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Raising Awareness of Language Learners
with Color Vision Disabilities
Ryota Moriya
Utsunomiya University
Reference Data:Moriya, R. (2016). Raising awareness of language learners with color vision disabilities. In P. Clements, A. Krause, & H. Brown (Eds.), Focus on the learner. Tokyo: JALT.
There are many learners with special needs in the classroom. Learners with disabilities are one
example. A social model of disability suggests a paradigm shift from the notion of disability as
impairment towards that of disability as inaccessibility. This paradigm shift begs the following
question. Who are learners with special needs? Learners with special needs are defined as learners with inaccessibility to education; they include learners with gender, racial, ethnic, cultural,and language differences. The social model of disability enables teachers to play a major role in
improving accessibility to the classroom for learners with special needs. This paper introduces the
ARTS framework—assessing, redesigning, teaching, and supporting—in the context of language
classes in order to raise awareness of learners with special needs through examining the example of learners with color vision disabilities.

今日の言語教育の現場には、多様なニーズを持つ学習者が存在する。障害を持つ学習者もその一例だ。障害の社会モデル
は、「身体的欠損」から「アクセシビリティの不足」へと理論的なパラダイムの転換を提起した。つまり、障害の社会モデルの視点
は、障害者を作りだす社会的要因はなにかという、障害観の転換を迫る問いを投げ掛ける。本論文では、障害の社会モデルの視点から、特別なニーズを抱える学習者をアクセシビリティの不足を抱える学習者と再定義することで、社会・文化的に様々な多様性を抱える学習者を対象に、教師がいかに包括的な学習環境を形成していくことができるのかについて検討した。本論文の目的は、色覚障害学習者の事例に焦点を当て、教育現場における実際の使用を想定した具体的な分析を行うことで、包摂的学習環境を構築するためのARTSステップ（評価、デザイン修正、教授、援助）を一つの解決方策として提案することである。

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here are many learners with special needs, both visible and invisible, in the classroom. These include learners with racial, linguistic, cultural, socio-economic, ethnic, and physical differences. Learners with disabilities are one example. A social modelof disability introduced in the UK theoretically separates disability from impairment.

According to Oliver, Sapey, and Thomas (2012), the social model of disability suggests a
paradigm shift in the area of studies considering disabilities from the notion of disability
as impairment towards the notion of disability as inaccessibility to social resources.
Education is arguably one of the most important social resources, particularly postsecondary education, which continues to become more and more necessary for careerdevelopment. According to Statistics Japan (2015), 55% of high school graduates go touniversity but only 0.42% of students in postsecondary education have some form ofimpairment (Japan Student Service Organization, 2015). Considering a recent findingthat 6% of the population has some type of impairment (Cabinet Office, 2014), the gap
between 0.42% of postsecondary students and 6% of the population suggests that there
are barriers in postsecondary education for learners with disabilities. Another finding isthat only 28% of universities provide learners with impairment with support in language
classes (Tonooka, 2015). Language classes, particularly English classes, tend to be mandatory for many majors, so there is a greater need in language classes for learners withspecial needs, including learners with disabilities.
Accordingly, in this paper my aim is to raise awareness of language learners with special needs by discussing the following questions:
1. Who are learners with special needs in language classes?
2. What are their needs?
3. How can language teachers fulfill these needs to improve the overall learning experience?
These questions are important not just for learners with disabilities, but also for those
without disabilities. Focusing on learners with color vision disabilities as an example oflearners with special needs, this paper provides teachers with an example of a pedagogical model applicable in class.

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Theoretical Framework

ARTS for Inclusive Language Classrooms

In this paper, I will adopt a social model of disability, which assumes that disability is
no longer caused by internal factors such as impairment or disease. Rather, disability
is caused by external factors such as inaccessible buildings and pedagogies that do notaccommodate learners with diverse needs. According to Oliver and Barnes (2012), thebasic concept of a social model of disability was proposed by the Union of the Physically
Impaired Against Segregation (UPIAS) in 1976. The primary element of the concept is aredefinition of disability that separates disability from impairment:

I propose a four-step procedure, called ARTS, in order to provide teachers with one way
to make their classes more accessible. ARTS stands for the following:
1. Assessing the disability or barrier
2. Redesigning teaching materials and pedagogy
3. Teaching students about accessibility
4. Supporting diversity of individual learning
The objective of ARTS is to encourage the teacher to see the classroom from the perspective of someone with a disability. This four-step procedure helps the teacher revise
teaching materials and pedagogy in a way that incorporates learners with special needs.

Impairment: lacking part or all of a limb, or having a defective limb, organ or mechanism of the body.
Disability: the disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by a contemporary social organisation which takes no or little account of people who have physical impairments and thus excludes them from participation in the mainstream of social
activities. (Union of the Physically Impaired Against Segregation, 1997, p. 14)
A social model of disability suggests a paradigm shift from the notion of disability as
personal tragedy—the barrier being the responsibility of the individual person—to thenotion of disability as inaccessibility. Society is responsible for causing barriers to people
with disabilities. This paradigm shift has major implications for postsecondary education
by requiring accessible education for learners with diverse needs. For example, the Disability Resource Centre at the University of Cambridge (DRC) provides an example of how
a social model of disability can be applied to university education in order to accommodate the diverse needs of students and colleagues with disabilities. These diverse needs
include “well-designed buildings, assistive technology, alternative formats, sign language
interpreters, and inclusive workplaces with respect to independent living, inclusive
methods of assessment, positive and non-discriminatory attitudes, accessible environments” (Disability Resource Centre at University of Cambridge, 2014, p. 1). The DRC
proposal can potentially be extended to other learners with special needs. These include
learners with racial, gender, linguistic, cultural, religious, ethnic, and age differences, who
also have diverse needs in education.
In this paper, I define learners with disabilities as one type of learner with special
needs. According to the social model of disability, learners with special needs are learners
who are experiencing inaccessibility to school activities caused by external factors. Thisdefinition of learners with special needs raises the aforementioned questions.

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Language Learners With Color Vision Disabilities
Within a social model of disability, color vision disabilities (CVDs) can be redefined as
inaccessibility to social activities related to colors, caused by external factors, which
impacts learners with CVDs.
Learners with CVDs are a particularly useful example of learners with special needs because an average language class of 20 males and 20 females will typically include at least
one student with CVDs (Color Universal Design Organization, 2009, 2016). CVDs arealso a borderline disability, because the barriers experienced by learners do not exclude
them from the classroom outright, but can exclude them from certain activities. Thesefeatures make learners with CVDs a typical example that can be applied to other learners
with special needs. Assuming a hypothetical CVD student is an ESL speaker from Japan,
the difficulty caused by external factors, such as English-only instruction at university
for Japanese speakers, may be greater than the difficulty caused by internal factors, suchas the fact that the ESL speaker cannot read or speak English. The following sections
demonstrate the application of ARTS to a language classroom by focusing on the example of learners with CVDs.

Assessing Disability
Assessing disability in a class is a complex process because disability consists of multiple
factors. Therefore, I propose a comparative culture dimensions framework for disability(CCDF; Figure 1), which is a modified version of Reimann’s (2013) model, in order tohelp teachers assess the existing barriers in a class. By covering the five subcategories of
CCDF, teachers can easily recognize and assess difficulties in the classroom.

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Moriya: Raising Awareness of Language Learners with Color Vision Disabilities
Perspectives(context)
Actions(pedagogy)

Products(teaching materials)

Disability

as yellow and white letters in the eyes of learners with CVDs. Also, bigger and bolder letters are much easier to read than normal-sized letters for these learners. These are someexamples of the barriers existing in the classroom that the teacher can easily find using
the Chromatic Vision Simulator.
Communities(classroom)

People(diversity of learners)

Figure 1. Comparative culture dimensions framework for disability (adapted from Reimann, 2013).

Assessing Communities
The first step of CCDF is assessing communities, which involves the teacher understanding the distribution and difficulty of learners with special needs in the classroom. In thecase of CVDs, an average university language class of 20 males and 20 females will statistically have at least one student with CVDs (Color Universal Design Organization, 2009,2016). Accordingly, unless the teacher experiences the same disability in the same waythat the students do, assessing disability may be an extremely difficult task. Therefore,
I propose the use of a free color vision simulator to assess disability in the classroom.
The Chromatic Vision Simulator (Asada, 2015a) is one example. It allows the user to see
colors in the same way as people with the three major types of CVD vision. In addition,
it is a free application that provides high affordability and mobility for the user and isavailable for iPhones and Androids through App Stores and Google Play.
Using the Chromatic Vision Simulator allows teachers to walk in someone else’s shoes.
Figure 2 shows red blind vision (protanopia) and green blind vision (deuteranopia), as
simulated by the Chromatic Vision Simulator. As we can see, the screen can be divided
into two different simulations of color vision so that the users can compare CVD vision
with normal color vision. The Chromatic Vision Simulator allows the teacher to assessbarriers in the classroom from the perspective of learners with CVDs. As we can see in
Figure 2, for example, blue or red letters may not stand out as clearly on the blackboard

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Figure 2. Simulated vision of protanopia (left) and deuteranopia (right) created by theauthor with the Chromatic Vision Simulator.

Assessing People
The next step of CCDF is assessing people, which involves the teacher recognizing thata diversity of needs exists in the classroom. For example, teachers may read and gather
information about CVDs and understand that there are learners with three different
types of CVD, such as green blind (deuteranopia), red blind (protanopia), and blue blind(tritanope) learners. Each type of CVD has unique color vision, but this does not meanthat people with CVDs cannot see colors. Actually, 99% can see colors in ways that are
different from people without CVDs (Color Universal Design Organization, 2009; McIntyre, 2002). The purpose of the second step of CCDF is to raise the awareness of teachers
themselves regarding learner diversity in the language class.

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Assessing Products
The third step of CCDF is assessing products. Using available technologies, such as the
Chromatic Vision Simulator, may be useful to assess barriers involved in teaching materials. For example, red chalk on blackboard can be confusing in the eyes of learners with
CVDs. On the other hand, by using the Chromatic Vision Simulator teachers can also
recognize that contrast between colors is vital for people with CVDs to see colors. For example, yellow and white may be the best combination of colors used on the blackboard.
There are also other teaching materials to consider, such as textbooks, charts, posters,
and labels.
Assessing teaching materials is a particularly important procedure for language teachers because many university language textbooks contain colorful and color-coordinatedimages. Figure 3 shows how different colors in language textbooks appear in the eyes oflearners with a protanopia. For example, one of the questions in the textbook (Figure 3)
asks the following question, “Where is the red book?” As we can see in Figure 3, choosing
a red book from the picture is extremely difficult for a learner with protanopia visionbecause red appears darker than it does for someone with normal color vision. Therefore,
this textbook is creating a barrier for learners with CVDs.

ers with CVDs to understand the meaning of materials is necessary in order to enhanceaccessibility in the class.

Assessing Actions
The fourth step of CCDF is assessing actions. In the classroom, pedagogy is one ofelements responsible for creating barriers between learners with special needs and otherlearners. Pedagogy can also be assessed by the Chromatic Vision Simulator. For example, bigger and bolder letters are clearer in the eyes of learners with CVDs because thoselearners may have weak perception of specific colors depending on the type of CVD.
Furthermore, writing the names of colors is also helpful for learners with various
CVDs to read colors because this gives them an alternative way to understand themeaning communicated by the colors. Color has meanings, and color vision disabilities
exist in the gap between perception of colors and understanding the meaning of colors.
For example, red is often used for the purpose of emphasizing words and phrases that
require serious attention. If a student with protanopia cannot read red writing on theblackboard, a color vision disability arises. Some language teachers use various colors inorder to emphasize grammatical points. Thus, teachers should decide how much color
they want to use. If only white and yellow are always used, there may be fewer problems
for learners with CVDs. Therefore, it is particularly important for language teachers who
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Figure 3. Simulated normal (top) and protanopia (bottom) color vision. Produced by theauthor through the Color Vision Simulator (adapted from Graham-Marr, Mora, Reynolds, & McNeese, 2009, p. 41).

Assessing Perspectives
The fifth step of CCDF is assessing perspectives, which involves examining the context
and meaning of particular differences that teachers teach in the language classes. Perspective itself is vague, but can be broken down into four elements: perceptions, beliefs,
values, and attitudes (Reimann, 2014, p. 20). Regarding perceptions, the teacher has the
choice to make learners with CVDs visible or invisible. Next, concerning beliefs, teachers

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tend to believe that the color the teacher sees is true and the same for everyone. Accordingly, values involve decisions about right or wrong. For example, teachers who unconsciously believe that the book on the table is red (see Figure 3) may incorrectly judge thata student who cannot answer the question does not understand the question. However,this judgment may be based on a faulty assumption. Consequently, the teacher may negatively evaluate learners with CVDs. Lastly, with regard to attitudes, language teachers
might assess whether their attitude toward learners with CVDs is inclusive or exclusive.
By observing all four elements, the language teacher can assess whether the class provides students with various needs with an inclusive or exclusive teaching environment.

Redesigning Language Teaching Materials and Pedagogy
Once the teacher has assessed the nature of disabilities in the language classroom, thesecond step of ARTS is to redesign teaching materials and pedagogy, two of which are
discussed here. First, I propose the use of a free simulator, the Toyo Ink Uding Simulator(Takeda et al., 2010). The Toyo Ink Uding Simulator is a free application (available for
iPhone, Android, and computers) that allows users to see confusing colors with onscreen
warnings, as well as to make posters and websites accessible by clicking a button.
Figure 4 shows an example of a redesigned web page. The second picture, labelled“simulating,” shows the screen after clicking the warning button. Certain colors that areused in the picture appear in black and warn the user of confusing colors. When “modify” is clicked, the application automatically changes the confusing colors into accessible
colors. The user also can select three major types of CVDs to modify the picture. By using
this application, the teacher can easily make posters and other teaching materials withcolor-coded information more color vision-friendly. Language teaching often involves
color-coordinated teaching materials, so using a simulator makes preparation easier.

Figure 4. A redesign procedure using Toyo Ink Uding Simulator, produced by the author(adapted from Utsunomiya University, 2015).
Second, adapting a concept of color universal design may also help teachers redesign
other types of teaching materials as well as pedagogy. Color universal design provides
teachers with necessary theoretical understanding of learners with CVDs. The Color
Universal Design Organization lists two key points that can be applied to the classroom:
1. Choose color schemes that can be easily identified by people with all types ofcolor vision, in consideration of the actual lighting conditions and environment.
2. Use not only different colors but also a combination of different shapes, positions, line types and coloring patterns, to ensure that information is conveyed to allusers including those who cannot distinguish differences in color (Color Universal
Design Organization, 2016).

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The first point of the universal color design concept enables teachers to redesign thecolor coordinated charts and graphs of their power point slides, handouts, and posters bychoosing colors from color universal design. The organization Karaa Yunibaasaru Dezain
Suisho Haishoku Setto Seisaku Iinkai (2013) created a free guidebook including a schematic arrangement of the colors in color universal design and has made it available throughthe website of the Color Universal Design Organization (2016). The guidebook introduces 20 universal design colors that contain nine high-chromatic colors, seven high-value
and low-chromatic colors, and four achromatic colors. Each color follows the Munsell
color system (Karaa Yunibaasaru Dezain Suisho Haishoku Setto Seisaku Iinkai, 2013; X-Rite,
2016) so that users can easily select colors they want from the guidebook.
The second point of the color universal design concept enables teachers to redesign
their teaching materials as well as pedagogy by using different shapes, positions, and line
types. The purpose is to help learners with CVDs understand the meanings of colors byreading shapes, positions, and line types rather than only reading colors. Theoretically,
CVDs appear in the gap between perception and meaning. Because language teachers
teach color terms in different languages, the gap between color perception and meaning
may appear in language classes more often than it does in other classes. Following is a listof self-check key questions for language teachers to apply to their classrooms:
1.
2.
3.
4.

Am I using white or yellow to increase contrast?
Am I including meanings and names of colors?
Am I writing large and bold letters?
Am I providing alternative sources of information?

These four questions can help language teachers to make their classrooms more inclusive through redesigning the teaching materials and pedagogy.

possess, and with regard to the denotational range of these terms” (p. 3). It is not possible
to determine that CVDs are abnormal and regular vision is normal without making a value judgment. The example of teaching CVDs as a global issue in the language class aims
at deconstructing the notion of color vision by raising a basic question: Why are learners
with CVDs considered impaired or disabled?
For example, teachers could present a poster of two pictures, which are the same picture but painted by people from two different cultural groups, such as Canada and Japan,
along with the picture of the global distribution of CVDs (Figure 5). This poster has thefollowing features. First, it shows the distribution of CVDs in the world. Second, it shows
the different use of colors in paintings such as the color of the sun. Third, the different
use of colors for the same object reflects cultural differences. This third feature is demonstrated by using the two different paintings. In Figure 5, the image to the left of the map
was painted by a native speaker of English in Canada. The image to the right was painted
by a native speaker of Japanese in Japan. Thus, the question “Why?” is included in thespace between the two differently colored suns. These three features suggest to students
that differences in the way colors are perceived reflect a diversity of notions of color.
Language teachers can develop an inclusive attitude among students towards CVDs by
showing various uses of colors in the same object because differences in color perception
become differences in external social factors. Furthermore, by teaching social and cultural differences in the notion of color terms, language teachers may raise the well-known
Sapir-Whorf hypothesis: Do language differences influence perception (Carroll, 1993)?
Language classes are where learners develop multiple perspectives on particular
objects and notions through the lens of the target language. Each language has a unique
notion of colors. Therefore, language teachers can play a major role in enhancing mutual
understanding of differences in color vision between learners with CVDs and those without CVDs in the classroom. In summary, teaching CVDs as a global issue allows learners
to critically analyze the notion of disability.

Teaching the Students About Accessibility
The third step of ARTS is teaching the students about accessibility by incorporating
perspectives that include learners with different needs. I propose the example of teaching CVDs as a global issue in the language class. Perception of color is different between
people with and without CVDs. However, it is scientifically impossible to prove that thecolor red, for instance, appears the same in the eyes of everyone. Taylor (1995) asserted,“Languages differ very considerably, both with regard to the number of color terms they

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way of using an assistive application may support learners with CVDs to develop self-reliance in learning.

Figure 5. A model of CVDs as a global issue topic (adapted from McIntyre, 2002, p. 68).

Figure 6. An image created using Chromatic Glass (Asada, 2015b).

Supporting Diversity of Individual Learning

Conclusion

The fourth step of ARTS is supporting individual learning, which involves encouraging
learners with special needs to adjust to the classroom and even to improve their functioning skills. It is important to ensure that there is enough support available for language learners with various needs. However, support can also be provided by the learners
themselves. I propose the use of assistive technology for language teachers to support
diversity in individual learning thus encouraging self-reliance.
For instance, a software program called Chromatic Glass (Asada, 2015b) can support
this aim. Chromatic Glass is a free application that allows users to read the names of
the color of an object. (It is available for iPhone and Android through the App Store and
Google Play.) It provides high mobility, and users can take a picture of any object usinga mobile phone. Figure 6 shows an example from usage of the Chromatic Glass application. The user takes a picture of the object and can read color names in the bar. By using
this assistive technology, learners with CVDs can read confusing colors. As a result, this

Although the ARTS framework is just an example of a way to improve accessibility oflearners with special needs to the classroom, the procedure is a useful way to makelanguage classes more accessible. By assessing disabilities, the language teacher may havea better understanding of the fact that the school environment, pedagogy, and ordinary teaching materials may cause disability. Redesigning language teaching materials
illustrates the process by which a color vision simulator may increase accessibility forlearners. In addition, applying universal design perspectives may increase accessibility
among learners as part of redesigned pedagogy. Furthermore, incorporating inclusive
perspectives by discussing disability as a global issue in the language class may encourage
an inclusive perspective in the classroom. Lastly, using assistive technology may increase
accessibility among language learners by supporting individual learning.
Inclusive language classes reflect the diverse needs of individual learners. It may notalways be simple, but accessible education should benefit every person in society. Even in FRONT PAGE

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the case of disability, it is not only the medical profession but also teachers who can playa major role in improving accessibility in the classroom. The ARTS procedure is the firststep towards a significant shift in perspectives in order to consider developing accessibility for learners with special needs in language classes. This paper focused on the exampleof learners with CVDs, but the example can also be applied to other sorts of learners,
such as learners in wheelchairs. Wheelchairs are usually available at university healthcenters. Teachers can use a wheelchair themselves in order to assess their classrooms. It
is not practical to expect language teachers to suddenly accept learners with any difference. However, it is the aim of this paper to raise awareness of learners with special needsin language classes. That is, the more language teachers realize that they can improve accessibility to their classes, the more learners with special needs can participate in higher
education.

Karaa Yunibaasaru Dezain Suisho Haishoku Setto Seisaku Iinkai. (2013). Karaa yunibasaaru dezain suisho haishoku setto gaidobukku [Color universal design color set guidebook].
Retrieved from <https://docs.google.com/viewer?url=http%3A%2F%2Fjfly.iam.u-tokyo.
ac.jp%2Fcolorset%2FCUD_color_set_GuideBook_2013.pdf>
McIntyre, D. (2002). Colour blindness: Causes and effects. Chester, UK: Dalton Publishing.
Oliver, M., & Barnes, C. (2012). The new politics of disablement. New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan.
Oliver, M., Sapey, B., & Thomas, P. (2012). Social work with disabled people (4th ed.). Basingstoke,
Hampshire, UK: Palgrave Macmillan.
Reimann, A. (2013). Introduction to culture studies: Introductory activities for exploring and comparing
cultures. Tokyo: Intergraphica Press.

Bio Data
Ryota Moriya is currently a doctoral student in the Graduate School of International
Studies at Utsunomiya University. His research interests include comparative culture
studies, learners with special needs, color-blindness. <ryota.moriya@gmail.com>

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