Journal of Digital Life 2021, 1, 5

ArticleExamining the effects of digital gameplay of theracing genre on mood and heart rate
Ryousuke Furukado 1, and Goichi Hagiwara 2,*
1

Faculty of Engineering, Integrated System Engineering, Nishinippon Institute of Technology, 1-11, Aratsu, Miyako-gun, Fukuoka
800-0394, Japan.
2
Faculty of Human Science, Department of Sport Science and Health, Kyushu Sangyo University , 2-3-1 Matsukadai, Higasgi-ku,
Fukuoka-shi, Fukuoka 813-8503, Japan.
*Correspondence: furukado@nishitech.ac.jp; Tel.: +81-930-23-1491

Abstract
This study aimed to determine racing esport games’ effects on the physiological and psychological indicesusing psychological scales and heart rate monitors. The participants were 10 male university students who
did not play games diurnally (mean age ± 20.10, SD = 1.10). Participants wore a wristwatch heart rate monitor,
and their resting heart rate was measured for 2 min. The duration of the game play was set to 30 min, andtheir heart rates were continuously measured during play. The changes in the psychological state before andafter the game play were then examined using a two-dimensional mood scale-short term. The results showedthat the average heart rate significantly increased during gameplay compared to the resting state. As forparticipants’ psychological state before and after the gameplay, the vitality, pleasur e, and arousal levels
increased while the stability level decreased. These results indicate that gameplay in the racing genre can
induce a lively mood and increase the heart rate.
Keywords: esports; racing games; mood; heart rate.

1. Introduction
The size of the sports market is growing annually, and by 2020, the number of esports viewers will grow to 495 million
worldwide, while the total revenue will reach one billion dollars (Rietkerk, 2020). Professional leagues for esports
have been established, and the number of people aspiring to become professional gamers is increasing every year. In
addition to professional players, games have become a popular form of entertainment for people globally and are
enjoyed by people of all ages and sex, and studies have shown that they have various effects on players. For example,
it has been reported that video games can improve cognitive abilities, and games developed for research purposes
have been used to treat diseases (Anguera et al., 2013; Franceschini, Bertoni, Lulli, Pievani, & Facoetti, 2021). Since
the demographics of the experimental participants in these studies vary, it is necessary to research a wide range ofsubjects, from professional to amateur levels, distinguishing their gaming experience.
Although several studies have examined the impact of gameplay on human physiological indicators, there is a limited
amount of literature that investigates the impact of esports gameplay from a physiological perspective compared toprevious studies of real sports such as soccer (Nicholson, McNulty, & Poulus, 2020). For example, Nicholson et al.
(2020) investigated the heart rates of two elite players, aged 18 and 19, while playing League of Legends (Riot Games,2009), a multiplayer online battle arena game. The results showed that their mean heart rates increased significantly
during gameplay compared to at rest. Andre, Valladão, Cox, and Middleton (2019) investigated heart rate in 23 youngmen (age = 20.7 ± 1.8 years) who played esports for more than six hours per week, using Fortnite (Epic Games, 2017),
a battle royale-type game. The results showed that peak heart rate responses during gameplay were significantly higher
than peak heart rate responses at rest (120 ± 16 bpm vs. 81 ± 11 bpm).
Received:31 August 2021, Revised; 6 October 2021, Accepted: 22 November 2021, Published: 9 December 2021
* Correspondence: furukado@nishitech.ac.jp
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Effects of gameplay of the racing genre on mood and heart rate
Furukado and Hagiwara

These previous studies have studied elite players and light gamers who are regularly engaged in esports games andreported that gameplay improves average heart rate. Campbell, Toth, Moran, Kowal, and Exton (2018) pointed outthat while considering game effects, it is necessary to distinguish between the types of video games played and theevidence for their effects. Therefore, when researching esports, it is expected that gameplay’s effects on heart rate
and mood can be clarified by defining the game genre and attributes of the experimental participants. Similar to thefirst-person shooter (FPS) and multiplayer online battle arena (MOBA) genres, games in the racing genre require aseries of quick and accurate decisions. Moreover, the racing mode has a high perceptual and cognitive load andrequires sustained attention while considering the possibility of collisions with many cars. Furthermore, the car racing
genre is characterized by the fact that it does not take long to learn the game rules, making it easy for n on-gamers
with no prior gaming experience to tackle. Moreover, many games in the racing genre do not contain violent depictions,thus, are easily accepted by people of all ages. For these reasons, we chose the racing genre for this study, targeting
non-gamers. Leis and Lautenbach (2020) stated that, regarding esports research, not only physiological processes need
to be addressed, but also psychological processes. For example, Pallavicini, Pepe, and Mantovani (2021) reported thatgameplay was effective in reducing psychological stress, regardless of age.
However, there are only a few reports on moods esport gameplay induce since it is difficult to ascertain quantitative
data. Although mood changes during gameplay can be estimated by analyzing heart rate variability, the use of a
subjective psychological state rating scale provides a better grasp of the psychological state. In this study, we used
the two-dimensional mood scale-short term (hereafter referred to as TDMS), a psychological scale developed by
Sakairi, Soya, and Kizuka (2009). TDMS can measure both the negative and positive psychological states throughself-monitoring of a subject’s psychological state (mood). Additionally, TDMS is based on a theoretical model inwhich mood is a two-dimensional structure comprising two orthogonal axes: arousal and pleasure. Mood is the affectof relatively long duration and low intensity, while emotion is an affect of relatively long duration and high intensity(Arimitsu, 2002). Therefore, the TDMS measures body-induced mood rather than stimulus-responsive emotion, which
is an appropriate scale for examining the relationship between physio logical states, behavioral responses, andpsychological states. In addition, the TDMS has the advantage of measuring mood in a short period of time (oneminute), thus placing less burden on the experimental participants. However, only a few studies have used the TDMS
to investigate gameplay’s effects on human mood.
In light of the above, it is important to use both indices together to examine the physiological and psychologicalchanges in humans caused by gameplay. Therefore, the purpose of this study was to clarify the effects of gameplay inthe racing genre on non-gamers heart rates and mood.
2. Methods
2.1. Participants
The experimental participants were 10 healthy male university students (Age: 20.10 ± 1.10 years old, Height: 170.40± 4.74 cm, Bodyweight: 63.90 ± 4.70 kg; Mean value ± Standard deviation), and were non-gamers with less than one
hour of gameplay time per week. Participants were informed of the study’s purpose, content, and risks (orally and inwriting), and written consent was obtained. We also explained that they could withdraw from the experiment at any
time. Approval was obtained from the institutional review board of Kyushu Sangyo University (No.2021 -00002, May
20, 2021). After the completion of the experiment, the participants were given a book card worth 3000 yen as amonetary reward.
2.2. Method for measuring and evaluating heart rate during gameplay
An optical heart rate (OHR) monitor, Polar A370 (Polar Electro, Kempele, Finland), worn like a wristwatch, was used
to measure the heart rate during gameplay. The device was fitted just below the Ulnar styloid process on the dominant
and opposite arms. The device’s heart rate measurement range was 30 –240 bpm.
2.3. Methods for measuring and assessing psychological state
The TDMS developed by Sakairi et al. (2009) was used to measure the psychological state (mood) before and after
gameplay. The TDMS is a psychological scale written in Japanese, based on a two -dimensional (arousal × pleasure)mood model, which can easily measure the fluctuation of the psychological state. Participants were asked to respondto eight items expressing their psychological state using a six-point scale ranging from "0: not at all" to "5: very muchso.” Based on the results, the factor scores for vitality (4 items: -10 to +10 points) and stability (4 items: -10 to +10
points) were calculated. In addition, using the scores of vitality and stability, the pleasure level (vitality + stability: 20 to +20 points) and arousal level (vitality - stability: -20 to +20 points) were calculated to measure the four types

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Effects of gameplay of the racing genre on mood and heart rate
Furukado and Hagiwaraof psychological states. The psychological states indicated by the scores on each scale are as follows:
1. Vitality level: The level of psychological state (activation) with high vitality and low vitality as the two poles.
A positive score indicates a state of energy and liveliness, while a negative score indicates a state of lethargy andlistlessness.
2. Stability level: The level of psychological state (relaxation) with high stability and low stability as the twopoles. A positive score indicates a relaxed and calm state, while a negative score indicates an irritable and nervous
state.
3. Pleasure level: The overall pleasure level of the psychological state, with pleasure and displeasure being thetwo extremes. A positive score indicates a positive and pleasant mood, while a negative score indicates displeasure
and a negative mood state.
4. Arousal level: The overall level of arousal of a psychological state with extremes of high arousal and low
arousal. A positive score indicates high arousal and energetic mood, while a negative score indicates low arousal anda listless mood state.
2.4. Adopted Game and Driving simulator
The participants in the experiment had no experience with the racing game e mployed in this study, Gran Turismo
Sport (Sony Interactive Entertainment Inc., 2017). Gran Turismo Sport is a highly competitive esports title and has
also been selected for the Olympic Virtual Series-Motor Sports event. Gameplay conditions were standardized among
the participants. The course used was "Northern Isle Speedway," and the car model was the "Mitsubishi Lancer
Evolution Final Edition Gr.B. "The experiment used a fixed simulator consisting of a 29-inch display (TOSHIBA 32S20, Japan), a distance-adjustable
gaming chair (Playseat Evolution Alcantara, Netherlands), and a steering wheel game controller (Logitech G29 LPRC-15000d, Logitech, USA). When the participants sat in the driving seat, their eye height was adjusted to be at
the midpoint of the display.
2.5. Procedures
Participants first entered the experimental room and filled out questionnaires about their demographics and gameplay
experiences. To stabilize the readings, the participants were reminded not to speak or move their bodies significantly
during the experiment. Next, to minimize the influence of the mood state of the experimental participants, they wereseated in a chair for 5 min and asked to rest with their eyes open. Then, a heart rate monitor was attached, and theresting heart rate was measured in the open-eyed state in the sitting posture for 2 min. Subsequently, the current mood(psychological state) was measured using the TDMS. After the TDMS measurement was completed, the participants
were seated at the car racing gameplay seat, and the game rules were explained. The game duration was 30 min.
Simultaneously as the start of the gameplay, heart rate monitoring measurements were started. The heart ratemeasurement was terminated concurrently at the end of the gameplay, and TDMS was immediately conducted tomeasure the mood of the experimental participants after the gameplay.
2.6. Analysis
We utilized a paired t-test to compare the mean and peak heart rates at rest with the mean and peak heart rates during
gameplay. To confirm the changes in the psychological state before and after gameplay, the scores for vitality, stability,
pleasure, and arousal calculated by TDMS were analyzed using a paired t-test.
Subsequently, to clarify the intercorrelations for heart rate and mood indices, the correlation coefficients (Pearson’s
product-moment correlation coefficients) were calculated and compared between rest and gameplay conditions
changes in measures. Finally, race records recorded at the end of gameplay were employed as game p erformance toexamine the relationship between physiological and psychological indices.
IBM SPSS Statistics software (version 28.0) was used for all statistical analyses. The significance level was set at 5%.
A standardized measure was used to calculate the effect size, which did not vary with sample size. In addition, theeffect size of Cohen's d index (d) was calculated using unbiased variance to estimate the population value.

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Effects of gameplay of the racing genre on mood and heart rate
Furukado and Hagiwara
3. Results
3.1. Gameplay’s effects on heart rate
To determine the effect of 30 minutes of gameplay on heart rate, the average heart rate at rest was compared to theaverage heart rate during gameplay. The results showed that the heart rate during gameplay ( M = 91.20, SD = 7.05)
was significantly higher than that during rest (M = 73.30, SD = 11.17) (t(9) = -5.10, p<.001, d=1.87) (Figure 1a).
Similarly, there was a significant increase in peak heart rate during game play ( M = 108.40, SD = 11.87) compared tothat at rest (M = 82.10, SD = 10.34) (t(9) = -5.19, p<.001, d= -2.36) (Figure 1b).

Figure 1. Comparison of Mean Heart Rate (a) and Peak Heart Rate (b) in Resting and Gameplay Conditions. The
error bars represent standard deviations of the mean, ***= p< .001 between conditions.
3.2. Comparison of psychological state (mood) before and after gameplay
To clarify the changes in the psychological state before and after gameplay, vitality, stability, pleasure, and arousal
levels in the TDMS were analyzed. Table 1 shows that the vitality, pleasure, and ar ousal levels were significantly
higher after the gameplay than before. Contrarily, the stability level scores were significantly lower after gameplay
than before. Figure 2 also shows the characteristics of the psychological state on a two -dimensional graph using thevitality and stability scores before and after gameplay. Before the gameplay, the vitality score was (M = -2.40, SD =3.47) and the stability score was (M = 7.90, SD = 1.97), indicating a psychological state suitable for rest. After
gameplay, the vitality (M = 6.50, SD = 2.59) and stability (M = 3.50, SD= 4.45) scores indicated that thepsychological state was suitable for activity.
Table 1
Changes in Psychological State Before and After Gameplay
BeforeGameplay

After
Gameplay

M

(SD)

M

(SD)

t (9)

p

LL

UL

d

Vitality level-2.40(3.47)

6.50(2.59)

-7.62

<.001

-11.54

-6.26

-2.88

Stability level

7.90(1.97)

3.50(4.45)

2.76

.02

0.80

8.00

1.29

Pleasure level

5.50(3.54)

10.00(3.86)

-4.10

.003

-6.98

-2.02

-1.21

Arousal level-10.30(4.40)

3.00(6.18)

-5.18

<.001

-19.11

-7.49

-2.49

95% CI

Cohen’sNote. M= Mean; SD= Standard Deviations; N = 10; Cl = Confidence Interval; LL = Lower Limit; UL = Upper
Limit.

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Effects of gameplay of the racing genre on mood and heart rate
Furukado and Hagiwara

Figure 2. Mood changes before and after gameplay. The mean values of the Vitality and Stability scores of thegroups before (black circles) and after (white circles) gameplay are plotted as psychological states. The error bars on
the Stability and Vitality axes indicate the standard deviations of the mean.
3.3. Relationship between heart rate and mood index and game performance
When the amount of change between resting and gameplay was calculated for the 1 –6 measurement items shown in
Table 2, no correlation was found between heart rate and the four mood indices obtained by the TDMS.
Table 2
Summary of the Interrelatedness of Heart Rate and Mood Indices by the Amount of Change Between Conditions
Measure(Variation between Conditions)

1

2

3

4

5

6

1. Vitality

－

.73

.24

.90**

-.035

-.36

2. Stability

.73*

－

-.48

-95**

-.19

-.39

3. Pleasure

-.24

-.48

－

-.19

.046

.035

4. Arousal-.90**

.95**

-.19

－

-.13

-.40

5. Average HR

-.035

-.19

.046

-.13

－

.64*

6. Peak HR

-.36

-.39

.035

-.40

.64*

－

Note. Each index represents the amount of change between resting and gameplay conditions. N = 10; HR = Heart
Rate. *p<.05; **p<.01.
The mean and standard deviation of the game performance (race record) of each experimental participant were
M=178.92(sec), SD=4.74, respectively. Note that the smaller the value of the race record, the higher is theperformance. In conjunction with the results in Table 2, we examined the relationship between the performance data
and the heart rate and mood indices and found no relationship between these variables.
4. Discussion
This study aimed to clarify the effects of playing esport-racing games on the physiological and psychological indicesof non-gamers. In terms of physiological indices, both mean and peak heart rates were significantly highe r during
gameplay than while resting. One possible reason for this result is the influence of the game genre. Gran Turismo isa race with 19 computer machines in which a single mistake in pedal operation or steering wheel operation is likely
to cause a crash or cause the player to go off course and lose position. Therefore, games of this type require a highCopyright: © SANKEI DIGITAL Inc.

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Effects of gameplay of the racing genre on mood and heart rate
Furukado and Hagiwara
level of action, similar to FPS games, MOBA games, and fighting games. The action here refers to the level of game
operation, and action video games are characterized by transient events, speed in terms of moving objects, highperceptual and motor load, and an emphasis on peripheral processing (Bavelier & Green, 2019). Wang and Perry(2006) reported a significant increase in heart rate and other parameter s before and after gameplay using a fighting
game in 21 boys aged 7 to 10 years. Thus, the results obtained in this study are consistent with those of previous
studies in similar fields.
Skoluda et al. (2015) stated that heart rate is a parameter that responds quickly when physiological and psychologicalstressors are encountered. It has also been reported that heart rate measurement can estimate arousal on a calm -excited
axis (Drachen, Nacke, Yannakakis, & Pedersen, 2010). However, with only heart rate data, it is difficult to estimate
whether the psychological state during gameplay was displeasure arousal or pleasant arousal. Therefore, we used a
psychological scale to understand the mood generated by the increase in heart rate due to gameplay. We examined thechanges in the mood before and after gameplay using a simple psychological state measurement scale (TDMS) andfound that arousal, pleasure, and activity levels were higher after gameplay. These results suggest that gameplay
induces a lively and energetic mood and a positive state of arousal. Although the stability scores decreased, the post gameplay scores were in the positive range (M=3.50, SD=4.45), suggesting that the participants changed from a highpleasure and calm state before gameplay to an area of normalcy (Sakairi et al., 2009). This may have been influenced
by factors such as the need for sustained attention required by racing games.
To visualize the characteristics of the psychological state at the time of measurement and understand the direction ofchange in the psychological state before and after gameplay, the results obtained by TDMS were plotted on a two dimensional graph. From the direction of the arrows shown in Fig. 2, it can be confirmed that before gameplay, thepsychological state was high in stability and slightly low in vitality, but after gameplay, the mood changed in the
direction of increasing vitality. In other words, 30 minutes of gameplay changed the mood from one suitable for rest
to one suitable for the activity, indicating gameplay’s activation effect. Mood induced by gameplay can be an
important factor in structuring an effective intervention program. This is because gameplay is an efficient method of
inducing positive mood and active states, and positive emotional changes due to gameplay enhancing cognitive
performance (Franceschini et al., 2021). Therefore, intervention in gameplay before or during cognitive tasks such as
work or study may lead to improved work efficiency. In the future, it will be necessary to exam ine the duration ofmood induced by gameplay.
As described above, gameplay in the racing genre can induce an active mood with little physical activity ; however, it
should not be used as a substitute for actual physical exercise. Sousa et al. (2020) reported that esports is different
from true aerobic exercise because they are less strenuous and more prone to physiological changes caused by stresshormones secreted by the adrenal glands. Therefore, it is important to consider the synergistic effects of gameplay
and exercise on mood when using exergaming genres that involve physical activity, such as dancing and fitness.
Moreover, physically disabled people who face difficulty part-taking in physical activity in their daily lives may findit effective to use games for relaxation and activation while considering the game genre.
In the racing game used in this study, as in FPS, MOBA, fighting, and action games, if the concentration is lost evenfor a short period, game performance drops significantly. Conversely, role-playing games and simulation games allow
players to play at their own pace and in a relaxed mood. Therefore, racing games are considered to use different lev elsof cognitive skills compared to role-playing and simulation games. Based on these considerations, it will be possible
to adjust one's mood to a desirable state by selecting and using games that are more suitable for different purposes,
such as relaxation and activation, by investigating the effects of gameplay on one's mood and taking into accountdifferences in game genres and content.
Previous studies have reported an increase in heart rate due to gameplay, but it was unclear whether this wasnecessarily due to changes in mood. In the context of our study, the bivariate correlation did not show a statisticallysignificant association between our heart rate index and mood index measures . However, we considered the researchsignificant in that we examined the relationship between the two variables using psychological scales in combination.
Furthermore, no association was found between game performance and the mean or peak heart rate in the non-gamers
included in this study. Additionally, the gameplay of the racing genre tended to induce a lively and active mood,regardless of the superiority of performance. This may be since non-gamers felt excited and energized by the firstgame they played. In the future, differences in gaming skill levels and g aming experience should also be considered.
If you are a professional esports player, the standard deviation in the amount of change in heart rate may be smaller
if you play a game that you are familiar with and played regularly. On the contrary, it is possible that players with

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Effects of gameplay of the racing genre on mood and heart rate
Furukado and Hagiwara
higher skill levels may have higher readiness than beginners and may experience greater fluctuations in the heart rate
because they are more focused and engaged in the game. The accumulation of data on these points will contribute t o
the development of research on esports.
This study has some limitations. First, we need to compare the physiological and psychological indices of theexperimental participants according to their different attributes ( sex, skill level, game genre preference, and gamegenre). Avid players, such as participants in esports competitions, may have different changes in physiological andpsychological indices during gameplay. This is in comparison to non-gamers in order to compare with their usual
performance. Moreover, examining the effects of the differences in game genre preferences would allow for more
effective use of esports for mood change. Finally, in this study, since the open-eyed sitting state was used as theresting state (baseline), physiological and psychological changes from the baseline could also occur simply by doing
something (e.g., watching a TV screen). Therefore, by collecting heart rate data during TV screen viewing, we canrefer to the physiological and psychological changes that occur due to race gameplay. In the future, a control groupwith a sufficient sample size should be established to examine these points.
5. Conclusions
In summary, this study investigated the effects of racing games on heart rate and mood in non -gamers. The results
showed that gameplay increased the overall heart rate and peak heart rate during gameplay compared to the restingstate. Furthermore, a psychological scale was used to examine the changes in the mood before and after gameplay,
and the results showed that arousal and pleasure levels increased after gameplay, indicating esports’ activation effect.
The results obtained in this study contribute to the initial understanding of racing-game esports’ effects on
physiological and psychological states, such as mood.
These findings are also expected to be utilized for the health management of game players, the number of which willcontinue to increase in the future. Future studies examining changes in physiological and psychological indicators
during gameplay should accumulate data that clearly distinguish the differences in the attributes of the participants,
game genres, and the amount of time spent in gameplay.
Author Contributions
Conceptualization, R.F.; methodology, R.F., G.H.; software, R.F.; validation, R.F.; formal analysis, R.F.;
investigation, R.F.; G.H.; resources, R.F.; data curation, R.F.; writing—original draft preparation, R.F.; writing—review and editing, R.F.; visualization, R.F.; supervision, G.H.; project administration, R.F.; funding acquisition,
G.H.; All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding
This work was supported by the JSPS KAKENHI Grant-in-Aid for Early-Career Scientists (Grant Number
JP21K17871).
Conflicts of Interest
No potential conflicts of interest are disclosed.
Institutional Review Board Statement
The study was conducted according to the Declaration of Helsinki, and approved by the Institutional Review Boardof Kyushu Sangyo University (No.2021-00002, May 20, 2021).
Informed Consent Statement
Informed consent was obtained from all participants involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement
The datasets generated for this study are available on request to the corresponding author.

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Effects of gameplay of the racing genre on mood and heart rate
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