IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NEURAL NETWORKS, VOL. 15, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2004

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Which Model to Use for Cortical Spiking Neurons?
Eugene M. Izhikevich

Abstract—We discuss the biological plausibility and computational efficiency of some of the most useful models of spiking andbursting neurons. We compare their applicability to large-scale
simulations of cortical neural networks.
Index
Terms—Chaos,
Hodgkin–Huxley,
pulse-coupledneural network (PCNN), quadratic integrate-and-fire (I&F),
spike-timing.

I. INTRODUCTION

D

URING last few years we have witnessed a shift of the emphasis in the artificial neural network community toward
spiking neural networks. Motivated by biological discoveries,
many studies (see this volume) consider pulse-coupled neuralnetworks with spike-timing as an essential component in information processing by the brain.
In any study of network dynamics, there are two crucial issues which are: 1) what model describes spiking dynamics ofeach neuron and 2) how the neurons are connected. Inappropriate choice of the spiking model or the connectivity may leadto results having nothing to do with the information processing
by the brain. In this paper, we consider the first issue, i.e., wecompare and contrast various models of spiking neurons.
In Section II and Fig. 1, we review important neuro-computational features of real neurons and their contribution to temporal coding and spike-timing information processing. In Section III, we consider various models of spiking neurons and rankthem according to: 1) the number of neuro-computational features they can reproduce; and 2) their implementation efficiency,
i.e., the number of floating-point operations (addition, multiplication, etc.) needed to simulate the model during a 1 ms time
span. The results of our comparison are summarized in Fig. 2.
We compare the utility of the models to large-scale simulationsof cortical networks in Section IV.
II. NEURO-COMPUTATIONAL FEATURESIn Fig. 1, we review 20 of the most prominent features of biological spiking neurons. The goal of this section is to illustrate
the richness and complexity of spiking behavior of individual
neurons in response to simple pulses of dc current. What happens when only tens (let alone billions) of such neurons are coupled together is beyond our comprehension. Using some of themodels discussed in Section III, the reader can simulate thousands of cortical neurons in real time with 1 ms resolution.
Manuscript received May 17, 2003; revised June 31, 2004. This work was
supported in part by the Neurosciences Research Foundation and in part by aGrant from the Alafi Family Foundation.
The author is with the The Neurosciences Institute, San Diego, CA 92121
USA (e-mail: Eugene.Izhikevich@nsi.edu).
Digital Object Identifier 10.1109/TNN.2004.832719

A. Tonic Spiking
Most neurons are excitable, that is, they are quiescent but canfire spikes when stimulated. To test this property, neurophysiologists inject pulses of dc current via an electrode attached to theneuron and record its membrane potential. The input current andthe neuronal response are usually plotted one beneath the other, as
inFig.1(a).Whiletheinputison,theneuroncontinuestofireatrainof spikes. This kind of behavior, called tonic spiking, can be observed in the three types of cortical neurons: regular spiking (RS)excitatory neurons, low-threshold spiking (LTS), and fast spiking(FS)inhibitoryneurons[1],[6].Continuousfiringofsuchneurons
indicate that there is a persistent input.
B. Phasic Spiking
A neuron may fire only a single spike at the onset of the input,
as in Fig. 1(b), and remain quiescent afterwards. Such a response
is called phasic spiking, and it is useful for detection of the beginning of stimulation.
C. Tonic BurstingSome neurons, such as the chattering neurons in cat neocortex[7], fire periodic bursts of spikes when stimulated, as in Fig. 1(c).
The interburst (i.e., between bursts) frequency may be as highas 50 Hz, and it is believed that such neurons contribute to the
gamma-frequency oscillations in the brain.
D. Phasic Bursting
Similarly to the phasic spikers, some neurons are phasic
bursters, as in Fig. 1(d). Such neurons report the beginning of
the stimulation by transmitting a burst.
There are three major hypothesis on the importance of bursts
in the brain which are: 1) bursts are needed to overcome thesynaptic transmission failure and reduce neuronal noise [20];2) Bursts can transmit saliency of the input, because the effectof a burst on the postsynaptic neuron is stronger than the effect of a single spike; and 3) bursts can be used for selective
communication between neurons [14], where the interspike frequency within the bursts encodes the channel of communication. A good model of a cortical neuronal network cannot neglect bursting neurons.
E. Mixed Model (Bursting Then Spiking)
Intrinsically bursting (IB) excitatory neurons in mammalian
neocortex [1] can exhibit a mixed type of spiking activity depicted in Fig. 1(e). They fire a phasic burst at the onset of stimulation and then switch to the tonic spiking mode. It is not clear
what kind of computation such a neuron can do in addition to
detecting the onset and reporting the extent of stimulation.

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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NEURAL NETWORKS, VOL. 15, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2004

Fig. 1. Summary of the neuro-computational properties of biological spiking neurons. Shown are simulations of the same model (1) and (2), with different choicesof parameters. Each horizontal bar denotes a 20-ms time interval. The MATLAB file generating the figure and containing all the parameters, as well as interactive
matlab tutorial program can be downloaded from the author’s website. This figure is reproduced with permission from www.izhikevich.com. (Electronic versionof the figure and reproduction permissions are freely available at www.izhikevich.com).

F. Spike Frequency Adaptation
The most common type of excitatory neuron in mammalian
neocortex, namely the regular spiking (RS) cell, fires tonic
spikes with decreasing frequency, as in Fig. 1(f). That is, thefrequency is relatively high at the onset of stimulation, and thenit adapts. Low-threshold spiking (LTS) inhibitory neurons also
have this property. The interspike frequency of such cells may
encode the time elapsed since the onset of the input.
G. Class 1 Excitability
The frequency of tonic spiking of neocortical RS excitatoryneurons depends on the strength of the input, and it may span

the range from 2 Hz to 200 Hz, or even greater. The ability
to fire low-frequency spikes when the input is weak (but superthreshold) is called Class 1 excitability [8], [17], [22]. Class
1 excitable neurons can encode the strength of the input into
their firing rate, as in Fig. 1(g).
H. Class 2 Excitability
Some neurons cannot fire low-frequency spike trains. That is,they are either quiescent or fire a train of spikes with a certain
relatively large frequency, say 40 Hz, as in Fig. 1(h). Such neurons are called Class 2 excitable [8], [17], [22]. Their firing rate
is a poor predictor of the strength of stimulation.

IZHIKEVICH: WHICH MODEL TO USE FOR CORTICAL SPIKING NEURONS?

I. Spike Latency
Most cortical neurons fire spikes with a delay that depends
on the strength of the input signal. For a relatively weak but
superthreshold input, the delay, also called spike latency, can bequite large, as in Fig. 1(i). The RS cells in mammalian cortex
can have latencies of tens of ms. Such latencies provide a spiketiming mechanism to encode the strength of the input.
J. Subthreshold Oscillations
Practically every brain structure has neurons capable of exhibiting oscillatory potentials, as in Fig. 1(j). The frequency ofsuch oscillations play an important role and such neurons act as
bandpass filters, as we discuss next.

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ceding inhibitory input. Hence, the same 10-mV depolarization
can be subthreshold or superthreshold depending on the prioractivity. Interestingly, a preceding excitatory pulse might raise
the threshold and make the neuron less excitable.
P. Bistability of Resting and Spiking States
Some neurons can exhibit two stable modes of operation:
resting and tonic spiking (or even bursting). An excitatory or
inhibitory pulse can switch between the modes, as in Fig. 1(p),thereby creating an interesting possibility for bistability andshort-term memory. Notice that to switch from the tonic spiking
to resting mode, the input must arrive at an appropriate phase of
oscillation, thereby emphasizing the importance of spike-timing
in such information processing.

K. Frequency Preference and ResonanceDue to the resonance phenomenon, neurons having oscillatory potentials can respond selectively to the inputs having frequency content similar to the frequency of subthreshold oscillations. Such neurons can implement frequency-modulated (FM)interactions and multiplexing of signals [14], [16]. In Fig. 1(k),we stimulate such a neuron with two doublets (pairs of spikes)
having different interspike frequencies. The neuron responds
only to the doublet whose frequency resonates with the frequency of subthreshold oscillations. Such neurons are called
resonators.
L. Integration and Coincidence Detection
Neurons without oscillatory potentials act as integrators.
They prefer high-frequency input; the higher the frequency
the more likely they fire, as in Fig. 1. This can be useful for
detecting coincident or nearly coincident spikes.
M. Rebound Spike
When a neuron receives and then is released from an inhibitory input, it may fire a post-inhibitory (rebound) spike, as
in Fig. 1(m). This phenomenon is related to the anodal break
excitation in excitable membranes. Many spiking neurons canfire in response to brief inhibitory inputs thereby blurring thedifference between excitation and inhibition.
N. Rebound Burst
Some neurons, including the thalamo-cortical cells, may firepost-inhibitory bursts, as in Fig. 1(n). It is believed that suchbursts contribute to the sleep oscillations in the thalamo-corticalsystem.
O. Threshold Variability
A common misconception in the artificial neural network
community is the belief that spiking neurons have a fixedvoltage threshold. It is well-known that biological neurons havea variable threshold that depends on the prior activity of theneurons. In Fig. 1(o), we first stimulate a neuron with a brief
excitatory pulse of current that produces 10 mV depolarization.
The neuron does not fire, hence, the input is subthreshold.
Then, we apply a brief inhibitory input and then exactly thesame “subthreshold” pulse of current. The neuron fires thesecond time because its “threshold” was lowered by the pre-Q. Depolarizing After-Potentials
After firing a spike, the membrane potential of a neuron may
exhibit a prolonged after-hyperpolarization (AHP) as, e.g., inFig. 1(b), I or M, or a prolonged depolarized after-potential(DAP), as in Fig. 1(q). Such DAPs can appear because of dendritic influence, because of a high-threshold inward currents activated during the spike, or because of an interplay between subthreshold voltage-gated currents. In any case, such a neuron has
shortened refractory period and it becomes superexcitable.
R. Accommodation
Neurons are extremely sensitive to brief coincident inputs,
but may not fire in response to a strong but slowly increasing
input, as we illustrate in Fig. 1(r). The slowly ramped current
in the figure does not elicit a spike, while a smaller but sharply
ramped current elicits a spike. During the slow ramp, the inward
currents have enough time to inactivate and outward currents
have enough time to activate, so the neuron accommodates, becomes less excitable and cannot generate a spike.
S. Inhibition-Induced Spiking
A bizarre feature of many thalamo-cortical neurons is thatthey are quiescent when there is no input, but fire when hyperpolarized by an inhibitory input or an injected current, as we
illustrate in Fig. 1(s). This happens because the injected current activates the h-current and deinactivates calcium T-current,
leading to tonic spiking.
T. Inhibition-Induced Bursting
Instead of spiking, a thalamo-cortical neuron can fire tonic
bursts of spikes in response to a prolonged hyperpolarization, as
in Fig. 1(t). It is believed that such bursting takes place during
spindle wave oscillations in the thalamo-cortical system and it
plays an important role in sleep rhythms.
No model should exhibit all these 20 neurocomputational
properties simultaneously simply because some of the properties are mutually exclusive. For example, a neuron cannot be an
integrator and a resonator at the same time. However, there aremodels that can easily be tuned to exhibit each such property.
For example, all of the neuronal responses in Fig. 1 were obtained using a simple spiking model having four easily tunable
parameters [15].

1066IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NEURAL NETWORKS, VOL. 15, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2004

Fig. 2. Comparison of the neuro-computational properties of spiking and bursting models; see Fig. 1. “# of FLOPS” is an approximate number of floating point
operations (addition, multiplication, etc.) needed to simulate the model during a 1 ms time span. Each empty square indicates the property that the model should
exhibit in principle (in theory) if the parameters are chosen appropriately, but the author failed to find the parameters within a reasonable period of time.

III. SPIKING MODELS
Below we review some widely used models of spiking andbursting neurons that can be expressed in the form of ordinary
differential equations (ODE) (thus, we exclude the spike response model [5]). In addition to the 20 neuro-computationalfeatures reviewed above, we also consider whether the models
have biophysically meaningful and measurable parameters, andwhether they can exhibit autonomous chaotic activity. We startwith the simplest models first. The summary of our comparison
is in Fig. 2.
Throughout this section, denotes the membrane potential
and denotes its derivative with respect to time. All the parameters in the models are chosen so that has mV scale and thetime has ms scale. To compare computational cost, we assume, isthat each model, written as a dynamical system

implemented using a fixed-step first-order Euler methodwith the integration time step chosen
to achieve a reasonable numerical accuracy.
A. I&FOne of the most widely used models in computational neuroscience is the leaky integrate-and-fire (I&F) neuron
if

then

where is the membrane potential, is the input current, and, , , andare the parameters. When the membrane potential reaches the threshold value, the neuron is said
to fire a spike, and is reset to .
The I&F neuron is Class 1 excitable; it can fire tonic spikes
with constant frequency, and it is an integrator. It is the simplest

IZHIKEVICH: WHICH MODEL TO USE FOR CORTICAL SPIKING NEURONS?

model to implement when the integration time step is 1 ms.
takes only
Indeed, the iteration
four floating-point operations (additions, multiplications, etc.). Because I&F
plus one comparison with the thresholdhas only one variable, it cannot have phasic spiking, bursting of
any kind, rebound responses, threshold variability, bistabilityof attractors, or autonomous chaotic dynamics. Because of the
fixed threshold, the spikes do not have latencies. In summary,despite its simplicity, I&F is one of the worst models to use
in simulations, unless one wants to prove analytical results.
B. I&F with Adaptation

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an arbitrary function describing activity-dependent after-spike
reset. The resonate-and-fire model is simple and efficient—it
takes 10 operations to simulate 1 ms. When the frequency of, it becomes an integrator. Its neuro-computaoscillation
tional properties are summarized in Fig. 2.
E. Quadratic I&F
An alternative to the leaky I&F neuron is the quadratic
I&F neuron, also known as the theta-neuron [2], [3] or theErmentrout–Kopell canonical model [10] (when it is written ina trigonometric form). We present it here following [19]The I&F model is one-dimensional (1-D), hence it cannot
burst or have other properties of cortical neurons. One may thinkthat having a second linear equation

describing activation dynamics of a high-threshold K current
can make an improvement, e.g., endow the model with spikefrequency adaptation. Indeed, each firing increases the K activation gate via Dirac delta function and produces an outward
current that slows down the frequency of tonic spiking. Simulations of this model take 10 floating point operations/1 ms time
step, yet the model still lacks many important properties of cortical spiking neurons.
C. Integrate-and-Fire-or-Burst
Smith and coauthors [24] suggested an improvement—integrate-and-fire-or-burst (I&FB) model

if

then

if

then

where
and
are the resting and threshold values ofthe membrane potential. This model is canonical in the sensethat any Class 1 excitable system described by smooth ODEs
can be transformed into this form by a continuous change ofvariables [18]. It takes only seven operations to simulate 1 msof the model, and this should be the model of choice when one
simulates large-scale networks of integrators. Unlike its linear
analogue, the quadratic I&F neuron has spike latencies, activityonly when), anddependent threshold (which isbistability of resting and tonic spiking modes.
F. Spiking Model by Izhikevich (2003)
All of the responses in Fig. 1 were obtained using a simple
model of spiking neurons proposed recently by Izhikevich [15](1)(2)
with the auxiliary after-spike resetting

if

if

then

(3)

if
to model thalamo-cortical neurons. Here describes the inactivation of the calcium T-current, , ,
,
, and
are
parameters describing dynamics of the T-current, and is the
Heaviside step function.
Having this kind of a second variable creates the possibility
for bursting and other interesting regimes summarized in Fig. 2.
But this comes with a price: It takes between 9 and 13 operations(depending on the value of ) to simulate 1 ms of the model.
D. Resonate-and-Fire
The resonate-and-fire neuron [16] is a two-dimensional (2-D)
analogue of the I&F neuron

if

then

where the real part of the complex variable is the membrane
are parameters, andispotential. Here , , andHere variable represents the membrane potential of the neuron
and represents a membrane recovery variable, which accounts
ionic currents and inactivation of Na
for the activation ofionic currents, and it provides negative feedback to . After themV , the membrane voltage andspike reaches its apex
the recovery variable are reset according to the (3). If skips
over 30, then it first is reset to 30, and then to so that all spikes
is chosen
have equal magnitudes. The partso that has mV scale and the time has ms scale. Geometricalderivation of the model based on fast and slow nullclines can befound in [11].
The model can exhibit firing patterns of all known typesof cortical neurons with the choice of parameters , , ,andgiven in [15]. It takes only 13 floating point operations to simulate 1 ms of the model, so it is quite efficient in large-scale simulations of cortical networks. Whenand, the model has
chaotic spiking activity, though the integration time stepshould be small to achieve adequate numerical precision.

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We stress thatmV in (3) is not a threshold, but the peakof the spike. The threshold value of the model neuron is between–70 and -50, and it is dynamic, as in biological neurons. To build
intuition and understanding of the dynamics of the model, thereader is advised to download an interactive MATLAB tutorial
program from the author’s webpage and play with the modeland its parameters. In particular, the reader could explore all 20
neuro-computational properties in Fig. 1.

IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NEURAL NETWORKS, VOL. 15, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2004

where

G. FitzHugh–Nagumo
The parameters in the FitzHugh–Nagumo model [4]can be tuned so that the model describes spiking dynamics ofmany resonator neurons. Its neuro-computational properties are
summarized in Fig. 2. Since one needs to simulate the shape ofeach spike, the time step in the model must be relatively small,
ms. It takes 18 floating point operations/0.25
e.g.,
ms, hence 72 operations/1 ms of simulation. Since the model
is a 2-D system of ODEs without a reset, it cannot exhibit autonomous chaotic dynamics or bursting. Adding noise to this,or some other 2-D models, allows for stochastic bursting.
H. Hindmarsh–Rose
The Hindmarsh–Rose model of thalamic neuron [23] can be
writtenwith parameters:
mV,

cm ,
cm ,
mV,
mV,

cm ,
mV,
mV,
s ,

cm ,
mV,
mV,
cm .
and applied current
The model can exhibit various types of spiking, but could exhibit tonic bursting only when an additional equation is added,
e.g., slow inactivation of Ca current. In this case, the model
becomes equivalent to the Hodgkin–Huxley model discussed
below (both have transient inward and persistent outward currents).
Because one needs to simulate the shape of the action potential in the Morris–Lecar model, the time step must be sigms is thenificantly smaller than 1 ms. We found thatlargest step that gives reasonable results when the model is used
to simulate cortical spiking neurons. Since the model involves
hyperbolic tangents and exponents, it takes around 60 floating
point operations to evaluate one 0.1-ms time step, which leads
to 600 operations/1 ms of simulation.
J. Wilson Polynomial Neurons

where , , andare some functions. Depending on theirchoice, the model can, in principle, exhibit all of the neuro-computational properties in Fig. 1. The problem is, of course, how
to find the functions to model, say RS or LTS neurons. Let us
assume that this problem is somehow solved and that the functions are polynomials of the third degree (in the best case). Since
we need to simulate the shape of the action potential, the maximal time step is 0.25 ms. Since it takes 30 floating point operations/0.25 ms of simulation time, it would take 120 operations
to simulate 1 ms of the model. Again, this is an optimistic assessment that might never be achieved.
I. Morris–Lecar
Morris and Lecar [21] suggested a simple 2-D model todescribe oscillations in barnacle giant muscle fiber. Because it
has biophysically meaningful and measurable parameters, themodel became quite popular in computational neuroscience
community. It consists of a membrane potential equation withinstantaneous activation of Ca current and an additional equation describing slower activation of current

Wilson [25] suggested to model cortical neurons using polynomial equations. His model consists of four differential equations, which we do not provide here. It can exhibit all neurocomputational properties in Fig. 1, provided that the parameters
are chosen appropriately, which is not an easy task. The suggested time step in the model was 0.1 ms, though it could be
pushed up to 0.25 ms without significant loss of precision or noticeable distortion of the shape of the action potential. It takes
45 floating point operations to evaluate 0.25 ms of the model,
hence 180 operations/1 ms.
K. Hodgkin–Huxley
The Hodgkin–Huxley model [9] is one of the most important models in computational neuroscience. It consists of four
equations and tens of parameters, not provided here, describing
membrane potential, activation of Na and K currents, and inactivation of Na current. Though the model has quite limited behavior for original values of parameters, it can actually exhibit
all properties in Fig. 1, if the parameters are tuned.
In general, scientists refer to all conductance-based models
as being of the Hodgkin–Huxley-type. Such models are important not only because their parameters are biophysically meaningful and measurable, but also because they allow us to investigate questions related to synaptic integration, dendritic cablefiltering, effects of dendritic morphology, the interplay between
ionic currents, and other issues related to single cell dynamics.

IZHIKEVICH: WHICH MODEL TO USE FOR CORTICAL SPIKING NEURONS?

The model is extremely expensive to implement. It takes 120
floating point operations to evaluate 0.1 ms of model time (assuming that each exponent takes only ten operations), hence,
1200 operations/1 ms. Thus, one can use the Hodgkin–Huxleyformalism only to simulate a small number of neurons or whensimulation time is not an issue.
IV. CONCLUSIONAs the reader can see in Fig. 2, many models of spiking neurons have been proposed. Which one to choose? The answer depends on the type of the problem. If the goal is to study how theneuronal behavior depends on measurable physiological parameters, such as the maximal conductances, steady–state (in)activation functions and time constants, then the Hodgkin–Huxleytype model is the best. Of course, you could simulate only tensof coupled spiking neurons in real time.
In contrast, if you want to simulate thousands of spiking neurons in real time with 1 ms resolution, then there are plenty ofmodels to choose from. The most efficient is the I&F model.
However, the model cannot exhibit even the most fundamental
properties of cortical spiking neurons, and for this reason it
should be avoided by all means. The only advantage of the I&F
model is that it is linear, and hence amenable to mathematicalanalysis. If no attempts to derive analytical results are made,then there is no excuse for using this model in simulations.
The quadratic I&F model is practically as efficient as thelinear one, and it exhibits many important properties of real neurons, such as spikes with latencies, and bistability of resting andtonic spiking modes. However, it is 1-D, and hence, it cannot
burst and cannot exhibit spike frequency adaptation. Thus, it canbe used in simulations of cortical neural networks only when biological plausibility is not a great concern.
If the goal is to understand the fine temporal structure of cortical spike trains, and to use spike-timing as an additional variable to understand how the mammalian neocortex processes information, a spiking model that can exhibit all or most of the
20 neuro-computational properties of biological neurons summarized in Fig. 1 is required. The model recently proposed by
Izhikevich [15] was developed exactly for these purposes. It is
the simplest possible model that can exhibit all the firing patterns in Fig. 1. Indeed, removal of the (2) makes it 1-D with nomakes it linear
possibility for bursting, removal of the termand equivalent to the resonate-and-fire model.
The author has used the model to simulate a fully connected
network of 1,000 cortical spiking neurons in real time with 1 ms
resolution using only modest computational resources (1 GHz
desktop PC; MATLAB code is provided in [15]. Using the C
programming language, it is possible to speed up simulations
by the factor of twenty). The network exhibited rhythms in thealpha and gamma frequency range, transient and sustained spikesynchrony, spindle waves, sleep oscillations, and other temporalphenomena.
This model was also used in a simulation of a networkof 100 000 spiking neurons with realistic cortical anatomy,
axonal delays, and spike-timing dependent synaptic plasticity(STDP) [13]. Due to the interplay between spiking, plasticity,and delays, the neurons self-organized into polychronous

1069(i.e., multiple-timing) groups that could generate persistenttime-locked firing patterns with ms precision. There are manysuch polychronous groups coexisting at the same time. In
another study [12], we found that each neuron participates inmany polychronous groups, so that the total number of groups
the model could memorize can significantly exceed the numberof neurons, or even the number of synapses in the network,
resulting in unprecedented memory capacity.
In conclusion, having a network of computationally efficientand biologically plausible cortical spiking neurons interconnected according to the principles of known anatomy of the
neocortex should be the goal of every scientist exploring information processing in the mammalian brain.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The author would like to thank N. S. Desai, A. K. Seth, J. R.
Iversen, Y. Chen, J. L. McKinstry, E. C. Walcott, R. Muresan,
R. Kavasseri, and M. Stich who read the first draft of the manuscript and made a number of useful suggestions.
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IEEE TRANSACTIONS ON NEURAL NETWORKS, VOL. 15, NO. 5, SEPTEMBER 2004

Eugene M. Izhikevich was born in Moscow,
Russia, in 1967. He received the Master’s degree
in applied mathematics and computer sciences from
Lomonosov Moscow State University in 1992, and
the Ph.D. degree in mathematics from Michigan
State University, East Lansing, in 1996.
Eugene is an Associate Fellow at The Neurosciences Institute, La Jolla, CA, where he studies
nonlinear dynamics of biological neurons and builds
large-scale models of the brain.