<Article>

Risk management as a theoretical framework foranalyzing news translation strategies
MATSUSHITA KayoInternational Christian University

Abstract
Since the launch of the University of Warwick project on “Translation in Global News” in the
mid-2000s, the unique position translation has in the practice of journalism—which is now
commonly referred to as news translation—has been attracting increased attention in the field ofTranslation Studies. A number of case studies have been carried out worldwide over the past decade,but few attempts have been made to establish a theoretical framework that can be used to analyze
the decision-making process behind the predominant strategies used in news translation, such as
omission. This article discusses the possible application of Anthony Pym’s concept of “riskmanagement” for this analysis. It aims to illustrate how the distinctive settings in which news
translations are performed—strictly time-bound and highly pressured both politically andsocially—calls for a new analytical approach, which this non-conventional concept in Translation
Studies may be able to provide.

1. Introduction
In this era of increased globalization, more and more news stories are beingtransferred across linguistic and cultural boundaries each day. Whenever media organizations
cover news events happening in foreign language settings, news translation inevitably occurs.
This includes global news agencies translating local news stories for their international
audience; foreign correspondents reporting on events happening overseas for their domestic
readers; or messages of global leaders being broadcast or published in multiple languages
throughout the world. Until a decade ago, however, news translation had been largely ignoredby existing fields of research, including Translation Studies, despite its visible and growing
presence (Vuorinen, 1999, pp. 61–62). A number of reasons explaining why have already been
pointed out. Bielsa (2007) bases the relatively low interest among Translation Studies scholars
on the fact that news translation “usually is in the hands of journalists rather than translators”(p. 135). Others, such as van Doorslaer (2010), point to the complexity of the news translation
process in which multiple participants perform a combined act of “information gathering,translating, selecting, reinterpreting, contextualizing and editing” (p. 181). In newsrooms
where multiple source texts (STs) are used to produce a new target text (TT), translation is83

『翻訳研究への招待』No. 12 (2014)“hardly ever seen as ‘translation proper’ or ‘translation-as-generally-understood’” (p. 182).
However, this situation has been changing recently because of two main reasons.
First, the demand for and the impact of international news in a globalized world has become
significantly larger, inviting increased attention from Translation Studies scholars. Triggeredby the “Translation in Global News” project (Bielsa 2007; Bielsa & Bassnett, 2009; Conway &Bassnett, 2006), a number of case studies have been carried out regarding various news
translation practices, beginning first in Western countries and then expanding to other regions.
Second, the field of Translation Studies itself is evolving. As Pym (2014a) illustrates,translation theories took shape in the latter half of the 20th century, during which the focus ofresearch has gradually shifted from equivalence (equal value between the ST and TT) toward
theories that concentrates more on the indeterminate, communicative, and complex nature oftranslation. Growing attention is being paid to the social contexts in which translations are
performed, and the changing realities that the translators face today. As Pym (ibid) points out,
success of a translation nowadays can be measured by “the user pushing the right button or
clicking on the right link, rather than by comparison with any anterior text” (p. 87).
These recent movements have contributed to the incorporation of news translation asa field of research within Translation Studies, but to date there has been little discussion of
possible theoretical approaches to be applied. While existing research on news translation has
focused on describing its unique practices such as the use of omission as a key translation
strategy (Bielsa & Bassnett, 2009; Hursti, 2001; Jiménez-Crespo, 2012; Matsushita, 2013), thispaper addresses theoretical aspects by examining whether Pym’s concept of “risk management”
in translation can be used to explain the various news translation practices.
Following this introduction, an overview of relevant research is provided in Section 2.
The concept of risk management as proposed by Pym (2004, 2005, 2008, 2012, 2014a, 2014b)
is outlined in Section 3. In Section 4, the applicability of this concept as a theoreticalframework for analyzing the decision-making processes (i.e. strategy selection) in news
translation is examined. Major findings and conclusions, as well as ideas for further research,
are summarized in Section 5.
2. Research on news translation in Translation Studies
Given the fact that news translation research is still in its infancy, Translation Studies
scholars have not yet settled on a clear definition of the term “news translation.” In this paper,news translation is referred to as the type of translation which contains the following elements:a) occurs when news organizations report on events that happened in a foreign language
setting; b) typically performed by journalist-translators with limited or no specific translator
training; and c) central focus is on “hard news”1 reported by the mainstream media.2 It
includes various forms of translation, including text-to-text, speech-to-text and text-to-oral

84

Risk management as a theoretical framework for analyzing news translation strategies

reproduction,3 but excludes audiovisual translation (e.g. voiceover, dubbing, and subtitling).4
Although case studies have tended to focus on print and online media for mainly
practical reasons (i.e. availability of the materials), a wide range of topics have been researchedfrom the mediation of humor by news translators of Taiwanese TV shows (Tsai, 2013) totranslation practices of the community news media in South Africa (van Rooyen, 2013). Given
the fact that research on news translation is still in its early stage of development, any topic
related to both news and translation seems to fall under this domain, including mere
observations of the news translation phenomena. One piece of key research that involves
in-depth analysis is Schäffner (2008) in which she compares reports by various media
organizations on the same speech events (e.g. a group media interview with Russian President
Putin, an official speech by Iranian President Ahmadinejad, and a joint press conference by US
President Bush and German Chancellor Merkel). Schäffner (ibid) points out that “institutional
policies and ideologies have an impact on the actual textual profiles of the translations” andthat news translations “are not straightforward and faithful reproductions of their source texts,
as often assumed by lay-people” (p. 22).
Similar comparisons can be seen in Baker (2006), who uses an example of Osama
Bin Laden’s video speech in Arabic translated into English by Al-Jazeera and MEMRI5 andhighlights how the influence of political agendas can lead to different translations. In Asia,
Kang (2007), who focuses on the “subjectivity” of institutional translators by comparing thetranslated articles on North Korea in the Korean edition of Newsweek with the American
original, has been widely cited. Chen (2009) highlights “ideological manipulation” in the
different ways the Taiwanese press quoted foreign media on news relating to China, and has
also been frequently referenced.
Many of these works have been influenced directly or indirectly by Critical
Discourse Analysis, a field of research where media has been analyzed repeatedly, and thus
concepts and methodologies are well established. As a result, the decision-making process innews translation has often been linked to issues of ideology and power, as seen in the examples
above. These arguments do provide certain explanation to how ideologies of news
organizations and individual journalist-translators can “play a significant role in determining
what is to be retained and what is to be omitted” (Chen, 2006, p. 10). However, there are also
news translation practices that cannot be explained by this approach alone, such as theexamples which will be presented in Section 4. Therefore, it is worth exploring otherpossibilities using concepts and frameworks within Translation Studies in order to shed newlight on news translation. As an exploratory attempt to seek such alternative framework for thetheoretical analysis of news translation, this paper investigates the possibility of using Pym’s
concept of risk management (Pym, 2004, 2005, 2008, 2012, 2014a, 2014b).

85

『翻訳研究への招待』No. 12 (2014)

3. Pym’s concept of risk management
Risk management is a well-known and widely understood concept in the world ofpolitics and business; however, it has not been fully applied to Translation Studies, as Hui(2012) explains:
Although risk management is not a new concept, it is an uncharted area as applied tothe translation process and translator training. The idea of risk (analysis andmanagement) has been mentioned from time to time as advice to translators (Gile
1995/2009, Pym 2003/2010, Akbari 2009), but has been defined and developed byonly one or two researchers. Very little research regarding risk management in thetranslation process has been conducted and only a small sample of translated text has
been studied. (Hui, 2012, p. 2).
The leading theorist in the application of the concept of risk analysis and risk
management to current translation practices is Anthony Pym. In his book, Exploring
Translation Theories (Pym, 2014a), he outlines major translation theories under paradigms ofequivalence, purposes, descriptions, uncertainty, localization and cultural translation. “Riskanalysis” is categorized under “non-linear logic,” a subcategory of uncertainty. He describes it
as follows:
Risk analysis: Pym (2005) presents a model where translators do not seek
equivalence but instead manage the risk of their solutions failing to achieve basic
aims (like getting paid). This is based on calculations of the probability of failure,
rather than any certitude of match. Probabilistic calculations of this kind transgress
the excluded middle but still assume an identity of aims and assessments of causation,and thus some degree of linearity. A variant of this is analysis of how translators
manage guesses about equivalence (Künzli 2004; Angelone 2010). (Pym, 2014a, p.
103)
Pym (2005) explains the relationship between risk and translation in more detail.
Here, Pym defines risk as “the possibility of not fulfilling the translation’s purpose” (p.71). He
describes that in a translation, some elements are high risk while others are low risk and “mostof the real world lies at various stages in between” (p. 70). In order to determine the risks, thetranslator must first analyze what the translation is supposed to do and then distribute more
effort towards high-risk elements rather than low risk ones. Pym’s summary of this concept,
which is based on Levý’s “minimax strategy” (Levý, 1967/2004) of exerting minimal effort to
attain maximum effect, 6 is: “Problems are high-risk or low-risk; solutions can be high-risk or86

Risk management as a theoretical framework for analyzing news translation strategies

low-risk; strategies are different ways of expending effort to manage risk; and the translator’sefforts should ideally correlate with degrees of risk” (Pym, 2005, p. 73).
3.1 The nature of risk
Before looking at specific examples of how Pym’s concept of risk management canbe applied to news translation, it might be useful to clarify the nature of risk Pym has in mind.
As seen, Pym (2005) defines risk as the unfulfillment of the translation’s purpose and gives thetranslation of Pakistani birth certificates as an example. Citing Mayoral (2003), he explainsthat Pakistani birth certificates often have general nouns “Dai Bibi (midwife)” and “Chawkidar(concierge)” in places where the actual names of the midwife and reporting officer at thehospital should be written. When these birth certificates are translated; however, these general
nouns are treated as proper nouns. Despite the fact that these fictitious individuals appear inmany of the translated Pakistani birth certificates, it “puts nothing at risk” (Pym, 2005, p. 70)
where as any mistake in the name of the person or date of birth can be detrimental (i.e.
high-risk). In the case of translating general nouns as proper nouns for the midwife and thereporting officer, the translation’s purpose is nevertheless fulfilled because the mistranslation“would tend not to stop the text from working as a successful target-language text” (p.69).
On the other hand, Pym also gives various examples of risk as the possibility of not
fulfilling the translator’s purpose of carrying out the translation. For instance, when Pym(2014a) mentions risk as failing to achieve the “basic aims” of the translation, he gives “gettingpaid” as one example. As Pym (2005) explains, “one of the implicit purposes of all translations
is to create trust in the figure of the translator” (p. 78). If a translator is mistrusted by the clientor the communication participants, he or she is faced with immediate risks, one of which is thepossibility of not getting paid. Therefore, it can be understood that when Pym describes risk as
failing to achieve the translation’s purpose, one key aspect would be the unfulfillment of thetranslator’s purpose.
Pym (2014b) gives a typical example of such risk—a military encounter in
Afghanistan—in which he explains that the interpreter’s failure to render significant material
can be considered “rational” from a risk management perspective. In this case, a local
interpreter hired by the US forces in Afghanistan was told to interpret what a village elder said;
however, instead of giving a full version of the elder’s speech, which included a parable, theinterpreter decided to omit a significant portion of what the elder had said. An eight-minutevideo of this interaction was posted on The Guardian’s website as part of a news series byphotojournalist and filmmaker, John D McHugh, who was embedded with US troops in
Afghanistan between 2008 and 2009. 7 Pym’s description of the event is given below, in order
to avoid misunderstanding of how Pym interpreted what took place in the video:

87

『翻訳研究への招待』No. 12 (2014)

The US base has been receiving bombs from the area; the patrol has come to thevillage to find out where the bombs are coming from. When they arrive, no one isthere – no one to speak with. Eventually a village elder comes along, and an enraged
US sergeant asks him about the Taliban (the ACM – Anti Coalition Militia) and thebombs. The old man replies at length, telling a parable about ants eating some of thevillage’s wheat, which basically means that the village does not like the Taliban but
they have to live with them. The interpreter, however, does not render the parable atall, and instead tells the sergeant that the Taliban are somewhere “behind themountain.” Later the interpreter gives the sergeant his own account of the interaction:“I hate these people, sir! When I ask him something else, they give me wrong answer.”
The report closes with the sergeant accusing the village elder of being “full of shit”,
and he, the sergeant, wanting to “clean the town out.” (Pym, 2014b, pp. 3-4)
Despite the fact that it is easy to accuse the interpreter for not being professional or
ethical by omitting the parable, of much more interest to Pym is why this was the case, and he
attempts to explain it with the concept of risk management. According to Pym (2014b, p. 6),
the higher risk for the interpreter was “to lose the trust of the US, to lose his source of income
and chances of future mobility” and the lower risk was “the possible loss of trust” from thevillagers who seem to belong to a different ethnic group than he.8 Pym corroborates hisargument by describing that the villagers have a) no alternative interpreter to turn to; b) no wayof verifying what the interpreter says in English; and c) very probably no relation with theinterpreter after the US troops withdraw. He therefore concludes:
In this situation, the interpreter’s rational course of action is to do everything possible
to maintain the trust of the US. Hence, logically, his decision to omit the parable, toinvent a piece of ostensibly useful information (the Taliban are “over that hill”), andto stress to his employer that he has nothing at all to do with the people in the village.”(Pym, 2014b, p. 6)
The otherwise unacceptable level of omission in this case surely seems to make sensewhen risk management is used as a framework for analysis.
3.2 Omission as risk management
The unique characteristics of news translation include its time-bound nature and theneed for conciseness, especially in the case of print media. For this reason, omission has been
identified as the key translation strategy in news translation (Bielsa & Bassnett, 2009; Hursti,
2001; Jiménez-Crespo, 2012; Matsushita, 2013). It is important to note that the interpreter in88

Risk management as a theoretical framework for analyzing news translation strategies

the case above also used “omission” as the translation strategy in order to manage his risk oflosing the trust of his client. This correspondence will be looked into in more detail in thefollowing sections.
Pym (2005) explains that translation strategies are ways of risk management unlike
the traditional claims that strategies are different ways of achieving equivalence. In his words,
translation strategies are “used to reduce or maintain levels of risk” (p. 73) which includes
transcription, omission, paraphrase, compensation, footnotes, expansion and recasting.
Although strategies do not carry risk values themselves (for example, it cannot be said that theuse of omission is always a low-risk or high-risk strategy), they can invite “low-risk or
high-risk consequences” (ibid).
The Afghan interpreter opted for omission, which he thought was a low-risk strategy
at that particular moment in that particular context. However, he could not foresee the high-risk
consequence awaiting him because of his decision. He was not aware of the film crew
accompanying the US troops. As a result, the footage of the dialogue in Pashto was later
subtitled and posted on The Guardian’s website (and others such as YouTube). Obviously, theinterpreter did not expect this, but it is not difficult to assume that his risk management might
have invited serious consequences (e.g. loss of job, ostracization, or even death). As Pym(2005) explains, if and when translators “misjudge the risks and give real offence, real damage
can result” (p. 81). This example demonstrates why risk management can be a decisive factor
in the selection of translation strategies, especially when translators (including interpreters) are
faced with known and immediate risks.
4. Application of a theoretical framework – a case study
In order to examine the applicability of risk management as a theoretical framework
for analyzing news translation, this section focuses on the use of omission, since there seems tobe some connection between the use of omission and risk management in news translation. The
following case study is based on Matsushita (2013), which examined translations of US
President Obama’s speeches by Japanese newspapers and identified omission as the dominant
strategy. The data set consists of 131 target texts extracted from coverage of the 2012 US
presidential campaign by five major newspapers in Japan. 9 All of the texts were taken fromdirect quotes10 which were bracketed with quotation marks indicating that the quoted content
was a faithful reproduction of what the President actually said.11 This makes the relationshipbetween the ST (Obama’s speech) and the TT (its direct quote as translated by each newspaper)
relatively clear allowing for easier analysis.
Matsushita (2013) analyzed the data set of 131 TTs and discovered that 55 TTs, or
42% of the whole, used omission in a way which led to a “definite loss in meaning” (Barik,
1971, p.201). 12 An example from Obama’s inauguration speech delivered and broadcast on

89

『翻訳研究への招待』No. 12 (2014)

January 21st, 2013 is shown below. The ST is followed by four different TTs, which represent
the various translations by the selected newspapers. The TTs are in Japanese followed inbrackets by their literal re-translations.13 The underlines in the example were added here forillustrative purposes.
ST1: We will support democracy from Asia to Africa, from the Americas to the Middle
East, because our interests and our conscience compel us to act on behalf of those
who long for freedom.
TT1:「アジア、アフリカ、中東にいたるまで、我々は民主主義を支援する」[We (will) support democracy from Asia to Africa, and to the Middle East.](Asahi Shimbun, Jan. 22nd, evening edition, front page)
TT2:「アジア、アフリカ、中東の民主主義を支援する」[(We will) support democracy in Asia, Africa and the Middle East.](Tokyo Shimbun, Jan. 22nd, evening edition, front page)
TT3:「アジアからアフリカまで民主主義を支援する」[(We will) support democracy from Asia to Africa.](Nikkei Shimbun, Jan. 23rd, morning edition, page 9)
TT4:「アジア、アフリカ、中南米、中東で民主主義を支援する」[(we will) support democracy in Asia, Africa, Latin America and the Middle East.](Yomiuri Shimbun, Jan. 22nd, evening edition, front page)
Four papers quoted this portion of President Obama’s inauguration speech. As shown
above, TT1–3 omitted “the Americas,” which is the third region of the four he mentioned. The
literal translation for “the Americas” would be “Beishu（米州）” in Japanese. The word is shortenough, meaning space limitation, which is typical of newspapers and other printed media,
does not seem be the reason for this omission in TT1 and TT2 (TT3 omits the last two regions
which could be explained this way). Institutional and individual ideologies of thejournalist-translators do not seem to provide an obvious reasoning either. Nor does traditionaltranslation theory seem to give a legitimate answer.
However, by using risk management as a theoretical framework to analyze theseomissions, a reasonable explanation seems to emerge. As a premise, it can be stated that theword “Beishu” is not a common word and could be considered as too formal or literary for the
average reader. For newspaper reporters (including journalist-translators), the purpose ofwriting an article is to enable a wide range of readers to understand what is happening in theworld. The failure to do so could bring about negative (i.e. high-risk) consequences such ascomplaints from readers and the eventual loss of their subscriptions. If there is a risk that atranslation will cause readers frustration and dissatisfaction due to their inability to90

Risk management as a theoretical framework for analyzing news translation strategies

comprehend the message without a dictionary, that risk must be managed, which may havebeen the case with this atypical use of omission.
In the case of TT4, “the Americas” is substituted by “Chunanbei (中南米),” meaning
Latin America, which could have been a simple error. Even in this case, however, it is possible
to assume that Chunanbei, which is a relatively common word, was chosen instead of theuncommon Beishu. By opting for this strategy, TT4 ignores the United States and Canada, butsince Obama is discussing his country’s intention to “support” democracy in other parts of theworld, and given that Canada is already an established democracy, “it puts nothing at risk” inPym’s terms. Although this is just one example, it seems to be consistent with the following
comment in Pym (2014b, p.1): “Risk analysis can enable us to understand multiple cases ofwhat would otherwise simply be unethical or non-standard practices, just as it can help explain
why actual encounters do not coincide with the abstract written formulations of best practices.”
In the case study of the Japanese newspapers above, risk was tentatively identified as
the potential for negative reaction from the readers due to incomprehensibility. However, it iseasy to imagine that risk also exists in their relationships with the news sources. For example,
the same newspapers quoted Japanese Prime Minister Abe’s policy speech delivered just aweek after President Obama’s inauguration speech in 2013, almost verbatim. 14 This can be
explained as the journalists’ risk management of the potential criticism that could arise frommisquoting their political leader (e.g. official complaints from the Prime Minister’s office,public comment from the Prime Minister himself criticizing the paper, and so on). While this isa case of “intralingual translation” (Jakobson, 1959/2004), the same can be said about“interlingual translation” (ibid). When taking this into account, the frequent use of omission in
the translations of Obama’s speeches can be explained by the different levels of risk thejournalist-translators feels towards a leader of a foreign country (who does not read Japanesehimself) as compared to their own. However, this finding needs to be further investigated andtested empirically.
5. Conclusion
This paper looked into the possibility of applying Anthony Pym’s concept of risk
management as a theoretical framework for analyzing news translation practices. Regardless ofthe fact that the concept itself needs greater clarification and refinement, its aim to find a new
approach in understanding unique practices in translation seems to carry abundant potential,
especially when applied to news translation.
As we have seen in the examples above, omission seems to be a “common enoughstrategy” (Pym, 2005, p. 72) when managing translator’s risks, and some of the “unethical or
non-standard practices” (Pym, 2014b, p.1) of using omission were better explained by applying
the concept of risk management. However, it must be clearly noted that this research is still at a91

『翻訳研究への招待』No. 12 (2014)preliminary stage, and more cases must be examined to further explore the possibility of theapplicability and validity of risk management as an analytical framework for news translation.
In the process of writing this paper, several topics have been identified as potential
areas for further research. First, the different use of translation strategies between high-risk andlow-risk elements must be investigated in more detail. For example, simultaneous interpreters
frequently tend to omit those elements they consider low-risk (Pym, 2008). Because thedemand for rapid distribution of news in the internet era calls for translation to be conducted
close to “near-instantaneity” (Bielsa & Bassnett 2009, p. 62), Pym’s finding may also be
observed in various cases of news translation. Second, this paper focused mainly on omission
as a key translation strategy in news translation, but other translation strategies such as addition,
substitution, paraphrasing, reorganization and explicitation, were also evident in the TTs ofObama’s speeches (Matsushita, 2013). Although one example of substitution has been
analyzed in this paper, strategies other than omission must also be investigated.
The internet age allows mistranslations in the news (including many false
accusations) to spread around the world instantly, and interpreters and translators are now more
likely to be faced with high-risk consequences. On the other hand, the increased ability tomake corrections and revisions instantly can, in some cases, lower the risk of suchconsequences. The relationship between risk and news translation is thus highly relevant andworthy of further attention.
Notes
1. “Hard news” has no clear definition. In newsrooms, it is often perceived as important, serious news
items that must be reported immediately. Its antonym is “soft news” or “features” which includes
profiles of known individuals and human-interest stories with longer deadlines. For more details, see
Bell (1991, p. 14).
2. This includes wire services, newspapers, TV/radio broadcasters, news magazines and internet news
providers.
3. For example, local newspaper articles picked up and translated by global news agencies (text-to-text),
speeches by global leaders reported by local newspapers (speech-to-text) and various types of
documents (e.g. written statements, draft legislations) broadcasted by TV or radio in anotherlanguage (text-to-oral reproduction).
4. This category has been acknowledged as a separate field from news translation. For details, see van
Doorslaer (2009, p.84).
5. MEMRI is “a neo-conservative media institute which specializes in translating selected Arabic
documents for Western consumption” (Baker, 2006, p. 333).
6. Levý’s aim was to apply game theory to the translator’s decision-making process (Pym, 2014a, p.
102).
7. See http://www.theguardian.com/world/video/2008/jun/11/afghanistan.johndmchugh92

Risk management as a theoretical framework for analyzing news translation strategies

8. This is indicated by the fact that the interpreter says, “I can only speak Pashto.” (Pym, 2014b, p. 6).
9. Yomiuri Shimbun, Asahi Shimbum, Mainichi Shimbun, Nikkei Shimbun and Tokyo Shimbun wereselected based on circulation, place of publication and number of editions per day. For details, see
Matsushita (2013, p. 42).
10. In journalism, when referring to literal reproduction of what someone said, the word “direct quote”
or “direct quotation” is typically used. For more detail on the features and functions of direct quotes,
see Bell (1991, p. 207–209).
11. See The New York Times (2008, Quotations, para. 1).
12. This categorization is useful in analyzing TTs in news translation because readers do not usually
expect loss of meaning in direct quotes. Although Barik (1971) is based on simultaneous interpreting,it is nevertheless relevant in this case because news translation is, in many respects, more similar tointerpreting than to translation, including its time-bound nature (Bielsa & Bassnett, 2009, p. 16).
13. The re-translations were performed by the author.
14. Japanese newspapers published articles of Prime Minister Abe’s speech in their evening editions on
Jan 28th, 2013, and their morning editions the following day.
............................................
About the author
Kayo Matsushita is an associate professor of Interpreting and Translation Studies at International
Christian University in Tokyo. She is also a journalist-turned-interpreter with 14 years of experience inthe newspaper industry, including three years in New York covering the United Nations. As aninterpreter, she has worked extensively with journalists from around the world, especially in theircoverage of the aftermath of the Great East Japan Earthquake.
............................................

References
Baker, M. (2006). Contexualization in translator- and interpreter-mediated events. Journal of Pragmatics,
38, 321–337.
Barik, H. C. (1971). A description of various types of omissions, additions and errors of translationencountered in simultaneous interpretation. Meta, 16(4), 199–210.
Bell, A. (1991). The language of news media. Oxford, UK: Blackwell.
Bielsa, E. (2007). Translation in global news agencies. Target, 19(1), 135–155.
Bielsa, E., & Bassnett, S. (2009). Translation in global news. Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Chen, Y. (2006).

Reconstruction of ideology-related norms in news trans-editing (Doctoral

Dissertation, University of Edinburgh, UK). Retrieved from http://ethos.bl.uk/OrderDetails.
do?uin=uk.bl.ethos.543935
Chen, Y. (2009). Quotation as a key to the investigation of ideological manipulation in news
trans-editing in the Taiwanese press. TTR : Traduction, Terminologie, Rédaction, 22(2), 203–238.

93

『翻訳研究への招待』No. 12 (2014)

Conway, K., and Bassnett, S. (Eds.) (2006). Translation in global news: Proceedings of the conference
held at the University of Warwick 23 June 2006. Coventry, UK: University of Warwick.
Hui, T. T. (2012). Risk management by trainee translators: A study of translation procedures andjustifications in peer-group interaction (Doctoral dissertation). Retrieved from http://isg.urv.es/
publicity/doctorate/research/hui.html
Hursti, K. (2001). An insider’s view on transformation and transfer in international news
communication: An English-Finish perspective. The Electronic Journal of the Department ofEnglish at the University of Helsinki, 1. Retrieved from http://blogs.helsinki.fi/hes-eng/volumes/
volume-1-special-issue-on-translation-studies/an-insiders-view-on-transformation-and-transfer-in-international-news-communication-an-english-finnish-perspective-kristian-hursti/.
Jakobson, R. (2004). On linguistic aspects of translation. In In L. Venuti (Ed.), The translation studies
reader (2nd ed., pp. 138–144). London: Routledge. (Original work published 1959)
Jiménez-Crespo, M. A. (2012). Translation under pressure and the web: A parallel corpus-study of
Obama´s inaugural speech in the online media. Translation & Interpreting, 4(1), 56–76.
Kang, J.-H. (2007). Recontextualization of news discourse: A case study of translation of news discourse
on North Korea. The Translator, 13(2), 219–242
Levý, J. (2000). Translation as a decision process. In L. Venuti (Ed.), The translation studies reader 1sted., (pp. 148–159). London: Routledge. (Original work published 1967)
Matsushita, K. (2013). Obama daitōryō no enzetsu o Nihon no shinbun wa ikani hōjitaka: Chokusetsuinyō to shōryaku o meguru kōsatsu. [How President Obama’s speeches were translated by theJapanese newspapers: A discussion on direct quotation and omission].

Media, English andCommunication, 3, 31–46.
Mayoral, R. (2003). Translating Official Documents. Manchester, UK: St. Jerome.
Pym, A. (2004). Propositions on cross-cultural communication and translation. Target, 16(1), 1–28.
Pym, A. (2005). Text and risk in translation. In K. Aijmer & C. Alvstad (Eds.), New tendencies intranslation studies (pp. 69-82). Göteborg , Sweden: Göteborg University.
Pym, A. (2008). On omission in simultaneous interpreting: Risk analysis of a hidden effort. In H. Gyde,
A. Chesterman, & H. Gerzymisch-Arbogast (Eds.), Efforts and models in interpreting andtranslation research: A tribute to Daniel Gile (pp. 83–105). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: John
Benjamins.
Pym, A. (2012). On translator ethics: Principles for mediation between cultures. Amsterdam, theNetherlands: John Benjamins.
Pym, A. (2014a). Exploring translation theories (2nd ed.). Abingdon, UK: Routledge.
Pym, A. (2014b). Risk analysis as a heuristic tool in the historiography of interpreters: For anunderstanding of worst practices. Retrieved from http://usuaris.tinet.cat/apym/on-line/research_
methods/2014_history_interpreting.pdf
Schäffner, C. (2008). ‘The Prime Minister said ...’: Voices in translated political texts. SYNAPS, 22, 3–25.

94

Risk management as a theoretical framework for analyzing news translation strategies

The New York Times. (2008). Guidelines on Integrity. Retrieved from http://www.nytco.com/wpcontent/uploads/Guidelines-on-Integrity-updated-2008.pdf
Tsai, C. (2013, August). Mediating humour in TV news through translation: A perspective of the news
frame theory. Paper presented at the 7th EST (European Society for Translation Studies) Congress,
Germersheim, Germany.
van Doorslaer, L. (2009). How language and (non-) translation impact on media newsrooms: The case ofnewspapers in Belgium. Perspectives: Studies in Translatology, 17(2), pp. 83–92.
van Doorslaer, L. (2010). Journalism and Translation. In Y. Gambier & L. van Doorslaer (Eds.),
Handbook of translation studies (pp. 180–184). Amsterdam, the Netherlands: John Benjamins.
van Rooyen, M. (2013, August). An alternative methodology for alternative data: Community news
translation in South Africa. Paper presented at the 7th EST Congress, Germersheim, Germany.
Vuorinen, E. (1999). Crossing cultural barriers in international news transmission: A translational
approach. In J. Vandaele (Ed.), Translation and the (re)location of meaning: Selected papers of the
CETRA Research seminars in translation studies 1994-1996 (pp. 61–82). Leuven, Belgium:
CETRA Publications.

95『翻訳研究への招待』No. 12 (2014)96