イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

99

吉備国際大学研究紀要（人文・社会科学系）
第28号，99−114，2018

大学における英会話授業：自信と表現力を高める
イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー
University Level English Language Oral Communication:
Building Confidence and Enhancing Articulateness
Ian William WARNER
Abstract
This paper will outline and provide commentary on a series of measures which the present
writer contends collectively constitute an effective strategy or plan for raising OC student
confidence and enhancing OC articulateness. It will therefore - necessarily - firstly address theneed for realistic OC instructor (and student) expectations and thus accurate assessment.
Key words：English Language Oral Communication
キーワード：英会話授業

1. Introduction

attempt to raise confidence about speaking atgreater length in the target language.

English Oral Communication (OC) ability is a coreskill for all English learners. However, for various
valid and readily understandable reasons touched

2. B u i l d i n g C o n f i d e n c e a n d E n h a n c i n g
Articulatenesson and discussed previously (Warner, 2016, 2017),
it is frequently viewed by Japanese high school
and university level students if not educators as01) T h e n e c e s s i t y f o r r e a l i s t i c t e a c h e r
expectations:being especially difficult, problematic and thus

A standard length Oral Communication (OC)challenging. This paper will contend that thecourse comprising fifteen 90 minute lessons

principal objective of OC tuition should normally

totals only 22.5 hours (maximum) of tuition and

be to foster‘forthcomingness’, articulateness andpractice (i.e. learning) time, assuming no student

speech dynamism, and therefore to simultaneously

absenteeism. As such, even when class sizes are

吉備国際大学外国語学部〒700-0931 岡山県岡山市北区奥田西町５-５
School of Foreign Language Studies,
Kibi International University
5-5, Okuda Nishi-cho, Okayama-shi, Kita-ku, Okayama-ken, Japan（700-0931）

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大学における英会話授業：自信と表現力を高める

small and of ideal size, OC instructors need to be

individual student’s apparent current OC ability

and remain cautious and realistic about the degreelevel and, by extension, the extent of their likely

to which a single semester or two of formal OC

learning progress over time, via judicious appraisal

tuition is likely to benefit participating students.

of observed OC performance, also obviously

OC instructor expectations in this regard need topermits instructors to ascertain the degree ofbe and remain realistic in order to ensure that OC

variance that exists not only within single classes

classroom objectives and activities are appropriate

but between them.

rather than too ambitious or the opposite. OC
instructor expectations and assigned tasks must

Unless institutions go to great lengths to ensure

not in fact be - or merely appear to students to be -formation of concentrated talent pools, marked

overly or insufficiently demanding.

or very considerable variance in each student’smedian OC performance within - and between –That OC students will usually derive some

single classes is clearly a natural, frequent and by

benefit - however modest - from almost any form

no means automatically lamentable occurrence.

of remotely apposite OC centered instruction

It is simply a reality to be expected, addressed,

and range of activities, is, clearly, beyond doubt.

prepared and adjusted for accordingly, not down-

However, over and under-estimation of i) current

played or ignored in full or part.

overall student OC ability on the part of the
instructor at the outset of any given OC course

Each student’s current OC performance atand / or at any time prior to its completion andany given point in time is obviously bound toii) like over or under-estimation of the extent todiffer from the next for myriad reasons. In thewhich any given student (regardless of i) is likely

absence of unusually strict, thorough-going andto improve their demonstrable overall OC skills

rigorous university and OC course enrollment

as a direct result of experiencing and successfully

requirements and later on-going vetting andcompleting such a course, is a constant possibility

weeding-out procedures, median student OC

and risk that - at all times - needs to be guarded

performance in any single year grade may wellagainst and minimized, if not precluded outright.

be found to be located above, around or below thehoped for, or anticipated, level and - importantly -Sound selection and use of essentially or

is likely to fluctuate over time, sometimes or often

optimally appropriate OC textbooks and study

quite substantially, not only within single classes

materials, themes, topics and activities, along

and from class to class (above all if current ability-with examination test content, depends on priorbased student streaming is undertaken) but also

accurate assessment of student current ability andfrom year to year.

vice-versa.
Even if left un-streamed and randomly composed,
Suitably close monitoring and assessing of eachdifferent classes of OC students during any oneイアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

101

particular semester or 12 month period may notpart of OC instructors regarding the degree tocontain similarly narrow or wide student current

which any one given student (regardless of his /ability ranges or median current ability levels,

her current overall OC capability at the outset

let alone be populated by students with likeof any particular OC course) is likely to improveor broadly convergent English language study

their demonstrable overall OC skills as a direct

motives, interests, preferences, outlooks, goals,

result of completing one or more OC courses,

motivation or confidence levels.

appears most likely to occur in the case of newly
enrolled Year 1 freshman students, since they are

While one group of students in any one semester,

initially unknown or, at best, far less well known

year or multi-year period might be found toto their new teacher(s), and the possibility thatgenerally exceed instructor current ability andone-off (entry) exam. performance is misleadingly

thus overall performance expectations, a secondhigh or low and a poor indicator of likely futuregroup might be found to broadly meet them,

student progress, can never be totally ruled-out.

while a third group might be assessed as broadly
lacking and wanting in overall terms.

Each student - and thus each group of students is unique and thus requires a somewhat

Furthermore, doubtless for a multitude of readilycustomized, tailored and nuanced approach on theconceivable reasons, what seems to work well orpart of the instructor(s) charged with assistingsatisfactorily for one specific group of students

and aiding them.

can work less well and less satisfactorily (or not

approach applied uniformly across classes and / orat all) for others, even during the same time-year cohorts is unsound given the aforementioned

frame and among groups of students withmagnitude of variance in current ability that isprobably similar current median ability, let alone

liable to be encountered constantly or frequently.

later on, in subsequent semesters and years

Instead, OC instructors must make sure that they

and among groups of students with seemingly

are suitably realistic, practical minded, flexible andhigher and / or lower median current ability

adaptive in response to each group of students

levels. This is - presumably - in part due to and /they are required to aid. This is not necessarily

or compounded by the fact that university levela straightforward proposition, not least because

students are recruited from different prefectures,

each fast maturing student is normally subject tocities, districts, neighborhoods, high schools and /quite rapid evolutionary change. Each student’sor English language streams and classes, and may

current OC ability, interest in OC, preferences,

therefore come from quite possibly distinctive

attitudes and motivation levels vis-à-vis further OC

socio-economic strata, politico-cultural backgrounds

centered learning, practice and experimentationand social milieus, etc.

are unlikely to be static. On the contrary, they

A uniform, one size fits all

are likely to be somewhat fluid across time, and in
Unintentional over- and under-estimation on theworst case scenarios, essentially unstable. While102

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some students evolve in the desired way fromand worthwhile. Conversely, it is the less - but not

being currently less advanced OC practitioners tonecessarily least - currently advanced OC students

currently more advanced OC practitioners (relative

who are the most likely to suffer major, long term

to their class’s median end-of-course grades), otheror‘permanent’losses of motivation or confidence

students may remain constant or regress in thethat bring about performance atrophying or

longer term, trajectory-wise.

declines, and the most likely to rest on theirlaurels, stagnate and / or even regress in terms

All else being equal, the student who enrolls on aof basic knowledge and skill expansion, retention

course of OC study with comparatively advanced

and thus general OC learning trajectory. This isOC skills is logically more likely (though of course

so because they will be starting out from a lower,

not certain) to progress further and more rapidly

less advantageous achievement plateau and thus

than the student who enrolls on the same course

be in a weaker and worse position - cognitively -with comparatively less advanced OC skills. This

to consolidate and further expand OC capabilities

is because the former student will be starting out

and, quite possibly, be less enthused and confident

from a higher, more advantageous achievement(or worse) about the prospect of trying - and theplateau and thus likely be in a stronger and better

likelihood of actually managing to succeed. Such

position - cognitively - to consolidate and further

students certainly appear likely to derive andexpand OC capabilities and, quite possibly, be

experience the lowest amounts of satisfaction from

more enthused and confident about the prospect of

their study efforts because they perceive them totrying - and the likelihood of actually managing -have thus far been only moderately successful at

to do so. Although the rate at which currently

best or broadly unsuccessful and thus essentiallymore advanced OC students are likely to makeunsatisfactory, if not - in hindsight - evidence of afurther progress may fluctuate over time, akindisastrously misguided undertaking.

to that of any other student, currently moreadvanced OC students are conceivably the least

In light of the foregoing, determination on thelikely to suffer major, long term or‘permanent’part of OC instructors to proceed blindly and /losses of motivation or confidence that bring aboutor stubbornly in any planned and / or preferredperformance atrophying or declines, and the least

manner regardless of known and / or suspected

likely to rest on their laurels, stagnate and / orprevailing academic realities and conditions

even regress in terms of knowledge and skill(empirically ascertained or suggested) is irrational,

expansion, retention and thus general OC learning

self-defeating and thus academically irresponsible.

trajectory. Such students certainly appear likely

Tactical flexibility, albeit within the ultimate

to derive and experience the highest amounts ofconfines established and dictated by agreed, pre-satisfaction from their study efforts because they

existing and approved strategic course objectives

perceive them to have thus far been - and to likely

as codified in syllabi etc, is consequently vital so

remain - broadly successful and thus satisfactory

as to avoid, as far as is possible, teaching and /イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

103

or practicing OC in ways and with materials

impressive OC skills are not necessarily those whothat are excessively or insufficiently difficult

work hardest or struggle most. Comparatively

and demanding and / or otherwise needlessly

advanced OC skills may well tend to come more

problematic.

easily and rapidly to individuals fortunate topossess more in the way of what we might term

How students learn:an‘inherent facility’or‘inherent talent’for OC

The central task of the OC instructor cannot

than their fundamentally less fortunately endowed

be to attempt to force satisfactory or superior

peers. Those who experience the greatest OC

OC learning outcomes.

learning successes, surely tend to be those with

Rather, OC teachers

can merely strive, as far as feasible in any set

greatest inherent aptitude for doing so.

of circumstances, to act as optimally effective
encouragers, facilitators and advisers, dedicated toEvery student clearly has within them theassisting students in their own personal efforts tocapacity and thus potential to greatly expand his

help themselves, despite immoveable constraints.

or her knowledge base and sets of practical skills

Apart from the limitations rightly imposed bywith respect to any specific discipline or activity,

aforementioned course design parameters, such

but the ease with which one can do so, and theconstraints include limited and inadequate formal

exact scope and extent of one’s ultimate potential

tuition, practice and - very importantly - self-

and actual likely progression, advancement andstudy time (which are commonly compoundedattainment, in prevailing real-word conditions -by the widespread existence of external social

differs from person to person for cognitive,

commitments, the fact that many full-time students

psychological and environmental reasonsfeel obliged to enter part-time employment, andsubstantially beyond his or her (or anyone else’s)the need for some students to commute relatively

own conscious control. People are who they are…

long distances, and so on).
The extent to which one can successfully
Students who truly desire to become effective

begin and continue to acquire, maintain andand impressive OC practitioners surely need tohone progressively more advanced OC skills

possess and retain very keen personal interest in

is surely substantially or largely dependent on(and fascination with) the reality of OC, which, itnatural cognitive and psychological orientationis contended here, is something that is largely -and / or propensity and is thus a process thanor, at least, as much - an inherent, present-at-birth

can surely only be encouraged, facilitated,

and / or naturally occurring mindset, orientation

supported, nourished and otherwise nurturedor‘gift’, as any consciously self-generated and /by the individual concerned and others - firstor externally acquired faculty - or capacity - thatand foremost, OC instructors - eager to see suchcan be intentionally self- or externally activated,a positive and desirable scenario unfold.

cultivated and honed. The students with the mostother words, it is a process that cannot simply

In

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be systematically induced, willed or coerced

by-products of this initial core process rather

into existence by the student concerned, theirthan the necessary foundations or triggers for its

instructor(s) or any other party. Trying to force

initiation.

oneself or another person, inside and outside offormal lesson time, to become progressively better

It is precisely the existence and extent (or lackat such a complex undertaking as foreign language

thereof) of inherent personal aptitude vis-à-vis

OC may or may not prove to have net beneficial

any given intellectual subject or skill-dependent

effects, on a case by case basis, and is unlikely toactivity that surely in large part determines thealways constitute a risk-free endeavor, especiallydegree to which one is, and remains, attractedwith less currently able, motivated, confident,

to that very subject or activity, and is thenself-assured and, quite possibly, less emotionallyable to become progressively more interested,stable students. It is, in any event, surely, in mostknowledgeable and capable in regard to it. The

cases, unlikely to bring about or translate into any

student with little or no evident aptitude for atruly transformative, exponential and dramaticgiven subject or skill-dependent activity will

improvement in the depth / quality or rate ofsurely not be sub-consciously or consciously

learning and skill acquisition and, furthermore,

attracted to it to any sufficiently great or lastingis, hardly a fair approximation of what the great

extent and will therefore find it exceedingly

mass of successful foreign language learner-

hard or impossible to understand or do it in a

speakers actually do or experience.

progressively better or more correct and efficientfashion.

Fundamentally, the more successful of OC learnerpractitioners do not coerce themselves and

To reiterate, effective conveyance of knowledge

are not coerced by anyone else into studying,and information and know-how from teacher

remembering and thus learning. Rather, they

to student is vital but inherent personal

are drawn - as much, or more sub-consciously

aptitude largely dictates the degree of curiosity,

than consciously - progressively more deeply into

inquisitiveness, interest and thus receptivenessspecific modes of enquiry and learning processes

that any one student has, develops and maintains

because they are sufficiently intellectually aroused,

for a given subject or skill-dependent activity.

stimulated and thus attracted by the prospect

The key point is that even the most effective

and / or reality of doing so, and at least partiallyof instructors can thus only teach students

enjoy the resulting emotional experiences andeffectively to the extents that those same students

feelings of accomplishment that ensue. Adequate

consciously and sub-consciously permit:

or better student aptitude generates adequate ordegree of teaching success is dependent on the

better student receptivity, interest and curiosity

extent to which their students are receptive,

and learning outcomes. Student motivation andcomprehending and able - if only gradually - totherefore commitment seem to be far more thememorize-internalize what they’re clearly andtheイアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

105

logically told, shown and asked to comprehend,in the development and deployment of end-of-emulate, practice, and try to remember.

course learning objectives, classroom activities andexaminations that are respectively too ambitious

Regardless of their current ability level, OC

and demanding or the opposite, and thereby

students who seriously seek, and aim for major

guarantee sub-optimal learning outcomes.

OC success must - preferably or ideally love and consequently be sub-consciously as well

Therefore, OC instructors constantly need firstly

as consciously fascinated by - actual, real-life

to ensure that their planned courses of study

OC. The absence of such an intense and quite

are optimally appropriate in terms of substance,

possibly (necessarily) preoccupying desire will incomplexity and difficulty vis-à-vis the collective

most cases manifest itself in - or translate as - anbodies of students who have already enrolledinsufficiently intense, long-term level of curiosity,on them or will do so in future. Secondly, OC

self-motivation and commitment regarding

instructors constantly need to ensure that neither

OC study and practice that will, in turn, likely

they themselves, nor any of their students, retain

guarantee sub-optimal, mediocre or relatively pooror, for whatever reason(s), come to develop

learning outcomes. In other words, students who

anew, unrealistic, overly optimistic or pessimisticlack sufficient curiosity and interest regarding OC

expectations about the probable finite impact ofare unlikely, at any point in time and thus overtheir OC course(s) and / or the extent of their

the longer term, to be sufficiently self-motivatedgeneral OC skill development.

and driven vis-à-vis the necessarily intensive study
and practice of OC and will suffer accordingly in

It is all too easy for OC instructors and students

academic terms.

to over and under-estimate OC student
performance before, during and after the fact.

It is seemingly not enough for a student merely to

As such, the minimum expected and requiredearnestly desire to improve their OC competency.

degree(s) of student progress vis-à-vis further skill

He or she must be appropriately mentally anddevelopment and / or new skill acquisition (andpsychologically structured, equipped and attuned

thus current ability enhancement) that any one(in large part naturally, and thus by chance) in

particular OC course is intended to ensure, shouldorder to bring the desire to fruition.

be formulated dispassionately on objective lines
and not distorted by any wishful, overly optimistic

Excessive instructor optimism or pessimism

or unduly pessimistic thinking. The specific aims

concerning the perceived utility value and likely

and desired ideal, model results of OC component

benefits of any given course of scheduled OC

lesson and whole-course completion must be

lessons vis-à-vis any one group of students (which

derived from sober, pragmatic, down-to-earth

might well sooner or later become evident to somereflection, estimation and calculation.

or all of the students concerned) is liable to result

than being made overly or insufficiently complex

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大学における英会話授業：自信と表現力を高める

and difficult, OC objectives and activities mustof course, only be evaluated on the basis of theirstrike an optimal balance and be at once suitably

observable and measurable output utterances

substantive and challenging and yet wholly orat any given time. Similarly, OC students wholargely achievable for a great majority or plurality

permanently or regularly perform excellentlyof students in each class, from the most currently

against such criteria should neither be starved ofable and advanced to at least a portion of thosepraise, nor be repeatedly given the impression,

who at times or consistently demonstrate belowthat their current demonstrable OC competency

median comprehension and / or performance.

level is such that they can henceforth afford to

OC instructors must be ready and willing to

expend less time and / or effort on OC-related

be flexible and adjust their plans and tactics instudy.

response to observable conditions.
02)The necessity for sympathetic yet honest OC
While it is a major responsibility of every OC

instructor treatment and‘handling’of OC

instructor to attempt to do their utmost for each

students:

a every student in an optimally effective manner,

It is vital for OC instructors to remain cognizant

OC lesson instruction and evaluation must beof the fact that many OC students (especially firstimbued systematically with sufficient quantities ofgraders) do not likely regard the great elevation

realism and not distorted, degraded, jeopardizedof OC competency as a high or even particularlyor undermined by misplaced hope or excessively

achievable goal (compared to reading, writing

harsh or gloomy prognoses. OC students who

and / or listening), are basically unaccustomed andpermanently or regularly seriously under-perform

quite possibly somewhat perturbed or daunted

against what are considered sound measurementby the standard 90 minute duration OC lesson

criteria must obviously neither be written-off

format, and / or consciously view OC lessons and(publically or privately) as being near hopeless

exercises - that require extended speaking - ascases, nor lead to believe that their present

uniquely difficult, taxing, potentially embarrassing

deficiencies and problems are greatly smaller andand thus stressful. Therefore, OC instructors

less serious than empirical observation, carefulshould take great care at all times to encourage

scrutiny and analysis indicates.

and reassure students in their efforts to improvetheir OC competency, and above all, never

While the possibility that some students (forcease to emphasize and stress that the principal

example, more introverted and / or shy orobjective of OC students (beyond acquiring

nervous and insecure ones) will, on occasion atreliable listening comprehension ability) should beleast, under-perform not only in OC exams. but inthe verbal conveyance, in easily comprehendible

regular class time, and - in so doing - give theirform, of sufficient quantities of information andinstructor(s) an essentially false impression ofa general willingness to be dynamic, and thus

their current ability level is real, students should,

forthcoming and engaging, rather than shy,

イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

107

reticent, taciturn and / or aloof. Consequently,

less effective over time in terms of ultimate

OC instructors need to be and remain attentive

utility, unless, perhaps, participating students

to student needs and continuously patient.

are especially keen on OC and consequently

Crucially, they should always refrain fromappropriately focused and disciplined. All too

criticizing student OC performance in overly

often, large OC classes are an opportunity for lessharsh terms. The worst, most unsound things

currently able and / or enthusiastic OC students

an OC instructor can do are perhaps to i) expect

to variously free-ride, shirk, be distracted, tune-

and continuously insist (at an early stage, and inout and avoid the instructor (and perhaps peer)

an animated and / or seemingly unwarranted,

scrutiny and assistance which they, more thanaggravated fashion) near perfect pronunciation,anyone, require.

grammar and / or sentence construction, etc andii) to frequently verbally interrupt students in apersistent, quite possibly quixotic effort to correct04) Whether or not to stream OC students
according to perceived current ability:

even relatively minor and / or non-critical errors.

Streaming OC students according to perceived

In short, OC tutors need to appear, in the eyescurrent ability may or may not be an optimalof students, to be appropriately earnest, warm,

course. Doing so - and not doing so - may wellfriendly, accommodating and fare OC assistants,

benefit some students but not others. Strong

not unreasonably strict or otherwise unrealistic,arguments can be made in favor of - and in

off-putting, distracting or menacing figures who

opposition to - streaming. Probably a good ruleappear to be ineffectual or prone to do as much orof thumb policy is to refrain from streaming

more harm than good.

unless variance in current ability and / or student
behavior is without doubt very large and thought03) The desirability of small OC class sizes:

likely to expand further - or unlikely to become

It is the opinion of the present writer that OC

markedly smaller - any time soon. Streamingclass sizes should be as small as is practicable,

may well be tantamount to giving currently moreat least for beginner and intermediate level OC

and less advanced OC students a better, calmer,

students, since larger class sizes mean larger

more comfortable, agreeable and conducive

student audiences and thus potentially greaterclassroom environment in which to practice andpeer pressure and - even more importantly - lesshone their OC skills which may then permit lessactual speaking and thus assessment time forinhibited and self-conscious OC performances.

each individual student vis-à-vis solo, pair, larger

At the same time, streaming will invariably risk

group work, and direct, one-to-one interaction withdisappointing and depressing - at the very least -the OC instructor in charge. Large OC groups

hitherto borderline but quite possibly enthusiastic

frequently or commonly dictate, slower paced,

OC performers who fail to gain a place in theless intensively curated, driven and assessed OC

more advanced class and who thereafter may

lessons and are surely likely to be altogether

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大学における英会話授業：自信と表現力を高める

or their OC tutor(s), and come temporarily or evenkind of OC lesson-time exercise topics, questions

permanently to resent what they view as being

and prompts they need or want their OC students

unwarranted personal relegation. Streaming, by

to attempt to consider, respond to and talkdefinition, also reduces or eliminates the otherwise

about, and the vocabulary they wish to see themever present - if not necessarily likely - possibilities

employ while doing so. Clearly textbook and / orthat i) currently less advanced students will beother study material selection will substantiallyinspired and even directly assisted by currently

determine this, so special care must be taken

more advanced students and ii) currently morewhen deciding exactly which textbooks and so

advanced students will learn important lessons if

forth to utilize. This is certainly not to say thatallowed, encouraged or even forced to mix with

textbook selection should govern teaching plan

and assist currently less advanced ones. On theformulation.

other hand, there is usually a substantial risk

should instead govern textbook selection. OCthat officially non-streamed classes will sooner or

instructors should first form some fairly clear

later become largely de facto streamed classes inidea of what OC topics and attendant vocabulary

all but name, given the frequent, if by no means

etc. they ought to teach, then attempt to findpredictable, tendency of currently more - and /‘lodestar’textbooks that stand the best chance ofor most - advanced and currently less - and / orserving their purposes relatively effectively andleast - advanced students to congregate separately

efficiently. However, it is surely best practice toin distinct and somewhat mutually exclusive

make crystal clear to students that they have a

sub-groups. If streaming is to be carried out, it

basically freehand regarding precise utterance.

is surely advisable to ensure, as far as possible,

Unless and until a student’s utterances descendthat currently more advanced students are notinto unfathomable gibberish, he or he should feel

moved singularly into the less advanced andfree to answer and expound etc essentially as

slower stream - and that currently less advanced

they see fit, since the alternative of demanding

students are not moved singularly into the moreparticular word and sentence incorporation seems

advanced and faster stream - without their full

overly restrictive and incompatible with getting

approval, especially when dealing with students

students to move closer to becoming independent

who are already members of forming or firmly

articulators of known fact and personal thought,

established classroom friendship groupings. In

etc. Students commonly already know sufficientsum, the importance of streaming conceivably

vocabulary with which to express themselves.

grows the larger classes become and / or the

OC lessons should not be a major venue for new

wider the current ability range is found to bevocabulary learning since the introduction of new

within them.

words is too time-consuming and unwisely curtails

On the contrary, teaching plans

practice of already learned ones.
05) The necessity to clarify teaching objectives:
OC instructors must be clear about precisely what

イアン・ウィリアム・ウォーナー

06)The necessity arouse, stimulate and maintainstudent interest:

109

experimenting with, at least for currently moreadvanced and / or mature groups of students,

All authentic OC lessons must revolve aroundbut should be discarded promptly wheneverspeaking topics and comprise of activities thatthey are seen to fail in their basic purpose

adequately capture and hold the attention ofof eliciting enthusiastic and comprehensive

all - or all but the most and / or least currently

responses of appropriate complexity and length.

advanced - students. All OC lesson topics andUse of audio-visual stimuli is highly advisable

activities should be - and appear to students to be -but care must be taken to ensure that it -interesting, relevant and immediately or quickly

and / or its delivery platforms - do not become

accessible. OC lesson topics certainly do not needa distraction for students before during or after

to be - and, for the most part, should not therefore

legitimate use periods.

be - relatively complicated or obscure topics thatare hard for students to comprehend. Nor should07) The advisability of optimal OC classroom

they be unknown - or only partially known - tovenues, environmental factors and lesson

them.

time scheduling:

Speaking, discussion and debate topics

can and should normally be comparatively simple

Being in a position to decide optimal OC classroom

to understand and respond to immediately -venues, environment and lesson times is a luxury

or rapidly - and impressive ways. Just becausethat most OC instructors do not have, but there

OC speaking prompts are made deliberately

can be little doubt that - as with any subject -simple in the interests of facilitating high quality

these three factors do - or may, on occasion,

student OC output, in no way necessarily reduces

at least, have considerable behavioral and / ortheir authenticity and certainly does not preclude

performance impact on a significant number ofstudents from supplying complex and sophisticatedstudents, as evidenced in their respective OC

as well as appropriately lengthy answers. Speaking

efforts at different times and places. In short, OC

topics and the questions and prompts that canlearning might well benefit from classroom venues

be derived from them, are perhaps best viewedthat are of conducive size and shape, quiet (or not

as something akin to fishing bait, in the sense

excessively noisy), comfortable, clean, optimallythat they are offered in an attractive, conducive

lit, ventilated and heated, otherwise comfortingmanner in order to induce, enthusiastic, confident

and free of distractions. The use of armchairs

and prolonged response‘bites’. Inappropriate andand / or sofas etc and / or informal furniturepoorly chosen OC topics - including those that

arrangements may conceivably further help toare already overly familiar to students - may wellrelieve or eliminate subject and / or peer-related

simply fail to generate or hold adequate interest

psychological stress on the part of some students

for a sufficient period of time. Speaking topics(who are seemingly most likely to be those withknown by OC instructors to be considered risqué -currently less advanced OC skills). Probably of

if not taboo - by OC students, may be worth

more importance, the time at which lessons are110

大学における英会話授業：自信と表現力を高める

held undoubtedly affects the performance for large

students or groups of students speak slowly

numbers of OC students. For obvious reasons,and / or require more attention and assistancefirst and last period lessons should be avoided atthan others. In such cases, strict time-keeping is

all costs - above all on Mondays and Fridays - and,required so as to minimize the risk of neglecting

whenever possible, OC lessons should - except

and / or annoying other students who have been

perhaps for especially shy students - be scheduled

told - or wish - to speak or speak further and haveto precede rather than follow other kinds of lessons

not yet done so.

so as to ensure that students commence OC classes
in a fresh rather than already fatigued state.

11) Revision versus variety:
While it is vital to allocate sufficient time to08) The advisability of obtaining student input
regarding speaking topics:

specific topics and not unduly rush students, it
is also crucially important to ensure adequate

It is often a good idea to seek student input

variety within single lessons and from week toregarding the choice of future speaking, discussion

week. Numerous and varied exercises, activities

and debating topics, at least in connection withand assignments should be attempted andcurrently more advanced students, since doingexcessive topic repetition, overlap and revisionso may, in its own right, facilitate high quality

studiously avoided.

OC, help to boost student interest in forthcoming

granted excessively long prep. or hesitation time.

Students ought never be

lessons and encourage greater degrees of student
preparation and reflection.

12) The advisability of innovation:
Tried and tested methods should be used when09)The advisability of allowing spontaneity:

they are thought likely to be successful but

OC lessons - notably those involving new, Year 1 -this does not preclude some sensible degree ofand currently less advanced - students - should

experimentation on a regular basis, at least whennormally be planned to a considerable but not

students signal that they might well welcome andexcessive degree.

benefit from it.

Students should certainly

be allowed to ‘let rip’and verbally move in
unspecified and unanticipated directions, providing13) The necessity for flexibility:

the results are felt to be satisfactory or better and

OC instructors must strive to be vigilant, pro-time allows.

active and flexible in response to observed andsuspected problems and thus modify lesson plans

10) The necessity for instructor fairness:and tactics accordingly, as appears necessary.

OC instructor time should, in overall terms,
certainly always be apportioned equally among

14) Driving home the CORE messages:

all OC students, not particular sub-sets. This is

OC instructors must try to teach students that OC

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111

sessions dedicated to improving overall OC

unrehearsed, improvised and experimental,

competency. OC instructors should frequently

creative fashion unless doing so proves to beremind students that we learn by doing andabsolutely beyond their current ability formaking mistakes, noting and considering them,whatever reason(s). OC instructors need tothen making subsequent corrections, not only or

encourage spontaneity and normally prohibit

primarily by trying to avoid them from the get go.

preparatory script-making and note-taking
beforehand. That said, OC instructors should

OC instructors should also i)make clear toallocate some time for note making and formal

students that ensuring articulateness and thus

sentence construction, at least on occasion, forpronunciation and syntax accuracy is more

example, in connection with more advanced and /important and thus a higher priority thanor formal reporting and presentation work, etc.

ensuring grammar accuracy;ii)

regularly

demand that students make reasonable use of
already learned vocabulary and iii)

regularly17) The ne c e s s i ty to e mphas i s e li s ten in gefficiency:

urge students to expand their vocabulary and

OC instructors must regularly remind students

grammar knowledge (in that order); iv) regularlyof the vital necessity for OC practitioners todrive home to students the paramount need forlisten carefully to their interlocutors so as to

FORTHCOMINGNESS and ELABORATION asstand a better chance of understanding them andwell as concision;

responding appropriately.

15) The necessity to tackle excessive shyness:

18) The advisability of interjecting sparingly:

While OC instructors must be careful not to upset

In the interests of confidence-building and theor alienate students, they should neverthelessencouragement of more fluid, dynamic and / orproceed in ways and adopt measures intended

fluid speech, OC instructors should - as mentioned

to eliminate excessive student shyness andabove - refrain from correcting minor OC errors

introversion (which can be quite acute) and raiseand otherwise interjecting more than is absolutely

confidence.

The playing of suitable, easy tonecessary, except when teaching very advanced

understand and educationally worthwhile games -students who are normally less likely to find suchwhen possible - is advisable in this regard as it

interventions distracting, embarrassing and / ortends to break ice and relax students.

irritating.
19) T h e n e c e s s i t y f o r r e a s o n a b l e t i m e16) T h e n e c e s s i t y f o r s p o n t a n e i t y a n d
immediacy:

management:
OC instructors should ensure that students are

OC instructors should of course generally insist

allocated appropriate time in which to completethat their students try to converse in immediate,

specified tasks and take pains NOT to proceed too

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slowly or too rapidly.

23) Use of on-line cloud architectures:
OC instructors should certainly make extensive20) The necessity for solo, pair and groupwork:

use of e-mail and cloud-based services since these
nowadays allow relatively easy, reliable and rapid

OC instructors should prioritise student‘solo’

collection, storage and accessing of class work andpresentation and interrogation practice as part

homework, above all audio and video media files.

of their core effort to emphasise to students thefundamental need for conveyance of sufficient24) The advisability of assigning homework:

information. OC instructors should nevertheless

OC instructors might as well set weekly or

still ensure that students regularly conduct pair-regular homework assignments of suitable

work and that they do so with a large number

difficulty and length since doing so goes somewayof partners with varying current ability levels.

to off-setting limited lesson time and time lost

Instructors should furthermore ensure that all

due to absenteeism. Homework assignments canpair and group work is properly supervised andcommonly revolve around extension activities

does not marginalise currently more and / orrelated to the last lesson and / or preparation

less advanced and / or more reserved students.

for next or future lessons. Students can, for

OC instructors must additionally see to it thatexample, audio-record themselves, if need be via

student work groups generally contain 3 or 4

smartphone in any location of their choosing.

members (max.) in order to reduce the likelihoodof student marginalisation and exclusion. Finally and importantly - instructors should take steps25) U r g i n g g r e a t e r E n g l i s h l a n g u a g e O C
between lessons:that prevent pair and group work activities fromOC instructors should very frequently demand

becoming dominated by more advanced students,that students communicate with one another inor a‘refuge’and‘breeding ground’for shirkers;

the target foreign language outside, as well as
inside, of lesson times, regardless of whether such21) Use of audio and video recording equipment:

advice appears to be headed.

OC instructors should certainly make extensive
use audio and / or video camera equipment for26) The necessity for close monitoring:

student assessment and self-assessment andInstructors should closely monitor and record

diagnostic purposes.

the perceived performance and progress ofeach student and clearly signal fundamental

22) Use of CALL systems:

dissatisfaction and concern (in addition to

OC instructors can also employ CALL systems IF -empathy) whenever students are persistently

and only if - they are thought to be easy to use

uncommunicative or reticent. Instructors should

and doing so is seen as being likely to markedly

strive to determine the cause(s) of student longer

facilitate and enrich OC practice.

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113

mistake current‘inability’for‘unwillingness’

to voluntarily attend additional one-to-one and /and vice-versa. Instructors should additionally door small group supplementary (office-hour)

everything feasible to curtail or at least containtuition meetings of up to 90 minutes duration, as

distracting and disruptive student behaviours andand when time allows, especially in the case ofgeneral disengagement.

currently more and / or less advanced students
who may want or need (and especially benefit27) Praising, encouraging, criticising andassessing:from) extra assistance. OC instructors can alsocollect and subsequently reflect on student course-

OC instructors should naturally avoid being

related opinions at the end of each semester oroverly lenient or strict as regards the conferring

year via custom-made questionnaire, but theyor praise, criticism or assessment grades, andshould not lose sight of the fact that the opinions

also ensure that exams. are not excessively

so expressed may well not perfectly reflect actual

stressful or insufficiently thorough or demanding.

student views in all instances.

OC instructors also ought to regularly provide
students with fairly honest and frank verbal and /30) Necessity for overseas study:

or typed assessment feedback data and encourage

Finally, OC students should be left in no doubt

realistic periodic student self-assessment, e.g. via

whatsoever that long-term student emersion

simple self-assessment form or card.

overseas in a country - where the target
language is constantly seen, heard and at all28) Further common-sense confidence building
measures:times necessary to use whenever OC is required is a fundamental requirement for all those who

Whenever possible, OC instructors should attempt

aspire to develop and retain advanced, effective

to get to know students to some apt degree

and efficient English language OC competency.

and at least informally chat with them regularly

Instructors should make clear to all OC under-

outside of lesson times, in order to alleviate

graduate students that they should ideally spend

students fears, reservations and misperceptions,one or more periods totalling between 6 and 12

and increase mutual understanding, respect and /months duration abroad in their second and / oror trust. On the other hand, instructors should bethird year of study.

careful to avoid being construed by students as
displaying favouritism or being too‘pushy’and /3. Conclusions

or informal.
The most successful students of foreign language29) The advisability of offering additional

Oral Communication (OC) are, by definition, thoseon-campus tuition and use of feedback

who manage by the end of their OC course(s) toquestionnaires:

demonstrate marked observable OC competency,

OC instructors should also encourage students

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ability or capacity to understand and / or do such

conveyance of information, the main purpose

a complex thing well, correctly or satisfactorily

and focus of OC courses and lessons should becannot simply be implanted oneself or by others.

the ensuring of greater student articulateness

Rather it depends on the student’s own inherent

and forthcomingness (which tends to be initially

aptitude and thus capacity to acquire, retain andlacking - sometimes chronically - among many ordevelop sufficient capability. However, there areeven a majority of Japanese OC students) and, as aclearly optimally sensible and constructive ways

corollary, the elimination, minimization, or at least

for OC instructors to proceed. Many of the most

dilution, of student psychological barriers thatimportant of which have been set out above.

likely inhibit this. Helping students to enhance

Above all, OC instructors need to accurately gauge

articulateness and forthcomingness - by focusing

and be realistic about each student’s current skill

on known vocabulary employment, sentencelevels and the likely extent to which each student

construction and clear output - is not only theis probably able and likely to elevate them assingle most important OC activity in its own righta result of completing one or more optimally-(one that should be prioritized over grammar

designed and tailored OC courses.

Over andand beyond a certain point pronunciation inunder-estimation by instructors (and students) of

most instances), but helps students become more

student ability are constant dangers. In addition,

confident which, in turn, thereafter helps them -given that OC centers on self-expression andby way of virtuous reinforcement cycle - tothus the clear and otherwise efficient oral-verbal

become yet more articulate and forthcoming.

References
Warner, I. W. (2016). English Language Speaking / Oral Communication Lessons: Inhibiting Factors and Practical
Solutions Journal of Kibi International University (Humanities and social sciences), 26, 145-162.
Warner, I. W. (2017). English Language Oral Communication Lessons – A Further Consideration Journal of Kibi
International University (Humanities and social sciences), Extra Edition, 115-122