JAPAN ASSOCIATION FOR LANGUAGE TEACHING

JALT2019 • TEACHER EFFICACY, LEARNER AGENCYNOVEMBER 1–4, 2019 • NAGOYA, JAPANImproving Accessibility: Developing Learner Agency
Ryota Moriya

analysis, and examples described in this study demonstrate how diverse learner needs can bebetter accommodated by helping learners choose or develop better learning environments forthemselves. The objectives of this study were to raise awareness of diverse learner needs andshare potential coping strategies.

Otaru University of Commerce

教室における多様化が進むにつれ、学習者のニーズも、可視化された違いだけでなく不可視化された違いも含み、その対象を拡大してきた。合理的配慮も、社会的、精神的、そして経済的な学習困難を対象とする考え方に転換しつつある。一方で、学習資源と教育機関の支援は未だ発展途上にある。
したがって、教師が様々な困難を抱える学習者のニーズを把握し、支援をすることがこれまで以上に求められている。
このような認識の転換により、教育者は多様な学習者に学びの場を提供し、学習者の学習意欲を醸成することができる。本稿は、様々な事例の分析を通して、学習者自身が学習環境の向上に取り組むことを支援することが、どのように学習者の多様なニーズの充足に結び付くのかについて明らかにする。本稿が、学習者ニーズの認識を拡大し、教育的戦略の一つのモデルを提示し、言語教育に示唆を与えるものとなることを願う。

Andrew Reimann

Aoyama Gakuin University

Shoko Moriya

University of TokyoA

Ryoko Sato

Reitaku University
Reference Data:Moriya, R., Reimann, A., Moriya, S., & Sato, R. (2020). Improving accessibility: Developing learner
agency. In P. Clements, A. Krause, & R. Gentry (Eds.), Teacher efficacy, learner agency. Tokyo: JALT.
https://doi.org/10.37546/JALTPCP2019-11
As classrooms become more diverse, the understanding of learner needs has evolved to include
both visible and invisible needs. Traditionally, reasonable accommodation has been limited tosupporting students with physical or cognitive requirements. This has evolved to include support
for social, psychological, emotional, and even economic difficulties. Resources and institutional
support remain underfunded and underdeveloped; it is therefore paramount that teachers areable to diagnose, communicate, and empathize with students who are displaying a wider rangeof learning needs and difficulties than ever before. Through such teacher awareness raising, we
can provide scaffolding for our students and empower them to be successful. The field reports,s classrooms become more diverse, learners’ needs change. These learners’
needs include linguistic, socioeconomic, sociocultural, and diverse learningneeds. Learners with disabilities are one example. According to the Japan Student
Services Organization (JASSO, 2019b), the percentage of students with disabilities
in postsecondary education in Japan exceeded 1.05% in 2018. This was a significant
increase from 2014, when the percentage of students with disabilities was only 0.44%.
The distribution of students with different impairments in postsecondary education is
33% with weak constitution, 25.9% with mental impairment, 17.9% with developmental
disability, 7.3% with physical impairment, 5.8% with hearing and speech impairment,
2.6% with visual impairment, 1.4% with multiple impairments, and 6% with otherkinds of impairment (JASSO, 2019b; see Figure 1). The percentage of students with
developmental disability has also shown a significant increase since 2016 (JASSO, 2019b).
In 2019, more than 1% of university students in Japan have a disability that impacts
learning. In language classes, the difference between special needs and linguistic needs
is often blurred or indistinguishable as these tend to be invisible differences that are notdirectly apparent to the teacher and can therefore also be overlooked by institutions.
Therefore, special needs are not often recognized in language classes, making support
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the number of students who need Japanese language support has also been growing,
exceeding 50,000 in 2019 (MEXT, 2019). These numbers show that teachers are facing a
growing population of learners with diverse learning needs.

are diverse and complex. Therefore, language teachers are increasingly encouraged tobe ready to make their lessons accessible for learners with diverse needs. Amendments
to existing laws redefined disability as the inability to access learning resources andemphasized recognizing the learning capacity for those with special needs. In this sense,
any learners with inaccessibility to learning resources, including both linguistic andother needs, are theoretically considered as learners who are disabled in language classes.
In both cases these learners require not only language support but an increasingly more
specialized, diverse, and not easily defined special needs support.
This particular definition of disability reflects a social model of disability in disability
studies, which theoretically define disability as a social construct rather than as an
impairment or disease. According to Oliver, Sapey, and Thomas (2012),
Disability is the disadvantage or restriction of activity caused by the political,
economic and cultural norms of a society which takes little or no account ofpeople who have impairments and thus excludes them from mainstream activity.
Impairment is a characteristic of the mind, body or senses within an individual
which is long term and may, or may not, be the result of disease, genetics or injury.
(p. 16)

Figure 1. Percentage of different disabilities in postsecondary education (adapted fromJASSO, 2019b).
According to Tonooka (2015), only 28% of university language classes in Japan offersome support for students with disabilities. In addition, only 22% of universities havefull-time disability resource staff (JASSO, 2019a). This means that there are limited
resources and that more pressure is placed on teachers to provide individual support
for their students. In 2016, the Act for Eliminating Discrimination against Persons with
Disabilities was put into effect. Although the laws only affect those in need of special
needs support, realistically it is often difficult to draw a line between which difficultyrequires special needs support or language support and which doesn’t. Learner needs

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In the classroom, disability is caused by external factors such as inaccessiblebuildings and pedagogies that do not accommodate learners with diverse learningneeds including those who need both special needs support and language support.
The Disability Resource Centre at the University of Cambridge (2014) identified “welldesigned buildings, assistive technology, alternative formats, sign language interpreters,
and inclusive workplaces with respect to independent living, inclusive methods ofassessment, positive and non-discriminatory attitudes, accessible environments” (p. 1)
as typical examples of accessible learning environments at their university campus. The
social model of disability suggests that teachers are responsible for eliminating, or at least
alleviating, inaccessibility in their classes. Under the Act for Eliminating Discrimination
against Persons with Disabilities, teachers are redefined as part of the construction of
disability in classrooms. Consequently, this change in legality raises the question: How
can learner needs be better accommodated to improve accessibility to language learning?
This collection of case studies considers issues concerning learner needs, diversity, andaccessibility in language classes in Japan. The objective of this study is to raise awarenessof learners’ needs by sharing coping strategies in order to help teachers as well as create a
support network. Areas of focus include covert special needs observed in context, whichrange in nature from linguistic, cognitive, social and psychological to cultural. Several
field studies and examples of social psychological needs, specific learning needs, andNEXT PAGE ⊲ONLINEFULL SCREEN

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Japanese language support needs are described and discussed by the three authors, who
examine context, issues, and coping strategies that apply to classroom-based experiences.
In all cases, informed consent was obtained to use the data reported here, as was
institutional clearance (where applicable).
In the first field study, the author explores three examples of disabilities andinaccessibility that were observed in class, with the aim of providing an alternative
perspective to learners’ needs assessment in language teaching. In the second field study,
the author examines the learning needs of a student with Specific Learning Differences(SpLDs) in class, implying that teacher’s awareness of diverse learner needs and anaccessible support system are the key for the student in question to effectively learn
languages in class. In the third field study, the author investigated Japanese monolingual
environments at a part-time night high school (often called yakan teijisei koukou inJapanese). Based on the findings, the author suggests that language teachers may be able
to empower students with diverse needs by creating opportunities to reflect upon theirown identities and goals in class. By thoroughly exploring the three field studies that
focus on different learner needs, the overall goal of this study is to better understanddiverse and complex learner needs in language teaching in context.

Social Psychological Needs
Considering that learning disabilities are, in essence, an inaccessibility to social
resources that consequently limits participation, opportunities for learning, andgeneral productivity or engagement, it is important that teachers are able to recognize
and accommodate such differences and facilitate the active and equal participationof all learners. Students differ in many ways and have a variety of challenges whenparticipating in any given lesson or activity. These may not be readily apparent or
may manifest themselves in behaviors that at first glance seem to be the result of poor
attitudes, such as disruptive, rude, or antisocial actions. When students display such
behavior, it is common for teachers to resort to discipline rather than empathy. It is
important for teachers to have an open mind when evaluating such students and to
consider the range of variables that could cause any given behavior. The following isa report on examples when invisible differences (that were social and psychological innature) were very difficult to diagnose or determine as they were only observable inbehavior problems that would typically be resolved through discipline. The purpose ofthis analysis is to provide a critical incident for raising awareness on alternative meansof special needs assessment for helping a diverse range of students have equal access toresources and achieve the highest levels of productivity possible.

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Context
The following behavioral patterns were observed in communication seminar classes
ranging in size from 20 to 25. Students were majoring in International Studies at anational university and had a high-intermediate level of English. Classes met once per
week for 90 minutes and the teacher knew almost half of the students from a previous
class. Students’ needs and preferences were therefore familiar and some level of rapport
had already been established.

IssuesIn the course of the seminar, three examples of students with special needs became
apparent. The first student (Student A) displayed poor attitude, low motivation,
and antisocial behavior, was constantly making excuses, and was distracted andconfrontational. The second student (Student B) often slept in class, was frequently lateor absent, and was unable to complete most assignments. The third student (StudentC) acted aloof and entitled, would prioritize socializing and chatting, was obsessed with
their phone, and was very sensitive and defensive about any comment or slight criticism.
At first analysis these issues appeared as behavior problems signifying a bad attitude,
laziness, or rude behavior. In such cases, discipline, reprimand, warning, or a discussion
on manners should have helped to prevent the negative behaviors from recurring.
However, the students did not respond positively to any form of verbal comment on
their behavior. After careful evaluation, an alternative and more productive diagnosis was
possible.

Coping Strategies
All three students had difficulty accessing resources and participating actively andproductively. Each case benefitted from the teacher having an open mind towards
traditional behaviors and typical needs, flexibility towards communication and deadlines,
an overall empathy, and increased awareness of trying to understand each student’s
perspective.
Student A was experiencing economic hardship: She was highly motivated but could
not access resources because of not being able to purchase technology for researchand productivity (a personal computer) or a device for communication, socialization,and interaction (a smartphone). This caused a feeling of shame and a subsequent bad
attitude. Only through one-on-one meetings and informal discussions was it possible
for the teacher to learn about, understand, and make accommodations for an otherwise

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invisible socioeconomic difference. Student B suffered from narcolepsy. This was initially
misdiagnosed, and the student himself thought he was just lazy, selfish, and stupid. After
getting a second doctor’s opinion and an official diagnosis and note, both the student
and the institution were able to make some minor changes and accommodations thatallowed the student to participate to his fullest potential. This completely changed
the student’s attitude, self-esteem, and motivation. Student C was diagnosed withnarcissistic personality disorder. Similarly, after this issue was properly understood,
accommodation could be made. This student was particularly happy to be a leader
and take initiative, provided they could get credit and praise for their extra efforts. In
all cases, communication, flexibility, and understanding were all that was needed totransform disruptive students into productive students.
If teachers believe that everyone deserves a fair chance and that we should strive toprovide the best learning opportunity for each student, then we must also try our best
to accommodate diverse learning needs and difficulties. All students are essentially good
students; no one wants to fail or is intentionally bad, rude, or disruptive. With this inmind, we all have the power to empower.

Specific Learning Needs
According to JASSO (2019a), 6,047 students in higher education in Japan havedevelopmental disabilities, that is about 0.02% of the entire population of Japanesehigher education institutions. Aproximately, 3.5% of them have a Specific Learning
Disability (SLD). Although the number is lower than that of other developmental
disability types, three out of every 100 students would show a symptom or symptoms of
SLD three out of 100 students with developmental disabilities would show a symptom
or symptoms of SLD. Although the letter D in SLD usually stands for disabilities in mostcontexts in Japan, it stands for differences in most educational scenes in the United States,
where the term specific learning differences (SpLDs) is more frequently used as a generalumbrella term (Takeda, 2019). In the following case study, SpLDs may be a more suitable
term, because the learner showed multiple symptoms that seemed to be a combinationof disabilities and difficulties in learning.

Context
This student studies at a university in Chiba Prefecture. When she enrolled at theuniversity, she asked for the researcher’s support. She eventually volunteered to be aparticipant in this study. The researcher interviewed the student at her office at the FRONT PAGE

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beginning and the end of the semester. The interviews were conducted when thestudent faced difficulties in learning in foreign language classes. To identify the concrete
problems in the courses, the researcher sometimes directly asked the teachers about how
the student was doing in their classroom as necessary.

Issues
The student was diagnosed with dyslexia and dysgraphia, reading and writing disabilities.
According to her descriptions, it is hard for her to read letters on white paper, particularly
katakana and the Roman alphabet. Although she can recognize each letter, she has
difficulty decoding at the same pace as others and reads significantly more slowly, shedevelops fatigue after reading for a while and often skips a line when reading a passage. It
is harder for her to read English texts than Japanese texts, but it is unknown what factors
prevent her from fluent reading in English. She also displays some symptoms of writing
difficulties, which come from a developmental coordination disorder (a motor-skills
disorder), affecting her eyes, ears, and hands. She mentions she often loses the sense ofher hand while writing, preventing her from writing along ruled lines or into columns.
She has also been given a diagnosis of ADHD, which frequently overlaps with dyslexia(International Dyslexia Association, 2020). Moreover, she is very sensitive to everyday
sounds such as the noise of an air conditioner, the sound of turning over a piece of paper,or other environmental sounds such as coughing and chatting.

Coping Strategies
This student took a lot of action to build herself a better learning environment. At
university entrance examinations, she asked the universities to extend the time, took
the tests in a separate room, and used noise-canceling headphones to cut off noise.
After she had enrolled at the university, she submitted an official request for reasonableaccommodations and distributed a description of her SpLDs to each teacher at the
beginning of each semester in order to allow her to access the contents of the courses andlearning resources. This document included a detailed description of her SpLDs, cognitive
characteristics, ICT skills, and learning styles, which seemed to be helpful for teachers. Staff
members of the Support Room for Students with Disabilities supported her negotiations
with the teachers. Because she took some foreign language courses that were taught by
non-Japanese teachers who did not understand Japanese well, she had to translate thedocument into English or explain it in English. It was challenging for her due to the levelof her English proficiency. She asked a teacher for help with the English translations andwas able to convey her requests accurately in English. After submitting an application forNEXT PAGE ⊲ONLINEFULL SCREEN

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reasonable accommodations, she was allowed to use a laptop to read textbooks, receive
most handouts as PDF files so she could use a screen reader, and use noise-cancelling
headphones to enable her to access the written information at a similar pace as classmatesin most classes. Sometimes she used a reading tracker when she needed to read printed
materials. The teachers came to understand her condition and individual needs.
This student was quite hard working and tried to find better ways to learn byconsulting with university counselors and staff of the Support Room for Students with
Disabilities. This student showed us that learners need an active agency. However, she
still struggles with learning in required English courses. All teachers try to support her,but it might be impossible to teach her entirely effectively. One of the reasons is thatmost teachers lack a basic knowledge of SpLDs and have limited experience in teaching
students with SpLDs such as dyslexia and dysgraphia. It is difficult for university teachers
to adjust their classes to accommodate the student’s SpLDs. Because she understands
this, the student submits updated documents and official request forms for reasonableaccommodations at the beginning of every semester, so both the student and herteachers can look for solutions.
It is essential for teachers to teach students explicitly and empower them to ask
for help if necessary in order to make a more comfortable learning environment forthemselves. For example, teachers can introduce relevant vocabulary and phrases suchas “I get a headache from the sound. Can I go to the restroom and drink some water?” It
can be challenging for students to admit their weaknesses, so this is effective, especiallyin foreign language classes taught in the target language. Students would likely hesitate
to ask for help without this vocabulary and confidence in using the language. Also,teachers can demonstrate how to ask for help, such as to borrow a pen during class, bymodeling useful phrases such as “I forgot a pen. May I borrow yours?”
It is also essential to raise teachers’ awareness of SpLDs. They need not only basic
knowledge but also a deeper understanding of students’ negative learning experiences.
Without this awareness, it is difficult for teachers to notice students’ various difficulties.
In the worst case, students struggling with learning are just ignored or misunderstood.
Teachers should understand that many students have had painful experiences andperhaps have lost confidence in learning. Teachers need concrete, explicit instructions
at each step of learning in order to become more active and supportive. Accessible or
flexible resources or materials would particularly be useful for teachers. Everybody isdifferent; everybody has various learning strategies. Teachers need to know about SpLDs
and the way that symptoms can vary in each individual student so that they can findvarious ways of supporting students to accommodate their strengths and weaknesses.

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Obviously, teachers cannot do everything, and institutions need to take the initiativeand coordinate efforts to provide systematic educational support. If the institution
created a database of coping strategies used by teachers with students, this would
provide a reference and practical professional support that teachers would be able toapply immediately. The database should also include coping strategies used by students,
because college students are becoming independent, preparing to enter the workforce.
They need to develop agency, autonomy, confidence, and the ability to ask for help. In
addition, sharing experiences is necessary to develop an effective educational support
system.

Japanese Language Support Needs
Context
Being non-Japanese is not usually considered to be a disability. However, students whoneed Japanese language support have been traditionally treated as students with special
needs in the Japanese education system. Therefore, viewing the need for Japanese
language support as a socially disabled condition can help us develop a more accessible
learning environment for linguistically and socioculturally diverse students. The
following case study took place at a part-time night high school, a type of school whereclasses are held in the late afternoon and evening. It is part of the Japanese national
education system established after the second world war. Students in part-time nighthigh school have traditionally been diverse in several ways including age, socioeconomic
status, and academic achievement. Many part-time night high school students haveexperienced so-called futoukou (absenteeism in school) in elementary school or juniorhigh school . These students have been typically labeled as students with psychologicaland learning problems. In addition, these schools tend to have a high ratio of students
from multilingual backgrounds (children of foreign parents working in Japan, childrenof parents in an international marriage, and so forth). Therefore, although the majorityof students are Japanese monolingual, the number of multilingual students has been
increasing in part-time night high schools (Sakuma, 2015). Some students are highly
competent in Japanese; however, there is also an increasing number of students whose
Japanese ability is extremely limited. In spite of this linguistic diversity, part-time nighthigh schools are generally monolingual Japanese environments, which creates uniquechallenges for students with limited Japanese language knowledge.
During the fieldwork study at a part-time night high school in the Kanto area between
2015 and 2017, several classes were studied in order to understand socioculturaldifferences. English classes were observed, and students and teachers were interviewed

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regarding their images of, ideas about, and attitudes towards English and otherlanguages. According to one teacher at the school, almost 40% of the students either hadoriginally come from foreign countries or had parents from foreign countries. Some ofthese only had very limited Japanese knowledge and therefore understanding Japanese
instruction was a challenge.

Issues
The students with limited Japanese knowledge all had very diverse issues. The focus of
this case study is one male student from the Philippines. He worked at construction sites
and in a factory during the day before coming to the school. Although he spoke Tagalog,
the Philippine national language, it was not his first language. His Japanese was very
basic; it was hard for him to follow Japanese instructions in classes. He participated inJapanese language classes designed for non-Japanese-speaking students only in the 1st
and 2nd years. After he became a 3rd-year student, he was not offered supplementary
Japanese classes, although his Japanese was insufficient to understand class content.
This student’s English proficiency was also an issue. English class was probably theeasiest class for him because the content was very basic. He seemed to have learned
English at school in the Philippines, but, his lack of English vocabulary and grammaticalknowledge created difficulties in communicating in the class. He usually did notparticipate in class, instead looking at his smartphone or listening to music throughearphones. The dilemma here is that he was able to obtain credit for the English classes,
which are essential requirements for his high school diploma, but he was not given
enough chances to develop his English (and other academic) skills, which would be
important after graduation. The case of this Filipino student shows issues related to both
Japanese and English learning by non-Japanese-speaking students. The curriculum at the
part-time night high school, which included a diversity of students that was increasing,was basically designed for the monolingual majority: Japanese-speaking students whose
English knowledge is limited.
As Jim Cummins (2001) proposed, multilingual knowledge, which people fromdifferent cultural backgrounds possess, should be regarded as an important asset for thecountries in which they live. However, the very strong monolingual ideology and identity
in Japan seem to hinder the creation of spaces where such multilingual and multicultural
knowledge can be shared, developed, or applied. How can teachers make classes
beneficial for those who do not fit this mood or reach students like the Filipino student?

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Coping Strategies
First, how can teachers raise awareness of the importance of students’ multilingualcompetence to transform a monolingual perspective into a multilingual perspective?
Their multilingual knowledge could be used to create a place where such students might
be regarded as social assets and consequently feel increased motivation, self-esteem, andself-efficacy. In addition, teachers need tools for assessment of multilingual students’competencies not only in Japanese but also in other languages, especially their first
languages, to which far less attention has been paid in schools in Japan. Although there
have been several attempts to develop standardized assessment forms for students’Japanese language abilities and to expand the use of these (see Ishii, 2017), it seems to
be extremely rare for teachers to have access to systems to assess multilingual students’
linguistic competences other than Japanese and English. Indeed, with such first language
assessment systems, teachers would be able to understand the needs of multilingual
students, even without having multilingual knowledge themselves. Knowledge about
students’ multilingual competences would enable teachers to create more accessible
environments for students in need of Japanese language support.
Lastly, it is of great importance for teachers to consider students’ sociocultural
backgrounds. In the case of the Filipino student, his work during the daytime
seemed physically demanding, it was not clear whether or when he would go backto the Philippines, and his expectation of schools may have differed from the reality.
Considering these aspects of the student would have helped his teachers understand hiscomplex situation.

Conclusion
This paper explored three different learning contexts about which various coping
strategies were discussed in the hope of improving accessibility to language learning.
Each context is different. However, the coping strategies discussed in these case studies
reflect a social model of disability in which learner needs are a form of sociocultural
inaccessibility to resources in language learning. In this sense, the paper will conclude
with a discussion of the ways in which diverse learner needs can be better accommodated
in the language learning process.
Various copings strategies were suggested in order to manage complex environments
and individual differences and considering how teachers can accommodate learner needs
in complex and diverse classrooms. In one case study, a student who was experiencing
economic hardship. Although the student was motivated, she could not purchase a PC

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or a communication device. This financial difficulty prevented her from accessing any
educational learning resources. It required careful evaluation by the teacher to makean alternative and more productive diagnosis; otherwise the student’s financial needs
could have been misread as poor attitude, low motivation, and antisocial behavior. At theinstitutional level, another alternative might involve providing financial support for such
students because their financial difficulties may deter them from focusing on classes.
Teachers can advocate for financial support for those students who might otherwise not
be qualified. A flexible and open-minded approach to coping strategies could improveaccessibility to language learning for learners with diverse needs, by accommodating
their individual needs to create better learning environments.
It is also important for teachers to manage or bridge differences in learning styles orenvironments by encouraging students with diverse learning needs to become advocates
for their own needs. Many students with socioeconomic problems may not advocate for
their needs because they do not feel comfortable sharing their personal issues with theirteachers. Other students with multicultural and multilingual backgrounds may not havea chance to reflect on their cultural and linguistic identities in the Japanese monolingual
environment at school. Teachers might facilitate discussion regarding financial issues,
multicultural and multilingual identities, and individual learning goals in class, to help
students develop a coping strategy. This may empower students with diverse needs to be
motivated and to improve learning experiences for themselves. Consequently, the chancefor better accommodation of these students in language classes may increase.
Finally, it is important to consider the relationship between learner diversity andaccessibility in language teaching. Learner needs are diverse, and they become special
needs or disabilities in classrooms where accessibility to learning is constricted. Suchaccessibility may be improved by facilitating student self-advocacy. Correspondingly,
coping strategies are also diverse. A network or database of case studies, examples, andcritical incidents would be useful for language teachers, so that they can apply diverse
coping strategies to their classes and improve accessibility. Creating such a database
may be an effective strategy to improve accessibility in language learning. It may also
be effective to create groups of language teachers who share the same awareness thatlearners with special needs are an important part of their teaching practice. The findingsof this study imply that cooperation, communication, and collaboration as well as theformation of a special interest group that focuses on accessibility in language learning
may improve learning experiences of learners with diverse needs in language classes.

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Acknowlegment
This research was partially supported by JSPS KAKENHI Grant Number 18J10348.

Bio Data
Ryota Moriya is currently a lecturer in the Glocal Education Division of the Center for
Glocal Strategy at Otaru University of Commerce. He has a PhD in international studies.
His research interests include color-blindness, disability studies, accessibility in language
learning, and Foucauldian genealogical discourse analysis. <ryota.moriya@gmail.com>
Andrew Reimann is an associate professor and language program coordinator in the
English Department at Aoyama Gakuin University in Tokyo. He has a PhD in applied
linguistics, focusing on intercultural communication and materials design. He teaches
classes on comparative culture and intercultural communication. His research interests
include raising cultural awareness, communication strategies, and media literacy. Recent
publications include Culture Studies Handbook, Culture in Context (Intergraphica Press,
2016) and Humor for Cross Cultural Analysis (TESOL, 2017). <anreimann@yahoo.com>
Shoko Moriya is currently a doctoral student in the Department of Language &Information Sciences, Graduate School of Arts & Sciences of the University of Tokyo anda research support member for Research Institute of Business Administration, Waseda
University. Her research interests include language ideology and English education atpart-time night high schools. <shokott@gmail.com>
Ryoko Sato is a lecturer of the Faculty of Foreign Studies, Reitaku University. She is also
a doctoral student in the department of English and Cultural Studies of Tsuda University.
Her research interests include language education and special needs education, especiallyfor students with developmental disabilities. <rsato@reitaku-u.ac.jp>

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