Learning Learning

ISSN 1882-1103

学習の学習Volume 18, No. 1 Spring 2011
Greetings あいさつ
From LD SIG Committee

LDSIG 運営委員会より .....................1

From the LD SIG Coordinator – Hugh Nicoll
LD SIG コーディネータより ヒュー・ニコル……………………2
From the editors – Ellen Head and Patrick Kiernan
編集者より

エレン・ヘッド、パトリック・キアナン………5

From LD SIG member – Rachelle Jorgenson
LD SIG のメンバーより
ラシェル・ジョルゲンソン....................................9

Feature Articles フィチャード アーティクルズ
Promoting Self-Awareness in Learners through Metaphor
Elicitation – Joe Sykes
メタファーで促す学習者の気づき
ジョー・サイクス.................................11

Approaching Teaching and Learning through Collaborative
Storytelling: An Interview with Steve Bell – Bruce Lander
インタビュー：スティーヴ・ベル ～共同作業によるストーリー作りを通して～ブルース・ランダー......................20

The Use of Grammatical Metaphor in Student Research Diaries –Andy Barfield
学習者研究ノートに見る文法メタファー
アンディー・バーフィールド...............................27

Voices 読者の声
On Q: An Appropriate Methodology for Researching Autonomy?
(Part 2) – Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix
Q調査法について：自律性研究に適したアプローチ？(第2部)
ルーシー・クッカー、マイク・ニックス....................................31i

Reviews 書評
Can Do Statements in Language Education in Japan and Beyond:Applications of CEFR. Edited by Maria Gabriela Schmidt, Naoyuki
Naganuma, Fergus O’Dwyer, Alexander Imig, Kazumi Sakai –reviewed by Jim Ronald
日本と諸外国の言語教育における Can‐Do 評価―ヨーロッパ言語
共通参照枠(CEFR)の適用 マリア・ガブリエラ シュミット, ファ
ーガス オドワイヤー, アレクサンダー イミック, 長沼 君主,
境 一三 編

ジム・ロナルド................................39

Intercultural Communication and Ideology. By Adrian Holliday –reviewed by Patrick Kiernan
異文化コミュニケーションとイデオロギー
エイドリアン・ホリディ著

パトリック・キアナン.................42

Looking back 報告
The IATEFL learner autonomy SIG one-day conference of the
University of Duisberg-Essen, Germany by Andy Barfield
IATEFL Learner Autonomy SIG 学会
エッセン大学

於：デュースブルク・

アンディー・バーフィールド…........46

Reporting from JALT 2010 in Nagoya – by Richard Silver
JALT 2010 名古屋の報告 リチャード・シルバー........................50
Metaphors We Learn By (LD SIG at JALT 2010) by Alison Stewart,
Michelle Ruhl, Tim Knight and Ellen Head
メタファーによる学習 アリソン・スチュワート、ティム・ナイト、
エレン・ヘッド.............................................................................51
Learner-Teacher Autonomy in Educational Practices: Languages &Beyond. International Bilingual Conference (English/French),
Ramnarain Ruia College, Mumbai, India – by Alison Stewart「 Learner-Teacher

Autonomyin

Educational

Practices:

Languages and Beyond」国際二ヶ国語（英語・仏語）大会。
ラムナライン・ルイア・カレッジ、
ムンバイ、インド

アリソン・スチュワート......... 55

Talking about Language Learning (SIG meeting report)—
by Colin Skeates and Colin Rundle
外国語学習についての話（SIG ミーティングレポート）
コリン・スキーツ、コリン・ランドル............................................59

ii

Looking forward 今後のイベント
Realizing Autonomy – by Alison Stewart and Kay Irie
「Realizing Autonomy」アリソン・スチュワート、入江恵 ......62
Pan-SIG Conference, Nakasendo Conference, Kanda Conference
on Advising, CUE conference on motivation
by Richard Silver and Ellen Head
Pan-SIG 大会、中仙道大会、アドバイジングについて
神田外語大学大会、モティベーションについて CUE 大会
リチャード・シルバー、エレン・ヘッド........64
SIG matters

インフォメーション

Financial report – by Hiromi Furusawa
財務報告 古澤弘美………………..................................................66

Contributing to Learning Learning「学習の学習」原稿募集………...................................................69

iii

LDSIG 運営委員会 よりFROM LD SIG Committee
Dear everyone in the JALT Learner Development

JALT 学習者デイベロプッメント研究会部会

SIG

の皆様へ

会員

このたびの大震災により被害を受けられました
Many Learner Development (LD) SIG members live

皆様に心よりお見舞いを申し上げます。

in

学習者デイベロプッメント研究部会（以下 LD

neighbouring prefectures. We cannot imagine how

SIG）メンバーの中には北日本とその周辺地域を拠

their lives have been affected by this disaster

点として活躍されている方も多く、このたびの地震

without also thinking of their families, their friends,

がもたらした被害は私たちに大きな衝撃と深い悲

their learners and their local communities. We hope

しみをもたらしました。東北、および、関東の地震

they and their loved ones are safe, that theirで災害されました地域の皆様のご無事を祈ると共

and

work

in

northeastern

Japan

and

students and friends are too, and that each day
gradually brings more good news than bad for themand all in their community. Indeed, in the last few
days, we have informally checked on the status of
all LD SIG members in the affected areas and, as
far as we know, everyone is safe.
As colleagues, we offer our solidarity andに、皆様のご家族、同僚、生徒、並びに地域の方々のご無事を心より願っております。尚、こちらで非公式に行いました可能な範囲での安否調査の結果、メンバー全員の無事の確認がとれたことに安堵いたしております。
このたびは LDSIG として救済と復興に向けて

少しでもお手伝いしたく、様々な方向から検討させていただいております。LDSIG メンバーの中には

support to all SIG members at this extraordinary

既に個人的な緊急募金への協力や地域のサポート

time.

センターを通して支援物資を送られている方も多In the short term, the Learner Development SIG

いと思いますが、まず今 SIG としてできることとしhas decided to make a financial donation to localて、国内で積極的に実質的な支援活動を行っている

NGOs in Japan who are actively involved in the

小規模の NGO 機関に寄付を行うことにしました（支relief operation and who are running their activities

援 活 動 や 募 金 活 動 に つ い て の 詳 細 はwith low overhead costs. Many individual LD SIG

http://jalt.org/emergency_response をご覧くだ

members have also made donations or sent

さい）
。又、長期的には、LD

emergency items via local city offices and NGOs toート体制として、被災地域に居住されている先生方

the affected areas. (For information about making

やその生徒達に教育的な観点から必要な支援をな

donations see http://jalt.org/emergency_response.)
Longer term, the Learner Development SIG
would like to offer some kind of direct educational
support for teachers and learners in the affectedareas. Towards this end we will be aiming to raise

SIG ならではのサポ

んらかの形でさせていただきたいと考えております。その一環として、まず 2011 年度内 (必要に応じて延長) の LD SIG 主催及び参加の各イベントにおいて積極的に募金活動を行うこととしました。
詳細はまだ不明ですが、集められた募金の使用用途を今後、適切な時期を見計らって、メンバーの皆様

money at different LD SIG events in 2011 (andにご相談させていただき、その上で決定したいと考

beyond) for an educational use to be later decided

えておりますので、どうぞよろしくお願いいたしまin consultation with LD SIG members at an

す。

appropriate time.
In solidarity with you –被災地の一日も早い復興と、皆様のご健康と安全を心よりお祈り申し上げます。
皆様と共に。

The Learner Development SIG committee
学習者デイベロプッメント研究部会 運営委員会

1

FROM LD SIG LD COORDINATORHUGH NICOLL
Greetings all,
Almost spring, and I'd really like to be celebrating
the end of winter, breathing space before the newacademic year, and the anticipation of cherry

LD SIG コーディネータより
ヒュー・ニコル

皆さん、こんにちは春はもうすぐそこに来ています。冬の終わり、新学年度前の僅かな息継ぎの間、桜開花への期待を

blossom viewing. I also need to introduce readers

祝いたいところです。そして「学習の学習」読者

of Learning Learning to the SIG's new officers,の皆さんには本研究部会（以下、SIGとする）のoutline governance issues we are addressing within

新しい委員、JALT全体で取り組んでいる案件、新JALT as a whole, and introduce the year's

年度に予定されている様々なイベント、中でも入upcoming events, especially the publication of our

江恵とアリソン・スチュワートが編集している３latest anthology project, Realizing Autonomy, which

冊目のアンソロジー「Realizing Autonomy」のこ

has been so capably edited by Kay Irie and Alison
Stewart. I have to admit, however, that I am finding
it hard to concentrate as we struggle with the scaleof the devastation wrought by the earthquake andとなどをお伝えしなければなりません。しかしながら、先週東北地方を襲った地震と津波による被害の大きさを思うとき、全く集中することができtsunami in Tohoku last week. Much remains

ません。まだはっきりとしたことは何もわかりま

unknown, but it is clear that the rebuilding efforts

せんが、復興への道のりは何年もかかることでしwill be ongoing for years to come.

ょう。

For me, this raises the question of how we as

私たちは、教員として、この事態に今、そしてteachers should respond, first to the immediate

長期に渡りどう対応し、復興に貢献するべきでしcrisis, and then to the longer range questions ofょうか。このメッセージの草稿では教授法と実践

how we can contribute to the reconstruction of thegreater community. In an earlier version of thisshort message, I mused about pedagogies andpractices, but what is clearly more important is how

について思いをはせていましたが、それよりももっと大切なのが、今後長い期間、私たちを支えて行く集団的知性、ユーモアのセンス、思いやり、

we contribute to the collective intelligence, good

忍耐、回復力、強い意志です。今まで以上に。こhumor, kindness, resilience, and strength that we

れはお互いのそして、同僚や学習者の地震や震災

will need to call on in the coming days and years;の体験に耳を傾けることにより実現できるかも

now more acutely than ever. This could take the

しれません。しかし、私たちはもっと積極的に、

form of sharing stories with each other, with

現実的に義援金やその他の復興支援に関わってcolleagues and with learners about what the

いくべきです。JALT理事会がそのための話し合い

earthquake and aftermath means for all of us, but
we will also need to be pro-active in practical ways
about how we can help with fund-raising andrebuilding efforts. The JALT Board of Directors has

を始め、第一歩を踏み出しました。皆さんとともにアイディアとその実行プランを作り上げていきたいと思っています。

taken a good first step in opening the discussion,and I look forward to developing ideas and actionplans with all of you.
2

FROM LD SIG LD COORDINATORHUGH NICOLLLD SIG コーディネータより
ヒュー・ニコル

SIG Activities

SIG活動について

By the time this sees final digital print I will have

このメッセージがオンライン発行される頃には、(finally) updated our officer page on the web site

SIG

<http://ld-sig.org/officers/>, but without further ado,

<http://ld-sig.org/officers/>の委員リストを更I would like to introduce readers to Richard Silver,

新しているはずです（やっと！）。そして、新しく

our new programme chair, to Rachelle Jorgensen,委員となったリチャード・シルバー（プログラム）、

our new membership chair, and to salute Ellen

ラシェル・ジョルゲンソン（メンバーシップ）、を

Head and Patrick Kiernan for their on-going

読者の皆さんに紹介しそして既に本誌の編集を担

editorial work with Learning Learning. For this year,

当しているエレン・ヘッド及びパトリック・キアナ

Hiromi Furusawa continues as treasurer and the
SIG also continues to benefit, of course, from thecontributions of our publications team, members atlarge, and local get-together coordinators.
This year will be a special one for us in many
ways, but one of the highlights will be Palgrave
Macmillan's publication of Realizing Autonomy in
the fall, which we'll celebrate with a one-day

ホ

ー

ム

ペ

ー

ジ

ンに敬意を表します。本年度も引き続き会計を担当してくれる古澤弘美や、出版、エリア・ミーティン
グのコーディネータや他の委員の皆さんの協力を得て、SIGの運営を進めていきます。
今年度はSIGにとって色々な意味で特別な年になるでしょう。中でも秋にはパルグレイヴ・マクミラ
ンから「Realizing Autonomy」が出版される予定で

conference at Nanzan University, Nagoya, on 29

あり、その出版を記念するイベントを１０月２９日

October 2011. Darren Elliott has been working veryに名古屋の南山大学にて行います。ダレン・エリオ

hard to organize that event, and has built a support

ットがすでに、発表者募集、登録受付や出版社とのweb site to handle the call for papers, registration,

リンクを張ったウェブサイトをイベントのために

and advance sales of the book. Other JALT and立ち上げ、企画運営に尽力してくれています。そのautonomy related events we can look forward to

他にもPanSIG学会（於：松本、５月２１ 〜２２日）、include the 2011 PanSIG conference in Matsumoto

jaltCALL （於：久留米、６月３ 〜５日）、中仙道（於：(21-22 May), jaltCALL in Kurume (3-5 June), this

東京、６月１９日）、CUEモチベーション学会（於：year's Nakasendo gathering in Tokyo (19 June), the

東京、７月２〜３日）、IATEFL LA-SIGとの共同後援

CUE Motivation conference in Tokyo (2-3 July),の「Advising for language learner autonomy」学"Advisingautonomy,"

会（於：神田外大、１１月１２日）、そしてJALT 2011

co-sponsored with the IATEFL LA-SIG at Kanda（於：東京、１１月１８−２１日）など自律学習と

for

languagelearner

Gaidai on 12 November, and of course, JALT2011
in Tokyo, 18-21 November. For more informationand links to these events, please see our events
page at <http://ld-sig.org/events/>.

関連深いイベントが目白押しです。これらの学会の詳細はSIGのホームページのイベントページをご覧下さい。<http://ld-sig.org/events/>

3

FROM LD SIG LD COORDINATORHUGH NICOLLLD SIG コーディネータより
ヒュー・ニコルOne final bit of business is an on-going project led

そして最後に団体運営に関する事をもう一つ。JALT

by Aleda Krause, our national Director of Records.

記録管理委員のアレダ・クラウスを中心に進められ

Since JALT became an officially recognized NPO,ているプロジェクトについてです。JALTは正式に

we have been working hard to codify many of ourpractices as a volunteer organization. One of theseareas is getting our chapter and SIG constitutions
in order, especially regarding officer elections,

NPOとして認定されたことにより、様々な活動をボ
ランディア団体として体系化・成文化しようとしています。この一つには、委員の選出、報告書の提出、

reporting protocols, and audit procedures. While

監査などのSIGにおける規約を明確にすることにあ

the LD-SIG has long been proud of our minimalist

ります。LD-SIGは伝統的に最低限の規則を設け、おconstitution, we are going to have to make sure that

互いの自主性を尊重しあってきましたが、今後は

our constitution does not (and cannot be construed

我々のSIG規約が学会規約に違反することなく、まto) contravene the national constitution. I will be

た、そのように解釈されないようにしていかなくて

working in consultation with the other officers to put

はなりません。そのため、他の委員の方々と協力しtogether a new draft constitution to submit to the
Executive Board Meeting in June, which we, as a
SIG, will need to ratify at our annual general
meeting (AGM) at the national conference in Tokyo.
More on that by email.

合い、新しいSIG規約の草案を６月に理事会に提出し、その後、東京の年次大会にて我々自身がSIGとして承認する必要があります。この件についてはE
メールでさらに詳しくお知らせする予定です。

For now, let me conclude with prayers and love

最後に、東日本大震災において被災された皆さん

for all those affected by the recent events inへ祈りと愛を送ります。そして皆さんが新学年度をTohoku, and to wish you all well in the coming year.

無事に迎えられますようにお祈りしています。

Hugh

ヒュー

4

編集者よりエレン・ヘッド、パトリック・キアナン

FROM the editors
ELLEN HEAD and PATRICK KIERNAN
Greetings all,

皆様こんにちは。

Usually at this time of year we are filled with

いつもなら学年度末の、春を迎える今の時期なら、

pleasant thoughts of new beginnings, new

私達は新たな始まり、新しく開講される授業、新classes,and

しく迎える同僚、そしてお花見等と胸を踊らせる

responsibilities and cherry blossom parties.

時期であります。しかし先日の恐ろしい東北地方

Insteadbeen

太平洋沖地震によって、このような楽しい思いは

overshadowed by the dreadful earthquake in

影が薄くなってしまいました。地震以外のニュー

northeast Japan. Probably you have read little

スにはほとんど触れることはなく、その被害、全news recently that didn’t refer to disaster in some

容は日々明らかになってきています。ここで被害

way so while sending sympathies to the victimsに遭われた地域の皆様に謹んでお見舞いを申し上

we’ll turn our concerns to this issue of Learning

げます。

perhaps
these

new

happy

colleagues

thoughts

have

さて、最新号の Learning Learning 「学習の学Learning.
This issue of Learning Learning seemed to習」についてここで述べさせて頂きたいと思いま

usual,

す。最新号はいつもよりも編集者としては纏めや

incorporating threads from the SIG forum about

すかったような気が致します。まずは全国語学教

Metaphor at the national JALT conference and育学会年次国際大会における学習者デベロップメ

taking in a trip to Scotland for an interview with aント研究部会の SIG フォーラムのスレッド（様々pioneering primary school practitioner, Steve Bell,な発言とそれに対するコメントから成る一連のメby Bruce Lander, and one to Mumbai for a reportッセージ）の紹介があります。次に場所をスコッ

on a national conference about autonomy in

トランドに移し、ブルース・ランダー氏により先India, with Alison Stewart. In the Looking Forward

駆的実践を行っている小学校教諭のスチーブ・ベ

section, we are also delighted to have a report

ルの活動の紹介文が記載されております。さらにfrom Alison and Kay Irie, about Realizing

は場所を地球の反対にあるムンバイに移し、アリ

Autonomy, the forthcoming anthology of papers

ソン・スチュアート氏によるインドにおける自律

about classroom based autonomy, edited by

学習に関する全国大会の報告が掲載されておりま

Alison and Kay. You can read more about theす。また、Looking Forward 今後のイベントのセ

project and the conference to celebrate it, which

クションでは教室における自律学習についての近is being held this October at Nanzan University

刊 予 定 の ア ン ソ ロ ジ ー 、「 自 律 学 習 の 実 現 」

below in Looking Forward. But for now here’s a（Realising Autonomy）の紹介が記載されておりcomment one of the contributors:

ます。このプロジェクト、そしてアンソロジーの“Oh Good Goddess! (I could rap rapsodically for

刊行を記念する学会が南山大学で１０月に予定さdays about this project) Suffice to say, I have

れておりますが、詳細については以下をご覧にな

learned so much as a writer from my colleagues'ってください。まずは寄稿者のお一人からのコメ

support and suggestions, not to mention theントです。

helpful insights and infinite patience of the「おやまあ。私はこのプロジェクトの素晴らしさ

editors. My article is so much better than it everについて何日も語ることが出来ます。論文寄稿者

come

togethermoreeasilythan

としては、同僚の支え、そして改善提案により、

多くのことを学んだといえばここでは十分でしょう。

5

編集者よりエレン・ヘッド、パトリック・キアナン

FROM the editors
ELLEN HEAD and PATRICK KIERNAN
could have been had I worked entirely alone. I am

また、編集者の見識、そして筆者である私に対する

more convinced than ever of the value of

辛抱強さは計り知れなく、論文は単独で書かれたもcollaboration in professional development and inのよりも質的にずっと良いものになったような気がthe honing of research and writing skills. This has

致します。共同制作は教師の専門性を向上させるだ

been a great experience in every way.” (LD

けではなく、研究とライテングスタイルを磨き上げ

Survey, December 2010).

るのに役立つと確信致しました。この経験はあらや“How could primary school practice developedin Scotland have anything to teach us here in

る意味で素晴らしいものでした。」(学習の学習によるアンケート、2010 年１０月)

Japan?”, you might ask, but when you read

「如何にしてスコットランドの小学校の実践がこ

Bruce’s interview it becomes evident that the

こ日本で役立つのか」、と疑問に思う方も多いかと思

method called Storyline, developed to deal with

いますが、ブルーズ（ランダー氏）との会見を通じ

integrating cross curricular themes in primary L1て、Storyline ストーリー展開という方法論は、作業

teaching, could have a lot of relevance as a taskに基づいた(task based), そしてコンテンツベース

based and content based methodology which isの（content based）方法論であるという意味では

ripe for use in L2 teaching.

L2(第２言語)の教授法に大いに関連性があると言えSo, on the metaphor: at the JALT forum in

ます。また、2010 年全国語学教育学会年次国際大会

November 2010 seven presenters shared ideas

における学習者デベロップメント研究部会のプレゼ

about

and

ンテーションでは、７名の発表者が、教えるにあた

specifically how they use metaphors to helpって、どのようにメタファー（隠喩）を使用し、こlearners think about teaching and learning.

れらのメタファーを通じて学習者が自分の学習につDuring the forum one of the audience members,

いて理解をどのように深めてゆくのかについて発表

Joe Sykes, explained that he had developed a

しました。その中でもジョー・サイクス氏は学期をsemester-long sequence of work for encouraging

通してメタファーを通じて学生に学習者及び教師のstudent awareness of learner and teacher roles,

役割を明確にさせる一連の作業を紹介しました。彼

and autonomy, by using metaphor. Impressed byの方法論の視点、そしてその細やかさに感心し、サ

the scope and detail of his approach, we

イクス氏に学習者の学習に投稿してもらうことをおextracted a promise of an article for LL, which can

願いしました。彼の記事はこの春号に記載されておbe read in this issue. Our other feature article in

ります。もう一つの Featured Articles フィチャード

this issue also has its origins in the forum about

アーテイクルズもやはりメタファーの公開討論会がmetaphor. Andy Barfield’s paper on grammatical

出発点となっているのです。アンディ・バーフィル

metaphors takes a deep look at linguistic

ド氏の論文は文法的なメタファーについてであり、structure and asks some searching questions

言語構造について吟味したものであります。望ましabout the links between preferred discourse andい話法と実際のコミュニケーションとを対比させ、

communication styles, with ultimately political

言語学的なスタイルについて学生に意図的に情報をimplications in terms of how we empower

与えたり与えなかったり（学習者に自ら気がつかせ

students by giving or withholding information

る）することで如何に自分の学習に自信を持たせる

about linguistic style, or leading them to their own

かという突き詰めれば政治的な意味合いを持つ文章

awareness of it.

でもあります。

using

metaphorsinteaching

6

FROM the editors
ELLEN HEAD and PATRICK KIERNAN

編集者より
エレン・ヘッド、パトリック・キアナン

In the looking back section, you can find a

Looking Back 報告は、全国語学教育学会年次国report on the JALT national conference by LD

際大会を振り返り、学習者ディベロプメント研究

grant award winner Richard Silver. Richard

部会の研究助成金授与者リチャード・シルバー氏

introduces the SALC forum, as well as providing
appreciative critique of some of the plenaries andother sessions. There are also reflections fromthe presenters at the forum about metaphor, andの報告です。フォーラムを通じ、総会その他のセッション、会議に対して、参加者おのおのが建設的な批判や意見を書き込むことが可能なのです。

Mumbai

さらにメタフォーのフォーラム参加者の報告があconference. It is particularly fascinating to think

り、ムンバイにおける国際会議の報告があります。

about the situation in relation to learner autonomy

インドはご存知のとおり、経済的には日本と著しin India, as it provides elements of stark contrast

く対照的な状態にありますが、教育哲学的には日with Japan in terms of economics and yet in

本の教育制度よりもはるかに学生の自律学習を尊

terms of educational philosophy, it is an example

重しているように感じられます。アリソン・スチ

ourinternational

reportfrom

theof an Asian country with a very different (arguably
more autonomy-friendly) philosophy than Japan.
If you are at all interested in how classroom
autonomy relates to social autonomy, you will findAlison Stewart’s comments and quotes from the

ュアート氏のコメントは示唆に富むものであることは間違いありません。最後に、コリン・スキー
ツが３月の SIG ミーティングの学習経験についての報告があります。

conference extremely thought provoking. Last but

Book Review 書評のセクションではジム・ロナル

not least, Colin Skeates and Colin Rundle report

ド氏の日本の英語教育における Can-do List（Canon learner stories from the March SIG meeting.

do Statements in Language Education in Japan andWe field a book review from Jim Ronald of the
Framework

andLanguage

Portfolio

SIG’s

November 2010 anthology of papers, Can Do
Statements in Language Education in Japan and
Beyond. Can do statements are one of the toolsof self-evaluation and as such they have a

Beyond）の書評が記載されております。この撰集は JALT Framework and Language Portfolio 分
科 会 が 纏 め た も の で も あ り ま す 。 Can doStatements 日本の英語教育における実現可能な学
習者の声明とは、自己評価のツールの一つであり、students’

生徒の学習に対する認識を高めるのに重要な役割

awareness of what and how they are learning.

を果たします。教室内,あるいはセルフアクセスセ

This book has obvious relevance for those of us

ンター等に自己評価を取り入れようとしている者

interested in finding ways of implementingにとっては興味深い書評であります。

valuable

part

to

play

in

raisingself-evaluation in the classroom or indeed in the
self-access centre.
Also reviewed is Adrian Holliday’s Intercultural
Communication and Ideology which offers acritical account of Intercultural Communication.
Patrick proposes that the perspective developed

エイドリアン・ホリデー氏の Intercultural
Communication and Ideology (異文化間コミュニ
ケーションとイデオロギー)の書評もご覧になってください。私パトリック（キアナン）は、ホリ
デー氏の視点は日本、そして外国で英語教育に携

by Holliday offers some insights relevant to

わっているものには重要な見解を与えてくれていlanguage teachers in Japan and elsewhere.

ると確信しております。

7

FROM the editors
ELLEN HEAD and PATRICK KIERNAN

編集者より
エレン・ヘッド、パトリック・キアナン

This edition of Learning Learning reflects the

Learning Learning 「学習の学習」の最新号はco-operation of many people. In particular we

多くの方の協力によって成しえたものです。特にwould like to thank all the contributors and those

ここで以下の寄稿者の皆様、そして翻訳者の皆様

who helped with translation: Makoto Abe, Keikoに感謝を述べたいと思います。阿部誠氏、飯塚恵Izuka, Kay Irie、 Kayo Ozawa, and Tamikazu
Date. We hope that you will find something of
relevance and interest in this issue and as
always, we want to hear from you if you are

子氏、入江恵氏、小澤佳世氏、そして伊達民和氏、です。この最新号に皆様が何らかの関心を示され、今後の教育活動に役立てていただければと思いまinterested in working on the editorial/translating

す。また、編集・翻訳チームの一員として今後参team, or writing articles, reflections or book

加されたい方、書評や論文を書いて見たいという

reviews.

方は是非ご連絡ください。

エレン・ヘッド、パトリック・キアナン
Ellen Head and Patrick Kiernan

8

FROM LD SIG MEMBER Rachelle Jorgenson LDSIG のラシェル・ジョルゲンソン

Hi,

こんにちは、

My name is Rachelle Jorgenson and I currently livein Chiba prefecture. I officially joined the LD SIG
in January this year but I have been following the
SIG’s events and activities on and off for many
years.

I’m glad I finally took the plunge. In fact,

私の名前はラシェル・ジョルゲンソンです。現在、千葉県に住んでいます。今年の１月に LD SIG の正式会員になりましたが、長年にわたり断続的ですが
SIG の行事と活動に注意を払ってきました。会員に

when I joined the group, I also volunteered as

なることを決心をして嬉しく思います。実際、会員

Membership Chair.

I hope I can do my part inになったとき、会員簿担当主担の役を務めることを

maintaining the membership of the SIG and help

申し出ました。今後、SIG 会員組織維持のために役

attract new members.

割を果たし、新会員を勧誘することの一助になりた

I originally became interested in learner

く思います。

autonomy when I took the “Autonomy” course at

元々、私が学習者の自律に興味を抱いたのは、Columbia University Teacher’s College (TC) in

2002 年 に コ ロ ン ビ ア 大 学 の 教 職 課 程 コ ー ス

2002. The course was a significant turning point(Teacher’s College(TC)で「自律」の科目を履修

in

were

したときです。この授業は、私の教師としての力量

constantly asked to reflect and share about our

向上にとって有意義な転換点になりました。授業中

past learning experiences, our current classroomに私たちが絶えず求められたことは、過去の学習体

situations, the amount of autonomy we had as

験や、私たちの教室の状況、教員としてどの程度のmyprofessional

development.

Weteachers and what barriers students and teachers
have in taking responsibility for their learning andteaching.
Coming from a psychology background, I
quickly became interested in the affective factorsthat come into play that can either encourage or
discourage students and teachers on their path toself-determination.

Just as I have come to a

自律性があるのか、学生と教員がそれぞれ学習と指導を主体的に行うに際してどのような障害があるかに関して振り返ったり、互いに分かち合うことでした。
元々は心理学の分野出身でしたので、私は、学生と教師が自ら決めた目標に向かっている時に励みになったり、或いは、その逆になるのに関係してくる情意的な要素に直ちに興味をもちました。私自身

9

FROM LD SIG MEMBER Rachelle Jorgenson LDSIG のラシェル・ジョルゲンソン

better understanding of myself as a person andが、自らの振り返りや自分の体験や気持ちを他の人

educator through self-reflection and sharing myと分かち合うことを通して、人として教育者として

experiences and feelings, I ask my students to

自らをよりよく理解できるようになったように、学

enter the same process regarding various aspects

生にも、言語学習の様々な面について、私と同じプof their language learning.

ロセスを経ることを求めます。その理由は、自己認

I do this in the hopethat self-realization will help lead them to their own
turning points in their language learning journeys.
Sharing and collaborating with my classmates
at TC helped spur my development as an educatorand led to several publications and workshops
about autonomy and language learning. However,in recent years, I feel I have been very inactive and識によって学生が言語学習の過程において自らの転換点に至ることを希望するからです。
TC での授業でクラスメートと分かち合ったり共同したりすることは、私の教育者としての力量向上に拍車をかけ、それは自律と言語学習に関するいく
つかの出版とワークショップにつながりました。しrealized that the best way for me to fire up my

かし、最近では非常に不活発な状態になっている気

motivation to continue my learning is throughがしていて、研究者としてのモーチベーションしよう

getting more involved with organizations such asとする最善の方法は、JALT のような組織、より具

JALT and more specifically LD.

I have several

体的には LD、にもっと関わることであると気づき

close friends who are members of the LD SIG and I

ました。既に LD SIG 会員には幾人かの親しい友人

expect that I will make many more especially sinceがいますし、学生が自律的態度を身に付けられるよ

we all share a sincere interest in helping our

う援助することが私たちにとっては共通の真摯なstudents develop autonomy. I look forward to

関心事ですから、更に多くの友人ができると思いま

meeting and sharing ideas with you! す。では、皆さんとお会いし意見交換をすることを楽しみにしています。

Rachelle Jorgenson
ラシェル・ジョルゲンソン

10Joe Sykes

Learning Learning 18 (1) Spring 2011
Feature Article: Joe Sykes

Promoting Self-awareness in Learners
through Metaphor Elicitation

one of the key determinants in the successful

メタファーで促す学習者の気づき

definition of learner autonomy is that of Holec (1981:3),

Joe Sykes
Akita University“the ability to take charge of one’s own learning”. As

acquisition of a language. The most commonly quoted

Littlewood (1996) points out, this depends on
willingness and ability. Of these two factors the

ジョー・サイクス
秋田大学

arguably least problematic to foster is ability, which
depends on knowledge and skills. These can be taught
through conventional pedagogical means. Willingness,on the other hand, could be influenced by an array of
obscure factors, the control of which is essentially onlyin the hands of the learners themselves. These factors

本論では学習者が、教師の助けを得ながら学習者であcould be what the learner believes the respective roles

る自らと教師、そして授業を概念化するメタファーをof the teacher and the learner are and their motivation.

創造していく活動を紹介する。メタファーを通して、

As such it is the goal of this article to provide teachers

学習者は自分たちの意識を超えたところに存在する

with a tool which can help learners to become aware of

ビリーフにアクセスすることができ、ビリーフは内省

what they believe about language education, while atに向かう。内省を促すため、学習者はメタファーを分

the same time, informing the teacher.

析する過程において指導を受ける。それが高いレベルの自己意識をもたらし、それは自律性の獲得に必要な

Self-awareness

要素になる。本論は先ず、学習者の自律に関する自己

Learner behaviour is influenced by the values,

意識の役割を概観し、学習者の隠れたビリーフにアクattitudes, beliefs, knowledge and opinions the learner

セスするためのメタファーの使用に関する理論的な

possesses.

基礎について解説する。さらに、読者にも自分の教室

self-awareness. For the purpose of this paper, these

で実施することができるように、同活動の手順を紹介

values, attitudes, beliefs, knowledge and opinions willする。最後に、学習者をメタファーの分析に関わらせbeることで、研究者、教育者、学習者が同じ関心を共有

self-awareness, critical analysis of learner beliefs is

できることを議論する。

possible, which, in turn, can facilitate the metacognitivereferred

Awareness

to

as

of

learnerthese

beliefs.

constitutes

Throughdevelopment of the learner and make the attainment ofIntroduction

learner autonomy a possibility. While this sounds

In this paper, a classroom activity which uses

simple, unfortunately, such self-awareness is difficult

metaphor elicitation to promote self-awareness amongto achieve. Many of our beliefs (learner or otherwise)

learners is described. I will argue that self-awarenesslie beyond the grasp of our conscious awareness. Thisis a prerequisite of the attainment of learner autonomy.

can be demonstrated by dissonance between our

It is now widely recognised that learner autonomy isstated beliefs and our behaviour. One example of this11

Joe Sykes
can be found in Phipps and Borg’s (2009) study into

love,

with

the

more

concreteandeasilydifferences between teachers’ stated beliefs aboutcomprehensible concept of a journey. Within thisgrammar instruction and how they do it in practice. A

concept the lovers correspond to the travellers; thenumber of discrepancies were found. Anecdotal

love relationship corresponds to the vehicle; the events

evidence also suggests that learners often claim toin the relationship correspond to the journey; thebelieve in a democratic classroom and active learning,

progress made in the relationship corresponds to thebut their behaviour seems to suggest that they are

distance covered; difficulties experienced corresponddependent on the authority of the teacher and passive

to the obstacles encountered; the choices about what

learners. Considering this, the necessary first step into do correspond to the decisions about which way topromoting self-awareness is to provide access to thesego and the goals of the relationship correspond to theimplicit learner beliefs. Metaphor was selected as adestination of the journey (Kovecses, 2002: 7). Of

means of achieving this.

course, there are numerous other ways in which weconceptualise love, but this example serves toMetaphordemonstrate the way in which we use metaphor at a

The traditional view of metaphor is that it is a purely

cognitive level to make sense of the abstract world,

linguistic or literary phenomenon. However, thanks toand that metaphor in language reflects this.

Lakoff and Johnson’s (1980) Cognitive Metaphor

In the field of education, metaphor has been usedbeto conceptualise what is happening in the classroom,

fundamentally cognitive in nature and pervasive inallowing critical evaluation. For example, it has been

daily discourse. Due to this change in view, it has beenargued that the traditional approach to education isused as means of accessing the subconscious in fields“CLASSROOM AS A WORK PLACE”, “LEARNERS

as varied as psychotherapy, education and business

AS EMPLOYEES”, “THE TEACHER AS A BOSS” and(Lawley & Tompkins, 2000).

“LEARNING AS WORK” (Berliner, 1990). Identification

Theory,metaphorisnowconsidered

to

all

of this conceptualisation of education, offered an

metaphors in language (referred to as linguistic

opportunity for critical reflection, which gave rise tometaphors)more fundamental

alternative models of education, such as “TEACHING

metaphors which exist at the cognitive level (referred

AND LEARNING AS PROBLEM SOLVING” (Shuell,to as conceptual metaphors). For example, the1990), “TEACHER AS AN EXECUTIVE” (Berliner,

linguistic metaphors, “Our marriage is on the rocks”,

1990) and “CLASSROOM AS A LEARNING PLACE”“Our relationship is at a crossroads” or “We’ll just have(Marshall, 1990), which resonate more closely withto go our separate ways” are all rooted in themodern educational ideals.

Cognitive

Metaphorare

Theorya resultofasserts

conceptual

metaphor,

“LOVE

IS

A

(Kovecses,

2002:(In accordance

that

JOURNEY”

In teacher education, metaphor has been used as athetool to facilitate reflection as a means of promoting

conventions of cognitive metaphor theory, italics aredevelopment of teacher beliefs. Tobin (1990) foundused to represent linguistic metaphors and capitals arethat reflection through metaphor could cause anused for conceptual metaphors.) This conceptual

instantaneous transformation of teacher beliefs, by

metaphor is used to aid our comprehension andallowing teachers to identify beliefs which werecommunication of the relatively abstract concept of

causing problematic behaviour in the classroom. For

5).

with

12

Joe Sykes
example,one

teacher,whowasexperiencing

word or phrase which is used to describe

classroom management issues, was asked to produce

something it is not”. The reason that this definition

metaphors about how she perceived the role of theis given rather than the cognitive version is that it isteacher. She wrote, “a teacher is a police officer”. This

the definition that they are probably familiar with inmetaphor represents an authoritarian approach totheir mother tongue.

teaching, which she was previously unaware of. Such

2. Some common examples of metaphors arean approach to teaching invariably leads to power

presented, which the learners are asked to discuss

struggles between the teacher and the learners. Thus

the meaning of in pairs, in L1 or L2 (the reason I

the cause of her classroom management issues wasallow L1 is that comprehension is deemed more

identified. In identifying the cause of the problem, an

important than language practice in this activity).

instant transformation of beliefs occurred.

They are also asked if there are any similar ones in

It was with this in mind that I set out to provide mystudents with the same opportunity for reflection,
through the use of metaphor.

Japanese.

3. Some of the benefits of learning metaphor arepresented, e.g. Metaphors are prevalent in daily
discourse

Method

and

they

allow

you

to

explaincomplicated ideas in simple language.

One of the major differences between the teachers of

4. A scaffolded approach is utilised to help thethe studies mentioned above is language ability.

learners create their own metaphors. First, they are

According to Dong (2004), language learners must be

showed pictures of clouds, which they liken tohelped to develop metaphoric competence. Therefore,

other objects in pairs (clouds which clearly

there are three stages in this technique, completed

resemble other objects – such as UFOs, or aover two lessons with homework. The purpose of theploughed field - will produce better results). This

first stage is to help the learners to develop metaphoricstage can be done quickly by simply asking

competence in English. In the second stage, themembers of the class what each cloud looks like.

learners are guided through the creation of metaphors

By looking for similarities between physical objects

describing how they conceptualise language learners,

they are primed for finding similarities between

language teachers and language classes. In the final

more abstract phenomena.

stage, learners are assisted in the analysis of their
metaphors.

5. They are given some examples of more abstract
metaphors such as “Life is a journey” and they are
asked to give alternatives to them, such as “Life isStage 1: Developing metaphoric competencea game”. The emphasis is on originality so no

The first step takes the form of a workshop (I used areference is made to alternative metaphors which

PowerPoint presentation, but a worksheet can be used

may exist in Japanese. This step is a little more

to equal effect, see Appendix 1). The whole process

challenging, so a little more time is required,can be completed in the space of a single 90 minuteperhaps 10-15 minutes, to allow discussion withlesson. The workshop included the following steps:

classmates.

1. A definition of the traditional notion of metaphor –6. They are given cues and asked to finish thepurely linguistic - is provided, “a metaphor is asentence, for example, “Education is ...” or “A
13

Joe Sykes
friend is ...”. This is done individually, then sharedsponge; An English teacher is ... a mother bird, a guide,with a partner and then some examples are shared

a god, a dictionary; An English class is ... a training

with the whole class.

ground, unchartered territory, an amusement park.

7. To make sure they all understand the difference

To help learners to comprehend the deeper

between literal and metaphoric sentences, 20

meaning underlying their metaphors, it is possible tominutes before the end of the lesson, they are

guide them through the process of metaphor analysis

given a quiz which consists of metaphoric andwhich would normally be done by a researcher. This

literal sentences, which they label as such.

can be achieved by asking questions about their
metaphors. It is then hoped that the answers to theseStage 2: Metaphor elicitationquestions reveal to the learners aspects of their beliefs

On successful completion of this first stage, thewhich they had not previously considered.

learners are deemed ready for the metaphor elicitation

Questions which could be used to reveal thestage. They are asked to complete three sentences,

degree of learner autonomy they feel include the“An English learner is ...”, “An English teacher is ...”

following: “Is the learner passive or active?”, “Is theand “An English class is ...” and provide a written

learner independent or dependent?” or “Is the learnerexplanation for each one. This is given as homework to

responsible for their own success?” about the “Anallow time to reflect and to prevent cross-influence

English Learner is ...” metaphor. If the learner in theiramong the learners. The metaphor elicitation process

metaphor is active, independent and responsible forcan be repeated any number of times in order to track

their own success (such as the learner as adventurer),any development in their beliefs about learning.

clearly, one could infer that they take a relatively
autonomous approach to language learning. On theStage 3: Analysis

contrary, if the opposite answers are given, theAfter completing the metaphors about learning for

opposite would be found (as would probably be thehomework, in the next class the learners werecase with the sponge metaphor). Questions about theencouraged to share their metaphors with each otherlearners’ perceived role of the teacher about the “Anand explain the meaning of them. Again, this could beEnglish teacher is ...” metaphor can also help todone in L1 or L2. This sharing of metaphors serves toincrease understanding of the learners’ attitudes topromotePerspective

learner autonomy, for example, “Does the learner needconsciousness is a term which refers to the ability to

the teacher to succeed?”, “Does the teacher control

understand the perspectives of others and that they

the learner?” or “Does the learner control the teacher?”.

may differ from one’s own (Oxford et al, 1998).

Perhaps it is necessary to say at this point, it is not

Increased

potentiallynecessary to explain the meaning or the value of

benefits group cohesion and promotes a morelearner autonomy to the students. It is hoped that the

open-minded approach to methodologies employed byintrinsic value of learner autonomy and its entailments

the teacher.

- independence and self-motivation - become clear toperspective

perspective

consciousness.

consciousness

Some common examples of metaphors created by

the learners through reflection.

first-year students at Akita University were as follows:

The metaphors can also reveal clues about the

An English learner is ... an adventurer, a baby bird, astrength of the motivation of the learners and whether
14Joe Sykes
they are extrinsically or intrinsically motivated to learn
English. For instance, by asking whether the learner

Conclusion

enjoys learning, or the class is pleasant, one is able toIn this paper I have described an activity which can be

determine whether they have intrinsic motivation. In

used to empower both the teacher and the learner.

contrast, questions about whether the learner is goal

Traditionally, researchers collect and analyse data,

oriented can indicate whether they are extrinsicallyand this information may inform the teacher’s practice.

motivated. It is also possible to see the strength of their

The learner benefits third hand from the research, if at

motivation. Learners using positive elements asall. By including the learners in every step of theanalogies for teaching and learning presumably haveprocess, from elicitation to analysis and reflection, theystronger motivation than a learner who uses negative

are the ones who benefit the most. Through theanalogies.

self-awareness gained from this activity, it is hoped

After answering the questions, the learners canthat they become willing to pursue learner autonomy.

write a summary of their answers which gives them an

From the teacher’s perspective, they are provided withoverview of their beliefs about English learning. Suchcontext specific data which empowers them to provide

an insight empowers the learner to be able to criticallya language education which is appropriate to theirreflect upon their beliefs which has the potential tospecific context and move away from methodologies,

facilitate metacognitive development.

grounded in generalistic research. Over the years

Besides being directly beneficial to the learner, thethere has been a move to close the gap between thedata that such a process can yield constitutes a

researcher and the practitioner. This activity moves

valuable source of information for the teacher, who

one step further and brings the interests of thegains a detailed insight into the reasons for the

researcher, the teacher and the learner into alignment,

learners’ behaviour.

and removes the boundaries between them.

References
Berliner, D.C. (1990). ‘If the metaphor fits, Why not
wear it? The teacher as executive.’ Theory

framework.’ System, 24(4), 427-35.
Marshall, H. (1990). ‘Beyond the workplace metaphor:
The classroom as a learning setting.’ Theory

into Practice, 29(2), 85-93.
Holec, H. (1981). Autonomy in Foreign Language

into Practice, 29(2), 94-101.
Oxford, R. L., Tomlinson, S., Barcelos, A., Harrington,

Learning. Oxford: Pergamon.
Practical

C., Lavine, R. Z., Saleh, A. & Longhini, A.

Introduction. New York: Oxford University(1998). ‘Clashing metaphors about classroom

Pressteachers: Toward a systematic typology for

Kovesces,Z.

(2002).

Metaphor:A

Lakoff, G. & Johnson, M. (1980). Metaphors We Live
By. London: University of Chicago Press.

the language teaching field.’ System, 26(1),3-50

Lawley, J. & Tompkins, P. (2000). Metaphor in Mind:

Phipps, S. & Borg, S. (2009). ‘Exploring tensions

Transformation Through Symbolic Modelling.

between teachers’ grammar teaching beliefs

London: The Developing Company.

and practices.’ System, 37, 380–90.

Littlewood, W. (1996). ‘“Autonomy”: An anatomy and a15

Joe Sykes
Shuell, T. J. (1990). ‘Teaching and learning as problem

Tobin, K. (1990). ‘Changing metaphors and beliefs: A

solving.’ Theory into Practice, 29(2), 102-108.

master switch for teaching?’ Theory into
Practice, 29(2), 22-127

Appendix 1
Metaphors and Learning English Worksheet

16

Joe Sykes
Appendix 1
Metaphors and Learning English Worksheet (continued)

17

Joe Sykes
Appendix 2
Metaphor Homework Worksheet

18

Joe Sykes
Appendix 3
Thinking about Metaphors Worksheet

19

Bruce Lander

Learning Learning 18 (1) Spring 2011
Feature Article: Bruce Lander

Storyline: Approaching Teaching and
Learning Through Collaborative
Storytelling: Bruce Lander of Learner

は勉強したことから自分自身のモデルとなるものを創Development SIG interviews Steve Bell, one of
the founders of Storyline～共同作業によるストーリー作りを通して～
Learner Development SIG のブルース・ランダーが創設者の一人とのインタビュー

かどうかを試すこともできます。

り上げることを奨められます。また、質問に答えたり、証拠や情報を収集したり中で、自分達の仮説が正しい

The EFL trade is constantly in search of new methods.
However, very few take the traditional roles ofteacher-centred learning and transform them into a
genuinely

student-centred

learning

approach.

“Storyline” is a unique method that does just this.
Devised originally for content-based teaching in
Scottish elementary schools, Storyline is a process
whereby the pupils are encouraged to construct theirown models of what is being studied, by making up an
imaginative story based on key questions. The
storyline

Bruce Lander
Kurume University, Fukuoka Prefecture

sequence

runs

for

severallessons,

sometimes even a whole term, during which students
test their hypotheses with real evidence and research.
Rather than learners being mouth-fed knowledge andブルース・ランダー
久留米大学、福岡県

information in the more traditional teacher-centredstyle, Storyline adopts an entirely learner-centred
approach where the students create the story and the

教師は従来、豊富な知識を備えた権威の象徴とみなさ

teacher merely keeps them on track. The application of

れてきました。教師の役目は、教科書を用い、知識を

storyline in language classrooms is a new and exciting

学習者に伝えることであり、その関係は権威であり支prospect. With this in mind, I decided to interview one

配でした。その場合、教育は学習内容を含みますが、of the founders of Storyline, Steve Bell of Strathclyde

学習の方法・手順（既有知識を用いての実践・応用力）

University.

は含んでいません。しかし、これらの実践力や応用力

On a home trip last summer I discovered that theは必要です。この論文では、そのような力を培うこと

roots of Storyline are in my homeland, south of myを目的とする「ストーリーライン」という学習者中心

rural hometown, in Glasgow at Strathclyde University.

の学習方法（教授方法）をその創始者とのインタビュ

Not only this, but Steve Bell lives just round the corner

ーを通して紹介します。

in the next village.

「ストーリーライン」は、1970 年代にスコットランドの小学校で考案されました。そこでは、子供たち

Steve

Bell,

retiredProfessorofStrathclyde

University and originator of the Storyline approach is20

Bruce Lander
now director of Storyline Scotland and chairman of thebeing urged to team-teach, something they were not

European Association for Educational Design.

used to.

His

roles therein involve promoting the use of Storyline

BL: By team-teaching you mean 2 or 3 teachersinternationally in a critical and innovative way byteaching the same subject but not necessarily in the

sharing ongoing research, resources, curriculum

same room?

development and applications of the method.

At

SB: Yes. Teachers would cooperate to teach in apresent this emerging approach is widely used forcross-curricular way, so the same pictures might beteaching all aspects of the primary curriculum in

used in Art, French and English. The idea was to show

Scotland, the Scandinavian countries, the USA and inthat very often the subject separation is an arbitrary

the Netherlands, but also being developed in a number

one, which is decided by teachers for teachers, not theof other countries, such as Thailand, Hong kong,consumer, i.e. the student learner.

Singapore, Lithuania, Greece, Turkey and Portugal.

BL: That must have required massive changes to thecurriculum!

Bruce Lander: In brief, could you explain the idea

SB: Yes, in 1965, the primary teachers had a big

behind Storyline?

problem. I was very lucky because at that time I was a

Steve Bell: One simple precept of learning: “goodyoung lecturer of education at Jordanhill College oflearning is playful” is the basis for Storyline. MacBeath

Education. I was one of three people who were invitedin Bell et al (2007) states that “there is now a wide

to make a team to concentrate on working withtheoretical consensus that as learners we ‘construct’

teachers in schools.

our understanding”. Storyline takes this idea one step

BL: Ah, professional development?

further, exemplifying the interplay of doing and

SB: What we did was look at activity-based methods

knowing, demonstrating how learners are able toas they were being used successfully in the first threeconstruct their knowledge with the correct guidance,

years of primary. Until the new curriculum wasadvice and help from their peers. This is all dependent

introduced the normal practice was to use textbooks.

on learners being provided with a suitable and

So History books, page 52, read chapter ~, answer theappropriate

suchquestions, Geography, Science, Maths whatever, itmeaningful learning. Storyline is the body that provides

was all the same. There was little thought given to thethis chance.

ways of teaching in the 60’s. It was assumed that the

BL: So how long has storyline been going? How did it

most valuable concept was the content of books. As

all start?

long as books were completed the goal had been

SB: In 1965 there was a radical new curriculum planreached.

forschools,

BL: Some people would say that is exactly what

recommending that subjects be grouped and taught inmodern day education in Japan is like! So, you started

a cross-curricular way. Mathematics was still a basic

the Storyline approach off in the general curriculum ofskill, language was also still a basic skill, both of whichprimary schools.

would be taught in a systematic way, but everything

SB: Yes, children, aged between 5~11 years.

else would be integrated. Now teachers, as you canfound that teachers of children aged 5~7 manage

imagine, were a bit frightened by this as they wereeverything

opportunity

Scottishteachers

that

in

can

enticeprimary

through

activities.

The teachers

We
are
21

Bruce Lander
communication

academically and in research terms. In Denmark forthrough drawings, for movement. For example theyexample, they were very much into Vygotsky’sshow mathematics through games and solid materials.

constructivism. Instead of the child being an empty

Everythingwassack or bottle waiting to be filled with knowledge by theactivelyteacher like “the mug and jug” theory (Rogers, 1983),

engaged in learning processes of the informal variety,with storyline, the student plays a more active role inwhich gradually becomes more formal the higher up

the learning process. In Denmark, they believed, likethe scale they progress, when they have learnt to read

Vygotsky that the role of the teacher and student could

and write.

be shifted.

The teacher with enough collaboration

BL: So storyline attempted to take that activity-basewithstudents

and apply it to the whole curriculum. That sounds like aconstruction in students.

radical change. I bet it snowballed from there?

BL: Has storyline changed over the years in response

SB: What we saw was that there were opportunities forto changes in the educational environment?

taking many of the ideas and extending them to older

SB: Yes, with modern day Storyline we have students

children. However, this took about 10 years ofin class who are bombarded with information and who

empirical research. There were things that we dropped

have access to detailed facts on the Internet. We’ve

and improved, gradually things developed. In the 70’s

had to move from a fact based content led curriculum

and 80’s, things were really blossoming, and we foundto a skills based curriculum. Key questions are stillthat other countries became very interested and it wasvital.

adapted in a whole variety of ways in other countries,

BL: Could you give us an example of how key

Iceland, Norway, Denmark, Singapore. After giving

questions work?

workshops at conferences, representatives from other

SB: Sure. In primary 5 and 6, (10~12 years) pupils

countries would take the idea and put it into practice instudy Europe. They start a topic in Storyline bytheir schools. They would adopt the advice we werecreating families who are going to travel in Europe.

giving them as a model and then adapt it.

Each group of 5 or 6 students will be a family. The

BL: What a success story! Were there any problems?

story starts with the question “Who would you like to be

SB: We made mistakes. We became the publishers ofin the family?” Students create a family and choose a

topics. We were providing fish rather than teaching

character by negotiating with each other. Families are“how to fish”. This had a knock-on effect later as someone of these things we have problems with because

teachers became very dependent on our production ofthere are so many different kinds of family now!

materials, not particularly autonomous, and that wasn’t

However one of the strengths of storyline is that it is

the idea. This was meant to be a process of learning,“the student’s story”. The teacher stands back andwhereby any teacher could transfer the method andfacilitates in the learning process. It is a paradox in a

use it for teaching anything they wanted.

way, the teacher knows everything that the students

BL: So could you tell me a little about how things

are going to do in the story, but it’s ultimately thedeveloped once Storyline went international?

students who make the story.

SB: The people who were working this in other

BL: So Storyline is a very interactive approach tocountries

learning, or inter-dependence basically.

responsibleforvisualization,

students

interdisciplinary

could

and

see

for

at

that

the

children

all

sorts

age

learn

were

of

possibilities

theirshouldfacilitate

meaning22

Bruce Lander
SB:

This is what is exciting for the teacher because

their hypothesis.

the teacher will never have the same family twice, inStudents complete their map of Europe in a teamthe classroom. The children have created thiswhich is a valuable group learning process. I use thisimaginary family for which they create biographies andas an example of the principal outline of storyline.

even birthdays. Everything is discussed in detail, from

1. Starts with a key question – what do you think?

telephone numbers, family relations, hobbies and2. Hypothesis – testing your hypothesesinterests to personality traits. I ask for 2 or 3 adjectives

3. Then I lead by asking further key questions.

describing personality for each character. This all“Now you know the capital cities in Europe, where

creates a lot of opportunities later when the characterswould you like to go and why?”interact. What happens next is, the teacher advises

As soon as the why bit comes, we then move onto

groups that their family has “won a 2-week free holiday

another key question. Further information is gathered

to three European destinations of their choice”. Thenin a communal way as students visualize their trip.

students begin to discuss the capital cities of Europe“Why are you going to this place? How will you get

and how much they know.

there? What will you do?”

BL: I can really see how this could work in an EFL

All this leads to further questions to parties outsideclassroom too. How would you describe what is

the group to gathering additional information. For

happening in theoretical terms?

example, members of each group may ask parents at

SB: What is really happening in such instances is thathome what their family does when they go on holiday?

the

test,

This activity develops group ethics and leadership

constructivism in action. What I’m really asking

skills as each member is given the role of finding out

students is the indirect question “What do you know?”.

information

I’m taking prior knowledge of what each student does

communication with a huge range of sources, asking

or doesn’t know and am proposing that they learnelders at home, Internet, books, brochures where thismore. Students are communally learning from each

information can be found.

students

are

being

put

throughaother, rather like Vygotsky’s theory, Zone of Proximal

for

the

group.

Storyline

invites

After the stage has been set and the trip planned,

Development (Vygotsky 1987).

we then introduce the idea of incidents. We suggest

BL: I get it. So what do you do next?

that there should be at least two types of incident along

SB: I give groups a large sheet of coloured paper andthe way, happy and sad. The word “incident” tends toeach group makes their conceptual model, fromhave negative connotations, like accidents, or death

existing knowledge, of Europe. Usually within 20

but we want happy incidents too like, meeting people,

minutes one group will ask, “please please can we

falling in love in Rome for example. There is a set

have a map of Europe?” (now that is music to amatrix that I use for recording the incidents that areteacher’s ears), “Yes, absolutely”, says the teacher.

created by each group. Within this matrix are

They now go to a map from the computer which werecommendations

print out and they are desperate to see it! They arenewspaper report, a role-play, a letter or postcard

viewing this map with what I call “educated eyes”. This

home, as a way to report the incident. But students

process started with a simple question, has created a

decide what they’re going to write. The teacher may

hypothesis and now in groups students are testingsuggest keeping a diary of the trip by recording eventsformakinganinterviewor23

Bruce Lander
encountered from each incident. There is always acontext in which students can hone their referencing

high point in the Storyline process, a culminating event.

skills and data collection from modern sources such as

In most cases, this is the opportunity to present thisthe internet. Storyline makes the practice of language

work to parents as well as conclude the story.

exchange meaningful and easy.

BL: I see, so there’s a broad spectrum of learning

BL: I don’t want to appear critical here, but I canareas covered here. Really they are learning life-skills

foresee several problems. This could be never ending.

through storyline as well as academic skills.

SB: Oh yes, it could, but you always have a

SB:

Storyline is very secure, it is preparing children

culminating event that is the final objective ending thefor the real world. In the real world, I would love to go

project. Storyline is like a novel. Everyone hates it if

on a holiday to Florida or the Caribbean but I can’t

the story comes to an abrupt end. The story in storyline

afford it!

However in Storyline, we can avoid suchis the same, there has to be some kind of success.

problems by creating a fictitious environment, based

One example of this is an award ceremony, with, sayon reality. Students can contemplate all the same

one group being awarded the prize for “best freight firm,

problems they would encounter in reality, thenor travel agent in Scotland”. In the past we have had

research and discuss them by asking questions. Eachactual managers of companies, similar to one that hasquestion would have a sequence that forms a chapter

been simulated, come to give speeches. By creatingin the story.

such a goal early on it gives incredible momentum andLearners in this sequence produce

answers to each question in the form of conceptual

motivation to the learners.

models or hypotheses. They then test these by

BL: What then, is the final objective of Storyline?

questioning and research.

SB: In the case of primary classrooms, the classroom

A wide variety of techniques are used to explore

becomes the Storyline. As in all autonomy-based

and present their ideas, including visualization in two

projects, the learning is in the process, not the product.

or three dimensions. Visualization is an incredible

But on the way, students will be creating models,

support. Have you heard about the work of Howarddrawings, essays, which become an original portfolio.

Gardner (1993) and his research on “multiple

BL: One issue I see is assessment. How do you

intelligences?” This is an incredible concept as inevaluate the students here and provide the systemevery class you will see an example of the kinds ofwith numbers?

intelligences he mentions. Some students in a group

SB: All assessment in Storyline is ongoing. A portfolio

may not be good with numbers while others may beof every project in each class is kept, which helps

great. Gardner (1993) refers to this as “multiple

teachers attain a final grade. This portfolio should

intelligences”.

include a draft of all work done in the process.

BL: So what you’re saying is storyline draws on

Teachers have been closely observing the effort input

multiple intelligences, which benefits the group as aof every individual from each group, which helps.

whole?

Another common part of the assessment is for the

SB: Yes. When I was at school, in the 60’s it wasteacher to ask students to show them something theyreading and writing.

There was no attempt at

are proud of from their portfolio and ask them toimaginative thinking in school then. Now though, these

explain why they are proud of this item. The idea ofare the skills we need. Storyline provides the very

criteria is important as we are trying here to build up
24

Bruce Landerautonomous evaluation in assessment. Conversely,

learning English?

we’d ask students to provide a paper from their

SB: For several years now I have been working with aportfolio they are not happy with. Then we discuss howgroup in Germany who are using Storyline in their EFL

they could learn from it, improve on it. But there is aclasses. The outline they have incorporated involves atension with the cultural system and traditional

bus-stop. The teacher provides a visual of a bus-stop

assessment!

and each student presents an image of a person,

BL: So are there any ways you have developed to

waiting at the bus-stop. This continues for a wholeprovide more “face validity” to the assessment?

term, with students supporting details of personalities,

SB: Teachers can provide evidence to the critics of thisprofessions, appearance and personal circumstances

approach by producing a “can-do” list for each student.

for each and every character they have created as

For example, student A can achieve construct A, B andthey start to interact.

C. This is part of continuous assessment. Assessment

BL: I’m looking forward to seeing how this could beshould be a process where we help students to get

implemented in Japan. What current research is

better, to identify problems and to see whether we canhappening concerning Storyline?

promote better teaching. I would argue that through

SB: There are several postgraduate students using theStoryline one understands much more about each

Storyline approach in Denmark, Germany, Holland,

individual than through a conventional test. A test is

Greece and as far away as Singapore and Thailand.

simply measuring the ability to provide answers to

Also we have just published a book titled “Storyline,

questions, whereas with Storyline you can determine

past, present and future”, based on research in theso much more, group skills, creativity, leadership,

field over the past few years, which would be helpful toproblem solving skills plus many more.

anyone wanting to implement this kind of approach in

BL: You’re saying it has the potential to impact

Japan.

students at a really deep level.
SB: Yes. Storyline is not just about knowledge andskills, it’s also about feelings and attitudes. When wewere working in Thailand last year we were doing a
topic called “river village”. This was really a topic about
pollution. The river is the basis of life for people fromthis village, they use it for transport, as a market place,as drinking water, to wash in, so the river is life to thesepeople. One day someone from the village returns
from the river claiming that all the fish are dead. This
has a very different affect and a dramatic impact froman objective study.
BL: Wow! It’s kind of like a role-play scenario but withmore freedom because students are not obliged to be
the characters the whole time, and more continuity. By
the way, you mentioned that Storyline is being used for25

Bruce Lander
Professor Steve Bell although now retired, is still very

University of Iceland from August 9th to 11th 2012.

active in the current work of Storyline.

He was a

See the Storyline websites for more information.

plenary speaker at the last international Storyline

Storyline Scotland – www.storyline-scotland.com

conference in Denmark 2010 and will be the keynote

Storyline US – www.storyline.org

speaker at the next biennial conference in Reykjavik,

References
Bell, S. Harkness, S. & White, G. (2007). Storyline
Past,

Present

andFuture.

Glasgow:

Enterprising Careers.
Gardner, H. (1993). Frames of Mind: The Theory ofMultiple Intelligences. New York: Basic Books.

Rogers, C. (1983). Freedom to Learn for the 80's. New
York: Macmillan.
Vygotsky, L. S. (1987). The Collected Works of L. S.
Vygotsky: Volume 2 – The Fundamentals of
Defectology. New York: Springer.

26

Learning Learning 18 (1) Spring 2011
Feature Article: Andy Barfield
The Use of Grammatical Metaphor inStudent Research Diaries

was as if the creative moment of the metaphor helped

学習者研究ノートに見る文法メタファー

the many years they had spent learning English. So,them re-configure and look back with satisfaction atfor “Metaphors we learn by”, I initially thought that it

Andy Barfield
Chuo University

would be interesting to explore how students see,perhaps through some kind of similar imaginative
storytelling, the development of their knowledge of

アンディー・バーフィールド中央大学

different social, legal, political or global issues thatthey research through English in different classes that
I teach.
However, as the spring semester unfolded, Idecided it might be better to look more closely at theway students write what I call “research diaries”. These

本論では、選択体系機能文法(= Systematic Functional

are weekly logs, a page or so long—similar in form to

Grammar, SFG)が、学習者の文章、特に学生自身が調べ

learning diaries (Barfield, 1993; Cotterall, 1995; Dam,

たことについての理解を記す研究ノートの理解に有効

1995; Usuki, 1995 ) or action logs (Murphey, 1992),であることを提起する。まず学生が書いた文章を、どbut focused on the development of knowledge of aのように SFG の経験的メタ機能が「過程」
・「参加者／

particular social, legal, political or global issue, rather

当事者」
・「状況」として捉えさせてくれるかを説明し、than on English learning itself. In making a research

この手法を使った３人の学生のノートの分析結果を報diary entry, students write about what they know about

告する。また、同じ研究ノートにおける学生による文

a particular issue, what they don’t know but want to

法的メタファーの使用例と批判的思考法（クリティカ

know, their changing position on the issue, and about

ル・シンキング）の関係性の可能性を探る

further questions that they wish to explore. In the end, I
decided to look at the final research diary entries of

A few years ago, I looked at the ‘image stories’ thatthree students from a 5-week cycle of research into

students created about their English learning histories.

Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR). “Keiko” (a nom

These were stories where the students each took ade plume) looked at issues of child labour to do withcentral image or metaphor such as “my English

GAP’s global supply chain; “Shu” investigated thelearning is playing football” or “my English learning is aemployment practices of Japanese companies forbird hatching and taking to flight” and wrote theirpeople with disabilities, while “Mei”

Englishenvironmental issues connected with different types ofhistories

asanextended

metaphoricalnarrative. The students really enjoyed writing theseresearched

tourism in developing countries.

stories and sharing them in class with each other. It
27

Andy Barfield
We had been talking in class about taking a criticalview—that is, of looking at the specific positions,

understanding of Corporate Social Responsibility(CSR), it was quite striking how each student

actions and roles of different actors to do with CSR
issues, and contradictions that arise, but it still puzzled

Table 1: Systemic functional grammar: process

me as to how “we” (both teacher and student) can

types

engage criticality in the way that we talk and write

Different types

Core meaning of the process

about such problems. What might, I wondered, aof process(What the text represents
participants as … )systemic functional grammar (SFG) analysis of student
research diaries reveal? This seemed a promising

Material… ‘doing’; ‘happening’

direction to follow, particularly as Halliday (Halliday &Mental… ‘sensing’ (‘perceiving’;

Matthiessen,

2004)

proposesthenotionof‘thinking’; ‘feeling’)“grammatical metaphor” to be part of the way texts canRelational… ‘being’

be used to represent different ideological assumptions

Verbal… ‘saying’

about the world.

Behavioural…‘behaving’

Existential… ‘existing’I explain grammatical metaphor in greater detailfurther below, but before we get to that, I should
mention a little about the way that SFG lets us interpret

construed their understanding of the world in different

texts in terms of what’s called the experiential

ways:

meta-function. As the name suggests, the experiential• Keiko tended to choose mental processes andmeta-function of texts organizes our experience andto focus on relational processes in her

understanding of the world. In an SFG analysis, therepresentation of CSR. She gave primacy toexperiential meta-function is analysed in terms ofher own subjective thoughts and feelings aboutprocesses, participants and circumstances. Processes

CSR. She also considered GAP customers intypically involve the verbal group of a clause,

terms of their mental, rather than material,

participants

processes. Keiko described and evaluatedadverbial

nominalcircumstances

GAP’s website rather than GAP’s specific

Basically, these three components can enable us tocorporate material activities. In sum, Keiko’s

look at the clauses in a text and consistently explore

representation was largely about her cognitivefrom one clause to another: “Who does what to whom,and affective perception of CSR, and the way

under what circumstances?”different participants related to each other.

such

an

and/orandphrases.

In

groupsgroups,prepositional

experiential

analysis,

the

key

•

Shu tended to highlight material processes; hecomponent is the process. SFG proposes six

also situated different participants relationally,

fundamental processes types, as shown in the tableasbelow. (For reasons of space, I will just introduce these(un)employment. Shu saw companies as

categories without explaining more.)

actors in material processes, but disabled

well

as

described

andevaluated

When I looked at the three research diaries written

people were seen in relational terms only.

by three students and analysed the way each student(Un)employment was also seen by Shu as anused experiential meaning to represent their

existential process. In contrast to Keiko, Shu’s
28

Andy Barfield•

representation was more grounded in material(consumption): ‘Excessive consumption of alcohol is aprocesses, but did not represent the agency ofmajor cause of road accidents.’ According to Butt et al.,disabled people in dealing with the issues ofif we re-word the example to recover ‘consuming’ as aemployment.

process, we might come up with something like theMei tended to choose material, mental andfollowing:

relational processes, almost in equal measure.
1.

She represented companies, tourists andPeople who drink too much alcohol and drive
often.

tourism as all engaged in material processes.
2.

She focused on environmental consequences

If you drink too much when you drive yourcar, you are likely to …

of such materials processes, as well the3.

benefits. Mei also saw different associatedMotor vehicle drivers often have accidents

concepts in relational terms and had a strong “I”

because they have …

position for the mental processes that she
included. Unlike both Keiko and Shu, Mei

The normal process (for example, “People who drink

constructed a more evenly “critical” view of the

too much alcohol and drive often cause roadworld where she attributed different types ofaccidents”) is called congruent. The congruent version

process to different participants.

is seen as being a representation that is “closer to thestate of affairs in the external world” (Thompson, 1996:

Reading their research diaries like this, I felt that SFG

164).

was starting to give me some rather useful insights into(“Excessive consumption of alcohol is…”) is seen as

how each student saw the world. I could imagine, forincongruent with material reality in some way. In otherexample, going back to Shu and asking him whether

words, the nominalized version (consumption ofhe had considered any specific actions that people

alcohol)with disabilities take to get employment. Similarly I

congruent version. What is that different meaning?

might ask Keiko to try to identify other actors in GAP’s

When processes become participants, they become

global supply chain and consider different things that“thingie-fied”, and this (grammatical) change detaches

they do and say about the use of child labour, to see

the process from the here-and-now. One effect is thatwhether the actions and words of different actors

the nominalized process becomes generalized. It also

matched or contradicted each other.

becomes “non-negotiable” (Thompson, 1996: 172) as

Overall, it seemed to me that, at this stage of theanalysis,

Mei

had

createdthemostcriticalConversely,

createsthemetaphoricalwordinga different meaning from thean authoritative representation of the way the world is.
So, an event is changed into a noun, and thisrepresentation of a CSR issue, but what became more

grammaticalinteresting was the use of grammatical metaphor by“opportunities to point out, count, describe, classify

two of the students, Shu and Mei. (Keiko didn’t use

and specify further and further” (Butt et al., 2000:

grammatical metaphor at all.)75)—to theorise their interpretation of the world.

Butt et al. (2000:

73-75) use the following example of grammaticalmetaphor

to

show

how

a

process

meaning(consuming) has been changed into a participanttransformation

allowstheauthor

It is perhaps helpful at this point to look at someexamples of grammatical metaphor from the student
research

diaries.

Shu(researching

employment
29

Andy Barfield
grammatical metaphor (assuming that the use ofpractices for the disabled) used, for example:••

Employment rate of the disabled are lower thangrammatical metaphor does in fact point to criticalthat of ordinary people around the world.

theorisation of the world).

Corporates [= corporations] need to improve

At the Learner Development SIG forum we talked

their employment rates of the disabled, likeof how, as teachers, we often encourage our students

Sony and Sony Group.

to “think critically”, but we are nevertheless vague as toMei (looking at the environmental effects of different

what we exactly mean. When we read our students’

types of tourism) produced:

learning diaries, research diaries and reflections and•••Tourism will develop under the international

look for evidence of “critical thinking”, what are therelationship, but it causes damages in thecriteria that we use to judge that? SFG analysis offers

visiting areas.

one way by which we can sensitise ourselves to how

However, the benefits from the tour are used as

students represent their “critical” understanding of thereinvestment on the environment or people

world around them.

The sustainability is the key point.

In discussing the student research diaries and these

References

examples of grammatical metaphor with people at the

Barfield, Andy (1993). ‘Learner diaries as part of theforum, I suggested that the use of gramamticallearning-teaching cycle.’ Bulletin of Ohtani

metaphor seemed to be connected to a critical

Women’s University 27(2), 1-21.

theorisation of a particular CSR issue. It seemed as if

David Butt, Rhondda Fahey, Susan Feez, Sue Spinks

the use of grammatical metaphor by Shu and Mei in& Colin Yallop (2000, 2nd edition). Usingsome way showed them as starting to build their own

Functional Grammar: An Explorer’s Guide.

critical interpretations of a particular CSR case interms of multiple participants, different types ofexperiential

process,andvarying

elements

ofcircumstantial detail. They had, in other words, put
together complicated views of CSR, and this in someway connected to the use of grammatical metaphor in
their theory building.
Conversely, Keiko had put together a largely
relational picture of the processes involved in GAP’s
use of child labour. Her interpretation was more or less“descriptive” and related back to herself rather thanlooking out from herself at the interplay of different
types of processes and participants around the use of

Macquarie University, Australia.
Cotterall, Sara (1995). ‘Developing a course strategy
for learner autonomy.’ ELT Journal 49(3),219-27.
Dam, L. (1995). Learner Autonomy: From Theory toPractice. Dublin: Authentik.
Halliday, M.A.K. & Matthiessen, C. M. J. (2004) A
Functional Grammar (3rd Ed.). New York:
Arnold.
Murphey, Tim (1992). ‘Action logging.’ The Teacher
Trainer 6(2), 20-21.
Thompson, Geoff (1996). Introducing Functional
Grammar. London: Edward Arnold.
Usuki, Miyuki (1995). ‘The usefulness of learning

child labour in GAP’s global supply chain. This could

diaries in learner training.’ Learning Learning

be a possible explanation as to why Keiko did not use

2(3), 14-15.

30

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix

Learning Learning 18 (1) Spring 2011

Voices: Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix
On Q: An appropriate methodology for
researching autonomy? (Part 2)
Q 調査法について：自律性研究に適したアプローチ？(第2 部)Lucy Cooker, The University of Nottingham（discourse）を集めたものであるが、当該研究の場合
では、自律的学習環境における、非言語学的成果に関する言語学習者または教師の意見について収集される。
次に、研究者はこれらの様々な意見の中から 40 から60 を選抜し、それらを 1 枚のカードに 1 つ 1 つ印刷す

ルーシー・クッカー（ノッティンガム大学）

る。さらに参加者を選び出し、
1 人 1 人に Q 分類（Q sort）

Mike Nix, The University of Nottingham, Chuo
Universityという作業をしてもらう。参加者はカードに書かれた

マイク・ニックス（ノッティンガム大学、中央大学）

パターンに並べていく。例えば、「自身の意見と同じ意見に対する自身の立場によってカードをある一定のである。」により当てはまるカードから順にならべてPart 2 of a two-part e-dialogue in which Mike
Nix quizzes Lucy Cooker about Q
methodology and her current research on
learner autonomy and self-assessment

ゆき、次第に「自身の意見と相違する。」により当て
はまるカードを順に並べていく。研究者はその後、参加者にそのカードの並べ方に関してインタビューを行

E-メールを介したマイク・ニックスとルーシー・クッ

う。また、参加者のカードの並べ方を要因分析というカーの対談（ル―シークッカーQ 調査法および最新の形式で統計学的に分析し、参加者たちの意見に関して

自律性と自己評価に関する研究について語る）：パー
ト2

ここで紹介するのは e-メール上で 2 つのシリーズに分けて行われたマイク・ニックスとルーシー・クッカーの対談の 2 つ目のシリーズである。対談では、マイク・ニックスがルーシー・クッカーに彼女の最近の研究やQ 調査法（Q methodology）について質問をしていく。
ルーシー・クッカーは自己（または教師、アドバイザー）による自律性評価のための手段を開発すべく取り組んでおり、Q 調査法はまさにその目的に適ったものであるといえる。なぜなら、この手法を使用すること
により、学習者の主観的な意見を体系的に調査できるからである。マイクの質問に答えながら、ルーシーは
Q 調査がどのように機能するのかの概要を説明していく。Q 調査法では、まず、ある掲げられたトピックに関する多数の意見が、アンケート、インタビュー、文の様々な要因や全体像を見つけ出していく。クッカーの研究では、6 つの要因が認められた。それぞれは 6
つの非言語学的成果に関する意見グループを表しており、各意見グループは 1 人以上の参加者による賛同が得られたものである。最後に、それぞれの要因は研究で使用された多くの意見やインタビューの分析結果を基に解析される。
この研究は一般化の可能性や文化ごとでの一貫性に関する議論で話を結んでいる。クッカーは言語学習者
が自律的に学習する環境は文化によって自律学習を推進する文化とそうでない文化があるということでしょうか。彼女は、自身の研究が完成した暁には、学習者
自律性（ラーナーオートノミー：learner autonomy）の分野の研究者が彼女の研究を通して、それぞれがい
る環境において身近に感じ、興味を持ち、使ってゆけるような何かを見つけてくれればと願っている。

献などを通して収集される。これはコンコース（concourse）と呼ばれるある対象分野に関する談話

Mike: In the last issue of Learning Learning, Lucy, you
31

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix
talked about the research you are doing to help create

Internet). Sort the statements according to most likea learner generated tool which can be used by learnersme ↔ least like me.”themselves, and others, to assess the development of

At the start of the Q-sort process, I asked each

their autonomy. For this research, you have been

participant to first divide the statements in the Q-set

using Q Methodology, a combination of quantitative

into 3 piles: a most like me pile, a sort of like me pile,and qualitative research techniques. You explained

and a least like me pile. Then the participantsthat this has enabled you to systematically investigate

arranged the cards using the sorting grid shaped likelearners’

thean inverted bell-shaped curve, shown in Figure 1. First

non-linguistic outcomes of language learning in an

they were asked to take the most like me pile and toautonomous environment. The first stage of thechoose the two cards which represented their views

research was to collect a concourse of different

most strongly and to place them in the +5 section of

viewpoints about these outcomes from students andthe grid. Following this, three statements were chosenteachers. These were then turned into a Q-set offor the +4 grid section, and so on. When all the moststatements about the non-linguistic outcomes oflike me cards had been sorted, the participants werelanguage learner autonomy, to be arranged in a Q-sort

asked to sort the least like me pile at the negative sideby the participants in the research. Two examples ofof the grid. Finally, the participants sorted the sort of

these

the

like me cards into the centre sections of the grid. The

encouragement of a teacher makes me a bit more lazy”

number of cards in each pile was dependent on eachand “I have a better understanding of myself as aparticipant’s views. Some participants placed most oflearner”. Can you tell us now about what happens intheir cards in the most like me or least like me piles.

this Q-sort?

Others have a more equal distribution of statements

Lucy: In brief, the participants sort the set ofacross all three categories.

subjective

statements

understandings

were“learningofwithout

statements into a pre-set pattern along a scale labelled,in this case, from most like me to least like me. Let
me explain how that is done in a little more detail.
Whilst developing the concourse and the resulting
Q-set, I was concurrently thinking about the “conditionof instruction”. This is the statement given toparticipants to help them sort the Q-set. The conditionof instruction I used was: “Think about the ways you
have developed since studying [your language]
outside the classroom without the direct support of ateacher (e.g. in a self-access centre or using the

Figure 1: Sorting Grid
32

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix
When

the

participants

were

happy

with

their

it, in their understanding of their learning - and in ours,

distributions, I made a note of the place of each card

too, as researchers? That seems to me a key aim ofand asked the participant to explain to me theiruseful research about learner autonomy.

reasoning behind the card placements. This resulted in

Lucy: What impact has doing the Q-sort had on

an in-depth interview. As a researcher I found it

learners in terms of helping them think about their own

remarkable how many participants made unprompted

learning is an interesting question for me to consider.

comments such as “It was very interesting” or “I really

These were not my own students and my interaction

enjoyed this activity”. In my experience, it’s unusual forwith them was limited to the 60-90 minutes it took on

participants in, say, survey research, to comment so

average to complete the Q-sort and interview, so I’mfavourably on the research methodology.

not able to comment on the effect of their participation

Mike: So the participants obviously felt they werein terms of engagement with their own learning aftergetting something out of the research themselves.

their involvement in this study. I only have my

What do you think using the Q-set contributed to theperceptions of their reactions to doing the Q-sorts andways that they understood their own learning in thisthe interview data to consider when making a

research? I’m thinking that most qualitative research

judgement about this. Certainly, from their comments,

on autonomy focuses on learners’ reflections on andit would seem as if participating in this study did help

evaluations of their own learning under specificthem think about their own learning. As they explained

conditions, but in your research learners are reflecting

the positioning of the statements to me, they usedon and evaluating decontextualised statements about

examples from their own learning to illustrate thethe outcomes of learning. How does this help learners

points they were making. This suggested to me thatto think more insightfully about their own learning?

although the statements were “decontextualised” as

Does, for example, the range of statements in theyou pointed out, the participants were laying their own

concourse suggest to them new, different or more

contextual meanings onto the statements. Depending“meta” ways of making sense of their own learning andon the length of the interview and the number ofhelp them expand or transform their understandings ofstatements they talked about, some participants

it. Does the (rather game-like) task of distributing thevolunteered numerous illustrative points from their own

statements help them engage with their own learninglearning experiences. I wouldn’t feel comfortable

or does it lead to rather predictable, formulaic patterns

saying it made them more insightful because I didn’tof interpretation? I guess what I’m really interested inhave a baseline perspective from which to make thishere is whether and how Q can help learners develop

comparison. However, certainly anecdotally, it seems

more theoretically perceptive understandings of their

to be the case that the Q-sort and interview gave

own specific learning practices. Can it help themlearners the chance to think about, and reflect on, their“ascend from the abstract to the concrete”, as Marx put

own

learning.

AsI

mentioned

above,

several33

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix
participants commented on how enjoyable the activity

whole process too. You were hesitant about saying it

was and several participants commented explicitly on

had made learners more insightful. But the fact that

how interesting the activity was and how much they

one participant said they had developed a new

had learned from the experience. One participant said:

understanding of their “pattern of learning languages”,
and the other felt they were “really” thinking about theirThis is very meaningful.... I don’t know myway of working for the first time, suggests that thepattern of learning languages and this interview

process can help students make their thinking about

helped me to understand myself....I don’t know

learning explicit, and perhaps even contribute to them

why I do these thing but now I know. Because it

developing a theory of their practice of learning. It’s

is relaxing, this is interesting.

interesting that the second student hadn’t previously
thought much about their learning but that, on the

And another commented:

whole, you think the research may have attracted
participants who were keen on self-reflection. This

It made me think a lot about how I work. I

made me wonder if the most significant breakthroughs

hadn’t really thought about it before. It kind of

in understanding in Q are likely to be so-called “aha!”made me think a lot more. I knew WHY I did it,

moments that come almost out of the blue (or out of

but I never really thought about it.

the Q, if you like!) for participants who haven’t donemuch thinking about their learning before. Or is the

One of the statements that learners were required toawareness developed in Q likely to be better ifsort was “Reflecting on my learning makes me feelparticipants are already used to reflecting explicitly onbored”. Out of 30 participants, 16 sorted this statement

their learning and to articulating their thinking? A bit ofin one of the 9 slots ranked from -5 to -3 thus indicating

both, I imagine.

it was least like them. This seems a particularly

I was also interested in the effect of categorising

noticeable proportion especially as no participants

the statements you collected in the concourse against

sorted the same statement in one of the nine slots

models of learner outcomes (your own and the MLA

ranked from +5 to +3 which would have indicated it

model 1) before you decided on the Q-set. Does thiswas most like them. It is possible, therefore, that mymean that the participants’ own thinking about theirstudy attracted participants who were particularly keen

learning, when they do the Q-sort, is influenced - either

on self-reflection and thus found the Q-sort andconstrained or enabled - by these models?

interview a positive learning process.

Lucy: In your questions above, you asked whether theMike: It’s great that participants felt the Q-sort andselection of statements according to a particularinterview had been an opportunity to reflect on theirlearning, and that they’d been able to learn from the

1 A model of generic learning outcomes developed by theMuseums, Libraries and Archives Council (MLA) see Part 1
in Learning Learning 17 (2): 28.
34

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix
framework or model affects the participants’ own

different way.

thinking about their learning and whether the Q-sort is

Mike: You said in the first part of this dialogue that thethus constrained or enabled by the models. As Kramer,

final stage of the Q process is a statistical factor

de Hegedus and Gravina (2003) point out, “althoughanalysis. For those interested in how the quantitative

the Q researcher may choose to identify a particularside of Q works, could you just explain this a bit more.

statement with a specific [...] category, this a-priori(Those who, like me, come over all funny at the‘labeling’ makes little difference to the subsequentmention of statistical analysis can skip to the next

interpretation of the data.” The factor analysis carriedquestion if they like!)out on the Q-sort data is designed to reveal underlying

Lucy: The data generated in a Q-sort is analysed

connections, similarities and differences between

using

participants’ views about the statements in the Q-set,

Traditional factor analyses are by-item and look forso in this sense the data analysis and interpretation

correlations between observed variables (e.g. items inare much more nuanced than the statements

a questionnaire) across a sample of subjects tothemselves.

generate one or more unobserved variables. These

Mike: One other question about the Q-set and how

are the “factors” which explain the existence of thethat helps participants think about their learning: Do

observed variables. In by-person factor analysis, thethe participants get to see who each statement came

researcher

from so they themselves get a sense of those different

participants across a sample of variables (the Q-set).

perspectives?

The viewpoints of individuals, made evident throughLucy: In my study, the participants did not see where

the Q-sort, are correlated to generate underlying

each statement came from. Although I did give themfactors or viewpoints. The benefit of this analysis is in

the opportunity to contribute their own statements at

its

the end of the Q-sort, none of them did. It is interesting(viewpoints) are chunked together, so rather thanto ponder whether it would have been useful for them

identifying 30 different viewpoints (each Q-sort is one

to know the provenance of the statements. Given thatviewpoint) I am able to draw on the similarities

many of the statements were derived from thebetween the viewpoints in a systematic way. The

literature, I think this may have been irrelevant,benefit of Q-methodology is that although it is a data

overwhelming or simply uninteresting for them andreduction

would have been an extra cognitive load in a task

nevertheless much richer and nuanced than would be

which was already quite cognitively demanding.

possible with a questionnaire or survey study.

a

data

by-person

isfactorlooking

reductiontechnique,for

analysiscorrelations

technique:thetechnique.

similarresultingamongstpatterns

analysisis

Nevertheless, it is interesting to consider whether, had

When analysing the Q-sort data, conventional

the source of the statements been made available tosoftware for statistical analysis can be used, butparticipants, they would have sorted the cards in abespoke software packages also exist. In my research,
35

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix
I used PQMethod. This DOS-based programme isinvolving learners themselves in the research stages -available

the fact that Q methodology allows the participant tofreelyonlinefrom

http://www.lrz-muenchen.de/~schmolck/qmethod/

retain a sense of control over the process and the

The data from each Q-sort is entered into PQMethod

content of a Q study is one of the reasons why I think

andait’s particularly suitable for learner autonomy research.

researcher-specified number of factors. These factors

For example, if the focus of the study is well delineated,

are interpreted by the researcher using the statements

learners themselves can generate the concoursein the Q-set and the in-depth interview data.

through written responses to questions or by recording

Mike: The full Q experience - from making thetheir own discussions around the area of subjectivity.

concourse to doing the factor analysis at the end -For example, in a study on Japanese learners’

sounds very time consuming! You said in the first part

motivation for learning English, the study might beginof this dialogue that a concourse could be made fromwith a free-writing exercise in which learners write athe views of one class or group of learners. Do you

paragraph or two on a question such as “The reasons

have

how

why I am learning English”. Then, on a practical level,

teacher-researchers could adapt Q to investigate

learners could be involved in categorising statements

issues with their own learners and without a hugefor sampling. In the example used above, theinvestment of time?

researcher might collate all the unique statements

the

any

programme

other

then

suggestions

generates

about

Keeping in mind issues of local specificity andwhich were generated out of the free writing exercise

generalisability, and thinking about the way thatand ask learners to divide them up into themes. The“can-do” assessments of language competence,

themes could be ones the learners decide on

based on the Common European Framework ofthemselves, or they could be given an existing model

Reference for Languages (CEFR) seem to be

to follow. Once the Q-set is created and the statements

spreading like wildfire, do you see this as an

are printed on card, learners can even cut up their own

assessment framework that can be used or adapted

set of statements. After the learners have carried out

for different contexts, with different students, and for

the Q-sort they can record their own responses by

self-study, self-access learning and classroom-based

writing the number of each statement onto a copy oflearning? Or is there a need for teachers to develop

the sorting grid. In lieu of the post-sort interview,other frameworks for learner assessment based onlearners can even be guided to record orally, or in

local conditions, and the concerns of their learners,

writing, the reasoning behind their placement of theand perhaps even based on some Q research of theirstatements on the grid; or using a technique I firstown?

learned about from Andy Barfield, they could interview

Lucy: Whilst Q methodology does require aneach other about why they placed the cards in thatinvestment of time this can be tempered somewhat byparticular pattern. In many ways, this is a methodology
36Lucy Cooker and Mike Nix
which offers lots of possibilities for learner involvement

have looked at various measures of language

and control.

proficiency such as the KEPT (the university in-house

Mike: Finally, Lucy, I’d like to return to your focus on

proficiency test with a ground-breaking group oral

researching the non-linguistic outcomes of language

component) or TOEIC, and compared the scores oflearning that you described in part 1 of our dialogue.

those students who used the SALC and those who

This raises all sorts of interesting questions for me

didn’t, but of course, as has been well documented inabout what autonomy is. Can it be separated fromthe literature, there are difficulties in separating thelanguage learning practices and outcomes? Does it

language learning which takes place autonomously

exist in its own right (autonomously, as it were) or is it

and that which doesn’t. That led me towards the desire

alwaysandto be able to measure the level of autonomy of ourconditions of learning? Is it our responsibility as

SALC users, and this was where I started whenteachers to help students develop both their language

thinking about the focus of my PhD. For the record,ability and autonomy, or to develop their language

and in answer to your questions above, I believe thatability more autonomously, or to develop theirsuccessful language learning has to be considered aautonomy through language learning? Are there times

lifelong project. As teachers we see our students inwhenlinguisticclass for, usually, a maximum of about 6 hours perdevelopment and development as an autonomousweek for any one course and over the time span of alearner? Can non-linguistic outcomes of language

semester, or even a year, this is relatively little time inlearning

which to “make a difference”. What we can do however,situated

there

is

includewithinaspecific

tensiontheprocesses

betweendevelopmentofcontent

knowledge and understanding too?

in that time, is ensure that our students have theLucy: They are great questions Mike, and my answer

knowledge and awareness to further their own learning

is a rather circular one emanating from my personalof languages once they have left our classrooms – forexperiencelanguagethe day and at the end of the course. I believe that as

education in Japan. During my time working as thelanguage teachers, more than any other kind of

Self-Access Learning Centre (SALC) founder andteachers, we have a responsibility to develop our

supervisor at Kanda University of International Studies

learners’ autonomy at least in line with their language

in Chiba, I was frequently asked by the university

proficiency.

workingintertiarylevel

administration and guest visitors how we knew that the

To close the circle, although I started by wanting to

SALC benefited students. On the one hand I resented

measureautonomy,having to justify something that was clearly soconsiderably, and now I am quite certain that the mostsuccessful, but on the other hand I was frustrated that,appropriate way forward for our field is not to measure

at that time, no tool existed for being able to prove theautonomy,effect that using the SALC had on learners. We could

assessment of autonomy. In other words, creating a

but

to

my

think

PhD

about

has

the

changedformative

37

Lucy Cooker and Mike Nixmeans of assessment which aids the development ofReferences

autonomy - assessment for autonomy, not the

Kramer, B., de Hegedus, P., & Gravina, V. (2003).

assessment of autonomy. I also believe that it’s

‘Evaluating a dairy herd improvement project

important to keep within the tenets of learnerinautonomy and not to impose assessment practices on

methodology.’ Paper presented at the AIAEE

learners but to provide a means for them to2003 19th Annual Conference 'Going Forward(formatively) assess their own autonomy if they soin Agricultural and Extension Education:

desire.

Trends, Policies, and Designs Worldwide',

Finally, and quite simply, if we are looking at

autonomy assessment then we need to know what we

Uruguay

to

test

and

explainQ

Raleigh, North Carolina.

are assessing - hence my focus on non-linguistic
outcomes of autonomous language learning.

.

38

Jim Ronald

Learning Learning 18 (1) Spring 2011
Can Do Statements in Language
Review: Jim Ronald

Can Do Statements in Language
Education in Japan and Beyond:Applications of CEFR. Edited by Maria
Gabriela Schmidt, Naoyuki Naganuma,
Fergus O’Dwyer, Alexander Imig,
Kazumi Sakai, Published by JALT (2010)

representations

of

one’s

own

languageability,

proficiency in a foreign language within Japan is
typically rendered, or represented, by test results:
language tests in university entrance examinations,and STEP, TOEIC, and TOEFL or their equivalents inother languages. These test results are often crucial in

日本と諸外国の言語教育における Can‐Do 評価:
ヨーロッパ言語共通参照枠(CEFR)の適用 マリ
ア・ガブリエラ シュミット, ファーガス オドワ
イヤー, アレクサンダー イミック, 長沼 君主,
境 一三 編、JALT 出版 （2010 年）

determining whether a person is accepted to study at auniversity or to work at a particular company, able tostudy abroad or to be sent to work overseas. As such,the tests wield enormous power over the education
system, over employment procedures and, on an
individual level, over feelings of achievement or
self-worth for learners. They also have a massive
impact on the goals and approaches adopted bylanguage teachers and the educational institutions ofwhich they are a part. However, in probably the
majority of cases, little thought is given as to what atest result may mean in terms of the person’s abilities
to use the language. This means that institutions andteachers may not be able to conceive how to maketheir language instruction more successful, resulting inmeasures such as the often ill-fated adoption ofReviewed by
Jim Ronald, Hiroshima Shudo University
ジム・ロナルド、広島修道大学

grammar-drilling “e-learning” programs in the hope ofraising TOEIC scores. As for the learner’s experienceof language education, in many cases it is a series of
discouragements and failures which, even after many

ジム・ロナルドが「日本と諸外国の言語教育における Can‐Do 評価」を推薦する。

years’ education, may be summed up as an individual“I can’t do English!” or a more inclusive “We Japanesearen’t good at foreign languages”.

Among the general population in Japan, perhaps the

It is to this very needy world of language education

most commonly encountered “can do” statement is

in Japan, and beyond, that “Can do statements in“Eigo ga dekinai!” – I can’t do English! A variation of

language

this, after a year’s foreign language instruction, may be

addressed. This is a ______ book – challenging,“I can say bonjour, au revoir, je m’appelle, oh, and je

enlightening, inspiring, and before I proceed with thist’aime!” Apart from these subjective, and self-effacing,

review, which will not do it justice, may I just say buy it,

education

in

Japan

and

beyond”

is39

Review: Jim Ronald
read it, use it! You will not regret it.

can do statements to promote learners’ awareness of

The book starts with a very useful and clear

the process that language learning is, and to increase

overview of the background of can do statements andreflection on and ownership of that process. Yoko

the Common European Framework of Reference for

Sato’s paper, also concerning learner reflection,

Languages (CEFR), from their development in Europe

describes a process by which Japanese university

to their adoption, adaption and application in various

students

other countries around the world. This is followed by astatements, from their meaning to their application.

collection of twenty papers centred around three areas

Through her and her students’ experiences sheof language education: The CEFR and can dostrongly recommends that if can do statements are tostatements, which reports on their application in Japanbe powerful agents for reflective learning, they need toand also in Finland; Curriculum change, textbooks andbe provided in Japanese.

grappledandstruggled

with

can

do

portfolio, which talks about the adaptation andAntonio Smith’s contribution reports and evaluates

extension in Japan of the CEFR and can dovarious applications of can do statements before

statements into textbook development and as material

makingfor teacher and learner reflection on language learning

recommendations then proposing a range of activities

outcomes; and The learner, learner autonomy andthat teachers can adopt. Also with a teaching-learningpedagogy, a section with nine papers which may be offocus, Fergus O’Dwyer, in his paper, demonstrates

most immediate interest to readers of this review. This

how the use of can do statements can help put

last section is the main focus of this review, but I reallylearners in charge of their own development throughdo recommend reading at least the introductoryself-assessment and setting their own language

contributions for each other section as well.

learning goals, and through negotiated curricula whichDavid Little’s paper provides a valuable orientation
to how language learners can make use of can do listsanumberofinstitutional

level

involves learner reflection and the assuming of
responsibility for their own learning.

to plan, monitor, and evaluate their own learning. He

The paper by Alexander Imig, in German as are abrings a wealth of experience and knowledge to thisfew other papers in the collection, reports a struggle totopic, and a practical focus on immigrant pupils in Irish

interpret and apply CEFR descriptors of competences

primary and secondary schools shows how the CEFR

to German classes for complete beginners in Japan.

not only helps establish goals and measures of abilityHe

for schools and teachers, but also serves to empower

methodological and self-learning competences as aand motivate the children and their parents as partners

viable approach for second language courses in Japan.

in education.

In a very different context, the world of eikaiwa private

proposes

a

set

of

social,communicative,

The remaining eight papers in this section all

English schools in Japan, Joshua Sargent and James

concern language learning and learner development in

Winward-Stuart begin by describing the circumstances

Japan. The contribution by Paul Collett and Kristenof these schools, including their struggle to survive

Sullivan addresses precisely the problem noted at theeconomically. They use power / interest matrices tobeginning of this review- how to help learners view

locate the various stakeholders in the schools and their

their foreign language development beyond a staticroles in decision-making. While, interestingly, neither

and often depressing test score. They report the use of

students nor parents are represented in the matrices,40

Review: Jim Ronald
the authors propose the adoption of can do statements

abilities, and through accepting of responsibility for ouras proficiency descriptors which are transparent andown learning.

meaningful to all stakeholders, including those who
pay for the classes at the schools.
Ellen Head gives an account of the use anddevelopment of purpose-made can do lists for English
with trainee elementary school teachers. She reports
some of the challenges encountered through thisproject, including struggles to give shape to can dostatements as classroom activities, and problems withwide variation in self-assessment using the lists.
Overall, though, feedback was good, with reports ofgrowing confidence and motivation to teach throughadopting this approach and experiencing the struggles
and outcomes in the classroom. Finally, Maria Gabriela
Schmidt’s paper completes this section, and the book.
She demonstrates how, in a learner-centred curriculum,
students use can do lists to adjust their goals and topic
choices to include realistic considerations of their
linguistic abilities and objectives.
At

many

levels,among

Japaneseandnon-Japanese teachers and institutions, there is a
growing realization that the cry of “I can’t do English!”after six or more years is an indication of the need fordeep-reaching changes to language education. This
book, with papers written in English, German andJapanese, marks a sea change – or the possibility of
one – in language education in Japan. It serves as atimely reminder that curriculum development, evenguided by CEFR principles, will never be enough, butthat making language learning meaningful to learners
at all levels is a goal that is within reach, and that can
do statements may be a powerful and effective tool for
helping to achieve this goal. Further, this book gives
abundant advice about how to apply can dostatements in various ways to promote learnerdevelopment: through the opportunities for reflection,
through motivation by awareness and development of41

Learning Learning 18 (1) Spring 2011

Patrick Kiernan

Review: Patrick KiernanIntercultural Communication and
Ideology. By Adrian Holliday, publishedby Sage (2010)

entailed an engagement with educational issues suchas the promotion of learner autonomy, or exploring thelearning process through narratives of learning andteaching.

異文化コミュニケーションとイデオロギー
エイドリアン・ホリディ著、
セイジ出版 （２０１０年）

AdrianHolliday’s

recently

published

Intercultural Communication and Ideology draws
attention to another dimension of the expanded
curriculum:

interculturalcommunication.

Hollidayexplores intercultural communication both as a parallelpractice to language teaching in need of critique andan everyday concern for those working in interculturalcontexts, including language teachers. Although I
certainly was not nodding in agreement every step of
the way, I found that Holliday gave voice to concerns I
have felt about supposedly enlightened modern
approaches to language teaching which take on
language teaching with a broad view of language thatmakes it much closer to teaching “Intercultural
Communication”.
On one level, this book is an elegantly argued critical

Reviewed byPatrick Kiernan, Meiji University
パトリック・キアナン、明治大学

analysisofinterculturalcommunication,

urgingpractitioners to recognise the ideological nature ofintercultural

theories,

particularly

those

which

underline cultural difference. As such, it is highly「Intercultural Communication and Ideology」 は、

theoretical and concerns itself with such abstract

批判的な立場から異文化コミュニケーシオンについて

notions as the reification of cultural practices. At the

語る。ここでは多くの具体的な例が挙げられているたsame time, Intercultural Communication and Ideology

め、抽象的な課題が分かりやすく説明されている。日

is highly accessible due to the richness and clarity of

本にいる読者は英国のホリデイの本自体を批判的に読

the examples Holliday uses to support his exposition

むかもしれないが書かれていることは、英語教員など

and related points. “Reification” itself, for example is

にとって考えさせる内容だと思う。

explained through the development of birthday party
traditions among a group of Holliday’s students.

For many members of our Leaner Development SIG,

Superficially, his approach has similarities with thethe expansion of the English curriculum beyond aintercultural communication training he critiques in thatnarrow preoccupation with pedagogic grammar has

he

draws

on

real

life

cases

of

cultural42

Review: Patrick Kiernan
miscommunication as illustrative narratives. However,theories. In this volume, Holliday argues in favour of

instead of attempting to close down the discussion to aforgoing tidy categories such as “nationality” in favour

definitive interpretation based on received ideas aboutofcultural difference, Holliday opens up his narratives todiscourses of nationality among other potential facets

reveal interactions in all their complexity. An earlyof identity. The neo-essentialism which he associates

example concerns a Chinese man who invites his

withAmerican colleague to his home rather than taking him

Hofstede (2001) is the labelling of national culturesout. The visits inevitably involve the Chinese familywith such abstractions as “group oriented”. Holliday

leading the American to pity his colleague for his

argues that this is more than an over-simplification. He

inability to break with his family ties. As a result, hesuggests that seeing the world through such dualisms

seeks to educate his Chinese friend by explaining

as “individual versus group-oriented” is indicative of aabout individual and group oriented societies, implying

negative kind of “othering”. Othering, as Holliday

that he needs to break free of his (family) groupexplains, is the practice of positively defining an “us”

dependence. The Chinese man feigns interest but

against a negative “other”, and while he points out thatfinds the American’s treatment patronising and his

thiscultural talk boring. It turns out that the man’s apparent

intercultural communication theory is effectively a way

attachment to his family may have had more to do withof positioning Western countries as superior to those

his decision to move overseas which made him want toon the periphery. Although the arguments for thisprioritise time with his family before his departure thanposition are persuasive and align him with critical

a

them;

perspectives on ELT espoused by such commentators

circumstances of which the American was unaware.

as Phillipson (1992, 2009), Pennycook (1994), Kachru

While this summary does poor justice to Holliday’s(1992), or Canagarajah (1999), I felt that a truly criticalexample, the point is that while the American believescosmopolitan outlook would need to acknowledge that

himself to be critically analysing the situation he is inother national cultures may be equally powerful infact blinded by cultural chauvinism. Holliday argues

defining themselves against the outside world. I thinkthatparticularly of Japan and Nihonjinron (Yoshino, 2004),

culturally

theinstilled

Chineseman

dependence

has

a

on

bettercriticalunderstanding of the situation.

thecomplexities

the

is

Interculturalaubiquitousofindividuals

Communication

practice,thenegotiating

theoryotheringofofa patriotic doctrine which plays up the uniqueness of

The overall argument Holliday makes in this book isJapanese culture. This doctrine has spin-offs in thefor moving beyond a “neo-essentialist” view of culture

way I sometimes find myself positioned as a foreigner

towards what he calls a “critical cosmopolitan”

in Japan with baggage I don’t always feel belongs toapproach. This position will not be new either tome. In any case, one of Holliday’s welcome purposes

readers familiar with Holliday’s previous works such as

in this book is to unravel these neo-essentialist beliefs

his Small Cultures (1999) or those who embraceabout culture difference. The other is to propose apost-modern paradigms or qualitative approaches tomore dynamic model of cultural influence which heresearch of the kind Holliday has espoused elsewhere

does with reference to a diagram (Figure 8 in the book)(2007). As with these other formulations he favours

which he labels as “Aspects of Cultural Reality.” The

exploring the complexity of cultural situations rather

complexity of features he attributes to cultural identities

than adherence to grand but limiting overarchingis overlaid on a proposition that there is a broad area of43

Review: Patrick Kiernan
basic human cultural understanding. This underlying

submission, and perhaps felt showed a lack ofcommonality, he argues, has been overlooked in theautonomy.

field of Intercultural Communication as a result ofinteraction comparing classes taught by the British

ideological preoccupations with Western superiority

teachers and local Japanese teachers revealed what

and underlining cultural difference.

Holliday calls “a strategic discoursal withdrawal”. As

Although this sounds, and indeed is, very abstract

However,ananalysisofclassroom

Holliday explains:

the real charm of Holliday’s exposition is that he builds
his theory through a rich array of concrete examples

The British teachers exercised control over whendrawn both from a project which he presumably

and for what reason the students could speak,undertook for the purposes of preparing this book andwhereas the Japanese teachers observed allowed

elsewhere, notably including a number from his wife’s

the students to speak when they wanted beneath

book

in

the formal structure of the lesson…This silence(Honarbin-Holliday,

nevertheless served to strengthen the negative

Becoming

Invisible

inContemporary Iranian Society

Iran:

Women

2009) which I also became interested in reading.

stereotype of silent Japanese students. (p. 179)

Some of her art and writing can be found on her
website (Honarbin-Holliday, 2011). A memorable

Such examples certainly reveal the complexities andborrowing concerns the variant fashions of a group of

potential

Iranian women and how they relate to the traditional

contexts, yet despite his emphasis on developing aburka garment. Other colourful resources include

more sophisticated “critical cosmopolitan approach”

Orientalist art and the art of a contemporary Iranian

this message goes hand in hand with a more positive

painter and multi-modal cultural analyses of coffee

message for those of us simply keen to communicate.

shops in Turkey. Holliday’s project consisted of a

As Holliday asserts:

pitfallsofinterculturalcommunication

series of email interviews with an eclectic array of
informants whose backgrounds are marked by a

The main point of this book is that it is thesecrossing of national boundaries; many of whom areunderlying universal cultural processes which

also academics in their own right. Not surprisingly, theirprovide everyone with equal cultural proficiency

views go a long way beyond tidy myths of culturalwhich has the potential to be applied in every

difference, though Holliday finds himself forced toother cultural domain (p. 165)

accept the pervasiveness of national identity even in
his informants narratives. Most of Holliday’s examples

And indeed while acknowledging that our cultural

are drawn from the Middle East or views of the Middle

narratives

East from Britain, perhaps a timely topic as Western

concludes that:cannotbeundoneheoptimisticallypowers at the time of writing appear set to wadedeeper into the Libyan turmoil. One example from

Human intelligence and autonomy are alreadyJapan which caught my attention was the supposed

there in absolutely everyone and always haveculture of silence in the Japanese English language

been. (p.196)

classroom, which the group of British teachers in a
research project he alludes to interpreted as passive

This point is perhaps implicit in some of the papers in
44

Review: Patrick Kiernan
this issue, and an essential one to keep in mind for

Yoshino, K. (2004). The Nihonjinron: thinking elites'

anyone working with promoting leaner autonomy as

ideas of Japanese uniqueness. In M. Weiner

well(Ed.), Race, Ethnicity and Migration in Modern

as

those

concerned

withinterculturalcommunication. And while readers in Japan willJapan

inevitably

RoutledgeCurzon.

seeshortcomingsinHolliday’s

own

(Vol.

1,

pp.

240-272).

London:ideological position this book may also help you reflect
critically on your own cultural blindspots—certainly it
did for me.
References
Canagarajah, A. S. (1999). Resisting Linguistic
Imperialism. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Hofstede,G.

(2001)

Culture’s

Consequences:

Comparing Values, Behaviours, Institutions
and Organizations across Cultures. London:
Sage.
Honarbin-Holliday, M. (2009) Becoming Visible in Iran:
Women in Contemporary Iranian Society.
Basingstoke: I. B. Tauris.
Honarbin-Holliday, M. (2011) Mehri Honarbin-Holliday,
Author, Academic and Artist. Available onlineat:
http://mehri-honarbin-holliday.com/default.asp
xHolliday, A. (1999). Small cultures. Applied Linguistics,
20(2), 237-264.
Holliday, A. (2007). Doing and Writing Qualitative
Research. London: Sage Publications.
Kachru, B. B. (Ed.). (1992). The Other Tongue: English
Across Cultures (2nd ed.). Urbana: University
of Illinois Press.
Pennycook, A. (1994). The Cultural Politics of English
asanInternational

Language.

Harlow:Pearson Education Limited.
Phillipson, R. (1992). Linguistic Imperialism. Oxford:
Oxford University Press.
Phillipson, R. (2009). Linguistic Imperialism Continued.
New York: Routledge.
45

Learning Learning 18 (1) Spring 2011

Looking Back

Looking backInvolving Language Learners: Success
Stories and Constraints

plenary speakers, Leni Dam, Lienhard Legenhausen
and Markus Ritter, dealt with. About 100 people
attended the conference, which, apart from the

The IATEFL Learner Autonomy SIG
one-day conference at the University ofDuisburg-Essen, Germany
26th November 2010

plenaries, included many different morning andafternoon presentations, grouped together by themes
into combined “workshops” (such as Involving learners
in the digital world, Supporting learner autonomy incontent

IATEFL Learner Autonomy SIG 学会
スブルク・エッセン大学

於：デュー

and

language

integrated

learning,

andDeveloping teacher autonomy). The conference ended
with a plenary Q&A session, after which people
headed off in small groups to the outdoor Essen

Andy Barfield
Chuo University

Christmas market for some mulled wine and convivial
evening meals together. In this report, I would like tofocus just on the three plenaries from this excellent

アンディー・バーフィールド
中央大学

one-day conference.
Leni Dam started the day off with a personalaccount of her own engagement with learnerautonomy in the first part of her teaching career. She
shared with us how she had moved towards
developing learner autonomy with the children she

この１日開催の学会はナラティブに置かれた主眼とtaught in Denmark from the 1970s onwards. Leni

Leni Dam, Lienhard Legenhausen and Markus Ritter

argued that she was not talking about a particular

ら３人の基調講演者との繋がりを意識させる機会だっmethod, but a set of values oriented towards the

た。Dam は彼女自身の自律学習への取組みについて語

dignity of the learner, the importance of personal

り、Legenhausen は自律的な言語学習と言語使用を奨

choice, the significance of responsibility and the joy of

励された学習者の社会的対話と言語力の向についてよcreativity. Putting forward the rationale for different

り理論的な視点を主張した。Ritter は教員オートノミ

teaching decisions with extreme clarity and conviction,ーに関わる問題に焦点を当てた。

and in a very practical way too, Leni used examples ofdifferent learners as the basis for the claims that she

Jointly organised by the University of Duisburg-Essen

made. Her lecture provided great encouragement for

Department of Anglophone Studies and the IATEFL

teachers

Learner Autonomy SIG, this was a relatively small

teacher-centred pedagogies and/or finding their way

one-day conference on learner autonomy issues, withtowards developing autonomous learning.

astrongnarrativeemphasis

and

sense

dissatisfied

withconventionalof

In the following plenary, Lienhard Legenhauseninterconnection between the themes that the threelooked less at values and more at principles
46

Looking Back(theoretical, guiding and procedural) in developing

teacher autonomy1), to constraints and realities,

autonomous language learning. Included were theprojects and practices. Of particular interest was theinteractionist hypothesis (or “learners have got to use

way that Markus situated the pre-service work that he,

the language in order to learn it”) and the learner’s

his colleagues and their students are doing againstright to their interlanguage at different stages of theirrecent educational laws in Rheinland Westphalia and asecond language development. Lienhard argued forhuge

three guiding principles for developing L2 use (and by(Deutsch-Englisch-Schülerleistungen-International).

implication learner autonomy), namely: (i) authenticity

Looking at the development of foreign language abilityof interactions, (ii) reflectivity/awareness, and (iii)

in secondary school learners across 220 schools, thelearner evaluation of learning processes and learning

DESI research project found that many actions andproducts. He developed these into a working model ofprocesses

autonomous learning and then showed with data fromautonomous learning were simply not present in

the 4-year longitudinal LAALE (Language Acquisition

secondary school language lessons and that generally

in an Autonomous Learning Environment) project how

there was a very low use of English by pupils in

Danishlearning

language classes. In other words, the values that Leni

environment could, from the ages of 11 to 15, achieve

Dam had focused on and the features of the working

better interactivity and fluency, better accuracy andmodel that Lienhard had earlier proposed were largely

grammatical competence than a similar age group ofabsent from secondary school English language

German learners in a conventional textbook-driven

education in this part of Germany.

learnersinanautonomous

study

deemedcallednecessary

for

DESI

developing

learning environment. Although Lienhard modestly

According to Markus Ritter, a good part of thecharacterized his plenary as “old hat”, I found the

problem could be traced back to the overly theoreticalexamples that he used highly persuasive andandinteresting, particularly the peer-to-peer talk in Grade 8

universities are still providing. As a counterpoint towhere a group of learners spoke in English with each

this—the good news part of this fascinating afternoon

other with compelling naturalness and sophistication.

plenary—Markus showed how the teacher education

practice-separated

teacher

education

that

The third plenary by Markus Ritter took place laterthat he is involved in has been trying to bridge thein the day and looked at teacher autonomy from thetheory-practice gap by including Skills Days at theperspective of teacher education. Markus raised

university (where secondary school children come fordifferent questions (such as What is the ideal English

a day of learning on small projects designed and led byteacher? What constraints do you face in yourteacher trainees/MA students), Tandems (personalized

education? What has been an outstanding learning

language learning exchanges and projects), was wellexperience for you?) at various points in his plenary,as action research into individualized language

before showing video clips of his MA students

learning, and the use of teacher education portfolios

responding and voicing their own points of view. Thisfor developing alternative assessment practices.

was an impressively effective and thought-provoking

Markus Ritter also mentioned briefly The Council ofway to bring multi-vocality into the conference plenary.

Europe’s EPOSTL (The European Portfolio for Student

The focus moved from concepts and definitions ofTeachers of Languages), which is “a document

teacher autonomy (including the Shizuoka definition of

intended for students undergoing their initial teacher
47

Looking Backeducation which encourages them to reflect on theuniversities (like the University of Vienna) in theirdidactic knowledge and skills necessary to teachpre-service teacher education programmes, so I

languages, helps them to assess their own didactic

expect we will hear more about this in the coming

competences and enables them to monitor theiryears. Just five years ago, Karen Johnson (2006)

progress and to record their experiences of teachingtalked of the “socio-cultural turn in second language

during the course of their teacher education” (Newby

teacher

et al., undated). EPOSTL links into CEFR and theinterconnected challenges: (a) theory/practice versus

Europeanpraxis, (b) the legitimacy of teachers' ways of knowing,

Language

Portfolio

andprovidesa

education”

development, and (d) “located” L2 teacher education. It

context. Figure 1 shows the seven areas (assessment

is possible to see EPOSTL as something of aof learning, independent learning, conducting a lesson,

response to such challenges. But how an instrument

context, methodology, resources and lesson planning)such as EPOSTL can be used as a negotiated tool of

where trainee teachers using EPOSTL are asked toteacher education—as Little (1995) would argue isself-assess their knowledge, competences and theirnecessary

progress as they go through their initial teacher

autonomy—remains to be explored and reported moreeducation.

widely. Personally, I was rather more convinced by the

the

of

four

learning and teaching as interpreted within a European

forboundaries

forward(c)seems that EPOSTL has created something of a

the

put

comprehensive overview of the complexity of language

Going on other sessions at the conference, it

redrawinganddevelopment

professionalofteacher

local project initiatives such as Skills Days that Markus
Ritter talked about.

pan-European buzz. It is being used by major

Figure 1: Seven areas of self-assessment for teacher trainees using EPOSTL (Newby et al., undated)48

Looking Back

Overall, this was a very interesting trio of plenaries
for a one-day conference, where the similarities andReferences

contrasts between the three areas of focus worked to

Barfield, A., Ashwell, T., Carroll, M., Collins, K., Cowie,

good effect. The organisation of the conference wasN., Critchley, M., Head, E., Nix, M., Obermeier,simply excellent, and the hospitality shown by the

A. & M.C. Robertson (2002). ‘Exploring andhosts outstanding. Yet, I can’t help feeling that plenary

defining teacher autonomy: a collaborative

lectures in themselves are somewhat at odds with a

discussion.’In

conference on autonomous learning! Just once (atMcCafferty(eds),

least!), it would be intriguing to attend a one-day

Proceedingsofconference where, at the start of the day, participants

University

are asked to talk about their goals and then to create a

Shizuoka, Japan (217-222). Tokyo: The

project in small groups, work on this project throughJapan Association for Language Teaching.

the day, before sharing their work with other

Available

participants later the same day. I wonder why we never

http://www.encounters.jp/mike/professional/p

get round to trying that at conferences these days.

ublications/tchauto.html

A.S.

Mackenzie

Developing
the

JALT

Educators&

E.

Autonomy,

College

Conference

online

and
2001,

at:

Johnson, K. (2006). ‘The sociocultural turn and its
Notechallenges for second language teacher

1. The Shizuoka definition is an extended definition of

education.’ TESOL Quarterly, 40(1), 235-257.

teacherautonomy(Barfield

et

al.,

2002)

that

Little,D.

(1995)‘Learningas

dialogue:Theemphasizes: negotiation skills; institutional knowledge

dependence of learner autonomy on teacher

in order to start to address effectively constraints on

autonomy.’ System 23(2), 175-182.

teaching

andlearning;

willingnesstoconfront

Newby, D., Allen, R., Fenner, A-B., Jones, B.,institutional barriers in socially appropriate ways to turnKomorowska, H. & K. Soghikyan (undated).

constraints into opportunities for change; readiness to

Handout on the European Portfolio for

engage in lifelong learning to the best of an individual’sStudent Teachers of Languages (EPOSTL).

capacity; reflection on the teaching process andEuropean Centre for Modern Languages ofenvironment; and, commitment to promoting learner

the Council of Europe. Available online at:autonomy. Ritter touched on many of these aspects in

http://epostl2.ecml.at/Resources/tabid/505/lan

his plenary talk.

guage/en-GB/Default.aspx

49

Looking Back
Reflections on JALT 2010

experience ready and willing to share and support.
Far-flung parts of Japan feel much closer and I
strongly recommend being proactive about getting
involved with the SIG and discovering what it can offeryou.
My experience of conferences is that presentations
can generally be divided into two types. Those which

Richard Silver
Ritsumeikan University

give you ideas which you use the very next week andthose that give you information you carry in your head,slowly digesting them for months after. The mostリチャード・シルバー
立命館大学

practical things from Nagoya – as put forward byeducators whose work I know such as Curtis Kelly andArlen Gargagliano – I've used already; while Keith

本記事で、リチャード・シルバーは、JALT2010 を振り

Barrs’ ideas on creative learning with video cameras

替えてそして日本の英語教育とオートノミという個人

have set cogs whirring in my head. The interesting

的な視点とつなぐ。

things – Michael Swan reminding me that grammar is a
useful tool for communication, not the be it and end all

As the recipient of one of the LD SIG’s financial

of it – are slowly finding connections to my own web ofawards to attend the JALT 2010 National Conference, I

beliefs about teaching and learning.

must first thank the SIG for its generosity and support.

With a particular interest in student autonomy and

The award acknowledges both the great opportunity

teacher beliefs, I scoured the program for thesefor learning and reflection that the conference offers

keywords. There was plenty to choose from and it

participants and the reality that it is not a cheap

seems there are no shortage of teachers aiming to getundertaking. But my experience was greater than that

their students standing on their own two feet. Though I

which can be measured in yen and largely because of

got something out of every presentation I attended, I

the members of the SIG whom I met during the event.

often find other people talking about their students’

From the outside, established groups can appear

autonomy unsatisfying. Partly it’s to do with thecliquey and forbidding, inflexible and set in their ways.

uniqueness of each teaching context that means what

However, after meeting fellow SIG members andworks well in one class seems unlikely to begetting a feel for its workings, I can report that this istransferable to another; but it’s also, I think, to do withclearly not the case. More than that, I am confident thatthe pride of teachers in their charges. It seems likely

the SIG will have a greater surrogate role in mythat teachers who profess a belief in autonomy willdevelopment as a teaching professional than just thatconsequentlyof a benevolent parent handing out pocket money.

achievements, which is a crucial element to a

Already, I find myself discovering future paths that I

teacher-student relationship, but the strength of thenever thought existed and, rather like stepping out of a

relationship in a classroom can often be isolating or

jungle wilderness into a clearing, I am relieved tolost to an audience outside of it. This is clearly adiscover that there is a body of knowledge andpositive thing, for what role can a teacher play in the

take

pride

in

their

students’50

Looking Backlives of a group of students if he or she does not

something I discovered by listening to other teachers

believe in them? A far more searching question would

outline their beliefs on autonomy and learn how

be what role have those who don’t believe in theirdifferent they are to my own. This is not something I

students got in the teaching profession?

find at all problematic, but it does suggest the need to

In my own conception of autonomy, its continual

research autonomy through the beliefs of teachers. By

growth in learners is dependent on teacher-guides,

gaining a better understanding of how teacherswhether they are found in the classroom or not. And

construct autonomy in their own classrooms, we could

the point I think I’m discovering from listening to otherdeepen our understanding of the potential of theteachers in both formal and informal ways is that madeconcept in what are revolutionary times for education

by Little (1995) that “teachers and learners are

in Japan and around the world. And the individual

inevitably

languagepaths we must forge in our own classes underline thelessons…the teacher’s task is to bring learners to theneed for not only professional competence but

point where they accept equal responsibility for thisconfidence. As a profession there needs to be

co-production” (p. 178).

collective support for individuals and I'm happy toco-producers

ofclassroom

Conferences lay bare the strength and weakness ofreport that the LD SIG is a rich well of it.

the notion of autonomy, namely the amorphous natureof the term. The strength is that it is useful andempoweringforteachers

who

believeinitspossibilities; on the other hand, because of that such
believers might be less cohesively bonded a groupthan we think and fostering different kinds of autonomy
for different ends. Any definition it seems to me

Reference
Little,D.

(1995).

‘Learningas

dialogue:The

dependence of learner autonomy on teacher
autonomy.’ System. 23(2), 175-181.

depends on your view of your teaching context,
メタファーは、LD SIG フォーラムの参加者が大会のテ

Learner Development SIG forum 2010:
Metaphors we learn byーマである Think Outside the Box に取り組むのに理

LD-SIG フォーラム２０１０

想的な道筋を提供した。フォーラムでは、7 名によるメタファーによる学習ポスター発表があり、それらは言語指導と学習共に利用できる様々のメタフｱ―に関するものであった。発表

Alison Stewart, Gakushuin University
Michelle Ruhl, Nagasaki University

では、指導と学習に関して自分たちの既成概念の拡張

Tim Knight, Shirayuri College

実際にメタファーを授業でどのように使っているかを

Ellen Head, Kansai Gaidai University

説明した人もいた。

につながるメタファーを詳細に論じた人や、一方では、

本報告には、メタファーと言語指導について、発表
アリソン・スチュワート、学習院大学

者と参加者たちがフォーラムの開始前、最中、終了後ミシエル・ルール、長崎大学に、それぞれどのような洞察ができたかについての振ティム・ナイト、白百女子大学

り返りも含まれている。

エレン・ヘッド、関西外国語大学
51

Looking Back
Metaphors provided an ideal way for LD SIG Forum

Issues, and almost all the students had chosen theparticipants to engage with the theme of theclass because they intended to become teachers. At

conference, Think Outside the Box. The forum

the beginning of the study period, I asked students toconsisted of poster presentations by seven presenterschoose one of three images—people

on themes related to metaphors for teaching andscaffolding, a rose, a mountaineer—they thought mostlearning. Some of the presenters explored metaphorsclosely represented their idea of learning and towhich expanded their own idea of teaching anddiscuss and write about why. I then asked them tolearning, while others explained how they usedchoose a different image, either one of the three given,metaphors in their classes. This report includes

or one of their own and to reflect on this image over thereflections from presenters and participants on thefollowing four weeks, as they researched and wrote

insights into metaphors and language teaching gained

about teaching issues that interested them. At the end

before, during and after the forum.

of the four-week period, I asked them to discuss andworking on

write about their new images. I was particularly
Changing the pictureinterested to find out if the metaphorical images had

Alison Stewart, Gakushuin University

changed their way of thinking about learning. I was
initially somewhat disappointed to see that the images

Metaphors

did not seem to substantially have changed the way

provided an ideal

they thought about learning, and surprised thatway for LD SIG

students in some cases interpreted the images quite

Forum participants

differently to how I had envisaged them. It is humbling

to engage with theto realize that the greatest influence on my students’

theme

thinking is their experience of education, and that new

of

the

ideas, whether plain-spoken or metaphorical, may not

conference,
Thinking

Outsidesuffice to change this.

the Box. In my case,

I was fortunate to have a number of very

I was reminded ofstimulating conversations with other participants, inthe work of Lakoff

particular about the value of using metaphor withand Johnson, who maintain that metaphor lies at thestudents. In particular, I heard some great ideas aboutroot of language and thought. I also remembered Jim

how I could change this study in a way that would be

Lantolf’s great plenary speech at JALT the previous

more revealing, and perhaps more effective as a way

year, in which he drew attention to the metaphor of theto get students and future teachers talking andmind as a computer, which underlies much of SLA

opening their minds to new concepts and possibilities.

research. This made me wonder about my students
and how they conceptualize learning.
The poster I presented showed a small-scale study

Using Archetypes
Michelle Ruhl, Nagasaki University

I conducted with a class of third-year writing students
on metaphor and learning/teaching. This was an

My Poster was the BIG one that was difficult to readelective content-based class on the theme of Teaching

through because it covered the entire poster space,52

Looking Backfront and back. When participants saw the size of it,which were not always positive or necessarily true. We

they literally backed away. Exactly the opposite effectcan use this data to help our students move past thethan I had intended, but not surprising! (Editors’ note:

stereotypical responses, by giving them real lifeon the contrary, we noticed that some people were

examples that defy those stereotypes.

riveted by the poster and lively discussion ensued).

From faculty to faculty there seems to be someI covered a lot of ground in the poster including

varying ideas about each archetype and the classsome quantitative data about how students at

activities that most represent each one. More research

Nagasaki divided the class activities according to

into this would help us to break down old ways ofarchetypes. Explaining how class activities could

thinking and open up new ways of looking at the roles

develop the archetypes of the Artist, Philosopher andthat the archetype plays in each faculty and how each

Scientist was challenging because it is somewhat

archetype manifests in activities related to the activities

subjective. However, discussing how we identify thein each faculty.

above archetypes in ourselves to varying degrees was

By developing students’ ability to interpret thesewitharchetypes we are helping them to develop complexity

participants how a perfect learning balance between

in thinking and creative thinking. Many students havethe Artist, Philosopher and Scientist might be possible.

never had the opportunity to regard themselves as aninteresting

as

was

discovering

togetherFor everything

Artist,Philosopher

or

Scientist.

Therefore,

thethat I’ve learned I

archetypes may be a stepping stone to helping

see

these

students re-interpret their strengths. This would beinvery empowering for some students, especially thoseaction to varying

who were poorly motivated and low skilled. Throughdegrees and when

re-interpretation we can begin to transform. It’s through

the

is

transformation that we really can begin to see our pastnear perfect, great

experiences and choose our future experiences toresultsaresome extent. Therefore, I would hope that learners seeachieved.

I’mthe archetypes as fluid and changing, open toarchetypes

balancelooking forward tocontinuing

re-interpretation and possibilities.

myresearch in thisReflections

area

Tim Knight, Shirayuri College

becauseI

believe that mostof our students underestimate the essential role each

One of the points I made on my poster was thatof these archetypes plays in their learning and quality

learning and teaching and how that translated into theof life. Also, I think that our students may berelationship between teachers and learners, parents

misinformed about the actual roles that theseand children, was a two-way process. It occurred to mearchetypes play in learning. For example, when asked

even during the poster session that much the same

to freely associate words with each of the archetypes,

two-way relationship can develop between the poster

students came up with very stereotyped responses

presenter and the audience.
53

Looking Back
It is one of the advantages of the poster session

session attendee, “He’s got gaps.” I think she wasagainst the more conventional style of presentationreferring to the design of the poster rather than mythat there is more interaction between participants.

teeth or the interstices in my brain. Anyway, it seemed

During the hour or so we were presenting, I received

people wanted me to give them a spiel and then to

unsolicited but useful advice on how to keep mydiscuss the topic rather than engage directly with themarriage together, tips on raising a daughter inposter before spinning off into conversation. This wasparticular (transferable to the teaching of femaleinteresting for me because I’ve tried to encourage

students, which was appropriate in my case, as I

students in my classes to make interactive posters on

mostly work in a women’s college), a shared

the basis that participants would find them more fun.

enthusiasm for the musical compositions of Stephen

Perhaps such posters also require effort from the

Sondheim, and a push toward a deeper knowledge ofaudience which students doing a project can be

the ideas of Vygotsky. I hope I was also able toexpected to have to make, but which presenters

contribute something to those people’s thinking, if notshouldn’t expect from conference attendees.

knowledge, about the metaphor, Teaching is parenting.

I appreciated the ten minutes round up discussion

In addition to the idea of the two-way relationship,

which all those left in the room after the hour mark tookanalogous

part in. And I was delighted to have the chance to take

moment with teachingpart actively with such an interesting and friendly groupoccurred, as I hoped itof fellow presenters and participants.

anotherwould: at one stage I
was able to wander off

Metaphor

and talk to someone

Ellen Head, Kansai Gaidai University

elsewhere in the room,leaving two people to

A newcomer to metaphor studies, I was afraid that as astand in front of my

topicposter, discussing thediscussion for 120 minutes. Although I ended up as

topic without my having

one of the facilitators, I had originally suggested having

to be there. Isn’t thisa forum about one single metaphor, “affordance”, thewhat we often aim for in

metaphor from ecology, which is used by Van Lier toclass – to set up a task which students get on withdescribe how students grow in response to challenges.

without the need for the teacher’s constant presence?

Exploring a single metaphor, as we did with scaffolding

In another aspect, I might have misjudged what

in 2008, seemed to me a way of giving everyone

was needed. I made an effort to make my poster

something concrete to focus on. What would happen

interactive: it had gap fills, quiz questions covering thewhen we went up to a higher level of abstraction toanswers and even audio playing on a loop so

examine metaphor itself? Wouldn’t it be a bit like thoseparticipants could check two of the gap fills questions.

embarrassing conversations people used to have

Few participants seemed enticed by these elements.

about body language when Desmond Morris’s book

One person exclaimed (or was it groaned?), “Oh, I see,

“Manwatching” first came out, and one felt paralysed

it’s interactive!” while another remarked to her fellow

by too much awareness? As it happened, I couldn’t

metaphorwas

toowhimsical

tosustain54

Looking Backhave been more wrong. The diverse interpretations

was the treasure hunt.

of the theme generated a lot of focused discussion,teacher? Pirate perhaps? Certainly it is some way fromboth in small groups by the posters and in a brief

waiter or parent but the focus is on the student as an

plenary session at the end.

adventurer.

One theme which was introduced in Tim Knight’s

What does that make theTwo posters that dealt with classroom use ofposter was “teaching is parenting”. It was a theme that

metaphor appealed to me since they provided

recurred in other presentations I attended during thesomething which I might actually do with my students

weekend, in particular with Curtis Kelly and Arlenat the start of a future semester. The first was

Gargaliano on “Love, Passion and the art of teaching”

Stewart’s one using different pictures and asking

and with Chuck Sandy and Curtis Kelly talking about

students to explore the impact of changing metaphor

brain based learning. In both presentations, there wason changing their way of thinking, a simple yeta lot of emphasis on the teacher as a nurturing figure

profound way to expand the discussion of teaching

who would provide opportunities for caring, sharing

and learning with students; and Michele Ruhl’s posterand developing. It reminded me of Chuck Sandy’s

about the archetypes of the philosopher, the ruler andstory at “Moveable Feast”, where he described “biting

the artist, provided a way for students to develop their

his lip” to avoid revealing his cynicism about his son’s

approach their learning by deliberately taking on traits

aspiration to be a soccer star. When I think about thefrom a different symbolic character as well as

love that goes into trying to teach even adequately, I

honouring their existing style. As I moved round theguess there is an element of parent-like feeling inroom listening to Patrick’s learning stories, Andy’s

there.

analysis of grammar metaphors, Hugh’s exploration of

Alison“aha”

poetry with a seminar class, I wanted to spend more

was when I talked totime at each poster as each one would have made aWill Zanjie and he told

40 minute workshop in itself. In the final plenary, Joeme about a particular

Sykes explained a whole semester program in which

student’s journal andhe asked students to work on metaphors about

how it reflected theirlearning, freely without giving any stimulus in order tojourney

towards

see what metaphors they found on their own. You canautonomy,andread more about Joe Sykes’s ideas in Joe Sykes

rememberthinkingA“aha,second

here

is

I

feature article in this issue “Promoting Self-Awarenessin Learners Through Metaphor Elicitation.”alongitudinal study in the making”.

Will’s metaphor

Learner-Teacher Autonomy in
Educational Practices: Languages &Beyond. International Bilingual
Conference (English/French),
Ramnarain Ruia College, Mumbai, India.

6th-7th January, 2011
「 Learner-Teacher

Autonomyin

Educational

Practices: Languages and Beyond」国際二ヶ国語（英語・仏語）大会。
ラムナライン・ルイア・カレッジ、ムンバイ、インド
55

Looking Back
The first plenary speaker was Phil Benson from the

Alison Stewart, Gakushuin University

Institute of Education in Hong Kong. Setting a tone of
The Learner-Teacher Autonomy conference in Mumbai

philosophical inquiry that was to permeate thewas a truly unique event in a number of ways.

conference, he posed three questions:The

conference, which grew out of a collaboration between
Fred Dervin of the University of Turku, Finland, and1)

Vasumathi

responsibility to foster personal autonomy?

Badrinathan,

head

of

the

FrenchIsitteacher’sCollege, broke new ground by its novel and mutuallyautonomy?

beneficial juxtaposition of cultures and languages.

3) Does autonomy in language learning imply

Bringingthat the learner should decide what they learn?

French-speaking

andleading

figuresEnglish-speaking

of

the

fieldsofteacherlanguage

2)

the

the

foreign

Department at the host university, Ramnarain Ruia

togetherCanthelegitimately

restrain

Learner Autonomy, the conference provided an

Highlighting a number of moral philosophers’ voices,

opportunity to explore convergences and divergencesfrom Kant to David Crabbe, Benson argued thatof interest and emphasis, while the location of thepersonal autonomy, though maybe not a natural state

conference in Mumbai, a remarkable city of myriad

andlanguages and cultures and stark contrasts ofconstitutes a basic human right. As such, it would

affluence and poverty, brought to the fore some of theseem undeniable that teachers have a duty to foster

different influences, both local and global, that impact

their learners’ autonomy. But things are not always soon learner and teacher autonomy in different contexts.

straightforward. Benson drew attention to differing

For the host institution, the conference was

views

thus

on

somethingthatpaternalism

in

must

be

education,

developed,

contrasting

significant as a symbol of Mumbai’s growing relevance“occurrent” autonomy which is exercised as a matter of

as a site of international importance. Accordingly, thecourse in the educational situation and “dispositional”

conferencetheautonomy in which the learner may be constrained atpresence of the Governor of Maharashtra and thetimes in order to develop the ability or disposition to be

French Consul-General, who both came to deliver theirautonomous in the future. He also drew attention to thegood wishes to the participants and to join the

differences between language education and theconference conveners in a ceremonial lighting of theteaching

lamp. Participants at the conference hailed frommathematics or geography. Much of school practice,countries across the globe, from Australia to the United

including language education, is about socialization,

Kingdom, and the plenary speeches and presentations

rather than allowing the individual to develop their own

were delivered in either English or French, or in ainterests and skills. But, quoting Ochs (2002), Benson

couple of cases, both. I had the pleasure of attending aargued that “language socialization is rooted in thenumber of fascinating presentations, ranging from thenotion that the process of acquiring a language is part

treatment of errors in writing to the integration ofof a much larger process of becoming a person incommunity-based service, academic and English skills,

society”. If autonomy is thus seen as self-expression,and reflection. For lack of space, however, this reportthen the question of content becomes less importantfocuses only on the plenary addresses.

than that of helping learners to develop their own

inauguration

washonored

with

of

other

schoolsubjects,

such

as

56

Looking Back
thinking and to express that in ways that are

there is a fuzzy dividing line between autonomy andmeaningful and beneficial to them.

interculturality.

More questions were raised in the second plenaryIn

retrospect,Iwonderwhetherautonomy and interculturality are not two quite

address, delivered by Marie-José Barbot of Université

different—thoughrelated—concepts,

wherebyLille 3 and Marie-Jose Gremmo of Université Nancy 2.

autonomy may be a necessary condition for language

Tracing the history of learner autonomy as a researchlearners to be able to experience and accept

field, in the development of technology, and in training

interculturality? Bringing this combined ideal offor work, they noted that the new paradigm reflects

autonomy and interculturality to the classroom couldchanging needs of language learners, particularly inempower learners with the realization that, although

the European situation. The new migration and work

they need to be willing to change and grow from thepossibilities in the European Union make it moreexperience of encounters with people from different

incumbent on learners to be self-directed, particularly

cultures, the Other may also change as a result of thatin the area of acquiring new knowledge and skills. Like

encounter.

Benson, Barbot and Gremmo raised a number of
perennial issues that need to be acknowledged.
Should learner autonomy be an end in itself, wherelearners take control of their own learning, or should
institutions seek to develop autonomy as a longer-term
goal? Do learners always have the capacity to
exercise autonomy, or is this something that needs tobe taught or developed? How much and what kind of
support is necessary for learners? Although suchquestions are common currency in Europe, they led
me to consider the Japanese situation, wherelanguage learning, whether at school or at work,

A different perspective of autonomy was offered byseems to be aimed primarily at test-taking andDavid Palfreyman from Zayed University in Dubai.

obtaining credentials, rather than at increasing theUsing the metaphor of ecology to encapsulate thelearner’s capacity to work and contribute in new work

learning situation allowed him to focus on diversity andsituations.

interrelationships

withinlearning

environments.

One of the key problems that concern Barbot andDrawing on interview data with young Arabic learners,

Gremmo is the concept of interculturality. Learning a

he showed us how different learning environments

language means (re)constructing oneself in relation toshape, and are shaped by, interactions involving thethe Other. To naively ignore this is to the detriment oflearner. This is a perspective that encourages us to try

learners; yet at the same time, accepting the fact thatand see the learning situation in its entirety and tolearning a language demands this kind of self

examine what resources are already present and whatreconstruction requires confidence and trust thatcan be built upon to improve learning. In order to foster

learners may be unwilling or unable to extend. Bringing

autonomy,

the session to a close, Fred Dervin suggested that

supportive: learners can support each other throughlearning

environments

have

to

be

57

Looking Backmutual interdependence. They also need to receive a

autonomy in which the teacher plays a key guiding role,kind of scaffolding that acknowledges and validates

John Kurrien, Director of the Centre of Learning

what they already know and challenges them to go

Resources in Pune, gave a clear and insightful

further to deepen their thinking and their understanding.

description of the situation of English teaching in

However, in order to provide this kind of scaffolding,

Regional Medium Government Elementary Schools inteachers have to be familiar with students, not only as

India. In a country where attitudes toward English havethey appear in the classroom, but as they live theirswung from ambivalence in the years following

lives.

colonialism to a keen and ubiquitous desire for English,

Palfreyman’s call to “know your learners” echoed awhich is now seen as the key to success by all sectors

similar injunction made by the Governor in his openingof

address and was also taken up by two plenary

nevertheless has very low levels of achievement. The

speechesleading

main problem is that the teachers themselves are

educationalists in India. Rohit Dhankar of Digantar, an

unable to speak English, and, until recently, have been

NGO that provides and supports autonomy-based

given little incentive or opportunity to develop their own

elementary education in Jaipur, began his talk bycompetence, a situation that resonated particularly

invoking Ghandi’s reminder to think of the poorest

with conference participants from Japan, where

person and how one’s action affects them.

Individual

elementary school teachers will soon find themselvesautonomy of action cannot be selfish or self-interested;

in a similar situation. The problem in India, in Kurrien’s

we need to think always of the common good andview, is that the question of learner autonomy cannot

make decisions free from personal fancies andbe broached unless and until the issue of teacher

instincts. Conscious action is action based on grounds

autonomy is addressed. Currently, in-service training

which we have analysed and accept. Learning is

tends to focus on supporting teachers to cover thechange through experience,is throughprescribed textbook, page by page. What is needed

experience that we learn to be more intentional,

instead, Kurrien argued, is a move to place teachers’

responsible and discerning in our actions. In Dhankar’s

concerns, not the official curriculum, at the center ofview, students may not benefit from “unfettered”

teacher development. The most pressing concern isautonomy,andobviously the need to teach teachers English, but

knowledge, they can hardly be discerning in theirbeyond that, teachers need to understand classroom

choices. This means that teachers have a duty to lookmaterials and processes so that they can exercise

for areas, especially the development of theoreticalsome control over them, and they need supplementaryknowledge, where their students need the guidance ofand bilingual materials that would enable bothothers. At the same time, students have the right toteachers and students to follow the curriculum andunderstand things in their own ways and to be certain.

learn English more effectively.

that

since

were

given

without

by

and

the

two

it

experience

Indiansociety,thepublicschoolsystemThis, he concluded, automatically gives students the

The final plenary speaker was Christine Develotte ofright to challenge and question their teacher, who must

the Institut Nationale de la Recherche Pédagogique.

in turn strive to bridge the conceptual gap andAddressing the issue of autonomy and technology, shenegotiate a position of mutual understanding.

proposed a framework for exploring new learning

Following Dhankar’s argument for a view of learnercontexts based on three lines of inquiry that are58

Looking Backsuggested by Lankshear & Knobel (2003). Thesenumérique éducatif et... quels changements

focus on “changes in the world to be known”, “changes

dans l’autonomie des acteurs?

in the conception of knowledge and processes ofcoming to know things”, and “changes in the relative
significance of different modes of knowing”. Against
this backdrop, she presented a study of online
language instruction to examine how the technologicalmedia

employedaffectedthedevelopmentofautonomy. Although the study was inconclusive withregard to the question she raised about autonomy, it

Talking about Language Learning
Histories(SIG meeting report)
Colin Skeates and Colin Rundle
外国語学習についての話（SIG ミーティングレポート）
コリン・スキーツ、コリン・ランドル

brought the focus of the conference back to language
learners and learning, and to the opportunities and

On February 6th starting from 2:30 pm, 8 members ofchallenges that face all of us in a changing world.

the LD SIG gathered at TC College to talk. The topic ofthe day was language learning histories, or, more

References

specifically, our personal history of trying to learn one

Lankshear, C. & Knobel, M. (2003). New literacies:

or more languages and what these experiences madeChanging knowledge and classroom learning.
Buckingham: Open University Press

us think of. In short, it was an interesting day.
The meeting began with each member reading

Ochs, E. (2002) Becoming a speaker of culture. In C.

each other’s history. As there were initially eight of us,

Kramsch (Ed.). Language acquisition and

we decided to divide into two groups of four. Whatlanguagefollows is an account of one of the groups whichsocialization:

Ecological

Perspectives. Continuum Press.

consisted of Alison, Joe, Colin R., and Colin S. Stacyjoined us later on.
Much of the discussion focused on the importance

Plenary addresses covered in this report
Philip Benson, ‘Autonomy in language learning,learning, and life.’

focus on grammar and vocabulary in the courses weMarie-José Bardot & Marie-José Gremmo, ‘Autonomie
etlanguesétrangères:of identity we felt as language learners/users, and thedenouveaux

rendez-vous?’

had taken.
We began discussing Alison’s written history. Alison
described the difficulties in entering into the community

David Palfreyman, ‘The ecology of autonomy.’of Russian language users and the identity work

Rohit Dankhar, ‘Learning for autonomy, autonomous

involved in that. She began learning Russian at highlearning: is there a tension between the twoschool and firmly recalled her first teacher – a big,

ideals?’gregarious

Russianteacherwho

wasstrict,John Kurrien, ‘The Teaching of English as a Second

temperamental, and, over time, wonderful. She

Language in Regional Medium Government

recalled how her teacher would actively make the

Elementary Schools: Contextualising Learner

language alive by gossiping of events that had taken

and Teacher Autonomy.’place in the community. Alison brought her first

Christine Develotte, ‘Changements induits par lenotebook that contained her grammar lessons. After
59

Looking Backhigh school, Alison decided to study Russian atwhen he committed several years

university, but she did not feel terribly confident using

Japanese: he devoted the same time to vocabulary

the language until she studied Russian literature in

learning but late at night, tired, after a full-day at work

what was then the Soviet Union.

teaching

English;hestudiedto learning

throughdistance

Alison explained her difficulties in assuming a

education and thus in isolation without competition or

Russian identity. An important part of her becoming apeer-interaction; and in his full-time job only hisuser of the language stemmed from the need to assert

English ability, not Japanese, was valued. In short, as

her opinions with her Russian room-mates and later ona language-major “student” he had felt full legitimacy towhen trying to get her Russian-national husband out of

excel in Indonesian, but years later feeling fulfilled as a

the Soviet Union. This was particularly difficult as she

successful “English Lecturer” at an English-medium

had

university, he felt unsupported and unmotivated totodevelopanuncomfortable

Russianassertiveness in order to make herself be understood

become a proficient Japanese speaker.

and, more importantly, get what she wanted. She

Colin S. mused about the role of environment in all

mentioned that despite her major difficulties being with

this, prompting Alison to point out her growing

identity transformation, her formal studies had placed

appreciation

great importance on grammar and vocabulary lists.

Reflecting on her own experience and that of her

of

the

importanceof

institutions.

Colin R. jumped on this to relate his experiences ofstudents, Alison noted the relatively abundant time andmainly audio-lingual learning of Indonesian andfacilities provided by universities to support theGerman at university. He produced some of thelearning of full-time students, luxuries seldom available

copious vocabulary notebooks in which he had

toinvested hundreds of hours while at university. One of

responsibilities.

part-timelearners

juggling

competingthe first comments made on his approach was thedominant role that rote learning had played, initially of
individual words and then later phrases. Colin R. notedthat this was (a) the only way to keep up withsyllabuses introducing 100 to 200 new words each
week, and interestingly (b) one of the main factors forhis success as a teacher and translator of Indonesian.
This key learning activity was also found in othermembers’ learning of languages.
Colin R. then produced notebooks to illustrate hiscomparatively unsuccessful attempt to learn Japanese,even though he tried to use the same methods which
had served him well with Indonesian and German.
Colin R. reflected upon these two experiences, listingreasons for the opposite outcomes: time available tolearn, the role of peers, and the drive to succeed.
These factors were qualitatively deficient or absent

The notions of context, investment and identity
brought the group to consider whether or not we aredifferent people when using different languages. Joe
related his experience of presently learning the polite
forms of Japanese, which he finds very liberating as
learning polite Japanese is allowing him to be more
himself. As he now feels that he is able to better
express himself politely, he feels more comfortable.
60

Looking Back
One concrete example he gave was when someone
does something for him, he is able to say thank you
appropriately okagesama deshita (thank you for yourhelp) as opposed to simply saying arigatou (thanks),
sumimasen (excuse me/sorry), or even gomennasai (Iam sorry). He is able to better articulate himself atwork and feels like he is more a part of thecommunities he belongs to. Clearly the limits of ourknowledge in a language will dictate how we are able
to express ourselves, but it was interesting to see thiscomponent of identity clearly illustrated from an emic
perspective.

61

Looking Forward

Learning Learning 18 (1) Spring 2011
Looking forward

Collaborative learning in the
Writing and editing a new book

SIG:

ロジェクトを支援してくれた全ての人、そして「学習の学習」や AYA、MAYA を通して協調学習の文化を SIGに作り上げてきた諸先輩方への感謝の意で本文を締めRealizing Autonomy: Practice andReflection in Language Education
Contexts, edited by Kay Irie and Alison
Stewart. To be published by Palgrave
Macmillan, 2011.

くくっている。
Realizing Autonomy: Practice and Reflection in
Language Education Contexts is a new book written
and edited by Learner Development SIG members andscheduled to be published by Palgrave Macmillan later

Alison Stewart, Gakushuin University
Kay Irie, J. F. Oberlin University

this year. The book project started back in earlysummer of 2008 at the LD SIG retreat in Nagoya when
Ellen Head asked casually if we would be interested in

共に学ぶ LD-SIG：新しいアンソロジーの執筆と編
集 ： Realizing Autonomy: Practice andReflection in Language Education Contexts パ
ルグレイヴ・マクミラン（英）より 2011 年出版予
定

editing a new anthology for the SIG along the lines ofthe previous Autonomy You Ask! (2003) and More
Autonomy You Ask! (2006). Kay and I had worked
together as lead editors of Learning Learning theprevious year, and we were keen to try our hand at
something new, though nervous about what it might

アリソン・スチュワート、学習院大学

entail. Initial inquiries assured us that the SIG

入江恵、桜美林大学

potentially had the money to finance publication of ananthology, and an enthusiastic get-together of Tokyo

当時、「学習の学習」を編集していたアリソン・スチュ

members, including Deryn Verity, provided us with the

ワートと入江恵にエレン・ヘッドから持ちかけられた

encouragement and some concrete ideas to be able to

提案によって、SIG にとって 3 冊目となる自律学習を

put together a proposal for the AGM at the JALTテーマとしたアンソロジーのプロジェクトは 2008 年

national conference that November.

夏に始まった。そして、長い執筆・査読・編集のプロ

From the outset, we wanted the book to focus onセスを経て、今年ようやく出版の見込みとなった。こautonomy-fostering practices in context. We sent outのアンソロジーは、東京で定期的に行われているエリ

a call for proposals in December, eliciting a keen

ア・ミーティングに着想を得て、学習者あるいは教員

response from LD members and others, and,の自律を助ける取組みを主体とする実践的なものを目

consequently, giving us the unenviable task of having

指した。本稿では、２年半に及ぶその協同執筆と編集

to select some and turn down others. However, by theの過程、また、出版社との契約によってより広い国外

spring vacation, we had seventeen promising-lookingの読者層にも訴える内容への見直しを振り返る。そしproposals, sixteen of which would make it through toて両編集者は、寄稿者・査読者はもちろんのこと、プpublication, and a structure for the book as a whole.
62

Looking Forward
The next step was to ask for extended proposals, for

was another Internet tool we used to make joint

which we wanted the prospective authors to expand indecisions on a range of issues from spelling to theparticular on the context in which they had tried theircover design to deciding how to spend the royalties

practices.

(which we optimistically hope to receive). First drafts

With the new texts in hand, we arranged for as

were exchanged between partners within the section

many authors as possible to meet and work together

groups, while second drafts were sent to peer

on a two-day retreat held at Teachers College

reviewers, including authors from other sections of theColumbia in Suidobashi, Tokyo. Almost all of thebook and external reviewers, Richard Pemberton,

authors were able to attend for at least one of the two

Sara Cotterall, Robert Croker, Hugh Nicoll, Ellen Head,days, another two were able to take part in the

Andy Barfield, Mike Nix and others. Throughout this

discussion by video conferencing, and LD SIG

year-long process, Kay and I kept close tabs on all the

Coordinator, Hugh Nicoll took part as one of the peer

drafts, intervening from time to time (probably far too

reviewers. We divided the authors into four groups,

much!) to ensure the authors kept a clear focus onwhich we had noticed when we first reviewed theautonomy and the theme within which their chapter

proposal as a natural framework on which the chapters

was placed.

could be arranged. This was the first chance for all of

It was during this year that a plan was conceived to

us to work collaboratively, reading the extended

propose the book to a major international publisher,

proposals in groups, asking questions to seek moreboth as a way of saving money for the SIG and ofclarity in each other’s descriptions of practice andraising the profile of the LD SIG, our practices and ourcontext, and agreeing on the basic framework thatphilosophy of collaborative self-development.

would hold firm throughout the project. As an entire

neither of us had any experience of publishing books,

group, we decided on headings for the four sections of

we sought help from Andy Barfield, who showed us an

the book: Goals and Frameworks, Strategies andexample of a successful proposal he had written

Scaffolding, Collaborative Learning, and Problems and(Barfield & Gyllstad, 2009) and helped us polish up

Possibilities, and as a group, we chose a title:

one of our own. We sent this off to Palgrave Macmillan,

Realizing Autonomy: Practice and Reflection in

now with three new contributors, Naoko Aoki and

Language Educational Contexts (rejecting at the lastRichard Smith, the founders of the SIG, who had kindly

minute our provisional title, Developing Autonomy,

agreed to write a Foreword, and the well-known Scottwhich we discovered had already been used in a JALT

Thornbury who would write an Afterword. Palgrave did

SIG publication (Mackenzie & McCafferty, 2002) a few

not initially jump at the chance to publish an anthology

years previously!)

written and edited by so many previously unpublishedAs

Fired up with energy from the retreat, the authors

names. They came back with a raft of questions mainly

went back and wrote up their first drafts. Darren Elliott

aimed at clarifying why a book by teachers in Japan

had suggested Ning (http://www.ning.com/) as a freeshould be of interest to a global readership and what

Internet site we could use to share drafts and any otheroriginal slant the book would provide. Our initial

information as a way to develop the chapters

disappointment soon abated as we realized that thesecollaboratively, and to discuss matters relating to thewere questions that we needed to address to tighten

book as a whole. Polldaddy (http://polldaddy.com/)

the focus throughout the chapters and give the book
63

Looking Forward
the direction and cohesion that it has in its present

SIG who led the way with Learning Learning andform. With this revised proposal, Palgrave gave us thesubsequently with AYA and MAYA and who establishedgreen light together with a load of contracts to sign,

a culture of collaboration and mutual support. The new

editorial and style guidelines to follow, and a couple ofbook is one of the fruits of this ongoing collaborative

patient editors in England to field our anxious

effort.

questions.
Thanks to the combined efforts of all the authors,

References

reviewers, editors and many others who helped along

Barfield, A. & Gyllstad, H. (Eds) (2009). Researching

the way, the manuscript was completed safely within

Collocations in Another Language: Multiple

our deadline of the end of the year. Two days afterInterpretations.

Christmas, we spent a day tying up loose ends andMacmillan

printing out copies of the book ready for posting.
Of course, although the manuscript has gone, theBasingstoke:

Barfield, A. & Nix, M. (Eds) (2003).
ask!

Tokyo:The

Palgrave

Autonomy you

LearnerDevelopment

book is still not finished. We still need to compile anSpecialindex, for example. We may need to make some

Association for Language Teaching.

changes if Palgrave’s reviewer asks for them. We also

Mackenzie, A.S. & McCafferty, E. (Eds) (2002).

want to celebrate this great achievement of all theDeveloping Autonomy. Proceedings of theparticipants, and are organizing a one-day conference,

JALT CUE Conference 2001. Tokyo: The

thInterest

Group

of

the

Japan

which will be held on October 29 at Nanzan University,

Japan Association for Language Teaching

Nagoya. This will be an opportunity for the authors ofCollege and University Educators Special

the sixteen chapters to showcase their work, to talkInterest Group.

about the practices they wrote about, and perhaps

Skier, E. & Kohyama, M. (Eds) (2006). More Autonomy

about how they have continued to develop their

You Ask! Tokyo: The Learner Development

practice since then. It will also be a chance for otherSpecialLD SIG members to present their autonomy-inspired

Association for Language Teaching.

Interest

Group

of

the

Japan

practices, and we plan to give time and space foranother dozen sessions during the day. We aredelighted that Richard Pemberton from Nottingham
University and Tim Murphey from Kanda University ofInternational Studies, both inspirational speakers in
our field, will come as our guests and take part in theconference.

Paths to Fluency: Pan-SIG conferenceat Shinshu University, May 21st-22nd,2011.

We have had the privilege of editing this anthology,

This year is the first year for a while that Learner

which means that we have overseen and guided theDevelopment has been involved with the Pan Sig

project since its conception. However, the real credit

conference. The theme, “Paths to Fluency” embraces

goes to the many people who have been involved inboth practical and theoretical presentations anddifferent ways: to the authors, the reviewers, and otherincludes a number by members of LD SIG on various

supporters of the present book, and to those in the LD

themes from learner development to learner identity.
64

Looking Forward

Auckland on lexical fluency, Rob Waring of Notre

Gakuen University (Hongo Campus),
Tokyo, Japan

Dame University on balancing fluency and correctness

Among the plenary speakers at the CUE conferencein the curriculum and Hideki Sakai of Shinshu

on motivation, Ema Ushioda, of the University of

University on how basic expressions build a positive

Warwick, UK, offers “an insider perspective fromattitude to communication.

outside Japan.” Ema Ushioda’s work on learner

http://pansig.org/2011/

autonomy may be familiar to many LD SIG members.

Plenary speakers are John Read of the University of

The other plenary speaker is Kimberly Noels of the

The Road Less Travelled: Nakasendo
Conference at Dokkyo University,
July 19th

University of Alberta. They will be joined by Yoshiyuki
Nagata of Hyogo University of Education, Tomoko
Yashima of Kansai University, Tomohito Hiromori of
Ritsumeikan University and Keita Kikuchi of Tokai

Nakasendo brings together teachers from university

University. This conference has been two years in theandbusinessplanning. Even just taking a peek at the abstracts will

schooland nursery school level. This year, theconference

theme

settings

tosuggests

elementary
unconventional

be worthwhile, getting there, even more so.
http://jaltcue-sig.org/node/150

approaches in teaching and learning. For the last
coupleofyears,

LearnerDevelopment

has

Advisingfor
Language
Autonomy, Kanda University,
November 12th 2011

Learnerfeatures plenaries with Steven Herder of Doshisha

This

which

Women’s College and Dr Makiko Tanaka of Kanda

co-sponsored by IATEFL, Kanda University and ourUniversity of International Studies. The LD-SIG will

own Learner Development SIG. Highly recommended

sponsor a workshop for all participants to explore afor anyone interested in self-access or ways ofroad less travelled. At the time of writing, there aresupporting students’ self study, or indeed issues andplans for a learner development session focusing onpractices surrounding the development of learner

language learning histories as well as a Framework

autonomy. The guest speaker is Marina Mozzon

and Language Portfolio-focused strand.

Mc-Pherson

collaborated with the Framework and Language
Portfolios SIG at this event. This year, Nakasendo

http://nakasendoconference.com/

CUE conference: Foreign Language
Motivation in Japan, July 2nd-3rd, Toyo

is

a

major

of

international

the

University

event

of

Hull,

is

UK,

award-winner and prolific author on topics such aslearning strategies, advising and e-learning.
The call for papers is open til the end of June.
http://learnerautonomy.org/advising2011.html

65

Looking forward

Learning Learning 18 (1) Spring 2011
LD SIG Financial Report April 2010 – September 2010
SIG MATTERS

LD SIG 財務報告 2010 年 4 月 - 2010 年 9 月

LD SIG 財務報告2010 年 10 月 - 2011 年 2 月

LD SIG Financial Report Oct 2010 – Feb 2011

Oct-10Nov-10Dec-10Jan-11

Feb-11

2010 年 10 月

2010 年 11 月

2010 年 12 月

2011 年 1 月

2011 年 2 月

Balance in bank account 銀行預金残高

504,080

413,483

429,386

374,389

330,587

Reserve liabilities JALT 本部預け金
Cash on hand 現金

100,0000

100,0000

250,0000

250,0000

250,0000

604,080

513,483

679,386

624,389

580,5870
303-90,900-00
172,503-6,600-0050,303-105,300-00302-44,104
-0

0
2
-0
-0

End balance 当月帳簿残高

513,483

679,386

624,389

580,587

580,589

Balance in bank account 銀行口座の残高
Reserve liabilities JALT 本部預け金
Cash on hand 現金
LD SIG balance 当月資産残高

413,483
100,000
0513,483

429,386
250,000
0679,386

374,389
250,000
0624,389

330,587
250,000
0580,587

330,589
250,000
0580,589

Balance carried forward 前月資産残高
The current month activities
Total revenue liabilities 仮受金等総額
Total revenue 総収入
Total expenses 総支出
Total expense liabilities 仮払金等総額

Major revenue 主な収入
Oct 2010 to Feb 2011
Membership Jan-Sep 2010 会費 (A)Reimbursement from National
JALT 本部からの払戻
SIG Publication sales 書籍販売 (B)Unsuccessful fund transfer refunded 失敗した振込の組戻し (C)166,500
5,000
1,000
50,00066

SIG Matters: Financial Report by Hiromi Furusawa
Major expenses 主な経費
Oct 2010 to Feb 2011
Conference grants (for 2 LD SIG members) LD
SIG 年次大会参加助成金 (D)Thank-you gifts for Forum leaders(JALT2009)
フォーラム担当者への謝礼 （Ｅ）

80,00010,0006,600

Table Rental for JALT JALT でのテーブル賃借
Donation to the Best of JALT / Best of JALT への寄付
Bridging Loan for FLP-SIG / FLP-SIG への当座貸付（Ｆ）
Unsuccessful fund transfer 振込失敗 (C)

5,000

50,00050,000Contribution to Mini-conference (the Moveable
Feast) ミニカンファレンス共催に伴う費用

33,474

Shipping LD materials for JALT2010 / JALT2010
会場への LD 資料配送料

2,530

Shipping the book typescript to UK 英国への書籍
原稿の送料

7,800

(A) 1,500 × 111members (for 9 months)(B) We sold one copy of MAYA by mail. 郵送にてＭＡＹＡを１冊販売しました。
Unsuccessful transfer because of a wrong account holder's name. It was automatically(C) refunded.
口座名義人の名前に誤りがあり振込失敗。自動的に組み戻されている。
(D) 40,000 × 2 members(E) 5,000 × 2 members(F) FLP-SIG is planning to repay it by the JALT 2011(Nov. 2011)
FLP-SIG は、JALT2011(11 月)までに返済する予定。

67

SIG Matters: Financial Report by Hiromi Furusawa

SIG fund balance Feb 28th, 2011 / SIG 資金残高 2011 年 2 月 28 日
Balance in bank account 銀行口座の残高
Reserve liabilities JALT 本部預け金
TOTAL
PLANNED EXPENSES March to Dec 2011

合計

2011 年 2 月- 12 月予定経費

Financial support for IATEFL-KANDA
Table Rental for JALT2011 / JALT2011 での SIG テーブル代
Shipping LD materials to JALT2011 / JALT2011 への資材送料
Shipping fees for other events / 他のイベントへの送料
JALT national conference grants (40,000@2members) / JALT 年次大会参加費助成
IATEFL-KANDA Conference grants (50,000@2members) / IATEFL-KANDA カンフ
ァレンス参加費助成
Co-sponsoring Phil Benson as a JALT2011 plenary speaker / JALT2011 の講演者
共同招聘費用The Realizing Autonomy celebration (Oct. 29) / Realizing Autonomy 出版記念イベント
Honorarium to Richard P and Tim M (RA celebration speakers) / Realizing
Autonomy 出版記念講演者への謝礼
Other miscellaneous / 他の雑費
SUB-TOTALPROJECTED REVENUE March to Dec 2011

330,589
250,000
580,589

小計-17,000-10,000-15,000-80,000-100,000-100,000-200,000-60,000-20,000-602,0002011 年 2 月- 12 月月予定収入

Membership 75 members (150 members * 6months/12) 会費半年分
Repayment of Bridging loan by FLP-SIG
FLP-SIG からの貸付金返済
SUB-TOTAL

Projected SIG fund balance Dec 31st, 2011 / 予定 SIG 資金残高 2011 年
12 月 31 日
Balance in bank account 銀行口座の残高
Reserve liabilities JALT 本部預け金
TOTAL

合計

小計

75,00050,000125,000

103,5890
103,589

Hiromi Furusawa 古澤 弘美
LD SIG treasurer LDSIG 財務
March 25th, 2011 2011 年 3 月 25 日

68

SIG Matters: Financial Report by Hiromi Furusawa

Learning Learning 18 (1) Spring 2011
SIG MATTERS

Contributing to Learning Learning
Learning Learning is your space for continuing to make the connections that interest you. You
are warmly invited and encouraged to contribute to the next issue of Learning Learning ineither English and/or Japanese. We welcome writing in different formats and different lengths
about different issues connected with learner and teacher development, such as:•articles (about 2,500 to 4,000 words)•reports (about 500 to 1,000 words)•learner histories (about 500 to 1,000 words)•stories of autonomy (about 500 to 1,000 words)•book reviews (about 500 to 1,000 words)•letters to the SIG (about 500 words)•personal profiles (100 words more or less)•critical reflections (100 words more or less)•research interests (100 words more or less)•photographs•poems… and much more…
We would like to encourage new writing and new writers and are also very happy to work withyou in developing your writing. We would be delighted to hear from you about your ideas,
reflections, experiences, and interests to do with learner development, learner autonomy andteacher autonomy.
We hope to publish the next issue of Learning Learning in October, 2011. Ideally, we would
like to hear from you well before August 31, 2011 – in reality, the door is always open, so
feel free to contact somebody in the editorial team when you are ready:Alison Stewart
Ellen Head
Patrick Kiernan
Kay Irie

stewart_al AT MARK hotmail.com
ellenkobe AT MARK yahoo.com
kiernan AT MARK meiji.ac.jp
kayirie AT MARK mac.com

Learning Learning is the newsletter of the JALT Learner Development SIG. We aim to publish
twice a year in April and October. All pieces are copyright of their respective authors.
Permission to re-print writing from Learning Learning should be sought directly from theauthor(s) concerned.

69

SIG matters「学習の学習」原稿募集「学習の学習」は会員に興味あるつながりを構築する空間です。次号「学習の学習」への和文（もしくは英文、及び二言語での）投稿を募集しています。形式や長さを問わず、学習者及び教員の発達に関連した以下のようなさまざま文章を歓迎しています：• 論文(約4000字－10000字)• 報告書 (約2000字－4000字)• 学習者のヒストリー (約2000字－4000字)• 自律性に関する体験談 (約2000字－4000字)• 書評(約2000字－4000字)• SIGへの手紙 (約2000字)• 個人プロフィール(約400字)• クリティカル・リフレクション (約400字)• 研究興味(約400字)

• 写真
• 詩

その他

これまでにない形式のもの、また新しい方々からのご投稿をお待ちしております。内容についてもぜひご相談ください。みなさまのご意見やお考え、ご経験、そして学習者の発達、学習者の自律性と教師の自律性に関することなど、ぜひお聞かせください。
次号「学習の学習」は2011年10月に出版の予定です。ご興味のある方は、最終入稿日2011年
8月31日よりずっと前に余裕をもってご連絡いただければ幸いです。受け付けは常にいたしておりますので、アイディアがまとまり次第、遠慮なくいずれかの編集委員にご連絡ください。
アリソン・スチュワート
エレン・ヘッドパトリック・キアナン
入江恵

stewart_al AT MARK hotmail.com
ellenkobe AT MARK yahoo.com
kiernan AT MARK meiji.ac.jp
kayirie AT MARK mac.com「学習の学習」はJALT学習者ディベロプメントSIGの会報です。年2回4月と10月に出版予定です。全ての原稿の版権はそれぞれの執筆者にあります。「学習の学習」の文章を他の出版物に使う場合は直接その執筆者の許可をもらってください。

70