Journal of Digital Life 2024,4, S0

Special Issue: Digital Technology in Sports and Physical Activity

Preface to the Special Issue
Hirohisa Isogai 1
1

Kyushu Sangyo University

At the dawn of the 21st century, we find ourselves at a pivotal moment when the trajectory of sport and physicalactivity is being dramatically reshaped by the relentless advance of digital technology. This special issue, titled"Digital Technology in Sport and Physical Activity," is intended as a beacon to guide through the exciting
confluence of fields that were once considered distinct and disparate. Our goal is to illuminate the transformative
effects of digital technologies across the sports spectrum, offering a comprehensive exploration of their impact on
sports science, social science, life science, and information technology.
The eclectic collection of eight articles in this issue is a testament to the diverse and significant role that digitaltechnology plays in the field of sport. These pieces not only provide a snapshot of current innovations, but also
serve as a springboard for discussions about the future of sport and physical activity in a digitized world. From
improving educational approaches in sports to fine-tuning athletic performance, ensuring safety, aiding recovery,
and even reshaping the competitive landscape of esports, the range of topics covered is both vast and compelling.
This special issue acts as a catalyst, encouraging readers to question established norms, explore new possibilities,
and innovate at the intersection of digital technology and sport. Areas of inquiry range from tangible improvements
in athletic performance and education to subtler shifts in strategy, analytics, and the way sports are viewed andconsumed. This diversity of content reflects the broad impact of digital technology on the field and challenges us torethink what is possible when we harness the power of innovation in physical activity and sport.
As we unveil these articles, we invite a community of scholars, practitioners, and enthusiasts to join us on a journeyof discovery and discussion. The future of sport and physical activity as seen through the lens of digital technology
is not just about technological advancement; it is about the evolution of our understanding, our practices, and thevery nature of sport itself. This special issue aims to inform, inspire and stimulate action, contributing to a future inwhich technology and physical activity merge in ways previously unimaginable.
Finally, our deepest gratitude goes to the authors whose groundbreaking research has made this issue possible, andto our readers whose passion and curiosity drive the field forward. As we embark on this exploration together, we
anticipate that the journey through the pages of this special issue will not only enlighten, but also challenge andreward us all as we glimpse the promising horizon of sport and physical activity shaped by advances in digitaltechnology. Here's to uncovering new knowledge, sparking innovation and embracing the endless possibilities thatlie ahead in the ever-evolving landscape of digital technology in sport.

Published: 26 April 2024
* Correspondence: isogai@ip.kyusan-u.ac.jp
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Journal of Digital Life 2024,4, S1

Special Issue: Digital Technology in Sports and Physical Activity
Review Article (Invited)Japanese elementary teachers’ problem-based learning
through online professional development on teaching
Japanese language learners in physical education
Takahiro Sato 1, Chie Kataoka 1, Ryan T. Miller 2, Takafumi Tomura 3, Yu Furuta3, Hirotaka Kizuka 4
1

Institute of Health and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 305-8574, Japan
Department of English, Kent State University, P.O. Box 5190, Kent, Ohio, 44242, USA
3
Doctoral Program in Physical Education, Health, and Sport Sciences, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, 3058574, Japan
4
Joint Master’s Program in International Development and Peace through Sport, University of Tsukuba, 1-1-1 Tennodai, Tsukuba,
Ibaraki, 305-8574, Japan
2

Abstract
Public schools in Japan have become increasingly linguistically, ethnically, culturally, and religiously diverse(Furuta et al., 2022). In rural regions, the number of Japanese-national students is declining in schools, andeducation services are shrinking (Mantanle, 2014) because of the aging population and low birth rate. This has
led to serious economic concerns such as a smaller workforce and fewer taxpayers. This means that school
districts in Japan will need new immigrant residents who can contribute to the sustainable future of educationin Japan. However, in order to adequately serve this new population, Japanese teachers will need to receive
training and demonstrate pedagogical knowledge and skills in relation to social justice and diversity, andfacilitate inclusive and effective learning opportunities for all students.
Our research team conducted two exploratory studies focusing on (a) Japanese elementary school teachers’
positioning in teaching physical education to Japanese language learners (Furuta et al., 2022) and (b) Japaneseelementary classroom teachers’ experiences with the involvement of immigrant parents regarding physicaleducation (Tomura et al., 2024a). Based on the findings of these studies, our research team developed online
professional development modules for teachers using a problem-solving approach as part of a project funded by
the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.

Keywords: Online Professional Development, Physical Education, Japanese Language Learners, Elementary
Teachers.

1. Introduction
It is well known that many teachers are responsible for improving their practices through ongoing professional
development (PD) throughout their careers (Avalos, 2011). Recently, online education formats became the central
form of interaction not only between teachers and students (Murtagh et al., 2023) but also for teacher PD (Perry, 2023)
around the world due to the COVID-19 pandemic. However, effective online education is not simply a matter ofadapting the structure and modes of interaction of the face-to-face classroom environment to an online format (Sato& Haegele, 2018). Rather, cognitive expectations, instructional choices, and supportive practices need to bereconsidered in recognition of the complexity of issues (Peter, 2003). In physical education, MacPhail and Lawson(2020) and Luguetti et al. (2021) note that many teachers struggle to overcome hurdles to using online technology for
PD and are hesitant to engage with others without seeing their faces. In contrast, the convenience and flexibility ofReceived: 24 October 2023, Accepted: 8 December 2023, Published: date: 26 April 2024
* Correspondence: sato.takahiro.gf@u.tsukuba.ac.jp
Publisher’s Note: JOURNAL OF DIGITAL LIFE. stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC. Submitted for possible open access publication under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1Japanese Teachers’ Online Professional Development in Teaching JLL in PE
Sato et al.
online education allow in-service teachers to have choices, to access online modules and materials whenever andwherever they need, and to self-reflect and self-evaluate their own learning through small group discussion (Sato &Haegele, 2019), student debate (Calderón et al., 2020), and problem-based learning (Dwiyogo, 2018). In Japan, ourresearch team found that Japanese teachers had physical and mental health risks because of the fact that they have thelongest working time across 34 countries and regions, at 53.9 hours per week (Sato, Mason, & Kataoka, 2020).
Japanese teachers also have longer working days, shorter breaks, and shorter sleep times than teachers in England,
Scotland, or Finland (National Institute for Educational Policy Research, 2019). Therefore, online PD is considered
to be a potentially useful method to facilitate connections between teachers to help them share their experiences,knowledge, and ideas with other teachers beyond their geographic location.
Public schools in Japan have become increasingly linguistically, ethnically, culturally, and religiously diverse (Furuta
et al., 2022). More specifically, in rural regions, the number of Japanese-national students is declining in schools, andeducation services are shrinking (Mantanle, 2014), because of the aging population and low birth rate. This has led
to serious economic concerns including a smaller workforce and fewer taxpayers. School districts will need new
immigrant residents who can contribute to the sustainable future of education in Japan. However, in order toadequately serve this new population, Japanese teachers will need to receive training and demonstrate pedagogicalknowledge and skills in relation to social justice and diversity, and facilitate inclusive and effective learning
opportunities for all students. Our research team has been studying Japanese teachers’ learning through online PD inteaching immigrant children in physical education, funded by the Japan Society for the Promotion of Science.
Recently, one of our research team members investigated Japanese elementary school teachers’ learning experiences
in a PD program for teaching physical education for Japanese language learner (JLL) children in public elementary
schools. She created an online PD course which included ten modules of sixty minutes each, combined with live online
sessions and on-demand video lectures (see Appendix A). Modules 1 and 10 were conducted in a live online format
and modules 2 through 9 were conducted in a video-on-demand format. The modules included topics such as culturalawareness, diversity and inclusion, cultural relevance, cross-curriculum teaching of health and physical education,
parental involvement, and practical cases for problem-solving. Participants were assigned to complete the ten modules
and submitted reflective journal logs after each session. Additionally, they were required to submit two lesson plans,in modules 5 and 9. Data sources included a demographic questionnaire, the reflective journal logs, and the lessonplans. This study found that although teachers were anxious about teaching JLL children, they felt that they learned
about cultural and religious awareness in physical education from the PD and planned ways to apply culturally
responsive teaching in their physical education classes.
Additionally, Tomura et al. (2024b) created a problem-solving based online PD program using the findings of aprevious study that identified problems and challenges voiced by Japanese elementary teachers regarding parental
involvement of immigrant parents in relation to physical education (Tomura et al., 2024a). Tomura et al. (2024b) usedvisual aids to assist teachers’ understanding in the PD program. Tomura et al. (2024b) designed online PD content
focusing on three learning goals and objectives for elementary teachers including a) reflection on prior experiences
regarding parental involvement of immigrant parents, b) theory-based learning of parental involvement of immigrantparents regarding physical education, and c) collaborative learning with other participants. The duration of the wholeonline PD was two months (eight weeks). One characteristic of this online PD is that the elementary teachers could
access original YouTube video clips about various aspects of working with immigrant parents, which they selectedaccording to their individual needs (Riley, 2017). Another component was a digital portfolio that was a computerbased, purposeful collection of, and reflections on, teachers’ professional experiences (Espinoza & Medina, 2021).
2. Theoretical Framework
Our research team used various theoretical frameworks including andragogy theory (Knowles, 1989) in online PD inphysical education for in-service teachers (e.g., Sato, Haegele, & Foot, 2017; Sato & Haegele, 2017). In andragogy
theory, Knowles (1989) suggests that adult learners (in this case, teachers) should have motivation to enhance theirprofessional skills or to satisfy their curiosity about a subject (e.g., physical education). The online PD contents were
designed to incorporate teachers’ prior experiences, interests, and needs. Knowles’ insights are especially important
for teachers’ PD, where online education is often used for in-service teachers in continuing education programs,competency-based learning, and career development. Another theoretical framework, the theory of transactional
distance (Moore & Kearsley, 2005), can encompass both organizational and transactional issues without losing sightof learner, institution, and nation together (Gokool-Ramdoo, 2008). In this theoretical framework, teachers andlearners are both participating in the shared experience of exploring a common world (Keegan, 1993). Teachers andlearners maximize their learning through mutual sharing and negotiations of meaning in such a manner that the locus

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of control shifts from one to others constantly through a feedback process, which Saba (2007) referred to as the“feedback loop” (Gokool-Ramdoo, 2008).
Recently, our research team has focused on transformative learning theory, which we have adopted in our online PD
in physical education because we believe that online PD allows teachers to demonstrate their critical and reflective
learning for professional living (Mezirow, 2000). Mezirow (2000) explains that teachers bring their assumptions,beliefs, and expectations about the world as part of a frame of reference through which they filter information andmake meaning (Howie & Bagnall, 2013). More specifically, transformative learning establishes the presence of a setof interdependent core elements (i.e., practices) (Taylor, 2009) including (a) an emphasis on an individual’s
experiences, including prior experiences; (b) the promotion of critical self-reflection, including challenging previously
held assumptions and beliefs; (c) engaging in dialogue with self and others; (d) a holistic orientation, inclusive ofother ways of knowing; (e) an awareness of context, where learners develop an appreciation of how personal andsociocultural factors influence learning (see also Ellison & Sato, 2023); and (f) the importance of establishingauthentic relationships among students and teachers where open communication occurs to achieve greater mutual andconsensual understanding (Taylor & Laros, 2014).
3. Appropriate Method Selection
Our research problems are best approached using a qualitative research method because we need to assess online PD
as a complex, multi-componential construct; address questions regarding what works for whom, when, how and why;and focus on content and instructional improvement (Busetto, Wick, & Gumbinger, 2020).
Although longitudinal qualitative research would be an appropriate way to investigate online PD in physical education(Vogl, Zartler, Schmidt, & Rieder, 2018), one of the main obstacles and challenges of longitudinal studies is retaining
an adequate number of participants, since participants may drop out from the study due to various reasons andcircumstances. Since it is challenging to conduct longitudinal studies that track teachers’ experiences prior to, during,and following the online PD, our research team has tried to triangulate data sources and analyse various types of data.
Triangulation involves the use of multiple perspectives; in our case, that includes data from semi-structured interviews
with individual teachers, focus group interviews, and electronic portfolios, all of which were interpreted through thelens of our theoretical framework. Glesne (1999) posits that the use of multiple data collection methods contributes
to data trustworthiness. Use of triangulation is intended to evaluate and improve the accuracy of the data (Merriam,1998). For example, semi-structured interviews are characterized by open-ended questions and the use of an interview
guide (Hijmans & Kuyper, 2007). Specifically, in our research, semi-structured interviews have helped us gain insights
into teachers’ subjective experiences, opinions, and motivation (Dul & Hak, 2008). Additionally, focus groupinterviews are used to explore teachers’ expertise and experiences based on the reasons or rationale for how and why
teachers behave in certain ways. Another important data source in our research on online PD is the teachers’
demonstration of their learning through an electronic portfolio, which is a purposeful collection of teachers’ efforts,
progress, and achievement. The electronic portfolios include items such as photographs, video clips, lesson plans, andassessments based on alignment with goals and objectives (Sato & Hodge, 2017).
Additional ways to minimize researchers’ biases are to use member checking and peer debriefing. For member
checking, the researcher takes the data and tentative interpretations back to the participants from whom they were
derived and asks them if the results are plausible (Merriam, 1998). All data must be transcribed and sent back to eachparticipant for confirmation. Peer debriefing is a process of exposing oneself to a distinguished peer in a way
paralleling an analytic session, with the purpose of exploring aspects of inquiry that might remain only implicit in theinquirer’s mind (Patton, 2002). Peer debriefers evaluate the interpretations of the data as accurate and representativeof the teachers’ statements.
4. Results (Part I): Japanese Teachers’ Learning Experiences in Online Professional Development
Based on our findings about (a) Japanese elementary school teachers’ positioning in teaching physical education to
JLLs (Furuta et al., 2022) and (b) Japanese elementary classroom teachers’ experiences with parental involvement ofimmigrants regarding physical education (Tomura et al., 2024a), we embarked on a subsequent project, funded by theJapan Society for the Promotion of Science, focused on developing online PD modules using a problem-solving
approach.
Our research team found that Japanese teachers learned about teaching JLLs in physical education better when criticalfeatures of effective PD were incorporated, including a content focus, active learning, coherence, duration, andcollective participation (Desimone, 2009). Japanese teachers also felt that it was beneficial when the concept ofculturally relevant teaching (Ladson-Billings, 1994) was embedded in the online PD.
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For example, Japanese teachers felt that information about religious and spiritual practices in the PD enabled theteacher to better understand their students’ religious backgrounds and apply that knowledge in a real context. LadsonBillings (1994) defined culturally relevant pedagogy as pedagogy that empowers teachers intellectually, socially,
emotionally, and politically by using cultural referents to important knowledge, skills, and attitudes. Through online
PD, these Japanese teachers gained knowledge and skills and developed cultural competence. Additionally, following
andragogy theory (Knowles, 1980), the Japanese teachers’ prior experiences and pedagogical knowledge and skills
helped them make a connection between their prior knowledge and new information about teaching JLL children inphysical education while taking the online PD modules.
5.

Results (Part II): Japanese Teachers’ Learning Experiences regarding Parental Involvement in Online
Professional Development
Tomura et al. (2024b) found that Japanese elementary teachers had positive learning experiences using the online
learning materials (e.g., digital portfolios and YouTube video clips) and that these helped them find strategies to solve
problems, overcome challenges, and reduce concerns regarding parental involvement. There are three themes offindings that emerged from this study: (a) digital portfolios as a tool for problem-based learning, (b) transformative
learning experience regarding communication with immigrant parents, and (c) the need for Kenshu (teacher training)
for all elementary school teachers.
One of unique findings was that online PD should include transformative learning. In transformative learning, teachers
demonstrate critical reflection on their prior experiences and identify either functional or dysfunctional instances
based on new learning. In the study, the YouTube video clips allowed the teachers to gain insight into how to integrate
information and communication technologies (ICT) and minimize the gap in cultural context between emic (insider)and etic (outsider) views between the teachers and immigrant parents in relation to physical education (Tomura et al.,2024b). Technology-integrated PD that follows andragogy theory produces a paradigm shift that affects teachers’
subsequent behaviour (using ICT) for promoting social inclusion of immigrant parents (Tomura et al., 2024b).
Overall, the online PD program helped teachers become self-directed learners, analyse their learning needs, selectlearning materials, and evaluate their PD experience. This study also emphasized that real-life learning experiences
during this online PD program are immediately applicable to the teacher’s professional responsibilities in terms ofparental involvement of immigrant parents in relation to physical education (see Appendix B).
6. Recommendations and Conclusions
This review article introduced how our research team served as a change agent and supported Japanese elementary
school teachers not only as processors of cognitive information, but also through transformational learning by sensing,visualizing, perceiving, and learning with others in the online PD (Cercone, 2008). However, there are still some
improvements that need to be done in the future. In this section, our research team introduces several recommendations
for online PD in relation to physical education.
First, our research team recommends that school districts offer online PD workshop(s) and a mentoring system thatprovide a benchmark for administrators of school districts to evaluate the quality of educational services (for teaching
JLL children in physical education) (Sato, Tsuda, McKay, Furuta, & Kajita, 2020). There are two things our researchteam needs to improve for enhancing the quality of online PD which allows school districts, administrators, andteachers gain knowledge of analytical and interpretative records of reflection on their practices, values, and strategies,
and help enhance their critical thinking skills to identify their professional growth.
Second, in Japan, lesson study (jugyo kenkyu in Japanese) is an important organized PD opportunity for elementaryteachers (Saito, 2012) and makes various types of knowledge more visible through colleagues’ and mentors’
feedback and suggestions about pedagogy and students’ reflective and critical thinking (Sato, Tsuda, Ellison, &Hodge, 2020). Our research team encourages school districts to develop online lesson study for elementary teachers.
In this way, school districts can automatically secure online data including lessons, bulletin board communication,
feedback communication, and lesson reflections, so that school districts may continuously analyse and share thisinformation with new teachers.
Third, our research team suggests that pair or collaborative reading and theory learning while developing online PD
may enhance learning in physical education (Sato & McKay, 2020). This strategy provides our research team more
opportunity to learn about establishing another or alternative theoretical framework that increases the quality of online
PD contents (Li & Nes, 2001). Through the experiences, our research team can share their prior knowledge andexperiences and build new knowledge through theory learning in online PD.
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To better support future researchers, this study encourages physical education researchers and graduate students tolearn how to develop a blueprint of the theoretical framework, research method, and presentation of the results using
online PD research sources in colleges and universities. Our research team hopes that Japanese teachers andresearchers will build capacity, expertise, and knowledge to improve the teaching of JLLs as well as involvement of
their parents through a spectrum of online PD in physical education.
Funding
This research was funded by Japan Society for the Promotion of Science/Grants-in-Aid for Scientific Research B,
grant number 22H00999, and the Japan Science and Technology Agency Support for Pioneering Research Initiatedby the Next Generation (JST SPRING), grant numbers JPMJSP2124.
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted according to the guidelines of the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional
Review Board of the University of Tsukuba (protocol code 体 022-100, approved September 26th, 2022).
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the study.
Conflicts of Interest
The funders had no role in the design of the study; in the collection, analyses, or interpretation of data; in the writingof the manuscript; or in the decision to publish the results.
Appendix A

Appendix B

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qualitative longitudinal interviews (MPQLI). International Journal of Social Research Methodology, 21(2),177-190. doi.org/10.1080/13645579.2017.1345149
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Journal of Digital Life 2024,4, S2

Special Issue: Digital Technology in Sports and Physical Activity
ArticleA case study of the use of match video analysis tools in
Judo: Attempts of visualizing the competition realities ofan athlete
Ryosuke Ozaki 1* and Yuji Ozawa 1
1Faculty of Sports and Budo Coaching Studies, National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, 1 Shiromizu, Kanoya-city,
Kagoshima 891-2393, Japan

Abstract
In this study, we analyzed match videos of a university Judo Player (Player A) utilizing the SPLYZA TEAMS
matched video analysis tool. This is the first case study of Judo match analysis using the SPLYZA TEAMS
software. A total of 13 matches involving Player A were analyzed in this study. Prior to the analysis, Player
A formulated three hypotheses for the matching implementation. The analysis rejected two of the threehypotheses established at the beginning of the study. However, a notable trend emerged, revealing a proclivity
for the Kumite situation for initiating Nage-waza from disadvantaged positions in matches that resulted in aloss. This novel finding was obtained by analyzing the data using the SPLYZA TEAMS software.
Keywords: Judo; match analysis; analysis tool; visual analysis

1. Introduction
Judo is a Japanese martial art that was established in 1882 by Jigoro Kano. Judo practitioners wear Judo-gi, and engage
in dynamic contests using Nage-waza and Katame-waza to assert dominance over their opponents. Since its
recognition as an official sport at the 1964 Tokyo Olympics (Murata, 2011), judo has garnered internationalrecognition, reaching over 200 countries and regions (International judo federation, 2023), making it a familiar facetof Japanese culture worldwide.
Despite the sport's widespread practice, no studies or reports have analyzed competition videos using tools orapplications related to competition analysis. While previous research has employed statistical methods to analyze Judocompetitions and competitiveness (Ishii, et al., 2021; Maekawa et al., 2014) and analyzed score-earning tendencies
based on competition videos, there remains a gap in comprehensive competition analysis, especially using approved
tools (Miyake, et al., 2021; Ito et al., 2019). Moreover, the Scientific Research Department of the All Japan Judo
Federation have developed its own competition video analysis tool, GOJIRA (Mynavi Books, 2017); however, thisapproach has yet to be approved for general use.
Although there are limited cases of competition analyses using competition videos for Judo, competition analysis isvital for enhancing competitiveness, analyzing opponents, and developing strategies.
Therefore, to address this, the present study attempts to analyze competitive Judo footage. As GOJIRA has not yet
been approved for general use, we used SPLYZA TEAMS (https://products.splyza.com/teams/), a competition video
analysis tool provided by SPLYZA Corporation. We analyzed competition video of Player A, a university student
athlete for whom the author was involved in coaching. Player A sought to further improve his athletic performance at

Received: 13 November 2023, Revised: 14 January 2024, Accepted: 6 February 2024, Published: 26 April 2024
* Correspondence: rozaki@nifs-k.ac.jp
Publisher’s Note: JOURNAL OF DIGITAL LIFE. stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC. Submitted for possible open access publication under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1

A case study of the use of match video analysis tools in Judo: Attempts of visualizing
the competition realities of an athlete
Ryosuke Ozaki and Yuji Ozawa
the time of this study in April 2022. Therefore, the author proposed the abovementioned visualization of the actual
competition phase in SPLYZA TEAMS, and Player A agreed.
The characteristics of Player A are as follows: He was a 21-year-old male university student and judo competitor,
with a Judo Dan of Second and 15 years of competition experience. Competing in the 81 kg weight class, he hadplaced 5th in the previous year's national university championships at the time the analysis began (April 2022). He isa Right-Kumite in Judo’s competitive activities, and his favorite technique is Seoinage.
In this study, SPLYZA TEAMS was used to analyze Player A’s competition videos. This study focused a total of 13
of Player A's games in 2021 and 2022. The competition results for 2021 and 2022 are as follows:1)2021 National Athletic College Tournament: lost in the 1st round (one match)
2)2021 National University Championship: 5th place (four matches)
3)2022 Japan National Championship: lost in the 2nd round (two matches)
4)2022 Regional University Championship: champion (five matches)
5)2022 Japan National Championship: lost in the 1st round (one match)*National Championships were held twice in 2022, because the 2021 championship was postponed due to Covid19. Thus, the competition for 2021 was held in 2022.
We used a competitive video analysis tool, SPLYZA TEAMS, which can be used on websites or through Smartphone
and Tablet applications. SPLYZA TEAMS has be used for analyses of various sports, including basketball (Kiba, etal., 2022; Kitazawa, et al., 2019) and tennis (Kitamura, 2021). However, the analysis of Judo using this method has
not been explored. Therefore, this is the first study to report a competitive analysis of Judo using SPLYZA TEAMS.
This study aimed to analyze Judo competition videos using analytical tools to visualize the reality of Judo competitions
and seek cues for enhancing athletic performance.
To achieve this, we developed three hypotheses. While conducting this study, Player A believed that there was adifference in his attack style between matches that he won and lost. Based on this opinion, the author consulted with
Player A and formulated the following hypotheses:
1)
Player A heavily utilizes Seoinage and the Kouchi-gari associated with the preparatory movements of Seoinage.
2)
Match outcomes correlate with the frequency of Player A’s Nage-waza.
3)
In winning matches, Player A used Seoinage extensively, while lost matches involved fewer Seoinages.
2. Methods
2.1. Analysis using SPLYZA TEAMSSPLYZA TEAMS facilitates the loading of competition videos and uses a function called "tags" to incorporate
evaluation factors to the competition analysis (Fig. 1). While no predefined evaluation factors existed for Judo, theauthor (a 5th dan in judo and coach of a university judo team) and Player A collaboratively identified and developed
the following evaluation factors (tags) specifically tailored for judo. In Judo, there are two skill systems, Nage-waza
and Katame-waza, but because Player A primarily utilized Nage-waza as his main attacking technique, this analysis
focused on Nage-waza.
2.1.1. General overview of the matchA)
Details of match settlements when victorious (Ippon, Yusei-gachi, Hansoku-gachi).
B)
Details of match settlements when defeated (Ippon, Yusei-make, Hansoku-make).
C)
Kumite stance combinations (Aiyotsu & Kenkayotsu).
*Aiyotsu: both competitors standing in a closed stance; Kenkayotsu: both competitors standing in an open
stance (Ito, et al., 2015).
2.1.2. Match details
A)
Player responsible for initiating Nage-waza (Player A, Opponent player).
B)
Time periods attempting own Nage-waza in the match (0~1 min, 1~2 min, 2~3 min, etc.).
C)
Kumite situation when Nage-waza was performed (standard, advantaged situation, disadvantaged situation,
one-sided grip, both collars or sleeves).
D)
Name of Nage-waza performed (Seonage, Uchi-mata, O-uchi-gari).
E)
Scores of Nage-waza (Ippon, Waza-ari, No.).
F)
Details of penalties (Shido) (non-combativity, not taking a grip, defensive position, Illegal Kumi-kata, etc.)
G)
Object of penalties (Shido) (Player A, Opponent, both players).

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A case study of the use of match video analysis tools in Judo: Attempts of visualizing
the competition realities of an athlete
Ryosuke Ozaki and Yuji Ozawa
2.2. Conducting Analysis

Fig.1: Screen shot of analysis using SPLYZA TEAMS for Judo match

Player A, in collaboration with the author, conducted the analysis after the last match (the 2022 Japan National
Championship). To validate the study’s hypotheses, the videos of all matches were tagged, and the tags weresystematically tabulated for each match won and lost. Additionally, we examined Player A attack strategy in eachmatch. The tag summary data were obtained from SPLYZA TEAMS in Microsoft Excel. A graph was then createdbased on the tag summary data.
3. Results
3.1. Overview of the matches
A summary of the 13 matches is presented in Fig. 2. Of the nine winning matches, Ippon won six (67%), Yusei -gachi
won two (22%), and Hansoku-gachi by Shido3 won one (11%). Of the four lost matches, Ippon had one (25%), Yuseimake had two (50%), and Hansoku-make by Shido 3 had one (25%). The Kumite combinations of Player A andOpponent were five (38%) for Aiyotsu and eight (62%) for Kenkayotsu. Nage -waza occurred 130 times in the 13
games, with 78 instances by Player A (60 %) and 52 by the Opponent (40 %).
The Nage-waza comprised 12 types, including 59 (45%) Seoinage, 24 (18%) Kouchi-gari, and 10 (8%) Uchi-mata, indescending order of frequency. For the Nage-waza evaluation, there were 118 (91%) instances of no score, seven (5%)
of Waza-ari, and five (4%) of Ippon. There were 18 instances of shido in the 13 games, with "Not taking a grip"
accounting for 10 (56%), "Non-combativity" for five (28%), "Illegal kumi-kata" for two (11%), and "Defensive
position" for one (5%). The "Illegal kumi-kata" occurred in two (11%), and "Defensive position" occurred in one (5%)
match. The object of Shido was nine (50%) for both players, six (33%) for Player A three (17%) for the Opponent
players.

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A case study of the use of match video analysis tools in Judo: Attempts of visualizing
the competition realities of an athlete
Ryosuke Ozaki and Yuji Ozawa
Details of wining matches (n=9)

Details of lost matches (n=4)

1, 11%

1, 25%

2, 22%

6, 67%

1, 25%

Ippon

Ippon

Yusei-gachi

Yusei-makeHansoku-gachi(Shido 3)

Hanoku-make(Shido 3)
2, 50%

Details of Kumite combination (n=13)

The number of Nage-waza (n=130)

5, 38%

52, 40%Kenkayotsu

Player A

Aiyotsu

Opponent Player

8, 62%

Details of Nage-waza (n=130)

78, 60%Seoi-nageKo-uchi-gari

2, 2%
2, 2%
1, 1%
3, 2%

Uchi-mataKata-guruma

3, 2%
6, 5%

Kosoto-gari

4, 3%

Details of score (n=130)
7, 5% 5, 4%

O-uchi-gari

8, 6%
59, 45%8, 6%Sumi-gaeshi

No score

Sode-tsurikomigoshi
Tomoe-nage

Ippon
Waza-ariTai-otoshi
10, 8%Deashi-barai

118, 91%

Harai-goshi
24, 18%

Object of Shido (n=18)

Details of Shido (n=18)
1, 5%

3, 17%

2, 11%
Not taking a grip

Both players

Non combativity
5, 28%

10, 56%

9, 50%

Illegal Kumi-kataPlayer A
Opponent Player

Defensive position

6, 33%

Fig.2: Overview of 13 matches

3.2. Details of the winning matches (Player A and Opponent players’ summary)The details of the nine winning matches are summarized in Fig. 3. The Kumite combinations of Player A and Opponent
players were four (44%) for Aiyotsu and five (56%) for Kenkayotsu. Ninety -nine Nage-waza were performed in thenine games, with 57 (58%) by Player A and 42 (42%) by Opponents. Nage-waza comprised 10 different types, with
Seoinage accounting for 49 (50%), kouchi-gari for 18 (18%), and kosoto-gari for seven (7%). Nage-wazas were
evaluated with a no score of 90 (91%); Ippon at six (6%); and Waza-ari at three (3%). Shido instances totaled 11 innine games, with four (37%) for "Non-combativity,” four (36%) for "Not taking a grip,” two (18%) for "Illegal kumikata,” and one (9%) for "Defensive position.” Illegal kumi-kata" accounted for two (18%) and "Defensive position"

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A case study of the use of match video analysis tools in Judo: Attempts of visualizing
the competition realities of an athlete
Ryosuke Ozaki and Yuji Ozawa
for one (9%). The Object of Shido was Player A with four (37%), both players with four (36%), and Opponent playerswith three (27%).
Details of Kumite combination (n=9)

4, 44%The number of Nage-waza (n=99)

42, 42%

Kenkayotsu
5, 56%

2, 2% 3, 3%
2, 2%
3, 3%

Player A

Aiyotsu

57, 58%Opponent Player

Details of Nage-waza (n=99)
1, 1%

Details of score (n=99)
Seoi-nage6, 6%

6, 6% 3, 3%

Ko-uchi-gari
Kosoto-gari
Uchi-mata8, 8%

No score

Kata-guruma
49, 50%

Ippon

Tomoe-nage

Waza-ari

Sode-tsurikomi-goshi

7, 7%

O-uchi-gariSumi-gaeshi

90, 91%

Tai-otoshi
18, 18%

Details of Shido (n=11)

Object of Shido (n=11)

1, 9%3, 27%
2, 18%

4, 37%

4, 37%

Non combativity
Not taking a grip

Player A

Illegal Kumi-kata

Both players

Defensive position

Opponent Player

4, 36%

4, 36%

Fig.3: Details of 9 winning matches

3.3. Player A's content in the winning matches
To verify the Nage-waza setups by Player A in the winning matches, tags were tabulated, focusing on Player A's Nagewaza, and a graph was created. A detailed description of Player A’s nage-waza (n=57) in the winning match is shownin Fig. 4. The most common time period that Player A performed Nage-waza was "1~2 min", accounting for 17 (30%)
of the total instances, followed by "0~1 min" and "2~3 min". The "Standard" Kumite situation when Nage-waza was
performed was the most common, accounting for 28 (49%) of the total. The advantageous situation accounted for 18(32%). Seoinage accounted for 36 (63%), followed by Kouchi-gari with nine (16%). Nage-waza evaluations resulted
in no score for 49 (86%), Ippon for four (7%), and Waza-ari for four (7%).

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A case study of the use of match video analysis tools in Judo: Attempts of visualizing
the competition realities of an athlete
Ryosuke Ozaki and Yuji Ozawa
Time periods of try to own Nage-waza in thematch (n=57)
3, 5%

Kumite situations when try to Nage-waza (n=57)

2, 3%

3, 5%

5, 9%

17 , 30%

1, 2%Standard

1~2minutes

7, 12%

0~1minuteadvantage
situation

2~3minutes
8, 14%

28, 49%3~4minutes

disadvantage
situation

7~8minutes（GS）
5~6minutes（GS）

18, 32%

both collars or
sleeves

8 , 14%

4~5minutes（GS）

14 , 25%

Details of Nage-waza (n=57)
1, 1% 1, 2%

one side grip

Details of score (n=57)
4, 7%

1, 2%

4, 7%

4, 7%

Seoi-nage5, 9%

Ko-uchi-gari

9, 16%

No score

Ko-soto-gari

Ippon

Kata-guruma

Waza-ari

Tomoe-nage36, 63%Uchi-ma ta
Sumi-ga eshi
49, 86%

Fig.4: Details of contents of player A in 9 winning matches

3.4. Details of the lost matches (Player A and Opponent players’ summary)
The four games lost matches are illustrated in Fig. 5. The Kumite combination of Player A and Opponent players wasone (25%) for Aiyotsu and three (75%) for Kenkayotsu. The number of Nage-wazas conducted in the four matches
was 31, with 17 (55%) by Player A and 14 (45%) by Opponent players. Nage-waza comprised 11 different types, with
Seoinage accounting for 10 (32%), Kouchi-gari for five (16%), and Ouchi-gari for two (7%). Nage-waza wasevaluated with no score at 28 (90%), Ippon at one (3%), and Waza-ari at two (7%). Shido instances totaled seven infour matches, with six (86%) for "Not taking a grip" and one (14%) for "Non-combativity.” There were five (71 %)objects of shido for both players and two (29%) for Player A.

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A case study of the use of match video analysis tools in Judo: Attempts of visualizing
the competition realities of an athlete
Ryosuke Ozaki and Yuji Ozawa
Details of Kumite combination (n=4)

The number of Nage-waza (n=31)

1, 25%

Kenkayotsu

14, 45%Player A

Aiyotsu

17, 55%

Opponent Player

3, 75%

Details of Nage-waza (n=31)
2, 6%

Details of score (n=31)

1, 3%

2, 7%

1, 3%

1, 3%

Seoi-nage

1, 3%

10, 32%

Ko-uchi-gariO-uchi-gari

2, 6%

Deashi-barai

No score

Kata-guruma

Waza-ari

Sumi-gaeshi

Ippon

Uchi-mata3, 10%

Sode-tsurikomi-goshi
Tai-otoshi
Kosoto-gari

2, 7%

28, 90%

Harai-goshi
5, 16%

2, 7%
2, 7%

Object of Shido (n=7)

Details of Shido (n=7)
1, 14%

2, 29%
Not taking a grip

Both players

Non combativity

Player A
5, 71%

6, 86%

Fig.5: Details of 4 lost matches

3.5. Player A's content in the lost matches
To verify the Nage-waza Player A setups in the lost matches, tags were tabulated, focusing on Player A's Nage-waza,
and a graph was created. The details of Player A's Nage-waza (n=17) in the lost matches is shown in Fig. 6. The mostcommon time period for Player A to perform Nage-waza was "1~2 min", accounting for four (23%) of the total,
followed by "0~1 min" and "2~3 min". Kumite situations when Nage-waza was performed were as follows:"Disadvantage situation" in six (35%), "Standard" in five (29%), "One side grip" in three (18%), "Both collars or
sleeves" in two (12%), and "Advantage Situation" in one (6%). Nine (53%) were Seoinage and two (11%) were KataGuruma. None of the Nage-waza evaluations were scored.

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A case study of the use of match video analysis tools in Judo: Attempts of visualizing
the competition realities of an athlete
Ryosuke Ozaki and Yuji Ozawa

4. Discussion
4.1. About overview of the matches
Focusing on the winning matches in Fig. 2, six out of nine matches were Ippons, indicating Player A’s proficiency
with the most Ippons. Regarding the number of Nage-wazas, Player A had 60% and Opponent players had 40%.
Regardless of the match outcome, Player consistently took the lead in initiating a larger percentage of Nage -wazas.
Regarding the evaluation of Nage-waza, no scores accounted for 91%, indicating the difficulty in obtaining a score
for Judo. Regarding Shido instances, "Not taking a grip" was the most common response, and both players accounted
for 50% of the objects in Shido. This implies an intense struggle by both players to manipulate the Kumite situationin their favor, underscoring the competitive intensity observed in the analyzed matches.
4.2. Details of the winning matches
Focusing on Fig. 3, Aiyotsu and Kenkayotsu account for almost half of the total number of Kumite combinations.
Indicating Player A’s weakness in either Aiyotsu or Kenkayotsu. Regarding the number of Nage-wazas, Player A
accounted for 58% and Opponent players for 42%; therefore, Player A was not considered the more dominant player.
However, regarding the type of Nage-waza, Seoinage accounted for 50% and Kouchi-gari for 8%. Therefore,
Hypothesis 1 is likely to be supported, although a detailed examination of the percentage of Player A's Nage-waza iswarranted.
4.3. Player A’s content in the winning matches
Examining Player A's performance in the winning matches, in Fig. 4, reveals that half of the Nage-waza instances
occurred within the "1~2 min" and "0~1 min" time periods, suggesting a propensity for initiating Nage -waza early inthe match. However, the number of Nage-wazas did not significantly decrease in later time periods, suggesting that
Player A is an endurance player. In Kumite situations when Nage-waza was executed, "Standard" was the most popular(49%), followed by the "Advantage situation" (32%). This indicates tha t Player A primarily executed Nage-waza inthe "Standard" or "Advantage situation" during the winning matches. Analyzing Player A's specific Nage -waza inwinning matches, Seoinage and Kouchi-gari accounted for 63% and 16%, respectively, of the total of 79%. This aligns
with Hypothesis 1 that “Player A uses a lot of Seoinage and the Kouchi-gari associated with the preparatory
movements of Seoinage.”

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A case study of the use of match video analysis tools in Judo: Attempts of visualizing
the competition realities of an athlete
Ryosuke Ozaki and Yuji Ozawa
4.4. About details of the lost matches
The lost matches are shown in Fig. 5. The analysis of the number of Nage-wazas in the lost matches revealed that
Player A initiated 55%, while the Opponent player initiated 45%. Interestingly, this percentage distribution mirrors
the results observed in the winning matches (58% for Player A and 42% for Opponent Players). Thus, Player A's
percentage of initiating Nage-waza was consistent regardless of whether he won or lost. Consequently, Hypothesis 2,"Winning or losing a match is related to the number of one's own Nage-waza," was rejected.
4.5. Player A’s content of the lost matches
The analysis of Player A’s in lost matches are shown in Fig. 6. The time periods of Nage-waza were "1~2 min" and"0~1 min" in 46% of cases, consistent with that of the winning matches. Regarding the nage-waza content, seoinage
was the most common (53%), followed by kouchi-gari (12%), similar to in the winning matches. This contradicts
Hypothesis 3, " Winning matches use a lot of Seonage. In other words, lost matches did not use many Seonages."
Furthermore, the analysis of Kumite situations when initiating Nage-waza in lost matches reveals that the“Disadvantage situation" was the most common (35%), followed by "Standard" (29%), "One side grip" (18%), "Bothcollars or sleeves" (12%), and "Advantage situation" (6%). The "Disadvantage situation" was uncommon in thewinning matches (5%), and the "Advantage situation" was the most common (49%), indicating that the Kumite
situation in the losing matches differed from that in the winning matches. In the lost matches, the number of Nagewaza in the "disadvantage situation" was high, suggesting that Player A struggled to gain an advantage in Kumitescramble during the lost matches; this contradicts the initial hypothesis. This underscores the importance of video
analysis in uncovering nuanced aspects of performance, as demonstrated by SPLYZA TEAMS in this study.
5. Conclusions
The author and Player A formulated three hypotheses to understand match reality. Utilizing SPLYZA TEAMS forvideo analysis led to the rejection of two hypotheses. Notably, the comparison between winning and lost matches
revealed that in lost matches, the Kumite situation often started with "Disadvantage situation" followed by the
initiation of Nage-waza. This discrepancy between athletes between athletes' perceptions and the analytical insights
provided by SPLYZA TEAMS highlights the value of such tools in objectively evaluating match dynamics. While theinitial hypotheses were disproven, a significant revelation emerged: Nage-waza in lost matches tended to originate
from a disadvantaged Kumite situation. For Player A, enhancing Kumite skills became a pivotal factor in elevatingcompetitive performance. This study not only refuted preconceived notions but also offered valuable insights fortargeted improvement in Player A's approach to matches.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, R. O.; methodology, T. O. and D. F.; software, R. O.; validation, R. O. and Y. O.; formal analysis,
R. O.; writing—original draft preparation, R. O.; writing—review and editing, R. O. and Y. O.
Funding
This study was supported by the Priority Project of the National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya, titled ICT
Support Project for Improvement of Match Performance: Video Sharing and Game Performance Analysis Using Cloud
Computing.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
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the competition realities of an athlete
Ryosuke Ozaki and Yuji Ozawa
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Maekawa, N., Ito, K., Ishii, K., Koshino, T., Yazaki, R., Tamura, M., Hirose, N. (2014). A study of validation ofcompetitive abilities scale of judo competitors by using AHP. Research Journal of Budo, 47 (1), 1-8.
https://doi.org/10.11214/budo.47.1
Miyake, K., Takezawa, T., Ito, K., Sato, S., Hirose, N. (2021). Tactical actions of nage -waza effective for scoring in
judo. Research Journal of Budo, 54 (2), 103-113. https://doi.org/10.11214/budo.2110
Murata, N. (2011) Internationalization of Judo, Nippon Budokan.
Mynavi Books (2017). “GOJIRA” Analysis Software Supports Japanese Judo: Balance between "Quantitative" and"Qualitative" is Important, https://book.mynavi.jp/macfan/detail_summary/id=86615 （ Last access date:
2023/11/02）.

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Journal of Digital Life 2024,4, S3
Special Issue: Digital Technology in Sports and Physical Activity
ArticleThe Effects of Positive and Negative Ions on esports
Performance and Arousal Levels Part 2-Testing Higher Ion DensityGoichi Hagiwara 1*, Hirokazu Funamori 2, Masaru Matsumoto2, Seiji Takami 2, Hiroaki Okano2, andDaisuke Akiyama 1
1
2

Department of Human Science, Kyushu Sangyo University, 2-3-1 Matsukadai, Higasgi-ku, Fukuoka-shi, Fukuoka 813-8503, Japan
Sharp Corporation, 3-1-72 Kitakamei-cho, Yao-shi, Osaka 581-8585, Japan*Correspondence: hagi-g@ip.kyusan-u.ac.jp; Tel.: +81-92-673-5878

Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate the psychological effects of higher positive and negative ion
conditions on the arousal levels of esports players during a racing game. Participants (10 males) from acollegiate esports team were the participants in the study. The effects of higher concentrations of positive
and negative ions were evaluated in a randomized crossover. Each participant performed two experiments
four weeks apart; two experimental environments were used: positive and negative ions fi lling the atmosphere(PNI) condition and a control (CON) condition. A car racing game was employed as the performance task.
Arousal was measured by the two-dimensional mood scale (TDMS) and electroencephalogram (EEG). EEG
was used to measure arousal. The results showed that the level of arousal in the subjective assessment andthe level of arousal in the EEG were significantly higher in the CON condition for PNI. In addition, PNI
performed significantly better on the game task than in the CON condition.
The present study demonstrated in positive and negative ion environments with higher concentrations thanin the previous study, and the results showed higher arousal levels in subjective assessments, indicating thathigher concentrations of ionic environments are beneficial for esports players.
Keywords: esports, training environment, performance, athletes, ions

1. Introduction
Successful esports athletes require psychological or cognitive skills rather than the physical skills on which athletes
in traditional sports depend (Himmelstein et al., 2017) Therefore, it is important for esports athletes to train in
cognitive skills and psychological skills and cognitive function. Research on training methods and environments forthis purpose is also considered necessary in esports competitions. However, cu rrently there are no established esports
training methods in the field of sports science, and further research is needed. In addition to the establishment oftraining methods, the training environment is also important in the field of sports science. Therefore, it is necessary
to study the training environment related to esports in the field of sports science.
Incidentally, an air ion is a naturally existing tiny particle, a positively or negatively charged molecule or atom in theair (Jiang & Ma, 2018). Positively charged ions are positive ions, and negatively charged ions are defined as negativeions (Yamamoto et al., 2015). Air ions, including positive and negative ions, also have certain functions such as
purifying the atmosphere and deodorizing the air (Nishikawa, 2013). Some research has also been conducted on therelationship between air ions and emotions (Flory et al., 2010; Perez et al.) For example, a high-density negative ion
environment was found to reduce depression. In addition, several studies have examined the relationship between
Received: 6 December 2023, Revised: 4 February 2024, Accepted: 25 February 2024, Published: 26 April 2024
* Correspondence: hagi-g@ip.kyusan-u.ac.jp
Publisher’s Note: JOURNAL OF DIGITAL LIFE. stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC. Submitted for possible open access publication under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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The Effects of Positive and Negative Ions on esports Performance
Hagiwara, G., Funamori, H., Takami, S., Okano, H., Okajima, H., Akiyama, D.
negative ions and depression (Goel & Etwaroo, 2006; Terman & Terman, 2006; Terman et al., 1998), lower stress(Malik et al., 2010), and increased happiness (Lips et al., 1987). There are also several studies suggested that a
relationship exists between positive ions environments and human emotions (Perez et al., 2013). For example,
Gianinni et al. (1986) investigated the correlation between positive air ions and emotions. The results indicated thatanxiety and excitement were significantly increased under these conditions. They also examined the relationshipbetween positive ions and discomfort, irritation, and anxiety (Giannini et al., 1986; Charry & Hawkinshire, 1981).
Thus, although the results of the studies are variable, there is a relationship between the environment and emotions
that trigger ions.
Furthermore, negative and positive ions exist simultaneously in the natural air (Terasawa, 2002), and the effect onhuman biological functions when positive and negative ions are generated at the same time has also been investigated.
Hagiwara et al (2021) examined the relationship between gameplay and air ions by examining the relationship between
game performance and subjective and objective arousal levels in positive and negative ion environments and incontrolled environments in 10 university students, The results indicated that game performance levels were higher inthe positive and negative environments, as were levels of subjective and objective arousal, compared to the control
environment. However, it is difficult to suggest an association with air ions based on their study alone, and as
mentioned earlier, air ion research is highly skeptical and difficult to prove. Therefore, the purpose of this study was
to examine arousal levels and performance in gameplay in an environment with increased concentrations of positive
and negative ions, replicating the protocol employed by Hagiwara et al. (2021).

Fig.1 Position of ion exposure

Fig.2 Laboratory Layout

2. Methods
Participants and Procedures
Participants were ten male members of a collegiate esports team. Participants were informed of the purpose of thestudy and completed an informed consent form prior to participation. Approval was obtained from the Institutional
Review Board of the research institution. The effects of the ions environment were evaluated in a randomized,
crossover, placebo-controlled, double-blind study. Each participant participated in two experiments, four weeks apart;two experimental conditions were provided: a positive and a negative ionic environment (PNI) and control conditions(CON) with the same wind speed and without ionization. In the PNI condition, a Plasmacluster ® TM ionizer (Sharp
Corporation) was used, and positive and negative ions (approximately 250,000 ions/cm3) were irradiated; under the
CON condition, wind from the ionizer without ions was adapted at the same wind speed (wind speed: 0.43 m/sec)(Fig. 1, 2). In addition, positive and negative ions were generated by applying positive and negative high voltages toeach discharge brush electrode of the ionizer to break up molecules in the air (Nishikawa & Nojima, 2001). The detailsof the experimental procedure are as follows (Fig.3).

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The Effects of Positive and Negative Ions on esports Performance
Hagiwara, G., Funamori, H., Takami, S., Okano, H., Okajima, H., Akiyama, D.

Fig.3 Flow diagram of the study designFirst, participants were required to wear an electroencephalograph (EEG) for two minutes to conduct a baseline
assessment of their arousal level. Then, participants completed a questionnaire to assess their arousal level before
playing a racing game. Participants completed three trials as practice trials prior to the experiment in the tent. In
addition, three trials were conducted as the final trial. For the performance task, participants played MARIOKART
Deluxe 8. In the race mode, the setting was time attack, with three laps of the same course. The vehicle class was set
to 150 cc, and participants selected a driver character. EEG was measured upon completing the task, and arousal level
was measured. After the task, participants completed the questionnaire again.
Arousal level was assessed by questionnaire and EEG. The two-dimensional mood scale (TDMS) (Sakairi et al., 2013)
was used to assess arousal; the TDMS consists of eight items and four factors: activity, stability, comfort, and arousal.
For EEG, we employed a simple band electroencephalograph (Neurosky Corporation, Tokyo) that measures only thefrontal pole 1 lobe (Fp1) as defined by the International 10-20 System, and EEG obtained from Fp1 has been foundto be suitable for obtaining psychological state data (Mitsukura, 2016), Fp1 was used to estimate arousal level. The
estimation method is the same as in previous studies (Hagiwara et al., 2021). The TDMS scores before and after
completing the task and EEG during the task were averaged. A t-test was used to examine the difference between the
PNI and CON conditions on the TDMS and EEG. For the task performance, the 3 trials prior between the PNI andCON conditions were averaged. A t-test was also performed to examine the difference between the two conditions.
The IBM SPSS Statistics 25.0 software was used for the analysis, and p value was set at 0.05.

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The Effects of Positive and Negative Ions on esports Performance
Hagiwara, G., Funamori, H., Takami, S., Okano, H., Okajima, H., Akiyama, D.
3. Results
3.1. TDMS
For TDMS, there was a significant tendency (p > 0.1) between the PNI condition (M = 8.1, SD = 4.3) and the CON
condition (M = 6.6, SD = 3.2) (Fig.4).

Fig.4 Arousal level by TDMS

3.2. EEG
The PNI condition (M=31.0, SD=7.3) had a significantly higher (p<0.05) change in beta band power ratio indicating
arousal than the CON condition (M=10.5, SD=8.2)（Fig.5）.

Fig.5 β-band power ratio

3.3. Racing performance
Race performance indicated that the PNI condition (M = -4.9, SD = 3.1) tended to have significantly faster timechanges than the CON condition (M = -3.1, SD = 2.3) (p < 0.1) (Fig.6).

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The Effects of Positive and Negative Ions on esports Performance
Hagiwara, G., Funamori, H., Takami, S., Okano, H., Okajima, H., Akiyama, D.

Fig.6 Racing performance
4. Discussion
The purpose of this study was to investigate the psychophysiological effects of arousal in racing game -type esports
under positive and negative ionic conditions. In addition, the study was conducted in a similar experiment conductedby Hagiwara et al (2021) with an even higher ion concentration. In the present study, arousal tended to be higher in
the PNI condition than in the CON condition, even in TDMS. EEG also showed that the PNI condition was higher
than the CON condition in arousal. Furthermore, performance was also better in the PNI condition. how esports
performance improves is of interest to researchers and esports players, and our study found that altering theenvironment with positive and negative ions can increase brain activation as well as impr oving esports performance.
Furthermore, the results were even more interesting in that the effects were observed with higher ion concentrations
than in the previous experiment.
Previous study examined whether the use of higher concentrations of ions differed from lower concentrations in termsof cognitive performance and physiological measurements (Wallner et al., 2015). The results showed that, although
there was no difference in lung function and well-being, the higher concentrations outperformed the lower
concentrations in cognitive performance. Specifically, cognitive performance was assessed by measuring reasoning
ability and perceptual speed. Namely, exposure to higher concentrations of ions was shown to increase the speed ofcognitive processing. In the present study, increased ion concentrations also increased subjective and biologicalarousal, as well as esports performance, suggesting that increased ion concentrations mig ht be more effective.
esports is one of the fastest growing sports in the world today, and how performance could be enhanced is fascinatingfrom many aspects. Interestingly, a recent review article focuses on the application of coaching to what practiceconditions can be provided by coaches to their athletes in order to improve esports performance from a coach's
perspective (Iwatsuki et al., 2021). Over the past five years, a variety of research lines in esports have emerged as
researchers, coaches, and athletes search for ways to improve esports performance as in traditional sports, andenvironmental factors such as the use of positive and negative ions have been used in esports performance. Moreresearch will be conducted on how environmental factors, such as the use of positiv e and negative ions, affect esports
performance.
In summary, the purpose of this study was to reexamine the effects of positive and negative ion environments on gameperformance and arousal levels, which had been indicated in previous studies, and the results of the present study also
demonstrated that the PNI condition resulted in higher race game performance and arousal levels. It is interesting tonote that the results also demonstrated a greater amount of change in subjective arousal of changing ion density.

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The Effects of Positive and Negative Ions on esports Performance
Hagiwara, G., Funamori, H., Takami, S., Okano, H., Okajima, H., Akiyama, D.
However, to further scientifically prove the results of this study, it is also necessary to examine that what has changedin brain function. For example, additional studies of changes in cerebral blood flow in ionic environments would
probably come closer to resolving the question of why game performance is better in ionic environments. Ion researchis skeptical, and further experiments are needed.

5. Conclusions
The study demonstrated that esports performance and subjective and biological arousal levels were higher in the PNI
condition. In addition, higher ionic concentrations were indicated to be more effective. Using the protocol
implemented in a previous study (Hagiwara et al., 2021), similar findings were obtained, and given that esports
performance was enhanced by increasing ion concentrations, it can be argued that positive and negative ion
environments are important for the esports training environment. However, to further scientifically confirm the resultsof this study, it is necessary to examine what changes in brain function were observed. For example, further study ofchanges in cerebral blood flow in ionic environments would likely help answer the quest ion of why game performance
improves in ionic environments. Ion studies are skeptical and further experimentation is needed.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, G.H.; methodology, G.H., H.F., M.M., S.T., H.O., and D.A.; software, G.H.; validation, G.H., and
M.M.; formal analysis, G.H.; investigation, G.H., H.F, M.M., S.T., H.O. and D.A.; writing—original draft preparation,
G.H.; project administration, G.H.; funding acquisition, H.F., M.M., S.T., H.O.; All authors have read and agreed tothe published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This research was funded by Sharp Corporation.
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted according to the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Boardof the National Institute of Fitness and Sports in Kanoya (No.5-1, 22 April 2020).
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement
Not applicable
Conflicts of Interest
This study was funded by Sharp Corporation. M.M., H.F. Y.K., S.T. , and H.O. are employees of Sharp Corporation.
References
Charry, J.M., & Hawkinshire, F.B. (1981). Effects of atmospheric electricity on some substrates of disordered social
behavior. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 41(1), 185-197.
Flory, R., Ametepe, J., & Bowers, B. (2010). A randomized, placebo-controlled trial of bright light and high-density
negative air ions for treatment of seasonal affective disorder. Psychiatry Research, 177(1-2), 101108. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.psychres.2008.08.011
Giannini, A. J., Jones, B. T., & Loiselle, R. H. (1986). Reversibility of serotonin irritation syndrome with atmosphericanions. The Journal of Clinical Psychiatry, 47(3), 141-143.
Goel, N., & Etwaroo, G. R. (2006). Bright light, negative air ions and auditory stimuli produce rapid mood changes
in a student population: A placebo-controlled study. Psychological Medicine, 36(9), 1253–1263.
Hagiwara, G., Iwatsuki, T., Funamori, H., Matsumoto, M., Kubo, Y., Takami, S., Okano, H., & Akiyama, D. (2021).
Effect of positive and negative ions in esports performance and arousal levels. Journal of Digital Life, 1, 2.
Himmelstein, D., Liu, Y., & Shapiro, J. L. (2017). An exploration of mental skills among competitive league of legend
players. International Journal of Gaming and Computer-Mediated Simulations, 9(2), 1-21.
http://doi.org/10.4018/IJGCMS.2017040101

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Hagiwara, G., Funamori, H., Takami, S., Okano, H., Okajima, H., Akiyama, D.
Iwatsuki, T., Hagiwara, G., & Dugan, M. (2021). Effectively optimizing esports performance through movement
scienceprinciples. International
Journalof Sport
Science&
Coaching. https://doi.org/10.1177/17479541211016927
Jiang, S. Y., Ma, A., & Ramachandran, S. (2018). Negative air ions and their effects on human health and air quality
improvement. International Journal of Molecular Sciences, 19(10), 2966. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms19102966
Lips, R., Salawu, H. T., Kember, P., & Probert, S. D. (1987). Intermittent exposures to enhanced air-ion concentrations
for improved comfort and increased productivity? Applied Energy, 28(2), 83-94.
Malik, M., Singh, K., Singh, M. (2010). Effect of negative air ions on physiological and perceived psychologicalstress during computer operation. International Journal of Environment and Health, 4(1), 67-77.
https://doi.org/10.1504/IJEnvH.2010.033035
Mitsukura, Y. (2016). KANSEI Analyzing by EEG. The journal of the Institute of Electrical Engineers of Japan, 136,
687-690.
Nishikawa, K. (2013). Air purification technology of positively and negatively charged cluster ions by plasma
discharge at atmospheric pressure. Japanese Journal of Applied Physics, 89, 164-168.
Perez, V., Alexander, D. D., & Bailey, W. H. (2013). Air ions and mood outcomes: A review and meta -analysis. BMC
Psychiatry, 13, 29. https://doi.org/10.1186/1471-244X-13-29
Sakairi, Y., Nakatsuka, K., & Shimizu, T. (2013). Development of the Two Dimensional Mood Scale for self monitoring and self-regulation of momentary mood states. The Japanese Psychological Research, 55(4), 338349. https://doi.org/10.1111/jpr.12021
Terasawa, M. (2002). Effects of a negative ion environment on the organism. Chemistry and Education, 50(12), 840843.
Terman, M. & Terman, J.S. (2006). Controlled trial of naturalistic dawn simulation and negative air ionization forseasonal affective disorder. The American Journal of Psychiatry, 163(12), 2126-2133.
Wallner, T., Krundi, M., Panny, M., Tappler, P., & Hutter, HP. (2015). Exposure to air ions in indoor environments:
Experimental study with healthy adults. International journal of environmental research and public health, 12(11),14301-14311.
Yamamoto, D., Wako, Y., Kumabe, S., Wako, K., Sato, Y., Fujishiro, M., Yasuda, Y., Matsuura, I., & Ohnishi, Y. (2015).
Positive and negative ions by air purifier have no effects on reproductive function or postnatal growth anddevelopment in rats. Fundamental Toxicological Sciences, 2(3), 101-110. https://doi.org/10.2131/fts.2.101

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Journal of Digital Life 2024,4, S4Special Issue: Digital Technology in Sports and Physical Activity
ArticlePractical research on the use of digital pens in highschool rugby club activities
Katsuro Kitamura 1*, Yuichiro Matsuura 2 and Toru Nakajima 3
1

College of Science and Technology, Graduate School of Sport Science, Nihon University, 7-24-1 Narashinodai, Funabashi, Chiba
274-8501, Japan2
Suwa Minami Plant, Seiko Epson Corporation, 1010 Fujimi, Fujimi-machi, Suwa-gun, Nagano 399-0295, Japan
3
ICT CONNECT 21, a general incorporated association, 2-19-8 Akasaka, Minato-ku, Tokyo 105-0052, Japan

Abstract
Tactics play a crucial role in sports; however, coaching presents various challenges. This study examined theimpact of utilizing practice notes created with a digital pen capable of simultaneously recording and playing
back both audio and texts/drawings on tactical understanding. The participants were high school rugby teammembers and coaches. The results of a four-month practical investigation revealed that the learning
experiences of tactical understanding in high school rugby teams manifested through f our categories:
awareness of the difficulty of tactical understanding, exploration of experiential facts, contemplation, andintegration into practice. It is speculated that the utilization of the digital pen not only encouraged a deeper
understanding of tactics through the formation of a meta-perspective but also led to learning strategies aimed
at activating knowledge.
Keywords: Practice Notes with Voice and Drawing; Tactics Learning; Reflection.

1. Introduction
Understanding and practicing tactics play crucial roles in sports coaching (Uchiyama, 2007). Notably, tactics in ballgames are considered among the most influential factors in determining athletic performance (Aida, 1994). However,teaching tactics in actual coaching situations presents several challenges. For instance, difficulties arise when applying
and practicing a tactic in different situations over time, even if a player successfully practices the tactic on the field
during instruction (Kitamura et al., 2014). Bruer and others have pointed out the challenge of teaching problemsolving strategies when students could solve a problem immediately after instruction but struggled to apply it
spontaneously later, suggesting that knowledge might not be effectively activated (Bruer, 199 3/1997).
Solutions to these issues involve repeated instruction and creating learning situations that connect students’ problem solving scenarios (Bruer, 1993/1997). Despite the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science, and Technology's(MEXT,2015) emphasis on applying learned knowledge in thinking, judgment, and expression in courses of study,
practical situations often present limitations in information availability. Due to space and time constraints, coaches’
instructions on tactics tend to be one-sided and temporary, possibly failing to achieve sufficient understanding(Ichimura et al., 2009).
In response to the aforementioned challenges in teaching tactics, researchers have emphasized the importance offostering understanding through repetitive learning and utilizing players’ own practical experiences as learningmaterials (Matsuo and Maruno, 2007; Uesaka, 2010; Kikukawa and Saiki, 2013; among others). One strategy forsupporting learning through repetition is the integration of information and communication technology (ICT)
equipment. Numerous studies have highlighted the effectiveness of learning using ICT equipment. Murakami (2020)
reported that incorporating ICT into basic nursing education was effective in enhancing learning motivation.
Received: 8 December 2023, Revised: 21 January 2024, Accepted: 1 March 2024, Published: 26 April 2024
* Correspondence: kitamura.katsurou@nihon-u.ac.jp
Publisher’s Note: JOURNAL OF DIGITAL LIFE. stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC. Submitted for possible open access publication under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1Practical research on the use of digital pens in high school rugby club activities
Kitamura,K., Matsuura,Y., Nakajima,T.
Nakamura et al. (2019) found that the use of ICT in science education can be effective in developing qualitative
abilities. In the field of sports, Nakajima et al. (2022) suggested that ICT c ould be an effective teaching tool for skill
improvement. Shigeta (2014) reported that ICT-enhanced classes, such as those employing flipped learning, were
expected to have positive educational effects. Kitamura et al. (2013, 2014) discovered that the use of digital pens inlearning, particularly among high school and university students, plays a crucial role in facilitating reflection andunderstanding.
Despite the series of studies conducted, there remains a noticeable gap in the research concerning the effects of ICT
device utilization on learners’ learning processes, including how these devices influence the way learners acquire
knowledge. Moreover, there is a lack of sufficient practical research grounded in theoretical frameworks on theapplication of ICT devices in real sports practice scenarios and their potential to enhance players’ learning experiences.
Specifically, comprehending instructional content solely during practice is challenging, emphasizing the importanceof the repetitive learning of tactics outside practice situations within the context of problem -solving scenarios. This isessential for achieving a profound understanding of instantaneous decision-making during gameplay. Consequently,
there is an urgent need for research that establishes the connection between understanding and practice.
The primary objective of this study was to elucidate the impact of using a digital pen for tactical instruction on players ’understanding of tactics. Specifically, this study utilized a digital pen equipped with a built -in IC recorder capable ofsynchronously capturing voices and handwriting (Echo Smartpen). During the post-practice review, the coachemployed a digital pen to explain the tactics, and the players subsequently reviewed the instructions before the next
day’s practice. This study aimed to discern how tactical instruction delivered through digital means, in conjunction
with on-field guidance, influences players’ comprehension of tactics and shapes their overall learning experience s.
Given the study’s focus on analyzing internal factors within the coaches and players, particularly the nuances of theirexperiences related to tactical understanding, a qualitative research method was deemed appropriate (Kitamura et al.,2005) and adopted as the methodology for this investigation.
2. Methods
2.1. ParticipantsThis study involved 45 participants from a public high school rugby club, comprising 39 players, 4 managers, and 2coaches.
2.2. Procedure
Figure 1 shows an overview of tactical learning using digital pens. After practicing on the ground, the coaches createa notebook with audio, text, and drawings using digital pens to explain the issues during practice and points for the
next practice session. The notes are shared via Dropbox, and the players watch the notes at home or school before thenext practice session using a smartphone or PC. This cycle of tactical learning through practice and reflection isrepeated. Figure 2 shows a tactical practice note created using a digital pen.

Ground（Practice scene）
e-mailHome/School（Outside ofPractice Time）

Dropbox

PDF
Digital Pen

PC, Smart Phone

Audio Notebook

smartpFigure 1. Overall view of tactical learning with digital pens・ Digital pen developed by Livesclibe, a Gakken Education Publishing company
・ Capable of synchronously recording text and voice・ Capable of managing text and voice data on a PC

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Practical research on the use of digital pens in high school rugby club activities
Kitamura,K., Matsuura,Y., Nakajima,T.

After practice, take notes on the issues and points
for the next day's practice.

Voice recording of explanations with additions
to important parts(text, diagrams, pictures, symbols)

Convert to PDF and save to shared folder

All players will view and confirm before thenext day's practice.
Figure 2.

Composition of tactical practice note created using digital pen

The survey was conducted over a four-month period, from October 20XX to January 20XX. Prior to the survey, thefunctions and uses of the digital pen used in the study were explained. All participants were then asked to use the pen
freely for two weeks to ensure that they were familiar with its use.
2.3. Data collection: Use of digital pens
After a practice session, the two coaches made notes using a digital pen. They wrote explanations in a notebook while
speaking aloud and recorded their voices. The notes were saved as PDF files and stored in a Dopbox folder shared by
the members of a rugby club. All club members looked at the PDF notes before the next day’s practice session,
reviewed them, and confirmed the key points in their tactics. Figure 3 shows an example of an actual tactical practicenote recorded using a digital pen with synchronized voice and handwriting.

The audio is recorded in the green line, and when you clickon the green area on the PDF, the audio that was spoken at
the time of recording is played back. The voice can be
replayed repeatedly.

<Voice>The passer moves to create space. If there is adefense, an attacker, and support on this side, the passer
runs along this course, turns the body of the defender
toward this side, and passes here. If, on the other hand, thedefender is positioned like this, he starts here, positions
himself like this, and passes here. In any case, it is very
important to create space, here for this side, here for thatside, and so on. And then, the ball is thrown into that space.
Figure 3.

Example of a tactical practice note with digital pen

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Practical research on the use of digital pens in high school rugby club activities
Kitamura,K., Matsuura,Y., Nakajima,T.

2.4. Data collection: Interview survey
Data were collected every month through semi-structured, in-depth, open-ended interviews using stimulated recallwith the coaches and all team members based on the contents of their notebooks and audio recordings. We conductedsemi-structured interviews. The interviews were conducted retrospectively, focusing on the coaches’ intentions,thoughts, feelings, and perceptions regarding what was described in their notes. Interviews with players and managers
were conducted before, during, and after the practice sessions, focusing on their experiences with the digital pen.
2.5. Data analysis
The voice data obtained from the interviews were converted into text, and hierarchical categorization was conductedbased on the qualitative data analysis methods of Côté et al. (1993) and Patton (2002), with multiple researchers
involved in the analysis process.
2.6. Credibility and certainty
The quality of the study was evaluated according to authenticity (reality of the data) and certainty (reliability of thedata and procedures).
First, to concretely describe the details of the participants’ experiences, a survey was conducted on their practicesituations and interviews were conducted concerning their digital pen descriptions. Second, interviews wereconducted in a semi-structured manner to standardize the questions posed to various particip ants and ensure thereliability of data collection. Third, the analysis was based on written notes and audio recordings, treating thecontent of the participants’ narrative descriptions as the focus of the analysis, thereby ensuring data reliability.
Fourth, the data analysis process was shared between several experts, and the analysis was conducted throughmultiple discussions to ensure reliability.
3. Results and Discussion
An analysis of 165 meaning units (semantic content elements) revealed that the learning experience associated withthe use of digital pens for tactical instruction in rugby could be categorized into four themes: representation ofdisincentives, exploration of experiential facts, thinking through ideas, and incorporation into practice. The following
provides a detailed description of each category.

Table 1. Hierarchical Category and Key Utterance Lists
Category

Subcategory

speech example

Representationof disincentives-Difficult to understand in practical situations-I cannot remember-Chain of Unknowing

It is so difficult that I only
understand about half of what isgoing on in that scene.

Exploration ofexperiential
facts-Multifaceted information from text, drawings, and sound-Repeatable listening-Use of temporal and spatial convenience-Cues to deeper and broader explanations

You can confirm points that are
not clear after hearing them onceby listening to them repeatedly.

Think throughthe ideas-What went wrong?
-Just what I wanted to ask-Looking for the point-What was the point?

Listen to what the teacher
emphasized and look back to see
what mistakes you made.

Incorporation
into practice-Understanding of the meaning of their own movements-Awareness of relationship with other players-Relation to acquired skills

See yourself from the outsideduring practice and visualize what
you need to do next

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Kitamura,K., Matsuura,Y., Nakajima,T.

3.1. Representation of Disincentive
This category comprises subcategories such as “difficult to understand in practice situations,” “I cannot remember,”and “chain of unknowns.” The participants shared their experiences of confusion during practice sessions regarding
the tactics explained by the coach, including challenges such as not understanding them immediately, difficulty
comprehending them, struggling to remember them even after practice, and persistently not grasping them. As they
verbalized these difficulties in understanding tactics during practice, they gained awareness of various factors
hindering comprehension — factors that they had vaguely sensed.
One player elucidated a problem in tactical practice: “During practice on the ground, the teacher explained to me
what was happening.” (Player T)
Player A highlighted the challenges faced during tactical practice: “The teacher explains it to us on the field during
practice, but it is so difficult that I can only understand about half of what he says. ”
Player J described an experience that was challenging to understand even upon recall: “During practice, I just kindof get through it by imitating everyone else. When I go home and try to remember and understand, I often forgetthings, and what I hear and see during practice is limited, so I often don't understand. ”
One player highlighted the challenge of entering the next practice session without a full grasp of the tactics,
resulting in insufficient practical application. “Tactics are difficult. Even in practice, I think I understand when I am
told, but when I actually play, I don't understand. I would go back to practice the next day without really
understanding what was going on. In fact, I often couldn't use the same move s in games.” (Player F)
The following three categories illustrate how digital pens offer solutions to these issues.
3.2. Exploration of Experiential Facts
This category comprises subcategories such as “multifaceted information from text, drawings, and sound,”“repeatable listening,” “use of temporal and spatial convenience,” and “cues to deeper and broader explanations.”
These subcategories were established to capture awareness of the search for facts about the experience occurring
during the practice sessions while maximizing the functional convenience found in using a digital pen.
One player, highlighting the advantages of multifaceted information, remarked, “The practice notes written with adigital pen are easy to understand because you get a variety of information through text, pictures, and voice. ”(Player B)
Another player emphasized the benefit of repeatedly listening to the video for confirmation: “I can't understand apoint after hearing it once. I can listen to the notes repeatedly to check points that I couldn't understand just bylistening to them once.” (Player H)
In addition to the convenience of the digital pen, the players expressed appreciation for the coaches’ detailed
explanations about the device. They valued the coaches’ ability to delve deeper into the points covered during
practice sessions and craft instructional content for problematic situations. One player articulated this sentiment:“The teacher's explanations were very helpful. His insights into mistakes made during practice, including
discussions on their causes, potential outcomes, and countermeasures, enhanced our understanding of the situations
in depth.” (Player A)
In this manner, players actively seek clues about the facts of their actions, including information about thesurrounding situations, which is fundamental to tactical understanding. Digital pens have demonstrated functionality
in supporting the exploration of experiential facts from multiple perspectives.
3.3 Thinking through the Ideas
This category consists of subcategories such as “What went wrong?,” “just what I want to ask,” “looking for the
point,” and “what was the point?” This signifies the experience of seeking answers to various questions that arise as
preconditions for understanding, such as the “how” and “why” questions. This process occurs while watchingpractice notes, reflecting on one’s own experiences, comparing them with the coach’s insights, and relieving them.

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Practical research on the use of digital pens in high school rugby club activities
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One player articulated the experience of new questions arising as he explored the causes of his mistakes: “I listenedto what the teacher emphasized. As I listen to what the coaches emphasized and look back to check my mistakes, I
contemplate why those mistakes happened, and then I ponder possible solutions. ” (Player D)
One player highlighted a situation in which new questions arise, expressing, “While I listen to the teacher's
explanations, I have new questions, such as why and how I should move. I am now more aware of the issues thatneed to be addressed in the next practice session.” (Player U)
In this manner, we observed a shift in the players’ tactical understanding. It moves beyond comprehending thecontent of an explanation to adopting a learning method that includes strategies for deeper understanding. This
involves reflecting on their own movements and thoughts as well as generating new qu estions for further
exploration during the next practice session.
3.4. Incorporation into PracticeThis category consists of subcategories such as “understanding the meaning of their own movements,” “awarenessof relationships with other players,” and “relation to acquired skills.” It aims to illustrate how the use of digital pensenables players to objectively grasp their movements and thoughts. This, in turn, materialize their awareness,allowing them to connect their understanding of tactics to practice from a meta -viewpoint that provides a bird’s-eyeview of the entire ground, including other players.
One player described the awareness of having a bird’s-eye view of their own movements on the ground: “When I am
contemplating tactics while watching the practice notes, I become more conscious of observing myself on the
ground from an external perspective during the next practice. This heightened awareness extends to the movementsof other players, enabling us to form an image of what we should do next.” (Player W)
One player highlighted how understanding tactics from a meta-perspective has enhanced his comprehension of thepractice itself, prompting him to set goals for the next sessions. “Since I started using the digital pen, I can better
understand the very meaning of the exercises in our tactical training. I can discern why the practice is necessary,
what I can achieve through it, and how it contributes to the game. Consequently, I am able to set my own goals forthe next practice session.” (Player Y)
In this manner, the use of a digital pen creates a meta-viewpoint for perceiving tactics, facilitating deeper
understanding, peripheral thinking, awareness of the meaning of practice, and goal setting. This underscores theimportance of incorporating this understanding into practical applications.
4. General Discussion
This study aimed to clarify how the use of digital pens for tactical instruction in a high school rugby team affects
players’ understanding of tactics. These efforts extend beyond merely investigating the effects of using ICT devices
in sports to improve practice efficiency. This study explored the educational value of ICT devices by examining
their influence on the quality of learning itself, including changes in the way learners learn and alterations in theirperspectives on learning.
Figure 4 shows the relationship among the four categories: representation of disincentives, exploring experiential
facts, thinking through the ideas, and incorporation into practice, derived from the analysis of participants ’ learning
experiences, as a model for understanding tactics using a digital pen. The digital pen-enhanced learning space isrepresented by a circle within which the four categories are positioned in a circular fashion. Each of the four
categories is located in four quadrants formed by two axes: the event/reflection and diffusion/convergence axes. The
learning of tactics was placed at the center of these cycles.
The difficulty in understanding tactics, initially focused on the practice situation, becomes more diffuse d throughthe use of a digital pen. This allows the viewpoint to be directed towards one’s own movements and cognition,
leading to the development of thinking in a more diffused manner. The perspective of taking a meta-view of thesituation forms an intention to perceive tactics from multiple perspectives and understand the situation from various
angles. This is thought to activate knowledge, enabling participants to relate their learned k nowledge more
concretely to their practice.

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Practical research on the use of digital pens in high school rugby club activities
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Regarding the cycle of learning, a coach felt that the strategy of tactical understanding using a digital pen was
effective, and stated, "Coaching with a digital pen is becoming a very effective tool for our team, which has a large
time constraint." In particular, he highly appreciated the fact that he could focus on issues found during practice,organize problems about what was happening, and explain the causes and countermeasures from a bird’s -eye viewusing drawings. He said, "If we can develop detailed instruction of skills with drawings and audio, tacticalunderstanding will become deeper."

Focus on the Event

Exploration ofExperiential Facts

Representation ofDisincentives

Convergent
Thinking

Learning Experience
Using Digital Pens

Tactics
Learning

Incorporation
into PracticeDiffuseThinking
Think throughthe Ideas

Focus on Introspection

Figure 4．Circular model of tactics learning using digital pens

In addition to facilitating the understanding of individual players, the exchange of opinions among players regarding
the content of their understanding stimulates communication, allows them to reconcile their understanding, andfacilitates the development of practice in line with the coaches’ intentions. This can be confirmed as a significant
result of the tactical understanding using a digital pen.
5. Conclusion
Through the use of notebooks created using a digital pen that can simultaneously save and play back audio, text, anddrawings, it became clear that the learning experience of tactical understanding in high school rugby clubs isindicated by four categories: representation of disincentives, exploration of experiential facts, think through theideas, and incorporation into practice. The use of digital pens creates a meta-viewpoint from which to perceive
tactical practice, enabling a bird's-eye view of the movements of all members, including oneself. This facilitates a
deeper and more developed understanding of tactics, clear goal setting for the next practice session, and,
consequently, an improvement in the quality of practice. Moreover, there was a shift in players’ learning strategies
towards activating knowledge.
For future research, it is necessary to verify how this method can be applied to sports other than rugby. Further
studies are required to determine how the method can be applied not only to the study of tactics but also to thebroader study of sports.

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Author Contributions
Conceptualization, K.K.; methodology, K.K.M. and T.N.; validation, K.K., Y.M. and T.N.; qualitative data analysis,
K.K. and Y.M.; investigation, K.K. and Y.M.; resources, T.N.; writing —original draft preparation, K.K.; writing—review and editing, K.K.; visualization, Y.M.; supervision, T.N.; project administration, K.K.N.; funding
acquisition, T.N
Funding
This study was funded by Gakken Holdings, Inc. Commissioned Research: Investigation and Study of the Impact ofUsing a Digital Pen with an Integrated IC Recorder on Learners’ Everyday Learning.
This research was supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number JP20K02438.

Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted according to the Declaration of Helsinki.
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
This study builds on and enhances the authors’ 2014 presentation at the 65 th Conference of the Japan Society ofPhysical Education and Sports.

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Practical research on the use of digital pens in high school rugby club activities
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Appendix

Example drawing and audio of tactical practice notes recorded with a digital pen．

<Voice>For example, what should we do if it were a scrum here? What
options are there, and in what order should they be chosen? If it is alineout here, where should it be released and what should it do? The
first thing to consider is the natural environment. Especially the wind.
Next is the relationship between time and score. This is an obvious
factor to consider. Then there is the flow of the game on that day. If you
are making mistakes, and they are continuing, what do you choose to
do? Then there is the position of the opponent's key players. For
example, if you have a fullback who is a very good attacker, and you
just kick a long kick into the fullback's defensive area, that justprovokes a counter. This will only provoke a counter. This is a very bad
choice. So what should you do? So, let's assume where the key players
are, especially when we consider the attacking and countering abilityof the back-three.

<Voice>Now, if I cut out a certain part of that sink defense of yours,for example, it very often looks like this. The surface has alreadycollapsed, and the situation is like this. The attack against it, forexample, is dangerous here. If this person doesn't get out, space iscreated here, and he runs into this space, he is forced to change thedirection of his body like this. As soon as he changes direction, a passis released, and there is nothing the defense can do about it. So it isvery important to be here. So, it is very important to be here, to pushout like this, and to keep this side of the field unbroken. So the burden
is on the person on the inside. However, he is a shadow defenseman,so the number of tackles itself should not be that many.

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Journal of Digital Life 2024,4, S5

Special Issue: Digital Technology in Sports and Physical Activity
ArticleTransferability of Multiple Object Tracking Skill
Training to Professional Baseball Players’ Hitting
Performance
Ryousuke Furukado 1・ 5*, Yoshiko Saito 2・5 , Toru Ichikawa 3, Kei Morikawa 3, Daiki Enokida 3,
Hirohisa Isogai 4・ 5
1Faculty of Engineering, Integrated System Engineering, Nishinippon Institute of Technology, 1-11, Aratsu, Miyako-gun, Fukuoka
800-0394, Japan.
2
Kyusyu Institute of Technology, Graduate School of life Science and Systems Engineering, 2 -4 Hibikino, Wakamatsu-ku,
Kitakyushu-shi, Fukuoka, 808-0196, Japan.
3
SEIBU LIONS, INC., 2134 Kamiyamaguchi, Tokorozawa, Saitama, 359-2135, Japan.
4
Faculty of Human Science, Department of Sport Science and Health, Kyushu Sangyo University , 2-3-1 Matsukadai, Higasgi-ku,
Fukuoka-shi, Fukuoka 813-8503, Japan.
5
General Incorporated Association Behavior Assessment Systems Laboratory, 1 -28-23 Shiobaru Minami-ku Fukuoka-shi Fukuoka
815-0032, Japan.
*Correspondence: furukado@nishitech.ac.jp; Tel.: +81-930-23-1491

Abstract
This study aimed to determine the effects of multiple object tracking (MOT) skill training on elite baseballplayers. Baseball demands athletes to exhibit a high level of dynamic movement and quick and accuratesituational judgment in multiple situations, including offense, defense, and base running. However, current
research has not clarified whether the effects of MOT skills training are transferable to baseball performance.
We investigated whether MOT skill training influenced baseball hitting performanc e before and after theintervention. Twelve players from a Japanese professional baseball team participated, and the intervention
spanned approximately five months. The MOT skills of all players significantly improved (n=12).
Additionally, we assessed the changes in hitting performance following MOT skill training. The results
revealed a significant trend toward an improvement in the zone contact rate, zone swing strike rate, andoutside swing strike rate in the breaking ball condition, such as the curveball and slider, indicating a large
effect size (n=6). Further research across various competition levels is necessary to explore the transfer
effects of MOT training on baseball-specific parameters.
Keywords: Multiple object tracking (MOT); Baseball performance; Task transfer; Cognitive function; Eliteathletes.

1. Introduction
Tracking multiple objects moving in the visual field is called multiple object tracking (MOT). Pylyshyn and Storm(1988) have reported a continuous and dynamic visual attention mechanism using MOT tasks. In the MOT paradigm,
a set of visually indistinguishable objects (typically 6-10) is presented on a screen (2D or 3D) with designated target
objects to be tracked (usually 3-5). The participants tracked these designated objects for a defined period and identified
the tracked objects once they stopped moving. Two methods are commonly used: the mark-all method, in which all
the specified tracked objects are identified, and the probe-one method, in which one selected object is identified as a
tracked object. The difficulty of the MOT task can be adjusted by varying the number of tracked and disturbed objects
Received: 4 December 2023, Revised: 4 February 2024, Accepted: 5 March 2024, Published: date: 26 April 2024
* Correspondence: furukado@nishitech.ac.jp
Publisher’s Note: JOURNAL OF DIGITAL LIFE. stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL Inc. Submitted for possible open access publication under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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The Relationship Between Perceptual-Cognitive Skills and Baseball Hitting Performance
Furukado et al.
and the speed of object movement. In the psychophysical field, ongoing research includes attentional process models,
as reviewed by Meyerhoff, Papenmeier, and Huff (2017), pertaining to tracking theory during MOT implementation .
For instance, in team sports, elite athletes require not only physical prowess but also essential visual skills (sports
vision) and perceptual-cognitive skills, such as anticipation and decision-making. Notably, perceptual-cognitive skills
are trainable, and it is assumed that honing skills specific to the sports domain enhances situational judgment, thereby
improving overall performance. Faubert and Sidebottom (2012) have developed a 3D -MOT-specific perceptualcognitive skills training paradigm called Neurotracker (CogniSens Athletics Inc., henceforth NT) and use it to train
the perceptual-cognitive skills of athletes in open-skill disciplines. MOT is necessary in open-skill disciplines and isimportant in advanced visual processing in situations in which multiple objects are in motion, according to theirresearch. Mahncke et al. (2006) have suggested that MOT can be trained in neuroscience research. Therefore, because
the MOT paradigm can be viewed as the ability to achieve a desired behavior, MOT is treate d as a skill in this study.
MOT skill training has been effective in enhancing cognitive function by stimulating multiple brain pathways involved
in decision-making (Goodale & Milner, 1992). Parsons et al. (2014) have further demonstrated that the NT is
implicated in sustaining attention, working memory, and visual information processing speed, among other cognitive
functions. Garland and Barry (1990) have asserted that perceptual-cognitive skills are pivotal for enhancing theperformance of sports competitors in complex and dynamic environments. Therefore, the enhancement of perceptualcognitive skills through MOT skills training may contribute to improvements in sport -specific performance.
A study examining the effects of MOT skills training has found a 1.4-fold improvement in visual tracking speed
among college baseball players following a three-week training program consisting of 12 NT training sessions(Furukado, Akiyama, Sakuma, Shinriki, Hagiwara, & Isogai, 2019). Thus, while previous studies have described thefeasibility of MOT skills training, few have demonstrated that MOT skills improvement is a significant factor insuperior performance (Faubert & Sidebottom, 2012).
In recent years, a small number of studies have explored how the transfer effect (transferability) of MOT skill training
influences sport-specific performance. For example, Mangine et al. (2014) have investigated the relationship between
MOT skills and stats in 12 professional basketball players, using data from one season . Results show that MOT skills
were closely related to basketball performance, with significantly strong positive correlations between turnover andassist-to-turnover ratios.
However, in baseball, the subject of this study, it is not clear whether the effects of MOT skill training are transferable
to performance. In baseball hitting situations, batters begin preparing to hit the ball even before the pitcher releases
it. Within approximately 150 milliseconds after the ball is thrown, they must identify the pitch type and course, predict
the trajectory of the ball, and decide whether to hit or not hit the ball by moving the bat to that position (Adair, 1995).
Because MOT skills can reflect attentional resource capacity (Tullo, Faubert, & Bertone, 2018), mastering them could
aid batters in efficiently processing the temporal and spatial aspects of the hitting situation. This study thus examines
the relationship between MOT skills and baseball hitting performance.
Faubert and Sidebottom (2012) have noted that it is challenging to ascertain the degree of improvement in ability after
sustained long-term MOT skills training and have reported no ceiling effect, even after 40 sessions in the MOT task.
Therefore, this study aimed to determine the effect of MOT skill traini ng over a five-month intervention on baseballhitting-specific statistics among players in the Japanese professional baseball team.
2. Methods
2.1. Test Participants
Thirteen participants were members of the Eastern League, a Japanese professional baseball team. One participant
withdrew from the experiment, resulting in 12 participants. The participants had no previous MOT skills training, had
static visual acuity of at least 1.0 including correction, and met the experimental entry requ irements for normal color
vision and visual function (age: 22.25 ± 2.74, height: 177.92 ± 5.71, bodyweight: 80.50 ± 7. 59, mean value ± Standard
Deviation). Three participants were pitchers; one was an infielder; four were outfielders, and four were catche rs.
2.2. Procedures
MOT skill measurements were administered to 12 participants before the intervention. Next, MOT skill training was
conducted for the duration of the five-month intervention period, but the frequency of NT training was not controlled
by the players. Finally, as with the pre- and post-training measurements of MOT skills, the pre- and post-training data

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were compared. The CORE mode included in the NT application was used for MOT skill measurements, and theaverage of the three session scores was used, following a previous study’s method (Parsons et al., 2014) .
2.3. Intervention method
1) Training Task (NT): Participants wore active 3D glasses in a room and sat in front of a monitor. An immersive
cube was displayed on the monitor and eight yellow spheres (objects) were randomly placed inside the cube (Figure1a). First, four of the eight objects were randomly selected. The four selected objects were highlighted with a whitering for a period of two seconds (Figure 1b). Subsequently, all objects reverted to yellow, became indistinguishable
from other objects, and moved randomly within the cube for eight seconds, repeatedly colliding with the walls andother objects (Figure 1c). Immediately after the objects came to rest, they were randomly assigned a number from one
to eight, and the participants responded by identifying the numbers of the four objects they were assigned to track andtyping them into the wireless keyboard (Figure 1d). The four correct objects were then provided feedback with anemphasized white ring and shown to the participant (Figure 1e). This sequence of events constitute d one trial for a
total of 20 trials (i.e., one session). Each trial was conducted using the staircase method (Levitt, 1971). The speed ofobject movement increased if the participant correctly selected all four objects in the previous trial and decreased if
the participant selected any one of the four objects incorrectly. The movement of the object increased in 0.05 log
increments for the correct answer and decreased in the same manner for the incorrect answer. The staircase method
was interrupted after eight reversals and the average velocity of the last four reversals was used to calculate the final
speed threshold. Several types of NT training modes are based on the CORE -mode described above.
During the training period, the participants were not limited to the CORE mode; they also incorporated the
OVERLOAD mode. The OVERLOAD mode is characterized by the object movement speed being fixed to its current
NT baseline score (the average of the last three CORE mode results). The DUAL task mode, in which another task is
performed simultaneously while performing the NT, was also utilized, including standing, one -legged standing,squatting, and BOSU-ball tasks.

Figure 1. Detailed protocol for NT tasks.
2) Training conditions: One session of NT took approximately eight minutes, and the participants were limited to a
maximum of three sessions per day during the intervention period. The basic training mode of NT was the CORE
mode; however, the OVERLOAD and DUAL task modes were also used according to the training progress of eachathlete. There were seven NT times (1. after waking up, 2. before departure, 3. before practice, 4. during practice, 5.
after practice, 6. after returning home, and 7. before going to bed), and the participants were asked to enter theappropriate time after the session. In addition, sufficient rest time was provided between sessions .
3) Hitting performance before and after training: After discussions with the coaches of the teams, we determined theindicators used in the analysis of baseball hit performance. Hitting statistics were collected during the Eastern League
season, specifically four months prior to the start of NT training and five months after the start of NT training.
Statistical data were classified into two categories based on the pitch conditions of the opposing pitcher: the straightpitch (fastball and sinker) and the breaking pitch (curveball and slider). The following four indices (percentages) wereused to determine hit performance.
a)Zone contact: The percentage of batted balls (including foul balls) that occurred when the batter swung. The
number of contacts was calculated by subtracting the number of swinging strikes from the total number of swings.
b) Zone-swing strike: The percentage of all pitches thrown in the strike zone that resulted in strikes when the batterswung at them.
c) Outside swing: The percentage of batters who swung at pitches thrown outside the strike zone. This was calculatedby dividing the number of pitches in the ball zone by the number of swings in the ball zone. Note that this indicatordoes not imply swinging away.

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d) Outside-swing strike: The percentage of cases in which a batter swung at a pitch thrown outside the strike zone(outside the strike zone). This was calculated by dividing the number of pitches in the ball zone by the number ofswinging strikes in the ball zone.
Note that owing to various conditions, such as player transfers within the team, injuries, and the number of NT sessions
completed being less than 25, six participants had valid data available for the hitting performance analysis. The
positions of the six batters used in the analysis were two catchers, one infielder, and three outfielders. In addition, allwere right-handed throwers, two were right-handed hitters, and four were left-handed hitters. The six players wereclassified according to their hitting distance characteristics: two were short -distance types, three were mediumdistance types, and one was long-distance type. The mean and standard deviation of the Slugging average of the six
batters over the season was 0.351 ± 0.095 (Slugging average is the average of the total bases per at bat). The lowest
and highest Slugging Average by Eastern League team in 2022 were 0.358 and 0.379, respectively.
2.4. Analysis
To examine the effect of MOT skill training and its transfer effect on hitting performance, we conducted paired t -tests
on NT speed thresholds (n = 12) and hitting performance (n = 6) before and after the intervention. IBM SPSS Statistics
software (version 28.0) was used for all statistical analyses. The significance level was set at <10% for a significant
trend. Furthermore, the effect size of the Cohen’s d index (d) was calculated using unbiased variance to estimate thepopulation value.
3. Results

Figure 2. Changes in MOT skills before and after NT training.
3.1. Details on MOT skills training effectiveness and training session content
The NT scores showed a significant increase in performance (t (11) = -5.95, p < .001, d = -1.72) after training (M =2.19, SD = 0.35) compared with before training (M = 1.69, SD = 0.41) (Figure 2).
The geometric mean thresholds for the 12 participants as a function of NT training sessions are expressed on alogarithmic scale (Figure 3). Note that as the number of completed NT sessions increased, the number of participants
who completed the trials decreased; therefore, there was some variation in the data. The data were plotted using asimple logarithmic regression, and the R2 value was 0.43, indicating a moderate fit. Rapid progress in MOT skills isobserved from the start of training to around 15 sessions, after which time the improvement in skills slows down.
However, it can be concluded that a ceiling effect is still not seen even after the number of completed sessions exceeds
80.

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Figure 3. Geometric means of professional baseball players in relation to NT training sessions .
The details of the number of NT training sessions completed by the 12 participants, by training mode, and timing oftraining are summarized in Table 1. The average number of completed sessions was 44.67 (±25.26); in terms ofmode differences, the CORE mode accounted for 88.97 % of all sessions, while the OVERLOAD mode accounted
for 11.03 % of all sessions. The most common timing for NT training was after practice, accounting for 74.77 % of
all sessions.
Table 1. Timing, frequency, and mode of NT training.

ID

NT MODETime of NT training

CORE(DUAL)OVERLOAD(DUAL)

Total
Sessions

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

N/A

1

63(12)

8(4)

87

0

0

0

0

87

0

0

0

2

17(0)

1(0)

18

0

2

1

8

6

0

0

1

3

57(2)

8(2)

69

3

7

2

6

10

12

28

1

4

16(0)

1(0)

17

0

0

0

2

14

0

0

1

5

26(0)

2(0)

28

0

0

0

0

28

0

0

0

6

25(0)

1(0)

26

0

0

6

1

14

0

0

5

7

15(0)

1(0)

16

0

0

0

2

14

0

0

0

8

28(0)

2(0)

30

8

4

0

0

1

3

5

9

9

71(2)

7(2)

82

1

0

3

4

72

0

0

2

10

55(2)

7(2)

66

0

0

1

4

61

0

0

0

11

33(0)

3(0)

36

0

0

0

3

33

0

0

0

12

50(2)

6(2)

60

0

0

0

0

60

0

0

0

Note: The number of NT training sessions completed by each of the 12 participants and the number of sessions
completed in each mode are listed. The numbers in parentheses represent the number of DUAL task mode sessions

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The Relationship Between Perceptual-Cognitive Skills and Baseball Hitting Performance
Furukado et al.
conducted. The average number of sessions completed by participants was 44.67 (±25.26 ). The mode of the NT task
was CORE mode, which accounted for 88.97% of the total, and OVERLOAD mode, which accounted for 11.03% of
the total. The most common time for NT training was after practice, accounting for 74.77% of the total. The timingof NT training is (1. after waking up, 2. before departure, 3. before practice, 4. during practice, 5. after practice, 6.
after returning home, 7. before going to bed, N/A. Not Applicable).
3.2. Effects of MOT skills training on hitting performance transitions
Effective data were obtained from six participants for whom hitting performance data were available before andafter the start of NT training (Table 2). The mean and standard deviation of the number of plate appearance before
and after NT training were pre-intervention, M = 82.17 ± 27.05 and post-intervention, M = 129.33 ± 9.60. The
results showed no change in hit performance before and after NT training for the fastball -type pitches. However,there was a significant improvement trend in zone contact(t (5) = -2.28, p < .10, d = -0.93), zone-swing strike(t (5) =2.48, p < .10, d = 1.01), and outside-swing strike(t (5) = 2.17, p < .10, d = 0.88) statuses after NT training for
curveballs and other changeable pitches; the outside swing did not improve( t (5) = 0.85, p = 0.434, d = 0.35). The
effect size of factors with significant differences was interpreted as large.
Table 2. Changes in hitting stats before and after NT training.

Rate
(%)

Fastball
types

Other
breakingball types

PreIntervention

PostIntervention

95% CI

Cohen’s

M

(SD)

M

(SD)

t (5)

p

LL

UL

d

Zone
Contacta

0.863(0.067)0.836(0.053)

0.97

.378

-0.05

0.10

0.39

ZoneSwing
Strikeb

0.073(0.052)0.077(0.029)

-0.25

.810

-0.05

0.04

-0.10

OutsideSwing c0.294

(0.112)0.277(0.027)

0.40

.703

-0.09

0.13

0.17

OutsideSwing
Striked

0.074(0.070)0.070(0.024)

0.18

.861

-0.05

0.06

0.08

Zone
Contacta

0.635(0.086)0.711(0.047)

-2.28

<.10

-0.16

0.01

-0.93

ZoneSwing
Strikeb

0.170(0.056)0.127(0.033)

2.48

<.10

0.00

0.09

1.01

OutsideSwing c0.376

(0.118)0.340(0.049)

0.85

.434

-0.07

0.15

0.35

OutsideSwing
Striked

0.196(0.068)0.144(0.037)

2.17

<.10

-0.01

0.11

0.88

Note: N = 6: M = mean, SD =standard deviation, Cl = confidence interval; LL = lower limit; UL = upper limit.
Fastball types include the Four-Seam Fastball and the Sinker etc. Other breaking ball types are breaking ball types
include the Curveball and Slider etc. aThe percentage of batted balls (including foul balls) that occurred when abatter swung. bPercentage of all pitches thrown in the strike zone that resulted in strikes when the batter swung atthem. cThe percentage of cases in which batters swung at pitches thrown outside the strike zone. Note that thisCopyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL Inc.

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The Relationship Between Perceptual-Cognitive Skills and Baseball Hitting Performance
Furukado et al.
indicator does not mean swinging away. dThe percentage of cases in which a batter swings at a pitch thrown outside
the strike zone (outside the strike zone).
4. Discussion
4.1. Effect of MOT skills training
Twelve participants who continued 3D-MOT training with NT tasks demonstrated a significant improvement intheir MOT skills (M = 128%). Faubert and Sidebottom (2012) have found that highly skilled athletes exhibited
higher average MOT skills than low-skilled athletes. However, they emphasize that MOT skills can be enhanced forathletes at all skill levels. Supporting this notion, Korobeynikova, Grushko, and Kasatkin (2015) have revealed that
MOT skills are superior in soccer players at higher competition levels, in the order of professionals, amateurs, andnovices. Furukado et al. (2019) have reported that 19 college baseball players’ MOT skills improved after five
weeks of training with NT tasks. These findings suggest that training MOT skills with NT tasks is effective forprofessional baseball players competing at a high level.
It is noteworthy that the average threshold of NT scores on a logarithmic scale with respect to MOT skill growth
showed no ceiling effect, even after 80 sessions. Similar to the findings of Faubert and Sidebottom (2012), thisstudy demonstrated a rapid increase in speed thresholds from the first 15 sessions to approximately 30 sessions,followed by gradual improvement in scores. Furukado et al. (2019) have reported mean NT scores (standard
deviations) for amateur-level baseball players before (M = 1.35, SD = 0.37) and after the intervention (M = 1.92, SD= 0.51). Expressly, not only in soccer (Korobeynikova et al., 2015) but also in baseball, a correlation between higher
competition levels and enhanced MOT skills was observed. Thus, it is significant that the MOT skill training
intervention study on professional baseball players with a high level of athleticism illustrates a trend in MOT skill
data over a five-month period.
As for the breakdown of NT training modes performed by the participants, the basic CORE mode accounted fornearly 90% of the training, and the remaining sessions involved the OVERLOAD mode. According to interviews
conducted with the players by team coaches, some players reported the necessity of diversifying their MOT skills
training beyond the CORE mode, as they tended to become disinterested in NT tasks when confined to a single
mode. Therefore, more accurate MOT skill data can be collected by preplanning a training program with NT tasks
within the team to eliminate variations in the mode in which NT tasks are performe d.
In addition, to prevent overloading, it is crucial that modes that require substantial processing resources in the brain,such as DUAL tasks, are not implemented during the early stages of MOT skill training. These modes should be
adjusted to the optimal difficulty level for the players. For athletes exhibiting considerable variation in NT scores,
physiological indices measured during NT tasks can be employed for daily conditioning. For instance, Parsons et al.
(2014) have discovered that 10 sessions of 3D-MOT task training induced quantitative changes in the restingneuroelectrical brain function. Similarly, emotion estimation systems based on EEG data analysis have emerged inrecent years. If it becomes possible to quantify the degree of attention and conc entration during NT training andprovide feedback to players, it may contribute to enhancing their motivation for MOT skill training .
4.2. Transferability of MOT skills to hitting performance
Although the correlation between MOT skills and basketball performance indicators has been reported by both sides(Mangine et al., 2014; Phillips & Andre, 2023) and remains open for consideration, the potential for MOT skills tobe transferred to sports performance discussions should be pursued. This is evidenced by Romeas et al. (2016), whostate that training soccer players in MOT skills significantly improved passing and on -field decision-making
accuracies before and after the intervention. The potential for transferring MOT skills training to baseballperformance should also be examined (Furukado et al., 2019). To clarify this, we examined the transfer effect of
MOT skill training on hitting performance. The results are intriguing in that no transfer eff ect of MOT skill training
was found in the fastball condition but was found in the breaking ball condition .
Generally, the time for a pitch to reach the catcher’s mitt is approximately 0.4 –0.5 seconds for fastballs and 0.5–0.6
seconds for breaking pitches. When the pitcher begins the pitching motion, the batter initiates the preliminary
actions related to the swinging motion by employing a strategy that minimizes the time required for the hitting
action. Additionally, it takes about 0.15 seconds from the start of the swing to the impact on the ball; thus, the swing
must commence approximately 0.3 seconds after the pitch is thrown to make impact in time. Furthermore, it takes
approximately 0.15 seconds to incorporate the information on the pitch type into the swinging motion, resulting in abrief time window to judge the pitch type (approximately 0.15 seconds).

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The Relationship Between Perceptual-Cognitive Skills and Baseball Hitting Performance
Furukado et al.

Kato and Fukuda (2002) have reported that, during the pitch release phase, the visual search strategy captures thepitcher’s entire body from the release point by placing the visual pivot around the pitcher’s elbow, utilizing aperipheral vision system skilled at grasping fast-moving objects rather than central vision. Expressly, the batter uses
this peripheral vision system to distinguish between pitches. The NT task was designed to place the visual pivot on asmall dot fixed at the center of the monitor and track the movement of multiple objects through information
processing by the peripheral vision system. If the input of visual information to the brain can be efficiently
processed, more energy can be allocated to higher brain and auditory functions. Thu s, the observed transfer effectmay be attributed to the commonality between baseball hitting performance and information processing by the
peripheral vision system, which is necessary for 3D-MOT tasks. Specifically, it can be concluded that information
processing by the peripheral vision system was transferred to a decrease in the zone -swing strike rate, improvementin the zone contact rate, and decrease in the outside-swing strike rate, all of which are related to the judgment ofpitch type. If a quantitative evaluation of the peripheral vision system becomes possible in sports vision research,
we can investigate its correlation with NT task scores to gain further insights into the transfer effect of MOT skill
training on performance. Further study is needed from here, but since fastballs take less time to reach the catcher's
mitt than change balls, the body does not respond in time during the time reflection in the batting action to theimpact phase, and this may be attributed to swing skill. It is also possible that hitters finally became accustomed tothe ball trajectory of the breaking ball in the second half of the season, unlike the straight pitches they have beenaccustomed to since the first half of the season, and improved their ability to respond.
Limitations of this study include the inability to collect and evaluate data on MOT skills, including those of thecontrol group. The participants who performed the NT training in this study usually practiced jointly or individually
within their teams, and it is premature to conclude that the transfer effect to hitting performance was purely a resultof NT training. In addition, it is necessary to proceed with the study by constructing an elaborate experimental
design, such as isolating the batting motion into phases and determining the phase of the hitting motion to which the
MOT skill training effect transfers. Future research should also investigate the transfer effect on other statisticalmeasures, such as defense and base running, to understand the effects of MOT skills on baseball performance.
5. Conclusions
This study demonstrated the transfer effects of perceptual-cognitive skills training in a laboratory setting, outside ofa sports context, on hitting performance in baseball. In addition, the 3D-MOT training, which processed complex anddynamic visual scenes and proved effective for professional baseball players, led to improvements in the zone contact
rate, zone-swing strike rate, and outside-swing outside rate. Information processing by the peripheral vision system
required during the MOT task was also common during hitting, and it was assumed that this was the reason for thetransfer effect on hitting performance. However, it should be noted that the insufficient sample size, including thecontrol group, was an obvious limitation of this study, and further data accumulation is required.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, R.F.; methodology, R.F., H.I., Y.S.; software, H.I., Y.S.; validation, R.F.; formal analysis, R.F.;
investigation, T.I., K.M., D.E.; resources, R.F., T.I., K.M., D.E.; data curation, R.F.; writing—original draft
preparation, R.F.; writing—review and editing, R.F., H.I., Y.S.; visualization, R.F.; supervision, H.I.; project
administration, H.I., T.I.; funding acquisition, H.I., Y.S.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of
the manuscript.
Funding
This study was funded by SEIBU LIONS, INC., Japan.
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.
References
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Faubert, J., & Sidebottom, L. (2012). Perceptual-cognitive training of athletes. Journal of Clinical Sport Psychology,
6(1), 85-102. https://doi.org/10.1123/jcsp.6.1.85

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The Relationship Between Perceptual-Cognitive Skills and Baseball Hitting Performance
Furukado et al.

Furukado, R., Akiyama, D., Sakuma, T., Shinriki, R., Hagiwara, G., & Isogai, H. (2019). Training Effect of Multiple
Object Tracking Skills: An Investigation on Visual Search Strategies. The Japanese Journal of Ergonomics, 55(2),33-39. https://doi.org/10.5100/jje.55.33
Garland, D. J., & Barry, J. R. (1990). Sport expertise: The cognitive advantage. Perceptual and Motor Skills,
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Goodale, M. A., & Milner, A. D. (1992). Separate visual pathways for perception and action. Trends in neurosciences,15(1), 20-25. https://doi.org/10.1016/0166-2236(92)90344-8
Kato, T., & Fukuda, T. (2002). Visual Search Strategies of baseball batters during the preparatory phase ofbatting. The Japanese Journal of Ergonomics, 38(6), 333-340. https://doi.org/10.5100/jje.38.333
Korobeynikova, E.Y., Grushko, A.I., & Kasatkin, V. (2015, May). Multiple target tracking in football:visual attention at different levels of football experience. The 8th World Congress on Science and Football,Denmark. https://doi.org/10.13140/RG.2.1.3623.0562
Levitt, H. C. C. H. (1971). Transformed up‐down methods in psychoacoustics. The Journal of the
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Mahncke, H. W., Connor, B. B., Appelman, J., Ahsanuddin, O. N., Hardy, J. L., Wood, R. A., ... & Merz
enich, M. M. (2006). Memory enhancement in healthy older adults using a brain plasticity -based training
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Mangine, G. T., Hoffman, J. R., Wells, A. J., Gonzalez, A. M., Rogowski, J. P., Townsend, J. R., ... &Stout, J. R. (2014). Visual tracking speed is related to basketball-specific measures of performance in NBA
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Meyerhoff, H. S., Papenmeier, F., & Huff, M. (2017). Studying visual attention using the multiple object
tracking paradigm: A tutorial review. Attention, Perception, & Psychophysics, 79, 1255-1274. https://doi.org/
10.3758/s13414-017-1338-1
Parsons, B., Magill, T., Boucher, A., Zhang, M., Zogbo, K., Bérubé, S., ... & Faubert, J. (201 4).
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Phillips, J., & Andre, T. (2023). Visual tracking speed threshold in NCAA Division I women’s soccer
predicting match performance: A preliminary study. Scientific Journal of Sport and Performance, 2(1),94-104. https://doi.org/10.55860/REVS9403
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Romeas, T., Guldner, A., & Faubert, J. (2016). 3D-Multiple Object Tracking training task improves passing
decision-making accuracy in soccer players. Psychology of Sport and Exercise, 22, 1-9. https://doi.org/10.10
16/j.psychsport.2015.06.002
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https://doi.org/10.1016/j.intell.2018.06.001

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Journal of Digital Life 2024,4, S6

Special Issue: Digital Technology in Sports and Physical Activity
ArticleDevelopment of Video Switching System
in Sport Fields
Yoshimasa Umehara1*, Wenyuan Jiang2, Yoshito Nishita 3, Yuhei Yamamoto4,
Takeshi Naruo5, Shigenori Tanaka6, Akira Yokomichi7, Norio Fujimoto7,
Toshihiro Akagi7 and Shingo Hakamata7
1

Faculty of Business Administration, Setsunan University, 17-8 Ikeda-nakamachi, Neyagawa-shi, Osaka 572-8508, Japan
Faculty of Engineering, Osaka Sangyo University, 3-1-1 Nakagaito, Daito-shi, Osaka 574-8530, Japan
3
Academic Foundations Programs, Kanazawa Institute of Technology, 7-1 Ohgigaoka, Nonoichi-shi, Ishikawa 921-8501, Japan
4
Faculty of Environmental and Urban Engineering, Kansai University, 3-3-35 Yamate-cho, Suita-shi, Osaka 564-8680, Japan
5
Organization for Research and Development of Innovative Science and Technology, Kansai University, 3-3-35 Yamate-cho,Suita-shi, Osaka 564-8680, Japan
6
Faculty of Informatics, Kansai University, 2-1-1 Ryozenji-cho, Takatsuki-shi, Osaka 569-1095, Japan
7
People Software Corporation, 1-15-3, Achi, Kurashiki-shi, Okayama 710-0055, Japan
2

Abstract
In Japan, the Sport Basic Plan was formulated in 2012, which mentions not only the development of highly
qualified sports instructors but also new perspectives such as the provision of programs in which everyone
can enjoy the value of sports together. Against this background, trials of new technologies utilizing the latest
ICT equipment such as sensor devices are being made. However, in college sports, where financial resources
are often limited, shooting with hand-held video cameras is the most common method, which may cause themanager to overlook important scenes of play depending on his or her skill level. This problem affects not
only competitors but also spectators. To solve this problem, we develop a system for capturing video imagesof the entire field with multiple fixed video cameras so that the system can automatically switch from one toanother video of the most appropriate camera for the respective scenes of play. The results of thedemonstration experiments in basketball and futsal showed that the switching video of the proposed
technology can be utilized for tactical analysis in sports.
Keywords: Sports; Multiple cameras; Player tracking; Video switching; Time-series difference.

1. Introduction
In Japan, the Sport Basic Plan (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, 2023a) was
formulated in 2012, which outlines the key principles of sport promotion for the 10-year period and the policies to betaken over five years. This plan aims at sound development of youth, creation of economic vitality, and improvementin the international status through the promotion of sports. In addition, the third phase of the plan was formulated in
2022, which mentions not only the development of highly qualified sports instructors but also new perspectives suchas the provision of programs that allow everyone to enjoy the value of sports together (Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology, 2023b).
Against this background, trials of new technologies have been made to aim at improving the level of competition as
well as entertaining property of sports by utilizing ICT equipment such as sensor devices and video cameras (Tanaka
et al., 2020; Haraguchi et al., 2011). However, in college sports, of which financial resources are often limited,
capturing videos using a video camera is the most common method. Specifically, a team manager holds a video camera
in his or her hand, follows the players and shoot them while adjusting the angle of view at the same time. After
Received: 15 January 2024, Revised: 20 February 2024, Accepted: 14 March 2024, Published: 8 May 2024
* Correspondence: yoshimasa.umehara@setsunan.ac.jp
Publisher’s Note: JOURNAL OF DIGITAL LIFE. stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC. Submitted for possible open access publication under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

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Development of Video Switching System in Sport Fields
Yoshimasa Umehara, Wenyuan Jiang, Yoshihito Nishida, Yuhei Yamamoto,Takeshi Naruo, Shigenori Tanaka, Akira Yokomichi
practices or games, the head coach and coaches check the video and analyze players' performance. However, when agame develops rapidly, the manager may be unable to adjust the angle of view in time and miss the ball or players.
The manager may even be overlooking important scenes of play depending on the skill level. This problem is not
limited only to the teams competing but also affects the spectators similarly. In order to capture important scenes ofplay in a game, it is necessary to keep holding the camera in position throughout the game and follow the play. This
imposes a burden on the cameraman, who can't enjoy the game.
In this study, we develop a system that captures videos of the entire field with multiple fixed video cameras andautomatically switches from one to another video of the appropriate camera according to the respective playing scene(hereinafter referred to as "switching"). By developing this system, the cameraman does not have to hold a video
camera in his or her hand and follow the playing scene but can always capture the video provided by the system thatalways switches to the most appropriate camera. This will allow the team managers and spectators to always capture
the video of the game that captures the playing scene without fail, contributing to the advancement of play analysis
for sports teams and the improvement in the entertainment value of the captured video for spectators.
2. Devising Video Switching Algorithms
In this study, we devise a technology that allows automatic switching to the video of the appropriate camera without
the need for manual shooting. In specific, fixed multiple video cameras are installed to capture video of a game thatcovers the entire field. Then, a video is generated by automatically switching the camera to be used based on theposition of the ball in the angle of view, the number of people on the court, and the position of the players (hereinafterreferred to as "switching video").
The processing flow of the proposed system is shown in Fig. 1. This system consists of a function for constructingball and person detection models and a function for generating switching video.
• Images of balls• Images of people• Annotation• Multiple time-synchronized video images• Court area of each video image

Function for Constructing Ball andPerson Detection Models

Function for Generating Switching Video

Process of constructing
detection model

Process of Calculating Ball Position
Process of Calculating Number of Persons

Construction

Process of Calculating Player Distribution

Ball Detection Model

Reference

Frame Selection Process

Person detection model

Legend: Function

Process

Smoothing Switching Process
Data

Switching video

Fig. 1. Process flow

2.1. Function for Constructing Ball and Person Detection Models
This function is used to create a set of images in which a ball or a person is captured, as well as the coordinate valuesof a rectangular region on the image (hereinafter referred to as "annotation"). These are then learned by YOLOv4(Bochkovskiy et al., 2021), an object detection and recognition algorithm, to construct a ball detection model and aperson detection model.
2.2. Function for Generating Switching VideoFirstly, this function is used to detect the ball and players from the same frame of the video captured by multiple timesynchronized video cameras. Second, it is used to calculate the positions of the ball and persons and the number ofpeople, then compare them to select the frame in which the play is taking place at the nearest point to the center of
the angle of view. Then, the appropriate camera number is chosen from the selected frame. Finally, each frame iscombined to generate a switching video.

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Development of Video Switching System in Sport Fields
Yoshimasa Umehara, Wenyuan Jiang, Yoshihito Nishida, Yuhei Yamamoto,Takeshi Naruo, Shigenori Tanaka, Akira Yokomichi
2.3. Process of Calculating Ball Position
This process calculates the distance between the ball and the center of the X coordinate of the angle of view in eachframe. First, the ball is detected from the frame using the ball detection model constructed by function for constructing
the ball and person detection models. Second, as shown in Fig. 2, the distance between the center of the X-coordinateof the detection frame of the detected ball and the center of the X-coordinate of the angle of view is calculated fromthe number of pixels. Finally, by repeating this for the number of cameras, the distance between the ball and the centerof the angle of view in each frame is extracted.

Fig. 2. Process of calculating ball position for basketball

2.4. Process of Calculating Number of Persons
This process calculates the number of persons in the court in each frame. First, the area of the court in each video
image is manually input. Second, all persons in the image frames are detected using the person detection model. Then,concerning all the persons detected, the bottom of the center of the detection frame of each detected person isconsidered positional information of the person. Finally, only those persons who are located within the input area ofthe court are calculated. This is repeated for the number of cameras to obtain the number of persons in each frame.
2.5. Process of Calculating Player Distribution
In this process, distribution of players is obtained by calculating the average of the distances from the position of theplayers within the angle of view to the center of the angle of view. First, just as the process of calculating the ballposition, the distance between the person within each frame in the angle of view and the center of X coordinate of theangle of view is calculated. Then, this calculation is repeated for the number of players, and the average is calculated
to obtain the average distance from all of the players in the angle of view to the center of angle of view. This makes
it possible to select the frame in which players are concentrated at the center of the angle of view in case that there
are multiple frames with the same number of players.
2.6. Frame Selection ProcessThis is a process of comparing the outputs from the functions of calculating ball position, the number of persons, andplayer distribution, then selecting and combining the frame images captured by the appropriate camera to create theswitching video. Selection is made in the following order of priority:
1.
2.
3.

The camera with the ball being closest to the center,
The camera with the largest number of players in the angle of view,
The camera with player distribution being closest to the center.

2.7. Smoothing Switching Process
In the frame selection process, the switching video is created by comparing the ball, player positions, and number ofplayers for each frame. Therefore, it is considered that the wrong selection of frames due to wrong detection or failureof detection results in inappropriate camera numbers being scattered throughout the frame, causing the video to flicker

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Development of Video Switching System in Sport Fields
Yoshimasa Umehara, Wenyuan Jiang, Yoshihito Nishida, Yuhei Yamamoto,Takeshi Naruo, Shigenori Tanaka, Akira Yokomichi
as one video switches to another at high speed. In order to suppress this flickering phenomenon, switching is smoothedby decision by majority at a regular frame interval (hereafter referred to as "smoothing interval") in this process.
2.8. Trials in Basketball
In this experiment, we verify the switching accuracy of the proposed method by comparing the switching video
generated by the proposed method and the existing method. Additionally, we interview the instructors of Kansai
University Women's Basketball Club to evaluate the usefulness of the system from the instructor's point of view.
2.8.1 Experiment Outline
In this experiment, first, a switching video is manually created to serve as correct-answer data using video taken witha video camera from the position shown in Fig. 3 for approximately 2 minutes from the beginning of the game between
the two halves of a team. For a video camera, A SONY / FDR-AX40 capable of shooting at 4K quality at 60 fps wasused. Second, the proposed method and the existing method (Iguchi et al., 2002) are applied to the video of the same
game above to generate switching video. Finally, the correct-answer data is compared with the switching videos
created with the proposed and the existing methods respectively to evaluate the precision, recall, and F-measure.

Camera 1

Camera 4
Camera 3

Camera 2

Fig. 3. Position of installing video cameras for basketball

2.8.2 Experimental Results and Discussion
The evaluation results of the proposed and existing methods shown in Table 1, and examples of switching video
selection shown in Fig. 4. Table 1 shows that from the existing method, precision is 0.41, recall is 0.45, and F-measureis 0.43, indicating that it is difficult to select appropriate frames. On the other hand, from the proposed method,precision is 0.72, recall is 0.71, and F-measure is 0.71, indicating that appropriate frames can be adopted comparedwith the existing method. Although the precision was 0.72 and there were some cases that switching failed in someframes, it was found that the smoothing approach allowed the flickering phenomenon to be lowered to just one time.
The visualization results shown in Fig. 4 also indicate that this method allowed appropriate selection of a camera.
In order to confirm the usefulness of the switching video generated by the proposed method, we interviewed the headcoach and manager of the women's team of Kansai University Basketball Club. As a result, they answered that the
proposed method is useful for tactical analysis because it enables them to grasp the positions of players involved inpass plays.
Table 1. Evaluation results of proposed and existing methods
methods

Switching

Manually

Evaluation (Average of 4 cameras)

Flickering
phenomenon

Precision

RecallF-measure

20

0

―

―

―

Existing

387

203

0.41

0.45

0.43

Proposed

25

1

0.72

0.71

0.71

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Development of Video Switching System in Sport Fields
Yoshimasa Umehara, Wenyuan Jiang, Yoshihito Nishida, Yuhei Yamamoto,Takeshi Naruo, Shigenori Tanaka, Akira Yokomichi

Fig. 4. Example of switching video selection for basketball

Based on the above results, the switching video of the proposed method is considered useful in the field of sports
owing to its applicability to tactical analysis as well as highly entertaining property.
3. Proposal of Video Switching System
In this study, we develop a video switching system with the aim of social implementation of the video switchingalgorithm we devised and contribution to the promotion of college sports. The system inputs video from fixed video
cameras shooting at multiple locations, and outputs switching video that switches to the appropriate camera according
to the playing scene through the switching video playback function, the function for narrowing down generation range,
the function for specifying analysis area, and the function of automatically generating switching video. The number
and positions of the video cameras can be freely set.

Fig. 5. UI of video switching system

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Development of Video Switching System in Sport Fields
Yoshimasa Umehara, Wenyuan Jiang, Yoshihito Nishida, Yuhei Yamamoto,Takeshi Naruo, Shigenori Tanaka, Akira Yokomichi
3.1. Switching Video Playback Function
As shown in the red frame in Fig. 5, this function allows playback while switching between the videos input frommultiple video cameras. It allows controlling playback, stopping, fast forwarding, and reversing of the video. The
playback position can be selected arbitrarily using the seek bar. It also allows switching to any video by selecting itfrom the yellow frame in Fig. 5.
3.2. Function for Narrowing Down Generation Range
Video captured by a video camera may include pre- and post-game scenes or video taken while the video camera isbeing prepared for installation. In addition, it is not necessary to analyze all frames of a video, while it is also possible
to generate switching video for only some of the playing scenes. Accordingly, as shown in the green frame in Fig. 5,
this function can be used to narrow down the range of automatic generation of switching video using the seek bar.
3.3. Function for Specifying Analysis Area
Since there are referees, spectators, etc. near the field, there is a risk of their appearance in the captured video, which
may cause failure in appropriate camera selection due to their movements. Therefore, as shown in the orange framein Fig. 5, this function is used to specify the analysis area on the video to achieve analysis targeting only the players
on the field.
3.4. Function of Automatically Generating Switching VideoAs shown in the blue frame in Fig. 5, only by clicking the button, this function can be used to automatically select theappropriate camera and generate the switching video based on the knowledge of the video switching algorithm wehave devised. Emphasizing comfortable operation feel to use as a client system, the following two improvements areadded to the video switching algorithm of this system.
 Improved frame selection process
In the frame selection process, the frame to be switched is selected based on the person or ball detected by deeplearning. However, the processing cost of deep learning is so high that if it is incorporated into client software, it may
cause an enormous amount of waiting time for analysis results, which has a risk of significantly impairing the comfortof the system. Consequently, emphasizing light operation, the camera with the highest number of pixels in the timeseries difference is adopted with priority in the frame selection process.
 Analysis Frequency Setup
With video switching algorithms, analysis is performed for all frames. However, there is a problem that the selected
frame changes continuously for each frame, causing flickering phenomenon. In fact, flickering phenomenon isobserved in a trial experiment in basketball. Therefore, setting the analysis frequency as a parameter, the frame
selection process is performed for each analysis frequency rather than for all frames. This suppresses the flickering
phenomenon. It also contributes to reduction of the analysis time as the number of frames to be analyzed can be
narrowed down.
4. Demonstration Experiment
In this experiment, the usefulness of the system is evaluated by applying the video switching system to the video of a
futsal game and checking the analysis time and switching accuracy.
4.1. Experimental Plan
Two experiments are conducted as follows: "Experiment 1: experiment on the analysis Frequency" and "Experiment
2: experiment on the smoothing interval". Experiment 1 is performed to check the analysis time that varies with theanalysis frequency and clarify the optimal analysis frequency. Experiment 2 is performed to check the switching
accuracy that varies with the smoothing interval and clarify the optimal smoothing interval.
4.2. Experimental Data
In this experiment, an actual futsal game is shot from the camera position shown in Fig. 6. Video cameras to be used
are SONY / FDR-AX40 (4K quality, 30 fps) and JVC / Sports Coaching Cam (Full HD quality, 60 fps). The video of
15 minutes from the kickoff is extracted as experimental data.

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Development of Video Switching System in Sport Fields
Yoshimasa Umehara, Wenyuan Jiang, Yoshihito Nishida, Yuhei Yamamoto,Takeshi Naruo, Shigenori Tanaka, Akira Yokomichi

Full HD
Camera 2

Full HD
Camera 3

Full HD
Camera 1

Full HD
Camera 4

4K Camera 1

4K Camera 4

4K Camera 2

4K Camera 3

Fig. 6. Position of installing video cameras for futsal

4.3. Experiment 1: Experiment on Analysis Frequency
In Experiment 1, this system is applied to the videos shot by two cameras, one with 4K picture quality and the otherwith Full HD picture quality, to check the analysis time depending on the analysis frequency.
4.3.1 Experimental conditions
The higher the analysis frequency is set, the lighter the operation feeling can be. On the contrary, there is a possibility
that the video switching cannot respond to the play transition and the system may continue to select an inappropriate
camera. Thus, in this experiment, the analysis frequency is set to 100 ms, 200 ms, 500 ms, 1,000 ms, 1,500 ms, 2,000
ms, and 3,000 ms. The target analysis time is set to 8 hours, assuming that the user can confirm the results of one
game shot during the daytime in one night.
4.3.2 Experimental results
The results of this experiment shown in Table 2. Table 2 indicates that the analysis time for the 4K camera is 8 times
longer than that for the Full HD camera at 100 ms. However, the processing time for the 4K camera at 100 ms was
longer than the target value despite a 15-minute video, while at 1,000 ms or less, the processing time was less than
one hour, which is the same level as that for the Full HD camera.
Then, based on the results in Table 2, we summarized the analysis time assumed for the whole video of one futsal
game (1 hour and 20 minutes) with a 4K camera in Table 3. Table 3 shows that analysis frequencies of 500 ms or lessare assumed to take longer than the target value. On the other hand, at 1,000 ms, the analysis time is approximately 4
hours and 30 minutes, which is far below the target value.
Table 3. Analysis time assumed
for whole video of futsal game

Table 2. Analysis time for
4K and Full HD camera
Frequency

4K

Full HD

Frequency

4K

100ms

8h38m26s

0h56m24s

100ms

approximately 45 hours

200ms

4h22m38s

0h27m38s

200ms

approximately 23 hours

500ms

1h44m50s

0h10m38s

500ms

approximately 9 hours

1,000ms

0h52m12s

0h05m01s

1,000ms

approximately 4 hours and 30 minutes

1,500ms

0h33m55s

0h03m20s

1,500ms

approximately 3 hours

2,000ms

0h25m18s

0h02m30s

2,000ms

approximately 2 hours and 15 minutes

3,000ms

0h16m36s

0h01m34s

3,000ms

approximately 1 hours and 30 minutes

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Development of Video Switching System in Sport Fields
Yoshimasa Umehara, Wenyuan Jiang, Yoshihito Nishida, Yuhei Yamamoto,Takeshi Naruo, Shigenori Tanaka, Akira Yokomichi
From the above, it is clear that 1,000 ms is the optimum for the analysis interval of this system.
4.4. Experiment 2: Experiment on the Smoothing Interval
In this experiment, the switching accuracy is confirmed by comparing the manually created switching video as thecorrect data with the analysis results of the system. Regarding the switching accuracy, we check the coincidence ratio
between the cases when selection of the adjacent camera is not allowed and when it is allowed. This is because it issometimes difficult to determine the optimal camera between two cameras with partially overlapping video recording
areas even with visual check, and consequently two patterns are evaluated in consideration of these cases.
4.4.1 Experimental conditions
In this experiment, a camera with Full HD picture quality, which is commonly used, is applied to the system. At thistime, the analysis interval is set to 1,000 ms, which was made clear in Experiment 1. Fig. 7 shows the videos fromeach camera applied to the proposed system and the analysis area specified in the system.

Fig. 7. Video images from each camera and its analysis area

In this experiment, the smoothing intervals are set to 0 (no smoothing), 2, 4, 6, 8, and 10. The larger the smoothinginterval is, the more local wrong determination can be decreased; however, it may not be able to deal with rapidtransitions in the players' play.
Coincidence ratio
85.00%
82.50%
80.00%
55.00%
52.50%
50.00%
0

2

4
6
8
10
12
Smoothing interval：Accuracy when adjacent cameras are allowed to be selected.
：Accuracy when adjacent cameras are not allowed to be selected.

Fig. 8. Accuracies with and without allowing selection of adjacent cameras

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Development of Video Switching System in Sport Fields
Yoshimasa Umehara, Wenyuan Jiang, Yoshihito Nishida, Yuhei Yamamoto,Takeshi Naruo, Shigenori Tanaka, Akira Yokomichi
4.4.2 Experimental results
The accuracies with and without allowing the selection of adjacent cameras are shown in Fig. 8. Fig. 8 clearly indicatesthe following items.
 Improved accuracy by way of a smoothing process
In Fig. 8, the coincidence ratio without smoothing is 50.67%. When a smoothing interval is set up, the coincidence
ratio converged at the smoothing interval 4 and increased up to 53.56%. This clearly shows the usefulness of theswitching smoothing process.
 Successful generation of appropriate switching video
In Fig. 8, the accuracy has improved most at the smoothing interval. However, the coincidence ratio is 53.56%, whichmeans that almost half have selected the wrong camera. However, In Fig. 8, the coincidence ratio is 82.56 at thesmoothing interval 4, suggesting that the majority have selected the adjacent camera. The video images also indicatedthat players' play was captured in both cameras of the correct answer and the adjacent one, which we confirmed were
switching video without an uncomfortable feeling.
From the above, it was made clear that the proposed system is capable of generating appropriate switching video.
 Wrong determination due to detection of non-athlete movement
Checking the switching video that had wrong determination except about the adjacent camera, cases of wrong
determination were observed here and there due to the detection of movements other than those of players.
First, a case of detecting the movement of a spectator was observed. As shown in Fig. 9, since this experiment was
conducted by shooting video from behind the spectators' seats, when a spectator stood up and moved, an occlusion
occurred between the court that was the analysis area and the spectator. Since the spectator appeared larger than theplayer in the distance, the camera in front of the spectator was selected instead of the camera that should have been
selected.

Fig. 9. Example of detecting spectator movement (Camera 1)

In some cases, the motions of referees and reserve players were detected. As shown in Fig. 10, the referee and reserve
players were moving around the court, generating occlusions with the court, which were wrongly detected as a players'
movements.

Fig. 10. Example of detecting movement of referees and reserve players (Camera 2)

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Development of Video Switching System in Sport Fields
Yoshimasa Umehara, Wenyuan Jiang, Yoshihito Nishida, Yuhei Yamamoto,Takeshi Naruo, Shigenori Tanaka, Akira Yokomichi
As described above, there was a tendency for switching accuracy to decline due to the movements of those other thanplayers, captured within the court. This problem can be solved by the following measure. First, for the function for
specifying the analysis area of the system, specification with a rectangle was adopted giving priority to ease of manual
specification. However, as shown in the orange frame in Fig. 5, in specifying some area with a rectangle, areas otherthan the court are also contained within the specified area, and the movements of spectators, referees on the sides of
the court, and reserve players become factors that reduce the accuracy. Therefore, as shown in Fig. 11, it is possible
to suppress movements other than those of players from entering the analysis area, by setting up the vertices of thearea arbitrarily rather than using a rectangle and specifying the court area precisely.

Fig. 11. Function for specifying analysis area by specifying vertices

In addition, the pixels of the time-series difference are labeled. Concerning the difference that spread out to the outsideof the court, it is considered the difference caused by those other than players and excluded in the frame selection
process. By doing so, we believe this problem can be addressed.
 Applicability to Other Sports
From the above results, the usefulness of this system was confirmed in basketball and futsal. Since this systemdetermines the camera to be selected based on the time-series difference caused by the movements of the players, it
is considered applicable to outdoor field sports such as soccer as well. On the other hand, its application to sports
where players move simultaneously across the entire court, like volleyball, is considered difficult. However, theapplicability of these must be quantitatively verified in the future.
The above results indicate that the system is capable of creating switching video by calculating the time-series
difference of respective frames from the video images captured by multiple video cameras. It is clear that this enables
creation of the same level of switching video as capturing by manual tracking at a low cost.
5. Conclusions
In this study, we proposed a technology of generating switching video for college sports by automatically selecting
an appropriate camera from among the multiple video cameras installed based on the positions of the ball or players.
Through experiments and interviews, it was found that the switching video of the proposed technology can be utilized
for tactical analysis.
In addition, as a social implementation of the findings of this research and development, we developed a video
switching system, establishing an environment in which anyone can easily capture switching video simply by setting

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Development of Video Switching System in Sport Fields
Yoshimasa Umehara, Wenyuan Jiang, Yoshihito Nishida, Yuhei Yamamoto,Takeshi Naruo, Shigenori Tanaka, Akira Yokomichi
up cameras in the field. In the future, we aim at contributing to the development of the sports field by improving thefunctions of this system and promoting its widespread use. This paper has been translated and revised based on thetechnical description (Umehara et al., 2023) published in the Image Lab.

References
Bochkovskiy, A., Wang, Y. and Liao, M. (2021). YOLOv4: Optimal Speed and Accuracy of Object Detection, arXiv
preprint arXiv:2103.13343.
Haraguchi, T., Taki, T. and Hasegawa, J. (2011). “Development of Automated Tracking System with Active Cameras
for Figure Skating”, IEEJ Transactions on Industry Applications, IEEJ, 131(4), 565-571.
Iguchi, Y., Doi, M., Manabe, Y. and Chihara, K. (2002). “Automatic Multi-Camera Control and Switching for Sports
Game Broadcasting Based on Real-Time Video Analysis”, Journal of the Institute of Image Information andTelevision Engineers, ITE, 56(2), 271-279.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2023a). the Sport Basic Plan,
https://www.mext.go.jp/component/a_menu/sports/detail/__icsFiles/afieldfile/2012/04/02/1319359_3_1.pdf.
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. (2023b). 3rd Sport Basic Plan (outline),
https://www.mext.go.jp/sports/content/000021299_20220316_1.pdf.
Tanaka, C., Yamamoto, Y., Jiang, W., Tanaka, S., Nakamura, K. and Nakajima, S. (2020). “Research for Pass Matchup
Analysis Considering Movement Records in American Football”, Journal of Japan Society for Fuzzy Theory andIntelligent Informatics, SOFT, 32(1), 580-589.
Umehara, Y., Jiang, W., Nishita, Y., Yamamoto, Y., Naruo, T., Tanaka, S. and Yokomichi, A. (2023). “Developmentof Video Switching System for Sports”, Image Laboratory, Japan Industrial Publishing Co., Ltd, 34(8), 23-28.

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Journal of Digital Life 2024,4, S7

Special Issue: Digital Technology in Sports and Physical Activity
ArticleVisualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input
Device for Shooting Motion in Basketball and Its
EffectivenessKatsuro Kitamura 1 and Yuichiro Matsuura 2
1

College of Science and Technology, Graduate School of Sport Science, Nihon University, 7-24-1 Narashinodai, Funabashi, Chiba
274-8501, Japan2
Suwa Minami Plant, Seiko Epson Corporation, 1010 Fujimi, Fujimi-machi, Suwa-gun, Nagano 399-0295, Japan

Abstract
The use of imagery is effective for the acquisition of sports movements. However, the details of recalled
images have not yet been clarified. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to visualize the image of abasketball shooting motion using a humanoid input device. We also aimed to clarify the effects of suchvisualizations on the formation of the players’ movement images and the understanding of their movement
skills. Six elite female athletes belonging to a professional team and six high -school female athletes who hadparticipated in national tournaments were selected as participants, and motion images were created using ahumanoid input device. The results of the analysis indicated that the detailed reproducibility of the motion
images and the relationship between the individual movements and the whole movement differed according
to the proficiency level of the shooting movement. In addition, it was suggested that in the acquisition of theshooting motion, the promotion of metacognitive activities for one's own motion enhances the analytical andindividual sensory understanding of the motion, as well as the formation of an image that relates the whole
motion.
Keywords: Movement Imagery, Reflection, Metacognitive Activities.

1. Introduction
The acquisition of sports movement skills is called “sensory-motor learning,” which involves a cooperative
relationship between the sensory and motor systems and follows a process of mastery from the trial -and-error stage,
through the regulation stage, to the automatic stage (Yamada et al., 2021). Kitamura (2011) highlighted the im portanceof athletes understanding the sequence of movements and expressing it as an overall series of natural movements afterconnecting their understanding with their own senses in the acquisition of sports movements. The key to this isimagery ability. Imagery in sports is defined as the creation or reproduction of experiences generated from memory
information containing quasi-sensory, quasi-perceptual, and quasi-emotional characteristics under the control ofconsciousness (Annett, 1995; Morris et al., 2005). Furthermore, because imagery ability reflects an individual’s ability
to form, maintain, and transform images, such as vividness and ease (Williams and Cumming, 2011), it can be
expected that enhancing an individual’s imagery ability will have a positive effect on learning using imagery. In
addition to movement acquisition, imagery is used in various situations in sports learning, such as tacticalunderstanding, motivation, and psychological conditioning, and its effectiveness has also been studied. Furthermore,
many studies on training using such imagery have been reported, and many have shown that the effectivene ss of such
imagery can be expected to improve when training methods are devised. For example, Cooley et al. (2013) reported
an approach based on the physical, environment, task, timing, learning, emotion, perspective ( PETTLEP) model
Received: 8 December 2023, Revised: 27 February 2024, Accepted: 27 March 2024, Published: 26 April 2024
* Correspondence:kitamura.katsurou@nihon-u.ac.jp
Publisher’s Note: JOURNAL OF DIGITAL LIFE. stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC. Submitted for possible open access publication under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.
(Holmes and Collins, 2001). The PETTLEP model is an imagery training method that takes into account seven factorsthat should be considered when recalling motor imagery. However, insufficient research has been conducted regarding
the effective use of the PETTLEP model (Munroe-Chandler et al., 2012; Dickstein et al., 2004). In addition, images
have both a descriptive aspect (the sensory part of the object) and an explanatory aspect (the interpretation orunderstood meaning of the object) (Miyazaki, 1980). Because images are internal processes, they are difficult tovisualize, and their inner reality is difficult to grasp (McAvinue and Robertson, 2008). Therefore, it has been pointed
out that the discrepancy between the image that athletes have of their own movements and the actual movements is
problematic for them and that the effectiveness of image training is affected by how well or poorly they are do ing(Hasegawa and Hoshino, 2001). Thus, because it is difficult to grasp the details of the movement images t hat players
draw, we believe that the visualization of the images is important in the investigation of training using imagery.
Therefore, in this study, we attempted to visualize the motion images drawn by players by reproducing their motion
images on a computer using a humanoid input device. The purpose was to examine the influence of such image
visualization on players’ understanding and acquisition of movement skills.
Because the purpose of this study was to analyze the details of players’ experiences in recalling images, we judgedthat a qualitative research method was appropriate (Kitamura et al., 2005) and adopted it as the methodology.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
The 12 participants in this study were six high school female basketball players who had participated in a national
tournament and six professional female basketball players who belonged to a professional women ’s basketball team.
The 12 participants were classified according to their level of proficiency: 3 high school students as intermediate
players (participants A,B,C), 3 high school students as advanced players (participants D,E,F), and 6 professional
players as proficient players (participants G to L).
2.2. Procedure
The survey was conducted from October 20XX to January of the following year. Before the survey, the operation of
the humanoid input device used in this study was explained. After that, all participants were asked to use the device
freely. After it was confirmed that all participants were familiar with the operation method, the survey was started.
2.3. Data Collection: QUMARION
A humanoid input device (QUMARION, manufactured by Celsys, Inc.) was used to record motion images. This
humanoid input device operates by manipulating a humanoid model with multiple joints, creating its movements asimages on a computer screen. These images can be rotated 360 degrees to view from any angle. The device is equippedwith 32 sensors distributed throughout the body. When each part moves, the information is captured in real -time by
the PC, allowing users to pose the humanoid image on the PC screen using corresponding 3D animation software.
(Figure 1).
First, the participant was asked to reproduce his or her own free-throw motion while manipulating the humanoid input
device. In creating the motion video, the participant graded the entire free-throw motion by herself and created a
motion video for each point, such as the wrist, head, arm, torso, waist, foot, and entire body. Because the computer
images moved in synchronization with the operation of the human input device, the participnts checked the motion
and made several revisions, confirming that the images were almost the same as their own motion images, and thevideo was completed.
2.4. Data Collection: Interview Survey
Data were collected through interviews using the following two methods. First, in the process of creating movement
images while operating the human input device, interviews were conducted to confirm the kinds of images being usedand how they were expressed for each point, such as the wrist, head, arm, torso, waist, leg, and whole body. Theinterviews were semistructured in-depth, and open-ended. Next, based on the visualized movement images, we asked
the participants what kind of consciousness they had in performing the shooting movement and what kind of body
movements they expressed by changing the movement images from various angles, using the stimulus playback
method (stimulated recall). In-depth open-ended interviews were conducted in a semistructured manner. In addition,a table was created to show the movements of the computer-generated motion image from four angles (front, back,right, and left) at each stage of the movement. The participants were asked to write reflection notes on the visualized
movement images. Based on the notes, in-depth, open-ended interviews were conducted in a semistructured manner

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Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.
using the stimulus playback method (stimulated recall). Semistructured interviews were conducted in -depth using
stimulated recall and open-ended interviews based on the notes. In the notes, the participants were instructed to write
down what they considered to be important points, evaluate the reproducibility of the movements, and identify unclear
images, areas of concern in their own movements, and good areas of their own movements (Figure 2).

op right

atsuroitamura Ph

Figure 1. Humanoid input device QUMARION and created images

Breaking down theshooting motion into
stages on my own

Expressing the imageof movement
through a humanoid
figureThe visuals move insync with themanipulation

Checking at eachpoint such as wrists,
head, arms, torso,
waist, legs, andoverall

Expressing while
confirming the visuals

Figure 2. Scene of creating movement imagery

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Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.
2.5. Data Analysis
The speech data obtained from the interviews were immediately converted into text, and then hierarchicalcategorization was conducted based on the qualitative data analysis method of Côté et al. (1993) and Patton (2002),
with multiple researchers sharing the analysis process.
2.6. Credibility and Certainty
We conducted a study to evaluate the quality of the research based on authenticity (reality of the data) and certainty(whether the data and procedures can be relied upon), as presented below. First, to confirm that the participant’s
motion image was accurately visualized, we asked the participants to speak while focusing on the key points during
the operation of the human input device, which was considered authenticity. Second, to visualize the motion image
more accurately, the investigation was conducted in a gymnasium so that the participants could operate the human
input device while confirming their actual movements. This enables certainty to be considered. Third, the interviews
were conducted in a semistructured manner to ensure the homogeneity of the questions for multiple subjects and toprovide certainty in data collection. Fourth, data certainty was ensured by adopting a stimulus replay interview
method based on the motion pictures and the motion reflection sheets generated by the participants. Fifth, theprocess of data analysis was shared by several experts, and the analysis was conducted through multiple discussions
to ensure certainty.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Motion Images
The participants created their own motion images by dividing the entire shooting motion into several phases (Fig ures
3–5). Three motion images were created using three groups with three, four, and five motion divisions. Three motion
divisions were created by three intermediate high school basketball players (A,B,C), four motion divisions werecreated by two advanced high school players (D,F) and one proficient professional player (G), and five motion
divisions were created by one advanced high school player (E) and five proficient professional players (H to L).

Figure 3. Image of free-throw movement
three motion divisions : Pla er A

Figure 4. Image of free-throw movement
four motion divisions : Pla er

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Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.

Figure 5. Image of free-throw movement five motion divisions : Pla er E
3.2. Motion Image Reflection MemoIn this section, the reflection memo created in the form of writing on the visualized motion image picture is examined.
Figure 6 shows a reflection memo based on the motion image of Player A, who is at an intermediate level ofproficiency, with the motion image expressed by dividing the motion into three segments. In the memo, the participant
was instructed to write down what she considered important points and areas of concern during her own movements.
However, there were few notes on each image, and there were many ambiguous parts in the player ’s own movement
images. The participants were asked to self-assess the extent to which the generated motion imagery accurately
replicated various aspects: the shape and position of each body part (spatial elements), the flow of movement (temporalelements), and the specific features of the action (individual elements). Consequently, ambiguous assessments were
offered, including expressions such as "it might be," "I believe it resembles something like this," and "slightly leaning
forward." Furthermore, comparative evaluations between the actual motion and the generated imagery by other players
indicated that while the movements and flow were not perfectly aligned, they were deemed to be quite similar.

I might be getting
hit in the stomach
with the ballSlightl leaning
forwardI am exerting force

Figure 6. Point review memo based on the motion picture three motion divisions : Pla er A
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Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.

Figure 7 shows the reflection memo of Player D, who is at an advanced level of proficiency, expressing the movement
image in the four movement divisions. The memo describes in detail the points of movements that are important to
the player and the points of physical movements that she is conscious of in practice and games. In addition, eachmovement is associated with each of the others, and it can be inferred that the movement image is formed with anawareness of the linkage and flow of the movements. The evaluation was made in an unambiguous manner. Evaluationof reproducibility of action imagery suggests that the participants in all three categories are believed to have a highlevel of alignment between actual movements and imagined representations. This inference is drawn from statements
such as "I think of it as being my true self" and "My movements are reproduced quite accurately," made by all threesubjects in this classification. Moreover, descriptions such as "Bringing my right foot forward to avoid arching mybody while jumping" and "I always make a conscious effort to keep my right hand in this position" indicate that playis executed with deliberate attention to the body and movements, suggesting a detailed awareness of one's bodily
actions. However, expressions like "It might be more internal, if anything" regarding specific details or the state of
the body during actual movements suggest that there may be discrepancies between the imagery of actions and theactual sensations experienced during movement. Thus, it can be inferred that there is a possibility that the imagery ofactions and the actual movements being felt do not perfectly align.

I alwa s make aconscious effort
to keep m righthand in thisposition

Whether it's goodor bad depends
on the snap of
the wrist

B bringing mfoot forward m
bod doesn'tarch as much

I think of it as
being m true
self

Figure 7. Point review memo based on the motion picture four motion divisions : Pla er
Figure 8 shows the reflection memo of Player E, who is very proficient in expressing the movement image in the five
movement segments. In the memo, there are many descriptions of the movements seen from the outside as well as
matters seen from the inside and sensory matters felt from the inside. The movement images are handled using both
external and internal images. In this group of five divided actions, all players vividly depicted the imagery of shooting
movements. Descriptions such as "straighten the body as if pushing the ball up from above the head and extending
the knees" and "tighten the buttock muscles, exert firm pressure on the thighs, and synchronize the movements"suggest that they envisioned the sequence of shooting actions while associating th em with various bodily movements
and gestures. From this, it can be inferred that they possess a high level of self -awareness and perceptual representation
formation ability. Furthermore, statements such as "it matches perfectly," "I believe I can express even habits andindividuality in detail," and "I feel that not only the form of movement but also the conscious effort to create that form
is expressed" indicate that there is minimal disparity between the actual movements and the imagery. Based on theabove points, it is believed that the findings support the reports by Tanaka (2000) and Hishitani (1993) , which pointout the relationship between the clarity of imagery demonstrated by high levels of self -awareness and proficiency inmotor skills. Specifically, it was observed that as proficiency in movement increased, the clarity of imagery improved.
This improvement led to an enhanced frequency and capacity to vividly reproduce movements through the body.
Consequently, a reduction in the disparity between imagery and actual movements was noted, affirming therelationship between the enhancement of imagery clarity and proficiency. Furthermore, proficient players attributepersonal meanings such as habits, strengths, and confidence to their movement imagery, suggesting that cognitive
aspects influence movement imagery alongside sensory aspects.

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Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.

Follow throughproperl
Extended m

Align theposition of theball and m gazewith the goalarm in the same
direction theball is goingRotate the wristand extend it
firml

I make sure mright foot doesn'tturn inward

Figure 8. Point review memo based on the motion picture five motion divisions : Pla er E

3.3 Analysis of Utterances Related to Action Images
We conducted a qualitative analysis based on the qualitative data analysis method of Côté et al. (1993) and Patton(2002). Specifically, from the textualized utterance data, utterances related to action images were extracted as a single
meaning unit, tagged, categorized into subcategories with similar meanings while considering the context of theutterance, and then categorized into subcategories with similar meanings. They were further grouped into categories
with similar meanings to create hierarchical categories. The 64 obtained meaning units were grouped into eightsubcategories, which were further divided into three categories. Table 1 lists the hierarchical categories.
Table 1. Hierarchical Category and Key Utterance Lists
Category

Subcategory

Speech Example

Confirmation of preexisting sensations-Condition of body parts-Good movement awareness-Attention and sensory expression-I let my wrists flex like this. (L)-I always keep my right hand in this position.
(J)-The ball is held in the stomach area. (F)Check foruncertainties inmovement andsensation-Searching for physical condition-Matching of movement results withkinesthesia-I don’t know what happens below my ankles
when I’m jumping. (G)-I don’t have a good idea of the direction of
my wrists. (C)Correction of
sensory
discrepancies-Confirmation of movement at a bad time
-Organize movement awareness-Check movement awareness and senseof movement-I have a habit of bending my body, and I try
to do it, but I don’t really know what it is. (D)-When I don’t shoot, my knees are not bent, so
I have to be careful. (K)Confirmation of pre-existing sensations
This category was created to describe the confirmation of body positions and sensations while paying attention toeach movement. As indicated by expressions such as “like this” and “around here,” this category shows the awarenessof connecting the state of the body part and the sensation being attended to the image of the action, while capturing it
descriptively.

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Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.

One player described the sensation of releasing the ball as follows; “At the moment of releasing the ball, I throw theball as if I push it out with my knees. So I don’t really feel like I’m making an action with my hands or arms.” (Player
B)
Another player, while recalling and checking the positions of her own body parts, described the body parts she isalways conscious of as follows: “I am always conscious of my right hand coming to this one. So I hope I was able toexpress that part well with this doll.” (Player F)
These statements suggest that by manipulating the humanoid input device to create images, the participants became
conscious of the motion images they had previously held vaguely, to focus on the sensations they already had, toconfirm them, and to manifest them in an objectively visible form as images.
Check for uncertainties in movement and sensation
This category was created to indicate awareness of the need to explore and check the state and sensation of one's own
body in an attempt to express movement images through the manipulation of a humanoid input device. In this category,an attempt was made to explore the movements of specific parts of the body and the accompanying sensations thatare unknown. It can be seen that each movement is related to the others and that the entirety and continuity of the
movement, such as the movement of the whole and the flow of the movement, are being considered.
One player described this point as follows:“I have a sense of what it feels like to jump, but after that, I don’t really know. I can feel my knees and ankles, but I
don’t have a clear image of the angle of my ankles, or the order in which the various parts of my body move. I wonder
what’s going on.” (Player D)
Using the senses that she already has as clues, she is trying to become aware of the connections between the senses inareas where the image is unclear, while being conscious of the relationship between the movements. From theseutterances, it can be seen that in the process of making the movement image conscious, a conscious activity to s earchfor sensory cues that are not yet present is taking place.
This is because of the meaning of extending the movement image, and it is presumably important in terms of continuity
in image formation or the construction of relationships between individual images. In this regard, Kaneko (2020)
pointed out the importance of extending body images from the viewpoint of rehabilitation. This process of conscious
image creation is also consistent with Naruse’s 988 concept of intention and effort as important concepts inmovement imagery. In other words, movement is a process of active activity in which one strives to realize body
movement as intended which is consistent with what the participants in this stud described as “ thinking, doing, andthen correcting the action over and over.”Correction of sensory discrepancies
This category was created to indicate an awareness of checking for discrepancies between the actual movement andthe sensation of movement by checking the conscious movement in more detail in the image using sensation as a cue.
One player described the discrepancy as follows; “I have an image of feeling the weight of the ball in the palm of myhand and then putting all my strength into it. But in reality, I throw the ball quickly, so I feel that my image is a little
different from what I am actually doing.” (Player L)
Another player recalls images not only from an external image but also from an internal point of view and matches
the actual movement with the motion image from the perspective of the motion image felt from the inside: “When I
do not shoot, my knees are always extended, so when I imagine the movement, I draw an image of bending my knees .
When I visualize the movement, I imagine my knees bending. This gives the image a three-dimensional feel.” (Player
H)

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Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.

These statements indicate that it is important for athletes to have a movement image from the objectified third -person
perspective as well as the movement image from the first-person perspective as the participants in the movement, andthe ability to recall the image from both perspectives in the process of creating the movement image leads to a clearer
image. The process of creating motion images suggests that being able to recall images from both perspectives lea ds
to clearer images. This point overlaps with that of Yamada et al. (2021), who pointed out that motor images
experienced as simulations of actions are important for motor learning.
5. Conclusion
In this study, we visualized the motion images drawn by players by reproducing their motion images on a computer
using a humanoid input device. Then, we examined the influence of such visualizations on players ’ understanding
and acquisition of movement skills. The results show that the elaboration of the motion image tended to increase
with the degree of proficiency in the free-throw shooting motion. In addition, it was shown that the extension froman individual action to the whole action, relevance, and diversity of the viewpoint of the image also changed
according to the level of proficiency. In addition, it was suggested that the effort to visualize the movement image
promotes metacognitive activities for one’s own movement in the image formation of the chute movement, thereby
deepening the analytical and individual sensory understanding of the movement and at the same time promoting theimage formation relating the entire movement.

Author Contributions
Conceptualization, K.K. & Y.M; methodology, K.K.; validation, K.K. & Y.M.; qualitative data analysis, K.K. andY.M.; investigation, K.K. and Y.M.; resources, Y.M.; writing—original draft preparation, K.K.; writing—review
and editing, K.K.; visualization, Y.M.; supervision, K.K.; project administration, K.K.; funding acquisition, K.K
Funding
This research was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (Grant Number JP20K02438).
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted according to the Declaration of Helsinki.
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
This paper builds on and enhances the author's 2015 presentation at the 66th Conference of the Japan Society ofPhysical Education, Health, and Sports Science.

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Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.

Appendix
Scene of operation image creation

The process of creating an image using a humanoid input device

Operation of humanoid

Image of movement

input devices

created b line drawing

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Motion picturewith human figureVisualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.
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