Journal of Digital Life 2024,4, S7

Special Issue: Digital Technology in Sports and Physical Activity
ArticleVisualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input
Device for Shooting Motion in Basketball and Its
EffectivenessKatsuro Kitamura 1 and Yuichiro Matsuura 2
1

College of Science and Technology, Graduate School of Sport Science, Nihon University, 7-24-1 Narashinodai, Funabashi, Chiba
274-8501, Japan2
Suwa Minami Plant, Seiko Epson Corporation, 1010 Fujimi, Fujimi-machi, Suwa-gun, Nagano 399-0295, Japan

Abstract
The use of imagery is effective for the acquisition of sports movements. However, the details of recalled
images have not yet been clarified. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to visualize the image of abasketball shooting motion using a humanoid input device. We also aimed to clarify the effects of suchvisualizations on the formation of the players’ movement images and the understanding of their movement
skills. Six elite female athletes belonging to a professional team and six high -school female athletes who hadparticipated in national tournaments were selected as participants, and motion images were created using ahumanoid input device. The results of the analysis indicated that the detailed reproducibility of the motion
images and the relationship between the individual movements and the whole movement differed according
to the proficiency level of the shooting movement. In addition, it was suggested that in the acquisition of theshooting motion, the promotion of metacognitive activities for one's own motion enhances the analytical andindividual sensory understanding of the motion, as well as the formation of an image that relates the whole
motion.
Keywords: Movement Imagery, Reflection, Metacognitive Activities.

1. Introduction
The acquisition of sports movement skills is called “sensory-motor learning,” which involves a cooperative
relationship between the sensory and motor systems and follows a process of mastery from the trial -and-error stage,
through the regulation stage, to the automatic stage (Yamada et al., 2021). Kitamura (2011) highlighted the im portanceof athletes understanding the sequence of movements and expressing it as an overall series of natural movements afterconnecting their understanding with their own senses in the acquisition of sports movements. The key to this isimagery ability. Imagery in sports is defined as the creation or reproduction of experiences generated from memory
information containing quasi-sensory, quasi-perceptual, and quasi-emotional characteristics under the control ofconsciousness (Annett, 1995; Morris et al., 2005). Furthermore, because imagery ability reflects an individual’s ability
to form, maintain, and transform images, such as vividness and ease (Williams and Cumming, 2011), it can be
expected that enhancing an individual’s imagery ability will have a positive effect on learning using imagery. In
addition to movement acquisition, imagery is used in various situations in sports learning, such as tacticalunderstanding, motivation, and psychological conditioning, and its effectiveness has also been studied. Furthermore,
many studies on training using such imagery have been reported, and many have shown that the effectivene ss of such
imagery can be expected to improve when training methods are devised. For example, Cooley et al. (2013) reported
an approach based on the physical, environment, task, timing, learning, emotion, perspective ( PETTLEP) model
Received: 8 December 2023, Revised: 27 February 2024, Accepted: 27 March 2024, Published: 26 April 2024
* Correspondence:kitamura.katsurou@nihon-u.ac.jp
Publisher’s Note: JOURNAL OF DIGITAL LIFE. stays neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations.

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC. Submitted for possible open access publication under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).

1Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.
(Holmes and Collins, 2001). The PETTLEP model is an imagery training method that takes into account seven factorsthat should be considered when recalling motor imagery. However, insufficient research has been conducted regarding
the effective use of the PETTLEP model (Munroe-Chandler et al., 2012; Dickstein et al., 2004). In addition, images
have both a descriptive aspect (the sensory part of the object) and an explanatory aspect (the interpretation orunderstood meaning of the object) (Miyazaki, 1980). Because images are internal processes, they are difficult tovisualize, and their inner reality is difficult to grasp (McAvinue and Robertson, 2008). Therefore, it has been pointed
out that the discrepancy between the image that athletes have of their own movements and the actual movements is
problematic for them and that the effectiveness of image training is affected by how well or poorly they are do ing(Hasegawa and Hoshino, 2001). Thus, because it is difficult to grasp the details of the movement images t hat players
draw, we believe that the visualization of the images is important in the investigation of training using imagery.
Therefore, in this study, we attempted to visualize the motion images drawn by players by reproducing their motion
images on a computer using a humanoid input device. The purpose was to examine the influence of such image
visualization on players’ understanding and acquisition of movement skills.
Because the purpose of this study was to analyze the details of players’ experiences in recalling images, we judgedthat a qualitative research method was appropriate (Kitamura et al., 2005) and adopted it as the methodology.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
The 12 participants in this study were six high school female basketball players who had participated in a national
tournament and six professional female basketball players who belonged to a professional women ’s basketball team.
The 12 participants were classified according to their level of proficiency: 3 high school students as intermediate
players (participants A,B,C), 3 high school students as advanced players (participants D,E,F), and 6 professional
players as proficient players (participants G to L).
2.2. Procedure
The survey was conducted from October 20XX to January of the following year. Before the survey, the operation of
the humanoid input device used in this study was explained. After that, all participants were asked to use the device
freely. After it was confirmed that all participants were familiar with the operation method, the survey was started.
2.3. Data Collection: QUMARION
A humanoid input device (QUMARION, manufactured by Celsys, Inc.) was used to record motion images. This
humanoid input device operates by manipulating a humanoid model with multiple joints, creating its movements asimages on a computer screen. These images can be rotated 360 degrees to view from any angle. The device is equippedwith 32 sensors distributed throughout the body. When each part moves, the information is captured in real -time by
the PC, allowing users to pose the humanoid image on the PC screen using corresponding 3D animation software.
(Figure 1).
First, the participant was asked to reproduce his or her own free-throw motion while manipulating the humanoid input
device. In creating the motion video, the participant graded the entire free-throw motion by herself and created a
motion video for each point, such as the wrist, head, arm, torso, waist, foot, and entire body. Because the computer
images moved in synchronization with the operation of the human input device, the participnts checked the motion
and made several revisions, confirming that the images were almost the same as their own motion images, and thevideo was completed.
2.4. Data Collection: Interview Survey
Data were collected through interviews using the following two methods. First, in the process of creating movement
images while operating the human input device, interviews were conducted to confirm the kinds of images being usedand how they were expressed for each point, such as the wrist, head, arm, torso, waist, leg, and whole body. Theinterviews were semistructured in-depth, and open-ended. Next, based on the visualized movement images, we asked
the participants what kind of consciousness they had in performing the shooting movement and what kind of body
movements they expressed by changing the movement images from various angles, using the stimulus playback
method (stimulated recall). In-depth open-ended interviews were conducted in a semistructured manner. In addition,a table was created to show the movements of the computer-generated motion image from four angles (front, back,right, and left) at each stage of the movement. The participants were asked to write reflection notes on the visualized
movement images. Based on the notes, in-depth, open-ended interviews were conducted in a semistructured manner

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC.

2

Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.
using the stimulus playback method (stimulated recall). Semistructured interviews were conducted in -depth using
stimulated recall and open-ended interviews based on the notes. In the notes, the participants were instructed to write
down what they considered to be important points, evaluate the reproducibility of the movements, and identify unclear
images, areas of concern in their own movements, and good areas of their own movements (Figure 2).

op right

atsuroitamura Ph

Figure 1. Humanoid input device QUMARION and created images

Breaking down theshooting motion into
stages on my own

Expressing the imageof movement
through a humanoid
figureThe visuals move insync with themanipulation

Checking at eachpoint such as wrists,
head, arms, torso,
waist, legs, andoverall

Expressing while
confirming the visuals

Figure 2. Scene of creating movement imagery

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC.

3

Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.
2.5. Data Analysis
The speech data obtained from the interviews were immediately converted into text, and then hierarchicalcategorization was conducted based on the qualitative data analysis method of Côté et al. (1993) and Patton (2002),
with multiple researchers sharing the analysis process.
2.6. Credibility and Certainty
We conducted a study to evaluate the quality of the research based on authenticity (reality of the data) and certainty(whether the data and procedures can be relied upon), as presented below. First, to confirm that the participant’s
motion image was accurately visualized, we asked the participants to speak while focusing on the key points during
the operation of the human input device, which was considered authenticity. Second, to visualize the motion image
more accurately, the investigation was conducted in a gymnasium so that the participants could operate the human
input device while confirming their actual movements. This enables certainty to be considered. Third, the interviews
were conducted in a semistructured manner to ensure the homogeneity of the questions for multiple subjects and toprovide certainty in data collection. Fourth, data certainty was ensured by adopting a stimulus replay interview
method based on the motion pictures and the motion reflection sheets generated by the participants. Fifth, theprocess of data analysis was shared by several experts, and the analysis was conducted through multiple discussions
to ensure certainty.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1 Motion Images
The participants created their own motion images by dividing the entire shooting motion into several phases (Fig ures
3–5). Three motion images were created using three groups with three, four, and five motion divisions. Three motion
divisions were created by three intermediate high school basketball players (A,B,C), four motion divisions werecreated by two advanced high school players (D,F) and one proficient professional player (G), and five motion
divisions were created by one advanced high school player (E) and five proficient professional players (H to L).

Figure 3. Image of free-throw movement
three motion divisions : Pla er A

Figure 4. Image of free-throw movement
four motion divisions : Pla er

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC.

4

Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.

Figure 5. Image of free-throw movement five motion divisions : Pla er E
3.2. Motion Image Reflection MemoIn this section, the reflection memo created in the form of writing on the visualized motion image picture is examined.
Figure 6 shows a reflection memo based on the motion image of Player A, who is at an intermediate level ofproficiency, with the motion image expressed by dividing the motion into three segments. In the memo, the participant
was instructed to write down what she considered important points and areas of concern during her own movements.
However, there were few notes on each image, and there were many ambiguous parts in the player ’s own movement
images. The participants were asked to self-assess the extent to which the generated motion imagery accurately
replicated various aspects: the shape and position of each body part (spatial elements), the flow of movement (temporalelements), and the specific features of the action (individual elements). Consequently, ambiguous assessments were
offered, including expressions such as "it might be," "I believe it resembles something like this," and "slightly leaning
forward." Furthermore, comparative evaluations between the actual motion and the generated imagery by other players
indicated that while the movements and flow were not perfectly aligned, they were deemed to be quite similar.

I might be getting
hit in the stomach
with the ballSlightl leaning
forwardI am exerting force

Figure 6. Point review memo based on the motion picture three motion divisions : Pla er A
Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC.

5

Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.

Figure 7 shows the reflection memo of Player D, who is at an advanced level of proficiency, expressing the movement
image in the four movement divisions. The memo describes in detail the points of movements that are important to
the player and the points of physical movements that she is conscious of in practice and games. In addition, eachmovement is associated with each of the others, and it can be inferred that the movement image is formed with anawareness of the linkage and flow of the movements. The evaluation was made in an unambiguous manner. Evaluationof reproducibility of action imagery suggests that the participants in all three categories are believed to have a highlevel of alignment between actual movements and imagined representations. This inference is drawn from statements
such as "I think of it as being my true self" and "My movements are reproduced quite accurately," made by all threesubjects in this classification. Moreover, descriptions such as "Bringing my right foot forward to avoid arching mybody while jumping" and "I always make a conscious effort to keep my right hand in this position" indicate that playis executed with deliberate attention to the body and movements, suggesting a detailed awareness of one's bodily
actions. However, expressions like "It might be more internal, if anything" regarding specific details or the state of
the body during actual movements suggest that there may be discrepancies between the imagery of actions and theactual sensations experienced during movement. Thus, it can be inferred that there is a possibility that the imagery ofactions and the actual movements being felt do not perfectly align.

I alwa s make aconscious effort
to keep m righthand in thisposition

Whether it's goodor bad depends
on the snap of
the wrist

B bringing mfoot forward m
bod doesn'tarch as much

I think of it as
being m true
self

Figure 7. Point review memo based on the motion picture four motion divisions : Pla er
Figure 8 shows the reflection memo of Player E, who is very proficient in expressing the movement image in the five
movement segments. In the memo, there are many descriptions of the movements seen from the outside as well as
matters seen from the inside and sensory matters felt from the inside. The movement images are handled using both
external and internal images. In this group of five divided actions, all players vividly depicted the imagery of shooting
movements. Descriptions such as "straighten the body as if pushing the ball up from above the head and extending
the knees" and "tighten the buttock muscles, exert firm pressure on the thighs, and synchronize the movements"suggest that they envisioned the sequence of shooting actions while associating th em with various bodily movements
and gestures. From this, it can be inferred that they possess a high level of self -awareness and perceptual representation
formation ability. Furthermore, statements such as "it matches perfectly," "I believe I can express even habits andindividuality in detail," and "I feel that not only the form of movement but also the conscious effort to create that form
is expressed" indicate that there is minimal disparity between the actual movements and the imagery. Based on theabove points, it is believed that the findings support the reports by Tanaka (2000) and Hishitani (1993) , which pointout the relationship between the clarity of imagery demonstrated by high levels of self -awareness and proficiency inmotor skills. Specifically, it was observed that as proficiency in movement increased, the clarity of imagery improved.
This improvement led to an enhanced frequency and capacity to vividly reproduce movements through the body.
Consequently, a reduction in the disparity between imagery and actual movements was noted, affirming therelationship between the enhancement of imagery clarity and proficiency. Furthermore, proficient players attributepersonal meanings such as habits, strengths, and confidence to their movement imagery, suggesting that cognitive
aspects influence movement imagery alongside sensory aspects.

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC.

6

Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.

Follow throughproperl
Extended m

Align theposition of theball and m gazewith the goalarm in the same
direction theball is goingRotate the wristand extend it
firml

I make sure mright foot doesn'tturn inward

Figure 8. Point review memo based on the motion picture five motion divisions : Pla er E

3.3 Analysis of Utterances Related to Action Images
We conducted a qualitative analysis based on the qualitative data analysis method of Côté et al. (1993) and Patton(2002). Specifically, from the textualized utterance data, utterances related to action images were extracted as a single
meaning unit, tagged, categorized into subcategories with similar meanings while considering the context of theutterance, and then categorized into subcategories with similar meanings. They were further grouped into categories
with similar meanings to create hierarchical categories. The 64 obtained meaning units were grouped into eightsubcategories, which were further divided into three categories. Table 1 lists the hierarchical categories.
Table 1. Hierarchical Category and Key Utterance Lists
Category

Subcategory

Speech Example

Confirmation of preexisting sensations-Condition of body parts-Good movement awareness-Attention and sensory expression-I let my wrists flex like this. (L)-I always keep my right hand in this position.
(J)-The ball is held in the stomach area. (F)Check foruncertainties inmovement andsensation-Searching for physical condition-Matching of movement results withkinesthesia-I don’t know what happens below my ankles
when I’m jumping. (G)-I don’t have a good idea of the direction of
my wrists. (C)Correction of
sensory
discrepancies-Confirmation of movement at a bad time
-Organize movement awareness-Check movement awareness and senseof movement-I have a habit of bending my body, and I try
to do it, but I don’t really know what it is. (D)-When I don’t shoot, my knees are not bent, so
I have to be careful. (K)Confirmation of pre-existing sensations
This category was created to describe the confirmation of body positions and sensations while paying attention toeach movement. As indicated by expressions such as “like this” and “around here,” this category shows the awarenessof connecting the state of the body part and the sensation being attended to the image of the action, while capturing it
descriptively.

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC.

7

Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.

One player described the sensation of releasing the ball as follows; “At the moment of releasing the ball, I throw theball as if I push it out with my knees. So I don’t really feel like I’m making an action with my hands or arms.” (Player
B)
Another player, while recalling and checking the positions of her own body parts, described the body parts she isalways conscious of as follows: “I am always conscious of my right hand coming to this one. So I hope I was able toexpress that part well with this doll.” (Player F)
These statements suggest that by manipulating the humanoid input device to create images, the participants became
conscious of the motion images they had previously held vaguely, to focus on the sensations they already had, toconfirm them, and to manifest them in an objectively visible form as images.
Check for uncertainties in movement and sensation
This category was created to indicate awareness of the need to explore and check the state and sensation of one's own
body in an attempt to express movement images through the manipulation of a humanoid input device. In this category,an attempt was made to explore the movements of specific parts of the body and the accompanying sensations thatare unknown. It can be seen that each movement is related to the others and that the entirety and continuity of the
movement, such as the movement of the whole and the flow of the movement, are being considered.
One player described this point as follows:“I have a sense of what it feels like to jump, but after that, I don’t really know. I can feel my knees and ankles, but I
don’t have a clear image of the angle of my ankles, or the order in which the various parts of my body move. I wonder
what’s going on.” (Player D)
Using the senses that she already has as clues, she is trying to become aware of the connections between the senses inareas where the image is unclear, while being conscious of the relationship between the movements. From theseutterances, it can be seen that in the process of making the movement image conscious, a conscious activity to s earchfor sensory cues that are not yet present is taking place.
This is because of the meaning of extending the movement image, and it is presumably important in terms of continuity
in image formation or the construction of relationships between individual images. In this regard, Kaneko (2020)
pointed out the importance of extending body images from the viewpoint of rehabilitation. This process of conscious
image creation is also consistent with Naruse’s 988 concept of intention and effort as important concepts inmovement imagery. In other words, movement is a process of active activity in which one strives to realize body
movement as intended which is consistent with what the participants in this stud described as “ thinking, doing, andthen correcting the action over and over.”Correction of sensory discrepancies
This category was created to indicate an awareness of checking for discrepancies between the actual movement andthe sensation of movement by checking the conscious movement in more detail in the image using sensation as a cue.
One player described the discrepancy as follows; “I have an image of feeling the weight of the ball in the palm of myhand and then putting all my strength into it. But in reality, I throw the ball quickly, so I feel that my image is a little
different from what I am actually doing.” (Player L)
Another player recalls images not only from an external image but also from an internal point of view and matches
the actual movement with the motion image from the perspective of the motion image felt from the inside: “When I
do not shoot, my knees are always extended, so when I imagine the movement, I draw an image of bending my knees .
When I visualize the movement, I imagine my knees bending. This gives the image a three-dimensional feel.” (Player
H)

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC.

8

Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.

These statements indicate that it is important for athletes to have a movement image from the objectified third -person
perspective as well as the movement image from the first-person perspective as the participants in the movement, andthe ability to recall the image from both perspectives in the process of creating the movement image leads to a clearer
image. The process of creating motion images suggests that being able to recall images from both perspectives lea ds
to clearer images. This point overlaps with that of Yamada et al. (2021), who pointed out that motor images
experienced as simulations of actions are important for motor learning.
5. Conclusion
In this study, we visualized the motion images drawn by players by reproducing their motion images on a computer
using a humanoid input device. Then, we examined the influence of such visualizations on players ’ understanding
and acquisition of movement skills. The results show that the elaboration of the motion image tended to increase
with the degree of proficiency in the free-throw shooting motion. In addition, it was shown that the extension froman individual action to the whole action, relevance, and diversity of the viewpoint of the image also changed
according to the level of proficiency. In addition, it was suggested that the effort to visualize the movement image
promotes metacognitive activities for one’s own movement in the image formation of the chute movement, thereby
deepening the analytical and individual sensory understanding of the movement and at the same time promoting theimage formation relating the entire movement.

Author Contributions
Conceptualization, K.K. & Y.M; methodology, K.K.; validation, K.K. & Y.M.; qualitative data analysis, K.K. andY.M.; investigation, K.K. and Y.M.; resources, Y.M.; writing—original draft preparation, K.K.; writing—review
and editing, K.K.; visualization, Y.M.; supervision, K.K.; project administration, K.K.; funding acquisition, K.K
Funding
This research was supported by JSPS KAKENHI (Grant Number JP20K02438).
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted according to the Declaration of Helsinki.
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.
Conflicts of Interest
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
Acknowledgments
This paper builds on and enhances the author's 2015 presentation at the 66th Conference of the Japan Society ofPhysical Education, Health, and Sports Science.

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC.

9

Visualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.

Appendix
Scene of operation image creation

The process of creating an image using a humanoid input device

Operation of humanoid

Image of movement

input devices

created b line drawing

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC.

10

Motion picturewith human figureVisualization of Motion Image by Humanoid Input Device
Kitamura, K., Matsuura, Y.
References
Annett J 99 Motor imager : Perception or action? Neuropsychologia 33 39 – 4 7oole S J Williams S E Burns V E & umming J
3 Methodological Variations in Guided Imager
Interventions Using Movement Imager Scripts in Sport: A S stematic Review Journal of Imagery Research inSport and Physical Activity 8–https://doi org/
/jirspaôté J Salmela J H Baria A & Russell S J 993 Organizing and interpreting unstructured qualitative data
The Sport Psychologist, 7
7– 37
ickstein R unsk A & Marcovitz E
4 Motor imager for gait rehabilitation in post-stroke hemiparesis
Physical Therapy 84
67– 77
Hasegawa N & Hoshino
The Effect of “ ousa-Hou” on experience imager Journal of health and sports
science Juntendo University 5 33– 39
Hishitani S 993 Imager differences: What controls the vividness of imager ? Advances in Japanese ognitive
Science 7 8 - 7
Holmes P S & ollins
J
The PETTLEP approach to motor imager : a functional equivalence model
for sport ps chologists Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 13
6 –83
https://doi org/
8 / 4 39339 4aneko Fevelopment of a rehabilitation s stem using VR to feed back kinesthesia Measurement andControl 59 . 37–4
itamuraThe Action of “Work Language” from the Viewpoint of Proficienc : Learning through the
Sharing of Sensations Leading to Flow Experiences In Waza Gengo eio Universit Publisher 33–63
itamuraSaito S & Naga ama T
How do expert coaches enhance Athletes’ and Team Performance?
onstruction of a oaching Mental Model of Expert High School Soccer oaches in Japan Journal of Sport
Psychology 32
7– 8
McAvinue L P & Robertson I H
8 Measuring motor imager abilit : A review European Journal of
Cognitive Psychology, 20
3 –https://doi org/
8 / 9 4 44 7 3946 4
Mi azaki
98 Is mental image a picture or a proposition? Japanese Journal of Educational Psychology 19– 4
Morris T Spittle M & Watt A P
Imager in sport hampaign IL: Human inetics
Munroe- handler
J HallR Fishburne G J Murph L & Hall N
Effect of a cognitive specificimager intervention on the soccer skill performance of oung athletes: Age group comparisons Psychology ofSport and Exercise 13 3 4–33
Naruse G 988 Self ontrol method Tok o: Seishin Publisher
Patton M Q
Qualitative evaluation and research methods nd ed Newbur Park A: Sage
Tanaka M
Anal sis of verbal-name coding and image-coding in turn skill Ehime Universit Facult of
Education Bulletin 46
3 - 48
Yamada H Tanaka S
imura T & aneko F
onnecting Scientific nowledge to Sports Skill
Improvement - Biomechanisms of Sensor Motor Learning Journal of Biomechanical Society 45
7 –74
Williams S E & umming J
Measuring athlete imager abilit : The Sport Imager Abilit Questionnaire
Journal of Sport & Exercise Psychology, 33 3 4 6–44 https://doi org/
3/jsep 33 3 4 6

Copyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL INC.

11