189

The Long-Term Trends of Satoyama Capital Stocks andEcosystem Services; Case Study in Mt. Hakusan Biosphere
Reserve and its Vicinity
Yuko HORI*, Naoki HAYASHI and Hiroyuki MATSUDA
Faculty of Environment and Information Sciences, Yokohama National University
79-7 Tokiwadai, Hodogaya-ku, Yokohama 240-8501, Japan*e-mail: yuhoriakane@gmail.com

Abstract
We analyzed the long-term trends (from the 1950s to 2035) of Japanese “satoyama capital stocks” andecosystem services in the Mt. Hakusan Biosphere Reserve, Japan. We estimated the spatial distribution of thehuman population in Hakusan City and chose grid squares where the human population was endangered.
Many areas in satoyama regions in Japan will eventually become uninhabited. We made a list of natural andsocial capital stocks and ecosystem services in the area. We obtained the geographical distribution ofsatoyama areas that are in danger of disappearing. We also assessed the magnitude of threat and factors
threatening the natural and social capital stocks and ecosystem services derived from the satoyama in thisregion. As a result, we predicted that the satoyama in the Mt. Hakusan Biosphere Reserve would be endangered because people with experience in “dezukuri” are nearly no longer existent. “Dezukuri” is defined as a
traditional culture in which people stay in places distinct from their base settlements seasonally or temporally
to cultivate farms. On the other hand, the number of people living in two places is increasing because many
live in a rural city but visit the houses that their parents lived in to maintain them. They usually stay in or visit
their second house on weekends. Such a new type of living in two places can prevent the extinction ofsatoyama capital stocks.
Key words: biodiversity, capital stock, depopulation, ecosystem service, Mt. Hakusan Biosphere Reserve,
satoyama

1. Introduction
Biodiversity is defined as the existence of a variety of
ecosystems, species and genotypes. People’s life andculture in the satoyama and satoumi depend highly on
biological productivity, particularly the provisioning of
ecosystem services and cultural ecosystem services fortheir basic needs. The satoyama and satoumi provide ahigher cultural identity and diversity within Japanesetraditional culture than any other area (Duraiappah et al.,2012).
The term “satoyama” describes mosaic landscapes ofdifferent types of ecosystems: secondary forests, farmlands, irrigation ponds and grasslands, along with thelocal communities which manage the land to produce
ecosystem services for human well-being (Duraiappah
et al., 2012). The concept of “satoyama” has been extended to cover marine and coastal landscape, applying
the term “satoumi” (UNU-IAS, 2011). The JSSA assessment (Duraiappah et al., 2012) defined “satoyama” as amosaic of both terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems
Global Environmental Research
16/2012: 189-196
printed in Japan

comprised of woodlands, plantations, grasslands, farmlands, pastures, irrigation ponds and canals, with anemphasis on the terrestrial ecosystems. Satoyama andsatoumi landscapes are managed using a mix of traditional knowledge and modern science (JSSAHokushinetsu Cluster, 2010).
The satoyama and satoumi are characterized by natural, historical and cultural properties that are formed
through the interaction of humans and nature. These
include numerous resources which are either actually or
potentially used. Starting from several centuries ago,knowledge of how to use these natural resources has beentransferred from generation to generation, being modified and updated with new experience gradually accumulating in local communities.
Recently these landscapes and management systems
have been rapidly changing, and the related ecosystemservices are threatened due to various social, economic,
political and technological factors. One reason is urbanization of the satoyama in lowlands near cities andconversion of satoyama landscapes from woodlands to©2012 AIRIES190

Y. HORI et al.

other land uses, resulting in degraded ecosystem functions (Ministry of the Environment, Japan, 2002).
Another reason is depopulation of rural areas, resulting inabandonment of farmland and loss of human communities and traditional knowledge. Both of these factors
cause the areas to lose their ecosystem services.
Ecosystem services are the benefits that people obtainfrom ecosystems (Millenium Ecosystem Assessment,
2005). Depopulation leads to the loss of ecosystemservices that are used by people because nobody uses
regional ecosystem services in areas where there are nopeople. Therefore our study focuses on the linkages
between ecosystem services and human activities.
Population dynamics is one of the indicators of humanactivities. We first analyze the endangerment of
biodiversity and ecosystem services in the countryside
between urban areas and mountainous areas.
The satoyama favors enhancement of lifestyles
harmonious with nature. The satoyama also fosters avariety of life forms. These areas mainly comprisesecondary forests around villages, together with rice
fields, other agricultural plots, reservoirs and grasslands.
These areas are also threatened by the reduction of traditional human activities and changes in lifestyles. The useof resources from secondary forests and secondary
grasslands has almost disappeared due to their reduced
economic value. On the other hand, the area of abandoned rice fields has increased. These trends will probably intensify. Such under-use of satoyama landscapes isrecognized as the second major cause of degradation ofJapanese biodiversity (Ministry of the Environment,
Japan, 2002).
During the period of high economic growth in Japan
from the 1950s to the 1970s, the socio-economic situation changed drastically. The main source of energy
shifted from fuel woods to fossil fuels under thecountry’s rapid industrialization. The human population
migrated from rural areas to urban cities. Modern farming, using chemical pesticides and fertilizers, expanded.
The shift in fuel sources decreased the prices of firewood
and charcoal. After the 1970s, the use and managementof secondary forests declined and therefore these forests
transitioned to bush or bamboo forests. As the use
and management of Japanese cedar forests declined(Nakashizuka et al., 2010), serious problems resulted, notonly through the loss of the ecosystem function, but alsoby having an impact on human health with pollen allergies.
To resolve the satoyama and satoumi crisis, theSatoyama Initiative is being promoted by the Ministry of
the Environment, Japan, and the United Nations University Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU-IAS). Its aim isto realize societies in harmony with nature and to build
positive human-nature relationships (Anonymous, 2010).
Previous studies on evaluation of ecosystem services
presumed economic evaluation by the contingent valuation method (CVM) to be the willingness to pay for thecreation and sustenance of local communities and culture,or they chose cases of villages in the mountains, whichstill retained their traditional culture and landscape, andthey measured the economic value of that conservation.
The results contributed to the benefit transfer method,
multiplying the number of villages on mountainsides(Yoshida, 1999). To evaluate ecosystem services in thesatoyama or satoumi, we need to understand the local
characteristics and current situation in satoyama or
satoumi areas.
Depopulation is one of the major indirect driving
forces with regard to ecosystem services in the satoyama.
The effect of depopulation may be compensated for bymulti-habitation. We found that multi-habitation is also
one of the cultural traditions in the Mt. Hakusan area
(Mt. Hakusan Biosphere Reserve, in Torigoe and part ofKomastu City). We analyzed the effects of multihabitation on the sustainability of traditional natural
capital and ecosystem services in this area.

2. Methods
We categorized endemic natural capital stocks in thesatoyama as geological, biological, social and economic
stocks. These categories were originally used in the“endemic engineering” methods (Takebayashi, 1997),
where social and economic stocks were originally called“historical-cultural” and “industrial stocks,” respectively.
Geological stocks mean outstanding landform elements
such as beautiful rocks or popular wetlands and rivers,and exist on land and in the atmosphere and aquasphere.
Biological stocks mean species or taxa that are actually or
potentially used by local people as ecosystem services.
They are subdivided into fungi, plants and animals.
Social stocks mean human customs in lifestyles, heritages, monuments and vocabulary. They are divided into
lifestyles, dwellings, foods, religion and language. Economic stocks relate to hunting, gathering, agriculture,
forestry, fisheries and handicrafts.
We ascertained the current status of major endemic
and regional capital stocks and ecosystem services. To
achieve this goal, the scheme of our study is as follows.
(a) analyzing population trends of Hakusan City in
Ishikawa Prefecture, using 1 km x 1 km grid squares,(b) making an inventory of “satoyama capital stocks,”(c) mapping the distributions of satoyama capital andtheir related ecosystem services, mainly consisting ofvegetation and river basins, (d) summarizing satoyama
capital stocks and ecosystem services in the case that acorresponding species is threatened or if local people that
use these stocks have disappeared or are disappearing.
(a) Population trends affect the future of satoyama
capital stocks and ecosystem services. We intensively
analyzed population trends in Hakusan City, Ishikawa
Prefecture. The Mt. Hakusan Biosphere Reserve wasdesignated in 1980 as part of UNESCO’s Man and the
Biosphere Program. It includes the Shiramine, Oguchi
and Yohinodani settlements in the Hakusan City municipality and parts of neighboring municipalities. Generally,
settlements in hilly and mountainous areas of Japan are
endangered due to depopulation.

Satoyama Capital Stocks in the Mt. Hakusan Biosphere Reserve

We estimated the risk of population disappearance inthe settlements of Hakusan City, including hilly andmountainous areas, using the National Census of 2005,
1km × 1km grid statistics edited by Sinfonica (a Japanesepublic foundation providing statistical consulting andanalysis). At least five households are needed to maintainthe presence of settlements in heavy snowfall areas(Fujisawa, 1982). Therefore, settlements where the number of households is less than five will probably disappear in the near future. We assume that five households isthe equivalent of 13.9 people because the average number of people per household in the rural sections is 2.78,
as calculated by the 2010 Japan Census (Ministry ofInternal Affairs and Communications, 2011). In addition,
each settlement’s center is assumed to be set within one
grid square. Consequently, we judged that any gridsquare where the population was under 13.9 (=5×2.78)
was in danger of disappearing.
We also estimated the population in each grid assuming multi-habitation to be promoted currently. We
categorized each grid as a “city grid,” “village grid” or“uninhabited grid” if the population of the grid was≥ 4,000/km2, 1-4,000/km2 or 0, respectively. Practitioners of multi-habitation were placed in the village grid inequal numbers, Np/nv, where Np is the number of practitioners and nv is the number of village grids. In otherwords, Np/nv people were virtually added to the population of each village grid. We cannot know where practitioners go to in multi-habitation. Therefore, we assumed
that they were placed equally in each village grid. Multihabitation between Ishikawa and other prefectures was
ignored because frequent round trips would be difficult.
We supposed that five percent of the people who lived in
the city grids of Ishikawa Prefecture practiced multihabitation within the prefecture, because households withhigher incomes, who are capable of it, account for 4.8%of the population (Ministry of Health, Labor and Welfare,Japan, 2011). Thus we set Np as 5% of the total numberof people who lived in the urban areas of Ishikawa
Prefecture.
(b) We collected information about satoyama capitalstocks through existing documents, interviews with people who had experience with “dezukuri” (Table 1),
and inventory assessments in Shiramine, Oguchi and
Yoshinodani villages. We listed, categorized and described satoyama capital stocks in Hakusan City. The full
data were uploaded in Japanese (Hori, 2012). The Mt.
Hakusan Biosphere Reserve was designated in 1980
by UNESCO’s Man and the Biosphere Program. We
counted the numbers of satoyama capital stocks related
to each biome: forests, agricultural farms, inland waters
and coastal-marine areas. We did not categorize geological stocks by biome.
(c) We categorized biological stocks as provisioning
services or cultural services. Both services are importantto people in the area for sustaining their life and regional
culture. Local people receive the benefits (foods, othermaterials or specific knowledge) from biological stocks
of endemic species. We did not list regulating services

191

because it is difficult to identify the role of each species
in ecosystem regulation.
We divided cultural services (CS) into two subcategories: “CS related to local community and culture” and“CS related to natural beauty, tourism and education.”
Regarding provisioning services and “CS related to local
community and culture,” we categorized these capitalstocks as “extinct (EX),” “endangered (EN),” “vulnerable (VU),” “near threatened (NT),” “lower risk (LR),”“data deficient (DD)” and “not evaluated (NE)” by analogy to Red List Categories (IUCN, 2001) and “threatened
local population (LP)” (Ministry of the Environment,
Japan, 1997). The ranking of each ecosystem service
fully depends on the ranking of the corresponding species
that is used for it or referred to by the ecosystem service,although the magnitude of ranking of these services differed from the ranking of the corresponding species. For
the ranking of threatened species we referred to Ishikawa
Red Data Books (Ishikawa Prefecture, 2009; 2010) andJapanese Red List (Ministry of the Environment, Japan,2007), whichever showed the species to be morethreatened if the ranking was split between these references. We ranked services as EX if the corresponding
species was EX, CR or EN because these species could
not be used as ecosystem services. A service was ranked
as EN if the corresponding species was ranked as VU; as
VU if it was ranked as NT or LP; and as LR if it was anendemic species.
Biodiversity is, however, not equal to ecosystem services. We also categorized satoyama capital other thanprovisioning services and cultural services related to
local communities and culture according to the following
criteria. The capital stock was ranked as EX if it was not
locally used or the species corresponding to the capitalstock was ranked as EX, CR or EN; as EN if it dependedon conservation effort by museums or municipalities or if
the corresponding species was VU; as VU if it was sustained by older people or the corresponding species was
ranked as NT or LP; or as LR if it was still used by a local
community or the corresponding species was probably
endemic only to the Mt. Hakusan area. Many grids in thisarea showed a high risk of becoming uninhabited.
Depopulation leads to loss of regional ecosystem services.
A grid was DD if we had too few data to rank it but it wasa source of concern. Otherwise, NE was chosen.
About “CS related to natural beauty, tourism andeducation,” we gave these services the same ranking as
the corresponding species listed in Ishikawa Red Data
Books (Ishikawa Prefecture, 2009; 2010).
(d) We mapped ecosystem services, overlapping
vegetation and river basin layers. The satoyama in
Hakusan City is located upstream in the Tedori Riverbasin. The Mt. Hakusan area is characterized by strong
winds and steep slopes.
We defined several social stocks in the Mt. Hakusan
area. “Dezukuri” is a term for a lifestyle in which people
stay seasonally or temporally and cultivate farms farther
than a day trip from their base settlements. “Nagihata”
means a kind of shifting cultivation, in which farmers

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Y. HORI et al.

burn vegetation from uphill to downhill after cutting
down trees in secondary forests. “Ushikubi spinning” is alocal brand of silk fabric. “Sakkuri” refers to a fabricusing a hemp warp. The welts are made of recycled yarns,
nettle, ramie or other yarns. We also counted words thatindicated special elements of local landscapes that were
either still used or never used by the younger generations.
“Jige (boson)” means the home village of a dezukuri base.
“Alpine plants” are defined as grasslands with flourishingplants that mainly exist in mountainous areas.
The satoyama in Shiramine, Oguchi and Yoshinodani
villages south of Hakusan City are surrounded by highmountains, forests and grasslands with alpine plants.
There is rich biodiversity and geological diversity. Thereused to be many traditional customs like “nagihata” using natural resources.

3. Results
The left panel of Fig. 1 shows the population distribution of Hakusan City in 2005. As mentioned above,
any grid square where the population was under 13.9 wasconsidered endangered (see the red grids in this figure).
We find many of these in the southern part of Hakusan
City, which is a mountainous region.
The right panel of Fig. 1 shows the number of persons
who lived in or stayed in each grid in 2005 when
multi-habitation was promoted. Each village grid painted
red or green gained a virtual 8.8 (=Np/nv) people bymulti-habitation. Consequently, the number of endangered grids decreased by almost 50%, from 23 to 12.
Most of these grids preserved by multi-habitation existed
in southern Hakusan City.
Dezukuri is a traditional custom of multi-habitation.

We analyzed the trends in satoyama capital stocks andecosystem services, given the case of multi-habitation
being promoted in the Mt. Hakusan area. We found 603
satoyama capital stocks and ecosystem services in
Shiramine, Oguchi and Yoshinodani villages. Amongthese, there were 20 geological, 363 biological, 211
social and 9 economic stocks. Table 1 shows the numbersof biological stocks in each taxon that belongs to eachbiome. The satoyama natural capital of the Mt. Hakusan
area depends mainly on forests. The sums of numbers ofsatoyama capital stocks in all biomes (376 biological and226 and social stocks) were larger than the numbers ofsatoyama capital stocks (363 and 211) because somebiological stocks (e.g., amphibians) belonged to morethan one biome.
Table 2 shows the number of biological stocks foreach ecosystem service for each taxon. We collected
stocks that mainly related to provisioning services or
natural beauty, tourism and education. Biological stocks
are found mainly in forests and mainly belong to plants
Table 3 shows the number of capital stocks related to
keywords that characterize the satoyama in the Mt.
Hakusan area. Satoyama capital stocks and ecosystemservices existed in the dezukuri bases. After the construction of the Dainichigawa Dam and Tedorigawa Dam,
completed in 1967 and 1979, respectively, these capitalstocks and services were lost or moved. These dezukuri
and charcoal burning are rapidly lost when the rural
population decreases. The dezukuri for Japanese cedar
completely disappeared due to the timber’s industry
decline. The dezukuri for apiculture survived in 2011.
Hunting bears or gathering wild plants continues because
the home bases “jige (boson)” still exist. Although
freshwater fishery such as white-spotted char (Salvelinus

Fig. 1 The population of Hakusan City. Population densities of uninhabited, almost uninhabited, inhabited and urban grids
are respectively 0, <14, 14-4000 and >4000.

Satoyama Capital Stocks in the Mt. Hakusan Biosphere Reserve
Table 1 The number of biological stocks related to provisioning services.
Agricultural
InlandCoastal andForests
farms
watersmarineBiological stocks
Fungi
16
0
0
0
Plants270
3100Animals
39
7
130
Subtotal*
325
38
13
0
Social stocks
2
Lifestyle
67
62
1
0
Foods
5
28
3
0
Dwellings
9400Religion6602Language22710Subtotal*
109
107
5
2
Economic stocks
7
2
2
0

193

Total
16
293
54
376
35
16
11
42
14
9
223
9

* Total number of each taxon does not match the sum of each row because each stock may belong to more than one
ecosystem.

Table 2 The number of stocks for each ecosystem service.
Fungi

PlantsAnimals

Total

Provisioning services

16

180

28

224

Cultural services related to local communities
and culture

0

13

6

19

Cultural services related to natural beauty,
tourism and education

0

107

19

126

Total*

16

293

54

363

* The total number of each taxon does not match the sum of numbers of ecosystem services for the same reason as in
Table 1.

Table 3 The number of stocks related to characteristic keywords.
Dezukuri
Hunting-gathering
Alpine plants
Nagihata
MosaicCharcoal burning
Ushikubi silk and Sakkuri
Geoparks

Geological S.

Biological S.

6
0
3
1
2
0
0
5

41
125
90
17
0
9
6
0

leucomaenis) also continues, the catch has decreased
because of the population decrease caused by habitat
fragmentation with dams.
Figure 2 shows the spatial distribution of ecosystemservices. The distribution forms a mosaic structure. The
locations of each cluster depend on vegetation type andriver basin. Dezukuri and “hunting and gathering” werelost due to the construction of the two dams and the“Mt. Hakusan Super Road.” Natural disasters also discouraged these activities. In addition, we compared themap of 2004 with the map in the 1950s. In the 1950s,
there were places where nagihata cultivation used tooccur, charcoal fuels were produced and reforestation
was accomplished.
Endangered flora which is distributed higher than thebeech forests in the Mt. Hakusan area includes 21 critically endangered or endangered species, and 49 vulnera-

Social S. Economical S.
149
9
0
47
37
12
15
0

9
3
0
0
0
3
2
0

Total
205
137
93
65
39
24
23
5

ble species that were listed by Ishikawa Prefecture, Japan
in 2000 (Shimizu, 2005). These plants were gathered andused in natural medicines or as foliage plants. Detailed
knowledge still exists for only 22 species among them on
how to use these species.

4. Discussion
Satoyama capital stocks related to plants and forests
accounted for the largest number of stocks in this area
(Table 1). What biome has the largest number of capitalstocks depends on the lifestyle, culture and identity of thelocal community (Table 2). The local identity in the
Mt. Hakusan area appears to be related to forest andmountain ecosystems, therefore people in this area use
wild species by hunting and gathering them (Table 3).
Such hunting and gathering are traditional and perhaps

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Y. HORI et al.

Fig. 2 The distribution of satoyama natural capital (above: 1950s, below: 2004).
“Zige (boson)” means a main settlement to which people return from dezukuri settlements; a “permanent dezukuri” is a settlement for
dezukuri all year round. People in these engage mainly in sericulture. A “seasonal dezukuri” is a settlement for dezukuri only during thefarming season. People there engage mainly in “nagihata” cultivation.
Dezukuri during a short term” is for dezukuri lasting one day to several weeks. People there engage mainly in logging or tending Japanesecedar plantations.
We also indicate “zones for gathering edible wild plants,” including medicinal herbs in the “alpine zone” and “subalpine zone,” and “hunting
zones for bear” as regional ecosystem services which people use.
The red spots and areas in the lower panel indicate capital stocks that have disappeared.

sustainable customs. On the other hand, agricultural
ecosystems might be the largest in satoyama areas
located in lowland areas.
We found no biological stocks from marine ecosystems in the Mt. Hakusan area. These would be trivial inmountain areas. We did find, however, two social stocks
related to marine ecosystems (Table 1): “konka” sardine/
herring and “omo” herring. “Konka” means fermented
and salted. “Omo” herring means dried herring completewith bones and heads. In central Japan, including Kyoto,“mikaki” herring is a popular traditional food item. It is
dried herring without the head, bones or internal organs.

This suggests that the traditional life in the Mt. Hakusan
area mainly depended on local natural resources with few
fisheries products.
Table 1 also shows that the satoyama natural capitalin the Mt. Hakusan area mainly comprised secondary
forests around villages, together with nagihata (shifting
cultivation) and dezukuri (multi-habitation). Shifting
cultivation in Japan is known by many local names like“nagihata,” “kano,” “nagino” and “yabo.” Althoughshifting cultivation is a key component of the satoyama
in hilly-mountainous areas, it has almost been lost
throughout Japan. Only a few people continued these

Satoyama Capital Stocks in the Mt. Hakusan Biosphere Reserve

traditions in the Mt. Hakusan area.
The ecosystems services associated with “CS related
to natural beauty, tourism and education” depend on wild
plants, including alpine and subalpine plants (Tables 3
and 4). These ecosystem services are linked to biodiversity. Therefore “CS related to natural beauty, tourism andeducation” goes extinct through loss of biodiversity.
Finally, we examined the differences between Mt.
Hakusan and other areas. There are many local words
that imply mosaic landscape. For instance, “mutsushi,”which means good land for “nagihata” cultivation;“arashi,” which has the opposite meaning of“mutsushi”; ”kya-chi,” which means a farm around a“dezukuri” house; and “na-bata,” which means farmlandthat is rich in edible wild plants, and is a good spot forbear-hunting. In Table 4, all 37 social stocks that relate tomosaic landscapes have special words. This suggests thatpeople recognize the importance of mosaic landscapes.
On the other hand, it is difficult to evaluate the role of themosaic structure by counting the number of capital stocks
in the Mt. Hakusan area.
Biodiversity is maintained by the dynamic propertiesof biogeological processes. Over time scales of decades
or centuries, many landscapes are altered by natural disturbances such as landslides, floods and forest fires, thatlead to mosaics of successional patches of different ages.
Biodiversity is maintained as a mosaic structure that isbalanced between succession and natural disturbance(Christensen et al., 1996).
It is difficult to evaluate the quantitative degradationof ecosystem services. It would probably require joint
research of socioeconomic and ecological surveys. We
have just shown spatial distributions of satoyama natural
capital in the 1950s and the lost capital stocks as of 2004
by surveying documents, interviewing inhabitants andassessing inventory. Dezukuri is one of the most critical
keypoints to the survival of satoyama capital stocks in
the Mt. Hakusan area. Dezukuri was almost lost after theconstruction of the two dams and the road through themountain forests. Natural capital and ecosystem services

195

that are used only at endangered dezukuri bases and jige
villages will disappear. As mentioned above, multihabitation may be effective in conservation of satoyama
capital if younger people learn and succeed to the culture
and usage of ecosystem services used in dezukuri
customs. Now people who have experience in dezukuri
customs are in their 60s or older. Therefore natural
capital related to dezukuri is critically endangered. In
addition, several limitations to our research arose when
we gathered data on satoyama capital stocks and ecosystem services, because people stopped practicing
nagihata in the 1970s in these areas.
We have highlighted the endangered ecosystemservices and natural capital stocks of the satoyama in the
Mt. Hakusan area, including sustainable use of natural
resources, to identify a new commons for a natureharmonious society in satoyama areas and solutions from
our analysis of the population, and this knowledge can beapplied to similar spots throughout Japan.

Acknowledgments
This work was supported by the Environment
Research and Technology Development Fund of the
Ministry of the Environment, Japan (E-0902). We are
deeply grateful to Ms. E.Watanabe whose comments andsuggestions were innumerably valuable throughout thecourse of our study. Special thanks also go to the
Ishikawa Prefectural Government, Hakusan Folk Village
Museum, Ishikawa-ken History Museum, Hakusan
Nature Conservation Center and the people of Hakusan
City whose information was an enormous help to us.
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Table 4 The number of biological, social and economical stocks for each rank of endangerment.
Disappeared
Geological stocks
Biological stocks
Fungi
PlantsAnimals
Social stocks
Lifestyle
Foods
Dwellings
Religion
Language
Economic stocks
Total

0

Near
threatened0

Data
deficient0

Notevaluated
21

0
47
9

3
42
1

7
62
8

0
38
2

5
84
18

16
293
54

3
1
0
1
1
4
66

3
2
0
0
1
3
55

0
13
0
3
0
1
94

8
2
1
1
37
0
89

2
7
0
2
0
1
139

106
36
16
11
42
9
583

Endangered

Vulnerable

0

0

1
20
16
90
11
15
4
3
0
160

Total
21

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Y. HORI et al.

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Yuko HORI
Yuko HORI has an M.S. in Human Science andhas been a Project Research Associate at
Yokohama National University. Her major isEnvironment Engineering and Management. She
has researched technology for sustainable use ofnatural recourses by endemic (fudo) engineering
methods for promoting a society in harmonious co-existence with nature. In
addition, she has supported Japan Biodiversity Outlook 2011, the Japan
Marine Biodiversity Conversation Strategy and ESABII as a staff memberof the Japan Wildlife Research Center. She can be reached at the JDS
Consulting Division JICA Sector Support Unit, Forestry and Nature
Conservation Division 2, Global Environment Department, 5-25,
Niban-cho, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 102-8012.

Naoki HAYASHI
Naoki HAYASHI has a PhD in Agriculture andworks as a researcher at the Graduate Schoolof Environment and Information Sciences,
Yokohama National University. Supported by theEnvironment Research and Technology Development Fund of the Ministry of the Environment,
Japan (E-0902), he has analyzed factors in habitat changes from theviewpoints of land use and human population. Additionally, he has
participated in the Japan Satoyama Satoumi Assessment (national
assessment) as one of the Coordinating Lead Authors.

Hiroyuki MATSUDA
Dr. Hiroyuki MATSUDA is a Professor at
Yokohama National University. His research encompasses studies of adaptive wildlife management and fisheries co-management, risk analysis
and game theory. He proposed “target switching,”
a novel multi-species species management
strategy. He has been a Pew Marine Conservation
Fellow since 2007. He received the 10th Ecological Society of Japan
Award in 2012. He is President of the East Asian Federation of EcologicalSocieties.

(Received 8 May 2012, Accepted 1 August 2012)