Sociocultural Dimensionsin Water Resources
Management
Edited by

Mikio Ishiwatari and KE Seetha Ram

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CONTENTS
Tables, Figures, and Boxv

Abbreviationsviii
Contributorsix
Acknowledgmentsxii
Forewordxiv

	
1 Sustainable Water Resources Management in Asia:
A Sociocultural Perspective
Mikio Ishiwatari and KE Seetha Ram

1

Part I Sociocultural Dimensions	
2 A 400-Year History of Water Use in Japan’s River Basins:
The Creation of Rural Communities, Water Conflicts, Modernization,
and Consensus Building through Infrastructure Development

13

3 River Management in India: Mainstreaming the Sociocultural Elements 24	
4 A Sociocultural Perspective on Water Resources Managementin Bali, Indonesia

38

Kotaro Takemura

Victor R. Shinde, Lovlesh Sharma, Jyoti Verma, and Satarupa Roy

Firdaus Ali

Part II Policies and Practices	
5 Integrating Safety, Security, and Cultural Values for Integrated Water
Resources Management: A UNESCO World Heritage Case Studyin the People’s Republic of China 59	
6 Conservation and Water Pricing: Effects of Long-Term
Low Water Pricing in Hong Kong, China

69	
7 The Shift to Risk Management-Based Water Resources Policy in Japan

82	
8 Novel Approaches in Flood Management Policies in Japan:
Integrating Sociocultural Wisdom in Climate Change Adaptation

97	
9 Management of Water-Related Disasters by Local Communities
in the Central Area of Viet Nam113

En Lin, Xuhua Hu, Jianxin Mu, Shahbaz Khan, and Yufeng Luo

David von Eiff

Toshio Okazumi

Hiroaki Ikeuchi

Le Minh Nhat, Nguyen Van Hoang, and Nguyen Thanh Vaniii

CONTENTS

Part III Water and Food	
10 Water Governance in Response to the Impact of Climate Change
in Arid and Semi-arid Regions: The Case of Türkiye 

133

11 The Water Cycle and Rain-fed Rice Cultivation in Northeast Thailand

142

	
12 Managing Water by the Local Community: Development and Implicationsof Japan’s Irrigation Management System

151

Bulent Inanc, Burcu Calli, Mustafa Salih Sarikaya, Lutfi Akca, and Ahmet Mete Saatci
Koshi Yoshida, Hiroki Oda, and Kenji Tanaka

Tsugihiro Watanabe		Part IV Climate and Environment	
13 Traditional River Engineering for Social Sustainability
and Environmental Preservation

167

	
14 A Review of Public Awareness of Water Source Regulations
and River Management in the Republic of Korea

181

	
15 Transforming Water Resources Management Investment:
The Evolution of Cost Sharing among Local Communities,
Governments, and the Private Sector in Japan

189

Hirotada Matsuki

Ik Jae Kim and Mynhyun Ryu

iv

Mikio Ishiwatari and Daniel P. Aldrich		Part V  Governance	
16 Passing on Indigenous Knowledge to the Next Generation
through Water Learnings in Kumamoto, Japan

201

	
17 Collaborative Governance Framework for Urban River Management

210

	
18 Community-based Disaster Management Through Linking
with Traditional Community Mechanisms: Flood Prevention Units

218

	
19 Water and Culture in Asia Toward Shared Prosperity

227

Naoto Tanaka

Asok Kumar Gopala Pillai, Dheeraj Joshi, Sumit Chakraborty, and Ashwini Dubey

Keiko Tamura
Yoonjin Kim

TABLES, FIGURES,
AND BOXTABLES
3.1
Examples of Sociocultural Value of Rivers Across the Globe 
6.1	Dong River Allocations6.2 List of Agencies Involved in Water Resource Management Decisions
8.1
Comparison Between Retarding Basin and Storage Function Preservation Area
9.1	Division of Areas to be Evaluated According to Project Activities
9.2	Results of Training and Communication Activities
13.1 General Features of Traditional River Engineering As Summarized in 2000
13.2 “Yoro Code” issued in 75717.1 Mekong River Commission: Key Outcomes and Collaborative Actions Undertaken
17.2 Nile Basin Initiative: Key Outcomes and Collaborative Actions Undertaken

24
72
74
106
118
122
168
169
211
212

FIGURES
1.1
1.2
1.3

Co-evolution of Society and Culture and the Water System
Japan’s Co-evolution Between Society and Water Resources Management
Key Findings of Factors Affecting Water Governance Arrangements in Asia

1.4
Community Initiatives in Water Resources Management by Country
1.5
Evolution of Japanese Water Resources Management
1.6
Key Messages of this Report
2.1
Topography and Geological Classification Map of the Naka River Basin
2.2	Long-Term Changes in Agricultural Land and Population in Japan
2.3
People Walking Along the Yoshiwara Nippon Embankment 
2.4 River Water Use in the Edo period
2.5
Water Struggle in the Edo Period
2.6 Sufficiency of Existing Agricultural Water
2.7
Water Supply to New Municipal Water
2.8 Changes in Economic Growth (GDP) and River Law in Japan
3.1
India’s Urban River Management Plan Framework
3.2
Disability Statistics for Varanasi District and City
3.3	Redevelopment Plan for the Dashashwamedh Ghat
that Includes Disability Elements
3.4	School Children and Students Sensitized to the Agenda of the Kham River Restoration Mission
3.5River Cleanup Drives Organized by the Kham River Restoration Mission
3.6	Recreational Avenues Developed as Part of the Kham River Restoration Mission
3.7
Field Boundaries and Conservation of Water Along with Fish Cultivation
4.1
Bali Irrigation Canal, Jatiluwih Village
4.2	(a) Cengcengan Dam in the Oos River Watershed,(b) Cangi Dam in the Sungi River Watershed
4.3	Saba River Basin
5.1
Headwork Hub of Dujiangyan Irrigation System
5.2	Fish Mouth of Dujiangyan, Piled with Bamboo Crated Pebbles
5.3	Bamboo Cages
5.4 Dujiangyan Water Releasing Festival
6.1
Rainfall Patterns and Catchment Areas in Hong Kong, China
6.2 Water Tariffs in Comparable Locations
6.3
Domestic Water use in Hong Kong, China
7.1	Changes in Developed Water Volume in Water Resources Development River Systems
7.2International Comparison of Precipitation
7.3
Diagram of Risk Management-based Water Resources Plan

2
3
3
4
6
8
14
14
15
16
17
19
19
21
26
28
29
31
31
33
35
41
47
52
62
63
63
64
71
75
77
83
84
86

v

TABLES, FIGURES, AND BOX

vi

7.4
New Perspective on Drought Risk Evaluation Between Demand and Supply
7.5
Evaluation and Countermeasures on Water Demand and Supply Capacity
7.6
Number of Days on Water Intake Regulation in Yoshino and Dozan Rivers
7.7
New WRD Plan Description and Related Measures
8.1	Overview of River Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All Concept
8.2 Overview of the Amended Acts
8.3
Permission Scheme of Rainwater Infiltration Preventive Actions
8.4	Effect of Mitigation Activities Against Floods in Tsurumi River Basin in the Case of Typhoon Hagibis, 2019
8.5
Image of a Storage Function Preservation Area
8.6 Image of an Inundation Damage Prevention Area
8.7
Flood Countermeasures Taken in Yamato River Basin
8.8 Example of an Open Levee and a Paddy Field
9.1	Timeline and Main Goals of the Two National Programs on CBDRM
9.2
Flow Chart of Overall Methodology
9.3
Organization for Scheme 1002 Implementation
9.4 Comparing the Components of Scheme 1002 and Scheme 553
9.5
Group Activities of Scheme 1002

87
88
89
91
99
101
103
104
105
107
108
109
114
115
116
117
118

9.6 Number of Communes that have Deployed CBDRM
9.7
Number of Decisions and Documents Issued for CBDRM Implementation
9.8 Number of Early Warning and Communication Systems Installed
9.9	Procurement of Supporting Equipment Cost 
9.10 Number of Small-scale Works Built in Regions9.11	Procurement of Supporting Equipment Cost
9.12 Capital Allocation for Project Implementation by Regions9.13	Comparison of Funding Source between Scheme 1002 (2009–2020) and Scheme 553 (2021–2030)
10.1	Leading Central Authorities in Water Management
10.2 Basin-Scale Water Resources Management in Türkiye
11.1	Changes in Production (a), Yield (a), Planted Area (b), and Harvested Area Ratio (b) of Rain-fed Ricein Northeast Thailand, 1981 to 2013
11.2	Correlation Coefficient Between Standardized Monthly Rainfall and Rice Production,
Planted Area, Yield, Harvest Area Ratio in Khon Kaen Province
11.3 Image of the Strategy of Yield Stabilization in Rain-fed Paddy Fields
11.4	Changes in Rainfall, Available Water, and Area Reduction Factor, Khon Kaen Province, 2012
12.1 Historical Changes in Arable Land Area and Population Growth in Japan
12.2	Structure of Executing Bodies of Construction and Operation and Maintenance
12.3 Typical Structure of a Land Improvement District in Japan
13.1 Traditional River Engineering in Japan
13.2 Land Ownership Transition and Rural Traditional Transfer13.3	Lessons of Old Documents and General Features of Traditional River Engineering
13.4 Contemporary Context of Traditional River Engineering
13.5 Self-motivated Risk Sharing
13.6 Rotating Risk Reduction
13.7 Engineering for Social Sustainability and Environmental Preservation
13.8 Traditional River Engineering Applied in the Lao PDR and Viet Nam14.1 Trends of Water Source Protection Zones
14.2 Source Water Protection Program in the United States
14.3	Residents’ Consent for Water Source Protection Zones in Upstream and Downstream Area
14.4 Compensation and Consent of Reducing Regulations (upstream)
14.5	Public Awareness of River Management Sector
14.6	Public Expectations of the National Water Reform and Institutional Preference on River Management

119
119
120
120
121
121
122
125
134
135
143
146
147
148
152
155
157
167
171
174
175
175
176
178
179
182
183
184
184
186
186

TABLES, FIGURES, AND BOX

15.1 Standardized Grid System in Sabae City, Fukui Prefecture
190
15.2 Kiso Three Rivers
192
15.3 Evolution of Cost Sharing in Water Resources Management
195
15.4	Lessons from Japan’s Experience in Investment in Water Resources Management
196
16.1	Volunteers Digging Gravel at Suizen-ji Joujuen after the Kumamoto Earthquake (May 2021)
202
16.2	Certificate of Completion of the first Youth Water Forum Kumamoto (November 2021)
203
16.3	The Shirakawa River Middle Basin Rice Field High School (October 2021)
204
16.4	Youth Water Forum Kumamoto’s Water Culture Seminar (September 2022)
205
16.5	Sara Katayama Explains to Foreign Visitors at 4th Asia-Pacific Water Summit (April 2022)
206
16.6	United Nations Water Summit (March 2023)
208
17.1 Multi-stakeholder Working Group Institutional Collaboration
215
18.1 Flood Prevention Unit (Suiboudan) and Fire Corps (Shoboudan)219
18.2 Activities of Flood Prevention Units According to the Alert Level220
18.3 Historical Background of Flood Prevention Activity
222
18.4 Changing Role of Flood Control and Flood Prevention Activities
224
19.1	Activities on the Ganges River
228
19.2 Songkran Festival
229
19.3

Bali’s Subak System

232

Sustainable Principles for “Water for Shared Prosperity”

234

BOX
19.1

vii

ABBREVIATIONS

viii

4APWS
ACQWS
CBDRM
CFCM
cm
COVID-19
DRR
DSI
EU WFD
FPA
ICID
IDPA
IMF
IWRM
km2
LIA
LID
LIP
m3
MAFF
MARD
mm
MRC
MWG
NBI
NBS
NDPC
NIUA
NMCG
PRC
RBDRSA
RCA
RDG
SDGs
SFPA
SUR
SURB
ULB
UNESCO
URMP
US
WASH
WRDBP
WSD
YWFK

4th Asia-Pacific Water Summit
Advisory Committee on the Quality of Water Supplies
community-based disaster risk management
comprehensive flood control measures
centimeter
novel coronavirus diseasedisaster risk reduction
State Hydraulic Works
European Union Water Framework Directive
flood prevention association
International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage
inundation damage prevention area
irrigation management transfer
Integrated Water Resources Management
square kilometerLand Improvement Act
Land Improvement District
Land Improvement Project
cubic meter
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries
Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development
millimeter
Mekong River Commission
multi-stakeholder working group
Nile Basin Initiative
nature-based solution
natural disaster prevention and control
Nation Institute of Urban Affairs
National Mission for Clean Ganga
People’s Republic of China
River Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All
River Cities Allianceriver development goal
Sustainable Development Goals
storage function preservation area
specified urban river
specified urban river basin
urban local body
United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization
urban river management plan
United Stateswater sanitation and hygiene
water resources development basic plan
Water Supplies Department
Youth Water Forum Kumamoto

CONTRIBUTORS
Lutfi Akca is president of the Turkish Water Institute (SUEN).
Daniel P. Aldrich is a professor and director of the Security and Resilience Studies Program at
Northeastern University, Boston, United States.
Firdaus Ali is a water resources management senior advisor for Indonesia’s Minister of Public Worksand Housing, researcher and lecturer in the Environmental Engineering Study Program, University ofIndonesia, and founder and chair of the Indonesia Water Institute.
Burcu Calli is an expert at the Turkish Water Institute (SUEN).
Sumit Chakraborty is an urban lead at the National Mission for Clean Ganga, Government of India,
New Delhi.
Ashwini Dubey is an urban planner at the National Mission for Clean Ganga, Government of India,
New Delhi.
David von Eiff is the director of Global Industry Standards, CFA Institute, Hong Kong, China.
Nguyen Van Hoang is an officer, at the representative office in the central and highlands, the Viet Nam
Disaster Management Authority (VNDMA), Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development (MARD),
Da Nang, Viet Nam.
Xuhua Hu is a PhD student at the State Key Laboratory of Water Resources Engineering andManagement, Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, the People’s Republic of China (PRC).
Hiroaki Ikeuchi is a chief official of the River Planning Division, Water and Disaster Management
Bureau, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Japan.
Bulent Inanc is vice president of the Turkish Water Institute (SUEN) and full professor of theEnvironmental Engineering Department, Istanbul Technical University.
Mikio Ishiwatari is a board director at the Japan Water Forum and a visiting professor at the Graduate
School of Frontier Sciences, the University of Tokyo.
Dheeraj Joshi is a deputy secretary at the National Mission for Clean Ganga, Government of India,
New Delhi.
Shahbaz Khan is a director at the UNESCO Multisectoral Regional Office for East Asia, Beijing, thePRC.
Ik Jae Kim is chief research fellow at the Korea Environment Institute, Sejong, Republic of Korea.
Yoonjin Kim is a director of the Asia Pacific Region and the 10th World Water Forum, the World Water
Council.
En Lin is a PhD student at the State Key Laboratory of Water Resources Engineering and Management,
Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, the PRC.

ix

CONTRIBUTORSYufeng Luo is a professor at the State Key Laboratory of Water Resources Engineering and Management,
Wuhan University, Wuhan, Hubei, the PRC.
Hirotada Matsuki is the director at the River Department, National Institute for Land InfrastructureManagement, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, Japan.
Jianxin Mu is a senior consultant at the UNESCO Multisectoral Regional Office for East Asia, Beijing,
the PRC.
Le Minh Nhat is deputy head of department, VNDMA, MARD, Ha Noi, Viet Nam.
Hiroki Oda is a master’s degree student at the Graduate School of Frontier Science, the University ofTokyo.
Toshio Okazumi is an executive officer and senior chief engineer, TOKEN C.E.E. Consultants Co.,
Ltd., Japan.
Asok Kumar Gopala Pillai is a special secretary and director general at the National Mission for Clean
Ganga, Government of India, New Delhi.
Satarupa Roy is an associate at the Climate Centre for Cities, National Institute of Urban Affairs, India.

x

Mynhyun Ryu is head researcher at the Research Center for Water Policy, K-water Institute, Deajeon,
Republic of Korea.
Ahmet Mete Saatci is retired and previously the founding president of the Turkish Water Institute(SUEN).
Mustafa Salih Sarikaya is a coordinator at the Turkish Water Institute (SUEN).
Tetsushi Sonobe is dean and CEO of the Asian Development Bank Institute.
KE Seetha Ram is a senior capacity building and training specialist at the Asian Development Bank
Institute and a visiting professor at the University of Tokyo.
Lovlesh Sharma is a senior water and infrastructure specialist with Water and Environment Vertical,
National Institute of Urban Affairs, India.
Victor R. Shinde is head of the Climate Centre for Cities, National Institute of Urban Affairs, India.
Keiko Tamura is a researcher and professor at the Risk Management Center, Niigata University, Japan.
Kotaro Takemura is secretary general of the Japan Water Forum, Tokyo.
Kenji Tanaka is a researcher at the Civil Engineering Research Institute for Cold Region, Sapporo,
Japan.
Naoto Tanaka is an associate professor at Kumamoto University, Japan.
Nguyen Thanh Van is a program analyst with the United Nations Development Programme, Ha Noi,
Viet Nam.

CONTRIBUTORS

Jyoti Verma is a senior water and infrastructure specialist with Water and Environment Vertical,
National Institute of Urban Affairs, India.
Tsugihiro Watanabe is a professor emeritus of Kyoto University, Japan.
Koshi Yoshida is a professor at the University of Tokyo.

xi

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Sociocultural Dimensions in Water Resources Management: Policies, Practices, and Challenges is theresult of collaborative efforts and support from many individuals, institutions, and organizations. As
highlighted in the foreword, the genesis of this book was significantly inspired by the Memorial Lecture
titled “Hearts, Minds, and Water - Touching Water in People’s Beliefs”, delivered by His Majesty theEmperor of Japan at the 4th Asia Pacific Water Summit in April 2023. Responding to the insightful
message from His Majesty’s lecture, the Asian Development Bank Institute (ADBI) and the Japan
Water Forum came together to work on this book. This collaboration was timely, setting the stage forfurther discussions at the forthcoming World Water Forum in May 2024 in Bali, Indonesia.
The project’s timeline unfolded with several key milestones. Initially, we issued a call for papers,
attracting many submissions that reflected the community’s interest in contributing to this critical
topic. We held the first inception meeting led by the esteemed Professor Taikan Oki of the Universityof Tokyo, whose guidance and leadership provided a solid foundation for our work. His stewardshipwas pivotal in aligning the project’s vision and objectives. We extend our deepest gratitude to Kotaro
Takemura for his invaluable patronage and support from the Japan Water Forum, which have been
instrumental in the realization of this project. Special appreciation also goes to Keiko Tamura, Firdaus
Ali, and Victor Shinde for their indispensable roles as members of the project committee team. Their
dedication and expertise greatly contributed to the success of this book.

xii

Following the inception meeting, an authors’ workshop was held, cultivating a spirit of collaborationand mutual support among the participants. This forum enabled contributors to engage in fruitful
discussions, where they exchanged valuable feedback on each other’s papers, significantly enhancing
the book’s content and depth.
Our collective efforts focused on preparing a publication that not only aims to influence policy makers
and stakeholders at the World Water Forum 2024 but also seeks to engage a wider audience. With aneye toward inclusivity, we endeavored to make the book accessible to readers from diverse backgrounds,
including high school students. This approach reflects our commitment to sharing knowledge broadly
and nurturing an informed dialogue on water resources across generations.
Our deepest appreciation goes out to the authors who answered the call for papers announced on
the ADBI website. Their commitment, innovative perspectives, and dedication to advancing the
dialogue on sociocultural dimensions in water resources management have been crucial in bringing
this publication to life. Their exceptional contributions have greatly enriched this volume.
We are particularly grateful to ADBI Dean Tetsushi Sonobe and Deputy Dean Seungju Baek for theircontinuous encouragement and support throughout this project. Their leadership and foresight havebeen invaluable in guiding our efforts toward successful knowledge dissemination.
Our gratitude also extends to the following organizations for their critical support in making thisproject a reality: Japan Water Forum; University of Tokyo; Niigata University; Ministry of Land,
Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism of Japan; Ministry of Public Works and Housing of Indonesia;
and National Institute of Urban Affairs, India. Their dedication to fostering research and innovation inwater resources management is truly praiseworthy.
The success of this publication also owes much to the ADBI Publications Committee and the editing
and production team. Special mentions go to Adam Majoe and Dean Irvine from the production
team for their pivotal roles, Kaori Hitomi for the excellent promotion plan, Ainslie Smith for theeditorial work, Aileen Magparangalan for the typesetting, and Arthur Perset for the cover design.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Additionally, we recognize the excellent efforts of Josh Magtibay and Jay Valmon in developing
the webpage that supports this project. Lastly, we extend our heartfelt thanks to Katsuyuki Fukuda
at the Japan Water Forum, and Dwiky Wibowo, Natia Parekhelashvili, Zaw Myo Kyaw at ADBI for
their dedication and continuous support in coordinating with the contributors and participants. In
conclusion, we are grateful for the collective efforts of all participants, including those we may not havenamed individually, who contributed online and added valuable insights to the discussions on water
resources management.

xiii

FOREWORD

W

ater resource management is an important component of sustainable development andrequires a comprehensive understanding that goes beyond technical and economic
considerations. This report aims to identify how sociocultural factors have influenced water
issues and water resources management, and recommend policies and approaches to water resourcesmanagement that take sociocultural considerations into account. Inspired by the Memorial Lecture by
His Majesty the Emperor of Japan, “Hearts, Minds and Water - Touching Water in People’s Beliefs”
at the 4th Asia Pacific Water Summit in April 2022, this publication was prepared by researchersand practitioners to analyze water issues from a sociocultural perspective. The lecture points to therelationship between sociocultural factors and water:
Through the history of the relationships between people and water, the culture and thesociety have been formed, not only in Japan, but everywhere in the Asia Pacific and theworld. If you look around the world at various cultures and civilizations, you may find thatwater not only upholds the lives of people but affects the relationships between people andnature, and even their conception of nature and the world.
Source: Memorial Lecture by His Majesty the Emperor of Japan at the 4th Asia PacificWater Summit (https://www.kunaicho.go.jp/page/koen/showEn/8).

xiv

Source: Japan Water Forum.

FOREWORD

By analyzing case studies from countries as diverse as the Peoples’ Republic of China, India, Indonesia,
Japan, and the Republic of Korea, the report provides valuable insights into the evolution of water
resources management in response to historical context, socioeconomic structure, and cultural
influences.
We hope that this report will serve as an important resource for policy makers, stakeholders, and allothers interested in the development of effective and sustainable water management practices.

Tetsushi Sonobe
Dean and CEO
Asian Development Bank InstituteKotaro Takemura
Secretary General
Japan Water Forum

xv

CHAPTER 1
Sustainable Water Resources Management in Asia:
A Sociocultural Perspective
Mikio Ishiwatari and KE Seetha Ram

1.1 Introduction
Comprehensive and effective management of water resources requires an understanding of thecomplex relationships in the water cycle (Di Baldassarre et al. 2019). This complexity arises from theinteraction of multifaceted factors, including natural factors such as climate and topography, and alsosociocultural aspects such as cultural values, beliefs, and practices that shape societal perceptions ofwater (Jaeger et al. 2013; O’Brien and Wolf 2010; Mishra et al. 2021).
Effective management of water resources is critical to achieving sustainable development since
water issues are relevant to various Sustainable Development Goals (UN 2023; Di Baldassare et al.
2019). Given that water issues are exacerbated by climate change, population growth, and development,
it is essential to strengthen water resources management efforts for quality growth (APWF 2022).
However, countries tend to develop water policies and strategies that do not fully incorporatesociocultural aspects, but rather focus on technical solutions and economic efficiency (Hawken etal. 2021; Pahl-Wostl et al. 2007; Rajabi 2023). For countries to formulate policies and make decisions,they need to understand that sociocultural factors influence the institutional and governance structuresthat improve water access and management. The Asia and Pacific region needs to be particularly
sensitive to these sociocultural factors. This is because sociocultural factors are diverse and havesignificantly changed over the past decades due to rapid economic and social welfare developments.
This edited report aims to propose policies and approaches of water resources management in theregion that incorporate sociocultural aspects. The report brings together the expertise of scholars
and experts in the area. The chapters cover cases in the People’s Republic of China (PRC); Hong Kong,
China; India; Indonesia; Japan; the Republic of Korea; Türkiye; and Viet Nam; and analyze various
aspects of the sociocultural dimensions in the context of water resources management. This chapter is
a comprehensive introduction to the edited report comprising an overview of the topics covered andsynthesizes the major policy recommendations in each chapter. It examines practices and innovative
approaches proposed that can help achieve quality management of water resources in the Asia andPacific region. We hope the policy recommendations can guide policy makers and stakeholders tofoster more effective water management.

1.2 Consideration of Sociocultural Factors
in Water Resources Management
Recent studies have analyzed theories and concepts in the relationship between sociocultural factors
and water as well as examined cases. However, there are limited studies and reports analyzing
how sociocultural factors affect the evolution of national policies and regulatory and institutional
mechanisms for water resources management.

1

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Society and water systems are co-evolving and constitute a two-way feedback loop (Roobavannan
et al. 2018; Figure 1). Human activities exert changes on the water cycle; and changes in the water
cycle affect human society (Nakamura et al. 2020). In Asia, against the backdrop of modernization andurbanization, urban areas are facing issues related to the deterioration of the water cycle, including
land subsidence, water pollution, flooding, and water shortages. Resolving these pressing water issues
can lead to further urbanization in the long term. Similarly, diverse human cultures and their activities
interact and co-evolve in complex ways with the eco-social systems in rivers. Understanding riverculture is crucial to harmonize human activities with biological and cultural diversity in rivers (Wantzen
et al. 2016). The legacy of a culture inherited from the past is deeply connected to how people perceive
and treat land, water, laws, and the judiciary. In the case of Japan, urban development, daily life, food,art, and technological innovation are deeply connected to water, creating a rich cultural history, andwater has been deeply linked to the identity and lifestyle of the Japanese people (Dix 2017).

Figure 1.1: Co-evolution of Society and Culture and the Water System

Sociocultural change
2

Economic growthModernization
Urbanization
People’s perception

Water system
Disaster
Ecosystem
Environment

Source: Authors.

The Japanese case shows this co-evolution (Figure 1.2). Before the Edo period, Japan fell into the“Malthusian population trap” when the population did not increase because of limited food production.
Sociocultural change evolved water governance, which led to water resources development, agricultural
production, and population growth; and left the Malthusian population trap in the Edo period in the
17th century. This growth contributed to modernization in the Meiji period from the late 19th century.
However, this modernization caused water shortages in expanding urban activities. The modernized
government intervened constructing dams to supply urban water and achieved high growth. Managing
water resources has contributed to resolving water-related issues and bringing about quality growthin the country, which became more resilient, inclusive, and sustainable (Ishiwatari, Nagata, andMatsubayashi 2023). Japan is currently trying to adapt to the effects caused by climate change throughimplementing the new approach of “river basin disaster resilience and sustainability by all” including
countermeasures to mitigate flood damage.

SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN ASIA:
A SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

Figure 1.2: Japan’s Co-evolution Between Society and Water Resources Management

Co-evolution of water and society in Japan
Edo Period
17th Century

Meiji Period
19th Century

1960s and 1970s

Feudal system
Autonomous community
Water
Resource
Development

Malthusian
Trap
Water
shortage

Food
production
Population
growthModernization
Modernized state
Damconstruction
Flood
Urban
water
shortageHighgrowthFlood managementby allRisk-based
management
Flood
Urban
water
shortage

Sustainable
Society
ClimateChangeSource: Authors.

Water resources management strategies need to consider the dynamics of social and cultural
factors. Culture, consisting of values, beliefs, and norms, is key to understanding the stability andchange in human–water system relationships and thus influences the coordination of water resourcesmanagement (Wantzen, Tharme, and Pypaert 2023). Changes in water governance are closely related
to formal institutional rules and cultural norms that characterize the political and social environment.
While these cultural values related to water are considered important, they are difficult to quantify(UN 2021).

Figure 1.3: Key Findings of Factors Affecting Water Governance Arrangements in Asia

Infrastructure
Japan, PRC
Politics
Hong Kong, China
Japan
Collaboration
India

governanceCommunity
Bali, Indonesia; India, Japan,
Thailand, Türkiye, Viet Nam
People’s perception
Republic of Korea

Indigenous knowledge
India, PRC, Kumamoto, Japan
PRC = People’s Republic of China.
Source: Authors’ elaboration.

3

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

1.3 Relationship Between Sociocultural Dimensionsand Water Resources Management in Asia
Across Asian countries, the management mechanisms of water resources have evolved in responseto changes in historical contexts, socioeconomic structures, and cultural influences. Kim inchapter 19 of this volume demonstrates the multifaceted connection between water and culture inprosperous Asia through five case studies: the formation of religious beliefs, the impact on the arts, theinfluence on development, socioeconomic dynamics, and governance arrangements. The Dujiangyan
weir in the People’s Republic of China represents an approach that integrates water, culture, andsustainable development. The weir played a role in flood protection and water supply through annual
maintenance activities for over 2,000 years and has now become a cultural heritage site (Lin et al.,chapter 5). Shinde et al. (chapter 3) examine river management in India from four perspectives:(i) religious and cultural significance, (ii) inclusive development and management, (iii) community
engagement and involvement, and (iv) traditional knowledge and wisdom. India integrates the religious
and cultural significance of rivers in sustainable river management. The report found several criticalfactors influencing the arrangements of water governance (Figure 1.3). This section examines the key
findings of this report.

4

Autonomy of local communities established throughout history is key to successful water resourcesmanagement (Figure 1.4). The traditional mechanisms of water management by communities haveoutlived modernization and remain valid in modern times. Community initiatives enable managing
water resources on the ground as shown in cases in Japan, Indonesia, and Thailand. In these countries
communities have the primary responsibility for allocating water and operating and maintaining
facilities. Farmers’ participation in water management has fostered a strong sense of ownership andresponsibility for facility management. Flexible and rapid management of water distribution has
contributed to the response to droughts and floods. In Japan and Bali, Indonesia, such communitybased irrigation management is embedded with sociocultural contexts and has been established andmaintained for centuries (Ali, chapter 4; Watanabe, chapter 12). The traditional Subak system in Bali

Figure 1.4: Community Initiatives in Water Resources Management by CountryJapan
Irrigation
and

Ch 12
(Watanabe)

Drainage
Flood
Mitigation
Traditional
Technology

Ch 18(Tamura)Ch 13(Matsuki)

PRC = People’s Republic of China.
Source: Authors.

Asian countries
ThailandBali, Indonesia

Ch 11(Yoshida et al.)

Ch 4
(Ali)

Viet Nam

Ch 9(Nhat et al.)

PRC

Ch 5
(Lin et al.)Türkiye

Ch 10(Inanc et al.)SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN ASIA:
A SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

emphasizes equitable water distribution, community cohesion, and the integration of spirituality andecology. Türkiye has been transferring the operation and maintenance services of irrigation schemes tocommunity-based organizations of irrigation unions since the 1990s (Inanc et al., chapter 10). Türkiye
is promoting this transfer by developing legislation, building capacities, and arranging governance.
For flood protection, in Viet Nam and Japan, local communities have played crucial roles on thefrontline, and national and local governments can support to communities’ efforts (Nhat, Nguyen, andNguyen, chapter 9; Matsuki chapter 13; Tamura, chapter 18). Viet Nam is conducting community-based
programs, in which activities are conducted regularly, continuously, systematically, and creatively,
and the lessons from the activities are shared throughout the country.
Collaborative governance is crucial for managing water resources. Most cases stress the importanceof collaboration for managing water resources among all levels of governments, local communities,
and the private sector as well as in multiple sectors, such as water, disaster risk reduction, food,environment, and urban. The Indian government is promoting the River Cities Alliance to preserve
the urban environment in River Ganga (Kumar, chapter 17). The National Mission for Clean Ganga(NMCG) aims to reduce pollution and rehabilitate the river basin by adopting an integrated approachand promoting inter-sectoral coordination for comprehensive planning and management. Türkiye
is improving water governance to adapt to the effects caused by climate change and socioculturalchanges and response to external shocks of disasters and refugees’ migration (Inanc et al., chapter 10).
Constructing infrastructure modified Japanese water governance from farmers-led to collaborative
governance supported by the government in each river basin (Takemura, chapter 2).
As sociocultural aspects change, water resources management mechanisms must also change.
Sociocultural factors are dynamic and constantly changing. Modernization and urbanization arechanging the perceptions and values of communities and people regarding water. As industrial
structures shift away from the agricultural sector, communities are losing connections among theirmembers. In Japan, key mechanisms such as community-driven management and government
intervention have remained in place until now, while sociocultural changes due to modernization andrapid growth have altered governance on water allocation and cost-sharing (Figure 1.5). Japan createdthe foundation of the current mechanisms for water resources management in the early modern era of
the Edo period from the 17th century (Takemura, chapter 2). Today, the role of farmer organizations has
been succeeded as land improvement districts that manage farmlands, water, and irrigation facilities
according to legislation. Government organizations are assisting community-based flood management
by providing financial and technical support to communities (Tamura, chapter 18).
Approaches based on indigenous knowledge, traditional techniques, and cultural history, coupledwith the support of modern technology, can address evolving issues, including climate change. For
more than 2,000 years, water management functions have been maintained in the Dujiangyan weir,
the PRC, through regular maintenance using natural materials such as stones and bamboo boxes andfences (Lin et al., chapter 5). Japan also has used similar traditional technology for flood protection
works. These traditional technologies can be used as green infrastructure to adapt to the impacts ofclimate change (Matsuki, chapter 13). Green infrastructure provides not only flood protection, butalso climate change mitigation, leisure, education, and many other benefits. In addition to individual
technologies, traditional flood protection principles can also be useful. Japan is shifting the flood
protection policy from confining flood water between long high dikes in rivers with modern technology
to accommodating floodwaters on the plains (Ikeuchi, chapter 8). In pre-modern Japan, this was theprincipal approach for flood protection because of limited technology and financial sources. However,rather than reverting to older technologies and approaches, Japan is using the latest technology to
predict rainfall and flood volumes and formulating flood protection plans at the basin level. The
approach of combining traditional knowledge with the latest technology is effective not only for flood

5

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 1.5: Evolution of Japanese Water Resources Management
Ritsuryo system 7th CenturyFeudal system 11 CenturyEdo Period: Modern Age (17-19th Century)

Feudal system: Tokugawa Bakufu, National Military Government
Feudal lord, Daimyo, Local government
Autonomous local community
Governance
Ch 2(Takemura)

Finance
Ch 15 (Ishiwatariand Aldrich)

Irrigation anddrainage
Ch 12 (Watanabe)

Flood fighting
Ch 18 (Tamura)

Technology
Ch 13 (Matsuki)

Modern state (19th Century - )Modernization
High growth
Risk-based water resource
management
Ch 7 (Okazumi)

By all, Ch 8 (Ikeuchi)
Green Infrastructure, Ch 13 (Matsuki)

Source: Authors.

6
protection but also for water resources management in general. Yoshida, Oda, and Tanaka, chapter 11)
propose an innovative approach to formulate and visualize indigenous knowledge of rainfed ricecultivation in northeast Thailand through modern technology. Local farmers originally have knowledge
to maximize products even under unstable weather conditions. Japan has shifted its water resourcesmanagement policy from developing facilities to meet increasing demand to risk-based management
to adapt to the impacts of climate change and external shocks (Okazumi, chapter 7). To cope withan aging and declining population, Japan is introducing smart agriculture, which uses informationand communication technology to lead to larger plots of farmland and shift to more profitable crops(Watanabe, chapter 12).
Financing arrangements depend on political will. The case of the water supply system in Hong
Kong, China shows that social and political culture affect financing arrangements for water resourcesmanagement. In Hong Kong, China, water tariffs have been kept low leading to the inability to recover
costs and possibly to the waste of water resources (Eiff, chapter 6). In the case of Japan as well, politics
have affected financial arrangements for investing in water resources management. Political systems
have historically changed cost-sharing among national and local governments, local communities,
and the private sector. During the feudal period, interventions from national authorities were limited.
However, the national government started covering costs of flood protection to respond to needs fromlandowners in the Meiji period and to mitigate tensions with farmers in the 1910s (Ishiwatari and
Aldrich, chapter 15).

SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN ASIA:
A SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

Transferring knowledge to next generations is a challenge. Urbanization and modernization weaken
relationships or ties in local communities, making difficult maintain community-based activities. In
the Ziro Valley, India, the indigenous wisdom of wetland rice cultivation is often regarded as inferior
to modern technology, neglecting valuable insights into sustainable resources management (Shinde
et al., chapter 3). In Bali, Indonesia, communities are preserving the island’s rich water traditions tomaintain the island’s identity and ensure responsible water resources management (Ali, chapter 4).
Understanding citizens’ perception of water culture is crucial for formulating water policies andlegislation. Improving citizens’ perception and community culture on water environment is required
to ensure sufficient water quality, safe water quality, and healthy river in the Republic of Korea (Kim,chapter 14). Young generations in Kumamoto City, Japan, are engaged in preserving groundwater anddisseminating their experience to the world and the next generation. Kumamoto City, where the 4th
Asia-Pacific Summit was held in April 2002, is preserving groundwater to supply water to 1 million
people (Tanaka, chapter 16).

1.4 Lessons
The main lessons learned from this study are:Water resources management needs to integrate sociocultural aspects into its approaches
and policies by incorporating local knowledge, traditions, and customs. Technical and economic
considerations alone are not sufficient for effective management.
A cooperative approach is key, especially community involvement and participation in theoperation and maintenance and decision-making on the ground. Strengthening such governancerequires decision makers and stakeholders to consider sociocultural aspects.
Indigenous knowledge, traditional technologies, and approaches supported by sociocultural
aspects are useful to adapt to the effects caused by climate change through coupling with stateof-art technology. They use energy efficiently, absorb carbon gases, mitigate climate change, provide
leisure space, and preserve ecosystems. Economic analysis and technological development are needed
to further promote these.
Water resources management should be adaptive and evolve in response to changing socioculturaldynamics. When sociocultural factors change because of modernization, urbanization, anddevelopment, decision makers should arrange governance and management mechanisms accordingly.
Also, communities should strive to transfer their indigenous knowledge to the next generation.
Further research is needed to better understand and support peer-to-peer learning on how culturalvalues, beliefs, and practices can be incorporated into governance structures and decision-making
processes. Many communities are already incorporating these in the Asia and Pacific region, and it isdesirable to accumulate and analyze these practices and share among peers.

7

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 1.6: Key Messages of this Report

Dynamic and adaptive

Localcommunities

Source: Authors.

8

Incorporating
sociocultural
factors into water
resources
management

Indigenous knowledge
Traditional technology
with State-of-art technology

SUSTAINABLE WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT IN ASIA:
A SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE

References
Asia Pacific Water Forum (APWF). 2022. The 4th Asia-Pacific Water Summit: Implementation Report.
https://www.waterforum.jp/pdf/pr/Implementation-Report-The-4th-APWS-en.pdf
Di Baldassarre, G. et al. 2019. Sociohydrology: Scientific Challenges in Addressing the Sustainable
Development Goals. Water Resources Research 55(8): 6327–6355.
Dix, M. 2017. Water, Tradition, and Innovation: Flowing through Japan’s Cultural History, Education
About Asia 22(2): 48–51. https://www.asianstudies.org/publications/eaa/archives/water-tradition-and-innovation-flowing-through-japans-cultural-history/
Hawken, S. et al. 2021. What Makes a Successful Sponge City Project? Expert Perceptions of Critical
Factors in Integrated Urban Water Management in the Asia-Pacific. Sustainable Cities and Society
75: 103317.
Ishiwatari, M., K. Nagata, and M. Matsubayashi. 2023. Evolving Water Resources Management in
Response to Socio-economical Changes: Japanese Experience in Modernization over the Past
Century. Water Supply 23(2): 706–714.
Jaeger, W. K. et al. 2013. Toward a Formal Definition of Water Scarcity in Natural-human Systems.
Water Resources Research 49(7): 4506–4517.
Mishra, B. K., P. Kumar, C. Saraswat, S. Chakraborty, and A. Gautam. 2021. Water Security in a Changing
Environment: Concept, Challenges and Solutions. Water 13(4): 490.
Nakamura S., M. Kimura, K. Noda, S. Watanabe, and Y. Nishihara. 2020. Socio-hydrology: the Potential
and Challenges in Japan. Journal of Japan Society of Hydrology and Water Resources 33(5):203–211.
O’Brien, K. L., and J. Wolf. 2010. A Values-based Approach to Vulnerability and Adaptation to Climate
Change. Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change 1(2): 232–242.
Pahl-Wostl, C., M. Craps, A. Dewulf, A., E. Mostert, D. Tabara, and T. Taillieu. 2007. Social Learning andWater Resources Management. Ecology and Society12(2).
Rajabi, M. 2023. Towards a Regenerative Role of Cultural Heritage in Climate Resilience; the Case of
the Indian Water Infrastructure Heritage. Land 12(8): 1539. https://doi.org/10.3390/land12081539
Roobavannan, M. et al. 2018. Norms and Values in Sociohydrological Models. Hydrology and Earth
System Sciences 22(2): 1337–1349.
United Nations (UN). 2021. The United Nations World Water Development Report 2021: Valuing Water.
Paris: UNESCO.
____. 2023. The United Nations World Water Development Report 2023: Partnerships and Cooperation for

Water. Paris: UNESCO.

Wantzen, K. M. et al. 2016. River Culture: An Eco-social Approach to Mitigate the Biological andCultural Diversity Crisis in Riverscapes. Ecohydrology & Hydrobiology 16(1): 7–18.
Wantzen, K. M., R. E. Tharme, and P. Pypaert. 2023. Life as a Dance to the Rhythm of the Waters:
An Analysis of Current Trends and Suggestions to Restore River Culture. In K. M. Wantzen, ed.
River Culture – Life as a Dance to the Rhythm of the Waters, pp. 1–22. Paris: UNESCO Publishing.
DOI: 10.54677/NIGG2511

9

PART I

Sociocultural Dimensions

CHAPTER 2
A 400-Year History of Water Use in Japan’sRiver Basins: The Creation of Rural Communities,
Water Conflicts, Modernization, and Consensus
Building through Infrastructure Development
Kotaro Takemura

2.1 Enclosure of Federal Lords in River Basin System
during the Early Modern Edo Period
Tokugawa Ieyasu’s victory in the Battle of Sekigahara in 1600 marked the end of the 150-year Warring
States Period in Japan, during which around 200 feudal lords (daimyo) fought each other. Ieyasu thenestablished the shogunate, a form of military government, in Edo (now Tokyo).1 Ieyasu cleverly used
the topography to govern the daimyo.
A spine mountain range runs through the center of the Japanese archipelago, and countless rivers flow
down from the ridgelines of the mountain range to the sea. The country is made up of many pieces ofriver basins, like a jigsaw puzzle.
Ieyasu enclosed the daimyo in these river basins. The Edo period was a feudal system of shogunate anddomains. But from the perspective of the topography, it was a system of power dispersion enclosed in
the river basins and could be called a federal system based on river basins.
The Edo shogunate enforced a policy of national isolation on the daimyo and forbid them frominvading neighboring river basins beyond the boundaries. During the 260 years of peace under the Edo
shogunate, the daimyo devoted themselves to the development of river basins in the country.
The people of the river basins worked together to build levees. Many rivers, flowing freely in multiple
channels, were trained inside the levees.

2.2 The Creation of National Land
The purpose of forcing rivers inside levees was to convert barren wetlands into drylands for agriculture.
By confining turbulent rivers to their levees, agricultural land could be created, and wealth in the formof rice could be expanded.
Figure 2.1 shows a map of the Naka River, a Class A river in Tokushima Prefecture in the Shikoku Island
located in southwest Japan.2 The two thick lines in the center are levees, representing the present
Naka River. The lines around the levees are old river channels where the river used to flow turbulently.

1
2

During this period, the shogun held the real power, while the emperor held only symbolic power. The Tokugawa shogunate
ruled Japan from 1603 to 1868 with peace and stability.
Class A rivers define river systems of particular importance for national land conservation or the national economy, and areadministered by the national government. Class B rivers are those deemed important by the prefectural governor.

13

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 2.1: Topography and Geological Classification Map of the Naka River Basin

Source: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.

Now they are hidden underground and cannot be seen. A geological survey has revealed the old river
channels, forms of Hydra in Greek mythology or Yamatano-orochi in Japanese mythology.3

14Japan’s agricultural land had remained constant at 9,000 square kilometers (km2) from 1,000 years
ago until the Edo period. However, during the Edo period, agricultural land rapidly increased to
30,000 km2. With the increase in rice production, Japan’s population rose from 10 million in the 16th
century to 30 million in the 18th century (Kito 1983, Figure 2.2).

Figure 2.2: Long-Term Changes in Agricultural Land and Population in Japan
4,000 Unit: 10,000

Unit: 100 km 400
Agricultural
Land

Agricultural Land

350

Population
3,000

300

3,200
301

3,500 Population
3,000

250

2,500

200

2,000

150

1,500

1,200
86

100

95

600

560

85

50
0
600

700

Nara

800

1,000
500

900 1000 1100 1200 1300 1400 1500 1600 1700 1800
HeiannKamakura

Muromachi

Sengoku0
AD (year)

Edo

Source: Prepared by author from Kito (1983). Agricultural Civil Engineering History Research Group.

3

A giant snake with eight heads and eight tails is mentioned in Japanese mythology. It lived in the upper reaches of the
Hinokawa River in Izumo, liked to drink heavily, and devoured one daughter each year. Susanoo-no-Mikoto killed it, saved
Princess Kiiinada, and split its tail to obtain the Ama-no-Murakumo sword.

A 400-YEAR HISTORY OF WATER USE IN JAPAN’S RIVER BASINS: THE CREATION OF
RURAL COMMUNITIES, WATER CONFLICTS, MODERNIZATION, AND CONSENSUS
BUILDING THROUGH INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

2.3 Establishment of Robust Local Communities
in the River Basins
The Japanese agricultural land was formed during the 260 years of peace during the Edo period.
The Japanese could obtain the wealth of rice production through developing river basins. However,Yamatano-orochi of the old underground channels destroyed local communities. When heavy rainscaused flooding, levees broke, and water overflowed into the paddy fields.
Local communities started fighting against flooding to protect their agricultural fields. Community
members cooperated to protect levees from the common enemy of flooding. Throughout the country,
autonomous communities emerged to fight against the enemy.
People erected shrines dedicated to their local guardian gods next to the levees. They reinforced thelevees by walking on and compacting them during visits to the shrines. Various festivals were heldon the levees. People walked along the levees in groups and stepped on the levees for the New Year’s
first visit, cherry blossom viewing in the spring, fireworks in the summer, and festivals in the autumn(Figure 2.3).

Figure 2.3: People Walking Along the Yoshiwara Nippon Embankment
Ukiyoe painting: Utagawa Hiroshige 170 years ago

Source: The Landmarks of Edo in Color Woodblock Prints, National Diet Library, Japan (www.ndl.go.jp/landmarks/).

15

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

A unique Japanese culture was nurtured on the levees. Local festivals were born on the levees. People
made their first love, walked hand in hand with their children, and enjoyed festival songs and danceson the levees. Flood fighting, which protected the community from enemies, fostered a strong senseof community among the people. However, this strong sense of community led to conflicts with othercommunities within the same river basin. Water conflicts sometimes occurred during droughts.

2.3.1 Water Conflicts among Communities
Rice cultivation requires a lot of water. Japanese people worked together to build weirs and irrigation
channels to carry water to paddy fields for rice cultivation.
Japanese rivers have steep slopes, and when it rains water flows quickly into the ocean. If there was norain for a week, the rivers quickly ran out of water, resulting in drought.
Water conflicts began between villages upstream and downstream as well as between villages on theother side of the river. These water conflicts, which were a matter of survival for the communities,
often led to bloody conflicts. This was not a unique phenomenon to Japan, but a common occurrencein many parts of the world. This is clear from the fact that rival means “competitor” and is derived fromrivers (flow), a synonym for competitor.
When water was plentiful, farmers used a lot of water. This meant that all river water was used up
during normal times (Figure 2.4). With the river water depleted due to continuous drought in summer,
farmers were not able to secure water and started conflicts (Figure 2.5).

16
Figure 2.4: River Water Use in the Edo period
Abundance
year
River discharge

TyphoonSnowmelt water
Rainy season
Existing agricultural
water use
Winter

Source: Author.

SpringSummerAutumnA 400-YEAR HISTORY OF WATER USE IN JAPAN’S RIVER BASINS: THE CREATION OF
RURAL COMMUNITIES, WATER CONFLICTS, MODERNIZATION, AND CONSENSUS
BUILDING THROUGH INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

Figure 2.5: Water Struggle in the Edo Period
Drought
year
River discharge

Snowmelt water

Existing agricultural
water use

Water struggle
WinterSpringSummerAutumnSource: Author.

At the end of the Edo period, water conflicts between communities were repeated in river basins allover Japan. Even in the Nikaryo irrigation system, which can be regarded as a direct subsidiary of theEdo shogunate, a disastrous conflict happened in 1821 over water between upstream and downstream
communities when about 14,000 farmers from the downstream Kawasaki district attacked the upstream
Mizokuchi district.

2.4 Beginning of Modernization
In 1853, four black steam-engine ships led by United States’ Commodore Perry arrived in Tokyo Bay.
The Japanese encountered the power of the steam engine, which was seen as the symbol of modern
civilization. The Japanese people abandoned the policy of national isolation and opened the country to
the outside world. To catch up with Western countries as quickly as possible, the Japanese needed toabsorb modern civilization.
In 1877, steam locomotives began operating between Shimbashi in Tokyo and Yokohama, which was
the symbol of modernization. Soon after, railroads were rapidly built throughout the country, and theirdestination was the capital, Tokyo.
Locomotives, which were the symbol of modernization, promoted urbanization, leading to concentrationin Tokyo. The railways disrupted the quiet society, consisting of river basins in Edo for 260 years.
Locomotives were running in front of people living inside the river basins. Young people jumped onto
steam locomotives, and Japan’s young labor force and capital migrated to the cities, leading to the rapid
expansion of modern cities.

2.4.1 Expansion of Cities
Cities and industries required large quantities of drinking and industrial water. Japanese industries
developed from fish processing to garment manufacturing and then to heavy chemical industries.
However, as new water users were added to the management of river water resources, water shortages
during droughts became even more severe. Existing farming communities were not willing to readily
accept new users. For hundreds of years farmers had been protecting the water at the expense of theirown blood. Agricultural communities were hardcore on water conflicts.

17

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The newcomers in the cities were in a far weaker position than the farmers. Urban water users requested
the existing agricultural water users to receive their share of the extra water. When droughts persisted,
and the water level in the rivers decreased, water for agriculture was prioritized. The cities’ watersupply experienced repeated interruptions. Production companies pumped up groundwater, causing
land subsidence. These water issues became significantly severe during the reconstruction period after
the Second World War.

2.5 Dam Construction in Postwar Reconstruction
After the Second World War, large typhoons struck the already devastated country, resulting in theloss of thousands of lives almost every year. Flood protection became Japan’s top priority, and thegovernment resumed the construction of dams, which had been suspended during the war.
The government attached hydroelectric power generation to flood control dams to compensate for the
shortage of electricity. Flood control dams needed to be kept empty to store floodwaters. In contrast,
power generation requires constant storage of water. To achieve the conflicting goals, the government
moved toward building as large a dam as the topography and geology permitted.
During the period of dam construction, urban areas suffered from severe water shortages. The
government arranged unique measures and decided to release water to farmers from dams during
dry periods. This is because the new users in urban areas could not withdraw water from rivers in asituation where water scarcity was causing conflicts between farmers.

18

The government started supporting all existing agricultural communities from the Edo era by releasingwater from the dams (Figure 2.6). Farmers targeted are not specified but rather any community in ariver basin. This water was called “unspecified irrigation water”.

2.6 The Government as a Newcomer
Historically, rural communities along the river banks had governed the rivers since the Edo period.
The River Law was enacted in 1896, stipulating that the national and prefectural governments became
the river administrators. Farmers did not trust the river administrators created by the new River Law
to be manage the river basins.
The infrastructure of unspecified irrigation capacity of the dams led farmers to accept water governanceby modern law. In the Tone River system in the Tokyo metropolitan area, the government built many
dams. The Ikari Dam completed in 1956 provides 32 million cubic meters (m³) of water for power
generation, which uses unspecified irrigation water. The Fujiwara Dam was completed in 1958, with
31 million m³ of water reserved for unspecified irrigation. For unspecified irrigation, 20 million m³ wasreserved at the Omata Dam completed in 1959, 13 million m³ at the Sonohara Dam completed in 1966,
and 73 million m³ for power generation at the Kawamata Dam completed in the same year.
By 1966, the dam capacity for unspecified irrigation water reached 170 million m³. In other words,
the water capacity of the dams was equivalent to about 280 Koshien Stadiums (about 600,000 m3) forthe existing farmers along the river. The construction cost of the dams for this unspecified irrigation
capacity was financed entirely by taxes.
For the agricultural communities along the river, this was a tremendous gift. Water conflicts along theTone River disappeared with the released water from the dams.

A 400-YEAR HISTORY OF WATER USE IN JAPAN’S RIVER BASINS: THE CREATION OF
RURAL COMMUNITIES, WATER CONFLICTS, MODERNIZATION, AND CONSENSUS
BUILDING THROUGH INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

2.7 Water System in Modern JapanThe leaders of postwar Japan not only actively constructed dams but also envisioned a water
withdrawal system that would facilitate economic development for the future of Japanese society. In
1957, 12 years after the end of the war, the Specific Multi-Purpose Dam Law was enacted. It was ademocratic procedure and laid out the principles of rational water allocation as follows:
1. Dams are built to secure water for existing agricultural use on a priority basis (Figure 2.6)
2. Agreements could be obtained from the existing rural communities from the Edo period
3. With the agreement, dams will store the water for the newcomer in cities and released it
toward the city (Figure 2.7)
4. The newcomers in cities bear the burden of funding the dam construction
5. Cost allocation of dam construction is calculated based on an open and impartial methodology
6. The cost allocated for water users is specified in the basic plan of each individual dam
7. The national government formulates the basic plan for individual dams, consults with relevant
ministries and agencies, and obtains the opinions of prefectural governors
8. The governor shall pass a resolution of the Diet when expressing their opinion

Figure 2.6: Sufficiency of Existing Agricultural Water
Droughtyear

Typhoon19

Snowmelt waterRiver discharge
Fujiwara Dam, Ikari Dam,
Aimata Dam, Sonohara Dam,
Kawamata Dam
Dam capacity for unspecified
irrigation water Total：170 million m3

Existing agricultural
water use

Existing agricultural
water use

WinterSpringSummerAutumnDams prevented fighting
by supplying water for
agricultural use in times of drought

Source: Author.

Figure 2.7: Water Supply to New Municipal Water
TyphoonDrought
year

Snowmelt water
Existing agricultural
water use
New urban waterRiver discharge
New urban water

Yagisawa Dam, Shimokubo
Dam, Kawaji Dam, Kusak Dam,
Naramata Dam, Yunishigawa
Dam, Yatsuba Dam

Source: Author.

Existing agricultural
water useRiver maintenance water

WinterSpringSummerAutumnSupplying new urban waterin a situation where water
conflicts have disappeared

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

In 1964, when the existing agricultural water supply of the Tone River was being secured, the River
Law was significantly revised.4 The purpose of this revision was to include water utilization in addition
to flood control. Article 1 of the law was designed to ensure the safety of existing agricultural watersupply and to develop new water utilization, as described above. Article 1 also includes the phrase“maintenance of the normal functions of the river water”.

2.7.1 Maintenance of the Normal Functions of the River Water
The phrase to “maintain the normal functions of the river water” means that the river must flow at
the rate it should flow as a river. In the 21st century, it is generally understood to mean protecting thenatural environment of the rivers.
However, the main idea was that water must be reserved for the farmers who have historically managed
the rivers. The principal purpose of this phrase was not to protect the natural environment. Urban
water users must respect history in agricultural local communities and take water while preserving
and maintaining the river environment. New water users should not take water away from existing
farmers in exchange for money just because industrialization and urbanization had progressed.
Currently, water is disappearing in rivers and lakes in Eurasia and Africa. There is no social commitmentthat a certain amount of water must flow in a river, given the history and natural environment of theregion.

20

The philosophy of Japan’s River Law emphasizes the importance of respecting the historicalbackground of the river and developing through sharing water according to the agreement of all parties
involved along the river. During the 1960s, when the law was revised, Japan was striving for prosperity,and concepts like pollution and environmental preservation did not exist.
There is probably no other example in the world where the philosophy of respecting the history of
existing agricultural communities in a river basin has been implemented in society through dam
construction and water-related laws. Figure 2.8 shows that the Specific Multi-purpose Dam Law and
the River Law have supported Japan’s modern economic growth.

4

In Japan, water laws do not exist, instead the River Law is the basic legislation of managing water.

A 400-YEAR HISTORY OF WATER USE IN JAPAN’S RIVER BASINS: THE CREATION OF
RURAL COMMUNITIES, WATER CONFLICTS, MODERNIZATION, AND CONSENSUS
BUILDING THROUGH INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

Figure 2.8: Changes in Economic Growth (GDP) and River Law in Japan¥
trillion

600

New River law
revision (1997)
・Flood control
・Water utilization
・Environment

500

510

400

300

New River Law(1964 )
・Flood control
・Water utilization

Former River Law(1896)
・Flood control

Water Resources Development
Promotion Act (1961)
30

1990

1950

1940

1930

1920

1910

1900

0

1896

8

1980

Specific Multi-Purpose Dam Law (1957)

1970

100

1960

200

Source: ???

2.7.2 Legal Philosophy Generated by Infrastructure Achievements
In 1997, the author was involved in a major revision of the River Law as a director of Japan’s Ministryof Construction. Noteworthy was the inclusion of environment in the purpose of Article 1. However,behind this amendment, there was an important additional legal provision. It was the establishmentof the new Article 53 on Water Use Adjustment during Droughts. The purpose of Article 53 is thatwater users shall coordinate with each other during times of severe drought, and in doing so, theymust respect other water users.
The idea of respecting other users in times of drought is inherently unnatural. Throughout humanhistory, it has been customary during such periods for people to compete vigorously for water. This
concept, like “threading a camel through the eye of a needle,” was incorporated into the basic law ofmodern national land management: the River Law.
Based on this legal principle, drought coordination councils were established where river managers,
farmers, and urban water users would hold discussions during times of water shortages. At themeetings, they actively monitor dam storage, determine water conservation rates, reach consensus,
and implement water saving measures.

21

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

2.7.3 Consensus Building and Legislation for Water Use History
The amendments made to the River Law in 1964 and 1997 were not replicas of Western legislation but
rather unique concepts originating from practices on the ground. The 1964 amendment was a responseto the construction of agricultural dams, aiming to ensure the use of water and maintenance of thenormal functioning of the river water. Collaborative efforts between farmers and urban water users
in monitoring dam reservoirs and conserving water during droughts influenced the inclusion of thephrase “respecting other water users” in the 1997 amendment.
Despite having various national basic laws, it is notable that only the River Law has undergone twochanges to its primary objective since its establishment in 1896. Although Japan’s river administration
is often criticized as ultra-conservative, it has a tradition of adapting to significant social trends. The
1997 emphasis on respect for other water users aligns with the principles of “Harmony with Respect,”found in the first Japanese constitution, Prince Shotoku’s 17-article constitution enacted in 604.5

2.8 Highlights
The foundation for water resources management including water rights, water distribution, andcoordination during droughts in Japan up to the present day was laid during the Edo period (17th–19th
centuries).

22

Modern mechanisms of water resources management have been formed by respecting and prioritizing
the customs, which were established by communities through conflicts.
Dam infrastructure resolved conflicts among local communities by providing free water to farmers
during droughts, and supplying water to emerging urban industries and residents.
Constructing infrastructure could strengthen water governance in each river basin historicallyestablished based on mutual respect among water users.

5

As regent, Prince Shotoku established the foundation of a centralized bureaucratic state by enacting the Twelve Ranks of the
Crown and the Seventeen Articles of the Constitution. He sent envoys to China to introduce continental culture and built
Horyu-ji and Shitennoji temples to promote Buddhism.

A 400-YEAR HISTORY OF WATER USE IN JAPAN’S RIVER BASINS: THE CREATION OF
RURAL COMMUNITIES, WATER CONFLICTS, MODERNIZATION, AND CONSENSUS
BUILDING THROUGH INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT

Reference
Kito, H. 1983. Population History of Japan for 2,000 Years. Kyoto, Japan: PHI Institute. (in Japanese)23

CHAPTER 3
River Management in India:
Mainstreaming the Sociocultural Elements
Victor R. Shinde, Lovlesh Sharma, Jyoti Verma, and Satarupa Roy

3.1 Introduction
Rivers are among the most productive ecosystems, providing a variety of ecosystem services, including
provisioning, regulating, cultural, recreational, and aesthetic to its users (Guo et al. 2021). For rivers to
be able to continue providing these services, it is vital that the management of rivers accounts for thediverse drivers and enabling factors that are required for holistic management. In recent times,
the social benefits of rivers are increasingly being acknowledged, which have been leveraged to restore
the ecological integrity of rivers in places where there is a need (Garau, Torralba, and Pueyo-Ros2021). As Everard and Moggridge (2012) point out, this comes from the premise that in addition to
the ecological aspects, effective river management provides various co-benefits such as public health,economic value, quality of life, regional regeneration, and disaster risk reduction.

24

Healthy rivers not only promote a quality environment but also provide people with a place that fulfils
a variety of social and psychological needs (Basak et al. 2021), and sociocultural elements are strongly
linked to these needs. This is because, for many human populations around the world, river flows
are linked to livelihood, identity, sense of place, religious beliefs and ceremonies, language systems,
or educational practices (Anderson et al. 2019). Throughout history, and even today, rivers have an
inherent intrinsic sociocultural value. Table 3.1 provides a summary of examples from across the worldin this regard.

Table 3.1: Examples of Sociocultural Value of Rivers Across the Globe
Title
Water Festival(Bon Om Touk),Cambodia

Description
Bon Om Touk is celebrated to mark the natural occurrence where there is a reversing of waterflow between Tonle Sap Lake and the Mekong River. For most of the year, water from Tonle Sap
Lake flows into the Mekong River. However, during the monsoon in June to October, the MekongRiver flows into the lake, increasing its size by almost 10 times.
Bon Om Touk is celebrated in November to thank the Mekong River for revitalizing the lake, giventhat thousands of people depend on it for their livelihoods. The festival was first celebrated in the
12th century during the reign of Angkorian King Jayaraman VII. The locals believe that the festival
is an avenue to please the gods, who in turn will ensure that the worshippers will have enoughprovision of rice and fish throughout the year.

Niger River Festival,
Mali

The Niger River is the lifeline for many parts of Mali, one of the largest countries in the African
continent. The river floods the inner Niger Delta in Mali every year. In doing so, it provides
opportunities for fisheries, and water for agriculture and household use, supporting the lives of
1.5 million people and millions of migratory waterbirds.
The Bozo and Bamana tribes from the Markala region along the banks of the Niger River gather
every year for the annual festival, the Niger River Festival. Very similar to Bon Om Touk in
Cambodia, these local communities pay their tributes to the river and celebrate its kinshipwith them through the festival.
continued on next page

RIVER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA: MAINSTREAMING THE SOCIOCULTURAL ELEMENTS

Table 3.1 continued
Title
Amsterdam canals,
the Netherlands

Description
Water has always been a prominent feature in Amsterdam’s landscape. Amsterdam’s historic
canal belt provides a perfect setting for large city-wide festivals and bringing people together.
Canals in the city are seen as active spaces and host large number of events around and in them.
The canals are the city’s central point for city celebrations across the year. Some of these events
include the King’s Day, Amsterdam Gay Pride (the world’s only waterborne gay pride festival), theGrachten Festival (classical music canal festival), and the Amsterdam Light Festival. These events
accentuate the incredible value these canals provide to the city and its citizens.

Ningxia papercut,
the People’s
Republic of China

The Yellow River is widely considered the inspiration for Chinese traditional culture. The Chinese
believe it to be a symbol of humanity and spirituality, bearing burdens (its sedimentation),
adaptation (its course changes), and perseverance (its continual flow). The river not only
supports the livelihoods of the people that depend on it but also nurtures the local tradition, andinspires many unique cultural practices.
One such practice that has been influenced by the river is the Ningxia papercut, which has its own
value in terms of representing regional culture. In 2009, this was listed as a world class intangible
cultural heritage. The design and patterns of the Ningxia papercut is a reflection of popular
farmers’ culture in the Yellow River basin. The origin of the subjects of the patterns include various
plants and vegetables, the 12 zodiac animal signs, red double happiness letters, domesticatedbirds, fish, flowers, etc., all of which are found in the Yellow River Basin.

Tenjin Matsuri,
Japan

The Tenjin Matsuri, which literally translates to “Festival of the Gods” is held at the Tenmangu
Shrine in Osaka and honors the deity Sugawara Michizane, the god of learning. The Tenjin Matsuri
is special in that it celebrates water and the city together. The festival culminates into a riverprocession, which is among the highlights of the event. The purpose is to convey gratitude to the
Osaka River in the form of two Mikoshi (portable shrines), which are loaded onto boats as theprocession moves onto the water.

Source: Adapted from NIUA and NMCG (2022).

3.2 River Management in India
In India, throughout its history, rivers have had an intrinsic sociocultural value. A well-known example
is the River Ganges (also referred to as Ganga), which is a major avenue of cultural and spiritual
activities for millions of Indians. Likewise, rivers like the Narmada, Yamuna, Brahmaputra, Kosi, andseveral others, are intrinsically linked with sociocultural connotations.
An essential component of the holistic management of rivers in India is to be cognizant of thesesociocultural implications and incorporate those into planning paradigms. In 2019, the National
Institute of Urban Affairs (affiliated with India’s Ministry of Housing and Urban Affairs) and the
National Mission for Clean Ganga (affiliated with India’s Ministry of Jal Shakti) introduced a novel
framework for urban river management in India. The purpose of the framework is to provide a template
for river cities in India to prepare a holistic plan for reviving and maintaining the rivers within theiradministrative limits. The central idea of the framework is that healthy rivers have a strong bearing onlivability and productivity in the cities. At the heart of the framework is a 10-point agenda (Figure 3.1)
that every river city would need to adopt to prepare its city-specific urban river management plan
(URMP). The sociocultural elements of river management are captured in agenda items 9 and 10. Hence,an enabling environment has been created in the country to mainstream sociocultural considerationsin the management of urban rivers.
The objective of this chapter is to highlight four key sociocultural elements that are considered
for river management mechanisms in India, along with case studies of how each of these has been

25

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 3.1: India’s Urban River Management Plan Framework

1

3

REGULATINGFLOODPLAIN
ACTIVITIESREJUVENATEWATERBODIES AND
WETLANDS

2

4POLLUTION FREE
RIVER

ENHANCE
RIPARIAN BUFFER

7

9

ECO-FRIENDLY
RIVERFRONTSPROJECTSCITIZEN
AWARENESS ON
RIVER SENSITIVEBEHAVIOR

6

8

10

MAXIMUM GOODQUALITY RETURN
FLOW

LEVERAGINGECONOMICPOTENTIAL
OF THE RIVER

ENGAGE
CITIZENSIN RIVER
MANAGEMENTACTIVITIES

5INCREASED REUSE
OF TREATEDWASTEWATERENVIRONMENTECONOMICS

SOCIAL

Source: NIUA and NMCG (2020).

26

addressed in different parts of India. These elements are (i) religious and cultural significance of rivers,(ii) inclusive development and management of rivers, (iii) community engagement and involvement,and (iv) traditional knowledge and wisdom.
A river is a system of interconnected elements. To ensure the holistic management of this system,
the sociocultural elements associated with the river are as important as other conventional elements
like pollution control (Bao et al. 2022), floodplain regulations, and riverfront development (Vian,
Izquierdo, and Martínez 2021), among others. Mainstreaming these sociocultural elements into the
management paradigm will go a long way in ensuring truly sustainable development of river systems,
which can absorb the imminent shocks and stressors that systems are increasingly being subjected toin the present times.

3.3 Mainstreaming Sociocultural Elements in RiverManagement in India
3.3.1 Religious and Cultural Significance of Rivers: Case Study of Kanpur City
Context
In many regions of India, rivers are worshipped and have an integral role to play in certain religious andcultural rituals and practices. Understanding these religious and cultural connections can be importantfor effective river management. This section focuses on the case study of Kanpur in north India, which
was the first city in India to develop an urban river management plan. The case study expounds on theplan that the city has made to boost its river-related economy by leveraging this religious sentiment.
Kanpur, often referred to as the “Manchester of India,” is a dynamic and historically significant city
located in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh. Situated on the banks of the Ganges River, Kanpur has
a rich and diverse heritage that spans centuries. With a history dating back to the Vedic period andRIVER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA: MAINSTREAMING THE SOCIOCULTURAL ELEMENTS

a prominent role during the Indian struggle for independence, the city has evolved into a bustling
metropolis that blends tradition with modernity.
The city is bound by two rivers—the Ganges on one side and the Pandu River on the other. Recognizing
the role of these rivers in enhancing the overall livability of Kanpur, the city took the initiative todevelop a dedicated URMP to manage the rivers efficiently and sustainably.

The Intervention
One of the interventions of Kanpur’s URMP is to link river management with the sociocultural valueof the city. Approximately 20 kilometers (km) upstream from Kanpur is a small town called Bithoor,
which is revered as a sacred place in Hinduism. It is believed to be the birthplace of Lord Ram’s sons,
Luv and Kush, and is associated with various episodes from the epic Ramayana. Bithoor has a richcultural heritage, with several temples, ashrams, and historical structures that attract both pilgrims
and tourists.
The intervention outlined in Kanpur’s URMP is the development of a cultural theme-based boating
circuit between Kanpur and Bithoor along the Ganges River. This intervention aims to leverage thesociocultural potential of the city by enhancing tourism and recreational activities on the river.
Boat rides take visitors on a journey along the Ganges River, showcasing Bithoor’s rich culture,connection with the Ramayana, and India’s freedom struggle. There are many such cases wherethemed boat rides have been exemplary in attracting tourists and providing experiences wrapped in
information. For instance, Sanskruti Darshan by the Akshardham Temple in New Delhi, Pandora—theworld of Avatar by Walt Disney in Florida, and boat safaris (through a virtual forest) in Singapore,
among others. The intervention has been conceptualized in such a way that the river-related tourism
in the Kanpur–Bithoor stretch is formalized, streamlined, and subsequently enhanced.
The cultural theme-based boat rides have a designated starting point at Atal Ghat,1 with ticket stations
and waiting zones. Visitors have the option of choosing between two routes. The first route involves aride upstream that will take visitors on a 6 km boat ride involving themed facilities, such as sculptures,a sound and light show, and interactive activities, providing an immersive experience for tourists. The
second route will take visitors 6 km downstream to the Sarsiya Ghat to observe the several ghats andtheir activities.

Implications for Cross-learning
Cities flourishing along the rivers have the opportunity to leverage the ecosystem services provided by
the river system in terms of provisioning, regulating or recreational services. The city of Kanpur has
recognized the religious and cultural significance of the Ganges River and leveraged it as an opportunity
for sustainable development and river management. The development of a cultural theme-based boating
circuit at Kanpur and Bithoor will boost the river-related economy and also preserve and showcase therich religious and cultural heritage of the region. By embracing the diverse drivers and enabling factors
required for holistic river management, Kanpur is paving the way for other cities to follow suit andcreate a harmonious balance between sociocultural elements and ecological conservation.
By promoting responsible tourism practices and raising awareness about the ecological importanceof the rivers, visitors will develop a deeper appreciation for the natural and cultural heritage of theregion. This, in turn, will contribute to the conservation efforts and the overall ecological integrity of
the rivers.
1

A flight of steps leading down to the river.

27

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

3.3.2 I nclusive Development and Management of Rivers:
Case Study of Varanasi City
Context
A river is a common-pool resource. However, the benefits of a river are not always distributed equally,
and can disproportionately affect disadvantaged communities, differently-abled people, and the elderly.
A vital objective of holistic river management is to ensure that management actions do not exacerbate
existing social and environmental inequalities. This section describes the case study of Varanasi, anancient city located in the northern state of Uttar Pradesh in India, where the city has taken measures
to make its riverfront projects more accessible to the differently abled and the elderly.
Given its religious significance, the city has 84 ghats along the Ganges River, where pilgrims visit toperform different rituals and practices. For example, one of the most popular rituals is the “Ganga
Aarti”, which is performed on Dasaswamedh Ghat every evening. Thousands of visitors flock to thisevent from across the country. The scale of visitors to the Ganga ghats in Varanasi is increasing every
year. On average about 100,000–150,000 devotees visit the Varanasi ghats and temples daily. The
problem, however, is that these ghats are also a hurdle to the physically challenged, the elderly, andchildren due to their obvious built character. This aspect becomes more critical when consideringthat Uttar Pradesh State accounts for the highest number of persons with disabilities across all statesin India. Likewise, Varanasi District features in the top 10 districts across the country that have thehighest number of people with disabilities (Figure 3.2).

28
Figure 3.2: Disability Statistics for Varanasi District and City
120,000
100,000
80,00060,00040,00020,0000Males with disabilities

Females with disabilities
Varanasi City

Source: NIUA (2021).

Varanasi District

Total

RIVER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA: MAINSTREAMING THE SOCIOCULTURAL ELEMENTS

The Intervention
To address the issue of inclusivity, the Uttar Pradesh government, in association with allied agencies
has carried out large-scale redevelopment work for the Assi, Manikarnika, and Dashashwamedh ghats,
which have the highest footfall. The redevelopment targeted to ensure the integration of universal
design elements such as ramps, handrails, accessible toilets, braille signage, drinking water facilities,
etc., which will assist the differently abled to access the ghats and witness the Ganga Aarti. The
redevelopment project also aimed to make the connectivity to the ghats areas easier and more inclusive.
Some of the measures employed include levelling the roads to reduce uneven surfaces, strengthening
pedestrian infrastructure, creating separate lanes for persons with disabilities, and setting up a
dedicated parking zone to reduce congestion. Figure 3.3 presents an example of the redevelopment
plan for the Dashashwamedh Ghat.

Figure 3.3: Redevelopment Plan for the Dashashwamedh Ghat
that Includes Disability Elements

1. Parking
2. Entry
3. Pathways
4. Curb ramps for temple and shops
5. Stair wheelchair lift
6. Pool hoist
7. Ramp in water
8. Pedestrian crossing
9. Modular floating dock
10. Public space (toilet, shop, etc.)

Source: Authors’ depiction.

There are several features that have been designed from a disability perspective. The entrance andcorridors are wide enough to accommodate a wheelchair. The curb ramp is designed so that wheelchairs,
Segways, carts, etc., can access the area. Wheelchair lifts attached to the side rails of the staircases
are installed to facilitate access of the disabled to the ghat area. The pool hoist is to help disabled
people take a dip in the holy water. The project has also ensured that the roads leading to the ghats
are adequately levelled to ensure minimum inconvenience to the differently abled. Likewise, there is aseparate lane for the disabled so that they can reach the ghats directly from the main entrance.

Implications for Cross-learning
Making riverfronts universally accessible is a good practice in any part of the world. Not only does itallow disadvantaged sections of society to get access to a vital natural asset, but it also improves the
reputation of riverfront projects. For example, as per the Varanasi local government, the number of29

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

visitors to the Asi, Manikarnika, and Dashashwamedh ghats has doubled after the recent redevelopment.
Official figures suggest that the income of people associated with the tourism sector has increased
anywhere between 20% to 65% whereas employment in the tourism sector has increased by 34.18%.
Hence, it is evident that investment in inclusive infrastructure and related practices has positive
economic implications. The rejuvenation drive of the ghats and the transformation of the neighboring
temple areas have been pivotal in nurturing the city’s tourism boom.

3.3.3 Community Engagement and Involvement:
Case Study of Aurangabad City
Context
Often river management plans are prepared without consulting communities and citizen stakeholders.
Citizens are usually brought into the picture when plans are complete, from the standpoint of informing
them about the plan and seeking their endorsement. Sustainable river management requires the active
participation and support of local communities, which can help ensure that management strategies
reflect local needs and priorities and that the benefits and impacts of management actions are equitably
distributed. This section highlights the example of the city of Aurangabad and describes its efforts toengage with citizens for the rejuvenation of the Kham River.
Aurangabad is a city located in the Indian state of Maharashtra located on a hilly upland terrain in the
Deccan plateau. The city sits in the Dudhana valley, between the Lakenvara range in the north and theSatara hills in the south. The city has two seasonal rivers flowing through it—the Kham and the Sukhna.

30

The Kham is a severely deteriorated river plagued by both solid and liquid waste pollution. As per
recent official records, the main indicators of water pollution—biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
chemical oxygen demand (COD), and total nitrogen—were recorded as exceptionally high and above
the permissible standards. The BOD concentration in different stretches of the river ranged between
160–287 milligrams per liter (mg/l), and the COD values ranged from 400–800 mg/l, indicating highdischarge of untreated organic and inorganic load in the river.

The Intervention
In 2016, a survey was carried out with residents of Aurangabad where it emerged that more than
40% of the respondents did not know that the Kham River flowed through the city. However, 84%
indicated a willingness to participate in the river restoration activities. This led to the launch of the
Kham River Restoration Mission, which started as a pilot over a 1.5-km stretch. The initiative wasanchored by Varroc Engineering, a multinational company, the Confederation of Indian Industries,
and the Aurangabad Cantonment Board. While some initial results were achieved, the sewage andsolid waste in the river threatened the sustainability of long-term impacts. To address this aspect, thecity set up the Kham River Restoration Committee to holistically look at the management of the river,using a systems approach. The committee comprised the Aurangabad Municipal Corporation, theCantonment Board of Aurangabad, Varroc Engineering, EcoSattva, and the National Institute of Urban
Affairs (NIUA).
One of the key strategies employed by the committee was to initiate a public campaign and citizens’
movement through print media, social media, and radio media as a means to reconnect people to the
Kham. Aurangabad’s local band “NoB” wrote the “Kham Song”, which soon turned into the anthem forthe campaign. Events were organized for school students where they were taken for birdwatching andbutterfly walks during which experts talked about the river’s biodiversity (Figure 3.4). Several women’s

RIVER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA: MAINSTREAMING THE SOCIOCULTURAL ELEMENTS

groups organized workshops along with cleanup and plantation drives (Figure 3.5). Likewise, industrial
bodies introduced a cleanup drive relay every Saturday, where the responsibility is transferred from
one industry to another week after week.

Figure 3.4: School Children and Students Sensitized to the Agendaof the Kham River Restoration Mission

31

Picture Credit: Sachin Bhusare.

Figure 3.5: River Cleanup Drives Organized by the Kham River Restoration Mission

continued on next page

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 3.5 continued

32

Source: Newspaper clippings from the Times of India and Down to Earth magazine.

As a result of the citizen engagement activities, more than 100,000 square meters have been clearedof solid waste. Ten new ecological riverfront spaces with more than 50,000 trees have been developed
along the Kham. About 150 garbage vulnerable points have been tapped that prevent solid waste fromentering the river.
Additionally, as a part of the mission, an eco-friendly riverfront area, the Kham Eco Park (Figure 3.6),
has been developed to build a blue–green space to enhance the citizens’ connection with the river.
Built along a stretch of 1.5 km along the river, this area is marked with grasses, a butterfly and dragonfly
garden, a Miyawaki forest, an amphitheater made from waste tires, a fresh-water pond, wetlands, andis covered with around 50,000 native species of plants and trees. In addition to providing an ecologicalrecreational space for citizens, the eco-park also reinvigorates the lost flora and fauna.

RIVER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA: MAINSTREAMING THE SOCIOCULTURAL ELEMENTS

Figure 3.6: Recreational Avenues Developed as Part of the Kham River Restoration Mission

Source: Newspaper clippings from the Times of India.

Implications for Cross-learning
Citizens are often only considered peripheral players in river management when the fact is thatcitizen support is imperative for any long-term strategy for the management of urban rivers. It iseasier to solicit this support from citizens when they are kept aware of the various issues and have an
understanding of the role that they can play in addressing the issues. Cities should invest in dedicatedcitizen engagement programs to spread awareness about the benefits of healthy rivers throughdifferent dissemination mechanisms to facilitate desired behavioral changes. Such initiatives also set
the narrative that river management is a societal responsibility where different stakeholders, including
citizens, have a role to play. In most progressive societies, such models of co-governance have helped
facilitate a transformation in the mindset of people towards the ecological assets of the city.

3.3.4 Traditional Knowledge and Wisdom for Water Management:
Case Study of Apatani Tribe, Ziro Valley
Context
Many indigenous and local communities have developed extensive knowledge of their local river
systems and have traditional practices that support the health of these systems. Incorporating thisknowledge into management strategies can improve their effectiveness and support the continuationof important cultural practices. This section presents the example of the Apatani tribe in east India tohighlight the value of traditional ecological knowledge in sustainable river management.

33

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The historical significance of traditional wisdom in river management in India is profound, with its
roots dating back thousands of years, intricately woven into the tapestry of the nation’s history andculture. Indigenous communities residing along these waterways have cultivated a deep understandingof their local ecosystems, intimately comprehending the nuances of river behavior across different
seasons. Their unwavering commitment to eco-friendliness and prioritizing methods with minimal
ecological footprints sets traditional river management practices apart. Techniques like step wells,
check dams, and tank systems, hailing from ancient times, were ingeniously devised to capture andstore rainwater, ensuring a sustainable supply that replenishes groundwater.
The Ziro Valley has been inhabited since the 1100s and serves as a remarkable testament to the enduring
legacy of the Apatani tribe.
The Ziro valley lies between the river valleys of Kamla and Khru in the north and Palin in the south,
resting at an altitude of 1,524 meters. Covering an area of approximately 2,800 square meters, this region
boasts a captivating landscape characterized by pine-clad gentle hills. The land use categorizationin the valley is paddy-cum-fish cultivation (approximately 48%), clan forest (approximately 33%),
bamboo forest (approximately 16%), and home garden (approximately 3%).

The Intervention

34

The Apatani tribe’s cultivation techniques showcase their deep understanding of water management,river conservation, and traditional wisdom. One of the unique traditional practices followed is thedistinctive paddy-cum-fish cultivation where the tribe harmoniously grow rice and nurtures fish insubmerged fields. This ingenious approach not only secures a reliable food source but also plays a vitalrole in conserving the ecological balance of the region, especially concerning river ecosystems.
The practice of wetland rice cultivation is meticulously executed on broad, well-levelled terraces
fortified with robust bunds called Agher, expertly fashioned using bamboo and wood to contain waterand retain nutrient-rich soils. The dimensions of these bunds are tailored to the land’s gradient andthe field’s shape and size. The terrace bunds, tailored to suit the characteristics and size of the terrain,
typically span between 0.6 to 1.4 meters in breadth and range from 0.2 to 0.6 meters in height. To
facilitate the transfer of water from one terrace to another, bamboo or wooden pipes are employed,ensuring a controlled flow that optimizes water distribution. The bamboo pipes are placed 15 to 25
centimeters (cm) above the bed to ensure the proper water level.
Trenches, about 50 cm deep, are dug in the field to provide shelter to fish. Moreover, the inclusion offish pits within the plots serves a dual function: maintaining water for pisciculture even when the fields
are drained, especially during the flowering and grain maturity stages. Fingerlings are introduced into
these pits, and when there’s ample water supply during the monsoon season, the entire paddy field ismaintained at a shallow submersion level of 5 to 10 cm. This allows the fish to venture out from thepits and freely roam the submerged areas of the terrace fields. During periods of water scarcity, whenwater is confined to the pits, the fish retreat to them to grow and thrive. In this integrated system, thefish benefit from enhanced nutrition due to the natural fertilization of the paddy fields.
Therefore, both rice and fish production are achieved through the effective management of rainwater
resources. The agroecosystems thrive on nutrients carried down from the adjacent hill slopes. Figure 3.7
provides a glimpse into this practice.

RIVER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA: MAINSTREAMING THE SOCIOCULTURAL ELEMENTS

Figure 3.7: Field Boundaries and Conservation of Water Along with Fish Cultivation

35
Sources: CPREEC–EIACP Programme Centre, Sumpam Tangjang, and P. K. Ramachandran Nair.

Implications for cross-learning
The unacknowledged wealth of indigenous knowledge, predominantly found in the global south, hasconsistently proven its resilience over time. This resilience is rooted in the deep well of place-based
wisdom accumulated over many years. To harness the potential of indigenous practices, it is crucial tomainstream them into a city’s or country’s river management models. This integration will create anenabling environment to translate indigenous wisdom from theory to practical action, fostering more
inclusive, sustainable, and resilient societies.
However, in an era marked by rapid modernization and urbanization, traditional knowledge isincreasingly at risk of being lost. Indigenous wisdom is often overshadowed by technological solutions,leading to the neglect of invaluable insights into sustainable resource management. The decline of these
traditional practices not only erodes cultural heritage but also poses a significant threat to ecologicalbalance. Restoring the recognition and application of indigenous knowledge in water resource
management is pivotal for striking a balance between modern development and the preservation of thenatural world. This balance is essential to ensure the well-being and harmony between humanity andthe planet.

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

3.4 Conclusion
The true essence of holistic river management is its ability to address the triple bottom line of social,economic, and environmental considerations. Far too often, the environmental aspects overshadow
the other two. While this may be justified, especially in areas where pollution concerns dominate theagenda of river management; it is vital to also consider socioeconomic and sociocultural aspects. This
comes from the fundamental understanding that a river is a system that has several elements, which
are all connected in some form or the other. River management is essentially managing this system ofconnected elements and related actors. Furthermore, because the river is a system of diverse elements,
managing the river requires river managers to have transdisciplinary knowledge corresponding to theseelements. Hence, river managers not only need to have conventional engineering and hydrologicalknowledge, but they also need to be cognizant of the finer nuances of landscape architecture, river
economics, and social science, among others.
As the knowledge of urban river management improves, it is increasingly becoming evident that urbanriver management cannot be considered solely a government endeavor. General citizens have a powerfuland equal role to play. In light of growing environmental awareness, more and more citizens are keen toembrace their roles in the overall governance model. The number of people adopting environmentallyfriendly practices in their lifestyles is growing by the day. Hence, in the future, river governance models
that mainstream citizens are likely to be the norm.

36

The sociocultural elements of river management are important to establish the personal connection
between residents and rivers. This chapter highlights examples of how these are being mainstreamedin river management strategies of Indian cities. This is the new thinking and evolution India needs for
managing its urban rivers. Socrates once remarked, “The secret of change is to focus all of your energy
not on fighting the old, but on building the new”. This in many ways is apt for urban river management
today. River cities are special. Embracing progressive thinking for managing urban rivers—that
considers softer measures such as sociocultural interventions—is vital to ensure they remain special.

RIVER MANAGEMENT IN INDIA: MAINSTREAMING THE SOCIOCULTURAL ELEMENTS

References
Anderson, E. P. et al. 2019. Understanding Rivers and their Social Relations: A Critical Step to Advance
Environmental Water Management. WIREs WATER. doi.org/10.1002/wat2.1381
Bao, L., J. Chen, H. Tong, J. Qian, and X. Li. 2022. Phytoplankton Dynamics and Implications for
Eutrophication Management in an Urban River with a Series of Rubber Dams. Journal ofEnvironmental Management 311: Article 114865.
Basak, S.M., M. S. Hossain, J. Tusznio, and M. Grodzińska-Jurczak. 2021. Social Benefits of River
Restoration from Ecosystem Services Perspective: A Systematic Review. Environmental Science& Policy 124: 90–100.
Everard, M., and H. L. Moggridge. 2012. Rediscovering the Value of Urban Rivers. Urban Ecosystems
15(2). DOI:10.1007/s11252-011-0174-7
Garau, E., M. Torralba, and J. Pueyo-Ros. 2021. What is a River Basin? Assessing and Understanding theSociocultural Mental Constructs of Landscapes from Different Stakeholders across a River Basin.
Landscape and Urban Planning 214: 104192
Guo, Y., B. Fu, Y. Wang, P. Xu, and Q. Liu. 2021. Identifying Spatial Mismatches between the Supply
and Demand of Recreation Services for Sustainable Urban River Management: A Case Study ofJinjiang River in Chengdu, China. Sustainable Cities and Society 77: Article 103547.
National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA). 2021. City Audit Assessment Study–Understanding Varanasi
City from the Lens of Disability Inclusion. https://niua.in/intranet/sites/default/files/189.pdf
NIUA and National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG). 2020. A Strategic Framework for Managing
Urban River Stretches in the Ganga River Basin: Urban River Management Plan. https://nmcg.nic.in/writereaddata/fileupload/48_Urban%20River%20Management%20Plan%20framework.pdf
NIUA and NMCG. 2022. Celebrating the Intangible Value of Water: A Compendium of Unique Practices.
https://www.nmcg.nic.in/writereaddata/fileupload/43_Intangible%20Value%20of%20Water.pdf
Vian, F. D., J. J. P. Izquierdo, and M. S. Martínez. 2021. River-city Recreational Interaction: A Classificationof Urban Riverfront Parks and Walks. Urban Forestry and Urban Greening 59: Article 127042.

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CHAPTER 4
A Sociocultural Perspective on Water Resources
Management in Bali, Indonesia
Firdaus Ali

4.1 Introduction
Water is an inseparable part of human life. The growing population, coupled with climate change
which has changed the pattern of water availability, has become a new burden in the provisionof clean water for the community. In the aftermath of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19)
pandemic, the world, including Indonesia, continues to grapple with a heightened state ofwater scarcity or crisis. This global event has also changed the pattern of water availability andconsumption. Indonesia, as the fourth most populous country in the world, currently 272.7 million
people (BPS 2022), has the potential for very abundant water resources, amounting to 2.78 trillion
cubic meters (m3) per year in 128 river basins.

38

While national water reserves remain within the safe category, concerns arise regarding
accessibility, continuity, and quality. Maintaining the availability of water resources to meet theneeds of various development sectors plays an important role in stimulating economic growthand social welfare. In Bali, the agriculture sector uses the most water (more than 60% of all waterneeds), in line with the rapid development of other sectors, it is necessary to pay attention to
the increasing demand for water resources (Suyarto and Kusmawati 2016). The problem of water
resources in Bali is specific according to the geographical, social, economic, cultural, and tourism
development sector. Situated in a region characterized by monsoons and tropical climate patterns,
Bali faces both the challenges of water scarcity and the imperative of managing water resources
effectively to meet the needs of its growing population, agricultural practices, and tourism industry.
The island’s water resources management is deeply intertwined with its sociocultural fabric andreligious beliefs, which emphasize a harmonious relationship between humans, nature, and the
divine. This unique perspective is encapsulated in the philosophy of Tri Hita Karana, emphasizing
the pursuit of harmony among people, nature, and the spiritual realm. Over time, Bali’s water
management practices have evolved into an intricate tapestry of traditional systems, rituals,
and community-driven approaches. The cornerstone of these practices is the Subak system, acooperative irrigation network that fosters equitable water distribution, while fostering social
cohesion and environmental stewardship. Additionally, the presence of water temples, where
rituals and ceremonies are conducted to seek blessings for abundant harvests, underscores thespiritual connection between water and life on the island.
However, amid the island’s cultural richness and sustainable practices, contemporary challenges haveemerged. Rapid population growth, urbanization, and the unpredictable impacts of climate change posethreats to the delicate balance maintained by traditional water management systems. As modernization
advances, the need to integrate longstanding practices with contemporary scientific approaches
becomes crucial to ensuring Bali’s water sustainability. Considering these complex dynamics, thischapter seeks to delve into the sociocultural perspective on water resources management in Bali. By
examining the historical context, traditional practices, and challenges faced by the island, this study
aims to shed light on the significance of integrating cultural wisdom with modern strategies to ensure
the sustainable future of Bali’s water resources.

A SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON WATER RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT IN BALI, INDONESIA

The study by Nastiti et al. (2022) shows that the culture of managing water resources is still trusted
by the community in protecting its nature. The infrastructure–technology and legal–institutional
dimensions fall within the same range of values. Collaboration between the government, related
entities, various stakeholders, and the community in preserving Bali’s nature and culture will
have an impact on improving water resources infrastructure, which also needs to be supported bystrategic infrastructure technology policies.

4.2 Tri Hita Karana: The Balinese Philosophy of Harmony
The local wisdom in water resources management in Bali represents a sustainable cultural prospectthat needs to be preserved to ensure the continuity of the lives of future generations (Nastiti etal. 2022). The term “sustainable” signifies a multidimensional agreement for development aimed
at achieving a better quality of life for the community (Bond et al. 2001). Tri Hita Karana is aphilosophy originating from Bali, which emphasizes the importance of balance and harmony
between three aspects: humans, nature, and the divine. The concept of Tri Hita Karana in relation
to the management of water resources, can be conceptualized as follows: Parahyangan, Pawongan,
and Palemahan (Provincial Government of Bali, Indonesia 2019). This concept is considered a basic
principle for community life in Bali, including the practices of managing water resources and theenvironment in a sustainable manner.
Based on the study by Eryani and Yujana (2018), in terms of safeguarding the natural world, theinvolvement of fishers and farmers plays a substantial role. By fulfilling their inherent responsibilities
as fishers and farmers, they are essentially engaging in environmental conservation by creating
green cover through the strategic cultivation of plants that play a crucial role in absorbing rainwater.
Parahyangan signifies the facet concerning water resources conservation, addressing the methods
for organizing water in an efficient, equitable, and just manner. Regulations exist to govern the
allocation of water. The presence of such a harmonious democratic system is crucial in the context
of practicing democracy in the contemporary era, with the aim of reducing conflicts. Pawongan
encompasses the utilization of natural resources. It constitutes a component of endeavors to
uphold a harmonious connection between humans and the environment. Consequently, the Subaksystem, being an ancestral legacy characterized by local wisdom, is of utmost importance to becontinuously conserved.
Palemahan (the relationship between humans and nature) encompasses the control of water resources
degradation, emphasizing principles such as sustainability, balance, public benefit, integration, harmony,
justice, self-reliance, transparency, and accountability. The guiding principles and orientation of water
resources management (WRM), along with the aspirational vision for an ideal future state and missionof WRM, in Indonesia include conserving water resources, utilizing water resources, mitigating water
resources degradation, strengthening the roles of communities and the business sector, providing
water resources data and information, and involving the community. This is achieved by adopting
strategic approaches, such as enhancing public understanding and awareness (including that of thebusiness sector) about the essential alignment of social, economic, and environmental aspects of water
resources.
Rooted in Balinese Hinduism, this philosophy encapsulates a holistic understanding of harmony, guiding
both individual behavior and collective practices to ensure equilibrium among three fundamental
realms: human, nature, and the divine. The philosophy of Tri Hita Karana profoundly influences theisland’s approach to water resources management. Balinese communities view water as a vital conduit
between the three realms, a shared resource that embodies the interconnectedness of life. The Subaksystem, a testament to this philosophy, ensures equitable water distribution while reflecting harmony

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

with nature and communal well-being. Water-related rituals and ceremonies exemplify the integrationof Tri Hita Karana in Balinese culture. Water temples hold a central role in these practices, acting as
spiritual hubs where individuals seek blessings for fertile lands and bountiful harvests. The offerings
and rituals conducted at these temples reflect the island’s commitment to maintaining harmonious
relationships with both the divine and the natural world.
As Bali navigates modernization and globalization, the philosophy of Tri Hita Karana faces newchallenges. Rapid urbanization, tourism, and changing agricultural practices can strain the delicate
balance advocated by the philosophy. Nevertheless, the Balinese people continue to adapt, infusing
traditional values into innovative solutions for sustainable water management that resonate with
contemporary needs. The philosophy of Tri Hita Karana extends beyond Bali’s borders, offering
universal lessons in the pursuit of harmony. It underscores the significance of recognizing humanity’s
interconnectedness with the environment and the spiritual realm. As societies worldwide grapple
with environmental crises, the Balinese philosophy provides a blueprint for achieving equilibrium andcoexistence in an interconnected world.

4.3 The Subak System: Traditional Water
Management Practice40

Subak is the implementation of the teachings of Tri Hita Karana. Subak is a traditional irrigation
system used in Bali to irrigate the rice fields that has existed since the 9th century, a period when
Balinese society transitioned to organized agriculture. Originally developed to support rice cultivation,
the system has evolved into a complex network of canals, tunnels, and water temples that intricately
weave through Bali’s landscapes. Emerging from the need to irrigate rice fields, the system gradually
evolved as communities developed interconnected irrigation networks to address water distribution
challenges. Figure 4.1 shows an example of an irrigation canal in Bali.
Subak involves collaboration between farmers within an area to regulate the use of irrigation waterin a fair and efficient manner. In addition to irrigating the rice fields, Subak also plays an importantrole in the social and religious life of the Balinese people. The Subak system stands as a testament
to Bali’s ingenious approach to water resources management, embodying the island’s deep-rooted
cultural and agricultural heritage. This centuries-old cooperative irrigation system is not only ahydraulic marvel but also a reflection of the Balinese people’s harmonious relationship with natureand their community.
At the core of the Subak system lies the principle of equity. Water is distributed fairly among ricepaddies, ensuring that every farmer receives a share, regardless of their land’s location or elevation. This
embodies the Balinese ethos of communal cooperation and collective well-being. The Subak systemtranscends its utilitarian purpose, embracing cultural and social dimensions. It fosters a sense of unity,
as farmers come together for maintenance, decision making, and ceremonies. These interactions not
only strengthen community bonds but also perpetuate traditional values.
Water temples play an integral role within the Subak system. These temples serve as spiritual hubs,
where ceremonies and rituals are conducted to honor water deities and seek blessings for successful
harvests. This symbiotic relationship between spirituality and water management reinforces thephilosophy of harmony. Despite evolving landscapes and changing agricultural practices, the Subaksystem showcases its adaptability. By integrating modern technologies, such as weather forecasts
and irrigation technologies, with traditional practices, the system remains relevant in addressing
contemporary challenges.

A SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON WATER RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT IN BALI, INDONESIA

Figure 4.1: Bali Irrigation Canal, Jatiluwih Village

Source: Bali-Penida River Basin Agency (2023).

Rapid urbanization, tourism, and altered land use patterns pose challenges to the Subak system’s delicate
equilibrium. The demands of modern life, coupled with climate change uncertainties, necessitate
careful consideration to ensure the system’s continued viability. The Subak system’s success imparts
valuable lessons for sustainable water management globally. Its emphasis on community collaboration,
equitable distribution, and integration of spirituality highlights the potential of harmonizing humanactivity with nature. Efforts are underway to preserve and promote the Subak system as a United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage Site, acknowledging its
cultural, ecological, and social significance. These endeavors underscore the importance of safeguarding
this exceptional traditional water management practice for future generations. In essence, the Subaksystem is a living embodiment of Bali’s cultural wisdom and resilience, serving as an inspiration forsustainable water management practices around the world. It is a remarkable blend of tradition,community, and ecology that not only sustains rice cultivation but also nourishes the island’s spirit,
embodying the essence of Tri Hita Karana.
The Subak system has garnered attention as a potential model for sustainable water management invarious regions, both within Indonesia and in other countries. While the system itself may not bedirectly replicated outside Bali due to its unique cultural and geographical context, its principles andkey elements have inspired efforts to promote sustainable agriculture and water resources management
elsewhere. Subak-inspired systems have been implemented in other parts of Indonesia, particularly inareas with similar rice-based agricultural practices. These adaptations incorporate local customs andtraditions while adopting the core principles of community-based water management and equitable
distribution.
The Ifugao rice terraces in the Philippines share some similarities with Bali’s rice cultivation practices.
Efforts have been made to apply Subak-like community-based approaches to terrace management,emphasizing traditional knowledge and local cooperation. In Cambodia, the Angkor Wat temple
complex has ancient irrigation systems that resemble the Subak in certain aspects. Local communities

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

have been involved in restoring and maintaining these systems, drawing inspiration from Bali’s Subakprinciples.
In various parts of the world, community-based water management initiatives have taken inspirationfrom the Subak system’s emphasis on collective decision making and equitable distribution. These
initiatives often involve local stakeholders in water resources governance. Beyond rice cultivation, theprinciples of efficient water use, cooperation, and sustainable land management from the Subak systemhave been integrated into modern agricultural practices and water conservation efforts in different
regions.
Based on the study by Risna et al. (2022), the Subak system indeed fulfills all the criteria for being
considered a nature-based solution (NBS), although the depth of its impact has not been quantitatively
measured in this study. Subak falls under the category of NBS Type-2, which emphasizes sustainability
and the multi-functionality of managed ecosystems. A more comprehensive evaluation, following
the International Union for the Conservation of Nature’s guidelines, is necessary, involving a more
substantial body of relevant evidence and stakeholder input. We emphasize the importance of allocating
research and innovation funding directly to Subak as an NBS that aligns with natural processes rather
than working against them. Exploring fiscal schemes like “Transfer Anggaran Kabupaten berbasis
Ekologi” or TAKE under the Ecological Fiscal Transfer is a viable alternative to address the financial
aspects of this endeavor.

42

It is important to note that the successful application of Subak-inspired principles outside Bali depends
on the local context, agricultural practices, and cultural considerations. Efforts to replicate such
systems often involve adapting key principles rather than replicating the entire traditional system.
While the Subak system remains deeply tied to Bali’s culture and geography, its underlying principles
of community involvement, equitable resource distribution, and sustainable water management serve
as valuable lessons for promoting sustainable agriculture and water resources management in diverse
contexts around the world.
Prioritizing collaboration among stakeholders, including the private sector and community social
responsibility, bolstering the roles of organizations, and actively involving cultural communities
in policy making related to irrigated-agricultural systems is imperative. This approach paves theway for the emergence of cocreation among involved parties to tackle problems and balance tradeoffs or disruptions that may arise. Through co-management and cocreation, adaptive management
practices can be developed, offering flexibility in collectively responding to and resolving challenges.
Consequently, Subak should be integrated into strategic programs, policies, and regulations, and it should
be included in regional infrastructure, procurement processes, and development planning. This aligns
with the assessment results mentioned earlier. Moreover, engaging stakeholders in the assessment andevaluation processes is encouraged to enhance the effectiveness of NBS implementation.

4.4 Challenges to Water Resources Management in Bali
Bali, despite its rich cultural heritage and traditional water management practices, faces a range ofcomplex challenges that test its ability to sustainably manage its water resources. These challenges
arise from a combination of factors, including rapid urbanization, environmental changes, and the
evolving demands of a modern society. The local wisdom in water resources management ideallyshould be consistently applied, but this social structure, in line with development and the passage oftime, faces numerous challenges that consequently influence its existence. The traditional knowledge
embedded in the management of water resources should ideally be an ongoing practice. However,this social framework, as it evolves over time, encounters various obstacles, ultimately affecting its
continuity (Hidayati 2016).

A SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON WATER RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT IN BALI, INDONESIA

From the study of Suyarto and Kusmawati (2016), the water needs in Bali Province can be classified into
requirements for agriculture, forestry, domestic use, industry, government, and public facilities. Water
needs for agriculture, particularly irrigation, are estimated at around 1,592.24 million cubic meters(m3), while paddy fields require approximately 2,080.60 million m3 per year. Forestry demands accountfor 1,031.20 million m3 per year, domestic water needs stand at 107.65 million m3 per year, industrial
activities consume around 22.08 million m3 per year, hotels and restaurants utilize approximately
16.58 million m3 per year, and government and public facilities utilize about 25.12 million m3 per year.
The overall water needs in Bali Province, based on the various sectors, amount to approximately
4,239.71 million m3 per year. Although the domestic water needs are relatively modest (107.65 million
m3 per year), they are crucial as they are connected to human life and are projected to increase in linewith population growth.

4.4.1 Population Growth and Urbanization
The interplay between population growth and urbanization presents intricate challenges for water
resources management, a reality faced by regions worldwide, including Bali. As urban areas witness
an influx of residents, accompanied by the expansion of urban infrastructure and services, the demandon water resources intensifies significantly. The increasing urban population places immense strain on
water supply systems. Domestic use, sanitation, and industrial activities require substantial volumes ofclean water, exacerbating the pressure on available sources. Moreover, urbanization often brings about
elevated consumption levels, including water-intensive practices like landscaping and recreational
facilities, contributing to the over-extraction and depletion of local water resources.
The development of urban infrastructure, such as roads and buildings, disrupts natural water flow
patterns, leading to increased runoff, flooding, and reduced groundwater recharge. Managing urban
wastewater also poses a challenge, with rapid urbanization generating significant volumes of wastewaterthat can strain sewage systems, leading to water pollution and compromised water quality. Balancing
urban development with sustainable water practices is crucial. Integrating efficient water management
strategies into urban planning can ensure a consistent supply, mitigate environmental impacts, andenhance resilience to water-related challenges. Upgrading water infrastructure, promoting rainwater
harvesting, and fostering community engagement are essential steps in addressing the impacts ofurbanization on water resources.
By adopting an integrated approach that considers environmental, social, and economic factors,
Bali can effectively manage water resources amid population growth and urbanization. Leveraging
global experiences while preserving its cultural and ecological distinctiveness, the island can navigate
urbanization’s complexities, while securing its invaluable water resources for both the present andfuture generations.

4.4.2 Tourism Impact
Bali’s thriving tourism industry has brought substantial economic advantages, yet it also presents
intricate challenges for the island’s water resources management. As a sought-after destination, Bali’s
captivating landscapes and cultural allure attract millions of tourists annually, significantly impacting
water demand and quality. The influx of tourists escalates the necessity for water, particularly within thehospitality sector. Hotels, resorts, dining establishments, and recreational amenities require substantial
water supplies to cater to visitors’ needs, adding strain to already limited resources. The cyclical natureof tourism intensifies demand during peak seasons, potentially burdening water resources, especiallyin areas sensitive to climatic fluctuations.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The swift growth in tourism-related infrastructure, such as hotels and entertainment venues, candisrupt local water systems and alter natural hydrological cycles. Concurrently, tourism activities
contribute to heightened wastewater generation and waste output. Inadequate waste disposal practices
and untreated sewage can lead to water pollution and degrade water quality. Balancing the allocation ofwater between tourism-related activities and local communities’ essential needs may lead to conflicts.
Moreover, the over-extraction of water for tourism can contribute to resource depletion, impacting
both the quantity and quality of water available for ecosystems and local inhabitants.
To address these challenges, promoting sustainable tourism practices is vital. Employing waterefficient technologies, raising awareness among tourists about responsible water consumption, andfostering eco-friendly tourism can help alleviate the pressure on water resources. Collaborative efforts
involving the tourism industry, local communities, and governmental authorities are essential, guided
by regulations that align tourism activities with sustainable water management objectives. Strategicallyintegrating water availability and environmental considerations into planning is paramount to managing
the impacts of tourism on water resources. Ultimately, Bali’s approach should harmonize economic
benefits with the conservation of its distinct cultural heritage and natural landscapes, ensuring that
tourism contributes positively to the island’s future while safeguarding its invaluable water resources.

4.4.3 Changing Agricultural Practices

44

The transformation of agricultural practices in Bali reflects a complex interplay between tradition,
modernization, and water resources management. As the island responds to evolving socioeconomic
dynamics, shifts in agricultural methods bring both possibilities and challenges to the delicate
equilibrium of water utilization. Incorporating modern agricultural technologies offers potential gains
in productivity. However, mechanization, increased use of fertilizers and pesticides, and shifts in crop
choices can impact both water quality and consumption. The transition to more intensive farming
approaches may amplify water demands, particularly during dry periods, as monocropping and largerscale farming necessitate heightened irrigation.
Yet, the embrace of modern practices also brings concerns over potential water pollution due to runoffof chemicals and nutrients from fields. Balancing the pursuit of greater yields with the principles ofsustainable agriculture becomes a key consideration. Sustainable practices, inspired by traditional
wisdom, underscore the significance of water conservation and soil health. Amid these shifts, bridging
traditional agricultural methods with modern ones emerges as a promising strategy. Approaches likethe Subak communal irrigation system exemplify efficient water use, while minimizing environmental
impacts. Educating farmers about the repercussions of altering practices on water resources is pivotal,
underscoring the importance of responsible choices.
Collaboration among agricultural experts, government entities, and local communities holds thepotential for innovative solutions. Initiatives focusing on irrigation efficiency, the promotion of organic
farming, and reducing chemical use could emerge. Supportive government policies that encouragesustainable agricultural practices through training, technology adoption, and organic farming are
essential. Involving farmers in decision making nurtures a sense of ownership and dedication to water
conservation endeavors. Empowering communities to collectively manage water resources ensures
their long-term viability. By adopting a harmonized approach that intertwines traditional wisdom andmodern innovations, Bali’s agriculture sector can simultaneously contribute to water conservation,
adapt to a changing environment, and preserve the island’s distinct cultural and environmental legacy.

A SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON WATER RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT IN BALI, INDONESIA

4.4.4 Climate Change and Uncertainty
Bali’s susceptibility to climate change exacerbates water challenges. Erratic rainfall patterns, risingtemperatures, and increased frequency of extreme weather events can disrupt water availability
and further stress the already intricate water management systems. As global temperatures rise andweather patterns become increasingly unpredictable, the island grapples with the profound impacts
of a changing climate on its intricate water systems. This uncertainty disrupts the delicate harmony
established by cultural practices such as the Subak system, as well as modern water distribution
strategies.
Rising temperatures contribute to accelerated evaporation rates, putting additional pressure on
already stressed water sources. In coastal areas, the specter of sea-level rise poses an imminent threatof saltwater intrusion into freshwater aquifers, compromising their quality and further limiting
accessible resources. Such consequences can disproportionately impact vulnerable communities
that depend heavily on local water sources for their livelihoods. Adapting to these climate-induced
challenges necessitates a multi-faceted approach. Developing resilient water infrastructure capableof withstanding extreme weather events is imperative. Implementing water storage and management
solutions to mitigate the impacts of droughts and floods can help alleviate the pressure on water
resources.
Furthermore, climate change underscores the importance of a holistic perspective that encompasses
ecosystem health, socioeconomic dynamics, and cultural heritage. Collaborative efforts among
government entities, local communities, and experts are crucial in devising strategies that balance theneeds of diverse stakeholders in the face of climate uncertainty. Bali’s response to climate change is
not only a battle for water resources but a testament to its resilience and adaptability. By embracing
sustainable practices, integrating traditional knowledge with modern insights, and fostering community
engagement, the island can navigate the uncharted waters of climate change while safeguarding its
precious water resources for current and future generations.

4.4.5 Water Scarcity and Resource Depletion
The specter of water scarcity and resource depletion casts a shadow of concern over Bali’s intricate
water management systems. As the island grapples with the demands of a growing population, rapid
urbanization, and shifting agricultural practices, the strain on its limited water resources becomesincreasingly apparent. In certain areas, water scarcity is a pressing concern. Over-extraction ofgroundwater, coupled with decreasing river flows during dry seasons, contributes to resource depletion.
This scarcity affects not only agricultural activities but also community water supply and ecosystems.
Addressing water scarcity and resource depletion requires a comprehensive and proactive approach.
The integration of sustainable water management practices into all sectors becomes paramount.
Implementing efficient irrigation methods, promoting water-saving technologies, and enhancing leakdetection and repair systems are steps towards mitigating waste and conserving water.
Community engagement and education are crucial components of the solution. By raising awarenessabout responsible water use, fostering a culture of conservation, and involving local communities
in decision-making processes, Bali can build a foundation of water stewardship that resonates forgenerations. The preservation of Bali’s water resources is intertwined with its cultural heritage,
ecological balance, and economic prosperity. By adopting strategies that balance the needs of different
sectors while safeguarding water resources, the island can navigate the challenges of water scarcity
and resource depletion while securing a sustainable and resilient water future.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

4.4.6 Balancing Traditional and Modern Approaches
Bali’s water management journey hinges on harmonizing age-old traditions with contemporary
necessities. This equilibrium is pivotal as the island navigates urbanization, population growth, andevolving agricultural practices while preserving its cultural heritage. The introduction of modern
technologies and practices sometimes clashes with Bali’s traditional water management systems.
Striking a balance between these approaches is essential to avoid undermining the cultural significanceand effectiveness of traditional methods.
The Subak system exemplifies the island’s ancient wisdom, employing communal irrigation andcultural rituals to sustain landscapes and ensure equitable water distribution. Integrating modern
innovations, such as efficient irrigation methods and upgraded infrastructure, aligns with traditional
principles while fostering both economic growth and environmental sustainability. The interplay of
tradition and modernity emerges in the strategic blending of practices. Bali’s pursuit of sustainable
water management involves weaving traditional knowledge into forward-thinking solutions. By
incorporating traditional irrigation concepts into urban planning and involving local stakeholders, theisland seeks to safeguard water resources while accommodating development.
Engaging communities serves as a bridge between generations, and education plays a pivotal role inthis endeavor. Enriching the younger generation about the significance of both traditional practices
and modern solutions ensures the continuity of Bali’s water culture. Government support, embodied inwell-designed policies, plays a central role in creating an environment where tradition and innovation
thrive together.

46

4.4.7 Infrastructure Development
Bali’s journey in water resources management is intricately tied to the development of robust
infrastructure. In the midst of population growth, urban expansion, and evolving agricultural
practices, the strategic development of water-related infrastructure emerges as a vital pillar for theisland’s sustainable future. Beyond immediate needs, resilient and sustainable infrastructure is pivotal
in mitigating the impacts of climate change and extreme weather events. Incorporating innovative
design elements like rainwater harvesting systems and groundwater recharge strategies enhances
Bali’s ability to navigate droughts and floods. This approach not only ensures water availability but alsoaligns with the island’s commitment to ecological conservation.
Balancing tradition and modernity are crucial, as the integration of traditional practices into infrastructuredevelopment maintains Bali’s cultural identity and ecological balance. By adapting traditional Subakinspired irrigation systems to contemporary urban contexts, Bali can promote water conservation andcommunity engagement while fostering a harmonious coexistence between old and new. Government
support, regulatory frameworks, and collaborative efforts between various stakeholders are pivotal
in successful infrastructure development. These strategies ensure that infrastructure projects are not
only effective but also socially responsible and environmentally sustainable. Ultimately, infrastructuredevelopment serves as the backbone of Bali’s water management strategy, fostering resilience, equity,and sustainability for the island’s water resources and cultural heritage. Figure 4.2 illustrates examplesof dam infrastructure in Bali.

A SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON WATER RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT IN BALI, INDONESIA

Figure 4.2: (a) Cengcengan Dam in the Oos River Watershed,(b) Cangi Dam in the Sungi River Watershed

(a)

(b)

Source: Bali-Penida River Basin Agency (2023).

4.4.8 Policy and Governance Issues
Bali’s water management weaves a story of policy intricacies and governance challenges. Amid thegrowth of urbanization and population, policy frameworks must harmonize cultural values andenvironmental concerns. Collaborating with stakeholders, including traditional leaders and local
communities, ensures that policies are inclusive and aligned with diverse needs. Balancing water
allocation among sectors demands policies that promote equity while preserving the environment.
Integrating strategies for climate resilience and effective governance mechanisms ensures policies
translate into tangible benefits. Through institutional collaboration, Bali paints a portrait of balanced
water management that respects tradition, responds to modern challenges, and secures a sustainable
future.

4.4.9 Awareness and Education
The changing landscape of Bali necessitates raising awareness about sustainable water management
practices. Educating local communities, tourists, and decision makers about the importance ofconserving water resources is vital for long-term resilience. In Bali’s water management narrative,awareness and education shine as crucial elements. Amid the challenges posed by population growth,urbanization, and evolving agricultural practices, cultivating understanding and promoting responsible
behavior become instrumental in ensuring the longevity of the island’s water resources.
Elevating public awareness about water’s significance lays the foundation for responsible stewardship.
Educating communities on water conservation, the impact of pollution, and the cultural importanceof water fosters active involvement in water resources preservation. Connecting traditional practices
like the Subak system with contemporary challenges underscores the cultural and ecological value ofwater, nurturing a stronger commitment to its protection.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Education empowers behavioral change. Integrating water education into formal curricula equips the
younger generation with skills for responsible water management. Beyond awareness, practical training
in efficient irrigation and water-saving techniques translates knowledge into tangible conservation
efforts. Community engagement and collaborative networks amplify the impact of education, enabling
Bali to foster a generation that champions water sustainability, safeguarding its resources for a resilient
future.

4.4.10 Preserving Cultural Heritage
In the context of Bali’s water management, the preservation of its cultural heritage emerges as avital foundation. Amid the challenges of urbanization, population growth, and evolving agricultural
practices, safeguarding the island’s rich traditions related to water becomes imperative in maintaining
its identity and ensuring responsible water resources management. Bali’s cultural fabric is interwoven
with water, evident in practices like the Subak system that encapsulate community cooperation andenvironmental harmony. Upholding these practices preserves a sense of identity and heritage, forging
a connection between past and present generations. Integrating these traditions into contemporary
strategies promotes equitable water distribution and responsible stewardship.
Balinese educational efforts can play a pivotal role in preserving cultural heritage. By incorporating
traditional water management techniques into curricula, future generations are educated about theisland’s heritage and values. Empowering local communities to actively engage in heritage preservation
ensures that these practices remain relevant and respected, creating a harmonious fusion of tradition
and modernity in Bali’s water management approach.

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4.5 Sociocultural Solutions and Innovations
The sociocultural perspective on water resources management in Bali holds profound significance,transcending conventional approaches and offering a holistic framework that enriches both humanwell-being and environmental sustainability. This perspective is not merely a relic of the past, rather, it
represents a living testament to the intricate interplay between cultural heritage, ecological equilibrium,and societal harmony.
Preservation of Cultural Identity
The sociocultural perspective safeguards Bali’s identity by preserving traditional values,
practices, and wisdom. It reinforces the bond between generations and underscores theimportance of cultural continuity, fostering a sense of pride and belonging among local
communities.
Holistic Ecological Balance
Tri Hita Karana, as the guiding principle, emphasizes the interconnectedness of humans,
nature, and spirituality. This perspective engenders a profound respect for the environment,
advocating for practices that ensure the well-being of all living beings and ecosystems. By
nurturing a holistic ecological balance, the sociocultural approach contributes to the island’s
resilience against ecological challenges.
Community Cohesion and Resilience
Sociocultural water management practices, epitomized by the Subak system, promote
cooperation, mutual support, and unity among community members. This strong social fabricenhances the island’s resilience in the face of external pressures, enabling collective problem
solving and adaptability.

A SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON WATER RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT IN BALI, INDONESIA

Spiritual Sustenance
Water is not solely viewed as a physical resource but as a source of spiritual nourishment.
Rituals and ceremonies conducted at water temples underscore the sacred bond between
humans and water, reminding individuals of their responsibility to safeguard and cherish thislife-giving element.
Inspiration for Global Sustainability
Bali’s sociocultural approach offers a compelling model for global water resources management.
Its emphasis on harmony, equity, and shared responsibility provides valuable insights forsocieties grappling with water-related challenges worldwide, promoting sustainable practices
that prioritize both people and the planet.
Enhanced Policy Development
Incorporating the sociocultural perspective into policy frameworks enriches decision-making
processes. By acknowledging local traditions and values, policy makers can design strategies
that resonate with the community, thus increasing the effectiveness and acceptance of water
management initiatives.
Cultivation of Ethical Stewardship
The sociocultural perspective instills a sense of ethical stewardship, encouraging individuals
to view themselves as custodians of nature rather than mere consumers. This mindset shift isessential in fostering a culture of long-term sustainability.
The sociocultural perspective on water resources management in Bali transcends its boundaries,
serving as a beacon of wisdom and inspiration. It embodies the harmony that can be achieved when
cultural heritage, environmental consciousness, and communal well-being converge. By recognizing
its significance and embracing its principles, societies can embark on a transformative journey toward
a more balanced and sustainable future.
In the face of evolving challenges to water resources management, Bali’s sociocultural perspective
continues to inspire innovative solutions that harmonize tradition with contemporary needs. These
solutions emphasize community empowerment, adaptability, and the integration of cultural wisdomwith modern knowledge. With the program of community-led water governance, building on thecollaborative spirit of the Subak system, communities are increasingly engaging in participatory water
governance. By involving local stakeholders in decision-making processes, water allocation, and conflict
resolution, these initiatives enhance the sense of ownership and accountability over water resources.
The revitalization of traditional practices with some efforts to revive and rejuvenate ancient water
management practices is underway. By combining traditional knowledge with modern scientificinsights, communities are enhancing the efficiency of traditional irrigation techniques, ensuring
optimal water use while conserving precious resources. Embracing the sociocultural perspective,
Bali has leveraged its water-related rituals and practices to foster ecocultural tourism. This not only
generates income for local communities but also raises awareness among tourists about the importanceof sustainable water practices.
Incorporating indigenous wisdom, communities are engaged in hydrological restoration projects,
rejuvenating water catchment areas, reforesting watersheds, and employing traditional erosion control
methods. This effort is aimed at reviving water sources and maintaining their quality. The sociocultural
approach promotes climate-resilient adaptations, combining traditional and modern knowledge.
Communities develop early warning systems using local weather indicators and indigenous ecologicalobservations to better prepare for climate-induced water challenges. Collaboration among culturalexperts, scientists, policy makers, and community leaders foster interdisciplinary discussions. These
partnerships exchange insights and design innovative solutions, addressing both ecological and cultural
aspects of water management.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Educational initiatives play a crucial role in passing down the sociocultural perspective to younger
generations. Schools and cultural institutions impart knowledge about water rituals, Subak practices,and the profound significance of Tri Hita Karana. Bali’s sociocultural solutions have spurred crosscultural exchange and collaboration. Global communities facing water challenges can adapt Balinese
practices to their contexts, contributing to a broader movement toward sustainable water management.
Seventeen primary character traits found within the local wisdom of Subak have been documented,
encompassing attributes such as religiosity, honesty, cooperation, a love for peace, environmental
stewardship, social concern, adherence to laws, discipline, transparency, adaptability, democracy,
self-reliance, justice, and accountability. These character attributes hold relevance and can serve as afoundation for nurturing character development in social studies education within the framework ofbuilding a strong Indonesian national character (Sriatha et al. 2017).

50

The character values identified within the local wisdom of Subak are essentially reflective of national
character values. These values align with the competencies outlined in the 2013 junior high schoolsocial studies curriculum in Indonesia. The existing model for integrating character development
into social studies education has primarily been classroom-based and has shown a limited orientation
toward direct engagement with society. This model stands in contrast to the core focus of social
studies, which centers on the study of society and community. A limited number of researchers have
involved the broader society as a learning laboratory within social studies education. One example ofsuch research is the integrative eco-pedagogical learning model implemented in community service
and research-based learning. This approach involves teacher candidate students in recontextualizing
the basic education curriculum with the aim of fostering critical and creative thinking, an enjoyable
learning experience, and the achievement of fundamental learning competencies: intelligence(learning to know), competence (learning to do), integrity (learning to be), and community (learning
to live together).
Another noteworthy research initiative adopts a cross-cultural perspective and utilizes the Subaksystem as a model for ethnopedology. The study reveals that cross-cultural learning, with Subak as an
ethno-pedagogical model, has proven effective in helping students realize their roles as the younger
generation in preserving their cultural heritage to shape their future. Consequently, this model holds
significant potential for promoting sustainable education. The incorporation of local community
wisdom, including Subak, into social studies learning can be further developed and integrated acrossvarious components of the curriculum, encompassing learning objectives, content, instructional
processes, and assessment methods.
Leveraging technology, digital platforms are used to preserve traditional water management knowledge.
Online resources, interactive maps, and virtual tours disseminate knowledge, involving wider
audiences in the conservation of Balinese water heritage. By embracing these sociocultural solutions
and innovations, Bali demonstrates the profound potential of marrying tradition and innovation.
This approach not only safeguards water resources but also serves as a beacon of hope for a harmonious
coexistence between humanity and nature, transcending boundaries, and inspiring global efforts
towards sustainable water management.

4.6 Government Policies and Interventions
In 2020, the Provincial Government of Bali issued Bali Governor Regulation Number 24 of 2020
regarding the protection of lakes, springs, rivers, and the sea. This regulation is formulated to ensure
the sustainability of the capacity, capacity, and functions of water sources in order to maintain both thequantity and quality to meet the needs of the community.

A SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON WATER RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT IN BALI, INDONESIA

Recognizing the significance of water resources management in Bali’s sustainable development, thegovernment has initiated various policies and interventions aimed at preserving the island’s cultural
heritage, ensuring equitable access to water, and addressing the challenges posed by urbanization,
tourism, and climate change.
Subak Preservation and Recognition
The Balinese government acknowledges the cultural and environmental importance of the
Subak system by supporting its preservation and promotion. Efforts include designating Subaklandscapes as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, providing legal protection, and encouraging
community involvement in their management.
Integrated Water Resources Management
Bali has embraced the principles of integrated water resources management to foster holistic
and sustainable approaches to water management. This involves coordinating various sectors,
stakeholders, and policies to ensure the balanced and efficient use of water resources.
Water Allocation Regulations
The government has established regulations to ensure fair water allocation among different
sectors, including agriculture, tourism, and industry. These regulations aim to prevent overextraction and depletion of water resources, fostering an equitable distribution of this vital
resource.
Water Conservation Campaigns
Recognizing the importance of community awareness, the government has launched publiccampaigns promoting water conservation and sustainable practices. These initiatives engage
local communities, schools, and businesses in efforts to reduce water consumption andminimize wastage.
Climate Change Adaptation Strategies
Bali’s vulnerability to climate change has prompted the government to develop adaptation
strategies. These strategies include watershed management, afforestation projects, andclimate-resilient infrastructure to mitigate the impacts of changing rainfall patterns andextreme weather events.
Waste Water Management and Pollution Control
The government is working to address water pollution from various sources, including
agriculture and tourism. Initiatives involve implementing waste water treatment systems,
regulating industrial discharges, and promoting responsible agricultural practices.
Water Infrastructure Development
To ensure access to clean water for both rural and urban communities, the government isinvesting in water infrastructure projects. These projects include the construction of reservoirs,
pipelines, and water treatment facilities to enhance water availability and quality.
Partnerships with International Organizations
Bali collaborates with international organizations, such as United Nations’ agencies and donor
countries, to enhance water resources management. These partnerships provide technicalexpertise, funding, and knowledge exchange to address complex water challenges.
Inclusive Policy Formulation
The government recognizes the importance of involving local communities, experts, andstakeholders in policy formulation. Participatory approaches ensure that policies are tailoredto local needs, cultural values, and ecological realities.
Education and Capacity Building
Government initiatives include educational programs to raise awareness about sustainable
water management practices. Capacity-building efforts empower communities with knowledge
and skills for effective water conservation and management.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Through these policies and interventions, the Balinese government aims to strike a harmonious
balance between economic development, cultural preservation, and environmental sustainability inthe realm of water resources management. The combination of cultural wisdom, innovative strategies,
and inclusive governance forms the foundation for Bali’s journey toward a resilient water future.

4.7 Case Study: The Saba River Basin
From the study by Budiasa and Kato (2016), the inception of integrated water resources management
for the Saba River Basin initiated as a pilot endeavor carried out in collaboration between the ResearchInstitute for Humanity and Nature in Japan and Bogor Agricultural University in Indonesia from 2012
to 2016. The Saba River Basin constitutes one of the 391 river basins within Bali-Penida. Encompassing
an area of approximately 132.89 square kilometers, it spans across the Buleleng and Tabanan regencies(BPDAS 2008). This region comprises irrigated rice fields, totaling approximately 4156.82 hectares,
which receive support from eight primary rivers (Saba, Getas, Dati, Jehe, Bakah, Titab, Panas, and Ling)(BWS 2005). The management of this area involves 56 Subak systems (Budiasa et al. 2015). Typically,
water flows in the basin are up to four times higher during the wet season compared to the dry season,and the water quality remains suitable for rice cultivation and public water needs (Budiasa and Kato
2016). However, it is not suitable for drinking water, particularly downstream.

52

The Saba River Basin grapples with a range of development challenges, including issues like soil
erosion hazards, alterations in land cover, shifts in agricultural land use, water quality degradation,competition for water resources, and inefficiencies in irrigation channels (Figure 4.3). The degradationof both land and water resources appears to be largely associated with changes in land cover. Overthe past 2 decades, there has been significant transformation in the use of irrigated land. Data from asurvey conducted across 20 Subak systems within the basin in 2014 reveal that approximately 37% of
paddy fields has been converted to other uses (1223.42 hectares in 1991 to 771.13 hectares in 2014) suchas clove plantations (165.91 hectares), vineyards (129.72 hectares), dragon fruit farms (1.5 hectares),fishponds (20 hectares), buildings (including housing, tourism facilities, offices, and trading facilities)(104.16 hectares), and areas susceptible to flooding from Titab Dam (31 hectares) (Budiasa et al. 2015).

Figure 4.3: Saba River Basin

Source: Bali-Penida River Basin Agency (2023).

A SOCIOCULTURAL PERSPECTIVE ON WATER RESOURCES
MANAGEMENT IN BALI, INDONESIA

The overarching goal of sustainable integrated water resources management in the Saba River Basin isto enhance the quality of life within the community, rooted in the application of the local philosophy,
Tri Hita Karana, which embodies the pursuit of three sources of happiness. Following the principles
outlined by the Global Water Partnership (GWP) in 2000, integrated water resources management
entails the fusion of natural system management and human system interactions. Natural systemmanagement incorporates the integration of freshwater and coastal zones, land and water, surface
and groundwater, water quantity, and water quality, in addition to harmonizing the upstream anddownstream regions of the basin. On the other hand, human system interaction encompasses theamalgamation of all stakeholders into the planning and decision-making processes, merging water andwastewater management, and fostering cross-sector integration, covering various water applications
such as drinking water, agriculture, environmental conservation, industrial use, and more.
Concerning integrated water resources management, local communities have made significant
advances in their capabilities through a series of multi-stage, multi-stakeholder meetings, research
dissemination, and the sharing of best practices by the Head Communication Forum of the Cidanau
Watershed and other experts. These meetings have led to the clear identification of strengths,
weaknesses, opportunities, and threats (SWOT) and critical development issues in the Saba River
Basin. The most significant consensus reached through this participatory approach is the establishmentof the Saba River Basin Community, guided by the principle of “one river, one plan, one management.”
The participation of multiple stakeholders has led to important agreements, including (i) the visionof the Saba River Basin Community, aiming for “realizing the sustainable Saba River Basin andsocietal well-being based on the Tri Hita Karana philosophy”; (ii) defining the five fundamentalroles and functions of the community, encompassing communication, coordination, action plan
implementation, promotion, and educational activities; (iii) outlining the organizational structure
and positioning; (iv) establishing the basic rules governing the community; and (v) identifying the
top 10 priority programs for 2015–2020 and the primary action plans for 2015 to 2016, which include
waste management and conservation within the Saba River Basin. The effectiveness of the Saba River
Basin Community is contingent on securing appropriate financial support. Establishing successful
partnerships and obtaining legal backing from the governor of Bali Province or another relevant agency
is deemed crucial for the Community’s success.

4.8 Conclusion
Bali’s approach to water resources management is a harmonious symphony of cultural heritage,environmental consciousness, and community collaboration. Rooted in the Tri Hita Karana philosophy,
the island’s journey in sustaining its water resources offers valuable lessons for a world grappling withinterconnected challenges of urbanization, climate change, and cultural preservation.
The Subak system, a testament to Bali’s ingenuity, exemplifies how traditional water management
practices can transcend time and remain relevant in the face of modernization. It underscores thesignificance of equitable water distribution, community cohesion, and the integration of spirituality andecology. However, Bali’s water management narrative is not without its challenges. Rapid urbanization,
the demands of tourism, and shifting agricultural practices have strained the delicate equilibrium
upheld by traditional systems. Yet, the Balinese people’s adaptability and innovative solutions illustrate
the island’s resilience in navigating these complex waters.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The government’s policies and interventions further demonstrate Bali’s commitment to sustainable
development. Through initiatives that blend cultural preservation with modern strategies, Bali paves
a path toward equitable water allocation, climate resilience, and community engagement. In essence,
Bali’s sociocultural perspective on water resources management offer a profound paradigm for aworld in search of holistic solutions. The island’s ability to seamlessly weave traditional practices with
contemporary needs reflects the enduring relevance of Tri Hita Karana. As Bali stands as a beacon ofharmony, unity, and ecological stewardship, it invites us all to harmonize our relationship with water,
nature, and each other—a call that resonates far beyond the shores of this enchanting island.

Acknowledgments
The Author would like to express his sincere gratitude and appreciation to the Bali Penida River Basin
Agency (Balai Wilayah Sungai Bali Penida) for support regarding the data collection, and the staff at
the Indonesia Water Institute for their invaluable support and assistance throughout the preparationof this chapter. Their expertise, guidance, and dedication have been instrumental in shaping andrefining the content. This chapter did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the
public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.

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MANAGEMENT IN BALI, INDONESIA

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Modeling for Basin Management Unit of Saba-Daya Watershed. Denpasar.
Balai Wilayah Sungai Bali-Penida (BWS) (River Basin Agency). 2005. Irrigation Command Areas
within Saba River Basin. Denpasar: BWS.
____. 2011. Titab Dam Construction in Buleleng Regency, Bali Province. Denpasar: BWS.

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Budiasa, I. W., B. I. Setiawan, H. Kato, N. Sekino, and J. Kubota. 2015. The Role of The Subak System andTourism on Land Use Changes Within the Saba Watershed, Northern Bali, Indonesia. Journal of
the International Society for Southeast Asian Agricultural Sciences 21(2): 31–47.
Budiasa, I. W., and H. Kato. 2016. A Participatory Approach to Enhance Multistakeholders’ Participationin The Saba River Basin. In K. Nakagami et al., eds. Sustainable Water Management. Singapore:
Springer Science+Business Media.
Eryani, I. G. A. P., and Yujana, C. A. 2018. Pengelolaan dan Pengembangan Sumber Daya Air di Muara
Sungai Ayung Provinsi Bali Berbasis Kearifan Lokal. Konferensi Nasional Teknik Sipil 12: 83–90.
(in Bahasa Indonesia)
Global Water Partnership (GWP). 2000. Integrated Water Resources Management. TAC Background
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Hidayati, D. 2016. Memudarnya Nilai Kearifan Lokal Masyarakat Dalam Pengelolaan Sumber Daya Air(Waning Value of Local Wisdom in The Management of Water Resources). Jurnal Kependudukan
Indonesia 11(1): 39–48. (in Bahasa Indonesia)
Nastiti, T. S. et al. 2022. Pengelolaan Sumber Daya Air Berkelanjutan di Bali Bagian Selatan (Sustainable
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40(1): 25–40. (in Bahasa Indonesia)
Provincial Government of Bali, Indonesia. 2019. Konsep Pengelolaan Sumber Daya Air di Bali (TheConcept of Water Resources Management in Bali). Department of Public Works, Spatial Planning,
Housing, and Residential Areas of the Provincial Government of Bali. https://tarubali.baliprov.go.id/konsep-pengelolaan-sumber-daya-air-di-bali/ (accessed 26 April 2023). (in Bahasa
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Risna, R. A., H. A. Rustini, Herry, D. Buchori, and D. O. Pribadi. 2022. Subak, a Nature-based Solutions
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Sriatha, I. P., I. N. Jampel, I. W. Widiana, and I. G. Wesnawa. 2017. Local Wisdom of Subak as a Model of
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Suyarto, R., and T. Kusmawati. 2016. Kondisi dan Permasalahan Sumber Daya Air dan Lahan Pertaniandi Bali. Denpasar: Program Studi Agroekoteknologi Fakultas Pertanian Universitas Udayana. (inBahasa Indonesia)

55PART II

Policies and Practices

CHAPTER 5
Integrating Safety, Security, and Cultural Values
for Integrated Water Resources Management:
A UNESCO World Heritage Case Studyin the People’s Republic of China
En Lin,1 Xuhua Hu,1 Jianxin Mu, Shahbaz Khan, and Yufeng Luo

5.1 Introduction
In the 21st century, global sustainable development has become a core issue of common concern tothe international community. In this process, cross-cutting research of water and culture, two key
elements, has become increasingly important. Water is the source of life and the foundation of socialand economic development, while culture is the soul of human civilization and an important driving
force for social change. These two factors are intertwined in sustainable development, forming acomplex interdisciplinary dimension. The interdisciplinary dimension of water and culture is of greatsignificance to continued progress of human society as it needs multiple values for water. Rational
utilization and allocation of water resources, protection from floods and droughts and restorationof water environment, as well as inheritance and innovation of water culture, all require combining
multiple values for water. Only through the joint efforts of experts and practitioners in different
disciplines can we effectively address the sustainable development challenges related to water andculture (Trebitz, Fennema, and Hicks 2021).
As global climate change and environmental problems intensify, water resources management andprotection has become an important issue for global sustainable development (Walsh et al. 2015). In
the People’s Republic of China (PRC), water has always held a special place in its cultural traditions andcustoms. The country’s rich history and civilization have been deeply intertwined with its rivers, suchas the Yellow River and the Yangtze River, which have served as lifelines for agricultural development
and economic prosperity. The ancient wisdom and engineering achievements of water management,such as the Dujiangyan irrigation project over 2,250 years ago have demonstrated multiple water values
over time.
The PRC’s irrigation projects have a long history and profound cultural heritage. Some of them arestill intact and play an irrigation role, such as the Dujiangyan irrigation project, the Dongfeng weir in
Leshan, Sichuan Province, the Tongji weir in Lishui, Zhejiang Province, the Mulanpo irrigation system
in Putian, Fujian Province, etc., which are treasures of ancient Chinese water conservancy culture.
These irrigation projects fully consider natural environment, socioeconomic, and human factors, adopt
scientific and rational technologies and management methods, and focus on the unity of economic,
social, and ecological benefits, embodying the wisdom and creativity of ancient Chinese people inwater conservancy. The planning, design, technology, and management methods of these projects,
as well as the integration of economic, social, and ecological benefits, are important components ofsustainable development.

1

These authors contributed equally to the work.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The intricate and multifaceted connection between water and culture spans across diverse realms,
encompassing religious beliefs, artistic expressions, social customs, and economic activities. Within
the framework of sustainable development, a comprehensive grasp of these interrelated water andculture values becomes indispensable. An exemplary representation of this interplay can be seen in theancient irrigation project of Dujiangyan in Sichuan Province. Through its scientific water engineeringand resource management, the Dujiangyan project successfully addressed local water resource
challenges. The experiences and lessons learned from its water resource management can serve as
valuable references for modern society, promoting sustainable utilization and management of water
resources. Furthermore, the Dujiangyan project integrates ancient Chinese philosophy, religion, andengineering techniques, project making it an engineering marvel with rich cultural significance. The
water culture of the Dujiangyan project is intricately tied to the principles of sustainable development.
It showcases the harmonious coexistence between humans and nature, emphasizing the importanceof ecological balance and responsible resource management. This chapter delves into the impactof the intricate relationship between water and culture on sustainable development and examines
how an interdisciplinary approach, using the Dujiangyan project as an example, can effectively
tackle the intricate challenges associated with contemporary water management. By embracing aninterdisciplinary perspective, we can fully understand the cultural values and practices that shapewater resource management, leading to more sustainable and holistic solutions.

5.2 Importance of Water and Culture
in Sustainable Development
60

Water and culture play an important role in sustainable development. First, water is the source of life,
without water, there is no life. In many cultures, people regard water as a sacred element, endowing
it with symbolic significance. This cultural tradition of advocating water has led to a deep awarenessand value system for the protection and rational use of water. Second, the management and sustainable
use of water resources is one of the keys to achieving sustainable development. By inheriting andpromoting water culture, people can better understand and respect water resources, and thus develop
more scientific and sustainable water resource management strategies. In addition, the inheritance ofwater culture also provides spiritual support and impetus for the sustainable development of society. By
promoting water culture, people can inherit and carry forward the respect and gratitude toward water,and stimulate their sense of responsibility and action toward environmental protection and sustainable
development. Therefore, the integration of water and culture can provide guidance and inspiration
for sustainable development and provide important support for building a society where humans andnature live in harmony. Ancient civilizations such as the Mesopotamians, the Egyptians, and in the
Indus Valley civilization thrived due to their proximity to major rivers. The Tigris and Euphrates in
Mesopotamia, the Nile in Egypt, and the Indus in the Indian subcontinent provided fertile lands for
agriculture, facilitated trade and transportation, and served as a foundation for economic and social
development.
The relationship between water and culture can be traced back to the early stages of human civilization.
In many ancient civilizations, people developed unique cultural traditions and customs based on
their dependence on and understanding of water. For example, in ancient Egypt, the Nile River wasconsidered a sacred river and an important symbol of Egyptian civilization. In the PRC, the Yellow
River is known as the “Mother River”, the important birthplace of ancient Chinese civilization, and oneof the symbols of Chinese culture. Since ancient times, human ancestors have lived along rivers andfollowed the water. The history of human beings living with water is a harmonious and progressive one.
With the frequent interaction between humans and water, it has continuously promoted the progressof human civilization, and accompanied the emergence of water conservancy and water culture.

INTEGRATING SAFETY, SECURITY, AND CULTURAL VALUES FORINTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A UNESCO WORLDHERITAGE CASE STUDY IN THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

Water conservancy culture refers to the sum total of material and spiritual cultures formed and createdby human society in promoting the benefits of water, eliminating the harms of water, protecting water
resources and water environment, and related historical practices. It is the composition and reflectionof culture. The Dujiangyan irrigation project is a treasure of irrigation engineering in the world (Pengand Li 2004; Sun and Wu 2015). It not only has high technical and practical value in water conservancy
engineering, but also contains profound connotations of water culture. British scholar Joseph Needham
once wrote about Dujiangyan in Sichuan—The Heart of Free China: combining supernatural, practical,
rational, and romantic factors, no other people surpass the Chinese in this respect (Needham 1956).
The annual maintenance of Dujiangyan water culture and its management system is a key means toprotect and inherit this valuable cultural heritage.

5.2.1 Recognition by UNESCO
The 1972 United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage
Convention (UNESCO 1972) links together in a single document the concepts of nature conservationand the preservation of cultural properties. The convention recognizes the way in which people interact
with nature, and the fundamental need to preserve the balance between the two. To be included on
the World Heritage List, sites must be of outstanding universal value and meet at least one out of
10 selection criteria.
The Dujiangyan irrigation system, located in the western portion of the Chengdu flatlands at thejunction between the Sichuan basin and the Qinghai–Tibet Autonomous Region plateau, is an
ecological engineering project originally constructed around 256 BC. It was modified and enlarged
during the Tang, Song, Yuan, and Ming dynasties, and uses natural topographic and hydrologicalfeatures to solve problems of diverting water for irrigation, draining sediment, flood control, and flow
control without the use of dams. Today the system comprises two parts: the weir works, located at analtitude of 726 meters, the highest point of the Chengdu plain 1 kilometer from Dujiangyan City, andthe irrigated area. The system has produced comprehensive benefits in flood control, irrigation, watertransport and general water consumption. Begun over 2,250 years ago, it now irrigates 668,700 hectaresof farmland. As one of the oldest, largest, and most well-preserved irrigation projects in the world,
Mount Qingcheng and the Dujiangyan irrigation system were included in the World Cultural Heritage
list by UNESCO in January 2000 (Cui 2023). It meets the following World Heritage convention criteria(UNESCO n.d.):
Criterion (ii): The Dujiangyan irrigation system, begun in the 2nd century BCE, is a major
landmark in the development of water management and technology, and is still discharging
its functions perfectly.
Criterion (iv): The immense advances in science and technology achieved in ancient China
are graphically illustrated by the Dujiangyan irrigation system.
Criterion (vi): The temples of Mount Qingcheng are closely associated with the foundationof Taoism, one of the most influential religions of East Asia over a long period of history.
Dujiangyan is located on Minjiang River, the largest river in Shu County. In 256 BC, Li Bing served as
the governor of Shu County. Based on summarizing the local people›s experience in water control,
he created an irrigation system that excavated piles and opened channels to divert water (Peng and
Li 2004). The establishment of the Dujiangyan irrigation system has completely solved the problemsof flood and water resources in the Chengdu Plain, and provided guarantee for the local economic
development and people’s living standards.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENTThe Dujiangyan irrigation system is not only a living heritage of over 2,500-year-old design andengineering ideas; it is also still in use today. The functions, religious traditions, and the special religious
status of the Taoist temple cluster of Mount Qingcheng are fully preserved while still maintaining
traditional building styles. The internationally accepted protection guidelines and rules have been
adhered in conservation and repair projects in terms of location, design, materials, and techniques
which makes it a key heritage site.
The Dujiangyan irrigation system is protected by several national laws including the Law of the People’s
Republic of China on the Protection of Cultural Relics, the Environmental Protection Law of thePeople’s Republic of China, and Scenic Spots and Historical Sites Regulations. In addition to nationallaws, Sichuan Province has also enacted its own laws, including the Regulations on Conservation of
Heritage of Sichuan Province and Regulations on Management of Scenic Spots and Historical Sites ofSichuan Province.

Figure 5.1: Headwork Hub of Dujiangyan Irrigation System

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Source: Qingcheng Mountain—Dujiangyan Scenic Area Administration.

5.3 Dujiangyan: A Case of Interdisciplinary Integrationof Water and Culture
The ancient floods and droughts in the Chengdu Plain were severe. The water source of MinjiangRiver comes from the overflow of mountain gaps on the right bank, with rainfall mainly concentrated
during the rainy season, resulting in rapid fluctuations and turbulent water flow in Minjiang River. The
Chengdu Plain was flooded during the flood of Minjiang River, and there was no harvest during the
drought. In order to solve these problems, one of the purposes of building the Dujiangyan irrigation
system was flood control. The project diverts Minjiang River water into the irrigation system, reducing
flood pressure and reducing flood disasters. The project also built drainage channels and embankments
to manage floods.
The main facilities at the head of the weir canal of the river include the diversion works in the middleof Minjiang River, which are piled with bamboo crated pebbles to form a “fish mouth” (Figure 5.2).

INTEGRATING SAFETY, SECURITY, AND CULTURAL VALUES FORINTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A UNESCO WORLDHERITAGE CASE STUDY IN THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

The “flying sand weir” built downstream of the fish mouth to block water, discharge flood water andsediment, and the Baopingkou project to control the inflow of the inland river. The river bottom getseasily filled and silted up by sand and gravel washed down from upstream, and the embankment is often
destroyed by floods (Peng and Li 2004). Therefore, it is necessary to excavate the outer and inner rivers
and renovate the dike every winter and spring in the dry season, which is the annual maintenance ofDujiangyan. During the winter and spring dry season every year, maintenance work is carried out on
the fish mouth of the Dujiangyan irrigation system, including clearing sediment and dredging the river
channel, to ensure that the maintenance is completed before the spring planting season. Traditional
methods such as bamboo weirs are used for maintenance, cleverly applied to the fish mouth of theDujiangyan irrigation system (Figure 5.3). The bamboo weirs control the direction and volume of waterflow by adjusting their height. Bamboo cages are used to fix and reinforce the bamboo weirs. These
ancient diversion techniques are effectively applied in the maintenance project of the fish mouth of
the Dujiangyan irrigation system, achieving the goal of diverting and controlling water flow, facilitating
the clearance of sediment and repair work. The reason why Dujiangyan can play a long-term and stablerole is that through annual maintenance, the natural environment and basic structure of this irrigationand drainage project can be kept relatively stable for a long time, to ensure that its basic functions cancontinue to play normally. After more than 2,000 years, the natural environment and basic structural
layout of Dujiangyan district still maintain their original basic appearance, which are inseparable fromthe protection of the water ecological environment of the weir district by annual maintenance, and isalso an important means to maintain water culture.

Figure 5.2: Fish Mouth of Dujiangyan, Piledwith Bamboo Crated Pebbles

Figure 5.3: Bamboo Cages and Macha

Source: Qingcheng Mountain—Dujiangyan Scenic Area
Administration.

Source: Qingcheng Mountain—Dujiangyan Scenic Area
Administration.

The Water Releasing Festival, also known as the “Water Cutting Festival” or the “Gate Opening Festival”,
is a traditional cultural activity in Dujiangyan City, and an important part of the annual maintenanceceremony (Figure 5.4). It is a folk custom in Dujiangyan City by opening the gate to release water. On
the Tomb Sweeping Day of the 24th solar term of the lunar calendar every year, in order to celebrate
the completion of the Dujiangyan annual maintenance and the beginning of the busy season of spring
plowing production, and to commemorate Li Bing, people will hold celebrations to reproduce theprocess of Han Dynasty officials offering sacrifices to Li Bing with the ceremony of Shaolao, and at thesame time, cooperate with the ancient witchcraft dance to make the scene more historical.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 5.4: Dujiangyan Water Releasing Festival

Source: Qingcheng Mountain—Dujiangyan Scenic Area Administration.

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The combination of the Dujiangyan Water Releasing Festival and annual maintenance culture not onlyreflects the local people’s attention to water conservation projects, but also shows the inheritance ofhistorical culture. The celebration of the Water Releasing Festival can improve the public’s awarenessand understanding of Dujiangyan, and can also promote the inheritance and development of
Dujiangyan’s water culture.

5.3.1 Challenges to Water and Culture in Dujiangyan
As a famous ancient water conservation project in the PRC, Dujiangyan has outstanding achievementsin the field of water conservation projects, and also contains rich cultural connotations. The challenges
and experiences that Dujiangyan has experienced provide a good demonstration for interdisciplinarity
dimensions of water and culture for sustainable development.

Water Conservation Engineering
One of the main purposes of the Dujiangyan project is to provide water for agriculture. The project
introduces water into irrigation channels, providing sufficient water resources for farmland. This has
promoted the development of agriculture and increased the production of agricultural products. The
Dujiangyan irrigation system has brought abundant water resources to agriculture of Chengdu Plain,
which helps to increase the production of agricultural products and improve the rural economy andpeople’s living standards. Through scientific and reasonable allocation of water resources, the project
not only meets human living needs but also maintains ecological balance, promoting harmonious
coexistence between humans and nature. Due to the incomplete inclusion of certain irrigation projects
in the plans for continued construction, retrofitting, and water-saving transformation, the inability to
fully implement planned projects, and the lower standards set in the original plans, coupled with theimpact of major natural disasters such as the 2008 Wenchuan earthquake and the 2013 “7.9” mega flood,the number of high-risk projects in the irrigation area has been increasing. On 9 July 2013, Sichuan
Province was subjected to continuous heavy rainfall, with torrential to heavy rainfall in some places, andChengdu, Mianyang, Ya’an, and other places were severely affected. The combination of heavy rainfall
and the collapse of a dam in the upstream area resulted in a large amount of water spilling over causingINTEGRATING SAFETY, SECURITY, AND CULTURAL VALUES FORINTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A UNESCO WORLDHERITAGE CASE STUDY IN THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

severe flooding and mudslides in the downstream areas. There is still a gap between the condition ofengineering facilities and the requirements for flood control safety, water supply security, and foodsecurity. The gap is even larger in terms of management facilities and equipment for measurement andinformation compared to modern standards. The overall quality and competence of the talent pool areunable to meet the requirements and demands for standardized and regulated management.

Cultural Heritage
Dujiangyan is listed as a world cultural heritage site and plays an important role in the history ofChinese culture. The government and relevant institutions have taken a variety of measures, including
maintaining, repairing, and protecting the buildings and sites in Dujiangyan to ensure that its outstanding
universal values can be protected. These efforts will help protect the cultural heritage of Dujiangyan
and enable it to continue to provide people with historical and cultural testimony today. The utilizationand cultural display of heritage should be based on its essential characteristics and authentic value, as
well as rooted and with a long-term perspective. It should promote regional economic development,
cultural construction, and ecological environment improvement, allowing water heritage conservation
to play a greater role in regional development.

Ecological Environment Destruction
With rapid urbanization and infrastructure development in the Dujiangyan area, there is increasingpressure on land and natural resources. Urban expansion, construction projects, and infrastructuredevelopment lead to habitat destruction, fragmentation, and a decrease in biodiversity. Water quality
issues in Dujiangyan are also a significant concern, especially in Minjiang River and its tributaries.
Industrial and agricultural activities, as well as improper waste disposal practices, can result in waterpollution. Water pollution can harm aquatic ecosystems, impact the health of aquatic organisms, andaffect drinking water resources for both humans and wildlife.

Water Culture
Dujiangyan is an important milestone in world water conservation history. Dujiangyan embodies
humanity’s harmonious relationship with nature through its annual maintenance and rituals honoring
the water god. This innovative system, with its annual river repair, not only ensures stable water
conservation but also preserves the natural environment, serving as a testament to ancient engineering
wisdom. The Water Releasing Festival, a vital part of Dujiangyan’s cultural heritage, symbolizes Chinese
cultural reverence for water resources and showcases the profound connection between humans andnature, transcending time and showcasing enduring respect for the natural world.

5.4 Transdisciplinary Solutions for Integrating Water
and Culture in Dujiangyan
As the intersection of water, culture, and sustainable development, Dujiangyan provides a perspective
for comprehensive thinking. By studying and exploring the interdisciplinary value of Dujiangyan,
we can better understand the relationship between human beings and the natural environment andexplore various possibilities for sustainable development. In order to achieve this goal, it is necessary
to further strengthen the implementation and management of the annual maintenance of Dujiangyan,
and ensure that it plays a long-term and stable role (Cao, Liu, and Er 2010). At the same time, theprotection and inheritance of Dujiangyan cultural heritage should continue to be strengthened andmore effective measures should be taken to ensure its historical and cultural integrity can be inherited

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and carried forward (Qi and Zhu 2020). In addition, multidisciplinary cross research can also be
increased to combine the history, culture, water conservation projects and ecological environment of
Dujiangyan and further enrich its traditional cultural activities.

5.4.1 Strengthening Reform in Water Resources Management
To achieve the standardized management of engineering and water supply and establish a soundmanagement system, the organizational structure of the Dujiangyan irrigation area needs to be
streamlined. Based on the management and maintenance of water projects within the irrigation area,
unified management should be implemented in various aspects of water resources development,utilization, governance, allocation, conservation, and protection, aiming to achieve optimized
allocation of water resources. A mechanism for an interconnected water system should be established.
First, scientific implementation of interconnected river and lake reservoir systems should be carriedout in the Dujiangyan irrigation area. Second, the scheduling and utilization of water projects
should be optimized. Efforts should also be made to establish standards and improve the capabilities
of management personnel.

5.4.2 Water Heritage Conservation

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In order to integrate with the modernization of the irrigation area, it is necessary to improve
protection signage for water cultural heritage. This includes setting up boundary monuments forthe protection of irrigation engineering heritage areas and boundary markers along the protection
boundaries. The collection and preservation of current information is one of the main measures forscientific protection, and the establishment of a heritage database and online information platform
is an important task for ensuring the authenticity of the heritage, which should be combined withheritage research. The traditional layout, historical appearance, and spatial scale along the engineeringlines within the heritage protection area should be maintained to preserve the natural ecological andlandscape environment on both sides of the river. The protection of ancient irrigation management,water deity worship, and ritual cultural facilities should continue to be comprehensively investigatedand systematically surveyed. Where conditions permit, onsite protection, restoration, and display
should be carried out, and movable relics such as stone monuments should be relocated to museums
for centralized protection and display.

5.4.3 Ecological Environment Protection
In order to protect the ecological environment around Dujiangyan, the government has taken a seriesof measures, including controlling development and construction activities, strengthening water
quality management, and promoting ecological restoration and protection. These efforts have helped
to maintain the ecological balance of Dujiangyan, protect the local plant and animal species, and ensure
the health of the ecosystem in the Minjiang River basin. By renovating and managing ditches, canals,
lakes, reservoirs, and their surroundings, a comprehensive system of roads, safety protection, andecological greening should be constructed to improve drainage and flood control standards, enhance
the water quality of the irrigation project, and ensure water supply security in the irrigation area.
Along the irrigation channels and reservoirs, ecological green corridors, inspection and maintenanceroads, and safety protection facilities should be planned and constructed. Ecological dredging ofreservoirs should be implemented to improve water quality and restore storage capacity. In the plain
irrigation areas, dredging, slope protection, and connectivity improvements of drainage channels
should be carried out to enhance drainage and flood control standards. In the hilly irrigation areas,
flood discharge channels and canal slopes should be remediated and greened to prevent erosion andsoil loss and protect the safety of the channels.

INTEGRATING SAFETY, SECURITY, AND CULTURAL VALUES FORINTEGRATED WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT: A UNESCO WORLDHERITAGE CASE STUDY IN THE PEOPLE’S REPUBLIC OF CHINA

5.4.4 Water Cultural Conservation
To establish a scientific, effective, and sustainable heritage conservation management system, it
is important to preserve and protect the historical, cultural, technological, and ecological values of
the Dujiangyan irrigation project heritage site. This includes maintaining and enhancing the water
management functions of the engineering heritage, strengthening the recognition, maintenance, anddissemination of its heritage values, and ensuring its role in promoting cultural, social, economic, andecological harmony in the heritage site.
Efforts should be made to improve the capacity to protect and maintain the cultural heritage valueof the irrigation project, promote the overall and systematic protection and sustainable use of theirrigation project heritage, and promote the inheritance and development of the water culture of
Dujiangyan. Water culture protection mainly focuses on the excavation and exhibition of the historicaland cultural heritage of the Dujiangyan hydraulic project, combined with the construction of theheritage exhibition system, including engineering and road infrastructure. Based on the needs of thenational water education base, comprehensive and multi-channel promotion and exhibition should
be carried out to showcase the historical, cultural, scientific, technological, and ecological values of
the Dujiangyan World irrigation heritage site. This will significantly enhance the level of heritage
cultural display and the effectiveness of popular science education.

5.5 Conclusion
Dujiangyan represents a miracle among the ancient yet operational water conservation projects. Since
Dujiangyan has long adhered to annual maintenance, it has basically maintained its original ecologicalenvironment for more than 2,000 years, which is the reason why it can always maintain its utility, as
well as its outstanding universal values compared with other ancient water conservation projects. As
a great water conservation project in ancient times, Dujiangyan has faced various problems related
to water and culture in its long history. By taking corresponding measures, including flood control,
irrigation, cultural heritage protection, relevant environmental laws for ecological environment
protection, Dujiangyan has achieved remarkable results in its more than 2,000-year history and madeimportant contributions to the sustainable development and cultural inheritance of the region. This
project integrated spiritual, cultural, and water security values therefore offers rich experiences
for other regions that urgently need to promote values-based sustainable water development andmanagement. Other regions can draw inspiration from this and develop interdisciplinary researchand practice according to their own needs and conditions to improve water resources management,
ecological conservation and social development. The evolutionary water management demonstrated
by this project can bring culture as a key component of integrated water resources management for theachievement of the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals.

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References
Cao, S., X. Liu, and H. Er. 2010. Dujiangyan Irrigation System – A World Cultural Heritage Corresponding
to Concepts of Modern HydraulicSscience. Journal of Hydro-environment Research 4(1): 3–13.
Cui, S. 2023. Dujiangyan: A Model of Sustainable Water Conservancy Project (都江堰：可持续水利工程的典范). Science and Technology Daily 07: 17(008). (in Chinese)
Needham, J. 1956. Science and Civilisation in China. Volume 2, History of Scientific Thought. London:
Cambridge University Press.
Peng, S. M., and Y. Li. 2004. Exploration of the “Good Governance” Management Model of theDujiangyan Irrigation District (都江堰:持续发展的光辉典范). China Water Resources 2004(18).
(in Chinese)
Qi, L., and Z. Zhu. 2020. Research on the Inheritance and Development of Dujiangyan Water Culture(都江堰水文化传承与发展研究). Sichuan Water Resources 41(6): 157–160. (in Chinese)Sun, X. M., and X. J. Wu. 2015. Enlightenment from Ancient Weir of Thousand Years for Building
Water Eco-civilization in Duijiangyan lrrigation District (浅谈“千年古堰”对都江堰灌区水生态文明建设的启示). China Water Resources 2015: 3. (in Chinese)
Trebitz, K. I., S. Fennema, and K. Hicks. 2021. Integrating Cultural Perspectives into International
Interdisciplinary Work. Journal of Contemporary Water Research & Education 172(1): 6–18.

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United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO). n.d. Mount Qingcheng
and the Dujiangyan Irrigation System. https://whc.unesco.org/en/list/1001/ (accessed 1 October2023).
UNESCO. 1972. Convention Concerning the Protection of the World Cultural and Natural Heritage,
16 November. https://www.refworld.org/docid/4042287a4.html (accessed 1 October 2023).
Walsh, T. C., O. L. Miller, B. Bowen, Z. A. Levine, and J. R. Ehleringer. 2015. Sphere of Sustainability:
Lessons from the University of Utah’s Global Changes and Society Course. Journal of Water
Resources Planning and Management 141(12).

CHAPTER 6
Conservation and Water Pricing: Effects of Long-Term
Low Water Pricing in Hong Kong, China
David von Eiff

6.1 Introduction
6.1.1 Global Urban Water Management
As the global population continues to urbanize, the water resources major cities depend upon are
increasingly stressed by a combination of climate change effects, which affect natural flows, and shifts
from natural to urban water cycles (Sørup et al. 2020; Sedlak 2014). Population growth, increasinglevels of economic activity, and higher standards of living place work in concert to further stress our
scarce water resources through increases in demand (Tortajada and Joshi 2013). At the same time,changes in precipitation patterns, increasing temperatures, and more complex water cycles anddecreases in water quality have decreased available supplies. This widening gap between supply anddemand increases urban drought risks significantly along with their severity, as disruptions in urban
water supply systems negatively impact the production of basic needs, such as food and energy, while
increasing the likelihood of conflict and population displacement (United Nations 2018).
Building resilience in water systems is therefore a key task, as water scarcity is expected to affect 193 to
284 large cities, representing between 33% to 50% of the global urban population in 2050 (Zhang et al.
2019; He et al. 2021). To this end, policy makers must make timely and informed decisions to ensure ourefforts to address the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), particularly SDG 6 andSDG 11 related to clean water and sustainable cities, are successful (United Nations 2015).
Traditionally, urban water scarcity has been addressed through engineering or infrastructurebased solutions, such as reservoirs designed to ensure continuous supplies to cities during periodsof low precipitation (di Baldassarre et al. 2018). When local water resources are insufficient, interbasin or transboundary water transfers have been employed to redirect water resources from more
plentiful areas, such as the large-scale transfer of water from south to north in the People’s Republicof China (Molina and Melgarejo 2016; Zhong, Cheng, and Deng 2022). Coastal and arid areas havealso increasingly invested in desalination to supplement freshwater resources, despite the high costand energy demand (Jones et al. 2019). In some cases, alternative water resources such as recycled orreclaimed water have been used, but these generally require significant public outreach efforts to be
successful (McClaran et al. 2020).
Despite being necessary to augment supply, the development of water infrastructure requires significant
financial, environmental, and human resources. The scale of these projects present challenges to otherpolicy efforts, particularly toward net-zero efforts, as they possess significant embodied carbon andconsume significant amounts of energy (Panagopoulos, Haralambous, and Loizidou 2019). Further,
local geography and topology can present additional challenges and limitations to infrastructure
decisions (Byrne et al. 2017). As a result, a growing body of research has focused on the need toapproach water security from a non-engineering, supply-oriented, mindset. This shift in approach isnecessary as we recognize water management as a cross disciplinary subject containing a multitude ofinterdependencies (Söderbaum and Tortajada 2011).

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Uncertain social–political relationships between the different aspects of the economy, which include
the public (government), private (industrial), and not-for-profit sectors also affect the ways inwhich water security should be approached. By considering these actors, water scarcity is no longer
singularly tied to physical flows, but becomes embedded in political and social interactions. Therefore,
a comprehensive understanding of water scarcity and the potential is required, which implies
sustainable water governance is all but impossible without capable institutions (Benson, Gain, andGeoponic 2020).
Water governance in Hong Kong, China has been found to be relatively weak when compared to similar
cities by academic scholars (Li, von Eiff, and An 2021; Wang and Dai 2021). Throughout these studies
one of the key underlying issues was the price of water, which is one of the lowest in the world (Inglis
and le Clue 2017). While price is known to be an important determinate for addressing water scarcity,
among other factors such as income, studies have been mixed on how effective changes in price arein alleviating demand pressures (Olmstead, Hanemann, and Stavins 2007). However, when both pricebased and policy-based measures are considered, pricing has been found to be the most cost-effective
way to reduce demand (Krause, Chermak, and Brookshire 2003).
While these studies have focused on the price of water in driving conservation efforts, they have notconsidered the effects of long-term low pricing on a systemic basis, affecting both supply and demanddecisions. In the remainder of this chapter, we will discuss the context behind Hong Kong, China’s
current management systems and the effects the low tariff has had on demand, supply, and the overall
governance of the system. These effects include a failure to decrease per capita consumption, longterm infrastructure decisions, and the nature of the governance system.

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6.2 Context
When studying any water system, it is important to understand the local context as many of the decisions
made will have differing effects depending on local resources, geography, culture, and climate. This isparticularly true for Hong Kong, China, which faces a number of challenges due to its geography andhistory. Through an understanding of how the water system was initially formed, and how decisions
were made over time, we can draw lessons that are more easily applicable outside Hong Kong, China.

6.2.1 Water Supply and Management Systems in Hong Kong, China
Water Resources
Hong Kong, China was called “a barren rock” when it was founded as a colony in 1841. This moniker
was earned by the dearth of natural resources, with water resources at the time consisting of only
five wells, as there were no substantial groundwater resources or natural lakes and rivers (Ho 2001).
As the economy and population grew, the government was forced to address increasing water demandas the private sector declined to develop this aspect of Hong Kong, China’s infrastructure. Early
efforts in this area consisted in the development of local catchments, using reservoirs, and protected
impounding grounds, for the collection of rainfall. This arrangement lasted for nearly 100 years,
until increasing population growth after the Second World War forced the government to be moreinnovative and entertain additional solutions, such as developing seawater flushing and entering into
negotiations to purchase water from the across the border.
While Hong Kong, China receives enough rainfall each year to meet its water needs, with an averageover 2,400 millimeters (mm) it is difficult to convert precipitation into local yield as it exhibits anuneven distribution across both geography and time (von Eiff and Pommeret 2020). As shown inCONSERVATION AND WATER PRICING:
EFFECTS OF LONG-TERM LOW WATER PRICING IN HONG KONG, CHINA

Figure 6.1, approximately 50% of all rainfall currently occurs in designated catchment areas, accounting
for one-third of the land mass, but only about 10% is collected, less than 300 mm, as the short durationand geographic concentration limit its collection (Civic Exchange 2019). The collection of additionalrainwater runoff is dependent on a number of factors, such as the capacity of the soil, which has led
policy makers to consider afforestation policies in catchment areas.

Figure 6.1: Rainfall Patterns and Catchment Areas in Hong Kong, China

Water gathering ground
Impounding reservoir

Sources: Water Supplies Department (2020), Hong Kong Observatory (2003).

While reservoirs were expanded between the 1960 and 1970s, with Hong Kong, China’s two largest andmost ambitious reservoirs being constructed in this period, contributions from local rainfall peaked in
1983, with a total 436 million cubic meters (m3) being collected. Despite rainfall having increased byan average of 6% since 1997 in the territory, collection has decreased by 12%, due to its increasingly
concentrated nature. The expansion or creation of new reservoirs has been ruled out as too costly, withthe cost of increasing capacity estimated to be at least HK$20 per m3, having a payback period of over
250 years for any adequately sized reservoir project (McJannet, Cook, and Burn 2008).
As demand for freshwater continues to grow, the colonial government needed alternatives to ensure
freshwater demand could be reliably met. As local sources could not be expanded quickly, thegovernment turned to a unique solution and adopted the use of seawater for flushing in the mid-1950s.
Seawater for flushing was supplied free of charge by the Water Supplies Department (WSD) in 1972 toencourage its adoption by local building owners. The use of seawater possesses a number of challenges,
such as an inability to meter its use due to its corrosive nature and high level of suspended solids.
Policy and pricing efforts have overcome the public’s initial resistance to using seawater, resulting
in an estimated adoption rate of approximately 85% of the population. This high level of adoption
has been instrumental in ensuring Hong Kong, China’s water security, replacing 25% of freshwateruse. However, as the population continues to expand further from the coast, and alternatives such asreclaimed water become less expensive, its use may need to rethought (von Eiff et al. 2023).

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Prior to the construction of the two major reservoirs, combined pressures from post-war population
growth and two historic droughts forced the colonial government to begin purchasing water from thePeople’s Republic of China to increase the supply of fresh water. When water purchases began, Hong
Kong, China received a relatively moderate amount, about 20% to 30% of its total supply, throughthe Dongjiang agreement. The colonial government insisted on paying for the water and keeping theamount low to limit the use of water as a political tool to gain favor (Lee 2014). However, as soon
as it became apparent that Hong Kong, China would return to the People’s Republic of China, water
purchases became the predominate method of increasing supply, as it was the lowest cost alternative.
Representing the majority of WSDs spending on water, the use of Dongjiang water now accounts for
70%–80% of Hong Kong, China’s total freshwater supply, representing the single largest item in its
annual financial budget (Water Supplies Department 2019a). The agreement, which contains Hong
Kong, China and seven other cities (Table 6.1) outlines how much water each city is entitled to in agiven year. Unlike other cities, Hong Kong, China receives the same amount of water in a drought year
as in a normal year, however, this comes at a cost. Hong Kong, China pays a lump sum for this water,
meaning that they pay the same amount regardless of how much is used, which makes the agreement
more akin to an insurance contract. Water guaranteed under the contract cannot be banked, refunded,or resold if it is not used, meaning that efforts at conserving paradoxically increase the cost of water,
providing a disincentive to reduce use. While the most recent agreement includes a clause to provide a
discount based on utilization, it is limited and does not fully offset this perverse incentive.

72

Table 6.1: Dong River Allocations(in million cubic meters)
Allocated Quantities
NormalDrought

Projected level of excess
withdrawal in 2020(%)

Meizhou

26

22

Unknown

Heyuan

1,763

1,706

City

10

Shaoguan122

113

Huizhou

2,533

2,405

18

Dongguan

2,095

1,944

20

Guangzhou

1,362

1,285

Unknown

Shenzhen

1,663

1,608

56

1,100

1,100

0

10,664

10,183

UnknownHong Kong, China
Total

Unknown

Source: Legislative Council Secretariat (2015).

The nature of the contract makes it difficult to know the true cost of purchased water, and therefore
its utility compared to alternatives. For example, during the 2017 contract year the quoted price was
HK$5.83 per unit. However, only 75% of the allotment was used, meaning the true cost of water inthat year was HK$7.33 per unit, or a 26% difference in price. The purchase price of the water does notreflect its treatment cost, as Hong Kong, China only pays for raw water. When the cost of treatment is

CONSERVATION AND WATER PRICING:
EFFECTS OF LONG-TERM LOW WATER PRICING IN HONG KONG, CHINA

considered, the total cost of supplying Dongjiang water rises to approximately HK$10.13 per unit. At
this price, purchased freshwater is only about HK$2 less than the estimated cost of desalinated water,which implies the costs will soon be near parity. Upward pressure on price remains considerable, withthe most recent contract renewal seeing an increase in purchase price of around 6.7%, much higher
than inflation, which reflects both the premium for a guaranteed supply and the increasing competition
for water in the region.
In addition to local yield, purchased water, and seawater flushing, Hong Kong, China has begun to
explore additional water resources including desalination and water reclamation. While rainwater
harvesting is utilized in a few locations, the incredibly dense urban landscape limits its effectiveness, as
the average building footprint is too small to meet any significant portion of demand (Jing et al. 2017).
Water reclamation is also underutilized, accounting for less than 1% of supply. This is mainly due to afew factors such as the low price of freshwater and the lack of sufficient water treatment facilities, andthe use of seawater for flushing, which makes wastewater brackish.
Desalination is targeted for up to 5% of the supply, but this will drastically increase the energy
requirements and carbon emissions of the freshwater system, up to a 40% increase in energy, and will
also impact the local marine environment through brine discharges (Civic Exchange 2019). This raises
questions regarding the suitability of large-scale desalination for meeting freshwater demand in lieu ofother less costly, and less polluting, options.

Governance in Hong Kong, China’s Water System
Oversight of the water supply is the primary responsibility of the WSD, which is charged with
implementing the waterworks ordinance and regulations. This gives the WSD responsibility overnearly all aspects of the water supply, including enforcement of regulations, construction of new
assets, and maintenance of existing infrastructure. The wide-ranging nature of its responsibilities
necessitates interaction with a number of other government departments, including the Transportand Housing Bureau, the Environmental Protection Department, the Food and Health Bureau, and theDrainage Services Department (DSD), which is responsible for oversight of sewage and stormwater.
The WSD and the DSD are both considered to be “implementation agencies” because they implement
the policies created by their overarching organization. In this case, both agencies are subordinate to
the Development Bureau, one of the 15 policy bureaus in Hong Kong, China, which is responsible forstrategic planning and management to develop public infrastructure.
In addition to these government agencies, an independent body called the Advisory Committee on the
Quality of Water Supplies (ACQWS), was created to provide the public with transparency on water
issues by increasing public involvement and knowledge regarding water quality and conservation
related issues. The ACQWS also provides the WSD with feedback and guidance on regulatory issues as
well, such as water quality labeling standards. Further, both the Audit Commission and the Ombudsman
provide accountability by periodically reviewing WSD activities or by responding to public complaints
and initiating investigations. Another agency that the WSD must also closely interface with is theLegislative Council and its various subcommittees as they play a large role in the WSD’s operations.
The Legislative Council is responsible for approving several WSD’s activities, such as changing tariffs
and approving large infrastructure projects. The Legislative Council also sets Hong Kong, China’s
overall policy agenda. A summary of the agencies found to be actively involved in Hong Kong, China’s
water governance and heir composition can be found in Table 6.2.

73

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 6.2: List of Agencies Involved in Water Resource Management Decisions
Type
Administrative branch

Legislative branch

Name

Composition

Water Supplies Department (WSD)

Government

Advisory Committee on the Quality ofWater Supplies (ACQWS)

Government, academics,
and industry

Development Bureau

Government

Audit Commission

Government

Ombudsman

Government

Legislative Council
Finance Committee

Government, Legislative Council
members from multisector
backgrounds representing local
constituencies

Source: Li, von Eiff, and An (2021).

74

Released in 2008, the only major policy governing control of the water supply is the Total Water
Management (TWM) policy. The WSD formulated the TWM to be a catch-all solution, laying out its
strategy for water supply diversification, water loss minimization, and reducing demand. The TWM
aims to demonstrate water stewardship, containing a list of desirable water management practices
with the aim of securing Hong Kong, China’s water supply up to 2030 through a combination ofconservation, leakage control, increased seawater flushing, and water reclamation and desalination.
The TWM was last updated in 2019 following a 5-year external review (Water Supplies Department
2019b), however, despite the consideration of new water resources, such as desalination, the updated
TWM does not have any additional measures, metrics, or targets, to address demand while introducing
new targets for desalination.
The water tariff, which was designed based on a user pays principle, was originally a key method for
managing demand. The tariff consists of four stages, based on consumption, with an initial free tierfor all consumers, whether domestic, corporate, or government, followed by a subsided tier, a cost
recovery tier, and a punitive tier meant to dissuade heavy use. However, this tariff has been frozen
since 1995, causing even the highest tier (HK$9.25) to no longer reflect the true cost. Based on thelatest annual report, the full production cost, not including distribution, is nearly double the punitive
rate and four times higher than the first tier, at HK$17.7. As a result, the average water bill in 2021 wasonly $52 per month or about 0.3% of household income, making it one of the lowest water prices in theworld (Figure 6.2). This low price also means the WSD only receives approximately 30% of its revenue
from tariffs and the rest from various subsidies and charges.

CONSERVATION AND WATER PRICING:
EFFECTS OF LONG-TERM LOW WATER PRICING IN HONG KONG, CHINA

Figure 6.2: Water Tariffs in Comparable Locations
Total Charge Drinking Water in 2017 for a Consumption of 100 m3 (in HK$)
Vancouver

3,821

Sydney

1,764

Paris

1,686

London1,683

New York

1,395

Tokyo

1,115

Macau, China

657

Seoul

416

Hong Kong, China

262

Beijing

248

0

1,000

2,000

3,000

4,000

Drinking Water Charge (HK$/100m3)

Source: Water Supplies Department (n.d.).

6.3 Effects of Low Water Pricing on the Water System
While studies of Hong Kong, China’s water governance have found that they generally mange thephysio-chemical (engineering) component of the supply well, they have generally found the ability
to manage the overall water system to be weak (Wang and Dai 2021; Li, von Eiff, and An 2021). While
there are several factors that influence the quality of water supply management, the long-term low
price underlies many of these issues. Aspects of both supply and demand management have sufferedfrom these effects, which influence attitudes toward water, by both the government and civil society,technological choices, and policy decisions.
One of the less obvious effects of the low water price has been the effect on willingness to charge. As
mentioned, the WSD states that it follows the user pays principle in the setting of the water price. While
this is true for some aspects, such as the items that the WSD has legal control over, it is not true for theoverall water price. The WSD proposes new tariffs for water supply to the Executive Council whichthen must be approved by the Legislative Council. As a result, the water tariff is not based on a user
pays principle but on a number of factors including affordability, financial performance of waterworks
operations, the prevailing economic situation, and the views of Legislative Council members.
Since the tariff has been frozen, the willingness to charge for water can be traced through the WSD’s
annual reports. The WSD 2001–2002 report contains sections on the level and nature of government
subsidies, special concessions, the tariff freeze, and tariff revision mechanisms. The importance ofwater tariff reform was also given a full page in the document, saying that reform was long overdue tocombat over consumption, wastage, and improve efficiency of operations. It even gives the total levelof subsidy, 50% of water costs, which is not mentioned in future reports and was instead replaced withcost recovery. Most importantly, the report mentions the importance of alignment with international
practices and gives a number of possible reforms including removing the free allowance that is currently
provided to all users, cancellation of tariff subsidies, gradually phasing in full-cost recovery to water
charges, and increasing the billing frequency to monthly, while also creating a fixed charge in addition

75

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

to the consumption charge. While removal of subsidies is considered to be important to provide clear
signals to the market for conservation purposes, continuing to directly subsidize charges for lowincome households only would be necessary to minimize the regressive impact of price increases.
While these recommendations are much the same as we make now, they are completely absent fromfuture reports. In fact, the level of transparency around subsidies has decreased in each report since.
First, this section has been replaced by a section called “low-cost water” or “keeping water rates low,”which speaks of the low water rates in a positive light and discusses how citizens pay less for waterand that unlike other international cities, Hong Kong, China has chosen to continue to subsidize water.
While rationale is never given in the reports, a letter from the Water Workers’ Association sheds somelight. After 1997, water was no longer viewed as a commodity of resource, but as a fundamental rightand “the public’s basic rights are vital and the key to regional prosperity and stability” (Government
Waterworks Professionals Association 2006).
This shift from commodity to right, ties water directly to social stability and puts the WSD at odds
with the Legislative Council, who must serve the public interest and protect social order. Under thesecompeting views, the WSD will be unable to raise tariffs as they must seek legislative approval. The
longer tariffs remain low the larger the adjustment must be, and the greater odds the public will reject
it. As a result, the willingness to increase costs the public will bear decreases with time, as it would beseen as negatively affecting social order.

76

Beyond these indirect effects, the low water cost has several direct effects on the operations of the Water
Supplies Department. One of the most obvious is that the department lacks the budget to undertake
infrastructure projects without the need to request additional funding through the Legislative Council.
As a result, the Legislative Council has an outside influence on the direction of Hong Kong, China’s
water policy, requiring the WSD to focus on the Legislative Council’s policy priorities. When analyzing
government documents from 1997 to 2016, a clear trend is shown of the Legislative Council’s action
being followed by a response by the WSD (Li, von Eiff, and An 2021). This has led to the WSD being
reactive instead of proactive and led it to focus on desalination and smart-city solutions, engineering
approaches, for managing the water supply.
Leaving the WSD in a state of deficit has also led it to strive for strive for cost-effectiveness andoperational efficiency, in which it has been successful. Operational expenses, related to staffing andmaintenance, have not increased in over 10 years, when inflation is considered. While this could beconsidered a positive result, in many ways it leaves the WSD operating in the dark. The WSD’s staff
composition has not changed since it was founded, employing only engineers. It lacks internal researchstaff that could run pilot programs for new technologies, relying on outside contractors, which has
slowed the adoption of technologies such as smart metering and prevents the generation of institutional
knowledge.
The WSD also lacks sociologists or economists, who are necessary for understanding trends in wateruse. As an example, the WSD points to several successes in reducing overall water use, the first being
the success of the TWM in reducing domestic water consumption, based on pre- and post-2008 wateruse, and the second being a success in reducing water leakage. While both are true on face, they do nothold up to stricter analysis. As can be seen in Figure 6.3, water use did reduce in the period after 2008,
however this trend started before 2008, with the shifting of industry out of Hong Kong, China andinto the People’s Republic of China. When controlling for industry, water use is roughly unchanged,
or is increasing. In fact, domestic water use has continued to increase in recent years. Leakage ingovernment mains has also decreased to 15%, which is a significant improvement. At the same time,nonrevenue water remains relatively unchanged due to slow responses to leaks in private mains. Dueto the low cost of water and high cost of repair, leaks are left unaddressed for long periods of time.

CONSERVATION AND WATER PRICING:
EFFECTS OF LONG-TERM LOW WATER PRICING IN HONG KONG, CHINA

Figure 6.3: Domestic Water use in Hong Kong, China
Trend in Per Capita Consumption
160
150
140
130
120
110
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2006
2010
2011
2012
2012
2014
2015
2016

100

PCC

PCC No Industry

PCC = per capita consumption.
Source:Another issue with the low cost of water is reflected in the local water efficiency labeling standards(WELS). A voluntary WELS initiative was implemented in 2009, covering a range of water-using devices,such as showerheads and washing machines. The WSD also has programs to provide households withflow control devices to be installed on showers and taps in order to limit consumption. WELS standards
have been adopted in Singapore and Australia but are much stricter than the conservation thresholds
in Hong Kong, China. This is due in part to issues tangential to water, such as the lowest flow shower
heads available in Australia would be too efficient for water heaters in lower-income homes to operate,requiring them to be replaced. This cost cannot be subsidized by the WSD, as they lack funding, butthey also lack authority, as water heaters are not regulated by the WSD. The low cost of water also
creates a long payback period, with more efficient defrosting units for restaurants requiring multi-year
payback, as an example.
Lastly, the low water price affects technological choice, with decisions having long-term effects. The
low price of water facing the consumer makes alternative technologies, such as water reclamation, too
expensive, despite their own low costs. Studies for non-potable water reuse in Hong Kong, China havefound that the average unit cost is as low as HK$5, which is still more expensive than the average pricepeople pay. As a result, technologies like saltwater flushing have been expanded into areas far fromthe coast, despite their limited ability to replace freshwater resources. While Singapore, Australia,
and California are embracing high levels of water reclamation, as high as 30%, Hong Kong, China has
struggled to utilize more than 1%. This will have long-term effects on the public’s acceptance of thealternative resource and raises questions if continuing to use water imports in Hong Kong, China is themost appropriate use of this resource, allowing the resources to remain in upstream areas.
On the demand side, the low price of water has had a significant effect on domestic consumption.
The domestic sector accounts for more than 50% of all water use, without considering the areas thatstill use freshwater flushing. While arguments can be made about the rights to affordable water, lackof clear pricing signals has a significant effect on consumption. The low cost combined with the free77

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

allocation has seen domestic freshwater consumption rise to 135 liters per person per day, exploding to
153 liters during the last year of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19). The low payback period onwater conservation devices also affects the adoption of water saving devices in the domestic sector due
to the psychological impact of the pricing scheme.
As pointed out in numerous studies, the low price contributes to an illusion of plenty, with many people
being unaware of how much they pay for water. Surveys have also found that high-income homes with alive-in helper use more water as they do laundry daily. This would indicate that educational campaigns
have had little impact on public perception. This agrees with the previous study, which found that
educational programs have no metrics or targets to determine success, besides the number of people
who were educated. No follow-ups are done to determine the impact of the learning materials, which
has led to failure to change consumption behavior. The frozen tariffs, combined with free allotments
for all domestic users, have created a false sense of security among Hong Kong, China’s public who canafford to pay, that water is plentiful, and its conservation is not a concern.

6.4 Conclusion

78

Successful water management requires an approach that considers not just the infrastructure andengineering aspects, but the sociocultural and political aspects as well. As evidenced in the Hong Kong,
China case, a focus on the technical aspects has created a blind spot when it comes to managing demandand human behavior. A lack of proper price signals has resulted in the public becoming complacent,and falsely assuming that low cost is equivalent to high security, despite the fact that water is a scarce
resource. With only 20% of water coming from local sources, management of demand should be equally,
if not more important, than managing the supply.
There are a number of lessons that can be drawn from the Hong Kong, China context and applied
globally. The first concerns universal subsidies, and if they are appropriate. Both the United Nations
Development Program and the PRC government recommend pricing water at 2.5% to 3% of householdincome. Low-income families can still be subsidized, but higher-income households and the commercial
sector have no need for subsidies. This has led to a situation where water bottlers can buy tapped waterat a subsidized rate and sell it back to the public. In the European Union, using high water tariffs toreduce water demand directly is the most common price intervention tool. Research also suggests that
consumers who do not pay the full cost of water tend to use it inefficiently.
Departments must also set clear targets and metrics and should be empowered to implement them.
Lack of clear targets for long-term water reductions from different conservation methods, lack of
educational metrics and targets, and a lack of power to set rates has had a significant impact on the
WSD. Having aspects of the water system that affect demand, such as replacing water heaters, outside
their power, also effects their ability to create strong standards and policies. The same can be said
for their staffing, which is focused entirely on engineering staff. Increasing diversity of backgrounds
would allow for more creative problem solving, as can be seen in places such as Singapore.
The public must be educated to ensure they understand the importance and value of water. The WSD
can design future campaigns and education programs to better emphasize the rationale behind specificfigures, empowering the public to set meaningful personal water reduction targets. For example, whenidentifying a volume of water for households to save in its 2014 “Let’s Save 10L Water” campaign, therationale and impact of this figure was never explained. Visualizing these impacts is difficult for a
public that assumes water is plentiful.

CONSERVATION AND WATER PRICING:
EFFECTS OF LONG-TERM LOW WATER PRICING IN HONG KONG, CHINA

Water pricing should also have the goal of promoting efficient water use to help achieve the sustainabilityof the water resources over the medium to long term. Hong Kong, China has been dealing with thesame fundamental water issues for many years, with high levels of consumption and leakage for a cityof its size. The current pricing structure distorts the value of water, and the lack of the resulting lack ofdata and public engagement keeps policy makers in the dark about the seriousness of the problem inthe long term. By generating the political will to address price, we can begin moving both demand andsupply toward sustainability.

79

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

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81

CHAPTER 7
The Shift to Risk Management-Based Water Resources
Policy in Japan
Toshio Okazumi

7.1 Introduction
Due to the remarkable industrial development in Japan after the Second World War, the rapid
increase and concentration of the urban population, and improvement in living standards, water
demand increased rapidly in the metropolitan areas, resulting in serious water shortages. Therefore,
in 1961, Japan enacted the Water Resources Development Promotion Law and the Water Resources
Development Public Corporation Law as legal and organizational arrangements for the promotion ofwater resources development to ensure a stable water supply and to contribute to the growth of theJapanese economy and the improvement of people’s lives.
Based on these legal systems, Japan designated area that urgently needed to implement wide-area watermeasures as Water Resources Development River System, formulated Water Resources Development
Basic Plan (WRDBP), and promoted the development of dams and waterways.

82

In April 1962, the Tone River and Yodo River water systems were designated as water resources
development river systems, and since then additional water systems have been added sequentially basedon the status of water use. Currently, seven river systems, the Tone, Ara, Toyo, Kiso, Yodo, Yoshino, andChikugo Rivers, have been designated, and six WRDBPs have been formulated nationwide, with theTone River and Ara River systems as one plan (WRD–MLIT 2023a).
As a result of promoting development facilities for more than half a century based on the WRDBP, it isexpected that the planned amount of water for development will be almost achieved, reducing droughtdamage and supporting the development of local industry (Figure 7.1).
Under such circumstances, in recent years it has become apparent that large-scale disasters such as
earthquakes, large-scale accidents due to aging, and critical droughts (which occur infrequently) havea large impact on water supply.
Therefore, in May 2017, in order to make a new WRDBP that responds to the current state of water
resources, the National Land Council compiled the “Risk Management-based Water Resources
Development Basic Plan for Ensuring Water Supply (report)”, which proposed a drastic shift fromthe conventional “demand-driven” water resources development to a “risk management-based” stablesupply of water (WRDSC–NLC 2017).
Here, we introduce the background and the concept of this report and the status of the WRDBP changes
in response to it.

THE SHIFT TO RISK MANAGEMENT-BASED WATER RESOURCES POLICY IN JAPAN

Figure 7.1: Changes in Developed Water Volume in Water Resources
Development River Systems(m3/s)(1 million people)

500

80

160

70

140

1970

1975

Developed water
volume (m3/s)

1980

1985

1990

1995

Water supply
population

Great East Japan Earthquake

1965

50

1996 drought

1960

1994 Japan Islands drought

0
1955

Fukuoka drought

50

Takamatsu drought

100

Nagasaki drought

150

Metropolitan area drought

200Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake

250

180

60

Tokyo Olympic drought

Developed water volume

300

90

2000 2005

2010

40
30

2015

Water supply population

350

200

120
100
80
60

20

40

10

20

0
2020

0

Manufactured product shipment value, etc.

400

The Water Resources Development
Promotion Law enacted

450

Planned water volume: Approx. 457 m3/s
Approx. 450 m3/s

¥1 trillion
100

Manufactured productshipment value, etc.

m3/s = cubic meters per second.
Source: 2021 Current State of Water Resources in Japan (MLIT, Japan).

7.2 Current Status of Water Resources in Japanand the Background Leading to Policy Change
Japan is located at the eastern end of monsoon Asia, one of the heaviest rainfall areas in the world.
The annual average rainfall is about 1,707 millimeters (mm), which is about 1.5 times the world(land) annual rainfall of about 1,171 mm. On the other hand, Japan has only about 3,400 cubic meters(m3)/person/year (less than half of the world average of 7,100 m3/person/year), rivers are short due
to topographical factors, and the amount of water that can be used is limited due to the seasonal andregional unevenness of rainfall (Figure 7.2).

83

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 7.2: International Comparison of Precipitation
Per capita annual total precipitation and renewable water resources(m3/person-year)

Precipitation (mm/year)
3,000

2,000

1,000

0

0

10,00020,00030,00040,00050,00060,00070,00080,00090,000 100,000

World
Canada144,436

New Zealand

98,611

Australia

168,146

SwedenRomania
US
Austria
Indonesia
Thailand
Switzerland
The PhilippinesJapan

Per capita annual total precipitation
Per capita renewable water resources

France
Spain
UK
PRC
Iran
India
Egypt
Saudi Arabia

84

m3 = cubic meters, mm = millimeters, PRC = People’s Republic of China, UK = United Kingdom, US = United States.
Sources: Annual precipitation in Japan (Water Resources Department calculated from 51 points precipitation data from2012 to 2021, Japan Meteorological Agency), Annual precipitation in the world (Water Resources Department calculated
from 200 countries total renewable water resources (actual), AQUASTAT, food agricultural organization (FAO) (accessed
September 2022).

In fact, even today, when water resources development facilities are being developed, droughts withwater intake regulations are occurring all over the country. During the Great East Japan Earthquakethat occurred in 2011, 2.57 million households suffered water outages for up to 5 months, and a Nankai
Trough Great Earthquake is expected to cause even more damage than the Great East Japan Earthquake.
In addition, of the 88 facilities built under the WRDBP, 43 facilities, about half of them, have been
under management for 30 years, making earthquake resistance and their life extension measures anurgent issue. Furthermore, it is said that the depletion of water resources will become more serious
in the future due to climate change, and there is a need for a major review of water resources policies
from now on (WRD–MLIT 2023b).
Of these, the WRDBP region accounts for about 50% of the total shipment value of manufactured goods
and population, thus, striving for a stable water supply in this region is an important issue that supports
the socioeconomic conditions of Japan as a whole (WRD–MLIT 2023a).
In this way, it is necessary to consider not only the emergence of risks related to water resources, butalso the arrival of a society with a declining population, changes in household structures, the spread ofwater-saving equipment, and the globalization of the economy.

THE SHIFT TO RISK MANAGEMENT-BASED WATER RESOURCES POLICY IN JAPAN

7.3 Overview of the National Land Council’s “RiskManagement-based Water Resources Development
Basic Plan for Ensuring Water Supply” Report
In March 2015, the Water Resources Policy Sub-committee of the National Land Council, which
consists of experts to determine the national water resources policy, compiled “Future Water
Resources Management”, which presents the basic idea of the future water resources policy based on
the emergence of new risks such as large-scale disasters, large-scale accidents, and critical droughts(WRDSC–NLC 2015). Then, in May 2017, the sub-committee compiled a new guidance report for the
WRDBP, “Risk Management-based Water Resources Development Basic Plan for Ensuring Water
Supply’’ (WRDSC–NLC 2017).
In other words, in order to promote urgent efforts in highly important water resources development
river systems and build a risk management type water management society where safe and securewater can be stably used, two fundamental principles and two methodologies for realizing them were
presented, which would greatly change the conventional WRDBP.
The points of the report are:Fundamental Principle 1 Plans for dealing with risks in relation to water supply
In addition to ensuring the balance between water supply and demand, it is also necessary to deal
with risks such as large-scale disasters, aging water infrastructure, and critical droughts, which occur
infrequently but have a large impact on water supply.

Fundamental Principle 2 Plans for comprehensively ensuring the water supply security
In order to ensure the appropriate level of water supply security in the face of uncertainties in both the
supply and demand of water, it is necessary to comprehensively examine the water supply–demandbalance, assuming a wide range of possible drought risks, and to steadily promote measures that are inline with local conditions.
To realize these principles, the following two points were raised as methodologies that should betackled:

Methodology 1 “Thorough use of existing facilities”
In addition to maintaining and utilizing existing water resource facilities such as dams and waterways,
the basic policy is to improve their functions to cope with risks and make the most effective use ofexisting facilities.

Methodology 2 “Ensuring the functions of the entire system by coordinating hardware
and software measures”
In order to respond flexibly and comprehensively on a case-by-case basis and to secure the functionsof the entire system, measures for both hardware (structural) and software (nonstructural) will becoordinated (Figure 7.3).

85

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 7.3: Diagram of Risk Management-based Water Resources Plan
Preliminary crisis measures

Full use of existing facilities

Formulation of a BCP

Dual canals, etc.

Anti-aging measures

Ensuring
minimum
required
water

Nonstructural

Seismic facilities

Structural

Connection pipes

Coordination of dam

Stockpiling
Mutual support
Prolonging life of facilities
Water education

Flexible response to crisis
Use for another purpose
Adjustment of use
Use other resources

Response to climate change
Drought response timeline

Modification to dual canals

86

Supplying water from water truck

BCP = business continuity plan.
Source: WRDSC–NLC (2017).

In addition, we have raised five important points to achieve these goals:(a)Development of measures to secure necessary water in times of crisis
Prepare a combination of hard and soft measures to secure the minimum amount of water evenin times of crisis such as critical droughts, large-scale disasters, and accidents due to aging.
Concerning climate change, we will continue to work on the accumulation and evaluation ofdata as well as consensus building on adaptation measures among relevant parties.
(b) Deployment of measures to ensure water supply security
Considering both supply and demand, it is important to thoroughly utilize existing facilities,
conserve and use sustainable groundwater such as alternative water sources in times ofcrisis, and promote the use of rainwater and reclaimed water as alternative water sources inemergencies.
(c) Evaluation of water supply and demand balance
It is necessary to evaluate the water supply and demand balance from the viewpoint of risk
management. In doing so, on the demand side it is necessary to consider the range of forecast
fluctuations based on uncertainties, and on the supply side it is necessary to evaluate using
the “the year equivalent to the worst drought year in the 10 years and the worst drought year
in past history”. In addition, it is important to continue to collect scientific knowledge aboutchanges in the supply capacity due to the impact of climate change (Figure 7.4).

THE SHIFT TO RISK MANAGEMENT-BASED WATER RESOURCES POLICY IN JAPAN

Figure 7.4: New Perspective on Drought Risk Evaluation Between Demand and Supply
Drought risk evaluation of supply infrastructure based on various conditions
 Recent 10 years return period drought Past most serious drought
New check point

Evaluation Point No. 1 Balance of supply and demand= Real hard capacity on water resources infrastructure

Supply Capacity

DemandDecline of supply capacity

High Demand Projection
Actual Demand

Consideration onvariation factors

Evaluation Point No. 2 Countermeasures
for serious drought risk
= Preparation of soft countermeasures

Past maximum
drought

Supply capacity
may change

Recent 10-year
drought

Deployment of soft
countermeasures

Low Demand
Projection
Check by risk

Present

Target Year

Originally planned
Supply capacity basedin past 10 years drought

Present supply
capacity

Supply capacity basedin most serious drought

Source: WRDSC–NLC (2017).

d)e)Comprehensive listing of renovation projects
Strengthening measures to extend the life of water resources facilities and promoting theireffective use are the most important issues. Therefore, in order to facilitate examination of
the necessity of the project and procedures, the descriptions of water resources facilities in
the plan will be changed. This will further enhance the effective utilization of existing water
facilities.
Consistency with water cycle policy
It is necessary to coordinate with the Basin Water Cycle Plan and seek cooperation andconsensus building among the parties concerned with water.

In reviewing the plan, we first worked on c) to properly evaluate the water supply and demand balance.
In each river system, droughts have occurred frequently since the initial water resources plan wasformulated, and it was necessary to face the fact that the amount of water that can be supplied haschanged significantly from the time the plan was formulated due to changes in rainfall and otherstatistical quantities.
For this reason, we have fundamentally reviewed the statistics used in past plans, and started withproperly evaluating the amount of water that can be supplied throughout the year by replenishmentfrom supply facilities in two cases as mentioned in c).

87

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

In addition, on the demand side, conventional plans set a single demand amount at the time of futureplanning targets, but various uncertainties are being discussed in terms of society and the economy.
For this reason, we have broadly assumed the current drought risk and organized our approach toresponding to it. In other words, we decided to honestly show that there are “high-level estimates” and“low-level estimates” even for demand.
As a result, if the available supply exceeds the “high-level estimate” of demand, we will appropriately
implement the current hardware and software measures, but if the available supply falls below the“low-level estimate” of demand, we will clearly indicate the need for new hardware facilities and theurgent need for software measures, and we will consider these possibilities (Figure 7.5) (WRD–MLIT
2023c).

Figure 7.5: Evaluation and Countermeasures on Water Demand and Supply Capacity

Zone
A

Zone
A

High
DemandBa

Ba
Fluctuation
Range

Zone
Bb
B

Low
Demand

Bc

88

Zone
A

High
DemandZone
C

Fluctuation
Range

Zone
Bb
B

Low
DemandBc

Zone
C

SupplyCapacity

Supply and Demand Balance; Zone A

DemandSupply and Demand Balance; Zone B
Zone Division

Zone A
Zone Ba
Zone Bb
Zone Bc
Zone C

Zone
Bb
B

Fluctuation
Range

Low
DemandBc

Zone
C

SupplyCapacity

DemandHigh
DemandBa

High demand < Supply capacity

Low demand < Supply capacity < High demand(Ba = high, Bb = middle, Bc = low)
Supply capacity < Low demand

SupplyCapacity

DemandSupply and Demand Balance; Zone C
Countermeasures
Existing hard and soft countermeasures shouldbe implemented
Additional hard and soft countermeasures should
be considered
Additional hard and soft countermeasures must be
formulated

Source: WRD–MLIT (2023c).

7.4 WRDBP Change Status
After receiving this report, Japan is proceeding with the work to change all six WRDBPs one byone. In April 2019, the Yoshino River water system was changed, which has experienced the mostfrequent droughts among the WRDBP water systems and is urgently required to be converted to a risk
management type. Following that, changes were made to the Tone and Arakawa River systems in May
2021, the Yodo River system in May 2022, and the Chikugo River system in January 2023. Plans for theremaining two water systems will be reviewed sequentially.

THE SHIFT TO RISK MANAGEMENT-BASED WATER RESOURCES POLICY IN JAPAN

7.5 Details of the Yoshino River System PlanFirst, we reviewed the Yoshino River water system, which has a remarkable frequency of droughts anda serious water resources problem. The details are as follows (Cabinet Decision 2019).

7.5.1 Basic Concept
The Yoshino River system, which occupies an important position in the society and economy of the
Shikoku region, is facing new risks and issues related to water resources, such as critical droughts,
large-scale natural disasters such as Nankai Trough earthquakes, and large-scale accidents due to theaging of water resources development facilities (Figure 7.6).

Figure 7.6: Number of Days on Water Intake Regulation in Yoshino and Dozan Rivers
days
200
150
100

89

50
0

1975

1980

1985

1990

Number of days on water intake regulation
at Dozan River Yoshino River Dozan River (major tributary of Yoshino river)

1995

2000

2005

2010

2015 year

Number of days on water intake regulationfrom Sameura reservoir(major reservoir in Yoshino River)26 droughts in 43 years (1975-2017)27 droughts in 43years

Source: WRD–MLIT (2019).

In light of this situation, in addition to ensuring the water supply–demand balance, it is necessary to
respond to new risks and issues surrounding water resources, to comprehensively inspect the watersupply-demand balance based on a wide range of possible drought risks, and to steadily promotemeasures suitable for the region. For this reason, the basic concept of the plan is to properly maintainand manage the existing facilities and make the most effective use of the facilities, and to promote thenecessary nonstructural measures in an integrated manner to create a system that enables the stable
use of safe and secure water.
The planning period for this plan is approximately 10 years, but since various circumstances maychange, we decided to repeat the “Plan Do Check Action” cycle and review the plan as appropriate
from the perspective of risk management.

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

7.5.2 Concept of Water Supply and Demand Balance
Supply target
The Yoshino River system is the largest river in the Shikoku region, and four prefectures share thewater resources, so society and the economy depend almost entirely on this Yoshino River.

Goals for drought
The first goal is to enable stable water use even in the event of a drought of the same scale as theworst drought in 10 years. In addition, the goal is to secure the minimum amount of water necessary
to prevent serious impacts on people’s lives and economic activities even in the event of a drought on ascale similar to the worst drought in history. This is extremely important in an area that has experienced
frequent severe droughts in the past.
The 10-year drought in this river system occurred from 1995 to 1996 on the Yoshino River, and from1994 to 1995 on the tributary, the Dozan River. In addition, the worst drought in history occurred in1964 on the main river, and from 1995 to 1996 on the tributary. We simulated the situation and evaluatedwhether the planned facility could achieve the target.

Targets for large-scale natural disasters

90

This is a region where there is concern about the occurrence of a Nankai Trough megathrustearthquake. Therefore, even after the occurrence of a large-scale natural disaster, it was decided tosecure the minimum amount of water necessary for living and economic activities, to minimize damage
to important facilities positioned in the plan, and to restore them as soon as possible.

Goals for aging facilities
It is important to maintain and secure the functions of the facilities positioned in the plan into the
future in order to maintain the achievement of the goals.
In this way, by clearly sharing the situation of past serious drought damage that remains in the memoryof the region, we are sharing the goal. In addition, planning clearly positioned the future concerns
about large-scale disasters and the deterioration of facilities.

Basic matters concerning the construction of facilities necessary
to achieve supply targets
The maintenance and management of existing facilities and future facility development facilities
positioned to achieve the supply goals shown are specified in the following: Sameura Dam, Ikeda Dam,
Shingu Dam, Kagawa Canal, Old Yoshino River Estuary Barrage, Imakiri River Estuary Barrage, Kochi
Diversion Facility, and Tomisato Dam.

7.5.3 Concept of Hardware and Software
Integrated promotion of hard and soft measures
In order to respond flexibly and comprehensively to various risks and uncertainties surrounding water
resources, and to ensure the functions of the entire water supply system, we are promoting not only
water use in times of crisis, but also in normal times. In addition to the above-mentioned physicalTHE SHIFT TO RISK MANAGEMENT-BASED WATER RESOURCES POLICY IN JAPANmeasures such as the development and maintenance of facilities, we are also promoting soft measuresin an integrated manner according to the actual situation, such as whether other facilities can beused through simulations of droughts, what other facilities can be used, and what cooperation can beundertaken based on regional agreement.
Regarding hardware measures, our basic strategy is to thoroughly utilize existing facilities, such as
renovating the facilities mentioned above to improve the necessary functions, maintenance andmanagement such as appropriate inspections and repairs for aging facilities, and systematicallyextending the life of facilities by updating them as necessary.

Measures to ensure safety of water supply
As for the water supply in the Yoshino River system, assuming the worst drought in 10 years, theamount of water that can be supplied from facilities in the water system is compared with the outlook
for demand that depends on the water system in about 10 years. In addition, in Tokushima, Ehime, andKochi prefectures, the amount of water that can be supplied exceeds the “high outlook” for demand.
In addition, as a result of the same comparison of industrial water, in Kagawa and Ehime prefectures,the possible supply amount is below the “low outlook” for demand, and in Tokushima and Kochi
prefectures, the possible supply amount is above the “high outlook” for demand.
Based on this situation, we decided to work on soft measures from both the demand side and the supply
side as shown below so that stable water use is possible throughout the region (Figure 7.7).

91
Figure 7.7: New WRD Plan Description and Related Measures
Descriptions in new WRD master plan
3 Other important topics related to the rationalization ofcomprehensive development and use of water resources(2) Integrated implementation of softand hard measures
1) Measures to ensure water supply security(measures in demand side)(measures in supply side)2) Measures to secure necessary water in times of crisis(Advance measures in preparation for a crisis)(Flexible response in times of crisis)
3) Reservoir area development measures, education,and popularization on importance of water Check balance between demand and supply capacity

at the recent 10 years return period drought Soft measures for droughtmeasures in demand side
measures in supply side
 Check balance between demand and supply capacity

at the past maximum drought Soft measures for avoiding serious impact

in case of the past maximum drought, big natural disasters,
and aging of facilities
Advance measures in preparation for a crisis
Critical drought
Quantitative measures
Qualitative measures

Mega natural disaster, aging of facilities

Flexible response in times of crisis
 Reservoir area development
 Education and popularization

WRD = water resources development.
Source: WRD–MLIT (2019).

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Measures from the demand side
Building a water-saving society
We will continue to promote water-saving efforts throughout society, such as the spread of watersaving equipment, measures to prevent water leakage, and the use of rainwater and recycled water.
In addition, efforts will be made to raise awareness of water conservation.

Rationalization of water use
From the perspective of effective use of water resources, when an imbalance in supply and demandarises due to changes in socioeconomic conditions, etc., we will promote initiatives such as diversionof water across different uses while gaining mutual understanding among the parties concerned
according to the actual situation of the region.

Measures from the supply side
Conservation and utilization of groundwater
Appropriate use of groundwater will be promoted, while paying attention to groundwater disturbancessuch as land subsidence due to over-extraction and groundwater salinization.

Promoting the use of rainwater and recycled water92

The use of rainwater and reclaimed water will be promoted according to the situation, such as local
needs, for further use.

Measures to Secure Necessary Water in Times of Crisis
By considering in advance measures to minimize the impact on society and the economy even in timesof crisis, which had not been thought of in the past, and setting them in the plan, and by also settingout flexible responses in the event of an actual crisis, the preparations of the parties concerned will bepromoted, and responses to actual crises will be made smoother and more flexible.
As a result of comparing the possible supply of water from the relevant water system and other water
systems, assuming the worst drought in history, and the outlook for demand in the four prefectures of
Shikoku, which depend on the relevant water system for part of their water supply in about 10 years,
in Tokushima and Kagawa prefectures, the possible supply is lower than the “low forecast” of demand,and in Kochi prefecture, the possible supply is lower than the “high forecast” of demand, and the “lowforecast” surpass. In addition, in Ehime Prefecture, the amount of supply that can be supplied exceeds
the “high outlook” for demand. In addition, the combined supply capacity of the four prefectures will
fall below the “low outlook” for demand.
As a result of the same comparison of industrial water, in Kagawa and Ehime prefectures, the available
supply volume is lower than the “low outlook” for demand. In Kochi Prefecture the available supply
volume is lower than the “high outlook” for demand and exceeds the “low outlook”, and in Tokushima
Prefecture, the available supply volume exceeds the “high outlook” for demand. Looking at the total of
the four prefectures, the potential supply is below the “high-level forecast” of demand and “above thelow level”.

THE SHIFT TO RISK MANAGEMENT-BASED WATER RESOURCES POLICY IN JAPANIn the event of the worst drought in history, as mentioned above, it is assumed that it will be difficult
to use water at the same level as during normal times. In addition, considering the possibility of adrought more severe than the worst drought in history, we have decided to implement the following
nonstructural measures to prevent serious impacts on the lives and economic activities of the region
from both the demand and supply sides.

Advance measures for crisis
In preparation for abnormal droughts, it was decided to consider measures for the demand side such as
water intake restrictions, effective operation of facilities for water replenishment during droughts, andsupply-side measures such as emergency utilization of dam capacity for purposes other than those for
specific purposes, and to coordinate water use in a stepwise and flexible manner.
In addition to normal use, to secure the minimum necessary amount of water in times of crisis such aslarge-scale natural disasters including earthquakes, large-scale accidents caused by the deteriorationof water infrastructure, and critical droughts, efforts were made to promote the development ofemergency water supply systems and the use of groundwater, rainwater, and recycled water asalternative water sources.
It was decided that concerned parties would work together to estimate the impact and damage causedby droughts and create drought response timelines that stipulate measures to mitigate damage causedby droughts, with the aim of minimizing drought damage in the relevant regions.
In addition, we decided to work on the conclusion of agreements on mutual support in the event of
a disaster, including nationwide cooperation, the formulation of business continuity plans, and thestockpiling of materials and equipment.
We decided to strive for dissemination and enlightenment, etc., to promote the formulation of business
continuity plans by companies, and disaster base hospitals, etc., for prompt response in the event of acrisis.
In order to prevent water supply facilities from malfunctioning even in times of crisis, it was decided toformulate life extension plans and systematically promote aging measures and earthquake resistancemeasures.

Flexible response in times of crisis
In order to prevent and mitigate damage caused by droughts, we decided to cooperate with relevant
parties and the media and promote the dissemination of information and calls for water conservation
during normal times and at an early stage when there is a risk of droughts.
In the event of an abnormal drought, specific adjustments will be made based on the concept ofadjustment of water use discussed in advance among the parties concerned.
At the stage of emergency restoration in the event of a crisis, efforts will be made to ensure flexible
water supply through coordination among stakeholders such as river administrators, water users, andrelated prefectures.

93

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

7.5.4 Overviewing the Entire Plan
The former WRDBP was based on the premise that water demand would continue to grow as the
economy developed and society expanded. However, in recent years, water demand has improved
from a critical situation and is mostly meeting the demand in some regions. Instead of increasing theamount of water that can be supplied in the future, instead of increasing the amount of water thatcan be supplied, it will be necessary to forecast water demand that is appropriate based on recentsocioeconomic conditions, or that includes uncertainty.
At the same time, to respond to large-scale disasters and malfunctions due to the aging of facilities,
which are expected in the future, in addition to achieving goals through hardware development, soft
measures that have not been discussed until now, measures on the supply side and measures on the
demand side to ensure safety have been established.
In addition to formulating them in the plan, it is important that the local administration, water users,
and residents fully understand this plan and be able to face it in the event of an emergency.

7.6 Further Efforts and Expectations for the Future

94

In the past, the WRDBP has tended to be a controversial plan, formulating water resources inmetropolitan areas and structural measures such as dams as a national policy. As a result, there werequite a few situations where the development of facilities such as dams was delayed and discussions
did not progress due to their controversial viewpoints. However, in recent years, various problems havearisen, such as a decrease in water resources supply due to changes in rainfall conditions, increased
uncertainty in socioeconomic activities, frequent occurrence of large-scale natural disasters, andserious deterioration of facilities. Based on the idea of the National Land Council’s report (SISC–NLC
2023), other estimated water resources plans are currently being reviewed, and plans for all water
systems are reviewed. It is believed that by accelerating the efforts of society as a whole, it will lead tothe construction of a safer and more secure society.
However, even in the midst of efforts to build such a society, we are still faced with a situation ofcontinuing anxiety about the future due to the frequent occurrence of even more dangerous disasters,
the emergence of the effects of climate change, and changes in industrial structures and lifestyles.
From this point on, at present, with the recognition that we must seek a more fundamental change inwater resources policy, the National Council is also deliberating on the direction of further deepening
and accelerating water resources policy.
As described above, Japanese water resources development has matured after the post-war
reconstruction and economic development, and overwhelming large-scale disasters that have hit
Japan many times. Additionally, to tackle with further uncertainty, securing minimum water resources,
flexibility and appropriate mixture of soft and hard countermeasures must be necessary to survive fromthe business continuity. These experiences have made citizens understand that not all water resources
policies are the same, and should be adapted flexibly, while listening to the voices of the nation andcitizens based on the economic and social conditions of the country and regions at that time. This must
be effective even for people of other countries where further economic development is expected. Since
it requires a long-term perspective, national leadership is the key for tackling this issue.

THE SHIFT TO RISK MANAGEMENT-BASED WATER RESOURCES POLICY IN JAPANIn the future, every country, including Japan, should not only to develop further water resources
facilities, but also promote efficient water policies such as changing water use rules that allow water tobe provided to people or a fundamental change of dam management methods.
It is hoped that Japan’s water resources policy will be further improved through the new policy change
in the future.

95

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

References
Cabinet Decisions, 19 April 2019 and revised 31 January 2023. Water Resources Development Plan in
Yoshino River System. https://www.mlit.go.jp/common/001286458.pdf (accessed 1 August 2023).
(in Japanese)
Survey and Investigation Sub-committee of National Land Committee (SISC–NLC). 2023. Discussionof the Direction of Future Water Resource Policies Based on the Situation Changes. Toward the
Deepening and Acceleration of Water Resource Policies, 19 May. https://www.mlit.go.jp/report/press/water02_hh_000156.html (accessed 1 August 2023). (in Japanese)
Water Resources Department, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (WRD–MLIT).
2023a. Water Resources Development Basic Plan, 1 June. https://www.mlit.go.jp/mizukokudo/mizsei/mizukokudo_mizsei_tk2_000005.html (accessed 1 August 2023). (in Japanese)
WRD–MLIT. 2023b. 2022 Current State of Water Resources in Japan, 1 April. https://www.mlit.go.jp/mizukokudo/mizsei/mizukokudo_mizsei_tk2_000039.html (accessed 1 August 2023).
(in Japanese)
WRD–MLIT. 2023c. Basic Materials on Water Demand River Systems and Calculation of Supply Capacity(draft). https://www.mlit.go.jp/mizukokudo/mizsei/content/001598990.pdf (accessed 1 August2023). (in Japanese)96

WRD–MLIT. 2019. Materials at Yoshino River Sub-committee of National Land Council, 20 February.
https://www.mlit.go.jp/policy/shingikai/s103_yoshinogawa01.html (accessed 1 August 2023).
(in Japanese)
Water Resources Development Sub-committee, National Land Council (WRDSC–NLC). 2017. Risk
Management-based Water Resources Development Basic Plan for Ensuring Water Supply (Report),
12 May. https://www.mlit.go.jp/policy/shingikai/water02_sg_000074.html (accessed 1 August2023). (in Japanese)
WRDSC–NLC. 2015. Future Water Resources Management - Shift to a “Wide-ranging Social System”
that Can Enjoy the Blessings of Water (Report), 27 March. https://www.mlit.go.jp/policy/shingikai/water02_sg_000051.html (accessed 1 August 2023). (in Japanese)

CHAPTER 8
Novel Approaches in Flood Management Policies
in Japan: Integrating Sociocultural Wisdom
in Climate Change Adaptation
Hiroaki Ikeuchi*

8.1 Introduction
Floods are one of the most devastating natural disasters worldwide, and it is projected that global
warming and resulting climate change will further exacerbate flood disasters in the future. In spite ofprevious flood mitigation efforts, inundation is sometimes unavoidable if rainfall exceeds the capacityof flood control facilities. Japan, for example, has suffered from severe flooding events in recent years,
such as Typhoon Hagibis in 2019 and heavy rainfall in 2018 and 2020. In particular, the flood disaster
caused by Typhoon Hagibis in October 2019 was the most devastating in the recent history of Japan;
it made landfall with its minimum central surface pressure of 915 hectopascals, resulting in more than
100 casualties (Cabinet Office 2020). In this typhoon event, mainly the eastern side of Japan suffereddamage; on the contrary, the flood events in July 2018 and July 2020 caused severe damage in thewest and southwest regions of the country, with more than 200 casualties in 2018 and over 80 in 2020
(Cabinet Office 2019, 2021). These facts imply that all parts of Japan is susceptible to flood disasters.
Given that precipitation amounts will increase due to climate change and flood risk will be augmented
worldwide (Hirabayashi et al. 2013), taking appropriate countermeasures to mitigate flood damage isan urgent issue.
In the aftermath of this devastating situation, the Japanese government made a leap forward in its
flood management policy by establishing a new concept called “River Basin Disaster Resilience andSustainability by All” in 2020. This means an integrated approach toward flood risk reduction by not
only accelerating the improvement of river infrastructure but also taking various measures in river
basins as a whole. In order to materialize this concept, a set of specific measures was established as“A Project of River Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All” for each of the 109 Class-A
river basins, which are defined as river basins administered by the national government, and was madepublic by the end of March 2021. On top of that, nine related acts were integrally amended to further
strengthen effectiveness of the concept, which came into effect in November 2021. Among them, themost essential is the Specified Urban River Inundation Countermeasures Act. This act was originally
enforced in 2004 to address the issue of urban flooding, which is caused by the decreased permeabilityof land due to development. While the target of the act was originally limited to urban areas, it became
evident that severe floods can take place anywhere in Japan; therefore the act was amended to meetdemands for strengthening flood countermeasures.
This chapter scrutinizes the latest shift in Japan’s policy toward integrated flood management fromthe viewpoint of the River Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All concept. In Section 8.2,
the underlying ideas of this concept are explained first, followed by more detail of the contents of* The author thanks Toshio Koike (ICHARM), Koji Ikeuchi (FRICS), Mikio Ishiwatari (JICA), Naoto Tada, Takahiro Konami,
Tomoya Kikuta, Kiichi Ikehara (MLIT), and other colleagues in MLIT for their constructive comments to this chapter. The
views and interpretations in this chapter are those of the author, which are not necessarily attributable to his organization.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

the amendment. Section 8.3 illustrates an example where these new flood management strategies are
implemented. Section 8.4 investigates that while the concept itself is newly introduced to the policy,
each idea derives from the indigenous wisdom of Japanese society and culture. Section 8.5 summarizes
the chapter.

8.2 Method: History and Overview of the ConceptThis section introduces the core concept of Japan’s flood management strategy, River Basin Disaster
Resilience and Sustainability by All. First, the historical background of this concept is reviewed,
followed by a more detailed explanation on the concept and regarding amendment of the acts.

8.2.1 Historical Background: Comprehensive Flood Control Measures

98

In the 1970s, a concept called Comprehensive Flood Control Measures (CFCM) was introduced into
Japan’s flood management policy. This was based on an interim report issued by the River Council ofthe Ministry of Construction in 1977. The basic idea was to expand measures from riverine control suchas dams and levees to source control such as storage and/or infiltration and nonstructural measures
such as evacuation. Since the late 1950s, urban floods took place more frequently than before as a resultof urbanization. That is why the basic principle of this policy was to mitigate the increase in flood
discharge due to the land use change by the promotion of rainwater storage and/or infiltration facilities(hereinafter referred to as rainwater storage–infiltration facilities), and it was mainly aimed at rapidly
urbanizing river basins. Detailed explanations on the history of CFCM are provided by Takeuchi(2022). An important point that should be noted is that, while the concept of River Basin Disaster
Resilience and Sustainability by All was introduced recently, its basis derives from the concept of CFCM,
having around 50 years of history.

8.2.2 Revision of Flood Control Planning
In July 2020, the River Subcommittee of the National Land Development Council of Japan issued areport (MLIT 2020a) that forms the basis of the shift in flood management policy after the country
faced severe flood events and realized the need for more comprehensive flood control. The report
posed two major suggestions: a revision of flood control planning and the development of a new flood
management policy. A more detailed background of the report is provided by Koike (2021).
The first suggestion was to revise flood control planning. The concept of design flood discharge,
representing a protection standard or safety level in flood risk management, has been set using
statistical analysis of historical records of hydro-meteorological values since 1958 (Nakamura and Oki2017). In this revision, however, it was groundbreaking in that it was based on atmospheric generalcirculation model outputs, using the database for Policy Decision making for Future climate change(d4PDF) (SOUSEI-MEXT 2019). The Technical Working Group on Flood Management Planning chose
the Representative Concentration Pathway 2.6 of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change as a
future climate scenario for the revision. The working group divided the country into 15 climatic zones,
and then compared probabilities of heavy rainfall events between present (1951–2010) and future(2040) conditions of the dataset for each zone. It finally obtained the results of the rates of change inprobabilities of heavy rainfall events, which were 1.15 for Hokkaido and 1.1 for the other 14 regions.
These rates are used to revise flood control planning, which is now ongoing in the rivers of Japan.

NOVEL APPROACHES IN FLOOD MANAGEMENT POLICIES IN JAPAN:
INTEGRATING SOCIOCULTURAL WISDOM IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

8.2.3 River Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All
The second suggestion by the subcommittee was to develop a new flood management policy, the River
Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All (MLIT 2020b) to tackle the increasing risk of flooding,which Japan is already facing, and which is forecast to intensify under future climate conditions. The
phrase “river basin” here is defined as an area of both watersheds and floodplains. The policy concept
encompasses comprehensive and multilayered actions by all stakeholders in a river basin. Stakeholders
include not only the public sector such as municipalities, prefectures, and the national government,
but also private enterprises, water users, and residents. The underlying background of this policy
implementation is threefold: climate change impacts intensifying flood disasters, societal changes
where Japan’s population is declining and aging, and technological developments such as artificial
intelligence that can support disaster risk reduction.
Generally, flood risk is determined by hazard, exposure, and vulnerability, where hazard is a threatening
natural event with the notion of occurrence probability, exposure is values at risk such as people andbuildings, and vulnerability is the lack of resistance to external forces (Kron 2005). The concept ofRiver Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All composes three major pillars (Figure 8.1), andeach of them corresponds to the three factors of risk: flood prevention (hazard), exposure reduction(exposure), and disaster resilience (vulnerability). The first factor, flood prevention, includes measures
which have been traditionally taken in modern river engineering, that is, improvement of riverinfrastructure such as construction of dikes, dams, retarding basins, and rainwater storage–infiltration
facilities. The second factor, exposure reduction, means land use regulation to guide residents to areas
with lower flood risk. The third factor, disaster resilience, includes diverse adaptation measures tominimize vulnerability to floods, such as informing residents of flood risk by hazard maps, establishing

Figure 8.1: Overview of River Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All Concept
3

2

1






















Sources: MLIT (2020a, 2020b).

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

early warning systems, and preparing business continuity plans for companies. Note that the firstcomponent, flood prevention, includes the idea of a reduction of flood inundation. Traditionally inJapan, at least under modern river engineering, flood control planning is mainly based on regulating
design flood discharges at the designated points. However, it is not enough because the possibility ofhazards cannot be ruled out with larger external forces than the target of flood control. Therefore, inorder to tackle this, the idea of a reduction of flood inundation was also introduced to mitigate flood
damage. A detailed explanation on the history and evolution of the concept is introduced by Koike(2021).

8.2.4 A mendment of Acts regarding River Basin Disaster Resilienceand Sustainability by All
In 2021, after the finalization of the policy concept, the government amended the acts regarding the River
Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All concept. As mentioned above, for each of the Class A
River Systems, the project on River Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All was formulated
and made public in March 2021. This is an illustration of a package of flood countermeasures taken
both in the rivers and their basins to mitigate flood damage. However, given the increasing climatechange impacts of more frequent and hazardous flood events, further enhancing the effectivenessof the policy concept was an urgent issue. Therefore, a legal framework was designed in the form ofintegral amendments of the nine acts. Both the House of Representatives and the House of Councilorsof the Japanese Diet passed the amendment of the acts unanimously in May 2021, with enforcement inNovember 2021. The amended acts are:

100

•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

River Act
Specified Urban River Inundation Countermeasures Act
Sewage Act
Urban Planning Act
Urban Green Space Conservation Act
Building Standards Act
Act on Special Financial Support for Promoting Group Relocation for Disaster Mitigation
Flood Control Act
Act on Sediment Disaster Countermeasures for Sediment Disaster Prone Areas

Figure 8.2 provides an overview of the amended acts.

NOVEL APPROACHES IN FLOOD MANAGEMENT POLICIES IN JAPAN:
INTEGRATING SOCIOCULTURAL WISDOM IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

Figure 8.2: Overview of the Amended Acts
Overview of Acts Regarding
River Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All
Act No.31 in 2021

1. Enforcement of planning and systems (Specified Urban River Inundation Countermeasures Act)
◆ Loosening the conditions of rivers to apply the act- Expansion of the act applicability to not only rivers where inundation control is difficult due tourbanization, but also to rivers where inundation control is difficult due to natural conditions◆ Establishment of Basin Flood Control Councils- Stakeholders such as government, prefectures, and municipalities join a council for eachbasin to discuss measures such as rainwater storage and/or infiltration and land use
regulation, and incorporate results into a basin inundation control plan

2. Mitigation of inundation (River Act, Sewage Act, Specified Urban River Inundation
Countermeasures Act, Urban Planning Act, Urban Green Space Conservation Act)◆ Enforcement of river and sewage measures- Establishment of a council to plan preliminary discharge before flooding for water utilization
dams with river managers and water users such as electric power companies- Setting a target rainfall in a plan to prevent inundation by sewage- Mandatory formulation of operation rules for sewage sluices◆ Enforcement of rainwater storage/infiltration in a basin- Introducing an “area for preserving storage function" to secure water retention- Conserving green spaces in urban areas to utilize them as green infrastructure- Supporting rainwater storage and/or infiltration facilities by municipal and/or the private
sectors with a certification system, assistance, and tax rate reduction

3. Exposure reduction (Specified Urban River Inundation Countermeasures Act, Urban Planning Act, Act on
Special Financial Support for Promoting Group Relocation for Disaster Mitigation, Building Standard Act)◆ Cooperation with urban development- Introducing an “area for preventing inundation damage” to inspect safety of newly built
houses and facilities for those requiring special care
- Expanding the target areas of promoting group relocation from high-risk areas- Development of bases for evacuation sites

4. Mitigation of damage and early recovery (River Act, Flood Control Act, Sediment Disaster
Prevention Act)

- Enriching risk information by expanding flood hazard maps to small and medium-sized rivers- Ensuring effective evacuation by municipal advice and recommendation to evacuation plansand drills for facilities for those requiring special care
- Expanding government direct support to rivers managed by municipalities for early recovery

Source: MLIT (2021a).

8.2.5 Specified Urban River Inundation Countermeasures Act
Among the amended acts, the most pivotal and improved act is the Specified Urban River Inundation
Countermeasures Act. The author of this chapter (Hiroaki Ikeuchi) was in charge of designing therevisions of this act. In this subsection, the content of this amended act is introduced.

Overview of the Specified Urban River Inundation Countermeasures Act before amendment in 2021
This act was originally enforced in May 2004. At that time, inundation damage was on the rise,
particularly in urban areas because of urbanization, accumulation of population and assets, andincrease in intense rainfall. It became clear that relying only on improvements to river infrastructure

101

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

was not a solution to prevent inundation damage on such occasions. Thus, the act was designed with aview to promoting measures for preventing inundation damage in urban river basins.
The act was applied to rivers that satisfied the following conditions:•••

The target river runs across urban areas: the percentage of urbanized areas in its basin is morethan approximately 50%.
Significant inundation damage occurred or is likely to occur with annual flood damage of morethan ¥1 billion.
Prevention of inundation damage is difficult even by improvement of river infrastructure or
flood control dams due to urban development.

The target rivers and their basins were designated as specified urban rivers (SURs) and specified urbanriver basins (SURBs) by the Minister of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism or prefectural
governors, who administered the rivers.
Once a SUR and a SURB were designated, there were some schemes and obligations stipulated in theact, such as:
•

•

102

•

A Basin Flood Control Plan should be formulated by a river administrator of the SUR, a sewage
administrator concerning the SURB, and governors of prefectures and municipalities whose
territories are included in the SURB.
The river administrator of the SUR can equip and maintain rainwater storage–infiltration
facilities in the SURB for the purpose of mitigation of flood damage.
All actions on land other than for housing that are likely to significantly hinder rainwater
infiltration with an area of more than 1,000 square meters (called rainwater infiltration
preventive actions) require permission beforehand from the corresponding local governor.
Examples are:° Altering the land characteristics for housing° Covering land by pavements made of impermeable material

In addition, the construction of rainfall storage–infiltration facilities is necessary not to increase
rainwater runoff (Figure 8.3).

NOVEL APPROACHES IN FLOOD MANAGEMENT POLICIES IN JAPAN:
INTEGRATING SOCIOCULTURAL WISDOM IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

Figure 8.3: Permission Scheme of Rainwater Infiltration Preventive Actions>1,000500–1,000

103
Source: MLIT (2023).

Before the amendment, eight river basins were designated as SURBs, most of which are located in large
cities such as the Tsurumi River basin in Kanagawa Prefecture. The act was effective in flood damage
prevention by securing and increasing rainfall storage–infiltration capacity in urban river basins(Figure 8.4). However, as mentioned above, many places, not just limited to the concentrated urban
areas, are susceptible to flooding due to increasing and intensifying rainfall events, resulting in the act
being amended to expand its schemes to all rivers in Japan. The following subsections introduce majorrevisions regarding the amendment.

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 8.4: Effect of Mitigation Activities Against Floods in Tsurumi River Basinin the Case of Typhoon Hagibis, 2019

3,700,000

2019

0.7

2007

104

2008

5,000
Source: MLIT (2023).

Expansion of target rivers under the act
To expand the number of target rivers under the act, the conditions that a SUR needs to satisfy wererevised as follows:•••

The target river runs across urban areas, such as areas promoting urbanization, withaccumulation of population and assets.
Significant inundation damage occurred or is likely to occur; the river is supposed to designate
flood inundation assumed areas, stipulated by Paragraph 1 and 2 of Article 14 of the FloodControl Act.
Prevention of inundation damage is difficult even by the improvement of river infrastructure
or flood control dams due to at least one of the following reasons:° The river basin is urbanized such that the percentage of urbanized areas to habitable areasin the basin is more than approximately 50%.
The
river is expected to be affected by a backwater effect from a river connected downstream,°
or to have limitation of water drainage to a river connected downstream.
° Both dredging and widening of a river channel are difficult due to geographical or geologicalconditions, precious natural environment, or preservation of scenic sites, or water drainage
can be difficult due to tidal effects.

NOVEL APPROACHES IN FLOOD MANAGEMENT POLICIES IN JAPAN:
INTEGRATING SOCIOCULTURAL WISDOM IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATIONThis revision makes it easier to designate a SUR and a SURB for all rivers, not just limited to urbanrivers. Note that while the term specified urban river is still used in the act after the amendment, theschemes of the act are available once a river satisfies the above conditions and is designated as a SUR,
regardless of whether it is strictly an urban river or not.

Establishment of basin flood control councils and plans
Stakeholders such as the government, prefectures, and municipalities join a council for each basin to
discuss measures such as rainwater storage–infiltration and land use regulation, and incorporate its
results in a Basin Flood Control Plan. The council system was newly established and the items thatshould be included in the plan were expanded by the amendment of the act.

Certification system of rainwater storage–infiltration facilities
To strengthen flood mitigation countermeasures in a basin, a certification system is established for
private sector development of rainwater storage–infiltration facilities. Certification is given by
prefectural governors or mayors of designated cities (a “designated city” is defined as a city having
greater authority than other municipalities, stipulated by Paragraph 1 of Article 252-19 of the Local
Autonomy Act) after approving a Rainwater Storage–Infiltration Facilities Development Plan madeby those who develop and manage the facility. Subsidies from the government and special tax systems
for property tax and urban planning tax are available to promote the development of such facilities ina basin.

Storage function preservation area
A storage function preservation area (SFPA) is established, which is an area having the function of
temporarily retaining inundated water and/or rainwater and has been preserved from the past suchas farmland or a paddy field. The area has a utility of mitigating inundation outside the area as well
as decreasing water levels downstream. An SFPA can be designated within a SURB by prefectural
governors or mayors of designated cities after getting approval of owners of the area to be designated.
The designation of an SFPA should be in accordance with the overall policy of the corresponding Basin
Flood Control Plan.

Figure 8.5: Image of a Storage Function Preservation Area

Source: MLIT (2023).

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Several restrictions are imposed on an SFPA to secure its storage function. Actions that can be thought
to prevent the function of an SFPA to temporarily retain water flow from rivers and/or rainwater
should be notified to prefectural governors or mayors of designated cities at least 30 days in advanceof the action. The examples of target actions are a mound and setting a fence or a wall. Prefectural
governors or mayors of designated cities can provide advice based on the notification from landowners
if necessary. There are some exceptions for which notification in advance is not required, such as
actions to manage the SFPA, actions urgently needed in case of disasters, and temporary use of the
SFPA such as building of provisional structures.
The concept of an SFPA is similar to a retarding basin, which is constructed for the purpose of flood
control by corresponding river administrators. Differences between them are summarized in Table 8.1.
Compared to retarding basins, SFPAs are not designated as river areas, and land acquisition by riveradministrators is not necessary for SFPA designation. Therefore, land-use regulations in an SFPA
are more lax than retarding basins, minimizing restrictions on private rights on top of spontaneous
cooperation of landowners.

Table 8.1: Comparison Between Retarding Basin and Storage Function Preservation Area
Retarding BasinLand Acquisition

106

Easement

Storage Function Preservation Area

Corresponding Act

River ActRiver Act

Specified Urban River Inundation
Countermeasures Act

PurposeFlood control

Flood control

Mitigation of inundation damage

Target area

River side

River side

Specified urban river basin

Designator

River administrator

River administrator

Prefectural governor, mayor ofdesignated cities

Landowner

River administrator

Landlord

Landlord

Administrator

River administrator

River administrator

Landlord

Land regulation(in case of mound)

Permission of
exclusive use
Permission for moundPermission for moundNotification to a designator inadvance for moundSource: Author.

Inundation damage prevention area
An inundation damage prevention area (IDPA) is established, which is an area with high risk offrequent flooding even after taking flood control and mitigation measures so that land development
and building construction should be regulated in advance. An IDPA can be designated within a SURB
by prefectural governors. The designation of an IDPA should be in accordance with the overall policyof the corresponding Basin Flood Control Plan.

NOVEL APPROACHES IN FLOOD MANAGEMENT POLICIES IN JAPAN:
INTEGRATING SOCIOCULTURAL WISDOM IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

Figure 8.6: Image of an Inundation Damage Prevention Area

P

Source: MLIT (2023).

Several restrictions are imposed on an IDPA to secure the safety of those living there. For landdevelopment and building construction, permission given by prefectural governors or mayors ofdesignated cities is required in advance for building facilities for those with special considerationin evacuation, such as the disabled, the elderly and infants, and houses. Permission is given forland development when the developed area is shown to be resilient to flooding by some protection
measures such as revetment and lawn for protection from erosion, and for building construction when
the following conditions are satisfied:••

All habitable rooms, defined as a bedroom, a living room, and a dining room, should have theirfloors higher than “standard water level”, which is defined as an expected water level when thetarget flood in the SUR occurs.
The building should be robust enough to resist against the target flood.

There are some national subsidies that can be applied in an IDPA. For example, it is added to the target
areas of the Special Financial Support for Promoting Group Relocation for Disaster Mitigation (therevision was included in the amendment of the acts mentioned in Section 8.2.2), where about 94%
of the cost regarding relocation and development of houses is covered by the national government.
Furthermore, the cost of elevating houses and buildings in the area is also covered by the government(23%–80%). Through these schemes and relevant financial support, it is expected to promote urban
development that is resilient to flood disasters.

8.3 Results: Example of the Concept Implementation
This section briefly illustrates an example of the implementation of the River Basin Disaster Resilienceand Sustainability by All concept. Yamato River, which is designated as a SUR and whose basin isdesignated as a SURB is illustrated.
The upstream river channels of Yamato River, a Class-A River flowing from Nara Prefecture to Osaka
Prefecture, are designated as SURs (designated rivers are located in Nara Prefecture), with a SURB
of 712 square kilometers. The region suffers from flooding because of its topographic characteristics:
having a narrow river segment running between mountains, making it difficult for flooded water to bedrained and resulting in inundation in the upstream basin.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

River improvement and construction of retarding basins are underway, but it is remarkable thatrainwater storage-infiltration facilities are planned to be developed by various stakeholders including
the private sector, with explicit target volumes within 5 years stipulated in the Yamato River Basin
Flood Control Plan. Both SFPAs and IDPAs are now considered to be designated in the basin.

Figure 8.7: Flood Countermeasures Taken in Yamato River Basin
1
•
•
•
2
•
18
25

712

24

2

2022

3

108

•
•
•
Source: MLIT (2021b).

8.4 Discussion: Investigation into the Originof Sociocultural Wisdom
In this section, the two newly introduced schemes in the Specified Urban River Inundation
Countermeasures Act are analyzed in terms of their conceptual basis from a sociocultural point of view.

8.4.1 Open Levee: Indigenous River Engineering Method for Flood Mitigation
As explained above, an SFPA is an area that can retain flooded water and rainwater, mainly intended
for farmland and paddy fields to be designated. Some forms of farmland or paddy fields are relatively
resilient to flood inundation, such as cultivation of wet rice, which is a dominant type of rice in Japan.
One typical example of co-existence of rice cultivation and flood management is an open levee (Kasumitei in Japanese), an indigenous river engineering method developed in Japan (Teramura and Shimatani2021). An example of an open levee is illustrated in Figure 8.8. Water can be retained when a flood
occurs through discontinuous parts of a levee. The flooded areas can be used as farmland or paddy
fields, because one purpose of open levee construction is to accumulate organic matter during floods(Teramura and Shimatani 2021), and it is also found that open levees can play a role in flood mitigation(Ohtsuki, Itsukushima, and Sato 2022).The introduction of an SFPA has potential to promote flood
mitigation strategies utilizing open levees. In fact, before the introduction of modern technology ofNOVEL APPROACHES IN FLOOD MANAGEMENT POLICIES IN JAPAN:
INTEGRATING SOCIOCULTURAL WISDOM IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

Western countries, flooded water in rural areas was not constrained within a river bank but freely
inundated, which was the standard approach to mitigate flood damage (Takahasi 2012).

Figure 8.8: Example of an Open Levee and a Paddy Field

Source: Original photo taken by MLIT.

109

8.4.2 I mportance of Geographical and Societal Characteristics
in Land Use Regulation
As explained above, an IDPA is an area that is susceptible to flood risk even after flood control
and mitigation measures are taken. As a geographical background, Japan is highly mountainous(approximately 70% of the total area) so habitable areas are limited. Due to convenience, the relatively
flat areas such as deltas are often densely inhabited. On the other hand, there are people that find it
difficult to evacuate, such as the elderly, the disabled, and infants. Establishing evacuation planning
is important, but it is sometimes not enough because some people cannot easily evacuate. Therefore,
the scheme of an IDPA was introduced by regulating land development and building constructionin advance so that minimum measures such as habitable rooms higher than expected water levels
are taken to secure the lives of people in case of flooding. This apparently new scheme is nothing
but an outcome of the process of taking geographical and societal characteristics of the country into
account. Note that the implementation of land use regulations should be based on social agreement andacceptance, otherwise it could lead to violation of human rights, because where to live is one principleof human rights.

8.5 Conclusion
This chapter discussed the new flood management policy of Japan: River Basin Disaster Resilience andSustainability by All. This concept was formulated after the country consecutively encountered severe
flood disasters particularly within 5 years and the need for basin-wide flood countermeasures on top

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

of improvement of river infrastructure was urgent. Nine related acts were amended integrally to assure
their validity, and the amendment regarding Specified Urban River Inundation Countermeasures Act,the core act among the amendments, was explained in detail. Followed by an illustration of the concept
application, the newly introduced schemes were analyzed in terms of their background in association
with sociocultural characteristics of the country.
One essential factor that can be applied to other countries is that to take societal and cultural
aspects into account can be beneficial in making flood management policies. The most fundamental
countermeasures against flooding are structure-based such as continuous levees and dams, whichhave been the mainstream of modern river engineering, but under the changing climate, the traditional
idea of acceptance of inundation can also be implemented by combining structural and nonstructural
measures to enhance the resilience of society (Ishiwatari 2021).

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NOVEL APPROACHES IN FLOOD MANAGEMENT POLICIES IN JAPAN:
INTEGRATING SOCIOCULTURAL WISDOM IN CLIMATE CHANGE ADAPTATION

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(in Japanese)____. 2021b. Designation of Yamato River as a Specified Urban River toward genuine implementationof River Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All. https://www.mlit.go.jp/report/press/content/001446375.pdf (accessed 29 December 2023). (in Japanese)____. 2022. How to Promote River Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All. https://www.pref.miyagi.jp/documents/36766/ryuuikitisui-susumekata.pdf (accessed 29 December 2023).
(in Japanese)____. 2023. Schemes of Specified Urban Rivers. https://www.mlit.go.jp/river/kasen/tokuteitoshikasen/index.html (accessed 29 December 2023). (in Japanese)
Nakamura, S., and T. Oki. 2017. Paradigm Shifts on Flood Risk Management in Japan: Detecting Triggers
of Design Flood Revisions in the Modern Era. Water Resources Research 54: 5504–5515.
Ohtsuki, K., R. Itsukushima, and T. Sato. 2022. Feasibility of Traditional Open Levee System for River
Flood Mitigation in Japan. Water 14(9): 1343.

111

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Takahasi, Y. 2012. Crisis of the Rivers and the Country. Iwanami Shinsho. (in Japanese)
Takeuchi, K. 2022. Integrated Flood Risk Management, Basic Concepts and the Japanese Experience.
Routledge.
Teramura, J., and Y. Shimatani. 2021. Advantages of the Open Levee (Kasumi-Tei), a Traditional
Japanese River Technology on the Matsuura River, from an Ecosystem-Based Disaster Risk
Reduction Perspective. Water 13(4): 480.

112

CHAPTER 9Management of Water-Related Disasters by Local
Communities in the Central Area of Viet Nam
Le Minh Nhat, Nguyen Van Hoang, and Nguyen Thanh Van

9.1 Introduction
Viet Nam is located in an area highly affected by natural disasters, and was ranked 91st out of 108 by the2019 INFORM Risk Index (Inter-Agency Standing Committee Reference Group on Risk, Early Warning
and Preparedness and the European Commission 2023). The diversity of types of natural disasters, andmore than 22 types of disasters are recorded in the Law on Natural Disaster Prevention and Control(2013). The people of Viet Nam have experienced major natural disasters throughout their history,
and experience from cultural history has shown that the low cost but highly effective nonstructuralinvestment solution is the community’s awareness raising and being equipped with disasterprevention, avoidance, and mitigation skills. The motto is that people protect themselves and theirfamily members and the surrounding community before receiving outside support. Community-based
disaster risk management (CBDRM) is a component of the Natural Disaster Risk Management Projectto enhance the capacity on disaster risk reduction (DRR) of villages and communes (Nguyen et al. 2011).
CBDRM with integrated community awareness raising is a process in which people in a community
actively participate in the identification and analysis of disaster risks, planning, implementing plans,monitoring and evaluating activities to reduce vulnerability, and enhancing the community’s ability
to respond and adapt to the impacts of natural disasters, especially in the context of climate change.
The purpose of CBDRM is to create a positive transition from a vulnerable community to one that is
capable, proactively working together to prevent, respond, and recover by making the most of available
resources in the community and outside support when it is beyond capacity.
Disaster management models with CBRDM applications have been developed by countries aroundthe world, consistent with the characteristics and capacity of each locality and country. For example,
Japan, a country in Asia, has been affected by many types of natural disasters. The CBDRM model has
been implemented according to a bottom-up approach, harmonizing and integrating with opposing
methods such as construction solutions for natural disaster prevention. Effective implementation of
CBDRM requires the cooperation of people, local and central governments, and organizations. The
innovative CBDRM approach from Japan is an important lesson for other countries when building
CBDRM programs.
Another example is the Philippines, a country located on the Pacific volcanic belt, suffering many
earthquakes and storms every year. The Philippine government has implemented a communitycentered approach to disaster management since 2002 based on the Disaster Risk Management andReduction Act. The communities implement onsite response strategies, before receiving support fromoutside forces. They are concerned with protecting themselves and their property through CBDRM
strategies.
Viet Nam’s National Program on CBDRM Scheme 1002 (Scheme 1002) has been implemented
for a period of 12 years from 2009 to 2020. The activities of Scheme 1002 have been implemented
synchronously at all levels from the central to local levels, socio-political organizations, nongovernmentorganizations, mobilizing resources from businesses that have actively and proactively implemented
the project’s activities, contributing to raising awareness and capacity of officials in charge of disaster

113

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

prevention. However, in the implementation process, there are still many shortcomings and difficulties
in the implementation mechanism, tasks, information sharing, monitoring and evaluation, funding
sources, and human resources to implement Scheme 1002. The program was reviewed and the next
phase is being implemented with goals set in accordance with the updated situation covering 2021
to 2030 under Decision No. 553/QD-TTg approving the project “Strengthening public awareness and
CBDRM, up to 2030” (Scheme 533). Figure 9.1 shows the timeline and main goals of the two national
programs on CBDRM that had been implemented in Viet Nam.
Some key features of CBDRM in Viet Nam are:(i) the community plays a central and proactive role in CBDRM implementation;(ii) encouraging and mobilizing the active and proactive participation of all populations in thecommunity in disaster risk management, creating equal opportunities for men, women andvulnerable groups to participate. and benefit from disaster risk management activities;(iii) improving community capacity, reduce vulnerability;(iv) is a process of continuous development, updated, adjusted and built on the lessons learned
from the community’s practical experience combined with scientific and technical progress;(v) the direction of local authorities, especially at the commune level, plays an important role in
CBDRM with the support of superior agencies and social organizations, and(vi) applying the four-place motto to CBDRM implementation.

114

Figure 9.1: Timeline and Main Goals of the Two National Programs on CBDRM

Contribute toguaranteeing
national
sustainable
development,
national
defense, andsecurity
To limit thenaturalresource,
environmental,
and cultural
heritagedestruction
caused bydisasters

2009

Community
awarenessraising andcommunitybased disasterrisk reduction

Minimizedamage topeople,property,and theenvironment
caused bynaturaldisasters

To raisecommunity
awareness

1002 Scheme

Raiseawareness ofnaturaldisasters anddisaster
response
capacity

553 Scheme
Contributeto theimplementationof the national
criteria on new
ruralcommunes

Effectively
organize CBDRM
for all levels,
particularly the
local authorities
and residents atvillage andcommune levels

To minimize
fatalities andproperty loss

2020

1002 Scheme

National
program oncommunity
awarenessraising andcommunitybased disasterriskmanagement

Forming aculture of
prevention,
proactively andactively
participating in
DRR of the
majorityof people

553 Scheme

Contribute tobuilding communeand district-levelcommunities safe
from natural
disasters andcapable ofaspiring toclimate change

2030
Timeline

CBDRM = community-based disaster risk management, DRR = disaster risk reduction.
Sources: Government of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, Decision No. 1002/QD-TTg (2009b) and Decision No. 553/QD-TTg (2021).

This chapter assesses the overall effectiveness of CBDRM in Viet Nam, including analyzing theachievements, lessons learned, difficulties and challenges when implementing the program, as well asrecommendations for the next implementation steps.

MANAGEMENT OF WATER-RELATED DISASTERS BY LOCALCOMMUNITIES IN THE CENTRAL AREA OF VIET NAM

9.2 Methodology
Figure 9.2: Flow Chart of Overall Methodology
Experience in disaster prevention
and CBDRM in Viet Nam
The role of CBDRM in the history ofdisaster prevention(1) Introduction
Lessons learned from other countries(2) Current situationof CBDRM in Viet Nam

The context of CBDRM in Viet Nam
before Scheme 1002 was issued
The context of CBDRM in Viet Nam
after Scheme 1002 was issued
The implementation of Scheme 553(3) Evaluation of the National
Programme on CBDRM
Scheme 1002 preliminary results

115
Natural disasters appear with highfrequency and intensity(4) Lessons learned and propose
solutions for implementing
the next steps

Financial barriers(5) Conclusion

CBDRM = community-based disaster risk management.
Sources: Government of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, Decision No. 1002/QD-TTg (2009b) and Decision No. 553/QD-TTg (2021).

This study aims to evaluate the effectiveness of CBDRM in Viet Nam. Figure 9.2 illustrates the schematic
workflow of this study.

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

9.3 Current Situation of CBDRM in Viet Nam
9.3.1 Context before and after Scheme 1002
Before Scheme 1002, the work of natural disaster prevention, control, and mitigation was passive, mainly
focusing on dealing with natural disaster situations. In natural disaster situations, people’s capacity
to disaster response was slow. In disaster response, local communities were lacking experience andknowledge in disaster prevention, control, and mitigation. In addition, the response in the community
has not effectively mobilized local human resources. Marketing and education programs to raise publicawareness about natural disaster prevention, control, and mitigation were not regular or systematic,
were mainly propagated through the mass media, and were not uniformly communicated to the public.
After Scheme 1002 was issued, it focused on guiding principles, specific goals, tasks and implementation
solutions, especially a clear action plan, activities, in which the community is the center in disastermitigation activities, through the implementation of a number of activities and programs such as(i) bringing knowledge about natural disasters into the curricula for high school students, (ii) training
and disseminating knowledge and experience on natural disaster prevention and control (NDPC) for
communities in areas frequently affected by natural disasters, and (iii) organizing information andpropaganda on types of natural disasters and measures for prevention and control on mass media
systems. Figure 9.3 shows the organization for project implementation.

116

Figure 9.3: Organization for Scheme 1002 Implementation
National strategy for natural disasterprevention and control

Organization for National Implementation
Central Government
Decision 1002/553

Ministry ofAgriculture andRural Development(MARD)
The focal points for the
implementation the Project
and be responsible.

Viet Nam Disaster
Management Authority(VNDMA)Sub Department of
Natural Disaster
Prevention and Controlof Central and Highland
Regions (includes
16 provinces and cities)

Ministry ofPlanning andInvestment

Ministry of
Finance

Ministry of
Education andTraining2009 Decision No. 1002/QD-TTg.
The Scheme on Community Awareness Raisingin Community-based Disaster Risk Management(Scheme 1002).
2021 Decision No. 553/QD-TTg Strengthening
public awareness and community-based
disaster risk management, up to 2030
(Scheme 553).
Other line
ministries andsectors

Local
Government
Central region

Balancing andmanaging theinvestment
Funding sources

Collaboration
Collaboration with
with MARD to MARD to
prepare teaching implement thematerials
Project

16 provinces and cities in the central region andhighlands of Viet Nam: Quang Binh Province,
Quang Tri Province, Thua Thien Hue Province,
Da Nang City, Quang Nam Province, Quang Ngai
Province, Binh Dinh Province, Phu Yen Province,
Khanh Hoa Province, Ninh Thuan Province, Binh Thuan
Province, Gia Lai Province, Kon Tum Province, Dak Lak
Province, Dak Nong Province, Lam Dong Province

Region 1
Region 2
Region 3
Region 4
Region 5

The Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development has developed an implementation
plan and assigns specific tasks to the VNDMA (the former DMC Center and the current
Department of Community-based Disaster Risk Reduction) as the focal point for development;
build local implementation guidelines;

CBDRM = community-based disaster risk management, MARD = Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Development.
Sources: Government of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, Decision No. 1002/QD-TTg (2009b) and Decision No. 553/QD-TTg (2021).

MANAGEMENT OF WATER-RELATED DISASTERS BY LOCALCOMMUNITIES IN THE CENTRAL AREA OF VIET NAM

Figure 9.4: Comparing the Components of Scheme 1002 and Scheme 553
1002 Scheme includes two components

553 Scheme includes three components• Strengtheninng capacity for managing
and implementing CBDRM for local
Component
oﬁices at all levels
1• Completing mechanisms, policies, and documents
guiding the implementation of CBDRM community
Component awareness raising and community-based
natural disaster risk management
1• Improving communication andeducation, enhancing the capcity ofComponent community in disaster risk management
2• Capacity building for natural disaster prevention
and control forces and government oﬃcials at all
Component levels in managing and implementing community
2
awareness raising and community-based natural
disaster risk management activities• Strengthening propaganda, education to raiseawareness, strengthening community capacity
Component and skills in natural disaster risk mitigation
3

CBDRM = community-based disaster risk management.
Sources: Government of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, Decision No. 1002/QD-TTg (2009b) and Decision No. 553/QD-TTg (2021).

117

9.3.2 Implementation Scheme 553
After 10 years of project implementation, the results of Scheme 1002 (2009–2020) was summarized,
and the objectives and lessons learned were reviewed. Scheme 533 implements the next phase with the
CBDRM goals set in accordance with the updated situation, covering 2021–2030. Figure 9.4 compares
the components of Scheme 1002 and Scheme 553.

9.4 Results and Discussion
9.4.1 Evaluation of Scheme 1002—Preliminary Results
After Scheme 1002 was implemented, the roles and responsibilities of all levels of government,
especially at the commune level, the capacity of officials in charge of disaster prevention and control
in the implementation localities gradually improved. Figure 9.5 shows the group activities of Scheme
1002. There are positive changes in community awareness, supplemented with knowledge and skills
on disaster prevention, response and mitigation, grasped trends and challenges of various types ofnatural disasters, then applied applicable to specific local conditions. The results showed that theactivities were effective when the authorities and people participated and gave positive feedback on
the activities. People proactively take preventive measures when receiving a warning; and ready tomove to a safe place according to the orders of the authorities when a disaster occurs.
Scheme 1002 made an important contribution to the implementation of the Strategy for NDPC up
to 2020 with the Climate Change Response Program and two national target programs (new rural
program and sustainable poverty reduction). Table 9.1 shows the assessment areas to be evaluatedaccording to the activities of the Scheme 1002. Some results obtained were:SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT(i)

Social stability, production development in localities that do well in community-based disastermanagement, people’s living environment is safer, their production activities are protected,
businesses are protected. Industry is also assured of investment and production.
(ii) Regarding social progress, community members discussed developing a disaster prevention
plan that would help open social relations, local leaders have closer contact with people andopinions of the people are heard more by the leaders.
(iii) Through training, people’s awareness of environmental protection has significantly improved.
NDPC activities in the community need to be associated with environmental protection.
(iv) The project’s activities often organize the integration of disaster prevention with climatechange, which has helped the community to adapt to climate change.
(v) On the issue of equality, the vulnerable have been trained and communicated. In communication
activities, the proportion of women participating usually accounts for 50%, showing theinitiative and interest of women in protecting themselves and their families.

Table 9.1: Division of Areas to be Evaluated According to Project Activities
Category

Areas

Central region

In the cities directly under the Central Government

Region I

Northern midland and mountainous provinces

Region II

Red River Delta and Thai Binh River Provinces

Region III

Central provinces

Region IV

Central highlands and southeast provinces

Region V

Mekong Delta provinces

118
Figure 9.5: Group Activities of Scheme 1002

The Community-Based
Disaster Risk
Managementin Viet Nam(Scheme 1002)

Activity group (AG)1:
Formulating legal documents
and perfecting the state
apparatus on DRR

AG4: Installing early warningand communication systems
about natural disasters

AG2: Training, coaching,and communication

AG5: Building and renovating
local offices, equipment andtools to support DRR

AG3: Rehearsal DRR

AG6: Constructionof small-scale works
for disaster prevention

AG7: Establishing an implementation group and evaluationand monitoring system for DRR activities in the community

DRR = disaster risk reduction.
Sources: Government of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam, Decision No. 1002/QD-TTg (2009b) and Decision No. 553/QD-TTg (2021).

MANAGEMENT OF WATER-RELATED DISASTERS BY LOCALCOMMUNITIES IN THE CENTRAL AREA OF VIET NAM

Evaluation of the project’s specific objectives implemented in the past shows that CBDRM activities
have only been implemented in about 3,123 communes (compared to the plan of 6,000 communes,
accounting for 52.1% of the scheme’s target). Figure 9.6 illustrates the number of communes that have
deployed CBDRM. In total, 3,387 training classes have been organized for more than 114,648 officials
working in anti-corruption work and teachers at educational institutions, and 244,613 students. In
total, more than 7,924 training and communication classes have been organized in the community,
930 plays and competitions, and 1,619,374 other communication activities (including the broadcast
of a program to improve disaster prevention knowledge) attracting about 3,725,629 trained people.
At the same time, 108,874 handbooks with content on the NDPC were released during training andpropaganda sessions. Evaluation of the group working on developing legal documents and perfecting
the government apparatus in disaster prevention. Figures 9.7–9.12 and Table 9.2 illustrate the results
achieved during the 10 years of project implementation.

Figure 9.6: Number of Communes that have Deployed CBDRM
Central Region

923
213

Region I
Region II

241

Region III

753

Region IV

93

119

Region V

648
0

200

400

600

800

1,000

Number of commutes have been deployed CBDRM
CBDRM = community-based disaster risk management.
Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority (2020).

Figure 9.7: Number of Decisions and Documents Issued for CBDRM Implementation
Central Region

7

Region I

83
12Region II
Region III

22

Region IV

2249

Region V
0

20

40

60

80

Number of decisions and documents issued for implementationm CBDRM
CBDRM = community-based disaster risk management.
Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority (2020).

100

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The number of decisions and documents approved from 2009 to the end of 2020 related to thescheme’s operation is 199 (Figure 9.7). All provinces and cities have decisions approving the scheme’s
implementation plans consolidating NDPC apparatus from central to local levels. All provinces andcities have issued decisions approving the list of trainers at the provincial level, who are officers
working in the field of NDPC of agencies and organizations in the locality.

Figure 9.8: Number of Early Warning and Communication Systems Installed
296

Central Region

953

Region I
357

Region II

797

Region III
244

Region IV

335

Region V
0

200

400

600

800

1,000

Number of early warning and communication systems installed120

Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority (2020).

Figure 9.9: Procurement of Supporting Equipment Cost
(D million)
Central Region

14,361

Region I

5,149

Region II

10,516
20,475

Region III

23,165

Region IV
3,503

Region V
05,000

10,00015,00020,000

Procurement of supporting equipment Cost (D million)
CBDRM = community-based disaster risk management.
Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority (2020).

25,000MANAGEMENT OF WATER-RELATED DISASTERS BY LOCALCOMMUNITIES IN THE CENTRAL AREA OF VIET NAM

Figure 9.10: Number of Small-scale Works Built in Regions
6

Central Region

555

Region I
26

Region II

4,261

Region III
12

Region IV

508

Region V
0500

1,000 1,500 2,000 2,500 3,000 3,500 4,000 4,500
Number of small-scale works built in regions

Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority (2020).

Figure 9.11: Procurement of Supporting Equipment Cost
(D million)
Central Region

121
10,119

Region I

3

Region II

8

Region III

3,404

Region IV

187

Region V

5,068
0

2,000

4,000

6,000

8,000

10,000

Procurement of supporting equipment Cost (D million)
CBDRM = community-based disaster risk management.
Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority (2020).

12,000SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 9.12: Capital Allocation for Project Implementation by Regions

9%

4%

1%

8%

6%

Central Region
Region I
Region II
Region III

72%

Region IV
Region V

Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority (2020).

122

Table 9.2: Results of Training and Communication Activities(number of people)
CentralRegionRegionI

RegionII

RegionIII

RegionIV

Region
V

83

340

165

369

180

348

1,485

Number of trained staff
and teachers

14,61328,7306,807

29,05814,80020,640114,648

Number of training classes

207

432

255

1,788

189

516

3,387

Number of students being
propagated69,000910

4,996

54,658300

114,749244,613Category
Number of teachers, trainingof trainers

Number of maps were created

Total

180

35

2

759

296

12

1,284

Number of guide books

99,000

1,500

349

2,143

5,880

2

108,874

Number of approved
disaster prevention plansat commune level

4

12

0

290

5

33

344

Number of propaganda
activities

768,527

88,87430,175

180,696

327,984

223,118

1,619,374

823

568

201

1,959

735

3,638

7,924

76,2501,950,711

3,609

117,261

7,415

1,570,383

3,725,629

223

13

185

454

13

42

930

39,04429,803

3,725

342,750

19,49739,479474,299

Number of trainings
in the community
Number of people participating
Number of performances
Cost (D million)

Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority (2020).

MANAGEMENT OF WATER-RELATED DISASTERS BY LOCALCOMMUNITIES IN THE CENTRAL AREA OF VIET NAM

9.4.2 A dvantages and Disadvantages and Solutions
for Implementing the Next Steps
The advantages
The project’s activities were implemented from central to local levels, resulting in increased awarenessand capacity of disaster prevention. Relevant programs, projects, schemes, and plans in the locality all
integrate CBDRM activities. Socio-political organizations, social organizations, and nongovernmentorganizations have actively coordinated to implement the project’s activities. Some organizations
have signed a memorandum of understanding with the agency in charge of implementing the project.
The provincial Red Cross has also signed a memorandum of cooperation with the provincial Standing
Office of Disaster Prevention and Control after the memorandum of understanding was signed at thecentral level. Many localities have actively promoted raising community awareness and community
management in many different ethnic languages, increasing the use of social networks in exploiting,updating, and sharing information, and coordinating in the implementation of the scheme. Manyorganizations have provided financial support to implement CBDRM projects on the basis of theoperational contents of the scheme. Appendix A9.1 lists some typical models of implementing CBDRM
that were carried out from 2009 to 2020 in Viet Nam. The establishment of the Disaster Prevention
Fund and Decree 83/2019/ND-CP amending Decree 94/2014/ND-CP have contributed to speedingup the implementation of the scheme, being proactive in allocating resources annual implementation
capital and 5-year plans at all levels.

Difficulties encountered in implementing Scheme 1002
After 10 years of project implementation, lessons learned and difficulties encountered in include:(i)

The implementing organization has not yet specified tasks for ministries, branches, andlocalities in presiding over and coordinating in developing the guidelines on the regimes,
policies, and implementation mechanisms. Specifically, there is a lack of financial support orstaff to implement, monitor, and evaluate the implementation of the scheme, and for residents
to participate in the scheme’s activities.
(ii) Funds from residents’ contributions (5% in 2009–2020) are not included in the scheme inthe coming period due to the difficulty in making statistics and assessments. In fact, a part isalready included in resources, such as the fund for the NDPC at all levels and resources frompolitical, social organizations, businesses, and individuals (Figure 9.13).
(iii) Regarding the financial mechanism, the responsibilities of provinces and cities are not clearly
defined to implement the scheme.
(iv) The new scheme stipulates that the implementing agencies are the MARD and the Central
Save the Children for the NDPC, the coordination of relevant ministries, sectors, and localities.
The focal and advisory agency at the central and local levels has not been determined.
(v) There is no clear regulation on coordination with agencies leading the implementation of thescheme (self-formation of a central working group with a few activities organized). This leads
to a lack of information, sometimes overlapping in local implementation as well as contents ofthe scheme.
(vi) A set of indicators for monitoring and evaluating the results of the scheme’s implementation
has been issued. However, all levels, sectors, and organizations have not seriously implemented
it, so it is difficult to assess the objectives of the scheme.
(vii) Some activities in the scheme such as small-scale works for the NDPC in the community, theassessment and monitoring system for the NDPC and mitigation activities in the community
need to be directed and clarified.

123

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Appendix A9.2 shows some activities of implementing CBDRM that were carried out from 2009
to 2020.

The incomplete targets of Scheme 1002
Some targets have not been completed according to the proposed project objectives, including:(i)Target “to ensure that by 2020, 100% of NDPC staff will be trained, have their capacity andqualifications enhanced in NDPC and reduction” is difficult to achieve due to the regularfluctuation on the number of staff in localities.
(ii) Target of 70% of the population of communes in areas frequently prone to natural disasters tobe provided with knowledge about disaster mitigation is difficult to evaluate because very few(about 4 million) have been taught through the training courses and other methods, as well
as from distributed leaflets, communication media, radio, television, etc. (nearly 1.5 million
communication activities, distributing more than 100,000 notebooks).
(iii) The scheme is “expected to be implemented in about 6,000 hamlets and communes that areoften prone to by natural disasters nationwide”, but the relevant agencies have not yet madethe statistics and assessments to determine the data in the locality.

Lessons learned and solution proposals
Through the analysis of the project implementation (Scheme 1002), some recommendations for the
next phase are:

124

(i)

The 2009–2020 period is long enough to effectively implement activities, which has been
proven through the results of the above analysis and evaluation in localities, agencies, andorganizations in charge of implementation and participation of residents at all levels. Propose
the next implementation phase of the scheme in 10 years starting from January 2021 andending in December 2030 (553 Scheme).
(ii) Specify funding sources: State budget (including capital borrowing from internationaland national organizations); local budget (including capital borrowed by the province frominternational and national organizations); funding for NDPC at all levels; resources frompolitical, social organizations, businesses, individuals, NGOs, and nonrefundable grants
from international and national organizations (Figure 9.13).

MANAGEMENT OF WATER-RELATED DISASTERS BY LOCALCOMMUNITIES IN THE CENTRAL AREA OF VIET NAM

Figure 9.13: Comparison of Funding Source between Scheme 1002
(2009–2020) and Scheme 553(2021–2030)
546.90State budget
Local budget
Fund for NDPC
at all levels
Capital contributedby residents

257.600171.700601.0046.32

0395.48Others0.00

200.00400.001002 Scheme (2009–2020)

686.80600.00(D million)

800.00553 Scheme (2021–2030)

NDPC = natural disaster prevention and control.
Source: Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority (2020).

125

9.5 Conclusions
In the context of climate change, natural disasters are becoming more extreme and unconventional,
and cause serious damage to people and properties. In this regard, awareness raising and community
participation are important. The activities have been regulated by the Viet Nam Law on Natural Disaster
Prevention and Control and are the priority content of the Sendai Framework.1 Research and practicalexperience have agreed that community awareness raising is a form of nonstructural investment
with low cost but high efficiency in disaster prevention and control. Therefore, this work should be
carried out regularly and throughout the process of preventing, responding to, and overcoming theconsequences of natural disasters.
Every year, in order to minimize damage caused by natural disasters, the CBDRM program needs to bedone regularly, continuously, systematically, and creatively, and the lessons learned need to be sharedwidely. Viet Nam’s National Program on CBDRM Scheme 1002 has been issued in the international
context of having to re-recognize the construction solutions that have not yet brought high efficiency.
Viet Nam’s disaster management is oriented to change from passive response to proactive prevention,
toward proactive management of disaster risks and prioritizing solutions for disaster prevention and

1

The Sendai Framework is an international document adopted by United Nations (UN) member states at the World Conference
on Disaster Risk Reduction held in Sendai, Japan in March 2015. This document is considered the most comprehensive
international agreement on disaster risk reduction.

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

management based on the community. After Scheme 1002 (from 2009 to 2020) achieved results,
Scheme 533 is continuing to implement results, covering 2021 to 2030.
Awareness raising is not only for the general population but also for disaster prevention officers andother community groups in society. In addition, lessons learned as well as typical models on community
awareness raising, CBDRM has been drawn up during the implementation of the scheme. This needs
to continue to be promoted and adjusted in accordance with the actual requirements and the current
natural disaster situation so that public awareness raising activities are more widely deployed,
effectively and sustainably.

126

MANAGEMENT OF WATER-RELATED DISASTERS BY LOCALCOMMUNITIES IN THE CENTRAL AREA OF VIET NAM

References
Government of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. 2009a. National Plan Implementation for the National
Strategy on National Disaster Prevention, Response and Mitigation to 2020.
Government of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. 2009b. Scheme on Community Awareness Raising in
CBDRM. Decision No. 1002/QD-TTg.
Government of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. 2013. Law on NDPC of Viet Nam.
Government of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. 2014. Establishment and Management of the Disaster
Prevention and Control Fund. Decree 94/2014/ND-CP.
Government of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. 2019. Amending Decree 94/2014/ND-CP. Decree
83/2019/ND-CP.
Government of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam 2020. Law Amending Law on NDPC and the Law on
Dikes, Law No. 60/2020/QH14.
Government of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. 2021. Scheme on Strengthening Public Awareness andCommunity-based Disaster Risk Management, up to 2030. Decision No. 553/QD-TTg.
Government of Socialist Republic of Viet Nam. 2021. Establishment and Management of the Disaster
Prevention and Control Fund. Decree 78/2021/NĐ-CP.
Inter-Agency Standing Committee Reference Group on Risk, Early Warning and Preparedness and theEuropean Commission. 2023. Viet Nam Country Risk Profile 2023. https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/vietnam/vulnerability (accessed 12 August 2023).
Nguyen, H., H. M. Hien, R. Shaw, T. T. M. Thi, R. Osti, and K. Miyake. 2011. CBDRM in Vietnam. New
York: US: Nova Science Publishers.
Vietnam Disaster and Dyke Management Authority. 2020. Review and Evaluation of the Implementation
Results of Scheme 1002 CBDRM during 2009–2020. Ha Noi.

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Appendix A9.1: Some Typical Models of Implementing
CBDRM in Viet Nam, 2009 to 2020
Project “Institutional capacity enhancement on disaster risk management, especially disasters related
to climate change” (SCDM 1) funded by UNDP in 51 communes frequently affected by natural disastersof 20 provinces, with the participation of the Central Red Cross Society, Women’s Union, and Oxfam.
Project “Capacity Enhancement for Disaster Response in the Central Region of Vietnam “implemented
by Japan International Cooperation Agency (JICA) in 18 communes frequently affected by natural
disasters in six central provinces.
Implementation of Component 2 on CBDRM under the WB5 project implemented in 100 communes
frequently affected by natural disasters in 10 central provinces.
Implementation of Component 3, the project “Improving the resilience of vulnerable coastal
communities to climate change related impacts in Viet Nam” is supported with non-returnable grants
through the UNDP to seven provinces.
Models implementing CBDRM in some organizations:
•
•

128

Central Viet Nam Red Cross Society
World Vision, CRS organizations

Example of implementation CBDRM in Quang Ngai Province. Strengthen the capacity of local
authorities to implement the program:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Local government has the capacity to implement the CBDRM program to develop a Disaster
Preparedness Plan.
Local authorities are strengthened to integrate NDPC and climate change adaptation into theirlocal socio-economic development plans.
Enhance the community’s resilience to natural disasters by implementing and developing
disaster preparedness plans.
Improve the commune’s early warning system to effectively convey early warning information
to local people.
Improve the ability to strengthen homes for local authorities, builders, and communities.
Enhance community resilience through implementation of subprojects identified in thedisaster preparedness plan.
Capacity building for teachers, students, and education officials to adopt safe school initiatives.

MANAGEMENT OF WATER-RELATED DISASTERS BY LOCALCOMMUNITIES IN THE CENTRAL AREA OF VIET NAM

Appendix A9.2: Some Activities Implementing CBDRM
in Viet Nam, 2009 to 2020

Organizing training for commune and ward officials
to integrate NDPC and climate change adaptation
into local socioeconomic development plans

Organizing training for commune and ward officials
to integrate NDPC and climate change adaptation
into local socioeconomic development plans

129

Proposal to develop disaster risk
map in Quang Phu Ward

Conducting surveys in communities frequently
affected by natural disasters

Upgrading and renovating the water system, Quang Phu 1 Primary School, Quang Phu Ward

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Before repair

After repair

Repairs and renovations to strengthen the resilience of homes in areas frequently affected by natural disasters

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Support equipment for the response team to prevent natural disasters in communes and wards

PART III

Water and Food

CHAPTER 10
Water Governance in Response to the Impactof Climate Change in Arid and Semi-arid Regions:
The Case of Türkiye
Bulent Inanc, Burcu Calli, Mustafa Salih Sarikaya, Lutfi Akca, and Ahmet Mete Saatci

10.1 Introduction
Located in a semi-arid region, Türkiye has made significant progress in sustainable water management
practices over the last few decades, to make wise use of its limited water resources. In the face ofthe pressures and risks that climate change poses to water management, improved water governancehas played a significant role for better protection of water resources, improved water services, andenhanced water use efficiency. Good water governance structures have helped to foster more resilient,inclusive, and sustainable water management practices. In this regard, water governance does not only
refer to a straight set of rules and mechanisms, but a concept that also dynamically considers countryspecific social factors. However, various technical, institutional, and social challenges have also beenencountered in practice.
In the last decades, Türkiye has taken important steps at the national level in the management of water
resources by making legislative arrangements, improving infrastructure and water use efficiency,
preparing action plans, and scaling-up water sanitation and hygiene (WASH) investments in orderto ensure everyone has access to safe drinking water and sanitation services. However, emergencies
such as the Syrian refugee influx, the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19) pandemic, and the recent
devastating earthquakes in February 2023 have necessitated additional measures and fueled a paradigm
shift. These emergencies have underscored the significance of cooperation and coordination acrossmultiple levels to prevent disasters, protect against crises, and prepare for emergencies.
This chapter aims to reflect on Türkiye’s experiences on water governance, with a specific focus on
the agriculture sector, which is the largest consumer of water, in response to climate change given its
location in a semi-arid region. The socioeconomic dynamics that have shaped the water governancesystem in Türkiye over the last decade are also explored with the objective of analyzing the intricate
connection between people and water, in order to drive inspiring insights for addressing water-related
challenges and formulating solutions, for better water management in arid and semi-arid regions bydrawing on the experience of Türkiye.

10.2 Water Governance in Türkiye
The origins of the early agricultural societies are believed to lie in the region where modern Türkiye islocated. Regarded as a source of life, water has always been at the heart of the economic, cultural, andsocial life in Türkiye. This is also demonstrated by the embracement of water in all parts within thesociety. In the pre-republic period, fountains, public baths, cisterns, and aqueducts to which people caneasily access in urban life are unique examples for the public hygiene culture. In this sense, water isregarded not solely as a source of development but also a social and spiritual element of the daily livesof people.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The 11th National Development Plan of Türkiye covering the period of 2019–2023 emphasizes theprinciples of good governance, which make it possible to transparent, accountable, responsive, andrapid decision making as well as to include citizens in this decision-making process (Presidency ofStrategy and Budget of Türkiye 2019). Türkiye has in this context taken significant measures in thegood governance of water resources.
Driven by the European Union Water Framework Directive (EU WFD), Türkiye has made reforms
with regard to governance mechanisms and structures related to water in the last two decades, as a
candidate country for the EU membership. Türkiye’s legislative efforts and investments in all its river
basins have gained momentum following the opening of the accession negotiations with the EU on theEnvironment Chapter in 2009.
Similar to many other countries, the central authorities are the leading actors in the decision-making
in water sector in Türkiye. These authorities are presented in Figure 10.1.

Figure 10.1: Leading Central Authorities in Water Management

Ministry ofTreasury and
Finance
Ministry ofEnergy andNaturalResources

Ministry of
Health134

Ministry ofEnvironment,
Urbanization
and Climate
ChangeMINISTRY OF
AGRICULTURE
AND FORESTRY
Main water-related units:– State Hydraulic Works– GD of Water Management– Turkish Water Institute

Presidency ofStrategy andBudgetMinistry ofIndustry andTechnology

Ministry ofInterior
Ministry ofForeign Affairs

GD = general directorate.
Source: SUEN (Turkish Water Institute) (2021).

The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry1 is the leading institution in the policy development andexecution of the protection, development, and use of water resources. The ministry, through its threemain water-related units, State Hydraulic Works (DSI), the General Directorate of Water Management,
and the Turkish Water Institute (SUEN), is primarily mandated to develop water resources, ensure
1

The Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs, formed in 2011, merged with the Ministry of Food, Agriculture and Livestockin 2018.

WATER GOVERNANCE IN RESPONSE TO THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE
IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID REGIONS: THE CASE OF TÜRKIYE

coordination of water management, prepare river basin management plans, develop measures and set
objectives and environmental standards, devise strategy and policies for flood and drought risks by
preparing management plans, and conduct scientific research for supporting the works noted above.
One of the major reforms initiated in 2011 in regards to water governance has been the adoption ofbasin-scale management of water resources, in line with the EU WFD. The Ministry of Agriculture
and Forestry coordinates the preparation and implementation of river basin management plans. As
water management is a multi-level public responsibility, the ministry works in close cooperation withdifferent ministries, public bodies, and other stakeholders related to water management issues.
The National Water Board functions for the coordination and cooperation in water issues with thehighest level of participation from relevant institutions. The board chaired by the Minister of Agriculture
and Forestry in which other member ministries’ top level officials participate, plays a critical role at thecentral level to steer national water policies (Figure 10.2).

Headed by
Minister of
Agrculture
and Forestry

NATIONAL WATER BOARD
National water policies and startegies

Headed by
DeputyMinister ofAgriculture
and Forestry

BASIN MANAGEMENTCENTRAL BOARD
Discussion and evaluation of thedevelopments in the basins
Feedback to the Water Management
Coodination Board

Headed by
Coordinator
Governor

BASIN MANAGEMENT COMMITTEE
Coordination of all basin-level
water-related issues

PRO
VINC
IAL L

EVEL

BAS

IN L

EVEL

CEN

TRA

L LE

VEL

Figure 10.2: Basin-Scale Water Resources Management in Türkiye

Headed by
Governor

PROVINCIAL WATER MANAGEMENT
COORDINATION COMMITTEE
Preparation of basin protection action
and basin management plans, flood anddrought management plans, supervision
and assessment of implementation of plans

Source: Adapted from SUEN (Turkish Water Institute) (2021).

The Basin Management Committee and the Provincial Water Management Coordination Committee
composed of local bodies of the ministries, water and sewerage administration, and other relevant local
stakeholders, including nongovernment organizations and irrigation unions ensure the coordination ofwater matters at basin and provincial levels.
The 13th article of the EU WFD holds that “Member States shall ensure that a river basin management
plan is produced for each river basin district lying entirely within their territory”. Although not being
a full EU member yet, Türkiye completed river basin management plans in 11 basins, while planning
activities in the other 14 basins are ongoing or planned to be completed by the end of 2025.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Water governance entails not only a resilient institutional structure but also a sound legislative base.
As an EU accession country, Türkiye has substantially transposed the water-related EU directives into
national legislation. A draft water law is due to be adopted by parliament as a framework legislationthat will be a critical milestone to fully clarify roles and responsibilities in the water sector by law.
Another important aspect in good water governance is strong governance at the local level. Amongthe local governments, municipalities come to the fore with their extensive roles and responsibilities
in local services (e.g., land development, public transportation, water and sewer services, waste
management). Approximately 93% of the population in Türkiye lives within municipal boundaries.
The mayors and general assemblies of the municipalities are directly elected by the local residents
enhancing the accountability mechanism. A law amendment in 2013 gave metropolitan status to
14 more provinces, increasing the total to 30,2 placing nearly 80% of the country population within
metropolitan municipality boundaries. The primary goal for the amendment was to benefit more fromthe economies of scale to single-handedly plan and deliver the municipal services for the entire urban
area (SUEN 2021). Water and sewerage administration under the metropolitan municipalities aresemi-autonomous entities that are mandated to supply water to households and other consumers andcollect and treat wastewater of the entire city.

10.3 Water Governance in the Agriculture Sector:
Case of Irrigation Unions
136

Türkiye is located in a region where domestication of plants, animal husbandry, and the transition fromhunting and gathering to farming first began in world history. The Fertile Crescent, which includes
southeast Türkiye, was the place where early practices of irrigated agriculture and water canal systems
also began. This is why agriculture and water have played a vital economic and social role in Türkiye
for thousands of years.
Of the 28 million hectares agricultural areas in Türkiye, 8.5 million hectares are economicallyirrigable. Agriculture is by far the largest consumer (77%) of the country’s water resources (DSI 2022).
Agriculture has been impacted by increasing fluctuations in precipitation and extreme weather events
including severe droughts in the region. These events inevitably exert significant impacts on thewater requirements of crops and soil. Notably, the agriculture sector also contributes to the challenges
as a highly water dependent sector, the largest user and a polluter. Food security directly relies on
agricultural workforce which constitutes nearly 15% of the total employment. This gives the agriculture
sector a central role in addressing complex and emerging water challenges.
Over the past 2 decades, Türkiye has undertaken substantial efforts to enhance water use efficiency
in agriculture. This has been pursued through structural transformations such as land consolidation,
expansion of modern irrigation systems, and use of nonconventional water resources alongside therehabilitation of the existing infrastructure.
Governments across the world have also embarked on a process of administrative reforms to tackle
the increasing demands on irrigated agriculture and to enhance its performance. Among the reforms,
irrigation management transfer (IMT) has appeared as the most important and far-reaching reform
thus far. The two drivers of this process were the global movement toward liberalism and the call for
2

There are 81 provinces in Türkiye.

WATER GOVERNANCE IN RESPONSE TO THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE
IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID REGIONS: THE CASE OF TÜRKIYE

a more participatory management approach. The underlying motives for IMT have been the expected
increase in efficiency and productivity and achievement of full cost recovery of services (GarcesRestrepo, Vermillion, and Muñoz 2007).
As the adverse impacts of climate change have exacerbated over the years in Türkiye, water use
efficiency and inclusive governance have also become essential in the irrigation sector. This necessitates
stakeholder engagement underpinned by a robust institutional setting. In parallel with the global
trend toward IMT, as from 1993, the DSI has initiated an accelerated transfer program of operationand maintenance services of irrigation schemes from the DSI to irrigation unions. By the end of 2022,
81% of DSI-built irrigation projects (2.87 million hectares of the total 3.56 million hectares area)
were transferred to various organizations of which 84% are under the domain of irrigation unions.
The remaining 16% are operated by municipalities, cooperatives, and villages (DSI 2022).
An important milestone was achieved in 2011, when the Law on Irrigation Unions was enacted
in the parliament by which the unions’ legal status was clarified. The unions were designed to function
in a semi-autonomous manner under the supervision of the DSI. Within the geographical domain
designated by the government, the unions are authorized to undertake the operation, maintenance,
repair, and management works; collect payments for water use; pay back the investment cost of the
facilities taken over; with the approval of the DSI, develop the facilities taken over; cooperate with theagricultural planning offices of the ministry in the planning of crop production; cooperate with otherorganizations in research and development and capacity building activities related to irrigation andother agricultural practices.
Some revisions were made to the law in 2018, due to experiences gained in the implementation of theoriginal law. The major change was with regard to the appointment of head of the union. To improvethe checks and balances in the system, it was enacted that the head of the union is appointed by
the Minister of Agriculture and Forestry on the proposal by the DSI. Another trend accelerated
since then has been the consolidation of the unions to benefit more from the economies of scale leading
the number of unions to drop from 384 to 181 by the end of 2022 (SUEN 2021; DSI 2022).
Nevertheless, there is room for improvement to enhance farmer participation in the management ofirrigation facilities. For instance, in Japan, land improvement districts (LID) are regarded as successful
structures in terms of farmer-led irrigation management (Tanaka and Sato 2005). The boards of
directors of the LIDs are elected by the member farmers where farmers are encouraged to self-manage
the irrigation facilities. In addition, as an example of community-based irrigation management, farmers
may be commissioned by the LID as “watchers” to watch over each irrigation line. Drawing from theJapanese experience, participation by farmers in the decision-making bodies of irrigation unions in
Türkiye may be contemplated in the future by considering local sociocultural context.
The “agriculture per available water” model has been developed by the Ministry of Agriculture andForestry placing water at the center of agricultural production planning. As per this model enacted as
law in 2023, the ministry performs the agricultural production planning based on available water, as
such crops that consume less water are encouraged and practices that reduce water consumption are
financially supported by the government. The success of this model relies on full engagement of all
stakeholders. In this regard, the national “Water Efficiency Campaign” initiated in 2023 is a criticalstep toward engaging all stakeholders including citizens to enhance water use efficiency awarenessnationwide.

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10.4 Water Governance in Response to Climate Change
and Changing Socioeconomic Dynamics
Current global environmental, economic, and social challenges exert pressure on livelihoods andintensify humanitarian needs worldwide. These emerging threats raise the number of people facing
water risks, food insecurity, population mobility, and epidemics. The Mediterranean Basin, where
Türkiye is located, has been significantly affected by climate-change induced disasters. Climatechange-induced events such as droughts and floods can pose threats to food security. Precipitation is
projected to decrease by 30%–40% in the Eastern Mediterranean region, while water demand surges
due to population growth and the expected temperature increase by 2–4°C (UNEP n.d.). Türkiye is oneof the countries affected most by the changing conditions in the Mediterranean Basin.
While climate change has been a major factor shaping Türkiye’s water needs, challenges, andgovernance structure over the past decades, changing socioeconomic dynamics and emergencies suchas the Syrian refugee influx, the global upheaval of the COVID-19 pandemic and the recent devastating
earthquakes that struck the country have also introduced new dimensions to the management of water.
These emergencies underscored the significance of cooperation and coordination across multiple
levels to prevent disasters, protect against crises, and prepare for emergencies.

138

One striking occurrence that has had a profound impact on water management in Türkiye is themass refugee influx following the outbreak of the conflict in neighboring Syria in 2011. The numberof registered Syrians living under temporary protection in Türkiye rapidly increased in the first few
years of the mass inflows, reaching over 4 million and making Türkiye the country hosting the largest
number of refugees in the world.
Türkiye has spent over $40 billion to address the needs of Syrians within its borders. It is estimatedthat approximately 5% of this amount has been allocated for WASH-related activities in the first 5 years(WWAP 2019). WASH infrastructure and facilities at temporary shelter centers (camps) were built bystate institutions providing all necessary services to meet global WASH standards. Managing WASH
needs for millions of Syrians living outside the temporary shelter centers involved more comprehensive
actions and planning including demographic projections and adjustments to the existing investment
plans. Addressing the rapidly increasing demand required additional administrative, technical,
financial, and human capacity to maintain existing water infrastructure and to develop new projects.
Populations in the main refugee-receiving cities located mainly near the Syrian border, reached levels
that would normally be reached in 13 to 15 years. Smaller provinces have experienced sudden population
booms that necessitated rapid response measures for enhancing water supply and sanitation services
capacity. As a striking case, by 2015 the population of the border province of Kilis doubled with thearrival of over 120,000 Syrians. In the border provinces of Gaziantep, Şanlıurfa, Kilis, and Hatay, newdams, reservoirs, and pipelines were constructed; and water and wastewater treatment capacities wereexpanded. The rise in water demand induced by the flow of Syrians inevitably has placed more stresson already scarce water resources facing the climate change impacts in the region.
The urgent response capacities of the relevant institutions both at national and local levels in Türkiye,
resulted in effective WASH management under the crisis situation. Since the early years of the
refugee influx, Türkiye has adopted the principle that humanitarian assistance must be coupled with
infrastructure development capable of responding to the scale, scope, and protracted nature of the
refugee influx (WWAP 2019).

WATER GOVERNANCE IN RESPONSE TO THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE
IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID REGIONS: THE CASE OF TÜRKIYE

By August 2023, only 2.23% of the 3.3 million Syrians in Türkiye lived in shelter centers, while therest resided in cities, towns, and villages throughout the country concentrating in the areas close to
the Syrian border (Ministry of Interior of Türkiye 2023). Addressing the long-term WASH needs ofpeople is not solely a technical challenge; providing education and training opportunities is equallyimportant for meeting future needs. To this end, capacity building projects have been developed tointegrate Syrians into the social and economic life in Türkiye to ensure an inclusive and sustainable
WASH management which will eventually foster regional development. The Turkish experience inwater management amid mass refugee influx is a unique success story and example for the world.
Following the announcement of COVID-19 as a pandemic by the World Health Organization in March
2020, all aspects of life have been affected in a way that had never been experienced before. The
COVID-19 outbreak highlighted the vulnerability of global systems and the adverse impacts of suchglobal events on our efforts to achieve the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs).
The pandemic revealed the significance of access to WASH services. Climate change and public healthconcerns for the local and central administrations have become deeply interconnected. This has also
demonstrated how emergencies have the potential to further stress already scarce water resources
intensifying the complexity of the situation.
The Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry of Türkiye started to track the COVID-19 virus in wastewaterat the national level as early as March 2020 and SUEN carried these studies to the international levelin cooperation with the World Health Organization, the World Bank, the European Commission, theJoint Research Center of the EU, and many others. Through these studies that could scan asymptomaticcases as well as symptomatic cases, rises and decreases of cases could be detected at least 4–5 daysin advance. Wastewater surveillance studies have revealed the prevalence and trends of infection in
the community and served as an effective early warning tool for public health decision makers andhighlighted the need for cooperation among the sectors. The experiences gained from wastewaterbased epidemiology studies accomplished during the course of COVID-19 will ensure preparedness
against possible future pandemics.
The earthquakes that struck Türkiye and Syria on 6 February 2023 once again underscored the vitality of
WASH infrastructure and services. Such disasters show us the significance of coordination at different
levels for the protection, prevention, and preparation in urban water and wastewater management andservices in crisis situations. Following the earthquake, recovery and reconstruction in the water sector
has necessitated a quick and holistic sustainable planning addressing urban, industrial, and agriculturalneeds and uses. Today, Türkiye is more committed than ever to ensure water and sanitation for all,using all of its capacity and expertise to alleviate the damages caused by the earthquake.

10.5 Lessons Learned and the Way Forward:
A New Vision for Water
As a country which is not water-rich, Türkiye has long been committed to the sustainable and responsible
use of water resources. Climate change has further underscored the necessity for this commitment anddefined how water policies have been designed and implemented in Türkiye. Given the emergency
situations experienced in Türkiye over the past decade, infrastructure development supported byenhanced water governance in the water sector has become a critical priority to effectively respondthe already existing water stress.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Türkiye’s experience has also illustrated the necessity of enhancing emergency response capabilities
and preparedness in the face of climate uncertainties and global risks such as pandemics, humanmigration, and natural disasters.
Developing water-efficient and modern water infrastructure, including irrigation networks andreservoirs, stands as the optimal climate change adaptation method that would ensure food security
and economic stability in arid and semi-arid regions facing severe droughts. Planning agricultural
production based on available water is another approach that contributes to climate change adaptationand this approach has fully been adopted by Türkiye.
Exploring the potential of nonconventional water resources presents an alternative solution to address
drought conditions in arid and semi-arid regions, expanding rainwater harvesting and grey wateruse, ensuring the reuse of water returned from irrigation are some alternatives. Nevertheless, morestudies are to be implemented with regard to the societal acceptability of wastewater as a sourceof supply. This demonstrates the fact that social factors may potentially act as an impediment to technicalsolutions. Socioeconomic dynamics influence and ultimately shape the design and implementation ofwater policies.
Türkiye adopts this approach in the design of its future water vision. The national “Water Efficiency
Campaign” initiated in 2023 is a critical inclusive step to enhance water use efficiency awarenessnation-wide.

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In light of the emerging challenges, Türkiye is more committed than ever to ensure access to cleanwater and sanitation for all not only within its borders but also beyond. Türkiye takes its part in thecollective responsibility to ensure worldwide awareness and preparedness for new waves of possible
future crises such as pandemics, climate change induced and natural disasters.

WATER GOVERNANCE IN RESPONSE TO THE IMPACT OF CLIMATE CHANGE
IN ARID AND SEMI-ARID REGIONS: THE CASE OF TÜRKIYE

References
State Hydraulic Works (DSI). 2022. DSI 2022 Annual Report. Ankara: DSI. https://cdniys.tarimorman.gov.tr/api/File/GetFile/425/Sayfa/759/1107/DosyaGaleri/dsi2022faaliyetraporu.pdf (accessed
22 August 2023).
Garces-Restrepo C., D. Vermillion, and G. Muñoz. 2007. Irrigation Management Transfer. Rome: Foodand Agriculture Organization.
Ministry of Interior of Türkiye. 2023. Temporary Protection Statistics. https://en.goc.gov.tr/temporary-protection27 (accessed 28 August 2023).
Presidency of Strategy and Budget of Türkiye. 2019. The 11th National Development Plan of Türkiye
2019–2023. Ankara: Presidency of the Republic of Türkiye. https://www.sbb.gov.tr/wp-content/uploads/2022/07/Eleventh_Development_Plan_2019-2023.pdf (accessed 20 August 2023).
SUEN (Turkish Water Institute). 2021. Water Governance in Turkey. Istanbul: SUEN.
Tanaka, Y., and Y. Sato. 2005. Farmers Managed Irrigation Districts in Japan: Assessing How Fairness
May Contribute to Sustainability. Agricultural Water Management 77(1–3): 196–209.
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). n.d. Mediterranean Action Plan (MAP). Athens:
UNEP and MAP. https://www.unep.org/unepmap/ (accessed 20 August 2023).
World Water Assessment Programme (WWAP). 2019. The United Nations World Water Development
Report 2019: Leaving No One Behind. Paris: UNESCO. https://www.unesco.org/en/wwap/wwdr/2019 (accessed 20 August 2023).

141

CHAPTER 11
The Water Cycle and Rain-fed Rice Cultivationin Northeast Thailand
Koshi Yoshida, Hiroki Oda, and Kenji Tanaka

11.1 Introduction
Thailand is one of the world’s leading rice producers and exporters, with an area of approximately 10
million hectares of rice paddy and an annual production of 33 million tons of rice. Because the market
for rice is smaller than that for other crops, fluctuations in rice production in Thailand have a significant
impact on the international market. In Thailand, more than 50% of agricultural land is paddy fields,
and production fluctuates widely from year to year. 2015 saw a monsoon that brought below-normal
precipitation and large-scale drought in the northern and northeastern parts of the country.

142

Most of the cultivated farmland in the northeastern part of Thailand is rainfall-dependent rainfed paddy fields, and the production of wet-season or main-season crops is very unstable. Shimizu,
Matsumoto, and Pham (2004) analyzed the relationship between precipitation and the unit yield ofrain-fed rice paddies, and found no clear relationship between the two. A field survey revealed that
paddy fields often use small reservoirs near the fields and water in the surrounding lowlands. Homma
et al. (2004) pointed out that rain-fed paddy fields often use water stored in low-lying areas causedby microtopography within the same paddy plot. Somura et al. (2008) estimated the amount of watersupplied by a small pump or from a small water pond for rain-fed rice paddies based on water storage
and rice yield estimation model. The results are consistent with the findings of Shimizu, Matsumoto,and Pham (2004) and Homma et al. (2004) and indicate that there was more available water thanrainfall even in rain-fed rice cultivation. On the other hand, Suzuki, Goto, and Mizutani (2003)
constructed a model to estimate groundwater hydrological processes and yield in rain-fed rice paddies
on the upper and lower slopes of northeast Thailand, and expressed the phenomenon of different
unit yield depending on topographical conditions. They stated that in order to reproduce the slightly
different hydrological environment of each paddy location, it is necessary to determine the downward
infiltration capacity and its coefficient for each topographical condition (elevation difference), that is,
to model not only the water balance in the root zone but also the change in downward infiltration ratefrom the paddy field due to groundwater level change.
In addition, Shiraiwa et al. (2001) found in a statistical analysis of all provinces in Thailand that there
are many provinces where the variation in rice production was caused by the variation in the area undercultivation rather than the unit yield. Tanaka et al. (2016) showed that the accuracy of reproducingchanges in unit yield over time can be improved by considering yield stabilization strategies thatreflect local farming methods, which reduce the area under cultivation and concentrate rainfall on
the paddy fields planted in the rainy season, and that the effect of rainfall variability on both unit yieldand harvested area can be evaluated. Therefore, it is necessary to evaluate the effects of precipitation
variability on both unit yield and harvested area. This chapter introduces the relationship between
water use, water cycle, and agricultural production in a rain-fed paddy-dominated region such as thenortheastern part of Thailand, and the modeling to quantitatively evaluate the relationship of riceproduction, unit yield, and harvested area.

THE WATER CYCLE AND RAIN-FED RICE CULTIVATION IN NORTHEAST THAILAND

11.2 Rice Production, Yield, Planted Area, and Harvest Area
Ratio in Northeast Thailand
Thailand is the world’s largest rice exporter, and rice is the country’s most important crop. Rice
paddy fields account for about 20% of the country’s land area and about 50% of its farmland, of whichmore than half is rice paddies concentrated in the northeastern part of the country. Annual rainfall
fluctuation was 800–1,400 millimeters per year, and this amount was smaller than other regions inThailand. The majority of the agricultural ecosystem in northeast Thailand is rain-fed agriculture. The
irrigated paddy field was developed to more than 250,000 hectares from 1981 to 2013 in northeast
Thailand, however, the average irrigation rate in 2013 was still 7.4%. This indicates that agriculture in
northeast Thailand was dependent on rainwater and vulnerable to climate conditions. Therefore, ricecultivation in northeast Thailand is mainly a one-season crop, and the yield per unit area is the lowest
in the country. Compared to the Central Plains (Chao Phraya Delta), where the irrigation rate is highand two or even three-season crops are possible in some places, the yield per unit area is about half.
Figure 11.1 show the changes in production, yield, planted area, and harvested area ratio (= harvest area/
planted area) of wet season rice in the entire northeast Thailand from 1981 to 2013. Rice production andyield increased gradually due to the new cultivation area development and variety or farming practice
improvement. However, harvest area ratio still fluctuated in the range of 0.8–0.95. This means thatsome area was not cultivated in Northeast Thailand in every year. The average volatility in rain-fed riceproduction was 10.3% for 1981 to 2013 in northeast Thailand, which is smaller than that of Shiraiwa
et al.’s (2001) estimated value of 20% by using the data for 1980–1998. It can be inferred that varieties
and agricultural methods have improved over time and volatility has decreased.

Figure 11.1: Changes in Production (a), Yield (a), Planted Area (b), and Harvested Area
Ratio (b) of Rain-fed Rice in Northeast Thailand, 1981 to 2013

Production

Yield (ton/ha)

2013

2011

2009

2007

2003

0.0
2005

0
1999

0.5

2001

5

1997

1.0

1995

10

1991

1.5

1993

15

1987

2.0

1989

20

1985

2.5

1984

25

1981

Production (million tons)

(a)

Yield
continued on next page143

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 11.1 continued

Harvested area ratio

Ratio (–)

2013

2011

2007

2009

2003

0.0
2005

0
2001

0.5

1997

2

1999

1.0

1993

4

1995

1.5

1991

6

1987

2.0

1989

8

1985

2.5

1984

10

1981

Planed area (million ha)(b)Planted Area

ha = hectare.
Source: Office of Agricultural Economics (2013). Agricultural Statistics in Thailand.

144
In northeast Thailand, there were large fluctuations in rice production due to the fact that rainfall
varies greatly from year to year and the irrigation rate is extremely low. To clarify the actual production
fluctuation of rice in northeast Thailand, multiple regression analysis is used to show whether thefluctuations in rice production are due to changes in planted area, harvested area ratio, or unit yield byusing the statistics data for 1981–2013.
Agricultural production can be calculated as following equation by multiplying three contributed
components.
RP = RY × PA × HAR(1)

where, RP = rice production, RY = rice yield, PA = planted area, HAR = harvested area ratio (=harvest
area/planted area).
In this study, the method of Shiraiwa et al. (2001) was used as a reference, and the average of theprevious 5 years in each year for rice production and each of the three components was calculated,and only the deviations from the pre-5 year average were used for regression analysis to detrend
the technological change, such as variety improvement, or fertilizer and pesticide input (Yoshida
et al. 2019). Using the above-defined anomalies, multiple regression analysis was conducted for all
17 provinces in northeast Thailand with standardized production anomalies as the objective variable
and standardized anomalies for planted area, harvested area ratio, and unit yield as the explanatory
variables. The relative contribution of each component factor was compared with the standard partial
regression coefficients to indicate whether the variation in production was attributable to changes inplanted area, harvested area ratio, or unit yield.

THE WATER CYCLE AND RAIN-FED RICE CULTIVATION IN NORTHEAST THAILAND

Table 11.1 shows whether the variation in production of wet-season rice is due to planted area, harvested
area ratio, or unit yield. Among the three factors for wet-season rice, the standard partial regression
coefficient of planted area was the largest in 13 of the 17 provinces, followed by the contribution ofunit yield, which was the largest in 4 of the 17 province. No province had the largest contribution fromharvested area ratio. Farmers might be controlling their planted area depend on the rainfall amount tocompensate the yield of rice in wet season.
Figure 11.2 shows the correlation coefficient between standardized monthly rainfall and rice production,
planted area, yield, harvest area ratio in Khon Kaen Province. Rice production and planted area had
positive correlation R>0.3 with June–August rainfall. On the other hand, the rice yield had positive
correlation with September–October rainfall. Rice transplanting normally starts from the end of Juneor July so that rainfall in this season is an important factor to control the rice planted area.

Table 11.1: Partial Regression Coefficient of Each Component (wet season rice)
Province

Yield

Planted Area

Harvested Area Ratio

Loei

0.66

0.70

0.56

Udon Thani

0.98

0.30

0.20

Nong Khai

0.43

0.73

0.43

Sakon Nakhon

0.74

0.81

0.31

Nakhon Phanom

0.49

0.76

0.31

Mukdahan

0.79

0.75

0.21

Yasothon

0.51

0.69

0.15

Ubon Ratchathani

0.45

0.87

0.25

Si Sa Ket

0.53

0.81

0.34

Surin

0.69

0.99

0.37

Buri Ram

0.60

0.56

0.20

Maha Sarakham

0.33

0.73

0.18

Roi Et

0.49

0.82

0.41

Kalasin

0.57

0.97

0.10

Khon Kaen

0.39

0.67

0.24

Chaiyaphum

0.52

0.74

0.22

Nakhon Ratchasima

0.72

0.55

0.32

Source: Yoshida et al. (2019).

11.3 Rain-fed Paddy Culture
Rice is the staple food of the people of northeast Thailand, and rice cultivation has remained their main
livelihood. In the 20th century, the area of rice paddies in northeast Thailand increased around 10 times,
accounting for nearly 40% of the total area of the region. During this rapid and marginal expansion ofrice paddies, the mode of rice production changed drastically. The majority of rice paddies in northeast
Thailand are rain-fed, and many of them are unstable and low-yielding due to the lack of sufficientwater, but this situation was brought by rice paddy expansion over the past century. In fact, in the hilly
areas of northeast Thailand, rice cultivation was practiced only in hilly valleys where irrigation was

145

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 11.2: Correlation Coefficient Between Standardized Monthly Rainfall and Rice
Production, Planted Area, Yield, Harvest Area Ratio in Khon Kaen Province
0.75
Khon Kaen

0.00

Production

Yield

Planted area

Dec

Nov

Oct

Sep

Aug

Jul

Jun

May

–0.75

Harvested area ratio

Source: Authors.

146

well developed and relatively high yields were obtained, but since the 1950s, low-yielding rain-fed rice
fields have rapidly opened on dry hillsides.
The shift from stable rice cultivation in irrigated or lowland wet paddy fields to unstable rice cultivationin dry hilly paddy fields was a major shift in survival strategy for the farmers. Although the introductionof modern agricultural materials and facilities has improved the situation somewhat in recent years,
rice production in northeast Thailand fluctuates greatly from year to year depending on rainfall, andfarmers in northeast Thailand have developed sophisticated measures to ensure food security, such as
over-year storage of rice and intra- and inter-village rice transfers. These measures have existed for along time, but in light of the rapid increase in rice paddy area over the past 100 years, they appear tohave been formed in the past few decades.
The yield and production stability of rice in northeast Thailand depend largely on the hydrologicalconditions that determine how much water the paddies can stably receive, and these hydrologicalconditions are strongly influenced by topographical factors in addition to precipitation (Miyagawa et al.
2006). Most of northeastern Thailand is an extremely eroded plain, bordered on the north and east by
the Mekong River, on the south by the Dongrak mountain range, and on the west by Phu Kradung withmountains around 1,000 meters high. The plains are generally gentle and the riverbed gradient is small,but this does not mean that the land surface is flat. There is an irregular series of undulations (hills
and depressions) with elevation differences of several meters. These undulations are very importantwhen considering the hydrological environment of the rain-fed paddy fields in northeast Thailand.
The rain-fed paddy fields in northeast Thailand do not depend solely on precipitation directly brought
to the paddy field plots. The inflow of water from outside the paddy field area is very important forrice cultivation in northeast Thailand, where direct rainfall alone is not sufficient. Since the amountof inflow depends on the area of land above the paddy field, paddy fields in depressions are generally
more favorable for stable rice production than paddy fields on hillsides.

THE WATER CYCLE AND RAIN-FED RICE CULTIVATION IN NORTHEAST THAILAND

11.4 Strategy of Yield Stabilization in Rain-fed Paddy Fields
In rain-fed rice cultivation in northeast Thailand, supplementary use of water stored in small pondor low-level waterlogging caused by microtopography within the same paddy plot has been reported(Shimizu et al. 2004; Homma et al. 2004). This indicates that the amount of available water is greaterthan the amount of precipitation, even though they are classified as rain-fed rice fields. Suzuki et al.
(2003) reported that the area under cultivation changes according to the accumulated precipitationfrom May to July, expanding from low-level to high-level rice paddies that are favorable for wateruse depending on rainfall conditions. In normal year, the groundwater table is sufficiently recharged
and become shallow in July, and then paddy fields are planted from low-land to higher land, but in adrought year, groundwater is not sufficiently recharged and some fields give up cropping due to water
shortage (Figure 11.3). The paddy fields in higher elevation that give up cropping play the role of acatchment area for the cropped paddy fields in lowlands, and water movement via surface water andgroundwater affects the root zone water balance of the cropped paddy fields. The farmers’ strategy is
to concentrate the amount of available water in the lower cropped fields by adjusting the cultivatedarea, thereby avoiding the ineffective input of seeds or fertilizer and guaranteeing a unit yield.

Figure 11.3: Image of the Strategy of Yield Stabilization in Rain-fed Paddy Fields
Normal year

147
GW level

Drought year
Redundant water

Rice yieldstabilization

Abandon

GW level

GW =groundwater.
Source: Tanaka et al. (2016)

Tanaka et. al (2016) defined this as a yield stabilization strategy, and aimed to reproduce the water
use specific to rain-fed rice paddies. The reduction coefficient of the area calculated by the harvested
area estimation model was used to adjust the amount of available water with a decrease in theplanted and harvested area. This was done to represent a local strategy to maintain the unit yield byconcentrating rainfall on rice paddies under cultivation in the reduced planted and harvested area
shown in Figure 11.3. In normal rain-fed rice cultivation, the only available water is the rainfall that
falls on the paddy field, but the rainfall water from the abandoned upper paddy field is also assumed
to be available, and the rainfall is modified as in Equation (2).

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENTAWi = Pi/Kai(2)

where AWi is the available water at time i [mm/day], Pi is the daily rainfall [mm/day], and Kai is thearea reduction factor [-]. The available water amount AWi is used instead of rainfall in the root zone
water balance calculation of the crop growth model. This enables the reproduction of management
practices that produce a stable unit yield in rain-fed rice cropping, where rainfall amount is unstable.
Figure 11.4 shows the example of the change in available water during the rice cropping season, with
Kai gradually decreasing throughout the cropping season and available water increasing accordingly.
The total amount of water available after the yield stabilization strategy was applied was approximately
1,019 mm compared to 860 mm of rainfall, indicating an increase of about 19%.

100

1.0

80

0.8

60

0.6

40

0.4

20

0.2

Ka

148

Rainfall and AW (mm/day)Figure 11.4: Changes in Rainfall, Available Water, and Area Reduction Factor,
Khon Kaen Province, 2012

0

0.0
6/1

7/1

8/1

9/1

Rainfall

AW

10/1

11/1

RainfallAW = available water, Ka = area reduction factor, mm = millimeters.
Source: Authors.

11.5 Conclusion
Rain-fed rice production in northeast Thailand is unstable due to the large interannual differences in theamount and timing of rainfall, as well as the large differences in production depending on the locationof the rice fields. In order to quantitatively analyze the stability of rice production, it is necessary toestablish a method that can simulate rice production based on the water cycle and farmers’ strategy inthe rain-fed paddy fields.
In this study, characteristics of rain-fed paddy field were reported, such as the how changed rice plantedarea affects production, and how the unit yield becomes stable by the farmers strategy supplying theadditional water from abandoned paddy into cultivated paddy. Topographic conditions of the rice paddy

THE WATER CYCLE AND RAIN-FED RICE CULTIVATION IN NORTHEAST THAILAND

fields are important when related to the local water cycle, especially the groundwater condition in thewet season. How to represent the nonuniformity of microtopography, land use, and soil conditions
within a computational grid is an important issue in the field of hydrology, and modeling such variations
in cropland and harvested area in conjunction with the regional water cycle is important for accurate
productivity assessment on a larger-scale analysis.
Water resources and agricultural water use in the Asian monsoon region, which is in the humid zone,
differ greatly from those in arid and semi-arid regions, but are characterized by the existence of distinct
dry and rainy seasons and great diversity within the same region. Even during the rainy season, water
resources are not always abundant, with dry spells in the beginning of the monsoon season sometimes
resulting in unpredictable and unusual droughts. With their long-standing wisdom, people livingin the Asian monsoon region have measures to maximize their profits even under unstable weather
conditions. The formulation and verbalization of such indigenous local knowledge is also extremely
important information for developing countries other than Thailand, which has a paddy rice culture,and is a key factor for improving the accuracy of rice yield and production forecasting in regions where
irrigation rates are low and rain-fed rice paddies are predominant.

149

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

References
Homma K., T. Shiraiwa, S. Sripodok, and N. Supapoj. 2004. Delay of Heading Date as an Index of Water
Stress in Rainfed Rice in Mini-watersheds in Northeast Thailand. Field Crops Research 88: 11–19.
Miyagawa S., T. Tsuji, K. Watanabe, and K. Hoshikawa. 2006. Long-term and Spatial Evaluation of
Rice Crop Performance of Rain-fed Paddy Fields in a Village of Northeast Thailand. Tropics 15(1):39–49.
Shimizu, K., T. Masumoto, and T. H. Pham. 2004. Categorization and Mapping of Water Use for Rainfed
and Irrigated Agriculture in the Mekong River Basin. In International Conference on Advances inIntegrated Mekong River Management, 25–27 October, pp. 206–212.
Shiraiwa T., H. Nakagawa T. Horie, I. Matsui, and K. Homma. 2001. Variation of Rice Production in
Thailand and the Effect of Precipitation Fluctuation on Production of Rice. Chikyu Kankyo,
AIRIES 6(2): 207–215. (in Japanese)
Somura, H., K. Yoshida, and H. Tanji. 2008. Decadal Fluctuations in the Consumption of Irrigation
Water During the Rainy Season, Lower Mekong River. Hydrological Processes 22(9): 1310–1320.
Suzuki, K., A. Goto, and M. Mizutani. 2003. Simulation Model of Rainfed Rice Production on Sloping
Land in Northeast Thailand. Paddy Water Environment 1(2): 91 –97.
Tanaka K., K. Yoshida, S. Maeda, and H. Kuroda. 2016. Rice Harvested Area Estimation Model for Rainfed Paddy in Mekong River Basin. Jurnal Teknologi 78: 33–38.

150

Yoshida K., S. Mallika S. Supranee, S. Desell, J. Naruekamon, and S. Weerakaset. 2019. Evaluation of
Economic Damages on Rice Production under Extreme Climate and Agricultural Insurance for
Adaptation Measures in Northeast Thailand. Engineering Journal 23(6): 451–460.

CHAPTER 12
Managing Water by the Local Community:
Development and Implications of Japan’s
Irrigation Management System
Tsugihiro Watanabe

12.1 Introduction
In Japan, there is a considerable amount of rainfall in the summer when rice is cultivated. Irrigation
systems have been developed for more than 2,000 years to secure water for paddy fields as rainwater
alone was insufficient. As a result, canals for irrigation and drainage totaling approximately
400,000 kilometers (km) in length have been developed throughout the country. These irrigation anddrainage canals have been maintained and taken over by farmers cooperating with each other sinceancient times. Currently, about 80% of them are properly managed by Land Improvement Districts(LIDs) made up of beneficiary farmers.
The water management system by farmers has fostered stable paddy field agriculture and contributed
to the stable supply of food. Furthermore, paddy field irrigation has greatly contributed to maintaining
and demonstrating various multifaceted functions such as groundwater recharge, flood prevention,
biodiversity, formation of beautiful landscapes, and inheritance of tradition and culture. It has formed
the basis of Japanese society and culture.
Farmers’ active participation in water management fosters a strong sense of ownership and responsibility
for the management of facilities, and the resulting flexible and prompt water distribution management
also contributes to responding to droughts and floods. It has played an important role in the sounddevelopment of agriculture and rural areas. On the other hand, in Japan, the number of people engagedin farming has been consistently decreasing as the aging of farmers progresses in recent years. Thissituation has affected the management and activities of water management organizations by farmers,
and in order to maintain their functions and roles, activities and measures are being implemented tosupport various efforts by the region as a whole.
This chapter summarizes the characteristics, roles, and significance of Japan’s water management
system, and outlines efforts to resolve its current challenges. The report cites and refers to materials
from the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (MAFF 2023) in Section 12.3.1 and a report by
the Japanese National Committee for the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage (ICID)(JNCID 2023) in Sections 12.2, 12.3.1, and 12.5, as well as a discussion paper previously published by theauthor and a colleague (Watanabe and Ogino 2003) in Section 12.4.

12.2 Outline and History of Japan’s Paddy Cultivation
and Irrigation Development
12.2.1 Outline of Paddy Cultivation and Irrigation in Japan
About 70% of Japan’s land area is mountainous and hilly, while plains cover 25% of the land area andfarmland covers 13.5% of the land area. In addition, Japan is an elongated island nation with a seriesof mountain ranges of 2,000–3,000 meters in the center of the islands. The rivers are short with steep
gradients, and consequently rainwater runs off into the sea in a short period.

151

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Japan belongs to the Asian monsoon region and receives about twice as much rainfall per year as theworld average, but the rainfall is concentrated during the rainy and typhoon seasons, and there may
be long periods with almost no rain in the summer. Due to such natural conditions, rainfall alone
is insufficient to supply water for rice paddies, and so for more than 2,000 years, Japan has beencultivating paddy rice utilizing river water or reservoirs and developing irrigation facilities such as
irrigation and drainage canals.
At present, about 7,700 large-scale core facilities such as dams, water intake weirs, and irrigation anddrainage pump stations have been installed to supply irrigation water for about 2.9 million hectares offarmland, or two-thirds of the nation’s 4.33 million hectares (in 2022), and to protect the farmland andsurrounding areas, including urban areas, from flood damage. There are 400,000 km of irrigation anddrainage canals, including 50,000 km of main canals.
In Japan, a community-based consensus-building system has been formed in each village over a long
history of rice cultivation, and water management has also been carried out with villages as a basic
unit. Since the Meiji era (beginning in 1868), the legal status of water management organizations has
been gradually established alongside the development of various legal systems related to irrigationand drainage projects. Mergers of water management organizations have been promoted along withirrigation development projects for the integration of small-scale irrigation and drainage facilities in
the modern era. Currently, irrigation and drainage management in Japan is carried out by groups of
farmers, LIDs, for each water use system.

152

Historical changes in arable land area and population growth in Japan are shown in Figure 12.1. In
addition, the historical development of Japan’s water use and the basic framework of water policy,
including those related to agricultural water, is summarized in a separate chapter (Chapter 2 by Kotaro
Takemura).

Figure 12.1: Historical Changes in Arable Land Area and Population Growth in Japan
Year BC2000 BC1000

0

600

700

800

900

1000

1100

1200

1300

1400

1500

1600

1700

1800

1900

2000

Changes over time in populationand land area under cultivation

Population(10 million)

Amount of land under cultivation(10,000 hectares)

Peak was 6.07 million hectares in 1960

600

12

500
8
4.87 million
hectares in 1999
4

400
300
200

Amount of land under cultivation

100

Population0

Development ofarable land

Areas with
Development
natural springs(reclamation) of
paddy fields mostsuited to agriculture Rice field developmentin plains of valley bottoms
Inland marshes
Small deltas at theEdges of alluvial fansupper end of bays
Plains in valley bottoms
Introduction ofrice seed andcommencement ofrice field development

ha = hectare.
Source: JIID (2003).

Reclamation of marshland anddevelopment of higher and drier areas
Development of rice fields in small mudflats
and deltas in low-lying marshland byconstruction of embarnkments and drainage canals
Development of high, dry plains throughthe use of small pond reservoirs

Governments in ancient
times promoted development ofbasic production infrastructure
throughout the country

Period when land development was carriedout in accordance with regional capacity

Rice fielddevelopment inlarge plains
Alluvial fans
Large food plains
Large deltas

Rice fielddevelopmentin elevatedplateaus

Rice became the basic
commodity of society, anddevelopment of new rice
fields was promoted

0
Rice fielddevelopment inmarginal areas
Alluvial fans,
tablelands andcoastal areas
poorly suited toagriculture

Agricultural development was
promoted to increase thestrength of the Nation

MANAGING WATER BY THE LOCAL COMMUNITY:
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLICATIONS OF JAPAN’S IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

12.2.2 History of Irrigation Development in JapanThe development process of irrigation in Japan is roughly divided into three periods, and each period
is briefly summarized in this section.

The period from 700s to 1100s AD
In Japan, the latest agricultural engineering technology was introduced from China, and theconstruction technology of irrigation facilities such as agricultural reservoirs and canals spreadthroughout the country, resulting in improved agricultural production, elimination of hunger,
and the widespread development of irrigated agriculture. Irrigation development began to take placethroughout the country. While granting farmland to the people, the government of the time demanded
the provision of labor and promoted the development of small-scale paddy fields through the creationof reservoirs and the use of small rivers. A typical example of this is the Manno-ike Pond in present-day
Kagawa Prefecture, which was constructed around 701 by a local master, and was later renovated by
Kukai, a Buddhist monk who had studied irrigation technology in China, and others, utilizing the latest
technology of the time. An arch-type embankment, which was revolutionary at the time was adopted
and a flood discharge was installed by excavating the bedrock to prevent flooding. It is still used today
as an important irrigation storage facility for the region. Manno-ike Pond was inscribed as a World
Heritage Irrigation Structure by the ICID in 2016.

The period from 1200s to 1800s AD
After the 1200s, the development of civil engineering technology for steep rivers with rapid flow
was advanced. From the 1600s, the development of new rice paddies and farmlands drainage control
facilities was actively carried out in conjunction with flood control projects in areas that could not
be developed before, such as the flood plains of large rivers. This led to a rapid increase in farmland
area and population. The Minuma-dai Yosui Irrigation System in present-day Saitama Prefecture,a representative example of low-lying land development, was constructed by the Edo shogunate in1782. Using a construction method that takes advantage of the topography, a 60 km long waterway
was excavated in just 6 months, supplying irrigation water to approximately 13,000 hectares of paddy
fields. The Minuma-da Yosui Irrigation System was inscribed as a WHIS by ICID in 2019.

The period after 1900 AD
In the 1900s, the demand for power generation and industrial water surged due to the rapid increasein the population and industrial development accompanying the modernization of the country as awhole. To meet this demand, water resource development was promoted through the construction ofdams, and laws related to water use were also developed. The River Law was enacted in 1896, and theLand Improvement Law in 1949. As a result, the national and prefectural governments promoted themodernization of irrigation facilities to secure water resources and increase food production, resulting
in dramatic improvements in agricultural productivity.
One of the representative examples is the Shichika Waterworks in present-day Ishikawa Prefecture, afacility completed in 1903. The seven water intakes, which had been separately taken from the river,were integrated into one so that efficient irrigation could be realized. In 1968, the Dainichigawa Dam
was completed upstream as a national project, further securing a stable water source and supplying
irrigation water for approximately 5,000 hectares of rice paddies. Shichika Waterworks was inscribed
as a WHIS by the ICID in 2014.

153

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The modernization of agriculture, supported by water sources and irrigation facilities, led to largescale migration of labor from agriculture to heavy industry and was the driving force behind Japan’s
rapid growth after the Second World War.

12.3 Land Improvement Projectand Land Improvement Districts
After the Second World War, the national land improvement project system has been centered on the
LIDs, which is a farmers’ water management organization based on the village community and whose
members are in principle farmers who are cultivators of agricultural land. The land improvement
districts have continued their activities in close cooperation with related organizations such asadministrative organizations and agricultural cooperatives.

12.3.1 Overview of Irrigation and Drainage Systems in Japan
Land Improvement Projects (LIPs) and Land Improvement Districts (LIDs)154

The construction and maintenance of irrigation and drainage facilities are carried out in accordancewith the Land Improvement Act (LIA) of 1949. In principle, LIPs, under the LIA, must be implemented
with farmers’ initiative and application with the consent of at least two-thirds of the beneficiary
farmers in each project area. The LIA establishes the proper and smooth implementation of the projectsuch as eligibility of participation, the establishment of a LID, the procedure for project formation, thebasic policy on cost sharing including justification of government support, etc.
The project implementing bodies for LIPs are the national government, prefectures, and organizations(LIDs, unions of LIDs, municipalities, agricultural cooperatives, etc.), which are determined inconsideration of the scale of projects, technical difficulty, etc. The project costs are borne by thenational government, prefectures, municipalities, and beneficiary farmers in accordance with thetypes and scale of projects. Since the LIA came into effect, water management organizations basedon traditional villages and organizations based on old laws have been given legal status as a LID alongside
the implementation of LIPs, and now there are 4,203 LIDs (2021) with an area of 2,481,000 hectares
and 3,430,000 members.

Irrigation Management of LIDs
In general, LIDs shall manage irrigation and drainage facilities developed by LIPs, such as reservoirs,
head works, pump stations, main irrigation and drainage canals, etc., with the exception of largescale and highly public facilities developed by the national government, which require special
technical considerations for their management and are directly managed by the national government(Figure 12.2).
The LID water management methods include the operation of gates in main canals, irrigation, anddrainage pump stations, etc., as well as water management in tertiary canals by lower-level organizations,such as villages and water use associations. Water is distributed to paddy field lots steadily and equallyin principle, while in the case of severe drought period, they might introduce a rotational distribution.
The costs for the operation and maintenance of the facilities are collected as a levy based on the size ofthe farmlands and other factors. Safety inspections, weeding, and canal cleaning are often carried out
by farmers and nonfarmers in the village.

MANAGING WATER BY THE LOCAL COMMUNITY:
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLICATIONS OF JAPAN’S IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Figure 12.2: Structure of Executing Bodies of Construction and Operationand MaintenanceConstruction Body
National Government

DirectManagement
By National
Government

O&M Body
National Government

Delegation ofManagement
Transfer ofOwnership

Prefectural Government

Prefectural Government
Management by
Construction
Body

Land Improvement
District and others

Management by
Construction
Body
Delegation

Land Improvement
District and others

Delegation
Transfer ofOwnership

O&M = operation and maintenance.
Source: MAFF (2023).

12.3.2 Specific Features of Japan’s Irrigation System Management
Since the introduction of rice cultivation in Japan, farmers have formed their own organizations ineach irrigated area, cooperating with each other to maintain and manage their facilities and hand themdown to future generations, without relying on the government or administration from time to time. In
these farmers’ organizations, a strong sense of solidarity, a spirit of mutual assistance, moral values, andsocial discipline were formed through the experience of severe natural disasters such as droughts andfloods. They have also nurtured a rich traditional culture and beautiful rural landscapes.
This system of operation and maintenance by farmers’ organizations has been maintained even in theprocess of economic development and modernization in recent years, and today the role of farmers’organizations has been inherited as LIDs that manage the land in accordance with the law. Thissystem of farmer-led operation and maintenance has fostered farmers’ independence and a strong
sense of ownership of irrigation facilities, which is thought to be a factor in the efficient operationand maintenance of irrigation and drainage facilities in Japan. Furthermore, this operation andmaintenance system of farmers enables flexible and prompt water allocation management to cope withdroughts and floods and plays a significant role in strengthening resilience to extreme weather eventsand disasters, which is a current issue in Japan.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

12.4 Land Improvement Districts as District-Level Water
Management Organizations
12.4.1 LIDs—Farmers’ Water Management Organization in Japan
Structure
The Japanese traditional village Mura was the base for the present farmers’ association.
Farmers within every Mura organized themselves and cooperated together to construct, operate,
and maintain irrigation facilities on the tertiary level. The irrigation system in Japan consists ofsmall-scale regional systems objectively oriented toward economic rice production and managed bya decentralized structure of irrigation organizations, within private ownership and legalized waterrights, which sufficiently guarantee individual water use.

156

In Japan, fundamentally, farmlands are divided into LIDs, which are nonprofit entities legalized inaccordance with the LIA) There are two types of LID. The first type is the land consolidation type,which executes within a specified region the necessary tasks for farmland improvements such as
standardizing the field plot size and its facilities and constructing and upgrading infrastructure. The
second type is the water management type, which operates and maintains irrigation and drainage
facilities above the tertiary level to allocate and distribute water among users, and voluntarily preserves
the ecology of aquatic systems and the waterfront landscape. The second type is normally a permanent
LID, while the first type may be dissolved, converted to the second type after project completion, or
merged into another land consolidation LID for more holistic development of the area.
As mentioned above, in 2021, the total number of LIDs in Japan was estimated as 4,203 with 3.43 million
beneficiary members from an area of 2.48 million hectares. In 2001, these numbers were 6,816,
4.26 million, and 2.97 million hectares, respectively. Many LIDs were consolidated and the number has
decreased, while the number of members and the area have also decreased due to nationwide changesof agriculture. The smallest LID command is less than 100 hectares and the largest could be as sizeable
as about 10,000 hectares.
A typical structure of a LID is depicted in Figure 12.3. A general assembly, or board of representatives
in case of more than 200 memberships, must be held at least once a year for the LID decision-making
through equal voting rights and in a democratized manner. The boards of directors and auditors, which
are recruited for a specified period, normally 4 years, administrate the LID. According to the LIA, theMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries may request technical and accounting reports from theLIDs, conduct on-site inspections, and compel the staff to carry out the necessary actions for whatever
appears violating.
Operation and maintenance costs as well as staff remuneration and administrative expenses are basicallycollected from members, generally on an acreage basis. The national and prefecture governments
subsidize the construction costs according to subsidy ratios dependent upon the project type and size.
For the costs uncovered by official subsidy, the LID can borrow long-term loans with low interest to
be redeemed as special fees collected from farmers subsequently. The LID can gain additional income
from electricity companies for installing electric posts in farm roads and bridges, and from factories
and houses for water disposal into drainage canals.

MANAGING WATER BY THE LOCAL COMMUNITY:
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLICATIONS OF JAPAN’S IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

Figure 12.3: Typical Structure of a Land Improvement District in Japan
General Assembly
Meeting ＊1

Member Representativeor
Meeting ＊1 ＊2

Board of Directors(5 or more)• Accountant• Person in chargeof construction• Person in chargeof replotting• Person in chargeof irrigation anddrainage adjustment＊ 1 The highest decision-making body
＊ 2 Member Representative Meeting willbe established for over 100 members LID

Community A

Community B

Community C

Member’s
Representative

Member’s
Representative

Member’s
Representative

Members of LID

Members of LID

Members of LID

Committees

Board of Management

Board ofAuditors(two ormore
persons)• Steering committee• Internal Control
Committee• Construction
Committee• Replotting Committee• Irrigation and drainage
adjustment committee

Secretariat
Secretary General

General affairs
and accounting
Administration
Construction/replotting

LID = Land Improvement District.
MAFF (2023).

Operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities by LIDs
The construction or improvement of irrigation facilities, including reservoirs, diversion works, pumps,
and canals, is carried out by the national and local governments, or LIDs, depending on the scale of the
facility or the beneficiary area. After the construction of the facilities, the operation and maintenance ofare carried out by the LID, even if the government constructs the facility. In this case, the LID is usually
entrusted with the operation and maintenance by the national or local governments, and in some cases
the ownership of the facility is transferred to the LID depending on the size of the facility and otherconditions. In 2023, in the major river systems of Japan, according to the MAFF statistics (MAFF 2023),
427 dams for agriculture and disaster prevention on farmlands are in operation, of which 148 dams
(35%) are constructed by the national government and the national agency, and 255 dams (60%) areconstructed by the prefectural or local government. Of these 427 dams, nearly half, 193 dams (45%)
are operated and managed by 111 LIDs. LIDs also manage and control approximately 9,300 diversion
works, 15,200 irrigation tanks (ponds), and 27,000 pump stations for irrigation and drainage.
On the other hand, national or local governments carry out the management of larger facilities, including
large reservoirs and diversion works constructed across larger rivers and drainage pumping stations,which benefit extensively non-farmland. In the operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities, theLID responsibility is limited to control structures and canals above the tertiary level. Farmers’ groups
and individuals manage and control all facilities at tertiary and field levels.
In most cases in maintaining the canal by the LID, the cost of repairing canals is borne by the LID, while
the labor for mowing and removing accumulated sediment in the canal is provided by LID members.
The roles of operation and maintenance of the facilities are shared with the national government,
prefectural government, and the LID according to the scale of facilities.

157

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

LIDs are inspected as necessary by the national or prefectural governments based on the LIA. The
inspection consists of the organization’s business operation (appropriate staffing, consultation services,
accounting), and strengthening of the organization’s operational infrastructure (proper identificationof membership eligibility, proper collection of levies), etc. The national or prefectural government mayorder necessary measures to correct any violations (MAFF 2023).

12.4.2 LIDs in Decentralized Irrigation Management Arrangement
Hierarchical structure of LIDs and irrigation management institutions
On-farm or tertiary-level irrigation facilities in a command area of the LID are operated and maintainedby community-based farmers’ associations. Water user farmers are responsible for maintaining andcleaning one or two diversion works subject to their location. They are assigned this task by the LID
on a voluntary basis or very cheap payment. While the law authorizes the LID, most of the communitybased farmers’ associations are not officially authorized. However, the allocation of roles in theoperation and maintenance of the irrigation system is functioning well, and water distribution conflictat the tertiary level is to be autonomously settled by the association that manages the system at thatlevel.
Here, the point that we should be aware of is that the role of the tertiary-level association is indispensable
to the operation and maintenance of irrigation facilities and that it could function even if it is notlegally authorized.

158

In the case of the irrigation system with a large command area, a federation of LIDs may be organizedwith some LIDs, with certain conditions. It holds a hierarchical structure consisting of some layers.
Large-scale irrigation and drainage facilities, whose operation and maintenance management may
affect the regional hydrological environment and/or socioeconomic activities widely, are officially
under the direct control of the national or local government. Some of them are entrusted to the LID for
operation and maintenance.
In Japan, there is a prefecture federation of Land Improvement Associations in each prefecture
consisting of almost all LIDs in that prefecture and one national federation of Land Improvement
Associations. These federations can work on political and/or strategic problems related to irrigationand drainage.
This hierarchical structure of LIDs is functioning well. Water distribution among farmers at a tertiarylevel is controlled by rural communities according to their environment and socioeconomic situation,and the LID tries to realize a stable water supply to the community level without any lack or excess andequitable allocation of water among tertiary level canals, monitoring and assessing the water demand
on-farm level. The activities of LIDs may contribute to efficient water use, appropriate operationand maintenance works, and proper rehabilitation planning.

Liaison of LID with the centralized arrangement of government organization
LIDs in Japan usually work in close communication with a government organization like a regional
office of the prefectural government. When LIDs form a federation in a prefecture, the federation may
work in cooperation with the prefectural government itself. Also, the National Federation of Land
Improvement Associations keeps a good relationship with the MAFF, which holds the jurisdiction overirrigation and drainage policy and administration.

MANAGING WATER BY THE LOCAL COMMUNITY:
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLICATIONS OF JAPAN’S IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

As mentioned above, the operation and maintenance of irrigation and drainage systems are primarily
executed by water user organizations like the LID. There is no government employee or engineer who
does daily routine water management practice at the farm level, that is the bottom level of a government
institution.
The liaison with the government organizations, while they are often centralized regimes, the LID
can obtain useful instructions or information from the government and transfer actual conditions
or problems to it. The LID can propose an irrigation improvement project and the government cansuggest appropriate projects to the LID.

12.5 Recent Problems and Challenges of Water
Management Organization in Japan
12.5.1 Agricultural Labor Force Decrease and Countermeasures
Currently, Japanese agriculture is facing the challenge of a super-aging farmer. As of 2018, the ratio ofpeople aged 65 and over to the total number of farm households reached about 44%, and along with
this, the total number of farm households and farmland have been consistently decreasing (the numberof core agricultural workers is 1,451,000 (in 2018, it decreased 3.8% from the previous year.)
Under these circumstances, in order to maintain and develop agriculture into the future, it is necessary
to save labor and grow agriculture as a vital industry. For this reason, in Japan, the public and private
sectors are working together to promote the introduction of smart agriculture, such as large parcels of
farmland and the concentration of farmland in the hands of leading farmers, as well as the conversion
to highly profitable crops such as vegetables and fruit through the improvement of paddy field drainage
and the use of information and communication technology, such as automated irrigation systems andautomated farm machines.
In recent years, these measures have led to an increase in the agricultural management area per farmhousehold (about 2.5 hectares in 2018), as well as an increase in the number of cooperative organizationsof farmers in the village and farm management organizations under corporate management.
These organizations are not free and independent farming by individual farmers, but more efficientfarming organizations by groups of farmers, and organizations that aim for more economical
management through the organization of corporations. In addition, total agricultural output, which
had been declining, has increased for 3 consecutive years since 2015, with total agricultural output in2017 of ¥9.3 trillion (up 0.8% from the previous year), and farm income is also increasing.
Meanwhile, in order to maintain farmland and agricultural facilities in the future, Japan has been
implementing initiatives to evaluate the multifaceted functions of agricultural and rural areas andto support irrigation facility maintenance and management activities not only by farmers but also by
nonfarmers.
(i)

Farmland accumulation and expansion of farmland size
The government is promoting the accumulation of large tracts of farmland and its use bybearers, or leading farmers, through field maintenance, as well as the upland crop cultivation
with the improvement of paddy fields through the introduction of subsurface drains andgroundwater control systems.

159

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT(ii) Smart agriculture
In Japan, the introduction of automated farm machinery that utilizes global positioning
systems is being promoted in many regions. In addition, automatic water management systems
that remotely and automatically supply and drain water to paddy fields based on information
obtained from paddy field water-level sensors are being introduced to achieve optimum water
management. In addition, the system enables the efficient use of irrigation water throughoptimal water management.
In the recent developments described above, it is true that the number of farmers is declining andaging, but the basic principles of traditional community-based self-governing organizations, suchas village units, are still in place, and the sense of sharing and cooperative management of water
utilization facilities and agricultural infrastructure among residents, including nonfarm households,
has been inherited. The community-based organization is not merely a functional organization for
agricultural production, but a regional organization consisting of the members of the community, andcontinues to be an organization that jointly conducts daily activities such as community cleaning andfire prevention, festivals including religious events, and preservation of the landscape and ecosystem.
This is the root of the motivation and direction to maintain and preserve farmland, and agricultural
water use facilities leading to sustainability of agricultural production and rural areas.

12.5.2 P romotion of Operation and Maintenance of Irrigation Facilities
Based on Evaluation of the Multifunction
160

Agriculture and farming villages not only support food, but also perform various functions throughagricultural production activities, such as conservation of national land, cultivation of water resources,
conservation of biodiversity, formation of landscapes, and transmission of traditions and culture.
The monetary value of multifunctional functions is estimated to be approximately ¥8 trillion in the
agricultural sector in Japan alone. The Japanese-type direct payment system was positioned as a legal
system in fiscal year 2015, providing support for cooperative activities such as mowing of farmland
slopes and repair of waterways, farm roads, and reservoirs, as well as promoting the participation of
local residents other than farmers.
In particular, terraced rice paddies are regarded as valuable assets with traditions, culture, and beautiful
scenery that have been built by farmers over a long period of time and protected through cooperative
activities. Recently, rural development has been promoted through exchanges with urban areas, taking
advantage of the landscape and traditional culture of these terraced rice paddies.

12.5.3 Disaster Prevention and Mitigation Measures in Rural Areas
In recent years, Japan has been promoting measures for national land resilience to create disasterresistant rural communities in the face of frequent natural disasters such as large-scale earthquakes
and torrential rains. Major natural disasters in recent years include the Great East Japan Earthquake(2011), the Kumamoto Earthquake (2016), the Northern Kyushu Torrential Rainfall (2017), and the July
2018 Torrential Rainfall (2018).
In the field of irrigation and drainage, agricultural irrigation facilities such as dams and head works
will be made earthquake-resistant, and drainage pump stations will be developed to prevent flood
damage. Measures that combine hard and soft measures such as selecting 10,000 reservoirs as “priority
reservoirs for disaster prevention”, creating hazard maps showing evacuation sites and routes, repairing
embankments, and conducting disaster prevention drills with local residents, are being implemented.

MANAGING WATER BY THE LOCAL COMMUNITY:
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLICATIONS OF JAPAN’S IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

In addition, many of Japan’s irrigation and drainage facilities were constructed during the period of
rapid economic growth after the Second World War, and as these facilities have aged, the number ofsudden accidents such as water leakage has increased. In order to maintain the sustainable functionality
and safety of irrigation and drainage facilities, a diagnostic investigation of facility functions is being
conducted to extend the service life of facilities and reduce life cycle costs through partial repair andrenovation.

12.6 Conclusion—Lessons from Japan’s Irrigation
Management System and Organization
The agricultural water management organizations in Japan have been internationally recognized
as a representative example of farmers’ participatory water management, while recently they havebeen facing serious challenges. Based on their achievements, they have been used as a reference for
improving agricultural water management organizations in developing countries, and their concepts
and institutional designs have been introduced in Japan’s overseas aid programs.
The Japanese LID could be a good model for decentralization in irrigation management. Even if Japanis located in a humid area with a lot of rain with completely different conditions from the countries inarid or semi-arid regions, we can learn important lessons from Japan’s irrigation management system
and might transfer useful experience. Major points of the important lessons are summarized as follows(Watanabe and Ogino 2003; Watanabe 2002; Kotb, Watanabe, and Ogino 2000):
(i)

(ii)

(iii)

(iv)
(v)

(vi)

(vii)

District-level or branch-canal-level government irrigation management is to be privatized
and renovated to a nongovernment organization ,while government organizations at theupper level, such as the irrigation directorate of a national government, should keep theirgovernment identity.
Each water users’ association at the tertiary level is represented by its chairperson who
shall be elected by an impartial voting system based on actual land holding or cultivationin the beneficial area. The chairperson of the association joins in electing the president or
representative director or directors of a higher-level organization such as a district-level
organization under the supervision of the government responsible for irrigation and drainage.
The president and board of directors of district-level organizations are responsible formaking all decisions regarding water resources management, environmental conservation,
infrastructure maintenance, and construction.
In the district-level organization, engineers, technicians, and clerks are its executive body.
In the cases where irrigation management at the district level is transferred from thegovernment to the farmers’ organization, the government engineer or employee involved at
the irrigation district management level could be also transferred to the farmers’ organization.
The local government organization should regulate water among the district-level
organizations located in its command area, supervise the performance of the farmers’organizations, hold the right of technical and financial inspections whenever necessary, andpossess the power to oblige the poorly performing organizations to rectify their performance
to meet the setup objectives.
The district-level organization may also submit detailed proposals of large-scale projects to thenational or local government requesting government finance. The project can be categorized
as a large project according to the benefited area and the number of beneficiaries from all
sectors. The government assesses the feasibility of the project and decides the appropriate
procedures for implementation.

161

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT(viii) Irrigation management organizations of every level will form a research program with achairperson and board of directors to exchange their farming and institutional experience,collect farmers’ common requests, and investigate and convey them to the regional federationof water use associations. The nation-level federation of water users’ organizations could be
the top assembly of farmers’ representatives throughout the whole country.
(ix) The institution of irrigation management described above is apt to be a closed and selfrighteous system. Then, its accountability is to be clear and the system is to be operated fairly.
In developing countries, there are cases where there are no clear rules for equitable distribution ofirrigation water, and therefore, the operation of irrigation facilities by nonoperators, unauthorizedwater withdrawal, and communal cleaning of canals for maintenance are often not properly
implemented. Therefore, problems such as irrigation water being limited to only some farmlands in thebeneficiary area have occurred. Although the causes of these problems vary from country to country
and from district to district, it is important everywhere that water management is properly organized
and managed, and that irrigation facilities are properly maintained and managed. There, it is necessarythat the division of roles between the government and farmers, etc., is properly defined in order toachieve common goals.

162

Although the background conditions are different from those in developing countries, the Japanese
irrigation management system, which was built around paddy rice cultivation and has been passed
down through the changing times, can serve as a reference for improving irrigation management indeveloping countries. Japanese institutions and technologies for paddy irrigation management provide
useful knowledge, experience, and lessons for better irrigation management in developing countries.
However, it should be noted, of course, that they were developed under Japanese socioeconomic
conditions, while fundamental ideas and frameworks of the Japanese lessons are often helpful underother conditions as well. Their major points to be utilized include the land improvement system (e.g., theestablishment of LIDs), the administrative system (e.g., roles and involvement of related organizations),
and related technologies (e.g., technologies related to water management and maintenance of facilities),
and they are expected to lead to the realization of sustainable irrigated agriculture worldwide.

MANAGING WATER BY THE LOCAL COMMUNITY:
DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLICATIONS OF JAPAN’S IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT SYSTEM

References
Japanese Institute of Irrigation and Drainage (JIID). 2003. Global Diversity of Irrigation—
For Achieving Sustainable Water Use and Forming Healthy Water Cycles.
Japanese National Committee for ICID (JNCID). 2023. Japan’s Country Report of the International
Symposium on “Pathways and Technologies for Modern Irrigation Services”. In 25th ICID
Congress Proceedings, Vishakhapatnam, India.
Kotb, T., T. Watanabe, T. and Y. Ogino. 2000. Participatory Irrigation Management in Egypt, Proposal
for Institutionalization. In 10th World Water Congress Proceedings, International Water Resources
Association, Melbourne, Australia.
Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of Japan (MAFF). 2023. Outline of the Agricultural
Infrastructure and Rural Development Project in Japan. Training Materials of the Overseas Land
Improvement Cooperation Office, Design Division, Rural Infrastructure Department, Rural
Development Bureau.
Watanabe, T. 2002. Water Management and Operation/maintenance System in Paddy Irrigation ofJapan. In Proceedings of the International Seminar on the Water Management in Basin and the Roleof Reservoirs, JCOLD and JSHWR, Tokyo, pp. 69–79.
Watanabe, T., and Y. Ogino. 2003. Role of District-level Organization in Decentralized Arrangementof Irrigation Management—Lessons from Land Improvement District in Japan. In Proceedingsof Fourth Water Management Forum (organized by IDRC/CRDI, UNDP, Japan-ODA, and IFAD),
Cairo, Egypt, 2–4 February 2003.

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PART IV

Climate and Environment

CHAPTER 13
Traditional River Engineering for Social Sustainability
and Environmental Preservation
Hirotada Matsuki

13.1 Introduction
Japan had revitalized agricultural production and commercial transactions in the 17th to 19th
centuries in the limited islands under severe monsoon conditions. The active economy of the Edo era
was sustained by a functional land management system called “Traditional River Engineering”. This
chapter analyzes its concepts and techniques to clarify time-honored lessons for today’s society. The
lessons are informative also for other Asian countries, which are challenged now to enrich theireconomies and ecology in the international market under the changing climate.
The outputs of the traditional engineering systems are still working in rivers in Japan (Figure 13.1).

Figure 13.1: Traditional River Engineering in Japan

167

Masonry groynes (Onga River)

Timber skeletons (Kamanashi River)Source: Taken by the author.

Embedded spur dikes (Kiso River)

Pile groynes (Ibi River)

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Those systems various materials and structures. However, engineers selected and maintained them forappropriate river management according to traditional engineering.
To understand the ingenious techniques, the Japan River Council researched them and published areport in 2000 titled “Traditional River Engineering to Carry on Lifestyle and Culture”. The reportsummarizes the old-fashioned aspects into four general features shown in Table 13.1.

Table 13.1: General Features of Traditional River Engineering As Summarized in 2000
A) Leveraging natural power of rivers
So called “energy dispersion”, the engineering prefers to moderate flood wisely using natural power of the river itself
rather than control it by force.
(Examples: groyne, open levee, forest belt, and their combination)B) Controlling total damage over floodplains
The engineering mitigates total damage using countermeasures in floodplains in addition to river facilities.
(Examples: secondary levee, ring levee, mound shelter, and their combination)C) Adjusted to regional property and river characters
The engineering was formulated through try-and-select process for hundreds of years.
The non-standardized techniques arrange river facilities respecting local appearance and the individuality of each river.
(Examples: a variety of groynes, conventional river ceremonies, etc.)

168D) Incorporating river maintenance into people’s life
The engineering merges local river maintenance and people’s life to make them continuous.
(Examples: monetization of river forest, levee compaction using festival processions, etc.)
Source: Japan River Council Report (2000).

The traditional river engineering had developed locally so that this chapter will focus on the ruralcommunity in Japan’s history up to the Edo era. The process of land and water development shows
the traditional status of community leaders. Among documents written by them in the Edo era, thischapter will check the “Farmer’s Folk Tale” and the “River Work Handbook” to extract essences of
the traditional engineering. The findings help us how to manage rivers and communities in today’schanging climate and local society.

13.2 History and Engineering
Japan has a great variety of rivers with various precipitation patterns, steep mountains, complex
topography, and myriad types of geology. The mountains and rivers form outstanding natural beautyand cultural backgrounds. On the islands, many generations looked for better places to love and foodsupply. They eventually moved onto the floodplains back-to-back with flood risks. The ancestors had
to learn how to manage and utilize river resources based on a long-range scenario.

13.2.1 Ancient Land and Water Development
Paddy agriculture came to Japan over 2000 years ago. People started plowing fertile and wet lands withwooden hoes. Native chiefs, who could access iron tools, developed new paddy fields with accessible
water resources and away from flood risk. The next generations expanded the paddy little by little toincrease the rice harvest and the population over several centuries.

TRADITIONAL RIVER ENGINEERING FOR SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY
AND ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATIONIn the 8th century, Japan imported the centralized bureaucracy system from China. Installing thecontinental system, the Imperial Court owned all land and people. Dispatched domain governors
instructed the newest techniques to build irrigation reservoirs. County governors, who were appointed
from former native chiefs, managed family registers and granted compartment paddy to each farmer.
Farmers had to pay a poll tax and labor services.
The Imperial Court promoted the policy of public land management successfully but soon became
deficient in paddy due to population growth. The court then issued a Private Reclamation Order tomotivate high-rank temples, shrines, and officials to invest in manor development. It meant that some
farmers were urged to penetrate new frontiers in flood-prone areas. They had to open the door to flood
risks.
As the first step to live with floods, they needed to develop river infrastructure. The situation was
described in the official regulation. The central government issued the “Yoro Code” in 757 to rule how
to manage river facilities for disaster risk reduction shown in Table 13.2.

Table 13.2: “Yoro Code” issued in 757
Article Paddy-28: Resettlement after flood
After river erosion, provide new paddy to affected families.
Article Infrastructure-16: Levee to be repaired
Inspect levees near large rivers. Repair breakages after harvesting.
After outflowing, recover deteriorations immediately.
Article Infrastructure-17: Vegetation around levee
Plant elms, willows, and others on levees.
Supply timber material for levees and weirs.
Article Miscellaneous-9: Natural resources sharing
Share resources from mountains and rivers by all.
Article Miscellaneous-12: Irrigation to be maintained
Command beneficiaries to maintain weirs and channels.
Source: Summarized by the author.

In the floodplains, farmers were often defeated by water-related disasters but survived through theendless repair of river infrastructure. River facility maintenance, emergent recovery, planting, natural
resources sharing, and irrigation management were in their day-to-day life and part of collaborative
agriculture for all. These were ancient regulations for living with floods and became unwritten
customary rules of Japan’s agricultural society.

13.2.2 The Manor System Toward Autonomous Corporation
The ancient society was disrupted by volcano eruptions, floods, tsunamis, earthquakes, and epidemics
in the 9th century and a climatic drought crisis in the 10th century. Historians explained that many
ancient communities could not endure the severe conditions in past centuries.
In the natural and social hardships, the Imperial Court was concerned by the lack of tax revenue. The
court started a land tax system and enacted it each domain. The dispatched governors advertised for169

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

investors for tax-abatement manors. Inspired major aristocrats employed rural manor developers tocultivate paddy. The developers drew water, broke ground, plant crops, and paid tax to the employers
and the governor.
The manor system was reset to be managed by the central government in the 11th century. The royalfamily created enclosed manors that had exclusive farm areas and tax-free privileges. To produce
and guard the manors, royal families recruited warriors as armed sheriffs and farm area managers.
The warriors held the obligation of tax collection and rights of protection fees. For the wider area
management, they developed long irrigation networks which are still working today.
After a big political disruption in the 14th century, land ownership shifted from the capital authorities
to local sovereigns. They merged public and private land into their own territory and collected taxes
from farming agents. In those days, the farmers formulated autonomous corporations and made deals
independently.
However, the local sovereigns struggled with each other for land and hegemony. Surviving feudal lords
called for rural warriors to join their armies. Farmers had to go to battles and also defend their own
corporations against foreign enemies and natural disasters. That was one reason that the rural warriors
became extremely conscious of floods and droughts.

13.2.3 Military Unification and Land Value Survey
170

The long-lasting inter-domain confusion was unified by force at the end of the 16th century. The
conqueror declared a cease-fire and ordered warrior–farmer separation, sword control, and land
surveys. Following the mandatory policies, the feudal lords disarmed farmers and survey farmers
and farm land to draw a borderline between communities and impose land tax on each community.
Estimating the land value of expected tax, the conqueror reallotted the lords into other domains to
weaken their military power and eliminate border disputes.
The final winner, who established the Edo Shogunate, terminated all warfare in 1615. To hold thepeaceful situation, the first Shogun gave permission for lords to be domain governors and ordered
enforcement of security within the domain. The governors gathered their warriors into the domain
castle town. Former rural warriors were clearly separated into government officers or rural farmers.
After that, the domain government exchanged land value surveys with rural communities. Based on
the results, they signed an agreement that defined land ownership of farmers and tax obligation of thecommunity.
The divide-and-rule policy contributed to significant change in rural communities. The communities
had no warriors or requirement to do military duty so that the farmers could invest all their resources
into agriculture. The community headmen, rural warriors in the previous era, tried to draw up an
agricultural schedule, let farmers work industriously, and maximize harvest of the community. As aresult, the domain lords’ external governance and farmers’ autonomous internal management had
developed highly productive societies.

13.2.4 River Engineering and Land Ownership
The history of Japan’s rural society outlines two trends: river management obligation and landownership.
River infrastructure was needed in the floodplains. With no reference to central or local governance,
rural farmers had a mandate to maintain river facilities and accumulate experience. The knowledge
was transferred as traditional engineering.

TRADITIONAL RIVER ENGINEERING FOR SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY
AND ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATIONLand and people belonged to the central government and ancient aristocrats. While local warriors took
the initiative, rural farmers became autonomous through their collaborative work and self-defense.
Land contracts in the Edo era warranted a farmer’s ownership of land.
Owning traditional engineering transfer and land ownership transition, community headmen heldriver management engineering with pride and positive interest. Respecting community ownership,
government officers sophisticated it to use it for rural management (Figure 13.2).

Figure 13.2: Land Ownership Transition and Rural Traditional Transfer
A.D.
900
1000

Central authority

Local authority

Rural community

Dispatched governor

Manor developer

Sheriff

Farm area manager

Sovereign

Farming agent

Aristocratic manorialism
Major aristocrats

1100 Hierarchic manorialism
Royal families

1200

1300 Trusteeship
Political disruption

1400
1500

Feudalism

1600 Edo Shogunate
1700
Shogunate government
1800

Feudal lord

Rural Warrior

Farmer’s
corporation

Reunification by force
Domain governor
Officers

HeadmenCommunity
farmers

Source: Summarized by the author.

13.3 River Engineering in the Edo Era
The Edo era lasted 260 years with no warfare. During the peaceful period, the Shogunate and domain
governments set a fixed tax amount a rather than tax rate. It gave a great motive for community headmen
to raise agricultural productivity to save excess harvest. Domain officers had another intention not tolose tax revenue by technical and financial assistance to each community and disaster damage control
among communities. Their mindsets and techniques were described in the “Farmer’s Folk Tale” and“River Work Handbook”.

13.3.1 “Farmer’s Folk Tale”
A community headman wrote down findings in his community and lessons from other domains in
the “Farmer’s Folk Tale” (Hyakusho-denki) in 1680. He recognized river maintenance as a farmer’s
mandate with thanks to ancestors and messages to descendants.

171

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The writer of the Farmer’s Folk Tale stressed ownership of river infrastructure: he was educating
farmers to maintain the infrastructure themselves. He explained the need for emergency calls forfighting floods and respect for the government officers. His messages can be summarized into twopoints: “routine maintenance” and “emergency control”.

Ownership
A drop of water should be cherished, however, too much water would collapse mountains, wash away
farmland, move houses away, and leave severe damage. Natural disasters are beyond our capacity as wecannot stop the river by hand. However, we must minimize flood damage every year through repairing
ponds and rivers that have protected communities for a long time. Since ancient days, the maintenanceof levees, irrigation, and rivers has been an essential mandate of farmers. The primary responsibility is
to save the next generations from water disasters.

LeveesLevees are built around paddy and houses of communities. These are the most important facilities andinclude castles for warriors.
Good levees built by experienced engineers would not be breached even though massive floods occur.
While bank-full floods overflow the levees, levees should be protected by any means possible.

172

Levees should be built for large-scale rivers to keep wide floodways, slow room for outflow, and plant
crops on the space.

GroynesLevee breaches can be prevented by building groynes. At bends in rivers, river flow scours the riverbed
and gradually erodes the levees. Levee protection is not effective for progressive meandering. In thiscase, groynes can be built on both sides of the river to moderate flow, reinforce the levees, deposit sandin the pools, and shift thalweg (lowest line on the riverbed) away from the convergence points. Floods
attack such sections. Usual river works are the most important preparation.
Withstand bank-full floods using stone groynes, timber cribs, bamboo gabion, willow planting, andgrassing. Continual river works save paddy and houses. Careless river work ruins crops and leaves
damage. Less preparation brings more damage. Inspect rivers and repair infrastructure. It is a lesson
to live around rivers.

Spill levees
Leave bush and forest around the levees of large rivers. In these sections, allow overflow of extreme
floods. Never permit overflow at convergence sections, or the main flow would switch the course andcause severe damage. Disperse water at the spill levees. It is the theory of levee protection.

Flood fighting
Mobilize the workforce at all levee sections for flood fighting. Small numbers of personnel can cause
early levee breaches. Rural officers should be informed of the levee conditions and the crop situation.
The officers might decide to breach a levee intentionally to minimize total damage, estimating rescueof farmers and horses. Today there is a small amount of damage around large rivers thanks to levees,
groynes, skeletons, and cribs. However natural pools and riffles are always shifting to make dangerous
conditions.

TRADITIONAL RIVER ENGINEERING FOR SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY
AND ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATION

Flash floods
Flash floods rush out rapidly, collide with bends in the river, erode riverbanks, run out of the river,
breach levees to wash out paddy, and deposit sand. It is important to moderate flash floods within theriver, separate water out of planted levees and discharge water quickly.

13.3.2 “River Work Handbook”
A river engineer published “River Works Handbook” (Kawayoke-shiyocho) in 1720. The writer was aprofessional engineer in a government agency. He aimed to transfer the knowledge of how to manage
rivers and floodplains to young successors.
The handbook showed consciousness and responsibility of professional river engineers. Because theauthor had a role as a tax levier, he mentioned overflow and crop damage. His sense was “Not to defeat
rivers but withstand floods”. He stressed the importance of river training and routine maintenance.

Never robust
River work intends not to defeat rivers but to withstand floods. Non-professional people usually believethat bigger structures provide better protection. Ignorant famers often want huge infrastructure, but
this can be misunderstood. Many years of research shows that robust facilities attract strong flow
to make deeper scouring and finally cause riverbank erosions. In such cases, the riverbank becomes
unrepairable.
River work aims to make the riverbed flatter and the thalweg smoother.

LeveesLevees can be built to prevent outflow, but levees as high as the possible maximum flood level are not
manageable. The crest part is dry and animals make their tunnels in it. The tunnels can be a water path
during bank-full floods to cause huge levee breaches that would wash paddy away and require many
years for recovery.
Build middle-level levees. These have easy access for flood fighting work. Keep the crest flat to allow
overflow equally avoiding flow convergence. Then the overflow might harm crops of this year only, but
it will not ruin the paddy itself.

Groynes
Groynes of 10 meters long can be embedded at high overflow sections. Never set groynes at highriverbank sections, or flood water would wash the riverbank out.

MaintenanceRiver work should be conducted every spring and autumn. In spring, reinforce river facilities to prepare
for oncoming flood risks. In autumn, restore river facilities with timber and bamboo of better quality.
Through the year, repair any breakage immediately. Besides them, monitor the river flow and improve
the facilities as needed.

173

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

13.3.3 Lessons from the Edo Era
The writers’ lessons come from 300 years of Japan’s river management. The Japan River Council foundgeneral features (GF) and divided them into four categories.
The veteran engineer’s “never-robust” concept is a root of “leveraging natural power” (GF-A). “Spilllevees, levee maintenance, and flood fighting” are suggestions for “total damage control” (GF-B).
“Levees and groynes” are partially used today to “adjust to site conditions” (GF-C). “Maintenance” andthe community’s “ownership” are the basic notion for “involving people” (GF-D) (Figure 13.3).
These are still valuable viewpoints to consider floodplain management and water-related risk reduction
under uncertainty in the future.

Figure 13.3: Lessons of Old Documents and General Featuresof Traditional River Engineering
Lessons learnt
fromEdo-era documents
around 1700

174

“Farmer’s Folk Tale” by a community headman

Spill levees
Flood fighting
Flush flood

LeveesGroynes

Ownership“River Work Handbook” by a domain officer

Never robust

General feature A)
Leveraging
natural powerof rivers

General feature B)
Controlling
total damage
over floodplains

LeveesGroynes

Maintenance

General feature C)
Adjusted toregional property
and river characters

General feature D)
Incorporating river
maintenance into
people’s life

General feature of traditional river engineering (River Council report 2000)
Source: Summarized by the author.

13.4 Contemporary Evaluation of Traditional
River Engineering
Since ancient times, farmers in flood-prone areas could not survive without river infrastructure.
Traditional river engineering developed facilities in rivers and upgraded damage control in thefloodplains. It became a core technology to stabilize local society in the Edo era.
Four important points can be analyzed for today’s society: (1) self-motivated risk sharing, (2) rotatingrisk reduction, (3) controlled inundation, and (4) interactive river training (Figure 13.4).

TRADITIONAL RIVER ENGINEERING FOR SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY
AND ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATION

Figure 13.4: Contemporary Context of Traditional River Engineering(1)
Self-motivatedrisk sharing(2)
Rotating risk
reduction(3)
Controlled
inundation(4)
Interactive
river training

Govt-community
dual governanceTax and voluntarywith public service

Infrastructure
maintenance cycle
Plan, preparation,risk, and repair cycle

Breach avoidance
Intentional outflow
and rapid discharge(Spill and open levee)

Seasonal maintenanceHarmonized withlifecycles ofindigenous species

Spatial and temporal
safety-net
Financial andtechnical assistancefor villages affected

Emergency path
Emergency control,
rescue, relief,
and recovery

Land-use control
Laying out housing,cultivation,and evacuation

Local material for
ecosystem
Delightful forindigenous species

Source: Summarized by the author.

13.4.1 Self-motivated Risk Sharing
In the Edo era, communities produced agricultural commodities and paid taxes as sources of social
vitalities. The domain government provided a security service for all communities resolving someconflicts among them. It was peaceful government–community interdependency within the domain.
Once an inescapable and catastrophic disaster broke out, however, communities in trouble could notreap the harvest. In such cases, the government would arrange financial and technical assistance forthe communities affected. The domain government supplied food aid, material delivery, workforce
mobilization, tax exemption, and engineering guidance to cope with abnormal river conditions(Figure 13.5).

Figure 13.5: Self-motivated Risk Sharing
Security service
Community A
Domaingovernment

Community B
Community C
Agricultural Community D
products

Tax and labor
Source: Summarized by the author.

Financial and technicalassistancefoodmaterial
workforcetax exemption
professional engineering

Communities in trouble

175

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

These were needed for not only communities, but also for the government to ensure tax revenue in thefollowing years. The emergency control scheme was working spatially and temporally as a safety-net
against disaster risks.

13.4.2 Rotating Risk Reduction
Understanding disaster risks, community headmen programmed facility maintenance synchronizing
it with the community’s agricultural operations. They injected materials and a workforce procured
within the community to meet urgent needs during floods. Therefore, river facilities were repeatedly
maintained in a 1-year cycle including spring preparation and autumn repair (Figure 13.6).
In case of large floods once a decade for instance, communities took counteraction to protect lives
and assets. However, the scale of the disaster was sometimes beyond the capacity of the communities.
Then, as a part of the security service, the domain government would dispatch emergency control
officers to the communities at risk. During flood events, they supervised flood fighting activities. Whenactual disaster damage occurred, they carried out extra support such as rescue, relief, and recovery.
There were two separate roles. Community headmen had to manage the community to allocate
resources to implement the infrastructure management cycle 10 times per decade. The government
officers had to prepare the emergency path every year to assist some potential communities. The
divisional cooperation accomplished a rotating risk reduction.

176

Figure 13.6: Rotating Risk Reduction
Risk

Emergency control

DisasterCommunity routine

Preparation

RescueRepairOne-yearagriculturaloperation

Governmental
assistance

ProgramRecoveryInfrastructure maintenance cycle
managed by community headmen

ReliefEmergency pathassisted by the domain government

Source: Summarized by the author.

13.4.3 Controlled Inundation
River engineers put their top priority on breach avoidance. For straight levees, they often designed halfspec heights and vegetation coverage. These were spill levees to allow overflow without breaching.
They arranged non-levee sections for rapid discharge from the floodplains. These were open levees.
The intentional inundation was to omit water-level rise by river facilities and prevent unpredictablelevee breaches.

TRADITIONAL RIVER ENGINEERING FOR SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY
AND ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATION

According to the levee layout, community headmen outlined optimum land-use of flooding blocks.
They allocated housing zones, cultivation fields, and evacuation centers to keep away from catastrophic
loss and aim for the earliest recovery.
Traditional river engineering accepted inundation as a given. From the viewpoint of an ecosystem, river
channels and floodplains frequently or intermittently connected each other. It meant water creatures
had many chances to extend the habitat.

13.4.4 Interactive River Training
Community-based maintenance had a process of an active approach to the river and a reactive
feedback from the river. Community workers continued the interaction through yearly cycles using
local materials.
The seasonal cycle was harmonized with farmers’ activities as well as the life cycle of wild creatures.
The riverfront habitat dynamism was preserved by repeating river maintenance. The conditions wereattractive for indigenous species in the local biosphere.

13.4.5 Contemporary Context of Traditional River Engineering
These analyses can indicate essential lessons on how to use traditional river engineering in today’s
modernized society.
One key element is community autonomy. Japan’s land development history tells us that ruralcommunities achieve land ownership in exchange for tax obligation. Then they attained government
security enforcement including defense from foreign enemies. Under the guarantee, communities
could save their resources for agriculture and other business.
Another topic is cyclic management. Community headmen encouraged 1-year agricultural operations
together with the infrastructure management cycle for disaster risk reduction. They utilized the local
budget, local materials, and the local workforce of their community. All resources were generated
within the community.
The community autonomy and the cyclic management were primary fundamentals of traditional riverengineering. Today’s socioeconomic conditions are unlike the Edo era. However, the contemporary
context is suggestive in today’s Japan and in neighboring countries.
Self-motivated risk sharing• Government–community dual governance• Spatial and temporal safety net
Rotating risk reduction• Infrastructure maintenance cycle• Emergency pass
Controlled inundation• Levee breach avoidance• Land-use planning
Interactive river training• Seasonal maintenance• Local materials for ecosystem

177

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

To build capacity for disaster risk reduction, it is recommended that rural communities design an
infrastructure maintenance cycle using resources within the community. At the same time, local
governments should provide safety nets for extreme events. It is a down-to-earth approach toaccomplish social sustainability and environmental preservation (Figure 13.7).

Figure 13.7: Engineering for Social Sustainability and Environmental Preservation
Provide new paddy to affected families.

Ancient CodeInspect levees and repair breakages.

Plant vegetation and supply timber.

Maintain weirs and channels.
Share natural resources by all.

A) Leveraging natural power of rivers

Traditional
River
EngineeringB) Controlling total damage over floodplains
C) Adjusted to regional property and river characters

Under govt-community
dual governanceD) Incorporating river maintenance into people’s life

Contemporary context

178(1) Self-motivatedrisk sharing(2) Rotating risk
reduction(3) Controlled
inundation(4) Interactive
river training

Govt-community
dual governance

Infrastructure
maintenance cycle

Leeve breachavoidance

Seasonal
maintenanceSpatial and temporal
safety nets

Emergency path

Land-use control

Local material
for ecosystem

Social sustainability

Environmental preservation

Source: Summarized by the author.

13.5 Conclusion
Since 1868, Japan has reformed its political protocol. The revolutionary government installed
democratic governance, monetized taxation, mechanized engineering, and introduced other modern
systems into the society. While these powerful engines boosted Japan’s national economy, traditionalriver engineering was rebuilt in a new legal framework such as the River Law in 1896.
One hundred years since then, the rivers in Japan were improved for flood control and water resources
storage. Against repeating water-related disasters, increasing safety levels accelerated Japan’s national
economic growth. However, negative impacts like environmental pollution would alter people’s
mindsets. Finally, at the end of the 20th century, Japan’s general requirement shifted from quantitative
wealth to qualitative richness. People were aspiring for a rich environment, beautiful scenery, and local
narratives around waterfronts as precious open-spaces of water and green.
Besides that, Japan has been struck by devastating disasters such as the Great Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake in 1995 and the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami in 2011. More frequently, highrecords of rainfall have caused massive floods that exceeded the capacity of river facilities.

TRADITIONAL RIVER ENGINEERING FOR SOCIAL SUSTAINABILITY
AND ENVIRONMENTAL PRESERVATION

In order to respond to such expectations, one practical approach is “learn from history”. The traditionalriver engineering in the Edo era showed actual outcomes. The engineers hedged water risks in wholebasins and sustained local societies that preserved a sound ecosystem for natural creatures and humanbeings. The engineering-based approach and local-driven management can achieve both disaster risk
reduction under a changing climate and a nature-friendly ecosystem with green infrastructure.
The features of Japan’s traditional engineering can be used as examples for river works in other
Asian countries. The author had technically assisted riverbank protection projects in the Lao People’s
Democratic Republic (Lao PDR) and Viet Nam (Figure 13.8). The prefectural engineers constructed
some structures with local materials and a local workforce, and succeeded to leverage the natural
power of the rivers.

Figure 13.8: Traditional River Engineering Applied in the Lao PDR and Viet Nam

179
Masonry groynes(Mekong River, Lao PDR, 2000)

Submerged bamboo gabion(Huong River, Viet Nam, 2012)

Masonry groynes(Rao Nan River, Viet Nam, 2015)

Masonry groynes(La River, Viet Nam, 2015)

Source: Taken by the author.

Traditional river engineering should not be an old technique found only in museums. It is applicable tothe latest demands of changing societies. It is fruitful to enrich people’s livelihoods and local society’s
conditions not only in technical matters but also in economic and environmental aspects. Traditionalriver engineering holds great potential to a better “River Culture” for sustaining society and preserving
the environment.

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

References
Amino, Y. 1997. History of Japan’s Society (Nihonshakai-no-Rekishi).
Arakida, T. 2000. Edo Era History of Farmers (Mura-no-Nihon-Kindaishi).
Hayami, A. 1988. History of Japan’s Economy in the 17th-18th Century (Keizai-Shakai-no-Seiritsu).
Ito, S. 2022. Manorialism (Sho-en).
Japan River Council. 2000. Traditional River Engineering to Carry on Lifestyle and Culture.
Matsuki, H. 2013. Groyne to Prevent Riverbank Erosion on Mekong River. Advances in River Engineering.
Japan Society of Civil Engineers, Vol. 19.
Matsuki, H. 2016. Erosion Control Attracting Deposit in Vietnam. Advances in River Engineering. Japan
Society of Civil Engineers Vol. 22.
Matsuki, H. 2018. Target Thalweg Method to Design Groyne Series for Erosion Control. Advances inRiver Engineering. Japan Society of Civil Engineers Vol. 24.
Mizumoto, K. 2015. Edo Era of Farmers (Mura).
Mizuno, S. 2021. Living with Disasters in the Middle Ages (Saigai-to-Ikiru-Chusei).
Nakano, H. 2019. Land Value Survey (Taiko-Kenchi).
Oh-ishi, S. 1977. Edo Era.

180

CHAPTER 14
A Review of Public Awareness of Water Source
Regulations and River Managementin the Republic of Korea
Ik Jae Kim and Mynhyun Ryu

14.1 Background
Providing a stable supply of abundant sources with good water quality from reservoirs, rivers,
and groundwater to citizens and nature is a nationally-shared responsibility and fundamental forbalanced regional development. However, urgent policy issues on water source protection have emerged
recently. In March 2017, three residents in Seoul, the Republic of Korea filed a constitutional petition
with the Constitutional Court, claiming that the collection of a water use levy violates Article 37(2) of“Excessive Funding Principle”, and Article 11 of “Equality Principle” in the Constitution. Since 1999,
the water use levy has been collected along with water bills to preserve a good quality of water supply
based on the Acts on the Improvement of Water Quality and Support for Resident of the River Basins.
Eight of the nine justices of the Constitutional Court ruled that the collection of the water use levy,
which some citizens perceived as a heavy and improper regulation, was not unconstitutional because
it is in line with the State’s responsibilities, emphasizing that improving the quality of the water supply
is an important public task and is closely related to the health and living environment of the people of
the Nation (Constitutional Court, Case No. 2018HUB425).
In October 2020, the mayor of Namyangju City and residents of Joan County in Gyeonggi Province
filed another Constitutional Court case, claiming that Article 7 of “Designation of Water Source
Protection Areas” in the Drinking Water Management Act was unlawful. The litigators argued that
the Regulation of Paldang Lake Water Source Protection Area in the Drinking Water Supply
Management Rules violates the freedom of occupational choice, equal rights, and property rights
guaranteed by the Constitution. The case has been pending for more than 2.5 years.
More recently in July 2023, the Board of Audit and Inspection in the Republic of Korea investigatedand announced that the decision by the National Water Management Committee and the Basin Water
Management Committees to dismantle river facilities a few years ago was not appropriate. Accordingly,
the current government and the National Water Management Committee canceled the decision madeby the previous committees several years ago.
In this way, for about 6 years in Korean society, there has been a significant shift in public perception
and social focus on policies regarding drinking water management and river management among
citizens and the government. The purpose of this chapter is to introduce and discuss the recent statusof public awareness and satisfaction shown in two policy research studies (which are not publishedinternationally) with respect to ongoing regulations and policy on drinking water and river management
policies and suggest future policy projections.

181

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

14.2 Trends of Water Source Protection Zones
Water access coverage in the Republic of Korea increased from 87.1% in 2000 to 99.4% in 2021, while
the registered population between 2000 and 2021 increased by 10% in the same period. However,water source protection zones across the country from 2000 to 2022 dramatically decreased by 29%(Figure 14.1).

383

377

360

13

372

new

13

358 359 359 358

340
320

329

8

300

6

6

12
10

322
306

6

4 4

4

7
296 294

8
289

5

4

4

285

6
280 278 277
275

4
3

3

0

0

0

0

0

2018

2019

2020

2021

2022

0

2017

0

2016

0

6
4
2

1

1

2015

0

2014

0

2013

0

2012

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

0

3

2

1

2011

1

2010

1

2001

2

2 2

2

220

2009

240

14

current

10

5

260

removed

11

311

280

200

11

339 342
10

2008

380

16

15

2000

182

National Water Source Protection Zone (current)

4000National Water Source Protection Zone (new or removed)

Figure 14.1: Trends of Water Source Protection Zones

Source: Analysis by Kim et al. (2024). Data from Ministry of Environment, Republic of Korea.

The regulations for water source protection zones can be broadly categorized into water quality pollutant
regulations and land use regulations. First, water quality pollutant regulations restrict activities within
designated water source protection zones that could lead to water pollution. Approximately 60 types ofchemicals are prohibited from use within designated zones. Regarding land use regulation, the scope ofsiting regulations extends to upstream catchment areas up to a maximum of 20 kilometers dependingon the capacity of water intake facilities located within designated zones. In other words, factories
that discharge industrial wastewater are not permitted to be established on land within the catchment
areas, which corresponds to 14.7% (14,743 square kilometers) of the national territory. Only industrial
facilities that do not release harmful pollutants downstream are allowed to be established close to thedesignated zones or water intake facilities. This regulatory policy for protecting water sources in the
Republic of Korea is similar to the Source Water Protection Program implemented through the 1996
amendment of the United States’ (US) Safe Drinking Water Act (Figure 14.2). It is estimated that policy
researchers in the Republic of Korea have adapted the US system for implementation in the Republicof Korean context. In this manner, however, the rapid decline in water source protection zones in the
Republic of Korea has various reasons. But it can be attributed to stringent regulations of water quality
pollution and siting restrictions.

A REVIEW OF PUBLIC AWARENESS OF WATER SOURCE REGULATIONSAND RIVER MANAGEMENT IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA

Figure 14.2: Source Water Protection Program in the United States
2
Inventory

known and potential
sources of contamination

Delineate

the source water
protection area

Assessment

1

LEGEND

Determinesusceptibilityof public water systems
to contaminant sources

asePh

Source Water
Protection Area
Roads

3

Rails
Water

Engagethe public!

about threats identified
in the assessment

Ph

ase

4

7

t
P ro

Evaluateand update action
plan periodicallyProtect
6ectsources of drinking
water by implementing
protective actions

io nDevelop an
action plan
to identify andprioritize specificimplementation
activities

5

Source: United States Environmental Protection Agency. https://www.epa.gov/sourcewaterprotection/assess-plan-and-protect-source-water#components (left), https://www.epa.gov/sourcewaterprotection/assess-plan-and-protect-source-water#components (right).

183
Of course, considering the worsening water quality, increasing trace pollutants, and the emergenceof infectious pathogens, there is an opinion that regulations for preventive measures and protection,
as they are now, should be maintained. On the other hand, some argue that if regulations were to be
mitigated, there should be stricter and more severe penalties for industries or entities responsible forpollution, as the current penalties for violating regulations are relatively lenient.

14.3 Public Awareness of Water Source Regulations
Ryu et al. (2023) conducted a survey to investigate the feasibility of water source protection zones bycomparing public awareness in line with the economic aspect of property rights constraints and societal
benefits between upstream and downstream residents in the Han River and Nakdong River basins. A
total of 1,000 households were surveyed, with 500 households each from the upstream and downstream
areas. Survey results showed that 89.2% of respondents in the upstream area and 73% of respondents
in the downstream area had heard of the water source protection zone regulations (Figure 14.3).
Relatively higher awareness of the water source protection zones was observed in the upstream area
compared to the downstream area. The study also demonstrated the level of agreement on the necessityof water source protection zones. In the upstream area 82% agreed, while in the downstream area 91%
agreed, indicating that both upstream and downstream areas highly recognize the importance of theseregulations. A noteworthy aspect was that even in the upstream area, a significant portion agreed on
the necessity of water source protection zones. This suggests public awareness of the importance of
these zones even among those whose property might be affected by the restrictions imposed by thewater source protection zones. It is also important to note the existence of a societal atmosphereor culture in which the public agrees on the necessity of regulations for protecting water sources
by restricting industrial site locations. However, politicians elected in areas with high development
demands may not be able to ignore the demands of voters who argue for loosening regulations.

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 14.3: Residents’ Consent for Water Source Protection Zones in Upstream
and Downstream Area
Upstream

Downstream

Disagree, 9%Disagree, 18%

Agree, 82%

Agree, 91%

Source: Ryu et al. (2023).

184

Figure 14.4 presents the results on whether residents in the upstream area who live within the water
source protection zones receive compensation due to the regulations. Among the residents living
within the water source protection zones, 93% responded that they are not receiving compensation.
Additionally, 73% of these residents responded that they do not agree with the proposition of reducing
compensation in exchange for relaxing regulatory measures. This result suggests that the residents
who participated in this survey have a greater awareness of financial compensation rather than therelaxation of water quality pollution regulations or siting restrictions.

Figure 14.4: Compensation and Consent of Reducing Regulations (upstream)
Compensation for conduct regulation(Upstream)
Yes, 3%No, 93%
Source: Ryu et al. (2023).

Not Sure, 4%Consent for reducing compensation instead of
conduct regulation alleviation (Upstream)
Yes, 22%
Not Sure, 5%

No, 73%

A REVIEW OF PUBLIC AWARENESS OF WATER SOURCE REGULATIONSAND RIVER MANAGEMENT IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA

Therefore, it can be concluded that there is a significant difference in perception between some residents
who brought a constitutional petition to the Constitutional Court and those who participated in thissurvey. This difference in perception regarding regulations can be attributed to the deep contextual
relevance and regional characteristics. For instance, residents within source water protection zones
located in areas where there is limited land available for industrial development might prefer topursue business profits through attracting factories, rather than seeking financial compensation.
In conclusion, while the law should ideally be applied objectively and equally to all individuals andactions, it can be considered valid to review and improve differentiated regulations that take into
account the characteristics of areas where source water protection zones are designated, the featuresof watersheds and rivers, and most importantly, regulations that can be accepted by both upstream anddownstream residents. However, under any circumstances, changes in regulations must not compromise
the principles of safeguarding human health through adequate water and good water quality, as wellas the sustainable development of the region. Moreover, even if intensity of water regulations were
to be lowered, there should be an enhancement of social acceptance and legal accountability. Thisenhancement should be induced through policy measures to ensure that it becomes ingrained withinsocietal culture.

14.4 Public Awareness of River Management
Across many countries worldwide, the wealthy aspire to live in well-managed riverfront areas andbeautiful waterfront locales, while impoverished individuals are often left with no choice but to residein flood-prone areas and spaces near polluted water bodies or reservoirs. The Republic of Korea has aunique water culture. For example, with a significant portion of its land consisting of mountains, theRepublic of Korea is surrounded by the sea on three sides, and rivers are well-developed in valleys andplains. Many place names in the Republic of Korea, as well as personal names, are related to water.
While rapid economic development has led to pollution in some rivers, stringent water conservationand environmental policies have gradually improved the quantity and quality of river water. Many
people want to enjoy the beauty of river water, and the government and politicians are well aware ofthis. Therefore, it is important to conduct a public awareness survey regarding river management.
Lee et al. (2022) surveyed public awareness of 383 citizens nationwide, through face-to-face interviews
using a convenience sample, on river management. Figure 14.5 represents the survey results for fivecategories (quantity, water quality, ecological environment, surroundings, flood prevention) reflecting
the condition of rivers. Citizens evaluated the condition of rivers as poor in four out of the five categories,
except for quantity. Therefore, it is concluded that there is a need for river management policies thatcitizens can perceive to be in place. According to the Ministry of Environment (2019), the health ratingof the national river aquatic ecosystem from 2017 to 2018 showed a slight decrease in the proportion ofgrades B (good) and above, with an increasing trend in the proportion of grade E (poor). However, there
was a significant increase found in 2019 in the proportion of grades B and above, along with a decreasein the proportion of grade E, indicating an improvement in the aquatic environment. Nevertheless, thissurvey results indicated that 65.5% of citizens have a negative perception of the aquatic environment.
Such disparity in perception is believed to stem from inadequate provision of accurate information
about river management status and the lack of positive promotion for shifting citizens’ perception.
This can be attributed to the increasing interest and demands of citizens for various values related torivers beyond mere flood control and drainage, emphasizing aspects like waterfront spaces and water
quality. However, this expansion of societal needs does not seem to align with the perceived lack ofchange in river management policies.

185

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 14.5: Public Awareness of River Management Sector
(%)
100

5.5%

Not sure

6.0%

5.2%
10.2%

Very Little
80

5.5%
8.1%

Very Bad

3.1%

Not sure

Not sure
Very Bad

Very Bad

Not sure

8.4%

6.5%

Little9.7%

Very Bad

Bad

42.6%
60

40

Not sure

Bad

Bad

56.7%

57.4%

46.2%

Bad
48.3%

Much
Good
40.2%

20

Good

Good

26.1%

27.4%

Very Much
0

Very Good
1.8%

5.7%
Quantity

Quality

Ecology

Good

41.5%

29.2%
Very Good

Very Good

1.6%

2.6%
Circumstance

Very Good
4.4%

2.6%

Flood protection

Source: Lee et al. (2022).

186

Figure 14.6: Public Expectations of the National Water Reformand Institutional Preference on River Management(%)
Better Effectiveness

1.30

Effectiveness24.50

Few effectiveness

24.00

Municipalities,
17.5%

10.40

Uselessness

CentralGovernment,
15.1%

39.70

Not sure
The Others 0
0

10

20

30

40

50

The Others, 1.0%
Residents, 1.3%
NGO, 3.7%

Source: Lee et al. (2022).

Specialized Water
Management
Organization(K-water etc.),
61.4%

A REVIEW OF PUBLIC AWARENESS OF WATER SOURCE REGULATIONSAND RIVER MANAGEMENT IN THE REPUBLIC OF KOREA

Figure 14.6 illustrates the perceived effectiveness of river management and preferences for institutions
responsible for river management among citizens following the National Water Reform in 2018.
Regarding river management after the reform, the highest response was “Not sure,” indicating thatcitizens are not perceiving the effects of river management following the centralization of water
management. Concerning the institutions that citizens believe are best suited to perform rivermanagement, water-related agencies were most preferred (61.4%), followed by local governments(17.5%), the central government (15.1%), citizens’ groups (3.7%), and local residents (1.3%). Thissuggests that, in order to meet the diverse demands of citizens, specialized expertise is essential inriver management, emphasizing the need for professionalism in addressing various aspects of rivermanagement.
The climate crisis is dominating national water policies domestically and internationally. In order tomeet the diverse needs of its citizens, water policies in the Republic of Korea need to evolve fromoutdated management regulations. However, the adjustment of water regulations, such as source
protection zones and siting limitation, should be overly cautious because if we lose a legal system thatcan secure sufficient water and clear water, the development of the national economy and communities,
as well as the health of individuals and the preservation of nature, will be meaningless. The directionof river management policy also needs to go beyond simple management and seek a sustainable rivermanagement plan that harmoniously coexists with humans and nature, and expertise in perspectivewith integrated water management. Lastly, government policy makers and legislative bodies need to
conduct a scientific and thorough investigation of public awareness regarding water culture.

187

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

References
Kim, I. J., D. H. Han, S.S. Lee, D. J. Jeon, S. B. Kim, and Y. S. Kim. 2024. Developing a Policy Directionof Sustainable Quality of Sources Water in Korea: Source Water Protection Zone and Water Intake.
Korea Environment Institute. (in Korean).
Lee, S., M-H. Ryu, I-J. Kim, H-Y. Choi, and Y-J. Ha. 2022. A Study on River Management Based on the
Results from a Survey of Citizens. Journal of Korea Water Resources Association 55(2): 171–176.
(in Korean)
Ministry of Environment, Republic of Korea. 2000–2022. Status of Annual Designated Water Source
Protection Zone (no data available for 2007 or 2010).
____. 2019. Stream and River Ecosystem Survey and Health Assessment. 194–212. (in Korean)Ryu, M-H., D-J. Jeon, S-Y. Kim, and K. Kwon. 2023. A Study on Drinking Water Protect Zone Policy
by Social Benefit Analysis of Upstream and Downstream. Journal of Korea Water Resources
Association 56(5): 357–362. (in Korean)188

CHAPTER 15
Transforming Water Resources Management
Investment: The Evolution of Cost Sharing
among Local Communities, Governments,
and the Private Sector in Japan1
Mikio Ishiwatari and Daniel P. Aldrich15.1 Introduction
The Asian region, which is frequently impacted by monsoons, requires extensive management ofwater resources for flood protection and water supply over a wide area to develop its agriculturaland economic resources. This monsoon-influenced region stretches from eastern to southeastern andsouthern Asia, covering most of East Asia, Southeast Asia, and South Asia. The region is home to a large
rural population most of whom are engaged in rice cultivation and share a common rice culture.
Water resources management in the region typically involves rivers as core sources of water that provide
water to multiple communities. Water resources management infrastructure cannot be financed byindividuals alone and requires investment by public, collective, or private capital. Thus, financing
and cost sharing among national and local governments, the private sector, and local communities are
essential for constructing and maintaining facilities.
Japan, located in the monsoon region, has managed rivers throughout its history in a variety of ways,
including using waterways as transportation infrastructure along with flood mitigation. These strategies
involve a combination of improving drainage and providing water for agricultural fields as well as
improving the flood flow of river channels in low-lying areas. This has allowed paddy farming to adapt
to heavy summer rains, high temperatures, and narrow and steep land conditions. Over time, Japan
has carried out various types of water resource management through governance and societal systems.
Okuma (2007) argues that rivers are a key player in the material cycle of the global environment, as
well as a familiar natural feature for people, and have slowly nurtured local cultures over time amidst
the contradictions of abundance and disasters.
This chapter examines the transformation processes of investments in water resources management
and investigates how conventional financial mechanisms have been evolved over time in Japan.
It provides insights into the transformation of cost sharing among concerned organizations. The
investment roles of the central government, regional and local governments, local communities, andthe private sector have changed under different governance regimes. This chapter can contribute tobetter policy and decision making for investment in water resource management in other countries
facing similar challenges. The chapter begins by tracing the history of water resource development by
the state in the 7th century CE.

1

Acknowledgments
This study is supported by the Japan–US Global Partnership of Japan Foundation grant program, “Government and Market
in Disasters: Capacity Building, Burden Sharing and Insurance”.

189

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

15.2 From a Centralized System to Involving the Private
Sector in the Middle Ages
During the late 7th century CE, Japan introduced the ritsuryō system, a political system based on
Chinese legal and ruling systems. The ritsuryō system sought to centralize political power in theImperial Court and create a standardized legal system throughout the nation. The Imperial Court
governed the people and paddy fields throughout the country. Farmers paid 3% of the value of theiragricultural products from their lands as government taxes.
The Imperial Court recognized expanding rice paddies and developing water resources for irrigation
as fundamental conditions for securing the effective national governance. The Imperial Court
led developing water resources and agricultural fields to allocate rice paddies for all people undera nationwide standardized grid of arable land (Sasaki 1965, Figure 15.1). The court formulated adevelopment plan in 722 to increase the area of rice paddies 2.5 times (Oda 2017). While the court
developed infrastructure including irrigation facilities, farmers cultivated and maintained rice paddies.
However, due to population growth and limited paddy fields in the 8th century, the Imperial Court
began encouraging the private sector of nobles, shrines, and temples to develop water resources andpaddy fields. The court granted ownership rights to the lands developed.

190

Figure 15.1: Standardized Grid System in Sabae City, Fukui Prefecture

Source: Geospatial Information Authority.

Gyoki, a Buddhist leader who worked in the 7th and 8th centuries and later became the highest-ranking
monk, led a group that comprehensively developed water resources in various regions. For example,
in the Yodogawa River basin, an important river that flows through Kyoto and Osaka, Gyoki’s groupdeveloped approximately 2,000 hectares of paddy fields by constructing dikes, diversion channels,
intakes, and irrigation and drainage channels for land reclamation, flood protection, and irrigation anddrainage (Oda 2017).

TRANSFORMING WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT INVESTMENT:THE EVOLUTION OF COST SHARING AMONG LOCAL COMMUNITIES,GOVERNMENTS, AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN JAPANBy allowing private ownership of developed farmland, the Imperial Court was no longer able to
distribute rice paddies to all people in the 9th century CE. As the ritsuryō system declined in the10th century CE, a feudal system started in which land previously belonging to the state became theprivate property of influential shrines, temples, and nobles. The feudal system in Japan coincidentallydeveloped independently and in historical parallel with the European feudal system (Umesao 2002).
This governance shift minimized intervention from the central level while several thousand manors
managed water and lands at the local level (Ito 2021). The nobles, shrines, and temples developed
water resources and owned their own properties. Local clans, not the Imperial Court, managed theselocations on the ground.
These development activities laid the foundation for the current irrigation systems used for smalland medium-sized rivers (Sano 1999). For example, a manor lord developed the irrigation systems of
Junikagoyosui for 6,000 hectares of paddy fields in Okayama Prefecture, which is still in use today.
Irrigation facilities were managed by a manager appointed by a manor lord and a water keeper selectedfrom locals (Ito 2021). Water fees were collected from farmers and repairs to irrigation facilities wereconducted by farmers’ labor (Akiba 1959). Manor lords developed water resources and land within
their manors but could not engage in large-scale projects beyond the boundaries of their manors. Afterthe Middle Ages, feudal lords, daimyo, began leading large-scale projects.

15.3 Early Modern Period from the 17th to 19th Centuries
The governance in the Edo period (1603–1868 CE) involved a centralized military government of theEdo bakufu headed by shogun feudal domains ruled by daimyo (feudal lords), and the emergence ofautonomous local communities. The bakufu had absolute political power over the daimyos and theirfeudal domains. This section examines how this governance arrangement altered water resource
management, leading to the establishment of many of Japan’s current financing mechanisms. It
analyzes local community’s roles in investment in water resources management in a case study of the
Nobi Plain.

15.3.1 Overview of Edo Period
The Tokugawa Shogunate led the centralized military government of bakufu located in Edo, currently
Japan’s capital of Tokyo. The daimyo were responsible for developing the local economy as well as
maintaining law and order within their domains. Takemura in chapter 2 of this volume argues thatwater resources development and agricultural expansion played critical roles in the nation’s economic
and population growth during the Edo period.
There were four types of projects of water resources management. The Tokugawa bakufu directly
implemented key projects to develop capital and strategic areas and commanded the daimyo to support
these national projects. In addition, the daimyo conducted projects to develop their own domains, andlocal communities engaged in construction and infrastructure maintenance at the community level(Tanaka 2005).

15.3.2 Autonomous Local Community in Water Management
The Edo period involved the emergence of autonomous local communities, denoted as “So” villages,
which began in the 14th century CE and expanded throughout the country in the 16th century (Amino
1997). These communities achieved self-management in water resources, which had previously beenorganized by the manor lords. Local self-organization came out of the productive capacity and rising
economic status of farmers.

191

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The community-based mechanisms of the Japanese-style paddy field agriculture have continued until
the present day. Farmers established a management organization for irrigation water at the end of theirrigation channel system. Community members formulated and enforced rules and regulations forwater use, as well as maintaining and repairing canals to ensure water for their agricultural fields. They
worked together to distribute the amount of water fairly among themselves. In addition, communities
engaged in fighting floods during heavy rains to protect their assets and agricultural fields. The successof their collective efforts in managing water resources contributed greatly to the development andstability of the agricultural system.
These collective efforts can still be seen currently. Traditional irrigation systems are still in use, andfarmers continue to work together to maintain and manage their water resource facilities.

15.3.3 The Case of Nobi Plain
The Nobi Plain, located in central Japan, serves as a compelling case of how financial arrangements canimprove water management and agricultural productivity. This plain, where rice production increased
by about 20% during this period, became a major agricultural production area in Japan (Ando 1975).
Three major rivers flow into the plain, repeatedly causing flooding, and making agricultural production
challenging (Figure 15.2). The Tokugawa bakufu constructed the 50 kilometers continuous dike known
as Okakoi Tei in the eastern part of the plain to develop the Owari area through flood prevention. Thisarea, currently Nagoya metropolitan area, was strategically important in the realms of the economy,
politics, and military for the bakufu.

192
Figure 15.2: Kiso Three Rivers

Source: Lower Kiso River Office, Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism.

TRANSFORMING WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT INVESTMENT:THE EVOLUTION OF COST SHARING AMONG LOCAL COMMUNITIES,GOVERNMENTS, AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN JAPANOn the other bank, daimyo, merchants, and wealthy farmers engaged in constructing 80 ring dikes
to protect settlements and agricultural fields covering 1,800 square kilometers from flooding and toconvert low-lying wetlands into paddy fields (Ito and Aoki 1977; Matsubara 1977). Daimyo and merchants
invested in basic infrastructure facilities, such as dikes and main irrigation and drainage channels, andfarmers migrated to new lands and cultivated in their lots. Local communities also constructed dikes
and facilities by themselves. Some ring dikes continue to protect their communities even today.
In addition, the bakufu ordered the daimyo outside the plain to implement large-scale works of river
channel improvement in the Nobi plain 16 times during the Edo period. One famous case came with
the Horeki flood protection project in 1754 and 1755, which the shogunate ordered the Satsuma feudal
domain, now Kagoshima Prefecture, to undertake. This work imposed heavy financial and social
burdens on the Satsuma domain, and as many as 85 samurai committed harakiri (ritual suicide) after
feeling responsible for the work or died of illness (Haga 2005).
With a sense of unity and camaraderie, local communities competed to construct the dikes that protected
them from flooding. Local communities established a flood fighting organization inside each ring dike,
constructed high mounds as evacuation places, and collectively fought against flooding by reinforcing
dikes to protect from breaching during high water levels. Because such competition increased tensions
between communities, projects for flood protection required the approval of the shogunate andneighboring communities. This tactic mediated potential conflicts between communities. Where locals
had undertaken dam or berm construction without permission, government authorities sometimes
imprisoned community leaders (Kubota 2008).

15.4 Modern State
From the establishment of the modern state in 1868 to the present day, the national government’s
involvement in water resources management has undergone a major shift from no involvement to
the leading role. This section examines the changes of increasing investment by the government anddeclining by local communities.

15.4.1 National Government Involvement
At the beginning of the Meiji period, the national government invested in river navigation works topromote industrialization, while the prefectural governments and local communities were responsible
for flood protection. Local communities bore the cost for development of irrigation facilities as well.
The Meiji government recognized private ownership of arable land, imposed tax obligations on
landowners, and did not cover the cost of irrigation facilities.
As modernization and industrialization progressed, flood damage increased, and the national
government became increasingly involved in flood protection projects. Local governments andcommunities were unable to cope with the increasing flood disasters due to their limited technical andfinancial capacities (Ishiwatari and Sasaki 2022). In 1896, Japan enacted the River Law and the national
government began to directly conduct flood protection works on important rivers, while prefectural
governors were responsible for managing rivers in principle. Because of limited budgets, the national
government could start projects on only 11 rivers by 1907 (Matsuura 2016). Prefectural governments
bore one-third of the cost of these national projects. Even today, the 2:1 cost sharing ratio between thenational and prefectural governments still applies to national projects. The national budget for flood
protection accounted for 0.5%–1.3% of the national income until 1910 (Ishiwatari and Sasaki 2020).

193

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

The national government developed its first long-term flood protection plan in 1911, covering 65 rivers.
Until the 1930s, the government completed the river systems with continuous high dikes and diversion
channels on major rivers, which are the foundation of the current flood protection systems.

15.4.2 Local Community’s Role
Although the national government played a leading role in flood prevention and water management,
local communities struggled with the financial burden that has persisted since the Edo period. Floodprevention associations (FPAs), Suigai Yobo Kumiai in Japanese, were established to implement flood
protection works based on local community systems in the Edo period. The FPAs bore part of thecosts of flood protection projects that were not implemented by national projects. For rivers notsupported by the national government, prefectural governments and local communities continued to
conduct flood protection works. In the case of Niigata prefecture, the FPAs covered 30% of project
costs implemented by the prefectural government (Uchida 1994). In Saitama prefecture, the prefecture
government covered all costs for flood protection works of the main channels in six medium-size
rivers, while the prefectural government and FPAs covered half of the costs equally for their seventributaries (Matsuura 2016). In addition, the FPAs engaged in flood fighting activities to protect theirown communities, stockpiling necessary materials, patrolling dikes and structure, and maintaining andreinforcing dikes during flooding.

194

The Municipal Assembly Law in 1880 and Water Association Regulations of 1890 codified theprocedures that FPAs were to follow. The FPAs were autonomous bodies, collected levies from
community members, and were managed by local assemblies (The assembly members were electedfrom community members). Membership was open to all landowners and homeowners in areas
designated as flood-prone areas. As the national government had limited financial capacity, the FPAs
were established to finance investment in flood protection throughout the country. The number of
FPAs reached around 1,000 at the end of the Meiji period, in which over 600 associations were
established in Niigata Prefecture (Okuma 2007; Uchida 1994).

15.4.3 Further Involvement of National Government
Investment by the national government increased further, while community involvement decreased.
In 1933 the national government started new programs for medium- and small-scale rivers to stimulate
local economies during an economic recession. The national and prefectural governments covered
50% of project costs equally, and the associations and local communities did not need to bear costs.
This cost share continues until the present day, with the national government subsidizing 50% of thecosts for prefectural projects.
The national government intervened in irrigation as well. In 1918, farmers rioted because of a sharp risein rice prices, which led to conflicts between tenant farmers and the landowners. To cope with highrice prices, the government promoted water resources development and initiated financial assistanceto cover 50% of the cost of developing irrigation facilities. Currently, the national government still
covers 50% of the costs, while communities cover 10%–25% of project costs.
After the Second World War, the financial burden on local communities was greatly reduced, andthe national government invested in financing flood protection with prefectural governments. Local
governments took over the activities of the FPAs following the establishment of the Flood Fighting
Law in 1949. As national and local governments promoted flood protection, the associations becameless active. Also, urbanization decreased awareness of flood protection among the people. In the Nobi
Plain, the FPA in Ogaki continued until 1961 when the city government took it over.

TRANSFORMING WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT INVESTMENT:THE EVOLUTION OF COST SHARING AMONG LOCAL COMMUNITIES,GOVERNMENTS, AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN JAPANJapan developed water resources and sanitation for industrial activities and residents in urban
areas. Local governments developed necessary facilities with government subsidies and users’ tariffs(Ishiwatari, Nagata, and Matsubayashi 2023).

Figure 15.3: Evolution of Cost Sharing in Water Resources Management
Local community
Private sector
Local authority
National government
7th Century-

Imperial Court

Ritsuryō period

9th Century-16th Century

Feudal period

17-19th Century

Edo period

1868-

Meiji period

1896

River Law

1933-

Small projects

1949

Flood Fighting Law

Private sector

Local clan
DaimyoLocal community

BakufuPrefectural government
National government

Source: Authors’ elaboration.

15.5 Discussion
This study comprehensively examines the evolution of financing mechanisms for water resourcesmanagement in Japan, beginning with the ritsuryō system in the 7th century CE. Japan’s approach tofinancial arrangements has undergone gradual changes, influenced by sociocultural factors and new
governance regimes (Figure 15.3). During the Middle Ages we saw a shift from centralized state-led
investment to private sector involvement, with nobles, shrines, and temples. National intervention was
minimized, and each manor manages water resources. During the Edo period in the 17th century CE,
central government involvement and investment again increased, and the sharing of roles and costs
among central and local governments and communities became clearer and more routinized, laying
the foundation for the present.
Even the Meiji Revolution of 1868, which transformed Japan from a feudal system into a modern state,
did not significantly alter the established concept of cost sharing. Prefectural governments and local
communities, rather than the national government, bore the costs of flood protection, fulfilling a rolethat had been fostered during the Edo period. The owners of farmland invested in irrigation facilities
without support from governments.
As modernization, urbanization, and industrialization progressed, water resources management
became more complex. This increased demand underscored the need for sophisticated technicalintervention and substantial amounts of capital. As a result, the role and financial burden of the national
government expanded to fill the burgeoning gap.

195

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

It took 3 decades before the national government began flood protection works and 5 decades for it to
support major irrigation projects. Local communities had shared the costs for flood protection until
the mid-20th century. After the Second World War, local governments assumed the cost burden forflood protection from local communities. On the other hand, the trend has been consistent in irrigation
projects, with local communities continuing to contribute to project costs, perpetuating a historicalprecedent that continues to this day.
The foundation of current water resources management in Japan sits in the deep involvement of thelocal community. This foundation of this bottom-up engagement can be traced back to the Middle
Ages when autonomous organizations emerged with rising economic power at the community level.
Although government involvement has increased and the financial burden has grown, the significant
role of local communities in water resources management has been maintained from the Edo period
to the present.
The private sector has also historically contributed to water resources management. Shrines, temples,and nobles in particular developed water resources during the Middle Ages. In addition, during theEdo period, private investment by merchants developed water resources and rice paddies.

196

There are lessons from Japan’s experience that can be shared with other countries (Figure 15.4). Cost
sharing by local communities is crucial in any governance system or sociocultural form, although theamount of cost sharing may vary from period to period. Water resources projects that serve multiple
communities require external intervention, such as government or private funding. This is becausesuch projects require funding that communities cannot afford. In the case of further larger projects,
financial support from the central government and coordination among local governments are crucial
to river basin planning and the implementation of large-scale projects. During decentralization in the
Middle Ages and early Meiji period, Japan could not implement these programs because of limited
resources at the local level and difficulty of coordination among communities.

Figure 15.4: Lessons from Japan’s Experience in Investment
in Water Resources Management

LOCAL
AUTHORITYPRIVATESECTOR
Financing

Source: Authors’ elaboration.

LOCAL
COMMUNITY

CENTRALGOV.
Financing and
Coordination

TRANSFORMING WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT INVESTMENT:THE EVOLUTION OF COST SHARING AMONG LOCAL COMMUNITIES,GOVERNMENTS, AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR IN JAPAN15.6 Conclusion
In Japan, from historical times to the present day, the financing mechanisms between communities,
the national government, local governments, and the private sector in the water resources sector
have evolved as a result of economic and social growth and governance transitions. This transition
underscores the deep connection between the cost-sharing model, sociocultural values, and the
dynamic structure of Japanese society.
Japan’s success in maintaining community involvement, clarifying central government responsibilities,
and embracing public–private partnerships to invest in water resources provides valuable lessons foraddressing similar challenges in other countries. By understanding the evolution of these practices,
policy makers and stakeholders can pave a sustainable path for financial arrangements for water
resources management. By putting cost sharing at the core of their strategies, developing countries
can promote community participation, build innovative partnerships, revitalize traditional practices,and leverage modern systems to build sustainable and resilient water management systems. In an eraof rising sea levels, higher levels of extreme weather events, and deeper financial impacts from thesedisasters, societies need to be ready to face the future through professionalized and well thought out
water management infrastructure.

197

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

References
Akiba, M. 1959. A Characteristic and History of Irrigation in Japan. Journal of Japanese Society of
Irrigation Drainage and Rural Engineering 27(5): 350–353. (in Japanese)
Amino, Y. 1997. The History of Japanese Society. Tokyo: Iwanimi Shoten. (in Japanese)Ando, M. 1975. Waju: Development and Structure. Tokyo: Kokinshoin. (in Japanese)
Haga, S. 2005. The Horeki Riparian Works and the Origin of the Holy Place. Nagoya University Library
Research Annual Report 3: 75–102. (in Japanese)
Ishiwatari, M., K. Nagata, and M. Matsubayashi. 2023. Evolving Water Resources Management in
Response to Socio-economical Changes: Japanese Experience in Modernization over the Past
Century. Water Supply 23(2): 706–714.
Ishiwatari, M., and D. Sasaki. 2020. Bridging the Gaps in Infrastructure Investment for Flood Protectionin Asia, Tokyo: JICA Research Institute.
Ishiwatari, M., and D. Sasaki. 2022. Disaster Risk Reduction Funding: Investment Cycle for Flood
Protection in Japan. International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health 19(6):3346. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph19063346
Ito, S. 2021. Manor: From the Law Permitting Permanent Ownership of Newly Cul tivated Land to theOnin War. Tokyo: Chuokoronshinsha. (in Japanese)
Ito, A., and N. Aoki. 1977. Waju. Tokyo: Gakuseisya. (in Japanese)

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Kubota, M. 2008. Living with Rivers: Stories of Nagara and Ibi Rivers. Nagoya: Fubaisha.
Matubara, Y. 1977. A Geographical Study of Hon-Ami Waju from the Point of View of Rural Development
During Two Hundred and Twenty Years from 1946 to 1869 in the Feudal Age of Japan. Tokyo:
Ninomiyasyoten. (in Japanese)
Matsuura, H. 2016. Modern and Contemporary History of Tonegawa River. Tokyo: Kokinsyoin. (inJapanese)
Oda, H. 2017. The Era of Gyoki and Nagayao: Water Resources Development and Integrated Regional
Development Projects by Gyoki Group. Tokyo: Gendai Kikakushitsu. (in Japanese)
Okuma, T. 2007. River History of Floods and Flood Protection: From Controlling to Accepting Flood
Disasters. Tokyo: Heibonsha. (in Japanese)
Sano, S. 1999 A Study of the Residence of the Local Landlord and Irrigation Systems in Medieval Japan.
Journal of Human Geography 51(4): 24–46. (in Japanese)
Sasaki, S. 1965. Regional Characteristics of Jori, Especially on the Scale of Jori and Land Use. New
Geography 13(1): 62–72. (in Japanese)
Tanaka, J. 2005. A Study of the History and Meaning of Flood Control and Water Utilization. Water
Science 48(6): 81–99. (in Japanese)
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Cooperatives in Japan. Geographical Review of Japan 67A(5): 325–346. (in Japanese)
Umesao, S. 2002. Eco-historical View of Civilization. Tokyo: Cyuokoronshinsya. (in Japanese)

PART V

Governance

CHAPTER 16
Passing on Indigenous Knowledge
to the Next Generation throughWater Learnings in Kumamoto, Japan
Naoto Tanaka

16.1 The Kumamoto Earthquake and Water
The 4th Asia-Pacific Water Summit (4APWS) was held in Kumamoto City on 23 and 24 April 2022,
6 years after the Kumamoto Earthquake, which struck twice with intensity 7 (Shindo 7; Magnitude 6.5
and 7.3) on 14 and 16 April 2016. During the 4APWS, Japan’s Emperor and Empress, who participatedonline, said to the high school students of the Youth Water Forum Kumamoto (YWFK) in Kumamoto:“You had a terrible time during the Kumamoto earthquake. Are you all right?”
Originally, the 4APWS was to be held in April 2020, 4 years after the Kumamoto earthquake, but
was postponed for 2 years due to the global spread of the novel coronavirus disease (COVID-19), andI believe that it was the Kumamoto high school students who grew the most in these 2 years. On
Monday 18 April, it was announced that many primary and junior high schools were expected to reopen
after the Golden Week holidays (a series of holidays at end April and beginning of May), while many
people were living in evacuation centers following the Kumamoto earthquake. Elementary and juniorhigh school students, together with their families, were seen at evacuation centers and throughout theaffected areas, cleaning evacuation centers and volunteering in recovery efforts.
The 4APWS was held in Kumamoto when they were in the upper grades of primary school and now
high school students thinking about their future in their hometowns. When the Kumamoto earthquake
occurred in Kumamoto, a flood-prone area, many people became aware of the importance of water. Of
course, there were people who were aware of the importance of water even before that time, but there
can be no doubt that they felt a keen sense of gratitude for the fact that water is available when you
turn on the tap.
The groundwater veins were disturbed by the movement of the active fault, and we witnessed the drying
up of springs in many parts of Kumamoto Prefecture. Suizenji Joujuen, which attracts many tourists,
was no exception. On 23 May, when I volunteered to dig gravel at Suizenji, local schoolchildren in gym
clothes went barefoot and worked hard digging and carrying gravel out of the water in order to restore
the spring (Figure 16.1). Their appearance gave us the courage to restore the everyday landscape of
Kumamoto.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Figure 16.1: Volunteers Digging Gravel at Suizen-ji Joujuen after the Kumamoto
Earthquake (May 2021)

Source: Naoto Tanaka.

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16.2 Water Culture in Kumamoto
Kiyomasa Kato, whom the persons of Kumamoto affectionately call Seishoko-san, is widely known as
the The Master of Civil Engineering. Kiyomasa, aged 27 at the time of his death in 1588 (Tensho 16),
replaced Narimasa Sassa as daimyo of the northern half of Higo Province. He completed Kumamoto
Castle in 1607 (Keicho 12).
The Shirakawa River, which flows through the center of Kumamoto City, has long been famous as araging river, with heavy water currents containing the volcanic ash soil (Yona) from Aso hitting the city
center of Kumamoto every time it flooded. Naturally, the meandering the Shirakawa River is a nuisancefor castle town construction. Kiyomasa is said to have straightened the Shirakawa river channel, whichused to flow around what is now Kumamoto City Hall. The construction of Kumamoto Castle and,moreover, the development of Kumamoto Castle Town, requires a boat route to transport various
goods. Kiyomasa separated the Tsuboi River, originally connected to the Shirakawa River, and replaced
it with a canal connecting it to Kawashiri, an outer port in Kumamoto.
The Shirakawa River basin, with the Aso caldera in its upper reaches, has a unique tadpole-like basin
shape, with rainfall in the upper reaches percolating underground and gushing out here and there in
the Kumamoto basin as underground water. Lake Ezu, a favorite of Kumamoto citizens, also benefits
from this spring water. 100% of the drinking water for Kumamoto City’s water supply is supplied by thisgroundwater, which quenches the thirst of Kumamoto citizens. On the other hand, Kumamoto is also aflood-prone area, as evidenced by the “6.26 flood” in 1953 and the flooding of the Kuma River basin in
July 2020. Kiyomasa used his outstanding civil engineering skills (Okuma 2020) to solve these unique
Kumamoto water challenges in all areas of flood control, water utilization and water conservation.

PASSING ON INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE TO THE NEXT GENERATION
THROUGH WATER LEARNINGS IN KUMAMOTO, JAPANIn April 2021, one year before the 4APWS event was held in Kumamoto, Taikan Oki, vice-rector of theUnited Nations University and professor of the University of Tokyo, who spoke at a symposium attended
by YWFK high school students, said that “water issues are cultural issues”. He quoted Kiyomasa, whostressed the importance of sustainability, saying that “issues that have remained unsolved for 400 years
take many years to resolve”, and this has become the philosophy of our activities.

16.3 Establishment of the Youth Water Forum Kumamoto
The Youth Water Forum Kumamoto (YWFK) is an organization formed in March 2021 to support
high school students in promoting Kumamoto’s water culture to the world, in collaboration with theJapan Water Forum, a certified nonprofit organization. I head the organization, and its core members
comprise 32 people (as of 30 August 2023), including local government officials, high school teachers,
and university students.
I have been in Kumamoto for 18 years, specializing mainly in civil engineering history and landscapemanagement, and have worked on the conservation of cultural landscapes. Before the Kumamoto
earthquake, we were working to develop human resources that could contribute to local development
through local studies, such as city walks. In this context, we were also good at involving young people,
from primary school children to high school students, in town planning.
Therefore, we proposed the creation of a short video, as it was required to carry out activities thatwould encourage young people to think about the rich water culture, which is one of Kumamoto’s
regional identities, as their own business. One specific activity of the YWFK is the creation of a video
by Kumamoto high school students to promote Kumamoto’s water culture to the rest of the world(Figure 16.2).

Figure 16.2: Certificate of Completion of the first Youth Water Forum Kumamoto(November 2021)

Source: Naoto Tanaka.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENTThe organization is also active in learning, creating and passing on water culture through the Shirakawa
Middle River Area Rice Paddy High School project, which is jointly organized with the Shirakawa
Middle River Area Land Improvement District Council (Figure 16.3). We have adopted SUSTAINABLE
as our activity philosophy in order to pass on this learning activity to future generations in the spirit of
the Sustainable Development Goals.

Figure 16.3: The Shirakawa River Middle Basin Rice Field High School (October 2021)

204
Source: Naoto Tanaka.

What is the sustainable state? Is it eternal? What is the opposite of sustainable? We have come to believethat the opposite of sustainable is no change at all. In other words, we believe that sustainable means tokeep changing in order not to change. In practicing this sustainable approach, we take the position thatboth staying the same and changing are important, (known as Fueki-ryuko in Japan).
Neither complete change nor everything changing is a RESILIENT situation. In other words, we takethe position that it is important to update society in accordance with the times, without fear of change,
while relying on what is certain and unchanging, in order to stay the same and keep changing.

16.4 Water Culture Seminar, 2022
Our main focus is to weave a story together with someone else to tell the world about Kumamoto’s
water culture, and in doing so, to acknowledge each other’s differences. The Kumamoto Water Culture
Seminar, which is at the heart of YWFK’s activities, is held as a workshop where high school students
in Kumamoto create 3-minute videos in teams and learn the ability to communicate what they wantto say, by themselves. Together with Professor Ryouta Bato of Sojo University, we try to create a
relationship in which we can use our imagination, play and acknowledge each other’s marginal space.

PASSING ON INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE TO THE NEXT GENERATION
THROUGH WATER LEARNINGS IN KUMAMOTO, JAPAN

1st Workshop (21 August 2022)
High school students from Kumamoto Commercial High School, Kumamoto Kita High School, Shokei
High School, and Taishi High School, who are active as members of Youth Water Forum Kumamoto,participated in a workshop to create a catch copy of Kumamoto’s water culture for everyone to convey.
They were asked to express what they wanted to communicate with the diversity of ideas typical ofhigh school students, making use of learnings such as making use of what is available and jump rate.

2nd Workshop (3 September 2022) (Figure 16.4)
The second workshop was held under the theme “Expanding and giving shape to the story of water”.
Based on the four-panel story created in the previous session, the story was solidified through theprocess of escaping. The first half of the day consisted of lectures by Professor Naoto Tanaka on
the theme of Play and Professor Ryouta Bato on the theme of Connecting Scenes. Professor Tanaka’s
lecture taught about play within constraints. Professor Bato’s lecture taught about important thingsin creating stories, such as (i) clear messages, (ii) indirect and metaphorical communication, and(iii) contrast. Each group was full of individuality and there were many perspectives to be gained fromlistening to each other’s presentations.

Figure 16.4: Youth Water Forum Kumamoto’s Water Culture Seminar (September 2022)

205

Source: Naoto Tanaka.

3rd Workshop (25 September 2022)
The third workshop was conducted in a hybrid style: face-to-face and online. The high school students
made four videos about Kumamoto’s water culture based on what they had learnt from the previous
group work and critique sessions, which were eschewed.

4th Workshop (6 November 2022)
As the 4th workshop was the last session of the Water Culture Seminar, a completion ceremony
and artwork viewing was held at Kumamoto University. Each group submitted a complete piece ofwork after brushing up on the advice and feedback received from the third round of peer evaluations

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

and online essays. In 2022, eight videos were collected from four schools: Kumamoto Commercial
High School, Kumamoto Kita High School, Shokei High School, and Kami-Amakusa High School.
Some of the videos were about being mindful of saving water and passing on the awareness of water
conservation for the next 20 years, some explained Lake Ezu in detail, and others talked about theappeal of Kumamoto’s water culture to people around the world, and the delicious taste of the rice andvegetables that Kumamoto water is used for. All the groups were creative and each group was able toconvey the appeal of Kumamoto’s water from a different perspective. The high school students whocompleted the videos and received certificates of completion showed looks of satisfaction, and at theviewing session, they looked for good points and innovations in the videos of other groups and showeda serious willingness to learn more.

16.4.1 Other Activities of the YWFK (FY2022)
World Irrigation Facility Heritage Summit in Kumamoto
The World Irrigation Facility Heritage Summit in Kumamoto was held on 11 and 12 April 2022 as arelated event of the 4th Asia-Pacific Water Summit. The summit, the first of its kind in the country,
provided an excellent opportunity to consider the importance of irrigation facilities and their future
prospects. YWFK representatives from two schools, Kumamoto Commercial High School and Shokei
High School, participated in the panel discussion and exchanged views with other panelists.

The 4th Asia-Pacific Water Summit

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The 4th Asia-Pacific Water Summit was held in Kumamoto City on 23 and 24 April 2022 (2022), 6 years
after the Kumamoto earthquake of April 2016 (Heisei 28). Two members made opening statements onbehalf of the YWFK, three videos made in the previous year were broadcast, and members also played
an active role in running the booths at the side events (Figure 16.5).

Figure 16.5: Sara Katayama Explains to Foreign Visitors at 4th Asia-Pacific Water Summit(April 2022)

Source: Naoto Tanaka.

PASSING ON INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE TO THE NEXT GENERATION
THROUGH WATER LEARNINGS IN KUMAMOTO, JAPANThe Shirakawa River Middle Basin Rice Field High School
In the middle reaches of the Shirakawa River, a rice paddy high school was opened in collaboration
with the Shirakawa River Middle Basin Hydro-Net Council, which is involved in groundwater recharge
in the Shirakawa River basin, including winter water rice paddies, to tell Kumamoto’s water story to
the world. This year, Kumamoto Commercial High School, Shokei High School, Kumamoto Chuo HighSchool from Kumamoto City, and the Otsu High School participated.

Re:WATER Workshop
Re:WATER, an onsite study session aimed at learning about Kumamoto’s water culture, while having
fun in the waterside spaces that are part of our daily lives and familiar surroundings. In each session,
the program includes a lecture by a guest, learning something that you will want to tell someone about,and then taking a photograph to pass on.

The 4th Asia-Pacific Water Summit After Event
On 21 January 2023, an after-event was held to report the results of the 4th Asia-Pacific Water Summit
to the public, create opportunities for the younger generation to participate and realize a sustainable
society in order to build on the momentum for groundwater conservation created by the summit. After
keynote speeches were given by Kazufumi Onishi, mayor of Kumamoto City, and Yoshihisa Kasahara,president of Higo Bank. A panel discussion with high school students took place. YWFK representative
Naoto Tanaka and three high school students from Kumamoto Kita High School, Kumamoto
Commercial High School, and Shokei High School participated in a dialogue with Mayor Onishi and
President Kasahara. Mayor Onishi suggested that we declare ourselves as Youth Waterkeeper, which
will put into practice the activities of high school students in the Waterkeeper system led by Kumamoto
City.

Youth Waterkeeper Declaration
We value the water culture nurtured by Kumamoto’s rich nature and history, and will work together
with the next generation of children, younger than ourselves, with an awareness of the links with lifeand livelihoods in Kumamoto, an agricultural prefecture, as well as with the economy and environment.

United Nations World Water Summit
At the UN Water Summit held at UN Headquarters in New York, United States, 22–24 March 2023,
high school students from the YWFK, together with Kumamoto Mayor Onishi, introduced Kumamoto’s
water culture to the world (Figure 16.6). The participating high school students were inspired by thefact that, while in Japan there are many opportunities to think about “too much water: heavy rains,
typhoons, and torrential disasters”, most countries around the world are thinking seriously about “toolittle water”, and their own generation of youth is leading the way.

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Figure 16.6: United Nations Water Summit (March 2023)

Source: Naoto Tanaka.

16.4.2 Passing On Kumamoto’s Water Culture
208

In March 2021, Japan’s Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism announced priority
flood control measures for all 109 Class 1 water systems and 12 Class 2 water systems in the country,
which should be implemented through a combination of hard and soft measures. “River Basin Disaster
Resilience and Sustainability by All” (Mushiake 2022) (RBDRSA) is defined as the cooperation of all
stakeholders in a river basin—the national government, prefectures, municipalities, local businesses
and residents—in taking measures to reduce flood damage.
For the RBDRSA, I believe that the project of making the city from the river in partnership withdiverse actors is important. Each entity is rooted in the local climate and fosters civic pride, and incontrast to the traditional top-down image of urban planning, this is a bottom-up approach, with theactive participation and collaboration of all stakeholders: local residents, government (municipalities,
prefectures, and the state), and associations. It will be necessary to carry out sustainable local
environmental improvement activities, making use of various local resources as well as the legal system.
To this end, it is important to understand sustainable as to continue to change in order not to change,
and to have a balancing act between not changing by inheriting the thoughts of predecessors andchanging by updating without settling for the status quo, and the concept of fluidity, in which bothare important. We will continue to work together to develop human resources that can happily cometo terms with sustainable changes in flood control, water use and the environment, and people’s lives,
so that we can pass on the timeless approach of diverse actors working together in harmony with thenatural environment in the basin, making the most of various local resources.
In 2023, the third year of the YWFK, the first YWFK students will become university students andsupport the YWFK’s activities, which is expected to further expand the learning experience. This year,
we would like to carry out activities with the aim of creating links beyond high school and exchange
projects with high school students outside Kumamoto Prefecture.

PASSING ON INDIGENOUS KNOWLEDGE TO THE NEXT GENERATION
THROUGH WATER LEARNINGS IN KUMAMOTO, JAPAN

References
Okuma, T. 2020. Reconsidering Floods and Flood Damage: Changing Views of Nature and Coexistencewith Rivers. Association of Agriculture, Forestry and Fishing Village Culture.
Mushiake, K. 2022. Interview. Basin Flood Control: The Shift from River Management to BasinManagement. Special Issue on “Basin Flood Control”. Journal of JSCE June: 12–15.

209

CHAPTER 17
Collaborative Governance Framework
for Urban River Management
Asok Kumar Gopala Pillai, Dheeraj Joshi, Sumit Chakraborty, and Ashwini Dubey

17.1 Introduction
Rivers and water bodies—the lifelines of urban areas are faced with complex challenges resulting from
unprecedented urbanization. The situation is likely to be further aggravated due to the impacts ofclimate change. Therefore, improved governance of urban rivers is a key focus for sustainable rivermanagement.
Hyden and Mease (2004) outline that governance is referred to as creation and maintenance of asystem that governs public arenas and regulates interaction between the state, civil society, andmarket-based actors. Ansell and Gash (2008) further defined collaborative governance as “a governing
arrangement where one or more public agencies directly engage non-state stakeholders in a collective
decision-making process that is formal, consensus-oriented, and deliberative and that aims to makeor implement public policy or manage public programs or assets.” They highlighted that the demandfor collaborative governance has augmented due to the distribution of specialized knowledge and thestrong interdependence of institutions.

210

Collaborative governance systems are typically unique nationally and more specifically regionally, due
to the myriad intricacies of internal relationships and most importantly citizen engagement. This canrange from being informed for being empowered, depending upon the participation level. The key tocollaboration is alignment of stakeholder perspectives (Gray 2004).

17.2 Collaborative Water Governance and Global Scenarios
The key challenges of urban rivers—pollution, solid waste, sewerage, inadequate flow, encroachments,
etc., primarily result from weak cross-sectoral governance of urban rivers. Collaborative governanceapproaches, considering environmental, legal, and social concerns may provide the way forward in
addressing urban river challenges (Olsson and Head 2015). In the face of these mounting challenges,
exacerbated by climate change, economic issues and rapid population growth, a shift from traditional
governance to that of collaborative governance structures may be necessary for the purpose of achieving
optimum outcomes in the domain of urban river management.
Significant reports and studies underline examples of collaboration and stakeholder engagement aroundthe world, aimed at improving river health and wellbeing in a sustainable manner. The Murray–Darling
Basin in Australia is a key example where the principles of collaboration and stakeholder engagement
were utilized to improve ecological health and over allocation, generating key benefits such as saving
the cost, effective implementation of activities, and better stakeholder collaboration. In this regard, theexamples of the Mekong River Commission and the Nile Basin Initiative are highlighted.
Mekong River Commission (MRC): Thailand, Lao PDR, Cambodia, and Viet Nam with Upper
Mekong partners, the People’s Republic of China and Myanmar as observers. The Lower MekongRiver Basin with 60 million population, is rich in biodiversity and the entire population on the

COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK FOR URBAN RIVER MANAGEMENT

floodplains is dependent on them for livelihood and economic sustainability. The MRC is an example
of an inter-country collaborative governance mechanism, which demonstrates regional administrative
cohesiveness. Some of the aspects which were addressed through collaborative action are summarizedin Table 17.1.

Table 17.1: Mekong River Commission: Key Outcomes and Collaborative Actions Undertaken
Key Outcomes

Collaborative Actions Undertaken

Optimizing sustainable development
and sharing of cost benefits

Regional strategy for flood and hydropower management

Strengthening protection of mutuallyagreed environmental resources along
the floodplains at the intersection ofinternational boundaries

Basin-wide strategy for the development, protection, and management of
selected environmental resources across all participating countries

Strengthening basin-wide actions andnational implementation capacity acrossall the participating countries

Review institutional structures and suggest harmonizing measures forhomogenization of capacity of the National Mekong Committees ofparticipating countries, and implementation of support measures tailoredfor each country’s requirements and aspirations

Regional masterplan for basin development with focus on:• Climate change – adaptation and mitigation plans• Livelihoods – fisheries and agriculture

Creation and mandating of inter-country criteria for assessment, protection,and rejuvenation of functional assets, selection of ecologically sensitive
biodiversity zones/sites

Enhancing and strengthening capacity in river basin management functions
across all river management authorities of the participating countries
Periodic review and updating of Murray–Darling Basin in Australia
procedures and related technical guidelines and implementation of agreed
improvement procedures
Enhanced information sharing
and management of inter-country
communication and development ofrelevant tools

Harmonized and homogenized systems, models, tools, and databases formonitoring, assessment, and for purpose of subsequent dissemination

Reduction of knowledge gaps forselected subjects focusing on the easeof access of common transboundary
floodplain themes

Conducting studies and surveys for the following topics across theparticipating nations:• Fish ecology• Rural livelihoods• Climate change impacts on transboundary• Increase in storage for management flood and drought• Uses of surface and groundwater

Improving and establishing regional flood and flash flood forecasting systems
Establishment of critical regional communication network for flood anddrought management with focus on disaster response

Source: Author.

Nile Basin Initiative (NBI): DR Congo, Burundi, Egypt, Ethiopia, Kenya, Rwanda, South Sudan, The
Sudan, Tanzania, and Uganda, with Eritrea as an observer: The Nile Basin covers an estimated 10%
land mass of Africa, encompassing livelihoods for more than 200 million people. The Nile river flows
across 10 countries, each having different requirements and priorities, but also common challenges
such as increasing water demand, environmental degradation, recurrent flooding incidents, droughts,
and energy insecurity. The key actions undertaken based on the NBI’s collaborative governanceprinciples are highlighted in Table 17.2.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Table 17.2: Nile Basin Initiative: Key Outcomes and Collaborative Actions Undertaken
Key Outcomes

Collaborative Actions Undertaken

Increased communication, involvement,
and cooperation between Nile Basingovernments and population

Sharing of flood forecasting during rainy season, which indirectly benefits
1.7 million people living in urban and rural flood-prone areas

Enhanced basin-wide capabilities andcapacities based on best practices, ontrans boundary investments in the Nile
Basin

Institutional and human resources capacity building through on-the-job
and targeted training as well as study tours and exchange visits

Increased cooperative action in power
development and trade, agriculture andnatural resources management anddevelopment

NBI’s regional intergovernmental nature and political will play a major role
in replying to members’ demands toward energy security challenges

Nile ministers regularly approve water resources management anddevelopment projects prepared by the Nile Basin Initiative (NBI),
demonstrating cooperative planning of projects having regional significance,
and introducing norms that lead to achieving economies of scale, harnessing
synergies, and improving regional peace and security

Capacity building on environmental management, power trade, water policy,
knowledge management, efficient water use for agricultural production,water quality monitoring, negotiations, communications, etc.

A basin-wide power development strategy by the NBI allows for larger
efficiencies in the utilization of shared resources, and retains regional
dialogue and trust among Nile riparian citizens
Power infrastructure development and competitive electricity market
are central to sustainable socioeconomic development and the Nile’s
transformation into a vibrant green economy

Enhance efficient agricultural water use
with focus on food security

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Collaboration within NBI member states to address the issue of food security
by promoting a basin wide approach to agriculture and extending support tomember states for ensuring their irrigation plans are regionally optimized andmatch the available water resources in the basin
NBI support to member countries to increase efficient development ofirrigation systems as well as productivity of degraded watersheds

Protect, restore, and promotesustainable use of water ecosystems
across the basin

Promotion of sustainable management of wetlands with transboundary
significanceImprove basin resilience to climatechange impacts

Promoting regional policy and planning frameworks for effective climatechange adaptation at both regional and national levels

Maintaining lake and riverine ecosystems

Improving basin level preparedness of countries for flood and drought risk
Source: Author.

The MRC and NBI case studies highlight the impact of international collaborative governance inaddressing challenging subjects related to disputes and conflicts over the control and use of riverwaters, extreme poverty, urbanization, food security, droughts and floods, environmental degradation,
inadequate sanitary services, water scarcity, and most significantly, the joint cooperation on sharedresources.

17.3 Namami Gange and Rejuvenation of Urban Rivers
India’s Constitution has allocated the responsibility of water resources development and managementwith individual Indian states. Cronin et al. (2016) highlight that “water governance in India and otherdeveloping nations are facing significant challenges due to myriad set of reasons such as inadequate
institutional performance, duplication of roles, unclear policies, and lack of water-related expertise ofurban local bodies (ULBs) and other stakeholders” at the operations and tactical level. Indian water

COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK FOR URBAN RIVER MANAGEMENT

governance is decentralized at the federal level, wherein the Indian government is responsible fordevelopment of programs and the states are in charge of implementation and operation of key programs
and projects.
The Indian government is working in coordination with state governments to achieve the United
Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) by 2030. The SDGs include a water and sanitationrelated goal, SDG 6. Several Indian government initiatives can be directly linked to SDG 6. The
initiatives include the Water Framework Law of India 2016, the Swachh Bharat Mission, the Jal Jeevan
Mission, National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG or Namami Gange), and the National Water Policy.
Regarding water governance, the SDGs necessitate a shift toward integrated information systems by
including multi-stakeholder and inter-ministerial approaches.
Namami Gange is one of the largest river rejuvenation programs aimed at ensuring pollution abatement
and rejuvenation of the Ganga basin by adopting an integrated river basin approach and promotionof inter-sectoral coordination for comprehensive planning and management. The United Nations
has recognized the Namami Gange program among the world’s top 10 initiatives, aimed at ecosystem
restoration, thereby providing a roadmap for other similar interventions across the globe (UNEP 2022).
The Namami Gange Mission recognizes that integrated river basin management needs to beinterwoven with economic growth and urban transformation. Efforts have therefore been made toengage city governments in this collective responsibility of river rejuvenation and economical gains
with the stretch of river flowing through or near their boundaries. This is in alignment with the Prime
Minister of India, Narendra Modi’s clarion call for “need for new thinking for river cities. Cities should
be responsible for rejuvenating their rivers. It has to be done not just with the regulatory mind-set
but also with developmental and facilitatory outlook” (NMCG 2019). A five-tier governance approach
was formulated by the NMCG (National Ganga Council, Governing Council, Empowered Task Force,
the NMCG, state government, district ganga committee and/or ULBs) to coordinate with multiple
stakeholders for effective urban river management.

17.4 The River Cities Alliance—An Example of Collaborative
GovernanceThe contemporary challenges for the rejuvenation of urban rivers involves complex contextualized
solutions (urban sewerage infrastructure, industrial effluent management, sustainable water
management, etc.), multiple stakeholders (ULBs, state departments, and ministries, agencies, andregulatory authorities at the national level) and wide-ranging implementation models (build, operate,
and transfer model; design, build, finance, operate, and transfer model; hybrid annuity based public–
private partnerships model, etc.). Collaborative governance is therefore a preferred approach globally,
to attain the SDGs through integration of diverse interests and perspectives. Collaboration between
urban areas that share a common river or within state boundaries is therefore vital to understand andovercome common challenges.
In this regard, the River Cities Alliance (RCA) was launched on 25 November 2021, as a dedicatedplatform for Indian river cities, to ideate, discuss, and exchange information on sustainable managementof urban rivers (Ministry of Jal Shakti 2021). The RCA is a striking example of collaborative governanceamong central, state, and city governments, with the objective of undertaking sustainable managementof urban rivers. It is a platform where the Ministry of Jal Shakti, the Department of Water Resources,
River Development and Ganga Rejuvenation, represented by the NMCG and Ministry of Housing
and Urban Affairs represented by the National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA) at the central level213

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

collaborate to form the secretariat, which works in close coordination with the respective states andtheir ULBs. Within 2 years of its launch, the number of alliance member cities increased from 31 to
145 across the country, and includes one international city—Aarhus in Denmark.
To attain the global target of the SDGs, the NMCG’s New Urban Agenda (UN n.d.) leads the roadmap
for RCA through the development of 10 river development goals (RDGs). The 10 RDGs are:For ensuring effective regulation in floodplain – SDG 11.3 has direct connotation with this,as it is related to city planning and resilient cities. It is important that cities are aware of therelation with SDG 11.3 and ensure only river compatible activities in floodplain.
2. To keep pollution free rivers – Healthy rivers are paramount for the sustainable growth ofcities. To achieve this objective, cities are required to adopt a range of interventions including
engineering, regulatory, legal, economic, and social.
3. For rejuvenation of waterbodies and wetlands in the city – This is intended to facilitate
groundwater recharge, natural treatment of wastewater, improve riverine biodiversity, andinfluence the micro-climate, among others, simultaneously, reviving the connection of people
and natural environment.
4. For enhancing riparian buffer along riverbanks – The city’s resilience is enhanced byprotecting it from fluvial floods, erosion from river banks, and other harmful activities.
5. For adopting increased reuse of treated wastewater – Increased reuse of treated wastewater
for activities such as agriculture, toilet flushing, road cleaning, etc., is expected to help reduce
the stress on rivers.
6. For ensuring maximum good quality return flow from the city into the river – The increased
return of flows in form of storm water and treated wastewater will contribute to maintaining
the e-flow of rivers, especially in non-perennial watersheds.
7. To develop eco-friendly riverfront projects – Development of eco-friendly riverfront projects
such as constructed wetlands, biodiversity parks, nature trails, etc., will provide environmental
benefits for citizens and will also contribute to conserving the biodiversity along river banks.
8. For leveraging economic potential of the river – Explore the range of riverine ecosystemservices and livelihood support by interventions such as agriculture, river cruises andnavigation, fishery, water sports, and floating markets, etc.
9. For river-sensitive behavior among citizens – Enhancing citizen support to sustainably
manage riverine systems.
10. For engaging citizens in activities related to river management – It is important to ensure
participatory process for urban river management in a city that is expected to increase
community ownership.
1.

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To accomplish the above RDGs, a two-pronged approach has been adopted through envisaging agovernance mechanism and a cutting-edge tool for driving RCA as a city-led movement in promulgating
river centric development and river sensitive planning.
Governance Mechanism: The RCA initiative kick started the beginning of the NMCG’s New Urban
Agenda, wherein river cities own and implement the river-sensitive development and economic
rejuvenation through collaborative learning, while at the same time inspire others to take up progressive
action on this front. The operationalization of the New Urban Agenda has been actualized through themedium of collaborative governance, wherein partnerships are institutionalized at each city level forthe development of multi-stakeholder working groups (MWGs). The MWGs comprise representatives
from ULBs, state government departments, civil society, parastatal agencies, and the private sector.
The MWGs of each RCA member city are provided regular technical and capacity building support
from the NMCG and key national partners such as the NIUA in this collective responsibility of river
rejuvenation and economic transformation.

COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK FOR URBAN RIVER MANAGEMENT

Figure 17.1: Multi-stakeholder Working Group Institutional Collaboration

Development
Authority

Municipality

Tourism
Department

Water Bodies

Water
Department

Urban
Development
Department

ForestDepartment

State MissionforClean Ganga

River

Aquifers

Drains

Source: Authors.

Cutting Edge Tools: Central to the New Urban Agenda is the development of urban river management
plans (URMPs) for river cities. The URMPs are essential documents serving as the vision documents forthe identified river cities. The URMP comprises three key elements: environmental (river to support a
habitat for biodiversity to flourish), economic (river to offer opportunities for economic development)
and social (river to be celebrated among citizens), which together propose the 10 RDGs.
Both the MWGs and URMPs are intertwined with each other and work toward collaborative governancethat help river cities plan interventions in a holistic manner which is required to revive and maintain
rivers sustainably.
To accomplish the above RDGs, the RCA has been envisaged as a city-led movement for promulgating
river-sensitive planning, and the conservation of water and existing water-bodies. Hence, the agenda
and operations for the RCA are determined by the member cities. The activities being undertaken are
in three broad areas:1.

Networking: Organizing annual river summit, facilitating exchange of official visits for member
cities, twinning of cities and rivers, and publishing a bi-monthly newsletter.
2. Capacity Building: The RCA member cities are provided expert-led offsite and/or virtual
training on water management, ground water, rainwater harvesting, wetland, drains, lakes, etc.
Additionally, certification training programs for officials of member cities have been developedfor improving capacity building at the state and city level.
3. Technical and Knowledge Support: This includes river-sensitive urban planning andinterventions, innovations in urban river management, river-linked economy and rejuvenationof urban water bodies, decentralized storage of rainwater through national initiatives suchas “Catch The Rain” Campaign (Kumar n.d.), safe reuse of treated water, and decentralized
sanitation systems.

215

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

17.5 Impact and Way Forward for River Cities Alliance’s
Collaborative GovernanceMoving forward, the RCA strives to take on board additional national and international cities toprovide an international platform to promulgate knowledge exchange, peer learning, use of innovativetechnologies including nature-based solutions, facilitating institutional funding for key initiatives andpartnership-based outcomes. This supports member cities in accelerating implementation of the key
SDGs and realization of overarching commitments in the following manner:
SDG 6: A key component of the peer learning initiative is its focus on pollution abatementof rivers, restoration of riverine ecosystem, adoption of a circular water economy approach,and building capacity initiatives of city governments and concerned stakeholders. Under the
RCA, several niche online certification programs on river management have been launched.
The NMCG has published the “National Framework for Safe use of Treated Wastewater”
to encourage reuse of treated wastewater, improve water use efficiency, and promote theaspects of circular economy.
SDG 11: The RCA’s primary objective is to support member cities in sustainable managementof urban rivers, in order to build river-sensitive cities of future. RCA was launched with thevision of developing river sensitive cities for the future. The city of Kanpur in Uttar Pradesh
became the first Indian city to develop its own unique URMP. An additional 60 URMPs areproposed to be developed by the NMCG in the next 2 years (NIUA 2021).

216

SDG 14: Sustainable adoption of URMP components will enable cities to ensure sustenanceof life. For instance, the RCA is augmenting existing efforts of the Namami Gange Missionthat have led to significant improvement of biodiversity sightings such as dolphins, hilsa
fish, etc.
SDG 15: A key component of the river sensitive cities is to rebuild green cover. This directly
supports the restoration of riverine ecosystems and life on land. In Ganga basin, over
30,000 hectares has been afforested under the mission.
SDG 17: Central to the RCA is partnership with local, national, and internationalorganizations, and stakeholders. The RCA is actively collaborating with countries such as
Germany, Denmark, Netherlands, etc., for inclusion of international river cities as members.
At present, the RCA has one international member city—Aarhus, Denmark, and efforts areunderway to associate additional international cities and enable cross-city learnings.
The River Cities Alliance, through a collaborative governance mechanism envisages development
and implementation of URMPs for member cities, to facilitate progressive action for urban rivermanagement.

COLLABORATIVE GOVERNANCE FRAMEWORK FOR URBAN RIVER MANAGEMENT

References
Ansell, C., and A. Gash. 2008. Collaborative Governance in Theory and Practice. Journal of Public
Administration Research and Theory 18(4): 543–571.
Cronin, A. A., A. Prakash, P. Sridhar, and S. Coates. 2016. Drinking Water Supply in India: Context andProspects. Indian Water Policy at the Crossroads: Resources, Technology and Reforms 49–71.
Hyden, G., and K. Mease. 2004. Making Sense of Governance: Empirical Evidence from Sixteen Developing
Countries. Lynne Rienner Publishers.
Gray, B. 2004. Strong Opposition: Frame-based Resistance to Collaboration. Journal of Community &Applied Social Psychology 14(3):166–176.
Kumar, G. A. n.d. CATCH THE RAIN, where it falls, when it falls… http://asokji.in/node/879
Ministry of Jal Shakti. 2021. Union Minister for Jal Shakti Shri Gajendra Singh Shekhawat Launches
River Cities Alliance – A Dedicated Platform For River Cities In India To Ideate, Discuss And
Exchange Information For Sustainable Management of Urban Rivers. https://www.pib.gov.in/pressreleasepage.aspx?prid=1775142
National Institute of Urban Affairs (NIUA). 2021. Urban River Management Plan Kanpur. https://niua.in/rca/wp-content/uploads/2022/05/Urban-River-Management-Plan-%E2%80%93-Kanpur.pdf
National Mission for Clean Ganga (NMCG). 2019. Minutes of 1st National Ganga Council Meeting.
Kanpur: National Mission for Clean Ganga.
United Nations (UN). n.d. River Cities Alliance: Partnership for Developing International River
Sensitive Cities. https://sdgs.un.org/partnerships/river-cities-alliance-partnership-developing-international-river-sensitive-cities
United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP). 2022. UN Recognizes 10 Pioneering Initiatives thatare Restoring the Natural World. Press Release, 13 December. https://www.unep.org/news-and-stories/press-release/un-recognizes-10-pioneering-initiatives-are-restoring-natural-world217

CHAPTER 18
Community-based Disaster Management ThroughLinking with Traditional Community Mechanisms:
Flood Prevention Units1
Keiko Tamura

18.1 Introduction
In Japanese mythology, when a god named Susanoo-no-Mikoto came down to earth, he walked along
a riverbank and saw “chopsticks” flowing from upstream. If chopsticks were flowing, there must be
someone upstream. So Susanoo-no-Mikoto went upstream and saved the princess who was being
attacked by a demon. This anecdote is famous as a story about the ancient use of chopsticks in Japan,
but on the other hand, it also leads us to think about when people began to live near rivers.

218

In Japan, rivers are an integral part of our lives. They are sources of drinking water and water for
agriculture, as well as habitats for a variety of creatures, including fish and wild birds. Because theJapanese archipelago is divided by a spine of mountain ranges ranging from 1,000 to 3,000 meters inelevation, rivers are much shorter than in Europe and North America. In Japan, the shortness of rivers
makes them prone to flooding and landslides when heavy rains occur. Although river flood control
has made progress in the past, global warming has increased rainfall, resulting in frequent flooding
throughout the country (Japan Institute of Country-ology and Engineering n.d.).
Japan, which is prone to floods and landslides, has long been engaged in flood control and flood
management. As a result of this historical background, Japan has local organizations responsible
for flood control. This chapter will discuss the historical evolution of the role of community-basedorganizations in flood disaster management in order to enhance community resilience.

18.2 Regional Organizations for Flood Prevention in Japan
In Japan, local organizations, flood prevention units (Suiboudan), protect the community from flood
damage. Flood prevention is a community-based response measure in which local residents unite in a
kinship-based manner to protect their homes, properties, land, and communities from flood inundationand to minimize the damage caused by flooding. This type of community-based organizational activity,
Suibou differs from the flood control measures, Chisui, mediated by the national or local governments,
such as river improvement projects. Flood control activities can be positioned as a disaster prevention
system of the community, by the community, for the community (Suetsugu 2018).

1

All statistical data in this chapter are as of 1 April 2016.

COMMUNITY-BASED DISASTER MANAGEMENT THROUGH LINKING WITH
TRADITIONAL COMMUNITY MECHANISMS: FLOOD PREVENTION UNITS

Figure 18.1: Flood Prevention Unit (Suiboudan) and Fire Corps (Shoboudan)
National Government (Japan)
Direct/Advise

Local Governments(Tokyo Metropolis & 46 Prefectures)
Direct/Advise

Municipalities (1,718 Cities, Towns, Villages)
Flood Prevention Managers
Flood Control Act
71 Units
13,988 Personnel

Flood Prevention
Unit

Serve
Concurrently

Fire and Disaster Management Organization Act
2,171 Units
856,546 Personnel

163,043 Personnel

Fire Corps

Fire Station

Flood Prevention
Activity• Part-time Local Government Official
1. Occupational accident compensation
2. Allowance for attendance at work
3. Retirement allowance• Full-time Government Official

Source: Created by the author based on MLIT.

219
The flood prevention unit is a group of people tasked with responding to river overflows, floods, andother water hazards in the region (Figure 18.1). Flood prevention activities are to warn of, protect against,
and mitigate damage caused by flood disasters, and include patrolling areas, guiding evacuations, andrescuing people in danger. During normal times they are trained in flood prevention methods such as
sandbag making and piling in order to reinforce levees to prevent flooding.
The activities of the flood prevention units are conducted by members who have their own occupations
during normal times, and they provide their free time to flood fighting activities on a voluntary basis.
On the other hand, they are promised compensation such as occupational accident compensation, an
allowance for attendance at work, and a retirement allowance, and are positioned as part-time local
government employees.
The activities of the flood prevention units are regulated by the Flood Prevention Law, and themunicipality, as the river administrator, appoints members from local residents where the units
are established. The mayor of the municipality, as the flood prevention manager, directs and supervises
the unit. The prefectural government and the national government provide the direction and advice tothe flood control activities of the municipalities.
Unlike the fire departments with full-time firefighters, members of the fire corps (Shouboudan)
are part-time special local government employees as well as the flood prevention units, Suiboudan,
who rush to the scene of fires or large-scale disasters from their homes or workplaces to perform
firefighting and rescue activities based on their experience. The Fire Corps is governed by the Fire andDisaster Management Organization Act, and concurrently serves as a water and disaster management
organization (Cabinet Office).

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

18.3 Activities of Flood Prevention Units
According to Alert Level
In Japan, when there is a threat of flooding, the “alert level” is the number attached to evacuation
information, etc., issued by the municipality, which relates to the actions to be taken by residents andrelated agencies in response to the increased threat of a disaster and the information that encourages
residents to take action (Figure 18.2).

Figure 18.2: Activities of Flood Prevention Units According to the Alert Level
Alert Level

River Status

Flood Prevention Unit

Equivalent

Damage caused by flooding is expected to occur

Protect yourself
Ensure your own safety

Inundation risk

The water level that is expected to exceed the warning
water level and reach the flooding danger level (danger
water level).

Pile sandbags, tarp levees,
or other flood control

Inundation
warning
flood warning

Flood prevention units are mobilized to prepare for flooding
and to take precautionary measures to prevent flooding.

Initiate flood control
activities

Inundation
advisory

Water levels that each flood control agency including theflood prevention unit prepares for flood prevention activities

Get Ready for Work

5River inundation

Equivalent

4
Equivalent

3
Equivalent

2 Equivalent 1

220

methods are initiatedCall forevacuation
and rescue
activities

Source: Created by the author based on MLIT and Kami Town (2023).

Flood prevention units are deployed according to the water levels of the rivers. When the alert level
reaches 2 (when there is a possibility of flooding depending on the future rise in water levels), theflood prevention team prepares and waits for the activity. When the water level of a river linked to
the warning level reaches 3 (the possibility of flooding after a certain time has increased), the flood
prevention units will start flood control activities if necessary and encourage local residents to prepare
for evacuation, and call for the elderly and other vulnerable residents to start evacuating. When thewater level of a river linked to warning level reaches 4 (a situation where the river could flood at anytime), the flood prevention team will accelerate flood prevention activities, such as piling sandbags
and putting sheets on the levees, as necessary. Unit members encourage all local residents to takenecessary evacuation action. When the water level of a river linked to the warning water level reaches
5 (a situation where flooding has occurred), the activities of the unit shall be immediately suspended,and personal safety shall be secured immediately due to the imminent danger to life.
By operating according to the alert level, it is expected that the flood prevention units will moreeasily cooperate with other agencies involved in flood prevention activities and disaster response.
When Level 5 is set, it is expected that unit members will protect victims from floods and also protect
themselves.

COMMUNITY-BASED DISASTER MANAGEMENT THROUGH LINKING WITH
TRADITIONAL COMMUNITY MECHANISMS: FLOOD PREVENTION UNITS

18.4 Situation Surrounding Flood Prevention Units(Suiboudan)2
While torrential rain disasters occur frequently in many parts of Japan, there are concerns about the
decline in local flood prevention capabilities due to the decrease in the number of members and theaging of the membership of the flood prevention units. About 51% of fire corps members are under
30 years old compared to 8% of flood prevention unit members, and the percentage of members over
60 years old is 5% of fire corps members compared to 44% of flood prevention unit members, indicatingthat the number of flood prevention members is aging.
The percentage of employees (other than the self-employed) is high, totaling 73%. When members
are employed, their time available for activities is limited, and it is necessary to seek understandingof their activities from their employers. In terms of breakdown, the percentage of employees who arewater fighters is 59% compared to 73% of fire fighters (as of 1 April 2016). The number of members ofboth fire corps and flood prevention units is approximately 870,000 nationwide, and by prefecture, thenumber varies from 30,000 to 40,000 in some areas and from 5,000 to 10,000 in others, depending on
the region. The number of members to the capacity is generally more than 90%, but in some places it
is as low as 80%.
The number of members mobilized varies from year to year, but in the last 10 years, it has ranged fromabout 100,000 to 300,000 per year (the average is about 180,000). The number of members mobilized
fluctuates from year to year, but from 2006 to 2016 about 100,000 to 300,000 (average is about 180,000)
members have been mobilized annually. The number of mobilized personnel is the total number ofpeople mobilized (including preparation) during a series of flooding periods (MLIT).

18.5 Historical Background of Flood Prevention Units(Suiboudan)
Flood prevention activities, Suibou, can be described as a community-based measure in which local
residents unite locally to protect their homes, properties, land, and communities from flood inundationand minimize the damage caused by such flooding. Flood control activities began spontaneously long
ago, when people began to live in relationship with rivers, and have continued throughout history.
In early modern times, flood control measures mediated by government agencies developed, and asurbanization led to a decrease in the number of residents directly benefiting from the river, flood control
activities also declined. In the modern era, flood control and flood prevention activities were regulatedby the law and flood prevention units were organized. Flood control activities by local communities
have continued to this day.
In the times of Jyomon, Yayoi, and Kofun eras (13,000BC–700AD) the coastline receded further
and plains were gradually formed. River water was used for domestic purposes and fishing began(Figure 18.3). Rice cultivation began in the wetlands created by the receding land. People began to live
along the rivers. Small reservoirs were created and people began to live on the plains. The Yayoi periodmarks the beginning of the history of floods and flood control in Japan. This was a time of Jyomon,
Yayoi, and Kofun eras when the relationship between rivers and people became closer. The necessity
for flood control was recognized.
2

Flood Prevention Unit (Suiboudan) and Fire Corps (Shoboudan): The English translations of the Japanese words, Suiboudan
and Shouboudan are referred from the Ministry of Justice’s Japanese Law Translation website, which uses the English
translations of the names from the Flood Prevention Law and the Fire Fighting Organization Law (Ministry of Justice).

221

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

In the time of Nara and Heian (700AD–1200AD) arable land was created around wetlands because ofaccessibility to water, making it susceptible to flood damage. Flood control was limited to preventing
arable land from being washed away by floods. Farmers constructed levees to enclose small farmlands.
In the time of Kamakura and Muromachi (1200AD–1570AD) flood control was initiated according to thecharacteristics of the rivers. Large-scale irrigation facilities were built on major rivers. Development of
new rice paddies began. Farmers were obliged to carry out flood prevention works.
In the Edo era (1600AD–1870AD) riverboat transportation was developed for transporting rice andother commodities. Cities developed along rivers. In the cities, new technology conducted river waterto secure clean water. Farmers built levees around village enclosures and engaged in flood prevention
activity in the community base. National and local governments had a well-publicized idea of thenecessity of flood prevention activity. Flood control by the governments and flood prevention by thecommunity began to be separated.
After the Meiji era, a dual system of laws was established, one for traditional local flood prevention
activity and the other for flood control from the perspective of national administration. After theSecond World War, fire corps based on community base were established. Flood prevention managers(municipalities) were established and given primary responsibility for flood control. Flood control andprevention activities were centralized, but the organization of flood prevention activity was divided
into two groups: the flood prevention units and the fire corps. Flood prevention management costs
were borne by the flood prevention managers (municipalities) or the prefecture.

222

Figure 18.3: Historical Background of Flood Prevention Activity
14000BC
400BC

The history of the relationship between RIVERS and HUMANS• The coastline receded further and the plains were gradually formed.
• River water used for domestic purposes and ﬁshing began.
Yayoi

300AD
700AD

Kofun

600AD
700AD
800AD

Asuka
Nara
Heian

1100AD
1300AD

Flood CONTROL by governments and flood PREVENTION activities based on community

JyomonKamakura

1600AD Muromachii
Azuchi-Momoyama
Edo
1870AD• Rice cultivation began in the wetlands created by land receding• People began to live along rivers.
• Small reservoirs were built and people began to live on the plains.
• Arable land was created around wetlands because of accessibility
to water, making it susceptible to ﬂood damage.
• Flood control was limited to preventing arable land from being washedaway by ﬂoods.

• Farmers constructed levees to enclose small farmlands.

• Flood control was initiated according to the characteristics of the rivers.
• Large-scale irrigation facilities were built on major rivers.
• Development of new rice paddies began.

• Farmers were obliged to carry out ﬂood prevention works.

• Riverboat transportation developed for transporting rice and other commodities.
• Cities developed along rivers.
• In the cities, new technology conducted river water to secure clean water.

Enlarge

1868

Meiji

1912
1926

TaishoShouwa1989
2019

Heisei
Reiwa• The Yayoi period is the beginning of the history of ﬂoods and ﬂood control in Japan.
• This is the period when the relationship between rivers and people became close.
• The necessity for ﬂood control was recognized.

• Farmers built levees around village enclosures and engaged in ﬂood prevention
activity in the community base.
• National and local governments had a well-publicized idea of the necessityof ﬂood prevention activity.
• Flood control by the governments and ﬂood prevention by the community
began to be separated.

• After the Meiji era, a dual system of laws was established, one for traditional local ﬂood prevention activity and the other for ﬂood control from the perspectiveof national administration.
• After the Second World War, ﬁre corps based on community base were established.
– Flood prevention managers (municipalities) were established and given primary responsibility for ﬂood prevention activity.
– Flood control and prevention activities were centralized, but the organization of ﬂood prevention activity was divided into two groups:
conducted by the ﬂood prevention units and the ﬁre corps.
– Flood prevention management costs were borne by the ﬂood prevention managers (municipalities) or the prefecture.

Source: Created by the author based on Public Works Institute.

COMMUNITY-BASED DISASTER MANAGEMENT THROUGH LINKING WITH
TRADITIONAL COMMUNITY MECHANISMS: FLOOD PREVENTION UNITS

18.6 Changing Role of Flood Control
and Flood Prevention Activities
There is an old Japanese proverb that says “He or She who governs the rivers can govern the nation”(Figure 18.4) because governing rivers, securing land, and cultivating crops were measures to create
wealth and power. In the Edo era (1603–1868), the Edo government and local governments took themain role of governing the rivers; however, it was the farmers who actually faced the rivers and grew
crops. Many communities consisted of farmers, so community-based organizations shared a fate
among those with a common interest in preserving farmland and preventing disasters. In this period,
self-help, mutual aid, and public assistance functioned together.
Since the Middle Meiji to Taisho eras (1868–1912), when flood control was legalized, the modern flood
control system began with the composition of the government taking the lead in promoting flood
control while the local community supported the actual implementation of the system. However, due
to increasing urbanization and the diversification of jobs, it gradually became more difficult to support
flood control from an individual or local perspective.
This trend from the middle Meiji to Taisho era became even more pronounced in the Showa (1926–1989) period. Meanwhile, the aging of the population and the effects of global warming made it moredifficult for governments to prevent flooding, which led to increased damage.
With the start of the Reiwa era in 2019, Japan has discussed how to halt the divergence between flood
prevention and flood control, between self-help, mutual aid, and public assistance, and how to achievecomprehensive flood control in Japan. As the consequence of discussion the goal was set as “Transition
to River Basin Disaster Resilience and Sustainability by All Stakeholders”.
In this framework we encourage the participation of all communities interested in social safety, security,
and resilience, not just those rooted in the local community. and also it aims to reduce residents’
exposure to risk, including interregional migration rooted in the diversity of individual values. it
expects to implement comprehensive flood control measures aimed not only at reducing damage
before a disaster, but also at strengthening response measures after damage has manifested itself,
In the future, flood prevention units may be required to perform a new functions. We will continue tomonitor the future of the flood prevention units.

223

Society
Public-help

Diversification of housing options, e.g., rural migration→ Diversification of individual values

Individuals
Self-help

Community
Mutual-help

Community
Mutual-help
Community
Mutual-help

Transition to River Basin Disaster Resilienceand Sustainability by All Stakeholders

Source: Created by the author based on Public Works Institute.

Communities based onconnections other thangeographical ties →All stakeholders are
expected to participate

Reiwa Era
（2019-now)Society
Public-help

3

Society
Public-help

Individuals: Cities and towns became
urbanized, with a large population and a varietyof occupations → Diverse interests in riversz

Individuals
Self-help

Community
Mutual-help

Decreasing role of flood prevention activities in flood control

The legal framework forflood control had been developed.

Society
Public-help

Individuals: Cities and towns became urbanized,with a large population and a variety of occupations→ Diversification of individual values

Individuals
Self-help

Community
Mutual-help

Roles are shared between
the national andlocal governments →• Aging of the populationin recent years• Eﬀects of global warming

Showa-Heisei Era（1945-2019)

Roles are shared
between the national
and local governments→
Flood control from anational administrative
perspective

Middle Meiji→Taisho（1880‒1926)

With all functions reduced, it became more difficult
than ever to protect communities from flood damage.

Decreased recognition of
the community, even if
living in the same area →Increase in the working
population in the tertiary industry

2

1
4

Edo government
and local governments
took a main roleof flood control

Flood control shifted tocomprehensive measures
1) Flood prevention2) Exposure reduction
3) Disaster resilience

Farmers: the farmers who werethe main force in flood prevention activity

Individuals
Self-help

Community
Mutual-help

Old Japanese proverb:
He or She who governs the rivers can govern the nation.

A community-basedorganization: as a fate
among those with acommon interest inpreserving farmland
and preventing disasters

Edo Era（1603‒1868)

A community-basedorganization as a fate
among those witha common interestin preserving farmland
and prevent →Flood control from acommunity-based
perspective

224

Figure 18.4: Changing Role of Flood Control and Flood Prevention Activities

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENTCOMMUNITY-BASED DISASTER MANAGEMENT THROUGH LINKING WITH
TRADITIONAL COMMUNITY MECHANISMS: FLOOD PREVENTION UNITS

Supplementary Notes
In Japan, when rice cultivation began in the Yayoi period (4th century), the relationship between
people and rivers became closer. During the Kofun period (3rd century), there are records of ricepaddies being damaged by floods. During the Asuka period (592–710), a national centralized system wasestablished and the need for flood control was recognized. Subsequently, rice paddies were privatized
and levees were built to enclose them. During the Warring States period (1467–1615), flood control wasdeveloped for territorial defense and urban defense centering on castle towns. During the Edo period(1603–1867), rivers were improved for boat transportation, and levees were built around villages toprevent flooding in each village. After the Meiji period (1868–1912), the clan-based flood control systemdeveloped during the Edo period disappeared, but the dual legal system of national flood control andlocal flood prevention has continued to the present.

225

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

References
Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, [Flood Prevention Unit, Fire Corps] Shouboudan Suiboudan.
https://www.bousai.go.jp/kaigirep/hakusho/h20/bousai2008/html/honbun/1b_3s_2_01.htm(in Japanese).
Japan Institute of Country-ology and Engineering [Japan’s short, fast-flowing rivers] Mijikakutenagare ga kyuuna nihon no kawa. https://www.jice.or.jp/knowledge/japan/commentary08 (inJapanese).
Kami Town. 2023. 5 Alert Levels, How to Obtain Disaster Management Information. Kami Town
Disaster Prevention Hazard Map.
Ministry of Justice, Japanese Law Translation. https://www.japaneselawtranslation.go.jp/
Ministry of Land , Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT). [Surprisingly little known about
Japan’s land] Suiboudan no jittai (in Japanese).
MLIT. [Flood warning stages, timing and measures ] Suiboukeiho no dankai, jiki oyobi sochi. Kasen
ni kansuru yougo. https://www.mlit.go.jp/river/pamphlet_jirei/kasen/jiten/yougo/07.htm (inJapanese).
Public Works Research Institute, Ministry of Construction (Former). 1984. [Current Status of Flood
Prevention System and its Problems (1)] Suiboutaisei no genjyo to sono mondaiden (1). Doken
Shiryo 1984(2059): 10–35 (in Japanese).

226

Public Works Research Institute, Ministry of Construction (Former). 1974. [Current Status of Flood
Prevention System and its Problems (2)] Suiboutaisei no genjyo to sono mondaiden (2). Doken
Shiryo 1984(2457): 56–59 (in Japanese).
Science Council of Japan. 2023. Recommendation. Transforming Society to Become Resilient andSustainable beyond Catastrophic Disasters, pp. 9–10.
Suetsugu T. 2018. [Water management technology in the Meiji era] Meiji jidai no mizukanri gijyutsu.
Suiri kagaku (Journal Water Science) 359: 76–88 (in Japanese).

CHAPTER 19
Water and Culture in Asia Toward Shared Prosperity
Yoonjin Kim

19.1 Introduction
Throughout history, water has been an essence of life, a mode of transportation, a life-threatening
force from disaster and sanitation, and frequently a central measure of social and cultural activity(Krause and Strang 2013). However, due to the unequal water context in the respective region, misuseor overuse and increasing unexpected threats by the climate impact derive challenges in our lives.
Many parts of the world have nurtured and developed water resources as part of their course in history.
On the other hand, other parts of the world suffer from water scarcity, and pollution and overuse havejeopardized water resources that directly impact the lives of humans and nature simultaneously.
In consideration of unchanging human dependence on water throughout the histories of different
regions and societies, Bijker proposes naming human societies “water cultures” (Bijker 2012), andothers refer to our settings as “water worlds” (Hastrup 2009; Orlove and Caton 2010; Barnes andAlatout 2012). Many studies have been undertaken to discover the enormous impact of water on humansocieties and cultures. Water challenges are also identified as political difficulties from different aspects
due to the diversity of local and regional interests and ideologies (Molle, Mollinga, and Meinzen-Dick2008). Water is an essential component of social, cultural, and political interactions (Hosseiny, BozorgHaddad, and Bocchiolac 2021). In this context, it is essential to remind how Wiley’s Interdisciplinary
Reviews of Water (Lane 2018) interprets water that we have brought it into our lives in culture via art,
religion, and history, which impacts how we come to understand it (Ingold 2000).
This chapter discusses five aspects of water and culture to understand the different features andperceptions of water in Asia. It aims to have a mature perception of the correlation between water andculture in our society by envisioning future global value-creation processes based on understanding
the function of water in our culture and society. In addition, this chapter suggests valuing water with abalanced, ethical framework in water culture in Asia in the alignment of global paradigms such as theUnited Nations Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). Eight elements of an ethical framework thatwere introduced by the World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology in2004 may be useful guidelines to achieve the aim.

19.2 Five Aspects of Water Culture and Human Civilization
When we define “civilization” for a certain period of time, it is critical to comprehend the lifestyleof a group of individuals living in a geographical location, as well as their aspirations and successes(Hosseiny, Bozorg-Haddad, and Bocchiolac 2021). Historically, civilization has been associated with amore broad and evolved culture that defines people’s perceptions of their way of life and the worth oftime. Water is one of the necessary and irreplaceable resources for the lives of humans and nature andan essential part of civilization and its advancement. Hence, in the history of civilization, water culture
has been developed simultaneously based on local and regional contexts and features of different
religions, art and rituals, politics, and social and economic situations.
The following five categories and the regional cases represent the multifaceted connections between
water and cultural development across selected countries that thrive in Asia, highlighting the role227

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

of water in shaping religious beliefs, influencing art, affecting development, building socioeconomic
dynamics, and developing governance.

19.2.1 Water and Religion (Ganges River, India)
Water has great religious importance in many Asian civilizations. Water is seen as the foundation ofcreation and, in some cultures, the universe’s origin or a symbol of birth. Because of the importanceand place of water in human life, many cultures’ ideas and viewpoints in the ancient world are strongly
tied to water. For example, in ancient times, people honored the goddess of water in numerous places,
including West Asia. The goddess was portrayed as a fertility and birth emblem with a corpulent body,
primarily associated with rain, rivers, and oceans. Plant growth, tree fruiting, and infant developmentin the womb were all benefits and kindness from the deity of water (Hosseiny, Bozorg-Haddad, andBocchiolac 2021).
Hindus believe the Ganges River in India is sacred and can wash believers of their sins. The Ganges
River is significant and intricate in Indian culture and religion. It signifies a spiritual link that spans
generations, and its waters are thought to be able to cleanse and cure. The Ganges River is worshiped
as a deity in Hinduism. Her journey from heaven to earth is chronicled in ancient scriptures and isfundamental to the mythology and religious importance of the river (Darian 2001).

Challenges

228

However, this holy river suffers significant environmental concerns. Balancing cultural and spiritual
veneration with the need for environmental protection is a complicated issue. However, it is critical forthe spiritual and material well-being of the river and the millions of people who rely on it (Figure 19.1).
Contamination of the Ganges River has increased due to industrial effluents, sewage discharge, andreligious offerings, all contributing to severe contamination. Despite its hallowed position, the river’s
water quality needs to improve. Nongovernment organizations, government programs, and religious
groups work together to revitalize the Ganges, and projects like the Namami Gange Mission seek tobalance the river’s environmental and cultural components are carried out (Tyagi et al. 2013). However,
it is not sufficient to revive the river.

Figure 19.1: Activities on the Ganges River(a) Ritual Ablution in the Ganges

Source Butler (2022).

(b) Night Activities on the Ganges(c) Ritual Ablution in the

WATER AND CULTURE IN ASIA TOWARD SHARED PROSPERITY

19.2.2 Water and Art Ritual (Songkran, Thailand)
Water is frequently celebrated in Asian cultures via festivals and traditional customs. The Thai New
Year celebration (Songkran) in April, involves nationwide water fights that symbolize the washing awayof misfortunes. Songkran highlights Thailand’s creative blend of water, culture, and joy. Water serves
as a medium for creative expression and cultural preservation, from traditional rites and dancing tomodern street art and environmental awareness. Songkran celebrates regeneration and togetherness byshowcasing how art and water combine to create a vivid and unforgettable cultural event. In this sense,
art in Songkran plays a vital role in portraying the metaphorical significance of water (Intason, Coetzee,and Lee 2023). Figure 19.2 illustrates activities during the festival.

Figure 19.2: Songkran Festival(a) Cultural Waters of Songkran(b) Water Play at Songkran Festival

229
Source: TUNZA Eco Generation.

Source: Komlongharn (2023).

Challenges
While Songkran is a time of joyful water play and culture, there is a rising awareness of the need
for water conservation. Likewise, environmental sustainability has been an issue in these cultural
ceremonies or rituals during massive gatherings and celebration activities. According to Kongrut’s
report in the Bangkok Post (2016), to ensure that revelers and visitors have enough water to splashin, the Metropolitan Waterworks Authority supplies 100,000 cubic meters of water each day, theequivalent of 8,333 12-tonne trucks. During the event, initiatives advocating appropriate water use
are sprouting. From some groups having future-oriented notions of maintaining this celebration withsustainability, some art installations constructed from recycled materials have been shown at Songkran
festivals, emphasizing the significance of environmental sustainability. However, the cases arestill limited.

19.2.3 W ater and Development (Feng Shui, People’s Republic of China,
Republic of Korea)
Water has had an impact on Asian architecture and urban development. Similar to other regions,ancient Thai towns such as Ayutthaya were built near waterways to aid commerce and transit. Water
bodies are seen as significant components in the Chinese discipline of feng shui since they impact the

SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

vitality of a location. Feng shui, an ancient Chinese concept or philosophy based on the notion thatthe arrangement of one’s surroundings may affect one’s well-being, has significantly impacted urban
development. Feng shui concepts highlight the importance of environmental balance and harmony(Wu, Yau, and Lu 2012). According to Yoon (2006), feng shui is based on the understanding that water
is a potent instrument to soothe and stimulate energy depending on its placement and properties. Thisis generally adopted in other parts of Asia, such as East Asian and Southeast Asian countries.
In the case of the People’s Republic of China and the Republic of Korea, feng shui is a traditional andcurrently used methodology to find a prosperous place for dwellings, infrastructure, or buildings. In
the Republic of Korea, where approximately 70% are mountainous areas, feng shui refers to essential
places like palaces where mountains are behind and streams or rivers in front (Yoon 2006). Likewise,
water is incorporated into the urban landscapes of modern cities such as Singapore, effectively mixing
culture and innovation. For example, the Marina Bay region in Singapore incorporates feng shui
concepts into its architecture, including strategically placing water elements. The bay area’s layout
is said to encourage wealth and financial success. Furthermore, the building of Victoria Harbour inHong Kong, China has considered feng shui concepts, with the placement of skyscrapers and otherstructures considering the flow of energy and water (Suri 2023).

Challenges

230

Although there are many cases of different Asian traditional and modern development adopting
water with the concept of feng shui, modern urban development also struggles to balance traditional
concepts with environmental sustainability and conservation. To secure the place where feng shui fits,people sometimes decide that it needs to align with the sustainable development plan in constructing
a building or infrastructure. Cultural adaptation may be another aspect of the challenges. As Asian
cities grow more multicultural, applying feng shui concepts to various cultural situations is criticalwhile honoring their cultural history. While adopting ancient feng shui concepts to modern situations
is complex, especially in urban areas where people are concentrated, the perception of the persistentsignificance of water in urban development demonstrates the necessity of balance and harmony in ourcities and their development.

19.2.4 W ater and Politics: Navigating Complexities for Sustainable
Cooperation (Mekong River Basin)
In different regions where transboundary rivers exist, it is crucial to understand how the biologicalunderstanding of river basins are changed in different transboundary institutional arrangements,
how various players in transboundary basins build geographical scales, and how politics over water isrepresented and exercised within governance and management institutions (Sneddon 2006).
Regional collaboration on the Mekong River has continued for 60 years, making it one of the earliest
transboundary rivers governed by an international river organization and according to the principlesof equitable use (Mekong River Commission n.d.). Collaborative political will is crucial to resolving
water challenges. Some Asian water issues need regional collaboration, open discussions, andsustainable resources management to ensure water security and foster peaceful coexistence in a region
where water and politics are closely connected, which correlates with social culture (Dore, Lebel,
and Molle 2012). Building upstream on the Mekong River has sparked worries about the downstream
effects on riparian countries of the Mekong. Long-time studies and diplomatic dialogue on the Mekong
regional issues examine the complex geopolitical ramifications and the need for negotiated solutions.
Hence, water is more than a national resource issue for the Mekong riparian countries. However,having a shared vision with different countries is a more political and diplomatic issue, which affects
the perception of water more prudently and considers water a regional priority (Hirsch and Jensen
2006).

WATER AND CULTURE IN ASIA TOWARD SHARED PROSPERITY

Challenges
Challenges of transboundary water issues usually require a shared vision with resolutions based onpolitical consensus and consideration between countries, which requires enormous efforts by eachcountry to have a regional and global view of the issues. Setting a vision with diverse stakeholders
could be referred to as an aspect of setting cultural norms and values. First, the strengthening ofregional institutions such as the Mekong River Commission and the South Asian Association for
Regional Cooperation will help in promoting dialogue and conflict resolution. Encouraging data
sharing and transparency in water management to foster confidence and collaboration among
riparian governments is also essential to exchanging up-to-date information needed to protect
the Mekong River basin. Promoting collaborative efforts to safeguard ecosystems and highlighting
the need for environmental diplomacy is another item. Applying integrated ways to address theinterdependence of security issues of water, energy, and food, especially in agriculturally reliant
countries, and enhancing technical and institutional capacity building to enable a comprehensive
perception of shared water is the basis of making the Mekong River basin sustainable with dwellers
in riparian countries.

19.2.5 Water and Governance and Indigenous Wisdom (Bali, Indonesia)
It is well known that the indigenous groups in Asia have made efforts with historical local water
management for rice cultivation, the main food that is sustainable and adapts to shifting water patterns,
underlining the need to incorporate cultural knowledge into practices.
The Bali Sukak system, registered as a UNESCO Cultural Heritage Site (UNESCO 2021), is one-ofa-kind and a successful water governance approach based on indigenous traditions and communitybased management (Gany 2001). Figure 19.3(b) illustrates the Subak system. Bali’s Subak water
administration has supported agricultural and communal life. Subak is a decentralized community
management system, with individual Subaks controlling water resources in specific locations (BaliGlory n.d.) Each Subak comprises local farmers who work together to regulate water allocation anddistribution. Water temples, or Pura Tirta, serve as the heart of Subak’s governance (Hafied 2001).
They are not just Balinese religious centers but also administrative hubs where decisions about water
distribution and cropping schedules are made. Water temples have elaborate calendars that regulate
water allocation timetables for each farmer in Subak. These calendars are based on religious observanceand communal agreement (Bali Glory n.d.).
Rituals and ceremonies are essential in the governance of Subak. These rituals ask for blessingsfor plentiful harvests and maintain the peace between humans and the environment, particularly
concerning water (Yuliana 2017).
Conflict resolution mechanisms are also well known, referring to the Subak system. Disputes over water
allocation or management are settled using traditional conflict-resolution procedures influenced by
local wisdom and cultural norms. Subak meetings are the regular meetings convened to discuss waterrelated issues and reach consensus on important decisions. These meetings promote transparency andcommunity involvement (Suanda, Suryadi, and Kasniari n.d.).
It shows how indigenous knowledge, rituals, and consensus-building procedures may help to ensure
long-term water governance. As water difficulties become more severe, the Subak model offers essential
lessons for modern water governance initiatives that stress local engagement, cultural integration, andadaptation.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Challenges
However, the Subak system is also affected by climate change. Altered rainfall patterns and changing
weather conditions are impacting the usual water availability that the local community has calculated
in traditional ways. Subak communities have to adjust cropping patterns and water management
strategies to cope with these challenges with future-oriented technologies or digitalization.
The Subak system also highlights the effectiveness of community-based, decentralized water
governance. It fosters a sense of ownership among farmers by promoting local knowledge andaccountability. Subak must adapt to the changing context or scenario of water supply and use as otherwater systems and governance evolve and must align not just with the Balinese situation but also withthe world situation (Suanda, Suryadi, and Kasniari n.d.). Figure 19.3(a) illustrates the Subak governancestructure.
Subak guarantees that water management is not just about resource distribution but also about
preserving the community’s cultural identity and values by incorporating cultural and spiritual
dimensions into water administration. To ensure the continuation of the local system, the capacity
building and empowerment of future generations of Balinese remain an unresolved issue.

Figure 19.3: Bali’s Subak System(a) Subak Governance Structure232(b) Bali Subak System

Subak I

Subak Board
Negotiation

Members

Suggestion

A watermanagement plan

Subak II

Upstream

Subak III

Downstream

Source: Okura, Budiasa, and Kato (2020).

Source: World Water Forum (n.d.).

19.3 Common Consideration for the Futureof “Water and Culture” in Asia
When we examine the relationship between water and culture in a region, it is about how water isvalued in society and how it is handled within the region’s evolved ethical framework of water. The
five aspects stated above as the essential elements to understanding the water and culture in Asia are
the facets of a perception that people in Asia have in society, economy, history, politics, art, and ritual.
It is not only a significant function in the development of local society and the identity of countries andregions, but it is also an essential parameter of how one society in Asia evolves by adopting changing
contexts and globally agreed notions together, seeing water in our culture.

WATER AND CULTURE IN ASIA TOWARD SHARED PROSPERITY

Based on that, likewise in other regions, Asians’ perception of the value of water in their culture has acritical impact on global water culture. Asia is at the center of the changing world economy, politics,
environment, culture, etc., with the fact that it is the home to more than 60% of the world’s populationand 39% of the world’s gross domestic product that is projected to increase to 51% in 2030 (World
Economics 2023) bolsters the idea. Hence, it is imperative to consider that the function of one regional
culture in water is not limited to impact in a particular region but is closely intertwined with theperception of water in the global community.
The cases examined above have faced challenges to maintain or advance and to have sustainable
notions with developed perceptions of water with the main concerns of environmental and ecosystem
conditions that impact cultural sustainability and increase water contamination. Cultural sustainability
with future generations’ adoption of the current and historical culture also affects the level of adoptionof digitalization and shifting perceptions of culture.
In this context of Asia’s culture of water and its evolution toward the future, it is imperative to take
into consideration the importance of valuing water in the regional culture and how each country thathas different cultural ethics agrees upon a shared vision and perception of water as a member of theinternational society.

19.4 Valuing Water and its Ethical Framework
Water value and ethics are for both humans and nature. It is based on human–ecosystem interactions
and interdependence based on water functions in our daily lives and the coexistence of nature. To
highlight ethical principles in valuing water in our culture, the SDGs can be a good example.
The SDGs adopted in 2015 and will be active until 2030 imply common justice to development,
economy and environmental protection, and education for future generations. Goals 6 and 14 are mainly
dedicated to water and sanitation and the sustainable use of oceans. Recognizing the connection amongwater and society, environment, economy was discussed in the Goal 6 Synthesis Report (UN 2018) andit was additionally elaborated referring to other SDG goals associated with issues like climate change,
ecosystem, health, energy and food, urban development, partnership, and education that we consider
as the essential elements of cultural change and the perception of water in society.
A review by UNESCO (UNESCO 2014) presents the ethical frameworks for water. Its two frameworks
reflect ongoing challenges that many Asian countries are related to, such as securing sufficient water
resources, resolving competing uses, and access to drinking water. Anthropocentric values are also
widespread in ethical frameworks surrounding fresh and drinkable water, which are intimately related
to our everyday view of water.
The World Commission on the Ethics of Scientific Knowledge and Technology in 2004 introduced aseries of values relating to water use for human beings (Brelet and Selborne 2004). Box 19.1 lists theelements of sustainable principles for “Water for Shared Prosperity”, which is the main theme of the10th World Water Forum co-hosted by the World Water Council and the Indonesian government.
It is also the genuine element to address the challenges stated in the five different cases of Asia bychanging the perception of water from one that is for human use and local and national demand, to
one that water is essential both for humans and nature. This change will give a better understandingof people who are the main actors in changing the culture on the interconnectivity of water use andmanagement and conservation of the ecosystem and the environment, which will be enhanced bycapacity building of future generations and the efforts based on the solidarity of individuals andcountries having common goals.

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SOCIOCULTURAL DIMENSIONS IN WATER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT

Box 19.1: Sustainable Principles for “Water for Shared Prosperity”
Human dignity: water is the essence of human life and nature.
Solidarity: Water makes people acknowledge their inherent interdependence.
Everyone should have equitable access to clean water.
Water is a shared good, and inadequate water management reduces human potential and dignity.
Respectful and prudent water usage is associated with heritage value.
Transparency of information and universal information access.
Inclusiveness in water management policies encompassing minorities and the poor as well as nature insustainable ways.
• Empowerment is essential to promote involvement in planning and management, as well as shaping cultural
perceptions of water.
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

Hosseiny, Bozorg-Haddad, and Bocchiolac (2021).

19.5 Conclusion

234

The correlation between water and culture in Asia is a complex tapestry woven through religion,
tradition, art, economics, politics, architecture, development, and environmental consciousness. As
water-related challenges continue to evolve, as examined in the five different cases of water in theculture of Asian regions, preserving and developing cultural practices that revolve around water
become crucial. By acknowledging the deep-rooted connections between water and culture andrecognizing common principles of an ethical framework in valuing water, societies can strive forsustainable coexistence and adaptation for shared prosperity.

WATER AND CULTURE IN ASIA TOWARD SHARED PROSPERITY

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