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A Pathway for a Nature-Harmonious Society
Masataka WATANABE
Graduate School of Media and Governance, Keio University
5322 Endo, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 252-0882, Japane-mail: masawata@sfc.keio.ac.jp

Abstract
An assessment of ecosystem services provided by the satoyama and satoumi has revealed that the value of
regulating services has been enhanced more sharply than that of provisioning services. This study has analyzed thepossibility and effectiveness of restoring provisioning and regulating services provided by the satoyama andsatoumi based on the following four policy options for their regeneration: (1) environmental stewardship, (2)branding, (3) double habitation and (4) enhancement of knowledge and awareness, as well as nurturing of newbearers. This is the first attempt to integrate a natural scientific assessment of benefits brought to human society by
the satoyama and satoumi with a socioeconomic assessment of the same in order to demonstrate specific policy
options and their effectiveness with regard to a pathway to reconstruction of a nature-harmonious society.
An environmental stewardship policy would be effective in the conservation and utilization of the satoyama
and satoumi and would additionally generate a high return on investment, therefore payment for ecosystem services
would be effective in the restoration of the satoyama and satoumi. Increased brand value of domestic agricultural
products has changed consumers’ preference from imported agricultural products to domestic agricultural products,
thus indicating that this would also be effective in the conservation and utilization of the satoyama and satoumi. It
has been revealed that a double habitation policy would be likely to increase the interchange population on thecondition that employment, shopping areas, improved medical systems, inexpensive housing and minimum income
were ensured and that the region were located near an urban area within an hour by car. This study has also clarified
the effectiveness of a policy of utilizing and maintaining ecosystem services as a new type of commons shared bycommunity members rather than through legally reinforced protection of the satoyama and satoumi. To assess thevalue of the satoyama and satoumi, all capital elements (produced capital, human capital, natural capital and social
capital) must be taken into account. This study has concluded that the incorporation of such a comprehensive value
into a development and educational system would allow urban inhabitants with no direct connection to thesatoyama and satoumi to become more aware of the social value of these ecosystems, exerting effectiveness in theirrestoration.
Key words: satoumi, satoyama, nature-harmonious society, new commons ecosystem service

1. Introduction
The world population reached 7 billion people in2011. How to ensure and distribute water, food and energy to support this population has posed a more andmore critical global challenge. On the other hand, inJapan, a low birth rate combined with an increase in life
expectancy has accelerated the decrease in populationand the aging of the society. The Japanese agricultural,
forestry and fisheries industries are important in generating ecosystem services. However, they are likely to be
exposed to fiercer international competition due to theconstantly decreasing domestic workforce and otherfactors such as trade liberalization in the future. Furthermore, the Great East Japan Earthquake on March 11,2011 had a devastating impact on ecosystem services in
the Tohoku region, which was one of the important foodcenters (agricultural and marine resource supplying
Global Environmental Research
16/2012: 221-229
printed in Japan

areas) for Japan. Under these conditions, a scientificmethod is urgently required for making effective use ofnatural resources without impairing the value of the biodiversity or the ecosystems.
In Japan, the satoyama and satoumi have maintained
a certain level of sustainable use of biological resources
through community-based management and maintenancerooted in local culture, including traditional knowledge
and conventions. Currently, in Japan, satoyama ecosystems have suffered from an accelerating degradation of
the quality of their ecosystem services attributed to lackof maintenance. Not only has this resulted from direct
factors regarding the decline in satoyama provisioning
services, but it has also been significantly influenced by
the collapse of village communities in mountainous areas
due to depopulation and an aging society as well as theweakening of village communities near urban areas, suchas that caused by the extinction of traditional culture. In©2012 AIRIES222

M. WATANABE

order to reconstruct a mechanism for maintaining andrestoring the public functions of the satoyama andsatoumi, it is necessary to make natural scientific assessment of these ecosystems. In addition, there is a need for
an appropriate evaluation of the cultural value of thesatoyama and satoumi as well as the social value for local
communities in designing a system as a new commons.
In other words, it is imperative to integrate a naturalscientific assessment of benefits brought to human society by the traditional satoyama and satoumi with a cultural and social assessment, including economic andcultural values, to present a pathway to the reconstructionof a nature-harmonious society.

2. Satoyama, Satoumi, and a New Commons
The research project “Ecosystem Services Assessment of Satoyama, Satochi, and Satoumi to Identify a
New Commons for a Nature-Harmonious Society,” supported by the Environment Research and Technology
Development Fund of the Ministry of the Environment,
was carried out jointly by the United Nations University
Institute of Advanced Studies, the National Institute forEnvironmental Studies, Yokohama National University,
the University of Tokyo, and the Research Institute for
Humanity and Nature. This paper reviews the concept of“satoyama” and “satoumi” discussed in various research
activities in the project and summarizes current issues
that underscore the necessity for redesign of the system
as a new commons, then it discusses the possibility ofapplying major policy options derived from a comprehensive assessment of satoyama and satoumi ecosystemservices. This paper also explores what the ideal newcommons for a nature-harmonious society should be.
2.1 Definition of “satoyama” and “satoumi”
The definitions of “satoyama” and “satoumi” vary
greatly depending on the social background at each point
in time being considered. On the other hand, the Japan
Satoyama Satoumi Assessment (JSSA) has discussed
existing definitions to arrive at a uniform definition.
Based on this examination, the JSSA defines satoyama
and satoumi landscapes as “dynamic mosaics of managed
socio-ecological systems producing a bundle of ecosystem services for human well-being” (Duraiappah,
et al., 2012a). Particularly, through this assessment, the
JSSA has focused on the satoyama and satoumi as
long-lasting traditions associated with land (satoyama)
and more recently coastal (satoumi) management
practices, and concluded that these traditions used toenable the sustainable management of satoyama andsatoumi resources, thus representing a historical modelfor environmental stewardship and resource managementthat has contributed to human well-being (Japan
Satoyama Satoumi Assessment, 2010). The JSSA’s
definition can be considered useful in discussing policies
regarding land use and environmental management in thesatoyama and satoumi based on an assessment of
ecosystem services. Therefore, this paper discusses thesatoyama and satoumi in accordance with the definition
suggested by the JSSA.
2.2 The Satoyama and Satoumi as a commons, andtheir history
The satoyama and satoumi are considered to be
traditional commons that were formed historically in
local communities in a way that ensured a certain degreeof sustainable relationship between humans and nature.
The concept of “commons” is ambiguous. The commonsoriginated in pre-modern ownership of local resources.
Currently, a commons includes the use and managementof local resources linked to local communities such as thesea, forests and rivers as well as the local resources included therein, the inhabitants primarily using andmanaging those resources, and the normative social systems underlying the use and management of theresources (Uegaki, 2006). Japanese traditional management methods such as common ownership and water
usage rights in satoyama areas as well as fishing rights insatoumi areas were maintained in the local commons(Japan Satoyama Satoumi Assessment – Kanto-Chubu
Cluster, 2010). The satoyama represents a typical modelin which continuous human activities in Japanese traditional “common areas” have nurtured unique ecosystems.
It is also referred to as “ecosystems formed throughhuman activities” (Tabeta, 1990).
In the system of traditional commons, natural resources of the satoyama were managed in a sustainable
manner by communities and through restrictions on use
enforced by those communities. This system continued
from the middle ages to the modern age, although collapse has occurred in some regions due to the emergenceof bare hills resulting from the exploitive use of natural
resources since the Edo era. Since the Meiji era, the increase in purchased fertilizer and chemical fertilizer has
led to a decline in the use of grassy and wooded hills
where green manure was produced. Grassy and wooded
hills have been replaced with artificial conifer forests.
Economic growth brought demand for building materials,
and additionally, the Tohoku region contributed to anincrease in demand for railroad ties during constructionof the nationwide rail network. In many mountainous
areas, development projects were promoted and mountains were rapidly replaced with artificial forests (Japan
Satoyama Satoumi Assessment – Tohoku Cluster, 2010).
Moreover, due to supply shortages during the war in theearly 1900s and the post-war restoration construction
rush, the Hokushinetsu region also experienced destructive forest logging. For example, in Ishikawa Prefecture
immediately after the war bare hills comprised an area of
15,000 ha (Ishikawa Prefecture Forestry History Compilation Committee, 1997). However, during the Meiji era,in the Tohoku region, there was great demand for charcoal as a fuel source indispensable for people’s daily life.
For this reason, charcoal burning spread as an important
income source over satoyama areas across the Tohoku
region. In addition, hunting and wild vegetable collection
were conducted for livelihood. Thus, people constantly

A Pathway for a Nature-Harmonious Society

went to the satoyama and okuyama (wilderness mountains) to utilize mountain and forest resources (Japan
Satoyama Satoumi Assessment – Tohoku Cluster, 2010).
In Suzu, located on the Noto peninsula, salt production,
diatomite processing, Japanese roof tile manufacturing,and coal mining industries were inherited. To provide
fuel for these industries, low broadleaf trees were logged
and used from red pine forests in satoyama areas. This
helped in cyclical management of red pine forests, consequently forming a secondary natural environment(Japan Satoyama Satoumi Assessment – Hokushinetsu
Cluster, 2010).
Since the post-war 1950s and 1960s, drastic satoyama
degradation has accelerated. For example, in order toaddress lumber demand due to industrialization, a large
number of cedar and Japanese cypress trees were planted
temporarily. Subsequently, however, this forestry business was overwhelmed by lumber imports. A similartendency was observed in regard to agricultural products,
particularly those of lakes. As a result, many artificial
forests were abandoned. It is not too much to say thatsuch a large amount of imported agricultural and marine
products and the increase in urban population have
driven the deterioration of the agricultural and forestry
industries. In addition, the increase in imports has unexpectedly introduced intrusive alien species into Japanthrough trade activities, resulting in changes to ecosystems. Furthermore, post-war economic growth hassignificantly changed the Japanese lifestyle. Westernized
food culture has decreased the consumption of rice,which is essential for Japanese food. Adjustment of riceproduction has reduced the utilization of rice paddies.
Looking at products other than food, firewood charcoal
has been replaced with oil and natural gas (the energy
revolution). This impact was so enormous that firewood
forests have declined in the satoyama. Moreover, economic growth and a decline in the agricultural, forestry
and fisheries industries have forced inhabitants in agricultural villages to engage in other forms of commerce
and industry. This has led to a localized decrease in population and the aging of society in agricultural villages,
making the management of mountains, forests, rice paddies and fields difficult. This phenomenon has rapidly
expanded, particularly in inconvenient locations.
For the satoumi, conventional rules and practices
conducted until the Edo era were inherited under the
Fisheries Act enacted in 1901, in the Meiji era. After that,organizations such fisheries cooperative associations
managed exclusive rights to fish and fishing grounds.
Analysis of a list of maps of exclusive rights to fish andfishing ground archived in the Fisheries Research
Agency has revealed that at that time, a total of 5,489
rights were registered and that there were a number offisheries cooperative associations. However, as of 2011,
the number had drastically decreased to 24% of thenumber in the Meiji era due to the consolidation andabolishment of fisheries cooperative associations. In
addition, this analysis has also indicated that various
types of resources were collected and utilized, including

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marine products such as dugongs, green turtles andsandworms in the Meiji era. Fishing for agricultural
fertilizer production was also widely carried out(Akimichi, 2012). In particular, focusing on changes inthe satoumi after the post-war 1950s or 1960s, economic
growth combined with technological advancement led to
an increase in marine production initially. However, inthe longer term, a decrease in marine resources due tooverfishing, combined with stagnation of the Japanesefishing industry, has resulted in a decline in marine
production. Moreover, rapid industrialization has
resulted in a loss of beaches that were once used forrecreation and traditional fishing activities. Although
there has been a gradual improvement in recent years,
contamination has expanded in coastal sea areas (Japan
Satoyama Satoumi Assessment, 2010). The increase inproduct imports has helped a larger number of ships enter
Japanese sea areas. Ballast water discharged from theseships has induced alien species harmful to ecosystems.
Since the 1970s, in response to the environmental
destruction and pollution that have been observed insurrounding areas, the general citizenry have become
more aware of the importance of conserving the naturalenvironment. In recent years, therapeutic and spiritualcharacteristics of the satoyama and satoumi have beenreevaluated. Through ecotourism and social initiatives
for appreciating these values, a focus has been placed on
the cultural and social aspects of the satoyama. According to an opinion poll conducted by the Cabinet Office,
Government of Japan (2008), since the 1980s, there has
been a steady and prominent increase in people who
pursue “spiritual fulfillment” rather than “material fulfillment.” Since the late 1980s, the conservation andprotection of the satoyama has drawn increasing attention. According to the Nature Conservation Society ofJapan (2002), more than 1,000 satoyama interactive projects have been carried out across Japan (e.g., natureobservation sessions by inhabitants, as well as maintenance, management and investigation of secondary forests). In reality, since the year 2000, many laws related tothe satoyama and satoumi have stipulated the participation of public citizenry (Japan Satoyama Satoumi
Assessment, 2010). Thus, in the years following the
Meiji era, the satoyama and satoumi were overused tosatisfy demand for materials deriving from a population
increase, construction and development, including thewartime goods shortage and the post-war intensive
restoration. Nevertheless, until the 1960s, when use offossil fuels and chemical fertilizers started to spread, inmany regions, people maintained their livelihood byusing satoyama and satoumi resources according to thecycles of nature. Since the 1960s, however, the usage ofdomestic natural resources has decreased, particularly
due to scientific and technological advancements, such as
the energy and fertilizer revolutions, as well as economic
globalization, significantly changing the quantity andquality of the satoyama and satoumi.
Since the 1960s, the satoyama and satoumi in Japan
have failed to maintain traditional commons, resulting

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in drastic changes to them. The primary factors andcharacteristics of the issue are as follows:a) Decline in the use of the satoyama due to theenergy revolution and fertilizer revolutions in the
1960s;b) Impairment of the market value of domestic agricultural and marine products due to imports of lowpriced agricultural and marine products throughtrade;c) Loss of motivation and economic incentives for
management of the satoyama and satoumi as theresult of a decline in the economic value of thesatoyama and satoumi;d) Population outflow from rural areas to urban areasfor new jobs and lives due to sluggish local economies in agricultural and fishing villages;e) On the other hand, since the year 2000, in parallelwith a slowdown in the Japanese economy, the general citizenry including urban inhabitants havedeveloped stronger aspirations for nature. NGO
initiatives have been actively carried out andawareness of the non-economic value of thesatoyama and satoumi has risen with increased
attention.

3. Policy Options for the Restoration of theSatoyama and Satoumi as New Commons
In order to restore satoyama and satoumi which canno longer be maintained as traditional commons, it isnecessary to resolve the issues discussed in the previous
section: a decline in the market value of the satoyama andsatoumi, a decline in incentives for management of thesatoyama and satoumi, and population outflow fromrural areas to urban areas. There is a need to establish acommon management mechanism (new commons) inwhich new stakeholders participate proactively. Currently, there is a social trend toward recognizing thenon-use value of ecosystem services and incurringconservation costs in a form such as a direct guarantee.
The future restoration of the satoyama and satoumi inJapan cannot be separated from “revitalization of livelihood.” Therefore, one important strategy will be to reinforce an economic basis by raising the willingness to pay
for the enhancement of the value of ecosystem services
that underlie livelihoods and the innovation of attractive
products. Furthermore, based on social needs emerging
among certain people such as those returning to rural
areas or aspiring to interaction with nature, it is importantto provide better knowledge and information necessary
for the future management of the satoyama and satoumi
so as to develop a new workforce. For this reason, thispaper examines the efficacy of the following policy
options with regard to the restoration of the satoyama andsatoumi: (1) environmental stewardship, (2) branding,(3) double habitation, and (4) enhancement of knowledge
and awareness, as well as nurturing of the new bearers.

3.1 Environmental Stewardship“Stewardship” means taking responsibility for
managing entrusted properties. It is also referred to as“trustee liability.” Originally, Environmental Stewardship was a basic core policy for agricultural promotion in
England. This agricultural and environmental policy
program continues to provide financial aid to farmers andlandowners who implement effective environmental
management in their lands (Department for Environment,
Food and Rural Affairs, 2005). In order to address environmental issues, Environmental Stewardship grants
rewards for effective land management. Financial resources are appropriated from tax income. In broad terms,
this concept is regarded as payment for ecosystem services, such as a direct payment scheme and a forest environmental tax. However, Environmental Stewardship
imposes more requirements than Cross Compliance(which specifies minimum obligations of farmers to receive direct payments), which is part of the EU Single
Payment Scheme (SPS). Thus, the Environmental Stewardship scheme distinguishes more effective land andenvironmental management in regions and situations
with higher priority to provide rewards (Department forEnvironment, Food and Rural Affairs, 2005; Hinsley
et al., 2010).
Water by itself represents an indicator for all ecosystem services: provisioning services (freshwater resources), regulating services (flood control, temperature
control), cultural services (recreation), and supporting
services (water cycle). Moreover, water has been considered to be a resource that should be managed in thesatoyama as an important public good (commons). For
this reason, this study quantified the value of ecosystemservices provided by the satoyama and satoumi (particularly focusing on ecosystem services provided by water)using the environmental accounting system and direct
market valuation (Okadera & Watanabe, 2012). It turned
out that the economic value of ecosystem services was
18 trillion yen in 1985, 24 trillion yen in 1995, and 31 trillion yen in 2005, indicating an increase by 1.7 times in
the 20 years from 1985. In contrast, although the percentage of the value actually paid for ecosystem services
was 14% in 1985 and 1995, it decreased to 11% in 2005,
indicating an accelerating trend toward externalizing the
economic value of ecosystem services. Since 1995,
provisioning services have not changed significantly.
Therefore, the enhancement in the economic value of
ecosystem services is greatly attributed to an increase in
the value of regulating services (flood control and temperature control). Thus, there has been an increase in theratio of the economic value of regulating services toecosystem services overall. Incorporating the importanceof regulating services is necessary when making politicaldecisions and establishing new commons across thecountry and region in the future.
This study also discusses a policy option that would
fund activities for enhancing the satoyama (Satoyama
Stewardship) with lump-sum tax payments collectedfrom households in each region (Watanabe, et al., 2012).

A Pathway for a Nature-Harmonious SocietyWith this option, the entire society would share the costsof environmental preservation. A model has been established based on the hypothesis that Satoyama Stewardship is driven by inputting labor and capital at a fixedratio and that the costs of activities are collected fromhouseholds in each region as a lump-sum tax. Further,
this study examines the following three scenarios ofsatoyama services: (1) only flood control services increase by 30%, (2) only temperature control services
increase by 30%, and (3) both services increase by 30%.
As a result, if an increase in satoyama ecosystem services
exerts a cost effectiveness of 1:4 or more, a GDP increase
and positive equivalent variation will be achieved at thesame time. This provides an optimal solution for theeffectiveness of Satoyama Stewardship to the conservation and utilization of the satoyama and satoumi as well
as for the return on investment. To sum up, the study
found that a Satoyama Stewardship policy would behighly effective in the conservation and utilization of thesatoyama and satoumi if the cost effectiveness in enhancing satoyama ecosystem services is 1:4 or more.
In order to explore an optimal land use option while
maintaining biodiversity and regulating services, thisstudy has applied the following three scenarios to a regional-scale assessment model to compare changes inbiodiversity and ecosystem services among scenarios(Okuro, et al., 2012): (1) scenario for reclaiming ricepaddies and forest areas by introducing farm animals, (2)scenario for leaving disadvantageous farmland lessintensively managed, and (3) scenario for increasing
abandoned farmland. Scenario 1 attempts proactively toutilize unused resources such as rice paddies and eliminate abandoned farmland by introducing year-round
Japanese cattle grazing as well as by using abandoned
rice paddies and forest areas as cattle feedstuff cultivationsites, including pasture grass and rice plants. Scenario 2
attempts to maintain and manage farmland resources byapplying a method for continuously maintaining farmland through annual minor work (extensive management)
to abandoned farmland at an early stage of abandonment.
Scenario 3 allows the current land use change trend, andparticularly accelerating abandoned cultivation, to continue. As a result, an example of Town M has suggested
that with Scenario 1, which attempts to reclaim rice paddies and forests to maintain a mosaic structure by introducing livestock, each element (provisioning services,
regulating services, and biodiversity) is maintained in thebest equilibrium. Therefore, in Environmental Stewardship as well, by providing incentives for management
practices that proactively encourage this type of land use,political effectiveness is anticipated.
When adding climate conditions and obtaining theratio of RDB vascular plant intensive grids per land
management type, it has been revealed that the RDB
intensive grid ratio is higher in areas with less snowfall
and that the ratio is extremely high for the “devastatedland + forest” type in these areas (Hori, et al., 2012).
Particularly, there are many marginal village grids of the“devastated land + forest” type (in areas with less snow-

225fall). If there is a possibility of the land management typechanging to another type due to the abandonment of management, ecosystem services can degrade, causing anegative impact on the entire country including downstream. It would be necessary to implement reinforced
incentives for the management of critical areas from thestandpoint of conservation of biodiversity and nationalland.
3.2 Branding
The agricultural, forestry and fisheries industries have
faced difficult situations such as sluggish local economies, a decreased workforce, the aging of society, increasing abandoned farmland, and difficult business
operations due to the impact of import liberalization. In
order to improve these issues, there have been attempts torevitalize regions and promote industries by producing
new local specialties through “high-value added agriculture,” shipping these products to external regions andpromoting sales. These initiatives aim to sell local products by distinguishing products that take advantage ofnatural and cultural features in the region from massproduced standardized goods. Across Japan, the agriculture, industry and commerce sectors have collaborated
in enthusiastically producing and developing “local
brands” or “agricultural and fisheries product brands.”
Particularly, since the 1990s, in the midst of the liberalization of agricultural and fisheries products imports aswell as price decline, consumers have strengthened theirpreference for “safety of food” and “high quality.”
Combined with this, producers have implemented many
projects to establish local brands with the objective of
increasing revenues and expanding sales channels
through various branding strategies for adding value suchas high quality, local features and special processes (e.g.,
black pigs, local chickens and organic agricultural
products) (Sato, et al., 2011). Moreover, in April 2006,
the “Local Organization Trademark Program” waslaunched to encourage initiatives for revitalizing local
economies as well as promoting and restoring local
industries through various measures. For example, thisprogram relaxes the standards for registering products orservices bearing regional names as trademarks. Local
governments have also proactively supported local
branding initiatives (Japan Center for Regional Development, 2006).
In order to discuss a branding policy for enhancing
the value and recognition of domestic agricultural products by emphasizing the location of the satoyama andsatoumi in each region, this study has focused on the
distribution of rice taste quality in Japan (Rice Taste
Analysis and Appraisal Association, 2010). While taking
into account factors determining taste quality (e.g., water
quality, climate including temperature gaps, soil resources and agricultural production technology), thisstudy has examined the relationship between riceproductivity and ecosystem services as well as therelationship between the taste quality value and the JOIN
value, which is considered to represent biodiversity

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M. WATANABE(Watanabe, et al., 2012). Through this analysis, direct
correlations between the taste quality value and the JOIN
value associated with biodiversity have not been clarified.
However, this study has quantitatively reproduced a casein which rice with a higher taste quality value is densely
distributed in areas where there is a temperature gap
between day and night according to a tradition among
rice producers. In addition, this study has simulated a risein the brand value of domestic agricultural products
based on a change in consumers’ preferences from imported agricultural products to domestic agricultural
products to assess the economic effect of a scenario related to imports of agricultural products. This simulation
has clarified that a rise in the brand value of domestic
agricultural products among consumers (change ofpreference to domestic agricultural products) would
bring significant benefits, particularly to Hokkaido,
Tohoku, Kyushu and Okinawa. Thus, it has been suggested that a domestic agricultural branding policy would
be highly effective in the conservation and utilization of
the satoyama and satoumi.
Furthermore, this study conducted a questionnaire
survey to gain insight into the public visibility of
biological (environmental) branded agricultural products
and to obtain quantitative data regarding additional
willingness to pay for branded agricultural products(Yumoto, et al., 2012). The results of this survey indicated that brand awareness of biological (environmental)
agricultural products depended on environmental
knowledge and that most people would accept an additional charge for a brand by up to 20% of the market price,although approximately 30% of people would refuse
such an additional payment.
In contrast with product brands developed for general
goods that aim to increase corporate revenues, the purposes of a local brand include the revitalization of a local
economy and improvement of inhabitants’ satisfaction
with their lifestyle. This point sheds light on the importance of focusing on social capital, natural capital andeconomy in generating a value (adding a high value) for
maintaining and restoring the multifaceted functions of
the satoyama and satoumi in order to ensure that an
appropriate price is paid to the party who generates thevalue. Thus, it is important to ensure the following basic
conditions: (1) visualization (quantification) of the environmental value, (2) certification aid labeling based on an
objective and professional third party, and (3) provisionof effective information regarding methods with which to
make environmental payments (e.g., farm stands, riceterrace ownership programs, ecotourism) (Kada, 2012).
3.3 Double habitation
Diversification of values and lifestyles has emphasized spiritual fulfillment, increased the number ofvoluntary activities and raised people’s interest in living aslow life in regions outside metropolitan areas. On theother hand, it is projected that agricultural and fishingvillages will experience a drastic decrease in residential
population, serious population decrease, and expansionof sparse and empty areas due to factors such as the rapidly aging society. To coordinate the needs of agriculturaland fishing villages with the needs of urban residents andcreate diverse lifestyles, various projects have been carried out. Particularly, in agricultural and fishing villages,
in addition to the “residential population” and “nonresidential population” made up of temporary short-term
visitors such as tourists, attention is being paid to “double
habitation” and the roles played by this population.
Through “double habitation,” urban residents live in thesame agricultural and fishing village for a medium or
longer period of one month or more during the year, orvisit the same village regularly and repetitively. Generally, “double habitation” refers to a form of lifestyle inwhich urban residents spend the weekend or a certain
period of time in a year living in an agricultural or fishingvillage. According to the definition of the Ministry ofLand, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism, “double
habitation” refers to the establishment of a life base byurban residents in addition to their house in an urban area
as a method for achieving a diverse lifestyle dependingon the person’s or family’s needs. Urban residents stay ina single area of agricultural and fishing villages for a
medium or longer period (approximately one to threemonths) on a regular and repetitive basis in order tomaintain a certain level of relationship with the regional
community (National and Regional Planning Bureau,
Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism,
2005).
In reality, according to the “Public research on coexistence and exchange between urban areas and rural
areas” (Public Relations Office, Cabinet Office, Government of Japan, 2005) conducted for 3,000 people in Japan,
0.8% of the respondents indicated that they had alreadystarted double habitation.
Additionally, mainly focusing on Ishikawa Prefecture,
this study has identified satoyama and satoumi areas indanger of extinction based on population density andorganized land-use and population data to validate theimpact of geographical conditions on population and theeffectiveness of multi-habitation (Hori, et al., 2012). This
study has established the following hypotheses regarding
double habitation: (1) double habitation is not conductedin two different prefectures, (2) urban residents go to thesatoyama and satochi, (3) people do not concentrate on a
specific grid (population is uniformly distributed), and(4) the ratio of population increase in the satoyama andsatochi is determined by the total population of the urban
area. Assuming that the population in the satoyama andsatochi increases by 1% (1% scenario) or 5% (5% scenario) of the total population of the urban area throughdouble habitation, this study calculated the double
habitation population and then conducted an analysis on
the land area of rice paddies and forest areas in satoyama
and satochi areas in danger of extinction. For rice paddies,
the areas were 24.6 km2 without double habitation,
21.1 km2 with the 1% scenario, and 1.6 km2 with the 5%
scenario. For forest areas, the areas were 213.3 km2,
195.8 km2, and 15.3 km2, respectively. Thus, this studyA Pathway for a Nature-Harmonious Society

has confirmed that there would be a significant decreasein the land area of satoyama and satochi rice paddy andforest areas in danger of extinction if double habitation
were steadily promoted as assumed.
In February 2012, a questionnaire survey was conducted with 8,200 participants in Japan to investigate
economic incentives for immigration and willingness topay. Many expressed opinions indicating interest ininteraction with the satoyama and satochi as leisureactivities while continuing urban life. The reasons fortheir reluctance to live in rural areas included insecurity
regarding continuous employment and insufficient development of commercial and medical facilities (Yumoto,et al., 2012). However, approximately 25% of the total
respondents indicated a desire to have a second house in arural area. The following points would create significant
immigration incentives for those who are interested inrural areas: (1) employment (for men), shopping areas(for women), and improved medical systems (for theelderly) must be ensured in order for urban people to livein rural areas, (2) the non-residential population could be
increased through double habitation if the rural area was
located within an hour by car from suburban areas, and(3) inexpensive housing and income guarantees must be
provided for those who want to immigrate. In addition,
this survey has indicated that in many cases, an income
guarantee of 50,000 yen or less per month would be
sufficient. A certain degree of effectiveness could be
anticipated even with 20,000 yen per month.
3.4 Enhancement of knowledge and awareness aswell as nurturing of new bearers
The value of the satoyama and satoumi cannot bemeasured by economic growth alone. It is imperative toincorporate all capital elements such as produced capital,
human capital, natural capital and social capital(Duraiappah et al., 2012b). It is important to encourage
urban residents who do not have a direct connection withthe satoyama and satoumi to become more aware of thesocial value of the satoumi and satochi by integrating thiscomprehensive value into economic calculations anddevelopment/educational systems.
Data such as a summary of marine production and
MTI have indicated the sustainability of initiatives carried out in the Shiretoko World Heritage area. Subsequent to that, this study has examined the conditions for
successful voluntary management by fishermen in thearea and found the following important points: (1) adrastic decrease in resources has been experienced, (2)long-term benefits are anticipated from fishing industries,(3) local researchers can provide advice to fishermen, (4)voluntary management policies can be revised if necessary, and (5) discussion can be repeated over and overuntil agreement is reached (Matsuda, 2012). Upon World
Heritage registration, the Shiretoko area was required toreinforce the conservation of its sea areas. In response,
fishermen voluntarily strengthened protection by expanding the seasonal marine preserve for walleye pollack.
This initiative was evaluated and the Shiretoko area was227

approved as a World Heritage site in 2005. Through theopportunity to be approved under the global standards
known as World Heritage, the fishermen in Shiretoko
have maintained cooperative management as a commonsand introduced their management method to the world.
This story was certified as one of six world impact stories
by the International Association for the Study of theCommons in 2010. On the other hand, some issues wereidentified such as a failure of resource management due
to a constantly high level of the true sardine total
allowable catch for offshore fisheries.
It is worth examining a policy for allowing companies
to enter into agricultural industries to engage in largescale agricultural business through the revision of theAgricultural Land Act. However, it is highly likely thatsuch companies will withdraw from the business as soon
as it becomes unprofitable. For this reason, some doubt if
this policy can be a long-term and stable agricultural
policy in consideration of global economies and international situations. Particularly, in regions where companies are reluctant to launch businesses, in order tomaintain ecosystem services provided by farmland andthe satoyama as a new commons, it would be possible toexplore a scheme for increasing the urban non-residential
population, providing economic incentives to induce
urban people to immigrate, and funding this policy
through payments made by urban residents who benefit
from farmland and satoyama ecosystem services as an“ecosystem service payment” (Yumoto, et al., 2012).
Ritual events conducted in the coastal areas of theEast China Sea in Kyushu and those conducted on islands
in Okinawa represent examples of cultural value of ecosystem services in the satoumi that have been actively
recognized. Through these events, people have mutuallyconfirmed that they are members of the community.
These events are also significant in allowing people toreview the detailed rules for resource utilization. In regard to these biological resources, resource use andmanagement are ensured through clear membership, notlimited to dedicated fishermen. Thus, in order to use
satoumi resources as a local commons by restricting therights to use these resources, it is critical to implement
measures for developmentally adopting cultural practices
without legal regulations (Akimichi, 2012).
In some cases, expert knowledge and technology related to ecosystems and individual biological organisms
help enable resource use without depleting biologicalresources. In other cases, this might lead to an exploitive
use of resources which depletes the target biologicalorganisms. It is important to implement governancewhich controls how to use knowledge and technology, or
to have “human willingness” to sustain biological resources. Once the maturity of knowledge and technology
has made it possible to deplete biological resources,
consciousness and practices referred to as management
are essential for sustainability. If local ecosystems areused by local inhabitants, motivation for voluntary management is enhanced, making management throughmutual monitoring effective. On the other hand, external

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M. WATANABE

users are less motivated to use ecosystems in a sustainable manner, because their life is distanced from those
local ecosystems. In order to achieve the “wily use of theoutsiders, by the outsiders, for the outsiders,” the best
option is to exploit the resources in a minimum time andthen move on to another area with abundant resources.
Therefore, the importance of the role of the “local
inhabitant” is emphasized. “Local inhabitants” are those
who are passively destined to accept the results of their
behavior without having the option to escape from thisdestiny, or those who have positively chosen the destinyof the area where they live and are resolved to accepting
the results of their behavior. In other words, it is the“local inhabitants” that are suitable for taking landstewardship (trustee liability). As a result, environmental
governance can be more effective if it is implemented
with a method closely connected to nature and life in alayered bottom-up manner rather than carried out by
broadly impacted external people in a top-down manner.
Even technological innovation based on scientificknowledge is likely to contribute to the complete exploitation of nature unless “local inhabitants” are willingto use resources in a sustainable manner. Forestry logging
technology such as chainsaws, forest road construction,
and wiring technology as well as fishing technology suchas fish-finders and high-speed ships have obviously
amplified the negative impact imposed on the naturalenvironment, leading people to exploit resources. However, environmental governance helps to control resource
exploitation. For example, in the case of the satoumi, the
Akita Fisheries Cooperative Association has achieved adrastic recovery of resources through voluntary banningof sandfish fishing activities for three years. In the case of
the satoyama, although external political or economic
pressure has intended to exploit forestry resources, forest
areas have still been maintained where there has been thewill to cherish and use local resources wisely.

4. Conclusion
Since the energy and fertilizer revolutions in the
1960s, traditional fuel and fertilizer provisioning functions performed by the satoyama have declined. In addition, imports of inexpensive agricultural and marine
products through trade have deprived satoyama foodprovisioning functions of market value. A decrease in theeconomic value of these satoyama provisioning services
has resulted in stagnation of local economies and has
forced people to immigrate to urban areas for jobs andlivelihoods. As a result, the workforce for maintaining
and managing the satoyama and satoumi has been lost,devastating these regions. This study has suggested anincrease in the value of regulating services among ecosystem services provided by the satoyama and satoumi as
well as an externalization trend of this phenomenon. This
study has examined the effectiveness of the following
four policy options with regard to the restoration of thesatoyama and satoumi: (1) environmental stewardship,(2) branding, (3) double habitation, and (4) enhancementof knowledge and awareness, as well as nurturing of the
new bearers. For these policy options, this study has
focused on and analyzed the effectiveness of provisioning services and regulating services. This is the firstattempt to integrate a natural scientific assessment ofbenefits brought to human society by the satoyama andsatoumi with a socioeconomic assessment of the same inorder to demonstrate specific policy options and theireffectiveness regarding a pathway to reconstruction of anature-harmonious society. The policy options proposedin this paper are related to typical themes to be discussed,
making it possible to examine more diverse options. In
addition, the economic effects of these policy options
have been quantified based on limited data. Therefore,
further improvement is needed in regard to quantitative
accuracy. Particularly, in relation to regulating services,
the value is underestimated and hence the evaluation
method must be improved. Moreover, in the future, it will
also be necessary to develop quantitative assessment ofimportant cultural services that are difficult to evaluate in
the value of the satoyama and satoumi. The value of thesatoyama and satoumi cannot be measured only by GDP,
which is an indicator for economic growth. It is imperative to incorporate all capital elements such as produced
capital, human capital, natural capital and social capital.
In particular, in order to create a pathway toward therestoration of the satoyama and satoumi and reconstruction of a nature-harmonious society, it is important toencourage urban residents who do not have a direct connection with the satoyama and satoumi to become moreaware of the social value of these ecosysystems by integrating this comprehensive value into economic calculation and development/educational systems.
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Masataka WATANABE
Dr. Masataka WATANABE is a Professor at theGraduate School of Media and Governance, Keio
University, Japan. He is also a Visiting Professor
at the Institute of Advanced Studies, United
Nations University. He has been Chairman of the
UNEP Asia Pacific Adaptation Network since
October 2009. Prior to joining Keio University, he was Director of theDivision of Water and Soil Environment at the National Institute forEnvironmental Studies, Japan, and was also appointed Professor at theGraduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences at the University ofTokyo. He participated in the UN Millennium Ecosystem Assessment from2000 to 2004 as Coordinating Lead Author of the Sub-Global Assessment.
He is a member of numerous National Councils and Committees in theJapanese Government. He was awarded the Tien Shan Prize from theGovernment of China in 2003 for his scientific contributions. He received
his PhD in Civil and Environmental Engineering from the Massachusetts
Institute of Technology. He has authored more than 120 peer-reviewed
international journal articles and two books.

(Received 15 August 2012, Accepted 3 September 2012)