Global ELT Management – A global state ofknowledge on regulation, management
systems, impacts of recovery andtechnologies
December 2019

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery
and technologies

Contents
Executive summary

3

Glossary of terms used

6

Introduction

8

Context and objectives of the ELT project ............................................... 8
Objectives of this study ........................................................................ 8
Methodological approach....................................................................... 9Part I: State of Knowledge on Targeted Regions/Countries 10
Methodology on data collection, consolidation and limitations ................... 10
Summary and cross-analysis of the ELT markets .................................... 12
Overview of recovery methods, products and applications ........................ 12
Regulation or intervention of public authorities ....................................... 14
Approaches to establishing a successful ELT management system including
supporting factors (best practices) and challenges faced .................... 17
Potential impacts on the environment and health of recovery methods,
products and applications ............................................................... 19
Advanced technologies and innovations in ELT recovery ........................... 19
Summary for each region/country ......................................................... 23
Argentina

23

Brazil

24

China

24

Europe (ETRMA scope)

25

India

25

Indonesia

26

Japan

26

Mexico27

Nigeria

27

Russia28

South Africa

28

South Korea

29

Thailand29

United States

30

Conclusion of the SOK phase

31

Part II: Feasibility evaluation

32

1

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery
and technologies

Methodological approach...................................................................... 32
Methodology on data collection, consolidation and limitations ................... 32
Scope of the feasibility evaluation ......................................................... 34
Regulatory frameworks of ELT recovery routes ....................................... 35
Technical feasibility of ELT recovery routes ............................................ 37
Economic drivers for ELT recovery routes ............................................... 38
Sustainability considerations relative to ELT recovery routes .................... 41
Summary for each recovery route ......................................................... 47
Cement production and other energy recovery

47

Civil Engineering

48

Granulation

49

Pyrolysis

50

Reclamation

51

Steel production

52

Concluding remarks

53

References

55

2

ELT management | A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and advanced technologies

Executive summary
Deloitte was commissioned by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development (WBCSD) in the context
of the Tire Industry Project to conduct a study on end-of-life tire (ELT) management and prepare the present
report. This report has been submitted and published by WBCSD. This present study provides an update to theState of Knowledge (SOK) in a selection of countries (Part I) from the previous WBCSD ELT study conducted
between 2016 and 2017 but also delves deeper into aspects such as studies conducted on the impacts ofrecovery methods, products, applications on human health and the environment, and research and developmentof advanced ELT recovery technologies. In addition, the report also analyses the feasibility of different major
ELT recovery categories (Part II) through the associated methods, products and applications according to anumber of criteria covering regulatory context, technical feasibility, economic drivers, and sustainability
considerations.
The results of the study presented in this report are based on information collected via literature review andinterviews with a variety of different stakeholders. The quantitative data on ELT management presented in thisstudy needs to be interpreted in relation with the methodological assumptions and limitations. We would like tothank all of those who kindly participated in the study, through interviews or by other means, supporting thecompletion of this project.
The purpose of Part I, the SOK, is to provide an overview of the current ELT management systems for aselection of 45 countries: Argentina, Brazil, China, Europe (Throughout the report the scope for the region
includes countries covered by ETRMA - European Tyre & Rubber Manufacturers' Association), India, Indonesia,
Japan, Mexico, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, Thailand, and USA which cover 83.5% of vehicles in
use in the world (Source: OICA, [International Organization of Motor Vehicle Manufacturers], 2015 data.
Including the countries from the 2016-17 WBCSD TIP ELT study as shown in Figure 3, the coverage rate reaches89%). In relation to the last study, the scope of this report focuses on countries identified as having wellestablished ELT management systems (including data availability), countries with particularly interesting
dynamics regarding growth in recovery methods, products and applications markets, and countries that havesignificant potential for development in this domain. Nigeria was added to the scope due to its significant
contribution to the number of vehicles in use and for the potential for development of a formal ELT management
system and ELT markets in the country.
Different ELT management systems exist and there is no ‘one size fits all’ approach to a successful system.
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR) systems or take-back obligation system, government responsibility
financed through a tax, and free market systems make up the management systems identified during the SOK.
In practice, hybrid systems can be implemented and other variants of these systems also exist. Overall, someform of intervention and policy measure from the government is usually necessary in order to properly develop
the ELT recovery industry. Transportation generally represents an important cost factor especially whencollection points are not accessible or if infrastructure is insufficient. That can constitute a barrier in somecountries that have a free market system. Therefore, in countries where an eco-fee is collected, a significant
part of it is usually allocated to cover the transportation fees.
Based on the results from the current SOK, the total amount of ELT recovered (including ELT collected in China
with undetermined end use) in the 13 countries and the region of Europe (as listed above) is estimated to bearound 26 million metric tons (57 billion lbs) per year, while the amount of ELT generated is estimated to bearound 29 million metric tons (64 billion lbs). The countries and regions that recover the largest quantities of
ELT are China, United States and Europe. China is considered to have the highest recovery rate, of 100%,
although just under two thirds are not formally registered and are deemed to be ELT collected with undetermined
end use. Meanwhile, the management system in Brazil was reported as just short of full recovery (99.8%), inGlobal ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems,
impacts of recovery and technologies

relation to targets based on generation, through EPR. Finally, India follows closely (98%) with a significant
portion also informally recovered.
The technologies selected for evaluation in Part II were identified as major global categories during theextensive SOK review of ELT management around the world. The scope of this Part II includes: cement kilns
and other energy production (e.g. power plants and boilers), civil engineering (e.g. barriers and embankments),
granulation (e.g. rubber-modified asphalt, artificial turf infill, playgrounds, molded rubber products), pyrolysis,
reclamation and steel production. As in the last study, the main ways to recover ELT have been grouped into
the following categories: material recovery, energy recovery and civil engineering and backfilling.
Overall, the majority of the ELT generated (in metric tons) in the countries/regions included in the present study
combined with the additional countries from the 2016-17 WBCSD TIP ELT study are distributed to forms ofrecovery with a determined end use including material recovery (42% of ELT generated) and energy
recovery (15% of ELT generated) with a small portion directed to civil engineering and backfilling (2% of ELT
generated) (see world map on page 21). Although the two recovery sub-categories, tire-derived fuel (TDF) andtire-derived material (TDM), are rather well spread at the global level and used as the main recovery routes ina large number of countries, the production of reclaim rubber is mainly developed in Asian countries: China,
Japan and Thailand. Reclaim rubber is the main confirmed recovery route in China (34% of the total domestic
recovery market) that represents close to one fifth of the total ELT recovered (including civil engineering andbackfilling) for the selected scope. Reclaim rubber is mainly used in rubber-molded products and has been usedin new tire manufacturing, albeit generally in only small quantities.
Forms of material recycling to obtain products with value and a significant lifespan stand out in particular interms of overall feasibility. For example, although the production of rubber granulates and powder can require
higher process costs as well as demanding efforts to create new partnerships with other secondary end-userindustries, it also generates products with greater added value and has better environmental performance interms of resource saving and emissions reduction.
Some regions or countries have set objectives to encourage recycling and limit other forms of recovery, whileothers have established more stringent regulation to exclude energy recovery from ELT management systems.
Setting up grant programs is also common in some areas, such as North America, where subsidies are given
for the use of rubber granulate in high value applications, promoting material recycling.
Energy recovery can be a particularly efficient way to deal with high volumes of ELT and eliminate long-standing
stockpiles because it is generally technically straightforward to implement and can be deployed on a large scale
to achieve relatively quick pay-back for the initial investment. The use of ELT as an alternative fuel is also
encouraged to reduce CO2 emissions. Nevertheless, as a general trend, once a country has established a moremature approach to ELT management, material recovery is often supported through policy-making prioritizing
recycling over other forms of recovery, such as energy recovery, following a waste hierarchy (prevent, reuse,recycle, recover, dispose). Indeed, energy recovery may be constrained by regulatory context aligned with thewaste hierarchy, and the compliance with or promotion of such waste management hierarchies is common in
many of the regulatory frameworks assessed in this study. However, other more indirect policies in the context
of energy transition such as greenhouse gas emission (GHG) reductions and energy security can be responded
to through use of ELT as an alternative fuel, with a high calorific value, renewable energy component andreduced carbon intensity relative to fossil fuels such as coal.
From a technical feasibility standpoint, various recovery routes are capable of treating significant volumes.
For instance, cement kilns can absorb large amounts of ELT without significant technical difficulties. However,as capital investment is necessary for adaptation, a long-term perspective is required. Civil engineering
applications on the other hand do not require the same level of initial investment but have relatively highcapacities. Despite the currently limited market, civil engineering may have considerable potential. Meanwhile,
TDM obtained through granulation is overall a straightforward well-established process with particularly
advantageous properties and performance for applications such as rubberized asphalt.
Enabling both material recovery and energy recovery, the cement industry, with significant capacity, remains
an important hybrid destination for ELT provided that a number of economic criteria are met, including
traditional fuel costs remaining high in comparison and the availability of gate fees as an additional incentive.
4

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems,
impacts of recovery and technologies

For the collection and delivery tied to the cement industry, for instance, this was as simple as the retraction ofgate fees provided through extending producer responsibility financial transactions.
Meanwhile, business profitability depends on the price of the TDF or TDM. The economic assessment of ELT
recovery routes must make a distinction between those that depend on the added value of output products
using ELT as feedstock (material recycling in particular), and those that replace traditional materials or fuel with
ELT. The economic model for several granulation applications may require relatively high investment costs forequipment and infrastructure, while the economic viability of other applications will depend on the price of the
traditional counterpart (e.g. fuel). The competitiveness of TDF or TDM is directly affected by the prices ofcompeting products and materials.
The sustainability considerations relative to ELT recovery routes can be assessed through their environmental
performance in particular. Some recovery routes have considerable benefits in terms of avoided impacts
according to several life cycle analysis/assessment (LCA) studies, such as the use of ELT in cement kilns and in
artificial turf infill. Seizing the importance of this issue, new technologies are placing a lot of focus on mitigating
negative impacts and enhancing efficiency, with reductions in energy and water consumption for example. The
impact of these technologies on human health must also be considered, and a wide array of studies have been
conducted on those that are considered of potential risk. Nevertheless, public and industry perception play a
crucial role in the acceptance of these technologies, and therefore in the further development and expansion ofrecovery routes.
Finally, the major factors differentiating the feasibility of ELT recovery technologies in countries with developing
or non-existing ELT management systems when compared with those with mature ELT management systems
are directly related to governance and infrastructure. Where little framework exists, the stages of the supply
chain lack synergy and consequently the case for investment in large scale facilities is harder to make.

5

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

Glossary of terms used
Cement and other energy production: Recovery
methods by which ELT are used as tire-derived fuel (TDF)
in energy intensive industries such as cement kilns,
power plants and industrial boilers. In the case of cementkilns both energy and material recovery occurs in theprocess.

different processes to obtain rubber granulate andpowder, used in multiple applications.

Civil engineering and backfilling: Recovery route
where ELT are recovered through civil engineering
applications (water retention and infiltration basins,
supporting walls, etc.) and through landfilling of mining
activities (tires that are shredded and mixed in with othergeological materials to reclaim sites that have been
mined out for example).

Material recovery: Recovery route category where ELT
are recovered as a new material. It can be used to
produce tire-derived material (TDM) for instance. For the
purpose of this study, it was considered that 25% of ELT
used in cement kilns are recovered as material. For ELT
that are recovered through unknown means of recovery,
a 50/50 split has been made between energy recovery
and material recovery except for China where material
recovery is favored.

Devulcanization: Chemical process by which bonds ofvulcanized rubber are broken without shortening thecarbon chains. Devulcanization is a recovery method formaterial recovery.
Devulcanized rubber: Rubber produced from thedevulcanization process.
End-of-Life Tire or End-of-Life Tires (ELT): A tirethat can no longer serve its original purpose on a vehicle.
This excludes tires that are retreaded, reused, or
exported in used cars.
End-of-life vehicle (ELV): A vehicle that can no longer
serve its original purpose.
Energy recovery: Recovery category where ELT arerecovered as tire-derived fuel (TDF). For the purpose ofthis study, it was considered that 75% of ELT used in
cement kilns are recovered as energy. For ELT that arerecovered through unknown means of recovery, a 50/50
split has been made between energy recovery andmaterial recovery except for China where material
recovery is favored.
Extended Producer Responsibility (EPR): In the caseof ELT, the producer of tires (manufacturer or importer)is held responsible by law to organize the ELT
management, with targeted volumes generally defined
based on the quantities of tires put onto market.
Gate fee (or tipping fee): The price levied on the entity
delivering ELT to a landfill or to a recovery or a recycling
facility.
Granulation: Recovery method which involves thebreaking down of ELT into smaller particles through6

Hybrid recovery route: ELT recovery routes which leadto both energy and material recovery (e.g. use of ELT in
cement kilns).

Off–the-road tires (OTR tires): Tires used on large
vehicles that are capable of driving on unpaved roads orrough terrain. Vehicles include tractors, forklifts, cranes,
bulldozers, earthmoving equipment, etc.
OICA, International Organization of Motor Vehicle
Manufacturers (Organisation Internationale desConstructeurs d'Automobiles): International tradeorganization representing the global automotive
industry.
Producer Responsibility Organization (PRO): An
entity that is either set up directly by a government orby producers in the context of EPR, to organize ELT
management and associated requirements such as
recovery targets.
Pyrolysis: Decomposition of ELT material into oil, gas,steel and char in different proportions depending on
conditions under pressure and high temperatures andusually the absence of oxygen. Carbonisation,
gasification and thermolysis are related recovery
methods.
Reclamation/reclaim rubber process: Conversion of
vulcanized rubber waste into a state in which it can bemixed, processed, and vulcanized again. Reclamation
usually involves a chemical process. It is a recovery
method. This does not refer to authorized landfill orbackfilling in this case.
Reclaimed rubber: Rubber produced from thereclamation process, which can be vulcanized again.

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

Recovery application: The use of a recovery product(see below) e.g. tire granulate in rubber-modified
asphalt.
Recovery method: The process used to treat an ELTe.g. granulation.
Recovery product: The output following processing
through a recovery method e.g. tire granulate.
Recovery route (RR): The value chain from the pointof collection, through processing and treatment methods
to products and applications reaching end markets. For
the purpose of this study, retreaded, reused, landfilled orstock-piled tires are not considered as ELT recovered.
Recycling: This involves reprocessing of articles such as
ELT to produce products, materials or substances. This
excludes the production of tire-derived fuel (see below).
Regrooving: Consists of cutting a pattern into the tire's
base rubber.
Retreading: Also known as recapping or remoulding.
Process of renewal of tires for reuse by replacing theworn-out rubber belts/treads with new ones.
State of knowledge (SOK): A review and analysis of
the current information available on a topic. In thiscontext the aim is to provide an overview of the ELT
management systems in place including the ELT
collection rates, recovery routes, and management
methods.
Steel production: Use of ELT in the form of extracted
tire-derived steel for the production of new iron, or steel
in electric arc furnaces, steel mills and foundries for the
manufacturing of secondary steel. Use of ELT in steel
production is a recovery method.
Tire-derived material (TDM): Recovery sub-category.
TDM is a product made from the recycled material of ELT.
Tire-derived fuel (TDF): Recovery sub-category. TDF
is ELT used as an alternative fuel to produce energy
through combustion (energy recovery). TDF also refers
to the fuels produced by a specific treatment of ELT (suchas pyrolysis, which can produce oil and gas output
products along with a TDM portion). Although the use of
ELT in cement production is considered both energy andmaterial recovery, it is included in TDF for the purpose of
the report.
Tire Industry Project (TIP) members: Bridgestone
Corporation, Continental AG, Cooper Tire & Rubber
Company, The Goodyear Tire & Rubber Company,
Hankook Tire Co., Ltd., Kumho Tire Company Inc.,
7

Compagnie Générale des Établissements Michelin,
Pirelli & C.S.p.A., Sumitomo Rubber Industries, Ltd.,
Toyo Tire Corporation., and The Yokohama RubberCo., Ltd.
Total ELT generated (from available sources):Amount of ELT generated (in metric tons) according to
the most reliable and comprehensive source available.
Total ELT recovered (excluding civil engineeringand backfilling): Amount of ELT recovered (in metrictons), through material and energy recovery. This does
not include any tires that are recovered for civilengineering and backfilling, abandoned, landfilled orstockpiled.
Total ELT recovered (including civil engineeringand backfilling): Amount of ELT recovered (in metrictons), through material, energy recovery and civilengineering & backfilling. This does not include any tires
that are abandoned, landfilled or stockpiled.
Types of vehicles:- Passenger cars: road vehicles excluding motorcycles
with a capacity of below nine people in total (i.e. nineseats or less - inspired by the OICA definition).
- Commercial vehicles: light duty commercial vehicles,
coaches, buses, heavy duty vehicles such as trucks(inspired by the OICA definition). These will also
include the OTR vehicles.
- Motorcycles: Two and three-wheeled motorized
vehicles including mopeds, scooters and motorcycles.
Vehicles in use: All registered vehicles on the roadduring a given period-specific date (inspired by the OICA
- definition).

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

Introduction
Formed in 2005, the Tire Industry Project (TIP) serves as a global,
voluntary, CEO-led initiative, undertaken by 11 leading tire companies withan aim to anticipate, identify, analyze and address the potential humanhealth and environmental impacts associated with tire development, use
and management through end of life. TIP is a proactive organization that
operates under the umbrella of the World Business Council for Sustainable
Development (WBCSD) and is designed to advance sustainability
throughout the industry. Together, TIP member companies work tocollaborate on sustainability challenges facing the industry, improveunderstanding of and educate about these challenges, and develop
potential solutions for a more sustainable future.
Context and objectives of the ELT project
The tire industry recognizes that there are both
opportunities and challenges associated with tire
manufacturing and sustainable development. By taking
an early look at industry issues, TIP works to more fully
understand environmental and health challenges
pertinent to the tire industry and formulate an approachfor making the industry more sustainable.
TIP has an objective to advance ELT management
globally by engaging stakeholders in a process ofidentifying and sharing best practices.
Objectives of this study
This study has been conducted with the support of
Deloitte to collect and summarize current information on
ELT management practices and data for a selection of 45
countries.
The report’s analysis of the current ELT management in
the countries within this scope includes:•

An overview of current and prospective
regulations,
ELT
management
systems(collection, transport & intermediate treatment
stages);•The distribution of ELT across recovery methods,
products and applications;
A better understanding of the feasibility ofdifferent recovery route categories andassociated methods, products and applications.
An overview of studies conducted on the risk of
impacts on health and the environment and

•

•

8

•

A panorama of advanced technology andinnovations in ELT recovery to overcome risks
and improve viability.

There is fairly good knowledge of ELT management andpractices in Europe and countries such as the USA,
Japan, South Korea and Brazil where the existence ofregulatory authorities, trade associations or ELT
management organizations allow the collection andconsolidation of rather comprehensive data that can beeasily accessed. However, there is still a diversity ofmethods used to obtain the data, with different
vocabularies and different scopes covered (in terms oftypes of tires). Those countries and regions are also theones with relatively mature ELT management systems
and best practices to share.
On the other hand, limited information is publicly
available in other key countries such as China, India,
Argentina, Thailand and Nigeria for parts or all of the ELT
market in certain cases. The lack of data availability canbe explained by the coverage level of existing formal ELT
management systems and reporting capacity forconsolidating the data notably on specific distribution.
The opportunities for the future of ELT management at
the global level are tremendous in these countries.
Limited knowledge of statistics and ELT practices can be
an impediment to improving the local and global ELT
management.
In addition, very heterogeneous practices can beobserved in terms of ELT management from one country
to another in terms of legislative framework, networkorganization and present and future markets forGlobal ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

Recovery Routes. A better knowledge of these practices
will allow for the identification of good practices andopportunities for future collaboration with local
stakeholders.
Therefore, the purpose of the state of knowledge (SOK)
is to provide an overview of the current ELT management
systems for a selection of 45 countries:
Argentina, Brazil, China, Europe (Throughout the report
the scope for the region includes countries covered by
the European Tyre & Rubber Manufacturers' Association
scope [ETRMA]), India, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico,
Nigeria, Russia, South Africa, South Korea, Thailand, andUSA; which covers 83.5% of vehicles in use in the world(Source: OICA, 2015 data. Including the countries fromthe 2016-17 WBCSD TIP ELT study as shown in Figure 3,
the coverage rate reaches 89%).
The main criterion used for the selection is the numberof vehicles in use. We ensured that the selection includes
the countries with the most important car markets,
representative of different geographical zones. In
relation to the last study conducted between 2016 and20171, the scope of this present report focuses on
countries identified as having well-established ELT
management systems (including data availability),
countries
withparticularlyinteresting
dynamics
regarding growth in recovery methods, products andapplications markets, and countries that have significant
potential for development in this domain. Nigeria wasadded to the scope due to its significant contribution to
the number of vehicles in use and for the potential fordevelopment of a formal ELT management system and
ELT markets in the country.
Methodological approach
The results of the study presented in this report are
based on information collected via literature review andinterviews with stakeholders.
A stakeholder mapping has been performed in order toinclude key stakeholders in the data collection andconsultation process.
The findings presented in this report are solely based on
the data sources presented above. The purpose of thestudy is to capture the best knowledge possible with themeans and timeline defined for the project. Efforts havebeen made in order to avoid introducing biased opinions
in the data collected through the interviewees, bypresenting the most factual information possible andbeing transparent about the sources of information. It is
Other countries studied in 2016-17 included: Australia,
Canada, Malaysia, Morocco, New Zealand, Saudi Arabia, andUkraine.
1

9

important to note that the intention of the study is not to
audit nor validate the data collected from different
sources.
The quality of quantitative data collected on ELT
management varies from one country to another:••

Countries where there is no formal organizationin charge of the ELT management at the national
level generally suffer from a lack of reliable
consolidated data. Inconsistent data fromdifferent sources can be observed in these cases.
Even in countries where official data is publishedby a formal, well-recognized organization, it stillneeds to be interpreted with caution. For
instance, ELT generated by ELV are not always
included in the consolidated data.

Another limitation is related to the share of ELT fromillegal import, treated by illegal operators or neverdeclared by legal operators, which can constitute quite asignificant volume, even in countries with a mature ELT
system. The share is not included in the official
consolidated data where the volume of total ELT
generated is underestimated and the recovery rate canbe overestimated.
Retreading and reusing tires that can still meet safety
standards can reduce ELT generation by prolonging thelifespan of the product. However, these practices are
generally limited, due to technical and safety reasons, tospecific tyre categories, such as truck and bus, OTR,
agricultural, and airplane tyres. In some countries,
retreaded and reused tires are included in the official
recovery rates. However, quantifying the amount ofthese tires reinjected in the market is not always possible
and the reliability of the data can be questionablebecause assumptions are often used regarding thenumber of times a tire can be retreaded/reused. For thisreason, the data presented in this study focuses only on
ELT.
Therefore, the data presented in this study needs to beinterpreted carefully. For more information regarding thelimitations, assumptions and scopes of the data collected
and consolidated in the study and the assessment of thedata reliability, please refer to the chapter “Part I: Stateof Knowledge on Targeted Regions/Countries”.
We would like to thank all of those who kindly
participated in the study, through interviews or by othermeans, supporting the completion of this project.

Part I: State of Knowledge on
Targeted Regions/Countries
The purpose of this SOK is to get an overview of the current ELT
management systems for a selection of countries: Argentina, Brazil, China,
Europe, India, Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, Nigeria, Russia, South Africa,
South Korea, Thailand, and USA. This chapter will summarize this SOK
based on individual reports.
Methodology on data collection, consolidation andlimitations
As stated in the Introduction, the information presented
in this chapter has been collected through two main
approaches:
1. Literature review such as public studies, public
databases and statistics, academic studies,
existing and emerging regulations, etc.
2. Stakeholder consultation process based oninterviews. In some cases, mainly for language
barriers, the information was collected via
written feedback after an interview guide wassent to the interviewee.
For the purpose of comparing the different countries’
performances in terms of ELT management, a set ofdefinitions and scopes have been used. For this reason,
the data available in the different sources has beenadjusted when necessary in order to align the definitions
and scopes with those used in this study. The definitions(such as what is excluded/included in ELT) is explainedin the chapter “Glossary of terms used” of this document.
Nevertheless, the following elements must be taken into
account when analyzing the data included in this study:- The following is NOT considered as ELT and will
therefore be excluded from data: retread tires, secondhand tires and tires exported with used cars. This change
in scope is the main reason why some of the Recovery
Routes communicated in the study may vary from thesource data.
- When possible, the most recent source of data (mostly2017) has been used. However, it’s important to notethat not all of the countries have data corresponding to
the same year. No extrapolations have been made foralignment to a given base year.
- When available, the unit used to measure ELT
management indicators is metric tons. Conversions

between short tons (USA) to metric tons or from numberof units to tons have been made where necessary. Data
regarding ELT generation in Mexico and India are
available in number of tires and not in tons. An
estimation of 10kg/tire has been used for Mexico and an
average of 8kg/tire in the case of India.
- The ideal target scope for this study includes all typesof tires: passenger car, truck, and airplane, agricultural,
two and three-wheel as well as OTR tires. Nevertheless,the data presented hereafter is limited to the scope ofeach source of data found. Passenger cars, bus tires andtruck tires are included in all of the country/region data
(these are the most significant quantities in terms ofunits of ELT generated). OTR tires (an important
category because of the significant weight per tire) andthe other categories are not always included in the source
data. The completeness of data with regards to our target
scope is evaluated in each country/region report. Where
possible, the missing ELT categories are specified.
A cross analysis of data consistency between different
sources has been performed to conclude the datareliability. Regarding the quantity of ELT generated, thedata collected at the local level has been compared withthe data estimated based on the number of vehicles inuse published by OICA (2015 data). In case of significant
inconsistency and where the level of credibility is deemed
equal, the data which gives the lower recovery rate isused as a precaution to avoid overestimation.
- In order to further analyze the consolidated data, thedifferent recovery routes have been grouped within thefollowing three categories: material recovery (excluding
civil engineering & backfilling), energy recovery and civilengineering & backfilling. Although for some recovery
routes, the split between material and energy recovery
is debatable, we have calculated the tons of ELT
recovered based on the following assumptions:Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

•
•
•

•

Tons of ELT used in cement kilns: 75% energy
recovery and 25% material recovery2;
Steel production (except when ELT is burnt as a
TDF): 100% material recovery;
Pyrolysis: 100% material recovery;
When recovered through an unknown means ofrecovery, or when data available regarding
exportation of shredded tires: 50% energy
recovery and 50% material recovery.

Data collection on ELT management across the countries
studied generally includes a combination of real data andestimations. A number of best practices have been
identified to ensure data is the most reliable. For theUSA, the data published by the U.S. Tire Manufacturers
Association (USTMA) is drawn from multiple sources
including surveys of state regulators and scrap tireprocessors, interviews with experts and end users, aswell as trade association and other industry data.
Similarly, ETRMA gets data for its Europe scope fromcollection and processing organizations including ELT
management companies, ETRMA member companies, EU(including Eurostat) and national waste statistics, andannualreports
from
Producer
Responsibility
Organizations (PROs), or national EPR reports forexample. The consolidation of these different sources ofdata and consistency checks on overlapping or duplicate
figures enhances the reliability of data collection.
Trade associations have a key role to play as anintermediary and point of consolidation of information inboth system management but also data collection. Whenthese actors or an equivalent are responsible for ensuringcorrect collection and distribution data this facilitates andfurther reinforces the reliability of data collection.
Overall, the ELT generation statistics are based on tire
sales with some adjustments. Estimations are usually
made on this basis (e.g. Nigeria). This information canbe collected through declarations on production andimports (e.g. the information requested by the Brazilian
Institute of the Environment and Renewable Resources[IBAMA] for Brazil). For South Korea for example, the2Based on ETRMA, End-of-life Tire Report 2015.

11

Korea Tire Manufacturers Association (KOTMA) calculates
ELT generation based on a wear rate applied to sales ina given year.
It is important to note that for European countries, forexample, as in other countries, the quantity sold onto themarket equates to the quantity dismounted. Therefore,both end-of-life vehicles and historical stockpiles are
excluded. In addition, illegal activity and non-declarationthat will not be accounted for in generation statistics but
could be included in treatment.
Where possible, statistics on recovery methods,
products, and applications, can be drawn from tracking
data related to validated treatment (e.g. as understood
to be used in Japan and South Korea).
The following table could serve as a template for thegeneral statistics on ELT management in a country.
ELT data scope/ category (Units: mass or number oftires by type e.g. truck or car)
Total ELT Generated (from available sources based on
replacement tire sales)
Total ELT Recovered
Sub-total Material Recovery
Sub-totals recovery methods, products and applications

Sub-total Energy Recovery
Sub-totals recovery methods, products and applications

Sub-total Civil engineering and backfilling
Sub-totals recovery methods, products and applications

Total ELT non-recovered/ unknown
Table 1 General categories of ELT Management

Summary and cross-analysis of the ELT markets
There are many different ways to recover ELT that canbe grouped into the following three categories:•••

Material recovery
Energy recovery
Civil engineering and backfilling: tires can also be
used in 1) civil engineering as water retention
basins, tire-derived aggregates for road
construction, etc., and 2) as backfilling (landrehabilitation or backfilling in mining sites).

According to the data collected during this study, thetotal amount of ELT recovered in the 13 countries andthe European region amounts to approximately 25.7
million metric tons per year and 26.1 million tons per
year if we consider civil engineering and backfilling as arecovery route. The overall amount of ELT generated inthese countries is estimated to be 29.1 million tons.
The countries that recover the most ELT in volumes are
China, India, United States (USA) and Europe as
illustrated in Figure 1.

be the best indicator to analyze the performance of the
ELT market in a given region.
For this study, two different recovery rates are calculated
depending on whether “civil engineering and backfilling”
is considered as a recovery route. In the recovery rate
where it is not considered as such, the amount would beconsidered as non-recovered or equivalent to landfill
disposal. The distinction is made since considering thesetwo ELT end-markets as a means of material recovery is
debatable (especially when referring to backfilling in
mining sites).
China, Brazil and India are identified as having thehighest recovery rates within the selected countries(Figure 3 below). Brazil, which has an EPR system, hasbeen increasing its recovery rate approaching targets
through delivery to cement kilns and granulators. For
both China and India, around two thirds of recovery isunderstood to occur in informal markets. The volumes of
ELT generated in China far outweigh the quantities inother countries, the most significant recovery route being
reclaim rubber technologies. In India, besides energy
recovery and reclaim rubber, applications include
artisanal products, use on fishing boats, roofs-tops or
swings. ELT are therefore seen as a valuable material in
India for various applications. In the future, in thecontext of a growing middle class, this recovery rate
might decline.
Europe’s recovery rate was 92% in 20173 with 1.9 million
tons in material recovery, 1.2 million tons in energy
recovery and 0.1 million tons in civil engineering, public
works and backfilling.

Figure 1. Total ELT recovered in the scope and contribution bycountry/region. Note that for China, the highlighted blank portion
within the dotted line is unconfirmed/ not formally registered, whichis therefore ELT collected with undetermined end use.

However, the number of ELT recovered per year in agiven country needs to be put into perspective with theamount of ELT generated. The recovery rate (total tonsof ELT recovered / total tons of ELT generated) seems to

Unlike ETRMA statistics for overall recovery rates, this study
focuses on End of Life Tires only, and consequently excludes
3

ELT recycling markets worldwide are mainly driven by theregulatory context in each country. Government
regulations are enacted to address environmental issues
related to illegal dumping or importation of ELT as wellas historical stock piles leading to public health andsanitary issues (e.g. fire hazards, breeding ground formosquitoes and vermin, and the current issue of the Zika
virus etc.) that can be the result of ELT collection andprocessing systems not functioning.
Overview of recovery methods, products andapplications
The rate of growth and viability of different recovery
markets at a given time are directly linked to the demand
for the recovery products.
In the case of TDF, this may be the most volatile. When
traditional fuels are relatively cheap (recently natural gas
quantities processed through retread, reuse, and export fromits scope, effectively reducing the recovery rate.

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

in the USA for example), demand for TDF as analternative may be weaker.
Generally, energy recovery is a straight-forward meansof recovery requiring limited processing and treatment.
This explains why it makes up half of the ELT market in
the USA (mainly use in cement kilns but also the pulp
and paper industry and utilities) and South Korea (where
there is a limit of the portion of ELT being sent for energy
recovery, set at 70%) and even up to 40% in Europe,
where material recovery is prioritized over energy
recovery. In Japan, unlike other governments’ policies,
there is active promotion of the use of TDF through thecountry’s energy policy (exemptions from reduction
objectives) and ELT mainly becomes TDF for paper
manufacturing boilers. Brazil also has a high rate anddepends in particular on consumption by the cement
industry (energy and material recovery).
For material recovery including the production of rubber
granulate, facilities often have relatively high costs suchas initial capital expenditure. Another key element is theneed to develop secondary and end use industries toabsorb the ELT product. As aforementioned, in Europe,material recovery is generally prioritized over energy
recovery and makes up approximately half of ELT
recovered. In Russia, policy directs ELT to material
recovery, as energy recovery is not eligible to meet ELT
management targets. A quarter of ELT generated in the
USA becomes rubber granulate with applications
including molded rubber products, playgrounds, sports
facilities and asphalt. In California, material recovery isprioritized in particular. Material recovery makes up lessthan a quarter of ELT recovered in South Korea. It is
important to note that the production of reclaim rubber
is particularly predominant in Asia.
The recovery methods of pyrolysis and gasification are
also significant in Asia for example in Indonesia, Thailand
and Japan, which may have different levels of quality ofend products. Pyrolysis is only slowly developing in the
USA with some pilot plants. Overall, this recovery
method has had some difficulty commercializing products
and has been facing operational risk including safety
hazards and air polluting emissions.
For the application of ELT in civil engineering andbackfilling, there has been significant growth in the USA
over the past decade to reach 10% of the ELT market.

Figure 2. Recovery rates by country/region

13

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

Regulation or intervention of public authorities
A minimum level of some form of intervention from thegovernment is very often necessary in order to properly
develop the ELT recycling industry.
In some countries, the role of the government is limited
to the organization of the ELT stakeholders, or can be
moreinterventionist
regardingfinancialandtechnological development of the sector. Globally
speaking, the development of ELT recycling markets isstill quite recent. Although some recovery methods,
products and applications are more profitable than othersand examples of success stories exist in some regions,taken as a whole, the ELT market has been struggling to
be profitable and self-sufficient. Financial support with aformalized ELT management system is very often an
important factor to increase the competitiveness of theindustry and achieve high recovery rates.
Different ELT management systems exist at the national
level. Within the scope of our study, three main systems
have been identified:
EPR system or take-back obligation system: In thissystem the responsibility for collecting and ensuring
treatment of ELT is imposed on the actors that put new
tires onto the market (tire manufacturers and importers)
through an eco-fee. This is a very common configurationin European countries including Hungary, Italy, France,
Spain, Netherlands, Sweden, Turkey, Belgium, Portugal,
Finland, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Greece, Slovenia,
Czech Republic, Slovakia, and Ireland and is also used by
Brazil, South Korea and Russia.
The system usually involves these actors setting up a
non-profit organization (or PRO) that manages thecollection and recovery of the end of life product. The
extra cost is generally passed onto the consumers, withan environmental fee (eco-fee) added to the productprice.
Government responsibility financed through a tax:
In this system, the responsibility lies with the state andcollection and recovery are financed by a tax on
production which is passed on to the consumer. The few
countries that run such a system include Denmark,Slovakia and Croatia.
Free market system: In this system, the state orfederal legislation may set action plans (qualitative
objectives) or obligations to have an ELT management
plan (e.g. Mexico), however responsibility (eco-tax or
eco-fee) is not imposed upon particular actors. The
countries with this system are Argentina, China, India,
Indonesia, Japan, Mexico, Nigeria, Thailand, UK,
Germany, Switzerland, Austria, Serbia and the USA.

14

A comparison of the different ELT
systems/schemes is shown in Table 2.

management

Table 2. Comparative table of ELT management systems/schemes

01Free market
systemResponsible actor(s)GovernanceFunding

Under a free market system,
the legislator enacts
objectives to be met,
however there are no
responsible parties
directly designed.

Usually no dedicatedorganization, ELT issues arecovered by more generalwaste-related regulation andgovernance system.

No regulated eco-fee
collected for ELT
management; free market.

02
Tax system

The State is responsible
overall for the organization of
ELT management andremunerates the operators in
the recovery chain.

- Minimum state intervention.
- Less producer involvement.
- Market forces being the main driver for ELT
management, i.e. the most mature and costeffective recovery routes representing the biggest
share of the market.

However, the existence of anindustry association in
charge of promoting
responsible ELT management
is common practice.

Under a tax system, theState is responsible for ELT
recovery.

Key features- Cooperation of companies on a voluntary basis
to promote best practices.
- More difficult for more environmentallyfriendly Recovery Routes to develop, if noteconomically interesting at the beginning.

ELT management financed
through a tax levied ontire manufacturers andimporters and paid to theState, and subsequently
passed on to consumers.

- The State guarantees a level playing field by
enforcing the same product standards on all tire
producers.
- Taxes may have the effect of favoring moreenvironmentally-friendly recovery routes (e.g.
material recovery over energy recovery) andprohibiting landfill.

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

03
Extendedproducer
responsibility(EPR) system

The producer of tires(manufacturer orimporter) is held
responsible by law toorganize the ELT
management, with targetedvolumes defined based on
the quantities of tires put
onto market.

Producers can either set up
their individual
management system orgather to set up a producer
responsibility organization(PRO) (the latter representing
the majority of cases).

The organization is in chargeof managing the collection andrecovery of a volume of ELT
defined by regulation.

ELT management financed
through an eco-fee on
manufactured and imported
tires, paid by producers,
usually passed on to
consumers.

- Cost optimization enabled by the creation of aPRO.
- Better data traceability through reporting
obligations.
- Better transparency on how the eco-fee is used.

The amount of the eco-fee
depends on the cost related
to ELT management andthe secondary markets. It
usually decreases overtime, as the ELT
management gets more
and more mature andeconomically efficient.

- PRO having the flexibility to determine the mostcost-effective solutions to recover ELT or tofavor the most sustainable options.
- Lack of competition in some countries for the
ELT market with the creation of Producer
Responsibility Organizations.

In practice, hybrid systems can be implemented. For instance, the USA operates generally under a free market system, however some states canspontaneously influence markets with grants, taxes and subsidies.
The free market system presented above refers to countries where a legal structure has been defined for ELT management. In countries with weakregulation or non-existing regulation related to ELT management, the recycling market may still be freely developed with an important proportion of
informal sectors on a small scale when ELT represents a source of value, leading to illegal operations with sanitation, environment, fire and safety risks.

16

Whenever an EPR system exists, there is usually anorganization at national/state/province level in charge of
the ELT coordination. Similar organizations exist in a freemarket system when legal regulation requires
coordination between actors (such as the Mexican
Management Plans for example). Usually, theseorganizations are created by the tire manufacturers.

management, material recovery is often supported
through policy-making. This evolution is in line with thewaste hierarchy ladder and circular economy principles.
This option is considered preferable in terms ofenvironmental impact assessment and resource
efficiency.

The eco-fees or taxes, paid by manufacturers or
consumers, are therefore used by the dedicatedorganization to finance the following activities:

Although material recovery might require more initialinvestments, R&D efforts or partnerships with actors
from new industries, it also generates products withhigher added-values.

•
•

•
•

•
•

•

•
•
•

Collection, transportation;
shredding/granulation, gate fee for granulators;
Development grants and loans, R&D andpartnerships to develop new markets forrecycling;
Subventions to encourage certain recovery
routes that would not be profitable otherwise;
The construction of treatment plants that in turnare sold on at a low price in order to increase
recycling capacity and decrease the initialinvestment costs for recyclers (e.g. South
Africa);Public awareness raising;
Stockpile abatement (e.g. New Jersey, New York,
USA) and illegal dump site cleanup (e.g. in the
USA);
ELT
programmanagement(licensing,enforcement, inspections), administration of ELT
collection (e.g. in the USA);
Tire fire cleanup (e.g. in Arizona, USA);
Mosquito control (e.g. in Florida, USA); andAir pollution control (e.g. in California, USA).

Of course, how the fees are used can vary from one
system to another. In free markets, there is a greater
focus on raising public awareness in order to respect thecompetitiveness of the market. In more interventionist
systems, regulations will favor some recovery routes
over others (for example, material recovery over energy
recovery for Russia, the EU, South Korea, and California
in the USA).
There can be issues related to competitiveness whendifferent systems are set up in broader regions. For
instance, French granulators benefit from the financial
support with the eco-fee paid by tire manufacturers(collection fee, gate fee), while the ELT are managed
under a free market principle in Germany.
In case of a free market, energy recovery can be a very
efficient way to deal with high volumes of ELT since it
helps to get rid of long-standing stockpiles easily andrequires relatively low investment. This is because whole,cut or shredded tires can be directly used as analternative fuel. Nevertheless, as a general trend, once a
country has established a more mature approach to ELT

The ideal long-term vision for the ELT industry would be
to find new or existing markets for ELT recycling that
could help prioritize high-value products in order togenerate enough revenue for the industry to be selfsufficient.
Some countries have very low awareness of theenvironmental and public health risks related to ELT,
including the public authorities themselves. An importantvolume of tires is therefore simply dumped on the side of
the road or abandoned in fields. This is a particularly
significant problem when the ELT management systemdoes not function, leading to stockpiles.
There is also a considerable but unquantifiable amount of
ELT burnt or commercialized in black markets. This
results in squandering of resources and a significant
impact on environment and public health throughmosquito transmitted-diseases, fire hazards, or lack ofpollution abatement system, etc. In these countries, thegovernment has a crucial role to play. A push from public
policy makers is needed in order to raise awarenessamong the general public and public sector actors to set
up a system to deal with ELT properly. Likewise, it is key
to enforce sanctions of illegal activities and provide
adequate investment for the resources needed to carryout inspections and enforce regulations.
Developing countries often lack high technology recycling
factories, expertise, technical know-how and facilities tohandle ELT. These countries could use the support from
more experienced actors in developed countries in orderto leapfrog to a successful ELT market.
Approaches to establishing a successful ELT
management system including supporting factors(best practices) and challenges faced
There is no one size fits all approach to establishing awell-functioning ELT management system. In Europe forexample, there is a broad mix of different management
systems including EPR, free market and tax based
systems and overall the recovery rate is high.
Out of the three main systems outlined above, there areadvantages and potential disadvantages to each. One ofGlobal ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

the indicators of success of a system is the recovery rate
in relation to the total ELT generated. Best practices canusually be identified in countries with high recovery rates
as contributing elements to achieving these rates as
identified below.
Trade associations have a key role to play in the successof ELT management through coordination at industry
level. These associations can be pre-existing groups ofcompanies in the same industry or specifically set up as
an intermediary coordinator in the domain of ELT
management. ELT management is usually successfulwhen large associations are mandated to manage ELT asa cooperative organization (e.g. Reciclanip and
EcoTyresUnion covering the majority of ELT generated in
Brazil and Russia respectively) providing a form of criticalmass to drive system and the processes of collection,
treatment and application practices.
The designation of government agencies (e.g. CalRecycle
in California) or non-government agencies to manage
solid waste or if possible ELT in particular is another bestpractice.
In Brazil, an EPR system is in place, which involves
regular weekly calculations by the government agency
IBAMA based on declarations regarding production,
imports and sales. The EPR system in South Korea also
involves monitoring and control from the Ministry ofEnvironment. For control in particular, a degree ofresources and capacity is required that may not be
possible in all countries. Monitoring through reports
submitted by manufacturers and importers. Smaller
actors may not always comply with reporting
requirements (e.g. in Brazil).
The EPR system in South Korea includes a framework forrecovery plans established every five years setting out
roles and responsibilities for different actors. In Mexico,
where the recovery rate is relatively low, a management
plan required but it is deemed flexible in terms of content(i.e. no fees and no rate of ELT collection).
Where fees are charged, (e.g. through the EPR system inSouth Korea to manufacturers and importers or in thefree market on new tires in the US, in New York andCalifornia) as well as tax-based systems, the financing
can go towards research and development, start up
funding and promotion of recovery. A best practice iswhen the funding is earmarked for ELT management. In
Brazil the costs will now be shared by municipalities andcar dealers to spread costs. Governments can also issue
punitive fines, which is a measure of enforcement where
necessary and can also contribute to these funds. In
South Africa, where there has been a recent change inmanagement, funding had also been directed towards
the development of secondary industries, which is very
18

important for the development of capacity of absorption
and long-term demand. It is worth noting that demandis currently low for rubber granulate in Russia forexample, where material recovery has specific targets.
In EPR systems, there are different ways in which
mandatory recovery quantities are set around the world.
In South Korea this takes into account past ELT recovery
and business forecasts. In Russia, which recently
implemented EPR, an annual incremental rise in therecovery rate is being used to develop the system.
In free markets on the other hand, such as the USA or in
the UK (where there are also reporting obligations, which
support the ELT management system), ELT is directed
towards the lowest gate fee, which as the charge towaste reception determines the most efficient use of ELT.
The free market in Japan is also supported by waste
regulation providing some framework favorable to ahigher recovery rate.
Other measures of a degree of government intervention
can occur in free market systems to support ELT
management and recovery industries. For example,
states in the USA are providing grants and funding forstockpile clean up and subsidies to recovery facilities.
EPR systems also have funding schemes. For example,
the Brazilian development bank provides funding forshredding companies in particular. In Argentina, where
the recovery rate is particularly low there is currently alack of investment and funding in recovery facilities.
In India and Indonesia informal markets allow forparticularly high collection and recovery rates, which aresupported by a significant number of independent
collectors and treatment facilities.
Many countries have indicated a potential shift towards
EPR notably from free market systems, for example in
Mexico, Thailand, Argentina and Nigeria, where recovery
rates are low and the free market may not be functioning
but also in India where the recovery rate is very high but
the system is largely informal. This shift to EPR from freemarket was made most recently by Ireland in 2017. On
the other hand, it has been foreseen, once markets are
established, that the EPR system in place in South Korea
could become a free market.
As a major challenge in some countries such as Mexico,South Africa, Indonesia, Argentina and Nigeria,
supporting logistics and transportation can lead to a
successful ELT management system. For example,
establishing hubs between collection and processing ororganizing delivery direct to processing if in close
proximity. For example in Brazil, there is a requirement
for reception points for tires in every city with apopulation of over 100,000. Funding for collection andGlobal ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

transportation through eco-fees has also been a measure
implemented.
Potential impacts on the environment and healthof recovery methods, products and applications
With regards to ELT granulate, studies have focused
predominantly on the risk to human health fromexposure on artificial sports fields in particular the USA
and in Europe. However, some individual studies havelooked at different recovery methods elsewhere in theworld.
Numerous studies have been conducted related to theuse of granulate in turf fields. Overall, the conclusivenesshas not found consensus due to the narrow scope andmultiple variables leading to overall uncertainty
regarding the potential impacts.
In February 2017, the European Chemicals Agency(ECHA) published the report “An evaluation of thepossible health risks of recycled rubber granules used as
infill in synthetic turf sports fields”, which concluded that
there was a very low level of concern regarding exposure
to granules (ECHA, 2017b).
In September 2018, the French research institution
ANSES (Agence nationale de sécurité sanitaire del’alimentation, de l’environnement et du travail) foundthat the risk of exposure to granulate in synthetic turf
rubber infill was negligible to human health but there wasa risk to the environment through transfer of zinc andphenols and that additional measures should be taken interms of risk assessments and the methodologies of
evaluations (ANSES, 2018).
Studies on the impact of health and the environment
continue to focus on the use of granulate on artificial turf
and are ongoing. Most recently, the committees for risk
assessment and socio-economic analysis of the ECHA
adopted and drafted opinions respectively supporting a
restriction proposal of the Netherlands to not place
granules and mulches on the market if the sum ofidentified polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons is greaterthan 20 mg/kg to further reduce risk of an impact onhuman health (ECHA, 2019).
ETRMA published a statement on the safety of recycled
rubber infill material in 2016. Rubber components which
can come into direct contact with the general public mustcomply with EU REACH restrictions. Out of the 70
scientific reports and articles published worldwide by thetime of writing of the ETRMA statement in 2016, many
conclude that “there is no significant or scientificallyjustified risk associated to the use of rubber granules
made from end of life tires” (ETRMA, 2016).

19

The study conducted by Institute Mario Negri IRCC foundthat the eight PAH covered by REACH Regulation
restrictions were at levels lower than limits for public sale
(TRR, 2017).
In the context of REACH, the European industry aims toclarify possible health concerns about the use of ELT
derived materials on certain applications. For thispurpose ETRMA, with the involvement of different actors
from the value chain, has promoted the development of
the European Risk Assessment Study on Synthetic Turf
Rubber Infill named ERASSTRI involving 28 partners
from 14 European countries (ETRMA, 2019).
The results of the study are expected to be published in
the first half of 2020 (ETRMA, 2019)
Advanced technologies and innovations in ELT
recoveryDuring the study, it was identified that research
institutions in most countries have initiated some form of
research on the use of ELT. A variety of different trends
have been observed regarding research in particular,some being specific to different countries on advanced
ELT technologies and innovations.
The majority identified were material recovery based
research projects in line with the waste hierarchy
promoting material recovery. For example, in South
Korea, research has given particular attention to the useof ELT to form composites from polypropylene and TDM.
Incorporation into plastics has been studied in Europe.
A number of research institutions and projects havefocused on the development of pyrolysis as a recovery
method and the products of the process. In Europe,
research has given attention to high quality oil andcarbon black and in South Africa, char as products ofpyrolysis. In Russia, a form of accelerated pyrolysis isbeing studied. Work in China is focusing on low emissions
pyrolysis technology. In the USA, studies have recently
been conducted on the potential use of carbon from ELT
in the production of batteries.
Institutions in countries have adapted the use of ELT to
specific contexts, such as research in Nigeria, in which
researchers have given particular attention to thecapacity of ELT granulate to absorb oil from spills andother substances in wastewater. This capacity has also
been studied in Brazil and USA. In Japan, civilengineering projects have focused on the use of ELT in
structures faced with risks of earthquakes or tsunamis.
Research institutions in Mexico, Brazil, India, Thailand
and the USA have also focused on the use of ELT toreinforce concrete.

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

Rubberised asphalt has had continued study tounderstand its potential in Europe, Indonesia, Mexico
Nigeria, South Korea and USA.

20

Studies into devulcanization have been conducted in
Brazil. Various other applications have been identified,including porous pipes in Brazil, roofing and tiles inArgentina, and panels and matting in USA, andsoundproofing in Indonesia.

Figure 3 ELT Generation and recovery by country/region (map) - This information has been modified for some countries in order to align definitions and units. Please refer to the limitation s of this chapter.

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

Figure 4 ELT Generation and recovery by country/region (graph). Note for China: the blank portion highlighted shows ELT collected with undetermined end use.

22

Summary for each region/country

A brief summary of the current state and local context surrounding ELT management in each country/region is given
below. The countries are listed in alphabetical order.

Argentina

BrazilChina

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

Europe (ETRMA scope)

India

25

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

Indonesia

Japan

26

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

MexicoNigeria27

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

RussiaSouth Africa

28

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

South Korea

Thailand29

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

United States

30

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies

Conclusion of the SOK phase
As expected, the performance of ELT management is generally directly related to the existence/absence and the levelof maturity of a formal management system, especially those where one or several actor(s) are dedicated to ELT
management (generally associations created by government or tire manufacturers). The older the system (EPR orother) that was implemented, the better the performance is (in terms of collection rate, recycling rate, etc.).
With just over 29.1 million tons (metric) of ELT generated in the 45 countries in the studied scope, approximately
25.6 million tons of ELT are recovered (excluding civil engineering and backfilling but including ELT collected in China
with undetermined end use). This would mean that 88% of ELT generated is recovered (90% including civilengineering and backfilling). The market has high-potential for development, especially in countries such as
Argentina, Mexico, Nigeria, South Africa, Thailand and Russia, where recovery rates remain relatively low.
Governmental support is crucial in providing the legal framework in which the ELT markets can be developed.
Moreover, as they can affect public health, allow the development of new industries and create employment, there
is an even greater expectation for local governments to drive ELT recovery markets and control illegal ELT generationand treatment. Setting the status of ELT is one of the first steps taken by local regulations, defining it as product ora form of waste and determining potential for import or export and the logistics of land transported ELT since, when
considered waste, some countries require transportation companies to have a specific permit (e.g. Italy).
According to the information collected during this study for the 45 countries (13 countries around the world and the
32 countries of ETRMA scope for Europe), 97% of the ELT recovered with a determined end use are processed throughmaterial recovery and energy recovery. Although TDM and TDF are rather well spread at the global level and usedas major recovery routes in a large number of countries, the production of reclaim rubber is mainly developed in
Asian countries such as China and Thailand. This is the main recovery route in China (34% of the total domestic
recovery market) that represents about one fifth of the total ELT recovered (including civil engineering and backfilling)
for the selected scope.
The remaining portion of the market is mainly shared between pyrolysis & gasification and civil engineering &backfilling. Pyrolysis is one of the more important recovery routes in Indonesia and Thailand, while it remains very
marginal in other countries. The market for civil engineering and backfilling is concentrated in certain countries andregions: Brazil, the USA and a few countries in Europe. In particular, it represents 9% of the domestic market in theUSA.

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMSPart II: Feasibility evaluation
The second part of this report consists of the results ofthe second phase of this study, which aims to evaluate
the feasibility of a selection of recovery routes throughthe associated methods, products and applications. The
following technologies were identified for the feasibility
evaluation (in alphabetical order) as major categories
of ELT recovery:•

Cement kilns and other energy production (e.g.
power plants, boilers and more);•
Civil engineering (e.g. of applications: barriers,
embankments and more);•
Reclamation;•
Granulation (e.g. of applications: rubbermodified asphalt, artificial turf infill, molded
rubber products and more);•
Pyrolysis; and•Steel production.
The recovery routes above are presented in Figure 6
below.
The feasibility evaluation was conducted based on
analysis in relation to multiple criteria across four maincategories:••••

Regulatory context;
Technical feasibility;
Economic drivers; andSustainability considerations.

This report is then structured into chapters thathighlight, compare and contrast between current
situations and future trends facing recovery routes
across each of the four categories listed above,followed by summaries of the individual feasibility
evaluations of recovery routes and associated ELT
applications.
Methodological approach
As identified in Figure 6, it is important to note that
where safety standards on a tire’s useful life arerespected, retreading and reusing tires before they aredisposed of as ELT can be considered to promote
circular economy as aligned with the waste
management hierarchy. However, this study focuseson ELT, at the point at which the useful life of the tireis complete and it is deemed to no longer serve its
intended function.
The results of the study presented in this report are
based on information collected via literature review andinterviews with stakeholders.

32

A stakeholder mapping has been performed in order toinclude key stakeholders in our data collection andconsultation process.
We would like to thank all of those who kindly
participated in the study, through interviews or byother means, supporting the completion of this project.
Methodology on data collection, consolidationand limitations
As stated in the introduction, the information presented
in this chapter has been collected through two main
approaches:
1. Literature review such as public studies, public
databases and statistics, academic studies,
existing and emerging regulations, etc.
2. Stakeholder consultation process based oninterviews. In some cases, mainly for language
barriers, the information was collected via
written feedback after an interview guide wassent to the interviewee.
The following is NOT considered as ELT and will
therefore be excluded from data: retread tires, secondhand tires and tires exported with used cars. Thischange in scope is the main reason why some of therecovery routes communicated in the study may varyfrom the source data.
The ideal target scope for this study includes all typesof tires: passenger car, truck, airplane, agricultural,
two and three-wheel as well as OTR tires. Nevertheless,the data presented hereafter is limited to the scope ofeach source of data found. Passenger cars, bus tires
and truck tires are included in all of the country/region
data (these are the most significant quantities in termsof units of ELT generated). OTR tires (an important
category because of the significant weight per tire) andthe other categories are not always included in thesource data.

Figure 5 Illustration of non-linear links between recovery routes (initial stages of transformation pre-application)

Scope of the feasibility evaluation

However, recovery applications differ widely between

The following section presents the results from thecountries, especially with regards to their technical andfeasibility assessment, which covered seven recovery

sustainability characteristics. The maturity of specificroutes and ten recovery applications. Findings from thetechnical processes differs from one region to the next,

Phase 1 SOK helped identify the major ELT recovery

and many separate processes can exist for a single

routes, while the applications were determined based on

application.

a number of factors, including their importance involume, their potential for further development and the

The evaluation carried out in the following section is built

information available for each application.

on the information that was available within the scope of
this study.

RecoveryRecovery applications assessed

route

Granulation

Artificial turf infill
Playgrounds
Rubber-modified asphalt
Rubber-molded products

Reclamation
Pyrolysis

Reclamation
In the absence of specific applications, the feasibility assessment was conducted on the entire
recovery route.

Cementproduction
Steelproduction
Civilengineering

In the absence of specific applications, the feasibility assessment was conducted on the entire
recovery route.
In the absence of specific applications, the feasibility assessment was conducted on the entire
recovery route.
This recovery route was assessed as one application, due to the similarity of civil engineering
applications in terms of regulatory, economic, technical and sustainability considerations.

OtherenergyIn the absence of specific applications, the feasibility assessment was conducted on the entire

recoveryrecovery route.

Table 3: List of recovery routes and applications assessed for the feasibility evaluation, and key sources of information

Regulatory frameworks of ELT recovery routes
Overview of the regulatory context around ELT recovery
routes: In terms of regulation, some recovery routes are
directly subject to regulation at the national or at larger
levels (e.g. EU level), while other methods are indirectly
affected by rules imposed on other recovery routes.
A key element to highlight is the dichotomy (with somehybrid cases) between material and energy recovery,

Material recovery methods, including granulation andreclamation, are in many cases considered as priority
recovery routes.
Regulation specific to some recovery applications: Somepieces of regulation have also specifically targetedcertain applications of ELT recovery, such as rubbermodified asphalt or artificial turf infill.

which appear throughout different policy measures,
though these are strongly linked to the geographical area

For instance, while controversy has arisen regarding theconsidered.

use of ELT in artificial turf infill, no regulation limits theuse of this material as of 2019, except in South Korea,

In areas where ELT management systems had to deal

where the use of ELT as rubber granulate for synthetic

with historical stock piles, illegal landfill or dumping

turf has been restricted by reinforced standards (KS F

issues, TDF markets could be strongly encouraged by the3888-1).

government as a clean and efficient way to start in ordertomanageELT.

In

addition,withincreased

environmental awareness and strengthened regulations
on energy consumption and greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions, ELT prove to be an attractive alternative fuelto use. In Japan, the government has set up exemptions
toreportingandreduction

objectives

forFinancial perspective linked to regulation: subsidies,
grants and taxes: The same dichotomy between material
and energy recovery is expressed in terms of subsidies:many subsidies were identified for the use of granulate
in high value applications (e.g. rubber-modified asphalt,
devulcanization, etc.).

energyIt is understood that there are very few subsidies

produced from waste or renewable sources.

available for cement industries using ELT, and the only
In countries or regions with a more mature ELTcase identified was in Japan. However, gate fees also

management system, the use of ELT for energy recovery,

have an influence on the use of ELT in cement kilns. In

which

be

South Africa for example, some cement companies

discouraged, capped or even forbidden to favor material

stopped using ELT in their kilns after gate fees supported

recycling in line with a waste management hierarchy

by policy were removed for ELT, which made this waste(energystream no longer financially interesting for the cement

involves

therecoveryiscombustion

positioned

of

low

tires,

in

can

the

waste

hierarchy, and can be considered close to disposal).

industry (Doyen, 2019).

Concrete examples of the limitations posed to energy

According to Barry Takallou, CEO of CRM a tire recycling

recovery include:company based in the USA and Canada, despite the need

•

•

•

•

The European Waste Framework Directive
2008/98/EC which favors material recovery overenergy recovery;
The prohibition of waste material combustion,
including ELT, to encourage the use of waste forhigher-value markets in several Canadianprovinces (OWNA, 2017);
The absence of funding to expand the tirederived market or to carry out studies about
energy recovery in California; andThe Russian EPR system, which excludes somerecovery methods (namely cement production,
steel production, energy generation andpyrolysis) to achieve yearly ELT recycling
targets.

for subsidies to establish markets for recycled crumbrubber products, market-push tire recycling programs
that provide incentives to the manufacturers can beconsidered as a form of artificial intervention by thegovernment in the market place that can distort the true
demand,potentiallyresultinginanti-competitive

behavior, fraud, and dependency on incentives, as wellas dumping of overproduced products that could force
recycling companies out of business (Takallou, 2019).
However, in a market-pull tire recycling program, theprinciple is that incentives are given to end users of therecycled tire products to develop local sustainable
markets (Takallou, 2019).

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

Finally, grants can be awarded to innovative andThedeveloping technologies, which promotes research for

management hierarchy is a common trend in many of the

new forms of recovery routes.

regulatory frameworks assessed in this study. Some

Regulation targeting environmental protection or safety:
While many of the above regulations concern waste
management and various applications of ELT recovery,
more and more importance is given to the impacts ofvarious recovery routes on the environment.

compliance

with

or

promotion

of

a

waste

regions or countries have set objectives to encourage
recycling and limit energy recovery, while others haveestablished more stringent regulations to exclude energy
recovery from ELT management systems. Many countries
have yet to establish a clear framework for ELT
management resulting in the establishment of informal

The risks posed by various recovery routes or methods
in terms of human health are of utmost importance topublic authorities. For example, measures are being
taken by the government and the industry in China tomove away from polluting reclamation methods byproviding subsidies for cleaner methods.

36

systems.

Technical feasibility of ELT recovery routes
The recovery methods, products and applications that

quality carbon black and oil output products for whichmake up the routes covered in this evaluation use a widesignificant pre-processing and post-processing measures

range of technologies even within a particular family of

are required.

approaches to ELT management, where there are
significant gaps between standard and advanced forms.

Barriers to entry have been observed in particular forcountries with less mature ELT management systems due

Granulation processes are historically well developed

to the lack of funds to invest in high volumes andwith a variety of different applications, some being more

adequate technology (see economic drivers section).

significant than others. These processes do not present
major technical difficulties. This factor is equally if not

The attention to quality for an existing process or productmore applicable to civil engineering applications, whichisinvolve limited processing or transformation. Whilereplacement for fuel or material. The technical feasibility

reclamation has existed since the 1960s, some newis generally positive for the use of ELT material in steel

innovative devulcanization processes are less than aproduction thanks to the significant portion of steel in thedecade old, but both are at stages of commercialization.

tire and the capacity for ELT to replace anthracite to

key

for

industries

thatincorporate

ELT

as

a

provide carbon. However, attention must be given to the
ELT have many technical properties (e.g. lightweight,

composition and chemical balance to maintain the quality

thermal insulation etc.) that are suitable tocivilof the process and product. In cement kilns, and energy

engineering applications, however supply does not

generators, the use of shredded tires is preferred oralways meet demand in terms of required volumes forrequired due to the enhanced ability to dose the material

large scale projects. The capacity of large facilities suchto avoid detrimental impacts on production conditions.

as power plants and cement kilns is also another

Adaptation of equipment and infrastructure and testing

opportunity to treat stockpiles in the short term.

of processes for the replacement of traditional fuel with

However, adaptations are required to support the use of

TDF will also be necessary to begin with but the ELT

ELT in these facilities.

material is considered relatively stable.

Some applications of granulation are considered to be

It is worth noting that the composition of tires ismore technically advanced than others. The output

relatively stable. This is a cross-cutting factor that

products

those

supports most recovery routes and TDF in particularapplications that are more innovative will focus on higher

when compared to some municipal solid waste foradded value products such as micronized-rubber powder.

instance.

In

recentIn conclusion, the technical feasibility of the recovery

devulcanization techniques aim to be used in tires, whileroutes differ based on a number of factors, among which

reclaimed rubber can be used in a wider variety of

their stage of development, their capacity to absorb large

products albeit with limited added value such as in tubes,

volumes of ELT and the quality of output products. Someliners, cables or tiles and also in new tires, although themethods are well-developed, without any technicalquality has been considered limited at the current stage

difficulties, while others involve very complex processes.

of technological development for the latter.

In some cases, one single recovery method can involve

most

are

usuallycases,

the

of

high

main

qualityproducts

andofseveralseparate

processes(e.g.

reclamation,

There is a similar discrepancy for different pyrolysis

devulcanization,technologies. Overall, efficient technology producing highmethods absorb large volumes of ELT, others have given

quality outputs are not widespread. In parts of Asia themore priority to the production of high-quality products,

fundamental process of pyrolysis is in operation on a

despite the absorption of lower volumes.

large scale, largely for the production of oil as TDF.
However, research and development with some projects
at commercial scale are underway for example on highpyrolysis).

Finally,while

certainGlobal ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

Economic drivers for ELT recovery routes

The economic drivers of recovery routes are determined

replaces, which is ethylene propylene diene monomer

by various costs, opportunities and market conditions.

(EPDM) rubber, can be sold for almost 7 times as much

Certain recovery routes depend on the value added ofas ELT material. The large difference between the two

output products using ELT as feedstock (material

and the smaller revenue generated by sales make somerecycling in particular) while others replace traditional

granulators dependent on gate fees (Domas, 2019).

materials or fuel with ELT.

However, the market for playgrounds has seen a steadyincrease over the past decade, as opposed to that of

A number of cross-cutting factors may affect all recovery

artificial turf infill which has witnessed a drop in certain

routes, including capital costs associated with storage,

European markets due to negative public perception

fire protection, infrastructure with varying degrees of(Raahauge, 2019).

necessary

adaptation

forexisting

facilities.

Transportation and logistics can also result in major

The development of high value products using innovative

running costs depending on the ELT management systemtechnologies in stages of processing can be a way ofin place and the supply chains established.

compensating

for

these

expenditures.

On

the

capital

other

and

hand,

operationalrubber-molded

The backlash against pollution may be restricting the

products generally have less added-value, and theeconomic drivers for reclaimed rubber, which has been a

industry has been perceived as being dependent on

historically strong market in certain geographical zones,

subsidies where available.

including China. Despite its current importance, thismarket is expected to be constrained in coming years due

On a global scale, economic drivers of pyrolysis are

to restrictions imposed by local authorities related to thecurrently low due to the competitiveness of the products

potential environmental impacts of chemical reclamationin relation to virgin or traditional materials. This is basedin particular.

on both price and quality. Overall the added value
compared to these materials is low and the cost to

Among the different recovery routes are those that

produce them can be high. The profitability depends on

involve minor adaptation of current facilities used forthe added value of the output product. The trend forparticular purposes and others that are established forfurther development is positive for pyrolysis. One output,

the purpose to be dedicated to recovering TDF or TDM

carbon black, derived from ELT is currently in the processfrom ELT. The capital expenditure and operationalof being commercialized by a small number of companies

expenditure required for the latter ELT recovery facility

for different applications and there appears to be

is of course more significant.

potential for growth.

For example, the economic model for granulation and its

Multiple specific factors play a role in determining theapplications with value added products may require

economic drivers for applications. Some markets for

relatively high investment costs on equipment andapplications of granulation have fallen in significance ininfrastructure than what is needed for other recovery

recent years. The market for artificial turf infill fell by

methods, as granulation can entail advanced treatment

30% in volume of ELT consumed between 2014 and 2017and processing stages. The granulation industry isin the USA due to public and industry perception (seedependent on gate fees in some areas. The low prices atsustainability section) and saturated markets.

which granulate is sold for playgrounds or artificial turf
for example creates a need for gate fees to support the

Despite advantages in cost and durability, the market for

activities of granulators (Domas, 2019).

rubber-modified asphalt has historically been limited byregulatory barriers linked to competition with traditional

The use of rubber granulate in playgrounds or artificial

materials combined with industry reluctance to change,

turf infill represent some of the key applications forwhich also hinder its commercialization.

granulation. However, one ton of the material ELT rubber

38

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

Although the market for civil engineering applications ofwhole or shredded tires remains small, with applications
serving different purposes, these applications are often
less expensive than traditional alternatives, and theirimplementation and processing costs are not considered
as being limiting factors to economic viability. As withrubber modified asphalt, using ELT in civil engineering
also creates products with a high added value, thanks tothe advantageous technical properties of ELT.

Figure 6: Graph showing changes in prices of crude oil over time.
Source: BP Statistical Review of World Energy

For more innovative recovery technologies, there is someroom for expansion of output products to new sectors for

Althoughexamplegranulation,

recovered fuel, may lead to greater competition for ELT

innovative technologies focused on high quality output

stable ELT composition and high calorific value makes itmaterial.

a relatively appealing option (see technical feasibility

devulcanizedrubberandforConcerning TDF, the price of traditional fuels is critical for

otheralternative

fuels,

includingsolid

section).

the competitiveness of ELT. Figures 5 and 6 show theFor material recovery, in particular reclaim rubber, overchanges in coal and oil prices over time. After a peak in

the past few years, the price of both natural rubber and2011 followed by a dip until 2016, prices started to climb

synthetic rubber has been on the decline. According toagain. Under current circumstances, TDF has potential to

the International Rubber Study Group (IRSG), the pricebe particularly competitive. It is important to note thatof one ton of natural rubber was US$ 2,6354 in 2013,

the price of ELT varies across different countries and at

falling to US$ 1,207 in 2016. In 2019, the price of naturaldifferent stages of the value chain. However, TDF is

rubber usually revolved around US$ 1,800 per ton

usually five to ten times less expensive than coal or(Global Rubber Markets, 2019). Nevertheless, the pricepetcoke, and represents major savings for the cement orofother energy industries (Domas, 2019). This factor also

approximately 30% of the price of natural rubber

concerns steel production and the replacement of(Gandhi, 2014). In addition, the price of reclaim rubber

anthracite.

has remained relatively constant, only slightly increasinginreclaimrecentrubberyears,

isstillcomparedsignificantlytomarketlower,

atvolatility

characterizing the prices of natural and synthetic rubber(GRP 2014).
A cross-cutting factor identified that can make up part of
the financial transaction is the availability of gate or
tipping fees particularly for industries that do not produce
high value products including TDM and TDF. Dependingon the output product and its market value, recyclers in
different countries around the world are willing to pay
Figure 5: Graph showing changes in prices of coal over time. Source: BP
Statistical Review of World Energy

between $5 USD and $100 USD per ton for ELT material,with an average of around $50 USD per ton.
Overall, the long-term context in a particular locationmust be assessed to evaluate viability taking into accountthe factors identified above and the significance of theirimpact.

Based on the average of the prices for SGX RSS3, SGX
TSR20, and Europe TSR20
439

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

In conclusion, a distinction is to be made between
recovery routes which depend on the added value of
output products using ELT as feedstock (material
recycling in particular), and those that replace traditional
materials or fuel with ELT. The economic model forseveral granulation applications may require relatively
high investment costs for equipment and infrastructure,
while the economic viability of other applications will
depend on the price of the traditional counterpart (e.g.
fuel). The market size must also be considered, as there
appears to be room for new technologies, offering
innovative products, while the market for certain
traditional applications, such as granulate used in
artificial turf infill, has decreased.

40

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

Sustainability considerations relative to ELT recovery routes

Position in waste management hierarchy: The recovery
routes and applications assessed in the scope of thestudy do not all have similar positions along the waste
framework hierarchy, which considers the following
preferred order to manage waste:•
Prevention;•
Re-use;•Recycling;•
Recovery; and•Disposal.
The positions of the different recovery routes and theassociated applications are illustrated in Figure 7 below.
As seen from Figure 7, two recovery routes are
positioned in the recycling category: granulation and allof the applications associated (e.g. rubber-modified
asphalt, artificial turf infill, molded rubber products, etc.)
and reclaimed rubber, which also involve materialtransformation to form reclaimed rubber.
Meanwhile, three recovery routes are split between
material and energy recovery and are considered ashybrid technologies in the scope of the project: pyrolysis
and gasification, the use of ELT in cement kilns, and theuse of ELT in steel production. All three of thesetechnologies contribute to material recovery. Pyrolysis
for example generates char in addition to oil and gas. The
iron that is released during the burning of tires in cementkilns is used as material in the composition of cement.
ELT can replace anthracite in steel works to provide
carbon and prevent oxidation of metal. Civil engineering,makes use of whole tires or tires recovered throughprocessing to varying degrees although transformation is
generally considered limited for this category.
Finally, only the wider group of energy recovery, which
comprises the use of ELT in power plants, industrial
boilers or pulp and paper mills, does not contribute tomaterial recovery. This recovery route is considered as“Other energy recovery” and is not a priority routeaccording to the waste management hierarchy.

41

Figure 6 Position of recovery methods and applications along the waste management hierarchy

Environmental considerations illustrated by life cyclein the study. Indeed, asphalt production involves

assessments (LCA): The sustainability considerations

additional processing steps for ELT granulate that may

relative to ELT recovery applications were assessed

require high electricity and diesel consumption, withthrough various indicators in the scope of LCA studies.

associated GHG emissions. However, rubber-modified
asphalt still represents a very interesting application of

The recovery of ELT for use in various applications isusually always environmentally preferable to traditional
alternatives. The production of synthetic turf, themanufacture of molded products and the use of ELT in
cement kilns stand out as the most advantageous
methods on the basis of a selection of environmental
indicators in a study conducted in 2010, including total
primary energy consumption, water consumption andproduction of waste (Aliapur, 2010). The environmental

ELT as it can be recycled, unlike most granulation
applications. Rubber modified asphalt has been shown to
improve the performance and durability of the pavement
surfaces stream (Takallou, 2019). Moreover, it can berecycled multiple times at the end of its service live
(Takallou,

2019).

Many,

rubbermoldedproducts,

however, eventually end up in the landfill and would
therefore in comparison be considered only to delay thewaste stream (Takallou, 2019).

performance of playgrounds is very similar to that ofThis trend was confirmed in a study carried out in 2017,

artificial turf infill, as the materials replaced by using

indicating that rubber-modified asphalt did not show highrecycled rubber are the same for both applications. In

environmental performance in terms of acidiﬁcation,comparison, the environmental performance of civil

global warming potential, and depletion of abiotic

engineering applications and retention and infiltration

resources for instance. The uses of liquid asphalt, gravel,basins are relatively minimal.

and diesel in the process are considered key factors

The benefits of ELT recovery and of its different
applications

generallyas

Meanwhile, particular applications were also compared

substitutes for high energy-consumption materials (suchone-on-one, with comparisons of the environmental

as EPDM for artificial turf or molded products) and fromperformance of material recycling (where ELT were sent

avoiding

towards artificial turf and asphalt) and both cement kilns

theresultproduction

and

from

using

transport

ELT(Ortíz-Rodríguez et al., 2017).

ofcertainsubstituted materials when the life span of ELT products

and civil engineering applications.

is greater than those of the products they replace(Aliapur, 2010).

Material recycling was found to have more environmental
benefits than co-incineration, with major differences in

The high environmental performance of cement kilns andterms of global warming potential, energy demand andartificial turf was also illustrated in a number of otheracidification. For instance, between 0.07 and 0.31 person

studies. The use of ELT in cement plants and in artiﬁcial

equivalents5 are saved per ton of tires being recycled andturf provides reductions in GHG emissions, air toxics, andnot incinerated. If 650,000 tons of ELT (representing

water consumption. The substitution of one ton of coal

Germany’s annual ELT production in 2009) were sent

by TDF avoids an estimated 543 kg (CO2 equivalent) of

towards recycling instead of incineration, this would

direct and indirect GHG emissions (Fiksel, 2011).

represent annual potential savings of between 40,000

However, the use of ELT in artificial turf infill was alreadyfacingbarriers

back

in

2011

becauseofmarketand 200,000 person equivalents, depending on impact
category (Kløverpris et al, 2009a).

saturation. Currently, this market is even more limited

Meanwhile,

due to recent controversy (Fiksel, 2011).

(corresponding to annual emissions from more than

Results from LCAs tend to depict rubber-modified asphalt
as an application with lower environmental benefits thanthe other recovery methods and applications considered
Person equivalents express the total impact of treating one
ton of ELT relative to the total environmental impact caused by
one person in one year.
5570,000

tons

of

CO2

emissions

50,000 Europeans) could have been saved if the annual
amount

of

tires

being

sent

to

civil

engineering

applications in Europe in 2009 (300,000 tons) had beenGlobal ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

used for material recycling instead (Kløverpris et al,

subsequent devulcanization represents 94% of energy

2009b).

savings compared to the energy required to produce
virgin tire rubber compound (Visaisouk, 2019).

Overall, material recovery routes were found to have thebest environmental performance out of the applications

Potential risks to human health: Overall, the majority ofassessed throughout LCAs. The use of ELT in cement

studies have concluded that the recovery of ELT implies

kilns also shows high environmental benefits. The

little or no risks for human health, except for some

findings of separate studies are not comparable from one

recovery methods and applications detailed below.

to

the

other,asthehypotheses

made

and

the

methodologies applied differ. It is also important to note

The use of ELT in artificial turf infill is a controversial ELT

that little data is available for some of the recovery

application due to perceived risks for human health.

routes and associated applications covered in this study,

Many studies on the topic are still underway, in the USA

for example devulcanization, reclamation, pyrolysis, as

and in Europe for example. In 2017, the European

they are still quite new methods.

Chemicals Agency (ECHA) concluded that there was “atmost, a very low level of concern from exposure to the

Focus on some applications and innovative technologies:

granules” found in sports pitches and playgrounds

Thefollowing

sectionenvironmental

providesperformance

of

a

a

focus

on

the

(ECHA, 2017). As of 2019, the studies published on thisselectionofELT

topic indicate that there is very low or no risk for humanrecovery applications, for which quantitative information

health associated with the use of ELT in artificial turf andwas available.

playgrounds.

In the case of micronized-rubber powder production,

For instance, Anses, the French Agency for Food,

which uses cryogenic granulation, current processes canEnvironmental

release half the amount of CO2 compared to traditional

reviewed over 50 international studies on the potential

synthetic rubber manufacturing. The product is cooled

health and environmental risks associated with artificial

using liquid nitrogen and therefore does not require

turf and playgrounds using recycled rubber. The main

water. Overall, the process can generate savings ofconclusions from the review indicate low concentrations

10kWh compared to the production of 1kg of syntheticof heavy metals, plasticizers, additives and volatilerubber (Lehigh technologies, 2019).

organic

andcomponents

Occupational(VOCs),

Healthall&

Safety,below

reference

turf

infilltoxicologicalvalues,in

artificial

Producing carbon black from tires during pyrolysis avoids

playgrounds.

Given

the

low

its production through traditional methods, in which oil is

carcinogens emitted or released by tire granulate, thethe primary feedstock. For every kilogram of carbon

studies consider the risk of carcinogenicity as low or

black produced through ELT pyrolysis, around 5 kg of CO2

negligible6. The study did however identify potential risk

are saved in relation to carbon black produced using oil

to the environment, through the transfer of zinc and(Cardozo, 2019). CO2 eq. emissions reduction is henceorganic substances such phenols or phthalates. However,generally above 80% compared to virgin carbon black

the current SOK on this subject was not sufficient to draw

production, which is also an economic factor when carbon

any conclusions (Anses, 2018).

concentrations

andofpricing is applied (Ershag and Olofsson, 2019).
Furthermore, ETRMA published a statement on the safety
Finally, in terms of sustainability considerations, differentof recycled rubber infill material in 2016. Rubber

devulcanizationconsiderable

components which can come into direct contact with theenvironmental benefits compared to the production of ageneral public must comply with EU REACH restrictions

typical tire compound. Some processes consume low(ETRMA, 2016). According to the analyses conducted andamounts of energy to convert ELT rubber crumb into

rubber chemical registration dossiers submitted as well

devulcanizedenergyas the reactivity of used chemicals, “no known CMR

consumption for the production of ELT crumb and[carcinogenic, mutagenic, or toxic for reproduction ]processes

rubberinvolvecompound.

The

total

PAHs constitute the carcinogenic substances most frequently
evaluated in the studies analyzed.
644

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

substances are present in the granules in concentrations

health, notably because a top coat covers the layer of

equal or greater than either the relevant specificrecycled rubber in playgrounds (Raahauge, 2019).

concentration limit specified in Part 3 of Annex VI ofgeneric

In terms of public perception, significant work by cement

concentration limit” in Part 3 of Annex I of the same

companies is needed to overcome the perceptions ofregulation (ETRMA, 2016). Many of the 70 scientific"black smoke" from open burning (Cumming, 2019).

reports and articles published worldwide by the time of

Although the science is well established that emissions

writing of the ETRMA statement in 2016 concluded that.

tend to be lower with ELT use in high temperature,“there is no significant or scientifically justified risk

controlled kiln fuel use there continues to be significant

associated to the use of rubber granules made from end

negative press for the use of ELT in cement kilns,of life tires” (ETRMA, 2016).

affecting brand image and potentially putting off some

Regulation

(EC)

No

1272/2008,

or

the

cementcompanies from using

ELT intheir kilns

There have also been concerns around the harmfulness(Cumming, 2019). However, this perception appears toof burning waste in cement kilns on human health due tobe specific to some geographical areas. In Brazil for

air pollution. It was concluded that the risk to human

example, there does not seem to be negative perception

health is minimal.

of the use of ELT in cement kilns, especially as it reduces
stockpiles and landfill (Bastos Da Porciuncula, 2019).

For other recovery routes, the wide array of technologies

Technologies

considered under one route leads to differences in terms

environmental and health externalities, such as chemicalof risks associated. For instance, the process of chemical

reclamation, also suffer from bad public perception.

which

are

known

to

have

negativereclamation used in some countries (e.g. China andIndia) requires large volumes of chemical solvents that

However,are believed to be hazardous to the health of workers, in

supported by the public and receive positive media

someaddition to causing pollution. Furthermore, in India, risks

coverage.

of water pollution and respiratory illness were associatedtechnologies, such as new devulcanization technologies,

to pyrolysis, and increasing attention is given to the

granulation methods (which produce micronized-rubber

human health risks of this technology in Thailand.

powder for example), or even advanced pyrolysis

However, in Europe, where the pyrolysis processes aretechniques. Public and industry perception can also bevery different and involve more advanced technology,

influenced by various contests and prizes, such as

there are no significant issues linked to human health atsustainability awards. Stakeholders state that winningthe moment.

such prizes has a strong influence on the public

Thisapplications
is

the

case

or
for

technologies
many

are

innovative

perception of their industries.
Meanwhile, and in relation to the potential risks to humanhealth, some applications of ELT recovery have suffered

Lifetime of output products and recyclability: Thefrom negative media perception. The unsubstantiatedrecyclability of output products is also an important

negative media coverage surrounding artificial turf infill

element

created a difficult decision-making environment for key

sustainability

stakeholders and caused a temporary decline in demand

products and applications. The information concerningof approximately 30% in the USA between 2014 andthis particular topic was limited, but it seems that most2017 (Bigelow, 2019). Similarly, some civil engineering

applications of ELT recovery are not recyclable, except

applications, such as retention or drainage basins, arefor a few exceptions, such as rubber-modified asphalt.

to

take

into

account

considerations

for

when

looking

recoveryatmethods,

subject to public mistrust, due to the perceived potential
hazardous effects the material could have on water

The positive perception of rubber-modified asphalt has(leaching, etc.). A lack of consensus rests on this matter,

improved over the past few years, thanks to the support

though specific studies have been conducted by someof tire associations highlighting its potential to improvecompanies to demonstrate the absence of risk for water

durability

pollution. The use of recycled rubber in playgrounds isaforementioned, it also has the potential for circularity,

not considered as creating risk for environment andthrough recycling by recovery and integration into a newforexample(Sheerin,

mix where necessary (Takallou, 2019).
452018).

AsGlobal ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

In conclusion, the sustainability considerations relative to
ELT recovery routes can be assessed through theirenvironmental performance. Some recovery routes haveconsiderable benefits in terms of avoided impacts
according to several LCA studies, such as the use of ELT
in cement kilns and in artificial turf infill. Seizing theimportance of this issue, new technologies are placing a
lot of focus on developing processes with increased
attentionforenvironmental

considerations,withreductions in energy and water consumptions forexample. The impact of these technologies on humanhealth must also be considered, and a wide array ofstudies have been conducted on those that pose potential
risk in terms of environmental and health concerns.
Nevertheless, public and industry perception play a
crucial role in the acceptance of these technologies, andtherefore in the further development and expansion ofrecovery routes.

46Summary for each recovery route
A brief summary of the current state and context surrounding recovery routes is available below in alphabetical order.
Cement production and other energy recovery

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

Civil Engineering

48

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

Granulation

49

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

Pyrolysis50

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

Reclamation

51

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

Steel production

52

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

Concluding remarks
The compliance with or promotion of a waste management hierarchy is a common trend in many of the regulatory
frameworks assessed in this study. Energy recovery may generally be constrained by regulatory context alignedwith the waste hierarchy. However, other more indirect policies in the context of energy transition such as GHG
emission reductions and energy security can be responded to through use of ELT as an alternative fuel with ahigh calorific value, renewable energy component and reduced carbon intensity relative to fossil fuels such ascoal. Some regions or countries have set objectives to encourage recycling and limit recovery, while others haveestablished more stringent regulation to exclude energy recovery from ELT management systems. Setting up
grant programs is also common in some areas, such as North America, where subsidies are given for the use of
rubber granulate in high value applications, promoting material recycling.
From a technical feasibility standpoint, various recovery routes are capable of treating significant volumes. For
instance, cement kilns can absorb large amounts of ELT without significant technical difficulties. However, as acapital investment requirement is required for adaptation, a long-term perspective is required. Civil engineering
applications on the other hand do not require the same level of initial investment but have relatively highcapacities. Despite the currently limited market, civil engineering may have considerable potential. Meanwhile,
TDM obtained through granulation is overall a straightforward well-established process with particularly
advantageous properties and performance for applications such as rubberized asphalt.
The economic assessment of ELT recovery routes must make a distinction between those that depend on theadded value of output products using ELT as feedstock (material recycling in particular), and those that replace
traditional materials or fuel with ELT. The economic models for several granulation applications may require
relatively high investment costs for equipment and infrastructure, while the economic viability of otherapplications will depend on the price of the traditional counterpart (e.g. fuel). The market size must also be
considered, as there appears to be room for new technologies, offering innovative products, while the market for
certain traditional applications, such as granulate used in artificial turf infill, has decreased.
Although only contributing in part to material recovery, the cement industry, with significant capacity, remains
an important destination for ELT provided that a number of economic criteria are met, including traditional fuelcosts remaining high in comparison and the availability of gate fees as an additional incentive. For the collection
and delivery tied to the cement industry, for instance, this was as simple as the retraction of gate fees provided
through extending producer responsibility financial transactions.
Trends have been observed concerning evolving technologies and enhanced enforcement of required standards.
Reclaimed rubber operations that are significant in China and on a global scale may be constrained by policies totackle non-compliance with regard to environmental standards. The related technology devulcanization is now
developing under conditions that limit externalities and leave a higher quality output. In a similar manner,
informal pyrolysis activities in Asia focused on producing oil are facing a new wave of restrictions, while new safer
forms of pyrolysis technology are developing with a focus on other components, notably carbon black and its
diverse applications.
The sustainability considerations relative to ELT recovery routes can be assessed through their environmental
performance. Some recovery routes have considerable benefits in terms of avoided impacts according to several

53

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

LCA studies, such as the use of ELT in cement kilns and in artificial turf infill. Seizing the importance of this issue,
new technologies are placing a lot of focus on having environmentally performant processes, with reductions inenergy and water consumptions, for example. The impact of these technologies on human health must also be
considered, and a wide array of studies have been conducted on those that are considered of potential risk.
Nevertheless, public and industry perceptions play a crucial role in the acceptance of these technologies, andtherefore in the further development and expansion of recovery routes.
Finally, the major factors differentiating the feasibility of ELT recovery technologies in countries with developing
or non-existing ELT management systems when compared with those with mature ELT management systems are
directly related to governance and infrastructure. Where little framework exists, the stages of the supply chain
lack synergy and consequently, the case for investment in large scale facilities is harder to make.

54

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS

References•

ANSES (2018), “Scientific and technical support on the possible risks related to the use of materials
derived from the recycling of used tyres in synthetic sports grounds and similar uses”. Available at:https://www.anses.fr/fr/system/files/CONSO2018SA0033RaEN.pdf•

Aliapur (2010), “Life cycle assessment of nine recovery methods for end-of-life tyres”. Available at:https://ec.europa.eu/growth/tools-databases/eip-rawmaterials/en/system/files/ged/59%20Annex%20%20LCA%20of%209%20recovery%20methods%20for%20end-of-life%20tyres%20Aliapur%20June2010_EN.pdf.

•

ECHA (2017a), “Granules and mulches on sports pitches and playgrounds”. European Chemicals Agency.
Available at: https://echa.europa.eu/hot-topics/granules-mulches-on-pitches-playgrounds•

ECHA (2017b) An evaluation of the possible health risks of recycled rubber granules used as infill insynthetic turf sports fields, 28 February 2017.

•

ECHA (2019) ECHA’s committees conclude on one restriction and 10 harmonised classification andlabelling opinions, 18 June 2019

•

ETRMA

(2016),“ETRMAon

Safetyofrecycledrubberinfillmaterial”.

Availableat:

http://www.etrma.org/uploads/Modules/Documentsmanager/20161017_etrma_crumb-rubber_vf-2.pdf

55•

ETRMA (2019), Updated information provided by Jose Maria Bermejo, EU Coordinator End-of Life Tyres
ETRMA

•

Fiksel et al. (2011), “Comparative life cycle assessment of beneficial applications for scrap tires”, Fiksel,
J., Bakshi, B.R., Baral, A. et al. Clean Techn Environ Policy 13: 19. Ohio State University. Available at:https://doi.org/10.1007/s10098-010-0289-1.

•

Gandhi (2014), “Reclaimed Rubber: On Road to Recognition”, GRP Limited, India, World Rubber Summit,
2014•

GlobalRubberMarkets(2019),
https://globalrubbermarkets.com/tag/rss3.

•

International Rubber Study Group (SRSG) (2016), “Quarterly
http://www.rubberstudy.com/documents/WebSiteData_June2016.pdf•

Kløverpris et al. (2009a), “Comparative life cycle assessment of two options for waste tyre treatment:material recycling vs. co-incineration in cement kilns”. FORCE Technology, Copenhagen Resource
Institute,
InstituteforEnergyandEnvironmental
Research
Germany.
Availableat:https://www.genan.eu/wp-content/uploads/2017/04/LCA_Material_recycling_vs._coincineration_in_cement_kilns.pdf•

Kløverpris et al. (2009b), “Comparative life cycle assessment of two options for waste tyre treatment:material recycling versus civil engineering applications”. FORCE Technology, Copenhagen Resource
Institute,
InstituteforEnergyandEnvironmental
Research
Germany.
Availableat:https://www.genan.eu/wpcontent/uploads/2017/04/LCA_Material_recycling_vs._civil_engineering_applications.pdf•

LehighTechnologies(2019),
http://lehightechnologies.com/

Official“RSS3”,

website,Accessedaccessed

08/04/2019.

Statistics”.

06/03/2019.

Available

Available

Available

at:

at:

at:

Global ELT Management – A global state of knowledge on regulation, management systems, impacts of recovery and technologies GENERAL

BUSINESS TERMS•

Ortíz-Rodríguez et al. (2017), “Environmental Impact of End-of-Life Tires: LifeCycle Assessment
Comparison of Three Scenarios from a Case Study in Valle Del Cauca, Colombia”. Oscar O. OrtízRodríguez, William Ocampo-Duque, Laura I. Duque-Salazar.

•

OWNA (2017), Ontario Waste Management Association, “Executive summary used tire regulation”, May
2017. Available at: https://silkstart.s3.amazonaws.com/592d75786862130d22f0dc5a.pdf.

•

TRR (2017) Tyre & Rubber Recycling, Issue No. 35 2017/1

Interviews:•

Bigelow (2019), Steve Bigelow, Vice President of Sales and Marketing, Liberty Tires, 11/02/19•

Bastos Da Porciuncula (2019) Eduardo Bastos Da Porciuncula, Head of Alternative fuels and raw materials,
Votorantim Cimentos, 11/02/19•

Cardozo, Martijn Lopez (2019), CEO of Black Bear Carbon, 23/01/19•

Cumming (2019), Robert Cumming, Environment & Public Affairs Director, Lafarge Holcim Canada
05/02/19•

Domas (2019), Hervé Domas, Managing Director, Aliapur, 31/05/19•

Doyen (2019), Olivier Doyen, Area Head Waste Management Sub-Saharan Africa, Geocycle, 29/03/19•

Ershag, Bengt Sture and Olofsson, Fredrick (2019), R&D Manager and Sales Manager respectively for
Enviro Systems, 21/02/19•

Fox-Rawlings (2018), Interview with Stephanie Fox-Rawlings, Senior research fellow, center4research,
06/09/18•

Gergonne (2016 and 2019) Arnaud Gergonne, National commercial representative, Draingom, 15/04/19•

Jee (2018), KOTMA (2018), Youngchul Jee, KOTMA Environment Team, Written response toquestionnaire, 12/09/2018•

Sandström, Linda (2019), Researcher at RISE, Research Institutes of Sweden, 04/02/19•

Sheerin (2018), John Sheerin, Director End of Life Tire Programs, United States Tire Manufacturers
Association (USTMA), 10/09/18

56•

Takallou (2019), Barry Takallou, President & CEO CRM Rubber, granulation and applications, 12/02/19•

Visaisouk (2019), Interview with Sam Visaisouk, CEO of Tyromer, 19/02/2019