The Socio-Cultural Features of ICT Practice at Japanese Primary Schools:
Comparison with ICT Practice in Primary Schools in the UK
Makiko Kishi
Meiji University, Japanm_kishi@meiji.ac.jp

Loveless AVRILBrighton University
A.M.Loveless@brighton.ac.uk

Toshiyuki KIHARAOsaka Kyouiku University
tkihara@mbk.ocn.ne.jp

Yoichi NONAKA
Yokohama National University
nonaka@ynu.ac.jp

Jun TAKAHASHI
University of Toyama
jun@takalab.net

Tatsuya HORITA
Tamagawa University
horita@horilab.info

Michitaka TOYODA
Wakayama University
toyoda@center.wakayama-u.ac.jp

Abstract: The purpose of this study is to clarify the features of Information and Communication
Technology (ICT) utilization of Japanese primary schools by comparison with ICT practice in
UK primary schools from socio-cultural viewpoints. The authors collected data from five
Japanese researchers, who have studied ICT utilization of primary schools in the UK, through astructured interview including three questions; (1) “what do you see at primary schools in the
UK?” (2) “Have you ever seen similar practices in Japan? If so, what?” and (3) “Do you think
Japanese primary teachers have similar practices in their lessons? If so, why?” The data wasanalyzed in four phases based on the qualitative research method. First, the transcript was
reduced to information relevant to the research questions. Second, the data was open coded.
Third, the coded data was categorized. In conclusion, the features of ICT utilization of Japanese
primary schools were explained relative to categories from socio-cultural viewpoints. As a result,six socio-cultural features were found: (a) ICT equipment available at schools, (b) digital content
that fits conventional class format, (c) staff that support teachers using ICT, (d) class format
mainly on conventional individual guidance, (e) the process of constructing meaningful use of
ICT and (f) actual feeling of efficiency of using ICT.
Keywords: ICT, Socio-Cultural viewpoint, Primary School, UK

RESEARCH BACKGROUNDS and RESEARCH OBJECTIVE
The purpose of this research was to explore from cultural and social aspects how primary teachers use
Information and Communication Technology (ICT). Since ICT, such as computers connected with the Internet,
interactive white boards, digital textbooks, and mobile devices like iPads, have been rapidly introduced into primaryschools, teachers have been seeking information on how to use ICT in teaching and learning processes. In Japan,
projects that provide one computer for each student at schools fall under the policy named “learning innovation” and“future schools”.
The ways in which digital learning tasks contribute to students’ intrinsic motivation and learning
outcomes have been examined (Loon et al. 2013). Loon et al. showed that a digital learning task that combined
autonomy support and structure had a positive effect on both intrinsic motivation and learning outcomes in students.
Also, Jackson et al. (2013) examined the effect that a relatively new Computer Supported Collaborative Learning(CSCL) device, specifically an interactive tabletop, has on elementary students’ attitudes toward collaborativetechnologies, mathematical achievement, and the gender gap in mathematics.
Thus, prior reviews show positive results of ICT utilization in an educational setting. It is, however, clearthat these positive results are deeply related to socio-cultural aspects of the classroom. From a sociocultural approach,the study of ICT in education must be studied within the broader context in which it is situated (Valsiner 2007). The
prior reviews of ICT utilization in education tend to have a view that ICT can be studied in isolation. Even if we use
the same tool that was effective in a certain context, it does not always have the same result in another context. For
instance, Miyake (2013) introduced “thinking tools” as an ICT tool for promoting higher order thinking to Chineseteachers, but it was found that the goal, process and assessment of the lesson using thinking tools at Chinese schools
were different from Japanese ones. Chinese teachers used the thinking tools according to their context. Therefore, thelessons must be understood as cultural phenomena (Yamamoto 2013). To clarify how ICT is used, we must shift ourattention towards the whole configuration of practice including the rules, interpersonal relationships, activities, andshared repertoires that are taking place in the context in which ICT is used.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
The purpose of the research is to clarify the socio-cultural features of Japanese primary schools that ICT isused. Teachers in primary schools in Japan like as other countries are trying to employ ICT. To describe thesocio-cultural features that ICT is used, the authors, compare it with practices in primary schools in UK. Comparing
different cultures is one of the methods to clarify the features of a culture. The methods would reveal patterns ofculture of human perception, learning, and development and the rhetoric that patterns must be true for people in theculture.
Data Collection
This research adopts an interpretive approach, in which we understand actions, thoughts, and feelings ofthose who live in certain situations (McEwan & Kieren 1995). The features were clarified based on the story told byfive researchers that study ICT utilization in primary schools in Japan. The authors consider them belonging a same
cultural group (Berry 2011) because of the following two reasons; (1) that they visit regularly primary schools inJapan and (2) that they visited UK primary schools several times as shown in table 1. Therefore, it is possible todescribe how ICT is used in UK primary schools from their cultural bias.
The data was collected through the semi-structured interview including the questions (1)What do you findin UK Primary school you have visited, (2) Have you seen similar practices you saw in UK primary school inJapan? , and (3) Do you think Japanese teachers can apply the similar way in their lesson in Japan? Why?

Target Date of Interview
interview Duration
A
4/15
2 hoursB

4/25

1.5 hours

Table 1: Interviewees
Research
Experienceof
ICT Experiences of visiting UK schools
utilization in primary schools
Work as a primary school teacher Traveled 20 times from 2000 tofrom 1983-1993
2012
Researched from 1993 to present as a Visited about 60 primary schools
professional
Researched from 1990 as a Traveled 11 times from 1993 toprofessional

C

4/27

2 hoursD

5/13

1.5 hours

E

7/11

1hour

2012
Visited 30 primary schools
Work as a secondary school teacher Traveled 2 times on 2005 to 2012
Visited 8 primary schools
from 1997-2002
Researched from 2002 to present as aprofessional
Researched from 2002 to present as a Traveled 21 times from 2000 to
professional
2012
Visited 40 primary schools
Work as a primary school teacher
Traveled 20 times from 2000 tofrom 1987-1992
2012
Researched from 1994 to present as a Visited 30 primary schools
professional

Data Analysis
The data was analyzed in four phases. First, the transcript was reduced to information relevant to theresearch questions. Second, the authors did open coding. The interview data taken through semi-structured
interviews were coded by meaningful sentences with using MAXqda software (Sato, 2008). Third, the coded data
was categorized. In conclusion, the generated categories were explained with showing original interview data.

RESULT AND DISCUSSION
As a result of our analysis, six socio-cultural features were identified. The Table 2 indicates the numbersof code generated in open coding. For example, the total numbers of codes generated through analysis of interview
data to A was 91, and number of code mentioning ICT equipped at schools was 17.
Table 2: Categories generated by data analysis and the rate of the applicable categories
Categories
AB
CD
ICT equipped at schools
19%
25%
12%
25%
Digital contents that fit to conventional class form
8%
9%
5%
2%
Staffs that support teachers to use ICT
9%
1%
4%
6%
Class form mainly on the conventional individual guidance
14%
4%
7%
27%
The process of constructing meaning of using ICT
19%
33%
35%
16%
Actual feeling of efficiency of using ICT
32%
27%
36%
24%
100%
100%
100%
100%

E
13%
6%
6%
25%
30%
20%
100%

(a) ICT equipment at schools
Japanese primary schools do not equip ICT so that teachers can use it for daily lessons. There are several
reasons for this. First, it takes time to prepare ICT when they use it. For example, using computers for a lesson
requires a teacher to receive the key to a computer room from administrative staff and move the students to thecomputer room. By that time, 10 minutes will have passed since the lesson started. Second, there is insufficient ICT
equipment provided for use in a classroom. A teacher often has to share a few projectors and computers with otherteachers. Therefore, they are not able to use ICT whenever they need it. Although the national curriculum guidelines
indicate when and how to use ICT in lessons, teachers feel that using ICT is inconvenient because they are uncertain
if they can use ICT equipment when they need to and they feel that it takes too much time to prepare for using it.
On the other hand, UK primary schools have been equipped with ICT under the support of a huge numberof budgets. UK teachers are able to use ICT as a teaching aid whenever they need. Needless to say, the reason why
UK teachers use ICT daily for their lessons is not only due to well-equipped ICT environments but also to digitalcontents that fit the conventional class form, staff that support teachers using ICT, classes formed mainly on
conventional individual guidance, the process of constructing meaningful use of ICT, and actual feeling of efficiency
of using ICT.
(b) Digital content that is tailored to conventional class format
Digital content that fits the conventional class format helped UK primary teachers use ICT. UK primaryschools are equipped with digital content as well as ICT equipment. For example, when the UK government
equipped UK primary schools with interactive black boards, they provided digital content that can be used with theblack boards. A teacher downloads digital content in reference to the national curriculum and uses it for their class.
Since the contents are developed according to the national curriculum, they fit the conventional class format of“introduction by mass teaching - individual work - conclusion by mass teaching”. Also, UK primary schools havebudgets to buy digital content that teachers need for their lessons.
Japanese primary teachers find it difficult to use ready-made content. They need digital content that fits
their own lesson plan. In Japanese primary schools, class format and lesson plans are quite varied depending on theteacher. Japanese primary teachers make a detailed lesson plan based on a “unit” consisting of several lessons. The
teachers first set up the goals of the unit and then design the details of the lesson plan in each lesson. To achieve thegoals of the unit, respective teachers examine how to structure the lesson according to the learning situation of theirstudents. Japanese primary teachers employ mass teaching formats and construct lessons based on their interaction
with students. Therefore, it is important for Japanese primary teachers to be able to improvise according to the
dynamic learning situation. Ready-made contents do not fit such dynamic lessons.
The UK primary teachers accumulate and reuse content for the next school year; they take charge of thesame grade in the same classroom from year to year. Once they produce digital content, they are able to make use of
it again by modifying and adding information. The digital content can be gradually elaborated year by year. In Japan,
a teacher does not know what grade they will take charge of until the end of each school year; therefore, they have tosearch for digital content that fits the new grade and students every time from the beginning of the new school year.
(c) Staff that supports teachers using ICT
At UK primary schools, teachers take care of approximately 30 students with the support of multiple staff.
Once a principal decides to focus on ICT for education, he/she employs ICT coordinators and/or ICT curriculum
coordinators. UK primary teachers use ICT under the support of these staff members. For example, when teachers
face any problems using ICT, ICT coordinators support them. When the teachers do not know how to use ICT related
to a subject, an ICT curriculum coordinator will advise and suggest usable digital content. In addition, a teacher often
has more than one teaching assistant who is always with him/her during lessons. Therefore, a few teachers withteaching assistants can carefully monitor and support approximately 30 students using ICT for individual learning.
In Japan, one teacher takes care of approximately 40 students. Teachers who are unfamiliar with ICT feel
uneasy about using it because technical trouble such as computer breakdown or mishandling may occur. In addition,
students do not become accustomed to using ICT equipment, so teachers are afraid of students breaking theequipment by mistake. However, there are some schools that encourage teachers to use ICT under the support ofstrong leadership by the principal, other teachers who are skillful in ICT, and a grant for ICT in education.
(d) Class format based mainly on conventional individual guidance
The way of using ICT is deeply related to the conventional instructional format. In the UK, primaryteachers had emphasized individual learning before schools were equipped with ICT; the format did not change evenafter ICT was introduced. UK primary teachers instruct by mass teaching format, make individual or small groups
for individual learning according to the students’ academic level and interest and finally, gather students together andconclude the lesson by mass teaching again. The importance in the lesson is placed on individual activity. Teachers
provide appropriate tasks and tools to the respective students according to their academic level and interest. For
example, the teachers provide the task of movie production using an iPad to upper level students to nurture
expressive and creative skills based on their knowledge and experience. Alternatively, they provide practice using
paper worksheets to foster understanding of basic knowledge. During individual learning, teachers carefully monitor
and support students’ learning. Teachers record the details of the learning situation in a portfolio and think ofsubsequent tasks for students based on these details. Thus, the teachers use ICT as an alternative tool along withbooks, worksheet, references, drill-practice sheets and so on. Therefore, UK teachers experience no conflict using
ICT instead of conventional teaching tools. An Interactive White Board is utilized instead of a white board to give
instruction at the beginning of the lesson and to conclude at the end of the lesson. Thus, teachers started using ICT
without a big change from the conventional instruction format applied in UK primary schools.
In the case of Japanese primary schools, teachers apply a mass teaching format. The mass teaching format
is not only a teacher teaching students and/or constructing students’ knowledge based on interaction between theteacher and students and among students themselves, but a teacher providing individual learning activities with thesame contents or different activities aiming to achieve the same criteria. Although a teacher gives different learningactivities, the goals for all students are the same. In other words, the teachers support all students in achieving thesame level simultaneously rather than focusing on individual learning. The important aspect in Japanese primaryschool is collaborative learning. Therefore, teachers take time to interact with students by asking questions toencourage them to think and collaborate. Teachers usually use ICT to promote interaction between a teacher andstudents, and among students, by sharing ideas and by visualizing one’s own ideas to share with others.
The difference between UK and Japanese primary teachers relates to the teachers’ beliefs. Both UK andJapanese teachers consider “fairness of education” to be important but interpret it differently. UK primary teachersconsider it fair for students to be given individual tasks according to their academic level. Therefore, they carefully
observe students’ learning process and think of the most appropriate task and tools for students. They consider it abetter teaching strategy to give advanced tasks to gifted students to enhance their capacity. Therefore, it is normal for
UK primary teachers to provide students in the same class with different kinds and levels of tasks. To identify anappropriate task according to students’ academic level, the teachers use ICT instead of conventional tools ofobserving and supporting.
Japanese primary teachers feel it is unfair to give different tasks aiming at different goals. A student works
with a drill and practices according to his/her academic level and a teacher gradually provides different tasks on an
individual basis. Primary teachers, however, consider it unfair to treat students differently or to assign different tasks
based on the students’ educational level in the same classroom. When a teacher wants to use an iPad, for example,
they want to give opportunities to use the iPad equally to all students. This is happening not only within a classroom
but across classrooms.
(e) The process of constructing meaningful use of ICT
Teachers use different processes to decide to use ICT for their lessons. UK primary teachers use ICT
under strong leadership from principals. The principal discusses effective ways of using ICT with the teacher for
his/her lesson. UK primary teachers basically have to follow the vision suggested by the principal. Therefore, oncethe principal decides to work on ICT utilization in education, all teachers must think of how to apply ICT to theirlessons. The principal can employ necessary staff and provide the necessary equipment and digital content becauseof his/her authority over personnel matters and budget implementation. It can be called “top-down instruction”.
Japanese primary schools can be said to use “bottom-up construction”. The principal does not haveauthority over personnel matters and budget implementation like UK principals, so the principal cannot force
teachers to use ICT in their lessons. In Japan, the process that teachers use to apply new technology and ideas isbasically through “Lesson Study”, the same process that is applied to introduce any new teaching practices or tools.
Lesson Study is used to promote teachers’ collaboration in an effort to improve teaching and learning in schools(Stigler and Hierbert, 1999; Cochran-Smith and Lytle, 1992). It has traditionally been employed in Japanese
educational settings as a teacher professional development program. The teachers share the same objectives, forinstance, to apply ICT to improve lessons through Lesson Study. By working with other teachers with different
viewpoints and experiences, teachers can think critically and creatively about how to improve their lessons(Hitchcock and Hughes, 1995). The group of teachers can evolve naturally because of the teachers' common interestin a particular domain or common goal to gain knowledge related to their field. Through interaction with one anotherin Lesson Study, teachers collaboratively construct meaning for action. They find appropriate ways to use ICT that
fit their own lessons. Of course, if the teachers agree that ICT is not effective for their lessons, they reject using it.
Since the national curriculum does not force teachers to use ICT, teachers are able to select whether or not to use it.
(f) Actual feeling of efficiency of using ICT
The actual feeling of efficiency of using ICT is different between Japanese and UK primary teachers.
Since UK primary schools place ICT as a subject in the national curriculum, skills nurtured by ICT practice such as
expression and creativity are evaluated in activities such as cartoon making, music and movie production using ICT.
Therefore, ICT can support nurturing such information literacy.
In contrast, the Japanese educational system has no requirement for ICT classes as a formal subject. The
Japanese government promotes teachers using ICT relating to a given subject, such a simulation in geography,
investigating in science, making stories in Japanese language and so on. The students in both UK and Japanese
primary students enjoy learning with ICT and are motivated to learn. However, the achievement is evaluatedconventionally, which cannot evaluate information literacy skills such as expression and creativity. In spite of this,young teachers who are experienced in using ICT have become primary teachers and use ICT for their lessons.
However, they are first required to make lessons using mass teaching format in order to achieve the goal of a

teaching unit. The goals of the units are supposed to be achieved through conventional mass teaching format even
without using ICT, and cannot be achieved through ICT alone. Of course, some teachers use ICT in effective ways toachieve the educational goal. For instance, the teacher can use an overhead projector to magnify small things in theirhand and share individual outcomes of students with others. Most of these practices were conducted in wellequipped ICT environments. With limited equipment and digital content, teachers do not experience making lessons
using ICT, so it then becomes difficult for Japanese primary teachers to have a clear expectation of how to design
lessons using ICT.

CONCLUSION and FUTURE DIRECTION
In this research, the authors clarified the socio-cultural features of Japanese primary schools where ICT isused. By comparing these schools with primary schools in the UK, six socio-historical features that organize lessons
utilizing ICT were found. The study indicates that the current situation of ICT utilization in Japanese primary schools
is deeply related to political, historical, and cultural aspects. Therefore, it is necessary to consider socio-cultural
aspects in order to promote ICT in Japanese education. For example, Japanese teachers conventionally apply mass
teaching format so it is important to develop ways to improve this conventional format using ICT as well as
innovating new formats.
Acknowledgement
This work was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 22402002.
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