163

Satoumi Ecosystems and a New Commons:
Ecological and Institutional Linkages between Human and Nature
Tomoya AKIMICHI
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RIHN),
Motoyama 457-4, Kamigamo, Kita-Ku, Kyoto, 603-8047 Japane-mail: akimichi@chikyu.ac.jp

Abstract“Satoumi” is defined simply as a seascape with “high productivity and biodiversity in the coastal sea areawith human interaction” (Yanagi, 2006). Unlike the satoyama, in which human interaction with nature can berecognized as a visible landscape, the satoumi seems to be an invisible seascape and uncertain without close
observation. To demonstrate the concept and practices prevailing in the satoumi more concretely, ecologicaland institutional effectiveness is examined in small-scale fisheries in western Japan. The focus is access rights
in historical continuation between pre-modern and modern periods leading to contemporary fisheries jurisdictions. Stationary fisheries such as bamboo weir, tidal stone weir, and set net fisheries found in Okinawa andthe Seto Inland Sea are chosen to demonstrate biologically and institutionally positive effects on the satoumi.
In stationary fisheries, conservation and productivity are generally positively realized through communal
efforts to maintain the installations. Yet, in individualistic set net fisheries, efforts to conserve marine resources should be more elaborately promoted to avoid over-fishing. In debates on conservation of MPAs(marine protected areas), governance to mitigate serious contradiction among stakeholders is a primary concern. Yet, as it is often hard to reach a final decision in launching MPAs, a new concept of the commons ishighly recommended to provide an effective framework for conserving biodiversity as well as promoting
marine production.
Key words: commons, conservation, governance, MPAs, stationary fisheries

1. Linkage between Forest and Sea
It is important to consider ecological relationships
linking forests with seas via rivers. A key to understanding these relationships within the ecosystem is bona fidewater that links them together as the medium carrying
nutrients, including nitrogen, phosphorus and dissolved
iron. Plant and animal litter is also transported via watermass. The level of nutrients in any river system isaffected by natural factors such as catchment geology,
precipitation and vegetation. Furthermore, it is influenced by such anthropogenic factors as land use, agriculture, livestock breeding, industrial disposal andsewage, inter alia in urban areas. In this regard, estuaries
and river mouths which are the terminal of rivers, areinfluenced by the over-all level of nutrients.
During the past decade, studies on management andproduction of coastal natural resources have focused on
nutrient transport and material cycles from terrestrial
ecosystems. For instance, it has been demonstrated that
dissolved iron plays a significant role in the primary
production of marine ecosystems, from a comprehensive
study on the Amur River and Sea of Okhotsk (Shiraiwa,
Global Environmental Research
16/2012: 163-172
printed in Japan2011). Shiraiwa concluded that the catchment of theAmur River provided “a huge fish-breeding forest.”
Yamashita (2007) and Tanaka (2008) claim the need for asynthetic study to link forest, river and sea. One NPO
group also demonstrated efficient measures for the management of forests, rivers and seas as inseparable unities,
from thirteen case studies in Japan (Committee of
Citizen’s Group for Promoting Nature Revival, 2005).
These academic approaches were initially stimulated by
an extensive campaign of tree planting of broadleaf
species, inter alia, that was promoted by Hatakeyama(2006), who was engaged in coastal oyster mariculture in
the Tohoku region of northern Japan.
Links between terrestrial and marine ecosystems are
not always seen via river systems. Groundwater fromforests often spurts from coastal sea beds, providing
sufficient nutrients for the growth of algae, seaweeds andmollusca such as iwagaki (rock-oyster, Crassostrea
nippona), kaki (oyster, Crassostrea gigas) and hotategai(scallops, Mizuhopecten yessoensis). Coastal areas withgroundwater spurts are known to provide good harvests
of seaweeds and mollusca. Taniguchi demonstrated that
an abundance of rock-oysters was found even where©2012 AIRIES164

T. AKIMICHI

rivers were absent on the land side in Yuza town,
Yamagata Prefecture (Taniguchi, 2010). This suggests
nutrients from forests are directly transported via
groundwater.

2. The Satoumi and Sea Tenure in the
Pre-Modern and Early Modern Periods
Yanagi (2006) defines “satoumi” as an area where
there is found “high productivity and biodiversity in the
coastal sea with human interaction.” Unlike the satoyama
where impacts of anthropogenic alteration upon terrestrial environments are clearly visible in the landscape, thesatoumi gives us only a vague impression regarding how
the satoumi seascape crystallizes the practical functionsof provisioning services (productivity) and supportand maintenance services (biodiversity). Although thesatoumi has no explicit connotation in terms of biodiversity and resource management schemes, human culturaland institutional transactions may clarify the content of
the satoumi. The land-based modernization process during the World War II period that occurred in the coastal
environment was serious in bringing about a decrease inresource production and a loss of biodiversity; therefore,
it is prerequisite for us to assess the past conditions of
the satoumi in Japan during the pre-modern and earlymodern periods before modernization altered the coastal
environment.
From this viewpoint, I will first examine the satoumi
during the Meiji period of the early 20th century, using
historical documents on Exclusive Fisheries Rights
claimed by local fisheries sectors.
2.1 Background of the Meiji Registration Forms
During the pre-modern Tokugawa feudal period,
fishermen in Japan were forced to pay taxes by providing
marine products to the fief, i.e., “Zozei” (miscellaneoustax), instead of rice, which was the standardized payment
by farmers. Subsequent to the Meiji Restoration of 1868,
the Zozei system expired in 1875. At that stage, the Meiji
government proposed a new legislative reform to tax
fishermen by subjecting them to rent for the fishinggrounds, claiming them as the property of the government. This law was called the “Sea Rental System”(Kaimen-Shakku-Sei). However, due to strong objections
to this idea, the law was rejected the following year
(1876).
Despite this, the government persisted in claimingthat the sea was the property of the nation, and that only
usufruct to the fishing grounds was transferred to thefishermen and their cooperatives. The idea was realized
as the first Meiji Fisheries Law in 1901, which wasrevised in 1910. It is important to note that in the Meiji
Fisheries Law, the former customary rules and practices
were highly acknowledged (Ninohei, 1981). In otherwords, pre-modern customary practices were then followed even after the Meiji period up until the present
time. In this sense, ‘conservationism,’ rather than ‘revisionism,’ was the major trend in the modern history offisheries law in Japan (Akimichi & Ruddle, 1984).
Under the Meiji Fisheries Law, the registration of
Exclusive Fisheries Rights and attached maps of thefishing grounds were formally acknowledged, with a set
retained by individual Fisheries Cooperative Association(FCA). The process of registration commenced in early
1910 and has continued since then. As will be shown
later, the content of the registrations well reflects thestatus of fisheries in ecological and technological terms
during the early modern period, and thus it provides
useful information in considering the concept andimplementation of satoumi management.
2.2 Image of the Satoumi during the Meiji Period
According to my study of registration documents
nationwide, the number of entries totaled 5,489, and each
set of entry documents included the following information: registration number (e.g., No.32), date ofregistration (e.g., December 10th, 1909), kind of fishery(e.g., coastal gill netting, harvest of abalone, top shell,
hard-shelled mussel, wakame seaweed, tengusa seaweed(agar-agar), nori seaweed, ogonori seaweed, umi-somen
seaweed), kind of target species, and fishing season(Fig.1).
As for the fishing season, coastal gill netting andharvests of sea urchins and mollusca are year-round
while the seaweed harvests are seasonal: wakame(February 1 to July 31), tengusa (March 1 to August 31),
nori (November 1 to March 31), ogonori (Mar. 1 to July31) and umi-somen (May 1 to June 30), depending on thespecies’ growth.

Fig. 1 Registration document of the Meiji Exclusive Fishing
Rights Fisheries.

Satoumi Ecosystems and a New Commons

The number of entries varies conspicuously by
prefecture (the administrative unit, of which Japan has
47). Amongst all, Nagasaki Prefecture had the most (434)in number, followed by Ehime (408), Mie (272), Niigata(240), Yamaguchi (229) and Shimane (210) Prefectures(Fig. 2). It should be noted that in these prefectures,
similar kinds of fisheries were not always registered, butdiffered according to local conditions. Also, a marked
difference in terms of fishery type by prefecture suggests
local fisheries to have been more developed in westernJapan during the early modern period.
The number of fishery types registered in each FCA
varies extensively (Fig. 3). From 390 random samples
investigated, it is apparent that FCAs claiming less than
five entries are most dominant, and that the number of
FCAs decreases as the number of fishery types increases.
FCAs that claimed more than ten types of fisheries
account for about 38%. Nevertheless, it must be notedthat FCAs claiming more than 25 kinds of fisheries
account for about 10% of the total. In other words, thenumber of fishery types reflects differentiation and/or
specialization in fishing techniques employed and target
Nos . of License

Prefecture

Fig. 2 Number of entry in fishery type in respective Fisheries
Cooperative Association.

Nos. of Entry

N= 390Nos. of Fishery

Fig. 3 A map showing the Exclusive Fishing Rights Fisheries
Fishing Ground. It shows the case of Shikatayama,
Mokurou Village, Suzu county, Ishikawa Prefecture.

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species associated.
Unlike net fishing and line fishing that can catch defacto various kinds of fish, registration for seaweeds andbenthic animals are done for specific target species. As
there are less than thirty kinds of benthos species
harvested as a whole, Fig. 3 implies that many FCAs
claim fisheries for benthos inter alia among their specified fishing practices.
Note that among seaweed harvests, except for the
economically important konbu (kelp, Laminaria spp.),
tengusa (agar-agar, Gelidiaceae spp.) and wakame(Undaria sp.), a fertilizer fishery is registered in which
the target seaweed species are unspecified. This suggeststhat some unidentified kinds of seaweeds, perhaps thoseof Sarggasum spp. were used widely as an importantsource of fertilizer on agricultural fields until the postwar
period when seaweeds were replaced by chemicals. By
the early modern period, the satoumi delivered provisioning services to agriculture by which the satoumi andsatoyama had close interconnections in terms of material
cycles. It is also apparent that widely distributed seagrass beds or moba along Japan’s coasts enabled asufficient harvest of seaweeds.
In addition to seaweeds, other unique fisheries
existed: dugong and sea turtle hunting were conducted,
particularly in southwestern Japan. Yet, dugong and turtle hunting are nowadays legally prohibited due to loss ofhabitat, environmental deterioration and over-huntingthat have resulted in a serious threat to their populations.
Sea worm or nereid collecting was common on the tidal
flats of the Seto Inland Sea and elsewhere in providing
bait for line fishing. Extensive use of sea worms implies
that tidal flats existed extensively along coastal areas,
especially in western Japan. Hence, data on fisheries
during the Meiji period suggest that more diverse kindsof small-scale fishing practices were prevalent than today,
in line with marine biodiversity. The extensive distribution of tidal flats and sea-grass beds contributed largely
both provisioning and supporting services in coastal
ecosystems. The loss of sea-grass beds and tidal flats that
subsequently occurred due to land reclamation, sewage
contamination and environmental pollution during thepost-war period (Akimichi, 2004) meant the death of thesatoumi.
A map that was attached with the Meiji registration
documents shows the enclosed areas of the Exclusive
Fisheries Fishing Grounds claimed by each FCA (Fig.4).
The map indicates that the exclusive fishing area wasdetermined based on definite geographical and administrative demarcation. Distances of seaward extension fromthe coastline at the lowest tide were not determined uniformly nationwide, but differed according to the respective FCA’s local conditions, although the distances weregenerally between one and three kilometers.
In the case of isolated islands where only one FCA
claimed the sea territory, the distance was longer thanthose of FCAs on mainland Japan. In Okinawa Prefecture,
there are many isolated islands, as shown in the following
examples. In the case of Yonaguni Island, the distance is

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T. AKIMICHI

9.09 km from the coastline, and the sea territory claimedby the Yonaguni FCA was demarked by an imaginary
contour line 9.09 km from the coast and included the sea
area within (Fig.5).
The distance varies by island: Iheya and Izena Islands(3.7km), Tarama Island (1.8 km), Minna Island (2.5 km),
Aguni Island (1.8 km), Tonaki Island (2.3 km) andKudaka Island (0.9 km) (Akimichi & Ruddle, 1984). It is
likely that the seaward extension differed according toeach FCA’s geographical and ecological factors, ranging
ten times longer between Yonaguni Island and Kudaka
Island, for instance.
On the other hand, the bilateral boundaries of each
FCA’s exclusive fishing grounds were decided a priori inaccordance with administrative borders. It is reasonable
to postulate that administrative demarcation coincidedwith fisheries territory to avoid boundary disputes
between neighboring communities. This FCA sea territory model dates back to legislation in the pre-modern
period, when the central government decided in 1737 thateach iso (coastal area) belonged to the fishing community
defined by the neighboring communities while each oki(off-shore area) was iriai (commons). The legislation ofthis period reflects frequent occurrences of boundary
disputes (Akimichi, 1995).
Each FCA had the hegemony to control the access tomarine resources, particularly of benthos, in terms offishing season, fishing area, gear restriction, size limits
and quotas. Consensus was sought through formal andinformal meetings when any problems or disagreements
among FCA members emerged. Sometimes, decisionmaking was expanded to the prefectural level, at whichstakeholders from far more diverse fields attended themeetings. Unlike benthos harvests that could often be
managed at the local FCA level, serious disputes often
arose over entry rights or allocation of resources
for migratory fish across prefectures (Kaneda, 1979).
Although these issues were generally beyond the satoumi
framework, we must consider more empirical cases tounderstand satoumi conservation issues with reference tofish ecology and communality in fisheries.

3. Stationary Fisheries and the Satoumi
Human intervention in the marine environment poses
the initial questions relevant to the concept and guidelines of the satoumi. As shown in the first section, whatkinds of anthropogenic impacts upon coastal environment and how they are made should be clarified. In thisregard, I will examine below cases associated withbiodiversity and marine productivity, using the stationary
fisheries of tidal stone weirs, bamboo weirs, andsmall-scale set net fisheries as examples.

縮尺 1:50,000

Fig. 4 Distribution of Number of Entry for the Exclusive Fisheries
Rights by Prefecture. The figure indicates that Niigata
Prefecture includes 240 entries.

Exclusive Waters of
YonaguniIslandYonaguni Island

500 ken (9.09 km)
Fig. 5 Schematic Representation of the Exclusive Fisheries Rights
in the Island. It shows a case, based on Yonaguni Island.

3.1 Tidal Stone Weirs (TSW) in the Yaeyama Islands
A tidal stone weir (TSW) is an installation constructedby piling up rocks and stones in a U-shaped or semicircular pattern in shallow waters (Kishaba, 1977).
Sometimes, it is rectangular in shape (Fig. 6).
The TSW takes advantage of tidal fluctuations to trap
fish that fail to retreat to deeper water beyond the wall of
the TSW and are then harvested by hand, scoop net or
spear. TSW fisheries seem to have a long tradition, datingback to olden times (Nishimura, 1975, 1987). Tidal stone
weir fishing is widely distributed not only in southern
Japan but also Korea, Taiwan, Southeast Asia, Oceania
and even Europe (Tawa, 2002, 2008). TSW constitutes a
non-destructive and sustainable fishing practice, as the
structure is made only of natural rocks, and aims at fishthat fail to escape. However, TSW installations arevulnerable to strong wave actions and incessant repair
work on the wall is necessary. Also, construction of a
TSW requires communal labor, particularly when it islarge in size.
TSW is generally termed ishihimi (lit., stone + dry up+ to see) or uogaki (lit., fish wall). In the Yaeyama
Islands of Okinawa, there are different terms for TSW
locally, island by island: nagaki, kakii (Ishigaki andKuroshima Is.), ingaki, uogaki, kashi (Taketomi Is.),kashii (Iriomote Is.), hashii (Aragusuku Is.), kumi
(Yonagumi Is.) or kachii (Shiraho on Ishigaki).

Satoumi Ecosystems and a New CommonsFig. 6 Tidal stone weir in Komi, Iriomote Island, Yaeyama.
Upper during the ebbing tide, lower during the retreating tide.

Evidently, TSWs have played an important role inproviding fish and other marine animal resources fordaily food, i.e., provisioning services. Also, it is known
that the first harvest of the year used to be offered to thesacred shrine (utaki or ugan) within the community. The
fish was then buried in the ground and community
members prayed for a good catch that year.
During feudal times (between 1602 and 1848),
dugongs (Dugong dugon) were captured in a particular
TSW at Kohama Island. As dugong meat was animportant item for tributes to the king of the Ryukyu
Kingdom and the local government head, exclusive use
rights of particular TSWs were given to certain kingroups. It is evident that dugong harvested from TSWs
played economic, social and ritual functions as various
ecosystem services.
In terms of biodiversity, it has been demonstrated that
TSWs provide artificial habitats for not only mollusca
and crustaceans, but also small fish and fingerlings, thus
contributing to the enhancement of potential species
abundance. Indeed, after construction of a kachii at
Shiraho, counts of both mollusca and fish increased in the
successive five years (WWFJ, 2009).
In the Yaeyama Islands, TSWs were widely constructed using coral rocks within fringing reefs since

167

olden times. TSWs are, indeed, reported from several
villages on Ishigaki Island (History of Ishigaki City
Editorial Committee, 1994; History of Kabira Village
Editorial Committee, 1976; History of Shiraho Village
Editorial Committee, 2009; History of Ohama Village
Editorial Committee, 2001; History of Ishigaki City
Editorial Office, 1999), Kohama Island (Yano, 2008) and
Iriomote Island (Akimichi, 2011). However, most ofthem were abandoned several decades ago. According to
my survey, the last TSW located in the Komi village areaon the western coast of Iriomote Island was used until
2007. The reason for its abandonment was the death ofthe owner, with no successor to care for the TSW.
Similarly, at Kohama Island, there used to be
twenty-seven TSWs. According to an investigation conducted in 1972, six TSWs were in use, twelve wereabandoned but piles of stone still existed, and the othernine TSWs were known only from past memory (Yanoet al., 2002). In other cases, the reasons for the abandonment of TSWs include one or more of the following: (1)decline of catch due to fishermen from Itoman expanding
activities in many parts of the Yaeyama coastal waters(Akimichi & Ruddle, 1984), (2) migration of village
people to urban cities, (3) over-fishing, (4) changes infishing techniques from traditional to modern ones,
including development of fine-meshed nets, and (5)decline of communal labor practices for repairing TSW
walls. Overall, given the regular use of TSWs as animportant factor in the persistence of the satoumi, external impacts and modernization have led to the decline offish yields in TSWs.
Despite the declining trend of TSWs in Yaeyama
during the past few decades, the Shiraho community,
located along the east coast of Ishigaki Island recently
launched a program to reconstruct TSWs within thecommunity’s fringing reefs in 2006 with the advise of
local resident WWFJ members (Kamimura, 2007). In
Shiraho, there used to exist sixteen sets of TSWs, covering a total area of approximately 3,300 m². Each TSW
was owned by either families belonging to the same
kinship group or the community as a whole.
3.2 Bamboo weir fishery at the Nakatsu tidal flat
Bamboo weir fisheries are similar to tidal stone weirs.
A bamboo weir is constructed so as to make ‘V’ shape, inthe central part of which a bag net is set to collect fish. In
retreating tidal movements, the bamboo fence drives fish
towards the bag net. The technique is quite similar to thatof the stone weir, but it can harvest fish more effectively
than a stone weir as the bag net is the only check point
when landing the catch.
In Japan, bamboo weirs used to be constructed in tidal
flats in western Japan as well as the Seto Inland Sea,
where tidal fluctuation is large. The Suoh Sea and Ariake
Bay in Kyushu are major fishing areas still using thetechnique. Formerly, before land reclamation resulted indevelopment of Kojima Bay in Okayama Prefecture andthe Seto Inland Sea, similar kashiki-ami fisheries wereconducted there too (Yuasa, 1969).

168

T. AKIMICHIIn the coastal zone of Nakatsu city in Oita Prefecture,
which is located westerly, at the border with Fukuoka
Prefecture, an extensive tidal flat is well conserved. The
Nakatsu tidal flat stretches for about 10 km along theshore and extends 3 km offshore, with a total area of
about 1347 ha. Despite the decline and disappearance oftidal flats typically observed during the post-war period,
the Nakatsu tidal flat fortunately has survived. As the
Nakatsu tidal flat extends beyond the prefectural boundary area where the Yamakuni river flows between the two
prefectures. For the management of the river system toavoid flooding and increased sedimentation, it would
have been difficult to develop the coastal land throughreclamation and alteration.
Tidal flat zones are known to provide various kinds of
ecosystem services such as nutrient dispersal, material
cycling, waste decomposition, primary production andpurification of water. At the Nakatsu tidal flat, various
kinds of biological species are recorded, amounting to atleast 655 species in thirteen phyla. It should be noted that229 of the total 655 species have been identified as
extinct at other tidal flat environments in Japan, the data
being assessed with special references to lists in the Red
Data Books of the Ministry of the Environment, Fisheries
Agency and IUCN. Fauna included in these lists contain,inter alia, rare species of mollusca, crustaceans and goby
fishes.
Tidal flats are also known as bird sanctuaries where
migratory birds visit seasonally for wintering and feeding.
Indeed, various kinds of migratory birds have been
observed at the Nakatsu tidal flat, some of which arereported as threatened or endangered.
Despite the ecological benefits, on the other hand,tidal flats appear to give the least benefits to coastal
fisheries. However, bamboo weirs used to be operated,making wise use of tidal fluctuation. Small-scale set nets
using bamboo weirs at Nakatsu are locally termedsasahibi, which literally means “bamboo + dry up + tosee.” Until the mid 1960s, sasahibi fishery was a common practice at the Nakatsu tidal flat. According to a map
showing the location of sasahibi installations in the
1960s, there were at least fourteen sasahibi and two setsof tidal stone weirs where the sea bottom was harder thanin areas where the sasahibi were installed.
Since mariculture business has been recognized as
more profitable, coastal waters have come to be claimed
as demarcated fisheries for nori seaweed (Porphyra spp.)
and mollusca, including the common orient clam(hamaguri: Meretrix lusora) and Japanese littleneck(asari: Ruditapes philippinarum). Due to economicchanges in the fisheries sector, fishing grounds forsasahibi fisheries have been replaced by fisheries formariculture. In other words, due to the expansion ofseaweed and mussel culture fisheries, the territory ofsasahibi fisheries has been largely reduced. Despite thefisheries’ transformation in the tidal flat environment,
another problem has emerged, that is a sharp decline inmollusca production by both mariculture and natural
harvesting since around 1986 (Fig. 7).

At the same time, increased garbage along the coast of
Nakatsu has come to be quite often reported. Furthermore,
it has been a serious issue for seaweed mariculture
fishermen, coping with the incessant fluctuation ofseaweed production. As nori seaweed (Porphyra spp.) isvulnerable to environmental conditions such as watertemperature, rainfall, salinity and so on, and also as theunit price of nori per sheet fluctuates between 1 and 20
Japanese yen, nori is often called “bakuchi-gusa” whichmeans weed for gambling. If the unit price is 15 yen,
there is almost no profit for the fishermen. On one suchoccasion, an NPO group “Mizube de Asobu Kai” (Enjoy
Playing at the Seaside) supported nori fishermen
financially by purchasing nori products at a price of 18
yen per unit, thus contributing an extra three yen for thefishermen. Also, this NPO group has tried to supply local
seafood for lunch menus at primary schools, thus linking
the fisheries industry with the education sector.
Under these changing conditions, a project to recreatesasahibi installations has been launched. This was
initially planned in 2008 as one of the projects of theFisheries Agency of the Japanese Government topromote coastal fisheries production while benefiting
biodiversity. The Nakatsu tidal flat was selected as one offive sites for creating a new satoumi. In 2008, twentyseven sites in sixteen prefectures were selected fordemonstration projects for conservation of tidal flats,sea-grass beds and coral reefs (Fisheries Agency, 2009).
In constructing one sasahibi installation, about
12,000 stalks of bamboo (Phyllostachys bambusoides)that grew in the forest area of the Yamakuni River
watershed were prepared.
Since the completion of the sasahibi, cooperative
fishing has been conducted not only by Nakatsu FCA
members, but also primary school children and theirparents. Sasahibi harvests served for identification andnature education, and were then consumed at the beach.
Students came from not only nearby Nakatsu City area
but also distant cities and towns in Kyushu.
Mizube de Asobu Kai also organized extensive environmental activities such as beach cleaning, small
octopus pot making and experimental use in fishing,consumption of local fish, etc.
Overall, the new trial sasahibi project has brought
Harvest
X10³ ton

1980

1985

1990

1995

2000

2005

2010

Fig. 7 Annual change in the production of Asari.

Satoumi Ecosystems and a New Commons

about positive effects on the ecosystem and local fish
production. The ecosystem services it supports include
the following: (1) the sasahibi fishery provides richcoastal resources as provisioning services, (2) it provides
nursery beds for fish and habitats for mollusca assupporting services, (3) it prevents predation on mollusca
by voracious stingrays (Aetobatus flagellu) as a regulating service, and (4) it gives good opportunities forenvironmental education, bird watching, participatory
education and eco-tourism as cultural services.
In addition to the above-mentioned effects, the following ecological and social benefits are obtained: (5)local empowerment through cooperative works among
fishermen of the Nakatsu FCA with governmental bodies,including national (Ministry of Land and Transportation),
prefectural (Oita Prefecture) and local (Nakatsu City);
women’s clubs, and private sector organizations, via
Mizube de Asobu Kai; and finally, (6) a wise utilization offorest products, with use of bamboo for sasahibi fromabandoned forest areas creating a link between thesatoumi and satoyama.
3.3 Masu-Ami Fishery in Yaeyama
In the Yaeyama Islands, a small-scale set net fishery is
conducted in shallow waters. It is locally called masuami, and the net itself is pentagonal-shaped with threebag nets. A fence net is set in front of the entrance to themasu-ami (Fig. 8).
The masu-ami fishery is licensed by the governor, andconducted year-round except during the typhoon season
and for the repair or cleaning of the bag nets. Unlike alarge-scale set net fishery, the location of this small-scale
set net operation is not fixed. Yet, once a certain location
is occupied by any masu-ami fisherman, the spot is defacto occupied by the person in charge for as long as thefishing season continues. At present, nine groups engage
in masu-ami fishery.
The major catches are reef fish, squid and cuttlefish.

169

Set net fishing is generally said to be sustainable in termsof catch composition and with regard to the cost andmaintenance of the fishing installation. This is because
small fish tend to escape through large mesh-sized nets,
and the net can be set throughout the year.
However, it may not be sustainable if fishermen discard fish at sea which are too small to sell.
In solving this problem, one masu-ami fisherman in
Ishigaki Island, has invented a new strategy for a sustainable fishery.
The process is simple, consisting of alternative
strategies: (1) economically important fish, if under-sized,
are released back to the sea on the spot, (2) aquarium fish
as well as salable-sized fish are sold to the fish market
and aquarium shops, after being temporarily stored intanks on a fishing boat. As shown above, even in theindividual-oriented set net fishery, an elaborated strategy
of sorting fish may enhance the effect of biodiversity andmarine production in the long run, although it requires
twice as much time, according to an interviewed fisherman.
Together with tidal stone weirs (ishihimi), bamboo
weirs (sasahibi), the masu-ami fishery meets the concept
and guidelines of the satoumi. In terms of biodiversity,these stationary fishery installations have the potential tocreate habitats for fish and benthic animals. It is apparent
that stationary installations are selective as some fish
move to deep waters or escape beyond the obstacles andwalls, i.e., rocks, bamboo fences, and nets. In themasu-ami fishery, sorting of fish would be an effective
procedure in ecological and economic terms.
Another issue we should discuss is access rights tostationary fishing installations. As bamboo weirs andtidal stone weirs are usually constructed by collaborative
efforts. Access rights and usufruct to stationary fishinginstallations are therefore shared appropriately among
stakeholders.

4. Consensus Making in Conservation

Fig. 8 Plan of Masu-ami.

For the goal of implementing a sustainable satoumi,
conservation is a key issue. This section examines how
consensus making is realized for conservation measures,using examples of fishing bans in small-scale fisheries.
The first example is closing of fishing grounds during
the spawning season of coral reef fish in the Yaeyama
Islands. In Yaeyama, the idea for a fisheries ban during
the spawning aggregations of emperor fish (Lethrinusspp.) and grouper fish (Epinephelinae) has emerged, as
these kinds of fish drastically decreased in the late 1990s.
Then, the Okinawa Prefectural Government proposed theclosing of several spawning sites in Yaeyama in order toavoid resource depletion. A moratorium seemed the best
strategy, but the idea was rejected by many members of
the Yaeyama FCA as they depended largely on these fish
species for their livelihood. Therefore, the focus of the
discussion turned to the duration and locations ofspawning sites to be closed.
Spawning aggregation sites, located in reef channels

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T. AKIMICHI

30-40 m deep between Sekisei Lagoon and the deep seas,
are well recognized by experienced fishermen. The
phenomenon of spawning aggregations of some coral
reef fish is also well-known in the Indo-Pacific area
(Sadvoy & Colin, 2012; Sadvoy et al., 2008; Domeier &Colin 1997). To decide on practical locations and durations for closing, the stakeholders, including fishermenaffiliated with the Yaeyama FCA, government officials,
Ishigaki city officials and marine biologists attended themeetings. It is noteworthy that the fishermen were engaging in a variety of fisheries, i.e., fish drives, gill netting,long-line, trapping and scuba diving to pursue aggregating fish. Owners of recreational tourist shops were also
requested to attend for a public hearing, but were criticized because they ignored the rules and regulations of
the Yaeyama FCA and were guiding recreational anglers
to “good fishing spots” only for economic profit.
After a long discussion, an agreement was reachedthat four sites would be closed for three months. In thiscase, a debate on a fisheries ban spotlighted the difficultyin consensus-making, as stakeholders had various opinions (Akimichi, 2001). Likewise, in establishing the
MPAs (Marine Protected Areas), collaboration among
different fishermen’s groups, and between fishermen andnon-fishermen are absolutely necessary to achieve a sustainable fishery and conservation goals.
Another example is the case of a fisheries moratorium
for hatahata (Japanese sandfish, Arctoscopus japonicus)
in Akita Prefecture, northern Japan. As hatahata landings
collapsed in 1976 after a rapid rise in catches in the 1960s(Fig. 9), the Akita Prefectural Government initially proposed a hatahata conservation policy by means of afisheries ban.
Yet, opinions among the local FCAs opinion diverged
and it was not easy to reach a conclusion. To reach amutual agreement, meetings were held at different levels
from individual to nationwide, including fishermen’s
informal gatherings, local districts in fishing areas, FCAs,
working groups, Fisheries Leagues, Sea Districts and theMinistry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries of theJapanese Government.
After a long discussion and debate, a final decision ona moratorium of three years was made for the period from
Oct. 1992 to Aug. 1995. Even after the resumption of
hatahata fisheries in Sept. 1995, meetings have contin25,000

Catch(tons)

20,00015,00010,000

5,000

0
1895

1905

1915

1925

1935

1945

1955

1965

1975

1985

1995

2005

Year

Fig. 9 A Long-term Fluctuation of the Sandfish Catch in Akita
Prefecture (1895-2009).

ued. Throughout the pre-moratorium, moratorium andpost-moratorium periods, some 250 meetings were held
(Akimichi & Sugiyama, 2012).

5. The Satoumi and a Local Commons
As described in the previous section, the satoumi includes two important factors to be reflected; one is accessrights to fishing gear and fishing grounds. The second isresource management measures in which the consensus
making process becomes the key to reaching a final
decision and responding to on-going changes.
In this concluding section, I will argue for the future
status of the satoumi as an arena for a new commons.
On Ishigaki Island, a time-consuming and serious
debate on the construction of a new airport in the Shiraho
area has continued since 1979, with inhabitants of
Shiraho splitting into pro and anti factions. People
favoring construction want the economic developmentthat would accompany construction of a new airport
while the opposition want to conserve the environment of
the coral reefs, particularly the Acropora corals that arefound abundantly in the Shiraho area. A decision wasreached to shift the new airport site inland and it has been
under construction since 2005.
Through their experience with the airport construction issue since 1979, the people of Shiraho have becomeaware of the value of coral reefs with regard to both
environmental conservation and their own livelihood.
This has triggered the creation of a new satoumi byreconstruction of a tidal stone weir (Kakuma &Kamimura, 2012). The TSW is expected to serve multiple functions: provisioning food fish, a positive effecton marine biodiversity, environmental education, andenhancement of community-based networks and ecotourism.
In Okinawa where coral reef systems are a major
component of the satoumi, sustainable use of coastal
reefs is a primary concern. According to Japan’s formal
Fisheries Law, coastal coral reefs are claimed for use
only by the associated FCA members while intruding
local inhabitants who do not have fisheries rights are
considered trespassers.
Yet, the people of Shiraho have claimed the harvesting rights that they traditionally inherited as afundamental right. Indeed, the people of Shiraho haveused reefs extensively for subsistence and small commodity production. Harvests of marine resources include
seaweeds, mollusca, octopuses, and reef fish. Small-scale
gill nets, cast nets, nighttime torch-light spearing, tidal
stone weirs, and coastal gleaning are the major techniques employed. Furthermore, local inhabitants haveused the coast for rituals and feasts. White coral gravel
was scattered in front of the shrine. In this regard, accessrights by inhabitants should be acknowledged as a local
commons, shared among people of the area, which coincides with the Soyu-Sei or Gesamteigentum (joint
ownership). This idea regarding local fisheries rights is
independent of the authorized Fisheries Rights of theSatoumi Ecosystems and a New CommonsJapanese Government (Kumamoto, 1995).
Claims to inoh (lagoons within the fringing reefs) arealso recognized as self-evident by local farmers andfishermen on Iriomote Island. On Iriomote island, the sea
area inside the fringing reefs is generally called sunah.
Sunah is further divided into pamonah (sandy beach),inoh (fringing reef) and pihni (surf break). The area outside surf breaks is termed ubutuh. Local community
members of Iriomote have recognized that sunah is anarea where community members have equal rights ofaccess to marine resources while ubutuh is where fulltime fishermen from outside can harvest (Ishigaki,
personal communication, 2009). In the Yaeyama Islands,
such recognition of divisions of reef systems and theoff-shore sea gives an important insight into how the useof coastal waters has been considered part of the satoumi
system.
Theoretically speaking, there are various techniquesand measures for achieving sustainable resource management goals in the satoumi. Restrictions and national/
international enforcement by determining total allowable
catches (TAC) and establishing Marine Protected Areas(MPAs) are regarded as influential conservation measures. A ban on destructive fishing practices is also
recommended by APEC as an effective means, for instance (APEC, 1998). Yet, such bans cannot be so easily
realized, as suggested by reports that poaching and illegal
fishing have been prevalent everywhere. Furthermore,consensuses to reducing fishing efforts are often difficult
to realize among relevant stakeholders.
What is important, then, is to seek an alternative
approach to evaluating local commons for integration.
From opinions raised in the related discussions, we know
it has become more and more important to realize whoshares the local commons for the sustainable use ofresources, and how outsiders are allowed to enter or are
prevented from entering the fishing grounds. Indeed, toavoid the tragedy of the commons, diverse kinds of local
institutions should be evaluated ( Feeny et al., 1990;
Ostrom, 1990).
This notion is inevitable particularly in coastal areasof the Tohoku region where the tsunami disaster
destroyed almost all of the functions and infrastructures.
At present, only hardware systems such as fishing boats,fishing equipment, fishing ports, fish processing wares
and seawalls against tsunami are taken into consideration
but no effective future design has been drawn forrebuilding a new fishing community as an integrative
unity. Now is the time to consider seriously a newcommons.

Acknowledgements
The author is deeply indebted to Professor Masahiro
Watanabe for providing the opportunity and the funding
for the present study, and Professor Takakazu Yumoto as
the co-researcher of the project for his kindest advise andsupport. Also, many thanks are given to Professor Koji
Nakamura who has guided me in the study of the171satoyama and satoumi and Dr. Anne McDonald forproviding the opportunity to attend the Satoumi Workshop during the CBD COP 10 conference held in Nagoya
in 2010. I am grateful to Ms Yuriko Ashikaga and Dr.
Satoko Seino for their generosity in jointly studying the
Nakatsu tidal flat in 2012.
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Tomoya AKIMICHI
Born in 1946, Tomoya Akimichi is a Professor
Emeritus at the Research Institute for Humanity
and Nature (RIHN). He received his B.A. at
Kyoto University, and his M.Sc and D.Sc. at the
University of Tokyo. He has served as a Research
Fellow, Associate Professor and Professor at the
National Museum of Ethnology (Osaka), and Professor and Deputy
Director-General of the Research Institute for Humanity and Nature. His
major specialty is ecological anthropology, and his study areas include
Japan, China, Southeast Asia and Oceania. His present interests are marine
resource management and the governance of the commons. His edited
publications include Illustrated Eco-history of the Mekong River Basin(White Lotus, 2008), Coastal Foragers in Transition (National Museum of
Ethnology, 1996) and Maritime Institutions in the Western Pacific(National Museum of Ethnology, 1984, edited jointly with K. Ruddle).

(Received 17 May 2012, Accepted 13 August 2012)