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A Review of Japan’s Environmental Policies
for Satoyama and Satoumi Landscape Restoration
Tsunao WATANABE1*, Masaki OKUYAMA2 and Katsue FUKAMACHI3
1Nature Conservation Bureau, Ministry of the Environment
1-2-2 Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo 100-8975, Japan(Present affiliation: Japan Wildlife Research Center / United Nations University)
2
Biodiversity Center of Japan, Ministry of the Environment
5597-1 Kenmarubi, Kamiyoshida, Fujiyoshida-city, Yamanashi 403-0005, Japan
3
Kyoto University Graduate School of Global Environmental Studies
Kitashirakawa-Oiwake-cho, Sakyo-ku, Kyoto 606-8502, Japan*e-mail: wata223@honey.ocn.ne.jp

Abstract
The present paper reviews the current state and related issues of Japan’s satoyama and satoumi, and provides a summary of how relevant environmental policies have been established and changed throughout theyears. An analysis of related case studies nurtures the discussion on how the topic may be dealt with in the
future.
In recent years, Japan’s environmental policy-making has been strongly impacted by heightened public
interest in the conservation of nature, and by the ongoing international discussion on biodiversity. During thelast 50 years, Japan’s satoyama and satoumi landscapes have dwindled, and the tendency continues today. The
paper analyzes the process of the gradual establishment of a legal framework in Japan for the conservation andrestoration of satoyama and satoumi landscapes. We discuss results achieved up to now, and make proposals
for the future. We conclude that in the future, a grand design for satoyama and satoumi landscapes must be
established on the national level; the wisdom and traditional techniques of rural areas must be brought to gooduse; and “new value” of the satoyama and satoumi for today’s society must be created through a “new system”
of co-management by various stakeholders.
Keywords: biodiversity, ecosystem services, landscape, restoration, satoumi, satoyama

1. Introduction
In Japan, administrative bodies concerned with thenatural environment have gradually changed over timeand have expanded their role, thereby reflecting the needs
and interests of society. Back in 1931, the country established a national park system with the goal of conserving
and making use of grand landscapes representing naturalscenery of outstanding beauty in mountainous andcoastal areas. By the early 1970s, environmental destruction triggered by the rapid development of mountainous and other areas drew attention to the importanceof conserving precious fauna, flora and ecosystems. In
1972, Japan began implementing a legal framework
aimed at the systematic conservation of the naturalenvironment covering all of Japan’s territory, including
mountains, coastal areas and secondary natural environments such as secondary forests, farmland and greeneryin urban areas.
In 2001, the country established the Ministry of the
Global Environmental Research
16/2012: 125-135
printed in Japan

Environment as a result of reorganization of ministries
and agencies. The new ministry announced the 2nd
National Biodiversity Strategy in the year 2002 in close
cooperation with other ministries. The strategy highlighted the need to establish policies to conservesatoyama landscapes between large urban areas and remote mountains, indicated that the abandonment of thesatoyama was due to decreased human activity andchanges in lifestyle, and designated this abandonment the“Second Crisis” among the three crises that had led tobiodiversity loss (see 3.2). For the first time, a national
policy shed light on these matters. The announcement of
the strategy was a turning point in the nation’s environmental policy-making regarding satoyama landscapes.
Finally, the tenth meeting of the Conference of theParties to the Convention on Biological Diversity(COP10) held in 2010 in Nagoya, Aichi Prefecture,designated the phrase “Living in Harmony with Nature”
as its long-term vision, and adopted new global targets
known as the Aichi Targets. In view of the realization of©2012 AIRIES

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these targets, the Japanese government and the United
Nations University submitted the “Satoyama Initiative,”
which sheds light on natural environments such as thesatoyama and satoumi that have been shaped and maintained by human activity. The initiative has been
acknowledged by the international community as a useful
tool to better understand and support human-influenced
natural environments for the benefit of biodiversity andhuman well-being. It particularly proposes to gather
knowledge on living in harmony with nature from areas
worldwide, and to promote sustainable use of land andother natural resources globally.
The present review is an attempt to cover the various
issues that have come up regarding the satoyama andsatoumi during recent decades, and to provide an outlineof how these issues have been dealt with in Japan’senvironmental policies thus far. In addition, an analysisof related case studies will clarify some of these issues
and nurture a discussion on how the topic could be dealt
with in the future.
In this paper, “satoyama” and “satoumi” are definedas unique human-influenced natural environments thathave been shaped and sustained over a long period bydiverse human activity. The satoyama consists of amosaic of ecosystems including forest, grassland, farmland, abandoned land, irrigation ponds, canals, rivers,
lakes and marshes; with land-based, water ecosystems
comprising an important part of it. The satoumi, on theother hand, consists of a mosaic of ecosystems in the sea
and on coastal land and includes areas such as sandy or
rocky seashores, tidal flats, coral reefs and seaweed beds.
When we speak of an area comprising many of theseelements, particularly with regard to conservation,
restoration or management, we often use the term
“satoyama landscape” or “satoumi landscape.” In administrative language use, there is a further distinction
between “satoyama” and “satochi.” “Satoyama” is defined as forest or grassland used by humans to obtainnatural resources. Satochi is defined as farmland for
agricultural use, including irrigation ponds. These terms
often appear together as “satochi-satoyama.” The latterterm will be used in this paper whenever it appears in thecontext of governmental projects or policies.

2. The Current State of the Satoyama andSatoumi and Related Issues
This section reviews surveys and assessments thathave been carried out in Japan on the national level withregard to the satoyama and satoumi .
2.1 The National Survey on the Natural Environment
Since 1973, Japan has been conducting surveys on the
country’s vegetation, coastal areas and other naturalenvironments in the framework of The National Survey
on the Natural Environment, which was initiated after theenactment of the 1972 Nature Conservation Law.
According to the survey conducted between 1994 and1998, only 17.9% of Japan’s territory was covered bynatural forest vegetation (primary forest vegetation),while the total of all kinds of forests comprised 66.6% of
the national land. More than three quarters of thecountry’s territory, 75.2%, was covered by secondary
vegetation including secondary forests, forest plantations,secondary grasslands and farmlands (Table 1; Environment Agency, 1999).
The total forested area in Japan was more or lessmaintained during the period from the early 1850s to themid-1980s (Himiyama, 1995). However, statistics of theForestry Agency show that in the period between the endof World War II and the 1980s, large areas of naturalregeneration forest (primary forest and secondary forest)
were clear-cut and replaced by large-scale monoculture
plantations of trees for timber production, such as sugi
(Japanese cedar, Cryptomeria japonica) or hinoki (Japanese cypress, Chamaecyparis obtusa). While in 1943, thearea of natural regeneration forest among all forested
areas still amounted to 66.6%, that percentage had decreased to 53.3% by the year 2007.
In coastal areas, the survey covered investigations ofcoastlines, tidal flats, seaweed beds and coral reefs. During the approximately 17 years between fiscal year
1978-1979 and fiscal year 1995-1996, the natural coastline decreased by 1,303 km, while artificial coastline,
including coastlines around reclaimed land and otherdeveloped areas had increased by 2,564 km (Table 2).

Table 1 Frequency of appearance of actual vegetation in Japan according to category (survey 1994-1998).
Actual Vegetation
1km mesh countNatural vegetation of grasslands and moorlands
3,993
Natural vegetation of forests
65,824
Substitutional vegetation close to natural vegetation of forests
19,598Substitutional vegetation of secondary forests
68,540
Planted forests
91,414
Substitutional vegetation of high profile grasslands
5,568
Substitutional vegetation of low profile grasslands
7,591
Fruit orchards,mulberry plantations,tea gardens,and other horticultural areas
6,788
Paddies,fields,and other arable land
77,695
Urban land,development tracts,and other zones where plant life is virtually nonexistent
15,999Natural bare land
1,420Open water
4,227
Data not available
70
Total
368,727

Percentage
1.1
17.9
5.3
18.6
24.8
1.5
2.1
1.8
21.1
4.3
0.4
1.1
0.0
100.0

Source: The 5th National Survey on the Natural Environment (Vegetation), Analysis Report with Mesh Data (Environment Agency, Nature
Conservation Bureau, 1999).

Japan’s Environmental Policies for Satoyama and Satoumi Landscape Restoration

127

Along the natural coastline, the decrease in sandy seashores was particularly significant at 872 km (Environment Agency, 1998).
Tidal flats, seaweed beds and coral reefs along coasts
lost 3,857 ha (7.0%), 6,403 ha (3.1%) and 1,507 ha(1.5%) respectively between fiscal year 1978 and 19891992 (Table 3). Especially in the Okinawa Island region,over 4% area of coral reefs disappeared mainly due tolandfill operations in this period. Furthermore, while thetotal area of tidal flats is estimated at 82,621 ha for theyear 1945 based on aerial photos and other documents,that area had decreased to 51,443 ha by 1989-1992
survey, which amounts to a loss of approximately 40%(Environment Agency, 1994).

some tendencies have recently appeared. For example, anincrease of an invasive alien species, the common
raccoon, Procyon lotor, was observed, and one quarter ofall satochi sites had an extremely low number of brownfrogs (Ranidae species) and firefly species.
The survey is currently also continuing in satoumi
areas struck by the Great East Japan Earthquake andTsunami. In these areas of intensive coastal fishing andseaweed farming, the influence of the tsunami is being
assessed, and the resilience of the coastal ecosystem isbeing surveyed. In particular, the survey examines
shorebird species, tidal flats and seaweed and seagrassbeds. In the disaster zone, the applied value of the survey
has become evident.

2.2 Monitoring Sites 1000
Monitoring Sites 1000, a nationwide project formonitoring ecosystems and biodiversity in Japan, wasstarted in 2003 by the Biodiversity Center of Japan,
which is part of the Nature Conservation Bureau of the
Ministry of the Environment. By 2008, approximately
1,000 monitoring sites had been established. As of July 1,
2011, 194 of the sites were located in the satochi, and 224
were located in coastal areas (satoumi).
The project relies on the participation of a large number of scientists, NGOs and other parties who monitor
sites across the country; survey vegetation cover, indicator species and other elements; and publish their results inreports or newsletters or on websites, thus contributing
to the assessment of qualitative changes in the satochisatoyama and satoumi. While not enough time has passed
since the beginning of the project to establish clear trends,

2.3 Surveys and analyses of the satochi-satoyama by
the Ministry of the Environment
Prior to the announcement of the 2nd National
Biodiversity Strategy in 2002, the Nature Conservation
Bureau of the Ministry of the Environment conducted asurvey and analysis of Japan’s satochi-satoyama between
1999 and 2001 (Ministry of the Environment, 2001). The
results showed that areas that could be defined as
satochi-satoyama amounted to approximately 43% of thenational land. Furthermore, it became clear that 49% of
habitats with high concentrations of endangered animal
species, and 55% of habitats with high concentrations ofendangered plant species were located in such areas.
Non-endangered species were also widely distributed in
the satochi-satoyama, e.g., the tonosamagaeru frog
(black-spotted pond frog, Rana nigromaculata), (62%),
the nokogiri kuwagata stag beetle, Prosopocoilus
inclinatus, (53%) and the sashiba (gray-faced buzzard,
Butastur indicus)(65%).
The survey found information on about 1,000 satochisatoyama-related community or field work activities
from across the country, 34% of which were conducted inareas within a distance of 50 km from the three large
cities, Tokyo, Osaka and Nagoya. These areas amount toabout 5% of the national land.
Based on questionnaires and other reports, the survey
identified factors leading to the deterioration of thesatochi-satoyama. These included road, housing andother development (quantitative loss); uncontrolled
spread of sasa bamboo due to undermanagement insecondary forests or forest plantations, and deterioration
due to invasion of other bamboo species (qualitative
deterioration); abandonment of trash and industrial
waste; and increased abandonment of rice fields. The
survey also identified the need to respond to heightened
demand by urban citizens to conserve authentic naturalenvironments such as the satochi-satoyama instead of
constructing artificial green areas.
Along with the survey, a conservation system forsecondary forests, the core element of the satochisatoyama, was discussed. Secondary forests in Japan canbe roughly separated into five categories: mizunara
forests (Japanese oak, Quercus crispula, 1,800,000 ha),konara oak forests (Quercus serrata, 2,300,000 ha),Table 2 National assessment of changes in shoreline extension
according to category.
Period of survey
Natural shoreline
Semi-natural
shoreline
Artificial shoreline
River mouth
shoreline
Total

Shoreline (km）1978-1979
1995-1996
18,717
17,414
4,202
4,253

Change(km)-1,303
51

8,258
258

10,822
311

2,564
53

31,43632,800

1,364

Source: The 5th National Survey on the Natural Environment (Coastal
Areas), A Comprehensive Report (Environment Agency, Nature
Conservation Bureau, 1998).

Table 3 Actual surface of tidal flats, seaweed beds, andcoral reefs, and loss of surface over time (ha).
MarineActualLost
Ratio ofenvironment
surface*1
surface*2
loss (%)
Tidal flats
51,443
3,857
7.0
Seaweed beds
201,2126,403
3.1
Coral reefs
96,4791,507
1.5*1 Surface at the time of the 1989-1992 survey*2 Surface lost in the period between 1978 and the 1989-1992 survey
Source: Biodiversity Center of Japan, Inventory of the Survey on
the Natural Environment (Biodiversity Center of Japan,
Ministry of the Environment, 2008).

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akamatsu forests (Japanese red pine, Pinus densiflora)(2,300,000 ha), shii (Castanopsis species) and kashi(Quercus species) evergreen oak coppice forests(800,000 ha), and other secondary forests not included in
the above categories (500,000 ha), including shirakanba
forests (white birch, Betula platyphylla) in Hokkaido andhornbeam forests (Carpinus species) in western Japan.
Undermanagement and abandonment have proved
particularly damaging to biodiversity in konara oakforest and akamatsu Japanese red pine forest, since thesetend not to easily convert back to natural regeneration
forest. In terminology used in case studies and surveys,
Japan’s satochi-satoyama secondary forests are divided
into six blocks. The six blocks are (1) the Hokkaido
shirakanba white birch forest block in the north; (2) the
mizunara Japanese oak block further south, (3) the
eastern Japan block and (4) the western Japan block of
konara oak, (5) the akamatsu Japanese red pine block,and (6) the shii and kashi evergreen oak coppice block(Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 Division of secondary forest into five categories and six
blocks.
Source: Action plan for the conservation and sustainable use ofsocio-ecological production landscapes (Satochi-Satoyama),
Overview Pamphlet (Ministry of the Environment, Nature
Conservation Bureau, 2010).

2.4 Japan Biodiversity Outlook (JBO)
Based on the results of the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment (MA) and the Global Biodiversity Outlook(GBO), and in view of the 2010 target for biologicaldiversity, Japan Biodiversity Outlook Science Committee(established by the Ministry of the Environment) conducted the Japan Biodiversity Outlook (JBO) from 2008
to 2010. The committee investigated both the reasons forthe loss of biodiversity, and the status of the loss of
ecosystems. In addition to the results obtained by the
National Survey on the Natural Environment, the JBO
found conspicuous changes, for example, in the production of charcoal (a rapid decrease during the 1970s, fromabout 2 million tons in the 1950s to 25,000 tons today), in
abandoned farmland (a more than three-fold increase
from 1,300 km2 in 1985 to approx. 4,000 km2 in 2005),
and in grasslands (a decrease from an estimated 25,00045,000 km2 in the early twentieth century to approx.
4,000 km2 in the 1980s).
The JBO also reported an increasing loss of satochisatoyama ecosystems due to a decrease in use andmanagement (the “Second Crisis”; see 3.2) with especially high losses in farmland ecosystems, and anincreasing loss of coastal and marine ecosystems due tolong-term deterioration as a result of development,
modification, direct use and water pollution.
2.5 The Japan Satoyama-Satoumi Assessment(JSSA)The Japan Satoyama-Satoumi Assessment (JSSA)
was conducted between 2007 and 2010, applying the
Sub-Global Assessment (SGA) of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA). It was conducted by a large
number of experts from Japan and abroad under the
auspices of the United Nations University. The assessment aimed to scientifically assess the mutual workingsof man and nature in satoyama and satoumi landscapes,
to identify and show the importance of ecosystem services provided by these landscapes, and to provide
information that could lead to meaningful policies.
The assessment focused on changes during the fifty
years after World War II. Five clusters (Hokkaido,
Tohoku, Hokushin’etsu, Kanto-Chubu and westernJapan) were established. The results included the following: (1) one of the most important characteristics ofsatoyama or satoumi landscapes is their mosaic-likestructure, which consists of a number of diverse humanmanaged ecosystems; (2) the satoyama and satoumi haveseriously deteriorated over the last 50 years, resulting in
reduced resilience of integrated socio-ecological production systems that provide ecosystem services in asustainable way; (3) future satoyama and satoumi services must be researched for the well-being of the people
dwelling in them. (United Nations University, 2010)

Japan’s Environmental Policies for Satoyama and Satoumi Landscape Restoration

3. Changes in Environmental Policies
Regarding the Satoyama and Satoumi
3.1 The beginning of systematic conservation ofJapan’s natural environment
In the early 1970s, destruction of the environment andalienation of ordinary people’s life from nature due toJapan’s rapid post-war economic growth became serious
issues. In 1971, the Environment Agency was establishedthrough a merger of sections that had formerly been partof other ministries. Among these were the section for
national parks, previously part of the Ministry of Healthand Welfare, and the section for the protection of wildlife,
formerly part of the Forestry Agency. In 1972, the Nature
Conservation Law was established with the goal of promoting nature conservation based on an integrated
approach. Based on that law, the Basic Policies for
Nature Conservation were adopted in the following year.
These stipulated that additionally to the conservation ofoutstanding natural environments, there was a need toassess and promote the conservation potential of areas
with agriculture and fisheries, and to foster the conservation and restoration of green urban areas, grasslands,
riversides, shorelines and other environments. Based on
the same law, the National Survey on the Natural
Environment was started in 1973 with the goal of understanding the state and changes of the natural environment
in the whole Japanese territory. As a result, the vegetationand coastal environment of the whole country wasassessed.
The Long-Term Plan on Environmental Conservation,a policy adopted by the Environment Agency in 1977,
pointed out that the role of secondary nature such as
secondary forests or farmland consisted not only of the
production of produce, but also of the conservation of thenational land and nature, and emphasized the need toconserve such areas. The Third Comprehensive National
Development Plan, a policy adopted in the same year,
shed light on continued environmental destruction andloss, and warned of serious consequences for the naturalenvironment if rural districts were undermanaged due todepopulation. It underlined the need for systematicconservation of nature not only in mountains and pristine
environments, but also in cities, on farmland and in
nearby forests, and drew attention to serious problems
such as water pollution and natural environment loss incoastal areas, particularly in inland seas or enclosed
coastal sea areas, thus pointing out the need to takemeasures for the prevention of water quality degradationand for the conservation and restoration of the seashore
and tidal flats.
In 1981, the Society for Research on the Natural Environment, a group established by volunteers from theEnvironment Agency, published a report under the name
“Beetles Plan” with the theme of “Aiming at a city withdancing butterflies and fireflies and singing birds.”
Inspired by the slogan, in the same year the Environment Agency initiated the “Survey for a Legal Framework for the Conservation and Use of Natural Environ-129

ments in the Vicinity of Residential Areas,” and, in 1984,
put the theory into practice by launching the “Nature
Observation Forest Project” as part of the policy. Ever
since, projects for the restoration, creation and creativeuse of natural environments rich in diverse wildlife in thevicinity of residential areas have been promoted andconducted.
3.2 Development of domestic policies for satoyama
and satoumi landscape restoration
The Convention on Biological Diversity, opened forsignature at the 1992 Rio Earth Summit and enacted in
1993, asked each country to re-create a better balance
between man and nature all over the world, with special
regard to the diversity of ecosystems, species and genes.
It strongly influenced domestic policy implementation in
Japan. Before the summit, Japan published the 1991 Red
Data Book. In it were selected and listed as endangered
species not only species from habitats in remote areas
such as high mountains or islands, but a large number of
species that had in the past existed in great numbers insatoyama environments, such as the gifucho butterfly(luehdorfia, Luehdorfia japonica) or tagame (giant waterbug, Lethocerus deyrollei). In 1992, the Law for theConservation of Endangered Species of Wild Fauna andFlora was enacted in an attempt to prevent the extinctionof endangered species. The law called for controlled
animal hunting and plant gathering, for the protection of
habitats and for projects for the rehabilitation of natural
habitats and the maintenance of viable populations. Afterthe Rio Earth Summit, the Basic Environment Law wasenacted in 1993 and served as the legal base for all
administrative bodies concerned with the environment.
The first project initiated after the enactment of this law
was the 1994 Basic Environment Plan, based on a cabinet
decision. It emphasized “living in harmony with natureand taking into account the natural and social characteristics of the national space.” It led to specific policies forfour categories: mountains, satochi, flatlands and coastal
areas.
In the years that followed, there were several cases ofcitizen opposition to coastal development, land reclamation, dike construction or forest development which led
to the reconsideration of development projects and to theconservation of satoyama and satoumi areas. In 1997, forexample, a plan to build a sea dike for land reclamation in
Isahaya Bay in Nagasaki increased the recognition by
citizens of the importance of conserving tidal land．
Afterward, development plans in Fujimae Tidal Flat in
Aichi and Sanbanze Shoal in Chiba had to be reconsidered. This led to conservation measures, and in 2000, thestrong wish of local citizens of Seto in Aichi to conserve
the local Kaisho no Mori community forest led tosignificant changes in the national plans made for theconstruction site of EXPO 2005 Aichi Japan.
As these examples show, in the 1990s Japan graduallychanged from a rapidly growing to a more stable andmature country. This process encompassed a significant
increase in citizen awareness regarding natural environ-130

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ments such as the satoyama and satoumi. As a result, therole of rural public entities and NGOs in the conservationof these landscapes increased conspicuously.
Environmental policies were subsequently created ingreat numbers by each respective ministry. These
included the revised River Act in 1997 and the Basic Law
on Food, Agriculture and Rural Areas in 1999.
The next step was the establishment of the Ministry of
the Environment in 2001 based on a reorganization ofministries and agencies, and the announcement of the 2nd
National Biodiversity Strategy in 2002 in connection
with the Convention on Biodiversity. The strategy highlighted three crises leading to loss of biodiversity: (1)extinction and loss of species and destruction of ecosystems as a result of overdevelopment and overuse (First
Crisis), (2) loss of biodiversity due to abandonment ofsatoyama areas as a result of a decrease in human activity
and changes in lifestyle (Second Crisis), and (3) deterioration of ecosystems due to invasive alien species(Third Crisis).
The Second Crisis closely deals with secondary forests and grasslands that have been abandoned after having been carefully maintained and made good use of for
centuries, and with the continuing loss of species thatused to have their habitats in these landscapes. It also
sheds light on the rapid increase of mammals such as
inoshishi (wild boar, Sus scrofa) and shika deer, Cervus
nippon which seriously damage abandoned farmlands
and ecosystems in depopulated rural mountainous areas.
Given the need for comprehensive conservation of thesesecondary environments, the policy “Conservation and
Use of Satochi-Satoyama Model Projects” was launchedin 2004 with the collaboration of several ministries andagencies, including the Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry
and Fisheries, and the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure,
Transport and Tourism. The goal of this policy was toencourage various entities to start activities under a system of mutual agreement for the conservation and use ofsatoyama landscapes located in typical satoyama ecosystems, and to find practical approaches and methods.
A further result of the 2nd National Strategy was therevision of the Natural Parks Law in 2002 which led tothe enactment of the Scenic Landscape Protection
Agreement. The goal of this policy was to seek the cooperation of NPOs and other entities in the management
and use of satoyama forests and grasslands within
national and quasi-national parks, which had deteriorated
due to undermanagement resulting from social and economic changes. Furthermore, the Law for the Promotionof Nature Restoration was enacted in the same year. It
established a system to promote the cooperation andparticipation of diverse ministries and entities in theconservation, restoration, creation, maintenance andmanagement of diverse ecosystems including satoyama
and satoumi landscapes.
3.3 COP 10 and the mutual influence of domestic
and international environmental policies
The Strategy for an Environmental Nation in the 21stCentury was approved in 2007 in view of the G8 Summitthat was to be held in Japan in 2008. The strategy highlighted the need to pursue the following goals in an integrated manner: low-carbon society, recycling society, andsociety in harmony with nature. Furthermore, in view of
COP10, a cabinet decision for the implementation of the
3rd National Biodiversity Strategy was made in 2007.
This strategy added a “Fourth Crisis” regarding biodiversity loss to the previous three: global warming. It
drew up a 100-year grand plan based on four main
strategies: (1) mainstreaming biodiversity in citizens’
daily life, (2) rebuilding a sound relationship between
man and nature in local communities, (3) securing linkages among forest, countryside, river and the sea, and (4)taking action with a global perspective.
Based on these strategies, Japan then drew up the
Satoyama Initiative and proposed it to the world. The
initiative aims to gather knowledge on living in harmony
with nature from areas worldwide, to re-create anddevelop these, and to find practical uses for them. Moreover, it proposes globally to promote sustainable land use
and use of natural resources.
Today, in Japan’s satochi-satoyama efforts are being
made to use and recycle natural resources sustainably forthe creation of new value, for example, by using biomass
or by promoting ecotourism activities. In these efforts,
the active cooperation and participation of not only rural
citizens, but urban citizens, private businesses, NGOs
and other parties is sought in the spirit of mutual assistance in the common use and management of the satochisatoyama, with the goal of establishing what can becalled a “New Commons.” As for satoumi, the need tolink land and sea, and to promote sustainable use andmanagement in fishing communities while integrating
biodiversity conservation is emphasized in the 3rd
National Biodiversity Strategy.
In 2008, the Basic Act on Biodiversity was enacted,
followed by a cabinet decision to implement the 1stlegally binding national strategy for biodiversity in 2010.
The strategy comprised proposals of the Japanese
government on how to set up and put into practice newinternational biodiversity targets. Based on the strategy,
the Ministry of the Environment and related ministries
set up the Action Plan for the Conservation and Sustainable Use of Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes(satochi-satoyama). In the same year, satochi-satoyama
and satoumi areas were highlighted as outstanding natural scenery in the frame of a general evaluation of nature
in national and quasi-national parks. Also in 2010, theLaw for the Promotion of Regional Cooperation for Biological Diversity was enacted with the goal of promoting
cooperative activities by various stakeholders for theconservation of biodiversity in the satoyama, satoumi
and other environments.
At COP10 in 2010, the phrase “Living in Harmony
with Nature” was proposed by the Japanese government
and adopted as its long-term vision through the year 2050.
Among the twenty targets (Aichi Targets) adopted at themeeting, many dealt with the topic of sustainable use of

Japan’s Environmental Policies for Satoyama and Satoumi Landscape Restoration

natural resources and with the conservation and restoration of satoyama and satoumi landscapes, with the goalof making the best use of ecosystem services and values.
At the meeting, the Japanese government and United
Nations University officially submitted the abovementioned Satoyama Initiative to the participants of
COP10 with the goal of putting into practice the Aichi
Targets. It was particularly supported by developing
countries. The Satoyama Initiative sheds light on humaninfluenced landscapes such as the satoyama and satoumi(Socio-Ecological Production Landscapes), and proposes
the sustainable use of ecosystem services around theworld as a global goal. The proposed three approaches
for achieving the goal are: (1) consolidating wisdom on
securing diverse ecosystem services and values, (2)integrating traditional ecological knowledge and modern
science, and (3) exploring new forms of co- management
systems (a “New Commons”). To promote these goals
further, the International Partnership for the Satoyama
Initiative (IPSI) was established at COP10. The system iscomposed of members from national and local
governments, NGOs, research institutions, businesses,
international institutions and other parties. It serves as an
institution for information exchange, investigation andresearch, practical activity and support. As of March
2012, 117 partners were registered. The United Nations
University-Institute of Advanced Studies (UNU-IAS) in
Japan serves as the secretariat (UNU-IAS, 2012).

4. Discussion of Case Studies
As mentioned above, by the early 1990s, public
interest in the satoyama and satoumi had grown, and attempts across Japan to restore such landscapes werebeing made. This chapter introduces some specific casestudies and discusses the results and their significance.
First, to be discussed are two sites which, along with
two other areas, were selected in 2004 for the Conservation and Use of Satochi-Satoyama Model Projects by the
Ministry of the Environment. The first was in HadanoCity, Kanagawa Prefecture, and the second, in Miyazu
City, Kyoto Prefecture.
In Hadano, conservation and restoration activities
were conducted with the goal of restoring original local
scenery which had been a symbol of rural culture with its
well-managed satoyama and surrounding farmlands inthe mid-1950s, a time when cultivation of leaf tobacco
was popular in the area. In the model project, existing
networks in the village and among local nature conservation groups were used to conduct activities for theconservation of the local satochi-satoyama. Activities
included finding ways to conserve biodiversity, water
resources and ground water, and tackling issues such as
abandoned farmland, undermanagement in forest andwild animal damage with the goal of re-creating moreproductive lifestyles. A “field leader registration system”
and “field lists” were created, and a research and information distribution system was established. As thenumber of people and locations involved in conservation

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activities increased, a network to coordinate these was set
up with the cooperation of the local administration.
The second site was in the Seya area, a mountainous
district of Miyazu City. In this model project, the following three goals were pursued: (1) biodiversity andcultural scenery conservation by means of an effective
cycle of biological resources, (2) rebuilding of a vitalcommunity through exchanges between rural and urban
areas, and (3) preservation of the environment. The involvement of stakeholders from outside the community
such as NPOs was crucial in this area where rapid
depopulation and an aging population had led to underuse of the satochi-satoyama. Activities included conservation, restoration and use of terraced rice fields and the
management of local satoyama forests in such a way that
local traditional practices could be continued or recreated, including thatching roofs with sasa bamboo
grass (Fig. 2) and weaving baskets with Japanese wisteriavines. The project in Seya is a model case of community
restoration: the use of satochi-satoyama natural resources leading to an actual occupation for the local
people, the role of local resource use and traditional
practices for the conservation of the local cultural landscape being carefully researched, and practices that led toefficient restoration being selected and actively pursued.
Next, three sites are examined that are not included in
the country’s model projects plan, but are neverthelessexamples providing important insights into restoration
work of satoyama and satoumi landscapes: the Aso
Grassland, the western shore area of Lake Biwa and theNoto Peninsula.
For the conservation and restoration of the Aso
Grassland, a range of measures was taken. These included (1) the involvement of volunteers in traditional
field burning and the introduction of firebreak mowing
techniques with reduced workloads, (2) the restoration of
the traditional late autumn scenery of stacks of grass,which is important for the local tourism industry, and (3)the promotion of using grassland biomass. In addition, aproject was launched in which city residents could assist
local cattle farmers in the “akaushi (red cow) ownership

Fig. 2 Thatching roofs with sasa bamboo grass in Seya, Miyazu
City.

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system,” in which urban citizens could become owners ofcows and thus help increase the presence of cattle, which
are important for maintaining the grassland in Aso
through grazing, and which support the local economy
thanks to the production of cattle-related local specialty
goods. Finally, the area has been promoted as a green
tourism destination, which offers agricultural experiences
and farmhouse stays, a program that has become popularfor school trips. More than 20,000 people took part insuch activities between 2003 and 2011, resulting in a
lively exchange between urban and rural areas, and acloser relationship between people’s life and the naturalenvironment.
The next case study is in a suburban area on thewestern shore of Lake Biwa that has seen a rapid increaseof newcomers in recent years. Many of the newcomers
moved to the area to be closer to the natural environment.
Woodstoves have been popular with these residents.
They created a local “Woodstove Society,” which is involved in sustaining forest resource use and management
in a common effort (Fig. 3). Forest resources such asbrushwood or fallen leaves are used for outdoor cooking
activities or as organic fertilizer in fields. Vegetables
harvested in these fields are prepared during management
or recreation events held in the local forests, and help toprovide energy to the satoyama management workers.
This mini-cycle of local natural resources has value as atool for environmental education and nature awareness of
the local population. In addition, local NGOs and NPOs
have been conducting Lake Biwa reed restoration projects by using logs and brushwood thinned from the local
satoyama forests in the construction of breakwaters thatdissipate waves for the protection of the reeds. The project has drawn attention as a combined lakeshore/forest
environment restoration model with citizen participation,and has received support from local governments.
On the Noto Peninsula on the Japan Sea, a cooperative project by universities, companies and other stakeholders aims to revitalize local communities based on
environmentally friendly agricultural and fishery activities that take into account the need to conserve andrestore satoyama and satoumi landscapes. A local

Satoyama and Satoumi Nature Education School promotes these efforts. The school educates people who will
be in charge of the local satoyama and satoumi landscapes in the future. The courses cover subjects such as
the interconnections among forests, villages and the sea,or how to start a food business based on seaweed products. Furthermore, a Noto Peninsula survey on the current state of plant and animal habitats in the local satoumi,
and a plan to introduce a foster parent system for theprotection and conservation of seashore plant communities are raising interest in satoumi biodiversity in thelocal community. The “Nanao Bay Satoumi Creation
Project” and similar groups seek to establish a network
for the sustainable use and restoration of satoumi elements such as salterns (Fig. 4) and seaweed beds, while
also aiming to revitalize the local community through thepromotion of sea and seashore recreation activities.
The above-described case studies illustrate core elements that are common to recent efforts in the field. First,
the importance of considering satoyama or satoumi
landscapes as a whole, and of interconnecting parts andelements. Second, the need to establish new values andnew systems based on which diverse agents and entities
can work together and mutually assist each other. Third,
the importance of the role of citizen activity not only inexisting networks for satoyama or satoumi landscaperestoration, but also in the creation of new systems. The
fact that citizens can participate in shaping the future of
their local satoyama and satoumi landscapes by proactively reviving characteristic local natural and culturalfeatures provides a powerful motivation for action. In any
future efforts, a bilateral approach will be necessary:
Reviving the history and traditions unique to each locality for use in the present (from the viewpoint of time),
and revitalizing satoyama and satoumi landscapes basedon a deep understanding of their structure and interconnection (from the viewpoint of space).
On the other hand, several difficulties must be overcome. First, activities conducted for the restoration ofsatoyama and satoumi landscapes tend to be concentrated
in the vicinity of large cities or in areas with environment-related institutions. Activities are still scarce if

Fig. 3 Sustaining forest resource use and management by the
local “Woodstove Society” in Otsu City.

Fig. 4 Agehama-style salt making in Satoumi, Suzu City.

Japan’s Environmental Policies for Satoyama and Satoumi Landscape Restorationconsidered on the national scale. Second, not enough has
been yet undertaken to understand the link between
biodiversity and cultural features in satoyama or satoumi
landscapes. Third, rural residents have often shown apassive or even negative attitude regarding conservation
activities. Next, there is no clear image of how futuresatoyama and satoumi landscapes should look, and nouniversal solution supported by society as a whole.
Stakeholders must work toward social solutions by
gradually creating a system of mutual consent in which
the opinions and values of local residents, NPOs, local
governments and other stakeholders are given due respect. The establishment of a system for mutual consent
and for the above-mentioned “New Commons” needs tobe further discussed and promoted. Finally, there is anincrease in satoyama or satoumi that is abandoned orwhose ownership or borders are unknown. A legal
framework must be created so that these lands can bebrought to good use again.

5. Considerations for the Future
Environmental policies enacted for the conservation
and restoration of satoyama and satoumi landscapes inJapan have led to field work in numerous locations, andpositive effects have started to be visible. On the other
hand, the deterioration of satoyama and satoumi landscapes continues nationwide, and many problems must
be resolved.
First, there is a need to design a 50- or 100-year planfor environmental restoration and biodiversity conservation across the nation’s territory, taking into account factors such as the decreasing and aging rural population,
the dynamics of production and consumption, andchanges in lifestyle, industry and energy use. Policies
regarding satoyama and satoumi landscapes should bemade on the national level. It is assumed that noninhabited areas in remote rural areas will increase in thenear future. Measures must be taken regarding secondary
forests in these areas. They will have to be separated into
two types: those that will be converted back to naturalforest, and those that will become the subject of thecreation of “new value” by means of a “new system” formanagement and resource use.
Studies must be undertaken on how to position
satoyama and satoumi landscapes in ecosystem networks,
and how to manage satoyama and satoumi landscapes insuch a way that the balance between the needs of man
and nature can be restored, in particular in regard todamage to forests and farmland caused by wild animals.
The damage caused by the Great East Japan Earthquake in particular led to the important insight thatmeasures taken to lower the impact of natural disasters on
the national territory must go hand in hand with measurestaken for the conservation of biodiversity. It will benecessary to strengthen the resilience of ecosystems byconducting ecological management of the national land
while efficiently using ecosystem services. Satoyama andsatoumi landscapes occupy a large area of the national

133

land, and their restoration plays an important role in preventing ecosystems from reaching tipping points.
Second, they are also instrumental in ensuring thatdiverse ecosystem services can be sustainably obtained,
and are highly diverse spaces in which the values andrights of various parties are entangled in a complex way.
They are impacted by local lifestyles, industries, culture
and other factors. Any attempt to resolve problems
regarding these landscapes must consider all factors, andbe comprehensive. This is especially true for the administrative approach, which must be undertaken cooperatively by laterally connecting all ministries and agencies
concerned with agriculture, forestry, fisheries, thenational land, urban planning and cultural scenery. At thesame time, an agreement on a vision for the future ofthese landscapes must be reached in each region. Basedon each Regional Biodiversity Strategy and on the Law
for the Promotion of Regional Cooperation for Biological
Diversity, it can be expected that each region will establish a vision that will be put into practice throughbottom-up approaches that take into account regional
characteristics. In this process, preparing and sharing
scientific data and indicators are crucial.
Third, in the regional approach, it is essential to create“new values” of the satoyama and satoumi by linking
regional traditional ecological knowledge with modern
lifestyles. Creating added value in today’s society means
producing certified or brand products that take into account the changing awareness of consumers who seek
goods that are safe, locally produced, and environmentally friendly. For example, reintroduction projects are
ongoing in Japan for the crested ibis, Nipponia nippon
on Sado Island, Niigata Prefecture, and for the oriental
white stork, Ciconia boyciana in Toyooka city, Hyogo
Prefecture. Under the projects, certification systems forrice produced using farming methods which take into
account the habitats of those birds promote restoration of
the satoyama landscapes in which they live. Furthermore,
the use of biomass needs to be promoted as an example ofenergy recycling, and environmental education and ecotourism need to be supported since they provide spaces
where sustainable use can take place. Financial incentives for environmentally friendly agriculture, forestry
and fishery activities such as environmental stewardshipschemes must be examined.
In upstream-downstream areas that contain bothsatoyama and satoumi with rural villages, cities andfishing villages, a “new system” is needed in which urban
citizens and companies participate in the sustainable use
and management of the whole area. It has been recognized that satoyama and satoumi landscapes are key
elements for the conservation and use of national andquasi-national parks, and that the cooperation of cities
and companies is needed to create model landscapes ofthe satoyama and satoumi in these parks. To this end, it iseffective to create connections between farmlands andresidential areas in the vicinity of parks with protectedareas in an environmentally friendly and efficient way
such as in the UNESCO Man and Biosphere Programme,

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in which Biosphere Reserves (core areas, buffer areas
and transition areas) are established.
Finally, it is important for Japan to share its experiences of restoring satoyama and satoumi landscapes withinternational society through the above-mentioned International Partnership for the Satoyama Initiative (IPSI).

6. Conclusion
The Ministry of the Environment decided to reorganize the Sanriku Coast’s natural parks which were badly
damaged by the tsunami in March 2011, and to combine
them into one national park, tentatively named theSanriku Reconstruction National Park (Fig. 5). In March
2012, a report by the Central Environment Council
underlined the main idea for reconstruction as undertaking “green reconstruction with the creation of a nationalpark at the core.” According to the plan, not only outstanding coastal scenery and biodiversity, but also culture
in each community and activities from the area’s primarysector such as fisheries will be targets of the conservationand sustainable use of the national park. The reportunderlined the intent to seek the cooperation of the local
area in linking the satoyama with the satoumi while
creating the park in a way that is beneficial to the area’s

revitalization. It is essential that the Sanriku Reconstruction National Park serve as an example of the new rolethat national parks can play as spaces where living inharmony with nature is demonstrated in a model scapethat features the restoration of the satoyama and satoumi.
After COP10 and the adoption of the Aichi targets in2010, and after the Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011,
the Japanese government has been revising the National
Biodiversity Strategy. The revised text will be announced
to an international audience at COP11 to be held in India
in October 2012. Two main meaningful topics will bepresented to the world: finding a way of living in harmony with nature which bestows rich blessings upon us,
while on the other hand sometimes can become a hugethreat; and presenting a roadmap for the restoration ofsatoyama and satoumi landscapes.

Acknowledgments
We thank Prof. Akio Shimomura of the Graduate
School of Agricultural and Life Sciences of the University of Tokyo, and the staff of the Biodiversity Policy
Division and the National Park Division of the Nature
Conservation Bureau of the Ministry of the Environment
for their advice and for related documents.

Fig. 5 Areas under consideration for the Sanriku Reconstruction National Park.

Japan’s Environmental Policies for Satoyama and Satoumi Landscape Restoration

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Tsunao WATANABE
Tsunao WATANABE is the former Director
General of the Nature Conservation Bureau,
Ministry of the Environment. He graduated fromthe Faculty of Agriculture at the University ofTokyo in 1978. In the same year, he joined theEnvironment Agency, where he dedicatedhimself to national parks and wildlife protection throughout Japan. In
2002, when the Ministry of the Environment was established, he tookcharge of formulating the 2nd National Biodiversity Strategy. He iscurrently involved in biodiversity- related policy development both
domestically and internationally, including the Satoyama Initiative.

Masaki OKUYAMA
Masaki OKUYAMA is Director of the Biodiversity
Center of Japan, Nature Conservation Bureau,
Ministry of the Environment. He graduated from
Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology
in 1989. He formerly worked as a national park
ranger at the Nature Conservation Bureau, andwas also in charge of developing the Action Plan for the Conservation andSustainable Use of Socio-ecological Production Landscapes (SatochiSatoyama) in 2009-2010. Currently he works on coordinating surveys andinformation for the conservation of biodiversity, such as the National
Survey on the Natural Environment and Monitoring Sites 1000.

Katsue FUKAMACHI
Prof. Katsue FUKAMACHI is an Associate
Professor at the Kyoto University Graduate
School of Global Environmental Studies. She
holds a PhD in Agriculture. Her research topics
include determining key factors and changes in
the relationship between people and nature insatoyama landscapes, and proposing projects for the conservation andproductive use of characteristic rural landscapes within the frame oflandscape ecology. Prof. Fukamachi focuses in particular on environmental
design with an attempt to integrate ecological and cultural values.

(Received 2 May 2012, Accepted 31 July 2012)