1ENERGYTABLE 1-23
RESIDENTIAL AND COMMERCIAL EMISSION CONTROLS PERFORMANCE
Technology

Date
CH4
NMVOCsNOx
N 2O
COEfficiency
Loss(a) Reduction Reduction Reduction Reduction Reduction Available(b)
(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

(%)

Catalytic Woodstove

-44

90

90

-27

NAV

NAV

1985

Non-Catalytic Modified
Combustion Stove

-30

15

50

-5

NAV

NAV

1985

Flame Retention Burner Head

-9

28

NAV

NAV

NAV

NAV

Controlled Mixed Burner
Head

-7

43

NAV

44

NAV

NAV

Integrated Furnace System

-12

13

NAV

69

NAV

NAV

Blueray Burner/Furnace

-12

74

NAV

84

NAV

NAV

M.A.N. Burner

-13

NAV

NAV

71

NAV

NAV

Radiant Screens

-7

62

NAV

55

NAV

NAV

Secondary Air Baffle

NAV

16

NAV

40

NAV

NAV

Surface Comb. Burner

NAV

55

NAV

79

NAV

NAV

Amana HTM

-21

-55

NAV

79

NAV

NAV

Modulating Furnace

-7

NAV

NAV

32

NAV

NAV

Pulse Combuster

-36

NAV

NAV

47

NAV

NAV

Catalytic Combuster

-29

NAV

NAV

86

NAV

NAV

Replace Worn Units

NAV

65

NAV

NAV

NAV

NAV

Tuning, Seasonal Maintenance

-2

16

NAV

NAV

NAV

NAV

Reduced Excessive Firing

-19

14

NAV

NAV

NAV

NAV

Reduced Excessive Firing with
New Retention Burner

-40

14

NAV

NAV

NAV

NAV

Positive Chimney Dampers

-8

11

NAV

NAV

NAV

NAV

Increased Thermostat
Anticipator

-1

43

NAV

NAV

NAV

NAV

1980

Night Thermostat Cutback

-15

17

NAV

NAV

NAV

NAV

Low Excess Air

-0.8

NAV

NAV

15

NAV

NAV

1970

Flue Gas Recirculation

0.6

NAV

NAV

50

NAV

NAV

1975

Over-fire Air

1

NAV

NAV

20-30

NAV

NAV

1970

Low NOx Burners

0.6

NAV

NAV

40-50

NAV

NAV

1980

(a) Efficiency loss as a percentage of end-user energy conversion efficiency (ratio of energy output to energy input for eachtechnology) due to the addition of an emission control technology. Negative loss indicates an efficiency improvement.
(b) Date technology is assumed to be commercially available.
Source: Radian, 1990.

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1.61

ENERGY

TABLE 1-24
NET CALORIFIC VALUES FOR PRECEDING TABLES(a)(THESE VALUES SHOULD NOT BE USED TO CALCULATE INVENTORIES, SEE NOTE BELOW)FuelNet Calorific Value(TJ/kilotonne)

GAS
ButanePropaneNatural Gas

44.4
47.1
52.3

LIQUID
Crude Oil
Crude Shale Oil
Diesel/Distillate
Gasoline
Residual Oil

40.9
42
42.9
46.5
42

SOLID
Bagasse/Agriculture
Bituminous Coal
Anthracite
Lignite
MSW
Wood

8.8
28.7
27.2
15.9
10.7
11.5

NOTE: These values are given for information only and refer to the preceding tables.
They should not be used by countries to convert energy data to TJ for the inventories.
The default net calorific values used in the Guidelines have not been changed and can befound in the Reference Manual Tables I-2 and 1-3.
Source: US EPA (1995).
(a) Values in preceding tables were originally based on gross calorific value; they were converted to net
calorific value by assuming that net calorific values were 5 per cent lower than gross calorific values forcoal and oil, and 10 per cent lower for natural gas. These percentage adjustments are the OECD/IEA
assumption on how to convert from gross to net calorific values.

1.5.3 Mobile Combustion
1.5.3.1

OVERVIEW

Emissions of greenhouse gases from mobile sources, including carbon dioxide (CO2),
carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O)
and non-methane volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) are most easily estimated bymajor transport activity, i.e., road, air, rail, and ships. However, as road transport andaviation account for the majority of mobile-source fuel consumption (e.g., 82 per cent in1988 for the OECD), followed by air transport (about 13 per cent), greater priority has
been attached to the development of emission models and inventories for road vehicles
and aircraft.
The diversity of the types of mobile source and the range of characteristics which affectemission factors are amply demonstrated by the tables included in this section for bothroad and air transport. Recent work has both updated and strengthened the data given
and a fuller methodology for estimating aircraft emissions has been introduced based
upon the EMEP/CORINAIR work in this field. Despite these advances more work isneeded to fill in many gaps in knowledge of emissions from certain vehicle types and on

1.62

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1

ENERGYthe effects of ageing on catalytic control of road vehicle emissions. Equally, there is very
little information on the appropriate emission factors for road transport in developing
countries where age of fleet, maintenance and patterns of use are different from those inindustrialised countries.
It should be recalled that transport is a significant source of CO2 emissions and emission
factors for CO2 emissions are provided in the following tables to permit the estimation of
CO2 at this detailed level.

1.5.3.2

RECOMMENDED METHODOLOGY

Estimation of mobile source emissions is a very complex undertaking that requiresconsideration of many parameters, including:•transport class•fuel consumed•

operating characteristics•

emission controls•

maintenance procedures•

fleet age

The need for data on several parameters and the wide variety of conditions that canaffect the performance of each category of mobile source makes it very difficult togeneralise their emission characteristics. Also, within the transport sector, the primarymeasure of activity is less likely than in other sectors to be fuel consumption.
The underlying general emissions model may be expressed as:
Emissions = ∑ (EFabc x Activityabc)
where:EF
Activity= emission factor= amount of energy consumed or distance travelled for a given
mobile source activitya= fuel type (diesel, gasoline, LPG, bunker, etc.)b= vehicle type (e.g., passenger, light-duty or heavy-duty for roadvehicles)c= emission control

which implies the following steps:•

Determine the amount of energy consumed by fuel type for the major transportmodes using national data or, as an alternative, IEA or UN international data sources(all values should be reported in terajoules).

•For each fuel type, determine the amount of energy that is consumed by eachvehicle type, e.g., light-duty gasoline vehicles, etc. (all units are in terajoules). If
distance travelled is the activity measure, determine the total distance travelled byeach vehicle type. In this case, the energy consumption associated with these
distance travelled figures should be calculated and aggregated by fuel for comparison

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1.63

ENERGYwith national energy balance figures. If necessary, further subdivide each vehicle type
into uncontrolled and key classes of emission control technology.
•

Multiply the amount of energy consumed, or the distance travelled by each categoryof vehicle or vehicle/control technology, by the appropriate emission factor for thatcategory. Data presented in the next section (Emission Factors) can be used as astarting point. However, national experts are encouraged to consult other data
sources referenced in this chapter or locally available data before determining
appropriate factors for a particular country.

•

Emissions of each pollutant can be summed across all categories of fuel andtechnology type, including for all levels of emission control, to determine total
emissions from mobile source-related activities.

Emission Factors
The tables given for road transport summarise results of a detailed analysis of mobilesource emission factors covering North American and European vehicles and conditions.
Recently published work has permitted the updating of figures appearing in the 1995
edition of the Guidelines. The US emission factors for mobile sources, published in the
1995 edition, were developed using the MOBILE4 model. This was one of a series ofemissions models developed and periodically updated by the US Environmental Protection
Agency for use in its analysis of motor vehicle regulatory and policy issues. The MOBILE4model is now out of date. Since the analysis done in 1991, several improvements havebeen based on new information and vehicle testing results. Emission factors developed
using the latest version of the MOBILE model (MOBILE5a) are higher for most pollutants.
The US tables included here contain this latest information.
CO2 factors are derived from the carbon content of the fuels and therefore include thecarbon present in other carbon molecule based emissions.
The European data are drawn from the CORINAIR COPERT model. However, for
actual calculations of national emissions, users are encouraged to also consult a range ofrecent and more detailed information sources (see Data Sources in Section 1.5.1).
Particularly for indirect GHGs, more comprehensive sources are available based onprogrammes outside the GHG emissions area.
Emission factor estimates are presented for CO2, CO, NOx, N2O, CH4 and NMVOCs
for several classes of non-road vehicles - railway locomotives, ships and boats, farm andconstruction equipment.
This section on mobile sources also contains a more comprehensive explanation of amethodology for the estimation of emissions from aircraft and greater specificity ofaircraft/engine emission factors for NOx.
All emission factor data are stated on the basis of full molecular weight of the respective
pollutant; NOx factors are stated as NO2.
Emission Factors for Mobile Sources in Developing Countries
In highly populated developing countries the estimated emissions per kilometre travelledshould be altered. First, there are virtually no catalytic converters on the vehicles.
Second, the number of accelerations and decelerations that the vehicle will undergo ismuch larger than for corresponding travel in countries that are less populated and havewell arranged highway systems. The measured pollutant value of NOx in an engine atconstant rpm conditions is about 1.0 g/MJ for the United States and for Europe.
However, for highly populated developing countries 1.8 g/MJ should be used.

1.64

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1

ENERGY

Further information on emission factors for developing countries is available fromRiveros et. al (1995), Bose (1996) and other sources listed in the bibliography.

1.5.3.3

ROAD VEHICLESUnited States Emission Estimates
Technical Approach
The US emissions estimates for NOx, CO, CH4 and NMVOC from highway vehicles weredeveloped directly from the US EPA’s MOBILE5a model. The model calculates exhaustemission factors for gasoline and diesel fuelled US vehicles, based on the year in which
they were manufactured. For gasoline vehicles, it also calculates VOC emissions due toevaporative, running and refuelling losses (VOC emissions from diesel vehicles due tothese causes are negligible).
Assumptions
To develop emission estimates for different control technology types, calculations werecarried out for specific model years during which US vehicles were equipped with thetechnology in question. Table 1-25 shows the correspondence between the technology
types and the US model years used to represent them in the model. Average lifetime
emissions were calculated for each vehicle type based on their assumed lifetimes. The
model uses a two-step linear function to estimate deterioration rates from vehicle
mileage. Linear equations are fitted to vehicle emission estimates at 0 and 50 000 miles
and 50 000 and 100 000 miles and from the results lifetime average factors were
calculated.
The emission factors calculated by MOBILE5a are affected by assumptions regarding
average speeds, ambient temperature, diurnal temperature range, altitude and fuelvolatility that are provided to the model. They are also affected by the assumed presenceor absence of inspection/maintenance (I/M) programmes and anti-tampering programmes
as well as the type of I/M programme used. The model calculates emission factors using
three seasonal conditions: Spring/Fall, Winter and Summer. The model was also run withthree different I/M scenarios; no I/M programme, basic I/M and enhanced I/M. Where I/M
influences emissions, the emission factors given in the tables included here are shown as
range estimates with the lower value representing the enhanced I/M and the upper value
reflecting no I/M. Since there is no I/M programme for diesel vehicles in the UnitedStates the diesel vehicle emission factors generated by the model for different I/M
programmes were the same. The average speed assumed by the model is 31.4 km/h typical of uncongested urban driving (see Table 1-26).

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1.65

ENERGY

TABLE 1-25
EMISSION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY TYPES AND US VEHICLE MODELYEARS USED TO REPRESENT THEM
Technology

Model Year

Gasoline Passenger Cars and Light Trucks
Uncontrolled

1964

Non-catalyst controls

1973

Oxidation catalyst

1978

Early three-way catalyst

1983

Three-way catalyst

1996
Heavy-Duty Gasoline Vehicles

Uncontrolled

1968

Non-catalyst control

1983

Three-way catalyst

1996

Diesel Passenger Cars and Light Trucks
Uncontrolled

1978

Moderate control

1983

Advanced control

1996
Heavy-Duty Diesel Vehicles

Uncontrolled

1968

Moderate control

1983

Advanced control

1996
Motorcycles

Uncontrolled

1973

Non-catalyst controls

1996

TABLE 1-26
ASSUMED AMBIENT TEMPERATURE, DIURNAL RANGE AND REID VAPOUR PRESSURE FOR
DIFFERENT SEASONS
Ambient
Temperature(°°C)

Diurnal Range(°°C)

Reid Vapour Pressure(kPa)

Spring/Fall

16

7 to 24

62

Winter2-7 to 10103

Summer29

21 to 38

54

The estimated vehicle fuel economies were also used to calculate fuel specific and energy
specific emission factors for all of the pollutants. Energy specific emission factors werebased on the net calorific value of the fuel in each case. Since emission and fuelconsumption tend to vary in parallel (vehicles and operating modes causing high emission
rates also tend to result in high fuel consumption, and vice-versa) these energy specificemission factors are expected to be more generally applicable than the factors in grams
per kilometre and their use is to be preferred.

1.66

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1

ENERGYBOX 4
LIMITATIONS OF MOBILE5A RESULTS

Emission factors for many greenhouse gases from road vehicles have beendeveloped using the MOBILE5a Model(a) as presented in Tables 1-27 to
1-33. This model is one of a series of emissions models developed andperiodically updated by the US Environmental Protection Agency for use in
its analysis of motor vehicle regulatory and policy issues. The model has
been used to derive average emission factors for NOx, CO, and NMVOC
by class of vehicle and for gasoline and diesel fuel. Calculations for othergases and for alternative fuels were done separately.
All “global” average emission factors like these should be consideredillustrative and should not be directly used in national emissions calculations.
Such values are by necessity based on “global” average assumptions inseveral key areas. Average emission factors by class of vehicle are sensitive
to very specific assumptions including those about• vehicle models, average age and accumulated mileage• per cent driving in cold start, hot start and stabilised conditions• average driving speed• ambient temperature• fuel comparison• rates of tampering with control systems• proper maintenanceObviously, many of these assumed conditions will vary significantly fromcountry to country and even by region within countries. For example, thelight-duty gasoline vehicle class does not include two-stroke engines, which
are not used in the United States, but are important in Central and Eastern
Europe. Therefore, “global” illustrative factors should not be used to
calculate actual emissions in a specific country.
For the above reasons, illustrative emission factors should not bedirectly used for national calculations. National inventory experts should
consult the more detailed references on mobile source emission factors anduse these sources to develop or adapt emission factors which areappropriate for their specific conditions. The expert group on GHG
emissions from fuel combustion has identified the need for more detailed
guidance and assistance to national experts on the development of locallyapplicable emission factors as a priority for future work.
(a) The MOBILE5a Model and its User Guide can be obtained from Terry Newell, US EPA Officeof Mobile Sources, 2565 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor MI 48105, USA; tel: (313) 668-4462, Email:
Newell.Terry@epamail.epa.gov or access the latest information on mobile sources on the world
wide web at http://www.epa.gov/OMSWWW/omshome.htm.

N2O emission from internal combustion engines is not well understood and data on
emissions are scarce. The 1995 edition of the Guidelines contained supplementary
information used by the Canadian Government, based on a review of data available in1994 (Ballantyne et al., 1994). The Canadian estimates show that N2O emissions fromvehicles with three-way catalysts increased markedly during the first 15 to 20 000 km, sothat earlier estimates based on tests of low mileage vehicles are too low. These results
are summarised in Box 5. The US tables, included in this section, use the Canadian data
to estimate N2O emissions from gasoline passenger cars. For light-duty gasoline trucks
and motorcycles, fuel specific N2O emissions were assumed to be the same as for thecorresponding passenger car technology. N2O emissions per kilometre were thenRevised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1.67

ENERGY

calculated from the fuel specific emissions and the fuel consumption characteristics foreach class.
In the absence of direct data, N2O emissions from heavy-duty gasoline trucks were
estimated by assuming that their fuel specific emissions were similar to those forpassenger cars with similar technology. N2O emission factors for heavy-duty diesel trucks
were derived from emissions for these vehicles reported by Dietzmann, Parness andBradow (1980). The corresponding fuel specific emission rates were used to estimate
N2O emissions from light-duty diesel vehicles in the absence of information on this class.
BOX 5
RECENT INFORMATION ON N2O MEASUREMENTS

Since the initial illustrative emission factors were estimated in 1991, a number ofmeasurement studies have been carried out to improve understanding of vehicle N2O
emissions. A paper by Ballantyne, et al., (1994) summarised measurements in Canada,
the United States and Europe.
Canadian
Measurements(Ballantyne, et al.,1994)
mg/milesg/km

US Measurements(Dasch, 1992)

European
Measurements(De Soete, 1989)

Values Used in
Canadian
National Inventory

mg/miles

g/km

mg/miles

g/km

0.008-0.06

60-1700.037-0.106

60

0.04

260-356

0.162-0.221

280

0.17

New three-way
catalysts

21-1260.013-0.078

13-101

Aged three-way

72-2110.045-0.131--

mg/miles g/km

Oxidation
catalyst

-

-

3-66

0.002-0.04

120

0.075

120

0.075

No catalyst--

2.4-4.80.001-0.003

8-32

0.005-0.02

32

0.02

Results of this analysis are presented by categories defined by the US EPA as listed below:
Table 1-27: Light-duty gasoline passenger cars - vehicles with rated gross weight lessthan 8 500 lb (3 855 kg) designed primarily to carry 12 or fewer passengers. Six levels ofgasoline-vehicle control technology are shown:
1

Uncontrolled (still typical of most vehicles around the world).

2

Non-catalyst emission controls - including modifications to ignition timing and airfuel ratio to reduce emissions, exhaust gas recirculation (EGR), and air injection into
the exhaust manifold.

3

Oxidation catalyst systems normally including many of the same techniques, plus a
two-way catalytic converter to oxidise hydrocarbons and CO.

4"Early" three-way catalyst results representative of vehicles sold in the United Statesin the early to mid-1980s, which were mostly equipped with carburettors having
electronic "trim".

5"Advanced" three-way catalyst values based on current US technology vehicles, using
electronic fuel injection under computer control.

6

Low Emission Vehicles (LEV) are expected to include sequential multi-port fuelinjection with adaptive learning, more sophisticated computer diagnostics and heatedcatalysts with secondary air injection.

Table 1-28: Light-duty gasoline trucks - vehicles having rated gross vehicle weight lessthan 8 500 lb (3 855 kg), and which are designed primarily for transportation of cargo or

1.68

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1

ENERGY

more than 11 passengers at a time, or which are equipped with special features for offroad operation. They include most pickup trucks, passenger and cargo vans, four-wheel
drive vehicles, and derivatives of these. The technology classifications used are the sameas those for gasoline passenger vehicles.
Table 1-29: Heavy-duty gasoline vehicles - manufacturer's gross vehicle weight rating
exceeding 8 500 lb (3 855 kg). This includes large pickups, vans and specialised trucks
using pickup and van chassis, as well as the larger "true" heavy-duty trucks, which havegross vehicle weights of eight short tons or more. In the United States, the large pickups
and vans in this category greatly outnumber the heavier trucks, so that the emission
factors calculated by MOBILE5a, and fuel economy estimates, are more representative of
these vehicles. Three levels of emission control technology are shown:
1

Uncontrolled.

2

Non-catalyst emission controls, including control of ignition timing and air-fuel ratio
to minimise emissions, EGR, and air injection into the exhaust manifold to reducehydrocarbons and CO emissions.

3

Three-way catalyst technology presently used in the United States includes
electronically-controlled fuel injection, EGR, air injection, and electronic control ofignition timing, as well as the catalyst itself.

Table 1-30: Light-duty diesel passenger cars - a diesel passenger car designed primarily
to carry fewer than 12 passengers, with gross vehicle weight less than 8 500 lb (3 855 kg).
Three levels of emission control technology are shown:
1

Uncontrolled.

2

Moderate emissions control (achieved by changes in injection timing and combustion
system design).

3

Advanced emissions control utilising modern electronic control of the fuel injection
system, and exhaust gas recirculation.

Table 1-31: Light-duty diesel trucks - light-duty diesel trucks defined like their gasoline
counterparts, including weight, utility, and off-road operation features. The technology
classifications are the same as those for diesel passenger cars.
Table 1-32: Heavy-duty diesel vehicles - the classification for heavy-duty diesel vehicles
is the same as for gasoline vehicles, but the characteristics of US vehicle fleets aredifferent. Heavy-duty diesel vehicles are primarily large trucks, with gross vehicle weightratings of 10 to 40 tons. Therefore, the MOBILE5a emission factors are more
representative of large trucks (and buses) than the smaller pickup and van-type vehicles,
and this is reflected in the fuel economy estimates. Three levels of control are presented:
1

Uncontrolled.

2

Moderate control (typical of 1983 US engines).

3

Advanced control (for engines meeting US 1991 emissions standards).

Table 1-33: Motorcycles - The MOBILE5a emission factors for these vehicles are basedon the US motorcycle population, which probably reflects higher average power ratings
and fuel consumption than for many developing countries. The factors for uncontrolled
motorcycles include a mixture of two-stroke and four-stroke engines, with the VOC
emissions due primarily to the two-strokes, and the NOx to the four-stroke engines. The
factors for motorcycles with non-catalyst emission controls reflect four-stroke engines
only, as US emission control regulations have essentially eliminated two-stroke enginesfrom the market.

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1.69

ENERGY

TABLE 1-27
ESTIMATED EMISSION FACTORS FOR US GASOLINE PASSENGER CARS
SeasonNOx

CH4

EMISSIONS
NMVOC
CO

N2 O

CO2

Low-Emission Vehicle Technology;(a) Assumed Fuel Economy: 8.5 km/litre (11.8 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall
0.26-0.34
0.02-0.03
0.30-0.46
3.15-5.30
Summer
0.25-0.32
0.02-0.03
0.32-0.47
2.69-4.67
Winter
0.31-0.39
0.03-0.04
0.29-0.51
4.78-7.60
Average (g/km)
0.27-0.34
0.02-0.03
0.30-0.47
3.44-5.72
0.040
280
Average (g/kg fuel)3.07-3.91
0.25-0.38
3.42-5.35
38.96-64.77
0.453
3172.31
Average (g/MJ)
0.070-0.089 0.006-0.009 0.078-0.122 0.885-1.472
0.010
72.098Three-Way Catalyst Control;(a) Assumed Fuel Economy: 8.3 km/litre (12.0 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall
Summer
WinterAverage (g/km)
Average (g/kg fuel)Average (g/MJ)

0.41-0.48
0.02-0.03
0.49-0.66
3.62-5.78
0.39-0.46
0.02-0.03
0.80-0.95
2.90-4.89
0.47-0.56
0.03-0.04
0.37-0.60
6.35-9.14
0.42-0.50
0.03
0.54-0.72
4.12-6.40
0.170
285
4.67-5.53
0.28-0.39
6.00-7.99
45.92-71.22
1.892
3172.310.106-0.126 0.006-0.009 0.136-0.182 1.044-1.619
0.043
72.098
Early Three-Way Catalyst;(a) Assumed Fuel Economy: 8.0 km/litre (12.5 l/100 km)

Spring/Fall
Summer
WinterAverage (g/km)
Average (g/kg fuel)Average (g/MJ)

0.41-0.51
0.39-0.49
0.50-0.63
0.43-0.54
4.55-5.71
0.103-0.130

0.03-0.04
0.03-0.04
0.04-0.06
0.03-0.05
0.37-0.48
0.008-0.011

0.63-0.81
1.44-1.62
0.45-0.70
0.79-0.99
8.41-10.52
0.191-0.239

4.77-7.08
4.46-6.87
7.75-10.42
5.44-7.86
57.93-83.73
1.317-1.903

0.170
1.810
0.041

298
3172.3172.098Oxidation Catalyst; Assumed Fuel Economy: 6.2 km/litre (16.1 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall
1.10-1.17
0.05-0.07
1.26-1.76
8.79-14.96
Summer
0.84-0.90
0.06-0.08
2.58-3.25
12.16-20.79
Winter
1.29-1.38
0.07-0.09
1.07-1.66
12.28-19.72
Average (g/km)
1.08-1.16
0.06-0.08
1.54-2.11
10.51-17.61
0.075
Average (g/kg fuel)8.97-9.58
0.50-0.63
12.77-17.48 87.08-145.95
0.622
Average (g/MJ)
0.204-0.218 0.011-0.014 0.290-0.397 1.979-3.317
0.014

383
3172.3172.098

Non-Catalyst Control; Assumed Fuel Economy: 4.5 km/litre (22.2 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall
1.33-1.37
0.10-0.12
1.97-2.36
14.76-21.63
Summer
1.06-1.09
0.11-0.13
4.06-4.61
20.59-30.70
Winter
1.35-1.40
0.13-0.15
1.62-2.05
17.53-26.09
Average (g/km)
1.27-1.31
0.11-0.13
2.41-2.84
16.91-25.01
0.020
Average (g/kg fuel)7.56-7.82
0.65-0.75
14.38-17.00 101.06-149.45
0.125
Average (g/MJ)
0.172-0.178 0.015-0.017 0.327-0.386 2.297-3.397
0.003

531
3172.3172.098Uncontrolled; Assumed Fuel Economy: 4.7 km/litre (21.3 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall
1.54
0.12-0.14
5.72-6.06
28.23-38.04
Summer
1.31
0.11-0.12
9.76-10.07 28.22-38.04
Winter
1.83
0.16-0.17
4.24-4.66
30.89-41.63
Average (g/km)
1.56
0.13-0.14
6.36-6.71
28.89-38.94
0.020
Average (g/kg fuel)9.76
0.82-0.90
39.88-42.09 181.14-244.14
0.130
Average (g/MJ)
0.222
0.019-0.020 0.906-0.957 4.117-5.549
0.003

506
3172.3172.098(a) Recent measurement results (De Soete, 1993, Ballantyne, et al., 1994) have shown that N2O emissions from aged
catalysts, e.g., tested after driving 15 000 - 25 000 km, are substantially higher than from new catalyst-equipped cars.
Tests on comparable models show aged catalysts emitting from roughly 30% more to almost 5 times the rate of new
equipment. As indicated in Box 5, Environment Canada has used a value almost 5 times as high for aged catalysts in
its national inventory calculations.

1.70

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1

ENERGYTABLE 1-28
ESTIMATED EMISSION FACTORS FOR US LIGHT-DUTY GASOLINE TRUCKS.
EMISSIONS
Season

NOx

CH4
NMVOC
CO
N2 O
CO2
Low-Emission Vehicle Technology;(a) Assumed Fuel Economy: 6.0 km/litre (16.7 l/100 km)
0.31-0.40
0.29-0.38
0.37-0.47
0.32-0.41
2.50-3.23
0.057-0.073

0.02-0.04
0.30-0.50
3.57-6.03
0.02-0.03
0.31-0.50
2.87-5.11
0.03-0.05
0.34-0.62
6.02-9.33
0.02-0.04
0.31-0.53
4.01-6.62
0.058
0.18-0.29
2.43-4.13
31.30-51.71
0.450
0.004-0.007
0.055-0.094
0.711-1.175
0.010
Three-Way Catalyst Control;(a) Assumed Fuel Economy: 6.0 km/litre (16.7 l/100 km)

396
3172.3172.098Spring/Fall
Summer
WinterAverage (g/km)
Average (g/kg fuel)Average (g/MJ)

0.49-0.59
0.47-0.56
0.57-0.69
0.50-0.61
4.04-4.86
0.092-0.111

396
3172.3172.098Spring/Fall
Summer
WinterAverage (g/km)
Average (g/kg fuel)Average (g/MJ)

0.63-0.76
0.60-0.73
0.76-0.93
0.65-0.80
5.23-6.36
0.119-0.144

Spring/Fall
Summer
WinterAverage (g/km)
Average (g/kg fuel)Average (g/MJ)

0.02-0.04
0.47-0.69
4.45-7.08
0.02-0.03
0.66-0.87
3.64-6.05
0.04-0.05
0.47-0.77
7.68-11.22
0.03-0.04
0.52-0.76
5.06-7.86
0.236
0.21-0.30
4.14-6.06
40.46-62.87
1.890
0.005-0.007
0.094-0.138
0.920-1.429
0.043
Early Three-Way Catalyst;(a) Assumed Fuel Economy: 4.8 km/litre (20.8 l/100 km)
0.05-0.07
0.05-0.07
0.08-0.10
0.06-0.08
0.47-0.63
0.011-0.014

0.74-1.04
1.34-1.65
0.76-1.19
0.90-1.23
7.16-9.82
0.163-0.223

6.49-9.97
5.97-9.52
9.58-13.54
7.13-10.75
56.96-85.86
1.294-1.951

0.227
1.810
0.041

396
3172.3172.098Oxidation Catalyst; Assumed Fuel Economy: 4.8 km/litre (20.8 l/100 km)
1.15-1.28
0.07-0.09
1.48-2.31
9.56-18.76
Spring/Fall
0.77-0.86
0.09-0.11
2.70-3.85
13.72-27.86
Summer
1.34-1.50
0.10-0.12
1.30-2.30
13.47-26.33
Winter
1.10-1.23
0.08-0.10
1.74-2.69
11.58-22.93
0.097
Average (g/km)
7.03-7.84
0.52-0.66
11.08-17.16
73.77-146.07
0.620
Average (g/kg fuel)0.160-0.178 0.012-0.015
0.252-0.390
1.677-3.320
0.014
Average (g/MJ)

498
3172.3172.098Spring/Fall
Summer
WinterAverage (g/km)
Average (g/kg fuel)Average (g/MJ)

Non-Catalyst; Assumed Fuel Economy: 4.0 km/litre (25.0 l/100 km)
1.62-1.68
0.12-0.14
3.09-3.55
18.41-27.08
1.28-1.32
0.13-0.15
5.80-6.39
23.76-35.80
1.67-1.72
0.15-0.17
2.29-2.83
23.08-34.24
1.55-1.60
0.13-0.15
3.57-4.08
20.92-31.05
0.023
8.17-8.45
0.69-0.80
18.85-21.55 110.41-163.90
0.120
0.186-0.192 0.016-0.018
0.428-0.490
2.509-3.725
0.003

601
3172.3172.098Spring/Fall
Summer
WinterAverage (g/km)
Average (g/kg fuel)Average (g/MJ)

Uncontrolled; Assumed Fuel Economy: 4.1 km/litre (24.4 l/100 km)
1.84
0.12-0.14
6.87-7.24
29.92-40.29
1.56
0.11-0.12
11.07-11.41
29.91-40.29
2.18
0.16-0.17
5.31-5.77
33.17-44.09
1.85
0.13-0.14
7.53-7.92
30.73-41.24
0.024
10.16
0.71-0.79
41.26-43.37 168.36-225.95
0.130
0.231
0.016-0.018
0.938-0.986
3.826-5.135
0.003

579
3172.3172.098(a) Recent measurement results (De Soete, 1993, Ballantyne, et al., 1994) have shown that N2O emissions from aged
catalysts, e.g., tested after driving 15 000 - 25 000 km, are substantially higher than from new catalyst-equipped cars. Tests oncomparable models show aged catalysts emitting from roughly 30% more to almost 5 times the rate of new equipment. As
indicated in Box 5, Environment Canada has used a value almost 5 times as high for aged catalysts in its national inventory
calculations.

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1.71

ENERGY

TABLE 1-29
ESTIMATED EMISSION FACTORS FOR US HEAVY-DUTY GASOLINE VEHICLESEMISSIONS
Season

NOx

CH4

NMVOC

CO

N2 O

CO2

Three-Way Catalyst Control;(a) Assumed Fuel Economy: 2.3 km/litre (43.5 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall

1.69-1.74

0.07-0.08

0.88-1.03

6.06-7.49--

Summer

1.76-1.81

0.07

1.64-1.80

6.22-7.67--

Winter

1.81-1.86

0.07-0.08

0.65-0.79

6.75-8.35--

Average (g/km)

1.74-1.78

0.07-0.08

1.01-1.16

6.27-7.75

0.606

1017

Average (g/kg fuel)5.42-5.56

0.21-0.24

3.17-3.62

19.57-24.19

1.890

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.123-0.126

0.005

0.072-0.082

0.445-0.550

0.043

72.098

Non-Catalyst Control; Assumed Fuel Economy: 2.3 km/litre (43.5 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall

2.37-2.39

0.12-0.13

3.97-4.20

27.04-32.15--

Summer

1.85-1.88

0.12-0.13

9.92-10.20

40.28-47.89--

Winter

2.54-2.56

0.12-0.13

1.71-1.97

30.12-35.81--

Average (g/km)

2.28-2.31

0.12-0.13

4.89-5.14

31.12-37.00

0.591

1036

Average (g/kg fuel)6.98-7.06

0.36-0.41

14.98-15.75

95.28-113.28

1.810

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.159-0.161

0.008-0.009

0.341-0.358

2.166-2.575

0.041

72.098Uncontrolled; Assumed Fuel Economy: 1.8 km/litre (55.6 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall

3.48-4.13

0.26-0.29

13.38-14.55

97.66-115.91--

Summer

2.83-3.38

0.25-0.29

19.97-21.11

111.10-131.87--

Winter

4.11-4.88

0.26-0.29

12.01-13.38

103.06-122.33--

Average (g/km)

3.47-4.13

0.25-0.29

14.68-15.90

102.37-121.51

0.054

1320

Average (g/kg fuel)8.35-9.92

0.61-0.70

35.30-38.21

246.08-292.08

0.130

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.190-0.226

0.014-0.016

0.802-0.868

5.593-6.638

0.003

72.098(a) Recent measurement results (De Soete, 1993, Ballantyne, et al., 1994) have shown that N2O emissions from aged
catalysts, e.g., tested after driving 15 000 - 25 000 km, are substantially higher than from new catalyst-equipped cars. Tests
on comparable models show aged catalysts emitting from roughly 30% more to almost 5 times the rate of new equipment.
As indicated in Box 5, Environment Canada has used a value almost 5 times as high for aged catalysts in its national
inventory calculations.

1.72

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1

ENERGYTABLE 1-30
ESTIMATED EMISSION FACTORS FOR US DIESEL PASSENGER CARSEMISSIONS
Season

NOx

CH4

NMVOC

CO

N2 O

CO2

Advanced Control; Assumed Fuel Economy: 10.0 km/litre (10 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall

0.42

0.01

0.17

0.56

-

-

Summer

0.42

0.01

0.17

0.56

-

-

Winter

0.44

0.01

0.19

0.58

-

-

Average (g/km)

0.43

0.01

0.17

0.56

0.007

237

Average (g/kg fuel)

5.68

0.06

2.32

7.54

0.09

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.129

0.001

0.053

0.171

0.002

72.098Moderate Control; Assumed Fuel Economy: 9.6 km/litre (10.4 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall

0.54

0.01

0.17

0.56

-

-

Summer

0.54

0.01

0.17

0.62

-

-

Winter

0.54

0.01

0.17

0.56

-

-

Average (g/km)

0.54

0.01

0.17

0.58

0.01

248

Average (g/kg fuel)

6.88

0.08

2.17

7.35

0.13

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.156

0.002

0.049

0.167

0.003

72.098Uncontrolled; Assumed Fuel Economy: 7.5 km/litre (13.3 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall

0.67

0.01

0.24

0.61

-

-

Summer

0.67

0.01

0.24

0,.61

-

-

Winter

0.67

0.01

0.24

0.61

-

-

Average (g/km)

0.67

0.01

0.24

0,.61

0.014

319

Average (g/kg fuel)

6.62

0.12

2.39

6.04

0.14

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.150

0.003

0.054

0.137

0.003

72.098

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1.73

ENERGY

TABLE 1-31
ESTIMATED EMISSION FACTORS FOR US LIGHT-DUTY DIESEL TRUCKSEMISSIONS
Season

NOx

CH4

NMVOC

CO

N2 O

CO2

Advanced Control; Assumed Fuel Economy: 7.2 km/litre (13.9 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall

0.49

0.01

0.24

0.64

-

-

Summer

0.49

0.01

0.24

0.64

-

-

Winter

0.49

0.01

0.24

0.64

-

-

Average (g/km)

0.49

0.01

0.24

0.64

0.024

330

Average (g/kg fuel)

4.70

0.08

2.35

6.11

0.23

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.107

0.002

0.053

0.139

0.005

72.098Moderate Control; Assumed Fuel Economy: 7.2 km/litre (13.9 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall

0.68

0.01

0.24

0.64

-

-

Summer

0.68

0.01

0.24

0.64

-

-

Winter

0.68

0.01

0.24

0.64

-

-

Average (g/km)

0.68

0.01

0.24

0.64

0.063

331

Average (g/kg fuel)

6.52

0.08

2.34

6.10

0.60

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.148

0.002

0.053

0.139

0.014

72.098Uncontrolled; Assumed Fuel Economy: 5.7 km/litre (17.5 l/100 km)

1.74

Spring/Fall

0.92

0.01

0.49

1.01

-

-

Summer

0.92

0.01

0.49

1.01

-

-

Winter

0.92

0.01

0.49

1.01

-

-

Average (g/km)

0.92

0.01

0.49

1.01

0.031

415

Average (g/kg fuel)

7.02

0.10

3.76

7.73

0.24

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.159

0.002

0.086

0.176

0.005

72.098

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1

ENERGYTABLE 1-32
ESTIMATED EMISSION FACTORS FOR US HEAVY DUTY DIESEL VEHICLESEMISSIONS
Season

NOx

CH4

NMVOC

CO

N2 O

CO2

Advanced Control; Assumed Fuel Economy: 2.4 km/litre (41.7 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall

3.52

0.04

0.86

4.36

-

-

Summer

3.52

0.04

0.86

4.36

-

-

Winter

3.52

0.04

0.86

4.36

-

-

Average (g/km)

3.52

0.04

0.86

4.36

0.025

987

Average (g/kg fuel)

11.32

0.14

2.78

14.01

0.08

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.257

0.003

0.063

0.318

0.002

72.098Moderate Control; Assumed Fuel Economy: 2.4 km/litre (41.7 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall

7.96

0.05

1.13

5.01

-

-

Summer

7.96

0.05

1.13

5.01

-

-

Winter

7.96

0.05

1.13

5.01

-

-

Average (g/km)

7.96

0.05

1.13

5.01

0.025

1011

Average (g/kg fuel)

24.96

0.16

3.55

15.71

0.08

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.567

0.004

0.081

0.357

0.002

72.098Uncontrolled; Assumed Fuel Economy: 2.2 km/litre (45.5 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall

10.30

0.06

1.63

4.85

-

-

Summer

10.30

0.06

1.63

4.85

-

-

Winter

10.30

0.06

1.63

4.85

-

-

Average (g/km)

10.30

0.06

1.63

4.85

0.031

1097

Average (g/kg fuel)

29.79

0.18

4.70

14.03

0.09

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.677

0.004

0.107

0.319

0.002

72.098N2 O

CO2TABLE 1-33
ESTIMATED EMISSION FACTORS FOR US MOTORCYCLESEMISSIONS
Season

NOx

CH4

NMVOC

CO

Non-catalytic Control; Assumed Fuel Economy: 10.8 km/litre (9.3 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall

0.37

0.12

2.26

13.77

-

-

Summer

0.31

0.12

2.59

16.74

-

-

Winter

0.43

0.14

2.47

18.01

-

-

Average (g/km)

0.37

0.13

2.39

15.57

0.002

219

Average (g/kg fuel)

5.40

1.83

36.60

225.140.03

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.123

0.042

0.786

5.117

0.001

72.098Uncontrolled; Assumed Fuel Economy: 8.9 km/litre (11.2 l/100 km)
Spring/Fall

0.19

0.25

5.87

21.78

-

-

Summer

0.16

0.24

5.96

21.55

-

-

Winter

0.22

0.31

6.93

24.09

-

-

Average (g/km)

0.19

0.26

6.16

22.30

0.002

266

Average (g/kg fuel)

2.29

3.13

73.33

265.510.02

3172.31

Average (g/MJ)

0.052

0.071

1.667

6.034

0.001

72.098

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1.75

ENERGY

European Emission Estimates
The European emission estimates for NOx, CH4, NMVOC (total VOC minus CH4), CO,N2O and CO2 are based on the COPERT90 model, developed for the Commission of theEuropean Communities.19 The calculation is based on five main types of input
parameters:•

total fuel consumption•

vehicle park•

driving condition•

emission factors• other parameters
For these main types of input parameters, additional information (e.g., on vehicle classes,
production years etc.) is needed in order to carry out the calculations.
The methodology is defined in such a way that it uses the firm technical data and thatnational variations among European countries can be incorporated. The variations may
include such things as composition of vehicle park, vehicle age, driving patterns, some fuelparameters and a few climatic parameters. Other variations which may exist, forexample, variations in vehicle maintenance, mountain driving etc., are not accounted for
because there is not enough data available to do so.
Vehicle categories
The vehicle categories chosen by CORINAIR 1990 do not meet all the requirements formodelling vehicle emissions considered important by the working group. In particular theage of vehicle (year of production) and the engine technology are not sufficiently
reflected. Thus, for the purpose of the COPERT work only, a more detailed vehicle
category split has been developed.
Hot Emissions
These emissions depend on a variety of factors including the distance that each vehicle
travels, its speed (or road type), its age and engine size.
The basic formula for estimating hot emissions using an experimentally obtained emission
factor is:
Emissions [g] = emission factor [g/km] . vehicle kilometres per year [km]The emission factors and vehicle kilometres are in most cases split into certain classes ofroad types and vehicle categories.
However, for many countries the only data known with any certainty are the total fuelconsumption of gasoline, diesel and LPG, not vehicle kilometres. It is therefore suggested
that fuel consumption data are used to check vehicle mileage where they are known andto make a final fuel balance.
Cold Start Emissions
Cold starts result in additional emissions. They take place under all three (urban, ruraland highway) driving conditions, but seem to be most significant for urban driving. In

19 As is the convention throughout these Guidelines, CO

2 emissions are calculated toinclude the carbon emitted as CO and as VOC.

1.76

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1

ENERGYprinciple they occur for all vehicle categories. However, emission factors are available orcan be reasonably estimated only for gasoline, diesel and LPG passenger cars and assuming that these vehicles behave like passenger cars - light-duty vehicles.
Consequently, only these categories are covered by the methodology. Moreover, cold
start emissions are considered not to be a function of vehicle age.
Cold start emissions are calculated as emissions additional to emissions that would be
expected if all vehicles had only hot engines. A factor, the ratio of cold to hot emissions,is used and applied to the fraction of kilometres driven with cold engines. These factors
may vary from country to country. Different driving behaviour, road conditions andclimate as well as trip length affect the warm up time and the fraction of distancetravelled with cold engines. These factors can be taken into account, but again
information may not be available to do this thoroughly in all countries, so that estimateshave to close identified gaps.
Evaporative VOC Emissions
There are three primary sources of evaporative emissions from vehicles:
i)
ii)
iii)

diurnal (daily) emissions;
hot soak emissions; andrunning losses.

These are estimated separately. Again they are affected by factors that vary from country
to country.
All three types of evaporative emissions are significantly affected by the volatility of thegasoline being used, the absolute ambient temperature and temperature changes, andvehicle design characteristics. For hot soak emissions and running losses the driving
pattern is also of importance.
In general, the estimation of evaporative emissions from gasoline vehicles involves a large
number of uncertainties which can not be resolved without carrying out further
measurements.
Application of the baseline methodology to the different vehicle categories and pollutants
Due to gaps in knowledge, the baseline methodology can not be applied in full and in thesame way to all vehicle categories. Moreover, there are variations depending on thepollutant considered. In general, one can distinguish between four methods:

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1.77

ENERGY

Method A

Hot emissions are calculated based on:-

the total annual kilometres driven per vehicle;
the share of kilometres driven under the driving modes “urban”,“rural” and “highway”;
the average speed of the vehicles under the driving modes “urban”,“rural” and “highway”;
speed-dependent hot emission factors.

Cold start emissions are calculated based on:-

the average trip length per vehicle trip;
the average monthly temperature;temperature and trip length dependent cold start correction factor.

Evaporative emissions are calculated based on:-

Method B

the fuel volatility (RVP);
the average monthly temperature and the average monthly
temperature variation;
fuel volatility and temperature dependent emission factors.

The total annual emissions per vehicle are calculated based on:-

the total annual kilometres driven per vehicle;
the share of kilometres driven under the driving modes “urban”,“rural” and “highway”;
the average speed of the vehicles under the driving modes “urban”,“rural” and “highway”;
speed-dependent emission factors.

Note: for diesel passenger cars, cold start extra emissions for CO, NOx
and NMVOC, as well as extra fuel consumption, are added using themethod described under A. For LPG passenger cars a simplified method is
used.

Method C

The total annual emissions per vehicle are calculated based on:-

the total annual kilometres driven per vehicle;
the share of kilometres driven under the driving modes “urban”,“rural” and “highway”;
driving mode dependent emissions factors.

Note: for gasoline and diesel light-duty vehicle, cold start extra emissions
for CO, NOX and NMVOC, as well as fuel consumption, are added using
the method described under A. For gasoline light-duty vehicles, NMVOC
evaporative emissions are added using the method described under A.

1.78

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1

ENERGY

Method D

The total annual emissions per vehicle category are calculated based on:-

the total annual fuel consumption of the vehicle category and/or the
total annual kilometres driven by the vehicle category;fuel consumption and/or kilometre related emission factors.

Note: For two wheelers NMVOC evaporative emissions are added using
the method described under A.

TABLE 1-34
SUMMARY OF PRECISION INDICATORS OF THE EMISSION ESTIMATES AND OF CALCULATIONMETHODS APPLIED FOR THE DIFFERENT VEHICLE CATEGORIES AND POLLUTANTS(A, B, C, D: Method Indicators - 1, 2, 3, 4: Precision Indicators)
Vehicle Category

NOx

CO

NMVOC

CH4

N2O

CO2

Fuel

Gasoline

A/1

A/1

A/1

C/1

C/3

D/1

A/1

Diesel

B/1

B/1

B/1

C/2

C/3

D/1

B/1

LPG

B/1

B/1

B/1

-

-

D/1

B/1

Two stroke

C/2

C/2

C/2

C/4

C/4

D/2

C/2

Light-Duty Vehicles

C/1

C/1

C/1

C/3

C/4

D/1

C/1

Passenger Cars

Heavy-Duty Vehicles

C/2

C/2

C/2

C/4

D/4

D/2

C/2

Two Wheelers

D/2

D/2

D/2

D/4

-

D/2

D/2

Passenger Cars

-

-

-

-

-

-

Light-Duty Vehicles--

A/3(a)
C/4(a)----

Two Wheelers

-

-

D/4

-

-

-

-

A/2

A/2

A/2

-

-

A/2

A/2

Evaporation

Cold Start
Passenger Cars
Conventional Gas.
Catalyst Gasoline

A/3

A/3

A/3

-

-

A/2

A/3

Diesel

A/3

A/3

A/3

-

-

A/3

A/3

LPG

B/3

B/3

B/3

-

-

B/3

B/3

C/4

C/4

C/4

-

-

C/4

C/4

Light Duty Vehicles

1: Statistically significant emission factors based on a sufficiently large set of measured and reevaluated data.
2: Emission factors non-statistically significant based on a small set of measured and re-evaluateddata.
3: Emission factors estimated on the basis of available literature.
4: Emission factors estimated applying similarity considerations and/or extrapolation.
(a) Only for gasoline engine vehicles.

For the IPCC Guidelines, the emission factors from the COPERT model are presented
using the American vehicle and control type categories, for ease of comparison. The
emission factors have been calculated using data from 15 western and eastern European
countries. Therefore the vehicle usage pattern, such as average speed and frequency ofcold starts, climatic conditions like the monthly average temperature, and the fuel

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual

1.79

ENERGY

characteristics of these countries are incorporated in the figures. The emission factors
provided are therefore valid for an average European situation.
In developing the following tables, a net calorific value of 43.5 TJ/kt was assumed forgasoline, 42.4 TJ/kt for diesel and 46.1 TJ/kt for LPG.

TABLE 1-35
EUROPEAN EMISSION CONTROL TECHNOLOGY TYPESAND CORRESPONDING EU LEGISLATION AND MODEL YEARSTECHNOLOGY

1.80

LEGISLATION (MODEL YEAR)

Uncontrolled

Pre ECE (up to 1970)

Early non-catalyst controls

ECE 15 00 to 02 (1971-1979)

Non-catalyst controls

ECE 15 03 to 04 (1980-early 1990s)

Oxidation catalyst

88/76/EEC (1988-1991)

Three-way catalyst

91/441/EEC (1989-1995)

Revised 1996 IPCC Guidelines for National Greenhouse Gas Inventories:

Reference Manual