Research Subsidized by the Environmental Fund, Mitsui & Co .,Ltd.

Summary Report on
the Exploration of Wisdom in Japanese Traditional Cultures
Believed to be Instrumental in Building a Sustainable Society
and Sharing the Wisdom with International Community

January 2008
Japan Association of Env iron men t an d Society
for th e 21 st Cen tu ry, NPO

Ideas and Practice o f Sustainability in Japan
Contents
Table o f Conte nts
Introductio n ....................................................................................................................2
Background o f the Pro ject ............................................................................................4
CHAPTER 1:

Ideas of Sustainability in Japan.....................................................6

1.1. Ideas of Sustainability in Co ntemporary Japan ...................................... 6
1.2. Ideas of Sustainability in Traditional Japan ............................................ 9
1.3. Details o f Japanese Wisdo m re garding Sustainability ......................... 12
1.3.1. Spiritual Wealth and Pe ace of Mind ..................................................... 12
1.3.2. Identificatio n with Nature and Spirit o f Onene ss.............................. 14
1.3.3. Learning to be Conte nt ............................................................................ 17
1.3.4. Idea of Reincarnation and the Cycle of Life Rooted in Society ....... 19
1.3.5. Harmo ny and Continuity of Family, Community and Socie ty......... 22
1.3.6. Freedom o f Spirit....................................................................................... 24
1.3.7. Ancestor Worship to Ensure the Continuity o f Life ........................... 25
1.3.8. Education and Nurturing of Future Generatio ns............................... 27

1

I NTRODUCTION
The Japan Association of Enviro nme nt and Socie ty for the 21 st Ce ntury(JAES21) was e stablished in Septe mber 1993 towards the o bjective ofbuilding a sustainable society.

Since the n, JAES21 has shown a co nsistentinterest in the wise te achings and knowledge fo und in Japanese traditio ns
and continued its efforts to learn fro m such wisdom.

For instance , in

October 1994, soon after its e stablishme nt, JAES21 organized a pro ject to
explore the ide as and life o f Ke nji MIYAZAWA, a poet and o ne o f Japan’s
foremost writers of childre n’s books.

Pro ject participants visited places

noted in connection with the author and held a sympo sium.

In May 1994,

JAES21 conducted a Survey on the Environment and Culture undercontract fro m the Environment Agency, part of which was re flected in the
Governme nt’s White Paper on Enviro nme nt.

Since January 1996, JAES21

has hosted the U.S.-Japan Joint Se minar in Ho nolulu, H awaii in alternate
years.

The seminar seeks to discuss the traditional te achings andknowledge passed on in Polyne sia and Japan, and to explore the wisdo mshared among our predecessors.

The sixth seminar was held in 2006.

The JAES21 belie ves in the importance of exploring and spre ading
enviro nme ntal ethics – including Japan’s traditional wisdom—as a spiritualpillar to sustain o ur society in this era of glo bal environment, and haslaunched co mmitted e fforts to pro mote the cause in various ways.

It wasour awareness o n three issues that co mpelled us at JAES21 to renew o ur
commitme nt in studying this topic for this re search.
First, prominent enviro nme ntal e xperts primarily in the West ge nerally
show intere st in, and o ften admire, Japan’s environmental technologies inenergy conservatio n, recycling and o ther are as.

However, from ourexperience we fo und that the y show little or no interest in the tho ughts,
values and sensitivitie s o f the Japane se that gave rise to suchenviro nme ntal techno logies.

This may be due to the fact that conventio nal

efforts to communicate to the rest of the world the long-tradition ofknowledge passed on in Japan have bee n le ss than satisfactory or e asy tounderstand.

By contrast, the characteristics of Japan’s technolo gical2capabilities have been transmitted to other countrie s in aneasy-to-understand way.
Second, Japanese people the mselves are losing sight o f the traditio nal
wisdom that served to sustain the ir society, being overwhelmed by thevalues, tho ughts, technology, political system and other imports fro m theWest that flooded into the natio n after the Meiji Restoration of 1868.

After

the WWII, in particular, the mass-production, mass-consumptio n eco nomic
syste m has overpowered the Japane se society.

With the incre asing

globalizatio n of econo my, the eco nomic logic based o n market principle s has
engulfed just about every aspect o f life , eroding the values inhere nt intraditional te achings o f being conte nt with o ne’s state o f being or living inharmony with nature .

We at JAES21 strongly felt the need to analyze why

and how such change s took place , and to redisco ver the values o f such
wisdom.
Third, we have a growing co nviction that Japan’s traditional knowledge andteachings can provide us with a powerful tool to surmount the current
global chaos, as nations in the world including Japan struggle in search o f a
new identity, a new value system to de al with the glo balization, and combat
the deterioration in the e nvironment caused by global warming.
Communicating and spreading such traditional tho ughts, which are being
lost e ven among the Japanese, in a planet with diverse values and ideas,
will not be an easy task.

Still, it is true that without such challenging

efforts, we cannot hope to build a sustainable society.
We would like to express o ur sincere gratitude to the Enviro nme ntal Fundof Mitsui & Co., Ltd. and all people concerned for giving us this valuable
opportunity to address this monumental challe nge .
Saburo KATO and Ko noe FUJIMURA

3

B ACKGROUND OF THE P ROJECT
Global warming and a myriad of associated problems are threatening
the environment, the very foundation of human life andsocio-economic activities. Socio-economic conditions in Japan andthe world as a whole, meanwhile, have begun to exhibit various
negative signs amid the trends of globalization. Short-term
economic activities have resulted in disparities between the havesand have-nots around the world, forming a hotbed for terrorism thathas sent shockwaves around the globe. Also, the decline ineducational capacities has led to a moral and spiritual decay among
young people and hampered the healthy development of the membersof future generations. The sustainability of economic andhuman/social activities is at stake.
The idea of “sustainable development” was initially advocated at theWorld Commission on Environment and Development (Brundtland
Commission) in 1987. The Commission defined sustainable
development as “development which meets the needs of the present
without compromising the ability of future generations to meet theirown needs.” In 1992, the concept was incorporated into a global
agreement at the United Nations Conference on Environment andDevelopment (Earth Summit) as the global community embraced thecommon goal of building a sustainable society in the 21st century.
However, social consensus on the concept of “sustainability” or“sustainable society” is yet to emerge in Japan. For this reason, pastefforts to establish and develop the concept of sustainability in Japan
have been based, for the most part, on thesis and theories written byresearchers and scholars in the West.
Yet, Japan had built a sustainable society before World War II,
particularly during the Edo period (1603-1868) when the policy ofnational seclusion was strictly enforced. Japanese can justly be
proud of this unique example in world history, which shows that peace4and highly civilized culture can be developed side to side in asustainable environment.
Many factors contributed to such a sustainable society during the Edo
period, such as natural conditions endemic to the country, as well as
philosophy, religion, ethics, education, art and culture and system ofgovernance developed on the basis of the local climate and natural
setting. Traditional ideas based on harmonious coexistence amongpeople and between nature and people have served as a spiritual
foundation for developing and maintaining the sustainability ofJapanese society.
Unfortunately, however, the Japanese have not been able to sharewith the rest of the world the spirit of sustainability inherent in its
traditional cultures partly due to the difficulty in explaining suchideas according to Western logic and also because the concept ofsustainability is fairly novel even by global standards.
In this research project, we attempted to identify the concept ofsustainability in Japan by extracting and collating descriptions of thisconcept from publications by leading Japanese intellectuals(including philosophers, artists, politicians, religious figures andentrepreneurs) and the way of life of the ordinary Japanese people.
The excerpts were then put through a critical examination by a wide
range of Japanese and non-Japanese intellectuals. The resulting
papers to be published in Japanese and English will be presented to
the global community through symposia and other opportunities as anintellectual property to be shared by all.
We hope our papers will expand the horizon of discussions onsustainability that had previously been conducted primarily in the
U.S. and Europe, and contribute to the further development of global
sustainability.

5CHAPTER 1: IDEAS OF S USTAINABILITY IN J APAN
1.1. IDEAS OF SUSTAINABILITY IN CONTEMPORARY JAPAN
While the concept of sustainability and its potentials have been discussed widely in theWest, contemporary Japan also exhibits some of the wisdom of sustainability that ispassed on through its traditional cultures.
In 2004, Wangari Muta MAATHAI (1940-), a Kenyan ecological activist who won thefirst Nobel Peace Prize in the field of environment, brought to global attention theJapanese word “mottainai” and the spirit behind it. The term mottainai, which is anancient Japanese concept, has several meanings according to the Japanese dictionary

Daijirin: (1) the idea that valuable human resources and materials should always be put
to full and good use so as not to waste anything; (2) awe and gratitude that nature issacred and should never be violated by wasting precious resources; (3) a sense ofobligation; and (4) disappointment (that things have moved away from their originalstate). While the meaning in (1) is more common in recent years, the word “ mottainai”
was originally used to describe a sense of gratitude and awe one feels towards otherpeople and nature.

“Mottainai” - a term symbolizing Japanese people’s concept ofsustainability - implies that each object in life and nature has life of its own that must
be respected in the same way as one would a fellow human being. Some of the works ofJapanese anime, a style of animation originating in Japan that has spread globally, deal
with the topics of social stability and the sustainability of life.
The legendary mangaka (Japanese manga artist) and animator Osamu TEZUKA(1928-1989) created the popular anime character Astroboy (Tetsuwan Atomu) in 1951.
The universal theme that runs through many of his works is the respect for all life forms
and themes relating to reincarnation. In Tetsuwan Atomu, Tezuka depicts the main
character Astroboy Atomu (Atom in English) as a human-built robot with a strong senseof justice and a tender, human heart – not dissimilar to the “mind and heart” allowed
only to humans by the God of Creation in the Christian tradition.
In his lifework manga titled Hinotori (The Phoenix ) whose first episode began in 1954,
Tezuka explores the essence of life and the human karma through the main character ofthe phoenix -- a life force that transcends time and space. The phoenix is said to live
forever by diving into a fire and reincarnating itself once every 100 years. The work
convinces us of the continuity and reincarnation of life, that all forms of life that exist in6this cosmos will live on and on. The choice of his lifelong theme -- reincarnation andthe respect for life -- is said to have been shaped by his experiences during the war andmedical training based on his background with Japanese traditional thoughts.
The works of Hayao MIYAZAKI, one of Japan's foremost anime writer/directors, also
deeply reflect Japanese Buddhist thoughts on the cyclical nature of life: life that dwells
in all animate and inanimate objects changes shape and place but will live on.
Miyazaki’s film Spirited Away (Sen to Chihiro no Kamikakushi , 2001) won the Academy
One of his masterpieces, Nausicaä of theAward for Best Animated Feature in 2003.

Valley of the Wind ( Kaze no tani no Naushika, 1982-) is set 1,000 years after humanity
destroyed its own highly sophisticated civilization and scientific technology that hadreached its zenith. The story revolves around the title character, Nausicaä, acharismatic young princess of the Valley of the Wind, a small state located by the Sea ofCorruption. Racked by an adverse turn of events, the princess tries to come to termswith the inevitability of human tendencies to act and fight against each other—arecurring theme since time immemorial. It is also a story of repeated annihilation andregeneration of civilizations amid the confrontation between nature and scientifictechnology, and how humans have devised creative ideas to help in the regeneration.
Miyazaki’s Princess Mononoke (Mononoke Hime, 1997 film) deals with a struggle thattakes place in a period of transition from medieval to modern era in Japan between the
supernatural guardians of a primeval forest called mononoke –wild dogs, wild boars andother beasts who understand human language and Forest Spirits– and the humans who
try to exploit the forest. In this work, as in many others, Miyazaki sends the message
that the security of human life can be achieved only through living in harmony withnature that also has a life of its own.
Japanese have transmitted knowledge and ideas on sustainability globally, not just in
the field of anime but also in scienceand technology. One example is Hideki YUKAWA (1907-1981), a theoretical physicist
and the first Japanese to win the Nobel Prize in Physics with his theory of mesons,which explained the interaction between protons and neutrons. While he excelled inscience, Yukawa was well-versed in the subject of Oriental thought, including Chineseand Confucian philosophy, based on his avid reading since childhood.

He is also said tohave taken interest in haiku poetry that comprises part of the literary tradition ofJapan. Referring to the atomic bomb as the “absolute evil,” Yukawa appealed until thevery end of his life against its use for lasting peace in the world. Yukawa’s stance isthought to have been influenced by his friendship with Albert Einstein, known as the7

“greatest physicist of all time” and an outspoken critic who appealed globally for theabolition of nuclear weapons. It is also attributed to Yukawa’s sense of responsibility
as a scientist in a nation that sustained substantial damage from the atomic bomb andderives from traditional Japanese thought that emphasizes harmony and considerations
for future generations.
The ideas of the world-famous Japanese architect Tadao ANDO (1941~) offer us
thoughtful insights that support sustainability. Manifested in his unique expressions
in exposed concrete and geometric shapes, Ando’s works demonstrate his thoughts onarchitecture as being rooted in its local climate and culture. In one of his publications,Ando wrote:
Each work of architecture must contain strongly etched-in elements rooted in thelocal climate, cultures and way of life that people can perceive with their fivesenses; they range from macro-elements such as geographical or cultural contexts,
history on various levels and areas, and spirituality to more subtle elements likepersonal experience and impressions and memories inspired by a seemingly
innocuous tree or leaf.
In fact, Ando’s architecture artfully incorporates natural elements into the building
structure, which provides an excellent example of the Japanese sense of oneness withnature and freedom of the spirit.
As described above, various articles, works and technology in contemporary Japan give
us an insight – albeit in an indirect form -- into the ideas and messages supporting
human and social sustainability rooted in Japanese Buddhism and the spirit of Shinto.
Unfortunately, however, one has to admit that such ideas are apparently being lost
since the period prior to WWII or the Meiji Restoration under the powerful pressure ofcivilization of science and technology and consumer economy of the West.

8

1.2. IDEAS OF SUSTAINABILITY IN TRADITIONAL JAPAN
Just as in any other nation or race, the Japanese have traditionally devised various
ways to sustain a stable society. The Japanese society prior to the Meiji Restoration
was marked by a long period of peace, stability and sophisticated culture, although
there were intermittent periods of conflicts and some violent confrontations.

Overall,

however, the period was a tranquil one in the history of humanity.
Located to the east of the Asian continent, most areas in Japan enjoy temperate climate
and a rich natural environment characterized by lush forests. Blessed with bounties ofnature, the spiritual foundation of Japanese people is said to have been shaped during
the Jomon period that started more than 10,000 years ago, evolving over time into aform of animism called Shinto. In the mid-6th century, Buddhism reached Japanthrough China and the Korean peninsula, greatly transforming the Japanese outlook on
nature. Many scholars point out that, along with Buddhism and Shinto, Confucianism
and Taoism that have developed since ancient times in China have had a profound
impact on the development of the nation’s spiritual base.
Japan’s traditional cultures are often merged together in one category, but they haveundergone drastic changes over time, from the Asuka period around the 7th century to
the Edo period (1603-1868). Such transformations greatly altered the nation’s industry,
diplomatic relations, and people’s way of life. An examination of life in the Edo period,
which is the main subject of the research in this phase of research, reveals the generalcharacteristics of Japan’s traditional cultures as discussed in the following sections.
First, most people in the Edo period believed in reincarnation and harbored a
Buddhist-rooted sense of mortality and impermanence of things.

Higher values wereplaced on attaining peace of mind than on attachment to material things. In otherwords, the idea of being satisfied with one’s possessions or state of being was deeply
implanted in the minds of Japanese people through Buddhist and Taoist teachings.
Also, in the spirit of Shinto, the Japanese have shown respect and awe for theabundance of nature around them and traditionally worshiped mountains, rivers andtrees for the deities within these manifestations of nature.
In politics, key political leaders generally displayed a strong sense of responsibility andmission and exerted self-restraint in their exercise of power. The Edo period was an
era of autocratic rule by warriors. Politicians of the time followed Bushido or the9warrior spirit as outlined in Bushido: The Soul of Japan, authored by NITOBE Inazo(1862-1933), a prominent agricultural economist, author, educator, diplomat, andpolitician. Nevertheless, the political rule in Edo was ethically controlled andrestrained by the influence of Confucianism.
The Edo citizens, for the most part, willingly lived in honorable poverty, sought spiritualwell-being, respected their ancestors, and esteemed harmony over fighting. Culturally,
they positively valued the concept of wabi (rustic simplicity and quietness), sabi (beautyor serenity that comes with age), and mottainai (not to be wasteful but instead to fully
value all material things) with little negative connotations of poverty.
In engineering, people in the Edo period took advantage of their resourcefulness tocreate various ingenious devices. Learning from guns, watches and other goods
brought from the West and crafts imported from China and Korea, they easily adaptedand developed their own skills, which later developed into the hallmark of Japanesetechnology.
Thus, in Japan, the knowledge and ideas that support sustainability have been shapedby traditional cultures. The features that characterize Japanese ideas may be
identified more clearly through a comparison with the Judeo-Christian tradition in theWest (Table 1). While not all were conducive to sustainability, traditional ideas inJapan are thought to contain elements that lead to sustainability (Table 2).
Unfortunately, however, the above-mentioned knowledge for a sustainable society thathas been shared and passed on for more than 1,000 years has undergone drasticchanges in the past century. Such transformations may be attributed to the national
campaign of the mid-19th century called fukoku kyohei, aimed at building a nation of
wealth and military strength by adapting the scientific and military technology
introduced into Japan from the West. A symbolic example of this movement can beseen in the glorification of “steam power” by Yukichi FUKUZAWA (1835-1901), an
intellectual leader who lived in this era of cultural enlightenment. Japan’s ambitions
to build a prosperous state backed by a strong army were eventually crushed following
its defeat in WWII. By the mid-20th century, however, the nation found a new focus to
substitute for military might: economic growth.
In the course of achieving economic growth, Japanese people’s value systems went
through dramatic transformations in a short period of time. In contemporary terms,

10one could say the huge waves of globalization have altered Japan’s traditional cultures
to a point that they may be lost forever.
Fortunately, however, some conscientious citizens are beginning to rediscover the valueof Japan’s traditional ideas and realize that by putting them to use, they might help
save the world in the 21st century society from potential chaos.
Take, for example, Seihin no Shiso (Thoughts on Virtuous Poverty ), a book written by
the novelist and literary critic Koji NAKANO (1925-2005). The book was published in
1992 when Japan was still taking in the aftereffects of the bubble economy’s fast-paced
growth that lasted for about five years in the 1980s. At the time, Seihin no Shiso hit
and stayed on the bestseller’s list for many weeks. Many critics praised the book forencouraging the money-mad Japanese people to go back at the roots of their proudculture. Others criticized it for advocating “dangerous” thoughts that could put brakes
on the nation’s economic development. Nakano writes in the preface of this book,which fortunately still is read and discussed by many, as shown below:
Topics such as the protection of the global environment and simple living are often
brought up in recent years. My impression is that such ways of life have beentaken for granted in our cultural tradition, so self-evident that people did not evenfeel the need to express these ideas.

Our ancestors lived in harmony with nature

without being told to do so by anyone. The emergence of a mass-production,
mass-consumption society and wasteful use of resources surfaced as a consequenceof embracing principles derived from another culture. If the destruction of the
global environment we see today is principally caused by Western values, thiswould suggest that the principles of a new civilized society to counter that
destruction would probably be built on the philosophy of honorable poverty – aculture nurtured by our Japanese ancestors.
As noted by Nakano, most people in the world have been preoccupied for much of the20th century with pursuing productivity gains, comfort and various pursuits that
stimulate our consumption, thanks to scientific technology. Such ways of life have
implanted in our minds the notion that the economy must continue to grow.

However,

one is able to identify in Japan’s traditional cultures some enduring ideas for asustainable society – the elements summed by such contemporary terms as “slow life”
and “small is beautiful.”11

1.3. DETAILS OF JAPANESE WISDOM REGARDING SUSTAINABILITY
1.3.1.SPIRITUAL WEALTH AND PEACE OF MIND
One of the aspects of Japanese wisdom as it relates to sustainability was that a greater
emphasis was placed on spiritual aspects than on material well-being. The writer Koji
NAKANO introduces intriguing episodes in his book Seihin No Shiso (Thoughts on

Virtuous Poverty, 1992) to describe how writers of the past emphasized inner peace overobsession with material wealth. He quotes from Hojoki (Vision of a Torn World), an
essay written by KAMO NO Chomei in the 12th century:
The most important thing in this world is that your mind is at peace. If not, youfeel empty even if you live in a palace or castle. I prefer to live in my small hut if
my mind is at peace (Note 1).
Nakano also introduces the ideas outlined in Tsurezuregusa (Essays in Idleness),
written around 1330 by the Buddhist monk YOSHIDA Kenko:
What a foolish thing it is to be governed by a desire for fame, status and profit andto fret away one’s whole life without a moment of peace (Note 2).
Moreover, NAKANO himself wrote in his book:Writers and artists of the Edo period who tried to withdraw from the secular world
were aware of the fact that the greatest treasure for human beings can be found
not in money, fame nor status, but to enjoy being alive in the face of theinevitability of death. Such an insight in praise of life must have been a source ofgreat inspiration for writers and artists in the Edo period. In their resolve to live
in a world set apart from riches and fame, such literary thinkers contented
themselves with earthly poverty. They thrived in refined artistic sensibilities, aworld apart from the secular human life of weighing advantages anddisadvantages. One imagines that the essay written by Kenko probably came as
an encouragement and theoretical support for those Edo artists and writers whose
way of life has often been associated with “losers.”
Looking back over Japan’s cultural history spanning over a thousand years, many
distinguished intellectuals who are still remembered today stressed the importance of12inner peace over obsession with material wealth. Writings from the past give us apicture of how people went about their daily life with a focus on spirituality rather thanobsession with material possessions.
In recent years, we have witnessed growing interest in bushido, the samurai code of old
Japan. According to Bushido: Samurai Ethics and the Soul of Japan , written by Inazo
NITOBE (1862~1933), bushido is “a flower no less indigenous to the soil of Japan thanits emblem, the cherry blossom.” In his book, Nitobe refers to bushido as “an organic
growth of decades and centuries of military career,” and elaborates:
The Precepts of Knighthood, begun at first as the glory of the élite, became in time
an aspiration and inspiration to the nation at large; (snip) yet Yamato Damashii,
the soul of Japan, ultimately came to express the Volksgeist of the Island Realm.
In this book, NITOBE explains how bushido greatly influenced the spiritual foundationof the Japanese.
The virtues espoused in bushido are: “Rectitude (the course of justice),” “Courage (thespirit of daring and bearing)” “Benevolence (the feeling of love, tolerance andcompassion),” “Politeness (courtesy),” “Veracity and Sincerity,” “Honor (name, face andpride),” and “The Duty of Loyalty (fidelity to the lord).” Examples in the book showing
how the samurai actually applied these virtues illustrate their way of life thatemphasized spiritual matters over material possessions. The samurai received lessons
in fencing, archery, jiujutsu or yawara, horsemanship, use of the spear, military tactics,
calligraphy, ethics, literature, and history because, as Bushido notes, “The first point toobserve in knightly pedagogics was to build up character.” In addition, luxury wasconsidered to be the biggest threat to moral character. A life of austerity and simplicity
was demanded as a principle of Bushido was not to seek personal gain. While bushido
greatly influenced the way of life of samurais, all forms of education during the Edo
period focused on ethics education and elevating spirituality, which helped build aculture centered on the wisdom of valuing spiritual rather than material aspects of life.
International intellectuals have praised the high educational level in Edo period Japan.
This is due to the fact that the educational system comprising terakoya (temple school)
and han (domain) schools was indeed firmly established during the Edo period. At
these educational institutions students became practitioners of ethics under the
influence of Confucianism and Buddhist thoughts. In other words, education in thosedays was focused on building the student’s character and teaching moral lessons along13

with practical skills. This way of thinking was also prevalent in vocational education
for merchants, craftsmen and farmers. All these probably combined to maintain highlevels of education and also of morality and spirituality among the Japanese.
One could also say that during the period of national isolation – and consequently thematerial shortage caused by the difficulty of importing commodities and thegeographical constraints of an island nation -- people had no other choice but to findsolace in spirituality and peace of mind.

Nevertheless, it is also true that there is alimit to the pursuit of material affluence under the finite global environment. In thatsense, the way of life of the Japanese during the Edo period, which emphasized
spirituality and inner peace over material wealth, can offer us an important insight into
sustainability in the 21st century and beyond.

1.3.2.IDENTIFICATION WITH NATURE AND SPIRIT OF ONENESS
A culture that grew out of the rich natural environment in Japan is filled with a sense ofidentification and oneness with nature. It is remarkably different from the views ofnature in Judeo-Christian traditions where humans stand between God and otheranimals and plants, entrusted by God to protect and control nature. By contrast, inJapanese traditional cultures based on Shinto and Buddhism, human beings are a partof, and not in the position of protecting or controlling, nature. This is illustrated
clearly in the nature views since the Jomon era (BC 10,000 to BC 400) that can be
identified in Manyoshu (the Collection of Ten Thousand Leaves), the oldest national
anthology of poems compiled in the 8th century, and also in Japanese art works up to thepresent day.
It is considered that nature and climate in Japan have an overriding influence on its
culture. While the nation is blessed with rich nature brought on by the changes of theseasons, it has also experienced harsh natural disasters such as typhoons, volcanic
eruptions and earthquakes. Since the distant past, Japanese had to learn ways to live inaccordance with the natural laws and conditions in order to survive.
Furthermore, environmental and climatic conditions influenced the development ofreligious foundation of the Japanese and the way people got along with nature.
Toji KAMATA (1951~), a Shinto songwriter, discusses the traditional Japanese sense of
divinity:

14

The ancient Japanese saw the works of God and the presence of spirits in all
creation and natural phenomena as the universe. They saw the thunder god inthunder, the earthquake god in earthquakes, the fire god in volcanic eruptions, andthe water god in floods. For example, people even identified god in typhoons fromthe fierce appearance of Yamata no Orochi, a big snake of eight branches inJapanese mythology (often called the Eight-Forked Serpent in English). The
ancient Japanese recognized the work of spiritual forces, spirits of ancestors andthe dead in nature, in human affairs and in everything (Shinto Towa Nanika(What is Shinto? ), PHP Shinsho, 2000).
Divinity was perceived as the greater being beyond any act of human intelligence andpower. In the presence of the sacred, people spontaneously put their hands together inthe prayer posture out of awe and respect. In awareness of the insignificance of their
existence, the Japanese lived a frugal and simple life as the essence of Shinto, steeped in
the daily lives of people. In the heart of Shintoism dwelt the feelings of awe, respect,reverence and adoration towards the workings of Mighty Nature and ancestors, eternal
history and life
Renowned philosopher Takeshi UMEHARA (1925~) asserted that Buddhism introduced
to Japan has gone through a “Japanization” process in the country’s naturalenvironment, climate, and traditional cultures represented by Shinto. The process
eventually culminated in the idea that Buddha dwelt in every soul as represented by thesaying, “sansen somoku shikkai jobutsu (The mountains and rivers, and the plants andtrees, one and all become Buddhas).” For example, he discusses Nichiren (1222~1282), a
13th century Buddhist monk who founded the Nichiren sect of Buddhism, in his book,

Kami To Hotoke, Taironshu Daiikkan (God and Buddha, the First Series ofDiscussions):
It was believed in ancient India that animals as sentient beings can become
Buddha but not the plants. Later the idea that plants could turn into Buddha
emerged in China. The concept that not only animals but also plants could
become Buddha was then developed in Japan.
UMEHARA also referred to the literature of Kenji MIYAZAWA (1896~1933), a
distinguished poet and author of children’s literature, viewed sometimes as a spiritual
successor to Nichiren. UMEHARA wrote that in the world according to Miyazawa,“Animals, plants and all living things send a message on the preciousness of life even as
they prey on one another for survival and help each other at times.” MIYAZAWA’s
15

work, Cello Hiki no Goshu (Cellist Goshu) is a compelling story about a mediocre cellist
named Goshu. When Goshu was practicing at night to improve his cello, a calico cat, acuckoo, a raccoon dog pup and a field mouse showed up one after another. By the time
Goshu managed to meet each one of the requests made by the animals, he had become agreat cello player. In this work, Miyazawa treats humans on the same plane as otheranimals in a lucid explication of UMEHARA’s argument.
The genetic scientist Kazuo MURAKAMI (1936~), in his book of discussions with the
Zen priest and writer Sokyu GENYU, describes the interdependence of nature and life
forms from the perspective of genetic research. In his book, MURAKAMI asserts:
As all living things share the same genetic codes, we are all brothers and sisters. If
we develop this idea further, we come to the conclusion that human beings, pebbles,
birds, water and everything on this earth are made of the same substances, and weare all part of this ‘something great’ ( Kokoro No Chikara (Power of Heart) (Chichi
Publishing Co. Ltd., 2006).
Also, Masao KAWAI (1924~), a prominent zoologist, emphasized how humans in
traditional Japanese society lived interdependently with nature when examined from azoological viewpoint, noting: “No single species in the wild became extinct in Japan prior
to the 19th century, which is truly remarkable by world standards.”
Now, let us look at examples in real life that provide us insights on how people in the olddays lived in harmony with nature. In 1687, the fifth shogun of the Edo period,
TOKUGAWA Tsunayoshi promulgated an unusual edict against cruelty to all living
creatures, which absolutely forbade abuse against dogs, cats, birds and other animals.
For instance, farmers who cut a tree on which birds were nesting, showmen who trained
dogs, cats and mice to do tricks for show, and dealers who traded live fish were punishedseverely. Among the many laws enacted during the Edo period, this is known as one of
the most oppressive laws for the commoners of the time. Viewed from anotherperspective, however, the fact that this strict law for animal protection was enforced at
the initiative of the shogun at the end of 17th century under the influence of Buddhist
thoughts and helped to protect the environment, albeit indirectly, is an achievement in
itself, made possible by the Japanese people’s sense of oneness with nature.
Meanwhile, the Japanese urban structure was based on the natural landscape and thewater systems, and has developed according to the laws of nature. The city of Kyoto,
initially built under the influence of Chinese culture along the grid-zoning system (jori),16was later transformed to accommodate the flow of the Kamo River and its topographic
features. At the same time, the flood control methods developed by TAKEDA Shingen
and KATO Kiyomasa, feudal rulers of the Era of the Warring States (1493-1573),
employed excellent technologies based on a thorough examination of the water system
to utilize its force without going against the laws of nature.
Also, the longing to bring nature closer to home played an important role in shaping thecityscape as well. People devised ways to incorporate nature into old samurai
residences, machiya (town houses) and nagaya (apartments) using gardens in various
forms. Shrines and temples dotting the city also played the role of maintaining
harmony between nature and people’s lives.
Furthermore, books on agriculture in the Edo period, in which approximately 80% of the
population was engaged in agriculture, serve as another instrument that illustrates how
farmers’ lives were so intertwined with nature.

For instance, SHAKUJOIN, who washead priest of Genpuku Temple in Dewa-no-kuni (present-day Akita Prefecture),cautioned in his book Uyo Shuhoku Suidoroku (Book on River and Land of Uyo Shuhoku[Akita Region], 1788) against indiscriminate logging to secure the water resources
essential for rice farming. At the same time, SHAKUJOIN also forbade theoverexploitation of marine resources, explaining that if people continued indiscriminate
fishing, marine life would eventually be exhausted, leading to a huge loss for the nation.
Based on their daily experiences, people believed in the importance of living inaccordance with the laws of nature because they believed that violation of the natural
law was certain to invite retribution in the form of natural disaster. Thus people inthose days were aware that living interdependently with nature and not fighting
against its laws would lead to a sustainable life.
Therefore, based on their inner beliefs and environmental conditions, people intraditional Japan seem to have acquired the wisdom of living in accordance with naturallaws, which in turn secured the foundation of their life.

1.3.3.LEARNING TO BE CONTENT
Learning to be content with what one has is another aspect of traditional wisdom
handed down from the past. However, this important knowledge is being lost in more
recent times. It is rarely discussed nowadays as the country became materiallyaffluent in relatively short time since after WWII when mass consumption culture wasintroduced, mainly from the U.S.A. and won over people’s hearts.
17

Kazuo YASUHARA (1935~), a journalist-turned-economist, traces the roots of this‘spirit of being satisfied with one’s present condition’ to the teachings of Buddhism andof Laozi, the founder of Taoism (Note 3). Also, Yasuhara notes that the importance ofbeing happy with the present is also emphasized in some classic literary works
including Ojoyoshu (The Teachings Essential for Rebirth, 985) (Note 4) by GENSHIN(924~1017), a monk of Tendai Buddhism and Yojokun: Japanese Secrets to Good Health(Note 4), written by KAIBARA Ekiken (or Ekken, 1630~1714). Kaibara, who played an
active role in teaching ethics during the middle of the Edo period, wrote the book when
he was 84 years old.
Moreover, Koji NAKANO wrote at the beginning of his book, Taru Wo Shiru: Jisoku

Shite Ikiru Yorokobi (Learning to be Content: The Joy of Self-sufficient Life, 2004, Asahi
Shimbun Company):
It has become evident that the ways of life in the 20th century built upon theillusion of production and consumption of goods, acquisition and possession of
goods and never-ending progress of science and technology, by themselves, did notbring happiness to people. People, I believe, are searching for a principle thatdiffers from an endless desire for more things or ceaseless pursuit of comfort andconvenience. One such alternative principle in my opinion is seeking ways to becontent with what one has got. Beyond mere curbing of desires, this is a means bywhich we are able to reach a far deeper sense of fulfillment in life.
Nakano notes further that, “Perhaps, learning to be content could be the most importantand central virtue in life for people on this earth in the 21st century.”
The idea of learning to be content was also mentioned in instructions for merchants inthe old days. ISHIDA Baigan (1685-1744), a business leader in the Edo period, launcheda school of thought called Sekimon Shingaku (The Study of Heart by Sekimon), in which
he preached the way of the merchants. He claimed that a merchant should keep thebare minimum profits to sustain himself and his family, and keep business running.
He taught that the key to continue sustainable business is not to make a great gain but
learning ways to reach true contentment.
The first full-scale book on agriculture in Japan titled Nogyo Zensho (Complete Book on

Agriculture, written by agricultural scientist, MIYAZAKI Yasusada, 1697) discusses theneed to stockpile food supplies and lead a frugal life as a provision against poor harvest18

and other contingencies. Also, the book Uyo Shuhoku Suidoroku (Book on River andLand of Uyo Shuhoku [Akita Region]), mentioned earlier, notes that people should
refrain from excess logging to sustain rice farming and cautions against overexploitationof marine resources that could lead to huge loss for the nation.
The common thread running through all these thoughts stresses that it is the ‘wisdom ofcontentment’ that leads to a society’s sustainability. As we have seen, the spirit ofcontentment has been a source of wisdom of sustainability in Japan both from aphilosophical perspective and also in real life. In fact, it could provide a very importantlesson in the ethics of building a sustainable world in the 21st century.

1.3.4.IDEA OF REINCARNATION AND THE CYCLE OF LIFE ROOTED IN SOCIETY
The circular nature of all life is a notion profoundly familiar to the Japanese, withtelltale signs marking the passing of time and seasons. In spring, cherry blossoms
bloom in all their glory and in summer, cicadas buzz as rice and wheat produce berries.
When the autumn comes, people enjoy the joy of harvest, the chirps of insects in thegrasses and the change of the colors of leaves. Then the cold winter wind comes as thesnow dances and whirls. Thus the four seasons in rich diversity come and go. Indeed,
these changes of the seasons and the phases of the moon must have inculcated into theJapanese mind the concept that everything circulates with regularity. It is true thatchanges of the seasons and the phases of the moon in one way or another can beobserved in many other countries as well; nonetheless, the Japanese have harboredremarkably delicate and deep sensitivities in the perception of such changes, whichfound their way into literary and artistic expressions and etched in people’s daily lives.
In Japan, these transitions were perceived not only as relating to nature but also to thedeath of humans and all living creatures. What happens after death has been an
overwhelming subject of interest for people of all ages and places. In the old days, theprevailing idea among the Japanese was of reincarnation, the idea that one is reborn
after death, and as a result, people go back and forth between this world and theafterworld.
Takeshi UMEHARA identified this concept of the cyclical nature of life in Iomante(literally, to send something/someone off) , the traditional brown bear sacrifice ceremony(designed to “send off the bear” to thank the bear deity for providing bearskin and meat)of the Ainu:

19

The thought (the eternal circulation between the afterlife and this life) reminded
me of the theory of the eternal recurrence by Friedrich Nietzche. Eternal
recurrence is a subjective belief as a desire of will, but Ainu’s Iomante is anobjective belief of the eternal return. One might suppose that this could have been
the concept common to all humankind in the age of hunter-gathers. We humans
should go back to such common beliefs where humans and animals live together
and at the same time, human life circulates like that of animals and plants. Thisis the world of truth. I just do not believe in the prevailing view of the modern
world based on the righteousness of humans playing a central and domineeringrole over other animals and plants – where that is called ‘progress.’ ( Kami To

Hotoke, Taironshu Daiikkan [Kami (Shinto God) and Buddha, the First Series ofDiscussions]).”
The idea of circulation was also rooted in the lives of people. The rebuilding of shrines
at Ise Jingu is a good example. Ise Jingu is Japan’s highest shrine honoring the Imperial
Family, dedicated to the sun goddess Amaterasu Omikami. For over 1,300 years,
wooden shrines at Ise Jingu have been rebuilt every 20 years. Ise Jingu comprises ashrine complex housing 125 individual shrines including the Inner Shrine, the Outer
Shrine and the Exceptional Shrine, and all buildings are replaced at different times (notall together) every 20 years. ‘Chairs for the gods’ and other religious items said tonumber close to 1,600 are also remade at this time. Altogether more than 10,000
cypress trees are used for the renovation of these buildings and artifacts, which aresupplied entirely by the forests managed by Ise Jingu. Old building materials are
efficiently reused, and nothing is discarded. It is a miracle that such an event has been
continued every 20 years for such a long time in a self-sufficient way, literally
incorporating the idea of circulation in the recycling of shrine buildings. This
rejuvenation process has helped to conserve forest resources and preserve and pass on
the traditional arts and crafts along with associated cultural traditions.
Furthermore, it is considered that the rebuilding process at Ise Shrine is based on
Shinto teachings of eternal rejuvenation as expressed in sayings: “Petals fall after bloom,
but the flowers remain intact,” or “After blooming proudly and beautifully in spring,cherry blossoms fall to the ground but the bloom will come again in the following year
and over and over. In the same way, the human body would eventually decay over time
but the soul is eternal.”

20

It should also be noted that the concept of the cyclical nature of life has taken root in theheart of craftsmen who have kept traditions alive. Tsunekazu NISHIOKA (1908~1995),
a well-known shrine/temple master builder described in his book:
A tree is not a material object; it has a life of its own, nurtured by Mother Nature,
just as we humans. Trees and humans are both part of nature. My work as acarpenter is to have a good talk with these trees to hear their silent voices and toturn them into another life form called building. Architecture, as you know, is acollaborative work between the life forces of humans and those of trees. People in
the Asuka period knew this very well. (Ki No Inochi Ki No Kokoro [Ten] (The Lifeof Tree, the Heart of Tree [Heaven]), 1993, Soshisha Publishing Co. Ltd.)The idea of circulation can also be found in the Edo period, which is known to havedeveloped a culture based on thorough recycling. For instance, old kimono and clothes
were distributed through secondhand clothing stores. People wore used yukata (lightcotton summer kimono) as night clothes, and when it was tattered, cut it up for use asdiapers, and then as rags.

Torn rags were burned so that the ash could be used as

fertilizer. Besides secondhand clothing stores, there were also many different types oftrades that recycled goods; general repairers, bamboo pipe-stem dealers repairing
tobacco pipes; lock repair; hoop dealers changing the hoops of wooden bathtubs; abacus
repair; tinsmiths mending pots and pans. Thus everything was used right till the end oflife, and there was even a market where bits and pieces collected here and there weretraded. As a result, there were a extremely few things that ended up as garbage – forinstance, sludge from the drain and surplus soil, roof tiles and fragments of earthen
wares at the burned-out sites after a fire. This may explain why the streets of Edo wereso clean.
Moreover, the wisdom of recycling was exercised in agriculture as well. For example,
farming villages collected human waste as an important source of fertilizer. Farms
near Edo (Tokyo) had high production efficiency, as farmers in these villages could takeadvantage of the huge human manure resources that were produced in close proximity.
In turn, they were able to sell their produce right away in the mass-consumption societyof Edo, completing the mechanism of circulation. A book on agriculture titled Aizu

Nosho (The Aizu [present Fukushima Prefecture] Book of Agriculture) details someingenuous methods to secure the necessary fertilizer for farm production by utilizing
just about any waste from everyday life and livestock farming. The section on how tobuild a toilet explains ways to construct one so as to fully utilize the human waste fromthe farmer’s own household, eliminating the need to purchase human manure from21

external sources. This is an excellent example of the wisdom of sustainability:
integrating farm production with household activities to recycle materials internallyand minimize input from outside.
Such Buddhist notions of the cycle of life are believed to be behind the effective use of
scarce resources to support life in the Edo period.

1.3.5.HARMONY AND CONTINUITY OF FAMILY, COMMUNITY AND SOCIETY
SHOTOKU Taishi (Prince SHOTOKU, 574~622), a regent and politician of the Imperial
Court who established the foundation of Japanese culture, declared in the first article ofhis Seventeen-Article Constitution enacted in the year 604: “Harmony is to be valued,
and an avoidance of wanton opposition to be honored.” The era in which SHOTOKUTaishi lived had its share of violent confrontations as all his family members were killedby political enemies after his death. If for that reason alone, SHOTOKU Taishi
provides an especially poignant lesson in the importance of harmony for the Japanese.
For more than 1,400 years since the first constitution was enacted, his teaching has
stayed alive in the hearts of Japanese people, etched in memory like DNA.
Similar ideas were advocated by OKAKURA Tenshin (1862~1913), the Japanese scholar
who contributed to the development of arts in his book written in English, The Book of

Tea (1903):
The average Westerner was wont to regard Japan as barbarous while she indulged
in the gentle arts of peace: he calls her civilised since she began to commit
wholesale slaughter on Manchurian battlefields. Much comment has been given
lately to the Code of the Samurai,——the Art of Death which makes our soldiers
exult in self-sacrifice; but scarcely any attention has been drawn to Teaism, which
represents so much of our Art of Life. Fain would we remain barbarians, if ourclaim to civilisation were to be based on the gruesome glory of war. Fain would
we wait the time when due respect shall be paid to our art and ideals.
Tenshin’ reiterated this argument in his book The Awakening of Japan (1904).
Furthermore, Buddhist philosopher Hajime NAKAMURA (1912~1999) described in his
book, Nihonjin No Shii Hoho (Ways of Thinking of Eastern People) that Japanese people
have a strong tendency to esteem social nexus:

22

Among the objective causes which might account for such a tendency in theJapanese people…people living on rice inevitably have to settle permanently in one
place. (snip) In such a society individuals are closely bound to each other. This
helped to forge intuitive understanding among people, establishing a form ofunderstanding and expression that blends in an emotional and sentimental
atmosphere.
The Japanese have learned to attach unduly heavy importance to their social ties
in disregard of the isolated individual (Nihonjin No Shii Hoho (Ways of Thinking ofEastern People [Classics of Modern Japanese Thoughts and Culture] , 1948).
Such a spirit of valuing harmony and continuity of social units formed the foundation ofpeople’s life. The oya system is one such example. The oya of the Edo period was akeeper of rental houses and also a caretaker of apartment residents in charge ofstreet-level administration and judicial system. These caretakers were stationed at theguard house set up at the entrance of an alley. As a trusted and familiar figure amongresidents, oya helped in settling disputes among people and gave out pieces of advice.
Moreover, oya also managed a reserve in the form of “community expense,” and asystem of mutual assistance was established centering around the oya in terms offinancial aspects as well. In the absence of powerful bureaucratic organizations, thiscommunity mechanism functioned effectively based on the Japanese people’s respect for
harmony.
The city of Edo (Tokyo) had another mechanism of mutual cooperation in the form of afire fighting group called “Iroha 48 Fire Brigade,” initially organized by private citizens.
In addition, there was an atmosphere of communal childcare as the whole community
celebrated the arrival of a newborn baby and residents helped each other out inchildcare as well as in other affairs.
At the same time, although it is true that the feudal system of the Edo imposed various
constraints on people, people in those days took over their family’s business and carriedout their given responsibility in society, which made it possible for people to live inpeace and harmony by helping one another. In other words, the way of living within
one’s means helped to maintain a spirit of wa (harmony). It should be noted that under
the Shogunate system and the national isolation policy, citizens basically were notpermitted to travel freely from one place to another. An expert in various fields of
medicine, Gen OOI (1935~) termed Japan a “closed society” as fundamentally different
from the open societies of the West. People in the Edo period were most probably

23

aware that the only way to ensure the continuity of their society and living was to live
together in harmony within the limited occupational choices and the given space.
On the other hand, signs revealing the fact that utmost importance was placed on thecontinuity of social units can be identified in the bushido (samurai code) spirit, which
served as the backbone of the Shogunate system. When we consider that a sustainable
society cannot be achieved in the presence of internal conflict, it is evident that thesustenance of individuals or society could be at stake without harmony and emphasis on
the continuity of social units. People in the Edo period probably were aware of thisthrough their experience in the long years of civil wars.

1.3.6.FREEDOM OF SPIRITThe Edo period often provokes the image of oppressed people under a feudalistic regime.
In reality, however, there seemed to have been quite a bit of freedom allowed in
education, arts and literature. Indeed, the regime strictly imposed the Shogunate
system, national isolation policy and prohibition of preaching Christianity, and did not
tolerate criticism or freedom of assembly pertaining to such national policies.
Nevertheless, studies show that there was much room for free speech as long as one did
not touch on these government policies.
The Edo era produced numerous masters and luminaries in art, literature and learning
including kabuki, bunraku, novels, haiku and tanka. The vigorous creative andartistic spirit may be attributed to the flexible education and apprenticeship system,
tailored to the regional characteristics or the future occupation and needs of the student.
Instructions were designed to teach the basic knowledge required of members in thatparticular community or domain. Also, it is thought that thorough education inreading, teaching and arithmetic (abacus) prepared the ground for many students toenjoy literature.
Moreover, as a characteristic of the Edo period worth noting, people in those days took akeen interest in ingenuous and elaborate handicrafts and devices as well as wazan, theunique old system of Japanese mathematics. The ingenuity of wazan probably served
to add another dimension to the Japanese mentality with well-developed sensibilities inliterature and the emotional domain. These sensibilities are thought to have nurtured
the strength for the Japanese to understand and absorb, or to stand face to face with,
the Western civilization of science and technology that poured into the country from theWest after the Meiji Restoration. This force may have functioned as a springboard by24

which the nation overcame numerous difficulties that accompanied the introduction ofWestern civilization.
Hajime NAKAMURA described the spirituality of the Japanese in his aforementioned
book:
The Japanese are willing to accept the phenomenal world as Absolute because of
their disposition to lay a greater emphasis upon intuitive sensible concrete events.
Just as Japanese are apt to accept external and objective nature as it is, so they are
inclined to accept man's natural desires and sentiments as they are, and not tostrive to repress or fight against them (Nihonjin No Shii Hoho (Ways of Thinking ofEastern People [Classics of Modern Japanese Thoughts and Culture] , 1948).
Nakamura says that on the other hand, the “Japanese manifest more of the spirit oftolerance and conciliation,” and their emphasis on the reality has enriched theirmaterial and artistic life. He also notes that the Japanese have “intuitive andemotional tendencies” as manifested in literary and artistic expressions, while they do
not like “complicated, structural thinking” or abstract or metaphysical speculation.
The philosopher Toshio YOKOYAMA points out:
The term bunmei (civilization) means to ‘illuminate in rich diversity.’ A stable,
enduring society can be found in many instances, even in the Stalinist Russia.
However, a sustainable society must be one that offers positive insights andhappiness.
Freedom of thought and expression is an integral and important element of asustainable society and civilization. It was this freedom that enabled people of the Edoto establish a sustainable society.

1.3.7.ANCESTOR WORSHIP TO ENSURE THE CONTINUITY OF LIFE
The Japanese attitude towards ancestor worship, which has continued since the Jomon
era and fortified by Shintoism, is another critical point in the study of sustainability. If
we assume that humans are reborn as humans or as another form of life after death, abelief that vividly exemplifies the essence of ‘sustainability,’ then it is only natural for
us to show respect to our ancestors – parents and grandparents who brought us into thisworld.

While Japanese people have lost many of the traditional virtues, their attitude
25

towards ancestor worship seems to have continued intact to this day. Even today,
many Japanese people go back to their hometowns to get together with their families
and friends and to visit family graves during the bon (observance for the spirits of thedead in summer) period and the New Year. It illustrates in concrete form the heart ofancestor worship that dates back to the Jomon Era.
Tetsuo YAMAORI, a scholar on religious studies, argues in his book that the ethnic
Buddhism that equates the dead with the soul and with Buddha has captured thehearts of the masses. According to Yamaori, Japanese Buddhism traces its roots to a
combination of primitive worship in kami (god) in the Jomon era, belief in the spirits as
exemplified in the Manyoshu, the earliest collection of Japanese poetry, and Pure Land
Buddhism:
I noted earlier that Japanese Buddhism is characterized by the notable influence ofmushi, or nothingness to the point of transcending the self. It was the worship ofancestors and remains that have supported Japanese Buddhism at the grass-roots
level. People believed that their path to mushi lies in leading a prudent, humble
life in the presence of ancestors. Similarly, they were convinced that the soul ofancestors dwelt in their remains and ancestors watched over those living in thisworld (Buddha Wa Naze Kowo Sutetaka (Why Did Buddha Abandon Children? ),2006, Shueisha Publishing Inc.).
Refuting the argument that ancestor worship amounted to ethnic religion devoid of theessence of Buddhism, Yamaori maintains, “to the contrary, it (ancestor worship) was an
indispensable quality that helped Buddhism to survive in Japan.”
Another important point is that people have carefully passed down the wisdom of theirpredecessors. For example, the techniques of shrine and temple carpenters werepassed on strictly by the word of mouth from the master to apprentices and nevercommitted to paper.

Yasuo NAKAYAMA, an education critic and expert on Shinto,notes:
If the techniques are written down and compiled into a manual, they would
inevitably be revised and corrected for convenience’s sake or to suit the occasion.
However, the techniques and methods communicated by the word of mouth would
be passed on from person to person without any revision and preserved intact
forever.

26

He added that this is the wisdom unique to Japanese people.

Thus, as an important element in the wisdom of sustainability in Japan, the Japanese
have maintained the continuity of life and society and handed down everyday
knowledge and skills by worshipping ancestors and predecessors under the influence of
Buddhism, Shinto, the Confucian idea of respect for elders and belief in reincarnation
described in 1.3.4.

1.3.8.EDUCATION AND NURTURING OF FUTURE GENERATIONS
During the Edo period, not only the educational institutions such as terakoya, hanschools and private schools, but also the communities and worksites provided places forlearning designed to foster the next generation. This enabled continued education as
people in every class were given an opportunity to learn at various places, in spite of the
feudal system. This proves that people in the Edo period were aware of the utmost
importance of education and fostering the future generations in maintaining asustainable society. Unlike the present time, opportunities to move up to higher social
classes through education were almost nonexistent in the Edo period. For this reason,
learning was free from the negative influences of competition. The relationshipbetween teachers and students was not built on money or interests, nor was it affectedby the monetary economy. In other words, education occupied a secure position as afoundation for cultivating people, with less distraction by other social factors.
Apart from school education, the people of Edo were dedicated to affectionate childcare,as illustrated in a travel record, Japan Day by Day, written by Edward S. MORSE(1838-1925):
It is a remarkable sight to see four women out of five, and five children out of six,
lugging babies upon their backs.
Thus far I have never seen the slightest sign of impatience on the part of themother. I believe Japan is the only nation in the world that yields so much to thebabies, or in which the babies are so good.
In addition, at the apartments in the Edo period, it is said that an environment ofmutual assistance in the neighborhood was established. For instance, when a woman
became pregnant she would wear a maternity belt by way of tacit announcement, andresidents would celebrate the event and help her out by giving advice. In an era of highinfant mortality rates, children aged six and younger were in fact treasured as27

“messengers of God.” It was a culture where not only the parents but the whole
neighborhood got together to celebrate the birth of a child and extended the very bestcare for the newborn baby.
It is evident that the sustainability of society and people in the Edo period was
supported by solid confidence in education and its values and the custom of communal
responsibilities to childcare.

Explanatory Notes[Note 1]
Notes on Hojoki (Vision of a Torn World) , 1212, Author: KAMO NO Chomei (1155~1216)
There is a famous line written in this book: “Sore Sangai Wa Tada Kokoro HitotsuNari,” meaning: “In this world where all living things live and move, reality depends
upon your mind alone” (translation referred to the same title translated by Yasuhiko
MORIGUCHI and David JENKINS, Stone Bridge Press, 1996).
[Note 2]
Notes on Tsurezuregusa (Essays in Idleness) , 1330, Author: YOSHIDA Kenko (Approx.
1283~approx. 1350)
Regarding the abovementioned book, NAKANO wrote: Tsurezuregusa has been popularamong Japanese people like Essais (Essays) by Michel Eyquem de MONTAIGNE since
it was published, and it is a classic work that greatly influenced Japanese taste andreasoning. Kenko described that it was a foolish thing to be governed by a desire forfame, status and profit and to fret away one’s whole life without a moment of peace(translation referred to the same title translated by Donald KEENE, Columbia
University Press, 1967). His idea drew renewed attention during the Edo period, andhas since significantly influenced the way of life of the Japanese.

Kenko drewattention to the foolishness of people who were interested in only making money. The
contemporary equivalent of such a trait in modern times would be constantly
purchasing the latest, new products—a car or a house--as soon as they are put on themarket. It is the same thing and such ideas of Kenko touch our hearts anew.

28

[Note 3]
YASUHARA explained in his book, Taru Wo Shiru Keizai: Bukkyo Shiso De Tsukuru 21

Seiki To Nihon (Economics of Contentment: Creating 21st Century and Japan by
Buddhist Concepts) , November 2000, The Mainichi Newspapers), that there are two
major sources that established the idea of being content in the minds of Japanese people.
One is the teachings of Buddhism, as he quotes the following words from Buddha No

Kotoba (Sutta Nipāta ed. Hajime NAKAMURA, 1984) which refers to early Buddhist
scriptures:“With no greed, no deceit, no thirst, no hypocrisy—delusion and blemishes blownaway—with no inclinations for all the world, every world, wander alone likea rhinoceros. (1.3. A Rhinoceros Horn, The Snake Chapter)”“Contented and easy to support, with few duties, living lightly, with peaceful faculties,
masterful, modest, and no greed for supporters. (1.8. The Discourse on Loving Kindness,
The Snake Chapter)”“Stomach not full, moderate in food, having few wants, not being greedy, always nothankering after desire: one without hankering, is one who's unbound. (3.11. To Nalaka,
The Great Chapter)
Another source cited by YASUHARA is the teachings of Laozi, the founder of Taosim
who lived in the 4th century BC. The following words are quoted from Tao Te Ching :“Those who know others are intelligent; those who know themselves are truly wise.
Those who master others are strong; those who master themselves have true power.
Those who know they have enough are truly wealthy. Those who persist will reach theirgoal. (Chapter 33)”“… true wealth requires greater loss. Knowing when you have enough avoids dishonor,
and knowing when to stop will keep you from danger and bring you a long, happy life.
(Chapter 44)”
“There is no greater transgression than condoning people’s selfish desires, no greater
disaster than being discontent, and no greater retribution than for greed. Whoever
knows contentment will be at peace forever. (Chapter 46)”

29

YASUHARA especially drew attention to the point of “Those who know they haveenough are truly wealthy,” and added his interpretation: “This does not mean to bearwith life in a halfhearted way. It rather means that he who conquers his lust and knowsthat he is content with modesty is truly wealthy. In other words, it is a concept that one
could enrich the mind and could lead a full life only when he accomplishes victory over
his selfish greed and when he becomes aware of this.”[Note 4]
About the two works by KAIBARA Ekiken (1630~1714)
Koji NAKANO introduced in his book, Taru Wo Shiru: Jisoku Shite Ikiru Yorokobi(Learning to be Content: The Joy of Self-sufficient Life , 2004, Asahi Shinbun Company),
the concept of learning to be content as proposed by KAIBARA Ekiken in his Yojokun:
Japanese Secrets to Good Health (1713). He translated Ekiken’s words into modern
speech: “You should leave off an appetite with any delicacy you might find. If you eat tothe fullest until you get tired of eating, an evil will fall upon you afterward. If you cancontrol your craving for a while, you can avoid such a trouble later on. The taste may be
the same as when you eat little or eat in excess, but you cannot harm yourself bycontrolling the quantity of food you consume. Anything in excess is sure to invite trouble.
Pay particular attention to avoid eating and drinking to full stomach. If everyone canrefrain himself in the beginning, nothing evil would happen to him.”
NAKANO’s other comments on Ekiken’s idea: “Ekiken argues that overeating would
invite trouble, rather than nourish the body, although foods are essential to the humanbody. We need to go back to this basic philosophy of Ekiken. People today should bearin mind his warning: ‘Anything in excess is sure to invite trouble.’ Also, overeating
makes it difficult to truly appreciate the taste. Ekiken repeatedly said in the book that if
you let the craving of mouth and stomach take over and eat whatever you want, you
would go beyond the limits and damage your health and eventually suffer from various
diseases and ruin your life.”
In a similar fashion, NAKANO introduces KAIBARA Ekiken’s Rakukun (Principles of

Enjoyment) in modern speech: “Everyone is equipped with this intrinsic sense ofenjoyment. Therefore, unless you are driven by personal greed, the enjoyment is always
there, no matter what time or where you are. This enjoyment derives from essential
human nature, and not from external sources. The five senses of touch, taste, hearing,eyesight and smell offer you enjoyment whatever you do when they come in touch withexternal sources, as long as you are not steeped in greed. This happens because your30

enjoyment is not based on things outside yourself. The joy does not arise as a result of
the mind coming in touch with external sources to draw joyous energy. Rather, thehuman mind is fundamentally endowed with inner, innate joy, and that joy is energizedupon coming in contact with and help of the outside world.”
In reference to Ekiken’s description, NAKANO explained: “Personal greed mentioned in
Ekiken’s book refers to overeating delicious food, drinking too much alcohol,
overindulging in sexual desires and partying around until late at night. Ekiken
considered that over-fulfilling one’s greed could be the worst culprit for draining one’s
energy. Ekiken believed in controlling greed, liberating the physical and mental
outlook and coming in contact with nature to attain true joy.”31