Journal of Global Resources
Volume 5 (02)
July 2019
ISSN: 2395-3160 (Print), 2455-2445 (Online)

Page 20-28

03
ASSESSMENT OF TRADITIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL KNOWLEDGE SYSTEMS APPLIEDTO CLIMATE CHANGE AND VARIABILITY ADAPTATION IN ROMBO DISTRICT,TANZANIA
Evarist Fundisha
Department of Geography, Mkwawa University College of Education, Tanzania
Email: evarist_fundisha@yahoo.com
Abstract: This study was done to assess the efficacy of traditional environmental knowledge
systems (TEKS) applied to climate change and variability adaptation in Rombo District,Tanzania. Different methods of data collection, analysis and presentation were employed forsensible report. Results indicate the study community have, to some extent, managed towithstand the effects of climate change and variability and other stressors by employing
TEKS. The devised adaptation strategies to crop failure resulted from climate change andvariability can be related to agronomic techniques, social coherence and livelihood
diversification. The efficacy of the devised adaptation strategies were hindered by small landsizes, location, insolvency, technical knowhow, and climate change and variability. For
effective adaptation to climate change and variability, multidisciplinary approaches thatconsider location and socio-economic characteristics of individuals are recommended.
Key words: Climate Change and Variability, Traditional Environmental Knowledge Systems
Introduction
Climate change and variability have been given special attention mainly due to theirdisastrous effects on ecosystems. It is projected that the rising global temperature will cause
increasing drought in mid-latitudes and semi-arid latitudes and increased water stress inmany parts of the world affecting more people each year (Kotir, 2011). In addition, theimpacts of climate change and variability are projected to be more severe in the developing
countries despite their insignificant contribution to them because their livelihoods depend on
climate with less capacity to adapt (Mertz et al., 2009). Since the impacts of climate change
and variability are both local and global, adaptation also requires a collective action that cuts
across from the grassroots to international levels and vice versa (Chatterjee and Huq, 2002).
However, for the resource-poor countries like Tanzania, disaster management ispredominantly built on traditional environmental knowledge systems (TEKS) from the early
warning to mitigation stage (Rugumamu, 2000).
Literature Review
TEKS is described as a cumulative body of knowledge, strategy and belief, evolving by
adaptive processes and handled down through generations by cultural transmission(Riedlinger and Berkes, 2001). Orlove et al. (2010) argue that TEKS should not be seen as arigid, static repertoire of traditions that is unable to incorporate change, rather a flexible entity
which by virtue of its diverse and empirical nature can integrate skills and insights from otherknowledge systems as well as experimental practice. TEKS is intimately interwoven withlocal and regional processes of ecological and historical change that impinge on local
landscapes and life ways (Roncoli et al., 2002).
TEKS can facilitate understanding and effective communication and increase the rateof dissemination and utilisation of climate change adaptation options at local level (Nyong etal., 2007) since most of the impacts of climate change are local and site-specific (Berks andJolly, 2001). TEKS is regarded by Mukhopadhya (2009) as a precious national resource thatcan facilitate the process of disaster prevention, preparedness and response in a coasteffective participatory and sustainable ways. The importance of TEKS in addressing climatechange issues has been described by Speraza et al. (2010) to be a driven need because it is20communicated in local languages by local experts who are known and trusted by local
communities.
Mertz et al. (2009) stressed the importance of TEKS in facilitating adaptation toclimate change and recommended to consider current local practices rather than imposing
nationally decided adaptation options. Kpadonou et al. (2012) add that for any adaptation
which is implemented at local scale, its efficacy will be less dependent on the action ofothers. The failure of some adaptation projects is primarily due to the failure of development
planners to effectively involve local communities in the process (Srinivasan, 2004). This has
been observed by Barbier et al. (2009) in Northern Burkina Faso where improved seeds,
mechanization, irrigation and ranching failed because the adoption of these new techniques
remained disappointing due to market failure. Egeru (2012) stressed the importance of
involving local people in designing and implementing adaptation projects because when all
the modern project implementers leave, the challenge remains with the resident people tomaintain their wellbeing.
A study by Mongula (2000) revealed that, communities in the lowlands of Rombo
District were severely affected by recurrent drought, which also caused food insecurity, water
shortages and pasture deterioration. The report had further predicted that the drought was
escalating and could affect more people. As the damage caused by climate change andvariability to the environment is high and is projected to continue irrespective of the present
mitigation attempts, adaptation is necessary to deal with the current and near-term impactsof climate change and variability (Mertz et al., 2009; Prabhakar et al., 2009).
Studies have also indicated that some local communities managed to withstand theimpacts of climate change and variability by employing their TEKS. Notable examples
include the Canadian Western Arctic Communities (Berks and Jolly, 2001), the indigenous
people of the Sahel (Nyong et al., 2007) and the Maori of New Zealand (King et al., 2008).
Although communities in Rombo District live in a changing climate, to-date there is no
substantive research conducted to assess the efficacy of TEKS applied to climate change
and variability adaptation. Therefore, the present study intends to assess the efficacy of
TEKS applied to climate change and variability adaptation in Rombo District as a basis forachieving sustainable development.
Research Area and Methodologies
The study was conducted in Rombo District (Figure 1). The district is characterised by
mountainous climate with two distinctive rainfall regimes. The short rain season occurs in
October through December, and the long one during March to May.
Figure 01: Study Area

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The study used questionnaire, interview, focus group discussion and observation to havediverse and detailed findings on TEKS applied to climate change and variability.
Questionnaires were directly administered to 611 respondents who were obtained throughrandom sampling in eight villages in three agroecological zones (AEZs). Three focus group
discussions were also used to collect narrative information from 21 participants who were
purposively selected from the three AEZs of the study area. Furthermore, 10 leaders fromthe village and district levels were interviewed to determine official support to adaptation toclimate change and variability. Field observation was also employed to collect none verbal
information. Quantitative data were analysed with a Statistical Package for Social Sciences
Software (SPSS, version 16) and Word Excel, while qualitative data from interviews andfocus group discussions were thematically analysed and presented in frequency tables andnarrations.
Results and Discussion
Characteristics of respondents
Some basic characteristics of respondents related to this study are summarised in Table 1.
The table shows that agriculture is the main livelihood activities with the majority of
respondents (45.9 percent) owned 2 acres of land where 85.6 percent acquired land throughinheritance. Cultivated crops are coffee, banana, maize and beans. Others are cassava,
millet, sorghum, sweet potatoes, sunflower, yams, fruits and vegetables. Animals kept in thearea include cattle, goats, sheep, pigs and poultry.
Table 01: Basic characteristics of respondents (N=611)
Household
Description
Responses based on the AEZ (%)
Characteristics
Highland Intermediate Lowland Average(n=230)(n=274)(n=107)
84.6
Sex
Male
87.8
84.7
81.3
15.4
Female
12.2
15.3
18.7
19.1
Size of land
> 1 acre
24.2
28.0
5.0
45.9
2 acres
50.4
47.4
40
20.1
3 acres
17
23.2
20
14.8
4 + acres
8.3
1.1
35
85.6
Land acquisition
Inherited
83
95.1
78.8
13.2
Bought
15.5
4.9
19.2
0.8
Invaded10
2.1
0.1
Given free
0.4
0
0
100
Livelihood
Agriculture
100
100
100
62.6
activities*
Entrepreneurship
63
62.7
62.1
25.1
Causal labour
22.8
32.5
19.7
13.4
Formal employment 14.2
4.8
21.1
Source: Field Data

* Based on multiple responses

TEKS Applied to Climate Change and Variability Adaptation
The study findings show that the local community in the study area are rich in adaptation
practices and strategies based on their TEKS to ensure that they are food secured (Table 2).
Soil Water Conservation Measures
It was found that about 31 percent of the respondents have devised various strategies basedon their TEKS to conserve soil water. The mentioned and observed soil water conservation
measures were agroforestry, mulching and water halting structures. Interview with the District
Agricultural and Livestock Development Officer (DALDO) revealed also that households ofthe study area are advised to plant cover crops such as pumpkins (Cucurbita spp.) andlablab bean (Lablab purpureus L.) to conserve soil water. Interview with the DALDO further
revealed that farmers are advised to practice deep tillage because it creates micro-relief
which store rain water temporarily and provide time for infiltration. All these indicate that the
study community is aware on the decreased soil moisture resulted from climate change andvariability, which corroborate with Fisher et al. (2010) who have indicated that it was difficult22

to gain insights into the potential for human adaptation if the effects of climate change had
not yet been experienced or were just beginning to be felt.
Table 02: Adaptation strategies to climate change and variability (N=611)
Strategy
Response based on AEZ (%)
Average
HighlandIntermediate Lowland(n=230)(n=274)(n=107)
31.5
Soil water conservation measures
30.3
37
27.3
17.1
Buying food
13
17
20.9
11.4
Use of improved crops
14.7
7.2
12.3
9.4
Intercropping
9
11.2
8
7.7
Food storage
6.4
7.2
9.6
6.0
Early planting
8.6
3.4
5.9
5.1
Drought resistant crops
3.7
4.6
7
4.0
Food aid
4.2
4
3.7
3.9
Farming different AEZs
5.7
4
2.1
0.2
Replant
0
0.2
0.5
3.8
No strategy
4.4
4.4
2.7
Source: Field Data

Buying of food
The findings presented in Table 2 reveal that heads of household in the study community
bought food to ensure that there was food to feed their household members. The findings
show that there were more heads of household who withstood food shortage through foodpurchases as an adaptation measure to crop failure in the lowland than other AEZs. Thisimplies that the lowland AEZ was more affected by rainfall failure than other zones. The
practice of buying food was stated to be limited in its scope because it was determined by
the financial capability of a buyer. Moreover, the majority of the households in the study area
depend on agriculture for livelihoods (Table 1). As such, it was difficult for the heads ofhousehold to feed their household members with bought food in the face of crop failure
because it limits the financial capability of particular households. These findings concur wellwith those by Zorom et al. (2013) and Speranza et al. (2010) who found that local people
severely suffered from food shortage not because of availability of food in the market but due
to insolvency.
The study found that money for buying food could be obtained from selling trees andlivestock. Selling trees may intensify climate change and variability unless the harvesting iscarefully done to avoid deforestation. On the other hand, the selling of livestock to get moneyfor buying food may deny households milk, eggs, and, more importantly, manure for theirfarms. Zorom et al. (2013) found that farmers were keen on selling livestock to buy foodwhere they first sell chicken, goats and sheep whereas cattle was sold at critical point.
Use of Improved Crop Types and Varieties
The study also found that, in addition to the use of improved crop types and varieties
supplied to local people by both authorised and unauthorised dealers, local people haveknowledge of selecting desired crop types and varieties for planting. It can be argued on thebasis of the study findings that, neither local nor new varieties of crops are hundred percent
perfect in meeting the desired qualities of crops. The qualities in question are maturity rate,
resistance to environmental changes and market values. Although the local varieties ofbanana withstand drought, they have poor market value; on the other hand, local varieties of
avocado mature late but have excellent market value. The opposite is respectively observed
for new varieties of banana and avocado. Local crops are less susceptible to pests anddiseases (Shayo, 2006) whereas new crops were mainly introduced to diversify and secure
better income in the Rural Sahel and not for the need to adapt to climate change andvariability (Mertz et al., 2009).

23

The study also found that the adoption of new and improved crop types and varieties werestymied by lack of funds and delays in seed supply by the agents. Based on these findings, it
can be deduced that the use of TEKS in crop production diminishes when people are timely
supplied with alternative resources. In this regard, studies by Barbier et al. (2009) in northern
Burkina Faso, Stringer et al. (2009) in Malawi, McDowell and Hess (2010) in Bolivia and Wilk
et al. (2013) in South Africa established that farmers’ inability to buy improved seeds
necessitated planting of seeds from the previous harvests. This finding reinforces the viewthat TEKS are mostly important to poor individuals.
Intercropping
The reported and observed tradition of intercropping which involved planting of perennial andannual crops in the study area should also be acknowledged. Similarly, intercropping ofannual crops alone to include maize, cassava, beans, groundnuts, and sunflower should
equally be weighed. This is due to the fact that intercropping increases the possibility of
harvests in the changing climate (Stringer et al. 2009 Tambo and Abdoulaye, 2012) andreduces crop susceptibility to bio-physical factors such as a pest outbreak (Bradshaw et al.,2004). However, the intercropping observed might not necessarily reflect the adaptation toclimate change and variability due to land fragmentation, which necessitates agriculturalintensification. Similarly, Manandhar et al. (2011) found that changes in cultivation practices
in Nepal were not only due to climate change but also due to increased population pressure
and availability of new technology.
Findings by Barbier et al. (2009) also show that most of the changes in agriculture in
northern Burkina Faso were caused by land shortage and a decline in soil fertility and not
climate change and variability. In this study, however, peasants could increase the area for
cultivation but it was not possible due to the land acquisition system and location of the study
area. It should be recalled from Table 1 that majority of the respondents acquired landthrough inheritance from their parents, which they should in turn distribute to their sons. Thissystem of land acquisition does not favour agricultural intensification as it exacerbates thefragmentation of the present land. Also, the location of the study area limited the manoeuvresof the farmers as the area did not allow the clearing of new land for cultivation because thearea is bordered by the Kilimanjaro Forest Reserve to the west and north and Kenya to theeast (Figure 1). The only way to increase crop production is through intensification.
Food Storage
Food storage is a traditional strategy for adapting to climate change and variability, which
focuses on assuring year-round availability of foodstuffs (McDowell and Hess, 2010; Jones
and Boyd, 2011). Food storage facilities must be adequate enough to ensure that surplus
stocks from the favourable agricultural years can be retained for the survival of thecommunity during times of scarcity (Robinson and Henderson-Sellers, 1999). Food storageas adaptation to crop failure found to be common in the area under study is questionablebecause about 60 percent and 91 percent of heads of household mentioned to harvest lessthan 100 kilograms of maize and beans respectively. The stored maize and beans precededby treating them with insecticides to guard them against damage caused by insects. There isa danger of stored crops being damaged because more than half (59.4 percent) of the headsof household mentioned storing their food crop harvests in sacks. Sacks can easily bedamaged by rodents and moisture. In fact, poor storage facilities have been reported to be
the main cause of post-harvest food loss, which is estimated to contribute to 10 percent foodlose in the third world countries and 30 percent in Africa (Jones, 2004).
The findings on food storage reveal that food storage is determined by rainfall
characteristics, size of land, soil infertility and farmers’ willingness to follow advice provided
by agricultural extension officers. Small sized pieces of land do not contribute to low crop
yields only but also hinder the establishment of demonstration plots that could trigger
agricultural innovations among peasants in the area under study. Unfortunately, where
pieces of land are a bit larger (i.e. intermediate and lowland AEZs), climate change andvariability are so precarious that harvests are not always guaranteed. It is in these zones
where several replanting incidents were reported to be increasing (Table 2). This has
24discouraged some individuals from getting involved in crop production while others haveadjusted to growing crops during the long seasons only.
Early Planting
The study found that the researched community had knowledge that early planting reduces
the chances of crop failure likely to result from early cessation of rainfall. Similar findings
have been reported by Tambo and Abdoulaye (2012) in Nigeria’s Savannah area to theeffect that, farmers sowed millet seeds in dry soil for them to germinate with the first rain. The
practice of planting crops early varies with AEZ with only few heads of household resorted toearly planting in the lowland due to the presence of termites which gobble sowed seeds. The
lowland AEZ is endemic to termites. As such, early planting and, especially, using animal
manure was reported to be more catastrophic because manure attracts even more termites.
The study also found that early planting was hindered by the delay in the supply of seeds byagents, unreliable rainfall, and financial constraints for land preparation and buying of seeds
on time. Orlove et al. (2010) also found that the high cost of seeds and unreliable rainfall
made early planting less common in southern Uganda.
Growing of Drought-Resistant Crop Types and Varieties
Crops such as sorghum, cassava, finger-millet and sweet potatoes are known to tolerate dry
conditions. The growing of such drought-resistant crops established by the study conforms to
the recommendation by the Tanzania Agricultural and Livestock Policy (URT, 1997). The
findings show that the growing of drought-resistant crops and varieties was a challenging
practice. For example, the growing of sorghum was found to be affected by low consumption
value that severely limited its market. These findings concur with the studies by Eriksen et al.
(2005), Barbier et al. (2009) Kalungu et al. (2013) who reported market and preference toconstrain the cultivation drought resistant crops. This indicates that farmers’ adaptation
depends not only on their respective socio-economic endeavours but also on external
influence.
Food Aid
The findings presented in Table 2 show that the population under review has sometimes
been depending on food aid from relatives, government or religious institutions to lessen thehunger resulting from crop failure. As a matter of fact, overdependence on food aid is notencouraged as it may create a population that is reluctant to get involved in agricultural
production in particular and other developmental activities. Food aid can also contribute to
price fluctuations, disincentives to agricultural production and market development and acycle of dependency in poorly targeted and managed farming communities (Vermeulen et al.,2012).
Findings from an interview with the VEO at Msangai Village reveal that food aid wastied with priorities: disabled, aged, widows, etc. The groups with these variables are known tobe less resilient and, therefore, need to be given prioritised whenever hunger strikes in any
community. This study found further that food aid from the government did not reach theneedy persons in time and when it did it was always not enough to support dietary intake.
The delay in food aid delivery was reported to be inevitable due to the existing bureaucracy.
On the other hand, food aid led to conflicts between households and government officials
due to corruption associated with its distribution. This corruption among African countries
tends to lead to failure of most developmental initiatives (Shemsanga et al., 2010) and social
philanthropy.
Although relying on aid from relatives and friends can minimise the effects of climatechange and variability in a short time, the strategy was found to be ineffective because it was
based on the individuals’ capacity and willingness. The findings also show that the children,
who worked as shopkeepers and house workers in towns, were grossly underpaid, which
limited their capacity to provide aid to their relatives in the villages. They also have toaccumulate some capital for their future endeavours too despite their limited earnings.

25

Farming in Different Agro ecological Zones
Studies by Laube et al. (2012) in Ghana, McDowell and Hess (2010) in Bolivia and Roncoli etal. (2002) in Burkina Faso found that farmers, who owned farms in different AEZs, sought toincrease the likelihood of better harvests under the changing climate. Farming in different
AEZs increases the probability of harvest since each AEZ has a distinct climatic regime.
Findings from this study reveal that cultivation in different AEZs is prompted by small landsizes particularly in the highland AEZ and not necessarily by climate change and variability.
Despite their home cultivated plots, Table 2 shows that about 4 percent of respondents may
own farms in the Kilimanjaro Forest Reserve, lowland AEZ or Kenya side. In this case,people had to move from their home to attend farms. Attending to farms far from their homes
also consumed a lot of time that could otherwise been devoted to other developmental
activities.
In addition to the time spent on attending to farms located in different AEZs;
cultivation in Kenya is hindered by the high cost of hiring farming lots, low probability of
harvest due to unpredictable rainfall and destructive birds and animals. Laube et al. (2012)
reported that many farmers in Bolivia have abandoned farms in favour of other activities duetime spent away from home in the mountainous areas where most farms were located but
without getting substantial harvests for their troubles. Similarly, farmers in Morogoro Region
have ceased to cultivate during short rains in some locations because of low and uncertain
yields (Paavola, 2006). In other words, the adaptation to climate change and variability isalso affected by the climate itself due to unpredictable rainfall characteristics.
Conclusion and Recommendation
The study community uses TEKS to withstand the effects of climate change and variability on
crops through agronomic techniques, social coherence and livelihood diversification. The
efficacy of the devised adaptation strategies were hindered by small land sizes, location,
insolvency, technical knowhow, and climate change and variability. For effective adaptation
strategies, government and financial institutions should support local people through microcredit, crop insurance and marketing infrastructure to increase their resilience. Local people’s
participation in planning, implementation and evaluation of any climate change and variability
adaptation project is paramount to ensure its success.
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