イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

113

吉備国際大学研究紀要（人文・社会科学系）
第25号，113−124，2015

日本で増加する英語能力試験
イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー
English Language Proficiency Testing in Japan
Ian William Warner
Abstract
English language proficiency - above all speaking and discussing skills - are becoming more necessary andimportant in Japanese commerce and society at large, in part as a result of Japanese government policy. Concurrent
with this trend, and perhaps partly because of it, not only the number of Japanese persons wanting to take English
language proficiency tests but also the number of English language proficiency tests themselves are increasing. This
brief survey article examines what English language proficiency tests are currently available in Japan, how they vary
in crucial respects, and how - and to what extents - they are currently being utilized by individuals and institutions. It
then briefly considers whether further increases in the total number of such tests are likely and whether that would bea positive, negative, ‘gray’ or neutral phenomenon.
Key words ：English Language Proficiency Test, English Language Testing
キーワード ：英語能力試験、英語外部試験

吉備国際大学外国語学部〒700-0931 岡山県岡山市北区奥田西町5番5号

School of Foreign Language Studies, Kibi International University
5-5, Okuda Nishi-cho, Okayama-shi, Kita-ku, Okayama-ken, Japan (700-0931)

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日本で増加する英語能力試験

１．English Language Proficiency Tests in Japan

with the Eiken Foundation of Japan and ii) the ‘Global
Test of English Communication’ (GTEC) developed by(1) Market size

Benesse Group with some funding support provided byAs ‘globalization’ and ‘internationalization’ have become

the Government of Japan’s Ministry of Education, Science,

key themes for educational institutions and larger

Sports and Culture (MEXT).

business entities in Japan, the demand for and emphasis

Table 1 compares the aforementioned six major tests

on effective foreign language skills has grown.

using the Common European Framework of Reference

Concurrent with this trend, and perhaps partly because of

for Languages (CEFR) ‘European Scale of Languageit, the Japanese foreign language proficiency testing

Proficiency’ as yardstick. As the table shows, these tests

market has expanded. According to a report compiled

overlap in terms of content and thus likely demographic /by the Yano Research Institute released in September

customer base and can therefore safety be seen as2014, the foreign language learning market in FY2013

amounting to rival products. More importantly, whenwas estimated to be worth just under 809 billion yen perviewed and grouped together collectively, they canannum. This was a 3.1% increase over the figure for
FY2012.

A further rise of 2.1% to 825.9 billion yen

per annum has been forecast for FY2014. Demand for
language proficiency testing has also been rising. The
market for language proficiency testing services in
FY2013 was said to be worth 205 billion yen per annum,
and is expected to have reached 210 billion yen perannum in FY2014.
(2) Major English language proficiency tests
There are currently six major tests available in Japan thatare intended to measure general English language
proficiency, namely the ‘Test of English for International
Communication’ (TOEIC), the ‘EIKEN test in PracticalEnglish Proficiency’ (EIKEN), the ‘Test of English as a
Foreign Language’ (TOEFL iBT), the ‘International
English Language Testing System’ (IELTS), the ‘United
Nations Association of Japan’s six-level Test of English’(UNATE) and the Cambridge English Language
Assessment ‘Proficiency (CPE)’ (hereafter cited as‘CPE’) language test.

At least two additional tests,

quite newly developed, may in time need to be added tothis list: i) the ‘Test of English for Academic Purposes’(TEAP) developed by Sophia University in conjunction

justifiably be said to well cater for an examinee
population with wide variance in current English
language proficiency levels.
(3) Numbers of English language proficiency tests taken
per annum
The number of major English language proficiency tests
taken in Japan per annum has been rising steadily.
For TOEIC, the number of proficiency tests taken in
Japan in 2013 (counting both the Institute forInternational Business Communication’s (IIBC) Secure
Program (SP) tests and Institutional Program (IP) tests
arranged directly by educational institutions, corporations
and other organizations) was 2.361 million, comparedwith 2.304 million in 20121. The number of EIKEN
foundation ‘EIKEN’ tests taken in Japan has similarly
been rising. In 2013, 2.356 million ‘EIKEN’ tests weretaken, up from 2.319 million in 20122.
1 This data was taken from:http://www.toeic.or.jp/toeic/about/data.html[Accessed: Dec. 30th, 2014]
2 This data was taken from:http://www.eiken.or.jp/eiken/en/eiken-tests/stats/[Accessed: Dec. 30th, 2014]イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

115

The number of ‘IELTS’ proficiency tests taken in Japanproficiency tests also measure all four skills, but assign

has also risen significantly since the Eiken Foundation ofgreater emphasis and marks to Reading and Listening.

Japan assumed joint responsibility for administering it (inIn the case of the most demanding (i.e. CEFR C2 level)

Japan only) in partnership with one of its main owners,of Cambridge English Language Assessment tests,

the British Council, a U.K. government funded education

namely the ‘CPE’, Reading is allocated a maximum ofand culture provider-promoter.

40% of available marks compared to a maximum of 20%

24,000 ‘IELTS’ tests

were taken in 2013, a figure 3.5 times higher than theeach for Listening, Writing and Speaking.

official total recorded for 20093.

‘UNATE SA’ and ‘UNATE A’ proficiency tests currently

While the numbers of ‘TOEFL iBT’ and certainly ‘CPE’

measure Reading, Writing and Speaking capabilities, butand ‘UNATE’ proficiency tests taken in Japan arenotdoubtless modest in comparison and unfortunately not

proficiency test measures only Reading and Listening

presently disclosed by their respective testing bodies, it isabilities and cannot therefore be said to constitute a fully

likely that their administering parent organizations havecomprehensive test in its own right. For assessment ofsimilarly recorded increases in overall sales of these

Writing and Speaking proficiency, entirely separate if

proficiency tests over the last 5 years.

complimentary ‘TOEIC SW’ proficiency tests must be(4) Test content

taken (in succession, on a single date) and these almost

Although these various English language proficiency

certainly have much lower product recognition profiles

tests seem on the face of it to offer a fairly high degree ofand end-user uptakes compared to the much bettercross-compatibility and an examinee’s performance for

known main ‘TOEIC’ proficiency test.

all of them can likely be legitimately inferred / predicted

The most precise and truly informative results are surely

with some confidence using actual test data obtained

most likely to be forthcoming when all four skills arefrom just one or two of them, it is vital to recognize thatmeasured and then evaluated / weighted equally

they each adopt significantly different approaches toregardless of the relative importance one chooses thenmeasuring test takers’ overall English language

assign to each of them. However, as it is more difficult

proficiency and differ markedly regarding structure (e.g.

and time consuming to gauge Writing and Speaking

the number and nature of levels, length of components

proficiencies with the necessary degree of objective rigor,

and / or overall duration). The comprehensive ‘TOEFL

tests that attempt to do so tend to be more expensive -iBT’, and ‘IELTS’ proficiency tests assess not only

and lengthy - to design, sit, mark and otherwise

Reading and Listening abilities, but also Speaking andadminister. Probably in part for this very reason, theWriting capacities and allocate maximum marks equally‘TOEFL iBT’, ‘IELTS’ and ‘CPE’ tests have beenamong each, in a balanced manner. In contrast, therelatively expensive propositions for a long time or‘CPE’ and ‘EIKEN 1st Grade’ and ‘Pre-1st Grade’throughout their histories and, as of December 2014, cost

Listeningcapability.

The

main

The

‘TOEIC’a hefty US$230 (if taken in Japan), Y25,380 and3 This data was taken from:

Y25,725 respectively, whereas the fee for the less

http://www.eiken.or.jp/ielts/merit/situation/

wide-ranging ‘UNATE SA’, Eiken 1st grade and main[Accessed: Dec. 30th, 2014]‘TOEIC’ is Y10,500, Y8,400 and Y5,725 respectively.

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日本で増加する英語能力試験(5) Other, secondary English language proficiency tests

of multiple-choice formats is said to aid grading accuracy andDeveloped in the USA at San Diego State University and thereliability. As mentioned above, separate ‘G-TELP’ tests

until recently affiliated International Testing Services Center

have been developed for Writing proficiency (i.e. The 60-(ITSC) for persons aged 16 and over, the ‘General Test ofminute duration ‘G-TELP GWT’) and Speaking (oral)

English Proficiency’ (G-TELP) could perhaps gain someproficiency (i.e. The 40-minute duration ‘G-TELP GST’).

traction and a higher profile in the coming years in NorthFor both of these tests, there are 3 levels: basic, intermediate

America and / or elsewhere, although it is presently fairly

and advanced. For the ‘G-TELP GST’ Speaking test,

obscure and may give some the impression of being both

examinees must attempt to gain mastery regarding 4 basic

at least as complex in terms of structure and assessment

tasks, 4 intermediate tasks and 3 advanced tasks. For theas its better known peers and, arguably, still to some

‘G-TELP GWT’ Writing test, examinees are required toextent an experimental ‘work in progress’. Bolsteredconstruct a paragraph, compose a letter, compose a formal

by separate Writing (G-TELP GWT) and Speaking

letter, describe a situation and finally write an essay. ITSC

(G-TELP GST) components, the core G-TELP proficiency

Group, the ‘G-TELP’s’ current owner-controller andtest comprises 5 task-based tests for different capability

promoter, contends that its ‘G-TELP’ portfolio can capture anlevels. Four of these five tests are presently available inunusually large and informative volume of data on Listening,

Japan. The lowest 4 levels (Levels 5 to 2) cover grammar,

Reading, Vocabulary, and Grammar test performance that is

Listening, Reading and Vocabulary proficiency while theideal for advanced diagnostic purposes. This, the ITSC

highest level (Level 1) covers Listening, Reading andclaims, allows test takers to receive quantitatively andVocabulary proficiency. However, the primary emphasis

qualitatively superior feedback reports about theirmoves from Listening skills at the lowest level to Reading

respective test performance strengths and weaknesses.

skills at the highest. The 60-minute duration Level 1 test

According to G-TELP Japan, 100 universities in Japan (anassesses “Authentic English in Complex Communication”

accumulated total) have to date used ‘G-TELP’ to determine(Listening) and “Authentic Modified English in Normal

student English language proficiency at least for aptitude-level

Communication” (Reading). Level 2 (90-minute duration)screening, streaming and progress assessment purposes.

assessesNormalConceivably in part due to Japan’s MEXT having madeCommunication”. Level 3 (80-minutes duration) assesses

the teaching of English language compulsory on a

“Modified English in Simple Communication”. Level 4 (60nation-wide basis for the final two years of public

minute duration) assesses “Basic English in Simple

elementary school education, demand for English tests

Communication”. The 45-minute duration entry-level test

for children has also been rising. High profile tests of(Level 5) - which should not be mistaken for or conflated withthis kind include the Japan Association for the Promotion

an entirely distinct ‘Junior G-TELP’ that is intended toof English for Children (JAPEC) ‘English Test formeasure young students aged between 7 and 14 years old -Children’, the United Nations Association’s ‘Test ofassesses “Basic Classroom English” capability. For each ofEnglish (Junior Test)’, and Cambridge English Language

these ‘G-TELP’ tests, proficiency is determined by comparing

Assessment’s ‘Young Learners’ trio of tests.

examinee performance with ‘G-TELP’ test descriptors drawn

Various additional English language proficiency tests for

up to regulate grading of observed performance. Heavy use‘business’ applications and specific professionalized sectors“Authentic

Modified

Englishinイアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

117

such as accounting, law, commercial aviation and various

to Reading (including grammar and translation)

forms of medical practice also exist.

proficiency assessment.

Currently leading

Therefore, the same MEXT

examples include those marketed and administered byexpert panel recommended that more Japanese

Cambridge English Language Assessment and theuniversities begin to utilize external examinations inInternational Testing Services Center (ITSC).

order to enhance the scope and overall precision of theirThese

specialized and custom products may increase in number,

English language proficiency testing.

In thatsignificance and popularity in the years to come but fallconnection, according to the Council on International

outside the scope of this survey owing to time constraints andEducation Exchange (CIEE) Japan, 219 universities in

the fact that currently, they constitute peripheral tests not

Japan were making some use of the ‘TOEFL iBT’ ingenerally considered to be of great salience vis-à-vis theconnection with entrance examinations in 2012 5 .

overall English language proficiency testing market.

However, their utilization of the ‘TOEFL iBT’ waslimited, being largely confined to Admissions Office

2. Use of External English Tests at Academic
Institutions in Japan(AO) examinations and / or the assessment of transfer
student admissions, etc., rather than being deployedwidely for general entrance examination purposes.

(1) Use of external English language proficiency tests forentrance examinations

Quite the contrary. According to the same CIEE report,
no national / public universities used the ‘TOEFL iBT’ as

A MEXT expert panel that discussed English educationa core part of its general entrance exam. While elevenin Japanese public schools on September 26th, 20144

private universities were found to be making some use of

concluded by affirming that English language educationthe ‘TOEFL iBT’ as a part of their general entrance

should aim to develop all four communicative skills in

examinations, most if not all did so only in secondary,unison. The panel also held that university entrance

rudimentary ways. This is almost certainly in large partexaminations should likewise assess all four skills. Yet

due to the comparative difficulty as well as lengthy

currently, the ‘National Center Test for University

duration - and substantial cost (even for institutions) - ofAdmissions’ allocates a full 80 percent of available

this test. As noted, TOEFL iBT is an expensive andmarks to Reading skills and the remaining 20 percent

advanced test that is simply too hard for all but a small

solely to Listening skills. Furthermore, most universities

minority of high school graduates already in possession

in Japan currently have their own individual entranceof demonstrably superior English skills.

examinations, the great majority of which are similarly

The number of universities that make use of theunbalanced with too much weight tending to be assigned

somewhat less demanding ‘TOEIC’ proficiency test in
their entrance examination process has also been rising.

4

MEXT Expert Panel Report on Improvement andEnhancement of English Language Education [Online]

5 International Education Exchange (CIEE) Japan TOEFL

Available from:iBT score usage report 2012 [Online] Available from:http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chousa/shotou/102/ho

http://www.cieej.or.jp/toefl/toefl/score_report2012.pdf

ukoku/1352460.htm [Accessed: Dec. 30 , 2014][Accessed: Dec. 30th, 2014]

th

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日本で増加する英語能力試験

According to the Institute for International Business

university. Therefore, the chosen entrance test must be

Communication (IIBC), 336 universities in Japan had inable to test English language proficiency vis-à-vis

one way or another included the ‘TOEIC’ in their‘academic purposes’. Yet the ‘TOEIC’ is intended toentrance examination processes by 2013, compared toevaluate test takers’ English language proficiency in a

290 in 2012.

However, as with the ‘TOEFL iBT’,

more general or, in fact, somewhat business-oriented‘TOEIC’ use is also limited for like reasons. In bothcontexts, and so lacks adequate ‘academic purpose’cases, colleges and universities may merely provide

related English language content.

student applicants with the opportunity to voluntarilyiii) Reliability of test scores

specify ‘TOEFL’ and ‘TOEIC’ scores on entrance

For the ‘TOEFL iBT’ and ‘IELTS’ tests, IRT is applied inapplication forms and during interviews.

a ‘rigorous’ effort to increase the probability of test score

So the main factors that serve to discourage or prevent

accuracy and continuity across time and space. IRT isuniversities from fully embracing such otherwise leading

said to ensure to an acceptable extent that if any two

external proficiency tests for their entrance exams appear

people with the same level of English language

to be as follows: i) test content is simply too advanced

proficiency take an IRT compatible test, they should bothfor the majority of Japanese high school students; ii)score the same total number of points and be graded

test content is not suitable for other reasons; and iii) the

identically. However, for the regular ‘TOEIC’ test, it isaccuracy and comparability of tests cannot be assured

not clear whether IRT is applied or not, while the current

because they have not been designed in accord with Item

‘EIKEN’ test seems to make no use of IRT whatsoever.

Response Theory (IRT).

1) Newer tests: ‘TEAP’(The ‘TOEFL iBT’ isreportedly IRT compliant but the TOEIC may well not be.

A largely paper-based ‘Test of English for Academic

Please see below).

Purposes’ (TEAP) is being developed in Japan by staff atiii) Students’ English language proficiency levels

Tokyo’s Sophia University in collaboration with the

If the proficiency test is too difficult or too easy, results

Eiken Foundation of Japan.

will be insufficiently informative and meaningful even if

2014, the fledgling, home-grown ‘TEAP’s’ mostthey permit ‘realistic’ rankings of examinee proficiency.

important characteristic is that it has been developed

According to in-house ‘TOEIC’ data analysis, thefrom the outset specifically for university entrance

average ‘TOEIC’ score of high school students in Japan

examination use in Japan and so has been designed towas 511 in 2013. Therefore, if an external test of English

measure how well Japanese student applicants canlanguage proficiency is to be used for a university

comprehend and produce English as a second language

entrance examination test, it should be a fairly easy one

in ways “appropriate to university-level education.”targeted at the A2 level on the aforementioned CEFRThe ‘TEAP’ has been adopted as a part of Sophia‘European Scale of Language Proficiency’.

University’s own 2015 entrance examination and williii) Test content

reportedly be employed by Rikkyo (St. Paul’s)

The purpose of any chosen university entrance test is to

University in 2016. One main benefit of ‘TEAP’ as far

determine whether candidates are likely to be capable ofas university student applicants are concerned is that theyat least satisfactory study performance at the examining

can take this test multiple times since they only need to

Launched only in July

イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

119achieve a stipulated minimum pass mark prior to

Writing test lasts for 65 minutes and its Speaking tests

application. This is clearly a far more agreeable andlasts for approximately 20 minutes.

possibly fairer proposition than subjecting prospective

The ‘GTEC for Students’ variant measures only Reading,

students to conventional one-off university examinations.

Listening and Writing. Three separate versions of theOn the other hand, the ‘TEAP’ might not yet be‘GTEC for Students’ variantare offered in order to cover

optimally employed at Sophia University since, as justvarying ability levels. ‘GTEC for Students’ levels (intouched on, it is being used essentially only as a pass or

ascending order) are titled ‘Core’ (70-minutes duration),

fail test, so excellent students of English who obtain very

‘Basic’high ‘TEAP’ scores will not gain any university entrance(90-minutes duration). For the ‘Core’ test, 32 minutes

related advantage - points wise - over those who justare assigned to Reading, 18 minutes to Listening and 20

manage to score the minimum number of marks

minutes to writing.

necessary to pass the test.

tests, 45 minutes are assigned to Reading, 25 minutes to2) Newer tests: ‘GTEC’

Listening and 20 minutes to Writing. The maximum

Benesse Group has also co-developed an indigenous

obtainable score is 440 points for the ‘Core’ test, 660

Japanese English language test which it has christenedpoints for the ‘Basic’ test and 810 points for thethe ‘Global Test of English Communication’ (GTEC).6‘Advanced’ test.

There are two variants of this test, namely thetargets A1 to B1-2 (CEFR) level candidates and isinternet-based ‘GTEC CBT’ for adults (of 175-minutes

therefore appropriate for the more able of high school

duration) and the paper-based ‘GTEC for Students’ forgraduate and fresh university level under-graduate

junior-high and high school students.

students.

The more(90-minutes

duration)and’Advanced’

For the ‘Basic’ and ‘Advanced’

The ‘GTEC for Students’ variant

demanding ‘GTEC CBT’ variant measures English for

Both variants the ‘GTEC’ test can be taken in all ofacademic purposes while the ‘GTEC for Students’Japan’s prefectures on (Benesse-owned) Berlitz language

variant measures general English comprehension.

center premises. The ‘GTEC for Students’ variant can

While the Y12,600 ‘GTEC CBT’ may be somewhat lessalternatively be taken at schools which makes it moreacademically oriented than the ‘TEAP’, it is a single

readily accessible to students living in remote locations.

level test that measures all four skills (i.e. Reading,Like the ‘TOEFL iBT’ and ‘IELTS’ tests, both ‘GTEC’

Listening, Writing and Speaking equally (in terms ofvariants make use of the aforementioned IRT to ensure

points allocated) and targets A2 to B2 / C1 (CEFR) level

grading validity and consistency, etc. According to thecandidates. The maximum obtainable score is 1,400

official Benesse Group website, a number of well known

points (i.e. a maximum of 350 points for each of the 4

public and private sector Japanese universities are

skills). The ‘GTEC CBT’ Reading test lasts for 55

planning to experiment with the academic English

minutes and its Listening test lasts for 35 minutes. Its‘GTEC CBT’ variant for entrance examination purposes
from 2015 onwards and around 60,000 high school

6 Benesse Holdings Inc. GTEC CBT [Online].

students at over 1,000 high schools sat the ‘GTEC for

Available from: http://www.benesse-gtec.com/cbt/

Students’ variant during 2013.

[Accessed: Dec. 30th, 2014]

Please note that, at post-graduate program level, Japanese

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日本で増加する英語能力試験

universities frequently use external English tests as part

dynamic is to be expected. Therefore, could it be that testof their overall entrance examination.

performance is in practice somewhat affected by - and thus

(2) Taking of external English language tests to gain

dependent on - test price, given that greater familiarity withcredits for English language courses at universities in

actual tests and test conditions is likely prone to improve (ifJapan:

only marginally) overall examinee test performance?

External English language proficiency tests are more

Whether this is indeed the case may remain an open question

often taken in order to gain credits for English language

but it is perhaps up to the testing organizations to dispel suchcourses of study at universities.

a seemingly plausible assumption if they wish to defend

In other words,

students who study English language at university are

relatively high testing fees or raise charges further.

increasingly able to take external tests instead of - or

As regards test multiplication and duplication, some degree

perhaps in addition to - bespoke in-house examinationsof consumer choice regarding test product selection iscreated by teaching staff, providing doing so is in-line

doubtless very desirable for obvious, conventional reasons towith syllabus briefs, etc which now often encourage such.

do with monopoly etc, but there is surely some potential risk

According to CIEE Japan, 162 universities in Japanthat too many competing tests could come to frustrate andissued students with English language credits on theinhibit the fundamental objective of testing, namely accurate

basis of TOEFL iBT scores in 2012.

Likewise,determination of the extent of knowledge and skill

according to the IIBC, 360 universities in Japan issued

acquisition / retention vis-à-vis as large a test population as

credits on the basis of proven ‘TOEIC’ scores in 2013.

possible. Unless the results of all major English language
proficiency tests can be reliably, easily and quickly compared

3．Possible Grounds for Concern

with one another and matched, regardless of their country oforigin etc, confusion will supplant clarity and transparency.

Two main areas of concern may be appreciable. The first is

In short, ‘too many’ major test products all competing

test pricing. The second is test multiplication / multiplicity

against one another increase the chances of measurement

resulting in excessive overlap and duplication. Prices for‘chaos’.

these tests are presumably decided only after taking into

employment of a few widely known and dominant tests, thecareful account numerous practical and commercial

better. So long as a handful of premier tests are sufficiently

considerations.

Be that as it may, public demand forcomprehensive and internally sound in terms of design andEnglish language proficiency tests - above all for the most

deployment, there are perhaps no compelling objections to

expensive such as ‘TOEFL iBT’ - arguably might be higher

them collectively remaining standard, default resources since

if per test charges were lower. Test price surely affects thethey will perform their assigned function(s) well enough andtotal number of actual persons who opt to sit and re-sit tests

can be improved upon and updated as and when necessary

and the total number of times in any given period theyand desirable. It is surely far wiser to try to improve current

choose to do so. If test prices are relatively low and easily

tests than to allow or contribute to an excessive proliferation

affordable, tests are likely to be taken more frequently byof new ones. Ideally, improved testing knowhow should at

eager, well-motivated individuals. If, on the contrary, test

the appropriate time, and with great care, be incorporated

prices are relatively high and less affordable, the opposite

into existing tests even if that necessitates their expansion or

The greater the international stature andイアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

121radical re-design, not used as the basis and rationale for the

purposes, they could cause large numbers of Japanesecreation of challenger products.

Excessive profusion of

examinees to at least delay if not permanently shuntests - especially those developed and deployed in only one

attempting the latter and in so doing actually arrest / retard

or a small number of countries and developed expressly forthe pace and / or degree of their overall English language

specific first-language speakers could, over time, do as muchknowledge acquisition.

- or actually more - harm than good. One objection to theeducational in their own right.

design, development and introduction of additional English

In this age of advanced and in many ways accelerating

language proficiency tests (especially those tailored to the‘globalization’, it has surely never been more desirable andneeds of nation-specific examinees) might be that suchpreferable to have a very small number of internationallyproducts will almost certainly have markedly lower levels ofdesigned, developed, administered and recognized tests ofeven long-term international utilization and recognition

English language proficiency.

compared to the more ‘global’ of established tests they areconceivably becomes harder to realize if more organizations

intended to compliment or supersede. This scenario in no

introduce more tests and do so in part only on a regional or

way precludes the possibility that such new national orcountry-specificregional tests might, in their own quite small home and niche

commendable in principal, attempts to simplify andmarkets, become successful to the point where they erode orconsolidate on an international basis rather than further

eliminate the market share of perhaps superior and / or morediversify an already crowded proficiency certificationinternational and thus beneficial tests such as ‘TOEFL iBT’,universe must also contend with the fact that overall foreign‘IELTS’ and ‘TOEIC’. New test products might present

language proficiencies vary - for whatever sets of reasons -viable and perhaps even lucrative business opportunities for

betweensavvy developers and - if known or thought to be easier thannationalities find such tests to be harder than others and / orestablished, multi-country tests such as ‘TOEFL iBT’,consciously consider them to be such. That said, different‘IELTS’ and ‘TOEIC’ - may also be welcomed by thosevariants of a single ‘test’ can of course always be offered to

doubtful of their or their student’s ability to score well on theaccommodate different proficiently levels. Ultimately, if alatter. That said, these new tests will more likely than nottest such as the ‘TOEFL iBT’ is not seen to be overly

be viewed at least in the short and medium term by many

demanding in a majority of countries, it most certainly

individuals and institutions inside and especially outside theirshould not be ‘dumbed-down’ or replaced by easiercountry of origin as unfamiliar, complicating, possibly

alternatives anywhere, including in countries where below

inferior and consequently unnecessary ‘distractions’ that

average percentages of those who attempt it score highly.

draw examinees away from focusing on the most demanding

Instead, it ought be left alone or extended ‘downward’ toand / or internationally familiar and prestigious, and thus still

better engage and accommodate less advanced students ofultimately most important tests. If such new and perhaps

English. The ‘TOEIC Bridge’ test appears to be a goodeasier tests acquire sufficient standing and kudos within, forexample of just this kind of common-sense initiative.

example, Japan and come to be seen as easier but
nevertheless still legitimate functional alternatives to the‘TOEIC’, ‘TOEFL iBT’ and / or ‘IELTS’ for domestic

basis.

countries.

Proficiency tests, after all, areHowever, this goal

ThoughStatisticallyquite

possibly

speaking,

some

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日本で増加する英語能力試験

4．Conclusion

demand for proficiency test success higher than ever before,times have, presumably, never been better for test consumers

This paper has briefly surveyed the major English Language

and providers alike, in substantial part because of ongoingproficiency tests currently available in Japan along with atechnologicalfew secondary ones. As outlined, there are currently six

telecommunications sectors. Test takers have increasingly

major English tests. They are intended for employment

good access to a fairly broad range of maturing tests andwith what is probably an appropriately broad arrange ofrelated study materials and the more established of these tests

English learners. Each of these proficiency tests has their

have a larger and still growing market and enjoy better brandown strengths and weaknesses. No one test appears torecognition than hitherto. If English learners familiarize

constitute any authentic ‘gold standard’ that brings into

themselves adequately with the characteristics of each test

question the need for the others even though the ‘TOEFL

and spend time to carefully choose which of them is best to

iBT’ seems to come closest to doing so in some respects, at

use at any given stage, they can be rightly confident that they

least for advanced examinees, despite its challenging nature.

will benefit substantially from their use. Whatever theirExcellent marks in any one of the (frequently updated) tests

current shortcomings and deficiencies, these proficiency tests

that measure all 4 skills is surely a sufficiency reliable

are the best we have at present and can and should be usedindication of excellent, all-round general non-native English

with confidence by students and educators alike to measurelanguage proficiency, even if the test in question focusesstudent progress and tutor effectiveness.

more heavily on just one or two of those skills andTwo definite if still fairly embryonic trends are observable inaccordingly assigns marks disproportionally. At present,that these external English language tests are beginning to be

perfectionists interested in determining a non-native

used more both for university entrance examinations and / or

speaker’s English language proficiency in the mostfor English language course student credit accrual.

scrupulous, painstaking and exhaustive of ways feasible can,

Universities in Japan must ensure that they use these tests

naturally, demand that persons take two or three of thesecarefully and only with appropriate examinee populations.

proficiency tests in succession within a designated short period of

Only then will the full benefits accrue for both exam.

time. Suffice it to say that a person emerging from such a process

candidates and examining institutions.

with exemplary ‘IELTS’ or ‘CPE’ as well as ‘TOEFL iBT’ andThe prospect of new English language proficiency tests‘TOEIC’ scores can soundly be considered to have excellent

coming to challenge and compete with established ones is

all-round English aptitude, skills and capabilities.

real but there is no certainty that this will happen any time

Some English language proficiency tests are clearly far bettersoon. To reiterate, any such development could in any caseknown and more widely used than others. On the otherbe a double-edge sword or worse. The best case scenario ishand, currently fairly obscure tests (newly developed orthat it would help bring about an improved overall

otherwise) and / or as yet be to be developed tests could

proficiency test market since new test products would i)

perhaps gain popularity in the years ahead if intensively

serve to force established test organizations to improve and /enough promoted over long periods by their backers andor lower the price of their flagship products and / or ii)

other interested patrons and / or competitively priced.

themselves eclipse the latter, owing to their own superiorWith the numbers of English students and consequentquality if not necessarily greater affordability. The worst caserevolutions

in

the

computingandイアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

123scenario might be that new proficiency tests would betransformations in the short to medium term, they willinferior to, or no better than, established ones and either justcontinue

clutter and confuse the proficiency test market or degrade it

modification. As has been well understood for an extended

by reducing demand for the best, more established tests andperiod, ongoing advances in computing and information

thereby jeopardize their viability or kill them off entirely.

technologies will likely carry on affecting, altering and

As stated above, some ‘healthy’ degree of consumer choicefacilitating the ways these proficiency tests are designed,

regarding test product selection is doubtless preferable toaccessed, evaluated and promoted.

monopoly domination by just one single test and / or testinglanguage proficiency tests appear likely to remain dominantorganization but there is surely some potential risk ofand to continue to be sat by increasingly large numbers ofexcessive diversification. Unless the results of all major

test takers in coming years.

English language proficiency tests can be reliably, easily andproficiency test marketing and pricing strategies may,quickly compared with one another and matched, regardlessthrough the next decade, help determine - perhaps to aof their country of origin etc, confusion will supplant clarity.

greater degree than hitherto - the extent to which new,

While these major English Language proficiency tests are

similarly and lower priced alternatives are developed andunlikely to disappear or undergo any fundamental

then gain consumer recognition, interest and loyalty.

to

need

regularupdating,

tweaking

and

The major English

That said, sector-wide

References
Benesse Holdings Inc. GTEC CBT [Online]. Available from: http://www.benesse-gtec.com/cbt/ [Accessed: Dec. 30th, 2014]
Educational Testing Service (ETS) Compare TOEFL scores: Take the Guess work out of Comparing Scores - With Score
Comparison Tools From the Marker of the TOEFL Test
Online version available from: https://www.ets.org/toefl/institutions/scores/compare/ [Accessed: Jan. 2nd, 2015]
ETS Mapping the TOEIC and TOEIC Bridge Tests on the Common European Framework of Reference for Language

Online version available from: https://www.ets.org/s/toeic/pdf/toeic_cef_mapping_flyer.pdf [Accessed: Dec 28th, 2014]
International Education Exchange (CIEE) Japan TOEFL iBT score usage report 2012 [Online]
Available from: http://www.cieej.or.jp/toefl/toefl/score_report2012.pdf [Accessed: Dec. 30th, 2014]
MEXT Expert Panel Report Improvement and Enhancement of English Language Education [Online] Available from:http://www.mext.go.jp/b_menu/shingi/chousa/shotou/102/houkoku/1352460.htm [Accessed: Dec 30th, 2014]
Yano Research Institute Ltd. Language Business Market in Japan: Key Research Findings 2014 [Online]. Available from:https://www.yanoresearch.com/press/press.php/001295 [Accessed: Nov 24th, 2014]
Yasukochi Tetsuya Is Introduction of External English Test Good or Bad? Will University Entrance Examination Change? in:Toyo Keizai Online March 6, 2014 Available from: http://toyokeizai.net/articles/-/30613 [Accessed: Nov. 24th, 2014]

124

日本で増加する英語能力試験

Appendix
Table 1. Comparison Table based on the Common European Framework of Reference for Languages (CEFR)
European Scale of Language Proficiency

TOEIC1EIKEN2

TOEFL3

IELTS4

UN5

Cambridge

(iBT)

1

ELA6

C2

990

---

---

9

SA

CPE7

C1

945 - 989

1

110 - 120

7–8

A

CAE8

B2

785 - 944

Pre-1

87 - 109

5.5 - 6.5

B

FCE9

B1

550 - 784

2

57 - 86

4–5

C

PET10

A2

225 - 549

Pre-2

---

---

D

KET11

A1

120 - 224

3-5

---

---

E

---

Listening and reading scores combined. This data was based on the survey conducted by Educational Testing Service (ETS).

“Mapping the TOEIC and TOEIC Bridge Tests on the Common European Framework of Reference for Language”
Online version available from: https://www.ets.org/s/toeic/pdf/toeic_cef_mapping_flyer.pdf [Accessed: 28/12/2014]
2 This data was obtained from http://stepeiken.org/comparison-table[Accessed: 28/12/2014]

3 This data was based on the survey conducted by ETS. Compare TOEFL scores: Take the Guess work out of Comparing

Scores --- With Score Comparison Tools From the Marker of the TOEFL Test
Online version available from: https://www.ets.org/toefl/institutions/scores/compare/ [Accessed: 02/01/2015]
4 This data was obtained from http://www.ielts.org/researchers/common_european_framework.aspx[Accessed: 28/12/2014]
5 This scale was estimated by myself from the information acquired from http://www.kokureneiken.jp/about/index.html[Accessed: Dec 28th 2014]
6 This data was obtained from http://www.cambridgeenglish.org/cefr/
7

Cambridge English - Proficiency (CPE) - very advanced

8

Cambridge English - Advanced (CAE) - advanced

9

Cambridge English - First (FCE) - upper intermediate level

10

Cambridge English - Preliminary (PET) - intermediate level

11

Cambridge English - Key (KET) - basic level[Accessed: 02/01/2015]