Technical Guidelines for Reforestation
at Ex-Coal-Mining Areas- Based on the outcomes of experimental reforestation activities at
ex-coal-mining areas in South Kalimantan, Indonesia -Japan International Forestry Promotion and Cooperation Center(JIFPRO)

March 2015

Technical Guidelines for Reforestation
at Ex-Coal-Mining Areas-

Based on the outcomes of experimental reforestation activities at
ex-coal-mining areas in South Kalimantan, Indonesia -Eiichiro Nakama, Seiichi Ohta, Yasuo Ohsumi, Tokunori Moriand Satohiko Sasaki
Japan International Forestry Promotion and Cooperation Center
Fakhrur Razie, Hamdani Fauzi and Mahrus Aryadi
Lambung Mangkurat University, Indonesia

Japan International Forestry Promotion and Cooperation Center

March 2015

Foreword
During the past decades, deforestation and forest degradation continues especially indeveloping countries. According to the report of the Food and Agriculture Organizationof the United Nation (FAO), approximately 13 million hectors of global forests have been
lost annually due to forest land conversion to other land uses, forest fires and natural
disasters, while reforestation and natural regeneration account for an increase of
approx. 7.8 million hectors of forest cover. This means the net loss of global forest is
estimated at 5.2 million hectors.
Adverse impacts of forest conversion to farmland can be minimized as far as the land isproperly used and managed in a sustainable manner. However, in some cases, problem
soils are exposed and abandoned as degraded land. Deforestation by mining is a big
issue these years. Problem soils such as strong acid soils and/or too much heavy metalsoils appear at the ex-mining areas. In some cases it is too difficult to reforestate. In
Indonesia, among other developing countries, coal mining is rapidly increasing due tothe increase of demand in recent years. Acid sulfate soil (ASS) occurs after mining
development which leads to acid mine drainage and increase of devastated land. As aresult, biodiversity is lost and the risk of disaster such as frequent flood is rapidly
increasing.
How to recover degraded forest land in semi-arid areas is not only an issue indeveloping countries, but also have become a global concern which need to be addressed
urgently. In order to tackle such an issue, the Forestry Agency of Japan, under its
program to support reforestation in developing countries, has started a four-year projectof “Model Forest Development in Degraded Lands” starting from the Japanese Fiscal
Year of 2011.
This project is aimed at developing appropriate methodologies for land preparation, tree
species selection, planting techniques for degraded land recovery, taking into
consideration the scientific data such as environmental and soil conditions of theplantation sites ex-coal-mining areas in South Kalimantan, Indonesia, through on-site
surveys and establishment of pilot reforestation sites. These technical guidelines are
the result of the model pilot reforestation activities.
We would like to express our sincere appreciation to the International Forestry
Cooperation Division of the Forestry Agency, Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry andFisheries in Japan for their financial support and advises for the implementation of thisproject. Our special thanks also to the project advisory committee members chaired by
Dr. Katsuhiko Kojima, the University of Tokyo for their guidance on the planning andimplementation of the surveys. Last but not least, we owe our deepest gratitude to the
Directorate General of Watershed Management and Social Forestry Development of the
Ministry of Forestry in Indonesia and Barito Watershed Management Center as ourcounterpart, the coal mining companies (PT. Antang Gunung Meratus and PT. Tanjung
Alam Jaya), Laambung Mangkurat University and the Forestry Research andDevelopment Agency of Ministry of Forestry in Banjarbaru.

March 2015
Dr. Satohiko Sasaki, President
Japan International Forestry Promotion and Cooperation Center (JIFPRO)

Table of contents
Chapter 1.

Background and Objectives........................................................................... 1

1-1. The current status of coal mining in Indonesia ................................................ 1
1-2. Policy on Reclamation of coal mined land ......................................................... 1
1-3. Obstacles to the reforestation at the ex-mining land ....................................... 2
Chapter 2.

Technical Requirement for Forest Rehabilitation at Ex-mining Areas and
Implementing Procedure ............................................................................... 5

2-1. Technical Requirement for Forest Rehabilitation at Ex-mining Areas ........... 5
2-2. Implementation procedure for forest rehabilitation at ex-coal-mining areas(Decision Tree) .................................................................................................... 7
Chapter 3.

Characteristics of soil after coal mining and its assessment ....................... 9

3-1. Soil environment after coal mining ................................................................... 9
3-2. Assessment method of ex-coal mining land soil and refill materials ............. 14
Chapter 4.

Backfilling, Leveling/Site preparation, Setting up Sediment Pond and Soil
Improvement................................................................................................ 224-1. Backfilling, Leveling/Site preparation, Setting up Sedimentation Pond....... 22
4-2. Soil Improvement (Soil physics and nutrients, etc) ........................................ 23
Chapter 5.

Selection of cover crop and planting species .............................................. 25

5-1. Selection of cover crop to quickly cover the surface ........................................ 25
5-2. Selection of pioneer tree and fast-growing tree of short-life species for the
purpose of quick initial greening ..................................................................... 25
5-3. Selection of long-life planting species for second greening to achieve the ideal
forest ................................................................................................................. 26
Chapter 6.

Maintenance and protection for planted trees ........................................... 28

6-1. Nursery for planted trees (weeding and cutting) ............................................ 28
6-2. Counter measure against wildfire ................................................................... 29
Appendix ............................................................................................................................ 31
A1.

Planted Tree Species Adequateness (Adequacy assessment list of plant
species used at the reforestation experiments at ex-coal-mining areas inSouth Kalimantan) ........................................................................................... 31

A2.

Characteristics of trees examined in the experimental plots of coal mining
areas, Kalimantan Selatan .............................................................................. 32

A3.

Characteristics of the planting tree species in Indonesia............................... 42

Chapter 1. Background and Objectives
1-1.

The current status of coal mining in Indonesia

Coal production has been increasing rapidly in Indonesia after opening up the investment on coalsector from overseas in the early 1990s. Indonesia’s coal production in 2012 reached 440 million
tons, 43 times more compared to 1990 and it ranked 4th in the world. About 380 million tons (86%)
of those are exported to Japan and Korea and emerging countries such as China and India formainly power generation (82 times more compared to 1990). Meanwhile, domestic consumption
stands low at 60 million tons (14%) in 2012. However, in order to secure the volume of the domestic
coal demand for fire power generation which is expected to increase rapidly in the coming years, theMinistry of Energy and Mineral Resources of Indonesia issued Minister Regulation No. 34/2009“Domestic Market Obligation for Mineral and Coal” and started to adopt protectionist policies tolimit the export volumes and allotted the amount of domestic use to coal companies.
Indonesia’s coal reserves ranks 13th in the world. They are located in 3 provinces, East Kalimantan,
South Kalimantan and South Sumatra. Coal production and exports in 2012 in East Kalimantan
and South Kalimantan accounts for 90% of Indonesia. The Indonesian Ministry of Energy andMineral Resources issued a law on Mineral and Coal Mining in January 2009 (Law No. 4 of 2009 on
Mineral and Coal Mining, hereinafter, the 2009 New Mining Law). In line with the new law,
Contract of Work (COW) which was applied to foreign mining companies was banned and mining
concession was unified to licensing scheme (a mining business permit). Top-10 coal companies withcoal business area of tens of thousands ha account for 60 % of total coal production and exportation.
Small and medium-sized companies (more than a thousand) account for the remaining 40 %.
1-2.

Policy on Reclamation of coal mined land

Open-pit coal mining is common in Indonesia. It gives big impacts on the environment andlandscape because of the deforestation, devegetation and deformation of land (Figure 1).

Source)1 W.Ex-mining
Lee Daniels
andE. Zipper.
2010.
Figure
land
inC.
East
Kalimantan

Figure 2 Topography generated by open-pit
mining (Diagram)
Source) W. Lee Daniels and C. E. Zipper. 2010.

1

Thus the handling procedure of ex-mining areas is stipulated in the Government Regulation No.
78/2010 Regarding Reclamation and Post Mining as a by-law of New Mining Law. Mineral and CoalEnterprises need to submit to the government the reclamation and utilization plan of ex-mining
areas and get approval of it in advance. They are obliged to reclaim and utilize the land based on
the plan or restore the land to the same usage as before the project. Especially in case if the
expected mining land is the forest site, they need to gain the borrowing permit from the Indonesian
Ministry of Forestry. Among the forest sites in Indonesia, mining is permitted only in the“Production forest” (tunneling and/or open pit mining is allowed) and the “Protection forest”(tunneling mining is allowed but open pit mining is not). It is banned in the “Conservation forest”. If
borrowing forest site, the pit needs to be filled in after mining and forest reclamation should be done
before returning. (“the Use of the Forest Estate” (Government Regulation No.24/2010),“Reclamation and Restoration of the Forest” (Government Regulation No.76/2008)) Indonesian
Ministry of Forestry regards the reforestation of ex-mining areas which is rapidly increasing theseyears as one of the most important challenges to be handled. The Ministry issued “the Guideline for
Reforestation” (Forestry Minister Regulation No.4/2011) and “the Guideline for the Evaluation of
Reforestation” (Forestry Minister Regulation No.60/2009) and started to promote the reforestationin the ex-mining area.
1-3.

Obstacles to the reforestation at the ex-mining land

However, so many obstacles exist to the reclamation of forest in the ex-mining lands. The main
factor of making the reforestation difficult is often due to the specific soil properties. Generally, theoriginal strata before mining contain surface soil and subsoil with brown / yellowish materials
which are weathered and oxidized by iron. Below the soil stands bed rock layer with grayish
materials in initial weathering stage and not being oxidized. Further below it reside sedimentaryrock layer with dark- grayish materials and black coal layer (Figure 2). Open-pit mining is
conducted by removing bed rock and surface soil. These sediment removed from the mining land
(known as Overburden) is dumped to the dump site as waste or is used when refilling the hole
(Figure 3). Most of the overburden are unweathered grayish materials in gravel. Grained one isinfertile. In addition to that, land leveling and setting is conducted by frequent loading of very
heavy vehicles in order to prevent landsliding. The hardening and compaction of the refilledmaterials disturb the fixing of plants. The compacted surface soils become less able to absorb
rainfall. Thus most rain run off with surface soil. As a result, the fixing of plants becomes further
difficult.
If overburden contains potential acid material, Pyrite, it causes the emergence of Acid Sulfate Soil
(ASS) over time, which makes it difficult for every vegetation to survive (Figure 4).

2

Figure 3 Leveling at ex-mining land

Figure 4 Dead plants due to Acid Sulfate Soil

To handle these problems the following procedure is stipulated in “the Guideline for Reforestation”
of Indonesian Ministry of Forestry as mentioned above .
a) In case of open pit mining, overburden should be stored separately by weathered brownyellowish materials and unweathered grayish materials.
b) When dumping overburden or using it to refill the hole, put the grayish materials first andthen overlay the brown-yellowish materials for fully dressing.
The field, however, is shallow in brown-yellowish layer thus it is difficult to store or procure thematerials for surface refilling. There may be no choice but to use the grayish overburden for landleveling in some regions. If those overburden contains Pyrite, the soil becomes highly acidic, which
disturb the reforestation. For these reasons several open-pit mined lands remain abandoned andthe number of devastated land is increasing in East Kalimantan and South Kalimantan. Coalbusiness association composing of local environmental NGOs warns the situation is bound to getworse, pointing out the loss of biological diversity and the possibility of natural disaster such as
flood.
So this research aims to verify empirically appropriate procedures for reforestation (land leveling,
dressing, fertilizing, selecting tree species) by conducting the tree planting tests in the post-mining
lands.
References
1) IEA. 2013. Coal Information 2013.
2) Teuchi Shinjiro. 2013. Situation of coal in Indonesia. JCOAL Journal, Vol.26, p12-15. In
Japanese.
3) Japan Oil, Gas and Metals National Corporation (JOGMEC). 2014. Situation of coal mining inIndonesia. http://coal.jogmec.go.jp/result/docs/140611_07.pdf.
4) Jaringan Adovaksi Tambang. 2010. Deadly Coal Extraction & Borneo Dark Generation.

3http://english.jatam.org/index.php.
5) W. Lee Daniels and C. E. Zipper. 2010. Creation and Management of Productive Minesoils.
Communications and Marketing, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Virginia Polytechnic
Institute and State University.

4Chapter 2. Technical Requirement for Forest Rehabilitation at Ex-mining
Areas and Implementing Procedure
2-1. Technical Requirement for Forest Rehabilitation at Ex-mining Areas
It is difficult to rehabilitate the forest at the back filling sites or dumping sites aftermining because problem soils occur due to the bed rock appearing on the surface as
overdue. The problems mean soil runoff and erosion due to the bare ground in addition
to the oligotrophic and low organic soil and poor soil physical properties such as highbulk density and low porosity. If the soil contains the potential acid material, Pyrite, it
is further difficult to reforest because the soil becomes acid sulfate by the oxidation of
pyrite and heavy metals will be released under the condition of strong acidity.
The following conditions are needed as basic techniques for forest rehabilitation at
the ex-coal mining areas.
1) Understand the characteristic of soil environment (backfilling materials and wastesoil) at the ex-coal-mining areas
2) Assess the potential acidity (Chapter 3- 1, 2)3) Revel in order to prevent the soil runoff and erosion (Chapter 4-1)
4) Improve soil (in physics and nutrients) (Chapter 4-2)
5) Select cover crop to cover the ground quickly (Chapter 5-1)
6) Select fast growing plant species for primary afforestation (Chapter 5-2)
7) Select long life plant species for secondary afforestation leading to desired forest(Chapter 5-3)
8) Nursery of planted trees (Supplemental planting, top-dressing, weeding and cutting)and maintenance (counter measure against wild fire), which are very important.
Step 1: Understand the characteristic of soil environment at ex-coal-mining areas(Chapter 3-1)

Step 2: Assess the ex-mining soil and backfilling materials(Chapter 3-2)

Step 3: Backfilling, Reveling, Setting up sedimentation pond

(Chapter 4-1)

Step 4: Improve soil (in physics and nutrients)(Chapter 4-2)

Step 5: Select cover crop to cover the ground quickly(Chapter 5-1)

Step 6: Select fast growing plant species for primary afforestation

5(Chapter 5-2)

Step 7: Select long life plant species for secondary afforestation leading to desired forest(Chapter 5-3)
Step 8: Nursery and maintenance of planted trees(Chapter 6)

Figure 2－1．Technical Requirement for Forest Rehabilitation at Ex-mining Areas and
Implementing Procedure62-2 Implementation procedure for forest rehabilitation at ex-coal-mining areas (Decision Tree)

Overdue (waste soil) before
backfilling / dumping

Assess the potential acidity

Contain a lot of Potential
Acidity ???? (PAF)

Do not contain Potential
Acidity ???? (PAF)

7
Bury PAF in the lower
layer ( >10m) seperately

Unweathered soil
(Neutral - Alkaline)

Exposed on surface+counter measure for
erosion+Ripping

Select planting tree
species according to soil
physics, pH and nutrients

Weathered soil
（4 < pH < 6）

Used as top soil dressing
Used as backfillingmaterials＋Counter measure forsoil erosion＋Ripping

Select planting tree
species according to soil
physics, pH and nutrientsOverdue (waste soil) after
backfilling / dumping

Assess the soil pH and potential acidity

Acid - Alkaline soil

Strong Acid soil（pH＜3）（pH>3）

8

Bury as low as possible(＞10ｍ）

Strong Potential Acidity

Weak Potential Acidity

No Potential Acidity（pH<3)（pH3-5）(Neutral - Alkaline)

Counter measure for
erosionCounter measure for
erosion

Exposable on the surface

Exposable on the surface＋ surface cover＋ Surface cover＋ Counter measure for
erosion＋ Counter measure for
erosion＋ Ripping＋ Ripping＋ Ripping＋ RippingSelect planting tree
species according to thecharacteristics ofdressing

Select planting tree
species according to thecharacteristics ofdressing

Select planting tree
species according to thepotential acidity

Select planting tree
species according to thepotential acidity

Chapter 3. Characteristics of soil after coal mining and its assessment
It is a standard method to refill a pit after open-pit coal mining with overdue and dress
with surface soil which has been stored aside on digging. If dressed with the surface
soil stored aside in sufficient depth (at least 1m), the soil environment, especiallychemical environment, does not change dramatically as before the digging, which isbest for the forest rehabilitation. But if the dressing is not conducted with surface soil
or its depth is not sufficient, the soil environment of the surface will vary depending on
the characteristics of the overdue, resulting in forming extremely unnaturalenvironment. In addition to that, the soil is compacted by heavy machines such as thebig dump trucks and bulldozers moving to refill the land in the case of open-pit coalmining.
The soil after coal mining may become unnatural chemically and physically, thus theforest rehabilitation may be limited. For this reason, this project aims to develop abasic manual to rehabilitate and reforest degraded lands after coal mining and wedeveloped a model forest at a land after coal mining in South Kalimantan (Indonesia).
We monitored the soil characteristics (especially soil acidity and physics) and itschange as well as the survival and growth of the planted trees.
A summary of soil environment after coal mining and the method to assess is
described in this chapter.
3-1. Soil environment after coal mining
3-1-1. Characteristics of soil chemicals (pH level)a) When refilled with the sediment not containing Pyrite
If the overdue does not contain Pyrite and is not weathered relatively soon after the
digging, it contains a lot of basic elements such as Ca, Mg, K, Na, etc. Pits are
generally refilled soon after the mining thus the unweathered sediment is mainly used
as refill. In that case basic ion is released continuously due to the weathering anderosion of primary minerals (rock forming minerals) in the overdue, making the soil
alkaline with around pH 8. But then, basic elements are leached gradually by
rainwater, returning to the pH level of the vicinity. pH of the natural tropicalrainforest soil which contains Acrisol (WRB)/ Ultisols (U.S. Soil Taxonomy) widely
found in South East Asia humid tropical zone is 4-5. pH increases to 5-6 with theerosion of basic elements in the biomass into the soil.
The duration of keeping the soil alkaline will depend on the balance between the total
amount of basic elements in the overdue and the speed of weathering and erosion. The

9result of this project shows that there is no possibility of the rapid shift from alkaline
to acidic within 4 years if the overdue does not contain pyrite. The soil keeps alkaline
environment for longer period than 4 years thus it means the planted trees are to be
put under the environment for the period. (See BOX 1)
BOX1 Soil pH change with time at ex-coal mining site – a case of South
Kalimantan
Soil pH of most spots (in black)refilled with fresh mining residue
was 6.5 - 7.0 at first, increased toabove 7.0 due to leaching of basic
cations with weathering after 9-14
months and then decreased to 6.2
after 18 months. Compared to thenatural forest soil of pH4.0-5.0
which is mainly Acrisols in thesurrounding area and to thesecondary forest and waste cogon
grass of pH5.0-6.0 (pH ofwasteland is higher than that ofnatural forest because cations
existed in forest biomass permeate
Figure Soil pH (H2O) change with time atsoil with the devastation of forest),
ex-coal mining site
pH of spots refilled with freshBlack: refilled with fresh mining residue
residue was consistently higher
Red: refilled with fresh mining residue and top dressing
and the acidification process waswith forest surface soil.
slow as a whole. pH value did not○:0-10cm in depth, △:10-20cm, □:20-30cm (ｎ=10)
change much by depth of thesamples. As shown by the length of error bar, pH values varied significantly by
spots measured. It was found that soil materials with different properties are
unevenly distributed and a part of it contained pyrite. pH of topsoil dressing isstable at 5.7-5.8 during the measurement period and it reflected the property ofthe surrounding soil used as top dressing. It was assumed that top dressing
material was homogeneous judging by relatively small standard error.
b) When refilled with sediments containing pyrite for top dressing
In many cases, a formation containing pyrite (see BOX 2) exists above or below coal.
When a formation with pyrite exists above target coal, pyrite gets mixed in with theoverdue. As explained in BOX 1, when exposed to air pyrite generates acid sulfate. If
the surface is dressed with the sediments containing pyrite the soil condition becomesstrongly acidic on the surface and thus it can be very difficult for every plant to survive
and grow. For this reason, it is really important to bury the sediments with pyrite indeep soil to segregate it from surface with the aim of avoiding acidification whenrefilling the mining pit.

10

BOX2 Generation and Oxidation of pyrite
Pyrite will be generated under the condition in which the simultaneous supply of bothSO42- and organic matter in the seawater or brackish water. For example, mangrove,
which grows in seawater and brackish water, is under the condition. Under theanaerobic environment formed by the decomposition of organic matters, a lot of SO42(2.65gL-1) existing in seawater generate H2S of sulfur (S (-II)) compound reduced byheterotrophic bacterium which is obligate anaerobes.
2CH2O+SO42-=H2S+2HCO3Generated S (-II) react with Fe2- which is already generated under the higher
oxidation- reduction potential than sulfate reduction, which result in the precipitationof metastable blackish iron sulfide (FeS) at normal temperature.
Fe2++ S2-=FeS
FeS react with atomic sulfur (S(0)) which is generated by the oxidation of S (-II) andexists in seafloor sediment, which generate pyrite (FeS2).
FeS+S(O)=FeS2
When pyrite in the seafloor sediment is dehydrated due to uplift, the following
reaction will proceed with the presence of oxygen.
FeS2+1/2O2+2H+=Fe2++2S(0)+H2O
2S(0)+3O2+2H2O=2SO42-+4H+
These reactions are very slow in purely chemical condition. However, the reaction isproceeded rapidly if involved in microbial groups such as iron and sulfur bacteria.
Rapid acidification progresses due to the sulfate generated by this process. Oxidationof pyrite is enhanced further by Fe3+ as an oxidant which is dissolved in solution if pH
is below 3.
FeS2+14Fe3++ 8H2o=15Fe2+ +2SO42-+16H+
Half-life period of this reaction is 20-1000 minutes. The oxidation of pyrite generates
Fe2+, which produces Fe3+ with the help of iron bacteria, which results in the furtheroxidation of pyrite.
But when the sediment containing pyrite get mixed with the refill for the surface
dressing, the soil remains neutral or alkaline until sulfate is produced due to oxidation.
Soil acidification proceeds gradually by leaching of sulfate and the soil pH becomes
below 2 in an extreme case. The speed of acidification will vary depending on soilhydrothermal environment and the activity of microorganism to react with. It may
take several years to show strong acidity when the speed is slow. (See BOX 3)

11

Some sulfates generated by oxidation are runoff by rainwater or neutralized by basic
cations in the sediments thus rapid acidification will not occur when the soil has lesspyrite and much basic materials because most of sulfates are neutralized. However, if
the soil is relatively high in pyrite and does not contain enough basic materials toneutralize sulfates, it becomes strongly acidic.
As described above, the speed of acidification and its acidity in soils containing
sediment with pyrite are determined by multiple related factors and its balances suchas the amount of pyrite in the sediments, the speed of oxidation, the sulfate
neutralizing capacity of the sediments, the speed of removing sulfate by permeate andsurface runoff.
Soil pH environment varies largely depending on the variation of the refillingmaterials and with or without top soil dressing. And it changes with time. For thisreason, it is imperative to know in advance the soil environment (pH), with or without
pyrite and the acidity (potential acidity) developed by the oxidation of pyrite with
time.
There is no doubt that it is fundamental not to use sediment with pyrite as a refill for
top soil dressing and to bury it in deep underground. We will need a simple method toassess a formation with such risk.

pH(H2O) 2013年11月測定

BOX 3 The difference of oxidation depending on the refilling materials
8
7
6
5
4
3
2
1
0
0

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

pH(H2O) 2012年5月測定

Figure: pH (H2O) Change one
and half year after refilling○:0-10cm in depth, △:10-20cm

As shown in the left figure plotting pH (H2O) of
samples at the time of refill and one year later,most samples distributed along the 1:1 line. At
most points without pyrite pH did not decreaseby the leaching of basic cations after such ashort time as one and half year, however,acidification at 4 samples is clearly indicated.
In extreme case pH dropped to around 2.
This figure shows that sediments used as arefill gradually leaches basic cations withweathering and pH decreases accordingly but
the speed is slow and soil acidification progress
relatively immediately if the soil containpyrite and a condition is matched.

12

3-1-2. Physical property of soil – Bulk density, Porosity
1) Generation of compacted soil
Refilling and leveling process is conducted by big dump truck and big bulldozer thus
surface soil is strongly compacted and shows extremely high bulk densities and low
porosities (see Box ). It is widely known that water retention ability and permeabilityof soil decreases due to the compaction and less porosities. This kind of soil has aserious drawback in that the soil tends to be excessively moist, and at the same time,dry. Therefore growth and development of plant root is physically inhibited andsurvival and growth of planted tree is limited due to excessive moisture damage or dry
damage if tree is planted in the compacted soil at the ex-coal mining land.
Compacted soil is not good at permeability thus rainwater permeation into the soil islimited so a lot of rainwater becomes runoff, which results in heavy runoff of surface
soil. In addition, refilled land is bare and has no cover to protect the surface at firstthus severe surface soil runoff is inevitable due to the hard raindrop hit of typicalhumid tropical region. Soil dissipation limits the growth of planted tree in addition to
the restriction factors attributable to physical property described above.
Therefore, it is ideal to improve the soil physical property (to increase porosity andpermeability) before the rehabilitation of forest. Cultivating and ripping method isrecommended. It is also necessary to prevent and alleviate soil runoff. Some
constructions are needed such as backfilling to make the slope gentle, making terrace,
setting up drain. Protective measures for surface soil such as cover crop and mulching
are also needed.

13Severe soil runoff at ex-coal mining land
0

BOX 4

Left figure shows how volume percent offine soil (<2mm), gravel (>2mm) and porespace contained in a certain volume of soil
0.8 E
sample collected by using a cylinder
C
E
E
C
E
C
C
E
CE
C
礫体積率 changed in a year after refilling. As shown
E
0.6 E
C
here, most of soil samples contain little or
細土体積率
no gravel, fine soil 60-80% and pore space
0.4
20-40% at the first measurement. However
J C
fine soil decreased to 15-40%, porosity
C
C
HJJ
J JC
H
H
J
remains almost the same 20-40% and
H
0.2
JH J
H
HH
HJ
gravel increased significantly 30-70% a
Hyear later at the second measurement.
0
It is expected that soil materials such as
fine grain materials and gravels in this
孔隙率
experimental site is heavily compacted by
big dump truck carrying refill material
図 細土、礫、空隙割合と１年間の変化
Figure: Change for a year in the ratio ofand ground leveling by heavy machine
fine soil, gravel and porosity－A case ofthus soil become less pore spaces. Under
South Kalimantanthese poor soil physics, it is thought that
(Outline character: test result rightsevere erosion on surface soil occurred
after refilling
because rainwater permeation into the soilBlack character: test result after a year
was limited so a lot of rainwater became△:Refilled area, ○:Dressed area
runoff and also due to bare land and hardraindrop hit of typical humid tropicalregion. As a result, fine particle material in surface soil run off over time, which led
to larger percentage of gravel in the soil. This hypothesis is supported by themorphological property of soil profile at first and second measurements.
1

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

1

0

0.2

0.4

0.6

0.8

1

3-2. Assessment method of ex-coal mining land soil and refill materials
3-2-1. Soil pH and potential acidity
pH(H2O) is widely used as the most simple parameter to indicate the chemical
environment of soil. Soil pH is the basic information when selecting tree species andmanaging soil thus it is ideal to measure it before planting trees at ex-coal mining
land. The number of sample points necessary to grasp the current soil situation
depends on the uniformity of refill materials at the ex-coal mining land. If different
materials are clearly found across a wide area by judging the color (especially theintensity of black) and particle density (sand or clay) of refill materials, it is desirable
that pH should be assessed at several tens of sample points for each materials to get a
representative value. The depth to measure pH should be about 0-10cm, the mostsurface layer where plants root grow or lower layer- 50cm if possible.
As described above, if refill materials contain pyrite, it creates strong acidity over time14and its acidity depends on the amount of pyrite. It is possible to know in advance howmuch acidity it will show in the future by measuring the potential acidity by forciblyoxidizing it beforehand. Forced oxidation is conducted by adding hydrogen peroxidewater (H2O2) to the sample. Potential acidity is measured by using a pH glass
electrode or simply pH-test paper after transforming all sulfur in pyrite into sulfuric
acid (H2SO4). Samples (especially fresh sediment soon after mining), however, containa lot of basic elements which neutralizes some of sulfuric acid generated thus thepotential acidity assessed in this method does not necessarily indicate the accurate
amount of acid. Because in the actual time course some of sulfuric acid generated are
runoff with rainwater and neutralized by basic elements released due to weathering ofminerals. Therefore, pH value assessed as potential acidity does not always appear infact and the test result should be regarded as just a potential value.

BOX 5 Simple method to measure pH (H2O) and potential acidity of soil / sediments
1) To obtain the accurate pH (H2O) of soil; add 2.5 times of distillated water to 1 moist
soil in weight (ex, 10g of moist soil : 25ml of distillated water). Stir the mixture until all
soil mass are dispersed to the muddy suspension and then measure the pH by using a
glass pH electrode (pH meter).
To obtain the rough pH in the field; it can easily measure a suspension of soil: water = 1:
2.5 using pH test paper. For more detailed method, see below.
SSSA 1996; In Method of Soil Analysis, Part 3 – Chemical Methods, Soil pH and Soil Acidity, 475-490

2) To measure the potential acidity simply in the field, place approximately 1/2 teaspoonof the soil sample (about 5 g) into glass test tube (wide-mouth and tall, 20mm indiameter and 200mm in length) and add 1-2 millilitres of 30% H2O2 (adjusted to pH
4.5–5.5 by adding a few drops of dilute NaOH) to the soil and stir the mixture. DO NOT
add more than several milliliters of H2O2 in order not to overflow the reactant of thesoil:peroxide mix. Allow approximately 15 minutes for any reactions to occur. It may not
be necessary to stir the mixture if substantial sulfides exist and the reaction will bevigorous and may occur almost instantly. If the reaction is violent and the soil:peroxide
mix is escaping from the test tube, a small amount of distillated water can be added(using a wash bottle or pipette) to cool and calm the reaction. The above mentioned steps
may be repeated until the soil:peroxide mixture reaction has slowed. Usually one or two
extra additions of a few millilitres of peroxide are sufficient. This will ensure that most of
the sulfides have reacted. Wait for the soil:peroxide mixture to cool and then measure the
pH by using a glass pH electrode or simply pH-test paper. For more detailed method, see
below.
Queensland Acid Sulfate Soils Investigation Team et al. 2004: In Acid Sulfate Soils, Laboratory
Methods Guidelines, Version 2.1, Acid Sulfate Soil Field pH Test, H1-1 – H1-4

The soil pH or potential acidity assessed is used as a standard to select tree species forforest rehabilitation.

15

The result of this model forest project shows that it is difficult for any tree species tosurvive in the soil below pH 3.0 (See BOX??). The pH of the soil in tropical rainforest
and tropical seasonal forest is generally 4.0-5.0 and 5.0-7.0, respectively. Thus, wesuggest the following pH segments as a criteria for deciding planting tree species.
Acidity segmenti) Acidity Class I：

below pH 3.0 (Very strongly acid)ii) Acidity Class II：

pH 3.0-4.0 (Strongly acid)iii) Acidity Class III： pH 4.0-5.0 (Acid)iv) Acidity Class IV： pH 5.0-7.0 (Moderately acid)v) Acidity Class V：

above pH 7 (Alkaline)

The above segment can be used for potential acidity as it is thought that a pH close to
it will occur in the near future.
Potential acidity segmenti) Potential Acidity Class I：below pH 3.0（Very strongly acid：Strongly suspected thepresence of sulfide）
ii) Potential Acidity Class II：pH 3.0-4.0 (Strongly acid：Slightly low possibility ofsulfide presence）
iii) Potential Acidity Class III：pH 4.0-5.0 (Acid：Sulfide presence unknown)iv) Potential Acidity Class IV：pH 5.0-7.0 (Moderately acid：Almost no presence ofsulfide）
v) Potential Acidity Class V：above pH 7 (Alkaline：Almost no presence of sulfide）
3-2-2. Soil physics
It is important to understand the physics of surface soil in which plant root grow when
forest rehabilitation is conducted at ex-coal-mining land. Among parameters to referare soil hardness to be measured by intrusive hardness scale, bulk density which is
the weight of dry soil divided by the total soil volume and porosity itself, etc. It ishighly convenient to measure the soil hardness because it can be assessed on the spot.
But it has a flaw that the value can be changed significantly depending on the volume
of soil moisture and measured value can vary enormously even at the same soil
stratum. Thus the credibility as an indicator is not high. The credibility of porosity ishigh in showing directly the airspace of soil but it is not convenient to measureporosity because a precise measurement such as true specific gravity is needed at a

16

laboratory. On the other hand, the drying, screening and weighing samples are needed
to measure bulk density but it can be assessed by relatively simple equipment, thus it
is widely used as a parameter to indicate the soil physics.
As shown in BOX6, bulk density of natural soil in tropical forest is generally fell in therange of 0.9 - 1.6 Mg Kg-1. The surface layer contains a lot of humus where soil animal
is active and a lot of rootlet develops. Surface layer with developed soil structure
shows low bulk density and lower layer shows higher. Bulk density of surface soil is
0.9 - 1.3 Mg Kg-1 depending on the content of humus and clay. Plant root will grow inthe surface soil. Then, it is adequate to classify the surface soil of ex-coal mining land
into the following 3 classes.
In the case of Compacted soil class I, the soil property environment does not exist
naturally. Some kind of measures such as cultivating will be needed because thegrowth and development of root is severely limited and the following circumstances
will occur such as an excessive moisture damage caused by drainage defect, a dry
damage due to less porosity, a severe surface soil runoff stemming from lesspermeability.
Soil physics class by bulk densityi) Compacted class I : Strongly compacted (bulk density: above 1.6 Mg Kg-1)ii) Compacted class II: Compacted (bulk density: 1.3-1.6 Mg Kg-1)
iii) Compacted class III: Soft and Loosened (bulk density: less than 1.3 Mg Kg-1)
BOX6 Property comparison of natural soil and ex-coal mining soil – a case ofSouth Kalimantan
20

孔隙 (%)

30

40

自然土壌分布域

50

60
0.8

1.3
容積重 (Mg/m3)

1.8

The left figure shows the bulk density andporosity of sample soils collected just after
refilling of ex-coal mining pit in South
Kalimantan. The bulk density (defined as
the dry weight of soil per unit volume ofsoil) of these sample soils is very high
(1.5-1.8 Mg Kg-1), porosity is less than 40%,
which does not overlap with the distribution
area of natural soil (native forest soil in
East Kalimantan). It indicates thatcompaction developed to the extent which
does not exist naturally due to the refilling
process.

Figure Soil physics of refilled site at ex-coal mining○: 0‐10cm, △:10-20cm, □:20-30cm

173-2-3. Simple method to assess the potential acidity of refilling materials
It is most important to select the sediments without pyrite and potential acidity as
refilling materials for forest rehabilitation at the ex-coal mining pit. Thus it is needed
to assess the potential acidity of the sediments. There are mainly two methods toestimate the potential acidity. One is to assume the potential acidity by extracting
fractionally sulfur in pyrite and directly determining quantity of sulfur related to thedevelopment of acidity. The other is to assume the potential acidity by chemicallyoxidizing sample soils with hydrogen peroxide water and measuring the volume ofhydrogen ion generated by a titration method. However, these two methods are basedon the premise of the analysis at a laboratory and requires highly specialized
knowledge. Therefore it is not practical to test a vast kind of sediments produced fromthe mining pit by using these methods considering the time and cost. For this reason,
this time we tried to develop a simple method to estimate the potential acidity in thefield.
Among sediments with a lot of pyrite, what contains less dark color displays
light-colored, on the other hand, oxidized materials shows yellow- brown- red colors
depending on ferrioxide and hydroxide. We measured the color of sediments in eachformation in the field by using digital soil color meter and made a review whether
there is a relationship between the color and the potential acidity.

18

BOX 7

Different forms of sediments

１

2

3

4

5

6

Photo 1: Clay, blackish brown, partly lamellas
Photo 2: Clay, dark-gray, no lamellas
Photo 3: Clay, slightly gray, no lamellas
Photo 4: Clay, dark brown, lamellas
Photo 5: Sandy, slightly gray, no lamellas
Photo 6: Sandy, slightly gray-brown, lamellas
As a result, it revealed that among elements forming the potential acidity and soilcolor, a parameter displaying black/white (L* in the L*a*b* color space) will be a valid
index for potential acidity (BOX 8). The surface of sediment is mostly covered by thecoat of oxidized iron with time and is generally dry. So, to measure the color, we
scraped off the surface of sediment with a knife, etc to expose unoxidized fresh
sediment and made flat, smooth and moist (white will be overestimated if dried) partand then measured the color placing the soil color meter on it. To measure the color of19

sediment, we scraped off the surface of formation and made it flat, smooth and moist(white will be overestimated if dried) part and then measured the color placing thedigital soil color meter (KONICAMINOLTA-SPAD503) with L*a*b* mode on it. Colorof each formation is not necessarily even and in most cases there is a certain variationin color. Thus, we measured the color 10 times for each formation and regarded theaverage as the representative color of the measured sediment.
We designed a draft plan to assess the potential acidity using L* as a reference, basedon the result of this experiment (see BOX 8). We made a classification assuming thatusing sediment with pH <3 as a refill led to a huge risk to strong acidification of soil.

BOX 8 Relationship between potential acidity and soil color (L* ; an index of
black/white)
We measured the color in addition toparticle size, with or without lamellas
structure in roughly 100 different
formations passing obliquely the ex-coalmining pit wall and also measured thepotential acidity (pH (ox)) of sample soils
in the same formation. As shown left,
pH(ox) distributed widely, pyrite content
varied largely, distribution of L* was big,different samples had largely different
colorvalue,
there
existedclear
correlation between pH(ox) and L*. L*
decreased (increase of black) as pH (ox)decreased.
Especially,alldarkishsamples with L* <35 fell in the range ofpH(ox)<3. Many samples with L* =35-45
Figure: Relationship between potential
showedpH(ox) <3. On the other hand,acidity (pH(ox)) (See BOX 5) assessed
sampleswith L* >45 showed pH(ox) >3.
by hydrogen peroxide oxidation and L*
pH(ox)
tendedto increase further as L*(Smaller in value, blacker in color)
increased.
measured by digital soil color meter.
Focused on particle size and lamellas（○:Clay without lamellas
structure,almost all samples with L* <35○:Clay with lamellasandpH(ox)<3 were clay and derived from△:Sandy without lamellassediments
withlamellas structure.
△:Sandy with lamellas）
Samples with L* >45 and pH(ox) >3 were
mostly sand and partly materials
containing lamellas structure. All clay samples distributed in the same area were
the one without lamellas structure. Clear correlation between a* and b* in the
L*a*b* color space and pH(ox) was not found.

20

Risk class of sediment based on soil color (L*)i)

Risk class Ｉ: Sediment with L*<35 has extremely high risk of acidification.
Do not use it as a refill for forest rehabilitation. It is needed to set apartand bury it deep under the ground (more than 10 m in depth) to preventoxidation.

ii)

Risk class II: Most sediment with L*=35－45 is classified into high risk.

Same handling as above sediment with L*<35 is needed for this class.
However, some sediments in this class contains relatively low risk. If you
select low risk sediments and use it as base material for forest rehabilitation,
you need to assess the potential acidity in advance by using hydrogen
peroxide to make it oxidized.
iii) Risk class III: Sediment with L*>45, especially sandy and without lamellas
structure, has low risk. But some sediments with clay and lamellas structure
will show potential acidity of pH(ox) around 3, so the potential acidity for
sediments with these properties should be assessed in advance by usinghydrogen peroxide to make it oxidized.

Note 1) Positional relationship between sedimentary layer showing potential acidity and coal layer:
Sediment showing potential acidity does not necessarily show strong potential acidity near the coallayer. It may be difficult to estimate the presence or no presence of pyrite or its amount from thepositional relationship of layers.

Note 2) The correlation between L* and pH(ox) explained above was obtained by samples collectedfrom only 2 mining pits in South Kalimantan. Thus it is unclear that the same criterion is applicableto the other sites. However, it is thought that a similar relationship exists between potential acidity
and the color (especially L*) of sediments even in a different region. We think it is better to make thesame kind of review on different sediments and regions and verify the relationship between theparameters and set an original criterion.

21

Chapter 4. Backfilling, Leveling/Site preparation, Setting up Sediment Pond
and Soil Improvement
4-1. Backfilling, Leveling/Site preparation, Setting up Sedimentation Pond
4-1-1. Backfilling, Leveling/Site preparation, Setting up Sedimentation Pond
Leveling is needed for the mining pits to be backfilled after the coal mining and formounds and steep slopes made by overdue (waste soil). Also certain constructions areneeded to prevent soil runoff, soil erosion and landslide. At the same time it isimportant to prevent acid mine wastewater from leaking into public water area.
Only wall part and the surrounding areas will be reinforced for too big mining pit andpits left behind without backfilling due to expiration of mining permission in order not
to create hazards such as landslides to the people in the vicinity.
<Work procedure>
1.

Identify whether the overdue (waste soil) contains potentially acid forming (PAF)
material or not.

2.

Bury the PAF separately in the bottom of a pocket 10 m below the surface. Cement
the hole with clayish materials in order to prevent oxygen and/or water frominfiltrating into the hole. If oxygen and/or water infiltrate, PAF will react with it
and generate acid mine wastewater.

3.

Place non acid forming (NAF) material on the surface as backfilling material.

4.

Conduct a research on the geology to determine the maximum slope angle andlength for a factor of safety and to prevent landslide and large-scale erosion fromoccurring.

5.

Cover (dress) the area (already leveled with PAF) at least 30cm with topsoil or asmuch as you can get.

4-1-2. Control of erosion and sediment
Erosion and sediment should be controlled before, on and after the mining activity toprevent soil runoff from developed land and also to prevent pollution and sediment(shallow river and lake) in public water areas such as river and lake. The soil at
ex-mining area may possibly contain harmful heavy metal thus it needs to beappropriately handled in order not to leak outside of mining area.
Soil control is the key to the success of reforestation at ex-mining areas. The soil used
for leveling and site preparation and topsoil used for dressing are susceptible to erosion
due to the unstableness of soil particle. Thus it is vital to control soil runoff / erosion and22

sediment.
As for general method to control erosion, please see a brochure “Konservasi Tanahdan Air (Conservation of soil and water)” published by Directorate General of Forest
and Land Rehabilitation of Watershed Management and Social Forestry Development,
Ministry of Forestry or General Handbook (2011). This handbook focuses on the method
to control the erosion and sediment biologically by planting cover crop and byconstructing sediment pond.
<Construction of sediment pond and maintenance procedure>1.

Calculate the volume of surface water to flow in the business area and its flow
direction and the speed of erosion.

2.

Direct the surface water to the sediment pond by digging ditch. The size andnumber of the sediment pond is decided based on the calculation result of thevolume of surface water and the speed of erosion.

3.

Construct sediment ponds with level structure. The first pond is placed on top to
receive runoff water which contain most solid materials of sediment. Then, waterflows from the first pond to the second. At this point the solid content is alreadydecreased. Water flows from the second to the third, these water flows continue
until the content of the solid dissolved into the water falls below the acceptablevalue regulated by law/rule.

4.

Plant cover crops on the slope of the ponds to prevent the erosion of pond’s slopeand landslides.

5.

Monitor the acid level (pH) of water every day. If the pH is below 6, additional
procedure using lime is needed. It is acceptable to run the water into the public
water area after the pH of water and volume of impurities fall below the value
regulated by law/rule.

6.

Maintain the pond regularly to reinforce the slope of the pond. Scoop out the
sediment from the pond once the pond contains full of sediments.

4-2. Soil Improvement (Soil physics and nutrients, etc)
The waste soil which is disposed by mining is whether dumped to the dump site as
waste or used to backfill the mining pit. Unweathered grayish overdue which accounts
for most of the overdue is generally rudaceous and refined materials are oligotrophic. In
addition, for the purpose of preventing landslide, the soil is compacted by the heavymachine which is used to dispose the waste soil and/or to level the backfilled pit. Heavycompaction of soil inhibits the fixing of vegetation. Compacted surface soil is low in23permeability thus most of rainwater runs off as surface runoff water. On this occasion,
heavy surface soil runoff occurs which results in the further inhibition of vegetation
fixing.
4-2-1. Improvement of soil physics by ripping
To improve the soil physics, attach a ripper to the rear of bulldozer and rip the surface
ground. Or place the blade of bulldozer on a skew and rip the surface then make ridges.

Photo 1 Ripping by using the blade

Photo 2

Ridges after the ripping

4-2-2. Dressing over planting pit and Application of compost
Ex-coal-mining area is compacted and scarce of organic matter so the soil tends to be
low in water-holding capacity. After ripping the ground deep and over a wide area, it iseffective to increase the water-holding capacity of the bottom of the hole by placing theforest surface soil which has a big water-holding capacity and/or organic materials suchas compost. This will induce the growth of the root in the deeper ground.
4-2-3. Application of phosphate fertilizer and/or chemical fertilizer
Tropical soil is generally scarce of Phosphorus. The soil nutrients should be improved
by applying phosphate fertilizer as base fertilizer. Nutrients are extremely scarce so it isideal to regularly apply chemical fertilizer (NPK, etc) for additional fertilization.

24

Chapter 5. Selection of cover crop and planting species
5-1. Selection of cover crop to quickly cover the surface
1.

After leveling the ground to prevent soil runoff and erosion, select cover crop tocover the surface. Examples are Pueraria javanica(PJ), Centrosema pubescens(CP),Clopogonium mucunoides(CM), Mucuna spp, Sorghum bicolor, etc. The speed ofgermination and growth varies depending on the species of cover crops. It is betterto select PJ, CP, CM, Mucuna with the ratio of 1:1:1:1.

2.

Soon after the completion of land leveling, plant cover crop.

3.

When the land is relatively flat and below 5% slope, it is acceptable to plant thecover crop at a spacing of 1x1 m. In case of more than 5% slope, plant the crop inline along the contour and the interval between lines should be 1-1.5 m. Cover crop
can be planted over the entire surface (Blowing method)

4.

To improve fertility of the soil, apply organic fertilizer of 0.5-1 kg to the hole (spot)of each plant and to each meter/line in case of line system. Apply organic fertilizerof 5-10 ton to each hectare for overall area. In addition, enough lime should beapplied.

5.

The interval of spot or line in which cover crop will be planted should be narrowed
or widened depending on the soil condition (fertility, etc) of the targeted area.

6.

Vines such as PJ, CP, CM, Mucuna sp. have habits to creep, spread, cling andsqueeze, etc. Perform nursery activity to the vines to prevent the damage to theplanted trees.

5-2. Selection of pioneer tree and fast-growing tree of short-life species forthe purpose of quick initial greening
To prevent the soil runoff and erosion plant pioneer and fast-growing trees which
grow under direct sunlight at bare land as a first step for the rehabilitation of forest at
ex-coal mining area. However, pioneer and fast-growing trees are short-lived so they
will be dead before too long. Therefore, after the success of initial greening, as a second
step, plant shade-tolerant trees which are long-lived and need shade in order to achieve
the targeted ideal forest in the end.
<Work procedure for initial greening>
It is acceptable to plant pioneer and fast-growing trees as the initial greening soonafter or at the same time planting the cover crop. Work procedures for initial greening
are as follows.

25

1.

Pile a stake (marking bar) at the point to plant to create a layout for planting.

2.

Plant trees in line with Indonesian success criterion for forest rehabilitation (plant
625 trees/ha at a spacing of 4x4m).

3.

Make a hole for planting (at minimum 40×40×40cm) by hand or machine.

4.

Analyze the fertility of the soil to be planted to find out the appropriate volume oforganic fertilizer, inorganic fertilizer and lime needed to each hole of planting.
Generally, each hole will need organic fertilizer 2-5kg, NPK 100-200g and lime
200-400g.

5.

Planting work should be done at 8:00-11:00am and 14:00-16:00pm during themonsoon season to avoid the strong sunlight.

6.

It is all right to plant pioneer and sun trees at the open area without shade of
ex-coal-mining land.

<Examples of fast-growing sun trees>
・Indonesian local species
Jabon putih（Anthocephalus cadamba）、Jabon merah（Anthocephalus macrophyllus）、Melaleuca（）、Duabanga（Duabanga mouccana）、Benuang（Octomeles sumatrana）、
Kemiri（Aleurites moluccana）、Eucalyptus sp.、Melaleuca（Melaleuca leucadendron）、
Kayu merah（Pterocarpus indicus）、Waru（Hibiscustiliaceus）、Kapuk（Ceiba pentandra）、
Sengon laut（Falcataria moluccana）、Johar（Cassia siamea）, etc.
・ Foreign species
Akasia（Acacia Mangium）、Sengon Buto（Enterolubium Cyclocarpum）、Mindi（Melia
azedarach）, etc.

5-3. Selection of long-life planting species for second greening to achieve theideal forest
As stipulated in the Regulation of The Minister of Forestry No. 60/2009(P.60/Menhut-II/2009), long-life trees should comprise 40% of the total trees at theex-mining land in the end.
<Examples of slow-growing sun trees>
・Indonesian local species
Jati（Tectona grandis）、Sungkai（Peronema canescens）、Pericopsis mooniana 、Matoa（Pometia pinata）、Sonokeling（Dalbergia latifolia）、Leban（Vitex cofassus）、Reban（Vitex pubescens）、Elmerellia celebica 、Pinus merkusii（Pinus merkusii）etc.
・Foreign species (Not Indonesian origin)
Mahoni（Swietenia macrophylla）、Khaya（Khaya anthotheca）etc.

26

<Examples of long-life shade trees>
Various Meranti（shorea spp）、Ulin（eusideroxylon zwageri）、Makassar Ebony（Diospyros celebica）、Ipil（Intsia bijuga）、Kapur bukit（Dryobalanop aromatica）、Malacca-jinkoh（Aquilaria malaccensis）、Apitong（Dipterocarpus spp）、Agathis
lorantifolia 、Nyatoh（Palaquium spp）、Kegaki（Diospyros blancoi）, etc.
<Work procedure for second greening>
One or two years after planting trees for initial greening, plant long-life trees after
the improvement of micro weather such as sufficient shade. The work procedures are as
follows.
1.

If planning to plant long-life trees later as the second greening, plant the pioneer
and fast-growing trees at a spacing of 4x4m.

2.

Plant the trees for second greening in between of initial greening trees and 2mahead of the line. By doing so, a tree for second greening will be planted in thecenter of the surrounding 4 trees of initial greening.
Refer to “Appendix A-3. Characteristics of the planting tree species in Indonesia” atthe end of the book to select pioneer tree and fast-growing tree of short-life species for
initial greening and long-life planting species for second greening.

27

Chapter 6. Maintenance and protection for planted trees
6-1. Maintenance for planted trees (supplemental planting, top-dressing, weeding andcutting)
The purpose of Maintenance activities for planted trees is to secure the survival andgood growth of the trees. Maintenance activities are supplemental planting, additional
top-dressing, grass and cover crop control and insect and mammalian pest control. If
some trees are dead after the planting, it is needed to plant supplemental trees. The soil
at ex-coal-mining areas is generally deficient of nutrients so additional top-dressing isneeded for the healthy growth of planted trees. Regular cutting of legume (groundcover) is especially important because those vines tend to coil around and squeeze
planted trees resulting in the death of the trees (photo 1). If it is sought to achieve an
ideal forest, Acacia Mangium planted as initial greening which grow naturally andeasily are needed to cut down (photo 2). Monitor insect and mammalian pest constantly
and work for the prevention of them.
<Work procedure>
1.

Keep monitoring at least 3 months after tree planting activity to find out if sometrees are dead.

2.

Plant supplemental trees immediately if you find some trees are dead. It is ideal toplant seedling a little higher (bigger) than the one already planted not to be left
behind the growth of trees already planted.

3.

Apply additional fertilizer to the surviving trees after the supplemental planting.

4.

Make a furrow around the root of planted tree and apply fertilizer around the root.
Apply 100g of NPK fertilizer per seedling along the furrow and cover it with soil
again.

5.

Apply additional fertilizer at the beginning of rainy season in which the soil isgetting wet and at the end of rainy season in which the soil is still wet.

6.

Keep applying fertilizer until the height of the planted trees exceeds the one of the
shrub/grass. Also, apply additional fertilizer if the sign of malnutrition such as thecolor or shape of the leaf or delay of growth is observed.

7.

Cut/weed the shrub/grass and vine growing in the area 0.5-1 m in diameter aroundthe root in order to avoid competition in nutrition, water and/or light withshrub/grass and to avoid wrapping and squeezing of planted tree by vine.

8.

Control insect and mammalian pest as needed.

9.

Keep Maintenance activities until the planted trees grow bigger than the
shrub/grass around. Cut/weed vines regularly afterward to avoid the damage of28

wrapping and squeezing by vines.

Photo 1 Damage of wrapping by vine

Photo 2 Cut down native Acacia mangium

6-2. Counter measure against wildfireIn

tropical

areas

the

temperatureisalways

high

and

the

amountofevapotranspiration is large. So no rain for a week may dry out the land and increase therisk of wildfire. If a wildfire occurs after the tree planting all the efforts for forest
rehabilitation so far will come to nothing (photo 3, 4).

Photo 3Wildfire damage at planting site

Photo 4 Wildfire damage at planting site

Wildfire may occur by lightning or leaves rubbed each other in the dry forest area in
America and Australia. But it is not remarkable in the tropical areas. Wildfire is inmany cases caused by human. Man-caused wildfire will be usually as follows; Fire
spreading during swidden burning, firing to renew grass plant for grazing cattle,
mishandling of tobacco or bonfire and arson out of curiosity.
There are mainly two countermeasures against wildfire, technical countermeasureand social countermeasure.

291) Technical countermeasure to prevent wildfire damagei）Set up fire-belt outside the tree planted area (photo 5)ii）Separate the tree planted area into some parts and set up fire-belt between the parts.
iii）Remove completely the flammables such as dried grass within the planted areaiv）Prescribed burning/Controlled burning in the fire-belt

Photo 5 Fire-belt outside planted area

Photo 6 Prescribed burning/controlled burning(12m wide)

Source) The Nature Conservancy

2) Social countermeasure to prevent wildfire damagei）Regular patrol to the planted areaii）Set up a rule for the prevention of wildfire in the surrounding villagesiii）Introduce responsibility sharing system to manage the planted area and pay cash
reward to the effort to prevent a wildfire.
iv）Plant trees which will give benefit to the residents within or without the tree planted
area.

30

AppendixA-1. Suitability of the planting tree species which were used for thedemonstration study for the rehabilitation after the open-pit coal mining
Suitability
2012/
2013/
2013
2014
AGM
AGM
AGM
TAJ
AGM
(A)
(B)
alcaline alcaline alcaline alcaline alcaline
/acid
/acid
/acid
/acid
/acid
○
○
○
○
○
○
◎
◎
△
△
2011/
2012

No.

Planting tree species

1 Eucalyptus pellita
2 Melaleuca cajuputi
3 Melaleuca leucadendron
4 Terminalia catappa
5 Aleurites moluccana
6 Hevea brasiliensis
7 Acacia auriculiformis
8 Acacia mangium
9 Enterolobium cyclocarpum
10 Paraserianthes falcataria
11 Samanea saman
12 Ficus variegata
13 Anisoptera marginata
14 Shorea balangeran
15 Shorea leprosula
16 Shorea roxburghii
17 Mangifera kasturi
18 Azadirachta indica
19 Swietenia macrophylla
20 Mimusops elengi
21 Schima wallichii
22 Antocephalus cadamba
23 Antocephalus machropyllus
24 Alstonia scholaris
25 Dyera polyphylla
26 Fagraea fragrans
27 Gmelina arborea
28 Peronema canescens
29 Tectona grandis
30 Vitex pinnata
Number of the species

◎
◎

◎
◎

◎
◎
◎

△

◎
◎

◎
◎

◎
△
△
△

◎

◎

◎

△

2014/
2015
AGM
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.
N.A.

△
△
○

△

○

○

N.A.
N.A.
N.A.

△
◎
◎

◎

N.A.

◎

◎

N.A.
N.A.

9

9

△
△

△
○

△

△

9

9

< Suitability >◎ : Excellent○ : Good△ : Fair / Poor
N.A. : No data is available

31

12

N.A.
20

Appendix 2. Characteristics of trees examined in the experimental plots of coal mining areas, Kalimantan Selatan
28 tree species were examined on survival and growth at the areas after mining coal in Kalimantan Selatan (South Kalimantan Province).
Origin and natural habitats, preferable site conditions, propagation, utilization and other noteworthy topics of these tree species were
investigated.

Indonesian names were cited from PROSEA and local names were advised by Mr. Rusmana, Forestry Research Institute,Banjarmasin. Books for investigation of these characteristics of trees were also listed up.
Scientific nameDistribution and general feature

Site(Indonesian name)conditions,

physiology,

Use and other topics

propagation
Myrtaceae. Large tree－H;47m. Origin -Adapted to wide range of site

Wood use－Heavy hard wood－(Eukali)

Tropics & Sub-tropics, Australia, 12°～conditions.

S.G.:0.99。

18 ° S 。 Tropical seasonal forest with

Mininumslight12℃.

in Brazil. Planting of the tree

Propagation by seed – easy.

has just started in South East

32

Eucalyptus pellita

dryspell.

800m>.

Treeisdistributed in Queensland and N.S
Wales.

temperature – overPlantations are good & popularAsia. Northern type is used forNorthern type is suitable fortropics. Precipitation-900～2,400mm.

plantation.

Melaleuca cajuputi

Myrtaceae. Small tree -DBH: 50cm,

Freshswamp.

Essential oil - Cajupti Oil. Anti-(Kayu Putih)

H:25~40m.

Tolerant to acid sulphate soil.

microbes, anti- inflammation,

It grows on steep crests inrelaxation and others.

Moluccas, too.

Resistant to

Wood use for structure andacid condition and strong lightpoles – Medium weight - S.G.

condition.

0.72~0.82.

Origin: detail unknown–Thailand~Australia?
growingIndonesia.

on

Naturally

hills

of

Moluccas

Coastalarea

andmontane areas – 30~400m.

of

lower

Min. temp.

water

peat

Tolerant to salty- 17~22℃.

wind.

Precipitation -1,300~1,750mm.

water logging up to 1m.

Resistant to seasonal

Good fuel wood.

Only the species distributed to
westwards over Wallace line.

Propagation: by seed - easy.

Domestic species.
Wood

Melaleuca

Myrtaceae. Small tree -H:15 ～ 30m 、Fresh

leucadendron

DBH:30～50cm.

Resistant to acidic soil condition

construction and pole – medium(Galam)Communities

and strong sun light.

to heavy hard wood – S.G.:0.7～

Origin: Tropical Asia.

M.

with

cajuputi

on

water

swamps.

coastal fresh water swamps where areto slight dryness.

behind areas of mangrove forests.

acid sulphate soils.

Tolerant

Adapted touse–suitablefor

0.9.
Substitutes of Cajuputi oil.
Domestic species

Terminaria catappa

Combretaceae.

(Ketapang)

DBH:150cm 、 H:25m.

Medium

size

tree

-

Good

on

ripariansoils.

Wood use – light structural

moist

soil.

wood – light to medium weightseasonal

water

hard wood – S.G.:0.45～0.72．

Origin – very

Suitableonwide from India to Polynesia islands.

ToleranttoTropical rain ~logging.

Slightly resistant totropical seasonal forest.

Roadside tree and fruit tree.

33

Sandy and rocky areas of coastal plain

salty water. Suitable pH ranges Roast nuts is edible. Oil of nuts

and on river banks. Up to 2,000m.

4.5~8+.

Precipitation - 480mm~4,290mm。

wind.

Resistant
Fruiting

toisstrongfrequent.

is very good – Indian almond.
Domestic species.

Propagation is by seed.

Aleurites moluccana(Kemiri)

Euphorbiaceae. Small to medium

tree

Natural habitats – well drained-DBH:150cm,H:10~40m. Origin: notsandyclear, but maybe India to Polynesia

limestone hill. Resistant tooilislands. Slightly dry tropical seasonal

dry to wet conditions. It

cyanides. Very good oil forforest. Possibly, the tree would be able

would be able to grow on poor

industrial

to grows in sub-tropical areas. Up tosoil on steep crest. Optimum medical purpose, material for

1,200m.

pH

Temp.

-

18.7~27.4 ℃ .

Precipitation - 640~4,290mm.

areas

range

Propagation :&isby seed.

rocky

Nut use – Candle nuts.

5~8.0.

Extraction of slightly poisonous
which

contains
works,

somecandle,paints, & other many purpose.
Wood is sometimes used.

Domestic species?

Hevea braziliensis(Karet)Euphorbiaceae. Brazil Amazon basin to

Seasonal submergence is not

Latex use – Para-rubber. Latex

Guianas. Small to medium size tree

suitable. Friable soil is very

harvested 5 to 35 years in(Deciduous) - H:30~40m, DBH: 50

suitable because of root system.

Malaysia.

cm.

tropicalSoil fertility would not affectrotation in Indonesia.

seasonal forest (6 ° N~6° S). Wet

growth, largely. Suitable in the

Wood use – medium weight –lowland forest. Maximum - 500m>

areas of 2000~4000mm in rain

S.G. 0.56 ～ 0.64. Sometimes

Precipitation: 2000~3000mm。

fall. Not suitable under 1500

damaged by blue stain fungi.

mm

Furniture, various boards.

Tropical

rain

to

in

precipitation.

Seed

propagation – grafting good tree

20 to 30 year

Oilfrom seeds. Char coal.

to the seedling stumps.

34

Acacia auriculiformis

Leguminosae.

-

Suitable on deep, moist alluvial(Local name - Akor)

H:30,DBH:50cm. New Guinea Island &soil. It can grow on lowland

hardwood – S.G.0.49~0.84. As

Australia. Wet tropical seasonal forest.

and fairly poor soil. Tolerantbole is usually twisted andEdges

to dryness. Very good seedbranched,

riparian areas, coastal sand dunes &production.

limited. Dark, beautiful heart

flood plain. About 90m> in PNG. Lower

planted to hill up to 1,000m.

temperature – up to 12℃。

Vigorous initial growth would decoration.

ofMediumfresh-water

size

peat

tree

swamp,

Tree

can

be

be expected in plantation.

Wood

wood

use

–

–

medium~heavy

usefulgood

partsmaterial

areforGood fire wood.

Acacia mangium

Leguminosae. Medium ～ large tree H:

Tolerant to poor soil & acidic

Wood use － medium weight(Tongke hutan 、 Local

35m、DBH:90cm. Molucca, New Guinea

soil. Tree can survive on poor

hardwood – S.G.:0.53~0.69. As

name -Akasia)& Australia. Wet tropical seasonaldrainage site & grow on higherbole is straight compared with

forest.

& drier sites than that of A. former species, wood would be

Up

to

500m

(Australia),

Commonly,

withinAcacia-melaleuca auriculiformis. Reproduction of easily used for construction &association. Areas around fresh waterseeds is very good.

furniture purpose. Good fuelswamp.

wood. Fodder for cattle.

Enterolobium

Leguminmosae. Large tree - H30m 、(From our experience) Resistantcyclocarpum

DBH:300cm. Origin-Central America.

to strong sunlight and dry

hardwood-(Sengon Buto)

Evergreen

condition. Vigorous growthdurability.. Suitable tree forunder poor soil conditions.

rehabilitation of devastated

Seed reproduction: very easy.

land.

and

deciduoustropicalseasonal forest. Not many information.

Wood

use

–

very

light

S.G.0.47.

LittleParaserianthes

Leguminosae. Medium & large tree -Poor fertility – possible. Poor

Wood use – very light wood –falcataria

DBH:100cm、H:40m. Moluccas~Solomon

drainage

S.G.0.3～0.5.

(Sengon Laut)Islands.

resistance

Tropicalseasonal

forest.

–

not
to

good.

Low

submergence. Fuel wood and fodder.

35

Lowland riparian forest and coastal

High P requirement. Resistant

Plantations are widely spread

forest, mainly. Some grow at highto strong sunlight & dryness.

in South East Asia. Notice toelevation up to 3,300m. Precipitation -Propagation: by seed - easy.

insect pest.

2,000～2,700mm. Temperature -20 ﾟ C<

Land exposure would stimulate
germination.

Guiness Book Record: Miracle
Tree - H25.5-DBH17cm/6y.

Samanea saman

Leguminosae. Large tree - H:25~40m、Suitable on wide range of soil

(Trembesi)

DBH:200cm<. Northern parts of South

conditions. Adequate pH ranges Wood use – medium weight –America. Tropical rain forest～tropicalin 5.5~8.5. Resistant to strong

seasonal forest (dry month - 2~4month). sunlight

Ficus variegate&

dryness

Shade tree – wide tree crown.
S.G.:0.55.

around Dark stripes in wood: good for

Elevation: up to 1,000m. Precipitation: 700mm. Tolerant to seasonal

wood carving and handicraft.

1,000~2,500mm. Min. temp.:18~22℃.

water logging. Propagation-seed

Fuel wood.

Moraceae. Medium size tree - H:40m、Resistant to strong sunlight.

Not special use. Planting is not

(Local name-Nyawai)

DBH:70cm.

Very

wide

distribution:

Soil requirement is not severe.

India ~ Solomon Islands. Tropical rain

It may be resistant to dryness.

forest.

Fig tree without rooting from

Lowlanddipterocarp

forest.

popular.
Tree may be good for feeds forwild animals.

Dense in Kalimantan.

branches.

Domestic species.

Anisoptera marginata

Dipterocarpaceae. Large tree - DBH:135

Fresh water peat swamp. Rich

Wood use – medium weight –(Mersawa Tenam)cm,

Shorea balangeran
36(Localname

Balangeran Kahui)–

H ： 45m.

Peninsularin coastal swamp. Few in

S.G.0.52～0.80。

Malaysia & Sumatra. Tropical raininland. Tree can grow onAnforest. Mixed dipterocarp forest. The

sandy soil such as Kerangas.

tree distributes individually. Up to

Propagation: direct sowing and

1,200m.

cutting.

Dipterocarpaceae. Gigantic tree – H.: 60

Cleyey soils are suitable. Sites

Wood use – heavy hard woodm、DBH: 180cm. Philippines & Borneo.

with wet and well drainage–S.G.0.84 ～ 0.95. Very highTropicalLowlandconditions are favorable. Excess

durability.

1,000m.

water would not be suitable?

Domestic species.

Propagation: direct seeding or

Synonym :Shorea falciferoides

dipterocarp

Borneo,rain

forest.

forestup

toSelangan Batu group.

endangered

speciesinBorneo.
Domestic species

cutting.

Shorea leprosula

Dipterocarpaceae. Large tree - DBH:150(Meranti Tunbaga)

cm、H:60m. Wide distribution in lowland igneous

Good on soils from shale ・
rocks.

Tolerant

water

to

logging.

Wood use - light ~ medium
weight hard wood – S.G. -dipterocarp forest. Fast growing species

temporal0.47~0.64.

among dipterocarps. Up to 600m. Light

Unsuitable to sandy soils with

Frequency of fruiting would be

red meranti group.

low drainage such as Kerangas.

high among genus Shorea.

Light demander. Propagation: Domestic species.
direct seeding or cutting.

Shorea roxburghii

Dipterocarpaceae. Small to large tree.

Tolerant to reductive soils

Wood use – medium weight –(Local name - Talura)

India to northern parts of peninsular

such as surface gleyed soil.

S.G.:0.5～0.74.

Malaysia. Lowland species in Thailand

Resistant to acidic and poor

In Indonesia and Peninsular

and Malaysia. A member of white

nutrient condition. Tolerant to

Malaysia, many successful

meranti.

seasonal submergence.

cases are observed.

Resistant to strong sunlight..
Propagation: seeding or cutting.

Mangifera kasturi

Anacardiaceae. No information in books(from observation) Suitable on

Fruit(Kasturi)on plant taxonomy such as PROSEA.

riparian area. Goop on fertile(5~10cm). Very sweet & strong(from observation): This species would& moist soil. Not so strong toflavor.

dryness.

Domestic species

grow around H:30m, DBH:100cm+.

use.

37

Limited in tropical rain forest andEndemic

lowland forest, probably.

Kalimantan?

SmallspeciesAzadirachta indica

Meliaceae. Small~medium size - DBH

Suitable soil pH ranges in 6.2 -Medicinal use.

(Mimba、Imba)

90cm 、 H:25m. Pakistan to Myanmar.

7.0. Suitable precipitation isSome of pesticide.

(or Mindi)

Savanna ~aroundWoodtropical seasonal forest. Up

1,000mm,

but

tree

use

mango

–

in

medium~heavy

to 700m (in case of plantation – up to

would grow in areas aroundhardwood – S.G.:0.72-0.92.

1,500m).

400mm

Good wood quality – a member

and

over

2,000mm.

Resistant to strong sun lightof mahogany.

and dryness.

Swietenia macrophylla

Meliacease. Medium ~ large tree(in

In Peru, not so good on acidic

Wood use – medium weight –(Mahoni)Peru, tree is giant size) - DBH :150cm、

soil (Acrisol), but very good on

S.G. 0.5～0.6. Wood is very high

H: 40m. Central America to northern

calcareous

in quality.

soil(calcic

parts of South America. Tropical rain

Cambisol). Suitable on convex

Insect - Hypsipyla robusta gives

forest ~ wetter type of tropical seasonal

andSevere damage in some part offorest. Lowland forest.

Resistant to strong sunlight.

Kalimantan.

welldrainedareas.

Mimusops elengi

Sapotaceae. Small ~Good growth is expected on rich

Wood use – heavy hardwood –(Tanjung)

DBH:100cm 、 H:30m. India~Myanmar. Soils. Resistant to wet condition

S.G.0.78 ～ 1.12. Dark red ~Variety of the species would originate(excess wet should be less thandark reddish brown – very

Asia- Pacific Areas. Tropical rain forest

2months). Propagation: by seed.

beautiful.

～ tropical seasonal forest with short

Vegetative propagation would

Medicinal use – leaf & bark

dry spell. Rich in coastal areas. It would

be possible. Seeds can be stored

Fragrance - flower

grow on rocky areas up to 600m.

in 9months. Cutting would be

Garden tree

possible.

Domestic species

medium size -38

Anthocephlus cadamba

Rubiaceae. Medium to large tree -Good(Jabon, Local name –DBH:90cm 、 H:45m. Originated fromalluvial

Jabon Putieh)

Nepal to PNG. Tropical rain forest ~drainage. Tolerant

tropical seasonal forest. Riparian andlogging by flooding in short

purpose.

alluvial deposits of coastal areas up toperiod.

strongVery rapid growth - H:11m/2y.

1,000m.

light. Not so good on soil with

30 year rotation – Indonesia.

poor

Domestic species

Precipitation-

1,500 ～

5,000mm.

onnaturalplain

Resistantnutrient

banks
with
to
to

&

Wood use – very light wood –well

S.G.0.29 ～ 0.56. Processing is

watervery easy. Use in wide variety ofcondition.

Propagation: seed - easy.

Anthocephalus

Rubiaceae. Large tree. No detail data on

No detail description on site

Wood use –same as previous

macrophyllus

actual size. Tropical seasonal forest withconditions. Unsuitable to dry

species, A. cadamba.

(Jabon, Local name –short dry spell. Slawesi & Moluccas

climate. Min. temperature - 15 ﾟ

Locally, medicinal use.

Jabon Merah)

Islands. Lowland to lower montane

C。

Domestic species.

areas.

Alstonia scholaris

Apocynaceae. Medium ~ large tree -Good on moist & well drained Wood

(Pulai)

DBH: 20~80cm、H:10~60m. India ~riparianA. macrophylla

Australia. Tropical rain forest. Lowland

other(Pulai Daun Besar)

use

–

light

wood

–

Possibleon

S.G.0.35～0.45.

ToleranttoMedicinal use – stomach-ache,~ montane forest up to 1,230m. Adapted

conditions from ultra basic or

easing snake poison (Alstonia

to various parts. A. macrophylla grows

calcareous rocks. Tolerant toscholaris)- tree bark.

up to ca. 500m.

acidic condition, too. The latter

Domestic species

areas.
sites.

grows on Kerangas. Unsuitableon excess water..

39

Dyera costulata

Apocynaceae. Giant tree - DBH:300cm,

D.

(Pantung, Local name –H:80m. Thailand ~ Borneo. Tropical rain

drained soil. Suitable on red

0.45.

Jelutong Gunung)forest. Lowland to montane forest up toyellow soil (Acrisol).

Sap use – chewing gum.

Dyera polyphylla

1,220m.

D. polyphylla is possibly growOne of the biggest tree in south(Local name – Jelutong

This species is distributed on drier sites.

on acid sulphate soil (thionic

East Asia withRawa)

D. polyphylla is distributed on wet land.

Fluvisol). It produces knee root

excelsa.

for respiration.

Domestic tree

costata

growthon

well

Wood use – light wood – S.G.

Koompassia

Fagrea fragrans

Loginiaceae. Medium ~ large tree -Possible on poor nutrient soil.

Wood use – medium to heavy(Tembusu)

DBH:120cm、 H:35m. Bengal ~ Borneo

Poorwood – S.G.0.68 ～ 0.89. In~ Mindro. Tropical rain forest. Lowland

possible. Tolerant to periodical

Indonesia,

forest up to 800m. Coastal area andwater logging. Sometimes, tree

Wood]. Good use for heavy

Kerangas area.

is associated with Melaleuca inconstruction.

swamp. Resistant to low O2.

Domestic species.

drainage

would

be

so-called[IronGmelina arborea

Verbenaceae. Small to medium size -High nutrient demand such as

Wood use- light wood – S.G.ca.

(Jati Putih, Local name

DBH:100cm 、 H:30m. Pakistan ~ Sri

Ca. Good on fertile moist soil.

0.50.

- Gmelina)

Lanka. Tropical rain forest to tropical

Poor on bleached soils. Light

Easy processing.

seasonal forest (wide distribution). Up todemander - Mixed planting with

Use for furniture, construction

1,500m (India).

other trees is not suited because& so on.

ofPlanting for devastated areas.

competition. Resistanttodryness. Propagation: by seed.

Good tree for rehabilitation.

Verbenaceae. Small to medium size -Good on deep soil. Possible on

Wood(Sungkai)

DBH:70cm、H:20-30m. Borneo, Sumatra

other

S.G.0.36～0.73。

& peninsular Malaysia. Tropical rain

Resistant to acidic soils.

forest. Lowland & hill dipterocarp forest.

Seeds

No report in natural stand. Up to 900m.

Direct seeding is preferable.

seasonal flooding areas, up to

Cutting is possible.

600m in planting.

40

Peronema canescens

soil.
loose

Light

demander.

activities,

use

–

light

wood

–

Mono culture is recommended.
soon.

A report of good performance inDomestic species.

Tectona grandis

Verbanaceae. Medium to large tree -Good on deep soils. Suitable pH

Wood use – medium weight –(Jati)

H:50m、DBH:150～25cm. India to Laos.

ranges pH6.5～8.0.

S.G.0.8～0.75. Wax is contained

Tropical ~ sub-tropical seasonal forest

soil for growth: Ca & P rich soil.

in(deciduous type). May have distinct dry

Wet soil & acidic soils are notsmooth taste of wood. Highseason. Up to 1,000m. Precipitation:

suitable. Seed reproduction isquality wood - good for furniture

1,200 ~ 2,000mm (Indonesia). The tree

good. Grafting of good tree on& construction,

introduced to Indonesia 400～600 years

stumps of seedling is popular.

Small trees are used as poles..

ago.

Stump planting is usuallyconducted.

Suitable

wood

which

introduces

[Book list for species investigation]
Main information:
Plant Resources of South-East Asia (PROSEA) (1992-continued): vol.1 to vol. 12, Remens, Soeranegara, Wong, and others (ed.): ITTO,
Commission of EU, FORDA
Supporting information:
Tree Flora of Sabah and Sarawak(1995~2012-continued):vol.1 to vol. 7 Soepadomo, Wong, Saw and Chung, (ed.) ITTO, FRIM, Sabah
Forestry Department & Sarawak Forestry Department

41

Forester’s Manual of Dipterocarps(1974-reprint): Symington, C.F., University of Malaya

Malayan Forest Record No.16

Malaysia Red List (2010): Chua, Suhaida, Hamidah & Saw, Research Pamphlet No. 129, FRIM
Dipterocarps of Sabah (north Borneo) (1964)：Wood & Meijer, Sabah forest Record No.5, Forest Department
Eucarypts for Planting(1979): Maxwell Ralph Jacob(ed.)、FAO Forestry Series No.11, Rome
Handbook of Nuts (1989): James Duke, CRC Press, United States
Plant list on useful tropical plants(1984)：Research group on tropical plants(Iwasa, Kikata, Kitana, Sasaki, Suzuki, & Hara) – in Japanese
Useful Timber Tree in Tropics(1978):Tropical Agriculture Research Center(Kaburagi, Kikata, Kitano, Hara & Yamada) 、 Tropical
Agriculture Research Series No. 16 – in JapaneseCharacteristics of the planting tree species in Indonesia
Order name

Family name

Botanical nameIndonesian name

Use

Celastrales

Celastraceae

Lophopetalum javanicum

Perupok djawa

furniture, plywood,
etc.3

Malpighiales

Euphorbiaceae

Aleurites moluccana

Kemiriseed oil, timber, etc.3

Malpighiales

Euphorbiaceae

Hevea brasiliensis

Karetrubber solution,
timber, etc.3

Malpighiales

Euphorbiaceae

Jatropha curcas

Jarak

seed oil, hedge3

Malpighiales

Hypericaceae

Cratoxylum arborescens

Geronggang

Malpighiales

Rhizophoraceae

Combretocarpus
rotundatus

Prepat darat0

swa sand
drou
flood
rocky
ght
mp
y

T

T

1

T

0

W

T
T

0

acid

T

alcalinesalinit low
y
temp.

frost

wind

fire

grass

Climate, Habitats

RainfallDry period

Altitudelowland rainforest or often inundated and/or

0

peat swanp forest

7

<8

7

8℃

7

T

0

arid to humid climate in subtropics and1tropics

7

1

tropical evergreen rainforest

1

6-9

650-4300mm

1

arid to semi-arid, relatively dry tropical
1
zone

11

7

750-3000mm

8<1400m07Bacteria

3-5 months

7<1200m

2-3 months

1< 400-500 m

8<1800m<4-6 months

Mycorrhiza

Growthintolerant

1

8

furniture, plywood,
etc.3

T

0

humid tropics, often dominant species in0coastal swanp forest<900-(1800)m

interior wood,
furniture, etc.3T0humid tropics, peat swamp and Kerangas
0
forest<100(300)m

T

6

7

intolerantE

intolerant

E

0

0

secondary01

Fabales

Fabaceae

Acacia auriculiformis

Akasiatimber, firewood, pulp,
etc.3

T

1

T

2

T

？T ,
non-

2

>3.0

15

T

2

T

2

frost

W

2

1

T

1

tropical lowland with dry season, savanna
climate0700-2000 mm

1< 7 months1< 80(400) m

1,0

N fix

15

fast0

<3-6 months

10<200(700)m

0,6

N fix

15

fast6

15

fast,
intolerant17

15

fast, pioneer,2

temperate to high-temperature humid andFabales

Fabaceae

Acacia crassicarpa

pulp, etc.E

Fabales

Fabaceae

Acacia decurrens

Akasiavarious matrials, etc.3

T

Fabales

Fabaceae

Acacia mangium

Akasiatimber, firewood, pulp,
etc.3

W

Fabales

Fabaceae

Cassia siamea

Johartimber, firewood, etc.3

T

Fabales

Fabaceae

Delonix regia

gargen & roadsidetrees, etc.3

T

Fabales

Fabaceae

Dalbergia latifolia

timber, etc.3

TE

Fabales

Fabaceae

Enterolobium cyclocarpum Sengon buto

timber, etc.3

T

1

Fabales

Fabaceae

Gliricidia sepium

hedge, fodder,
apiculture, etc.1

T

E

T

1

T

1

T

1

T

1

T

17

W

non-

1,2，6

frost
T

17

W

1

T

17

root-T

E

T

17

root-Tnon-T
4.5-6.5

2

6

T

6

semi-humid tropics, savanna climate

01000-3500
mm1,5003500mm6

E

-5℃

1,2,6

E

T

10

E

cool and temperate semi-humid zone
T

10

frost

1

2

moist to humid , tropical lowland(350)600-

171000mm1<2000m17

1500-3000 mm

2

E

N fix

6

<200(800)m

6<1000m6

6<2000m60<600(1000)m

0

N fix

6

N fix

<3-4 months

0

N fix

15

42

Sonokeling

Gamal

6

w-T

18

T

Fabaceae

Koompassia excelsa

Fabales

Fabaceae

Leucaena leucocephala

Lamtorotimber, furniture, etc.3

Fabales

Fabaceae

Paraserianthes falcataria

Sengon laut

Fabales

Fabaceae

Parkia speciosa

Petaigreening, fodder,firewood, etc.3

W

6

W

6

T
T

5

T

T
T

6

18

15

1

6

1

6

w-T
15 <

1

timber, etc.3

T1

timber, fodder, etc.3

T

6

Fabaceae

Pterocarpus indicus

Angsana, Kayu merah

Fabales

Fabaceae

Samanea saman

Trembesi

Fabales

Fabaceae

Sesbania grandifloraTurifirewood, fodder,
medicine, etc.3

T

Fabales

Fabaceae

Tamarindus indica

Asamfruit meat, medicine,
etc.3

T

1,6

T

650-1500mm

64-6 months

6700-1800mm

6

6 months

tropical dry deciduous forest

5

W

＞3.8
T

5

T
5.5-7.7

5

T

5

1

W
15-25

<6 months

1

zoneroot-T

broad habitat in tropical and sub-tropical
1
zone

6

rootT

1

broad habitat in tropical and sub-tropical

6

T

1,5

15

5

rootT

W

1

W

1

T

1

6

(400)9006
1500(3500)mm

perenial humid and monsoon climate
tropical lowland rainforest

1200 mm <1

1<900(1100)m

5(8) months

6

<600

6-7 months

1000-3000 mm
1

2000-2700mm

560 month1

6

tropical lowland

15

fast6

15

fast6

5
6

N fix

6

N fix

(3300)m

0

6

15

N fix

0

1

T

6

T

1

<600m (1300
6
m )

9

6

760-3000mm

6W

intolerant

0<1000(1400)m

seasonal moisture forest , humid tropics

1

fast,
intolerant615< 500 m

1

E

E

N fix

<1500m
<1600

6

6

slow

15

5

coastal to middle-altitute forest and

W
10

E

15

1

8-10 months
1
2-4 months

intolerant
intolerant

1-6 months

<650m
1

15

Non N fix

0

0

1,6

750-2000mm

0

tropical humid or semi-humid zone

1,5

T
salt

1

T

T

E

6

air
Fabales6

tropical lowland forestTTtropical monsoon climate
tropical savanna climate

0

W
T

T

w-T,
adapt

1

5

timber, plywood, pulp,
etc.3
shell, seeds, etc.3

T

T

4-5
Fabales6

tropical humid and semi-arid land , often0
manglobe hinterland forest

6

suitable 適
1000mm<9 months

6

6

<700m

1

<800(1200)m

2-4 months

15

N fix

6

0

intolerant

6

intolerant

6

fast1,
pioneer0

15

N fix

1

RosalesMoraceae

Artocarpus altilis

Sukun

fruit, timber, etc.3

RosalesMoraceae

Artocarpus heterophyllus

Nangkafruit meat, seeds,
timber, etc.3

14.5-8.7

6

T

T
(grow

6

0

n)

T

W

1

0

W

1

W

1

W

1

W

6-7.5

0

1

1

lowland forest with broad soils and climatic
0
conditions, savanna and open forest

high-temperature and humid lowland
tropical forest, river-side and/or swamp
0
forest edge in PNG

1

T W

T

0

1

T W

0

(humid) tropis and sub-tropics

1

510-4300

6<1500m6

15

Non N fix0

2000-3000 .
1200-2500m

1500mm<9

6

1

short dry season <600(1000)m

0,6<400(1200)m0

intolerant

6

fast,
intolerant1

Cucurbitales

Datiscaceae

Octomeles sumatrana

Benuang

FagalesCasuarinaceae

Casuarina equisetifolia

Cemara laut

Fagales
Myrtiflorae

Casuarinaceae
Combretadeae

Casuarina junghuhniana

Cemara gunung?
Kasuari?

Terminalia catappa

Ketapang
Benuang lakitimber, plywood, pulp,
etc.3
sand dune
stablization, timber,
firewood, etc.3
timber, firewood, etc.3

W
T

6

1

W
T

1,6

T

1,6

T

6

T

1,6

6

humid tropics 湿潤熱帯

01500mm<semi -arid to semi-moist zone

10

<1 month

6<1000m

700-2000 mm

6

4-6 months

1200-5000 mm

6

6-8 months

6

4-6 months

90< 1500 m

intolerant6
ActinomycetesFrankia

615

intolerantE

15

fast1

N fix

6

T

1,6

T

1

T

1

>2.8

15

T

E

root-T1

tropical monsoon zone

700-1500mm
9750-2500mm

1,6<3000m

6<1200m0

pioneer

<600m

0

fastE

0,9

intolerant6

10

secondaryN fix

shade tree

Myrtiflorae

Lythraceae

Duabanga moluccana

timber, plywood, etc.3

Myrtiflorae

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus camaldulensis

timber, pulp, etc.3

T

Myrtiflorae

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus deglupta

timber, pulp, etc.3

W

T
E，6

T

1，6

1,0

W

T

E

1，6

humid tropics
T

E

T

E，6

T

1,0

6

6-7.5

T

E，6

14

root-T
W

1,0

6

1

humid to arid tropics

1

W

1,0

humid tropics

1,0

T

10

humid and semi-moist tropical lowland

T

10

T

19

250-1250mm

60（4 ）-8 months

61

2000-5000mm

0,9

no dry season<1800m

10

2-4 months

9

<800m

10

3-8 months

1090-2000m

01

Myrtiflorae

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus pellita

？T
non-

timber, pulp, etc.3

11000-4000mm

E

10Myrtiflorae

Myrtaceae

Eucalyptus urophylla

Myrtiflorae

Myrtaceae

Melaleuca alternifolia

Ampuputimber, etc.3

Wessential oil, piles,
wind-break, etc.19

T

19

T

19

T

1

non19
frost

19

43

Myrtiflorae

Myrtaceae

Melaleuca cajuputi

medicine，piles，
fuelwood, etc.2

T

2

T

2

T

2

Myrtiflorae

Myrtaceae

Melaleuca leucadendron

medicine, spice,fuelwood, etc.3

T

2

T

2

T

2

Myrtiflorae

Myrtaceae

Syzygium aromaticum

Chengkeh

medicine, spice, etc.3

W

Myrtiflorae

Myrtaceae

Syzygium cumini

Jambu hutancolorant, timber

Myrtiflorae

Myrtaceae

Syzygium Samarangense

Jamby semarang

Sapindales

Anacardiaceae

Anacardium occidentale

Jambu mente

Sapindales

Anacardiaceae

Lannea coromandelica

BantenSapindales

Anacardiaceae

Mangifera casturi

Kasturi

Sapindales

Anacardiaceae

Mangifera indica

Manggafruit, timber, etc.3

T

Sapindales

Anacardiaceae

Mangifera odorata

Kuwinifruit, etc.3

W

Sapindales

Meliaceae

Azadirachta indica

Mimbatimber, medicine3

T

Sapindales

Meliaceae

Khaya senegalensis

timber, plywood, etc.3

T

Sapindales

Meliaceae

Melia azedarach

Minditimber, firewood, etc.3

Sapindales

Meliaceae

Sandoricum koetjape

Kecapifruit, medicine, shadetree, etc.1

Sapindales

Meliaceae

Swietenia macrophylla

Mahonitimber, plywood, etc.3

Sapindales

Meliaceae

Toona sureni

Suren wangi

timber, plywood, etc.3

Sapindales

Sapindaceae

Nephelium lappaceum

Rambutan

fruit, seeds, etc.3

T1

Sapindales

Sapindaceae

Schleichera oleosa

Kesambiseed oil, timber,medicine, etc.3

TE

MalvalesDipterocarpaceae Anisoptera marginata

T

2

T

2

T

E

T

2

T

E

T
salt
air

19

secoundary open mountain forest in
monsoon climate

river outlet zone in sub-tropics and lowland
19
forest along swamps
tropical humid to semi-moist zone

T2

800-2200mm

0

2

W

E

W

1

2

650-1500 mm

middle to small forest and rainforest, tropicaland sub-tropical zone6

019

intolerant19<2-3 months

2

<200m

2

intolerantE

2<4-8 months

2

<500m

2

intolerantE

6<1-2 months

6<1000m1

young6
tolerant
middleunderstory

1

4-6 months

9300(800)m

1500-3500mm

fruit
fruit, timber, etc.3

T1

hedge, etc.E

T

E

Distributed in India to Southeast Asia,
deciduous open forest in monsoon zone in24
ThailandE

cultivated in Mataram, South Kalimantan,
threatened species

W

1,0

T

1

W

tropical and sub-tropical monsoon forest

1

6

1

800-1000 mm

1200 mm<6

tropical to sub-tropical , monsoon climateEhumic tropics

timber, plywood, etc.3

1,6

W

1,0

1

T

1

6.2-7.0TTE

750-2500mm

0E<1-2 months0

1 01200 mm <most areas of tropical plain , originated from6
tropical and sub-tropical dryland

1,0

scattered in riverside forest and savanna

1

forest with relatively high precipitationT1

1

sub-tropics , tropical monsoon

W0

6.5-7.5

T
T

1

T

1

4.5-6.5

0

0

T

0

T

T

E,12

1,0

1

3 months <short period

9

1，0

1

W

1

1

tropical semi-arid to humid forest

grows in humid tropics, peat swamp andPodsol heath0700-1500mm

9

E

m

E

intolerantE< 600(1200)

intolerantE

1,01

intolerantE<700m
6(1500m )intolerant0< 1000 m

6<1800m9<2000m6

weak shade6

tolerant

0400-2500mm

0

0

13

0-4 months

0<1500m090012
1500(3000)mm<600m

young-Fast00

middle0understory0<600(1000)m<1200m013

intolerantE<1700(2100)m
2500mm<12

flat land<600 (1200) m

1

tropical humid lowland

6

1

floristic regions of tropical india to malaysia

intolerantE0650-1150mm

600-1000mm<

savanna pine forest to edge of climax
rainforest

0

W
T

T

0

0

1

6

tropical humid and monsoon climate

6

secondary1

Mersawa tenam

secondary2

1300-1750 mm

tropical semi-moist to semi-arid zone

E

<300m

10

12

ectomycorrhiz
16

a

1

MalvalesDipterocarpaceae Dipterocarpus alatus

Keruing

timber, plywood, etc.3

MalvalesDipterocarpaceae Dryobalanops aromatica

Kapur bukit

timber, plywood,
medicine, etc.3

MalvalesDipterocarpaceae Dryobalanops lanceolata

Kapur paji

timber, plywood, etc.3

MalvalesDipterocarpaceae Hopea odorata

Merawantimber, resin, etc.3

MalvalesDipterocarpaceae Shorea balangeranbalangeran

timber, plywood, etc.E

MalvalesDipterocarpaceae Shorea javanica

Damar kaca

timber, plywood, etc.3

MalvalesDipterocarpaceae Shorea leprosulatimber, plywood, etc.3

MalvalesDipterocarpaceae Shorea roxburghii

timber, plywood, etc.E

T

1

T

evergreen and arid deciduous forest ,6tropical monsoon climateE

6 months

1< 500 mectomycorrhiz

1

16

a

6

W

E

tropical lowland, along mountain ridge

<400m

16

0

tropical lowland, middle slopes , basic
0
volcanic soils

0

<800m

0

1

T

T

1

T

E

T

1

T

tropical humd evergreen forest , common inEriparian forest

E,0tropical peat swamp forest
TE

1< 600 m ，00

tropical lowland rainforest

1

tropical lowland rainforest

6

1

1

< 6 months

tolerant

ectomycorrhiz

bordera16

regeneration

ectomycorrhiz

border16<100(1000)m
1600 mm <

0

a

6

T

6

ectomycorrhiz young shade< 300 m ,6border1
regeneration< 300(500) m

0

1,0

0

6

a
regeneration
ectomycorrhiz
secondary16aborderectomycorrhiz
16
regenerationaE

MalvalesMalvalesMalvalesMalvalesMalvales44

MalvalesMalvalesMalvalesMalvalesMalvaceae

Malvaceae
Malvaceae

Malvaceae

Malvaceae

Malvaceae
Malvaceae
Malvaceae
Malvaceae

Hibiscus cannabinus

fiber

T

6

W

6

E

T

E

W

root-

E

T

22

T

22

W

deciduous, evergreen and bamboo forest

30°S

timber, firewood, fiber,
etc.4

Nitas

timberCeiba pentandra

Kapuk

floff (綿毛), plywood,seed oil, etc.3

Durio kutejensis

Laifruit meat, etc.3

humid tropics

Durio zibethinus

Durianfruit meat, seeds,
etc.3

humid and semi-humid tropics

Hibiscus tiliaceus

Waru

Ochroma lagopus

Balsamaterials for floaterand varios craft, tc.3

Theobroma cacao

Koko

seed butter, etc.3

W

W

0

ectomycorrhiz

border16

regenerationa6

intolerant２２<1500(2400)m

tropics: often river-side and coastal stonyE

ectomycorrhiz
border16
0aregeneration

1,0

Growing peirod：>100mm/month,>
２２
20℃

0

Sterculia foetidaT< 700 m<1200m22

tropica AsiaE

60grows in tropics, sub-tropics1, from 45°N to

22Waru gunungT<0 monthtropical monsoon climate, often arid

E，6

Hibiscus macrophyllus<1000m0

area

0secondary00

intolerantE

1

4.7-6.9

6

W

6

W

humid evergreen and deciduous forest ,6tropics and sub-tropics

1000-5700mm

66< 6 months

60<600(1200)m<Foothills

2

1500mm<

01500mm<6

6

intolerant60<800(1800)m0

timber, fiber, etc.

MalvalesThymelaeaceae

Aquilaria spp.

Gaharuspice, timber, fiber,
etc.3

EricalesTheaceae

Schima wallichii

Puspa

timber, etc.3

EricalesEbenaceae

Diospyros ebenum

Kayu hitam

Gentianales

Apocynaceae

Alstonia angustiloba

Pulai hitam

Gentianales

Apocynaceae

Alstonia scholaris

Pulai

Gentianales

Apocynaceae

Dyera costulata

Jelutung

timberGentianales

Gentianaceae

Fagraea fragrans

Tembusutimber, plywood, etc.

Gentianales

Rubiaceae

Anthocephalus cadamba

Jabon putih

timber, plywood, etc.3

Gentianales

Rubiaceae

Anthocephallus
macrophyllus

Jabon merah

timber, plywood, etc.0

Gentianales

Rubiaceae

Coffea arabica

Kopi

Tubiflorae

Verbenaceae

Gmelina arborea

Tubiflorae

Verbenaceae

Tubiflorae

Verbenaceae

ReferenceWfurniture, ornament26,
timber, etc.3

W
21

T

W

6

W

6

W

6

humid tropics

21

6

1

humid tropics , lowland rainforest

0

21<4 months

1000-3000mm

6<1000(1800)m

21

<300m

tropical forest in Southeast Asia
T

T

6

1

W

6

T

1

>-3℃

6

T

26

1100-1400mm in6
Chinarelatively arid areas from India to Sulawesi<3300m0

pioneer

21

100-1300m

broad habitat in tropical and sub-tropical1
6zone in asia

E，6

Fast,

6

<900m

6

understory

21

middle-00understory
intolerant6,
young slow
growing6

60timber, etc.
timber, plywood, etc.

W

22

W

6

T

25

T

E

T

T

1

T

T

0

T

seed drink3

W

20

Jati putih

timber, plywood, etc.3

T

1

W

Peronema canescens

Sungkaitimber, etc.3

W

6

T

Tectona grandis

Jatitimber, etc.3

T

E

T

humid and monsoon

0

T

E

0

>1300mm

tropic humid to monsoon climate

1,6

humid tropics

T

T

1

1

T

E

W

20

T

1

1500-5000mm

6

W

E

W

0

tropical dry and monsoon area, high altitude
20
rainforest
T

E

W

6

<500(-1000)m0

monsoon forest

root-TE

humid tropics

root-T1

temperate, humid tropics with dry season0

secondary00secondary0<1500(2800)m0

rather than Jabon putih
1

23

0

humid tropics, more torelant in dry climate

0

W
1

E

(200)-5000< 1-2 months

601500-2000 mm

750-5000mm

0

0

1

0,6

1500-5000mm<1000m0

pioneer

0<1000m0

pioneer01500-2000 m

3-5 months

0E<1200m0<600(-900)m

weak shadeE
tolerant

1

15

Non N fix
0,6

Fast,
intolerant0
Fast,
intolerant0E

6.5-7.5

6

root-T6

1

600-4000 mm

1

3-6 months

6<1000m0

pioneer00 PROSEA Vol. 2, 5(1), 5(2), 5(3), & 12(3)1 Agroforestree Database, World Agroforestry Centre. http://www.worldagroforestry.org/resources/databases/agroforestree
2 John W. Turnbull Edit (1986) Multipurpose Australian Trees and Shrubs. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research
3 熱帯植物研究会編（1984）熱帯植物要覧. 養賢堂
4 Wikipedia (2011 access) http://id.wikipedia.org/wiki/
5 Office of International Affairs U.S. (1984) Leucaena: Promising Forage and Tree Crop fo te Tropics. National Academy Press U.S.
6 森徳典ら（1996-97）熱帯樹種の造林特性第1-3巻. 国際緑化推進センター
7 森 德典（2013） 熱帯のAlueritas. 海外の森林と林業 NS.No. 85
8 Jones, L & Miller, J.H. (1991) Jatropha curcas. Astag Technical paper, Land Resources Series No.1, The Worl Bank Asia Tehcnical Department Agriculture Division, 12pp.
9 浅川澄彦 (1992) 熱帯の造林技術. 国際緑化推進センター
10 John C. Doran and John W. Turnbull Edit.(1997) Austrarian Trees and Shrubs: Species for land rhabilitaion and farm planting in the tropics. Australian Centre for International Agricultural Research1
11 Jatropha curcus plantations（2013access）. www.jatrophacurcasplantaions.com/
12 Jomes A. Duke (2001) Handbook of nats. CRC Press
13 E. Soepadano, L.G. Saw and R.C.K. Chung (2004) Tree flora of Saba and Sarawak. Vol.5 & 6. Malaysian Government
14 FAO (1979) Eucalyptus for planting
15 Dale O. Evans and Lawrence T Szott Edit. (1955) Nitrogen Fixing Trees for Acid Soils. NAFTA & CATIE
16 Simmathiri Appanah & J. M. Turnbull Edit. (1998) A Review of Dipterocarps, Taxonomy, ecology and silviculture. CIFOR
17 Acacia decurrens (2013 access) http://www.pfaf.org/user/Plant.aspx?LatinName=Acacia+decurrens
18 Wikipedia(2013 access) Delonix regia. http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delonix_regia
19 Kew Royal Botanical Garden, Melaleuca alternifolia. (2013access) http://www.kew.org/plants-fungi/Melaleuca-alternifolia.htm
20 Wikipedia (2013 access） コーヒーノキ http://ja.wikipedia.org/wiki/%E3%82%B3%E3%83%BC%E3%83%92%E3%83%BC%E3%83%8E%E3%82%AD
21 Kew Royal Botanical Garden, Theobroma cacao (2013access) http://www.kew.org/plants-fungi/Theobroma-cacao.htm
22 GlobinMed (2013 access） Hibiscus cannabinus. http://www.globinmed.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=80300:hibiscus-cannabinus-l
23 R.S. Troup (1986) The Silviculture of Indian Trees. Vol.2.
24 S. Gardner, P. Sidisunthorn, and V. Anusarnsunthron (2000) A Field Guide to Forest Trees of Northern Thailand
25 Forest Inventry and Planning Institute (1996) Vietnam Forest Trees
26 熱帯農業研究センター（1978） 熱帯の有用樹種
E: Based on the Experience in the field45