karst Lake Gluhoe (Mari El Republic, Russia)
With the use of this method are classified as lowland lakes Abkhazia (Caucasus), some lakes in Italy(Trazimeno) and Turkey (Iznik, Yuzla).
During the testing of the method it is proved that it can be used both to refer to the individual lakes(identification of the formula), and for large-scale typing in the regions, with the identification of belonging
to one or another type.
As an example of ULEC use for Russia its shown formulas of lakes Baikal and Ladoga (Fig.4, 5, Table 3).

496

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. One of the biggest freshwater lakes in the world - Lake Baikal (Russia)
Table 3. Formulas of Russian lakes (Russia) by ULEC
Name of lake
FormulaDescription of lake
Z3 SL3 G1 A1 D1 W1 Geographically temperate with moderate height above sea
T2 Mix1 Tr1 M2 I1(1) level, tectonic, very large (31500 km 2), with very deep
Lake Baikal
Ph1 TS1 Fl2 Fa1
depth (1637 m), flowing, moderate on temperature scale,dimictic, with very high transparence, low mineralization,
HCO3-Ca, with neutral water, ultraoligotrophic, macrophytewith rich biodiversity (133 plant species), fish lake with rare
species (52 fish species) .
Lake Ladoga
Z3 SL3 G1 A1 D1 W1 Geographically temperate with moderate height above sea
T1 Mix1 Tr3 M2 I1(1) level, tectonic, very large (9720 km 2), with very deep depth
Ph1 TS3 Fl2 Fa1(230 m), flowing, cold water, dimictic, with moderatetransparence, low mineralization, HCO 3-Ca, with neutral
water, mesotrophic, macrophyte with rich biodiversity (107plant species), fish lake with rare species (60 fish species).

Figure 5. Lake Ladoga (Russia)

497

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

To show an opportunity of ULEC use for lakes of the world, its shown formulas of lakes from different
continents (Table 4): for Europe – Lake Geneva (Switzerland); for Asia – Lake Issyk Kul (Kirghizia); forNorthern America – Lake Michigan (USA - Canada); for South America – Lake Titicaca (Peru).
Table 4. Formulas of lakes in different areas of the world by ULEC
Name of lake
FormulaDescription of lake
EuropeZ3 SL3 G1 A2 D1 W1 Geographically temperate with moderate height above sea
Lake Geneva
T3 Mix1 Tr2 M2 I1(1) level, tectonic, large (582 km 2), with very deep depth (310
(Switzerland)
Ph1 TS2 Fl2 Fa1m), flowing, warm water, dimictic, with high transparence,
low mineralization, HCO3-Ca, with neutral water,
oligotrophic, macrophyte with rich biodiversity, fish lakewith rare species.
Asia
Lake
Biwa Z2 SL1 G1 A2 D1 W3 Geographically temperate with a very low altitude, tectonic,(Japan)T2 Mix1 Tr2 M2 I1(1) large (670 km 2), with very deep depth (103 m), flowing,
Ph1 TS3 Fl2 Fa1.
moderate on temperature scale, dimictic, with very hightransparence, low mineralization, HCO 3-Ca, with neutral
water, ultraoligotrophic, macrophyte with rich biodiversity,
fish lake with rare species.
Lake Issyk Kul(Kirghizia)

Z3 SL4 G1 A1 D1 W2
T4 Mix1 Tr1 M5 I 2(2)Ph1 TS2 Fl2 Fa1

North America
Lake Micigan(USA-Canada)South America
Lake Titicaca(Peru)Z3 SL3 G1 A1 D1 W1
T2 Mix1 Tr3 M2 I1(1)Ph1 TS3 Fl? Fa?
Z2 SL5 G1 A1 D1 W1
T1 Mix5 Tr2 M4 I? Ph?
TS? Fl2 Fa1

Geographically temperate with high height above sea level,
tectonic, very large (6236 km 2), with very deep depth (688m), inflowing, very warm, dimictic, with very hightransparence, very high mineralization, SO 4-Mg, withneutral water, oligotrophic, macrophyte with richbiodiversity, fish lake with rare species (20 fish species).
Geographically temperate with moderate height above sea
level, tectonic, large (57750 km 2), with very deep depth(281 m), flowing, moderate on temperature scale, dimictic,
with moderate transparence, low mineralization, HCO3-Ca,
with neutral water, mesotrophic.
Geographically subtropic with very high height above sea
level, tectonic, very large (8290 km2), with very deep depth(304 m), flowing, cold water, amictic, with hightransparence, very high mineralization, macrophyte withrich biodiversity, fish lake with rare species.

Thus, its shown the possibility of application universal limno-ecological classification (ULEC) on a global
scale. This approach is used for the first time and can be applied to large-scale typification of lakes indifferent areas of the world.
CONCLUSIONS
The method allows to classify each lake on the feature set using special formulas. The structure formulas
contain geographical, hydrological, hydro-chemical and hydro-biological indicators. Each feature isindicated by the numeral index. The set of indicators and signs gives a certain formula. With the help of thismethod and formulas was carriers the typing and classification of lakes for several regions of the world.
ULEC could be used for scale zoning, for the comparative analysis of measurements occurring to lakes, formonitoring, for statistical and mathematical data processing of monitoring, etc.

498

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

REFERENCES
1. GOST 17.1.1.02-77. (1977) Hydrosphere. Use and protection of waters. Basic terms and definitions.
Gosstandart. Moscow (in russian).
2. Jadin V.I. and Gerd S.V. (1961). Rivers, lakes and reservoirs of USSR. Moscow. p. 599 (in russian).
3. Konstantinov A.S. (1986). General hydrobiology. Moscow: Nauka. p.240 (in russian).
4. Mingazova N.M. (2011). Galeeva A.I. Approaches to the development of universal limno-ecologicalclassification // Water: Chemistry and Ecology. № 1, pp. 71-75 (in russian).
5. Romanenko V.D., Oksiuk O.P., Jukinskii V.N., Stolberg F.V., Lavrik V.I. (1990). Ecological assessmentof hydrotechnical buildings influence on waterbodies. Kiev: Naukova dumka. p. 256 (in russian).
6. Theoretical questions of limnological classification / By editor Smirnov N.P. Saint Petersburg: Nauka,
1193, p. 185 (in russian).
7. Unique ecosystems of saltwater karst lakes of Middle Volga region. (2001). By editors Alimov A.F.,
Mingazova N.M. Kazan: Kazan state university. p. 256 (in russian).

499

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

THE RELATIONSHIP OF RIPARIAN VEGETATION COMPOSITION WITH RAINBOWFISHABUNDANCE IN LAKE SENTANI, PAPUA, INDONESIA
I Gusti Ayu Agung Pradnya Paramitha1*, Riky Kurniawan1
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences
Corresponding author*: agung@limnologi.lipi.go.id

1

ABSTRACTThe relationship between riparian vegetation and rainbowfish in Lake Sentani was studied. This research
was conducted from September until October 2014 using survey method in 3 stations. The survey recorded
a total of 27 species within 17 families. Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv. (Cogongrass) was found as the mostabundant species during the survey. Jaifuri was the station with the most species (20 species) and the mostabundant of riparian vegetations (304 individuals). The rainbow fish found in the stations were barredrainbow fish (Chilaterinna fasciata) (45 individuals) and red rainbow fish (Glossolepsis incisus) (837individuals). Dondai was the station with the most abundant of rainbow fish (595 individuals). Both of barredrainbow fish and red rainbow fish found in Dondai station. The result of this study proved that riparianvegetation has strong relationship with the presence of rainbowfish in Lake Sentani.
Keywords: riparian vegetation, rainbowfish, Lake Sentani
INTRODUCTION
Lake Sentani is one of the priority lake in Indonesia (Kementrian Lingkungan Hidup, 2011). Lake Sentani
is the largest lowland lake of Papua and located in northern Papua, Papua Province, Indonesia. The lake
is a part of Cycloops Mountain Nature Reserve. It is located in four districts covering Sentani, Ebungfau,
Waibu, and East Sentani. Geography around the lake is hillside in the south and the Cycloops Mountain in
the north, which separate the lake from Pacific Ocean (Andersen, 2006). Riparian zone of Lake Sentani
generally has a diverse topography. Some of them have steep topography, due to the Lake Sentani issurrounded by Cycloops Mountains. The lake is situated 70–90 meters above sea level covered area 9,360
Ha and the depth about 51.8 m (Ohee, 2013). This lake is also used as one of the water source for Jayapura
regency. Water source of Lake Sentani comes from 14 large and small rivers with total catchment area ofapproximately 600 km 2. The inlets of Lake Sentani include Belo River, Flafouw River and Harapan River,while the outlet is only Djaifuri River (Ohee, 2003 and Kementrian Lingkungan Hidup, 2011). There are61,477 people live in Lake Sentani, 45% of them live in the water area and 55% live in the land areasurround it (Kabey, 2014). They live from the fisheries and agriculture activities which conducted aroundthe lake (Kementrian Lingkungan Hidup, 2011). The local communities, who live in small islands within thelake, live in traditional stilt houses, they use Lake Sentani for daily needs such as fishing, washing, bathing,and cooking. The communities still use traditional means to fulfill their daily needs. Other activities, such as
tourism and aquaculture, are mostly conducted by non-locals from other parts of Indonesia. They live further
out from the lake (Ohee, 2013). The lake plays a great role for supporting the humans and organisms living
in and around it. It has also been identified as an important ecosystem for species conservation.
Lake Sentani has endemic and indigenous fish species. The endemic fish are Sentani Rainbowfish(Chilaterinna sentaniensis) and Red Rainbowfish (Glossolepsis incisus) (Ohee, 2013 and Polhemus et al.,2004). The distribution of Ch. sentaniensis and G. incisus are known to be limited to Lake Sentani and its
tributaries, meanwhile the Chilatherina fasciata is an indigenous species.
The Rainbowfish is a lake-dwelling species reside in the edge of lake, shoaling amongst the submerged
grass, water plants, dead wood, and leaves. Some species prefer creeks, streams, or rivers with fastflowing and clear water, living on a boulder or gravel substrate, while some occupy a sand and silt substrate.
Other species prefer estuaries, especially in the mouth of a river that flows into the sea. Along the water
body, the riparian vegetation varies, with many kinds of trees, shrubs, and grasses, shading the habitats ofthe fish, and serving as a food source for the fish (Ohee, 2013). In Lake Sentani, rainbowfish is found along
the edge of the lake, around riparian and aquatic plant.
Riparian forests are situated in the transition zones from terrestrial to aquatic ecosystems, including
mountain torrents, rivers, lakes, or swamps (Sakio, 2008). Riparian vegetation has a very important role in
the landscape as a connecting zone between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems (Naiman and Decamps,

500Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference1997). It is also as a source of organic matter inputs, known as allochthonous (Nasution et al., 2011). It
brings plant and animal debris such as insects to the water body and provide food for several endemic fish
species and benthic organisms in the lake. In addition, riparian forests provide aesthetic and recreational
values (Burton, et al., 2005).
Riparian zones are semi-terrestrial transition area which is regularly affected by fresh waters which
generally extends from the edge of a body of water towards the edges of the plateau (Naiman et al., 2005).
Riparian vegetation is generally composed of forest trees, but also includes other types of vegetation suchas shrubs, herbs, and grasses. Vegetation is one of the crucial components in the zone riparian ecosystems
have a significant role as a provider of food and habitat for animals, maintain biodiversity and maintaining
ecological balance (Gong et al., 2015). In addition, riparian vegetation serves as a drag force flows into theriver and absorbing particles brought in it from the mainland. The loss of riparian vegetation can cause
increased input of sediment into streams and rivers change microhabitat (Heartsill-Scalley & Aide 2003).
The aim of this research was to survey the composition of riparian vegetation and to determine its relation
with the abundance of rainbowfish in Lake Sentani. The result of this study is expected to provide latest
riparian vegetation data in Lake Sentani and it is used for aquatic resources management plan.
METHOD
A study of the relationship of riparian vegetation composition with rainbowfish abundance was conductedin Lake Sentani (140°23'-140°38'E and 02° 35'-02°41'S) on September until October 2014. The location of
Lake Sentani can be seen in the Fig. 1. The study used simple stratified random sampling, the study sites
were categorized (stratified) into three zones: Deyau (2°37’17,5”S, 140°30’43”E) as inlet from Center
Sentani zone, Dondai (2°35’43,8”S, 140°24’81,1”E) for West Sentani zone and Jaifuri (2°40’42,7”S,140°35’02,1”E) as outlet from East Sentani zone. Three locations in each zone were then selected basedon their position and location.

Jaifuri Station

Figure 1. Lake Sentani, study location map. (Source: Google with modification)
Riparian vegetation data was collected from a line transect set up in 3 stations (Dondai, Deyau, and Jaifuri)using purposive random sampling technique. In each station, line transects installed along 100 meters fromthe shoreline. The vegetation that located on either side of the transect line being recorded andphotographed. In each station installed one line transects. Thus, there were 3 line transects observed in 3

501Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

stations. Vegetations were sampled using 10 x 10 m transects which were placed parallel to the coast foreach of the three replications. The samples were preserved in 70% alcohol and dried in an oven at 70°C.
A gillnet with the dimension of 200 m in length, 2 m in height, and 4 types of mesh size (0.75, 1, 1.5 and 2inch) were used to collect fish along the shoreline at very shallow depths of each station. The gillnet was
equipped with floats on its top and weights at the bottom. It operated in a manner laid perpendicular to theshoreline. The gillnet was tied in a surround a tree trunk on one end and a person holding the other end
then it positioned under water surface, until there are some fish in the net. Fish samples were preserved in
4% formalin and then soaked in 70% alcohol. This method was used in 3 stations.
After gillnet placed in the water, observation plot for riparian vegetation sampling was installed. In each linetransect, the vegetation found were recorded and identified based on Womersley (1978). If there are any
vegetation that can not be identified in the field, then the whole plant or some part of the plant was taken
and made into herbarium to be identified in Research Center for Limnology or Research Center for Biology.
Fish samples were preserved in 4% formalin and then soaked in 70% alcohol. To determine the type offish, sample were identified to the level of species using Weber and Beaufort (1913; 1916; 1922). Bivariate
correlation was used to determine the relationship between riparian vegetation and Rainbowfish in Lake
Sentani. Interpretation of the correlation coefficient was done based on Prayitno (2013) if the coefficient
close to 1 or -1, thus it has stronger relationship, but if it close to 0 then the relationship is weak. To
determine the direction of the relationship, it can be seen from the coefficient sign, if positive sign means it
has positive relationship, and vice versa.
The formula of Pearson Correlation Coeficient:𝑟𝑛 ∑ 𝑥𝑦−(∑ 𝑥)(∑ 𝑦)𝑥𝑦=√[𝑛 ∑𝑥 2−(∑ 𝑥)2 ][𝑛 ∑𝑦 2−(∑ 𝑦)2 ]x = first variabley = second variablen = data amountRESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Composition of Riparian Vegetation
The results found the total number of riparian vegetation in Lake Sentani is 27 species within 17 family.
There were 5 species recorded at Dondai station, 13 species at Deyau station, and 20 species at Jaifuri
station (Table 1). Pandanus tectorius Parkinson and Cyperus sp. recorded in all stations. Both of them arewild vegetation and can spread rapidly. There were four species recorded from two Deyau and Jaifuri. While
two species were recorded in Dondai and Jaifuri, and only Panicum repens L. was found in Dondai and
Deyau station (Table 2).

502

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1. Family, Species and Amount of Riparian Vegetation In Lake Sentani
No.
FamilyNo.
Species1
Anacardiaceae
1Anacardium occidentale L.
2
Mangifera indica L.
2
Araceae3
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott.
3
Arecaceae
4
Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.
5
Cocos nucifera L.
6
Metroxylon sagu Rottb.
4
Caricaceae
7
Carica papaya L.
5
Cyperaceae
8
Cyperus sp.
6
Euphorbiaceae
9
Manihot utilissima Pohl.
7
Fabaceae
10
Clitorea ternatea L.
11Erithrina sp.
12
Mimosa pudica L.
8
Lamiaceae
13
Hyptis rhomboidea Mart & Gal.
14
Tectona grandis Linn. f.
9Malvaceae
15
Hibiscus tiliaceus L.
10
Moraceae
16
Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk.
11
Musaceae
17
Musa sp.
12
Myrtaceae
18
Syzygium sp.
19
Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. & Perry.
20
Psidium guajava L.
13
Oxalidaceae
21
Averrhoa carambola L
14
Pandanaceae
22
Pandanus tectorius Parkinson
15
Poaceae23
Panicum repens L.
24
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.
25
Bambusa sp.
16
Sapindaceae
26
Pometia pinnata J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.
17
Zingiberaceae
27
Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd.
TOTAL
Table 2. Species and the stations
No

Species

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9

Pandanus tectorius Parkinson
Cyperus sp.
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.
Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd.
Clitorea ternatea L.
Mangifera indica L.
Hibiscus tiliaceus L.
Metroxylon sagu Rottb.
Panicum repens L.

Dondai√√√√√

Station
Deyau
√
√
√
√
√
√
√

Amount
1
4
3
16
7
61
3
70
25
12
1
40
10
1
3
1
20
2
2
3
1
7
80
140
20
2
40
575

Jaifuri
√
√
√
√
√
√
√
√

Pandanus tectorius or screwpine are native in Southeast Asia including Philipines and Indonesia (Thomson,
et al., 2006), it found grows in forest habitat, along seashores, river banks, ponds, canals and other water
bodies (Gurmeet and Amrita, 2015). Pandanus tectorius can grow at elevation 66 ft and up to 1970 ft (20 600 m) (Thomson, et al., 2006; Gurmeet and Amrita, 2015), it is suitable to live in seashore of Lake Sentani,
because the location of Lake Sentani is on 70–90 meters asl. It grows quickly in tropical climate, where it
can withstand strong winds and droughty salty sprays (Gurmeet and Amrita, 2015). Rainfall varies
considerably across its range, both in amount and seasonal distribution (Thomson, et al., 2006). Thus, P.
tectorius has an excellent adaptability to live in the riparian zone of Lake Sentani.
Imperata cylindrica or cogongrass is one type of grass that comes from Southeast Asia and usually grows
in coastal areas, disturbed areas, natural forest, planted forests, grasslands, riparian zones, bushes, urban503

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

areas, and wetlands (Miller, 2003). Cogongrass performs well on droughty, thrives on fine sand to heavy
clay and does well on soils of low fertility (MacDonald et al., 2006; Holzmueller and Jose, 2012). This
caused by the specialized anatomy of the rhizome allows for water conservation. The rhizome can also
penetrate to a depth of 4 feet in the soil. In addition, the rhizome can also produce allelopathic substances
which inhibit growth of other plants. (MacDonald et al., 2006). The persistent and aggressive rhizomes ofcogongrass are reported to be the main mechanism for survival and spread. Rhizomes can give rise to 350
shoots in six weeks and can cover 4 m 2 in 11 weeks (Shilling, et al., 1997). It make cogongrass difficult tocontrol.
The species was initially intended as a forage crop, but high silica content when the plant matures makes
it unpalatable to livestock. It was also used for soil stabilization along road banks and mined lands, but
unintended spread into adjacent areas. This is led to placement of the species considered one of the worst
weeds in the world. The grass can decrease native species plant biodiversity and change nutrient
availability (Holzmueller and Jose, 2012). Imperata cylindrica prone to fires. It is very clearly visible inseveral places near the shore of the Lake Sentani that had been burned. Land fires will only increase thenumber of cogongrass population (Holzmueller and Jose, 2012). Some riparian zones and the islands
around Lake Sentani are sand mining area. This proves that the land around Lake Sentani is sandy soil
suitable for the growth of cogongrass.
Sand mining is one of the activities that can accelerate the erosion surround Lake Sentani, because thestructure of the sediment and soil layers in Sentani more dominated by mud and sand (Bungkang &Soemarno, 2013). Erosion can cause mudslides because most of the area surround Lake Sentani is quite
steep hilly areas. Sand mining also leads changes in the ecosystem. Such changes can occur because offorest land in the coastal lake that used to be the location of riparian vegetation that serves as vital spawning
grounds for aquatic organisms opened for sand mining, thus made the aquatic organisms losing their place
for spawning.
Hibiscus tiliaceus or sea hibiscus is one of the most widespread species in the genus, with a pantropical,
mainly coastal, distribution. Whether this widespread distribution occurred primarily through naturaldispersal or through human intervention is unknown. It tolerates wide variety of soils, ranging from coralline,
skeletal soils to waterlogged swampy soils of medium to heavy texture. It also tolerates aerosol salt spray,
brackish water and shallow flooding very well. Well-established tree can also withstand drought (Selvam,2007). It means H. tiliaceus is a wild vegetation that have wide environment tolerance.
Alpinia galanga, M. indica, and M. sagu are used as crop plant in Sentani. Those plants was found on
riparian zone of Lake Sentani which used as farmland by local people together with some other crops. A.
galanga found in Indonesia, India, China, Arabic gulf areas, Malaysia, Egypt, Thailand and Sri Lanka.
(Chudiwal, et al., 2010; Shetty and Monisha, 2015). It grows in open sunny places, forests and brushwood(Shetty and Monisha, 2015). Its plant and plant products are being used as a source of medicine since longtime ago. Its used in medication, cullinary, and cosmetics for centuries (Chudiwal, et al. 2010). Because ofthat A. galanga widely cultivated in Indonesia. While the genus Mangifera originates in tropical Asia, withthe greatest number of species found in Indonesia (Borneo, Java, Sumatra) and the Malay Peninsula. The
most-cultivated Mangifera species, M. indica has its origins in India and Myanmar (Dept.of Agriculture
Republic South Africa, 2008). M. sagu or sago is native vegetation in Indonesia, and Indonesia has very
spacious natural forest of sago, which is about 1.2 million ha with the largest area is located in Papua. This
area is the location of 51.2% of the sago population in the world (Rostiwati, et al., 2014). Sago is the main
carbohydrate stable for Sentani people (Andersen, 2006). Thus make sago often cultivated by the local
people in Sentani. The sago is often cut down by the chainsaw, although some still do it with a steel-axe.
When the sago is securely on the ground, the bole will be worked on by the men to obtain the sago grain.
In Lake Sentani, C. ternatea or butterfly pea found in Deyau and Jaifuri station as wild vines in trees. The
persistence of C. ternatea is very high against the of changing seasons, the soil, and very suitable inassociation with other crops (Suarna, 2014). These species is originated from the central part of SouthAmerica which spread to the tropic area since 19th century, mainly to the Southeast Asia includingIndonesia. C. ternatea is one of shrubs commonly grown in the open area along the road and slopes. These
plants are naturally found in grasslands, forests, shrubs, riverbanks, and other open places, and vines intree or fence yard. This plant grows on various types of soil, especially in sandy soils and the red clay soil
(Sutedi, 2013). C. ternatea is potencial as a forage crop because besides having high nutritional value, itsalso very palatable for livestock (Suarna, 2014).

504

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Poaceae is the most abundance family of riparian vegetation. There are three species found that include
into Poaceae family in three sampling sites. The species are I. cylindrica, P. repens L., and Bambusa sp.
Poaceae is one type of grass kind family, thus make them easily to grow and live in open area. It clearlysees the islands surround Lake Sentani is dominated by the Poaceae family. Poaceae is one of the pioneer
plant that can reproduction both in vegetative and generative on an open site, so it has wide tolerance
range and has characteristic as cosmopolitan plants (Pasaribu, et al., 2013). Two kind of Poaceae thathave most recorded number is cogongrass (I. cylindrica) with 140 individuals and torpedo grass (P. repens)with 80 individual. In addition Cyperaceae is also grass types whose population is quite high (70 individuals)
in the riparian area of Lake Sentani. This is caused by the islands around Lake Sentani is dominated byopen areas (Fig. 2). An open area can accelerate the growth of the grass population.

One of the settlements in the Lake Sentani.

One of cogongrass site that is burned on Lake
Sentani.

One side of Lake Sentani that opened for sandmining and road expansion.

Bridges in Jaifuri stations that have fairly strong
current.

Figure 2. Several conditions of Lake Sentani
The most number of individuals is I. cylindrica with a total of 140 individuals while the least number are A.
occidentale, Erithrina sp., T. grandis, A. heterophyllus, and A. carambola, each species with only one
individu (Table 1). I. cylindrica is one kind of grass, that suitable and adaptable to live in the open andsteep topography like the riparian area surrounding Lake Sentani. In addition the area surround Lake
Sentani that had been burned, thus it can increase the number of cogongrass population. Some riparianzones and the islands around Lake Sentani are also sand mining area which proves that the land around
Lake Sentani is sandy soil and its suitable for the growth of cogongrass. A. occidentale, Erithrina sp., T.
grandis, A. heterophyllus, and A. carambola that found in Lake Sentani’s riparian areas largely arecultivated plants and found as shrubs. Tree-shaped plant reproduction capabilities are not as fast as thegrass. Thus make its population is not as much as the cogongrass. Some of the riparian vegetations thatfound in Lake Sentani can be seen in the Fig. 3.

505

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

M. sagu Rottb.

P. tectorius Parkinson

H. tiliaceus L.

P. pinnata J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.

C. nucifera L.

Bambusa sp.

S. malaccense (L.) Merr. & Perry.

Musa sp., C. papaya L., M. utilissima Pohl., I.
cylindrica (L.) Beauv.

Figure 3. Riparian vegetation of Lake Sentani (Source: Personal documentation).
The number of individuals riparian vegetation was recorded in Deyau station was 185 individuals, Dondai
station was 86, and Jaifuri station was 304. So the total individuals found were 575 individuals (Table 3).
The highest number of individuals riparian vegetation was recorded in Jaifuri station. The Jaifuri station is
the only outlet of Lake Sentani. The station has a fairly strong current with a depth is only ankle. The soil insampling locations is dominated by gravel and sand substrate, making it easier for plant seeds or shoot toattach and grow among the soils and sands. The most dominating plant in Jaifuri station were family

506

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Poaceae and Cyperaceae. The grass may appear as dominant vegetation in the area if the area is gettinghigh sunlight penetration due to the small canopy cover. Jaifuri station is the most widely covered byplantation species such as coconut (C. nucifera), sago (M. sago), malay apple (S. malaccense), Starfruit(A. carambola), Matoa (P. pinnata), areca (A. pinnata), mango (M. indica) guava (P. guajava), and galangal(A. galanga), although the population of those plants has not been too many. The most dominating
plantation is sago (M. sago) (51 individuals), galangal (A. galanga) (20 individuals), and areca (A. pinnata)(16 individuals). Those plants are the annual plants that can provide benefits to the community, so the local
people around Sentani were cultivated those plant species. In the sampling sites has also begun tosettlements with few houses on the edge of the lake, although not too crowded, but in this area is alreadythere a road and bridge are passable by motor vehicles, which allows the people to access another places.

507

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 3. Stations and Species Abundance
No. Station No.
SpeciesAmountAmount eachstation
185

1

Deyau

1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13

Artocarpus heterophyllus Lamk.
Pandanus tectorius Parkinson
Panicum repens L.
Musa sp.
Manihot utilissima Pohl.
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.
Mangifera indica L.
Syzygium sp.
Clitorea ternatea L.
Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd.
Anacardium occidentale L.
Carica papaya L.
Cyperus sp.

1
1
30
20
25
50
2
2
10
20
1
3
20

2

Dondai12
3
45Hibiscus tiliaceus L.
Pandanus tectorius Parkinson
Panicum repens L.
Cyperus sp.
Metroxylon sagu Rottb.

1
5
50
20
10

86

3

Jaifuri

1
2

Metroxylon sagu Rottb.
Syzygium malaccense (L.) Merr. &Perry.
Bambusa sp.
Cocos nucifera L.
Pometia pinnata J.R.Forst. & G.Forst.
Pandanus tectorius Parkinson
Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.
Averrhoa carambola L.
Hibiscus tiliaceus L.
Cyperus sp.
Mangifera indica L.
Arenga pinnata (Wurmb) Merr.
Tectona grandis Linn. f.
Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott.
Clitorea ternatea L.
Mimosa pudica L.
Alpinia galanga (L.) Willd.
Psidium guajava L.
Hyptis rhomboidea Mart & Gal.
Erithrina sp.

51

304

2
20
7
2
1
90
1
2
30
2
16
1
3
2
40
20
3
10
1
TOTAL

575

3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20

Dondai has the lowest number of individuals and number of species among all stations. Dondai has fiveriparian vegetation species. The species that found in Dondai is sea hibiscus (H. tiliaceus), pandanus (P.
tectorius), Torpedo grass (P. repens), Cyperus sp. and sago (M. sago). The torpedo grass (P. repens) (50individuals) has the most individual number of the vegetation. Dondai has canopy plants around theshoreline of the lake, but at the top of the island there are open areas that allow sunlight directly touch theground so that the species which originally dormant in the soil, including the type of grasses (Poaceae) cangrow well (Pena (2003) in Sutomo and Darma (2011)). This is make Dondai dominated by grasses.
Relation between Riparian Vegetation and Rainbowfish

508

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The results from three sampling locations showed that Jaifuri station has the highest number of riparianvegetation species. There were 20 species vegetation and one species of rainbow fish (Fig.4). Rainbow
fish species found in Jaifuri Station was Glossolepsis incicus (Red Rainbowfish). Dondai was the station
with the fewest vegetation species. There were five species of vegetation and two species of rainbowfish
G. incicus and Chilatherina fasciata (Barred Rainbowfish). G. incicus is endemic species while Ch. fasciata
is indigenous species (Ohee, 2013). Deyau station has 13 vegetation species with only G. incicus that foundon that site. According to Ohee (2013) actually there are three species of rainbowfish in Lake Sentani, they
are G. incicus (endemic species), Ch. fasciata (indigenous species) (Fig.5), and Ch. sentaniensis (endemic
species), but C. sentaniensis assumed extinct in the wild. All of them are Melanotaeniidae family.
25
20
20
15

riparian vegetation
species

13

10

rainbow fish
species

5
5

2

1

1

0
deyau

dondaijaifuriFigure 4. The number of riparian vegetation and Rainbowfish in Lake Sentani

Glossolepsis incicus
endemic species.

(Red

Rainbowfish)an

Chilatherina fasciata (Barred Rainbowfish) an
indigenous species.

Figure 5. Rainbowfish in Lake Sentani
Based on the Pearson Correlation values that obtained for -0.885, shows that the relationship between thevegetation with rainbowfish species is very strong. This showed that the species of rainbowfish in Lake
Sentani whether endemic or indigenous were dependent on the riparian vegetation species. This showsthat the relationship between riparian plant species with rainbowfish species in Lake Sentani is negative
because the coefficient is negative. it is means the fewer of plant species, the more types of rainbow fish
can be found, and vice versa.
The results of three stations showed that Jaifuri station has the highest number of riparian vegetation, but
has the lowest number of rainbowfish population. The vegetation were 304 individuals and the fish were
14. Dondai was recorded as station with the lowest number of riparian vegetation, but has the highest
number of rainbowfish population. There were 86 individuals of vegetation with 595 fish (Fig.6).

509

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

700
595

600
500
400
273

300
200

riparian vegetation
abundance

304

rainbow fishabundance

185
86

100

14

0
deyau

dondaijaifuriFigure 6. Abundance of riparian vegetation species and rainbow fish at each station
Based on the Pearson Correlation values obtained for -0.993 shows that the relationship between theabundance of riparian vegetation with the abundance of rainbowfish is very strong. This shows that therelationship between the population of riparian vegetation with rainbow fish populations in Lake Sentani is
negative because the coefficient is negative. The fewer plants, the more rainbow fish populations that will
be found, and vice versa.
According to the results of Syahroma et al. (2011) research in Lake Towuti found that riparian plants havean important role in the distribution of fish in the lake such as Telmatherina celebensis, Paratherina striata,
and Glossogobius flavipinnnis. While Wang et al. (2003) found that watersheds and riparian variables had
indirect connections with fishes through their direct influence on reach variables. Research by Lee, et al.
(2001) found that streams with wooded-local riparian zones had greater fish species richness than streams
with open-local riparian zones. This study suggests that maintenance of wooded riparian cover along
streams could be effective in maintaining or improving fish community composition in streams draining
heavily agricultural areas. As same as this study in Lake Sentani, riparian vegetation play an important rolein distribution, maintaining and improving fish community composition.
Jaifuri is a station with a strong current so that small fish such as rainbow fish reluctant to settle there. In
addition Jaifuri station is a station that has been touched by humans, it can be seen from the circumstancesof Jaifuri that already has several buildings. In contrast to the Dondai situation is still quite natural and seem
more rarely touchable by man, beside that the circumstances surrounding the sampling site in Dondai isquite steep, so only a few types of vegetation that can be recorded because of our limited ability.
According to Ohee (2013) red rainbowfish (G. incicus) is a lake-dwelling species, and found along the edgeof Lake Sentani, around riparian, dead wood, leaves and aquatic vegetation. It occupies the same habitat
as some other species, such as barred rainbowfish (C. fasciata). They both can live along the water body,the riparian vegetation varies, many kinds of trees, shrubs, and grasses. So the presence of ornamental
fish species including rainbow fish in Lake Sentani did not need any specific vegetation species, because
they also can live on all of the macrophyte and riparian vegetation species (Paramitha et. al., 2014).
CONCLUSIONSLake Sentani have 27 riparian vegetation species within 17 families. Poaceae is the family which have themost species found. One of Poaceae species is I. cylindrica that have the most abundant (140 individuals).
Jaifuri was the station with the highest vegetation species number (20 species) and the highest vegetation
population (304 individuals), while Dondai was station with the most abundant of rainbowfish (595individuals) within two species (G. incicus and C. fasciata). Based on Pearson Correlation value, theabundance of riparian vegetation have a strong relationship with the presence of the rainbow fish in Lake
Sentani.

510

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
Author wish to thank Agus Waluyo for his help in the field and identified the fish. This work has funded by“Program Penelitian Tematik DIPA Karakterisasi Hidroklimatologi dan Penetapan Status Sumber Daya
Perairan Darat tahun anggaran 2014).
REFERENCES
1. Andersen, O.L. 2006. Babrongko: Material Culture of Lake Sentani Village, New Guinea. Universitas
Cendrawasih, 42 pp.
2. Bungkang, Y. and Soemarno. 2013. The Investigation of Sediment Accumulation and Its Distribution
over Sentani Lake, Jayapura. Universitas Brawijaya. http://marno.lecture.ub.ac.id/files/2013/10/TheInvestigation-of-Sediment-Accumulation.pdf
3. Burton, M.L., L.J. Samuelson, and S. Pan. 2005. Riparian Woody Plant Diversity and Forest Structure
Along
An
Urban-Rural
Gradient.
Urban
Ecosystem
Vol.
8(1):
93-106.
https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11252-005-1421-6
4. Chudiwal, A.K., D.P. Jain, and R.S. Somani. 2010. Alpinia galanga Willd. An Overview on PhytoPharmacological Properties. Indian Journal of Natural Products and Resources Vol. 1(2): 143-149.
http://nopr.niscair.res.in/bitstream/123456789/9821/1/IJNPR%201(2)%20143-149.pdf
5. Department of Agriculture Republic South Africa. 2008. Mangifera indica. South Africa: Department ofAgriculture. http://www.nda.agric.za/docs/Brochures/mango.pdf
6. Gong Z., T. Cui, R. Pu, C. Lin & Y. Chen. 2015. Dynamic Simulation of Vegetation Abundance in A
Reservoir Riparian Zone Using A Sub-pixel Markov Model. International Journal of Applied Earth
Observation and Geoinformation, 35:175-186.
http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0303243414001986
7. Gurmeet, S. and P. Amrita. 2015. Unique Pandanus-Flavour, Food, and Medicine. Journal of
Pharmacognosy
andPhytochemistry5(3):08-14.
http://www.phytojournal.com/archives/2016/vol5issue3/PartA/5-2-5-415.pdf
8. Heartsill-Scalley, T. and T.M. Aide. 2003. Riparian Vegetation and Stream Condition in A Tropical
Agriculture-Secondary
ForestMosaic.
EcologicalApplication
13(1):
225-234.
http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1890/10510761(2003)013%5B0225:RVASCI%5D2.0.CO%3B2/abstract
9. Holzmueller, E.J. and S. Jose. 2012. Response of The Invasive Grass Imperata cylindrica toDisturbance in The Southeastern Forests, USA. Forests, 3: 853-863. www.mdpi.com/19994907/3/4/853/pdf
10. Kabey, E.S. 2014. Pemanfaatan Sumber Daya Alam Hayati Berbasis Adat. Jayapura: ARIKA
Publisher. 94 pp.
11. Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup. 2011. Profil 15 Danau Prioritas Nasional. Jakarta: Kementerian
Lingkungan Hidup. 148 pp.
12. Lee, K.E., R.M. Goldstein, P.E. Hanson. 2001. Relation Between Fish Communities and Riparian Zone
Conditions At Two Spatial Scales. Journal of the American Water Resources Association 37 (6): 1465–
1473. http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/j.1752-1688.2001.tb03653.x/full
13. MacDonald, G.E., B.J. Brecke, J.F. Gaffney, K.A. Langeland, J.A. Ferrel and B.A. Sellers. 2006.
Cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica (L.) Beauv.) Biology, Ecology, and Management in Florida. University
of Florida. https://bugwoodcloud.org/CDN/floridainvasives/cogongrassWG20200.pdf
14. Miller, J.H. 2003. Nonnative Invasive Plants of Southern Forests: A Field Guide For Identification andControl. General Technical Report SRS-62. USDA Forest Service Southern Research Station. 93 pp.
15. Naiman, R.J., H. Decamps, and M.E. McClain. 2005. Riparian: Ecology, Conservation, andManagement of Streamside Communities. Elsevier/Academic Press. 430 pp.
16. Naiman, R.J. and H. Decamps. 1997. The Ecology of Interfaces: Riparian Zones. Annual Review of
Ecology and Systematics 28: 621-658. https://www.researchgate.net/publication/228540796_The_Ecology_of_Interfaces_Riparian_Zones/
17. Nasution, S.H., Sulastri, T. Tarigan, D.I. Hartoto, and S. Aisyah. 2011. Riparian Vegetation and Its
Relationship With Aquatic Resources Of Lake Towuti. Proceedings National Symposium on
Ecohydrology. Jakarta, March 24, 2011: 249-266.

511

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

18. Ohee, H.L. 2013. The Ecology of the Red Rainbowfish (Glossolepis incisus) and the Impact of Human
Activities on Its Habitats in Lake Sentani, Papua. Dissertation. Göttingen: Georg-August University
School of Science.
19. Paramitha, IG.A.A.P., S.H. Nasution, and R. Kurniawan. 2014. The Diversity of Aquatic Macrophyte,a Habitat of Ornamental Fish in Lake Sentani, Papua. Proceeding International Conference on
Ecohydrology. Yogyakarta 10-12 November 2014. 414-425.
20. Pasaribu, P.O., M.Z. Sofyan, and N. Pasaribu. 2013. Komposisi dan Struktur Rerumputan di Kawasan
Danau Toba Desa Togu Domu Nauli Kecamatan Dolok Pardamean Kabupaten Simalungun Sumatera
Utara. Saintia Biologi Vol. 1 (2): 21-27. http://jurnal.usu.ac.id/index.php/sbiologi/issue/view/118
21. Polhemus, D.A., R.A. Englund, and G.R. Allen. 2004. Freshwater Biotas of New Guinea and Nearby
Islands: an Analysis of Endemism, Richness, and Threats. Washington, DC: Conservation
International. 62 pp.
22. Prayitno, D. 2013. Analisis Korelasi, Regresi, dan Multivariate dengan SPSS. Gava Media, 162 pp.
23. Rostiwati, T., R. Bogidarmanti, B.A. Suripatty, and S. Bustomi. 2014. Potensi masak Tebang Lima
Tipe Sagu (Metroxylon sagu Rottb.) di Kawasan Hutan Sagu Sentani, Papua. Menara Perkebunan
82(1): 10-14.
http://www.iribb.org/menara_perkebunan/index.php?open=detailartikel.php&id=82(1),2014
24. Sakio, H. 2008. Features of Riparian Forests in Japan. In: H. Sakio and T. Tamura (Eds). Ecology of
Riparian Forest in Japan: Disturbance, Life History and Regeneration. Springer. 3-10.
25. Selvam, V. 2007. Trees and Shrubs of the Maldives. FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, 239
pp.
26. Shetty, G.R. and S. Monisha. 2015. Pharmacology of an Endangered Medicinal Plant Alpinia galanga,a Review. Research Journal of Pharmaceutical, Biological and Chemical Sciences 6(1): 499-511.
http://rjpbcs.com/pdf/2015_6(1)/[60].pdf
27. Shilling, D. G., T. A. Bewick, J. F. Gaffney, S. K. McDonald, C. A. Chase, E. R. R. L. Johnson. 1997.
Ecology, Physiology, and Management for Cogongrass (Imperata cylindrica). University of Florida, 128
pp.
28. Suarna, I W. 2014. Kembang Telang (Clitoria ternatea) Tanaman Pakan dan Penutup Tanah.
Lokakarya Nasional Tanaman Pakan Ternak. Dalam Laporan Penyelesaian DIP Bagian Proyek
Penelitian Tanaman Rempah dan Obat Vol 4(2): 96-99.
http://peternakan.litbang.pertanian.go.id/fullteks/lokakarya/lhmt05-13.pdf?secure=1
29. Sutedi, E. 2013. Potensi Kembang Telang (Clitoria ternatea) Sebagai Tanaman Pakan Ternak.
Wartazoa Vol 23(2): 51-62.
http://download.portalgaruda.org/article.php?article=277605&val=7169&title=Potency%20Of%20Clito
ria%20Ternatea%20As%20Forage%20For%20Livestock
30. Sutomo and I D.P. Darma. 2011. Analisis Vegetasi di Kawasan Danau Buyan Tamblingan Bali Sebagai
Dasar Untuk Manajemen Kelestarian Kawasan. Jurnal Bumi Lestari, 11 (1): 78-84.
http://download.portalgaruda.org/article.php?article=15552&val=988
31. Thomson, L.A.J., L. Englberger, L. Guarino, R.R. Thaman, and C.R. Elevitch. 2006. Species Profiles
for Pacific Island Agroforestry: Pandanus tectorius (pandanus). www.traditionaltree.org. April 2006 ver
1.1.
32. Wang, L., J. Lyons, P. Seelbach, T. Simon, M. Wiley, P. Kanehl, E. Baker, S. Niemela, P. M. Stewart.
2003. Watershed, reach, and riparian influences on stream fish assemblages in the Northern Lakes
and Forest Ecoregion, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Fisheries Aquatic Science 60: 491–505.
http://www.fishsciences.net/reports/2003/CJFAS_60_491-505_Watershed.pdf
33. Weber, M. and K.L.F de Beaufort. 1913. The Fisheries of Indo-Australia Archipelago. Vol II. E.J. Brill
Ltd., Leiden, 404 pp.
34. Weber, M. and K.L.F de Beaufort. 1916. The Fisheries of Indo-Australia Archipelago. Vol III. E.J. Brill
Ltd., Leiden, 455 pp.
35. Weber, M. and K.L.F de Beaufort. 1922. The Fisheries of Indo-Australia Archipelago. Vol IV. E.J. Brill
Ltd., Leiden, 410 pp.
36. Womersley, J.S. 1978. Handbooks of The Flora of Papua New Guinea. Vol I. Melbourne University
Press. 278 pp.

512

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

DISTINCTIVE FLUCTUATION IN WATER QUALITY AND PLANKTON COMPOSITION IN
THE CENTER OF LAKE KASUMIGAURA, JAPAN SINCE 2001
Atsushi Numazawa1,2 and Kazuo Okubo2
Lake Kasumigaura water quality monitoring group 2Kasumigaura Citizens’ Association
Corresponding author: kca@cg.mbn.or.jp; a.numazawa@pref.ibaraki.lg.jp

1

ABSTRACT
Lake Kasumigaura is a wide and shallow maritime lagoon lake in which the water is artificially desalinatedto be utilized effectively for tap water, irrigation water and industrial water. The water is highly eutrophicatedand its improvement has been an urgent matter for some time. We have scientifically monitored the water
quality and plankton periodically at six monitoring points since 2001 in citizen activities. We experienced
outbreaks of Bosmina, high transparency in early summer and a massive microcystis bloom in midsummer,
2011 after the Great East Japan Earthquake and the subsequent radioactive cesium pollution from theaccident in the Fukushima nuclear power plant in March. We propose that the outbreak of Bosmina grazing
diatoms and green algae in early summer caused the increment of transparency, resulting in a massive
proliferation of microcystis in midsummer. However, the causalities from this abrupt outbreak of Bosmina
are uncertain. It was observed that water fleas including Daphnia and Cyclops became scarce during thewhite turbidity period, 2002~2006. White turbidity in the lake water inhibits the photosynthesis byphytoplankton, resulting in a decrement in primary production, including the population of zooplankton andthe fishery catch. While COD values also decreased, the inorganic nitrogen and phosphorus values wererelatively high during the white turbidity period. Since 2012, a restoration of transparency has brought about
relatively high COD values probably because of the proliferation of phytoplankton. Through theseexperiences we have learned the importance of transparency for the productivity and health of our lakeecosystem.
Keywords: water quality, plankton, transparency, productivity, fishery catch
INTRODUCTION
Lake Kasumigaura is a maritime lagoon lake located in Ibaraki Prefecture near to Tokyo in the Kanto plain,
Japan. It is a typical wide and shallow lake (max. depth: 7m, mean depth: 4m, surface area: 220km 2, volume:
0.85 billion m3, mean chloride ion: 40mg/l, electro-conductivity: 260μS/cm, mean transparency: 70~80cm).
It has 2157 km 2 of catchment area and 56 inflowing rivers. The water quality has deteriorated due to rapid
eutrophication and desalination. Desalinated water due to the construction of a sea water barrier(Hitachigawa Water Gate, 1963), now provides a vital water resource utilized as agricultural irrigation water,industrial water and drinking water for the Ibaraki Prefecture and the Tokyo metropolitan area. At the sametime, the littoral zone is mostly reclaimed and a concrete dyke is constructed along most of the shore line.
The lake has been completely enclosed by a dyke. Lake water has been managed over the last four
decades by the national and prefectural government. The water quality has remained at the eutrophicatedlevel. Recent values in water quality are approximately 7~8mg/l in Chemical Oxygen Demand i.e.COD(KMnO4), 0.1mg/l in total phosphorus, 1.0mg/l in total nitrogen. Water quality improvement is one of theimportant matters to be addressed not only by local residents using the lake water as tap water, irrigationwater and industrial water but also by the local or national government and the people who live in the Tokyo
Metropolitan area.
The problem is that once the water quality deteriorates in a big lake, improvement becomes a very difficult
issue. Many countermeasures and a large budget have been utilized on this based on statutes against
eutrophication or pollution of the lake. We, in citizen activities, have been continuing the water quality
monitoring by ship since 2001. During this monitoring, we have experienced several interesting phenomena
and events concerning the water quality of the lake and learned some lessons for the appropriate
management of such a wide and shallow lake located in a plain. Through this research, we could watch thesituation of the water quality and plankton composition of Lake Kasumigaura by a non-governmentalorganization. Eventually, we could detect the severe influences of low transparency due to white turbid
water against the ecosystem of the Lake Kasumigaura, resulting in the impact to the local government andsociety.

513

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

METHODS
During 2001-2015, the monitoring was carried out monthly (2001-2009) or bimonthly (2010-2015) from an
investigation ship scheduled from 10:00 a.m. to 4:00 p.m. at six monitoring points positioned by Global
Positioning System as follows: Okijyuku-offshore (36°03′00″N,140°15′23″E), Ushiwata-offshore(36°02′34″N、 140°19′30 ″E), Edosaki inlet (35°59′13″N,140°22′07″E), Tennouzaki-offshore (35°58′37″N、140°27′57″E), Mitsumata-Lake Center (36°00′48″N、 140°25′12″E), Takahama Inlet (36°07′22″N、140°22′28″E). At each monitoring point, we measured the water temperature, dissolved oxygen, pH,transparency and electric conductivity of the surface water (30 cm depth). At the same time, we recorded
the color of the water. A plankton net (NXX13, made by RIGO CO., LTD Cat. No. 5513) was pulled up 5
meters vertically at each point to collect zooplankton. Zooplankton specimens were fixed with 5% formalin
or 10% ethanol immediately after collecting. The plankton net was used to collect and count zooplankton
individually under the microscopic examination. For the phytoplankton count, the surface water was
sampled and examined under the microscope. The number of cell or colonies per ml were counted
microscopically as cited in the Y axis caption of figure 2~4 in the results.
The water samples were brought in a cooling carrier box to the laboratory and the suspended solids (until2009), chloride ions and chemical oxygen demand (COD) were measured along with the inorganic nitrogen(ammonium nitrogen, nitrite nitrogen, nitrate nitrogen) and phosphate phosphorus, on a HACK colorimeter
DR/890.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
During the white turbid water period (2002-2006) when the water color of Lake Kasumigaura showed vague
white, the transparency of the lake water was significantly low, showing about 80 cm even in the lake center.
The mean transparency of 6 monitoring points was seen to be 50-60 cm in the worst period (Fig.1). During
the same period, the numbers of Diatoms and Green algae were all low (Fig. 2, 3). Just after the end of thewhite turbid water, Planktothrix or fibrous Blue-green algae proliferated temporarily for several years (20072010) as shown in Fig.4. The levels of phosphate phosphorus and inorganic nitrogen were significantly
high during the white turbid water period (Fig.5,6). Additionally, the COD values were relatively high for thesame period (Fig. 7).
Fl u ctuation of Diatoms in the center of LakeK a sumigaura 2001-2015

Fl uctuation of transparency in off -Ushiwata of Lake Kasumigaura
2001-2015
Jan

Jan

Feb

Mar

Apr

May

Jun

Jul

Aug

Se p

Oc t

Nov

Dec

150

Mar

400000Apr

350000
Di atoms （cell s/ｍｌ ）T r a ns pa rency

（ｃｍ）

Feb

May

100

Jun
Jul

50

Aug
Sep

Oct

0

3000002500002 00 0 00

150000100000

Jan

Nov
Sep
Jul
Ma y
Ma r
Jan

50000

Oct

0

Nov
Dec

Fig.2

F lu c tu atio n o f G re e n Alg ae in th e c e n te r o f L ak e

Fl u c t u i a t i o n o f B l u e - Gr e e n A l g a e i n t h e

K as u m ig au ra 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 1 5c e n t e r o f La k e K a s u m i g a u r a 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 1 5

Jan

10000

Jul
Aug

0

A ug

Sep
Jan

09
20

13
20

Apr
May

15000

Jun
Jul

10000

Aug
5000
Sep
Jul

0

Oct
Nov

Oct
Jan

20
13

Jun

Mar

20000

20
07

May

20
01

20000

Feb

25000

20
10

Apr

30000

20
04

Mar

/ｍｌ）

30000

01
05
20
20

Jan
Feb

cells or colonies

c e ll or c olon ie s / ｍ ｌ

Fig.1

Dec

Fig.3

Fig.4

514

Nov
Dec

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference
F lu c tu atio n o f ph o s ph ate ph o s ph o ru s in th e c e n te r

F lu c tu atio n o f in o rg an ic n itro g e n in th e c e n te ro f L ak e K as u m ig au ra 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 1 5

o f L ak e K as u m ig au ra 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 1 5
J an

Fe b

Jan

05
20

09
20

Oc t

Jul

Sep

0

Jan

13
20

No v

Aug
Jul

De c

Oct

Jan

Nov
Dec

20
13

01
20

Se p

Jun

1

20
01

0

Jul

Au g

May

2

20
07

Ju l

Apr

20
10

0.1

Ju n

Mar

20
04

May

Feb

3

ｇ / Ｌ）

0.2

Apr

C o n c e n trati o n （ ｍ4Mar（ｍ ｇ /Ｌ）

Co n c e n t r a t i o n

0.3

Fig.5

Fig.6

Zooplankton fauna in the lake center fluctuated distinctively during 2001-2015. An outbreak of Bosmina
occurred in June 2011 (Fig.8) just after radioactive cesium pollution, suggesting activation of dormant eggs
in the mud of the lake bottom. The supposed cause of this abrupt increment of Bosmina is discussed later.
The Daphnia number increased in 2008 and 2012 (Fig. 9). The number of Diaphanosoma increased mainlyin the summer of every year (Fig. 10). Copepodas were observed from spring to autumn through themonitoring period including the white turbid water period (Fig. 11). Rotifers proliferated after the end of thewhite turbid water (Fig. 12).
Jan

Flu c t u at io n o f Bosmina in t h e
c e n t e r o f Lake K asu migau r a 2 0 0 1 - Jan
2015
Feb

Feb

Lake Kasumigaura 2001-2015

Mar
Apr

Mar

Aug

5

Sep
Aug

Jul

5000

Dec

0

Aug
Sep

20
01
20
05

20
10

Jun

10000

Dec

20
13

May

15000

Nov

Jan

20
07

20
01

0

Oct

Apr

20000
d r awi n g)

Jul

25000
( 5 m ve r t i c alJun

N u m b e r o f Bosmina

May

10

20
04

ＣＯＤ

（ｍｇ/ Ｌ）

15

Jan

Oct

20
09
20
13

Fluctuation of COD in the center of

Nov
Dec

Fig.7

Fig.8

Fluctuation of Daphnia in the center of
Lake Kasumigaura 2001-2015
Jan

Fl u c t u a t i o n o f Diaphanosoma i n t h e c e n t e r o f
La k e K a s u m i g a u r a 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 1 5

Feb

Apr

May
Jun
Jul

Aug
Sep

0
Jan

Sep

Jul

10000

Aug
5000
Aug

0

Oct

20
01

500

Jun

15000

Nov
Dec

Jan

20
13

1000

20
07

1500

May

20
10

2000

Apr

20000

20
04

2500

25000

(vertical drawing 5m)

3000

Feb
Mar

30000

Mar
Number of Diaphanosoma

Number of Daphnia (vertical drawing 5m )

3500

Jan

Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

Fig.9

Fig.10515

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference
Fluctuation of Rotifers in the center of
Lake Kasumigaura 2001-2015

Fl u c t u a t i o n o f Co p e p o d a s i n t h e c e n t e r o f
La k e K a s u m i g a u r a 2 0 0 1 - 2 0 1 5

Jan

Aug
0

01
20

Jun

05
20

09
20

13
20

Jan

Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

Fig.11

May
Jun

3000

Jul

2000

Aug

1000
Aug

0

20
01

Nov

Apr

4000

Jan

20
13

Jul

5000

Mar

5000

20
07

Jun

Feb

6000

20
10

May
10000

Jan

7000

20
04

Apr

15000

Number of Rotifers

Mar(vertical drawing 5m）( ve r t i c al d r awi n g 5 m )Nu m b e r o f Co p e p o d as

Feb
20000

Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec

Fig.12

Lake Kasumigaura is the wide but shallow. Therefore, the transparency is always relatively low incomparison with a deep-water lake due to three factors at least, i.e. the re-suspension of bottom sludge
during high waves induced by strong winds, inflow of turbid water from the rivers during torrential rain in thecatchment area and high proliferation of phytoplankton induced by lake water eutrophication. Five decadesago, the mean transparency of Lake Kasumigaura was still about 150 cm. In those days, there were manybathing beaches on the sandy shores. Afterwards, the transparencies were reduced to about 60~80 cm
due to the progress of eutrophication of the lake water. During the white turbid water period (2002-2006),
the worst transparency was 40~50 cm at the Ushiwata-offshore monitoring point and some other points.
The primary productivity of the lake water was seen to be also worst in such periods due to the inhibition ofphytoplankton proliferation accompanying the low light intensity.
Moreover, the COD values in the lake water from the 6 monitoring points were relatively low during same
period. Infection of Koi (Carp) Herpes Virus and the resulting massive death of cultured carp occurred in
the worst period (2003), suggesting some relationship with the white turbid water. In addition, someresearchers pointed out the influence of the floating micro-suspended solids from large scale dredging by
the Ministry of Construction aiming at a decrement in the release of nitrogen and phosphorus from the lakebottom for improvement of the lake water quality. We did not determine that this project was the only causeof this turbid water occurrence or not. The exact reason why the terrible white turbid water occurred is
uncertain in spite of some earnest following research projects (Nakamura and Aizaki, 2016; Numazawa,
2015; Udagawa and Takamura, 2007). Fortunately, transparency has gradually improved with thereplacement of lake water due to high precipitation in the catchment area in the rainy or typhoon seasons(2004, 2010). Consequently, the large-scale dredging project finished after the completion of the planned
area. Nowadays the mean transparency is improved to 80-100 cm in the lake center. The proliferation ofphytoplankton and zooplankton has been altering seasonally in recent years. Additionally, the fishery catchof Pond Smelt and Icefish which are the main fishery products in Lake Kasumigaura is recovering to theformer level before the white turbid water period suggesting rehabilitation of the food web, material
circulation and the lake ecosystem.
Outbreaks of Bosmina in June and water bloom in August 2011 proved difficult problems. It is probable thatthe dormant eggs of Bosmina were activated and hatched by some stimuli, possibly radioactive cesium
pollution in the lake bottom, the fall of water level (about 10~20cm below from the average level) due todyke damage, accompanying ultraviolet rays radiation, and the strong tremors from the Great East Japan
Earthquake in March 2011. In addition, the transparency of the lake water transitory rose to about 200-250
cm probably due to the decreasing phytoplankton grazed by Bosmina. Radioactive cesium pollution after
the accident of Fukushima Nuclear Power Plant caused by Great Earthquake or Tsunami, prevailed in thecatchment area of Lake Kasumigaura. Radioactive air containing cesium released from the Nuclear Power
Plant fall out, polluted the Lake Kasumigaura and its watershed. Fortunately, the lake is located about
150km far from the Fukushima and the radioactive levels of polluted soil in the catchment area, bottom
sludge, lake water and aquatic organisms, were relatively low. The radioactive level of the bottom sludge
temporarily rose just after the accident. Afterwards, the level gradually decreased (Fig.13). At present, thelevels of radioactivity in the lake water, bottom sludge, fishery catch and the soil in the catchment area are
all well below the standard for safety levels designated by the Environment Ministry. We are able to drink

516Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

the tap water originating from the lake water and to eat the fishery products safely. The mystery of theabrupt outbreak of Bosmina however has remained elusive.

R a d ioactivity (Bq/kg dry w eight)

Mean radioactivity (Cesium 134+137) of 8 monitoring
points in the lake bottom of Kasumigaura after
Fukushima nuclear power plant accident, monitored by
Ibaraki prefectural gov.
Fig.and Ministry of Environment
600
500
400
300
200
100
0

Mo nitoring

Fig. 13
Likewise, the partial outbreak of water bloom in the summer of the year 2011 when the Great East Japan
Earthquake occurred in March remains another mystery. We guess that with temporal high transparency
induced by the outbreak of herbivorous zooplankton, Bosmina brought about sufficient light intensity for the
proliferation of Microcystis of blue-green algae. This accumulated on the surface of the water in the port ofTsuchiura, the lakeside city, released a hazardous rotten smell, and forced the residents to react by calling
for the countermeasures from the administration.
Other important events have occurred since 2001. They are as follows; tide gate and dykes suffereddamage from the Great East Japan Earthquake and their repairs took time to complete (2013); wave
breaker installment as an urgent measure for vegetation conservation were performed (2001-2004);
dredging gravel as aggregate was ended by several private companies (2013); Smelt resource
management by the fishery department of Ibaraki Prefectural Office began (since 2006); the fishery catchof Smelt recovered (since 2009); decrease in COD, attained its target value in the Prefectural plan forconservation of the lake water quality (2013); partial sandy shore development by the Ministry ofConstruction and the Water Resources Development Public Corporation (since about 2010).
These events were performed mostly independent of each other to pursue beneficial good effects for thelake water or the lake ecosystem through various business agencies or administrations. Of these, therestoration of the fishery catch of Smelt and partial improvements in water quality like the slight decrementof COD values and a certain recovery of transparency were somewhat auspicious, but the effects of theother measures are still uncertain and will need some time to evaluate.
During the white turbid water period, the proliferation of blue- green algae, diatoms and green algae were
inhibited. After the end of the white turbid water period, diatoms were dominant in spring and fibrous blue–
green algae were dominant from spring to autumn respectively. Sadly, afterwards, phytoplankton became
relatively scarce. The number of phytoplankton at present seems to be inhibited by the outbreak ofherbivorous zooplankton, Bosmina, Daphnia, Diaphanosoma and Rotifers, resulting in a slight decrementof COD values in the lake water.
Rotifers also proliferate and have been dominant especially from early spring to early summer since 2012.
The outbreak of Rotifers is another interesting factor in evaluating the recent ecosystem of Lake
Kasumigaura. There seems to be some relationship between the outbreak of Rotifers and the decrementof phytoplankton caused by grazing, resulting in a decrement of organic substance including phytoplanktons.
Promising ideas to solve the reason for the tendency of decrease in the COD values of the lake water inrecent years are as follows. Herbivorous zooplanktons proliferate satisfactorily and graze on phytoplankton,
resulting in low COD values. Herbivorous zooplanktons are a good food source for Smelt. In particular,
Rotifers are initial food for the fry or juvenile Smelt after hatching. Smelt become to predate medium sized
zooplanktons like Bosmina and large-sized zooplanktons Daphnia or Diaphanosoma during their growth in517

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

the lake water. Smelt are the main fish catch for the fishermen of Lake Kasumigaura. Caught Smelt are thebase for Tsukudani, a popular local side-dish specialty made by simmering the small fish with sweeteneddense soy sauce. A good fish-catch means the removal of the nitrogen and phosphorus through the fishfrom the lake water to ensure smooth material circulation and improvement of the water quality. In recent
years, the Smelt catch in Lake Kasumigaura is over 400 tons per year, while this was only about 50 tons in
the peak year of the white-turbid water. The fishing industry in the lake proves to be a good criterion forevaluating the ecosystem.
Other phenomena concerning the water quality were as follows: The levels of PO 4-P have tended todecrease along with the levels of inorganic nitrogen while levels of NH3-N have tended to increase, all sincearound 2009. According to the monthly research performed by Ibaraki Prefectural Government, the annual
mean levels of total nitrogen in the lake water of Kasumigaura has remained roughly the same in recent
years. The total phosphorus level in the lake water however has increased annually. The reason why the
total phosphorus level increased in the Lake water remains uncertain despite eager research by scientists.
Analyses of inorganic nitrogen and phosphate phosphorus levels are very important but do not explain thefluctuation of the current water quality, fauna and flora of plankton including the fish-catch.
Probable macro-views about the load influencing the water quality, ecosystem including plankton and fish
are as follows; Increase in precipitation in the catchment area results in shortening the retention time in thelake water. Water qualities of the inflowing river have improved in recent years. Successful measuresagainst household wastewater including the gradual installation rate of sewage system rise and combined
septic tank and so on, have been more effective, resulting in a tendency of decrement of the load from thecatchment area.
CONCLUSIONS
During white turbid water period, 2002-2006, in Lake Kasumigaura, the photosynthesis and the proliferationof phytoplankton were inhibited. After the white turbid water period, diatoms were dominant in spring andfibrous blue-green algae including the microsystis bloom were dominant from spring to autumn, suggesting
the importance of transparency for the productivity and healthy of lake ecosystem. But afterwards, thenumber of phytoplankton was relatively few until now. The number of phytoplankton at present seems to
be regulated by the herbivorous zooplankton, Rotifer or Daphnia. Herbivorous zooplanktons proliferatesatisfactorily and graze on the phytoplankton, resulting in low COD and offering the initial food for the Smelt
fry. This has brought about a relative good transparency and a proliferation of Smelt and smooth material
circulation with removing the nitrogen and phosphorus through the fish catch. The exact causality of theabrupt outbreak of Bosmina and Daphnia in summer 2011 was uncertain because to reproduce theexperiment is not practical.
ACKNOWLEDEMENT
We express our gratitude to the group members, citizens, students and graduate students participating in
our monitoring activities. We also express our sincere thanks to the Kasumigaura Citizens’ Association,
East Kanto Aqua-Line, Kasumigaura Shipping Study Group, Chinese Restaurant Yayoi, Lacus Marina Co.,
Properst Co., Ibaraki Co-op union and Honda Memorial Foundation for their contribution to our activities.
Particular thanks are due to Mr. Michael A. Cullen for his revising the manuscript.
REFERENCES
1. Nakamura, K. and Aizaki, M (2016) Effect of suspended solid on light attenuation in the shallow andturbid Lake Kasumigaura, Japan – Long term variation of light attenuation mechanism. Jap. J. Limnol.
77:13-23 (in Japanese)
2. Numazawa, A. (2005) Relationship between productivity and transparency fall discovered in water quality
monitoring and plankton analysis in Lake Kasumigaura ecosystem. Proceedings of 11 th World Lake
Conferences in Nairobi, Kenya
3. Udagawa, H. & Takamura, N. (2007) Specification of compounds causing white turbidity in
Lake Kasumigaura. Jap. J. Limnol. 68:425-432 (in Japanese)

518

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

THEORETICAL PELAGIC TO BENTHIC PRIMARY PRODUCTION RATIOS IN TWO LAKESWITH CONTRASTING LIGHT CONDITIONS
1Fabien Cremona *, Alo Laas1, Toomas Kõiv1, Margot Sepp1, Peeter Nõges1, Tiina Nõges1
Centre for Limnology, Institute of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Estonian Universityof Life Sciences, Kreutzwaldi 5, 51014 Tartu, Estonia.
*Corresponding author: fabien.cremona@emu.ee

1

ABSTRACT
Theoretical pelagic primary production of phytoplankton and benthic primary production of periphyton weremodelled in two small lakes of Estonia (north-east Europe). Although located only 500 m apart from eachother, the water colour and light attenuation of these two lakes differed markedly. Secchi depth in the clearwater lake was 4.5 m and only 0.47 m in the dark-water lake, total phosphorus was, respectively, 15 µg L 1 and 28 µg L-1. We employed an empirical model whose inputs were morphometric, light conditions, anddissolved organic carbon parameters obtained from in situ measurements. The model calculated primary
production with a time step of 10 minutes, and a spatial resolution of 10 cm, from sunrise to sunset andfrom surface to lake bottom. While in the clear lake, the primary production of periphyton and phytoplankton
were almost equal, in the dark lake only phytoplankton contributed to whole-lake primary production
because of the stronger light attenuation in the water column. Results showed that the depth-distribution
profiles differed dramatically between the two lakes. The clear lake had deep, U-shaped curve with the
productive layer reaching considerable depth soon after sunrise and maintaining a similar profile throughout
the light hours; the dark lake production, on the other hand, declined rapidly with increasing depth whereas
the profile changed over the day reaching highest depth at noon.
Keywords: DOC, Kd, nutrients, periphyton, production
INTRODUCTION
The partitioning of primary production of lakes between pelagic and benthic producers constitutes what iscalled the “autotrophic structure” of lakes (Higgins et al. 2014). Theoretically, primary production of a lake
can thus be dominated by phytoplankton, by benthic producers (periphyton) or having equal production
values for both. Autotrophic structure carries a critical ecological importance as it defines the magnitude ofenergy fluxes in food webs (Vadeboncoeur et al. 2002), enables to trace steady state changes from clearto turbid conditions (Jeppesen et al. 2014) and is also a useful tool for monitoring alterations of lake trophic
status (Higgins et al. 2014). However, the autotrophic structure of even some of the most intensively studied
lakes remains largely unknown because of the paucity of estimates regarding benthic primary production(Vadeboncoeur et al. 2002). Indeed, although the planktonic and macrophyte components of a lake primary
production are often well documented, there are comparatively very few studies addressing the specificprimary production rates of periphyton2. Consequently, modelling is often the best and only way to measure
the autotrophic structure of lakes (Cremona et al. 2016). Vadeboncoeur et al. (2008) have developed anempirical series of equations called Lake Autotrophic Structure (LAS) model which relies on four main setsof input parameters: morphometry, bathymetry, light and nutrients. Although LAS is more designed as aconceptual tool for numerically exploring theoretical production partitioning between phytoplankton andperiphyton than for measuring actual rates, it is nevertheless suitable for guessing production ranges(Cremona et al. 2016). Furthermore, it requires only a few input variables, of which most are easily
measurable. Lakes from the Baltic Sea region (North-east Europe) constitute ideal case studies for theapplication of LAS as they are located at the boundaries between light- and nutrient-limited zones (Nõges
et al., 2011) and thus provide suitable research material for testing drivers of lake productivity and hence
autotrophic structure. Our objective was to assess the autotrophic structure of two small hemiboreal lakes
located in Estonia, differing markedly by their nutrient content and light regimes in order to test LAS model
sensitivity.
In Google Scholar (https://scholar.google.com) research engine typing “lakes + *production + periphyton*” will
give only 129 entries compared to 999 entries if “phytoplankton” replaces “periphyton” in the research query.
2519

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

METHODS
Study sites
We selected two lakes situated in Estonia (north-east Europe): Nohipalo Valgõjärv and Nohipalo Mustjärv(hereafter lakes LL and DL for “light lake” and “dark lake” respectively). Despite the two lakes are locatedonly 500 m from each other and exhibit relatively similar bathymetry and morphometry their nutrient andlight-related parameters are remarkably different (Table 1). Lake LL is clear and oligo-mesotrophic (Secchi
depth, SD = 4.5 m, total phosphorus, TP = 15 µg L-1) whereas Lake DL is dark-colored and dystrophic (SD= 0.47 m, TP = 28 µg L-1). As the catchments of both lakes fully remain within the sparsely populated
Meenikunno landscape protection area, the dominant land cover is essentially consisting in natural mixed
and conifer forests and bogs devoid of any notable point-source pollution (Ott and Kõiv, 1999).
Sampling
TP, TN, chlorophyll a (Chl a) and SD were measured as a part of a routine national lake monitoring programin Estonia. Chl a, TP and TN were analyzed using standard methods. For the determination of dissolved
organic carbon concentrations (DOC), water samples were filtered through Whatman GF/F glass microfibre
filters previously washed with 500 ml of ultrapure water (Milli-Q) and DOC was then measured using a TOCVCPH analyzer (Shimadzu, Japan). This method conforms to the European standard method (EN1484:1997).
Model
We employed a modified version of LAS model (Cremona et al. (2016) for assessing LL and DL lakes
primary production and autotrophic structure. An exhaustive description of the original model is available in
Vadeboncoeur et al. (2008). To summarize, LAS is an empirical model based on four input parameters:
light attenuation, nutrient availability, bathymetry and morphometry. The model empirical equations are
employed for calculating whole-lake primary production and its partitioning between planktonic and benthic
producers. The LAS model is semi-distributed as it is able to cope with depth-specific calculations, and it is
dynamic because diel variability in production is taken into account. The water column of LL and DL lakes
was divided into 0.1 m thick successive layers for which plankton and benthic production were calculated
down to lake bottom. The 1995-2015 summer averages of Chl a, and SD in the epi- and metalimnion wereused as input data for LAS. For DOC, measurements were available only for the year 2015. Both lakes are
dimictic and experience notable stratification during summer periods. Consequently, only epi- andmetalimnion values of Chl a were employed in this analysis which was not supposed to represent episodesof water-column mixing. Model calculations were done with a 10-min increment for a 15-hour period as it istypical of summer light conditions at northern, hemiboreal latitudes. Lake-specific surface available formacrophyte and periphyton colonization (A z) was obtained by actual bathymetric measurements for LakeDL but were missing for Lake LL. In that case Az was calculated with equation (1) from Vadeboncoeur etal. (2008):

Az  A0 1   z / zmax 

(1)where A0 is lake surface area, γ is a shape factor (γ = DR / (1-DR)), and DR is the depth ratio of mean andmaximum depth (z/zmax). We considered that phytoplankton colonized lake water column (i.e. lake volume)and periphyton was present on lake bottom (i.e. lake area). Lake volume (V z) was calculated as a
succession of truncated cones (Carpenter 1983):

Vz z( Az z  Az  Az z Az )3

(2)

Where Az-Δz is the area of the upper surface and A z is the area of the lower surface of the stratum whose
volume is to be calculated.
Diurnal variability in surface irradiance (I0t, µmol m-2 s-1) was fitted to a sinusoid function (McBride 1992,
Kirk 1994):

520

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferencet)
I 0t  I 0max sin( daylen(3)

where I0max is the surface light at solar noon (1500 µmol m -2 s-1), t is the number of hours after sunrise, anddaylen are hours of daylight (15 h).
Light conditions at depth below surface was calculated with the following equation:

I zt  I 0t e Kd z

(4)with Kd being the lake-specific diffuse light attenuation coefficient. In this study K d was calculated using themodified empirical relationship from Armengol et al. (2003) where Kd = 1.448 / SD with SD being measured
average Secchi depth (m).
For determining pelagic maximum primary productivity PPPmax (mg C m-3 h-1) Chl a concentration was used
as a proxy of phytoplankton carbon fixation (Guildford et al. 1994):

PPPmax  2.2Chl(5)

Depth-specific phytoplanktonic production was then calculated on the basis of PPPmax, solar irradianceand morphometry:
dusk

PPPz  t  PPPmax tanh  I zt / I k Vz  Vz z 

(6)

dawn

with Δt being the time increment (10 min in the current study), I k is the light intensity at onset of saturation(180 µmol m-2 s-1 for phytoplankton) and Δz the depth increment (0.1 m). To assess whole-lake total PPP,
we summed from surface to lake bottom primary production profile time series obtained from equation (6)at different depth intervals.
For calculating benthic maximum primary productivity BPP max (mg C m-2 h-1) we used the modified
relationship from Godwin et al. (2014) where the maximum rate of benthic primary production is light-limited
and depending on DOC concentration, as it is mostly the case for northern temperate lakes that exhibit
phosphorus and algal content within the ranges of TP 6-70 µg L-1 and Chl a 2-21 µg L-1. Our study lakes
were fitting within these DOC, TP and Chl a ranges (Table 1):

BPPmax 

e8.1210.166[DOC] (7)24Benthic primary production (BPP) was calculated as a function of incident light and availability of substrate:
dusk

BPPz  t  BPPmax tanh  I zt / I k  Az z  Az 

(8)

dawn

with the slope coefficient being 0.046 and the standard deviation of intercept in the exponent being 0.574.
Light intensity at onset of saturation (Ik) for benthic producers was fixed at 100 µmol. m -2 s-1 (Liboriussen
and Jeppesen 2006). Uncertainty analysis was carried out on input parameter variability rather thanmechanistic errors because LAS model is based on empirical relationships which are supported by literature
and are constrained within data from in situ measurements (Cremona et al. 2016). As lake volume andsurface, surface light and time increment are all constants, only errors on PPP max and BPPmax were521

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

accounted for. Maximum and minimum values for PPPmax were selected according to the range ofmeasurements obtained for Chl a during monitoring studies (Table 1). Conversely, for BPPmax, we
calculated the error value by varying DOC values within the standard deviation of equation (7) and DOC
concentration corresponding of each lake.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Autotrophic structure differed strongly between the two lakes. In LL primary production was distributed
nearly equally between pelagic (557 mg C m -2 day-1) and benthic primary producers (479 mg C m -2 day-1),
while in DL, pelagic primary production was totally dominating the autotrophic structure of the lake (311 mg
C m-2 day-1 for PPP and only 0.05 mg C m -2 day-1 for BPP). Diurnal isopleths of pelagic PP revealed that if
production was still important in LL at 8-meter depth, it dropped to zero already at 1 meter in DL (Fig. 1).
The clear lake (LL) had a deep, U-shaped curve with the productive layer reaching considerable depth soonafter sunrise and maintaining a similar profile throughout the light hours; conversely, in the dark lake (DL)production declined rapidly with depth and the profile changed over the day reaching highest depth at noon.
For benthic primary production, the difference was even greater between the two lakes (Fig. 2). Benthic
primary production was consistently high at all depths in LL but attenuated rapidly in DL, as it did for pelagic
PP. When error calculation was entered into the PPP and BPP equations, the range of possible values
stayed generally within the same order of magnitude (Fig. 3). Planktonic primary production ranges were
nearly identical between Lake LL (222-714 mg C m-2 day-1) and Lake DL (163-705 mg C m-2 day-1), meaningthat the two lakes may display the same rates of primary production despite possessing very contrasting
light and nutrient conditions. Conversely, BPP ranges differed strikingly between the two waterbodies, being
close to zero in Lake DL and reaching up to 1966 mg C m -2 day-1 in Lake LL. If a comparison of total primary
production rates (PPP + BPP) of these two lakes were to be made, Lake LL should be theoreticallyconsidered the most productive, except during episodes of adverse light conditions which impacts moreheavily BPP than PPP.

522

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Dynamic profiles of instant planktonic primary production (PPP, mg C) as modelled for lakes LL(left) and DL (right), from sunrise to sunset. Note that the two primary production legends are noton the same scale.

523

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Dynamic profiles of instant benthic primary production (BPP, mg C) as modelled for lakes LL (left)and DL (right), from sunrise to sunset. Note that the two primary production legends are not on
the same scale
Nohipalo Valgõjärv autotrophic structure, which shows a dominance of benthic producers over planktonic
producers is similar to that of clear, shallow Estonian lakes like Äntu Sinijärv and Mullutu Suurlaht (Cremona
et al. 2016). On the other hand, in Nohipalo Mustjärv the complete dominance of phytoplanktonic producers
corresponds to the autotrophic structure observed in turbid, nutrient rich Estonian lakes like Võrtsjärv orÜlemiste (Cremona et al. 2016). It appeared that at least nutrient availability could still support a thriving
phytoplankton biomass in poor light conditions whereas light extinction drew a more critical limit to benthic
growth. Previous studies have revealed a stronger effect of nutrients on planktonic than benthic producers(Hecky et al. 1993, Vadeboncoeur et al. 2001). More generally, the resource competition theory predicts
that nutrient-rich lakes should be dominated by phytoplankton irrespective of their natural light extinction
coefficient (Jäger and Diehl, 2014). Indeed, shading of water column by phytoplankton cells in eutrophic
systems is often responsible for a plummeting of light availability for benthic primary producers. In Nohipalo
Mustjärv the (essentially planktonic) primary production is concentrated into the uppermost surface layersof the water column whereas in Valgõjärv the same amount of production is dissipated in a layer that goeseight times deeper. The vastly different autotrophic structures of the two lakes will have strong implications
on their respective food web structures (Jeppesen et al. 2014). We can expect that food linkages in LakeDL will rely more heavily on the consumption of detrital material as most of the phytoplankton biomass will
escape grazing pressure and will thus settle on lake bottom (Liboriussen and Jeppesen, 2003). Conversely,
benthic and pelagic grazing will be proportionally more intense in LL because the primary production is
distributed on a larger surface or volume unit basis.

524

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 3. Primary production quantiles of Nohipalo Mustjärv (left) and Valgõjärv (right). Blue and green
boxes represent planktonic and benthic component of total primary production respectively.
Please note the very low range of values of benthic primary production for Mustjärv.
CONCLUSIONS
Our results demonstrated that light-related variables were more important than nutrient-related ones to
explain primary production partition in two hemiboreal lakes. Greater water transparency promoted a
relatively balanced primary production between benthic producers and phytoplankton while high light
extinction favoured phytoplanktonic production only. This conclusion can be extended to other systems
were dissolved organic matter is the main factor responsible for light extinction, which is often the case inhigh-latitude waterbodies. However, in subtropical or tropical lakes where phytoplankton and particles
contribute most to light extinction, the applicability of the model is less straightforward and would need
updates of the equations that constitute the main corpus of the model. We have modified several empirical
relationships (e.g. Ik and BPPmax) that are related to light and maximum photosynthetic activity inaccordance to the conditions that are prevailing in the Baltic region, and we thus encourage researchers to
improve the applicability of LAS in their region by doing the same.
Table 1. Limnological characteristics of the two studied lakes. Nutrient parameters represent the averagefor epi- and metalimnion. For Chl a minimum and maximum values are given in brackets.
Variables
A (km2)Z (m)zmax (m)Trophic state
Chl a (µg L-1)
TP (µg L-1)
TN (µg L-1)
DOC (mg L-1)
SD (m)Kd (m-1)

Nohipalo Mustjärv (DL)
0.22
3.9
8.9
Dystrophic
14 (7-32)
28
726
48
0.47
3.08

525

Nohipalo Valgõjärv (LL)
0.07
6.2
12.5
Oligo-mesotrophic
6 (2-7)
15
317
5.7
4.5
0.32

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors are thankful to the 16th World Lake Conference organizing committee for having given themthe opportunity to present the results of their research in Bali. This research was supported by Start-Up
Personal Research Grant PUT 777 to FC and IUT 21-2 of the Estonian Ministry of Education and Research,and by MARS project (Managing Aquatic ecosystems and water Resources under multiple Stress) funded
under the 7th EU Framework Programme, Theme 6 (Environment including Climate Change), Contract No.:603378 (http://www.mars-project.eu).
REFERENCES
1. Cremona, F., Laas, A., Arvola, L., Pierson, D., Nõges, P., & Nõges, T. (2016). Numerical explorationof the planktonic to benthic primary production ratios in lakes of the Baltic Sea catchment. Ecosystems
http://doi.org/10.1007/s10021-016-0006-y.
2. Hecky, R. E., Campbell, P., & Hendzel, L. L. (1993). The stoichiometry of carbon, nitrogen, andphosphorus in particulate matter in lakes and oceans. Limnology and Oceanography, 38, 709-724.
3. Higgins, S. N., Althouse, B., Devlin, S. P., Vadeboncoeur, Y., & Vander Zanden, M. J. (2014). Potential
for large-bodied zooplankton and dreissenids to alter the productivity and autotrophic structure of lakes.
Ecology, 95, 2257-2267.
4. Jäger, C. G., & Diehl, S. (2014). Resource competition across habitat boundaries: asymmetricinteractions between benthic and pelagic producers. Ecological Monographs, 84, 287-302.
5. Jeppesen, E., Meerhoff, M., Davidson, T. A., Trolle, D., Søndergaard, M., Lauridsen, T. L., Beklioglu,
M., Brucet, S., Volta, P., Gonzalez-Bergonzoni, I., & Nielsen, A. (2014). Climate change impacts onlakes: an integrated ecological perspective based on a multi-faceted approach, with special focus onshallow lakes. Journal of Limnology, 73, 88-111.
6. Liboriussen, L., & Jeppesen, J. (2003). Temporal dynamics in epipelic, pelagic and epiphytic algal
production in a clear and a turbid shallow lake. Freshwater Ecology, 48, 418-431.
7. Liboriussen, L, & Jeppesen, E. (2006). Structure, biomass, production and depth distribution of
periphyton on artificial substratum in shallow lakes with contrasting nutrient concentrations. Freshwater
Biology, 51, 95-109.
8. Nõges, T., Arst, H., Laas, A., Kauer, T., Nõges, P., & Toming, K. (2011). Reconstructed long-term timeseries of phytoplankton primary production of a large shallow temperate lake: the basis to assess the
carbon balance and its climate sensitivity. Hydrobiologia, 667, 205-222.
9. Ott, I, & Kõiv, T. (1999). Estonian Small Lakes: Special Features and Changes. Tallinn: Estonian
Environment Information Centre.
10. Vadeboncoeur, Y., Lodge, D. M., & Carpenter, S. R. (2001). Whole-lake fertilization effects on
distribution of primary production between benthic and pelagic habitats. Ecology, 82, 1065-1077.
11. Vadeboncoeur, Y., Vander Zanden, M. J., & Lodge, D. M. (2002). Putting the lake back together:
reintegrating benthic pathways into lake food web models. BioScience, 52, 44–54.
12. Vadeboncoeur, Y., Peterson, G., Vander Zanden, M. J., & Kalff, J. (2008). Benthic algal production
across lake size gradients: interactions among morphometry, nutrients, and light. Ecology, 89, 25422552.

526

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

STUDY OF FISHERY LOAD CAPACITY IN SUTAMI AND LAHOR RESERVOIRS, EAST
JAVA, INDONESIA
1
1
Winari, T. *, Hapsari, D. , Windianita, K.1, Rahman, K.I.1, Hidayat, F.1,Ruritan, R.V.1,Sudaryanti2
Jasa Tirta I Public Corporation, 2Faculty of Fishery and Marine Science, Brawijaya University*Corresponding author: teguhwinari@gmail.com

1

ABSTRACT
Sutami and Lahor reservoirs are man made reservoirs in East Java Province, Indonesia with multiple
functions: flood control, irrigation, power plant, tourism and aquaculture. Based on measurement in 2014,
the storage volume of Sutami and Lahor reservoirs were approximately 158,600,000 m3 and 29,060,000
m3 respectively. Fishery activities with floating net, trawl, and fishnet separator in Sutami and Lahor
reservoirs held by society living nearby the reservoirs. Those activities produce wastes that create higher
pollutant load in the reservoirs. Study of fishery load capacity in Sutami and Lahor reservoirs was conductedusing chlorophyll-a method and intended to preserve the sustainable benefits of reservoir water resources.
Measurement and steps to determine the fishery potential in Sutami reservoir started with the calculationof chlorophyll-a concentration in unit area (mg/m2), calculation of primary productivity through Beveridge
Equation, unit value adjustment of result primary productivity with unit value of primary productivity inBeveridge Table, calculation of conversion result from productivity primary value to fish weight, andcalculation of fish production based on width of Sutami reservoir. The right system to manage fisheries issowing fishing with zoning system, which means dividing the territorial waters of the reservoir surface basedon their physical and biological to organize the reservoir fisheries pattern based on reservoir priority function.
The results showed the average potential of fishery in Sutami reservoir in range of 73.18 - 166.85 tons/year
and 10.70 - 16.64 ton/year in Lahor reservoir.
Keywords: Chlorophyll-a, Fishery, Sutami-Lahor Reservoirs, Zoning.
INTRODUCTION
The study was conducted in Sutami and Lahor reservoirs located in Malang Regency, East Java, Indonesia(Figure 1). As the biggest reservoir in East Java province, Sutami and Lahor have multiple functions basedon its priority as flood control, irrigation, hydro-electric power plant, tourism and fisheries. In these reservoirs,
we can find fishery activities with floating net, trawl, and fishnet which owned by the people living aroundthe reservoirs. Fishery activities in Sutami and Lahor reservoirs produce pollutant and allochthonous
pollutant carried by the river will increase the capacity load of Sutami and Lahor reservoirs. Therefore, inthe development of aquaculture in the reservoirs, there should be considered the load capacity of thereservoir so that the sustainability of water resources can be achieved.
Chlorophyll is a natural pigment that can be found in plants (except for parasite and saprophyte plant),
bacteria, or algae. This pigment can transform light energy into chemical energy that is needed forphotosynthesis. There are many kinds of chlorophyll, the most common one is chlorophyll-a with dark green
colour (SNI, 1990). Chlorophyll-a content indicates the amount of photosynthetic pigment in phytoplankton.
It is also directly proportional with phytoplankton population in the water (Subarijanti, 1990).

527

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Location

Figure 1. Location of the study
METHODS
Station Determination
Sample collection was conducted in the last week of wet season that was predicted as eutrophication time.
Samples were taken in four parts of reservoirs, starting from upstream, middle, downstream, and bay of
those reservoirs (Figure 2 and 3). Samples were also taken from the different depth using Secchi Disk.

Figure 2. Sampling stations in Sutami reservoir

528

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 3. Sampling stations in Lahor reservoir
Fishery Load Capacity in Reservoir
Study on fishery load capacity was conducted using a model of reservoir capacity pollutant load. Calculationof reservoir fishery potential production implemented through primary productivity approach (Beveridge,1984) calculated using chlorophyll-a approach with the following equation:
Primary Productivity (PP) = 56.5*(Chl-a) 0.6
In this calculation, fish production was estimated around 1-3% from its primary productivity. Theoretically,
total carbon released from the fish is around 10% from its body weight (wet density). Calculation of fish
potential production was based on Table 1.
Table 1. Conversion of primary productivity (gr C/m2/day) to
wet density of fish (gr fish/m 2/h) (Beveridge, 1984).
PP (gr C/m2/day)% Conversion(gr C - fish/m2/day)< 2,74
2,74 – 4,11
4,11 – 5,48
5,48 – 6,85
6,85 – 8,26
8,26 – 9,59
9,59 – 10,96> 12,33

1 – 1,2
1,2 – 1,5
1,5 – 2,1
2,1 – 3,3
3,2 – 2,1
2,1 – 1,5
1,5 – 1,2
1

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSChlorophyll-a Measurement Result
Chlorophyll-a measurement contents in both Sutami and Lahor reservoir are shown in Table 2 and Table
3 below. Chlorophyll-a value of Sutami reservoir is ca. 0.95 – 32.11 µg/L, while chlorophyll-a value of Lahor
reservoir is approximately 4.5 – 25.95 µg/L. It is classified into hyper-eutrophic water for Sutami reservoir
and eutrophic water for Lahor reservoir (Seller and Markland, 1987).

529

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 2. The chlorophyll-a measurement in Sutami reservoir.
Chlorophyll-aµg/L

NumberLocation a1
WS 1-1b26.88
2
WS 1-2
32.11
3
WS 1-325.12
4
WS 2-1
0.95
5
WS 2-2
4.97
6
WS 2-38.29
7
WS 3-1
7.40
8
WS 3-2
7.63
9
WS 3-3
5.02
10
TS 1-1c6.50
11
TS 1-2
6.52
12
TS 1-3
6.06
13
TS 2-1
7.93
14
TS 2-2
3.90
15
TS 2-3
6.33
16
TS 3-1
5.86
17
TS 3-2
5.99
18
TS 3-38.83
19
TS 4-1
4.66
20
TS 4-2
5.19
21
TS 4-3
8.39
22
TS 5-1
7.75
23
TS 5-2
23.21
24
TS 5-321.91
25
TS 6-1
15.91
26
TS 6-2
21.89
27
TS 6-318.80
28
TS 7-1
19.54
29
TS 7-224.22
30
TS 7-327.46
31
TS 8-118.28
32
TS 8-2
16.79
33
TS 8-319.49
34
TS 9-119.00
35
TS 9-2
11.82
36
TS 9-318.30
37
TS 10-1
13.84
38
TS 10-2
17.34
39
TS 10-3
15.08
a WS = Waduk Sutami (Sutami reservoir); TS = Teluk Sutami (Sutami bay)b WS 1-1 to WS 3-3 = Sutami reservoir station 1 depth 1 to Sutami
reservoir station 3 depth 3
c TS 1-1 to TS 10-3 = Sutami bay station 1 depth 1 to Sutami bay station
10 depth 3530

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 3. The chlorophyll-a measurement in Lahor reservoir.
Chlorophyll-aµg/L

NumberLocation a1
WL 1-1b
5.49
2
WL 1-2
6.38
3
WL 1-3
11.80
4
WL 2-2
6.60
5
WL 2-2
5.66
6
WL 2-3
5.67
7
WL 3-3
6.63
8
WL 3-3
5.55
9
WL 3-3
4.83
10
TL 1-1c
10.96
11
TL 1-2
7.19
12
TL 1-3
7.36
13
TL 2-1
5.92
14
TL 2-2
4.50
15
TL 2-3
6.46
16
TL 3-1
25.95
17
TL 3-2
6.53
18
TL 3-3
5.99
a WS = Waduk Lahor (Lahor reservoir); TS = Teluk Lahor (Lahor bay)b WS 1-1 to WS 3-3 = Lahor reservoir station 1 depth 1 to Lahor reservoir
station 3 depth 3
c TS 1-1 to TS 10-3 = Lahor bay station 1 depth 1 to Lahor bay station 10
depth 3
Fishery Load Capacity
The potential of Sutami and Lahor reservoir measured with chlorophyll-a approach was taken spatially inseveral sampling stations with three different depth in representing photic area. Measurement and step todetermine the fishery potential in both reservoirs is as follows:
1. Measurement result of chlorophyll-a concentration
2. Determination of photic depth
3. Calculation of chlorophyll-a in unit area (mg/m 2)
4. Calculation of primary productivity through Beveridge Equation
5. Unit value adjustment of result primary productivity with unit value of primary productivity in Beveridge
Table
6. Calculation of conversion result from productivity primary value into fish weight
7. Calculation of fish production based on width of reservoirs
8. Fishery potential determination in reservoirs

531

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

A. Fishery Load Capacity in Sutami Reservoir
Table 4. Chlorophyll-a concentration in Sutami reservoir.
Chlorophyll-a (mg/m3)
Depth ofstationWS 1 WS 2 WS 3 TS 1 TS 2 TS 3 TS 4 TS 5 TS 6
Surface26.88 0.95 7.40 6.50 7.93
5.86
4.66
7.75 15.91
of Photic

TS 7

TS 8

TS 9

TS 10

19.54

18.28

19.00

13.84

Middle32.11
of Photic

4.97

7.63 6.52

3.90

5.99

5.19

23.21

21.89

24.22

16.79

11.82

17.34

Bottom25.12
of Photic

8.29

5.02 6.06

6.33

8.83

8.39

21.91

18.80

27.46

19.49

18.30

15.08

Table 5. Photic depth observed in Sutami reservoir.
Station depth (m)Depth ofstationWS 1 WS 2 WS 3 TS 1 TS 2 TS 3 TS 4 TS 5 TS 6
Surface0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35 0.35
0.35
0.35
0.35
0.35
of Photic

TS 7

TS 8

TS 9

TS 10

0.35

0.35

0.35

0.35

Middleof Photic

0.44

0.70

0.55 0.60

0.60

0.60

0.55

0.51

0.56

0.5

0,74

0.55

0.54

Bottomof Photic

0.88

1.40

1.10 1.20

1.20

1.20

1.10

1.03

1.13

1.00

1.48

1.10

1.08

Table 6. Chlorophyll-a concentration for each location in photic depth.
Chlorophyll-a (mg/m2)
Depth ofstationWS 1 WS 2 WS 3 TS 1 TS 2 TS 3 TS 4 TS 5 TS 6
Surface9.41 0.33 2.59 2.27 2.77
2.05
1.63
2.71
5.56
of Photic

TS 7

TS 8

TS 9

TS 10

6.83

6.39

6.65

4.84

Middle14.04
of Photic

3.47

4.19 3.91

2.34

3.59

2.85

11.89

12.31

12.11

12.38

6.50

9.32

Bottom
21.98 11.60 5.52 7.27
of Photic

7.59

10.59

9.22

22.45

21.15

27.46

28.74

20.13

16.21

Average 15.14

4.24

5.41

4.57

12.35

13.01

15.46

15.84

11.09

10.12

Table 7. Primary productivity of Sutami reservoir for each location and photic depth.
Primary productivity (mg C/m 2/day)
Depth ofstationWS 1 WS 2 WS 3 TS 1 TS 2 TS 3 TS 4 TS 5 TS 6 TS 7
Surface
222
29
101
93
105
88
76
104
161
183
of Photic

TS 8

TS 9

TS 10

175

179

148

Middleof Photic

283

121

136

130

95

123

107

256

261

259

262

177

220

Bottomof Photic

372

252

160

190

195

238

219

377

363

426

438

353

309

Average

296

153

134

141

136

158

143

262

270

300

305

245

232

5.13

4.10 4.48

532

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 8. Adjustment result of primary productivity in Sutami reservoir for each location.
Primary productivity (mg C/m 2/day)
Depth ofstationWS 1 WS 2 WS 3 TS 1 TS 2 TS 3 TS 4 TS 5 TS 6 TS 7 TS 8
Surface0.22 0.03 0.10 0.09 0.11
0.09
0.08
0.10
0.16
0.18
0.18
of Photic

TS 9

TS 10

0.18

0,15

Middleof Photic

0.28

0.12

0.14 0.13

0.09

0.12

0.11

0.26

0.26

0.26

0.26

0.18

0.22

Bottomof Photic

0.37

0.25

0.16 0.19

0.19

0.24

0.22

0.38

0.36

0.43

0.44

0.35

0.31

Average

0.30

0.15

0.13 0.14

0.14

0.16

0.14

0.26

0.27

0.30

0.30

0.25

0.23

Table 9. Conversion of primer productivity into fish weight (gr/m 2/day) for each location.
Fish weight (gr/m 2/day)
Depth ofstationWS 1 WS 2 WS 3 TS 1 TS 2 TS 3 TS 4 TS 5 TS 6 TS 7 TS 8

TS 9

TS 10

Surfaceof Photic

0.02

0.002 0.01 0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.01

Middle0.028
of Photic

0.01

0.01 0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.02

Bottomof Photic

0.04

0.03

0.02 0.02

0.02

0.02

0.02

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.04

0.03

Average

0.03

0.02

0.01 0.01

0.01

0.02

0.01

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.03

0.02

0.02

Table 10. Fish production in Sutami reservoir (ton/15,000,000 m 2/year.
Fish weight (ton/15,000,000/year)
Depth ofstationWS 1 WS 2 WS 3 TS 1 TS 2 TS 3 TS 4 TS 5 TS 6 TS 7

TS 8

TS 9

TS 10

Surfaceof Photic

121

15

55

51

58

48

42

57

88

100

96

98

81

Middleof Photic

155

66

74

71

52

68

59

140

143

142

144

96

121

Bottomof Photic

204

138

88

104

107

131

120

206

199

233

240

193

169

Average

162

84

73

77

75

87

78

143

148

164

167

134

127

Table 11. Maximum and minimum values, average, deviation, variation coefficient of Sutami reservoir.
Depth of station

N

min

max

average

STDEV

CV

Surface of Photic

13

15.8025

121.4132

70.080329.70551

42.3878

Middle of Photic

13

51.9582

155.0529

102.3554

38.95489

38.0585

Bottom of Photic

13

87.7226

239.9832

163.9554

52.07442

31.7613

Average13

73.1836

166.8514

116.930738.35493

32.8014533

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

B. Fishery Load Capacity in Lahor Reservoir
Table 12. Chlorophyll-a concentration in Lahor reservoir.
Chlorophyll-a (mg/m3)
Depth of station
WL 1
WL 2
WL 3
TL 1

TL 2

TL 3

Surface of Photic

5.49

6,60

6.63

10.96

5.92

25.95

Middle of Photic

6.38

5,66

5.55

7.19

4.50

6.63

Bottom of Photic

11.80

5.67

4.83

7.36

6.46

5.99

Table 13. Photic depth observed in Lahor reservoir.
WL 1

WL 2

Station depth (m)
WL 3
TL 1

TL 2

TL 3

Surface of Photic

0.35

0.35

0.35

0.35

0.35

0.35

Middle of Photic

0.50

0.60

0.46

0.50

0.55

0.55

Bottom of Photic

1.07

1.18

0.92

1.03

1.11

1.08

Table 14. Chlorophyll-a concentration for each location in photic depth.
Chlorophyll-a (mg/m2)
Depth of station
WL 1
WL 2
WL 3
TL 1

TL 2

TL 3

Surface of Photic

1.92152.31002.32053.83602.07209.0825

Middle of Photic

3.19003.39602.55303.59502.47503.6465

Bottom of Photic

12.6260

6.69064.44367.58087.1706

6.4692Average

5.91254.1322

3.10575.00393.90596.3994

Depth of station

Table 15. Primary productivity of Lahor reservoir for each location and photic depth.
Primary productivity (mg C/m 2/day)
Depth of station
WL 1
WL 2
WL 3
TL 1
TL 2

TL 3

Surface of Photic

84.152994.1568

94.4177

128.2964

88.1143

217.0470

Middle of Photic

114.6465

119.1074

100.0805

123.3175

98.2040

124.3921

Bottom of Photic

167.0432

134.2515

112.7887

150.8789

129.7168175.3046

Average121.9475

115.8386

102.4290

134.1643

105.3450

172.2479

Table 16. Adjustment result of primary productivity in Lahor reservoir for each location.
Primary productivity (mg C/m 2/day)
Depth of station
WL 1
WL 2
WL 3
TL 1
TL 2

TL 3

Surface of Photic

0.0842

0.0942

0.09440.12830.08810.2170

Middle of Photic

0.11460.11910.10010.1233

0.09820.1244

Bottom of Photic

0.26540.18010.14030.19440.18790.1765

Average

0.16700.13430.11280.15090.12970.1753534

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 17. Conversion of primer productivity into fish weight (gr/m2/day) for each location.
Fish weight (gr/m 2/day)
Depth of station
WL 1
WL 2
WL 3
TL 1
TL 2
TL 3
Surface of Photic

0.00840.00940.00940.01280.00880.0217

Middle of Photic

0.01150.01190.01000.01230.00980.0124

Bottom of Photic

0.02650.01800.01400.01940.01880.0176

Average

0.01670.01340.01130.01510.01300.0175

Table 18. Fish production in Sutami reservoir (ton/2,600,000 m 2/year).
Fish weight (ton/2,600,000/year)
Depth of station
WL 1
WL 2
WL 3
TL 1
TL 2

TL 3

Surface of Photic

7.98618.93558.9602

12.1753

8.362020.5978

Middle of Photic

10.8800

11.3033

9.497611.7028

9.319611.8048

Bottom of Photic

25.1818

17.0942

13.3178

18.4476

17.832116.7469

Average15.8524

12.7405

10.7037

14.3184

12.3101

16.6364

Table 19. Maximum and minimum values, average, deviation, variation coefficient of Lahor reservoir.
Depth of station

N

min

max

average

STDEV

CV

Surface of Photic

67.9861

20.59789.28384.8536834

52.28099329

Middle of Photic

6

9.319611.8048

10.5407

1.0916126

10.35621138

Bottom of Photic

6

13.317825.181818.37473.9001634

21.22570666

Average

610.7037

16.6364

13.76022.2559506

16.39470105

CONCLUSIONS
The average potential of Sutami Reservoir ranges between 73.1836 - 166.8514 tons/year, meanwhile in
Lahor Reservoir, this ranges between 10.704 - 16.636 tons/year. The management of reservoir was heldby managing planning of integrated fishery reservoir with reservoir zonation approach. Based on the result,
it is recomended for competent stakeholders to create Integrated Management Fishery Planning for Sutami
and Lahor reservoirs.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors acknowledge the management of Jasa Tirta I Public Corporation for giving support to theauthors to complete, present and publish the study. The authors also thank the Faculty of Fishery andMarine Science, Brawijaya University as a partner of this study.
REFERENCES
1. Jasa Tirta I, Perum, 2014 ."Kajian Teknis Pemanfaatan Waduk Sutami dan Lahor untuk Perikanan".
Published Report.
2. Beveridge M.C.M, 1984. Cage and Pen Fish Farming, Carrying Capacity Models and Environment
Impact. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper p.255, FAO, Rome.

535

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ENVIRONMENTAL FACTORS REGULATING THE DOMINANCE SPECIES OF
PHYTOPLANKTON IN LAKE MANINJAU, WEST SUMATERA, INDONESIA
Sulastri1, Arianto Budisantoso1 and Sulung Nomosatriyo1
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences
Corresponding author: sulastri@limnologi.lipi.go.id

1

ABSTRACT
Together with the occurrence of algal bloom, high concentration of nutrient is always associated witheutrophication in lakes. However, direct links between nutrient composition and the dominant phytoplankton
taxa in eutrophic lakes are often limited. Using canonical correspondence analysis (CCA), we elucidated
phytoplankton assemblage and the associated nutrient and other environmental variables in a highly
eutrophic Lake Maninjau, West Sumatera, Indonesia. Subsurface water samples were collected at 8 study
sites in April and July 2009, April 2014, August 2015 and March 2016 to determine species compositionand distribution of phytoplankton and physico-chemical parameters including Secchi depth, temperature,
conductivity, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, ammonium (NH 4+-N), Total nitrogen (TN), Phosphate (PO4--P)
and Total phosphorus (TP). Succession in the assemblage was observed in August 2015 where thedominance of cyanobacteria was replaced by diatoms and dinoflagellates. Cyanobacteria taxa of Anabaenasp., Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii were associated with TP, TN and phosphate while Microcystis andOscillatoria were associated with ammonia. Planktolyngbya sp. and Ceratium hirudinella was related tonitrate while Chroococcus sp. was linked to temperature, pH and phosphate concentration. Our results
confirm that changes in nutrient compositions may have implications for the dominance of taxa in
phytoplankton assemblage
Keywords: canonical correspondence analysis, cyanobacteria, eutrophication, nutrients,
INTRODUCTION
Water eutrophication has become a worldwide environmental problem in recent years. Lake eutrophication
is affected by a wide range of anthropogenic and natural factors. The potential effect of artificial or cultural
eutrophication includes the increase of phytoplankton biomass and shift to bloom-forming alga species thatmight be toxic, a decrease of water transparency, increased of fish kill incidence and oxygen decline (Liuet al., 2010; Dokulil & Teubner, 2011). In Indonesia, most of major lakes are also facing environmental
problems including eutrophication, sedimentation, and decline in surface area. Lake Maninjau is one of the
15 Indonesian lakes and identified as a National Priority Lakes for conservation (State Minister for theEnvironment, 2011). Eutrophication in Lake Maninjau is as much a threat to the lake ecosystem such as
the occurrence of Microcystis aeruginosa blooming was found in 2000 and 2011, the incidence of fish killand oxygen decline were often occurred in this lake (Syandri, 2000; Tanjung, 2013; Ministry of Environment,
2011, Sulastri et al, 2015). Microcystis aeruginosa blooming in Lake Maninjau was indicated by the high ofchlorophyll-a concentration (62.97 μg.L-1 and 168.7 µg.L-1) respectively (Sulastri et al., 2001; Tanjung,2013). Lake Maninjau has been utilized to generate electric power since 1983 and consequently the lakewater rarely flows through its natural outlet into Batang Antokan River and flushing the lake water out
through the intake. Lake Maninjau has also been utilized to culture the fish in floating cages since 1990.
The number of cages has increased continuously to the point where it exceeds the carrying capacity limit.
The development of fish culture in cages is suspected of increasing the organic material level andstimulating Cyanobacteria blooming, change the water quality and increased incidence of fish kill in Lake
Maninjau (Sulastri 2009; Lukman, 2013; KLH, 2011)
Monitoring phytoplankton composition in this lake showed that the composition changed from Chlorophyta
to Chrysophyta in 2001 and 2005 respectively, then in 2009 and 2014, phytoplankton was dominated by
Cyanophyta (Cyanobacteria). There was also a shift in the dominant of phytoplankton species in Lake
Maninjau from time to time observation. Synedra ulna was dominant in October 2001 andCylindrospermopsis raciborskii, Anabaea affinis, Aphanizomeon was dominant in April and June 2009,
while Plangtolyngbia was dominant in April 2014 Microcystis aeruginosa which has been blooming in 2000
and October in 2011 was not dominant during observation (Sulastri et al., 2015). The abundance ofphytoplankton species is depended on a variety of ecological factors, particularly nutrient status, illumination,536

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

turbulence, and temperature. Together with the occurrence of algal bloom in high concentration of nutrient
are always associated with eutrophication in lakes. However, direct links between nutrient composition andthe dominant phytoplankton taxa in eutrophic lakes are often limited. This study was to elucidate
phytoplankton assemblage and the associated nutrient and other environmental variables in a highly
eutrophic Lake Maninjau, West Sumatera, Indonesia.
METHODS
Research location
Lake Maninjau is located in West Sumatera, between 100o 08’5384” E to 100o 14’02.39” E and 0o 14’ 52.50”
S to 0o 24’ 12.17”S (Figure 1) at 462 m above sea level, with a surface area of 9,737.50 ha, an average
depth of 105.5 m and a maximum depth of 168 m (Fachrudin et al., 2002). The volume of water stored in
the lake (V), shore line (L) and shore line development (DL) is 10.33 billion m 3, 52.7 km and 1.51 km/km2
respectively (Fachrudin et al., 2010). There are two peak rainy seasons on April to May and October toNovember. The rainfall is relatively high all the years and dry season is not so dominant (Apip, 2004).
Data collection
Subsurface water samples were collected at 8 study sites (Figure 1) on September and October in 2001,
April 2009, June 2009, April 2014, August 2015, and March 2016 to determine species composition anddistribution of phytoplankton and physico-chemical parameters including Secchi depth, temperature,
conductivity, dissolved oxygen (DO), pH, ammonium (NH 4+-N), Total nitrogen (TN), Phosphate (PO4--P)
and Total phosphorus (TP). Physical description of research station was presented in Table 1.
Physical and Chemical measurement
Water temperature, pH, DO, and conductivity data was collected using a water quality checker (Horiba U10), while water transparency was examined by the measurement of the Secchi depth. The vertical
distribution of Temperature, Dissolved Oxygen (DO) and pH was conducted by discrete measurement using
Water Quality Checker (WQC, Horiba U-10) at the deepest part of the lake (DM7).
The annual and daily of temperature data was obtained from online monitoring measurement installed in
Lake Maninjau by Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian institute of Sciences.
Nutrients (Total Nitrogen (TN), Total Phosphorus (TP), ammonia, and nitrate) were analyzed at theHydrochemistry Laboratory, Research Centre for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI).
Samples of nutrients were preserved according to APHA (1999). Total Nitrogen (TN) was measured using
the persulphate digestion method (APHA, 1999), then followed by nitrate-N analysis using the Brucine
method (APHA, 1975). Total Phosphorus (TP) was determined using the persulphate digestion method andfollowed by phosphate-P analysis using the Ascorbic Acid method (APHA, 1999).
Table 1. Physical description of research stations.
Name of Station
Physical description
Bayur
Crowded area for fish culture
Koto Gadang
A few areas for fish culture, surrounding area is agricultural
Muko-Muko
Near outlet (Batang Antokan), area for aquaculture
Sigiran
Crowded area for aquaculture, surrounding area is human settlement
PandanArea for aquaculture
Sungai Batang
Area for aquaculture, surrounding area is agricultural
DM 4
Central part of lake (145 m depth), no aquaculture
DM 7.
Deepest part of lake (165 m depth), no aquaculture537

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Research location
Phytoplankton Analysis
Phytoplankton sample was collected at the euphotic zone (surface water and Secchi depth) by filtering 2 L
of water through plankton net with a 40 μm mesh size. The samples were preserved with 1% lugol solution
for taxonomic study in the laboratory. Phytoplankton species was identified according to Prescott (1951),
Scott and Prescott (1961), Baker and Fabro (1999), Gell et al. (1999) using an inverted microscope with amagnification of 400 x. Quantitative analysis of phytoplankton used the Lackey Drop Micro Transect method
as presented in APHA (1992). Direct links between nutrient composition and the dominant phytoplankton
taxa was analyzed using canonical correspondence analysis (CCA),RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Water quality
Distribution of temperature in Lake Maninjau showed that water column was stratified thermally duringobservation. The warmer water was found in upper layer of water column (Figure 2). However daily andannual monitoring showed that the stratification of water temperature in this lake was not permanent over
the year (Figure 3). The annual of temperature distribution in 2014 showed that there was not a gradienttemperature vertically in the water column for some certain periods (Figure 3). It indicated that mixing ofwater column was occurred many times during of the year. Daily temperature distribution also indicatedthat mixing of water column was of occurred in certain days. This pattern of water mixing in Lake Maninjau
may influence the dynamic of phytoplankton growth.

538

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. The profile of temperature distribution in Lake Maninjau

2014

539

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

August, 2015

March, 2016

Figure 3. The annual and daily of temperature distribution in Lake Maninjau (Budisantoso et al,unpublished)
Stratification and mixing of water in lake may be influenced by the local weather condition. According to
Wetzel (2001) in a stable water column and hot weather, the thermocline can occur near the surface layer
and when the epilimnion zone is exposed by strong wind, the thermocline layer extends to the deeper layer.
According to Apip et al (2003), the regional climate can be used for indicator of water mixing in Lake
Maninjau. Transition of dry season to rainy season is in March to April and September to October indicatedby the weather disturbance such as a strong wind with the rate of 111.6 to 161.5 km/day.
The dissolved oxygen (DO) profile in the middle part of lake showed that the anoxic zone increased androse to the upper water column during observation (Figure 4), In October 2001 and June 2009 the anoxic
zone was found in 40 m depth then in April 2014, August 2015 and March 2016 anoxic zone was foundabove of 20 m depth. Eutrophication cause increasing of biological production such as phytoplankton.
Therefore, the consequence of high biological production is increasing the organic materials and thebacterial oxygen demand which itself may deplete oxygen demand to decompose the organic materials(Happer,1992). In Lake Maninjau, the increasing of organic materials may not only from biologicalproduction but also input from waste of aquaculture activities.

540

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. The distribution of dissolved oxygen (DO) in the center part of Lake Maninjau.
The value of pH showed that the surface water was more alkaline than that in the bottom (Figure 5). The
pH in the sub surface layer is more than 8 (9 to 10) especially in April 2014 and August 2015. According toGoldman and Horne (1983), most lakes have a pH ranging from 6 to 9, and pH increases when vigorous
photosynthesis occurs in productive lakes. In eutrophic lake, day time photosynthesis may elevate pH value(Happer, 1992).

541

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 5. The profile of pH distribution in Lake Maninjau
The average value of some water quality parameter was presented in Table 2. The value of Secchi depth
range from 1.7- 3.8 m and the low value was found in Jun 2009 and August 2015. The low value of Secchi
depth is common found in eutrophic lake. The Secchi depth of Lake Rawa Pening a shallow eutrophic lake
in Central Java range from 0.63-0.95 m and in Lake Ranau a mesotrophic lake in South Sumatera, thevalue of Secchi depth range from 5.0-7.5 (Sulastri et al, 2016; Sulastri et al, 2000). Secchi depth is also
influenced by time of day, cloud cover, and wind action (Hutchinson, 1957). It was also reported that there
are some important factors influence the Secchi depth such as autochthonous production (the amount ofplankton, detritus, etc.) (Hakanson & Boulon, 2003). The detritus such as the waste from fish aquaculture
and phytoplankton may influence the Secchi depth in Lake Maninjau.
The temperature value was commonly found in tropical lakes. The lower value was found in September
and October 2001 or in rainy season and the highest value was found in March 2016. Lake Maninjau has
a normal conductivity condition with the value ranging from 100 – 140 µS·cm-1. Many equatorial lakes in
the forest regions have a conductivity of less than 600 µS·cm -1 (Payne, 1986). The value of pH ranged from
8.28 – 8.69 which showed an alkaline condition. As previous reported that in eutrophic lake such as Lake
Maninjau, day time photosynthesis may elevate pH value (Happer, 1992). The highest value of pH wasfound in March 2001, it was also compliment with the highest of temperature in this month.
The DO concentration was fluctuated during observation (Table 2). The lower values was 2.88 mg.L-l and4.35 mg.L-l found in April 2009 and August 2015. The fluctuated of DO concentration may be related to thewater mixing phenomenon. It was indicated by thermal stratification in Lake Maninjau was not stable.
Therefore, when the water mixing phenomenon occurred, the anoxic water zone found at 20 m depth could
easily move to the upper layer of water.
Total phosphorus concentration range from 0.022 to 0.071 mg.L-1. In general, the concentration of total
phosphorous demonstrated the condition of eutrophic lake (Table 2). The average concentration total
phosphorous in epilimnetic zone for eutrophic lake range from 30 to 100 µg.L -1 (Vollenweider, 1968 in

542

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Wetzel, 2001). The highest value of TP was found in October 2001 and the lower value was found in March
2016.
Tabel 2. The average value of some water quality parameters and nutrient concentration in euphotic zone
Time observation
Parameters

Sp.01

Oc.01

Ap.09

J.09

Ap.014Ag.015Mr.016

Secchi depth (m)

3.8

3.3

2.25

1.7

2.1

1.9

2.98

Temperature (oC)

27.96

27.83

28.65

29.29

29.61

29.34

30.63

Conductivity (µS.-cm)

128

140

113

100

132

129

110

pH

8.39

8.40

8.44

8.60

8.55

8.24

8.69

DO (mg.L-l)

6.82

8.52

2.88

6.00

8.21

4.35

7.76

TP (mg.L-l)

0.048

0.071

0.039

0.048

0.065

0.032

0.022

0.017

0.015

0.007

0.015

0.017

0.010

0.005

P-PO4

(mg.L-l)TN (mg.L-l )

0.814

0.361

1.486

0.582

1.058

0.974

0.415

N-NO3

(mg.L-l)

0.035

0.053

0.275

0.069

0.667

0.217

0.028

N-NH4

(mg.L-l )

0.150

0.055

0.100

0.160

0.026

0.130

0.060

TN/TP (mg.L-l)

17

5.1

39.7

13.3

21.5

48.2

20.2

*Remark: Sp: September, Oct: October, Ap: April, J: June, Ag: August, Mr: March

The high concentration of TP in October 2001 may be related to the input of TP from the run off. As reported
that October is the second of peak rainy season in this area (Apip, 2004). The lowest TP in March 2016
may be related to nutrient uptake by phytoplankton growth. The highest temperature in March supported
the photosynthesis of phytoplankton. This is also compliment with the lowest of phosphate concentrationand the high value of pH in March 20016 (Table 2). Total nitrogen range from 0.361 to 1.486 mg.L-l In
general, total nitrogen concentration demonstrated the condition of eutrophic lake (Table 2).
The average of total nitrogen concentration for eutrophic lake reported range from 0.393 to 6.100 mg.L-1(Wetzel, 2001). The higher total Nitrogen concentration was found in April 2009 and 2014. This is similar
phenomenon with the nitrate concentration that the higher value was found in April 2009 and April 2014.
April is the first peak of rainy season (Apip, 2004), therefore the high concentration of TN and nitrate in April
may input from runoff. Ammonia concentration showed a variability range from 0.055 to 0.160 mg.L -l. duringobservation. The distribution of ammonia is highly seasonal and spatially variable depending upon the levelof productivity and the extent of pollution of organic matter (Wetzel, 2001). The value of TN: TP showed avariability, range from 5.1 – 48.2. The variability of TN:TP ratio may be related to TP concentration that thevalue seems related to run off input
Phytoplankton
The dominant of phytoplankton composition changed from Chlorophyta to Chrysophya and then to
Cyanophyta except in August 2015 phytoplankton was dominated by Chrysophyta (Figure 6). In March
2016, 87 % of phytoplankton was dominated by Cyanophyta again (Figure 6). The changes ofphytoplankton in Lake Maninjau may related to the water quality changes (Sulastri, 2015). The variability inblue green-bloom formation has been linked to physical and chemical features include, water column
stability buoyancy control, high water temperature, nutrient concentration and low TN:TP ratio. As reported
that cyanobacteria (blue green algae) tend to dominate in more stable water column (Reynold, 1984). The
dominant of cyanobacteria (blue green algae) during summer period are the water temperature above 25 oC
and low TN:TP and light intensity in water (Mankiewicz et al.2003). Ni et al. (2012) in Laugaste et al. (2013)
hypothesized that a combination of high water temperature (> 24 °C) and a high TP value (> 0.06 mg L. -1)
together with TN:TP ratios less than 40 enhance the growth of Cyanobacteria and particularly Microcystis.
In this study, canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) showed that the dominance of Cyanophyta related
to high temperature, pH and low phosphate concentration (Figure 8) and low TN:TP ratio was not main
factor for determining blue green algae dominance. It indicates that low TN:TP ratio may not universal
diagnostic tool to assess blue green algae dominance. As reported by An & Jones (2000) that the main543

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

factors influencing blue green algae dominance in Korean Reservoir was weak monsoon which direct linked
to strong water stability, high water temperature, reduced silica input, while the low TN:TP ratio was notdetermining factor in this system.
Furthermore, it was reported that light and pH seem as the second factors influence blue green algae
dominance. In this study area, the rainfall is relatively high all the years, dry season is not so dominant andstratification of water is not permanent, but high-water temperature may increase a stable water column
and photosynthesis of blue green algae. As reported that pH increased when vigorous of photosynthesis
was occurred in eutrophic lake (Goldman & Horne, 1983). Vigorous of photosynthesis, then, increases thephosphate assimilation.
Species dominance of phytoplankton changed in each period observation (Figure 7). Staurastrum sp was
dominance species in September 2001 then October 2001 that Synedra ulna was a dominance. From April
2009 to March 2016, dominance species was species belong to blue green algae group (Aphanizomenon
sp, Anabaena sp, Cylindorspermopsis raciborskii, Planktolyngbia sp. and Chroococcus sp). From April
2014 to March 2016 Monallantus sp. were found high percentage of dominance species (Figure 7). It wasreported that Mollanantus sp was commonly found in organic pollution waters (Prescott, 1951). In August
2015, Pirrophyta (Dinophyta) also showed a high percentage of composition compared to previous
observation.
The high percentage of Pirrophyta was dominated by Ceratium hirudinela. As reported that The Dinophyta
was commonly found in the water with abundance of phosphate and nitrate. C. hirudinela will move to theupper of water and avoid an anoxic zone in the stratified water column (Wehr and Sheate, 2003). The
dominance species from Cyanophyta change every period of observation (Figure 7). Aphanizomenon was
dominant in April 2009, Anabaena and Cylindrosperpsis raciborskii was dominant in June 2009,
Planktolyngbia was dominant in April, 2014 and Chroococcus sp.was dominant in March 2016. Canonicalcorrespondence analysis (CCA) showed that the environmental factors separated each dominance ofspecies of phytoplankton (Figure 9).

September, 2001
12%

0%

0%

October 2001

26%

13%

5%

0%

0%
Chrysophyta
Chlorophyta

Chrysophyta

62%

Chlorophyta

Cyanophyta

Cyanophyta

Pyrrhophyta

Pyrrhophyta

82%

Euglenophyta

June 2009

April 2009
1%

0%

5% 0%

39%

43%

Chrysophyta

17%Euglenophyta

24%

Chrysophyta

Chlorophyta

Chlorophyta

Cyanophyta

Cyanophyta

Pyrrhophyta

544

47%

24% Pyrrhophyta

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

August 2015

April 2014
1%

16%

22%
Chrysophyta

0%

41%

18%

Chlorophyta

Cyanophyta

Cyanophyta
49%

28%

ChrysophytaChlorophyta

Pyrrhophyta

Pyrrhophyata

25%

March 2016
1%

0%

8%
4%

Chryspphyta
Chlorophyta
Cyanophyta
Pyrrhophyta

87%

Euglenophyta

Figure 6. Phytoplankton composition in Lake Maninjau
The high percentage of Synedra sp related to high concentration of phosphate, TP and TN. The highpresented of Staurastrum sp Aphanizomenon sp, Anabaena.sp. related to, high ammonia (N-NH4)
concentration, Cylindorspermopsis raciborskii related to high TP and TN concentration. Planktolingbya wasrelated to high nitrate and conductivity nitrate value while Chroococcus was related to high temperatureand pH. Reynolds (2006) in Laugaste et al, (2013) pointed out that an experiments of mineral N forms,
particularly NH4-N, are important for N2 fixers and also for Microcystis growth. It seems the change of
species dominance of phytoplankton in Lake Maninjau often occurred in Lake Maninjau. As reported that
Reynolds’ possibility matrix showing the most likely phytoplankton assemblages as a function of nutrient
and water mixing (Harris, 1986). Therefore, unstable stratification of water temperature may also be
influenced the variability of species dominance in Lake Maninjau.

545

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

100%

Cerat

90%

Plank

80%

Oscill

70%

Micro

60%

Cylin

50%

Chroo

40%

Apha

30%

Anab

20%

Staur

10%

Mol

0%

Syn
Sp.01 Ok.01 Ap.09
J.09 Ap.014 Ag.015 Mr.016
Figure 7. The percentage of phytoplankton dominant in Lake Maninjau

Figure 8. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) biplot of phytoplankton composition
for seven observations and seven water quality parameters546

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 9. Canonical correspondence analysis (CCA) biplot of phytoplankton species for sevenobservations and 7 seven water quality parameters
CONCLUSIONSStratification water column in Lake Maninjau was not permanent or weak. Secchi Depth value, TN and TP
concentration indicated Lake Maninjau was a eutrophic Lake, Phytoplankton composition change from
Chlorophyta to Chrysophyta then to Cyanophyta (blue green algae). The dominance of Cyanophyta related
to temperature, pH dan phosphate. The dominance species of phytoplankton change from Staurastrum sp
to Synedra ulna then to species from blue green (Ananbaena sp, such as Aphanizomenon sp,
Cylindrospermopsis raciborskii, Planktolyngbia sp and Chroococcus sp). Each dominance species was
related to different environmental factors, the dominance Synedra ulna, Cylindrospermopsi raciborskii,
Anabaena, Aphanomizon were related to the high of TP, TN and phosphate concentration, while thedominance of Staurastrum, Microcystis and Oscillatoria related to high concentration of ammonia. The
dominance of Planktolyngbia sp Ceratium hirudinela were related to the high of nitrate concentration while
the dominance of Chroococcus sp was linked with low phosphate concentration, high temperature and pH
value. Our results confirm that changes in nutrient compositions and unstable of water column stratification
may have implications for the dominance of taxa in phytoplankton assemblage in Lake Maninjau.
REFERENCES
1. APHA. 1992. Standard Methods for the Examination of the Water and Waste Water. 17th Edition.
APA-AWWA-WPCF. 1100 pp.
2. APHA. 1999. Standard Methods for the Examination of the Water and Waste Water. 20th Edition.
American Public Health Association, Washington.
3. An, K-G & John R. Jones, 2000. Factors regulating blue green dominance in a reservoir directly
influenced bythe Asian monsoon. Hydrobiologia 432: 37–48.
4. Apip,M. Fachrudin, Sulastri, L. Subehi & I. Ridwansyah, 2003. Telaah unsur iklim dalam proses fisika
perairan Danau Maninjau. LIMNOTEK. Perairan Darat Tropis Indonesia, Vol X No. 1: 1 – 10.

547

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

5. Apip, 2004. Dampak Penyimpangan Iklim globa (el Nino) Terhadap Kondisi Hidroklimatologi Danau
Maninjau. Warta Limnologi, Vol XVIII. No 37: 7 – 10.
6. Fachrudin, H. Wibowo, L. Subehi, and I. Ridwansyah. 2002. Karakterisasi Hidrologi Danau Maninjau,
Sumatra Barat. Prosiding Seminar Nasional Limnologi, Bogor, 22 April 2002. Puslit Limnologi-LIPI, 6575.
7. Fachrudin, H. Wibowo, I. Ridwansyah, H. Agita, D. Daruati, and A. Hamid. 2010. Kajian
Hidroklimatoplogi sebagai Dasar Peringatan Dini Bencana Kematian Massal Ikan di Danau Maninjau,
Sumbar. Laporan Akhir. Program Intensif Peneliti dan Perekayasa. Pusat penelitian Limnologi. 42 hlm.
8. Goldman CR & AJ Horne. 1983. Limnology. Mc-Graw-Hill, Book Company. New York. 464 pp.
9. Hachitnson, G. E. 1957. Treatise on Limnology. Vol 1. Wiley and Sons. Inc., NewYork. 1115 pp
10. Hakanson, L. and V. V. Boulion. 2003. A Model to Predict How Individual Factors Influence Secchi
Depth Variations among and within Lakes. Internat. Rev. Hydrobiol, 88(2): 212-232.
11. Happer, D.,1992. Eutrophication of Freshwaters. Principles, problems and restoration, Chaman andHall.London 237 pp.
12. Harris,G.P. 1986. Phytoplankton Ecology. Structure, Function and Fluctuation. Chapman and Hall,
London384 pp
13. Laugaste, R. K. Panksep, and M. Haldna, 2013. Dominant cyanobacterial genera in Lake Peipsi(Estonia/Russia): effect of weather and nutrients in summer months. Estonian Journal of Ecology,(62) :, 229.243
14. Mankiewicz, J., M. Tarczyn Ska, Z. Walter, & M. Zaleswki. 2003. Natural toxins from Cyanobacteria.
Acta Biologica Cracoviensi Series Botanica, 45(2): 9–20.
15. Prescott, G. W. 1951. Algae of the Western Great Lakes Area. Crandbrook Institute of Science Bulletin.
No. 31. 949 pp.
16. Payne AL. 1986. The ecology of tropical lake and rivers. John Wiley & Sons. New York. 301 pp.
17. Reynolds, C.S. 1984. The ecology of Freshwater Phytoplankton. Cambridge University Press. London.
384 pp
18. Syandri, H. 2002. Dampak Karamba Jaring Apung terhadap Kualitas Air Danau Maninjau.
Dipresentasi-kan dalam diskusi Panel Pers Club (PPC), Padang 22 November 2000. 13 hlm.
19. Scott, A. M. and G. W. Prescott. 1961. Indonesian Desmid. Hydrobiologia, Vol. XVII.
20. Sulastri, M. S. Syawal S. Sulung Nomosatryo & I. Ridwansyah, 2000. Kecerahan, distribusi suhu dan
konduktivitas. Limnologi Danau Ranau ( Eds: Hartoto & Sulastri) Pusat penelitian Limnologi, Lembaga
Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia. Monografi No.2, 14 – 24.
21. Sulastri, Fachmijany Sulawesty & Sulung Nomosatriyo 2015. Long Term Monitoring of Water Quality
and Phytoplankton Changes in Lake Maninjau, West Sumatra. Oseanologi dan Limnologi diIndonesia,41(3): 339-353
22. Sulastri, Cynthia Henny & Unggul Handoko, 2016. Environmental Condition and Trophic Status of
Lake Rawa Pening in Central Java. Oseaniligi Dan Limnologi di Indonesia.1(3): 23–38
23. Tanjung, L. R. 2013. Kondisi terkini kualitas air dan tingkat kesuburan Danau Maninjau. Oseanologi
dan Limnologi di Indonesia, 39(1): 30-38.
24. Wehr, J. D. and R. G. Sheath. 2003. Freshwater Algae of North America. Identification andClassification. Academic Press. California .USA. 981 pp
25. Wetzel RG. 2001. Limnology. Lake and River Ecosystem. 3th. Academic Press. New York. London.
1006 pp.

548

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

DIATOMS, WATER QUALITY OF TOBA LAKE AND ITS MANAGEMENT
Tri Retnaningsih Soeprobowati1,2 and Sri Widodo Agung Suedy1
School of Postgraduate Studies, Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia
2
Department Biology, Faculty Sciences and Mathematics,
Diponegoro University, Semarang, Indonesia*trsoeprobowati@live.undip.ac.id

1

ABSTRACT
Toba Lake is one of the largest lakes in the world: 1,124 km2 wide, 508 meter-depth; total volume of water
256.2 x 109 m3, and 2,486 km2 of total catchment area. There is Samosir Island in the centre of Toba Lake.
Toba Lake has 19 inlets (rivers) but only has 1 outlet i.e. Asahan River. The main functions of Toba Lakeare for hydroelectricity power, resource for drinking water, transportation, tourism, irrigation, and fish culture.
The town development in Toba Lake side and Samosir Island had induced water quality deterioration. This
research was conducted in order to study the diatoms and water quality of Toba Lake, particularly in Parapat
and Tomok Harbours and its management. Water samples were taken on August 2014 from 3 sites for
diatom and water quality analysis. Identification of diatoms was done using microscope with 1,000X
magnification. Based on this research, the main problem of water quality in Toba Lake was heavy metalsof copper (Cu) that exceeded Indonesian water quality criteria for all class, a high concentration of total
nitrogen (1.085-2.03 mg/L) that was in the state of mesotrophic – hypereutrophic; and a high concentrationof total phosphorous (0.37-0.42mg/L), that was in the state of hypertrophic. Based on chlorophyll-a Toba
Lake, particularly in the harbor of Parapat and Tomok, as well well near fish culture cage is in the state of
hypereutrophic. pH in Toba Lake were in the range of 7-8. There are 31 diatom species found in Toba Lake,the domination of Ctenophora pulchella Kutzing, Gomphonema brasiliense Grunow, Denticula vanheurcki
Brun, Navicula aurora Sovereign, Synedra famelica (Kutzing), Fallacia pygmaea (Kützing) Stickle et Mann,and Gomphonema brasiliense Grunow are more indicated pH rather than trophic state.
Keywords: Toba Lake, diatom, water quality, hyper-eutrophic, Denticula, Fallacia
INTRODUCTION
Toba is the largest lake in Indonesia, with the large unique peninsula called Samosir Island in the midle ofthe lake. Geographycally, Toba Lake located in Bukit Barisan highlands in North Sumatra Province, situated
175 km Southern of Medan City, and parts of 7 regencies. Toba Lake is located in coordinates of 980 31’
2”E – 980 09’ 14”E and 20 19’ 15”N – 20 54’02”N, and 903 meters above sea level. Geologically, Toba
Lake is resulted of volcanic eruption 74,000 years ago and became the largest caldera in the world (Chesner,2011). Administratively, Toba Lake included 7 regency areas, namely regency of Karo, Simalugun, Dairi,
Toba Samosir, Samosir, Humbang Hasundutan, and North Tapanuli.
The Toba Lake has a surface area of 1,124 km2, and maximum depth 508 meters, with the total volume ofwater around 256.2 x 109 m3, and catchment area 2,486 km2 (Lukman and Ridwansyah, 2010). Toba Lake
have 19 inlet (rivers) enter to Toba Lake, but only has 1 outlet: Asahan River which flows east to the Straitof Malacca. The main function of Toba Lake are sources for drinking water, hydroelectricity power, tourism,
transportation, agriculture, and culture (Ministry of Environment of Republic Indonesia, 2011). The
development of hydroelectricity dam at the mouth of Asahan River has increased retention time that limit
the flushing of nutrients from Toba Lake (Lehmusluoto, 2000). The water retention time of Toba Lake
upwards of 81 years with oligomictic water stratiphication (Lukman & Ridwansyah, 2010).
Ecologically, the terrestrial of water catchment area, riparian zone, and eutrophic lake are the main problem
on the Toba Lake. The problems of Toba Lake in the water catchment area are illegal logging, illegal mining,
and agriculture. The problems in the riparian zone are mining, land occupation become residential, tourism,fascilities and infrastructure, source of domestic and agricultural waste. Meanwhile, eutrophication, floatingfish cage, domestic, agricultural, husbandary and business wastes in the waterbody had induced water
hyacinth bloom (Ministry of Environment & Forestry of Republic Indonesia, 2016). The significant concerns
throughout the watershed is the lack of wastewater management (Lehmusluoto, 2000).
Toba Lake was habitat for some various aquatic organisms, particularly for endemic fish of Lissochilus
sumatranus and Labeobarbussoro, locally known as ikan batak, and Corbiculatobae or remis Toba3]. There549

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

were also found other fish, macrobenthic, phytoplankton, zooplankton, and emerge, floating andsubmerged macrophytes. Eichornia crassipes, Potamogeton, Myriophyllum, Ceratophyllum, Hydrylla, andChara had reported found since 1939. It was reported that there were some kind of specific diatoms foundin Toba Lake. Denticula vanheurckii is one species that found epiphytic in Potamogeton sp in 1929 (Hustedt,
1935).
Diatoms are microalgae that dominated almost in all aquatic ecosystem. Their silicious unique of cell wall
persist in sediment and able to tell the environmental condition across the time. Diatoms glass walls areusually well preserved in sediments and they are very good bioindicators of water quality changes. Many
studies have demonstrated the value of diatoms as a bioindicator of water. Their value in monitoring relates
to a range of their characteristics. Being primary producers diatoms play significant roles in the food web.
They are distributed worldwide in saline or freshwater, have short life cycles and quick response toenvironmental change. Some species are sensitive across ecological gradients and they are easily sampled
and analysed at low cost (Soeprobowati et al., 2016).
The composition and abundance of planktonic algae have not changed in Toba Lake at least during thelast 70-year period, are most responsible for influencing water clarity. There was strong correlation between
free floating algae and algal growth rate at the most greatest shoreline development as well as attachedalgae. In the central portion of the lake, the algal density was low, while the areas nearest to the Parapat
tourist area and south shore developments showed an increase of algal production. Community wastes
and waste waters had stimulate algal growth. The highest nutrient deposition onto the lake may be foundnear the areas of greatest development. The nutrient sources from the numerous Toba watersheds ismostly related to the extend of disturbance of soils, particularly pronounced in Samosir (Lehmusluoto, 2000).
The town development in Toba Lake side and Samosir Island had induced water quality deterioration. Long
term environmental monitoring and research offers opportunity for providing data as a base for the best
future planning and regulatory decisions. Based on those background, this research was conducted inorder to study the diatoms and water quality of Toba Lake, particularly in Parapat tourist area and Samosir(Tomok) Harbours in comparison with site around traditional net fish culture.
METHODS
Water samples were taken from 3 sites with 3 replications: Parapat Harbour (T1), Tomok Harbour (T2), andnearby fish culture cage (T3, Figure 1) for diatom identification and water quality analysis for heavy metalsof Pb, Cd, Cu, Cr, Total Nitrogen, Total Phosphorous, SiO2, and chlorophyll-a. Heavy metals were analyzed
using AAS, Total Nitrogen with micro Kjeldahl, Total Phosphorus and silicate using Spectrophotometry
method, and chlorophyll-a content using extraction and spectrophotometry method. In T1, epiphytic diatoms
were collected from Potamogeton sp, epilitic diatoms were collected by brush the stone. In T2, epilitic
diatoms were collected from the stone. In T3, only collect water sample to identify planktonic diatoms.
Diatoms were collected from Potamogeton sp and stone by brush 4 cm 2 the thallus and solute in 50 mL
aquadest. Diatoms were identified under microscope with magnification of 1,000. The Shannon Wiener
diversity and Evennes indices were calculated.
Shannon Wiener Index (H’) (Magguran, 2004).

Note:
H’= Shannon-Wiener Diversity Index
ni = number individual of species -i
N = total indivdual of all species
The H’ value indicates the distribution of abundance species among all the species in the community. Highvalues of H’ would be representative of more diverse communities.
Eveness Index (J)J = H’/H’max

550

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Note:
J
H’
Hmax
S

= Eveness index= Diversity index= ln S= number of species encountered

Dominance Index:
C=[ni/N]Note:
C = Simpsom dominance index
ni = number individual of species -i
N = total indivdual of all species

Figure 1. Sites sampling: Parapat Harbour (Ajibata) (T1), Tomok Harbour (Samosir Island) (T2) andnearby floating fish cage (T3)
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
There were at least 31 diatom species identified from Toba Lake that were collected from water (asplanktonic sample), epilitic on the rock, and epiphytic on Potamogeton sp. The composition of diatom’s
community consist of 33% symmetric biraphid (Adlavia, Anomoeoneis, Brachysira, Eolimna, Fallacia,
Mastogloia, Navicula, Pinnularia, and Sellaphora), 26% asimatric biraphid (Amphora, Brebissonia, andCymbella), 16% araphid (Ctenophora, Fragilaria, Synedra, and Tetracyclus), 13% nitzschioid (Denticula,
Nitzschia), 3% epithemoid (Epithemia), 3% eunotioid (Eunotia), 3% surirelloid (Surirella), and 3% ofmonoraphid (Achnanthidium, Figure 2). Centric species was not found during this research. Usually, in the
eutrophic lake, such as in Rawapening Lake, some species of Aulacoseira and Melosira were founddominantly (Soeprobowati et al., 2012). This might be related to the pH that tent to neutral around 7 whereasin Rawapening Lake tend to alkali (7-9).

551

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Eunotioid3%
Epithemioid

Surirelloid
3%monorapid
3%

3%

Nitzschioid
13%

symmetric
biraphid
33%

Araphid16%
asymmetricbiraphid
26%

Figure 2. The composition of diatom’s community based on morphological categories
The criteria of those grouping are based on morphological categories that is used to provide a visual aid in
identification and do not strictly evolutionary. Symmetric biraphid is a diatom that has bilateral symmetry toboth apical and transapical axis, and raphe system well developed. This group has the greatest diversity
among the freshwater diatoms. Asymmetric biraphid is a diatom with valves asymmetrical to apical ortransapcial axis or both, well developed raphe system. Araphid is a diatom that lack of a raphe system
therefore lack significantly motility, valve with bilateral simmetry, rimoportulae (labiate process) may bepresent. Nitzschioid is diatom with bilateral symmetry, valve usually simmetrical to both apical andtransapical axes, raphid system well developed, positioned near the valve margin, raphe is enclosed withina canal and may be raised onto a keel. Epithemioid is a diatom with bilateral symmetry, valves asymmetricalto apical axis, raphe system enclosed within a canal and positioned near the valve margin. Eunotioid ischaracterised by bilateral symmetry, valves often asymmetrial to the apical axis, raphe system is short
therefore provides weak motility, raphe loacetd on valve mantle and face, cell may possess 2 or morerimoportulae. Surirelloid is a diatom with bilateral symmetry, raphe system extremely well developed andenclosed within a canal, raphe positioned around the entire valve margin and raised onto a kell. Monoraphid
is a diatom with bilateral symmetry, raphe system present on one valve (raphe valve), raphe system absent
on one walve (rapheless valve), heterovalvar ornamentation (Spaulding et al., 2010).
The dominant species which has more than 5% relative abundance at T1 are and Ctenophora pulchella
Kutzing, Gomphonema brasiliense Grunow, Denticula vanheurcki Brun, Navicula aurora Sovereign, andSynedra famelica (Kutzing). At T2 the dominant species are Ctenophora pulchella Kutzing, Fallacia
pygmaea (Kützing) Stickle et Mann, Gomphonema brasiliense Grunow, and Synedra famelica (Kutzing).
At T3 the most dominant species is Ctenophora pulchella Kutzing, and Synedra famelica (Table 1).
Ctenophora pulchella Kutzing formerly known as Synedra pulchella, has a wide range distribution, highconductivity and alkalinity in upland peat and forest rivers at Mayo, Ireland 11], usually in freshwater of highmineral content (Guiry and Guiry, 2017).
Gomphonema has mucilaginous peduncles for attachment to the substrate making Gomphonema moreresistant to disturbances (Burliga et al., 2013). The highest values for density and richness of diatoms in
the lentic system is partly related to their specialized structures that confer a competitive advantage overother species of different classes in stressfull environmental conditions, but usually also found in lotic
environments (Tremarin et al., 2009).
Denticula vanheurckii Brun is one species that found epiphytic in Potamogeton sp in 1929 (Hustedt, 1935)
and recently is still found in Toba Lake. D. vanheurckii, appears more similar morphologically to the
Rhopalodiales, especially the genus Epithemia. The current accepted name for Denticula vanheurckii Brunis Tetralunata vanheurckii (Brun) Hamsher, Graeff, Stepanek & Kociolek with type locality Java and Bali

552

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference(Hamsher et al., 2014). Denticula species are often found in the littoral margins of lakes, ponds and streams
with high conductivity, particular species inhabiting either cold mountain streams or hot springs (Krammer,
1988). Denticula vanheurckii fossil was also dominant in Buyan Lake Bali in core of 360-289 cm, deposited
about 7.7-6.5 cal ky BP indicated pyrite (Fukumoto, 2015). This benthic diatom indicated low organic
pollution and alkaline water (Taylor et al., 2007), Fallacia pygmaea (Kützing) Stickle et Mann is freshwater
diatom of high mineral content; sometimes in polluted water (Guiry and Guiry, 2017).
The highest diversity index are at the station 1 (H '= 3.03) and 2 (H' = 2.91) and the lowest diversity index
are at the station 3 (H'=2.14), that indicating the ecosystem stability. Site 3 that located in next to the floatingfish cage has the lowest diversity index, lowest number of diatom species due to a high covering water
hyacinth in this area.
Based on water quality, the problem in Toba Lake is heavy metal Pb and Cu. The content of Total Nitrogen
about 1.085 to 2.03 mg/L and Total Phosporous ranged between 0.37 to 0.42 mg / L (Table 2), indicatedhypereutrophic condition. Based on the chlorophyll-a content (Table 2), Toba Lake is eutrophic hypereutrophic category. Hypertrophic lake has a Total Nitrogen >1.9 mg/L, Total Phosporous > 0.1 mg/L,
and chlorohyll-a content >2mg/L (Ministry of Environment Republic of Indonesia, 2008).
This condition had been reported in 2012 that based on average chlorophyll-a data, Toba Lake is classified
as eutrophic to hypereutrophic (Lehmusluoto, 2000). The water quality of Toba Lake was moderate to lighpolluted (EPANS, 2014).

553

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 1. The composition and relatif abundance of diatoms in Toba Lake
T1
No Species
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
31

Adlafia muscora Moser, Lange-Bertalot and Metzeltin
Achnantes minutisimum (Kutzing)
Amphora ovalis (Ehrenberg) Kützing
Anomoeoneis sp
Brachysira brebissonii (R. Ross)
Ctenophora pulchella (Kutzing)
Cymbela amplificata (Krammer)
Cymbella cistula (Ehrenberg) Cleve
Cymbella tropica Krammer
Denticula subtilis Grunow
Denticula tenuis Kutzing
Denticula vanheurcki Brun
Encyonema yellowstonianum Krammer
Eolimna martinii (Schiller and Lange-Bertalot)
Ephitemia turgida (Ehrenberg)
Eunotia exigua (Brébisson in Kutzing)
Fallacia pygmaea (Kützing) Stickle et Mann
Fragillaria capucina (Desmazieres)
Gomphonema brasiliense Grunow
Gomphonema johnsonii Bahls
Gomphonema olivaceum (Hornemann) Brébisson
Mastogloia grevillei (W. Smith)
Navicula aurora (Sovereign)
Navicula subbacillum Hust
Nitzschia linearis (Agardh) W Smith
Pinnularia acoricola Hust
Sellaphora meriodionalis (Grunow)
Surirella angusta Kutzing
Synedra bacillaris (Grunow)
Synedra famelica (Kutzing)
Tetracyclus rupestris (Braun ex Rabenhorst) Grunow
Number of species
Shannon Wiener Index
Eveness Index

T2

T3
7,14

28
3,03

2,94
2,94
2,94
11,76
2,94
2,94
2,94
2,94
2,94
5,88
2,94
11,76
2,94
11,76
2,94
5,88
0,00
0,00
2,94
2,94
2,94
2,94
2,94
5,88
23
2,91

0,91

0,93

1,67
1,67
1,67
1,67
1,67
15,00
6,67
1,67
1,67
1,67
6,67
3,33
0,00
1,67
1,67
3,33
6,67
10,00
3,33
1,67
1,67
6,67
1,67
1,67
3,33
1,67
1,67
6,67
1,67

7,14
28,57
7,14
7,14
7,14
7,14
7,14
7,14
14,29
11
2,14
0,89

The composition of diatom’s community in Toba Lake do not indicate eutrophic condition. The relatively
high content of chlorophyll-a in Toba Lake related to the abundance of phytoplankton population of
Spyrogyra, Zygnema, Pediastrum, and Chladophora, and aquatic plant of Potamogeton. Cyanophyceae isa dominant phytoplankton in Toba Lake that was controlled by orthophosphate and nitrate, whereas
Dinophyceae was controlled by ammonium (Rahman et al., 2016).

554

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 2. Water quality of Toba Lake
Parameter

Unit

Toba Lake
T1

T2

T3

pH
7.85
8.14
7.83
Lead (Pb)
mg/L
0.006 0.004
0.005
Cadmium
mg/L
0.003 0.005
0.003
(Cd)
Cromium
mg/L
0.002 0.003
0.004
(Cr)
Copper (Cu)
mg/L
0.185 0.229
0.218
Silika (SiO2)
mg/L
0.045 0.018
0.03
Total P
mg/L
0.42
0.395
0.37
Total N
mg/L
1.085
2.03
1.452
Chlorophyll a
mg/L
4.025 5.113
4.37
Notes
Class I : used for drink
Class II : used for recreation, live stock and fish farming
Class III : used to live stok, fish farming and agriculture
Class IV: used for agriculture

Indonesian Water Quality
Standard PP No. 82/2001
Class Class Class
Class
I
II
III
IV
6-9
6-9
6-9
6-9
0.03
0.03
0.03
1
0.01

0.01

0.01

0.01

0.05

0.05

0.05

1

0.02
-

0.02
-

0.02
-

0.2
-

Water pollution load capacity and floating fish cage capacity exceeded the carrying capacity of Toba Lake,
particularly for total phosphorous. Recently this condition still remain degrade, suppose to reduce 43% ofphosphoous from catchment area and 44% from floating fish cage (EPANS, 2014). Lake Toba Ecosystem
Management Plant (LTEMP) had been started on 2004 to monitor water quality of Toba Lake, thenstrengthened by Governour Regulation No 1 Year 2009 regrading Water Quality Standard for Toba Lake.
Furthermore on 2014 Save Lake Action (in Indonesia called Gerakan Penyelamatan Danau (Germadan)
Toba had been launched as a guideline for conservation action.
CONCLUSIONSIn Parapat and Tomok Harbours and around traditional fish culture cage of Toba Lake, there are 31 diatom’s
species. The high population of Ctenophora pulchella Kutzing indicates a high conductivity and alkalinity
and high mineral content. Denticula vanheurckii Brun is specific diatom from Toba Lake that was reported
since 1929 until now, which indicates high conductivity low organic pollution and alkaline water. Fallacia
pygmaea (Kützing) Stickle et Mann is freshwater diatom of high mineral content; sometimes in polluted
water. The diatom’s composition do not reflect eutrophic-hypereutrophic condition of Toba Lake.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
This research was done by Competence Research Grant which is supported Directorate of Research andCommunity Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education that has provided research funds for
Fiscal Year 2015 Competence Grant Letter Assignment Chairman of the Institute for Research andCommunity Service Diponegoro University No. 147-10 / UN7.5.1 / PG / 2015. Thanks to Risky Amaliah for
her assistance in the field and lab work.
REFERENCES
1. Chesner, CA, 2011. Thr Toba Caldera complex. Quaternary International (2011),
doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.09.025
2. Lukman & Ridwansyah, I. 2010. Kajian kondisi morfometri dan beberapa parameter stratifikasi perairan
Danau Toba. Limnotek 17(2): 158-170.
3. ME (Ministry of Environment of Republic Indonesia). 2011. Profil 15 danau prioritas nasional. Edisi
pertama. Minstry of Environment of Republic Indonesia

555

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

4. Lehmusluoto, P. 2000. Toba Lake.The first sound science initiative to Abate change in the lake
environment.
http://www.kolumbus.fi/pasi.lehmusluoto/247_toba_initiative.PDF.
5. MEF (Ministry of Environment & Forestry of Republic Indonesia). 2016. The grand desigm of Indonesian
Lake conservation and rehabilitation. Ministry of Environment & Forestry of Republic Indonesia
6. Hustedt, F. (1935): Die fossile Diatomeenflora in den Ablagerungen des Tobasees auf Sumatra. –Tropische Binnengewässer, Band VI. – Archiv für Hydrobiologie, Supplement 14: 143–192.
7. Soeprobowati, TR; Tandjung, SD; Sutikno; Hadisusanto, S; Gell, P; Hadiyanto; Suedy, SWA. 2016. The
water quality parameters controlling diatoms assemblage in Rawapening Lake, Indonesia. Biodiversitas
17(2): 657-664. DOI: 10.13057/biodiv/d170239
8. Magguran, A. 2004. Measuring biological diversity. Blackwell Science, USA.
9. Soeprobowati TR, Hadisusanto S, Gell P, Zawadski A. 2012. The diatom stratigraphy of Rawapening
Lake,
implying
eutrophication
history.
Am
J
EnvironSci(3):334-44.
http://thescipub.com/PDF/ajessp.2012.334.344.pdf.
10. Spaulding, S.A., Lubinski, D.J. and Potapova, M. (2010). Diatoms of the UnitedStates. http://westerndiatoms.colorado.edu Accessed on 09 February, 2017.
11. O’Driscoll C, de Eyt E, Rodgers M, OConnor M, Asam ZUZ, Xiao, L. 2012. Diatom assemblages andtheir associated environmental factors in upland peat forest rivers. Ecological Indicators 18 (2012): 443451. www.elsevier.com/locate/ecolind
12. Guiry, M.D. & Guiry, G.M. 2017. AlgaeBase. World-wide electronic publication, National University of
Ireland, Galway. http://www.algaebase.org; searched on 24 January 2017.
13. Burliga, a.l. ang Schwarzbold, a. 2013. Perifíton: diversidade taxonômica e morfológica. In Ecologia doperifíton (A. Schwarzbold, A.L. Burliga & L.C. Torgan, eds) Rima, São Carlos, p.1-6.
14. Tremarin, P.I., Ludwig, T.A.V., Bertolli, L.M., Faria, D.M. and Costin, J.C. 2009. Gomphonema
Ehrenberg and Gomphosphenia Lange-Bertalot (Bacillariophyceae) from Maurícioriver, Paraná, Brazil.
Biota Neotrop., 9:111-130
15. Hamsher, S.E., Graeff, C.L., Stepanek, J.G. & Kociolek, J.P. (2014). Frustular morphology and polyphyly
in freshwater Denticula (Bacillariophyceae) species, and the description of Tetralunata gen. nov.
(Epithemiaceae,
Rhodopalodiales). Plant
Ecologyand
Evolution 147(3):346-365.
http://www.ingentaconnect.com/content/botbel/plecevo/2014/00000147/00000003/art00006
16. Krammer K., Lange-Bertalot H. (1988) Bacillariophyceae 2. Teil:Bacillariophyceae, Epithemiaceae,
Surirellaceae. In: Ettl H,Gerloff J., Heynig H, Mollenhauer D. (eds) Süsswasserflora von Mitteleuropa,
Band 2/2. Stuttgart & New York, G. Fischer Verlag.
17. Fukumoto Y, Li X, Yasuda Y, Okamura M, Yamada K, and Kashima K. The Holocene environmental
changes in southern Indonesia reconstructed from highland caldera lake sediment in Bali Island.
Quaternary International 374 (2015) 15e33. http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.03.020
18. Taylor, J.C.; Harding, W.R. & Archiblad, C.G.M. 2007. A methods manual for collection, preparation andanalysis of diatom samples version 1.0. – WRC Report TT 281/07. Retriever from:http://docs.niwa.co.nz/library/public/1770054839.pdf; searched on 14 May 2015.
19. ME. 2008. Pedoman Pengelolaan ekosisitem danau. Kementerian Lingkungan Hidup Republik
Indonesia.
20. EPANS (Environemental Protection Agency of North Sumatra=Badan Lingkungan Hidup Provinsi
Sumatera Utara). 2014. DAYA TAMPUNG BEBAN PENCEMARAN AIR DANAU TOBA. Presentation
prepared for Toba Lake Conference, LIPI, Bogor, 17 June 2014.
21. Rahman, A; Pratiwi, NTM; and Hariyadi, S. 2016. The struktur of phytoplankton communities in Lake
Toba, North Sumatera (Struktur komunitas fitoplankton di Danau Toba, Sumatera Utara). Jurnal Ilmu
Pertanian Indonesia (JIPI) 21(2): 120-127. DOI: 10.18343/jipi.21.2.120556

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CARBON DIOXIDE AND METHANE ACCUMULATION IN A HIGHLY EUTROPHICTROPICAL LAKE, INDONESIA
Cynthia Henny*1, Arianto B. Santoso1, Sulung Nomosatryo1
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences. Cibinong 16911*Corresponding author: cynthia@limnologi.lipi.go.id

1

ABSTRACT
Accumulation of carbon dioxide (CO2) and methane (CH4) has been estimated in a highly eutrophic Lake
Maninjau (West Sumatera, Indonesia). The lake receives high inputs of not only nutrients (Nitrogen (N) andPhosphorus (P)) but also organic carbon (C) from intensive cage aquaculture activity. The lake contains
fair amount of sulphides in the permanent anoxic hypolimnion. More than 95% of lake volume is hypolimnion
anoxic water. Deep profile water samples were collected at two sites of lake (one is the master deep station
and another one is on the shallower area of the cage aquaculture). CH 4 was determined from theheadspace of the crimp-sealed vials by using gas chromatography (Agilent Technologies) and CO 2
concentration were calculated from alkalinity data, temperature and pH. The lake indicated considerablyhigh CO2 and CH4 accumulation in the anoxic hypolimnion. Biogenic CH4 accumulates to highconcentrations (up to 1.5 mmol L-1) in deep anoxic hypolimnion waters, which contain a total of 158.5 tons
CH4. There is no sign of inhibition of methane production in the presence of sulfides. The lake acts as a
CO2 sink with flux of around – 3 mmol m2d-1 however the lake emits around 4.9 mmol m2 d-1 of CH4.
Although the lake acts as CO2 sink, the accumulation of CO2 and CH4 in the bottom water is substantiallyhigh. The lake is weakly stratified with permanent anoxic hypolimnion and with weather driven lake mixing,
the lake could release elevated CO2 and CH4 to the atmosphere. Considering the amount of gasses in thelake bottom and frequent lake mixing, limnic eruption would be unlikely. Elevated CO 2 and CH4 emission
from the lake can make significant contribution to global climate change.
Keywords: Carbon dioxide, methane, emission, eutrophic, tropical lake
INTRODUCTION
Lakes have been known to have important role in the processing and transport fixed carbon to theatmosphere (Downing et al, 2006). High organic carbon input as allochtonous carbon source in the lake will
be decomposed via heterotrophic metabolism producing CO2 and CH4 in the water column and sediments.
CO2 mainly is produced as results of aerobic decomposition of organic carbon while CH4 is mainly produced
as end product of anaerobic decomposition (Kortelainen et al, 2006). Both CO2 and CH4 in the lake can bereleased to the atmosphere. CO2 and CH4 have been concerned green house gas (GHG) to havecontribution to the earth global warming (IPCC, 2014; Chilingar et al, 2014). Most of the world’s lakes aresupersaturated with CO2 and CH4 and most lakes in temperate, subtropical and tropical area can beatmospheric CO2 sources or sinks depending on seasonal dynamics and lake trophic status (Repo et al,2007; Xing Ye et al, 2005; Santoso et al, 2017; Kortelainen et al, 2006).
Highly productive, with large volume of anoxic water volume and most likely high organic carbon (OC)accumulation in the sediment due to waste input from cage aquaculture, Lake Maninjau could have potential
high production of CO2 and CH4 in its anoxic bottom water. Lake Mainjau, Indonesia, a tectonic-volcanic
origin type of lake, has been overexploited by floating cage aquaculture over two decades (Syandri et al,2014; Lukman et al, 2015). Increasing the cage aquaculture activity (cage unit number) unquestionably
increases the waste inputs and thereby accumulates organic material into the lake. It is estimated 111,890
tons organic waste input to the lake in 13 years (Junaidi et al, 2014). Total and volatile solids in the sedimentof L. Maninjau from 2006 to 2009 increased more than 70 % where 40 - 60 % of volatile solids consisted oforganic carbon (OC) (Henny, 2009). Not only carbon, nutrients as nitrogen and phosphorus have been
increasing steadily resulting in phosphorus accumulation in the sediment (Henny and Nomosatryo, 2012a,
2012 b, 2016). Nutrient enrichment in the water and organic carbon accumulation in lake sediment havedeteriorated lake water quality and resulting in prolonged lake eutrophication (Syandri et al, 2014, Lukman
et al 2015, Henny and Nomosatryo, 2016, 2012 b). The lake also generates fair amount sulphides in theanoxic hypolimnion. Sulfide oxidation and high oxygen consumption derives from microbial activity havepushed oxycline upward and increased the thickness of anoxic hypolimnion (Henny, 2009; Henny and557

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Nomostryo, 2016).
Many studies have reported on CO2 and CH4 emission from freshwater ecosystem especially temperate(Repo et al, 2007) or subtropical lakes (Xing et al, 2005), however only limited studies reported in tropicallake especially looking at the effect of eutrophic condition on these GHG accumulation or emission in a
tropical lake as impact of high organic carbon accumulation due to cage aquaculture activity in the lake. In
this study, we estimate the accumulation and the flux of CO2 and CH4 in a highly eutrophic tropical lake, todetermine the influence of sulphide production on the methane generation and to evaluate potential
contribution on the earth global warming or even the potential risk of both gasses driven limnic eruption in
the lake.
METHODS
Study and sampling and analyses
Lake Maninjau (surface area = 9737.5 Ha, maximum depth of 165m) is located at 461.50 m above sea
level in the Western area of Sumatra (Fig. 1). Hydrologically, major water sources is from groundwater andmajor outflow of Lake Maninjau is controlled by an existing hydropower dam at depth of 6 – 8 m. Lake issurrounded by mountains. Although agriculture activity dominates in its catchment, nutrient and majorlyorganic loadings to the lake mostly is originated from waste input of floating cage aquaculture. It wasestimated more than 10000 units of floating cage aquaculture in Lake Maninjau (Lukman et al, 2015; Junaidi
et al, 2014). Lake is in eutrophic condition since 2008 (Syandri et al, 2014; Henny and Nomostaryo, 2016).
Sampling was conducted at deep water location (DM7 station) (S: 0o22’33.0” E: 100o11’35.1”) with water
depth of > 160 m and area in the major cage aquaculture (Bayur Station) (S: 0 o19’45.0” E: 100o11’6.0”)
with water depth of 30 – 50 m in September 2009, in July 2011, in May 2015 and in August 2016 for CO 2
and for CH4 July 2012 and August 2016 only . Water samples were collected with a 5 L Go-Flow (Niskin;
General Oceanics Miami, FL, USA) bottle attached to a rope marked each at 1 m long and a hand-operated
winch. Water samples for CH4 and sulfide determination were drawn directly using a 60 mL syringe fromthe spigot of the Niskin bottle. Water samples for CH4 from the syringe were transferred to a 60 mL crimp
seal serum bottle that had been vacuumed contain 200 L HgCL2 solution. Water samples for sulphide
directly transferred through syringe filter with pore size of 0.45 m to a 5 mL vial and added with HACH
reagent and analized directly in situ . Total alkalinity was determined from water sample, which wastransferred to a 125 mL glass bottle sample.
Temperature, conductivity, turbidity and pH were measured by using WQC U-10 (Horiba) and DO were
measured by using YSI 6000 Data Logger. Total sulfide was determined by using HACH DR 2010
spectrophotometer.

558

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Lake Maninjau and sampling location (the map by Ridwansyah, 2015); Sumatera Island,
Indonesia (Google Earth map 2017)
CH4 and CO2 measurements and calculations
A gas chromatograph equipped with a flame ionization detector (GC-FID Agilent Technology) was used todetermine CH4 concentrations in the headspace. The concentrations of dissolved CH 4 in the water samples
were then calculated based on the solubility function for CH 4 following Wiesenburg and Guinasso (1979).
Concentrations of CO2 (µmol CO2 L-1) in the water column were calculated from the dissociation of dissolved
inorganic carbon in freshwater according to pH and alkalinity values at a given temperature (Stumm andMorgan 1996).
Air-water exchange of CH4 and CO2 was computed using Fick’s law of gas diffusion:
Fgas = kgas (Caq – Csat)(1)
where Fgas is the gas flux across the air-water interface (mmol m -2 d-1), Caq is the concentration ofdissolved gas in the surface water (µmol L-1), kgas is the gas exchange coefficient (cm d-1; Cole and Caraco,1998) and Csat is the saturation concentration of gas (µmol L-1) for a given temperature and its atmosphericmole fraction in dry air (Weiss and Price, 1980).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Physical and chemical properties of Lake Maninjau
Representative temperature profiles showed slightly increase in temperature from 2009 to 2016 (Figure 2).
A very thin layer of thermocline between at depth of 10 m to less than 20 m was observed. Above 10 m
depth and below depth of 20 m there is no gradient temperature observed. The results indicate the lake isvery susceptible to lake mixing. In fact, the online monitoring data in 2015 specified several times of lake
mixing occurrence based on temperature profile data (Santoso and Fachrudin, 2016). Based on climate
pattern Months January to April and September to Desember are rainy season in which usuallyaccompanied by strong wind (BMKG, 2015 (data is not shown)). During these months Lake Maninjau is559

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

often experienced lake mixing. Frequent fish kill accidents each year took places mostly in February to April.
Based on temperature profile results, Lake Maninjau is considered polymictic and weakly stratified. The
density profiles in October 2016 recorded by data logger demonstrate non-persistent pycnocline (seasonal)
between 0 – 50 m and persistent pycnocline at 50 – 60 m (Figure 3). Above 50 m lake is inclined to mixing
if there is trigger such as extreme climate (heavy wind) or water temperature decrease with increasing
depth. support this statement that the lake also has non-persistent pycnocline (Figure 4). Differ from Lake
Maninjau, a very deep tectonic lake of Matano (South Sulawesi), an utra-oligotrophic lake, remained
stratified with persistent thermocline and pycnocline between 100 and 120 m depth (Crowe et al, 2010;
Katsev et al 2010).

Figure 2. Temperature profiles in September 2009, July 2011, May 2015 and in August 2016 showing
fluctuation thermocline between 10 m and 20 m at station DM7.
Depth profiles of dissolved oxygen and redox potential indicates that at depth of less than 10 m, the lakewater has been in hypoxic (< 2 mg/L) to anoxic condition (Figure 4). The oxic-anoxic line in Lake Maninjau
keep moving upward pushing the epilimnion layer where in the past it stared 40 m in 2006, and fluctuates
between 15 - < 10 m recently from 2011, in which implies that the lake before 1990’s when no cageaquaculture activity, its oxic-anoxic line is > 40 m. In 2011 the lake water turned to anoxic condition at depthof less than 10 m. The hypolimnion thicknes of Lake Maninjau has been increasing resulting in very large
volume of anoxic water. Only 10 % of lake water volume is oxic. Lake Matano, an ultra oligotrophic lake
has its oxic-anoxic line at 100 m depth although having large volume of anoxic water in hypolimnion (Crowe
et al, 2010).

560

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 3. Density depth profiles in October 2016. The measurement was conducted using Data Logger(RYNCO) a few days after lake experiencing mixing.
Similar pattern with thermocline and oxycline, chemocline also was observed at between less than 20 m to
10 m (Figure 5). Large gradient pH was observed ranging from 11 to near neutral. Increase

Figure 4. Dissolved Oxygen (DO) in September 2009, July 2011, May 2015 and in August 2016 and ORP
profiles in July 2011 and August 2016 at DM7 station (left) and Bayur station (right)
in 2 units of pH was observed from 2009 to 2016. Lower pH in the bottom water is probably due to highorganic acids as intermediate compounds produced by anaerobic degradation of organic carbon by
microbial activity (). High conductivity observed in 2011 where the lake is in hypereutrophic condition(Henny and Nomostaryo, 2016). High conductivity indicates high salts concentration in the water (Stummand Morgan, 1996).
Distribution of CO2 and CH4
Concentration of CO2 in Lake Maninjau ranged from 0.0002 – 0.003 mmol L-1 in 2009 to 0.002 - 0.007
mmol L-1 in 2015 and 2016 in the surface water of epilimnion layer and ranged from 0.1 mmol L-1 in 2009
to about 0.63 mmol L-1 in 2015 in the anoxic bottom waters giving the total amount of (Figure 6). The
concentrations of CO2 in the area where most cage aquaculture were slightly higher than those in the
deepest area (DM7 station) at the same depth, although in deep anoxic hypolimnion CO2 concentrations561

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

were pretty close. The amount of CO2 in lake Maninjau is much lower than the amount of CO2 in Lake
Matano accounted about 4 mmol L-1 (Crowe et al, 2010) and much smaller than those in Lake Manoun andNyos (Africa) of about 108 and 1010 mol in hypolimnion water (Evans et al, 2010).

Figure 5. Depth profiles of pH and conductivity of Lake Maninjau at DM7 station (left) and Bayur station(right)
The flux of CO2 from Lake Maninjau ranged from (- 2.4) – (- 3.17) mmol m2d-1 (Table 1) indicating that thelake acts as a CO2 sink. No substantial different is observed between two sampling stations suggesting thatthe organic carbon accumulation also occurs in the deeper station with no cage aquaculture.
Biogenic CH4 accumulates to high concentrations (up to 1.5 mmol L-1) in deep anoxic hypolimnion waters,
which contain a total of 158.5 tons CH4. No substantial increase has been observed on the concentrationsof CH4 from 2012 to 2015 except at depth of 20 m. The lake emits around 4.9 mmol m 2 d-1 of CH4. Incomparison, the deepest and the largest volume of anoxic bottom water, the tectonic ultra oligotrophic lakeof Matano (35 km 3), contains 7.4 x 105 metric ton of CH4 with about the same concentration (Crowe et al,2010)
In comparison with both subtropical and temperate lakes, Lake Maninjau emits much higher CH 4 (1788
mmol m-2 annually) with range of 0.5 – 1 mmol m-2 d-1 (30 – 365 mmol m-2 annually) but much less CO2.
Both subtropical and temperate lakes emit as high as > 25 - 31 mmol m-2 d-1 (Xing et al, 2005; Demarty et
al, 2009).

562

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 6. Depth profiles of CO2 in September 2009, July 2011, May 2015 and in August 2016 and CH4 in
July 2012 and May 2015
Table 1. Flux of CO2 in Lake Maninjau
Year
DM7
Bayur
2009
-3.02
-2.40
2011
-3.17
-3.09
2015
-2.74
2016
-2.67
-2.78
CH4 and CO2 were positively correlated with high Pearson coefficient correlation (0.9841; p< 0.01). The
results indicate that high CO2 production is readily transformed in to CH4 by methanogens in hypolimnion.
Lake Maninjau generates amount of sulphides as high as 400 μg/L in hypolimnion anoxic water. Sulfides
total detected were high in the water at depth of 20 − 30 m (Henny and Nomsatryo, 2012, 2016). To see
whether there is influence of sulphate reduction on CH4 and CO2 generation, the correlation between CH 4
and CO2 and sulphides total were performed. Both CH4 and CO2 and sulphides total were positively
correlated (r= 0. 8436 and 0.8176; p<0.01). The results indicate that sulphate reduction bacteria activity
does not outcompete methanogens due to abundant carbon sources from the input waste. Lake Maninjau
has been in highly eutrophic condition since 2009 (Henny and Nomosatryo, 2016). Range of TN, TP and
Chlorophyll-a concentrations at time of measurements were 0.65 – 0.85 mg/L; 0.02 – 0.08 mg/L and 10 –25 mg/L respectively. Total Organic Matter (TOM), Volatile Suspended Solids (VSS) were about 13 – 23
mg/L and 20 – 30 mg/L respectively in 2016. Where in 2009 the concentrations were < 10 mg/L. Estimationof average of organic waste input based on the number of units of cage aquaculture was around 6650 ton
per year and around 15000 ton/yer in 2006 – 2008. That gave the estimation of organic waste accumulationin the lake from cage aquaculture from 2000 to 2014 reached at about 111885 ton (Junaidi et al, 2014).
Deep profile volatile solids considered as organic constituents in the sediments showed accumulation oforganic waste at 10 – 20 cm depth in DM7 station in 2009 (Henny and Nomosatryo, 2009). Estimation of
40 – 60 % C organics out of VSS concentration was observed in the surface sediments (Henny, 2008).
High accumulation of organic carbon in Lake Maninjau sediment, which is indeed as allochthonous carbon,
would result in high organic carbon burial efficiency. Allochthonous carbon influences lake metabolism andsubsequently CO2 and CH4 generation (Sobek et al, 2009; Hanson et al, 2003).
Lake Maninjau has been highly eutrophic since 2009. Sulfide oxidation and high oxygen consumption
derives from microbial activity have pushed oxycline upward and increased the thickness of anoxic
hypolimnion (Henny, 2009; Henny and Nomostryo, 2016). Eutrophication also increases the input of
autochthonous OC to the sediment, which is further mineralized than buried in the sediments. Oxygen563

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

consumption during OC mineralization leads to anoxic bottom waters, which is typically observed ineutrophic stratified lakes as in Lake Maninjau (Sobek et al, 2009). Based on TP, TN and Chlorophyll-aconcentrations at the time of measurements, CO2 flux and TP, TN and Chlorphyll-a were positively
correlated with Pearson coefficient correlation (r) of 0.7491 and 0.5145 and 0.8430 respectively (p<0.01).
CO2 concentrations were positively associated with lake trophic state and one important factor contributing
to high CO2 supersaturation and emission was sediment respiration due to carbon burials. Depth distribution
indicated strong CO2 accumulation in hypolimnetic waters during the stratification periods (Santoso et al
2017; Kortelainen et al, 2006).
Although the lake acts as CO2 sink, the accumulation of CO2 and CH4 in the bottom water is substantiallyhigh. The lake is weakly stratified with permanent anoxic hypolimnion and with weather driven lake mixing,
the lake could release elevated CO2 and CH4 to the atmosphere. Surface and bottom temperatures attropical caldera lakes near times of seasonal lake overturn differ only slightly. Unusually high winds, coolsurface temperatures, or heating through the caldera floor can destabilize them and cause overturn(Newhall et al, 1987). During overturn, oxygen-poor, H2S-rich bottom water rises to the surface, displacing
oxygenated surface water and often resulted in mass kill-fish. Overturn can also release dangerous
amounts of CO2 and CH4 gas, as at Lake Nyos (Evans et al, 2012). Considering the amount of gasses in
the lake bottom, limnic eruption would be improbable. Elevated CO 2 and CH4 emission from the lake canmake significant contribution to global climate change
CONCLUSIONSThe lake indicates substantially high CO2 and CH4 accumulation in the anoxic hypolimnion during thestratification periods. The lake acts as CO 2 sink and emit considerable amount of CH4. The fact that thelake is weakly stratified and frequent lake mixing causing lake overturn, not only anoxic H2S-rich bottom
water rises to the surface displacing oxygenated surface, high amount of CO 2 and CH4 in the bottom water
could escape as well. Elevated CO2 and CH4 emission from the lake can make significant contribution to
global climate change. The study also suggests that although high enough, the concentration of CO 2 andCH4 is not likely to cause limnic eruption.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The research is funded by Indonesian Government. We thank Sutrisno and Rudi for technical assistanceand sampling.
REFERENCES
1. Crowe S. A., Katsev S., Leslie K., Sturm A., Magen C., Nomosatryo S., Pack M. A., Kessler J. D.,
Reeburgh W. S., Roberts J. A., Gonzales L., Haffner G. D., Mucci A., Sundby B. and Fowle D.A. 2010.
The methane cycle in ferruginous Lake Matano. Geobiology 9, 61–78. DOI: 10.1111/j.14724669.2010.00257.x
2. Chilingar G.V., Sorokhtin O.G., Khilyuk L.F., and Liu M. 2014. Do Increasing Contents of Methane andCarbon Dioxide in the Atmosphere Cause Global Warming?. Atmospheric and Climate Sciences. 4:819-827.
3. Demarty M. Bastien J and Tremblay A. 2009. Carbon dioxide and methane annual emissions from two
boreal reservoirs and nearby lakes in Quebec, Canada. Biogeosciences Discuss 6. 2939-2963.
4. Wiesenburg D.A. and GuinassoJr. N.L. 1979. Equilibrium solubilities of methane, carbon monoxide,and hydrogen in water and sea waterJ. Chem. Eng. Data , 24 (4), pp 356–360. DOI:
10.1021/je60083a006.
5. Evans W., Kling G., Tanyileke G., Kusakabe M. and Yoshida Y. 2012. Explanary report on the June
2012
field
expeditions
to
Lake
Nyos
and
Manoun,Cameroon.
https:\\photos.state.gov/libraries/cameroon/231771/PDFs/nyosreportusembassy2012.pdf
6. Hanson P. C., Bade D. L., Carpenter S. R. and Kratz T.K. 2003. Lake metabolism: Relationships with
dissolved organic carbon and phosphorus. Limnol. Oceanogr., 48(3),1112-1119.
7. Henny C. and Nomosatryo S. 2016. Changes in water quality and trophic status associated with cageaquaculture in Lake Maninjau, Indonesia. IOP Conf. Series: Earth and Environmental Science 31(2016) 012027 doi:10.1088/1755-1315/31/1/012027

564

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

8. Henny C. and Nomosatryo S. 2012a. Dinamika sulfida di Danau Maninjau: Implikasi terhadap
pelepasan fosfat di lapisan hipolimnion. LIMNOTEK. 19:2: 102-112
9. Henny C. and Nomosatryo S. 2012b. Nutrient Dynamicsin Lake Maninjau: Implication of fish cage
fishery. The Tenth International Symposium on South East Asia Water Environment. November 7 –11.
Hanoi Vietnam.
10. Henny C. 2009. Dynamics of biogeochemistry of sulfur in Lake Maninjau. Limnotek VIII(2): 35 -45
11. IPCC. 2014. Climate Change Synthesis Report. Summary for Policymakers Chapter.
https://www.ipcc.ch/pdf/assessment-report/ar5/syr/AR5_SYR_FINAL_SPM.pdf
12. Junaidi, Syandri H and Azrita. 2014. Loading and Distribution of Organic Materials in Maninjau LakeWest
13. Sumatra Province-Indonesia. J. Aqua. Res. Development 5:7. Open acess.
14. Kortelainen P., Rantakari M., Larmoni T., Mattsson T., Alm J., Juutinen S., LArmola T., Ilvola J.,
Martikainen P., 2006. Sediment respiration and lake trophic state are important predictors of large CO2
evasion from small boreal lakes. Global Change Biology 12: 1554–1567, doi: 10.1111/j.13652486.2006.01167
15. Lukman, Setyobudiandi I., Muchsin I. and Haryadi S. 2015. Impact of Cage Aquaculture on Water
Quality Condition in Lake Maninjau, West Sumatera Indonesia. International Journal of Sciences:
Basic and Applied Research. Volume 23, No 1, pp 120-137.
16. Santoso A. B., S. Nomosatryo and Henny C. 2011. CO2 emission and sink in Java Eutrophic Shallow
lakes. Procideengs of the 9th International Symposium on Southeast Asian Water and Environment.
209-2015. December 1-3, Bangkok.
17. Santoso A.B., Hamilton D. P., Hendy C. H. and Schipper L. A. 2017. Carbon dioxide emissions andsediment organic carbon burials across a gradient of trophic state in eleven New Zealand lakes.
Hydrobiologia. DOI 10.1007/s10750-017-3158-7
18. Sobek S., Durisch-Kaiser E., Zurbrugg R., Wongfun N., Wessels M., Pasche N., Wehrli B. 2009.
Organic carbon burial efficiency in lake sediments controlled by oxygen exposure time and sedimentsource. Limnol. Oceanogr., 54(6): 2243–2254
19. Stumm, W. and Morgan, J.J.(1996): Aquatic Chemistry, Chemical Equilibria and Rates in Natural
Waters, 3rd ed. John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 1022p.
20. Syandri H., Junaidi, Azrita and Yunus T. 2014. State of aquatic resources Maninjau Lake West
Sumatera Province, Indonesia. Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences . ISSN: 0976-9900 &E-ISSN: 0976-9919, Volume 5, Issue 1, pp.-109-113.
21. Weiss, RF, Price BA. 1980. Nitrous oxide solubility in water and seawater. Marine Chemistry. 8:347359.
22. Xing Y., Xie P., Yang H., Ni L., Wang Y., Rong K. 2005. Methane and carbon dioxide fluxes from ashallow hypereutrophic subtropicalLake in China. Atmospheric Environment 39: 5532–5540.

565

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

EVALUATION OF LAKE WATER QUALITY IN KLANG VALLEY USING MULTIVARIATESTATISTICAL TECHNIQUES
1, 3
Isa Baba Koki , Sharifuddin Md Zain1*, Low Kah Hin1, Hafizan Juahir2, Azman Azid2
Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Science, University Malaya, Kuala Lumpur 50603,
Malaysia, 2East Coast Environmental Research Institute (ESERI), University Sultan Zainal
Abidin, Kuala Terengganu, Malaysia, 3Department of Chemistry, Northwest University Kano,
PMB 3220 Kano Nigeria*Corresponding author: smzain@um.edu.my
1

ABSTRACT
Lakes are major sources of water for human consumption, domestic uses, and recreational purposes in
Malaysia, but suffered deterioration in water quality due to anthropogenic activities. This study investigates
the Physico chemical parameters and heavy metals distribution of five selected lakes at Klang Valley in
Malaysia to evaluate its quality status and possible sources of the identified pollutants. The physicochemical parameters analyzed were Dissolved Oxygen, pH, Biological Oxygen Demand, Ammoniacal
Nitrogen and metals include Cd, Mn, Pb, As, and Fe. The levels of these parameters were compared to
Malaysia’s interim national water quality standard. The multivariate statistical analysis methods applied
were Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) and Principal component analysis (PCA). The PCA shows PC1 isstrongly loaded with AN and Mn, and negative loading with DO and pH, while PC2 was strongly loaded with
As, Cd, Pb and Fe. HCA classified the sample sites into three clusters, and the results showed variations
in degree of pollution due to oxygen consuming organic pollutants possibly from domestic sewage, waste
water, and other anthropogenic sources. The lakes were classified as the most polluted, polluted and lesspolluted. There is a need to monitor the lakes to prevent further deterioration. Proper lake management andenvironmental law enforcements will assist in maintaining a healthy lake ecosystem.
Keywords: Klang Valley, Lake, Multivariate statistical analysis, Pollution, Water quality.
INTRODUCTION
Water is an invaluable resource requirement for the economic development of a nation as well as healthy
growth of plants and animals. Lakes are good source of water for beneficial purposes in many countries
but are threatened by continuous increase in human and industrial activities resulting in the deterioration of
the water quality and destroy the aquatic ecosystem. About 73 lakes were created in Malaysia for irrigation,
flood control and water supply. Most of the lakes are popular tourism and recreational centers, thus having
economic potentials. The greatest number of lakes in Malaysia lack sufficient mechanism for proper
management (Sharip & Zakaria, 2007). The pollution encountered in most of the lakes includes
eutrophication due to high concentrations of nitrogen, phosphorous and ammonia, and elevated heavy
metals concentrations due to sporting and racing activities. High coliform and faecal coliform rendered lakes
unsuitable for recreational purposes (Idris, 2007). The frequent racing and navigating on the lakes resulted
in the discharge of toxic heavy metals specifically lead and cadmium into the water and sediment (Sharip& Zakaria, 2007). Agricultural activities also contributed to the pollution of the lakes by increasing thesuspended solid and releasing pollutants such as Nitrate and Phosphate into the lakes (Shuhaimi-Othman
et al., 2007). Several studies of Malaysia’s lakes had documented pollution at various levels due todischarge of domestic effluent, industrial discharges or rain water runoff from urban areas (Kah Hin et al.,2016). The surface water quality of lakes is mainly influenced by human activities such as the use of
agricultural chemicals and effluent discharges (Niemi et al., 1990). It is therefore pertinent to control thewater pollution in the lakes and to establish monitoring programs so as to protect humans and aquaticorganisms. Hence the need for periodic monitoring of the lake water and carefully analyzing and interpreting
the water quality data matrix of physico-chemical and heavy metal parameters (Chapman, 1992).
Application of multivariate statistical technique such as principal component analysis (PCA) is important in
identifying the pollutants and their possible sources (Zhao et al., 2012). Many researchers applied thesetechniques for analysis of environmental data and arrive at useful information (Alkarkhi et al., 2009;
Reghunath et al., 2002; Vandendriessche et al., 2006). PCA is a statistical technique used to study thevariation and generate patterns in the data set. It explains maximum amount of variance by converting a566

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

set of observations of likely correlated parameters into a set of values of linearly uncorrelated parameters
called principal components (PCs). It provide an idea on the most important variable that describe the entire
set of data and gives the statistical correlation among parameters without altering the primary information(Alberto et al., 2001). PCA identified the parameter(s) responsible for the variation in water quality of thelakes. Hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) is an unsupervised classification technique measuring thesimilarity between parameters or objects to be clustered. The objects are grouped into clusters based on
similarities (Baharuddin et al., 2014). Objects that are most similar are first grouped and joined according
to their similarity. Finally, decreased similarity joined the groups into a separate cluster (Alkarkhi et al.,2009).
In this study, a set of data obtained from 5 selected lakes in Klang Valley were subjected to two way HCA
and PCA to obtain information on (a) the latent natural and anthropogenic pollutants, levels of the pollution,and probable sources of pollution to the lakes. (b) Similarities and/or dissimilarities between the lakes withrespect to the studied parameters. This was aimed at preserving the lake ecosystem and to project futuresources of pollutants for better management.
METHODS
Study Area
The study area is located in Selangor which comprises of Kuala Lumpur and neighboring cities. Klang
Valley is one of the most important regions of Malaysia in terms of human and economic development. It
can also be regarded as a greater Kuala Lumpur. In this study, assessment of the lakes water quality wasconsidered so as to arrive at a conclusion on their general water quality status considering the increased
recreational activities in Malaysia.
Table 1: Description of sampling locations
Sample
Code
TJYA
TPJY
Coordinate
N 03 06' 17.8"
N 02 55' 12.5"
E 101 38' 53.0" E 101 40' 52.6"
District
Petaling Jaya
Putrajaya

TPDN
N 03 08' 31.9"
E 101 41' 06.5"
Kuala Lumpur

TSHA
N 03 04' 27.0"
E 101 30' 47.3"
Shah Alam

TSH7
N 03 04' 42.4"
E 101 29' 28.7"
Shah Alam

Sample preparation and analysis
Field sampling was conducted in the five lakes described above, surface water samples were collectedusing the Wildco vertical water sampler. About three replications for the water samples were collected at asampling point. Different parameters like ammoniacal nitrogen (AN), pH, and dissolved oxygen (DO) were
accurately measured insitu using YSI Pro Multi parameter Water Quality Meter. BOD was measured at thetime of sampling using a modern water portable meter. Few drops of conc. HNO3 (Suprapur) was applied
to the water samples in polyethylene bottles (Previously soaked in acid solution) for preservation, andtransported to the laboratory in ice boxes (Muhammad et al., 2011). The samples were coded as follows;
Perdana (TPDN), Taman Jaya (TJYA), Shah Alam (TSHA and TSH7) and Putrajaya Lake (TPJY) (Table
1).
Heavy metal analysis
Water samples were filtered with a 0.45 µm pore size filter paper and analyzed for Cd, Pb, As, Mn, and Fe
with inductively coupled plasma mass spectrophotometer (Model 7500ce). All the working conditions of the
ICP-MS and the standards to obtain optimum metal concentrations were monitored and maintained. The
calibration standard and blank preparation was done with ultrapure water produced from water deionizer.
The calibration stock solution of 1000 mg/L and 10 mg/L (Agilent, New castle) was prepared for Fe, and for
Cd, As, Pb, and Mn respectively. A detailed quality control and validation was done using standard
reference material (Merck, Germany) so as to ensure the reliability of the results. All the plastic wares usedin the analysis were soaked in 15% HNO3 (v/v), and subsequently rinsed twice with ultrapure water. A good
metal recovery of the reference material was obtained; the reagent blanks and standard reference materials
were synchronized accordingly with the samples and analyzed. All analyses were carried out in triplicate(Haydar et al., 2014).

567

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Data Analysis
The calculations of means and range of the experimental values were carried out using MS Excel 2013,
and the results applied to identify the differences among the sample locations. The statements describedin this study were reported at p<0.05 levels. JMP Pro 12 statistical software was used for the multivariate
statistical analysis. HCA and PCA were used to analyze the data of the selected water quality parameters.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSThe basic statistics for the 9 water quality parameters in the lakes were calculated. The selection was basedon the importance of the parameter in the past lake water researches. There were significant variations in
the concentrations of the parameters analyzed. The differences are significant at p<0.05 and found to bein the following ranges; Cd, 0.02 - 12.18 µg/L; As, 1.03 - 14.91 µg/L; Pb, 0.04 – 4.60 µg/L; Fe, 144.2 - 1575
µg/L and Mn, 35.25 – 411.34 µg/L. For the physico chemical parameters are DO, 1.27 - 4.51 mg/L; pH,
7.44 - 8.71; AN, 0.02 - 0.55 mg/L and BOD, 1.98 - 8.96 mg/L.
The measured dissolved metal concentrations were generally low. The heavy metals (Cd, As, Pb) were
found to be below class IIB (Table 2) Malaysia’s interim national water quality standard (INWQS) of 0.003,
0.05 and 0.01 mg/L for cadmium, lead and arsenic respectively (DOE, 2012), except for cadmium
concentrations of 12.17 µg/L in Putrajaya lakes (TPJY) (Fig.1). The TPJY also record the highest
concentration of Pb among the lakes studied. This could be due to successive movements of the motorized
power boats and other sports activities (Abdullah, 2013; Ebrahimpour & Mushrifah, 2008). The lowest Pb
concentration of 0.05 µg/L was obtained in Shah alam lake (TSHA). Analysis of water samples from Chinilake reveals highest Pb and Cd concentrations of 18.7 µg/L and 0.36 µg/L respectively (Ebrahimpour &Mushrifah, 2008). However, the highest As and Pb concentrations in Timah Tasoh lake were 12.60 µg/L
and 2.37 µg/L respectively, these values were below Malaysian INWQS (Permulaan, 2014). Findings on
Chini lake confirmed the lake to be free from heavy metal pollutants based on the sediment and fishsamples analysis (Ahmad & Shuhaimi-Othman, 2010). Therefore, domestic effluents and human activities
around the lakes were mostly the major sources of pollution.
For the physico-chemical characteristics of the lakes water, the pH values of the water samples studied
was found to be within Malaysia’s INWQS of 6 to 9 (DOE, 2012). pH is an essential parameter that
determines the fitness of water for diverse utilization (Ahipathy & Puttaiah, 2006). Similar results wereobtained in Chini lake with a mean pH of 6.49 (Shuhaimi-Othman et al., 2007). It was observed that theAmmoniacal nitrogen (AN) of 0.33 µg/L and 0.49 µg/L respectively for TJYA and TSH7 was higher than
Malaysia’s class IIB INWQS. This could be as a result of domestic sewage and agricultural runoff. This
result is similar to findings on lake water studies (Solanki et al., 2010; Zhao et al., 2012). Conversely, low
AN was obtained in surface water of Bukit Merah lake which is attributed to a very low or absence of sewage
discharge into the lake, the major pollution sources to the lake were found to be from infrastructuraldevelopments (Akinbile et al., 2013). Oxygen depletion is a major sign of pollution in water bodies due toits importance for the survival of aquatic organisms. Sufficient DO in water is considered satisfactory forhuman consumption and aquatic organisms (Sánchez et al., 2007). Dissolve oxygen values in all the lakes
studied were found to be below Malaysia’s INWQS of 5 mg/L, this corresponds to the high BOD in all thelakes above the class IIB INWQS of 3 mg/L except for Putrajaya (TPJY) lake with BOD of 2.1 mg/L. Similar
results on pollution of the lakes by oxygen depletion were obtained (Kazi et al., 2009; Solanki et al., 2010).
Previous findings on water quality status of the three major lakes in Malaysia (Bera, Loagan Bunut andChini) reveals water quality deterioration due to high nutrient and organic matter contents as a result of
surface run off, sewage discharges, logging activities and oil spill from motorist boats (Chong, 2007; Idris,
2007; Nik & Sayok, 2007; Shuhaimi-Othman et al., 2007).
Table 2. Malaysia’s Interim national water quality standard values (DOE, INWQS)
Class
Use
As
Cd
Pb
Mn
Fe
pH
IIB
Recreational activities
0.05 0.01 0.05
0.1 1.00 6-9
Metals are given in mg/L, physico chemical parameters in mg/L, pH (no unit)

568

DO
5-7

BOD
3

AN
0.3

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

0.06
Conc (mg/L)

0.05

MPL

0.04
0.03

As

0.02
0.01
0
TJYA

TPDN

TSHA

TSH7

TPJY

Sample site
0.014
Conc (mg/L)

0.012
0.01

MPL

0.008
0.006

Cd

0.004
0.002
0
TJYA

TPDN

TSHA

TSH7

TPJY

Sample site
0.06
Conc (mg/L)

0.05

MPL

0.04
0.03
Pb

0.02
0.01
0
TJYA

TPDN

TSHA
Sample site

569

TSH7

TPJY

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

0.5Conc (mg/L)

0.4
0.3
Mn

0.2

MPL

0.1
0
TJYA

TPDN

TSHA

TSH7

TPJY

Sample site

Conc (mg/L)

2
1.5
1

MPL
Fe

0.5
0
TJYA

TPDN

TSHA

TSH7

TPJY

Conc (mg/L)

Sample site
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

LPL

DO

TJYA

TPDN

TSHA
Sample site

570

TSH7

TPJY

Conc (mg/L)

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

BOD

MPL

TJYA

TPDN

TSHA

TSH7

TPJY

Sample site
0.6
Conc (mg/L)

0.5
0.4

MPL

0.3

AN

0.2
0.1
0
TJYA

TPDN

TSHA

TSH7

TPJY

pH

Sample site

10
9
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0

MPL

LPL
pH

TJYA

TPDN

TSHA

TSH7

TPJY

Sample site
MPL = Maximum permissible limit
LPL = Lower permissible limit
Figure 1. Levels of heavy metals and physicochemical parameters in water samples from selectedlakes inKlang Valley, Selangor with respective Malaysia’s (Class IIB) interim national water
quality standard limits (dotted line).

571

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Principal Component Analysis
The PCA bi-plot of PC1 against PC2 shows principal component loadings with respect to each parameterstudied (Fig. 2). Based on the correlation matrix, the PCA (Table 3) gives three extracted principal
components with 95 % of the total variance in the data set, in which the eigenvectors grouped the 9 metaland physico-chemical parameters into three sets. Selection of the three most significant principal
components was based on eigenvalue >1 (Zhang et al., 2009). The first principal component (PC1)accounted for 55 % of the total variations and shows strong positive loadings on AN and Mn, and strong
negative loadings on DO and pH. The loadings in PC1 indicate parameters responsible for anthropogenic
pollution as a result of discharge of domestic sewage (Gazzaz et al., 2012; Shuhaimi-Othman et al., 2007),
this shows the level of organic pollution of the lakes. The parameters with negative sign suggest an inverse
relation with other parameters (Atanacković et al., 2013). It was reported that decomposition of organic
matter results in low pH with corresponding decrease in DO (Kurosawa et al., 2006; Wetzel, 1983). The Mn
in this category is naturally found abundantly on earth crust and easily gets to the environment by soilleaching (Simeonov et al., 2003). The second principal component (PC2) accounted for 32 % of the total
variance and indicates strong positive loadings for As, Cd, Pb and Fe which is likely associated with soilleaching process, vehicle traffic, and industrial discharge (Sekabira et al., 2010; Simeonov et al., 2003;
Willis & McDowell, 1982). Lastly the third principal component (PC3) with variance of 8.4 % was loadedwith As, BOD and pH, and strong negative loadings on DO and AN signifying dominance of organic matter
which could be due to domestic waste discharge and natural background concentration (Alkarkhi et al.,2009; Moore & Ramamoorthy, 2012).

Figure 2. Bi-plot shows coordinates of principal component based on the monitored parameters572

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Table 3. Principal component loadings and Eigen values on the correlation matrixes of thevariations explained by the extracted four principal components after varimax rotation
Variable
PC1
PC2
PC3
As
0.291470.397880.30856
Cd-0.24641
0.473210.04285Pb-0.20828
0.50614-0.02547
Mn
0.416530.18471-0.05343
Fe0.290410.42375
0.27450DO-0.42033
0.08841-0.34165
BOD
0.29482-0.33809
0.37732AN
0.358900.15702-0.59913
pH-0.40087
0.03359
0.45392
Eigen Value
6.35
4.85
1.02
Variability %
55
32
8.4
Cumulative %
55
87
95.4
Bold Parameters indicate contribution to the variation in the component
Hierarchical Cluster Analysis
Application of two-way cluster analysis to water quality data by wards method gives a dendrogram thatrevealed three groups (Fig. 3). Cluster 1 contained TJYA, TPDN, and TSHA, cluster 2 contained TPJY
while cluster 3 contained TSH7. The groupings show differences in physico-chemical properties and heavy
metal concentrations with respect to the lakes. Therefore the lakes water quality measured was shown to
be influenced by different pollution sources (Zhao et al., 2012). Two of the lakes in cluster 1 are polluted
with high organic matter content; the lakes received domestic sewages and waste water resulting in low
DO and high BOD. TJYA was once declared the most polluted urban lake in Malaysia with the highest
number of pollution sources (Zubaidah Kasim & Rahman, 2013). The pollution in cluster 2 was due to highmetal concentrations and influence of organic matter due to many sports and recreational activities. The
pollution in cluster 3 is due to low DO, high BOD, AN, Mn, and as due to industrial run off, domestic waste
and effluent discharges. This cluster received pollution from point and non-point sources with highest
average concentrations As, Fe, Mn, AN and BOD. A suggestion was made on the association of As andlow DO, emphasizing that As concentration in low DO water samples was higher than well oxygenatedwater samples (Hinkle, 1997). High concentration of AN is related to microbial decomposition of organic
matter which consumed high amount of DO (Fig. 2), there by resulting in low oxidation-reduction potential
which consequently accelerate the release of As from sediment to the surrounding water (Kurosawa et al.,2006).

573

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

2

1

3

Figure 3. Dendrogram shows two-way clustering of lakes in Klang Valley bases on heavy metals andphysicochemical parameters
CONCLUSIONSApplication of multivariate statistical techniques to study the water quality of selected lakes in Klang
valley was successfully carried out. PCA identified the parameters responsible for the variations in water
quality, and the probable sources of pollution. PCA also showed three principal components responsible
for explaining about 95 % of the total variance in the data. And establish a single latent pollution source
which dominantly causes the deterioration of the lakes water quality as oxygen consuming organic
pollutant possibly related to discharge of domestic sewage and effluents. HCA grouped 15 sample
locations from 5 lakes into 3 groups based on similarity in water quality characteristics. It therefore
provides a practical classification of surface water for the prospective monitoring of pollution in the lakes
studied. The results of the study also demonstrate the applicability of multivariate statistical techniquesin the evaluation of water quality information, identifying the pollution sources for functional andsuccessful lake water management. An action should be taken to monitor and reduce sewage and otherdomestic effluents discharged into the lakes.
REFERENCES
1. Abdullah, A. (2013). Putrajaya Lake & Wetland: Water Quality Status.
2. Ahipathy, M., & Puttaiah, E. (2006). Ecological characteristics of vrishabhavathy River in Bangalore(India). Environmental geology, 49(8), 1217-1222.
3. Ahmad, А., & Shuhaimi-Othman, M. (2010). Heavy Metal Concentrations in Sediments and Fishes
from Lake Chini, Palian g, Malaysia. Journal of Biological Sciences, 10(2), 93-100.
4. Akinbile, C. O., Yusoff, M. S., Talib, S. H. A., Hasan, Z. A., Ismail, W. R., & Sansudin, U. (2013).
Qualitative analysis and classification of surface water in Bukit Merah Reservoir in Malaysia. Water
Science and Technology: Water Supply, 13(4), 1138-1145.
5. Alberto, W. D., del Pilar, D. a. M. a., Valeria, A. M. a., Fabiana, P. S., Cecilia, H. A., & de losÁngeles, B. M. a. (2001). Pattern Recognition Techniques for the Evaluation of Spatial andTemporal Variations in Water Quality. A Case Study:: Suquı́a River Basin (Córdoba–Argentina).
Water research, 35(12), 2881-2894.
6. Alkarkhi, A. F., Ahmad, A., & Easa, A. M. (2009). Assessment of surface water quality of selected
estuaries of Malaysia: multivariate statistical techniques. The Environmentalist, 29(3), 255-262.

574

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

7. Atanacković, N., Dragišić, V., Stojković, J., Papić, P., & Živanović, V. (2013). Hydrochemical
characteristics of mine waters from abandoned mining sites in Serbia and their impact on surface
water quality. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 20(11), 7615-7626.
8. Baharuddin, N., NOR’ASHIKIN, S., & Zain, S. M. (2014). Characterization of Spatial Patterns inRiver Water Quality Using Chemometric Techniques. Sains Malaysiana, 43(9), 1355-1362.
9. Chapman, D. (1992). Water Quality Assessment. In: Chapman D on behalf of UNESCO, WHO
and UNEP. London: Chapman & Hall
10. Chong, G. (2007). Tasek Bera: past, present and future. Paper presented at the Colloquium on
Lakes and reservoir management: status and issues. Ministry of Natural Resources andEnvironment, Putrajaya.
11. DOE. (2012). Department of Environment. Malaysia: Environmental Quality Act report, Ministry of
Science, Technology and the Environment, Putrajaya, Malaysia.
12. Ebrahimpour, M., & Mushrifah, I. (2008). Heavy metal concentrations in water and sediments in
Tasik Chini, a freshwater lake, Malaysia. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 141(1-3),
297-307.
13. Gazzaz, N. M., Yusoff, M. K., Ramli, M. F., Aris, A. Z., & Juahir, H. (2012). Characterization of
spatial patterns in river water quality using chemometric pattern recognition techniques. Marine
Pollution Bulletin, 64(4), 688-698.
14. Haydar, C. M., Nehme, N., Awad, S., Koubaissy, B., Fakih, M., Yaacoub, A., Toufaily J., Viller F.,
Hamieh, T. (2014). Assessing contamination level of heavy metals in the lake of Qaraaoun.
Lebanon. Physics Procedia, 55, 285-290.
15. Hinkle, S. R. (1997). Quality of shallow ground water in alluvial aquifers of the Willamette Basin,
Oregon, 1993-95: US Dept. of the Interior, US Geological Survey.
16. Idris, M. (2007). Tasik Chini: sustaining environmentally sensitive areas. Paper presented at the
Colloquium on lakes and reservoir management: status and issues. NAHRIM, Putrajaya.
17. Kah Hin, L., Isa Baba, K., Hafizan, J., Azman, A., Shima, B., Rabia, I., Hamisu Aliyu, M.,
Sharifuddin, M. Z. (2016). Evaluation of water quality variation in lakes, rivers, and ex-mining ponds
inMalaysia(review).
Desalination
and
Water
Treatment,
1-25.
DOI:10.1080/19443994.2016.1185382.
18. Kazi, T., Arain, M., Jamali, M., Jalbani, N., Afridi, H., Sarfraz, R., Baig, J., Shah, A. Q. (2009).
Assessment of water quality of polluted lake using multivariate statistical techniques: A case study.
Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 72(2), 301-309.
19. Kurosawa, K., Nguyen Hai, D., Huu Thanh, N., Thi Lam Tra, H., Thi Le Ha, T., Tat Canh, N., &Egashira, K. (2006). Temporal and spatial variations of inorganic nitrogen levels in surface andgroundwater around Hanoi, Vietnam. Communications in soil science and plant analysis, 37(3-4),
403-415.
20. Moore, J. W., & Ramamoorthy, S. (2012). Heavy metals in natural waters: applied monitoring andimpact assessment: Springer Science & Business Media.
21. Muhammad, S., Shah, M. T., & Khan, S. (2011). Health risk assessment of heavy metals and theirsource apportionment in drinking water of Kohistan region, northern Pakistan. Microchemical
Journal, 98(2), 334-343.
22. Niemi, G. J., DeVore, P., Detenbeck, N., Taylor, D., Lima, A., Pastor, J., Yount, D., Naiman, R. J.
(1990). Overview of case studies on recovery of aquatic systems from disturbance. Environmental
management, 14(5), 571-587.
23. Nik, A. R., & Sayok, A. K. (2007). Efransjah and Sapuan Ahmad. 2007. Issues Affecting the
Sustainability of Loagan Bunut Lake, Sarawak. Paper presented at the and Paper presented at the
Colloquium on Lakes and Reservoir Management: Status and Issues.
24. Permulaan, K. (2014). Spatial Distribution of Physico-Chemical Parameter in Upstream Rivers andTimah Tasoh Lake, Perlis: Preliminary Study. Malaysian Journal of Analytical Sciences, 18(1), 148154.
25. Reghunath, R., Murthy, T. S., & Raghavan, B. (2002). The utility of multivariate statisticaltechniques in hydrogeochemical studies: an example from Karnataka, India. Water research,
36(10), 2437-2442.
26. Sánchez, E., Colmenarejo, M. F., Vicente, J., Rubio, A., García, M. G., Travieso, L., & Borja, R.
(2007). Use of the water quality index and dissolved oxygen deficit as simple indicators ofwatersheds pollution. Ecological Indicators, 7(2), 315-328.

575

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

27. Sekabira, K., Origa, H. O., Basamba, T., Mutumba, G., & Kakudidi, E. (2010). Assessment of heavy
metal pollution in the urban stream sediments and its tributaries. International Journal ofEnvironmental Science & Technology, 7(3), 435-446.
28. Sharip, Z., & Zakaria, S. (2007). Lakes and reservoir in Malaysia: management and researchchallenges. Paper presented at the Proceedings of Taal2007: the 12th World lake conference.
29. Shuhaimi-Othman, M., Lim, E. C., & Mushrifah, I. (2007). Water quality changes in Chini Lake,
Pahang, West Malaysia. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 131(1-3), 279-292.
30. Simeonov, V., Stratis, J., Samara, C., Zachariadis, G., Voutsa, D., Anthemidis, A., Kouimtzis, T.
(2003). Assessment of the surface water quality in Northern Greece. Water research, 37(17), 41194124.
31. Solanki, V. R., Hussain, M. M., & Raja, S. S. (2010). Water quality assessment of Lake Pandu
Bodhan, Andhra Pradesh State, India. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 163(1-4), 411419.
32. Vandendriessche, S., Vincx, M., & Degraer, S. (2006). Floating seaweed in the neustonic
environment: a case study from Belgian coastal waters. Journal of Sea Research, 55(2), 103-112.
33. Wetzel, R. (1983). Limnology, Saunders. Received: 5 January 2005 Accepted: 31 March 2005
Amended: 21 April 2005.
34. Willis, G. H., & McDowell, L. L. (1982). Pesticides in agricultural runoff and their effects on
downstream water quality. Environmental Toxicology and Chemistry, 1(4), 267-279.
35. Zhang, Y., Guo, F., Meng, W., & Wang, X.-Q. (2009). Water quality assessment and source
identification of Daliao river basin using multivariate statistical methods. Environmental monitoring
and assessment, 152(1-4), 105-121.
36. Zhao, Y., Xia, X., Yang, Z., & Wang, F. (2012). Assessment of water quality in Baiyangdian Lakeusing multivariate statistical techniques. Procedia Environmental Sciences, 13, 1213-1226.
37. Zubaidah Kasim, & Rahman, I. (2013). Application of Aquatic Plants Phytoremediators as GreenTechnology Treatment in Polluted Urban Lakes Ecology. Advances in Space Research & Earth
Exploration, 1(1).

576

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

WATER QUALITY IMPACT ON FISH CULTURED IN LAKE TUTUD, NORTH SULAWESI,INDONESIA
1*
Suzanne Lydia Undap , Reiny Tumbol1 and Sandra Tilaar1
Faculty of Fisheries and Marine Sciences, Sam Ratulangi University, Kampus Kleak,
Manado, 95115, Indonesia*Corresponding author: suzanneundap@unsrat.ac.id

1

ABSTRACT
Lake Tutud is a lake located in North Sulawesi, Indonesia. The estimate terrain elevation above seallevel is 390 meters. Latitude: 1°2'40.56", Longitude: 124°41'49.55". We determined the current
condition of the water quality of Lake Tutud in terms of physical and chemical parameters in a fish
farming location, Tombatu village. The determination of sampling points at each station was placed
vertically at three predetermined points from the guard house toward the front of the net, the distance
between one point to the next point was ± 15 m; whereas the analysis of water quality parameters wasdone using a HORIBA water quality checker type U-536. Determination points were done by purposive
sampling which refers to the physiographic location wherever possible in order to represent or describe
the water condition. The research was carried out for 6 months and done in 3 stages - morning,
afternoon and evening. Direct measurement (in situ) was performed once a week at the three points
which included parameters pH, temperature, conductivity, DO, Oxidation reduction potential, turbidity,
TDS, depth and GPS. In conclusion, the water quality condition at the aquaculture site still complies towater quality standard according to PP No.82 of 2001.
Keywords: Aquaculture, Lake Tutud, Water Quality
INTRODUCTION
Lake is one of the natural resources that can be utilized to increase demand and meet human nutrition,such as the development of fish farming business (Zonneveld et al, 1991). Lake Tutud, one of naturallakes in North Sulawesi, is located in Southeast Minahasa Regency and has been used as hatchery forfish by village communities Tombatu 3. In recent years, based on the results of interviews with fish
farmers in the village Tombatu 3, it was revealed that their cultured fish are often stricken with thedisease in certain seasons. In fact, in 2015 the cases of mass death of fish farming in Lake Tutud
emerged, and caused 3,000 fish loss. The case shows that Lake Tutud has problems of water quality
degradation affecting the health of fish leading to a high fish mortality rate.
To determine whether good or not the water quality, the measurement is based on various parametersof water quality either biological, physical or chemical. Physical parameters such as temperature andchemical parameters are dissolved oxygen and pH of the environment is a limiting factor, if it does not
qualify the needs of farmed fish will have an impact on the health of the fish. So that the water quality
standard size of the health condition of the fish.
Recognizing the importance of aquaculture activities on Lake Tutud, observation of water quality
monitoring of physcisc and chemistry in the area needs to be done, to get the current data for fishcultured in Lake Tutud with reference to regulation government No. 82 of 2001 on water quality
management and control water pollution. Accordingly, it can be seen the impact of water quality on thehealth of fish in aquaculture development area in Lake Tutud (Figure 1).
METHODSThe determination of sampling points at each station was placed vertically at three predetermined points
from the guard house toward the front of the net, the distance between one point to the next point was± 15 m; whereas the analysis of water quality parameters was done using a HORIBA water quality
checker type U-536. Determination points were done by purposive sampling which refers to thephysiographic location wherever possible in order to represent or describe water condition. The
research was carried out for 6 months and done in 3 stages - morning, afternoon and evening. The
direct measurement (in situ) was performed once a week at the three points which included parameterspH, temperature, conductivity, DO (Dissolved Oxygen), ORP (Oxidation Reduction Potential), turbidity,
TDS (Total Dissolved Solids), depth and GPS (Global Positioning System).

577

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Lake Tutud
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Temperature
Based on the results of temperature measurements, Lake Tutud had a variation on temperature
between 26.82ºC - 32.04ºC (Figure 2). Temperature has a significant effect on the exchange process
or metabolism of living beings. In addition to affecting the process of exchange of substances,temperature also affects the amount of oxygen dissolved in the water, it also gives impacts on growth
and appetite of fish (Pujiastuti et al, 2013). In addition, temperature affects the solubility of oxygen in
the water, where the higher the temperature the lower the level of dissolved oxygen (Buttner et al, 1993),
which in turn have an impact on the concentration of dissolved oxygen in the water.

Figure 2. Temperature (oC) at different stations
pH of water (Figure 3.) affects fertility because it affects the life aquatic microorganisms. Acidic waters
will be less productive, even kills fish farming. At low pH (high acidity), dissolved oxygen content will be
reduced, as a result of decreased oxygen consumption, respiratory activity rose and appetite will be
reduced. The opposite occurs in alkaline conditions (Koordi and Tancung, 2007).

578

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 3. pH at Different Stations
Dissolved oxygen (DO)The results of the measurement of dissolved oxygen (DO) at all sampling points in the area of cultivation
nets at Lake Tutud ranged from 1 to 5.5 mg/L as measured by HORIBA (Figure 4). DO measurement
results (5.5 mg/L) in the lake of Tutud were not that distinct to that as measured by de Breving andRompas (2012). As well as results of research Tatangindatu et al (2013) the value DO in the village ofLake Tondano Paleloan ranged from 7.41 to 7.77 mg / L, where the position of village Paleloan are rightacross the village of Lake Tondano Toulimembet.
However, based on research results Kamsuri et al (2013), which was run in March-April 2013, the DOvalues ranged from 3.88 to 6.39 mg / L. While the distribution of DO value on the results of this study
between 6.31 to 10.2 mg / L. Values DO experiencing an upward trend and were higher as comparedto the results of previous studies. This shows that in the waters of Lake Tondano Village Toulimembet
fitness level of the water in 2014 is better when compared to the year 2013.
The values of DO in the waters of the lake in the village of Toulimembet already exceeded the Standardsof Quality of Water Quality set in Government Regulation PP No. 82 in 2001 on Water Quality
Management and Pollution Control class I as a source for drinking water, which requires the value of
DO is > 6 mg / L and Class III minimum DO value is 3 mg / L (Tabel 1). Kordi and Tancung (2007), theDO level appropriate for fish cultivation is between 5- 7 mg / L. This shows the general level of DO in
the cultivation area is not polluted by biodegradable organic materials from the waste cultivation itself
so that the impact of the DO value is still appropriate for the health of fish cultivation.
Tabel 1. Government Regulation (PP. No. 82 in 2001)
Parameters
Class IClass III
Temperature
Deviation 3
Deviation 3(oC)(from natural)(from natural)
pH
6-9
6-9
DO (mg/L)
63579

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. DO at Differents Stations
CONCLUSIONS
The water quality condition at the aquaculture site still complies to water quality standards according to
PP No.82 of 2001.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors wish to acknowledge the financial support provided for this work as a fund from the
Directorate General for Higher Education, the community service, Indonesian Ministry of Research,
Technology and Higher Eduction through Sam Ratulangi University (UNSRAT) Manado, Indonesia.
REFERENCES
1. Buttner, J.K., Soderberg, R. W., Terlizzi, D.E. 1993. An Introduction To Water Chemistry In
Freshwater Aquaculture. Northeastern Regional Aquaculture Center (NRAC) Fact Sheet No. 1701993. University of Massachusetts.
2. Djokosetiyanto, A., Sunarma.,Widanarni. 2006. Perubahan Ammonia (NH3-N), Nitrit (No2-N) Dan
Nitrat (No3-N) Pada Media Pemeliharaan Ikan Nila Merah (Oreochromis Sp.) Di Dalam Sistem
Resirkulasi.Jurnal Akuakulture Indonesia 5 (1): 13-20.
3. Edyanto, C. B. H. 2005. Penelitian Kualitas Air Danau Aneuk Laot di Pulau Weh Propinsi Nangroe
Aceh Darussalam. Jurnal Teknologi Lingkungan edisi khusus: pp 115-124.
4. Elrania., Rusmaedi., Prasetio, A. B., Haryadi, J. 2010. Dampak Manajemen Pakan Dari Kegiatan
Budidaya Ikan Nila (Oreochromis Niloticus) Di Keramba Jaring Apung Terhadap Kualitas Perairan
Danau Maninjau
5. Efendi, H. 2003. Telaah Kualitas Air Bagi Pengelolaan Sumber Daya Dan Lingkungan Perikanan.
Penerbit Kansius. Yogyakarta.258 Hal.
6. Haro, D. D., Yunasfi,. Harahap, Z. A. 2013. Kondisi Kualitas Air Danau Toba Di Kecamatan
Haranggaol Horison Kabupaten Simalungun Sumatera Utara

580

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

7. Kordi, M. G dan A. B. Tancung.2007. Pengelolaan Kualitas Air Dalam Budidaya Perairan. Penerbit
Rineka Cipta. Jakarta. 208 pages.
8. Maniagasi, R., Tumembouw, S. S., Mundeng, Y. 2013. Analisis Kualitas Fisika Kimia Air Di Areal
Budidaya Ikan Danau Tondano Provinsi Sulawesi Utara. Budidaya Perairan 1 (2): 29-37.
9. Tatangindatu, F., Kalesaran, O., Rompas, R. 2013.Studi Parameter Fisika Kimia Air pada Areal
Budidaya Ikan di Danau Tondano, Desa Paleloan, Kabupaten Minahasa. Jurnal Budidaya Perairan
1 (2): 8-19.
10. Urbasa, P. A., Undap, S. L.,R. J. 2015. Dampak Kualitas Air Pada Budi Daya Ikan Dengan Jaring
Tancap Di Desa Toulimembet Danau Tondano. Jurnal Budidaya Perairan 3 (1): 59-67.
11. Zonneveld, N. Huisman, E.A. dan Boon, J.H. 1991. Prinsip-Prinsip Budidaya Ikan. Gramedia
Pustaka Utama. Jakarta. 318 pages.

581

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

WATER QUALITY AND DIVERSITY OF AQUATIC INSECTS IN HIGHLAND
AGRICULTURAL AREA, CHIANG MAI, THAILAND
Rungpailin Wongphutorn1 Manoj Potapohn2 and Chitchol Phalaraksh1,3 *Environmental Science Program, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai
50200, Thailand, 2Faculty of Economics, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai 50200,
Thailand, 3Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University, Chiang Mai
50200 Thailand*Corresponding author: chitchol.p@cmu.ac.th

1

ABSTRACTThe highland agricultural products are widely popular in Thailand. One of the most important rose
production area is located in Northern Thailand. In high production season, high volumes of chemicals
have been used for enhancing their products, which have also contaminated highland soil that erodedby rain and runoff to stream. The stream organisms have been affected by the chemical erosion. This
study was aimed to investigate physico-chemical parameters and diversity of aquatic insects fromupstream to downstream of Mae-Sa tributary streams in Buak Tuei Village, Pong Yang Sub-district,
Mae Rim District, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. The water samples and aquatic insects were collectedfrom 5 study sites of Mae-Sa tributary stream. The upstream sites located nearby agricultural area. The
results showed pH, water velocity, electric conductivity (EC), TDS, BOD 5 and ortho-phosphate weresignificant difference (p<0.05) between sampling sites. According to aquatic insect diversity, the highest
abundant in upstream were represented by Chironomidae, Simuliidae, and Gerridae family respectively,
whereas, the downstream sites were presented by Chironomidae, Simuliidae, Hydrosychidae andBaetidae respectively. The downstream sites showed higher diversity as they presented 27 of insectfamilies, while upstream sites presented only 17 families. As the results, upstream sites showed thehigher concentration of BOD5 and ortho-phosphate than downstream sites. Therefore, theseparameters might be affected to diversity of aquatic insects nearby agricultural area.
Keywords: water quality, highland agriculture, aquatic insects
INTRODUCTION
The increasing demand for agricultural products and the urbanization in lowland areas has led to the
expansion of permanent cultivation to the vulnerable slopes of the mountainous areas in northern
Thailand. The climate is characterized by the sequence of distinct rainy and dry seasons (Panuwet etal., 2008). To protect crops from diseases and to increase crop yields, the application of pesticides has
been intensified during the last decades. Rainfall-induced surface runoff is considered an importanttransport pathway of pesticide loss from agricultural fields. Thus, pesticide contamination in water
resources is a relevant environmental issue in this region (Ng and Clegg, 1997). Biological monitoringis an alternative approach in cases of sporadic and non-point sources of pollution. Different humanactivities can alter physical, chemical or biological processes associated with water resources and thus
modify the resident biological assemblages (EC – European Commission, 2000). Changes in species
richness and abundance can be a signal of impairment and together with other traditional measurement.
This may be used to register environmental degradation (Rosenberg and Resh, 1993). The advantagesof using biological indicators include long term assessments and higher sensitivity to detect subtle
changes in water quality and low concentrations of chemicals. Also, biological responses tend tointegrate the independent and interactive effects of many stressors, resulting in more robust indicators
than analysis of individual chemicals (Cairns et al.,1993). Therefore, this study was aimed to investigate
effects of agrochemical (pesticide and fertilizer information from farmer interviews) on physico-chemicalparameters and diversity of aquatic insects from upstream to downstream of Mae-Jha stream is a main
water resource of this area. This stream is tributary of Mae-Sa river. Mae-Jha stream located in Buak
Tuei Village, Pong Yang Sub-district, Mae Rim District, Chiang Mai Province, Thailand.
METHODS
Study sites:
The 5 studied sites (Figure 1) were located along Mae-Jha stream Mae-Sa tributary streams in Buak
Tuei village, Pong Yang Sub-district, Mae Rim District, Chiang Mai Province. Site 1 and 2 were
upstream sites and located along the rose production area, whereas, the site 3 to 5 were located indownstream sites respectively. The width of each sampling sites are less than 1 meter, which have also582

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferencecomposition of streambed substrates are diverse and characterized by rock, sand and muddy. Moreoverin site 5 is mainly consisted by cobble. Data was collected between June and October 2015.
Water quality parameters:
Physical and chemical parameters were on site measured and recorded in each time which consistedof pH, DO, electric conductivity, TDS, water and air temperature, and water velocity. In addition, water
samples were also taken and preserved for further laboratory analysis for BOD 5, nitrate-nitrogen,ammonia-nitrogen and ortho-phosphate according to APHA, AWWA, and WEF procedures.
Aquatic insect sample:
Kick method (Mustow, 2002) was used to collect aquatic insect samples. The Kick net was sampled
randomly by stepping and kicking at the left, centre and right stream banks within about 5 minutes overthe sampling area until an adequate number of aquatic insects was collected. After that, aquatic insect
samples were preserved in 95% ethanol and packed for further examination in the laboratory. Aquatic
insect samples were sorted, counted and identified mostly at genus level under stereoscopic
microscope.

Figure 1 Upstream to downstream of Mae-Jha stream, Mae-Sa tributary streams in Buak Tuei village
Analysis data:
The physico-chemical parameters were compared according to the Surface Water Quality Standard ofThailand. Shannon-Wiener Index (H́) which, accounts for both abundance and evenness (based on the
Shannon-Wiener index) was used to characterize species diversity. The higher biodiversity index mightreflect the more stable water quality which lower diversity may indicate an unstable community(Chiangthong and Phalaraksh, 2007). In addition, the Pearson correlation was used to analyze therelationship between aquatic insects and physico-chemical parameters.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The results showed that pH, velocity, conductivity, TDS, BOD5 and ortho-phosphate were significant
difference (p<0.05) between sampling sites. The highest pH was shown at site 5, whereas, watervelocity was between 0.27-0.47 m/s where the highest value at site 5. The conductivity was detected
between 62.0-114.9 µS/cm where the highest value was at site 1, whereas, TDS was detected between
31.4-57.3 mg/l where the highest value was shown at site 1 and site 5. The BOD5 were detected
between 0.38-1.04 mg/l where the highest value was found at site 2. For inorganic nutrients, the orthophosphate values were detected between 0.18-0.36 mg/l where the highest value was at site 1.
Physico-chemical characteristics in all sampling sites (Table1) can be classified from the Surface Water
Quality Standard of Thailand in class 2 (Very clean fresh surface water resources). Due to water volume
in site 1 and 2 are really low and there are located near rose production area. For this reason,
agrochemical that reaching from rose production area cannot flow into downstream, leading to the high583

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

level of conductivity, TDS and ortho-phosphate. The study of Tambo J. et al. (2010) in agriculture
intensified lands located in upper zone has been associated to increase soil concentrations in soilorganic matter, nitrate, potassium and contamination with phosphorus as well as pesticide residues(organophosphate and carbamates) and increased in the frequency of erosion, flooding and siltation in
the watershed. Pesticide and fertilizers from intensive agriculture can be the main problem for waterpollution in that area, especially in dry season, which is low runoff chemical.
Table 1 Mean values (±SD) of physico-chemical characteristics in the sampling sites.*P<0.05; NS = notsignificant
site

Temp (ºC)
Lux
pH
Air
Water
1 24.25 ± 4.88 21.04 ± 1.39 655 ± 165
6.5 ± 0.3
2 22.63 ± 2.69 21.30 ± 1.15 1208 ± 743 6.2 ± 0.2
3 23.88 ± 3.69 21.49 ± 1.70 710 ± 400
6.5 ± 0.2
4 23.69 ± 3.13 21.63 ± 1.73 4318 ± 1342 6.7 ± 0.2
5 26.13 ± 4.37 23.88 ± 1.59 9775 ± 4899 6.8 ± 0.2
P value***EC (µS/cm)

TDS (mg/l)

Velo. (m/s)

DO (mg/l) BOD5 (mg/l) NO3-N (mg/l) NH3-N (mg/l) Ortho-P(mg/l)

114.9 ± 9.2
62.0 ± 3.2
84.1 ± 6.1
101.6 ± 9.3
114.6 ± 3.1*

57.3 ± 7.5
31.4 ± 3.2
42.1 ± 2.9
50.3 ± 9.3
57.3 ± 3.1*

0.27 ± 0.20
0.27 ± 0.15
0.37 ± 0.04
0.39 ± 0.12
0.47 ± 0.21*

6.6 ± 0.6
6.3 ± 0.7
6.9 ± 0.6
6.4 ± 0.7
6.8 ± 0.3
NS

0.83 ± 0.21
1.04 ± 0.41
0.87 ± 0.30
0.38 ± 0.04
0.88 ± 0.38*

0.56 ± 0.09
0.60 ± 0.30
0.53 ± 0.08
0.59 ± 0.16
0.52 ± 0.17
NS

0.14 ± 0.04
0.20 ± 0.07
0.17 ± 0.06
0.16 ± 0.03
0.15 ± 0.04
NS

0.41 ± 0.16
0.28 ± 0.14
0.18 ± 0.03
0.24 ± 0.10
0.36 ± 0.17*−−−e e uation ere.

According to aquatic insect diversity, the downstream sites showed higher diversity as they presented
27 of insect families, while upstream sites presented only 17 families, the highest abundant in upstream
were represented by Chironomidae, Simuliidae, and Gerridae family respectively. Whereas, thedownstream sites were presented by Chironomidae, Simuliidae, Hydrosychidae and Baetidae. However,the correlation between number of aquatic insect taxa and physico-chemical parameters (Table 2),
which showed positive correlations with DO (dissolved oxygen) and ortho-phosphate. The negative
correlation was found in ammonia-nitrogen. Human activities along Mae-Jha stream are the source ofpollution, especially in agricultural areas. Moreover, seasonal can be effected to water volume in MaeJha stream and also relate to physico-chemical and biological parameter respectively.
Table 2 The correlation between number of aquatic insect taxa and physico-chemical parameters

CONCLUSIONSThe effect of the agrochemicals was not clear according to the related parameters such asconcentrations of nitrate-nitrogen and ammonium-nitrogen from fertilizers were not significantly different
along the study sites. Therefore, the concentrations of pesticides and related nutrients in both waterand soil samples are recommended to measure in the future study.

584

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to thank Freshwater Biomonitoring Research Laboratory, the Environmental Science
Program, Faculty of Science, Chiang Mai University and the Graduate School, Chiang Mai University.
REFERENCES
1. APHA, AWWA and WEF (1998) Standard method for the examination of water and wastewater.
20th Ed, American Public Health Association, Washington DC.
2. Cairns, J., Mccormick, PV. and Niederlehner, BR. (1993). A proposed framework for developing
indicators of ecosystem health. Hydrobiologia, vol. 263, p. 1-44.
3. Chiangthong K. and Phalaraksh C. (2007), Use of aquatic insects as Bioindicators of Water Qualityof Mae Kham Watershed, Chaing Rai Province, KKU. Res J.; 12(3): 277-288
4. European Commission (2000). Directive 2000/60/EC of the European Parliament and Council,
establishing a framework for Community action in the field of water policy. Official Journal of
European Parliament, no. 327, p. 1-72.
5. Mustow, S.E. (2002). Biological Monitoring of River in Thailand: Use and Adaptation of the BMWP
Score, Netherlands. Hydrobiologia 479: 191-229.
6. Ng., H.Y.F., Clegg, S.B. (1997). Atrazine and metolachlor losses in runoff events from anagricultural watershed: the importance of runoff components. Sci. Total Environ. 193, 215–228.
7. Panuwet, P., Prapamontol, T., Chantara, S., Thavornyuthikarn, P., Montesano, M.A., Whitehead,
R.D.and Barr, D.B. (2008). Concentrations of urinary pesticide metabolites in small-scale farmers
in Chiang Mai Province, Thailand. Sci. Total Environ. 407, 655–668.
8. Rosenberg and Resh (1993). Freshwaterbiomonitoring and benthic macroinvertebrates. New York:Chappman& Hall. p. 488.
9. Tambo J., Tajebe L., Deo-Gracias S., Houndolo O., Destaalen G., Grenda S. and Sarrazin J.
(2010). Agricultural Intensification: Determinants and Impacts in the Mae Ram Watershed ofNorthern Thailand. Conference on International Research on Food Security, Natural Resource
Management and Rural Development. Zurich.

585

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF SEDIMENT IN LAKE TEMPEUSING MULTIVARIATE ANALYSIS APPROACH
Siti Aisyah*
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences*Corresponding author: iis@limnologi.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACT
Lake Tempe located in South Sulawesi province is a lake having great potentials. One of them is its
function as the most important center for freshwater fish production in Indonesia. Problems that is quiteof them are sedimentation. One of the major problems facing this lake sedimentations. The sediment
was dominated by silt containing materials deposited through chemical and biological processes.
Multivariate statistical techniques, such as cluster analysis (CA) and principal component analysis(PCA), were applied in this study for analyzing physical and chemical characteristic of sedimentassociated with spatial and temporal variations in Lake Tempe. This study aimed to reveal
characteristics of sediment substrates in Lake Tempe. Sampling was conducted by using Ekman Grab
in March 2016 at six stations. The sediment samples were analyzed in the laboratory with parametersof total N, total P, total organic carbon, total organic matter (TOM), and particle size with three fractions(sand, silt, and clay) based on technical analysis methods of sediment. There are two components of
the PCA analysis result with varimax rotation. Sediment texture of River Bila, St. 1, and St. 3 werecharacterized by silt and clay with high Total N content and acidic pH. Whether that from Station 2, St.
4, and St. 5, were characterized by high Total P, C-organic and organic matter content. Results of thehierarchical cluster analysis, showed that three groups of sampling locations had specific characters.
St. 1 in Group I, St. 2 & St. 4 in Group II and St. 3, St. 5 and the mouth of River Bila in Group III.
Keywords: physical and chemical, characteristic, sediment, Lake Tempe, statistical
INTRODUCTION
At Present time, the environmental conditions of inland waters in Indonesia have been many degraded,both in quality and quantity. Various anthropogenic activities have been known to affect to the lakeecosystem, which include deforestation and land use change in the catchment area that can lead toerosion, sedimentation and changes in the hydrological cycle. Furthermore, the degree of exploitationand the rate of pollution tend to increase the utilization of water resources.
Lake Tempe is one of the large lakes in Indonesia located in the province of South Sulawesi, precisely
being shared by three districts namely Wajo, Sidrap and Soppeng. Geographically Lake Tempe islocated at 4o00'00"- 4o15'00" LS and 119o52'30 "- 120o07'30" BT. Lake Tempe was formed by adepression of Asian-Australian tectonic plates, located in the River Basin Walannae Cenranae.
The various issues have led to environmental degradation in Lake Tempe, sedimentation is of the major
issues. Siltation in Lake Tempe is due to the high rate of erosion and sedimentation (Dina et al., 2014).
Erosion is the process of the transfer or carryover of land or part of land from one place to another(Sinukaban, 1989). Increasing the amount of erosion and sedimentation will have a great impact on thelake. Silt derived from crushed rocks, or biological materials were transported through liquid and solids(sludge) were hovering inside, or deposited in the water (Selley, 1988). Erosion and sedimentation
cannot be separated from high deforestation rates in each watershed. Lake Tempe is influenced andaffected by three biggest watersheds. They are Walanae - Cenranae in the southern part, Bila in thenorth, and Tempe Depression / Stones in the West.
Morphology of Lake Tempe at present is thought to have reached the level of sedimentation equilibrium,
where the morphology at the moment is very suitable for breeding of aquatic life, especially fish. Soil
particles were carried through the process of erosion resulting in improvement of nutrients in the water
body. These nutrients have accelerated the process of eutrophication in the waters of Lake Tempe.
Explosion of plant growth might be one indicator that nutrient enrichment or eutrophication might havebeen occurred in Lake Tempe.
Multivariate statistical techniques have been applied to characterize and evaluate the condition of water
quality, because the technique is useful for verifying the variation of temporal and spatial caused bynatural and anthropogenic factors associated with the season. Several studies applied multivariate
statistics in the different ecosystems such as lake (Kazi et al., 2009), watersheds (Shrestha & Kazama,2007), and coastal waters (Vijay Kamble, 2011; Erlania & Radiarta, 2011). Multivariate statistic widelyused is the cluster analysis, principal component analysis, and factor analysis. The analysis is used to586

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

assist in the interpretation of complex data matrix to better understand of water quality and ecologicalstatus of the system being studied. Results of analysis sometimes create a new variable to reduce thenumber of original variables in the comparison and interpretation of data (Ragno et al., 2007)
Principal Component Analysis is a group of multivariate analysis whose main purpose is to classify theobject based on the characteristics they have. Component Analysis (CA) performed on the data thathas been standardized through scale transformation-Z (Z-scale). This transformation is to avoid
incorrect classification due to the variation of each unit water quality parameters; in addition,
standardizing can increase the influence of parameters a variant of small and otherwise far
the influence of parameters with large variance (Varol & Sen, 2009). PCA classifies objects sothat similar objects are grouped in the same cluster, in accordance with the criteria
used (Varol & Sen, 2009; and Vijay Kamble, 2011). PCA results from a group of objects should showa high similarity in the cluster and between clusters of high inequality. In this research,
agglomerative hierarchical clustering method from Ward (Ward's method) and squared Euclidean
distances CA were the methods used to measure the degree of similarity of objects. CA results can be
described in the form of dendogram (tree diagram).
METHODS
The study was conducted in Lake Tempe, Wajo, South Sulawesi Province. Sampling was conducted in
March 2016 within five stations spread over the observation location (Fig 1). Sampling was conductedusing Ekman Grab. Sediment samples were added to sealed container and then taken to the laboratory
for analysis. physical – chemical parameters. The parameters measured were Total N, Total P, TOM,
organic carbon and sediment textures (i.e. are silt, clay, and sand.
Sampels analysis was conducted by using method based on technical Guide of Soil analysis (Eviati &Sulaeman, 2009). Data analysis was using Microsoft Excel 10 and XLstat software.

Figure 1. Sampling Location in Lake Tempe
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Physical Characteristic
Analysis result of sediment sample in Lake Tempe during the study showed that there are three
sediment fractions, sand, silt and clay. Distribution of the average percentage of each fraction at eachstationcan be seen in Fig 2. It showed that the concentration of clay had the highest percentage ascompared to sand and silt across study sites. The highest percentage of clay was found in the Station
River Bila. Clay has the particle size of less than 2μ, the smallest of all the soil texture (Hardjowigeno,2007). The sediments containing a lot of clay fraction have a slow water exchange rate, it is caused by587

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

the small size of the clay particles. Consequently O₂ exchange brought by the water comes into thesediments to be obstructed (Emiyarti, 2004).

100

Percentage (%)

80
60
Clay
40

Silt

20

Sand

0
ST. 1

St. 2

ST. 3

ST. 4

ST. 5 R. Bila

Sampling site
Figure 2. Proportion of Sediment Texture
The second highest concentration of sediment texture from Lake Tempe is silt. Silt is one of theingredients of land which has a particle size that is smaller than 50μ to 2μ (Hardjowigeno, 2007).
Washing of the silt entering the area in the form of fine particles are carried by the flow of the river tothe lake. The main source of silt load is the result of weathering rinse the top layer of rock or soil in awatershed (Sudradjat et al, 1996 in Tamod, 1998).
Type of particles in Tempe Lake is relatively smooth. Sediment with the largest percentage in the formof fine particles showed that the sediment in Lake Tempe was derived from organic compounds anddeposition of the dissolved particles originating from the input streams that enter Lake Tempe.
Chemical characteristic
Organic Carbon & Total Organic Matter
The results of analysis of organic carbon in the sediments of Lake Tempe shown in Fig 3. The image
showed that the levels of C-organic sediments of Lake Tempe ranged between 3.44% - 16.86%. The
high concentration of organic carbon is suspected due to agricultural activities of communities around
Lake Tempe where the land management was carried out intensively ignoring the principles ofconservation land, there for it is more susceptible to erosion.

TOM
40

20

Concentration (mg/L)

Concentration (mg/L)

Organic Carbon
15
10

5

35
30

25
20
15
10
5

0

ST. 1

St. 2

ST. 3 ST. 4
Sampling site

ST. 5

R. Bila

0
ST. 1

St. 2

ST. 3

ST. 4

ST. 5

R. BilaSampling site

Figure 3. Distribution of Organic Carbon and TOM Concentration in Lake Tempe Sediment
Arsyad (2000) suggested the nutrient content of organic matter in the sediment and erosion results inhigher concentration than that in the soil left remained. This is partly due to the selectivity of erosion
events. Besides the top layer of soil contains nutrients higher than that from lower layers of the soil.

588

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Sediment is a deposit for a wide variety of the compound, one example is a deposit for the compoundof carbon and nitrogen. This is needed by aquatic plants and can potentially be the compound easily
available for the growth of aquatic organisms. Degradation of C and N will produce compound that is
easily absorbed by the aquatic organisms.
Total NitrogenFig 4 showed that concentration of total nitrogen in Lake Tempe sediments ranged between 0:35 % 0.77%. High concentration of total nitrogen is likely related to organic-C concentration found in
sediments of Lake Tempe. Nitrogen source in soil was mainly derived from organic matter after
atmospheric-N. Organic-N compounds in soil are generally present in the form of amino acids, proteins,amino sugars and complex compounds are difficult to determine. Complex compounds, among others,
are the reaction NH4+ - lignin polymerization of Quinon and nitrogen compounds and condensation ofsugar + amino (Leiwakabessy et al, 2003).

Total N
Concentration (%)

1.2
1

0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
ST. 1

St. 2

ST. 3
ST. 4
Sampling site

ST. 5

R. BilaFigure 4. Distribution of Total Nitrogen in Lake tempe Sediment
Total Phophorus
From the analysis of total phosphorus, it was shown that, the concentration of Total P in Lake Tempe
sediments ranged between 0.05% - 0.091% (Fig 5). Phosphorus concentration in Lake Tempe
sediment was not significantly different at α 0.05 (Kruskal-Walls) between sampling stations.
Leiwakabessy et al (2003) reported that, the levels of P-total in the soil are generally low and varydepending on the type of soil and phosphates in the soil are usually in the form of a relatively poorly
soluble. Arsyad (2000) also noted that, the number of lost nutrients is contingent upon the amount of
the nutrient content and the amount of sediment was carried away by erosion.

Total P
Concentration (%)

0.1
0.08
0.06
0.04

0.02
0

ST. 1

St. 2

ST. 3

ST. 4

ST. 5

R. BilaSampling time

Figure 5. Distribution of Total Phosphor in Lake Tempe Sediment589

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake ConferencepH
Fig 6 showed that the pH value of Lake Tempe sediments ranged from 6:27 to 6:43. Slightly acidic pH
value is due to the contribution of H+ ions derived from humus functional groups such as carboxyl (COOH) and phenol (-C6H4OH) and also enol and amide groups that can contribute to H + ion. As thecase of Total P. pH value of Lake Tempe sediments was also not significantly different between
sampling stations. This is probably due to the morphology that resembles a flat plate (type entropies)
to enable distribution of chemical and physical material evenly on the surface layer of sediment.

pH
Concentration

6.5
6.4
6.3
6.2

6.1
ST. 1

St. 2

ST. 3

ST. 4

ST. 5

R. BilaSampling site
Figure 6. pH Value in Lake Tempe SedimentMultivariate analysis
There are two components of the PCA analysis result with varimax rotation (Fig 7). Sediment textureof River Bila, St. 1, and St. 3 was characterized by silt and clay with high Total N content and pH withslightly acidic values. Station 2, St. 4, and St. 5 were characterized by high Total P, C-organic andorganic matter content.
Mouth of R. Bila, St. 1 and St. 3 are the locations strongly influenced by the river activities. Silt and clay
are texture considered to be optimal for agriculture (Foth, 1994). The content of clay comes from theriver, the material that is carried by the flow of water (run-off) from the surrounding areas, including
agriculture. This is supported by the high content of Total N in these locations. The high concentrationof Total N is supposed to be derived from anthropogenic pollutants from the surrounding area andagricultural activities. While the high content of organic matters and total P in St. 2, St. 4 and St. 5 isprobably caused by soil coarser particles (sand) that accumulate along with other organic materials.
Biplot (axes D1 and D2: 71.02 %)after Varimax rotation
2

St. 2
Total P

1.5

St. 5

C-org
TOM

D2 (28.16 %)

1

0.5
Clay

Sand
0
Silt
-0.5
St. 1

-1

St. 3
Total NpH

St. 4

R. Bila

-1.5
-2

-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

D1 (42.87 %)Figure 7. Principle Analysis Component with Varimax Rotation590

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Result of the hierarchical cluster analysis (Figure 8) explained three groups of sampling locations withspecific physicochemical characteristic. St. 1 in Group I, St. 2 & St. 4 in Group II, and St. 3, St. 5 andthe mouth of River Bila in Group III

Dendrogram

700

Dissimilarity

600
500

400
300
200

R. Bila

St. 1

St. 5

St. 3

St. 4

0

St. 2

100

Figure 6. Analysis of Hierarchical Cluster
CONCLUSIONS
There are two components of the PCA analysis result with varimax rotation. River Bila, St. 1, and St.
3, sediment texture was characterized by silt and clay with the high Total N content and pH with slightly
acidic values. Station 2, St. 4, and St. 5, were characterized by high Total P, C-organic and organic
matter content. Result of the hierarchical cluster analysis, found three groups of sampling locations withspecific physicochemical characteristic. St. 1 in Group I, St. 2 & St. 4 in Group II, and St. 3, St. 5 andthe mouth of River Bila in Group III
Multivariate statistical techniques could be applied to characterize and evaluate the condition of thequality of the environment. Further research is needed to obtain more representative data series.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks to my team who has assisted in doing this research both in
the field survey and sample analysis.
REFERENCES
1. Arsyad, S. 2000. Konservasi Tanah dan Air. UPT Produksi Media Informasi. Lembaga
Sumberdaya Informasi. Institut Pertanian Bogor, IPB Press, Bogor. 316pp
2. Dina R, S Nomosatryo, E Harsono, F Ali, R Kurniawan, F Setiawan, NTM Pratiwi & D Oktaviayani.
Laporan Akhir Tahun Kegiatan Kompetitif LIPI Tahun Anggaran 2014. Model rehabilitasi Habitat
Untuk Meningkatkan Produktivitas Ikan Berkelanjutan dan Lestari di Rawa Banjiran Danau Tempe.
118p.
3. Emiyarti, 2004. Karakteristik Fisika Kimia Sedimen dan Hubungannya dengan Struktur Komunitas
Makrozoobentos di Perairan Teluk Kendari. Diakses pada 9 Januari 2015 pukul 10.32 WITA.
4. Eviati & Sulaeman, 2009. Petunjuk Teknis Analisis Kimia Tanah, Tanaman, Air, dan Pupuk, Balai
Peelitian Tanah, Departemen Pertanian. 234pp.
5. Foth, H. D. 1994. Dasar-Dasar Ilmu Tanah, Edisi 6. Adisoemarto S. Jakarta: Erlangga. Terjemahan
dari: Fundamental of Soil Science.
6. Hardjowigeno, S. 2007. Ilmu Tanah. Akademika Pressindo. Jakarta. Cetakan ke 6.
7. IRadiarta, I.N dan Erlania, 2011. Analisis Spasial dan Temporal Kondisi Kualitas Perairan Melalui
Pendekatan Statistik Multivariat di Teluk Gerupuk ProvinsiI Nusa Tenggara Barat Riset Akuakultur
Volume 10 Nomor 3, 2015. Hal: 435 – 447
8. Leiwakabessy, F. M, U. M. Wahjudin, Suwarno. 2003. Diktat Kesuburan Tanah. Fakultas Pertanian.
Bogor: IPB

591

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

9. Shrestha, S. and Kazama, F. (2007) Assessment of Surface Water Quality Using Multivariate
Statistical Techniques: A Case Study of the Fuji River Basin, Japan. Environmental Modelling and
Software, Vol. 22, 464-475.
10. Sinukaban. Naik., 1989. Konservasi tanah dan air Pengelolaan didaerah transmigrasi. Jurusan
Tanah FAPERTA. IPB. Bogor.
11. T.G. Kazi , M.B. Arain. 2000. Konservasi Tanah dan Air. Bogor: IPB Press.
12. T.G. Kazi,, M.B. Arain, M.K. Jamali, N. Jalbani, H.I. Afridi, R.A. Sarfraz, J.A. Baig, Abdul Q. Shah,2009. Assessment of water quality of polluted lake using multivariate statisticaltechniques: A casestudy. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety. 72 (2009) 301–309
13. Tamod, Z. E. 1998. Fluktuasi Debit Air dan Sedimentasi sebagai Petunjuk Keadaaan Konservasi
Tanah dan Air di Sub-sub
14. Varol M, Sen B (2009) Assessment of surface water quality using multivariate statistical techniques:a case study of Behrimaz Stream, Turkey. Environ Monit Assess 159(1):543–553.
15. Vijay Kamble, 2011. Assessment of water quality using cluster analysis in coastal region of Mumbai,
India. Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Volume 178, pp 321–332

592

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

THE SEASONAL OF THERMAL STRATIFICATION AND WATER COLUMN STABILITY
OF LAKE MANINJAU, WEST SUMATERA
Taofik Jasalesmana*, Fifia Zulti, Tri Suryono, Arianto Budi Santoso
Research Center For Limnology, Indonesian Science Institute, Indonesia
Jl. Jakarta-Bogor KM 46 Cibinong, Jawa Barat, Indonesia*Corresponding author: t.jasalesmana@limnologi.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACT
Lake Maninjau is a deep and eutrophic lake, located in west Sumatera, Indonesia. Geographically, lake
Maninjau experiences a hot and humid climate throughout the year. Atmosphere temperature variations
was greatly influenced the physical phenomena in lake, especially thermal stratification and watercolumn stability of lake. This paper describes the fluctuation of thermal stratification and water column
stability in lake Maninjau. There are four mathematical calculations related to water column stability oflake as a function temperature: thermocline depth (t.d), bouyancy frequency (N 2), Relative Thermal
Resistance to Mixing (RTRM), stabilty index (SI) and stratification index. The water column temperatureis measured in May 2007, April 2009, May 2015 and March 2016 located in DM7 station. The watercolumn and air temperature in May 2007 and March 2016 are hotter than in April 2009 and May 2015.
The deepest thermocline depth is 10.9 m in 2009 and the shallowest is 1.5 m in May 2015. While thethermocline depth in May 2007 and March 2016 are 8.9 and 9.3 m respectively. Thermal stratificationand stability index of water column is varying which are shown by the highest thermal stratification index
and stbilty index in May 2007 and the lowest in May 2015. The same with SI and t.d, buoyancy
frequency and RTRM are varying in every observation. The fluctuation of thermal stratification and thewater column stability parameter in every observation are equivalent to fluctuation of air temperature. It
is indcates that lake Maninjau is very susceptibe to a driving forces from atmosphere.
Keywords: Lake Maninjau, thermal stratification, water column stability.
INTRODUCTION
Thermal stratification is the important physical event in the lakes which contributes so much to
ecosystem structure of lake and it is strong influenced by heat of the sun (Goldman & Horn, 1983).
Thermal stratification is formed in vertical direction which is usually expressed by means of temperature
gradients (Heitmann. 1973). Many lakes have a vertical thermal stratification in their water bodies, forsome time periods and is contributes to density differences in water (Boehrer and Schultze, 2008). The
stratified lakes are characterized by the formation of the thermocline layer. The thermocline is a layerof water in which temperature changes more rapidly with depth than it does in the layers above (surface
or mixed layer) or below (deep water) (Fiedler, 2010).
Thermal stratification is one of the indicators to determine the water column stability status of lake. The
stability of a lake is the work that would be required to transform the density distribution into one of new
uniformity without further addition or subtraction of heat (Schmidt, 1928 in Madsen, et al., 1978). Whenthe density distribution is uniform, mixing process will easy to occur and even can reach to the depth.
But, for the lake with the thermal stratification, a difference of only a few degrees in temperature is thensufficient to prevent complete circulation (Wetzel, 2001). Lake whose temperature is stratifying, can besuppresses mixing between the nutrient enriched hypolimnion and the nutrient poor epilimnion.
Physical characteristics of lake surface are greatly influenced by the atmosphere. The atmospheretemperature can change a surface temperature of lake. As a result, when in dry season, thermal
stratification or thermocline can be established in deep lake. On the contrary, during the cold period,
surface cooling forces the water masses to deep and remove of gradients of water temperature andthermocline disappeared (Boehrer and Schultze, 2008). The depth and shape of the thermocline varywith season (Fiedler, 2010). As a result, thermal stratification and water column stability of lake will bevary with season. Actually, there are often two thermoclines, the upper one is the diurnal thermocline
and the lower one is the seasonal thermocline (Virta and Elo, 2011).
In Indonesia, special studies of thermal stratification and water column stability of lake, is rarely done.
Analyzing Trough the thermal stratification and stability analysis, we can determine the dynamic of water
mixing, that have many consequences for living organisms in lakes. For example, in l Lake Maninjau,
there are often occurs the mass fish killed, when the wheatear is cool and clouds covering the sun fora long time. This wheatear changes, affect decreasing of water surface temperature and disappearing593

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferenceof thermal stratification. It is lead to circulation of the water mass between epilimnion and hypolimnion
layer, and cause sulfide diffusion to the upper layer, which is danger for fish. Therefore, the objectiveof this study is to know the fluctuation of thermal stratification and water column stability of lake withcase studies in Lake Maninjau.
Study Area
Lake Maninjau is a deep and a tecto-vulcanic lake, located in west Sumatera, Indonesia
E:
00012'26.63" - S: 0025'02.80" and E:100007'43.74 " - E: 100016'22.48 ", 0o19’N, 100o12’E. (Syandri,
et al., 2014). Length and wide of lake Maninjau is 17 km and 8 km, respectively. The maximum andaverage depths of the lake are 169 m and 106 m. Maximum surface area and total volume of the lakeare 99,5 km2 and 10.4 km3, the average retention time is 47 yr. Lake Maninjau only has one outlet
named Batang Antokan. This river flow to the Indian Ocean (Nontji, 2016). Geographically, lake
Maninjau experiences a hot and humid climate throughout the year.
METHODS
The collection of temperature profile data was conducted by two methods. First, is direct measurementin 2015 and 2016 and the second is by downloaded the data from SIDI (Sistem Informasi Danau
Indonesia) website for temperature data in 2007 and 2009. Each of temperature measurement was
conducted in DM7 station (Figure. 1). The air temperature data was collected from e-most(environmental monitoring and warning system) was installed in Koto Malintang (0° 16.373', 100° 9.849')
and Sicincin climate station, Padang Pariaman. The linier interpolation was conducted to fill thetemperature data gap in several layer of depth. The data is then used to calculate the stability indices.
There are several stability indices or numbers have been proposed, thermocline depth, thermocline
strength index (Yu, et al, 2010), stratification index (Adams, et al., 2007), stability index (Sahoo, et al.,2015), Brunt-Vaisala frequency (Sahoo, et al., 2015), relative thermal resistance to mixing, etc.

Figure 1. Bathymetry map of Lake Maninjau, West Sumatera Province.
DM7 is an observation site.
Thermocline Depth
The precision method to estimate the thermocline depth is to find the maximum gradient temperature
with depth (dT/dz) (Fiedler, 2010). In recent studies, Virta and Elo (2011) reported, thermocline depth
can easily be defined numerically, e.g., using spline interpolation, or visually from the depth-temperaturegraph. Kim and Miller (2007) in Fiedler (2010) used piecewise cubic spline interpolations of observed
profiles to estimate the thermocline depth. In this study, thermocline depth is calculated by numericalmethod used rLakeAnalyzer package in RStudio software, version 0.99.896.
Stratification Index594

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Stratification index is a part of density stratification. Just like the other stability parameters, stratificationindex show the strength to resistance the mixing. Stratification index is calculated by the following
equation :𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑓𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛 𝑖𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑥 = ∑𝑛𝑖=0(𝜌𝑖 − 𝜌̅ )𝑔ℎ𝑖 ∆ℎWhere 𝜌𝑖 is the density of i- layer, 𝜌̅ is the average density, 𝑔 is gravitation, ℎ𝑖 is the depth of i-layerand ∆ℎ layer difference.
Stability Index
Stability index is the simple term use to in measures the energy required to mix the lake water when it
is stratified. This formula is appropriate used to measures the stability of upper layer of lake. Because
this formula assumes that the surface area of the whole upper layer at this depth is uniform. Stability
index is calculated by

𝑆𝐼 = ∑𝑧𝑧0(𝑧 − 𝑧̅)𝜌𝑧
Where 𝜌𝑧 is water density at depth, 𝑧̅ is the centroid of the water column, 𝑧0 and 𝑧 are the depths ofthe surface water and the lower end, respectively. Energy required to mix the lake water when it isstratified can be calculated by multiplying this formula and by the gravitational acceleration each layer
volume.
Buoyancy Frequency (N)Buoyancy frequency is the index used to measure the stratification and it is defined as the resistanceto the turbulent. Physically, this formula is to interpret the frequency of vertical fluid displacement (fluid
oscillation). The frequency estimated using the following equation:
𝑔 𝜕𝜌𝑧
𝑧 𝜕𝑧

𝑁 = √𝜌

Where 𝜕𝜌𝑧 ⁄𝜕𝑧 is the vertical density gradient, 𝑔 is the acceleration due to gravity, and 𝜌𝑧 is the density
at depth z.
Relative Thermal Resistance to Mixing (RTRM)
RTRM is a simple method for the quantitative evaluation of thermal stratification due to temperature
differences. This parameter is non-dimensional quantity and RTRM indicates total stratification intensity(Birge, 1916).

RTRM 

Density of upper layer  Density of upper layer
Density of water at 5 o C  Density of water at 4 o C

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Temperature Structure of Lake Maninjau

595

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 2. Temperature profiles of Lake Maninjau.
Temperature profiles of Lake Maninjau in May 2007, April 2009, May 2015 and March 2016 are shownby Figure 2. Water column remain stratified in every observation with the difference of temperaturefrom surface to bottom up is not more than 3 oC. There is the difference of subsurface water temperaturein every observation times, such as the subsurface water temperature in April 2009 and May 2015 werelower than in May 2007 and in March 2016. It is convenient to the air temperature in April 2009 and
May 2015 which are lower than in May 2007 and March 2016 (Figure 3). The lower air temperature
indicates that the radiated sunlight intensity is low. The difference of radiated sun light intensity in every
observation affects the difference of the heat vertical distribution of water layer and varies according to
the amount of radiation absorbed.

Figure 3. Daily air temperature (▲) and average of air temperature (-).
Referring to Figure 2, the water column was divided into three primary layers: the epilimnion is thewarmer and less dense water located in upper layer. This layer is bordered by thermocline layer, whichis the thermocline depth (t.d) is differ in every observation times. The deepest of t.d is about 10.9 m in2009 and the shallowest of t.d is about 1.5 m in 2015, whereas the t.d in 2007 and 2016 were about 9.3
m and 8.9 m, respectively. The differences in t.d reflected both the seasonal and annual variation
affecting the absorption of heat intensity. Hypolimnion zone is the lowest layer and cooler showed adifferent depth in every observation times. The water column in May 2007, showed that the hypolimnion
depth was started at the depth of > 10 m, and is the deepest of layer border than others. Whereas theshallowest border of hypolimnion layer at upper-layer in 2015 is started at 10 m depth.
The position of t.d closely related to thermal stability of water column. The water columns stability in
May 2007, 2009 and 2016 was high enough, that is characterized by the position of t.d deeper than2015. In contrary, the shallow position of t.d in May 2015 indicated that the thermal stability of watercolumn was weaker than others. The weak of thermal stability in May 2015 was also characterized by
the changes temperature that is lower than in any years. It could be explained that the mixing of watercolumn was easier than in May 2007, April 2009 and March 2016.

596

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The depth of the thermocline varies with season (Fiedler, 2010). We can see that there are slightly
differences of t.d in May 2007, April 2009 and March 2016, these are no more than 2 m. But there issignificant descent of t.d in May 2015. It is induced by decreasing of air temperature, and lead to heattransfer from water surface to air and affecting the decreasing of surface water temperature (Wetzel,
2001). The decreasing of the water surface temperature will rise up the t.d closer to the surface.
Stratification Index and Stability Index
Stratification Index and Stability Index estimate the idealized amount of energy required to mix the entire
lake to a uniform temperature over the entire depth of the water column (Sahoo, et al., 2015). Figure 4
shows the stratification index (SI) and Stability index of Lake Maninjau found in May 2007, April 2009,
May 2015 and March 2016. There is greatest stratification index in May 2007 and the lowest is in May
2015. SI for water column in 2007 (14422.4 Jm -2) comparable to the t.d and temperature profile curvein Figure 2. The result of that indicates the water column in 2007 more stable than others. In contrary,
the stratification index for water column in 2015 is about 3270.6 Jm -2 and it is the lowest value thanothers. Its value is suitable to the t.d that has the lowest value than other observation times.
The same result was also shown by the stability index of water column in May 2007 that still had thehighest stability, while the lowest water column stability was found in May 2015. This result is causedby the cooling of air temperature (Figure 3). As a result, there is a negative heat income to the water
surface, and heat lost exceeds inputs from solar radiation. The declining of surface water temperatureyield of thermocline in May 2015 is weak and the stratification to be lowest. The high of stratificationand stability index in May 2007, April 2009 and March 2016 showed that the energy needed to mix theentire lake was also large, implying that the water column at that time was stable.

Figure 4. Stratification index (left) and stability index (right) of water column in 2007,2009, 2015 and 2016.
There are no significant differences both of Stratification Index and Stability index between watercolumn in April 2009 and March 2016. But, from water temperature profiles (Figure 2), the hypolimnion
depth position in April 2016 is deeper than March 2009. Therefore, stratification index and stability index
of water column in March 2016 greater than in April 2009. It is convenient with air temperature (Figure3) that highly influences the water column stability.
Buoyancy Frequency (N) and Relative Thermal Resistance to Mixing (RTRM)
The other factor to characterize the thermal stability is by the buoyancy frequency analysis. The
calculation of buoyancy frequency based on the gradient temperature to the depth. Refers to Figure 5,
the buoyancy frequency for all time observations showed increaseing to maximum stability at thethermocline layer and then a decrease almost the zero at the hyplolimnion layer. The curve of buoyancy
frequency in 2015 is not as sharp as of buoyancy frequency in May 2007, April 2009 and March 2016,
It is because of the thermocline begins to destabilize as an effect of heat lost in the water surface. As aresult to this, the temperature gradient in 2015 is not as strong as they are in others.
In general, the difference of temperature at the surface water and at the bottom layer of tropical lakes
are not as significant as with the temperature in the temperate lakes at summer. For example in Lake
Tahoe California, the difference of temperature difference on July and August 2010 was not less than
8 oC (Sahoo, et al., 2015). But, in Lake Maninjau, the highest values happen in various periods reach
0.11 to 0.4 oCm-1 (Figure 5). Therefore, the gradient temperature in metalimnion layer is low. Contrary
to another temperate lakes (Polish Lakes), they have the gradient temperature in the metalimnion layer
reach to 4.5-5.5 oCm-1, even in extreme case the gradient temperature can be higher than 7.5-8 oCm-1(Skowron, 2014).

597

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 5. Buoyancy frequency of lake Maninjau.
In addition to determine the strength of thermal stratification, RTRM is also used to view the depth ofthermocline, the position and width of the metalimnion layer and the temperature difference amplitude
of metalimnion layer. Figure 6 show that the shallowest and the deepest of the upper boundary
conditions of the metalimnion position is in May 2015 and April 2009, respectively. In accordance with
the N in Figure 6, the metalimnion layer was clearly visible in April 2009, and it is the widest of
metalimnion layer than others. But the water column in April 2009 still had a smaller stability than watercolumn in May 2007 and March 2016. This is caused by the amplitude of temperature difference atmetalimnion layer in April 2009 was smaller than May 2007 and March 2016 (Figure 6).
Based on the depth of the upper boundary condition of the metalimnion layer, water column in 2015
more unstable than others and it is in accordance with the stratification and stability index in Figure 4.
This is due to the metalimnion layer 2015 is close to the water surface, so it can easily to be mixed by
the wind.

598

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 6. Relative thermal resistance to mixing lake Maninjau in 2007, 2009, 2015 and 2016.
CONCLUSIONS
Analysis of water and air temperature data in May 2007, April 2009, May 2015 and March 2016 showsthat the water column remain stratified with different strength stratification. Water column in May 2007
more stratified and stable than others, while the water column stratification and stability in May 2015 is
the lowest. The stratification and stability of l Lake Maninjau is greatly influenced by daily weather
condition. The water column will be more stratified and stable when the weather is warm than cold.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
The authors are grateful to Mr. Endra tri Wisesa, Research Centre for Limnology, for providing the dataof air temperature.
REFERENCES
1. Adams, Heather E. & Robia M. Charles. 2007. A preliminary investigation of lake stability andchemical analysis of deep waters of the Kigoma sub-basin (northern basin) and the Kalemie subbasin (southern basin) of Lake Tanganyika. Nyanza Project: June 25th-August 13th, 2007. Kigoma,
Tanzania.
2. Birge E (1916) The work of the wind in warming a lake. Trans Wis Acad Sci Arts Lett 18 (Part 2):
341–391.
3. Boehrer, Bertram and Martin Schultze. 2008. Stratification Of Lakes. Reviews of Geophysics, 46.
1-27.
4. Fidler, Paul C. 2010. Comparison of objective descriptions of the thermocline. Limnol. Oceanogr.:
Methods 8, 2010, 313–325 .
5. Heitmann, Marie-Luise. 1973. Stability of thermal stratification in a lake. Hydrology of Lake
Symposium. the International Association of Hydrological Sciences.
6. Kim, H.-J., and A. J. Miller. 2007. Did the thermocline deepen in the California Current after the
1976/77 climate regime shift? J. Phys. Oceanogr. 37:1733-1739 [doi:10.1175/JPO 3058.1].
7. Madsen, B. L., J. Bengtson., I. Butz. 1973. On The Concept of Lake Stability.
http://www.aslo.org/lo/toc/vol_18/issue_4/0681.pdf. (last access at Jan 10, 2017).
8. Nontji, Anugrah. 2016. Danau Maninjau.
http://www.limnologi.lipi.go.id/file/file_nonji/DANAU%20MANINJAU%20(1).pdf (last access at Jan
12, 2016).
9. Sahoo, G. B., A. L. Forrest, S. G. Schladow, J. E. Reuter, R. Coats, M. Dettinger. 2015. Climatechange impacts on lake thermal dynamics and ecosystem vulnerabilities. Limnol. Oceanogr. 00,
2015, 00–00.
10. Schmidt, W. 1928. Über Temperatur und Stabilitätsverhältnisse von Seen. Geogr. Ann. 10: 145177.
11. Skowron, R. 2014. The thermocline layer in the thermal water structure of selected Polish lakes.
Limnological Review. Vol 7 (3): 161 – 169 Pp.
12. Syandri, H., Junaidi, Azrita And Yunus T. 2014. State of Aquatic Resources Maninjau Lake West
Sumatra Province, Indonesia. Journal of Ecology and Environmental Sciences, 5(1): 109-113.
Virta, Juhani and Aija-Riitta Elo. 2011. The Effects of Basin Dimensions on the Seasonal Depth ofThermocline and Temperature of Hypolimnion in Small Lakes. Geophysica: 47 (1–2): 69–93.
13. Yu, Hui., Hiroshi Tsuno, Taira Hidaka, Chunmeng Jiao. 2010. Chemical and thermal stratificationin lakes. Limnology 11:251–257.

599

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

WATER QUALITY ANALYSIS AT SAGULING RESERVOIRLuki Subehi*
Research Centre for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong 16911, Indonesia*Corresponding author: luki@limnologi.lipi.go.id
ABSTRACT
Indonesia is one of the countries with the highest precipitation in the world. It implies that the actual
availability of water is plentiful but water availability is not balanced in terms of place (location) andseason (time). The purposes of the construction of reservoirs in Indonesia are varied such as irrigation,water supply and hydropower plant. The amount of the rainfall in Indonesia as tropical country is
relatively high. In a year, approximately 80% of water is available during the rainy season (5 months)
otherwise, only 20% of water available in the dry season which is relatively longer than rainy season (7months). The objective of this study is to analyze the water quality records represented by Sagulingreservoir. Surveys at Saguling reservoir was conducted in September 2015. Meanwhile, the resultson the survey in Saguling reservoir showed that the average depth is 17.9 m. Saguling reservoir covers
approximately 4,869 ha of area with maximum depth of 90 m. The other fact, the potential impact fromfish cages as the source of pollutant at Saguling reservoir. Based on water quality data from Sagulingauthority (1994 – 2014), anthropogenic and fish cage activities led to water quality degradation. It
reflected by decreasing value of Secchi disk from 1.28 m (1986) to 0.30 m (2014). Similarly, DO values
showed 2.76 mg/L and 1.91 mg/L for 2007 and 2014, respectively. In order to maintain the sustainabilityof the lake, basic ecological information is necessary for the next study.
Keywords: Saguling reservoir - Water quality – Fish cages – Population – Precipitation
INTRODUCTION
Water is our most valuable natural resource. The availability and quality of inland waters not only impact
human health and well-beings, but also the functioning of essential ecosystems, including rivers,
wetlands, lakes and coastal ecosystems. Without sound water resources management, humanactivities can upset the delicate balance between water resources and environmental sustainability.
The purposes of the construction of reservoirs in Indonesia are varied such as irrigation, water supply
and hydropower plant. Being located in a tropical region, Indonesia is exposed to the sun throughout
two seasons; dry season and rainy season. The rainy season in Indonesia occurs from October to April.
In big cities and areas with few forests, rainy season often produces floods. On the other hand, dryseason occurs from March to November. The long dry season is often detrimental to the population,
especially for the farmers whose crops get lack of waterIndonesia is one of the countries with the highest precipitation in the world. It implies that the actual
availability of water is plentiful but water availability is not balanced in terms of place (location) andseason (time). It was found that the condition where excessive is in the western part of Indonesia andlacking in eastern part of Indonesia. Another fact shows that since the 20 th century, there has been aconflict of interests among the various water uses due to imbalance of seasonal stream flow. These
imbalances in Java become worse by the reduction of catchment areas because of land conversion
into residential, agricultural, industrial and others. In addition, illegal logging occured in the upstream
and reduced forests function as a water reserves.
In general, 85% of the reservoirs are to serve irrigation, and the rest is for power generator. In the
period after the construction of Jatiluhur reservoir, reservoirs were constructed with the development ofscience and technology. Reservoirs after 1960s have multi purposes. After the second world-war,
Indonesia experienced the rapid population growth which caused the increasing of necessity for foodand energy for electricity. The Indonesian government decided to carry out the construction of large
reservoirs to fulfill the food supply and electricity.
The strategic functions of Citarum River basin and Jatiluhur, Cirata and Saguling reservoirs at thenational scale (Presidential Decision of the Republic of Indonesia No.12/2012) and its socioenvironmental problems are two important reasons why the locations have been selected here. Citarum
River basin is one of main river basins in Indonesia which experiences flood problem. Furthermore, thetopographic condition and geographical location also contribute to the occurrence of flood disaster inCitarum River basin. The upper Citarum River basin is also recognized as an area with some of themost persistently active landslides in Indonesia. The floods that trigger the landslides occur almost
every year and cause extensive damage. The Citarum River is of vital importance for West Java

600

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Province and Jakarta City, Indonesia, in terms of economic development and the prosperity of thepeople.
On the other hand, Saguling reservoir is used for power generation that Installed capacity of 700 MW(Sembiring 1985; Garno 2002). In addition, the condition of the upper river basin is an important factor
in controlling its hydrological response, including floods, soil erosion, landsliding, and sediment input tothe Saguling Reservoir.
Eutrophication and toxic algal blooms have restricted the function of those reservoirs. Pollution
originates mainly from the upper catchment and mostly from improperly treated urban and industrial
sewage, agriculture and land-use transformation due to urbanization and deforestation. A significant
nutrient source for eutrophication is the internal load from the sediments that intensively accumulate at
the bottom of the reservoir from the ever-expanding traditional fish cage culture. The objective of thisstudy is to analyze the water quality at Saguling reservoir.
METHODS
We conducted survey at Saguling reservoir to understand water quality conditions (Figure 1) not only
to do survey at field, but also to collect the secondary data from the authority for supporting the analysis.

Figure. 1 Locations of study area: Saguling reservoir, part of cascade reservoirs (source: Hart et al.,
2001)
Water samples at Saguling reservoir were taken in September 2015. We used ringko profiler, supported
by University of Tsukuba, Japan. The logger version CTD profiler with optical fast DO sensor RINKOProfiler was used for survey. Depth (semiconductor pressure sensor with measurement range from 0
to 600 m and resolution 0.01m), temperature (thermistor with measurement range from -3 to 45°C andresolution 0.001°C) and dissolved oxygen/DO (phosphorescence with detectable range from 0 to 20
mg/L and resolution 0.001mg/L) were obtained at each station. Measurements were carried out until
47.8 m depth with an interval of 10 cm.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
The degradation of environment, including in water quality of reservoir, the anthropogenic activities
contributed to the decrease of water quality. The growth of population influenced the activities of people
surrounding the reservoir. The location of Saguling reservoir is located in West Bandung Regency. It
covers the region of Padalarang, Cililin, Sindangkerta and Batujajar. The growth of pupulation since
1983 is shown in Figure 2. It could be explained that during 30 years, the population has increased
significantly.

601

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

1,800,000

Population

1,500,000
1,200,000
900,000
y = 3892x - 8E+07
R² = 0.9702

600,000
300,000

0
1980

1990

2000

2010

2020

Year

Figure 2. The growth of population near Saguling watershed
Another data was obtained from Saguling authority explaining the average monthly rainfall from 1986
to 2013 as shown in Figure 3. The lowest rainfall was 40.5 mm in August and the highest was 225.6
mm in March. On the other hand, the average yearly rainfall seemed to increase, the maximum rainfall
was 281. 5 mm in 2010.
Average Monthly Rainfall (1986 - 2013)
300.00250.0

Average Yearly Rainfall

250.00200.0
Rainfall (mm)Rainfall (mm)200.00

150.0

100.0

150.00100.00

50.0

50.00

0.0
JAN PEB MAR APR MEI JUN JUL AGT SEP OKT NOP DES

0.00
1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015

Figure 3. The average monthly rainfall and average yearly rainfall at Saguling watershed
The amount rainfall which comes into to the reservoir influenced the water quality condition. Based on
measurement by CTD profiler, we obtained the water quality parameters such as: DO, temperature,chl-a and conductivity as desribed in Figure 4.
Figure 4 refers to the water column at Saguling reservoir and it was divided into two primary layers:
epilimnion was characterized as a column of hot water and less dense layer at the surface to a depthof 10 m and hipolimnion, a cooler denser deeper layer, divided between the average depths of 20 m to47.8 m. Between the two layers, there is a layer that resembles metalimnion layer indicated by a sudden
drop in temperature between the average 270C to 260C from an average depth of 10 m to 20 m. The
top of this layer bordering the epilimnion constantly changing depth, while the bottom layer adjacent tohipolimnion remained stable at an average depth of 47.8 m. It suggested the density at Sagulingreservoir was stratified in September 2015. In addition, the characteristics of conductivity were related
to temperature profile (Subehi et al. 2014; Subehi et al 2015).

602

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 4. Water quality profiles (conductivity, temperature, chl-a and DO in September 2015 at
Saguling reservoir.
In case of conductivity, the values seemed larger, because the rainfall in September was lower, so theaddition of fresh water (rain) lowers conductivity because rainwater has low conductivity and theincrease in water levels dilutes mineral concentrations. Conversely, during low flow conditions (summer
and fall) the dissolved solids are more concentrated and therefore conductivity levels are higher.
Moreover, conductivity is also affected by temperature, the warmer the water, the higher the conductivity(USGS, 1994).
The value of conductivity can be an indicator that a discharge or some other sources of pollution haveentered the water. It could be also explained by the larger chl-a obtained. Particularly, the DO was zeroat the depth 5 m, so it influenced the fish survival in the water. Perhaps, the impact from increasing offish cages was also an influence towards the decreasing DO. The composition of the water can be
critical for aquatic organisms as well, as many criteria have very specific ranges that they can tolerate.
Meanwhile, secchi disk (SD) was decreasing also from 1.28 m (1986) to 0.30 m (2014). It suggested
the degradation of water quality at Saguling reservoir. Similarly, DO values changed from 2.76 mg/L to
1.91 mg/L for 2007 and 2014, respectively (Figure 5)
1980
0.00

1990

2000

2010

2020

5.0

0.20

4.0

DO (mg/L)

SD (m)

0.40
0.60
0.80

3.0
2.0

1.00
1.0

1.20
1.40

0.0
2006

2008

2010

2012

2014

2016

Figure 5. Secchi disk and DO parameters at Saguling reservoir
CONCLUSIONS
Analyzing the water quality data from 1986 to 2014 at Saguling reservoir has been done. It confirmedthat some degradation of water quality was observed. The growth of population also influenced the603Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

condition of reservoir. Many activities such as: fish cages, settlement, industries, city influenced thisphenomenon. In addition, the meterological condition supported the processes in the water.
Consequently, in order to maintain the sustainability of Saguling reservoir, basic ecological informationand society supports are necessary for the next study.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The author would like to thank Research Center for Limnology (RCL) - Indonesian Institute of Sciences
for funding the research project. Thanks to my colleague, Mr. Dani Jamaludin from Saguling Authority
who provided data and also to University of Tsukuba for supporting this study through JPSP-LIPI
program.
REFERENCES
1. Garno YS (2002) Beban pencemaran limbah perikanan budidaya dan eutofikasi di perairan waduk
pada DAS Citarum. Jurnal Teknologi Lingkungan Vol.3 No. 2: 112 – 120.
2. Hart BT, Van Dok W, Djuangsih N (2002) Nutrient budget for Saguling reservoir, West Java,
Indonesia. Water Research 36: 2152 – 2160.
3. Sembiring S (1985) Water quality in three reservoirs on the Citarum river, Indonesia.
http://hydrologie.org/ACT/Marseille/works-pdf/wchp3poster4.pdf
4. Shelton L (1994) Field guide for collecting and processing stream-water samples for the National
Water-Quality Assessment Program. USGS – Open-File Report 94-455
5. Subehi L, Fukushima T (2016) Water quality profiles and the reservoir utilization with specialreferences to Jatiluhur, Cirata and Saguling reservoirs. Proceeding of The Annual Scientific
Meeting, organized by Indonesian Society of Limnology – December 2015, Bogor.
6. Subehi L, Ridwansyah I, Nor Aisyah binti Omar, Muzzalifah Abd Hamid, Mashhor Mansor (2014)
The Utilization and problems in tropical lakes with special references to lake Maninjau (Indonesia)
and lake Temengor (Malaysia). International Conference on Ecohydrology – November 2014,
Yogyakarta.

604

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

WATER QUALITY ASSESSMENT OF VASTRAPUR & SOLA LAKE OF AHMEDABAD
CITY, GUJARAT, INDIA
Manisha Desai*
Botany Department, Sheth R. A. Bhavan’s science College, Ahmedabad, Gujarat, India*Corresponding author: mnd909@yahoo.co.in
ABSTRACTThe water bodies are facing a severe threat of pollution all over the world. To ensure fresh water
availability from the local water sources has become a big challenge. The main objectives of this paper
are to assess water quality of these lakes situated in the city. This paper discusses the water quality of
two small artificial lakes situated in Western part of Ahmedabad. Both lakes are considered artificial asrecreational resource. The purpose of the survey was to collect information concerning use and valueof water quality improvements. During January-2012 to December-2012, water samples were collectedfrom aforesaid lakes and analyzed in monthly interval. The analysis was carried out for the parameterssuch as temperature, pH, color, odor, Dissolved Oxygen (D.O), Biochemical Oxygen Demand (B.O.D),
Chemical Oxygen Demand (C.O.D), Chloride, Calcium, and Magnesium. The study report discusses
the analysis of the lake water quality and suggests the means to improve the lake water. It was observedthat due to presence of impurities in the lake, there are many different parameters (DO, COD, Chloride,
Total Hardness, ph, and Alkalinity) found to increase during summer season and have been diluted
during rainy season. Thus, these changes affected the aquatic environment. The increase in nitrogencontent would result in eutrophication naturally which leads to the decrease in oxygen level.
Key words: water pollution, water quality, Sola lake, Vastrapur lake, Eutrophication
INTRODUCTION
Lakes are important source of fresh water; generally, represent additional storage capacity of hydrologic
systems. Natural or artificial changes in storage either in quality or quantity of water may alter not only
the stream flow regime but also the water balance of the region, affecting ecological balance of theregion. The hydrologic status of water of a lake in terms of quantity, quality and regimen is the resultsof complex processes of physical, chemical and biological inputs. The physical features include wind,terrain relief, water current, temperature, light level etc. The chemical environment consists of water,gases like oxygen, minerals, trace metals and other complex chemicals. Water is the most vital resource
for all kinds of life on the earth and essential for the sustainability of the earth’s ecosystem (UNESCO,no year). The relationship between healthy humans and clean drinking water goes back more than
200,000 years when modern man first emerged. Later, when we developed agriculture and industry,
the increasingrate of human exploitation and modification of theenvironment adverselyaffected thehealth ofwetlands, some of which are now no longer able to provide clean drinking water. Sources ofdrinking (and irrigation) water often contain toxic pollutants that poison plants, fish, people and microbial
pathogens that kill almost two million children annually worldwide. So much agricultural runoff, inflow
from domestic and industrial waste and human is adding much more toxic chemicals, antibiotics fromanimalhusbandry, untreated human sewage, pesticides etc that acts as ‘endocrine disrupters’ and more.
Nowadays, the water quality problems and concerns for eutrophication are not only restricted to theurban lakes, but these threats have expanded to the rural lakes as well. Therefore, the present study
was undertaken to study for water quality assessment.

605

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Figure 1. Map of Ahmedabad
Study Area
Ahmedabad (Figure 1) is unique in the whole of India in matter of environmental neatness andflourishing conditions and it is superior to other cities in the excellence of its monuments. Ahmedabad
Urban Development Authority (AUDA) carried out a survey of 645 lakes and identified 22 lakes whichhave been severely degraded. AUDA proposes to undertake works for revival, development ofcatchments area and beautification of lakes under the present project. Of these, two lakes studied arelocated at Sola and Vastrapur village. Peripheral development works including landscaping: recreation
facilities are such as Amphi theatre, children park and Boating facilities and percolation wells torecharge ground water table. AUDA has commenced work on this lake also through own resources.
Ahmadabad city is located at 230.03’ N 720.58’ E in western India at an elevation of 53 meters (174 ft).
The city sits on the banks of the river Sabarmati, in north-central Gujarat. Sola lake is located at Sola
village near national highway no.8, Ahmedabad. Its total storage capacity is 24.6 crore liters and lake
circumference is 1364 m. and desalting area is 82080 m 3.
Vastrapur Lake is situated in western part of Ahmedabad. It is officially named after Narsinh Mehta. The
lake was beautified by the AMC after 2002 and has since become a popular spot in the city. Every
weekend, a large number of people visit this lake. It currently boasts an open-air theater and children'spark. There is a pathway all around the lake which serves many walkers and joggers in the earlymornings and in the evenings. The lush green lawns surrounding this lake also serve as a central hubof Ahmedabad, wherein various cultural events take place regularly. At times, the water from Narmada
River is allowed to flow into this lake. The lake is surrounded by pretty gardens with much stonework(Prashant Dayal, 2009).

606

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference.

Figure 2. Vastrapur lake (Narsinhmehta lake) and Sola Lake

METHODS
For the present study, water samples were collected from six different sampling sites in airtight andtransparent polythene containers at regular interval of 30 days from both lakes. All samples wereanalyzed for important physio-chemical parameters such as, dissolved oxygen, COD, TDS, Salinity,
Nitrogen content. DO and pH were measured pH, Conductivity in the field with necessary precautions.
The water samples were analyzed as per the procedures given in the standard methods (R.K. Trivedy(1986); APHA (1998)) and were compared to the Stream Standards. The samples were analyzed every
month from January 2012 to December 2012.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Table 1. Observation of odor at different localities of lake Water reducing January 2012 to December
2012
Locality
Summer--12
Monsoon-12
Winter-12
Solaobjectionable
Unobjectionable
Unobjectionable
Vastrapur
Unobjectionable
Unobjectionable
Unobjectionable
Table 2. Temperature (0C) at different localities of lake water during January 2012 to December 2012
Jan Feb Mar
Apr May
Jun Jul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Lake
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12 -12
-12
-12
-12
-12
Sola
29
29
36
41
43
41
42
37
32
35
34
30
vastrapur
28
29
37
41
43
42
37
32
35
35
34
30
Table 3. Colour (Hazen) at different localities of lakes Water during January 2012 to December 2012
Jan Feb Mar
Apr May
Jun Jul- Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Lake-12 -12
-12
-12
-12
-12
12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
Sola
55
78
25
74
110
110 100 100
78
70
75
72
Vastrapur
78
88
20
88
110
122 90
90
70
62
70
70
Table 4. pH at different localities of lakes Water during January 2012 to December 2012
Jan Feb Mar
Apr May
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
Lake-12 -12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12 -12
-12
-12
-12
Sola
7.1
7.1
6.8
8.3
7.0
8.4
7.6 6.7
8.1
8.1
8.3
vastrapur
8.5
8.2
7.3
7.7
7.6
7.5
7.8 7.1
7.2
7.6
7.1

Dec
-12
7.5
6.8

Table 5. Chloride (mg/l) at different localities of lakes Water during January 2012 to December 2012
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May Jun
Jul
Aug
Sep
Oct
Nov
Dec
Lake
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
224. 229. 314. 269. 324. 249. 249. 244. 254. 247. 249. 274.
Sola
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9
9

607

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Vastrap
ur

210

364.
9

489.
9

210.
0

529.
9

244.
8

289.
9

239.
9

359.
9

359.
9

344.
9

384.
9

Table 6. Turbidity (NTU) at different localities of lakes Water during January 2012 to December 2012
JanFeb Mar
AprMay
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov
Dec
Lake
12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12 -12
-12
-12
-12
-12
Sola
14
10
5
25
80
150 75
70
75
70
66
35
Vastrapur
10
17
20
15
89
140 70
50
50
41
45
40
Table 7. Dissolved Oxygen (mg/l) at different localities of lakes Water during January 2012 to December
2012
Jan Feb Mar
Apr May
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Lake-12 -12-12-12-12-12 -12 -12
-12
-12
-12
-12
Sola
1.5
1.0
2.9
1.1
1.9
2.9
2.9 2.5
6.2
3.1
0.9
4.4
vastrapur
2.2
2.8
1.7
2.7
1.5
3.6
3.6 4.3
3.1
2.4
1.0
1.7
Table 8. Biological Oxygen Demand (mg/l) at different localities of lakes Water during January 2012 to
December 2012
Jan Feb Mar
Apr
May JunJul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Lake-12 -12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12 -12-12-12 -12-12Sola
2.5 8.5
15.0 2.0
26.3 31.0 5.1 9.0
8.2
6.2
12.5 19.8
Vastrapur
2.2 3.4
11.2 15.3 35.7 10.0 5.0 9.6
5.6
5.2
16.0 11.1
Table 9. Chemical Oxygen Demand (mg/l) at different localities of lakes Water during January 2012 to
December 2012
Jan Feb Mar
Apr May
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Lake-12 -12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12 -12
-12
-12
-12
-12
Sola
40
88
45
23
156
158 171 75
80
62
150
85
Vastrapur
18
56
12
51
110
64
49
201
120 5524
5Table 10. Total Hardness (mg/l) at different localities of lakes Water during January 2012 to December
2012
Jan Feb Mar
Apr May
Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Lake-12 -12-12-12-12-12 -12 -12
-12
-12
-12
-12
Sola
250 270 300
230 190
200 190 250
170 150 290
370
Vastrapur
210 190 200
250 190
220 220 250
160 312 360
320
Table 11. TDS (ppm) at different localities of lakes Water during January 2012 to December 2012
Jan Feb Mar
Apr
May
Jun
Jul
Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec
Lake-12 -12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
-12
Sola
576 683 888
612 692
577 576 625
582 600 608
754
Vastrapur
483 792 843
984 1000 547 607 595
776 750 703
824
Month wise variations in physico-chemcial characteristics of both lakes have been studied. The statusof the following parameters was observed.
Odor
Many organisms impart taste and odor to the aquatic environment due to their defiance mechanism byreleasing repellents and other organic compounds (WHO). In monsoon odor may be maintained due toflow of rain water. In present study, objectionable odor was recorded at Sola lake in summer.
Vastrapurlake maintained its odor during whole year.
Temperature
Temperature is one of most important factor in the aquatic environment that regulates the various
physical chemical activities (Usha et al., 2007). There is a close similarity between the temperature of
atmosphere and water. Due to the depth of reservoir, high summer temperature and bright sunshine
accelerate the Process of decay of organic matter resulting into the liberation of large quantities of CO 2

608

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

and nutrients. (Agarwal et al., 2010). It was observed maximum during summer, 43ºC, in May andminimum during winter, 27ºC, in January.
Color
Colour of water is one of the most important and conveniently observed indicators of its quality. Higher
value of Color was recorded in late summer and early monsoon in both lakes during study period.
Suspended and dissolved particles in water influence color. Suspended material in water bodies may
be a result of natural causes and/or human activity. Transparent water with a low accumulation ofdissolved materials appears blue and indicates low productivity.
pH
As per pH value is concerned, it was found that throughout the month slightly lower values
duringmonsoon season and slightly higher values during winter, but throughout the month it remainedslightly alkaline. Vastrapur lake water showed more fluctuation then sola, may be due to a picnic spot.
Chloride
The chloride concentrations were found almost in permissible limit during this study. Chlorides arepresent in water as sodium chloride, Magnesium chloride and Calcium chloride. Although they are notharmful as such, their concentration over 250 ppm imparts a particular taste to the water rendering thewater unacceptable fordrinking purposes. Existence of unusually highconcentration of chloride in lakeindicates pollutants from domestic sewage and industrial effluents which leads to eutrophication. In
addition to that salinity was also calculated which shows increase during summer season and decreasein monsoonseason. It was originally conceived as a measure of the mass dissolved salts in the water
samples. The salinity content ranged from 210 to 529. It was observed higher in Vatrapur lake thenSola lake. High chloride content in water sample may be because of pollution from Cl rich effluent of
sewage and municipal waste (Preeti et al., 2009).
Turbidity
Highest Turbidity was recorded at Sola in Jun-2011(150 NTU) and the lowest concentration wasrecorded at in Jan-Feb-2011(0.0 NTU) During 2011. Water clarity, presence of cloudiness etc generally
used routinely as an indicator of the condition and productivity of an aqueous system. Agarwal et al.
(2010) observed increased turbidity during rainy months in Tehri Dam Reservoir, Garhwal, India. It was
attributed to soil erosion in the nearby catchment and massive contribution of suspended solids.
Dissolved Oxygen
Dissolved Oxygen content in was found to be very low throughout the year. DO content ranged from
0.9 to 4.4 mg/l indicating the anaerobic conditions in both lake water. Both lake shows great variationin different months. This indicates low rate of primary production in aquatic ecosystem of lake. Minimum
amount required for optimum fishpopulation may be as high as 5 to 8 mg/L. The oxygen depleting
substances reduce the availableDO. According to Trivedy and Goel (1986) low oxygen concentrations
are associatedwithheavy contamination by organic matter.
Biological Oxygen Demand
BOD is the amount of oxygen required by the living organisms engaged in the utilization and ultimate
destruction or stabilization of organic water (Hawkes, 1963). It is very important indicator of pollution
status of water body. The Value of BOD greatly varies month wise and clearly showed higher
concentration in summer and rainy months and comparatively low during winter. Many workers likeJohn (1952), Robert (1969) and Richard (1966) have noticed higher values of BOD during hot period.
Similar observations are found in Amli and Makarba lake of same city by Desai (2009). This may be
attributed to the photosynthetic activity and abundance of phytoplankton during hot period, especiallyspring (Abodo, et al., 2004).
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Chemical Oxygen Demand test determines theoxygen required for chemical oxidation of most organic
matter and oxidizable inorganic substances with the help of strong chemical oxidant. Throughout themonth from April to September variations were found. The COD value ranged from 23 to 171 mg/l.at
sola and 12 to 201mg/l at Vastrapur lake. The variations indicate presence of some toxic pollutants
which are released to the lake water having definitely bad impact on the aquaticlife of lakes.
Total Hardness
During present investigation, the maximum total hardness (370) was recorded in December at Sola lake
360 in November at Vastrapur lake i.e starting of winter and minimum (170) in September i.e. Monsoon.
Productive watershould have hardness value above 20mg/l. Fishhave been found to be susceptible todiseases in water with hardness below 20 mg/l. If there isincrease in hardness content it becomes609

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

unpleasant for fish production because of higher pH. Optimum hardness for fish culture has been
observed to bearound 75 to 150 mg/l. (Das, 2000).
Total Dissolved Solid
It indicates the general nature of salinity of water. It signifies the inorganic pollution load of water system(Adarsh et al., 2006). Total Dissolved Solids ranged from 483 to 1000 ppm. In present study, the total
dissolved solidswere comparatively high in summer which decreasedduring rainy season due to dilutionof lake water and was also observed higher in Vastrapur lake then Sola lake.
R. M. Khan, M. J. Jadhav, I. R. Ustad (2012) studied and analyzed physicochemical parameters suchas temperature, pH, conductivity, free CO2, total solid, dissolved oxygen, Total alkalinity, total hardness
etc., of Triveni Lake for the period of one year i.e. December 2010 to November 2011. They revealed
significant seasonal variation in some physicochemical parameters and most of the parameters werein normal range and indicated better quality of lake water. It has been found that the water is best for
drinking purpose in winter and summer seasons.
CONCLUSIONS
1. The seasonal values indicate that during summer season, lake water is more affected than during
winter. This could be due to the fact that the microbial activity is reduced due to low temperature,
thereby keeping DO level at a very satisfactory range during entire winter season.
2. The suggested measures to improve the lake water quality includes total ban on the activities thatcauses pollution.
3. Result of water quality assessment clearly showed that most of the water quality parameters slightly
higher in the wet season than in the dry season.
4. Water quality is dependent on the type of the pollutant added and the nature of self purification ofwater.
5. Threats to the Lake Environments, Anthropogenic activities
Lakes are deteriorated due to anthropogenic activities by Domestic sewage and Industrial
Effluents and drainage. Domestic wastes including plastics, religious floral wastes as well as
immersions of idols are done in the lake which leads to damage the lake environment. Due toincrease in nitrogen content level eutrophication was observed in the form of weedy and otherplant growth on surface of water.
REFERENCES
1. UNESCO, Water a shared responsibility. The United Nations World Water Development Report
2. Prashant Dayal (2009-10-22). "Vastrapur Lake infused life in new Amdavad". The Times of India.
Retrieved 2016-03-12.
3. APHA, (1998) Standard methods for the examination of water and waste water, 2nd ed. American
Public Health Association, Washington, D.C
4. Trivedi R.K. and Goel, (1986). Chemistry and Biological methods for pollution studies,
environmental Publications Karad.
5. Usha, N.M.,Jayaram, K.C. and Lakhmi Kantha, H. (2008) .Assessment of surface and Groundwater quality of Hebbal Lake, Banglore Case study. Proceedings of Tall 2007: The 12 th world lake
Conference: 1737-1741
6. Agarwal A K and Govind S. Rajwar, (2010). Physico-Chemical and Microbiological Study of Tehri
Dam Reservoir, Garhwal Himalaya, India, and J.of American Science: 66-67
7. Gupta preeti, Vishwakarma Monika, Rawtani Puspa M. (2009). Assessment of water quality
parameters of Karwa Dam for drinking suitability. International Journal of theoretical & applied Sc.,
1(2): 53-55.
8. Hawkes H A. (1963). The ecology of waste water treatment. Pergamon Press, Oxford.
9. John DP. (1952) Water pollution, its effects on the public health. Proc. Fish Ohio Water Clinic, Ohio
State Univ. Eng. Series Bull.; 147:34-9
10. Robert D H. (1969) Water Pollution. Bioscience; 19:976
11. Richard LW. (1966) Environmental hazard of water pollution. New England. J. Medicine; 275:81925
12. Abodo M.H and EL-Nasharty S.M (2010) Physico-Chemical Evaluations and Trace Metals
Distribution in Water-Surficial Sediment of Ismailia Canal, Egypt, Nature and Science, 8(5):201
13. Das A.K. (2000). J. inland. Fish Soc. India. 32(2): 37-44.
14. Kumar Adarsh, Qureshi T.A., Parasar Alka and Patiyal R.S. (2006) Seasonal variation inphysiochemical characteristics of Ranjitsagar reservoir, Jammu & Kashmir, The academy of610

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

environmental bioogy, India.
15. R. M. Khan, M. J. Jadhav, I. R. Ustad (2012). Physicochemical Analysis of Triveni Lake Water ofAmravati District in (M.S.) India. Bioscience Discovery, 3(1):64-66.
16. Manisha Desai. (2009). Phycsico-chemical characteristics of Ambali and Makarbalake situtated at
Ahmedabad, Gujara, India. 13th world lake conference.1st to 5th Nov-2009 Wuhan, China.pp.399401

611

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

DISTRIBUTION AND DIVERSITY OF DIATOM IN SURFACE SEDIMENTS OF URBANPONDS IN CIBINONG BOTANICAL GARDEN
Aan Dianto1*, Luki Subehi1, Ardo Ramdhani2
Research Center for Limnology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Bogor, 2Departement of
Biology, Faculty of Biology, Jenderal Soedirman University, Purwokerto*Corresponding author: aan@limnologi.lipi.go.id

1

ABSTRACT
Diatoms are classified as algae within the Division of Bacillariophyta. They are unicellularly eukaryoticorganisms characterized by siliceous cell walls that can be long preserved in sediments. Therefore,
diatom analysis in sediment records is potential indicator used for environmental reconstruction. The
current knowledge on the distribution and diversity of diatoms in the sediments in many Ponds in
Cibinong-Bogor is poorly known. This study aimed to identify the distribution and diversity of diatoms
from the sediments of the Pond. We expect to obtain primary data base of a variety of diatoms. The
sediment samples were taken from Cibuntu and Cilalay Ponds in Cibinong Botanical Garden.
Sediments were digested using HCl and H2O2. The resulting diatom solution was dried and transferred
onto glass coverslip, which subsequently mounted onto microscope slides using Naphrax (Refraction
index 1.7). Diatom Identification was examined using light microscopy at 1,000x maginification. Diatom
communities in Cibuntu Pond were dominated by species Aulacoseria ambigua, Eunotia bilunaris,
Cymbopleura sp, Discostella stelligera, and Rossithidium sp with diversity index (H’) 2.4 and species
eveness (J’) 0.8. Whereas, species Fragilaria sp, Eunotia monodon, Navicymbula pusilla, Eunotia
bilunaris, and Pinnularia viridis were predominant in Cilalay Pond with number of diversity index in
Cilalay Pond is 1.6 and species eveness 0.7. This exploratory survey provides the first inventory of
diatom assemblage in Cibinong region for roughly inferring the environmental changes in shallow lakeecosystem.
Keywords: Diatoms, palaeolimnology, urban ponds, Cibinong Botanical Garden
INTRODUCTION
Cibinong is one of the metropolitan city in Indonesia that has many ponds. There are 17 ponds in central
Cibinong and 95 ponds around central Cibinong area. Ponds in cities are often classified as “greenspace areas”, because they are usually located within parks or other urban green zones and constituteimportant components of these areas (Harisson et al., 1995). Cibuntu Pond and Cilalay Pond arelocated in Central Cibinong within Cibinong Botanical Garden. Those ponds serve as a source ofagricultural irrigation water and sights. Cilalay Pond is a closed pond, water source came only fromspring around of pond. Whereas, Cibuntu Pond has one inlet from Kalibaru River. The river flows alongindustry, housing, and plantation area before coming in to the pond (Nugroho, 2002). Urban Ponds areoften polluted by industrial waste and household waste, impact of development city that ignore
environmental aspect. Previous research by Nugroho (2002) examined the vertical water quality of
Cibuntu Pond showed good quality to support life aquatic organisms. Further research by Sadi (2013)
showed significant changes of the nutrients; nitrogen and organic matter in Cibuntu Pond that wererelatively high. This was also indicated by the high value of clorofil-a 25.55 to 87.61 mg/L, it has comefrom anthropogenic activities around ponds and industrial waste that were carried from Kalibaru River.
Cilalay Pond has nutrients; nitrogen and organic matter lower than those in Cibuntu Pond (Sadi, 2013).
To determine environmental changes in ponds, one proxy that can be used is diatom. Diatoms areclassified as algae within the Division of Bacillariophyta. They are eukaryotic organisms unicellularly
characterized by siliceous cell walls that can be long preserved in sediments (Battarbee, 2001).
Currently, thousand species of diatoms have been identified. Taxonomy is based on the size, shape,and sculpturing of the silica cell walls, called frustule (Smol, 2008). Different taxa reveal different
diatoms environment and tolerance. Analysis of the fossil species abundances can be used toreconstruct environmental variables such as pH and nutrient levels. Diatoms are very sensitive to manyenvironmental variables including pH, oxygen, salinity, current velocity, temperature, moisture condition,light, inorganic nutriens (carbon, phosporus, nitrogen, silica), organic carbon and organic nitrogen.
Consequently, they are considered to be powerful indicator for environmental changes, including
eutrophication, climate changes, and acidification, bot in present and paleolimnological studies (Van
Dam, 1993). The data base of diatom species in many Ponds in Cibinong are currently not available.
The purpose of this study was to identify diatom fossils distribution and diversity in Cibuntu and Cilalay612

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Ponds. Further, diatoms database will be used for early water quality monitoring as a biological indicatorin many ponds in Cibinong.
METHODS
Study Site
Cibuntu and Cilalay Ponds are located in Cibinong Botanical Garden, Cibinong City, West Java,
Indonesia (Fig. 1). Cibuntu and Cilalay are closer within 366 m distance. Surface volume of Cibuntu
Pond is 15.834 m² (Zulti et al., 2012), and Cilalay Pond has surface volume 12.910 m² (Sadi, 2013).
Depth of Cibuntu Pond around 1.8 m, whereas Cilalay Pond has 0.5-1m water depth (Sadi, 2013).
Regionally, base rock compotitions of Cilalay and Cibuntu Ponds are tuff, sandy tuff, and conglomerats
tuff (Turkandi et al, 1992). Sediments inside ponds are dominated by soils and rocks debris aroundPonds, and sediments are supplied from inlets river, where the materials look grayish black clays.

Figure 1. Study area showing the location of Cibuntu and Cilalay Ponds located in
Cibinong Botanical Garden, Bogor, West Java.
Surface Sediment Sampling
Surface sediment samples (1-10 cm) were taken from Cibuntu Pond (CBP) and Cilalay Pond (CLP) in
September 2016 using a coring tube (5 cm internal diameter). Samples were taken one point of eachPonds. Afterwards, sediments samples were removed from coring tube and stored in the laboratory forthe preparation process. Water quality measurements were conducted during sediment sampling.
Water quality measurements involved Temperature, DO, pH, Conductivity, TDS, Turbidity, and ORP.
Preparation, identification, and enumeration of diatom valves
Sediment preparation was conducted in chemistry laboratory of research center for limnology.
Sediments samples were taken 5 grams then put into beaker glass and add 50 ml of 10% HCL toremove carbonates. Afterwards add 50 ml 10% H2O2 to remove organic matters. Around 30 ml diatoms
residues are resulting. Further, we prepared for permanent slide, put 200 microliters onto coverslip
glass then put onto microscope slide with Naphrax mountant, a syntethic resin with 1.7 reflaction index.
Identification was done using light microscope with 1000X maginifications, individual calculation of
diatom species encountered made up at least 300 valves (Soeprobowati, 2009). Taxonomy
identification was done following Lange-Bertalot 2001 volume 2; Kramer & Lange-Bertalot 2003 volume
4; Gell et al.,(1999), database of the university of colorado (http://westerndiatoms.colorado.edu), andAlgaeBase (http://www.algaebase.org).
Data Analysis

613

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

The species distribution is expressed in precent of relative abudance in the whole assemblage. The
number of relative abudance, shannon diversity and shannon’s equitability by Pielou’s Eveness index
are calculated using PRIMER-E. Taxonomic richness using C2 software version 1.7.6 (Juggins, 2014).
Shannon Diversity index (H’) and Pielou's Evenness index (J’) were calculated for all ponds to evaluate
diatom biodiversity in surficial sediments, as follows:
𝐻′ = − ∑( 𝑝𝑖 𝑙𝑛 𝑝𝑖 )Where 𝑝𝑖 is the number of individuals of a given diatom taxon (𝑖) divided by total number of individuals.
𝐻′𝐽′ =𝐿𝑜𝑔 (𝑆)
S is the number of total species counted in each lake. Shannon’s equatibillity have a range value
between 0 and 1. For each diatom community H’ and J’ have been calculated to know individuals are
distributed evenly among the different species.
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSCibuntu Pond
Total 19 species were identified in surface sediment samples of Cibuntu and Cilalay Ponds. The relative
abudance of taxa was shown in Figure 2. Diatoms assemblages among ponds revealed significant
differences especially for several dominant diatoms. Cibuntu Pond was dominated by Aulacoseria
ambigua, Eunotia bilunaris, cymbopleura sp, Discostella stelligera, and Rossithidium sp, within 17
species were identified, Cyclotella sp, Eunotia bidens, Eunotia monodon, Eunotia pectinalis var.
undulata, Eunotia subherkiniensis, Fragilaria sp, Gyrosigma acuminatum, Navicula elsoniana, Navicula
sp. 1, Pinnularia brebisonii, Pinnularia viridis, and Tabellaria sp.

Figure 2. Relative abundance of diatom taxa in surficial sediments from Cibuntu and Cilalay Ponds.
Aulacoseria ambigua is relatively easy to identify because only these species has a hollow ringleist (Fig.
3) (Buczkó et al., 2010). In addition, Aulacoseria ambigua has frustules cylindrical and form colonies.
Aulacoseria is one of the diatom genus that very widely distribution, the species most commonly foundin mesotrophic and eutrophic waters (Gell et al., 1999). It has been known that Cibuntu nutrient contents
are quite high due to anthropogenic activity around there, as reported by Sadi (2003) there Cibuntu TN
content ranged from 2.74 mg/L, and can be categorized as mesotrophic waters (Volenweider, 1969 in
Wetzel, 1975 in Effendi, 2003). Moderate nutirens concentrations in that pond also potensial toabundance of Discostella stelligera (Saros et al. 2012). Another dominant diatom in Cibuntu Pond that614

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferenceindicated oligotrophic to mesotrophic water condition are Rossithidium sp (Gell et al.,1999) andCymbopleura (Taylor et al., 2007).

Figure 3. Microscope photograph of diatom species Aulacoseria ambigua(A) with hollow ringleist and Eunotia bilunaris (B).
Furthermore, Enunotia bilunaris also most diatoms in situ Cibuntu. Eunotia bilunaris valves are arcuate,
with convex dorsal and ventral margins concave, rounded to acutely rounded apices (Fig. 3). This
species is Widely distributed in waters with a low mineral content, commonly found in acid waters
conditions (Kulikovskiy et al., 2010). The number of pH value at the time of direct measurement is 6.82
(Table 1), while monitoring which has been carried out in 2016 by Research Center for Limnology along
Cibuntu Pond showed that pH value ranging between 5.7-6.8. The genus has a world-wide distribution,although numerous species are restricted to tropical areas, due to environmental water reviews theirpreference, land low pH and conductivity being the most abundant and diverse genus in these areas(Sala et al., 2002).
Table 1. Water quality of Cibuntu and Cilalay Ponds
Pond
DO
pH
Conductivity

TDS

ORP

Turbidity

Cibuntu

10.3

6.82

0.076

0.05

156

28.6

Cilalay

10.83

6.07

0.069

0.095

229

31.8

Cilalay Pond
Cilalay Pond has not been much affected by anthropogenic activities, in contrast to Cibuntu Pond which
are already affected by anthropogenic activities and fisheries activities. Cilalay Pond surface water
quality measurements during core sample collection was shown in Table 1. There are 10 diatoms
species identified, Eunotia bilunaris, Eunotia monodon, Eunotia pectinalis var. undulata, Fragilaria sp,
Gissleira sp, Navicula sp 1, Navicymbula pusilla, Pinnularia brebisonii, Pinnularia viridis, and Tabellaria
sp. The most dominant species were Fragilaria sp, Eunotia monodon, Navicymbula pusilla, Eunotia
bilunaris, and Pinnularia viridis.

Figure 4. Microscope photograph of diatom species Fragilaria sp (A), Eunotia monodon (B), andNavicymbula viridis (C)615

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Fragilaria is a diverse genus including species that can live in lakes and flowing waters. Valves of thisgenus are lanceolate with capitate ends (Fig. 4). Fragilaria is species that tend to associate withcircumneutral to slightly alkaline (Gell et al., 1999). The species is also commonly found in temperatewaters mesotrophic lakes. Moreover, Eunotia monodon is the second large abundant in Cilalay Pond.
This genus is a large genus of predominantly freshwater diatoms that are especially successful in acidic
habitats, as well genus Pinnularia common found in acidic waters (Gell et al., 1999). Eunotia monodon
valves are arcuate and the ventral margin of the valve is concave. Eunotia is diatom genus that has
limited ecological tolerance. Their occurrence is limited to oligotrophic and oligosaprobic waters. In
consequence, eunotia taxa are considered important ecological indicators (Kwandrans, 2007).
Furthermore, Navicymbula pusilla is also dominant in Cilalay Pond. This species has valve moderately
dorsiventral, ends variable rounded (Fig. 4). This species is very cosmopolitan species from temperate
to tropical zones and often found in the oligotrophic until eutrophic waters with middle to upper-middle
electrolite contents, Navicymbula also found in inland waters krenophilitic and in the waters, that havehigh contents of Ca and Cl salinity (Krammer et al., 2003).
Diversity index (H’) and Evenness Index (J’) of Cibuntu and Cilalay Ponds
There are several results we can define from the study sites that represented in Table 2. Cibuntu Pond
has a higher diatom diversity and eveness index than Cilalay Pond. Cibuntu lake not only has a greaternumber of species present, but individuals in the community are distributed more equitably among these
species with eveness number 0.86829. Cibuntu Pond has 17 number of diatom species and 19%
belongs to Aulacoseria ambigua. Furthermore, Fragillaria sp filled 49% at Cilalay Pond. Different levelsof disturbance of limnological properties each lake have a different effect of diatom diversity.
Table 2. Ecological indices of recent diatom
Ponds
Individuals (N)Species (S)Shannon Index (H')

Pileou's eveness (J')

Cibuntu

300

17

2.4

0.8

Cilalay

300

10

1.6

0.7

The research objective is to preserve a biodiversity in a given area, we need to be able to study how
diversity is impacted by different management area. Diatom community analysis showed that Cilalay
and Cibuntu Ponds at least have a different limnological condition.
CONCLUSIONS
Our study provides a first inventory of recent diatom diversity and distribution in Cibuntu and Cilalay
Ponds of Cibinong Botanical Garden, Cibinong. We identified significant difference between the diatom
community composition of Cibuntu and Cilalay Ponds. The differences in diatom community
composition are consistent with the prevailing limnological conditions among the ponds. In order to geta higher resolution environmental interpretation, these data should be a preliminary data to conduct afurther research of Cibuntu and Cilalaly Ponds that will be supported by other abiotic parameters.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I thank Chemistry and Microbiology Labs at Research Center for Limnology LIPI especially to Rosidah,
Miratul Maghfiroh and Eva Nafisyah.
REFERENCES
1. Battarbee, R., Jones, V., Flower, R., Cameron, N., Bennion, H., Carvalho, L. (2001). Diatoms. pp.
155–202 in J. Smol, J. Birks, W. Last, R. Bradley, K. Alverson, eds. Tracking environmental changeusing lake sediments, Vol. 3: terrestrial, Algal, and Siliceous Indicators. Kluwer Academic
Publishers, Dordrecht.
2. Buczkó, Krisztina, Nadja Ognjanova-Rumenova, and Enikö Magyari. (2010). “Taxonomy,Morphology and Distribution of Some Aulacoseira Taxa in Glacial Lakes in the South CarpathianRegion.” Polish Botanical Journal 55 (1): 149–63.
3. Gell, P., Sonneman, J. A., Reid, M. A., Ilman, M. A., Sincock, A. J. (1999). An illustrated key tocommon diatom genera from Southern Australia. CRC for Freshwater Ecology, Thurgoona, NSW.
4. Harrison, C., Burgess, J., Millward, A., Dawe, G. (1995). Accessible Natural Greenspace in Towns
and Cities: A Review of Appropriate Size and Distance Criteria English Nature Research Report
No. 153. English Nature, Peterborough.

616

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

5. Krammer, K. (2003). Cymbopleura, Delicata, Navicymbula, Gomphocymbellopsis, Afrocymbella. –Diatoms of Europe 4: 1–530.
6. Kulikovskiy, Maxim, Horst Lange-Bertalot, Sergei Genkal, and Andrzej Witkowski. (2010).
“Eunotia (Bacillariophyta) in the Holarctic: New Species from the Russian Arctic.” Polish
Botanical Journal 55 (1): 93–106.
7. Kwandrans, J. (2007). Diversity and ecology of benthic diatom communities in relation to acidity,
acidifi cation and recovery of lakes and rivers. Diatom Monographs 9: 1–169.
8. Lange-Bertalot, H. (2001). Navicula sensu stricto, 10 genera separated from Navicula sensu lato,
Frustulia. In H. LangeBertalot, ed. Diatoms of Europe - diatoms of the European inland waters andcomparable habitats, vol. 2. A. R. G. Gantner Verlag K. G., Ruggell, 526 pp.
9. Nugroho, N. (2002). Analisis beberapa aspek limnologis Situ Cibuntu, Cibinong, Bogor, Jawa
Barat, Skripsi. Bogor, Institut Pertanian Bogor.
10. Sadi, N. H. (2013). Keanekaragaman Fungsional Bakterioplankton di Situ Cibuntu dan Situ Cilalay
Cibinong Bogor. Prosiding Pertemuan Ilmiah Tahunan MLI: 136-149 pp.
11. Sala, S. E., Duque, S. R., Nunezavellaneda, M., Lamaro, A. A. (2002). Diatoms from the Colombian
Amazon: Some species of the genus Eunotia (Bacillariophyceae). Acta Amazonica, 32(4): 589603.
12. Saros, J E, J R Stone, G T Pederson, and K E H Slemmons. (2012). “Climate-Induced Changes
in Lake Ecosystem Structure Inferred from Coupled Neo-and Paleo-Ecological Approaches.”
Ecology 93 (10): 2155–64. doi:dx.doi.org/10.1890/11-2218.1.
13. Smol, John P. (2008). Pollution of Lakes and Rivers. History. doi:10.1002/aqc.571.
14. Soeprobowati, T. R. (2009). The Minimal Valves Number In The Identification And Enumeration Of
Diatoms Analysis For Water Quality Assessment. International Conference on Biological Science:
Respect to Biodiversity from Molecular to Ecosystem for Better Human Prosperity, Faculty ofBiology Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta, 16-17 October 2009.
15. Taylor, J C, W R Harding, and C G M Archibald. n.d. An Illustrated Guide to Some Common
Diatom Species from South Africa An Illustrated Guide to Some Common Diatom.
16. Turkandi, T., Sidarto., Agustiyanto, D. A., Hadiwidjoyo, M. P. (1992). Peta Geologi Lembar Jakarta
dan Kepulauan Seribu, Jawa. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Geologi. Bandung.
17. Van Dam H. (1993). Proceedings of the Twelfth International Diatom Symposium. Hidrobiologia,
269-270: 1-540.
18. Zulti, F., Satya, A., dan Sulawesty, F. (2012). Distribusi spasial karakteristik fisika Situ Cibuntu,
Jawa Barat. Limnotek. Vol. 19 (1): 29 – 36.

617

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

TEMPERATURE EFFECTS ON LEAD TROPHIC TRANSFER WITHIN THE
PHYTOPLANKTON –ZOOPLANKTON – NILE TILAPIA/COMMON CARP FOOD WEB: A
CASE STUDY FROM THE CIRATA RESERVOIR, INDONESIA
Evi Susanti1, 2, Nurpilihan Bafadal3, TB Benito Kurnani3, Sunardi3, Cynthia Henny1
Researcher in Research Center for Limnology – LIPI, Indonesia, 2Doctoral Student in
Padjadjaran University, Indonesia, 3Lecturer in Padjadjaran University, Indonesia
Corresponding author: eamroe@gmail.com

1

ABSTRACTThe transfer of lead (Pb) in the food web of pelagic fish (from phytoplankton and zooplankton to Niletilapia, Oreochromis niloticus and common carp, Cyprinus carpio) will be investigated in the Cirata
Reservoir. The purpose of this research is to (i) investigate seasonal and spatial variability of Pb inwater, (ii) determine Pb bioaccumulation from phytoplankton, zooplankton to fish trophic levels and (iii)
investigate the effect of temperature on Pb bioaccumulation in trophic levels. Data to be collected are
Pb, Total Pb, 210Pb activity concentration, C and N stable isotope ratios, measure from (i) different sizeclasses of phytoplankton and zooplankton during dry and wet season as well as the transition period in
Cirata Reservoir, and (ii) in two fish species. Two small plankton size fractions with the size of [20 – 200m] and [> 200 m] will be retained. Common carp and Nile tilapia will be collected and dissected to
extract muscle, gill, liver and body remain (skin, head and skeleton). Pb and 210Pb analyzes will be
performed on plankton, fish organ and water sample that filtered through 0.45 m filter. Three replicateswill be performed on each plankton fraction for each site and season for both 13C and 15N. Prior to
stable isotope analyzing, the taxonomic composition of plankton fraction will be estimated under abinocular microscope with magnification of 400x. The dominant groups of organisms will be determinedin each size fraction. Pb, Total Pb, 210Pb activity concentration, 13C and 15N values will be tested
using two-way crossed ANOVAs to assess the effects of the zone and size parameters for plankton
fraction for each sampling season. To test for bioaccumulation process across plankton fraction andwithin the two fish species, linear regressions will be run between the log 10 of 210Pb activity
concentrations and 15N values of plankton fractions and fish.
Keywords: Common carp, Cirata Reservoir, Nile tilapia, 210Pb, Pb, phytoplankton, zooplankton.
INTRODUCTION
Citarum river is the largest and the most important river in West Java, Indonesia, due its function for
irrigation, the raw material for drinking water, and industry as well as covering the big three reservoirs
namely Saguling, Cirata and Jatiluhur. The main function of these reservoirs is as hydroelectric power,
to supply energy from Java and Bali. Besides, the other functions are for fishery, tourism and drinking
water material as well as irrigation. However, this river received antrophogenic pressure for such as
high sedimentation and heavy metal pollution from both industrial and domestic waste. Lead (Pb) is avery toxic heavy metal after mercury (Hg) that is sourced from indsuties such as textile, battery,electroplating and coloring material, etc. There are 60 textile factories existed along the upper part ofCitarum River, which dump their waste with and without any treatment (Dhahiyat et al., 2016).

Figure 1. Cirata Reservoir polluted by Pb at concentrations above the standard quality618

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

Cirata reservoir experienced of lead pollution from antrophogenic activities around reservoir andCitarum river flow. Lead is a non-essential metal and is poisonous at very low concentration. The
contamination of Pb in water and sediment, when occurring in higher concentrations, is a serious threat
because of their toxicity, long persistence, and bioaccumulation and bio-magnification in the food chain.
Aquatic organisms take up and accumulate lead from water, sediment and food. Bio-magnification
occurs along the food chain, enhancing the toxic effects.

Figure 2. Maximum and minimum concentration of Pb in surface
water in 8 sampling station in Cirata Reservoir (PPSDAL,
1995 – 2016)
According to the Pb concentration data that monitored in periods 1995 – 2016 in 8 sampling stations, it
shown that Pb contamination were detected in Cirata reservoir in 2000. Pb spread evenly in eachsampling station with concentration between 0.03 – 0.320 mg.L-1 (PPSDAL, 1995 – 2016). The
concentration of Pb in Cirata reservoir in certain location was ten times higher compare to National
Water Quality Standard (0.03 mg.L-1). The concentration of Pb was higher in sampling stations thatlocated near the area of floating cages and lower in the restricted area (Station 2) (Figure 2). This isdue to the Pb content in fish pellets.
Pb may affect the organisms that lived in aquatic; they are able to accumulate heavy metal in theenvironment than later can be transferred to higher trophic levels through the food chain.
Bioaccumulation of Pb in Liposarcus pandalis in Cirata was considerably large (20 mg.g-1), larger thanthe National Standard (0.3 mg.g-1) and Strandard of Ministry of Health Republic of Indonesia (2 mg.g-1)(Dhahiyat et al., 2016). The cultured fish in floating cage in Cirata (Cyprinus carpio and Oreochromis
niliticus) were high contaminated by Pb, Hg and Cd above the standard (Riani, 2010).
The uptake of Pb from water is influenced by various environmental factors such as temperature. The
role of temperature on Pb uptake and accumulation on food chain has not been well studied and lessextensively studied. A dietary uptake of metals may represent an important exposure route for aquaticorganisms, and temperature dependent changes in food intake and absorption may play a key role inmetal accumulation, toxicity and food web transfer and thus require further investigation.
Some recent studies have reported the uptake and increase of Pb which is dependent on thetemperature (Wang et al., 2005). Baines et al. (2005) also found a positive relationship between
assimilation efficiency of dietary metals with temperature. A few reviews describe the effect oftemperature on endpoints such as toxicity, uptake and accumulation of metals (Chairns et al., 1975,

619

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

McLusky et al., 1986, Huegens et al., 2002, Gordon, 2005, Rainbow, 2007 in Sokolova & Lannig, 2008).
Metals can accumulate in aquatic organisms and are easily transferred through the food chain to the
top consumers, including human. The elevated toxicity of metals at higher temperature may be partiallyexplained by the higher uptake rate and accumulation increase with increasing temperature.
Temperature can affect the bioavailability of metals due to the higher solubility of metal compounds andthus higher concentrations of free metal ions at elevated temperatures.
Tropical inland water has a relatively warm temperature so that bioaccumulation process occurs
throughout the year. Tropical freshwater fish may be exceptionally sensitive to even small changes intemperature anticipated from global climate change. Increasing temperatures on aquatic ecosystems
provide significant consequences on Pb bioaccumulation in the aquatic organisms. Temperature
variations cause changes toxicokinetic, bioavalability, biotransformation, absorption rate andelimination rate of Pb. Temperature also affects to feeding rate (Heugens et al., 2001).

35
32.7

32.5

Jan

Temperature (oC)

30

28.9

Feb

29.1

Mar
25

25.7 25.9

25.3

Apr
Mei

23.0
22.0

Jun
Agu
Sep

20

Okt
17.7

Nov
Des

15
06:00 08:00 10:00 12:00 14:00 16:00 18:00 20:00 22:00 00:00 02:00 04:00 06:00

Figure 3. Monthly temperature variation in Cir ata (PJB, Unit Pembangkit Cirata, 2011)
Temperature variation in Cirata reservoir may reach to + 8oC. In the dry seasons, daily temperature
ranged from 25.9 – 32.7OC with average of 28.5oC (April and May). In the wet seasons, daily
temperature ranged from 17.7 – 25.3oC with average of 20.9oC in September, and daily temperature
ranged from 22 – 29oC with average of 25oC in transition periode (August and November). The rate of
most reactions is very sensitive to temperature, mostly will increase rapidly with the increase of
temperature. The temperature difference between the dry season and wet season reached + 8oC in
Cirata reservoir, which is predicted to give an effect on Pb bioaccumulation in aquatic organisms andthe transfer of Pb in the food chain.
The ongoing study is (i) investigate seasonal and spatial variability of Pb in water, (ii) determine Pb
bioaccumulation from phytoplankton, zooplankton to fish trophic levels and (iii) investigate the effect oftemperature on lead bioaccumulation in trophic levels.
METHODS
Samples will be collected discretely in dry season (May 2017), wet season (Sept 2017) and transition
period (March/November, 2017) to determine the effect of temperature on lead bioaccumulation inaquatic organisms. Sampling location will be carried out in the area surrounding the floating cage(station 3 and station 4) and in the area that restricted to the floating cage (station 2). Plankton size
fraction will be divided into small plankton (20 – 200 m) and larger plankton (> 201 m). Plankton will
be sampled by hauling plankton net horizontally through the water columns. Nile tilapia (Oreochromis
niloticus) and common carp (Cyprinus carpio) with a weight of 300 – 400 grams will be collected and620

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

dissected to extract muscle, gill, liver, gut content and body remain (skin, head and skeleton). Total Pb
and 210Pb analyzes will be performed on water sample, plankton and fish organ. Three replicated will
be performed on each plankton fraction for each site and season for both 13C and 15N. Prior to stable
isotope analyzing, the taxonomic composition of plankton fraction will be estimated under a binocular
microscope with magnification of 400x. The dominant groups of organisms will be determined each size
fraction.
210Pb activity concentration,
13C and
15N values will be tested using two-way crossed ANOVAs toassess the effects of the zone and size parameters for plankton fraction for each sampling season. To
test for bioaccumulation process across plankton fraction and within the two analyzes fish species, linier
regressions will be run between the log10 of 210Pb activity concentrations and 15N values of plankton
fractions and fish.

Physio-Chemical
Characteristics of
Cirata Reservoir

Water Sample
Taxonomy
Compotition
Plankton Fractionation[20 – 200 mm][> 200 mm]

d13C
d15N
Total Pb
Pb-210

Pb Bioaccumulationin plankton and fish
200 – 300 grams
Oreochromis niloticus
Cyprinus carprio

Pb Biomagnification
in food web

Linier Regresion of
Log10210Pb vs d15N
in Plankton & Fish

Effect of
Temperature on Pb
Bioaccumulation

Dry Season (Apr/May)
Wet Season (Sep)
Transition (Aug/Nov)

Gut Content
Liver, Gill, Muscle,
Body Remain (Skin,
Head, Skeleton)

Figure 4. Diagram flow of the research
Nitrogen and carbon stable isotopes will be used to identify trophic position and food web structure.
Stable isotope ratios of carbon (13C:12C; 13C) and nitrogen (15N:14N; 15N) are now recognized as
powerful tools to provide time-integrated evaluation for energy flow and food web structures inecological communities (Croteau et al., 2005). As a result of differential fractionation during foodassimilation, 13C can be used to identify food sources, whereas 15N can be used for inferring therelative trophic position of an individual within a food web. Comparing data on pollutant concentrations
with trophic levels inferred from stable isotope methodologies can enhance our understanding of trophic
and contaminant interrelationship in aquatic biota (Croteau et al., 2005). Freeze-dried samples collected
for stable isotope analysis were ground to a fine powder approximately 1 – 2 mg dry weight, analyzed
for 13C, 12C, 15N and 14N by continuous-flow isotope-ratio mass spectrophotometer. All samples werestandardized against atmospheric nitrogen or CO2 as follows:
13C or15N (o/ ) = [(Roosample/Rstandard) – 1] x 1000
15
14
13
12
Where R is N: N or C: C.
Metal concentrations in water and organisms will be analyzed by graphite furnace atomic-absoption
spectrophotometry or by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectroscopy (ICP-MS). Two or three
replicates will be measured for each sample.

621

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONSThe sampling period have been conducted in March 2017 (transition period), including water quality
measurements, retrieval the sample of water, phytoplankton, zooplankton, fish of tilapia and carp. Water
samples and biota are being analyzed in the laboratory for measurement of Pb metal content.
Table 1 shows that the water temperature at the surface ranges from 27 – 29oC. Water temperaturethat measured is a normal value for tropical waters. The conductivity in the three stations range from
145 – 147 mS/cm, which is tolerable for fish. pH in surface water ranges from 7.46 – 7.88, this range isideal to support the life of aquatic organisms, especially fish, that live well in pH range 6 – 9 (Goldman& Home, 1983). Turbidity ranges from 3.92 - 19.88 NTU and dissolved oxygen concentration between
55.65 - 8.88 mg/L.
Table 1. Physical and chemical parameters in Cirata Reservoir
Sta.

pH

2
3
4

7.700
7.456
7.876

Temp.

DO

ORP

Turbidity

TDS

Cond.

(oC)

(mg/L)

(mV)

(NTU)

(g/L)

(mS/cm)27.81028.72428.956

5.652
8.168
8.884

242.600
238.600
230.600

19.880
3.920
5.880

0.098
0.095
0.094

0.147
0.146
0.145

Secchi
depth
(cm)
80
120
70

The secchi depth in the three stations ranges from 70 – 120 cm. This value indicates that the waters
contain particles at high concentration and the light penetration hindered by the particles. The
obstruction of light penetration in waters can be caused by a high abundance of phytoplankton, which
occurs in eutrophic or hyper-eutrophic waters. The transparency below 300 cm classifies as eutrophic,
while OECD classified waters with the transparency below 70 cm as hyper-eutrophic waters (Henderson
et al., 1987).
Phytoplankton is an important primary produces and constitutes the basis of nutrient cycle of an
ecosystem. Chemical, physical and hydrological of the waters are several factors that influence theabundance of phytoplankton (Reynold, 1993). The result of sample analysis revealed that theabundance of phytoplankton on the water surface is 17.820 ind.L-1 (station 2), 52,476 ind.L-1 (station 3)
and 97,944 ind.L-1 (station 4) (Table 2).
Table 2. Phytoplankton Abundance in Cirata Reservoir(%)

Phytoplankton

Sta 2
61.11

Sta 3
36.10

Sta 4
0.71

18.89

1.52

0.84

1.11

0.69

0.64

Xantophyceae (Tribonema)

2.78

60.81

95.08

Dinophyceae (Ceratium)

6.11

0.13

0.07

Bacillariophyceae (Synedra, Navicula)

10.00

0.76

2.66

Chlorophyceae (Eudorina, Pediastrum, Pleodorina, Scenedesmus,
Cosmarium, Actinastrum)
Cyanophyceae (Chamaesiphon, Peridinium, Microcystis,
Merismopedia)
Zygnematophyceae (Spirogyra, Spondylosium, Straurastrum,
Zygogonium)

Based on relative abundance (KR), the structure of the phytoplankton community in station 2 wascomposed by Chlorophyceae (61.11%) and Cyanophyceae (18.89%); Chlorophyceae (36.10%) and
Xantophyceae (60.81%) at station 3; Xantophyceae (95.08%) at station 4. The Cyanophyceae
community is abundant in eutrophic waters due to its ability to adapt to high dissolved oxygen
fluctuations and at pH> 7 (Moss, 1988).
There are a number of reports that one, or more algae assemblage could be used as organism indicativeof water quality. Microcystis, Synedra, Strautrastrum, Pediastrum, Scenedesmus are thegenera/species that lived in Eutrophic water and pollution tolerant (Singh et al., 2013). Peridinium instation 2 and Microcystis in station 3 and station 4 becomes an indicator that the waters are622

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conferencecontaminated with organic compounds. Peridinium and Microcystis are the family of Cyanophyta thatthrive in nutrient-rich waters and extreme environmental conditions (Wehr & Sheath, 2003).
CONCLUSIONS
Temperature rise in aquatic ecosystem as the phenomenon of global climate change, effect on
biological processes in water and organisms including metal bioaccumulation process. Pb
contamination in Cirata Reservoir at concentrations above the national quality standard, has thepotential for accumulation of Pb in aquatic organisms and transfer along the food chain. The effect oftemperature on Pb bioaccumulation and its transfer in aquatic food web have been not studied.
REFERENCES
1. Baines, S. B., Fisher, N. S., Kinney, E.L. (2005). Influence of temperature on dietary metal
uptake in Arctic and temperate mussels. J. Mar. Ecol. Prog. Ser. 289: 201 – 213.
2. Croteau, M-N., Luoma, S. N. & Stewart, A. R. (2005). Trophic transfer of metals along
freshwater food webs: Evidence of cadmium biomagnification in nature. J. Limnol. Oceanogr.
50(5): 1511 – 1519.
3. Dhahiyat, Y., Rossiana, N. & Sumiarsih, E. (2016). Ecotoxicology and pollution. Bandung:
Unpad Press. 231p.
4. Goldman, C. R., Horne A. J. (1987). Limnology. International Student Edition. Tokyo: McGrawHill, Inc. 464p.
5. Henderson, B., Markland, H. R. (1987). Decaying lakes-The origins and control of cultural
eutrofication. New York: John & Willey Sons Ltd.
6. Heugens, E. H. W., Hendriks, A. J., Dekker, T., van Straalen, N. M., Admiraal, W. (2001). A
review of the effects of multiple stressors on aquatic organisms and analysis of uncertainty
factors for use in risk assessment. J. Crit. Rev. Toxicol. 31(3): 247 – 284.
7. Moss, B. (1988). Ecology of freshwaters. Second Edition. Oxford: Blackwell Scientist
Publication. 217p.
8. Riani, E. (2010). Kontaminasi logam berat pada ikan budidaya dalam keramba jaring apung di
Waduk Cirata. J. Teknobiologi I (1): 51 – 61.
9. Singh, U. B., Ahluwalia, A. S., Sharma, C., Jindal, R. Thakur, R. K. (2013). Planktonic
indicators: A promising tool for monitoring water quality (early-warning signals). J. Eco. Env. &Concs. 19(3): 793 – 800.
10. Sokolova, I. M. & Lannig, G. (2008). Interactive effects of metal pollution and temperature on
metabolism in aquatic ectotherms: implications of global climate change. J. Clim. Res. 37: 181– 201.
11. Wang, J., Chuang, C.Y., Wang, W.X. (2005). Metal and oxygen uptake in the green mussel
Perna viridis under different metabolic conditions. J. Environ. Toxicol. Chem. 24:2657–2664.
12. Wehr, J. D., Sheath, R. G. (2003). Freshwater Algae of North America. Ecology andClassification. USA: Academy Press.

623

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

WATER QUALITY STATUS OF SINGARVA LAKE AT AHMADABAD, GUJARAT, INDIA
Sanjay Vediya*
P.G. Center in Botany. Sir P.T. Science College, Modasa – 383315*Coresponding author: drsanjuvediya@rediffmail.com
ABSTRACTThe present study was carried out to determine the Water quality of Singarva Lake at Ahmadabad,
Gujarat, for period of two year during 2010. The minimum and maximum values of pH varied from 6.8
to 8.5 respectively variation in TDS 305 to 1210 mg/l, Total hardness 100to 200 mg/l, Calcium Hardness
varied from 50 to120mg/l were in good amounts in water and magnesium hardness is minimum andmaximum 40 to 130 mg/l. Concentrations of Chloride is 141.91 to 629.85 mg/l. DO concentration 0.6 to
3.6 mg/l, COD varies from 1.0 to 117 mg/l and BOD 8.1 to 37 mg/l respectively in Singarva Lake.
Keywords: Lake, Singarva Lake, water quality
INTRODUCTION
Almost 70 % of the water in India has become polluted due to the discharge of domestic sewage andindustrial effluents into natural water source, such as rivers, streams as well as lakes (Sangu andSharma, 1987). About 95% of rural population living in India depends on ground water for domestics
use (Moharir et al.,2002). The lakes are quiet large bodies of fresh water, usually deep enough that
their beds lie much beyond the photosynthetic zone (Agrawal, 1999). Fluctuations of water level related
to climate conditions and human requirements of water. The rate of water replacement of a lake also
depends upon the season. A lake may be occasionally created by digging a basin that intercepts thewater table. Such a lake is in a sense nothing but a wide shallow well. Most manmade lakes are createdby damming a stream at a strategic point so that the water backed up the dam can be contained in anatural valley or basin. Many lakes are artificial and constructed for hydro-electric power supply,
recreational purposes, industrial, agricultural use and domestic water supply. Ahmadabad is unique inthe whole of India in matter of environmental neatness and flourishing conditions and it is superior toother cities in the excellence of its monuments. Ahmadabad Urban Development Authority (AUDA)
carried out a survey of 645 lakes and identified 22 lakes which have been severely degraded. AUDA
proposes to undertake works for revival, development of catchments area and beautification of lakes
under the present project. Of these, 2 lakes were studied which are Singarva lake that located at
Singarva village near Godhara, Ahmedabad road GIDC Kathwada, Ahmedabad. Its total capacity is
13.6 Carore liters. Lake Desilting area is 5675.0 m3 and peripheral development Works including
landscaping: recreation facilities are such as Am phi theatre, children park and boating facilities andpercolation wells to recharge ground water table. The aim of the present study is to determine thespatial and temporal distribution of physical variables (pH, TDS, Hardness, Chloride, COD, BOD andDO) in addition to Water of Singarva and lake during January to December 2010 of drought period toassess the environmental status of the Lake.
METHODS
The samples for physicochemical analysis were collected in pre-washed 1.5 L plastic bottles. The
samples were taken from the surface at a depth of 6-9 inches from five different points, integrated anda representative sample was drawn. The sampling was carried out from January to December 2010.
Physicochemical Analysis of water was carried out referring to the ‘standards methods’ (APHA –1999).
The pH, TDS, Hardness, Chloride, Dissolved Oxygen, Biological oxygen Demand and Chemical oxygen
demand were measured in the field. The collected samples were brought to laboratory and analyzed
within 24 hours, except the Biological Oxygen Demand, which require a period of five days for
incubation at a temperature of 200C using standard methods (APHA –1999).
RESULTS AND DISCUSSIONS
Analysis of physicochemical parameters were conducted from January to December 2010, the data
were shown in Table1. The Physico-chemical parameters are considered as the most importantprinciples in the identification of the nature, quality and type of the water (fresh, brackish or saline) for
any aquatic ecosystem (Abdo, 2005).
pH regulates most of the biological processes and bio-chemical reactions (Sculthorpe-1967). pH, free
CO2 and ammonia are more critical factors in the survival of aquatic plants and fishes than the oxygen
supply, as reported. Fluctuations in of pH values mostly depend upon ingredient input in the water624

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

bodies. The singarva lake water was found to be alkaline where pH varied from 6.8 sep-2010 and 8.5
Apr-2010. According to (Spence-1967) the pH of a typical eutrophic lake ranges from 7.7 to 9.6. The
present findings are in support with of observation made by) that the Singarva lake is eutrophic on thebasic of its pH range High pH value during Apr-2010. No significant change was observed in the water
pH during different seasons and it was found within the permissible limits of 6.5-8.5 of WHO (Fresenius1988). Total Dissolved Solids are simply the sum of cations and anions concentration expressed in mg/l.
A high content of dissolved Solids elevates the density of water, influence osmo regulation of fresh
water organisms, residue solubility of gases (like O2), residues utility of water for drinking purpose andresult into eutrophication of the aquatic ecosystem. TDS in this lake fluctuated between 305 ppm to1210 ppm. The highest value was recorded 1210 ppm in March to May 2010 (Vediya and Patel, 2010).
The concentration of Total hardness in Lake Singarva During varied from lowest level 100 mg/l (inJanuary 2010) and the highest 200 mg/l in Feb, 2010). Classified water on the basis of hardness values
in the following manner. (i)0-60mg/l: Soft (ii) 61-120mg/l: moderately hard, (iii) 121-160 mg/l: Hard and(iv)>160mg/l: very Hard (Kannan, 1991). Calcium hardness varied from 50 mg/l (Dec, 2010) to 120 mg/l
as the highest value (March, 2010) as the highest concentration. Comparatively magnesium hardness
is higher from 130 mg/l in Dec-2010. Chloride is distributed widely in nature in the form of salts of sodium,
potassium and calcium. The chloride status in lake water is indicative of pollution, especially of animal
origin. In the present study chloride concentration in Singarva lake was found raining between minimum
range of 141.91 mg/l in Sep-2010 and maximum range of 629.85 mg/l during to Jan-2010.the highest
value of chloride was observed at the day of Jan to Jun -2009. Resulted due to large amount organic
matter, mass bathing activities, urination and waste of animals. These results are in conformity with thestudy of (Zutshi-1988). The presence of dissolved oxygen is required to prevent odor and is used byaquatic plants and other life forms. The dissolved oxygen in Singarva Lake was found within 0.6 mg/l.
Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) showed the lowest range of 8.1 mg/l in August 2010 and thehighest was 37 mg/l May 2010, respectively (Table 1). The minimum value of BOD was recorded at thesurface layer during the functioning period of the aeration units. BOD indicates the presence of microbialactivities and dead organic matter on which microbes can feed. BOD is directly linked withdecomposition of dead organic matter present in the lake and hence the higher values of BOD can bedirectly related with pollution status of the lake (WQM-1999). An inverse relationship was found between
the dissolved oxygen concentration and biological oxygen demand values (Coscun, 1987).
Chemical oxygen demand (COD) indicates the pollution level of a water body that is related to thepresent of organic matter in the lake (WQM-1999). COD concentrations in the lowest range of 1 mg/l
oct-2010 and the higher range of 117 mg/l were obtained in the surface layer of stations May-2010.
Respectively (Table. 1). The increase in COD concentration was found in the bottom water whereorganic matter is more (Prasad-1976). BOD and COD are important parameters that indicate
contamination level, especially for wastewater. The values of BOD and COD were found in the range
8.1-37 mg/L, and 1.0-117 mg/L respectively. Slightly higher values of COD warn about the pollution inlake caused by anthropogenic activities.
Table 1. Physicochemical data of Singarva Lake, Ahmadabad, and Gujarat.
Parameters
Jan
Feb
Mar
Apr
May Jun
Jul
Aug
pH
7.4
7.9
8.1
8.5
8.2
8
8
6.9
TDS (ppm)
832
820
954
908
1210 820
305
374
Total
hardness(mg/l)
100
200
200
200
170
200
180
110
Calcium
Hardness(mg/l)
60
90
120
110
70
90
90
60
Magnesium
hardness(mg/l)
40
110
80
90
100
110
90
50
Chloride629.8 525.9 429.9 528.9 494.8 498. 321.2 154.9(mg/l)
5
3
1
7
4
2
3
5
DO (mg/l)
3.6
3
2.9
2.5
0.6
1.4
1.6
2
COD (mg/l)
20
28
61
46
117
48
24
11
BOD (mg/l)
20
15
28
8.3
37
21
10
8.1

625

Sep
6.8
394

Oct
7.6
455

Nov
7.1
490

Dec
7.5
594

110

140

160

180

50

70

90

50

60
141.9
1
1.9
23
12

70
174.9
6
1.3
1
20

70
189.
9
1.3
10
17

130
244.9
4
2.7
69
19

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

CONCLUSIONSThe study shows that Singarva lake water exhibits low DO, High BOD, COD, TDS. pH value indicatesslightly alkaline nature of water. The remarkable point is that the pollution load is significantly high during
2010. The analysis shows that hardness and chloride are above the permissible limits. It’s observedthat siltation is one of the key causes responsible for the degradation of the lake. Comparison ofphysicochemical parameters of Singarva Lake with those of WHO recommended values shows thatwater is not suitable for drinking purposes. The study of water and flora shows that the Lake contains
adequate food potential and micro nutrients for development. Therefore, it is suggested to farmers
should be encouraged to use organic fertilizers instead off chemical fertilizers and public awarenessregarding benefits of not using plastic bags should be undertaken on priority basis.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
I gratefully acknowledge The Staff of P. G. Center in Botany Sir P.T. Science College, Modasa for
Support and Laboratory facility for this study.
REFERENCES
1. Abdo, M. H., (2005): Physico-chemical characteristics of Abu Za’baal Ponds, Egypt. Egyptian J.
of aquaticresearch, 31(2): 1 – 15.
2. Agrwal, S. C., (1999) Limnology, A.P.H. Pub. Corporation, New Delhi.
3. APHA., (1992). Standerd methods for the examination of water and waste water. 18 th Edition,
Washington, D.C.
4. Coscun, l., Yatreri, S., Mirat, T., & Gurol D., (1987): Removel of Disolved Organic Contaminantsby ozonation. Environmental progress,6(4),240-244.
5. Fresenius, W., K.E. Quentin and W. Schneider., (1988): Water analysis. Berlin: Springer, p. 725726.
6. Kannan, K., (1991): Fundamentals of Environmental pollution. S. Chand and Company Ltd., New
Delhi.
7. Moharir, A., D.S. Ramteke, C.A. Moghe, S.R. Wate and R. Sarin (2000). Surface and ground water
quality Assessment in Bina Region, Ind J.Environ.Protec., 22(9), 961-969.
8. Prasad, D.Y. & Qayyum, M. A., (1976). Pollution aspects of Upper Lake Bhopal. Indian Journalof Zoology 4(1), 35-46.
9. Sangu, R.P. S and S.K. Sharma (1987). An Assessment of water quality of river Ganga at
Garmukeshwer, Ind. J. Ecol, 14(20),278-287
10. Sanjay vediya and Satish patel, (2010): Variations in physicochemical characteristics of water in
Ramol Lake, Ahmadabad, Gujarat, India.
11. Sculthorpe, C. D., (1967): Biology of aquatic Vascularplants. Edwerd Arnold pub.ltd., London:610.
12. Spence, D.H.N., (1967). The Zonation of Plants in Fresh Water lakes. Adv. Ecol.Res.12:37-125.
13. WQM Report, (1999) Annual report on Water Quality Monitoring of upper and lower lakes Bhopal:
Volumes I and II.
14. Zutshi, D.P.and Khan, A.V., (1988) Eutophic gradient in the Dal lake, Kashmir, Indian J.
Envir.Hlth.30(4):348-354.

626

Proceedings of the 16th World Lake Conference

ISBN: 978-979-8163-25-8

627
Published by:
Research Center for Limnology,
Indonesian Institute of Sciences