Sophia University Junior College Division Faculty Journal
第 37 号, 2016, 105-132

A Proposal for a MALL Platform Design
Glen Andrew Stewart
Keywords
mobile-assisted language learning, MALL, computer-assisted language learning,
CALL, platform, communication skills, speaking, listening, oral, aural, self-efficacy,
motivation, The L2 Motivational Self System, EIL, EFL, autonomous learning (AL),inter-cultural communicative competence (ICC)

Abstract
In this article, the design for a MALL smart-phone application which could also
serve as a MALL platform for smart-phones and be used to help co-ordinate learners’
total in- and between-class L2 learning experience is proposed. It is aimed at offering avariety of affordances to help Japanese EIL learners to improve their L2 communication
skills, sense of self-efficacy, and motivation. Such affordances include future L2 self
image description creation, peer feedback exchange, audio journal entry recording,between-class task-based learner exchange of audio messages, and ongoing learner
self-assessment of his/her global communication (i.e. inter-cultural communicativecompetence-related) skills. Providing empirical evidence attesting to the pedagogicaleffectiveness of the platform is beyond the scope of the article. However, it will be thefocus of the next step in this line of research.

Introduction
A Platform to Promote and Guide the Autonomous Development of EIL Teachers andLearners
In Stewart (2015), Stewart introduced a proposal for a learner autonomy
management system (LAMS). Using an updated version of the tool, learners in CALL
classes are able to earn individual and group points through completing in-class tasks,
self-reflect after using relevant online tools (e.g. ALC NetAcademy2), and self-assess
their progress related to the interactional skills component of their inter-culturalcommunicative competence.

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Image 1: A screenshot of the “My Class” page used by learners during CALL classes
In a follow-up article, Stewart and Mortson (in press) presented the findings of asmall-scale action research project about a related online tool which aimed to help teachers
to continue their professional development (see Image 2). In Phase I of that study, Stewart
drew on the literature to determine a suitable design and suitable functionality for sucha tool (and then developed it). In Phase II, both teacher-researchers employed the tool toengage in peer coaching over a two-week period at their university just outside Tokyo,
Japan. They then drew up an action plan for how the tool could be revised and thenemployed successfully by other teachers to help them to continue their own PD efforts
autonomously and/or within the context of on-site PD training and/or peer coaching.

Image 2: A screenshot of the online tool for teacher professional development

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By drawing on the relevant literature to create a platform which provides online
tools for both learners and teachers, the current researcher hopes that the skills, senseof self-efficacy, and motivation of all users can be positively influenced. (Studies utilizing
a rigorous research design and experimental methods to assess the effectiveness of thedifferent elements of the platform will be the subject of future research.)
The focus of the current article is the proposal of a design for a smart-phone
application - and MALL platform for smart-phones - which, in combination with the
web-based platform mentioned above - would aim to offer a variety of affordances whichshould help learners to improve their L2 communication skills, their sense of selfefficacy, and their motivation. Beyond this, one of the main motivations for seeking tocreate the platform was the desire to provide learners with additional opportunities todevelop their communication skills between classes (no matter the type of class - e.g.
CALL, reading, speaking, and perhaps eventually even content-based classes). As Liu(2009) points out, CALL classes may not provide learners with enough opportunities
to develop their communication skills. In some cases, this may be because they spend
most of their time in class engaging in learning tasks individually using a PC. Other
class types (e.g. oral communication classes) may provide more opportunities for spoken
interaction with classmates and the teacher. However, even classes which have such anemphasis are limited in their ability to facilitate learner progress to the extent needed.
One now obvious possibility for helping to ameliorate this problem is learners’ use of
their smart phones for between-class review and communicative task completion.

Literature Review
Opportunities
As Hsu (2013) puts it, mobile-assisted language learning (MALL) “can offer theadvantage of mobility, which enables seamless learning from inside to outside theclassroom” (p. 209). Rahimi and Miri (2014) concur, asserting that “mobile phones
provide ample opportunities for learners to have continuous connection with the target
language” (p. 1473). Kim and Kwon (2012) note three benefits based on their reviewof the literature: (1) MALL allows easy and prompt “anytime, anywhere” languagelearning materials access and communication; (2) four-skills development is facilitatedby learners engaging in both individual and collaborative tasks; and (3) the resources
and tools that MALL provides encourages “learners to be more motivated, autonomous,
situated (site-specific), and socially interactive” (p. 35). Empirical evidence to back

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up these claims remains limited, however (see especially Burston, 2015 and Golonka,
Bowles, Frank, Richardson, & Freynik, 2014). In a review of 291 MALL studies, Burston
determined that only nineteen of the studies reviewed provided what he considered to
be a reliable indication of effect on learner progress. He concluded that 80% of thosestudies did, however, indicate an overwhelmingly positive effect on learner progress.
Of the nineteen studies, eleven were concerned with vocabulary acquisition, four wereconcerned with reading competency, and three were concerned with using the audio
recording functionality of a mobile device to develop learners’ listening and speaking
skills.

Learner AcceptancePrevious efforts to employ MALL innovations have garnered mixed feedback fromlearners. In their review of the literature, Golonka, Bowles, Frank, Richardson, andFreynik (2014) report that studies indicate that “learners enjoy using technology inFL learning and that they prefer using technology over more traditional methods andmaterials ... learners tend to be more engaged in the process of learning, and have amore positive attitude towards learning” (p. 92). In their review, these researchers
could provide only moderate support for such claims. Further, not all learners may
be impressed with the innovations that teachers may seek to incorporate into theirclasses. Hsu (2013) found that culture influenced the extent to which learners perceived
the technology used in the researcher’s study, with Japanese learners being among
those that were less impressed than learners from other countries. Hsu concluded thatlearners’ preference for teacher-centered instruction (p. 208) and their commonly using
mobile technology for communication and entertainment purposes (p. 206) rather thanfor education may have been influencing factors.

Approach
Stockwell and Hubbard (2013, pp. 8-10) provide ten principles which can be drawn
on to guide MALL innovation and implementation. Beyond these, other researchers
recommend that developers of MALL innovations: (1) ensure that the innovation
has a “sound pedagogical framework” (Hoven & Palalas, 2011, p. 714) and seeks tomake use of the technology in a way that maximizes its usefulness to the L2 learning
process (Burston, 2015; Kim & Kwon, 2012); (2) ensure that the innovation seeks
to actively engage learners in constructivist learning processes rather than simply
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Khodabakhshzadeh, 2011); and (3) design such innovations so that learners may use
them not only individually, but also for authentic interactions with other learners (Tai,2012).
The above paragraphs would seem to indicate that further MALL innovation - andempirical research to assess the effectiveness of that innovation - is both necessary
and justified. Further, any overall approach developed/employed by MALL application
developers should be principled, with a solid footing in the applied linguistics and SLA
literature, and it should also be one that takes into account the inherent affordancesand limitations of the technology that it seeks to make use of to maximize its usefulness
to the L2 learning process. In addition, it would seem that a MALL platform shouldseek to foster four-skills development, provide opportunities to review in-class content
and do related tasks out of class both individually and collaboratively (and this should
include situated (site/context-specific) tasks), and engage learners in constructivist
learning processes. It would also seem that, though prior research has indicated thatsome learners may welcome the use of MALL technology, further work needs to be done
to encourage broader acceptance, with cultural context being one factor that should betaken into consideration when designing such innovations.

Why a MALL Platform is Needed
At this juncture, the reader may be questioning whether the creation of a MALL
platform is necessary given the amount of MALL innovation that has already takenplace (again, see Burston, 2015 and Golonka, Bowles, Frank, Richardson, & Freynik,2014) and the number of non-MALL commercial offerings that are available (e.g. “Line”- it offers a number of affordances that could be used for L2 learning). Specific ones could
certainly be used by themselves and/or in combination. As Burston points out, however,even the newest MALL innovations (i.e. those specifically designed and developed forthe purposes of L2 learning) do not offer the types of affordances that may be of mostpedagogical use. Still in its infancy, it is clear that a lot of experimentation is still taking
place within the field of MALL, which is essential. In this vein, but taking a broader
view, what seems to be needed is a MALL platform design for smart-phones which could
be used to help co-ordinate learners’ total in- and between-class L2 learning experience.
This platform would seek to offer that combination of features specifically needed tofacilitate the L2 learning process, but which is not available elsewhere (and also thosefeatures perhaps available elsewhere, but which could use customizing and simplifying
to suit the specific needs of L2 learners).

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MethodTheoretical Underpinnings
This study is grounded in the existing literature on inter-cultural communicativecompetence (see Byram, 1997; Canale, 1983; Council of Europe, 2001), social
cognitive theory and self-efficacy (Bandura, 1997, as cited in, Mills, 2014), and The L2
Motivational Self System (Dornyei, 2009) and motivation (see e.g. Ushioda, 2014).

Design of the Platform
To design the platform, the current researcher drew on the ten principles provided
by Stockwell and Hubbard (2013, pp. 8-10) and also the other elements of the literature
reviewed above. The researcher’s own practical teaching experience was also drawn on.
On the following pages will be presented designs for each section of the platform (seeTable 1) and the affordances that each section offers (see Table 2). The designs werecreated using a personal copy of Adobe Illustrator CS5. At the top of each screenshot isa global header, which is the same for all sections. At the bottom of most screenshots isa bar that is fixed (that is, it remains in the same position even if the learner scrolls up
and down the page). On the bar is the word “Menu”, which is a button, and if touched,it will re-direct the learner back to the home screen (see Image 3). On the home screen,each box for each section is a button that should be touched to access that section (e.g.
My Future L2 Self). Any box without fill on any other screen is a button, a field box thattext should be added to, or a drop-down box - that is, an item to be touched. Any text
which is larger, bolded, and features an exclamation mark (!) - e.g. “Add!” - is a button
for doing what the text of the button suggests. Any quiz option (e.g. “(A) reserved seat”
in the “Textbook Quizzes” section) should be touched to choose that option.
The platform will be made available to both iOS and Android users. This should seethat the platform can be used by virtually all learners with a smart-phone (a version of
the platform can be supplied to learners who use Windows-based smart-phones should
there be a need for that). As for learners who do not own a smart-phone, what to do insuch cases will need to be determined by the faculty at each specific institution. Basedon the current researcher’s own practical teaching experience, there should be very few
learners who do not own a smart-phone. In such cases, acquiring one, or an iPod (Apple
Inc.’s mobile device for media consumption), could be suggested to such learners. If
this is deemed to be inappropriate, institutions could provide a device loaning service
whereby learners could loan and use an institution-owned iPod (which would need wi-fi

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capability).
Most data added by the learner will save on the learner’s smart-phone only (that is,it will not be sent to the platform website’s database). Further, no actual learner names
or student numbers will be used within the platform. This reduces risk to learners andtheir privacy. One disadvantage of this will be that if the learner loses or is no longer
able to use his/her smart-phone, most data will be lost (unless he/she was using a cloudbased backup storage service provided by the manufacturer or some other provider).
Data that is sent to and saved on the platform database will include: (1) the learner’s
username (text); (2) voice recorded messages (audio files); (3) small goal types chosen(text); (4) feedback from classmates (text); (5) points (digits); (6) rankings (digit); (7)learning preferences (text); (8) autonomous learning task types completed (text); and (9)any content, links, etc. added by teachers (text).
There is very little Japanese-language text used in the platform. Providing learners
with a paper-based booklet with explanations and guidance in Japanese along withscreenshots should alleviate the need for much Japanese-language text to appear in theplatform itself. However, it can be added as part of a future update, if needed.
Ongoing engagement with the literature, future experimental research, andfeedback from teachers and learners will lead to the design of some/all sections needing
to be updated. Non-critical updates will be made after each term ends (i.e. in August andFebruary). Learners will need to download and install such updates themselves at the
beginning of the following term.

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Table 1: Screenshots of each section of the MALL platform(Image 4)(Image 5)(Image 3)(Image 6)(Image 7)(Image 8)(Image 9)(Image 10)─ 112 ─A Proposal for a MALL Platform Design(Image 11)(Image 12)(Image 13)(Image 14)(Image 15)(Image 16)(Image 17)(Image 18)

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Table 2: Affordances of each section of the MALL platform
This is the first screen that the learner will see after
start up. It is also the main menu, which the user will
return to after finishing using one section and wanting
to use another. Two sections not covered later in thisarticle are the “My e-Pal from Overseas” section andthe “My Next Challenge” section. Using the first, theImage 3Home

learner can connect with a fellow L2 learner and nonnative speaker overseas (e.g. in Singapore). Using
the second, the learner can choose to do online tasks(e.g. listen to a song), which are suggested to him/herbased on his/her current proficiency level and his/herindicated learning style(s) and preferences for tools
and tasks (see “My AL Efforts” below).
In this section, the learner can create and maintain adescription of his/her future L2 self image (and also

Image 4My Future L2 Self

his/her undesired/feared self image), set “small goals”(i.e. proximate goals) and also set them as done later,
and keep a personalized list of language learning
tactics.
In this section, the learner can exchange feedback
with classmates (specifically, those that are his/her

Image 5ClassmateFeedback

speaking partners in class and/or between classes).
The learner gives his/her classmate a score for each
item (e.g. “Could understand you”) and then selects
a pre-set message to send (e.g. “You did a great job
today... keep it up!”).
In this section, the learner is able to see his/herranking relative to that of his/her classmates. Thisranking is determined by the number of points thelearner earned that week through using the platform.

Image 6

Rankings

It may also be feasible for some teachers - i.e. thosethat have time - to manually update the databaseand have the number of participation points that he/she gave learners that week to also determine thisranking.

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In this section, the learner completes individual
Image 7My Audio Journal

speaking tasks by recording him/herself and saving
the recording, which can then be played back in class.
In this section, the learner completes task-based
collaborative speaking tasks with his/her classmates

Image 8

Conversation Star by exchanging recorded messages. Learners are able
to give post-task feedback to each other using theplatform.
In this section, the learner uses his/her smart-phone
to look up information in English, and then compares

Image 9Research it!

his/her findings with a classmate, with the two thencollaboratively preparing a report in preparation forreporting back in class.
In this section, the learner is asked to go to a specific

Image 10

English Adventure

location and create a report by taking photos,
recording videos, and making audio recordings. This
could be done collaboratively.
In this section, the learner can review previously

Image 11

Textbook Quizzes

learned linguistic content appearing in a class’s
textbook.
In this section, the learner can update the numberof autonomous learning (AL) tasks that he/she hasdone outside of class. During set-up, the learner will

Image 12My AL Efforts

indicate his/her learning style(s) and preferences fortools and tasks, with the platform later dynamicallyserving up suggested AL tools and task types in thissection.
In this section, the learner can set a time limit for task

Image 13

Timercompletion and have the platform count down andsound an alarm when the specified time period has
passed.

Image 14Classroom English

In this section, the learner can access language usefulfor classroom use.

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Image 15
In this section, the learner can do tasks to help him/
her to build his/her inter-cultural communicativecompetence (i.e. his/her inter-cultural knowledge,
awareness, tolerance, sensitivity, etc.). It should be
Images 15
and 16My Badges

possible to use quizzes and other formats to help inthis knowledge- and attitude-building process.
Image 16
The learner can also use this section to self-assess
his/her progress related to the interactional skills
component of his/her inter-cultural communicativecompetence (i.e. pronunciation, turn taking, etc.).
In this section, the learner can access learning content

Image 17My Teachers

provided by teachers at his/her institution, such asvideos and slang.
In this section, the learner can carry on a structured
exchange of audio recordings with a virtual study tutor
similar to the way that Siri is used. This should bepossible using an API/SDK from Apple, Inc. or anothercompany and providing the linguistic content in csv

Image 18

My Tutor

files. This can be used in two ways: (1) the platform
can provide general non-class content and its use does
not count towards any in-class assessment; or (2) an
individual teacher can add content for this section
so that the tutor can be used by learners to practicetarget content from his/her class between classes.

Image 1 on page 106 is a screenshot of a companion web page that could be projected
onto the projector screen in learners’ classrooms. It could be shown at a certain point ineach class to display data such as the recent achievements of learners in the class. The
teacher could also do things like click “Play!” to play the audio journal file of a learner
who had volunteered to share a recording that he/she had made in preparation for thecurrent class. The goal of the page would be to encourage the autonomous use of theplatform between classes and also to reward those learners who did. An additional pagewould also be used by the teacher only that would display the list of learners in the classand which tasks the learners had and had not completed.

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Framework
Featured below is a framework for how the MALL platform could be used bothin, and between, classes. Only those sections to be used for class-related purposes areincluded:Time

Sections(For the current class)

Class 2My Future L2 Self

Rankings
My Audio Journal
Conversation Star
Research it!

Between Classes

English Adventure
Textbook Quizzes
My AL Efforts
My Tutor(For post-homework follow-up)
My AL Efforts
My Audio Journal
Conversation Star
Research it!

Class 3English Adventure(For the current class)
My Future L2 Self
Diagram 1: A framework for using the MALL platform in and between classes
Learners would firstly use the platform at/near the beginning of Class 2 tostrengthen their future L2 self image (presuming that the teacher had had the learners
add their descriptions in Class 1 of a standard fifteen-week course). They would do thiswith the support of paper-based materials and teacher-fronted guided imagery training

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Glen Andrew Stewart(this would include learners strengthening their undesired/feared self image). The
learners would then put their smart-phones away (unless the teacher wanted them to
use the “Timer” and/or “Classroom English” sections). The learners would next use theplatform between Classes 2 and 3 for the purposes of: (1) checking their in-class ranking
relative to other learners in the class; (2) recording an audio journal entry relevant to
the topic of the class they just had (they would use a handout, also); (3) completing the“Conversation Star” speaking task relevant to the topic of the class they just had withat least one other classmate (they would use a handout, also); (4) completing the quiz forthe textbook chapter just studied; (5) completing one or more autonomous learning (AL)tasks using resources such as YouTube related to the topic of the class they just had(and they would complete a related paper-based AL evidence handout); and (6) using the“My Tutor” section to have a “virtual conversation” which is also relevant to the topic
of the class they just had, but which is also more structured than the one each learnerhad with his/her classmate when using the “Conversation Star” section (in fact, learners
could use “My Tutor” both before and after completing the less-structured “Conversation
Star” task since it could help to prepare them for that task and then review, practice,and hopefully proceduralize relevant linguistic elements). Note here that the teacher
may have learners use the “Research it!” and/or “English Adventure” section(s) rather
than the sections just mentioned. In fact, most teachers will probably alternate between
sections across the term, or preferably, allow learners as much freedom of choice aspossible regarding which sections to use, how often, when, and with whom. At/Near
the beginning of Class 3, any learners who did AL tasks would show their evidence
handouts to the teacher in order to confirm completion. In the same class, the teacher
could use whole-class, group, and/or pair work to give learners the opportunity to share
their “My Audio Journal” and “Conversation Star” recordings with their classmates, andhe/she would also have learners show their “Conversation Star” handouts to confirm
completion. At any point in the class, the teacher could display the “My Class” page on
the projector screen to highlight the achievements of learners in the class. After Class3, the learners would once again do between-class tasks. The process could continue likethis week to week (or as often as possible/desired).
An essential element of the framework is the inclusion of paper-based materials.
The purpose of these is threefold: (1) to provide learners with information about theplatform and guidance for using it; this would be a booklet in the learners’ L1 featuring a
step-by-step explanation of how to use each section (which would include screenshots ofeach section); (2) to provide learners with handouts to be used by them prior to, during,─ 118 ─A Proposal for a MALL Platform Design

and after speaking tasks in sections such as “My Audio Journal” and “Conversation
Star”; the one for “Conversation Star” provides space for learners to: (a) note how they
will use a chosen global communication (i.e. inter-cultural communicative competencerelated) tactic during the task; (b) individually brainstorm and note language that theywould like to use during the task; (c) note down the outcome of the task (e.g. advice
they received, the decision they made with their classmate, etc.); and (d) note down any
mistakes they noticed they made and/or language that they would like to ask the teacher
about; and (3) to provide learners with autonomous learning (AL) evidence handouts
which they complete at home and submit to (or at least show) the teacher in the nextclass so that he/she can confirm each learner’s AL efforts.

Engagement with the Literature
The follow paragraphs should indicate how the relevant literature has been drawn
on to design several core sections of the platform.

My Future L2 Self
The L2 Motivational Self System (Dornyei, 2009) and Language-learning Strategies(Oxford, 2011)
This section of the platform has been designed to have learners create a descriptionof their desired future self image as specified by Dornyei (i.e. elaborate and vivid, etc.) (p.
32). In class, learners can then regularly strengthen this by engaging in guided imagery
training. They can also strengthen their undesired/feared self image through guided
imagery training. Further, learners can set “small goals” (i.e. proximate goals) and later
set them as done before setting new ones. These goals should help them to incrementallyrealize their future L2 self image. They can also choose tactics related to languagelearning strategies to use to help them to realize their desired future L2 self.

My Audio Journal
Strategic Planning (see e.g. Ellis, 2003; Skehan, 1998) and Task Authenticity (Tai, 2012)
This section has been designed to have learners make short recordings related to the
topic of the class just taken. By supplying the paper-based handout and manipulating
the planning conditions related to planning time and guidance vs. no guidance, theteacher should be able to have learners achieve specific pedagogical goals (i.e. production
which is e.g. complex). Further, when setting the task, the teacher could specify thatlearners make a recording when in an authentic context relevant to the week’s topic (e.g.

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if the topic was related to talking about problems one has and a learner had just had aproblem with a drink vending machine, he/she may make a recording related to that incontext).

Conversation Star
Task-based Language Teaching (see e.g. Ellis, 2003; Tai, 2012; Willis & Willis, 2007)
This section has been designed to have learners engage in task-based speaking
task completion related to the topic and function of the class just taken. In thescreenshot provided, the task is “You never have enough time to study. Get advice
from a classmate!” How task-like is this? The following is based on the six questions
Willis & Willis list (p. 13): it should engage the learner since it may be a problem thathe/she actually has in real life; there is a primary focus on meaning as no specificforms are specified and the learner is free to ask and answer using his/her existing
linguistic repertoire and also any language he/she brainstorms individually during
pre-task preparation; there is an outcome: the learner gets advice from at least oneclassmate; success is judged in terms of the outcome since the goal for the learner isto get the advice, which the teacher can then ask for in the next class; completion is apriority for the same reason; and, the activity does relate to real-world activities. A task
sequence (p. 24) for such a task may involve: (1) the teacher priming the learners with ademonstration in Class 2; (2) the learners preparing for and performing the task at homeusing the platform; and (3) the teacher following up with the learners in Class 3 andhaving them plan and report the best advice. Additionally, by informing the learners
in Class 2 that they will be sharing their recordings in Class 3, he/she is setting up a
post-task requirement, which could encourage corrective monitoring (Skehan & Foster,
1997, as cited in, Skehan, 1998). Note also that the teacher could provide different task
types (e.g. information gap/required information exchange) by randomly providing some
information to one learner and other information to the other learner (see over).

My Badges
Inter-cultural Communicative Competence (Byram, 1997; Canale, 1983; Council ofEurope, 2001)
This section has been designed to have learners engage in ongoing self-assessmentof the interactional skills component of their inter-cultural communicative competence.
It features 15 items, which are: (P) planning, (A) accuracy, (F) fluency, (SCF) starting,continuing, and finishing conversations, (FP) formality and politeness, (CM) contextual

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meaning, (AVG) appropriate vocabulary and grammar, (TT) turn taking, (ICS) intercultural sensitivity, (PRON) pronunciation, (M) monitoring, (CC) confirmation andclarification, (RP) repeating and paraphrasing, (GEC) gestures and eye contact, and (SC)self-correction. Support is provided in Japanese. When preparing to do the “Conversation
Star” task, learners choose one or more of these to focus on during task completion(obviously not all of them are possible since it is not face-to-face communication, andthis fact would be discussed with the learners in advance). A related set of tactics areprovided to learners and it is these that are used when using “Conversation Star”.

How to Populate the Platform
It should be clear that a certain amount of pre-course set-up would be required
to make the platform useful for any specific course. That being said, it should beemphasized that the content for most sections of the platform would be provided by theplatform itself (by way of the platform provider) and could be used “as is” (the idea here
is to save teachers time; researchers and teachers would obviously be able to requestthat the content be updated, however). Several sections would need teacher-provided
content, such as “My Audio Journal”, “Conversation Star”, and “My Teachers”. The firsttwo are course specific. That is, each teacher wishing to incorporate use of the platform
into their own courses would need to provide 7-12 topic-related questions for “My Audio
Journal” and also 7-12 topic-related tasks for “Conversation Star” for a standard fifteenweek course. Teachers who wished to and had time to would also need to regularly
update each class’s database using the online tool mentioned earlier to reflect additional
participation points that the learners had recently earned. For “My Teachers”, teachers
at a specific organization would need to receive approval from the Academic Committee
to offer such content to learners. If received, each teacher would need to agree to provide
the content featured (i.e. a personal video created by the teacher featuring, e.g.: (1) theteacher having a picnic in a park or talking about a specific news topic or performing a
specific communicative task around Tokyo or when abroad; (2) a link to a music video
or a web page featuring the lyrics of a song he/she likes; and (3) an item of slang) on aregular basis. Further research will undoubtedly reveal what additions can be madeto this specific section to maximize its appeal to learners. Teachers would populate
the platform using a dedicated web page within the online tool for teachers mentioned
earlier.

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Discussion
Does it address the theoretical and practical issues outlined earlier?
The current researcher believes that the design of the platform does begin to
do so. Though not an exhaustive list, five points are worth noting: (1) it has a soundpedagogical framework (see Hoven & Palalas, 2011) since the relevant literature (i.e.
that regarding The L2 Motivational Self System, task-based language teaching, intercultural communicative competence, etc.) has been drawn on to inform the designof the core sections of the platform; (2) it seeks to make use of the technology in a
way that maximizes its usefulness to the L2 learning process (see Burston, 2015 andKim & Kwon, 2012); it does this by making use of the device’s: microphone, speaker,
touchscreen, data storage capabilities, and Internet connectivity and by each section
being customized to the needs of that section (e.g. the “Classmate Feedback” section
presents a graphical representation and data and also offers functionality essential
for exchanging L2-learning-related feedback with classmates) and each section being
completely updateable (by the platform provider) so that its design can continue to be
based on the relevant literature; the platform could be further developed so other/future
device features could be drawn on; (3) it aims to support learners’ in-class efforts withclass-related between-class content and tasks, with the core tasks seeking to actively
engage learners in constructivist learning processes rather than simply having themmemorize and reproduce (see Derakhshan & Khodabakhshzadeh, 2011); this should be
evidenced by the design of the “My Audio Journal” and “Conversation Star” sections,using which learners construct their own linguistic contributions to answer questions
and complete tasks; (4) it should encourage learners to engage in autonomous learning
in a collaborative and social way (Kim and Kwon, 2012; Tai, 2012); though currently
limited, the design could be updated so that the platform offered learners more
opportunities to do this through site/context-specific field work in pairs and/or small
groups; and (5) supporting its use with in-class, teacher-fronted follow-up activities
should go part of the way in demonstrating the usefulness of smart-phones for language
learning (Hsu, 2013).

Possible Effects on L2 Skills, Self-efficacy, and Motivation
Though empirical evidence attesting to the pedagogical effectiveness of the platformcannot as yet be provided, consideration of the potential effects the proposed design may
have on learners’ L2 skills, self-efficacy, and motivation is of importance here. First,

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additional opportunities to produce spoken output should lead to learners engaging in
cognitive processes essential for L2 skill development (see Ellis, 2003, pp. 110-115).
Further, learners’ ongoing self-assessment regarding their global communication (i.e.
inter-cultural communicative competence-related) skills - and their efforts to focus on
one or more aspects during each speaking task - should lead them to improve the related
skills and therefore be better prepared for future authentic inter-cultural communicative
contexts. Second, the platform should allow learners to have a range of masteryexperiences, which are essential to improving learners’ self-efficacy beliefs (see Mills,2014). This could be achieved, for example, by learners using the “My Audio Journal”
section of the platform and then receiving positive feedback from classmates and theteacher in class. A number of other sections should also allow learners to experience
success and therefore improve their self-efficacy. Third, having mastery experiencesand experiencing success should help to improve learners’ sense of competence, andtherefore, should lead to improvements in their intrinsic motivation - provided thatconditions in the classroom also encourage feelings of autonomy and relatedness(Ushioda, 2014). Further, it should be the case that witnessing such ongoing successwill substantiate the learner’s future L2 self image and also confirm that it is realistic,
and this should motivate his/her continued effort (see Dornyei, 2009) and help him/her
to realize that future L2 self image. Being praised and receiving positive feedback fromfellow learners when the teacher displays the “My Class” page on the projector screen
should be an additional source of reward, and therefore, motivation.

The Ten Principles
As previously mentioned, in their article, Stockwell and Hubbard (2013) provided ten
principles to guide MALL innovation and implementation. Principle 2 relates to multitasking and environmental distractions. They recommended limiting both. It is proposed
here that certain sections of the current platform be used when learners are commuting(that is, during “dead time”) as this provides them with an ideal opportunity to pass timein a productive manner while also potentially engaging them. The three sections “Textbook
Quizzes”, “Badges” (for knowledge), and “My Teachers” (with headphones) could be usedin such a situation (though not all learners would use these sections during this time).
Where a learner uses a section will depend on the task contained in the section and also
the learner. The above also relates to principle 8. Principle 5 relates to accommodating
language-learner differences, including differences in learning styles. The design for thecurrent platform does begin to do so, but it is clear that, as a MALL platform, it should

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also be possible to incorporate new and different sections, and also varied content within
the current sections, to go even further. Principle 9 relates to guidance and training forlearners to maximize the effectiveness of an application. As mentioned, a paper-based
booklet to provide this prior to learners starting to use the platform should help to provide
pre-use training. Ongoing guidance can be provided by teachers at a pre-determined pointin each class. Principle 10 relates to the necessity of supporting teachers in their efforts to
use the platform in their courses. This could be partly provided through the online tool forteachers that was mentioned at the beginning of this article. Organizational support could
be provided by faculties by helping one or two full- and/or part-time teachers to become onsite “geniuses” at using the platform in anticipation of them then becoming go-to sourcesof information and guidance related to it.

The Japanese Context
As Stockwell (2012) points out, and Hsu (2013) found in his study, that smartphones are devices primarily for communicating and consuming entertainment
influences learner perceptions of these devices as tools for language learning. This would
appear to be perhaps especially true for Japanese learners. If so, the current researcher
would assert that the onus is on MALL developers in Japan to innovate (and beevangelists in a way; see Ushioda, 2013) to encourage a change in learner perceptions,and that it may take the development of a MALL platform employing a design similar tothe one proposed here to achieve that. This would involve an ongoing engagement withthe relevant literature and an ongoing process of modifying and evaluating to hone thedesign, functionality, and content of the platform. In addition, as journalists Alpeyev andAmano (2015) reveal, makers of non-MALL mobile games maximize the success of thosegames using a combination of psychology, characters, levels, the offering of new features
every so often, electronic rewards (such as giving the user a gift if he/she has loggedin again after a long absence), peer pressure, and so on. In a similar vein, learners’
willingness to use the current platform regularly, for the variety of tasks required,and for the length of time required could be maximized in part by incorporating suchfeatures. It could also be the case that the most “popular” MALL application of the future
will blur the lines between task and game, learning and fun. To catch a glimpse of that
future, one need only enter a train at rush hour anywhere in Tokyo on any weekday andlook at what level of sophistication is keeping commuters (young and old) entertained. It
is little wonder that some Japanese learners find the current MALL offerings less thanimpressive. It would seem prudent to investigate how MALL developers can combine

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pedagogically effective design with features that can make MALL innovations somethingthat learners want to use (and it is acknowledged that what has been proposed in thecurrent article may still be quite a distance from that).
What follows are screenshots for three additional sections that could be added tothe platform (see Images 19, 20, and 21 in Table 3). These sections should be included
given the need to motivate learners to use the platform regularly, for the variety of tasks
required, and for the length of time required. A layer of game play and teamwork has
been added and would incorporate elements such as those listed above, including levels
and electronic rewards, and also real-world class rewards.
In this section, the learner canchoose a representative image
for his/her future L2 self (e.g.
Hospitality Professional), and he/she can work towards becoming
this both within a single course
and across courses while at his/
her institution. Through doing
things like completing small goals,
recording audio journal entries,
etc., the learner earns points tocontinue to play a game related to
his/her chosen future L2 self image(that is, if he/she does not havesufficient points, he/she cannot
Image My
19
Future proceed to the next level; this is
obviously not strictly enforceable,
but it should be encouragement
enough for most learners). Within
the game, there is one overall taskfor each level (e.g. Deal with ahotel guest issue), and all of these
relate to the learner’s future L2
self image. He/She completes thetask to proceed to the next level.
The task and its sub-tasks display
in a separate section (see Image20). The extent of the learner’s
overall future L2 self “realization”(that is, the virtual/graphical─ 125 ─

Glen Andrew Stewart

representation of it in Image19) need not depend only on thelearner’s use of the platform; inclass assessment by teachers andlearner self-assessment could also
help to determine this. This section
also displays any automatedelectronic “awards” the learnerhas received because of his/her
efforts. These are awarded after
the learner completes a certain
number of levels or specific typesof tasks. Further, this section
Image My
allows learners to send each other19
Futurechallenges to do which are related
to their future L2 self image. They
send a question to be answered,a joke to be understood, etc. Allof this content is supplied by theplatform itself, not the learner.
Challenges such as these may not
be of much pedagogical value, butthey should motivate continued
effort and continue to activate thelearner’s future L2 self image, andthey could also be enjoyable to do
during “dead time”.

Image
Game
20

I n t h i s se c t i o n, t h elearner is required todemonstrate his/hermastery of task-related
vocabulary, expressions,pronunciation, andglobal communicationrelated knowledge andskills (or learn thesethrough completing thetask).

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A Proposal for a MALL Platform Design

Image Class
21
Rewards

In this section, the learner cansee information related to how
his/her class is currently ranked
against other classes at his/her
institution. The top three classes
for the term earn something
like a pizza party. This isdetermined by ranking the total
number of points each class oflearners accumulates in theplatform. This section should
promote group cohesiveness,
which should prove motivating(Dornyei, 2001). Note that since
points are accumulated byindividual learners as a result ofeffort and achievement - it could
motivate even lower-level and/or less-motivated learners to put
in more effort. (In addition, any
runner-up class that reaches
their class-determined total
points target could also earn areward.)(Image 21)

Table 3: Three additional sections that add an extra layer of game play and teamwork
Ushioda (2013) notes theoretical arguments that imply “the importance ofinternally driven forms of motivation, since these reflect personal control and autonomy
in the learning process and generally lead to high quality engagement in learning” and“the need to provide choice, flexibility and autonomy in how students work with mobile
technologies” (p. 2). Accordingly, no matter how potentially motivating the platform
becomes as a result of additions such as game play and teamwork, learners may stillneed to be given a considerable degree of autonomy related to how central the platform
is to their course and to the determination of their final grade, and also which sections
they use, how often, when, and with whom.

MALL Platform or No MALL Platform?
In Kukulska-Hulme, Norris, and Donohue (2015), the researchers introduce aframework for mobile-assisted language teaching and learning. They present ideas for─ 127 ─

Glen Andrew Stewart

personalizing course materials through using a mobile device, taking into consideration
things such as device features, learner-generated contexts of language use, rehearsal,
learner outcomes, and learner self-reflection (p. 12). They note that a mobile device canbe used to record video and take photos to make powerful use of out-of-class learning
contexts. Elsewhere in the document, they list free apps that could be used for MALL.
This should serve to caution that a MALL platform like the one proposed here may
never be able to offer the full range of features offered across the many different types ofmobile applications available. Instead, the platform should seek to offer that combinationof features specifically needed to facilitate the L2 learning process, but which is notavailable elsewhere (and also those features perhaps available elsewhere, but which
could use customizing and simplifying to suit the specific needs of L2 learners). Any
future research related to MALL platform design should proceed with this in mind (inthe current researcher’s opinion).
Having said the above, it is a certainty that individual teachers and researchers,
specific educational institutions, and publishing companies will design and develop
smart-phone applications specifically for MALL use. What would in part make thecurrent platform a platform would be it having the capacity to connect with suchapplications and incorporate performance data from them so that it could be used bylearners to better manage their L2 learning (e.g. if a learner was using three different
MALL applications on his/her smart-phone for learning vocabulary, all three could
connect to the platform, with the relevant data from each influencing the learners’
performance indicators in the platform). One additional possibility is providing theability for a researcher to propose a new section that he/she thinks should be added tothe platform itself and for the researcher to design it him/herself. The section could thenbe developed and added to the platform by the platform provider. The researcher could
then conduct both informal and experimental research with the newly added section
to assess the pedagogical effectiveness of it. In this way, the platform could become an
additional tool for conducting MALL-related research.

Limitations
As Burston (2015) and Golonka, Bowles, Frank, Richardson, and Freynik (2014)
remind us, there are a dearth of empirical MALL studies that demonstrate theeffectiveness of MALL innovations for improving the L2 ability of users. Burston points
out that inadequate research design contributes to the problem (p. 16). Providing

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empirical evidence attesting to the pedagogical effectiveness of the platform goes beyond
the scope of this article. However, it will be the focus of the next step in this line ofresearch. Incorporating adequate research design will be a particular focus of those
future research efforts. It should be noted here that how the different sections of theplatform are implemented by teachers will contribute significantly to how pedagogicallyeffective they are. Therefore, considerable experimentation will be needed to determine
the most effective implementation of each section.

Pedagogical Implications for Individual Teachers and for Organizations
If proven effective, use of the platform could have benefits for each individual
teacher’s classroom. Such benefits could include a better accommodation of learning
styles, a more varied selection of assessment opportunities (whether or not one or more
sections of the platform could be used for assessment purposes may need to be decidedin consultation with the learners themselves, however), and more motivated learners.
Its use could also have benefits for organizations. They could encourage use of theplatform by teachers responsible for different class types (being careful not to overwhelm
learners) for the purposes of standardizing practice at the organization, standardizing
service for the learners (as customers), ensuring that all communication-skills-focusedcourses included elements drawn from the relevant literature and essential to theL2 learning process (including peer review and feedback, autonomous learning, andongoing self-reflection and self-assessment of global communication (i.e. inter-culturalcommunicative competence-related) skills by learners), and helping to support teachers
in their efforts to collaborate and improve their own practice and also standards at theorganization. However, given that a lack of autonomy can be a source of demotivation forteachers (see e.g. Bier, 2014), it would be essential to include teachers in as much of thedecision making and planning process as possible.

Conclusion
In this article, the design for a MALL application which could also serve as a
MALL platform for smart-phones and be used to help co-ordinate learners’ total inand between-class L2 learning experience was proposed. The current researcher drewon the relevant literature to ensure that the design of the platform would be as usefulas possible to the L2 teaching and learning process, and it is hoped that the platform,

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Glen Andrew Stewart

when developed and implemented, will offer a variety of affordances which could help
learners to improve their L2 communication skills, their sense of self-efficacy, andtheir motivation. The next step in this line of research will involve development of theplatform and an initial attempt to implement its use within one or more tertiary-levelcourses in a study incorporating a rigorous (and experimental) research design.

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