The Glasgow Naturalist (online 2018) Volume 27, Part 1, 20-26

https://doi.org/10.37208/tgn27103

The honey-buzzard in Scotland: a rare, secretive and elusive summer visitor andbreeder
C.J. McInerny1 & K.D. Shaw2
1

10 Athole Gardens, Glasgow G12 9AZ
E-mail: chris.mcinerny@glasgow.ac.uk
2

13 Chalmers Brae, Anstruther, Fife KY10 3BY
E-mail: kenshaw495@gmail.com

ABSTRACTThe honey-buzzard (Pernis apivorus) is probably
Scotland’s most enigmatic breeding bird of prey. The
raptor is extremely difficult to observe, being rare,
secretive and elusive. Over the past few years we havediscovered two populations of honey-buzzards in central
Scotland. Systematic and intensive monitoring of these
populations has revealed new information about the
species’ annual breeding cycle. In this paper we review
the history and distribution of the honey-buzzard in
Scotland and summarise the results of our recent studies
in central Scotland, which have considerably increased
understanding of the species.
INTRODUCTION
The honey-buzzard is widespread in the Western
Palearctic, breeding from Britain and continental
Europe through to western Asia (del Hoyo et al., 1994;
Hagemeijer & Blair, 1997; Batten, 2001; FergusonLees & Christie, 2001). The raptor is a trans-equatorial
migrant, spending the summer in the northernhemisphere to breed and wintering in sub-SaharanAfrica (Vansteelant et al., 2017). It is largely awoodland species, nesting in trees and flying to more
open habitats to find food items, mainly social wasps
and bees (Hymenoptera), but also amphibians, reptiles
and more rarely birds (Trap-Lind, 1962; Cobb, 1979;
McInerny, 2014; Harwood & Richman, 2016).
HISTORY IN SCOTLAND
19th century
For as long as the honey-buzzard has been recorded in
Scotland it has always been a rare summer visitor andoccasional breeder (Thom, 1986; Forrester et al., 2007).
The first dated record was mentioned for the Parish of
Hamilton, South Lanarkshire in the New Statistical
Account of Scotland (1845) with one “shot at
Chatelherault in the autumn of 1831” when the species
had “not hitherto obtained a place in the Scottish
Fauna”. Breeding was first reported in Aberdeenshire at
two sites: prior to 1840 at Abergeldie and at Ballogie in
1867 (MacGillivray, 1840, 1855; Gray, 1871; Sim,1903).
20th and 21st centuries
The rare summer visitor and occasional breeding status

in Scotland continued during the 20th century until the
1970s when systematic monitoring revealed that nesting
occurred in the country every year, although withvarying and usually small numbers (Harvey, 2005;
Forrester et al., 2007). This trend follows observations
elsewhere in the UK where originally it was a rare
breeder only in southern England, but becoming morewidespread in England and Wales since the 1990s(Roberts et al., 1999; Batten, 2001; Roberts & Lewis,
2003; Brown & Grice, 2005; Clements, 2005; Appleby,2012).
In northern Scotland, a population was found in one
area and studied from 1973 to 1986, peaking at 13
occupied sites, with a further seven occupied sites in asecond area (Harvey, 2005). Nesting also occurred nearInverness in 1976 and Moray and Nairn in 1977. By theearly 1990s the total Scottish population wasapproximately 22 pairs, this including 15 pairs innorthern Scotland with nesting in Ross and Cromarty,
Inverness, Badenoch and Strathspey, and Moray andNairn. In 1992, five successful nests were locatedfurther south and east. At this time nesting at two new
locations further south in Perth and Kinross and in
Dumfries and Galloway was confirmed. Later in the
1990s, the number of breeding pairs detected innorthern Scotland dropped to two or three. In 2000, a
UK-wide survey indicated 14 pairs in Scotland, withfour confirmed as breeding (Ogilvie, 2003). By 2004
there were up to 15 occupied sites in northern Scotland
supporting 15-20 pairs. By extrapolation, the total
Scottish population was estimated to be about 50 pairs
in the early 21st century (Forrester et al., 2007).
In central Scotland the honey-buzzard was first recordedin the early 19th century and only occasionally reported
through the first half of the 20th century (Shaw et al.,2017). It was not until the late 1980s and early 1990s
that it was appreciated that nesting occurred annually,
with one or two pairs present. Subsequently, more
directed surveying identified one population of up to
five territories in east central Scotland with associatednon-breeding birds, together constituting up to 16 adults
and sub-adults which, in 2016, produced up to sevenyoung (Shaw et al., 2017). Continued monitoring of thispopulation during 2017 revealed an increase to nineterritories holding a minimum of 30 birds including up
to 18 breeders, at least five non-breeders and seven oreight juveniles (McInerny et al., 2018; McInerny &Shaw, 2018). A second population in west central
Scotland was identified during 2017, containing two or
three territories and up to nine birds, including up to six
breeders, two non-breeders and one juvenile (McInerny
et al., 2018). Surveying elsewhere in central Scotland
revealed the presence of up to five isolated territories inpotential breeding habitat with nine different birds.
Thus, during 2017, central Scotland contained up to 49
honey-buzzards and 17 territories, including up to 24
breeders, seven non-breeders, nine non-assigned birds
and eight or nine juveniles.
CURRENT STATUS IN SCOTLAND
Distribution in Scotland
In the early 21st century the honey-buzzard has afragmented and localised distribution in Scotland.
Although breeding pairs are restricted to the mainland,
they are present across the country in north, central andsouthern regions. Typically pairs hold territories inisolation. But in two areas of central Scotland
populations have formed, with in one area nineterritories and the other two or three territories.
The locations of breeding sites in this paper are
deliberately kept confidential to protect the birds fromhuman disturbance and persecution. It is important toemphasise that the honey-buzzard is a Schedule 1

species, meaning that observations should not cause any
disturbance and that without an appropriate licenceissued by Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH, 2018) nests
should not be searched for. The authors of this paper
obtained a Schedule 1 licence to complete some of theirsurvey work, the results of which are summarised here.
The breeding season
As a summer breeding visitor, honey-buzzards arepresent in Scotland from mid-May until mid-September.
During this time birds display, establish territories, makenests, lay eggs and raise young. Non-breeders are alsopresent which associate with breeding pairs andpopulations. A graphical representation of the numbersof honey-buzzards (males, females and juveniles) seenin two areas of central Scotland through the 2017
breeding season is shown in Fig. 1.
Arrival times
Honey-buzzards arrive in Scotland during the second
half of May (Fig. 1), although earlier arrivals have beenrecorded. For example, in central Scotland during 2016,
singles were seen at one site on 11th and 14th May, andtwo were observed elsewhere on 14th May (Shaw et al.,2017). Typically, males arrive first and establish
territories with females following one to two weeks
later.

Fig. 1. Numbers of honey-buzzards (Pernis apivorus) in central Scotland during 2017. Up to 40 individuals in two populations wereidentified by plumage differences. The data show “day counts” (the cumulative daily counts of individual birds for each ten-day period
from late May to early September), showing males, females, unsexed birds and juveniles separately, along with the wing-clappingdisplays of both males and females (from: McInerny & Shaw, 2018).

Display and territories
On first arrival males display, establish territory, pair up,
and nest usually close to the previous year's nest.
Honey-buzzards have an unusual and characteristic
visual aerial display to establish and advertise territories(Roberts & Law, 2014; Harwood & Richman, 2016).
Birds actively fly and soar above territorial areas, butduring display they perform a wing-clapping butterflylike flight where the wings are temporarily raised above
the body, almost touching, during which the wings
quiver (Fig. 2). This movement lasts just two to threeseconds before the wings are lowered and the bird flaps
again to maintain flight. Such wing-clapping is often
repeated, sometimes with over 100 consecutive
displays. Both males and females can display,occasionally in response to each other, either low overwoods or high in the sky. The wing-clapping can be
performed at an extremely high altitude, with birds
moving in and out of clouds.

display over territories in which they intend to nest in
following years, with this often eliciting display fromother non-breeding and breeding birds (McInerny,2014).
Where populations of honey-buzzards form in optimum
habitat, nests can be 2-3 km apart with overlap ofterritories (Voskamp, 2000; Hardey et al., 2013;
Gamauf et al., 2013; Shaw et al., 2017; McInerny et al.,2018). This is unlike other woodland raptor species,
such as northern goshawks (Accipiter gentilis), which
manage more defined non-overlapping territories,
whose perimeters they defend.
Habitat and nests
Honey-buzzards breed in a wide range of woodland
habitats throughout the UK, from ancient broadleaf
woodland, mixed broadleaf, to conifer and uplandcommercial conifer plantations (Roberts & Lewis, 2003;
Appleby, 2012; Hardey et al., 2013; Roberts & Law,
2014; Harwood & Richman, 2016).
In Scotland, birds nest in three habitat types: lowland
areas of woodland and farmland; upland commercial
conifer plantations; and areas of mixed broadleaf
woodland and coniferous forest in the uplands (Forrester
et al., 2007; SRSG, 2016). In central Scotland mosthoney-buzzards have been observed in the last habitat
type, with fewer birds found in the two other habitats(Shaw et al., 2017; McInerny et al., 2018) (Fig. 3).
Nests are constructed on the branches of tall trees(Appleby, 2012; Hardey et al., 2013; Harwood &Richman, 2016). Though nests are usually located inwoods and plantations, they have also been found insmaller copses and even isolated trees (Clements, 2005).

Fig. 2. Displaying male honey-buzzard (Pernis apivorus) incentral Scotland, August 2017. (Photo: K. Hoey)

Studies have revealed that wing-clapping is mainly for
territorial advertisement, rather than courtship between
males and females (Roberts & Law, 2014). Where birds
are at low densities with isolated territories this resultsin little display at the beginning of the season. However,where birds are present at higher densities with adjacentand overlapping territories, males (and subsequently
females) can be far more active at the start of season
after arrival in May and early June with birds displaying,sometimes repeatedly (McInerny & Shaw, 2018)(Fig. 1). Such increased display likely results from birds
responding to other birds, in the same way the singing
birds will often elicit singing from other nearby birds.
Protracted wing-clapping is more often observed later inthe season during July and August (Fig. 1). Such display
is mainly due to non-breeders (Roberts & Law, 2014;
Shaw et al., 2017; McInerny et al., 2018). Non-breeders

In northern Scotland, 66% of nests were built in mixed
broadleaf and coniferous forest (Forrester et al., 2007).
In mixed broadleaf woodland, nests were foundpredominantly in beech (Fagus sylvatica) (55%) andpedunculate oak (Quercus robur) (39%), while inconiferous plantations Douglas fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii) (75%) and Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris)(19%) were preferred.
Diet
As suggested by their name, honey-buzzards consume
social wasps and bees (Hymenoptera) as a major part oftheir diet (Trap-Lind, 1962; Cobb, 1979; Appleby, 2012;
Harwood & Richman, 2016). This includes both adults
and grubs in combs, which birds will dig out of holes in
the ground or trees. Honey-buzzards appear oblivious to
the stings of these insects, apparently obtaining
protection from their feathers (Sievwright & Higuchi,2016).

Fig. 3. Breeding habitat for honey-buzzards (Pernis apivorus) in east (A) and west (B) central Scotland. (Photos: C. McInerny)

Honey-buzzards also eat other food items when wasps
and bees are not available. Common frogs (Ranatemporaria) and frogspawn are often taken early in theseason, with reptiles such as adders (Vipera berus),slow-worms (Anguis fragilis) and common lizards(Zootoca vivipara) also consumed (McInerny, 2014;
McInerny et al., 2018). Nestling wood pigeons(Columba palumbus) and songbirds have been found innests (Forrester et al., 2007).
Egg-laying, incubation and young
The average first egg-laying date for honey-buzzards in
the UK is 2nd June (Roberts & Law, 2014). Clutches of
two or three eggs are incubated for around 32 days,
hatching in late June or early July. However,occasionally in Scotland, breeding has occurred muchlater: at a nest in northern Scotland in 1991, a clutch was
not laid until early July, four to five weeks later thanusual (Forrester et al., 2007).
Birds become very inconspicuous during the incubation
period, when pairs are especially secretive as a strategy
to protect vulnerable young on nests (Fig. 1) (Roberts& Law 2014).
In central Scotland juvenile honey-buzzards have been
observed from 20th August to 6th September (Fig. 1),
which is consistent with dates in England, where arange of 31st July to 7th September has been reported(Roberts & Law, 2014), and from early August in other
Scottish studies (Forrester et al., 2007).
Breeding success
During the period 1977-2004 breeding data werecollected in northern Scotland from 11 locations(Forrester et al., 2007). Of 45 breeding attempts, 42(93%) were successful. The 79 fledged young resulted
from seven broods with one chick, 33 broods of two,and two broods of three, giving a mean of 1.9
chicks/successful pair.

In central Scotland during 2016 seven juveniles were
produced from five pairs, suggesting a breeding successof 1.4 chicks/successful pair (Shaw et al., 2017). In
2017, eight juveniles were produced from seven pairs,suggesting a breeding success of 1.1 chicks/successful
pair (McInerny et al., 2018). Similar breeding successhas been reported elsewhere in the UK (Roberts et al.,1999).
Non-breeders
Where honey-buzzards occupy adjacent multiple
territories, non-breeding birds associate with breedingpairs. Honey-buzzards do not breed until they are two to
three years old (Roberts, 2011; Roberts & Law, 2014)
and, although birds remain on the wintering grounds inAfrica until they are two years old (Gamauf & Friedl,2011), over 50% of some breeding populations consistof non-breeders (Clements, 2005).
In central Scotland a number of non-breeders wereidentified (Shaw et al., 2017; McInerny et al., 2018).
These were more visible than breeding birds, as they
persistently flew around and between territories,
sometimes displaying for up to an hour without pause,with over a hundred consecutive wing-claps. In
comparison, breeding birds flew much less anddisplayed for a much shorter time, typically with only
15-20 wing-claps.
Interactions with other birds of prey
A number of other raptor species have been observed in
Scotland that either breed within or otherwise use areas
occupied by honey-buzzards, with some interactions
noted (Shaw et al., 2017; McInerny et al., 2018).
In central Scotland raptors regularly seen in honeybuzzard territories include golden eagle (Aquila
chrysaetos), osprey (Pandion haliaetus), red kite
(Milvus milvus), common kestrel (Falco tinnunculus),
peregrine (F. peregrinus), northern goshawk, Eurasiansparrowhawk (A. nisus) and common buzzard (Buteo

buteo). More rarely hen harrier (Circus cyaneus),
Eurasian hobby (F. subbuteo), merlin (F. columbarius)
and white-tailed eagle (Haliaeetus albicilla) have beenrecorded.
However, only four raptors have been observed tointeract with honey-buzzards: common buzzard,
northern goshawk, Eurasian hobby and osprey. The
most frequent behaviour was interactions with common
buzzards, sometimes flying together, but also with
common buzzards aggressively chasing honeybuzzards. Honey-buzzards were also seen to soar andwing-clap with common buzzards a number of times.
Northern goshawks, both juvenile males and juvenile
females, were seen to interact and harass honeybuzzards on a number of occasions. More rarely
hobbies were seen to fly with honey-buzzards. On two
occasions interactions with an osprey were observedwith birds flying together, and an osprey once harassing
a honey-buzzard to which the honey-buzzard wingclapped in response.
Departures
Honey-buzzards depart from Scotland from late August,with adults leaving before juveniles (Fig. 1). Adults
have been seen associating with juveniles, but havedeparted by the first week in September. Juveniles
remain for a week or so after the adults with the lastnoted in central Scotland on 11th September 2016.
These observations accord with studies elsewhere in the
UK: in Yorkshire birds typically remain until 11th
September, with an unusually late individual on 22nd
September (Appleby, 2012).
The migration of honey-buzzards from Scotland to their
African wintering grounds has been studied by satellitetracking, which has revealed much interesting
information (Forrester et al., 2007). An adult which left
breeding areas in Easter Ross on 5th September 2002
took a southerly route passing through England, westernFrance and eastern Spain before crossing theMediterranean, North Africa and the Sahara. It thenpassed through West Africa, finishing in coastal
woodlands of Gabon on 28th October, a migration
lasting almost two months. A tagged juvenile also
followed this route, leaving in mid-September, though
the transmitter failed in Morocco in late October.
However, two other juveniles took a more wayward
south-westerly course. One departed in late September
and spent a month in Ireland before heading out into the
Atlantic Ocean on 29th October when its radio stopped
transmitting. Another departed in mid-September, only
three weeks after fledging. It moved into the Atlantic
Ocean having left south Wales on 23rd September. This
young bird then flew non-stop for over four days andnights to travel about 5,000 km over the sea before
finally perishing at sea 300 km from Madeira.
Similar migration strategies have been mapped bysatellite-tracking of birds in continental Europe. Thesestudies have shown that adult and juvenile honeybuzzards follow different routes during autumn
migration, and that individuals change migration

strategy during their lifetime (Hake et al., 2003;
Vansteelant et al., 2017). Juveniles take longer tomigrate, having shorter flights, and showed a larger
directional scatter, with wind and geography postulated
to influence their first migration south.
Migrants
As well as being a rare breeding species, the honeybuzzard is also a rare passage migrant, with birds fromthe Continent seen in Scotland on passage between theirwintering and summering areas. Migrants are usuallyobserved along the east coast and in Shetland and
Orkney, both in spring and autumn. Honey-buzzards
appear to cross water more readily than other raptor
species (Agostini et al., 2015, 2016).
Larger numbers have been seen occasionally whenmeteorological conditions on the Continent havedisplaced migrating birds across the North Sea. For
example in 2000 there was an exceptional autumn
influx, with an estimated 1,879 in eastern and southern
England between 20th September and 1st October(Fraser & Rogers, 2002; Brown & Grice, 2005). In thesame period a smaller passage occurred in Scotland
including 26 recorded between Shetland and theBorders, with birds west to Dumfries and Galloway.
Wintering areas
Honey-buzzards migrate to West Africa south of the
Sahara where they spend the winter in rainforest habitat(del Hoyo et al., 1994; Ferguson-Lees & Christie, 2001).
Satellite-tracking has revealed that adults migrate
directly to wintering sites where they remain within
restricted territories (Strandberg et al., 2012).
Conversely, immatures perform extensive movements
within the tropics travelling large distances between
wintering sites.
Immatures remain in wintering areas until they are twoyears old (Gamauf & Friedl, 2011), and migrate north tobreed when they are three years or older (Roberts, 2011;
Roberts & Law, 2014).
Scottish population numbers and trends
The numbers of honey-buzzards in Scotland appear to
be increasing, although trends may be obscured as,
being very secretive, the species is likely to be underrecorded. Furthermore, the numbers detected are also
influenced by observer effort, which has fluctuated over
the years.
In central Scotland the most recent population estimate
for 2017 suggested up to 49 birds and 17 territories,
including up to 24 breeders, seven non-breeders, nine
non-assigned birds and eight or nine juveniles(McInerny et al., 2018). These numbers are an increase
from 2016 when 23 birds were recorded, including 16
breeders and non-breeders and seven juveniles (Shaw etal., 2017). In years previous to 2016 even fewer weredetected, despite similar observer effort, so it is possiblethat numbers are increasing, at least in central Scotland.

Such changes may reflect similar increases in breeding
numbers and expansion of ranges both in England(Appleby, 2012; Harwood & Richman, 2016) and Wales(Roberts et al., 1999). However, on the near Continent
in north-west Europe populations have been
experiencing declines (Bijlsma et al., 2012). Theseobservations suggest that the recent increases in
Scotland are more likely to be due to birds colonisingfrom the expanding UK populations, rather than from
Europe.
Honey-buzzards also breed in other regions of northernand southern Scotland, with these likely to contain afurther 10-20 pairs. Thus the total Scottish population in2017 may be in the range of 30-50 pairs, similar to thatsuggested for the early 21st century when the national
population was estimated to be 50 pairs (Forrester et al.,2007).
FUTURE PROSPECTS
The recent apparent increase in the central Scotland
populations is encouraging for the species’ prospects in
Scotland. We plan to continue surveying the two
populations to see if this trend continues, but also to
discover more about these fascinating raptors. Future
research will involve locating nests and monitoringproductivity. We also wish to survey other potentiallysuitable habitat in central Scotland as it possible that thehoney-buzzard is present elsewhere but undetected due
to its rarity, and secretive and elusive nature.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
We thank Kris Gibb, Rick Goater, Keith Hoey, Bruce
Kerr, Ali Little, Kenny Little, John Nadin and numerous
other co-workers who have collaborated with us to study
honey-buzzards in central Scotland. We thank Keith
Hoey for permission to use the photograph shown in
Fig. 2. To support the fieldwork CJMcI received a travel
grant from the Glasgow Natural History Society,
Professor Blodwen Lloyd Binns Bequest; and KDS
received a travel grant from the Scottish Ornithologists’Club. We thank an anonymous reviewer for
improvements to the text.
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