Overview
Quality Assurance System
in Higher Education

JAPAN
NIAD-UE
National Institution for Academic Degrees and University Evaluation© National Institution for Academic Degrees and University Evaluation 2009

1-29-1 Gakuen-Nishimachi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8587 Japan
www.niad.ac.jp

IndexI. Basic information of country/region ··································· 2
II. The higher education system ·········································· 3
1. Historical overview ························································· 3
2. Diagram of the Japanese educational system ····································· 5
3. Types and sizes of major higher education institutions ···························· 61) Types and definitions ····················································· 62) Number of higher education institutions by establishment type ···················· 73) Number of students by establishment type····································· 74) Number of staff by establishment type ········································ 75) Standard course terms and school age ········································ 7
4. Student selectivity·························································· 8
5. University graduation (completion) and degree awarding requirements ················ 81) Number of credits ························································ 82) Graduation (completion) requirements ········································ 93) Degree awarding requirements ·············································· 94) Degree-awarding authority ·················································105) Unified national examination and assessments of learning outcomes ················10
6. Agency responsible for higher education ········································10
7. Major university/college associations···········································10
8. Student participation in university administration and student organizations ···········119. Tuitions and admission fees ··················································11
10. Student aid ······························································11
11. Attendance status ·························································1212. Higher education laws······················································12III. The quality assurance system ·············································· 13
1. Introduction ······························································13
2. Types of major quality assurance systems in Japanese higher education ···············161) Approval system for establishment of universities·······························162) Corrective actions taken if a university fails to meet laws and regulations ············183) Self-assessment ··························································184) Certified evaluation and accreditation ········································195) National university corporation evaluation ·····································216) Accreditation system for engineering education ·································23
3. History of the Japanese quality assurance (evaluation) system ·······················24
4. Laws and regulations pertaining to quality assurance (evaluation) ····················26
5. Other topics·······························································27

References ··············································· 28

Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan1

I. Basic information on the country/region
Name of country/region

Japan

CapitalTokyo

Major language

Japanese(Primary teaching language: Japanese)

Population*

127,780,000(10th largest in the world)

Nominal GDP**

4,375,546 Million USD

Nominal GDP per capita**

34,252 USD

Public spending on education
as a percentage of the total
government spending***

All levels of education: 9.8%

HE level: 1.8%

（OECD average: 13.4%)（OECD average: 3.1%)

All levels of education: 3.6%

HE level: 0.7%

（OECD average: 5.4%)（OECD average: 1.3%)

Public spending on
education as a percentage of
GDP***
Spending per student at
higher education level***

12,193 USD

Public spending on higher
education per student***

5,024 USD

Progression rate into higher
education****Overall higher
education1

Universities/
junior colleges

FY 2007

(a)

77.6%

54.6%

FY 2000

(b)

71.9%

49.8%

Change (a)-(b)

+5.7%

+4.8%

1

Indicates the progression rate into university undergraduate programs,

junior colleges, fourth-grade programs at colleges of technology, andprofessional training colleges.
Organization of education
system***(6-3)-3-4 * See Ⅱ-2. Diagram of the Japanese educational system.

Cycle of academic year***April to March

Source:* Total Population as of October 1, 2007, Chapter 2: Population and Estimation, World Statistics 2008, Statistics
Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications** Nominal GDP in FY 2006, Chapter 3: National Economic Accounting, World Statistics 2008, Statistics Bureau,
Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications*** International Comparison of Education Statistical Indicators FY 2008 Edition, Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and technology (MEXT) (2008)**** International Comparison of Education Statistical Indicators FY 2008 Edition and FY 2003 Edition, MEXT
(2008, 2003)

2

II. The higher education system
1. Historical overview
The Japanese modern school education system originated with the promulgation of the
Educational System in 1872. The system was changed to reflect the democratization policies in
education immediately following the end of WW II. With the establishment of the Constitution in
1947, the Fundamental Law of Education and the School Education Law were enacted to ensure
equal opportunities in education. The higher education system was consolidated into
“universities” in line with the formulation of the 6-3-3-4 school education system.
Subsequently, the Law on the Establishment of National Schools was established in 1949 as a newframework for national universities. The system for colleges of technology was established in 1962
to provide a unified 5-year period of education for secondary school graduates in response toincreased need for diverse human resources brought by industrial and economic development. In
1964, 2 or 3-year junior college programs which were temporarily established in 1950 were
provided as a permanent system under the School Education Law.
The Japanese higher education has made a quantitative expansion very rapidly, which is an
unprecedented worldwide expansion. Private universities played a central role in this expansion.
National universities accounted for 31.6% of all universities in Japan in 1955 but the percentage
decreased to 14.4% in 2002.
The percentage of students who go to universities or junior colleges, which was 16.1% in 1966,
increased to 38.6% in 1976. In the context of the universalization of higher education in the 1970’s,
a major political challenge was raised about how to maintain and enhance the quality of higher
education. The Central Council for Education, set up in the Ministry of Education, reported onreforms of the entire school education system in 1971. The report recommended that the
government should secure quality by classifying higher education institutions, managing the sizeof all higher education institutions, and taking fiscal measures. In response to therecommendations, the government introduced the Private Education Institution Aid System anddeveloped a plan for higher education in 1975.
The Provisional Council on Educational Reform, which was formed in 1984 as the Prime Minister’s
advisory panel, recommended that the government should take actions to make the existingeducational systems and laws which regulate them more flexible. As a means of ensuring theacademic quality of Japanese higher education and fostering its individualization, sophistication,and diversification as a government educational policy, the Council submitted some proposals
including deregulation of the Standards for Establishment of Universities, thereby enabling each
institution to develop its distinctiveness under its missions and objectives and be more actively
involved in “evaluations of universities” and “disclosure of its information”.

Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan3

In response to the recommendations, the Council for Higher Education was set up in the Ministry of
Education in 1987 and conducted reviews of the entire higher education system from threeperspectives: “sophistication of education and research”, “individualization of higher education”,
and “activation of university organization”.
The Council for Higher Education published a report on a flexible graduate school system in
December 1988. It then recommended actions in February 1991, which were: deregulation of the
University Act to promote individualization of learning contents and methods, revision of theacademic degree system, implementation of self-assessment, managing graduate schools fromquantitative approaches, and establishing new degree-awarding organizations. These efforts
promoted university reforms.
Due to the shift to a knowledge-based society in the late 1990s, high expectations for university
education and research were expressed by society. Nevertheless, there was a major concern
regarding how the quality of higher education could be secured against the background of theuniversalization of higher education with a rapid decline in the college-age population and thediversification of upper secondary school education.
To address this concern and propose a comprehensive reform plan, the 1998 Council for Higher
Education Report stated the definition of the role of university education as “cultivating aproblem-finding ability in learners”. It also recommended expansion of universities’ discretion to
enable the development of distinctive education and research, creation of a management system attheir own discretion and responsibility, and development of a multi-factorial evaluation system.
In response to the report, the government policies were formed, as the basis of ongoing university
reforms, including restructuring of undergraduate programs by limiting the number of credits andencouraging faculty development (FD), development of a professional graduate school system,
formation of a firm management system and a president’s advisory group, and establishment of athird-party evaluation organization. They implemented structural reforms, and in 2004, a national
university corporation system and a municipal/prefectural university corporation system werecommenced, and the Private School Law aimed to develop the school corporation system wasrevised.
The Central Council for Education published the reports “A Vision for the Future of Higher
Education in Japan” in January 2005 and “Graduate School Education in the New Age: Towards theDevelopment of Internationally Attractive Graduate School Education” in September 2005. They
recommended the introduction of more rigorous criteria for student assessment and to improvethe content of graduate school education.
The government took actions to improve education in response to these recommendations in April
2008, e.g., clarifying assessment criteria and making FD activities mandatory.
In December 2006, the Fundamental Law of Education was revised substantially for the first time inabout 60 years, and the definition of a university has been newly established.

4Elementary school

Kindergarten

Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan

Professional
training
college

Miscellaneous
schoolMiscellaneous
schoolProfessional training college

Professional
training
college

Secondary education

Lower secondary school

Elementary education

Junior college

Graduate school

Higher education(Distance learning
course)University

College of technology

Upper secondary schoolPre-school education

Distance leaning
courseEvening course

Secondary school

2. Diagram of the Japanese educational system

Grade Age

* School education is compulsory in elementary schools and lower secondary schools(between the ages of 6 and 15).

5

3. Types and sizes of major higher education institutions
1) Types and definitions

Universities (Paragraph 1 of Article 7 of the Fundamental Law of Education)
Universities, as centers of science, shall cultivate advanced learning and specialized skills,
while contributing to the development of society by pursuing the profound truth of things,
creating new knowledge, and disseminating their outcomes throughout society.
Universities
Universities, as centers of science, are designed to impart knowledge broadly, teach andstudy arts and sciences deeply, and to develop intellectual, ethical and practical abilities.
(Paragraph 1 of Article 83 of the School Education Law)

Graduate Schools
Graduate Schools are designed to teach and study academic theories and applications, andinquire deeply into them or cultivate knowledge and outstanding ability in depth to engage
in professions which require advanced expertise, while contributing to the development of
culture. (Paragraph 1 of Article 99 of the School Education Law)
Professional Graduate Schools
Within the category of graduate schools, schools which are designed to teach and study
academic theories and applications, and cultivate knowledge and outstanding ability indepth to engage in professions which require advanced expertise are defined as
professional graduate schools. (Paragraph 2 of Article 99 of the School Education Law)
Junior Colleges
Junior colleges can be designed to teach and study arts and sciences deeply and to develop
abilities required for occupations or practical life. (Paragraph 1 of Article 108 of the School
Education Law)

Colleges of Technology
Colleges of technology are designed to teach arts and sciences deeply and to develop abilities
required for occupations. (Paragraph 1 of Article 115 of the School Education Law)62) Number of higher education institutions by establishment type(as of May 1, 2008)
Unit: Institutions

86
(85)

Municipal/
Prefectural
90(76)

Junior colleges2

Colleges of technology
Total

National
Universities(Graduate schools)

PrivatePercentage ofprivate schools

Total

589
(443)

765
(604)

77.0%

29

386

417

92.6%

55

6

3

64

4.7%

143

125

978

1,246

78.5%

3) Number of students by establishment type (as of May 1, 2008)
Unit: Students

Municipal/
prefectural

National
Universities

Private

Total

Percentage ofprivate schools

623,789

131,977

2,079,476

2,835,242

73.3%

52

10,565

162,109172,726

93.9%

Colleges of technology

53,162

4,162

2,122

59,446

3.6%

Total

677,003

146,704

2,243,707

3,067,414

73.1%

Junior colleges4) Number of staff by establishment type (as of May 1, 2008)
Unit: Persons

Municipal/
prefectural

National
Universities

Total

Total

Percentage ofprivate schools

123,146

24,526217,684

365,356

59.6%

-

1,103

15,126

16,229

93.2%

6,473

479

213

7,165

3.0%

129,619

26,108233,023

388,750

60.0%

Junior collegesColleges of technology

Private5) Standard course terms and school age
Standard course term
Universities

Graduateschools

Standard school age

4 years (6 years)

18 to 21 years old

Master’s program

2 years

22 years old -Doctoral Program

3 years

24 years old -Professional degree
program

2 years (12 to less than 24
months)3 years for law schools
2 years for teacher education

22 years old-

Junior colleges

2 or 3 years

18 years old -Colleges of technology

5 years

15 to 19 years old

Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan7

4. Student selectivity
Basically, Japanese higher education institutions offer individual entrance examinations to selectstudents based on their own student admission policies.
With regard to the selection of students for university undergraduate programs and junior colleges,
the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT) provides the “Guidelines
for University Entrance Examinations” every year to promote appropriate student selection andfurther improvement of selection methods. Each university selects students based on the
Guidelines.
The Guidelines offer guidance on the methods and timing of the selection process and represent
the use of the National Center Test for University Admissions (Center Test) which is designed toassess applicants’ basic academic abilities at upper secondary school level.
All universities can use the Center Test, but it is not mandatory for university admission.
Consequently, there are a variety of student selection methods, e.g. the Center Test only,
combination of the Center Test and an original examination and interview, and an original
examination and/or interview only.
The Center Test is comprised of computer-scored paper tests (and an English listening
comprehension test) in 33 subjects of 6 subject areas. Universities are allowed to select subject
areas and subjects as their application requirements.

5. University graduation (completion) and degree awarding requirements
1) Number of credits
Subjects are categorized into lectures, exercises, experiments, practical training or skill sessions.
Classes are included in any of these forms or in a combination of them, and credits are conferred
for successful completion of the classes.
The number of credits for each subject is determined at institutional level based on thestandardized credit system in Japan. Under the system, one credit is considered to be generallycomposed of a total of 45 hours of studying (15 to 30 hours for lectures and exercises and 30 to 45
hours for experiments, practical training and skill sessions). In the case of artistic fields which
require personal guidance in performing arts training, graduation theses and graduation studies,
the number of study hours for one credit may be flexibly arranged. Each class runs for a 10 or
15-week term.

82) Graduation (completion) requirements(1) Universities
A minimum of 4 years of study with 124 or more credits* 6 years with 188 or more credits for medicine and dentistry
6 years with 186 or more credits for pharmacy
6 years with 182 or more credits for veterinary medicine(2) Graduate schools
Master’s programs: A minimum of 2 years of study with 30 or more credits, receiving necessary
guidance on research, approval of a final dissertation or specifically assigned study, and success inan examination.
Doctoral programs: A minimum of 5 years of study (including 2 years of study at a Master’s
program) with 30 or more credits (including those collected at a Master’s program), receiving
necessary guidance on research, approval of a final thesis, and success in an examination.
* Doctoral programs may consist of a two-year first stage program and a three-year program
thereafter.
Professional degree programs: A minimum of 2 years of study with 30 or more credits andcompletion of necessary academic programs.
* 3 years with 93 or more credits for law schools
2 years with 45 or more credits for teacher education(3) Junior colleges
2-year junior colleges: A minimum of 2 years of study with 62 or more credits
3 or more-year junior colleges: A minimum of 3 years of study with 93 or more credits

3) Degree awarding requirements
An academic degree is awarded to students who successfully complete a university undergraduate
program, a graduate program, and those who graduate from a junior college.
University (undergraduate program)

Bachelor’s Degree

Graduate school

Master’s Degree or Doctoral Degree

Professional graduate school

Professional Degree

Junior college

Associate Degree

As a degree-awarding system additional to graduating (completing) the regular courses at auniversity and junior college, the National Institution for Academic Degrees and University
Evaluation (NIAD-UE) awards academic degrees (Bachelor’s, Master’s and Doctoral degrees), anduniversities offering doctoral programs award academic degrees comparable to a Doctoral Degree
to students by reviewing a final thesis.
Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan94) Degree-awarding authority
Universities and junior colleges are authorized to award academic degrees when the Minister of
Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology approves the establishment of the institution
as having adequate quality as a degree-awarding institution. Once the Minister approves theestablishment, the right to award academic degrees rests with each institution. In addition to
universities and junior colleges, NIAD-UE is also authorized to award academic degrees.

5) Unified national examination and assessments of learning outcomes
In respect of the individualization of universities and that each university has the right to award
academic degrees, there is no unified national examination or assessment of learning outcomes at
graduation.

6. Agency responsible for higher education
Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT)
3-2-2, Kasumigaseki, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo, 100-8959
TEL: +81-3-5253-4111 URL: www.mext.go.jp
MEXT is responsible for the development of creative people with rich character through promoting
education and lifelong learning, the promotion of academic, sports and cultural activities, thecomprehensive advancement of science and technology, and is also in charge of administrative
affairs regarding religions. (Article 3 of the Law on the Establishment of the Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology)

Department in charge of quality assurance (evaluation) of higher education:
Higher Education Policy Planning Division, Higher Education Bureau

7. Major university/college associations

10•

The Japan Association of National Universities (www.janu.jp)•

The Japan Association of Public Universities (www.kodaikyo.org)•

Association of Private Universities of Japan (www.shidaikyo.or.jp)•

The Japan Association of Private Universities and Colleges (www.shidairen.or.jp)•

Japan Association of Public Junior Colleges (http://park16.wakwak.com/~kotan819/)•

The Association of Private Junior Colleges in Japan (www.tandai.or.jp)

8. Student participation in university administration and student organizations
There is no nationwide student union associated with university management.

9. Tuitions and admission fees*
1) Universities
Unit: JPY

Total

Admission fee

TuitionOther

National**

817,800

282,000

535,800-

Municipal/prefectural***935,589

399,351536,238-

1,298,726

273,564

834,751

190,410

Private****2) Junior colleges
Unit: JPY

Total
National**

Admission fee

559,200

Tuition169,200

Municipal/prefectural

Other

390,000-

672,490

185,564

Not available

Private****1,111,170

253,116*

Tuition: Yearly fee / Admission fee: At school entry (only for the first year)**

Indicates the standard amount the government sets out.

***

Indicates the average amount for FY 2007.

**** Indicates the average amount for FY 2007.

10. Student aid – major scholarship program (for FY 2009)
ScholarshipproviderApplicableinstitution

Annual amount per
student (Unit: JPY)

Allowanceor loan

540,000 to 768,000

Loan

Graduate school:
master’s program

600,000 to 1,056,000

Loan

Graduate school:
doctoral program

960,000 to 1,464,000

Loan

540,000 to 720,000

Loan

University

360,000 to 1,440,000

Loan

Graduate school:
master’s program

600,000 to 1,800,000

Loan

Graduate school:
doctoral program

600,000 to 1,800,000

Loan

Junior college

360,000 to 1,440,000

Loan

University

Interest-freeloanJapan Student
Services
Organization(JASSO)Interest-bearing
loan

Junior college

Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan11

11. Attendance status
Types of student attendance status consist of “Full-Time Students” who take a formal academic
degree program to obtain a qualification, and “Part-Time Students” including “Non-Degree Students”,
and “Research Students”.

12. Higher education laws
1) Laws governing higher education•

Fundamental Law of Education (2006, Law No. 120)•

School Education Law (1947, Law No. 26)

2) Laws and regulations related to an approval of the establishment of Japanesehigher education institutions•

School Education Law (1947, Law No.26) Article 3•Standards for the Establishment of Universities (1956, Education Ministry Ordinance No.28)•

Standards for the Establishment of Distance Learning Program at Universities (1981,
Education Ministry Ordinance No.33)•

Standards for the Establishment of Junior Colleges (1975, Education Ministry OrdinanceNo.21)•

Standards for the Establishment of Graduate Schools (1974, Education Ministry OrdinanceNo.28)•

Standards for the Establishment of Professional Graduate Schools (2003, MEXT OrdinanceNo.16)•

Standards for the Establishment of Colleges of Technology (1961, Education Ministry
Ordinance No.23)

3) Laws and regulations related to degree-awarding authority

12•

School Education Law (1947, Law No.26) Article 104•

Rules for Degrees (1953, Education Ministry Ordinance No.9)

III. The quality assurance system
1. Introduction
As stated in the Fundamental Law of Education (Paragraph 1 of Article 6, Clause 1) that “theeducational institution that is established by law has a public character”, all of the Japanese
educational institutions (kindergartens, elementary schools, schools for secondary education
including lower secondary schools and upper secondary schools, special support schools, i.e.,schools for children with special needs, universities, and colleges of technology) are required toperform roles as public institutions and only limited bodies (the government, local publicorganizations/prefectural governments, and school corporations) are authorized to set them up. In
addition, an institution that wishes to operate as an educational institution has to be approved forestablishment by undergoing assessment. These ex-ante quality assurance measures throughout
the system for approval of the establishment of institutions are complimented by various ex-post
quality-related systems for guaranteeing the quality of Japanese higher education.
The mission of universities is stipulated in the Fundamental Law of Education and the School
Education Law.
The Fundamental Law of Education states the ultimate roles of universities: “Universities, ascenters of science, shall cultivate advanced learning and specialized skills, while contributing to
the development of society by pursuing the profound truth of things, creating new knowledge, anddisseminating their outcomes throughout society.” (Paragraph 1 of Article 7). This means that
universities are required to provide educational and research outcomes and to demonstrate theirperformance to society. This law also provides the academic autonomy of universities: “Theautonomy, independence, and nature of education and research of universities should be
respected.” (Paragraph 2 of Article 7).
The School Education Law also declares the ultimate mission of university as follows: “Universities,
as centers of science, are designed to impart knowledge broadly, teach and study arts and sciences
deeply, and to develop intellectual, ethical and practical abilities.” (Paragraph 1 of Article 83). Thislaw also states that “universities should contribute to social development by carrying out
educational research to accomplish this mission and disseminating their outcomes throughout thesociety.” (Paragraph 2 of Article 83).
To ensure the quality of Japanese universities suitable for their mission stipulated in such laws,
several quality assurance frameworks have been legally established including:•

The approval system for establishment of universities (Article 4 of the School Education Law)•

Certified evaluation and accreditation (Paragraph 2 of Article 109 of the School Education Law)

The certified evaluation and accreditation system was adopted in accordance with revision of the
School Education Law in 2003 and has been enforced since April 2004.

Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan13

Before launching a major review of its education policy, the government applied a “control policy”
concerning the quantitative scale of universities, and, therefore, did not allow institutions inprinciple to establish new campuses in the central areas of big cities such as Tokyo and Osaka andincrease the total capacity of students (control policy concerning the establishment of universities).
In response to the recent reform of regulations, however, the control of the establishment of new
universities was deregulated in all subject areas excluding those related to doctors, dentists,
veterinarians and seamen, to allow universities to build flexible organizations so that they promote
their individualization and take account of social and economic changes.
As a result of deregulation, the policy in approving the establishment of universities has beenreexamined and the deliberation procedures have become simpler. Firstly, simple conformancewith related regulations has become the basic principle of the approval assessment. Thus, theestablishment of a university may now be approved if judged that it fulfills the basic requirements
stated in laws such as the Standards for the Establishment of Universities. Secondly, reference
points for the approval assessment have been streamlined. Previously, “internal regulations”
prescribing strict rules concerning athletic fields, the number of books in the library, and the ageof the academic staff, etc. have been referred to besides the Standards for the Establishment of
Universities. However, these rules have been abolished in the course of deregulation thereby
making requirements for approval much simpler. Thirdly, a notification system was adopted
replacing the previous policy that advanced deliberations were mandatory for establishing every
faculty or department. In this system, it is not necessary to undergo the approval process, and asimple notification of the changes is all that is required in the case of the establishment of faculties
or departments that do not greatly deviate from the existing academic fields.
These policy reforms and deregulation processes regarding university establishment facilitatedpreparation of ex-post facto checking systems for assuring the quality of universities. Besides asystematic self-assessment, certified evaluation and accreditation was added as a major quality
assurance system. In addition, the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology
was authorized by law to take corrective actions in his/her capacity against a university if it fails tomeet laws and regulations. The actions include a recommendation for improvement, an order tochange, and an order to close a department or an entire institution.
To summarize, ‘ex-post checking/evaluation’ may now be taken into account as well as ‘ex-ante
restrictions’ as an approach to assure the quality of universities.
Incidentally, seeing the need to create educational institutions that meet the needs of students as
consumers, the Japanese government began to allow stock corporations to establish universities
following the enactment of the Designated Structural Reform Districts Law. So far, six universities
have been established and operated by private stock corporations.
It is true that as a part of the ongoing review of Japanese higher education, drastic reforms of thequality assurance system for universities have been carried out and put into practice since 2003, a
lot of issues and problems have been raised as the globalization of higher education is advancing

14and the number of higher education institutions is increasing due to the government’s
deregulation policy.
For example, the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology has given
recommendations to some newly established universities operated by stock corporations pointing
out that their lesson content was nothing more than that employed at preparatory schools.
Higher education institutions have been facing difficulty in recruiting students widely. Specifically,
67.5% of universities and 47% of junior colleges have not reached their fixed enrollment capacities
in FY 2008.
Thus, as types of higher education institutions diversify due to the government’s deregulation
policy, there has often been concern regarding the quality of their teaching and research
performance, casting doubt on their ability to achieve the ultimate mission of universities stated in
the Fundamental Law of Education and the School Education Law.
In order to address these issues, extensive discussion is in progress in the Subdivision on
Universities of the Central Council for Education, focusing on the future of Japanese university
education. Its panel members have recognized the necessity to establish an official andcomprehensive quality assurance framework which is comprised of university self-assessment, theStandards for the Establishment of Universities, approval system for the establishment (ofuniversities), certified evaluation and accreditation, and public funding system for enhancing thequality of Japanese universities.

Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan15

2. Types of major quality assurance systems in Japanese higher education•

Approval system for establishment of universities•

Corrective actions taken if a university fails to meet laws and regulations•

Self-assessment (mandatory under the School Education Law)•

Certified evaluation and accreditation•

National university corporation evaluation

Besides these legally-determined systems, there are several non-legally-stated voluntary initiatives
developed by organizations outside the higher education institutions such as Accreditation System
for Engineering Education in Japan.

1) Approval system for establishment of universities
Purpose and roles
The approval system is undertaken by the government. Its purpose is to protect students’ rights tostudy, and to assure the quality of every university is adequate as an institution which awards
internationally-compatible academic degrees. In the case of a newly-established university,
approval is granted if it is judged to meet certain standards.

Scope of approval
Approval by the government should be gained for:•Establishment of a graduate school (academic unit/major)•

Establishment of a university (faculty/department)•

Establishment of a junior college (department)•

Establishment of a college of technology (department)

In the case of the establishment of faculties or departments that do not greatly deviate from theexisting academic fields, it is not necessary to undergo the above approval process, and a simple
notification of the changes is all that is required.

Frequency
No expiration date or frequency of the approval is determined.

Process
An application for the establishment of an institution such as a university is submitted to the
Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. In response to the consultationfrom the Minister, MEXT’s Council for University Chartering and School Corporation examines theapplication in light of relevant standards such as the Standards for the Establishment of
Universities. Examination results are notified to the Minister, and the Minister makes a final

16

decision regarding approval.
The Council for University Chartering and School Corporation, comprised of approximately 400
academics and experts possessing abundant knowledge and experience, undertakes theinvestigations.
The investigations are carried out by the Council’s subcommittees: the subcommittee on university
chartering examines education and research, and the subcommittee on school corporation
examines financial and management systems. In the case of the establishment of a university, theexamination process runs for approximately seven months through document analysis, interviews,
and site visits. For approval of newly-established departments, the process usually takes about fivemonths.

Examination criteria
As for examining aspects of teaching and learning, the Standards for the Establishment of
Universities are mainly employed. The Standards comprise:
Chapter 1 - General provisions

Chapter 6 - Academic programs

Chapter 2 - Educational and research structure

Chapter 7 - Graduation/completion requirements

Chapter 3 - Academic staff organization

Chapter 8 - Facilities and equipments

Chapter 4 - Eligibility criteria for academic staff

Chapter 9 - Administrative organization

Chapter 5 - Student capacity

Chapter 10 - Miscellaneous provisions

Follow-up
In order to contribute to the maintenance and improvement of the academic level of each
university and encourage its spontaneous improvements, the Council monitors if it conducts
education and research as planned until the year in which it produces its first graduates via written
report, interview, or site-visit. The monitoring includes requesting a university to provide progress
reports concerning the recommendations previously pointed out at the time of its approval, andgive information about its academic courses/programs, academic staff organization, and progressof other establishment plans. In the case the Council identifies improvements that need to be made,it will notify them to the university and encourage necessary actions. The progress of
newly-established universities is made public through MEXT’s official website.

Publication of results and measures for ensuring transparency
Applications and results of examinations are made public through MEXT’s official website.
In the approval process, applicants have an opportunity to revise their original plans against thecomments from the Council and make further explanations.

Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan172) Corrective actions taken if a university fails to meet laws and regulations
Overview (purpose, roles)
Following the revision of the School Education Law of 2003 and other related regulations, theauthority was given to the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology to takecorrective actions in his/her capacity against a subject higher education institution if it fails tomeet laws and regulations including the School Education Law and/or the Standards for the
Establishment of Universities. The traditional single action of issuing an order for the closure of an
entire institution has been replaced by three gradual measures: 1) a recommendation forimprovement, 2) an order to change, and 3) an order to close a department or an entire institution.

Applicable unit
The entire institution or academic unit (e.g. faculty, department)

Frequency
No expiration date or frequency of actions is determined.

Process
The autonomy of universities should be fully taken into account when taking any actions. Prior toactions, the Minister should consult with the Council for University Chartering and School
Corporation. The Council, with abundant knowledge and experience, considers necessary actions
in a fair and careful manner.

Publication of results and measures for ensuring transparency
The Minister may request a university to submit reports and materials as documentary evidence inconsidering necessary actions.
Information on corrective actions is made public through MEXT’s official website.

3) Self-assessment
Overview (purpose, roles, process, publication of results, and measures for ensuringtransparency)
Self-assessment is a systematic assessment for universities and other higher education institutions
to check the progress in light of their own goals and objectives, discover areas of excellence orareas in need of improvement, and enhance the quality of their activities based on publishedassessment results. Self-assessment was first stipulated as a task which universities should strive
to implement under the revised School Education Law of 1991. In 1999, self-assessment andpublication of its results became mandatory. (Regulations concerning self-assessment andpublication of its results are now stipulated in the School Education Law following its revision in18

2002.) The scheme of self-assessment has been developed against a background of the expectationthat universities would have the prime responsibility for assuring the quality themselves under
their academic autonomy.

Applicable unit
Although the School Education Law states that every university, junior college, and college oftechnology is obliged to conduct self-assessment and publish its results, no applicable unit islegally determined. Each institution conducts self-assessment at institutional level and, where
needed, at academic unit level.

Frequency
No expiration date or frequency of self-assessment is determined.

4) Certified evaluation and accreditation
Overview (frequency)
A mandatory evaluation system in which evaluation and accreditation organizations certified by
the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (called certified evaluation andaccreditation organizations) conduct evaluation of the progress of education and research ofuniversities, junior colleges, colleges of technology, and professional graduate schools, based on
their own standards for evaluation and accreditation. Universities, junior colleges, and colleges oftechnology are obliged to undergo the evaluation at least once in every seven years, andprofessional graduate schools at least once in every five years.

Purpose and roles•

To develop education and research of universities and other higher education institutions
and to assist in demonstrating their performance to society through periodical third-party
evaluation.

•

To contribute to the individualization of education and research by reviewing based on
individual criteria developed by evaluation organizations.

Applicable Unit
Institutional level: University, junior college, and college of technology
Academic unit level: Professional graduate school

Process, publication of results, and measures for ensuring transparency
The certification process begins with applications from organizations which wish to be certified
evaluation and accreditation organizations. After reports from the Central Council for Education,
the Minister confers certification as an evaluation and accreditation organization when theapplicant body is judged to fulfill certain criteria concerning their standards, methods, andOverview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan19

framework for evaluation. Information on certified organizations is made public throughgovernment newspapers.
Evaluation and accreditation results are notified to targeted institutions and the Minister, andmade public to society.
Targeted institutions have an opportunity to make remarks/objections about evaluation results
prior to finalization of the process.

Judgments on the evaluation process
Each organization creates its own evaluation standards and uses these standards in judgment.
While the standards are required to meet the basic/minimum stipulations stated in related laws toensure a fair and appropriate evaluation process, how they are exercised in each evaluation is left
to the discretion of the organizations.

Follow-up
In light of the purpose of certified evaluation and accreditation, necessary actions in response toevaluation results depend upon the self-initiative of each institution. However, the Minister may
take corrective actions if the university is judged to fail to meet laws and regulations based on
unsatisfactory evaluation standards and request it to submit reports and materials as documentary
evidence in considering necessary actions. The actions include a recommendation forimprovement, an order to change, and an order to close a department or an entire institution.

Reference: List of certified evaluation and accreditation organizations (as of May 1, 2008)
Institutional certified evaluation and accreditation organizations
Universities (Certified on January 14, 2005)
National Institution for Academic Degrees
and University Evaluation (NIAD-UE)

Junior colleges (January 14, 2005)
Colleges of technology (July 12, 2005)

Japan University Accreditation Association(JUAA)

Universities (August 31, 2004)
Junior colleges (January 25, 2007)

Japan Institution for Higher Education
Evaluation (JIHEE)

Universities (July 12, 2005)

Japan Association for College
Accreditation (JACA)

Junior colleges (January 14, 2005)

20

Certified evaluation and accreditation organizations for professional graduate schools*
Japan Law Foundation

Graduate law schools (Certified on August 31, 2004)

NIAD-UE

Graduate law schools (January 14, 2005)
Graduate law schools (February 6, 2007)JUAAManagement courses (April 8, 2008)
ABEST 21

Management courses (October 12, 2007)

Japan Institute of International Accounting
Education

Accounting courses (October 12, 2007)

Japan Institute of Midwifery Evaluation

Midwifery courses (April 8, 2008)* In the case some academic areas of professional graduate schools do not undergo evaluation forparticular reasons, (because related evaluation and accreditation organizations for the specificfields do not exist in Japan, for example), they are required by the Minister of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology to take the following actions:
1. To be assessed by overseas evaluation organizations which the Minister designates asinternationally recognized organizations conducting fair and appropriate evaluations, makeevaluation results public, and report them to the Minister.
2. A review regarding results of self-assessment and evaluation of subject professional graduate
schools is to be carried out periodically by external persons. Its results should be made public andreported to the Minister.

5) National university corporation evaluation
Overview
Performance-based evaluation of national university corporations and inter-university research
institute corporations in respect of their attainment of mid-term objectives, mid-term plans andannual plans for education, research and management. The National University Corporation
Evaluation Committee is entirely responsible for this evaluation. The committee appoints NIAD-UE
to undertake evaluation on their attainment of mid-term objectives for education and research.

Purpose and roles
National universities have traditionally played a central role in the well-balanced development ofJapanese higher education and academic research by: promoting academic research andorganizing graduate schools; developing talented people considering the balance of developmentin academic fields; providing higher education to both urban and local areas; and contributing toregional development and ensuring access to higher education.

Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan

21

However, national universities, formerly positioned as internal organizations of MEXT, were facedwith some challenges e.g., it has become difficult to respond to the rapid growth of society because
they were not independent bodies and were unable to make decisions individually. To addressthese challenges, all national universities were incorporated with the beginning of the national
university corporation system in April 2004. National universities are expected to develop theirindividuality and competitiveness within higher education as autonomous, independent andflexible organizations.
The purpose of the national university corporation evaluation is to demonstrate the progress ofnational university corporations to society, and to use results of evaluation in allocating financial
resources to the corporations appropriately.

Frequency
Conducted every fiscal year and at the end of a six-year mid-term objectives period.

Process
The national university corporation evaluation committee is comprised of up to 20 experts
appointed by the Minister of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology. The Committee
may set up subcommittees and working teams. It conducts reviews on the progress of mid-termplans for corporations based on their performance reports submitted every fiscal year. Then, their
attainment of entire mid-term objectives is evaluated in respect of results of reviews and featuresof each corporation.
In particular, the Committee delegates NIAD-UE, as a professional body for evaluation of education
and research in higher education, to conduct evaluation of their attainment of education andresearch at the end of mid-term objectives period.

Judgment on the evaluation process
Each national university corporation’s mid-term objectives vary according to their features andcharacteristics. The Committee therefore conducts reviews and makes judgment about university
corporations individually.

Follow-up, publication of results, measures for ensuring transparency
The results of the annual review notified at the end of the fiscal year are used in identifying a
corporation’s strengths and improvements and enhancing their activities. Evaluation results of all
mid-term objectives are used in developing the next mid-term objectives. The rate of governmental
grants allocated during the next mid-term objectives is affected by the results of the national
university corporation evaluation.
Evaluation and review results are made public. Information on the evaluation including meeting
agendas, minutes and evaluation reports are also available from MEXT’s official website.

226) Accreditation system for engineering education
Overview
A professional accreditation system under which an external body (the Japan Accreditation Board
for Engineering Education: JABEE) conducts examinations as to whether engineering education
programs offered by higher education institutions fulfill the level which society expects, andconfers the status of accreditation to successful programs.

Purpose and roles•

To accredit programs which are judged to reach the certain level of quality and successfully
develop human resources with the knowledge and ability necessary to work as engineers.

•

To secure the comparability of engineering education between Japan and oversea countries,
and to demonstrate the fact that graduates from accredited programs have completed theirstudies necessary to work as engineers.

Implementing body and process
JABEE, an implementing body of the accreditation system, became a member of the Washington
Accord in June 2005, and has established mutual recognition of engineering accreditation systems
among 12 member countries including the US, Canada, and the UK to ensure the comparability ofengineering education.

Applicable unit
This is program-level accreditation system.

Frequency
In general, accredited programs are conferred a six-year accreditation. They are required to notify
the desire to continue the accreditation status every fiscal year after initial accreditation. Programs
which wish to renew the status should be reexamined.

Publication of results and measures for ensuring transparency
JABEE has developed criteria for accreditation. The examination process is based on the rules andprocedures of the Washington Accord. The criteria are made public through JABEE’s website.
Accredited programs are conferred a certificate, and are also made public.

Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan

23

3. History of the Japanese quality assurance (evaluation) system

April 1947 The new university system was launched upon the enforcement of the School Education
Law.
July 1947

The Japan University Accreditation Association (JUAA) was established under thesponsorship of universities, based on guidance given by the CIE (GHQ Civil Information and
Education Section). Its University Standards were developed.
January 1948

The University Establishment Committee was set up within the Ministry of

Education.
June 1952JUAA conducted evaluation of the qualification of universities, and approved 38

universities for membership.
October 1956 The Standards for the Establishment of Universities were developed.
April 1986 The Provisional Council on Educational Reform Report ‘The Second Report on Education
Reform’ requested universities to carry out self-assessment.
February 1991

The Council for Higher Education Report ‘Improvement of University Education’was compiled. It requested the government to: deregulate the University Act to make regulations on
subjects, graduation requirements, and academic staff organizations more flexible; and introduce aself-assessment system.
June 1991

The Standards for the Establishment of Universities were revised. The University Act

was deregulated making the university approval system more flexible. Self-assessment was
stipulated as a task which universities should strive to implement.
October 1998 The Council for Higher Education Report ‘A Vision of Universities in the 21stCentury’ requested: the enhancement of the existing self-assessment system (need for publicationof assessment results and verification by external persons); and introduction of a third-party
evaluation system (with the establishment of third-party evaluation organizations).
September 1999 The Revised Standards for the Establishment of Universities statedself-assessment and publication of assessment results as mandatory and verification by external
parties as a task which universities should strive to implement.
April 2000 National Institution for Academic Degrees was reorganized as NIAD-UE.
July 2000 (to March 2004)

NIAD-UE conducted trial university evaluation of national andmunicipal/prefectural universities.

24August 2002

The Central Council for Education Report ‘Establishment of a New System pertaining

to the Quality Assurance of Universities’ requested: the conducting of reviews of the existing
approval system for establishment; and the introduction of a new third-party evaluation (certified
evaluation and accreditation) system and corrective actions against universities failing to meet laws
and regulations.
November 2002

The Revised School Education Law brought forth the review of the approvalsystem, the introduction of the certified evaluation and accreditation system, the development ofregulations concerning corrective actions and of a professional graduate school system. (Thecertified evaluation and accreditation system was initiated in April 2004.)
As a result of the major revision of laws concerning the establishment of a university (e.g. theStandards for the Establishment of Universities), simple conformance with related regulations has
become the basic principle of the approval assessment. It was also decided that the additional
standards which had thus far been prescribed as internal regulations in the Ordinance of the Council
for University Chartering and School Corporation should be abolished and that approval should bebased on laws above the level of notification.
March 2003
July 2003

The standards for establishment of professional graduate schools were developed.

The National University Corporation Law was enacted and national universities wereincorporated in April 2004.
April 2004 The certified evaluation and accreditation system was introduced.
January 2005

The Central Council for Education submitted Report ‘A Vision for the Future ofHigher Education in Japan’ requested: the classification of universities by their functions,appropriate use of the approval system; and enhancement of the certified evaluation andaccreditation system.
September 2005 The Central Council for Education Report ‘Graduate School Education in the New
Age: Towards the Development of Internationally Attractive Graduate School Education’ requested:enhancement of learning contents in graduate schools; and assurance of their quality by introducing
a new evaluation system.
December 2006

The Fundamental Law of Education was revised to specify the basic roles ofuniversities.
April 2008 –NIAD-UE conducts the evaluation of education and research of national university

corporations and inter-university research institute corporations, commissioned by the MEXT’s
National University Corporation Evaluation Committee.
April 2008 –The National University Corporation Evaluation Committee conducts

performance-based evaluations of national university corporations and inter-university research
institute corporations during the mid-term objective periods.

Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan25

4. Laws and regulations pertaining to quality assurance (evaluation)• Fundamental Law of Education• School Education Law• School Education Law Enforcement Ordinance• School Education Law Enforcement Regulations• Rules for Degrees• Standards for the Establishment of Universities• Standards for the Establishment of Distance Learning Programs at Universities• Standards for the Establishment of Graduate Schools• Standards for the Establishment of Professional Graduate Schools• Standards for the Establishment of Junior Colleges• Standards for the Establishment of Distance Learning Programs at Junior Colleges• Standards for the Establishment of Colleges of Technology• Ministerial Ordinances which Provide Details Required to Apply Standards Provided in
Paragraph 2 of Article 110 of the School Education Law• The law on Coordination of Graduate Law School Education and the National Bar
Examination• National University Corporation Law• Act on the General Rules for Incorporated Administrative Agency• Act on the National Institution for Academic Degrees and University Evaluation• Private School Law• Act on Organization and Operation of Local Education Administration• Act on Local Incorporated Administrative Agencies• Act on Special Zones for Structural Reform• Measures pertaining to Exceptions of Ministerial (MEXT) Ordinance Provided in Paragraph 3
of Article 2 of the Act on Special Zones for Structural Reform and Ministerial Ordinancewhich Provide Applicable Projects• Law on the Establishment of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science andTechnology• Ordinance of the Council for University Chartering and School Corporation26

5. Other topics
1) University ranking
There are rankings of higher education institutions in the private sector of Japan, e.g., theuniversity ranking based on the level of difficulty in passing entrance examinations of universities
released by the entrance examination supporting service sector, and the subject level ranking
developed by the media. Meanwhile, the public sector has traditionally voiced negative opinions
toward university rankings. Some universities, however, began to react to the world university
rankings positively from the viewpoint of international competitiveness.

2) Stakeholders related to quality assurance affairs other than government
agencies, higher education institutions, and quality assurance (evaluation)organizations• Japan Society for the Promotion of Science• Japan Science and Technology Agency• Japan Student Services Organization, etc.

Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education: Japan27

References•

Japan Student Services Organization (JASSO): Student Guide to Japan 2009-2010•

Ministry of Education: 120 Years’ History of the Educational System, 1992•

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT): Guidelines for
University Entrance Examinations 2009-2010•

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT): International
Comparison of Education Statistical Indicators FY 2008 Edition, 2008•

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT): International
Comparison of Education Statistical Indicators FY 2003 Edition, 2003•

The Council for Higher Education, Ministry of Education: The Council Report ‘A Vision of
Universities in the 21st Century’, 1998•

Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications: World Statistics 2008,
2008

Websites•

Japan Accreditation Board for Engineering Education (JABEE): www.jabee.org•

Japan University Accreditation Association (JUAA): www.juaa.or.jp•

Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT): www.mext.go.jp•

National Institution for Academic Affairs and University Evaluation (NIAD-UE):
www.niad.ac.jp•

Statistics Bureau, Ministry of Internal Affairs and Communications :www.stat.go.jp/index.htm

28

Overview of the Quality Assurance System in Higher Education
Japan

Published by:
National Institution for Academic Degrees and University Evaluation
1-29-1 Gakuen-Nishimachi, Kodaira, Tokyo 187-8587 Japan
www.niad.ac.jp