173

Opportunities and Challenges for Rebuilding andEffective Use of Satoyama Resources
Ryohei KADA
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature (RIHN)* and Yokohama National University*457-4 Motoyama, Kamigamo, Kita-ku, Kyoto 603-8047, Japane-mail: kada@chikyu.ac.jp

Abstract
Major characteristics, functions and recent changes in satoyama and satoumi landscapes are analyzed, in
addition to the needs and conditions for enhancing the values added to the ecosystem services, focusing on
satoyama resources. Since the 1960s, many rural communities have been faced with the difficult situation oflosing their resource base and social community ties, due mainly to the problems of depopulation and aging ofsociety confronting contemporary Japanese society. This study demonstrates that ecosystem services may be
regarded as scarce resources having quantifiable economic values, and since traditional markets do not capture these values, subsequent market failures are caused by inefficient allocation of the scarce resources. The
Sub-global Assessment of Satoyama and Satoumi in Japan (Japan SGA) has shown that in the process ofurbanization and globalization of economies, many of the social relationships in metropolitan areas havechanged dramatically, too. Japanese people today do not recognize or even know the origins of ecosystemservices they utilize. This itself indicates changes in and weakened social relationships of Japanese society
today. During the process of the Satoyama and Satoumi SGA, the necessity of a new form of resource
management unit (a “new commons”) was pointed out, as people expect new roles to be fulfilled by thesatoyama and satoumi under the strong pressures of resource loss or quality degradation. A new market-based
form of economic mechanism, such as payment for ecosystem services, should be adopted.
Key words: direct payment, ecosystem services, new commons, resource management,satoyama and satoumi

1. Introduction: What are the Basic Issues?
The main objective of this chapter is to examine
major characteristics, functions and recent changes insatoyama (and satoumi) landscapes and analyze theneeds and conditions for enhancing the values added tothe ecosystem services, focusing on satoyama resources.
I will then discuss future directions for sustainable use
and conservation of the satoyama resources attached tothem, based upon detailed empirical case studies conducted in the Noto region of Ishikawa Prefecture, and theCity of Yokohama in Kanagawa Prefecture, Japan. My
focus is to explore the potentials and opportunities to
re-build or create alternative mechanisms for management and effective use of satoyama resources.
Why do we need to seek revitalization of thesatoyama? In the long history of Japan the satoyama,
which is composed of various types of ecosystems (suchas forests, grasslands, paddy fields, irrigation ponds andcanals) along with human settlements, was widely foundin rural areas and was created and maintained over a longtime through interactions between humans and ecosysGlobal Environmental Research
16/2012: 173-179
printed in Japantems. In addition, the satoyama is considered to provide
various significant values (including non-monetary
values) to society, including material and non-material
ecosystem services which eventually contribute tohuman well-being.
In the last several decades, however, a variety of factors such as increased rural-urban migration, land-use
conversion, abandonment of cultivation activities andadvancement of agricultural technology (e.g., increased
chemical inputs) have been causing extensive degradation and loss of satoyama and satoumi values, while
depopulation and the aging of society have resulted inpoor resource management in such rural or coastal
communities. Especially since the 1960s, many ruralcommunities have been faced with the difficult situationof losing their resource base and social community ties,
due mainly to depopulation and aging of society. The
following are the major issues confronting contemporary
Japanese society in relation to changes to the satoyama
and satoumi.
First, people in Japan are gradually becoming concerned about the loss of agriculture, forestry and fisheries,©2012 AIRIES174

R. KADA

which not only reduces the country’s rate of selfsufficiency in food production but also results in the lossof the satoyama and satoumi culture and society, which
are connected with farming or fishery activities. The
satoyama culture has been the basis of the aesthetic,
spiritual and cultural values of the Japanese people.
Second, it is considered if this trend of farmland abandonment and resource degradation continues, many
marginal villages in the uppermost watershed zone might
disappear or be lost, which would be a heavy burden on
regional economies and local governments. The implication of this deterioration process is that the rurallandscape does not automatically exist, but it has been
maintained and sustained by rural residents in accordancewith farming activities and their daily life. In fact, many
conservation efforts have been conducted by the collective actions of village people. Now the situation haschanged, and changed for the worse.
Third, the environmental and ecological impacts are
becoming greater, more directly affecting society than
before. Ecological risks are expanding which are considered to be associated with the deterioration of resource
management in the satoyama. That is why I emphasize
the importance of ecosystems and biodiversity as the
key elements for the sustainability and functioning ofsatoyama and satoumi landscapes.
Since around the 1960s, however, many rural andsuburban communities in Japan in the process of rapid
economic development and globalization have faced
challenges to sustaining their functions by losing theirnatural resource base and social community ties, due
mainly to depopulation and the aging of the structure ofthose societies. Continuous rural-urban migration among
young people, land-use conversion and abandonment offarming activities are among the major drivers for suchextensive degradation and loss of satoyama resources.
In the 10th Conference of the Parties to the CBD, heldin Nagoya in October 2010, the Sub-global Assessmentof Satoyama and Satoumi of Japan (Japan SGA) was
discussed widely to assess the ecosystem services
derived from the satoyama and satoumi and to provide ascientific base for actions to be taken towards the conservation and sustainable management of such services.
The present chapter is the outcome of such an evaluation
done for Ishikawa Prefecture and Kanagawa Prefecture
as site reports for the Japan SGA. The basic conceptual
framework adopted in this process is same as the one
developed by the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment(MA) of the Japan Satoyama and Satoumi Assessment.

2. Need for Valuation of Non-Marketed
Ecosystem Services
People have conventionally thought that ecosystemservices, which are benefits from nature, are unlimited
and, thus, that those services have no economic value.
This study demonstrates that ecosystem services may bescarce resources and have quantifiable economic values
in many cases, and since traditional markets do not cap-

ture these values, significant economic externalities andecological risks, such as degradation of water quality,
GHG emissions and subsequent market failures arecaused by inefficient allocation of these scarce resources.
It also explains why beneficiaries of ecosystem services
may be required to make payment for the services whenproviders create them for beneficiaries, and explores
potentials and challenges that are involved in creating amechanism of payment for ecosystem services (FAO,
2008).
Ecosystem services, which are defined as the benefits
provided from nature to humans, include supporting
services such as primary production and soil formation,
provisioning services such as food and water, regulating
services such as flood and disease control, and cultural
services such as recreational benefits (Daily, 1997; MEA,
2005). Supporting services maintain the other threeservices.
Human actions, market externalities, ecological risks
and human well-being are well interlinked. This means
when human actions reduce the level of ecosystemservices, ecological risks emerge as a distribution ofpotential negative externalities. An externality is generally defined as an action of an individual or a group ofindividuals that inflicts a cost on or provides a benefit toothers. A human action can have both negative and positive impacts on others.
Goda et al. (2006) have listed a number of negative
externalities that basically result from human activities
such as degradation, livestock production and use ofpesticides in agriculture. Due to population growth andrapid economic development, many Asian countries haveincreased agricultural food production. However, thesehuman activities have resulted in extensive degradationof natural resources and reduction of ecosystem services.
In particular, the adoption of modern technology
including intensive use of fertilizers and monoculture has
caused serious soil and water degradation. For example,
substantial soil degradation has resulted from deforestation (30%), overcultivation (32%) and overgrazing(26%) occurring due to population growth and economic
development in the Asian region(Agus et al, 2006).
In Japan, the decreased area of farmland has caused
various social problems as well. Due to both rapid
urbanization and abandonment of farmlands, ecosystemservices from farmlands are estimated to have decreased,
resulting in more frequent occurrences of flooding inthe surrounding and downstream city areas. Althoughchemical fertilizer input is an essential element for enhancing productivity, excessive use of chemical inputs
has resulted in negative externalities such as waterpollution and biodiversity loss.
On the other hand, groundwater contamination due tocrop and livestock production activities has become an
important public issue in some areas of Japan. Nitrates
are a major source of water contamination, introduced
not only through the use of chemical fertilizers, but also
associated with the amalgamation of animal manure.
Similarly, pesticide residues are potentially toxic toOpportunities and Challenges for Rebuilding and Effective Use of Satoyama Resources

humans and animals in food, feed or drinking water. They
may also be hazardous to farm workers during application and have undesirable side effects on non-targetedliving organisms in the natural ecosystem.
Developing a mechanism for payment for ecosystemservices involving the beneficiaries and producers of
ecosystem services that emerge from agriculture is substantially important, as this can address the externality
and market failure issues in agriculture and consequently,
increase food production in a sustainable way.
Kada (2006) has illustrated the potentials and challenges towards developing a payment system forecosystem services (PES) in Japan. Table 1 shows thenecessary conditions for higher value-added activities (orproducts) that will enable the support of rural communities for sustainable use of satoyama resources. The following list gives some typical examples of such activities
taking place in rural Japan recently:• An increasing number of city people or groups arewillingly assisting farmers and rural communities
with their tasks and at the same time enjoying ruralamenities.
• Consumers are affiliating with producers to support
regional agriculture through contracts between thetwo parties for fresh and safe farm products. Direct
marketing systems such as farmers’ markets and producer-consumer affiliated marketing have become
very popular in Japan today.
• Groundwork activities and trusts for preservation ofgenetic resources (e.g., insects, fish, birds and flora)
and landscape conservation have been attempted so as
to construct ecologically-friendly wetlands, parks andponds in harmony with agricultural activities, on botha public and voluntary basis.
• Green tourism has been expanded in which city people are invited to spend their leisure time visiting rurallandscapes, enjoy farming experiences, farm for theirown consumption, and voluntarily work in forestry
and paddy management in remote rural areas.
• The Japanese Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and
Fisheries (MAFF) has introduced a direct payment
scheme for farmers and rural communities to maintain the existence of paddy fields.
• Direct support is being provided by local governments for environmentally-friendly farming throughdirect subsidies to farmers who keep paddy fields fortheir flood mitigation function. To be eligible for thissubsidy, the local governments require that the owners of the paddy fields sign a contract for maintaining
paddy land or farmland.
What all these imply is that estimating the economic
value of non-marketed ecosystem services is possible, if
not precisely. Furthermore, estimating the economic
value is crucial to creating a market for ecosystemservices (payment for ecosystem services) (King, 2007;
Wills, 2006). Both non-coercive government intervention
and cooperation from the natural resource users seemessential to establishing this market. In this line ofthought, in order to maintain the level of non-marketed

175

Table 1 Necessary conditions for higher value-added activities.

① To measure Environmental Values & Ecosystem
Services numerically (Raise the Visibility ofPotential Values)② Grading, Certifying and Labeling ofSatoyama-Satoumi Products③ Effective Supply of Information to the Targeted
People/Markets
ecosystem services provided by agriculture, it is important to assist farmers with new technology that
requires a reduced amount of chemical fertilizers andinsecticides, reduces the conversion of agricultural land
use into non-agricultural, and compensates farmers forconserving agricultural land.

3. Why is a “New Commons” Expected inContemporary Rural Japan?
The Sub-global Assessment of Satoyama and Satoumi
in Japan (Japan SGA) was launched in 2007 to assess theecosystem services derived from the satoyama andsatoumi and to provide a scientific base for actions to betaken towards their conservation and sustainable management. It applies the conceptual framework developedby the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA)
(Duraiappah et al., 2012; MEA, 2005).
A review of the economic valuation of ecosystemservices provided by the satoyama and satoumi in Japan
confirms that the key ecosystem services for the Japan
SGA include flood regulation (regulating service), foodsafety (provisioning service), and cultural services. As
the decline in the satoyama has resulted in more frequent
occurrences of flooding in recent years, a wellmaintained satoyama has been noted to provide theservice of flood control. Also, as people are concerned
about the quality of food in Japan and the risk has expanded under large-scale production and international
marketing systems, it can be said that food safety is
another critical ecosystem service that the satoyama andsatoumi have been providing.
Furthermore, as many festivals and cultural activities
are attached to the management of the satoyama andsatoumi, it can be seen that cultural services provided by
the satoyama and satoumi are significant, which isparticularly evident in the Noto region where traditional
festivals still continue with the help of local people who
once outmigrated to cities.
In general, however, many social relationships havechanged dramatically, too. Japanese people today do notrecognize or even know the origins of ecosystem services
they utilize. This itself constitutes a change in andweakening of social relationships. During the process of
the Satoyama and Satoumi SGA, a new form of resource
management unit (“New Commons”) was indicated,while people expect new roles to be fulfilled by thesatoyama and satoumi under the strong pressures of re-176

R. KADA

source losses or quality degradation. A new market-based
form of economic mechanism, such as payment forecosystem services, should be adopted. As an example,
ecotourism (green tourism) could be expanded, drawing
on the better quality ecosystem services in the satoyama
and satoumi.
One might observe that many aspects of the satoyama
landscape and its resource management system can befound in many other countries in Asia, such as themuyong and uma in the Philippines, mauel in South
Korea, or community forests in Thailand. It should also
be noted that the same so-called satoyama issues, mainly
caused by depopulation and poor resource management,
are taking place in many parts of Asia.
Accordingly, a scientific evaluation of satoyamasatoumi landscapes should be undertaken in an international framework, and sustainable use and management of common pool resources should be developed
based upon such scientific knowledge. It is hoped that
our small challenge in the Noto region might be amilestone for such international efforts.

4. Challenges for Revitalizing the Satoyama
with Sustainable Resource Use
4.1 The case of the Noto Region, Ishikawa Prefecture
Let us take an example of the case of satoyama
and satoumi empirical challenges in the Noto Region,
Ishikawa Prefecture. This has been conducted andmanaged by Kanazawa University, which has long endeavored to conserve satoyama-satoumi resources andrevitalize the socio-economic conditions of the Noto
Region. We would like to illustrate this case as an alternative development model in terms of wise resource use
and conservation.
The Noto Region has passed through serious socioeconomic conditions, just like all other remote rural areasin Japan. It has experienced poor resource managementand degradation of resource conditions due to depopulation and the aging of communities. Furthermore,
the Noto region was seriously damaged by the Noto
Peninsula Earthquake, which took place in March 2007,
with the damage extending to hundreds of houses, roads
and other social infrastructure in the region.
Under these adverse conditions, Kanazawa University started to construct a new approach for rural development by utilizing local resources existing in satoyama
and satoumi landscapes. In order to revitalize local communities, environmental and biodiversity conservation
are taken into consideration with the support and collaboration of four local municipal governments.
In 2006, the “Noto Satoyama-Satoumi Nature School”
was established as a local branch of Kanazawa University,
fully reviving and utilizing an old, closed primary schoolbuilding in Suzu City. A variety of new educational,
environmental and exchange activities have been attempted at this school, where several resident-type staff
in addition to several professional coordinators dispatched from Kanazawa University, have worked withlocal people to tackle and try to solve local issues.
In October 2007, a totally new educational program,named “the Noto Satoyama Meister Program,” wasstarted at the above mentioned Nature School and has
continued since. The main objective of this program is to
educate those who are willing to revitalize Noto region in
the field of satoyama-satoumi related businesses. Manyof them are relatively young, city-oriented students who
are attending practical courses and seminars during
weekends for the two-year program. After graduatingfrom this pragmatic program, many of the graduates are
expected to continue to live in the Noto region andengage in new businesses related to the local economies.
Environment-concerned agriculture or fisheries, related
processing businesses and eco-tourism are typical examples of such businesses. The key concept here is the wise
and sustainable use of satoyama-satoumi resources, andthus the businesses should be in harmony with theecological and environmental conditions of each locality.
4.2 An Alternative Approach by Yokohama City and
Kanagawa Prefecture
Nearly one and a half centuries have passed since
Japan opened its society to foreign intercourse after the
Meiji Restoration of 1868. Yokohama City and the
Kanagawa Prefectural area have undergone rapid urbanization, industrialization and land use changes, in acontinuous process of satoyama resource loss and thedeterioration of remote areas as more and more humanand capital resources are concentrated into metropolitan
centers. Satoyama resources have been divided, isolated
and ultimately abandoned. In that process, ecologicalconditions in rural and remote areas have been disturbed
and often degraded, with occasional intrusion of exotic
species brought by human activities (Sadohara et al.,2011).
It is widely acknowledged that biodiversity resources
are being lost at an increasing speed worldwide in recent
years. If satoyama resources are totally divided or abandoned and resource degradation continues, a substantialsocial loss will take place in ecosystem services, since theexistence of diversified biological resources is the basisof the various ecosystem services they provide to
the society such as food and energy supplies or ruralamenities.
As more and more green resources are degraded orlost, as typically shown in the cases of Yokohama Cityand Kanagawa Prefecture, urban dwellers also gradually
become worried about the loss of green resources, including agriculture, forestry and fisheries in the nearby areas.
The very low rate of self-sufficiency in food is often
associated with the loss of the satoyama culture, which is
deeply associated with farming or fishery activities. In
fact, the satoyama culture is the basis of aesthetic, spiritual and cultural values of the Japanese people. Figure 1
illustrates the structure of factors involved in rebuilding
local communities by utilizing nature-based activities,
which provide new value-added returns to the people andproducts produced in such areas.

Opportunities and Challenges for Rebuilding and Effective Use of Satoyama Resources

As such, the environmental and ecological impacts
are becoming more and more significant for present day
society. Ecological risks are expanding which are considered to be associated with the deterioration of resource
management in the satoyama. That is why I emphasize
the importance of ecosystems and biodiversity as the key
elements for the sustainability and functioning ofsatoyama landscapes. Table 2 presents key functions
which are generated by suburban satoyama resources, as
explicitly expressed by city people.
Niche space is expanding as depopulation continues
and the number of farmers decreases. Meanwhile,
metropolitan areas also face issues of how to manage

177

land resources properly in and near urban areas. Withshrinking economies in addition to budget constraints,
local government units have been forced to alter their
management of space, including parks and green zones,
which are indispensable elements in present urban planning. Rather than well-managed parks or green zones,
they would prefer a proper but easy form of managementthat can be obtained by adopting ecological systems
which require less management input. In other words, the
new social system should incorporate natural ecosystems
similar to the satoyama in order to reduce management
costs.
In order to protect satoyama resources, a variety ofFig. 1 Rebuilding of nature-based industry.

Table 2 Key functions generated by suburban satoyama resources.
< Food Security-Safety Function>
Farmland in suburban areas is an important resource for supplying fresh, safe agricultural products and performs multiple
ecosystem services. In particular, in unexpected situations such as catastrophic disasters or food shortages, the existence of nearby
farmland will enhance the feeling of safety and security among the people.
<Disaster & Flood Prevention Function>
In times of disaster, suburban satoyama resources play an important role in the prevention of fire propagation, or as safe refuges,
evacuation routes, etc. They also protect the lives and assets of local residents. Paddy fields have the function of rainwater harvesting,flood control and groundwater recharge.
<Environment-Ecological Conservation Function>
The satoyama has the effect of reducing the heat-island phenomenon, purifying the atmosphere, preventing noise pollution, andcontrolling dust. Green resources including farmlands not only improve the city’s harsh environment but also create a comfortableurban landscape, while contributing to biodiversity conservation.
<Educational and Recreational Function>
The satoyama in suburban areas possesses the function of environmental education and nature experience for school children,
who are expected to take responsibility for resource conservation for future generations. Recreational and other amenity values are also
attached to suburban satoyama resources.

178

R. KADA
Table 3 Allocation of the forest conservation tax, Kanagawa prefecture.
Unit: million yen
Expenditure

FY2008FY2009FY2010

1. Headwater Forest Conservation

1,725

1,588

1,380

74

98

152

2. Use of Timber from Forest Thinning
3. Subsidies for Reforestation

766

737

700

4. River Water Purification

378

257

188

5. Conservation of Groundwater

113

111

98

6. Installation of Public Sewers

475

566

541

7. Installation of Septic Tanks

219

256

349

8. Monitoring of Aquatic Environments

177

231

178

9. Others

233

271

243

4,160

4,115

3,829

Total

Source: Data from Forest Conservation Tax System: 2008-2010, Kanagawa Prefectural Government, 2011.

activities have been attempted by Yokohama City and
Kanagawa Prefecture. As early as one century ago,
Yokohama City secured and protected the Dohshi forest
in Yamanashi Prefecture, upstream from the city. A landscape preservation act was stipulated in Kamakura City
before World War II. More recently, the “Nature Conservation and Rehabilitation Plan” was materialized andupstream forest resources came under the protection
and subsidization of Kanagawa Prefecture. In addition,
Yokohama City has adopted the “Green Taxation” system
to promote greener metropolitan areas since 2010.
As shown in Table 3, the Kanagawa Prefectural
Government has introduced the “Forest Conservation
Tax” system since FY2007, marking the first time inJapan in which tax money is collected from all city people as a part of their water service fees. That tax money isutilized for various purposes: headwater forest conservation, subsidies for reforestation, installation of publicsewers, etc. This system is, therefore, considered to be
direct payment for environmental conservation(Sadohara et al., 2011).

5. Conclusion
The Sub-global Assessment of Satoyama and Satoumi
in Japan (Japan SGA) has shown that in the process ofurbanization and globalization of economies, manysocial relationships in metropolitan areas have changed
dramatically, too. Japanese people today do not recognize
or even know the origins of ecosystem services theyutilize. This in itself indicates changed and weakenedsocial relationships in Japanese society today.
During the process of the Satoyama and Satoumi SGA,
the necessity of a new form of resource management unit(“New Commons”) was indicated, as people expect newroles to be filled by the satoyama and satoumi under thestrong pressures of resource losses or quality degradation.
A new market-based form of economic mechanism, suchas payment for ecosystem services, should be adopted.
As an example, ecotourism (green tourism) could be
expanded by drawing on the better quality of ecosystemservices in the satoyama and satoumi.
Let me finally emphasize that the satoyama landscapeitself does not exist automatically, but it has been maintained and sustained by rural or local residents in accordance with farming activities and their daily life, by
the collective actions of village people. Now is the timeto seek a “new commons,” which should be created andcoordinated by a variety of new entities, including various NPOs, the CSR of private companies and many typesof volunteers, who are interested in using or conserving
once depleted satoyama resources.
Estimating the value of non-marketed ecosystem services and creating markets for ecosystem services, i.e.,mechanisms for the payment for ecosystem services, will
be a great task as a next step, since this will both keep up
the level of ecosystem services and enhance humanwell-being.

References
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Ryohei KADA
Dr. Ryohei KADA is currently a Professor at the
Research Institute for Humanity and Nature,
Kyoto, and teaches Food Risk Sciences at theGraduate School of Environment and Information
Sciences, Yokohama National University, Japan.
During 2001 and 2004, he served as Policy
Research Coordinator at the Policy Research Institute, Ministry ofAgriculture, Forestry and Fisheries (PRIMAFF), Japan. He currently also
serves as Visiting Professor at the United Nations University (UNU-IAS).
Prof. Kada has had a long career of research and teaching at the Graduate
School of Kyoto University for nearly 25 years, where he has taught
Agricultural and Environmental Economics and International Food Policy.
His past teaching career includes teaching at Kasetsart University in
Thailand and the University of Wisconsin-Madison. After receiving his
B.S. and M.S. degrees in Agricultural Economics from Kyoto University,
he obtained his PhD from the University of Wisconsin-Madison in 1978.
He has published numerous academic papers, articles and books, and has
attended a number of international conferences and seminars as a guest
speaker or advisor.

(Received 8 June 2012, Accepted 11 August 2012)179