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«¬­®*ῌ¯°±²**ῌ³´µ ¶*ῌ·:¸**ῌ)¹ º**ῌ»¼½῍*
Measurement of Dielectric Properties Using Time Domain Transmissiometry(TDT) with Broad Band Impulse-Signal
Hideki MIYAMOTO*, Naoki ITO**, Eriko YASUNAGA*, Shinya TAKAICHI**,Atsushi MASE** and Jiro CHIKUSHI** Biotron Institute, Kyushu University, 0ῌ+*ῌ+ Hakozaki, Higashi-ku,
Fukuoka city, Fukuoka 2+,ῌ2/2+, Japan** Art, Science and Technology Center for Cooperative Research, Kyushu University,
0ῌ+ Kasuga-koen, Kasuga city, Fukuoka 2+0ῌ2/2*, Japan
Abstract
Time domain transmissiometry (TDT), a method of measuring transmitted broadband signal in
microwave frequency, has been drawing a lot of attention more than ever as an alternative
method to monitor water content and solute concentration in soils. To establish the monitoring
method by applying TDT, we measured travel time and amplitude of impulse-signal transmitted
through several types of ﬂuid media using TDT probes with di#erent lengths, and veriﬁed thee#ectiveness of TDT for the estimation of apparent permittivity and electrical conductivity of themedia. Although the determination of apparent permittivity and electrical conductivity of an
extremely high-conductive medium was not completed due to the inadmissible loss of thetransmitted signal, we successfully determined both properties by TDT in moderate-conductive
media. Judging from their distribution from referential values in literature, we concluded thatthe longer probes provided more accurate estimations of apparent permittivity and electricalconductivity.
Key words : Time domain transmissiometry (TDT), Apparent permittivity, Electrical conductivity, Travel time, Signal intensity+
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to electrical conductivity in CaCl, solutions.

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3^; CaCl,  e +deo.s Harlow

f*,EI  0< e 3yb- ῐ

et al. ,**- 0 vV LoJf2*, l.s :i, E~78*129 o
Lptts!ts"tstu#!῎῍ῌῌ"tstu#
cttm!tm"tstu#

569 ῍῎tt, s \/] tt, m 9 l@KJ\/]DJ

3yb-<yb- L0 @b TDR 9$_ ῐ+ -ῌ ῒh  tstu# 9  5E
¢£7 3)oLp
tm!ttmtts"῎῍ῌῌc>.3vV ¬,{|4@-V-33῏-ῌ+ ῎ῑῐ῔

8¤¥9 ¦῏

VTDT

32
\-V}

4pI=if2*  ts \/] tm 9g`2p ῍ I ῎ #,¡-V6uEIno

V-3 Dalton et al., +32. TDT

3 +1$ ^; 1 §9 CaCl,  *.*+. *.*-1 *.*1. *.+, *.-/ *.0*
*.32 S m+ ? ¨©ª J, 7«2*ῌ7

D>V tt, s«2*"[#: ^; - §97«2* *.-*,­® ¯°>V\±² tt, m no  tm 3¯°*.0* +.* kg kg+ [#: DW  +- §9,³´µ l, ῌ ¶:EIn±,)L

I3b
X0 34i, EIb 78

;I>. ·³´µ;X<I ,=ῐ+\/]¸E ;\ ?\/]:9¹>= º?@» ,*** /x¡>.},¼½>

  ++*  ,**2

6

ῌ+   eῌ #
Table +

sW!" 

Electrical conductivity (sW) and real
permittivity (eῌ) of materials under test.

Fluid mediasW (S m+)eῌCaCl, solution, #+CaCl, solution, #,CaCl, solution, #CaCl, solution, #.
CaCl, solution, #/CaCl, solution, #0
CaCl, solution, #1
Air
Cooking oil
Ethanol, +.* kg kg+*Ethanol, *.0 kg kg+*Ethanol, *.- kg kg+*Distilled water (DW)

*4*+.
*4*-1
*4*1.
*4+,
*4-/
*40*
*432
*4*




*4*








+4**
-4**
--4+
..4,
0,4+
2+4/

* Ethanol/(ethanolwater)Chronological scientiﬁc tables ,**+

Averaged e-value from -* MHz to +** MHz at,/ῌFig. -

TDT

Schematic diagram of a TDT probe
designed.

TDT $%&ῌ. '() ῌ+ '*+ ,&-./01  2  345  6 1/ mm, 78+-* mm 9:;< = !>'?
TDT

&@"'#

 BNCῌSMA $ABC

1D !" +2 GHz %E.4FG Atem H &I:
U

CaCl, &J K L'M( NMOPQ 8V' W-X- !",./YZ[\

Q TDT')*]^5.01_+RS5#,&T

AVH-S-+-C,

AVTEC

ELECTRO-D`5 K a b ,/ ; c23d 

SYSTEMS H 4, &W] 2/*1*D, Agilent TechnologiesHP /.1/* A, Hewlett-Packard H '=iji )*!"C04hF]efg.B

1kl-Tm HP21+.ES, Agilent Technologies &



5%



T]^5.01_b0o)[opq6r7sZV

 viVt8$a K9wx"'7:yF\$A;z{ |7;.}145#<Q$

t8&u+-* MHz nV +** MHz ~a MYZ[b  K=Z & ῌ/ '() Z   {' TDR+** SM & ,;[M/n[

5E.D Campbell Scientific H b0)[.E0-, TDT ^5.o#<& ῌ/ '>u)[ T]^5.o

~'%N

TDT

 
&ῌ- '()"6 +., mm  , 9.E].@&5 'Ad &N ?Cb'Z[!'D&\g;H

KN?9&(ῌ/ a :TDR+** !7|7A/ bBN ῌ/ b op
qEFGV<&()0DK+/ ps ;[{ = Q I0GD3& /* JK¡!LM 9wx Npq$' NQ

+RS5 +./ D-, V, Fujikura H g5G

 +/ ps ¢£$¤K 0D'![¥¦=§'¨I0GD3&S5©O'=ijiKª«

[ fg.B ¬PQo&­R ®¢£'ST¯W)[ {' T]^5.01_±Q ®& 0.* V 'TDT°U V B nV

V C :;©O X8K .1.. mm, 31.- mm, +31 mm#H - ²Y; IM¨I q³K ,.* nV ,./dB ;´Z&[ +ῌ0.- 'µ\8¶mm ;¸  Z  ? ;]#pqR9;

TDT 7s&+º)N!' V A nVV D :;

 8V'± Q ' T ¯W]F]efg.B

k0ECD +0
ῌ. #, ·%pqq³/¹^K*.*0,/ ps ;[b 9wx;KE.4s;±Q8i

4D5Xb[ +.* m 'Z[!'+RS5X&[7s»DWT¼M=¹_5`&Oa

SW

TDT 7sp½b»D]V;& +,*,. V ?V῕- : ./(0῍12&'ῑ(345 TDT 6#789:;<ῌ.
Fig. .

7



Schematic diagram of experimental setup.

2 =78῏)*+>?:@AB1CDE2FGHI
J0KLMNOPQ ,. , RSTU2V56W tt, s 0X
YP2 Z tt, s O[\]S^2 tt, m 6K_` ῍
ab&' ῌ
e ῍





cd78῏0XYP2

;f6῍1#KLMN=78῏g6Fh῎+ +g0ij2

CaCl, ῌ\6k1QFlmn

opq;<P 8DarsOt῔:0uU2 vw
;<FxyM]S - z{P |}~g0[M]6d#;<gOP2-- TDR 

 +.0 mm, B@ +** mm  - 0 S 0 mm '6}6YP $0 /* x +./ D-, V, Fujikura    , $06P2 Z
 TDR %0 RSTU2[MN@2¡¢6£6¤P $%  ῎/ !¥¦O§¨%0©ªP2 TDR+**  Campbell Scientific  S [MNῌ/Fig. /

 TDR +** 
 !"#$%
a &'ῑ( b )*+ῑ(*,Transmitted signal and step-pulse signal emitted from a TDR+** cable tester
expressed in (a) time domain and (b)frequency domain.

TDR *,0;<P2 |PQ TDR+** «῍*,¬­®¯¡ PCTDR 0῎῍PQ [MNcd78῏8Dars0XYP2. .+.++ 
+** mm  TDR % TDR+** 

&''0 +3./ ps OP2\]6¤P2[ TDT %y² wTS;<P2 °ῐ± DW 8Dars
³e# CaCl, ῌ\ TDR *,yΐ0 ῎0 6´"°0ῒP µ¶6P2G%·¸

ῐ± TDR *,6F %¹²º²§¨%S 34P2 TDT *,0;<P

6d#$%z»0h"¼½e*,

 ! " ++* # ,**2

8ῌ0TDR 

 CaCl,  TDR 

Fig. 0

TDR waveforms measured with a TDR
probe in CaCl, solutions with di#erent
electrical conductivities.

$%&'()  *+$%&,-)./0 12-34567
89 :  ;<#;=> rR 0 ?@4ABCDEF   G1HI,-)  : J KJ?@ *.32 S m+  0 GLMN 8& *+$%&O
P 7QRS C:9 

ῌ1Fig. 1

TU .1 mm, 31 mm, +31 mm  TDT 

V

WX2Y

CaCl,  TDT 6 TDT  TDT 

CaCl,

TDT waveforms measured for di#erent
probe lengths in CaCl, solutions with
di#erent electrical conductivities.

PZ ῌ 1 1[Q +31 mm*.32 S m+  TDT 0\]^1 _ 8& TDR `a Zῌ0 Sb 1<#P

Pc&dDRS0 @RS C:9 + <#2&Jj@ k TDT .lmn:-:  RfgPdhi\1X@o>pP9) .1 mm mm 

TDT 

0X2{ /22., ns, 31

0X2{ /23.0 ns, +31 mm  0X2{ /3,., ns 1X@o  CaCl, 1Xh
eKBS<#:  ;<#e"eKBqPrsQtuvwxyPzQRS
 |}OP~1rs C 
TDR

;<#Sb 1 Zῌ0 "6<#e0?@4AjD)  RKBe

& Zῌ1 <#uBCD )

P[Q0 u:-<) K

RS:9    b6  TDT ./ 1
SQ  " + <#8" + <#PQS TU@
4Aej:9  b 0 TDR 1X@oJ

  " + <#10 buS S¡a¢ £¤¥¦SS§¨)o@ Dalton and van Genuchten, +320 ;Ren et al., +333

 Zῌ- O B X2YO C A !O.+, 

© ;9o@ " + <#2&ej

 TDT 

" + <#|}Oe 

DRS  ª)o1QR

VTDT S sW S«=PZῌ2 1[Q S TDTX Zῌ2 ®¯°0 Kj ±! ²7);<# ¬ 8 ­

TDT 0|³´aPµ9

J 0@ k) TDT ¶"

1·Q¸¹º° 8 \ TDT 1»

TDT :-;<#¼ o sW ?@4A VTDT jDHI½

:   !" # $%& ' TDT ()* +,  sact

sTDT

./ 0 -ῌ3 (1 2

9

# -ῌ3 (3 4+ : + 5(67 8 5 59:;+,<=#>$ sTDT?@#,ABC SEP  8@D@#-  (  E F TDR

3

4( +**

mm  TDR GHIJ+,KE

LM

sTDT #N"OI!P$)4 *.*+.

S m+  (Q)RSTUVWPX7)K

Y TDT GHIJ sTDT 1 TDR GHIJ
Z[  ( \] + : + 5^(!" -ῌ3 __ 1 `#(ab$ $c*#./ῌ2 VTDT sW
Fig. 2

CaCl, d7S@) F TDR #e4fGHIJ

SEP#3/)  +31 mm  TDT GHIJ NV *.*0.

Electrical conductivity of CaCl, solutions (sW) versus signal voltage (VTDT).

ghiW _ _ jS  !" #% TDT () +,k1 l&'V(U$mno$ d7S@) ; $GHIJmn + `# )pV(Uq0)4 * U) ^rVhs$_ (+t/),-Vi)
.,

TDT 



__F uv1* .w(/)K iWV / 0x(/) TDT 1y z2#{)
4( Y TDT GHIJ+,aA.w |F
1}~3 I! +.* kg kg+ +

TDT

1y#-ῌ+* (./ 0 4 1|#aA.w
P% P$)V .1 mm  TDT GHIJ(T$P1 ,5%(I B6V| 1yIV4 }~3#aA.w
ῌ3

TDT  TDR    CaCl,  sTDT   sactFig. 3

Electrical conductivity (sTDT) of CaCl,solutions determined by TDT and TDR
versus actual electrical conductivity(sact).

 F -(Ep7 89
N1Y.w(/) + 

I%&#/

f TDT GHIJ(Q) - : .w  #
 3/)

 +

I%&Vg(  (

I!V(UjW -ῌ+* (.s0jW; .wK
e4 f.w I%& <1 ῌ+ (.Y.
w / (h < f(= __ jS /Vo$.wmn  !"S@ VTDT1

)p1 $GHIJmn>$ _@?%&V(Uq0) d7S@) :/ῌ

?@V(U$mn  ()

?%& 1 TDR ($PKs@ -1 !¡I ¢£¤AV(Uq0)4i) F++31 mm  TDT GHIJ1 *.32 S m'#,U0jW_ jSCDP -ῌ1 


+,r¨

^r1 *.0**.32 S m+&iW

 d7S@) 7 .1 mm  31 mm 
+

GHIJ1 *.32 S m
F S@_

jS G ²TDT K®¯0 +  V+,³  

^r1 *.32 S

m+ ¶^iW ·s@)
TDT GHIJº»¼5jS½ 5    BF .w :(WP  + ¥( (U0¦$V{S@ -ῌ+* I!#e4§!I!: *1$©1Nª«*#. Mashimo

et al., +323, +33+ ¬E©1NK4 

TDT ­ TDR+, 9(«°/)_ V&S@P$) 8±H1 o©1  mn´µV>$ 4 
1   ©1N¸!jS¹¸s@) !"#% V o©1>$´µV 

EF

10

G H ++* I ,**2ῌῌ++ eῌ  TDT
TDR  eaῌ 
Apparent permittivity (eaῌ) measured
by TDT and TDR versus real permittivity (eῌ) of ﬂuid media.

Fig. ++;<= B 2+./

J7K CaCl, L

(MNO:P῍+, =Q;   +** mm  TDR 
PS=T .. +. + U

Fig. +*

 TDT !"#$%& '()*+,- ./01
23 DW  TDT 45
TDT waveforms measured with di#erent TDT probes for standard medium(air or cooking oil), ethanol, and distilled water (DW).

X= +** mm 

* *.32 S m+ L=Y;Z[I:TDR ῌῌ+*!" eaῌ R

VW\]B 9DB P῍0 ^K:_6 `\ eaῌ *abcde= ]]* Z[IB\7Kfg= hi* jk=h TDR !"l= !"B (
MNO ;mnopqrs:t=uD]:Qih v TDT* H + [I

wx=  TDT 45yz P῍1 B{|  31 mm+31 mm  TDT ++!" *.0* S

L=Y;>? B

01H + [IB}~:Q;Dm

J7K C H + [I5z* >?

u eaῌ *cd79uKi  =*7D TDR = hiR ^K7:_uL *H + [IB\7K P῍ Ze45B}~=

1 ` TDT BK 4[IwxBQK P

rs:t cde=*\ eaῌ * TDR =pqH + [IwxB>? =rs:

P ῍ ++ *  ῍ + =QTDR 

TDT*.32 S m%&    e ῌ h(MNOfg¡= hi P῍+, Scd=Y;!"

eaῌ 6789: ;<= >?@ABeaῌ  ¢ +,-./01 eῌ¥*  jk¦Ofg!"¥¢B `

+ *.-/ S m£¡fg=

 eaῌ ¤¥ Ave.$§¨ SE :©< P῍+, =T .1 mm, 31

TDT 

!" ea ῌ * +** mm  TDR 

mm, +31 mm   TDT   «= + : + de= ]+.,, *./0 *.+0=]* ¬­®1¯[I:TDR = eῌ z:²  TDT =

9]:Qih±²B!"= Jrs: ¹

CD SE * ^ K ª K¢D]7 TDT = NGL eaῌ !"°O* ±²Bh³´u]Bµ  jk X¶¬?4[I!·!" * >?"¸§¨B{| Mº6789B»¼; ῌ ½  

:   !" # $%& TDT '()*

11+,#- ./0 12#345678 9: "; <(=2>',? 
@A B 3456CDE F 1"5
3G'HD

TDT 3456"I =345

6B JKL2MN .(O !P4Q
RD TDR 3456S?T J'"U(=2<,# V F TDT 3456W#'BJXY
$2%& .Z J2'/[U#=>
\G]^2%& .( Blonquist et al., ,**/ _ TDR '  ` TDT "abU(ῌ+,

TDT  TDR 
CaCl,   eῌa  
sW


Fig. +, Apparent permittivity (eῌa ) of CaCl, solutions determined by TDT and TDR
versus actual electrical conductivity(sW).

FCD*  cdQe[(\fgh ijeklm,82n)'o*p/T#,#=q+, .( ,2> -r !

s5t> ";U( !".

TDT B TDR Zq/

'0u,mvwxy 1z";{2 <(.3"*+TZ |}p>,(452~6 <(+(|}B J'7U(8)'+  3
456\G]^'Z='Z TDT '(J)9 *a )":U;

B<$%1p!=

>+>/

.(

( 0><'?@EAB 12#345



678Cp,(=2 TDT '(
*:21p'BU(+>/(

@Aab'. Z CDE
'BFV*'U(,"_ 

q9#: "¡+31 mm  TDT 345# ¢#  =='£ T¤"GU

6 SE B +** mm   TDR 3456 SE H   *.+1 7¥I ?  ==B @A

 !".

TDT 'Z TDR JK :"*U(

Blonquist Jr., J.M., Jones, S.B. and Robinson, D.A.

F'B TDR ¦§Z(,**/) : A time domain transmission sensor withq#1"¨3456". U(%&2.(TDR performance characteristics. Journal of Hy-+>/(drology, -+. : ,-/ῌ,./.
Dalton, F.N., Herkelrath, W.N., Rawlins, D.S. and/

Rhoades, J.D. (+32.) : Time-domain reﬂectometry :@A B   !".

$%

simultaneous measurement of soil water content

&'( J$

and electrical conductivity with a single probe.

*{LV:

Science, ,,. : 232ῌ33*.

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CD TDT 3456" #T )

Dalton, F.N. and van Genuchten, M.Th. (+320) : The­,(® O"7¯' & !<$%

time-domain reﬂectometry method for measur-° "* Harlow et al. ,**- ='±?T

qP$% ²³4´53'QR-r !"fg

ing soil water content and salinity. Geoderma,-2 : ,-1ῌ,/*.

µ¶ s5t$%>·F>/(<$%>

Harlow, R.C., Burke, E. J. and Ferré, P.A. (,**-) : Meas- s5t¸> "V/¹/;

uring water content in saline soils using impulse<(=2>',?

 )ST

B

TDT 34561p'º»T 1z*'M<(¼½'©ª2.(  V©ªH"Utime domain transmission techniques. Vadose
Zone Journal, , : .--ῌ.-3.
Hook, W.R., Ferré, T.P.A. and Livingston, N. J. (,**.) :  ++*  ,**2

12

The e#ects of salinity on the accuracy and un-

ment in soils using time domain reﬂectometry.

certainty of water content measurement. Soil

Vadose Zone Journal, , : ...ῌ.1/.

Science Society of America Journal, 02 : .1ῌ/0.

 ,**- :  !"#$ %&'()* +,-./012 +,3ῌ+.,.

Robinson, D.A., Schaap, M., Jones, S.B., Friedman, S.P.
and Gardner, C.M.K. (,**-b) : Considerations for
improving the accuracy of permittivity measure-

Jones, S.B., Wraith, J.M. and Or, D. (,**,) : Timement using time domain reﬂectometry : Air-

domain reﬂectometry measurement principles

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+.+ῌ+/-.

Robinson, D.A., Schaap, M.G., Or, D. and Jones, S.B.

Mashimo, S., Kuwabara, S., Yagihara, S. and Higashi,(,**/) : On the e#ective measurement frequency

K. (+323) : The dielectric relaxation of mixturesof time domain reﬂectometry in dispersive andof water and primary alcohol. J. Chem. Phys., 3*

nonconductive dielectric materials. Water Re-(0) : -,3,ῌ-,3..

sources Research, .+ : W*,**1, doi : +*.+*,3/,**.

Mashimo, S., Umehara, T. and Redlin, H. (+33+) :Structure of water and primary alcohol studied

WR**-2+0.
Topp, G.C., Davis, J.L. and Annan, A.P. (+32*) : Elec-by microwave analyses. J. Chem. Phys., 3/ (3) :tromagnetic determination of soil water content :0,/1ῌ0,0*.

measurements in coaxial transmission lines.

Noborio, K. (,**+) : Measurement of soil water content and electrical conductivity by time domain

Water Resour. Research, +0 : /1.ῌ/2,.
Topp, G.C., Lapen, D.R., Young, G.D. and Edwards, M.

reﬂectometry. Computers and Electronics in Ag-(,**+) : Evaluation of shaft-mounted TDT read-riculture, -+ : ,+-ῌ,-1.

ings in disturbed and undisturbed media. Proc.

Ren, T., Noborio, K. and Horton, R. (+333) : Measuringof TDR ,**+ : Second International Symposium

soil water content, electrical conductivity, andand Workshop on Time Domain Reﬂectometry

thermal properties with a thermo-time domain

for Innovative Geotechnical Applications, http :reﬂectometry probe. Soil Science Society of//www.iti.northwestern.edu/tdr/tdr ,**+ /pro-

America Journal, 0- : ./*ῌ./1.

ceedings/.

34567 ,*** : 8! ,**+  1. 9

:;<=

,>

Topp, G.C., Lapen, D.R., Edwards, M. J. and Young, G.
D. (,**-) : Laboratory calibration, in-ﬁeld valida-

Robinson, D.A., Jones, S.B., Wraith, J.M., Or, D. andtion and use of a soil penetrometer measuring

Friedman, S.P. (,**-a) : A review of advances incone resistance and water content. Vadose Zone

dielectric and electrical conductivity measure-

Journal, , : 0--ῌ0.+.

῍ῌ?@A'0BCDEFGHIJKLMANOP TDT QRSTUVWXY#KZ[PF\4]J^_`IJab TDT c&2defghi jklF

Wm]NOE TDT noFZ[IJ pqrKLstuvFWmIJE wE FxyIJz{ wE|2}KLR~QRS |2}R~VWXYF$]
sJtuv TDT c&2dVEJ^

Z[

q QRSTUVWXYYs$s \J J KL
MAP TDR e TDR#¡YYF\¢]J^ TDT c&2dtuvF TDR £¤e¥]¦§¨ ©RªJ
 : ,**2  +  ,/  : ,**2  0  +- 
J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.

No. ++*, p. +-,- ,**2



²³´*ῌwgµ¶**ῌ·¸¹'***ῌº»¼½***
Dielectric Properties of Clays in Microwave Frequency
Hideki MIYAMOTO*, Takashi SHIMOMACHI**, Jiro CHIKUSHI*** and Eriko YASUNAGA**** Graduate School of Education, Saga University, + Honjo-machi, Saga city, Saga 2.*ῌ2/*,, Japan** Faculty of Environmental Studies, Nagasaki University, +ῌ+. Bunkyo-machi,
Nagasaki city, Nagasaki 2/,ῌ2/,+, Japan*** Biotron Institute, Kyushu University, 0ῌ+*ῌ+ Hakozaki, Higashi-ku,
Fukuoka city, Fukuoka 2+,ῌ2/2+, Japan
Abstract
Time domain reﬂectometry (TDR), measuring dielectric properties, has widely been applied
to monitor volumetric water content (q) and bulk electrical conductivity (sb) in soil. TDR is,
however, not applicable to clays due to the inadmissible energy loss of emitted microwave signals. To reveal the response of the clays to the signals, by using a vector network analyzer wemeasured the spectra of real (e῍) and imaginary (e8) part of complex permittivity in the frequencyof *.+ to -.* GHz for kaolinite and bentonite having di#erent q-values. Besides the distinct e8- ande8-spectra for q, for kaolinite we found that the relation of e῍ versus q can be given by a uniqueexpression within a range of examined frequency, and sb can be estimated from e8-values ataround *.- GHz with relatively small errors.

Although the sb values for the bentonite, estimatedby the present method, included unacceptable large errors, the relations of e῍ versus q wereadequately determined in whole examined frequencies.

Judging from the gradient of e῍-q

relations for bentonite, we suggested that the signals with higher frequency should provide moresensitive determination of q than that with lower frequencies.
Key words : Dielectric relaxation spectroscopy, Real and imaginary part of complex permittivity,
Frequency, Volumetric water content, Electrical conductivity+
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"#  $z+,-8-{ s|)* ,/"#)*/¸}

34 ~) <>? '(6789? k
2;*¹ 23A4B*Xº»A +** MHz-.* GHz=GcO)*Y)* Y¹ +*/ L89M%A¸}´ )@¼q ´ 2/¸}+{-. dT*
h?@$z½)* <)@ /¸}

ῌ, CaCl, 
e  

e῎Fig. , Spectra of real (e῎) and imaginary (e)permittivity for CaCl, solutions.

: #$ % &'()*+,ῌ-

CaCl,        ei ῌ    ep  

Fig. -

ῌ.



17

CaCl,  sact ῌ scalFig. .



Electrical conductivity (scal) estimatedfrom equation (-) for actual electricalconductivity of CaCl, solutions (sact).

Spectra of the component of electricalconductivity (eiῌ) for CaCl, solutions.
The component of orientational polarization (ep) is also shown in the ﬁgure.

- ῍. ./! 0) ῍. 123 + : + 3456
789 -

?@9+! ABCDE+F AG<:3

;9<=>-/!

scal*.+, *.1* +.-* GHz  scal H IJ + : + 3K

LMNOP QRLMS0+T e UV ?@ -WXN+:

9+! :[\] *.+, GHz ^_P

! b -.* GHz 4 cdefg + : + 3 `a4

h+ijklmn<o4M+: -.XN+!

;9<LMp! ef g ei>rsZN:b CaCl,  e  <ONQR K ῍,!



<YZ9

-.* GHz )*+q῍-tu/+ eiv<N:/078
< + : +3

;

9!wZ9 ?@9+! :[\ "xyz@+{ -/+T CaCl, |P `#}4 OP QRz|~ e H $  e H /078

<_/+: -.XN+! %&4

ep ->NX  ei./! 0)+῍-  ep-234   

- ῍- ]V

0p *.+, GHz ,-3-.! /bP`4 ei

-/+

<ONQRK! :9$1<L
MNO,QR ijkl-LMSmn/

-/+ P`u/+' ei(-) W0P `)NXz|-*
0<5+!
., 

.,+    eῌ2 q <r0+$ $+,-: -./! ] P OP 

3 22`4 eῌ P `*X ei<¡¢ P

./! 0)4£¤¥pq¦

>r<sZS0p! :9OP QR!P¬<sZS 56­X7/+$`<®0S0+:ZOP

QR e ¯T+::4 e ³´Sz|9µ,-Y/+T ² CaCl,  eiH "eep - ῌ
! [\b?
sact

m-῍/ 1

-῍/q §¨© q"+.* m-X $ DW ªl«- !

$ eῌ  ῍/ a  q <LMN°8QRK! eῌ H>r "xyP `a²(T9 ]q°8 eῌ H<P

ep±<LMS0+: -.XN+!

º=X  scal P `





-z

X 2C  *.+, *.1* +.-* -.* GHz )*+ scal



`V

U¢/+¶<·9! ¥-H_: q"+.* m m-eῌ ;¸X¹<0456 Ishida et al. ,*** >» b¼tN@+!
1 @½5[ X ]

"

18

#

++* $ ,**2

% &'()*+,-.  eῌ/0 1+,2 Robinson
et al. ,**- 3('456789 *.+, GHz :;/2<  eῌ 2= 12./ />?7-@ῌ, A? BC67,DE2 < FG%

#HA?23/I9DE/0 JK
L MN FGOPQRJ'S>?7
--/ TU2VVW/0 VVW 2
XY(I9 Mitchell, +33- Z,[=!/\J ] (^[MN _N2
VVW" I9 `, Ishida et al.
,*** abcA?de67VVW#MN f$% 2 *.*+2 GHz /0g 
hg'i9 -j+,#PS%J 
Q+, eῌ k9% l&#2 MN &m 
Y(IAn,- `,MN f$%  'op
q(% );r(sAn,,[/0tC67
ῌ/


 q
 a  b    eῌ Fig. / Spectra of real permittivity (eῌ) for (a)kaolinite and (b) bentonite with di#erent volumetric water content (q).

.,, q@ῌ/ A?*Hun, *.-* *.1* +.-* -.** GHz (vw eῌ  q xyP @ῌ0 (QJ v @#(2 +z"( , +8i9 - N#PQJ-

. ?7

Topp et al. +32* {|P}//~+,

 eῌ 2 % (AAK? 
 =/ q &'(0}1(+, @ῌ0
 #(< +8&m+89 < 2 .. + /, 34+95<6P,[ 7N:;(xK? 1+,#PQJa -22 q!*.1 NPI '? ,**1
TDR /8,M=9+89 `,Pn,22 @ῌ0 a (Q6An,<% 

S>?7 +A+ < hg'kz =(>6(v98'BC67,-A? 'opq(% )?

789MN 2

/2 Bxy(,J% 2;/I@ A@(,+8CA(D/I9E(0 Z,[ MN 2

FG67 'op  ¡(vw(< hg'H9% (v98 @5I¢ G

2 Topp {|2-N+9' £J%  -j+,5<6¤9(hg MN(v981+, eῌq xy 8?7, Z,[ ¥f$% 2 < hg'69 ¦K ,**-§|P¨[-(hg % (h? eῌ A? q

Ishida et al. ,*** (h7© #MN

P =¥§|/ª/IS>?7

f$« t 2 +*1.1,*.,+ s /0g Z-A?8?7=" qi9. eῌIz- `, Topp

f$%  +ῌ,pt 2L *.**2 GHz /0 -%

et al. +32* | -N+9¬F2 ('2 'opq(% hg6An,,[ eῌ ­M+, @ῌ0 b +A+ % (hn8 eῌq x

N¢2®O'n,S>?7="  eῌ ' 


Q q

 I9¯ R .° " ( 2 +, @ ῌ /b ,³+ N¤n8 *.+, GHz:;/2 eῌ  ¶T

q+.* m- m- P°- q (h eῌ º 'X[?79- »¯Ryg i% . q N¢(Pj eῌ N¢! IAn, -hj% #
PS%J 'S(h q q(2±$% P²
+8´j- `,Z% (,µJ eῌq xy
{|(·¸I q P U ¹J-

VW /0 ,³+ 'opq(% J¼/2 i% . eῌ ½ : (&)*+,-./01234

19

567899: ;<=>6?@*./?ABC

Dῌ0 E+,FGHIJ? Mojid et al., ,**-

KLMN OJ?P9: QR TDR ST5 4K U9VW .XMYZ[\] BC.^M+- K_`M9:.] VW-+,.a TDR /a,@*Kbc.deMN.a> f g

h TDT ;.iU +,@*jkl+,FGm12 q KBCmnNKoJA? p Q

qrsKtAuvMN wxyz{|R TDR ] }W- ,* kHzo+./ GHz ; Heimovaara,

~. J9f g ] ?'+33. (&)*+,.XM KBCMm

34KoM12.XJAH @*.XM eῌ @*.RM.XMBCmeῌ $%&'KN;<m> S.H]  eῌ K.0+,@*

56?@*K3MNHmn S  ]M@*]JHpm]? Robin- ¡.=¢H }@*./?A

son et al.,,**-, ,**/ BC¢9 eῌq!" Dῌ0 a q*.1 ./?A TDR [\ Dῌ/ahE£¤5¥F.XM1234
 Ku¦mn§]¨n?©U

0 a .ªm«)¬ pJ9N] }W.,- -$­¬«®'$+,K J9QR TDR ¯

TDR m] °±/ahE£¤5²³.

?m a8A Robinson et al. ,**- ] eῌ a$­¬«®'$+,FG 12BC´

?@*R4KoM a|12.XJµ.8A? Mojid et al., ,**- 12'A] V?W-E+, K¶·JA? J7

34Kj¸9:. q J 12]¹.a8Af $%&'Kºh  e $%&'KDῌ1 .oM

»9: Dῌ/ BC.@*¼0m

/a

 e ] q @* ½.RJ

ῌ0

a
 b   eῌ  q
!"#

ῌ1

Fig. 0Volumetric water content (q) for real
permittivity (eῌ) for (a) kaolinite and (b)bentonite.

Fig. 1 q  a b   e  $%&'#Spectra of imaginary permittivity (e)for (a) kaolinite and (b) bentonite with
di#erent volumetric water content (q).

# $

20

& '῍1 a()* 

++* % ,**2+,-.

/ -01234567898: ;<=>?@ABC&D E8&FG 
HE e 6: ;IJKLM*BN;HO&
PHP Q q RPS <TS e 6 N;
IUP&MHE 

6<V%I N

W45L$XIYZBN 6[\T

B* +,]^012345

*[\T_`E8&D <V%PT45
* ab cdLe_`E8
7PS Qf!FG 6"gP& #IUP&M*() hiB* q 6$jPSe$6 NW$jP;TMIUkPSTl& *./!+.* GHz IcPS 

 e

ῌ2



 q  sb 

Fig. 2

Bulk electrical conductivity (sb) forvolumetric water content (q) for kaolinite and bentonite.

6<=mneomLpq6rE8& '῍1a M$j* / %q :bep FG  '῍- "gP&eBC l& *./!+.*GHz I&`s<=B* s q tu e 6NW; vw$6xy\8&{' 

GHz B*<=mneoz *.1* GHz B*t e FG * 

 " gPS  <  tusT ) b PHP |{(B}~ +.- GHz B*omLeBC <# P& ' ῍ 1-e e =6 NHO&MHE 
V%0123I*-e<

NW45L,$IYZ

=-OS;O& Ishida et al. ,*** -8*.1./ kg kg+  IYZ

 ep **.-* GHz TS [ * *., IUL +E6H

-P&f!6 .hiCO&(L l& q -FG 6/BC 7

7 q * *.0/ m- m- 0BCO&}y\8 M8

6<=mne51LMe *,4BC 5* -e66 NT&D ()-T&f! q 23C()TSe *.-* GHz  ep6 *., BCO&_`
 e "/.*!0., '῍1 a D ep,* -7e NT 7PS q $j-OS!.ῌ [\T epI8LM- b $je NW;M6 q - e

9 6  ^e *.-* GHz  e HE  & sb:\8&_`E8 \E q mn* ezLb  mnL%q

PST_`E8

:b 6T ¡P,O&+¢ e 6<=mne{(5¤P&_`E8
.,. sb 

.. + ¦B* -^%q :bep I§;I:{' 

 sb * <=-E£ q mnezLpq6rE8& 

 e

* 

-e NT&D '῍1 q ¥Lsb  $ j  eNT *.3/ m- m- ¨¨©

9BN<XZTS* =] ª>B@AP& ep* +.- GHz B [; 7** 2.*e «¬N I9LM6­?BCMBC Ishida et al., ,***IUP& PHP @®,6  ;¨¨ ©

e$jL

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LM*CPT 7MB()B* ep³ID

;uHE

()

B*;TM l& Ishida et al.
()@A±²-()BN¶B*;T PHP sb I@¹P& 

q"*.3, m m

-.¥L@¹+¢{ I PS *.-* *.1* +.GHz  sbq I '῍2 ULq mn¥L sb  $ j* *.-*

-



NTM

eE ep6F-´G8LM- ῌ µHE@

-*e·T ¸HCB* +.- GHz e 6* +,.* BC Ishida et al. ,*** @A·T L;¶º  e D ep,*NT_`E8 E8& sb *N;»I¼½

 : 



21

 !"# $  q % & '() e *+, sb -.!/012 3456-'7

8'9:/; <=>?@) e A

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J:;;A KL

sb '-0U) J:; V[\] \^ _`4abcd&H!)
epIj0kM 8l() HJHpqr] \^ epl0stuvk, QR'w..!/) ep1lxv

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F. @M1

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H/mbn'30 y>?I; UUJM & '(H epl0sQR'*0U^h <= Y% Z

 4H,; # ῌ 5e[fb q  sb '6-M1 5&5

g'6@07

8

 sb 'STI0;A) 9

J:;V[\]^:  q j'8H e q QRj';0m4<l()

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

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';0

 #0"# W

M Y% Z^B#C q ^345 sb } DE'80;A q l pqr] \^V[\] \#
0GH C>RI e῎ ^RI e {|\4' *.+ JM -.* GHz !} H;
J6¡K¢ TDR )

5 &H!

EF +333 : Y% http : //atom++.phys.ocha.ac.jp/ftp/pub/tdr/TDR-guide.pdf(veriﬁed 0 March. ,**2).
Arroyo, F. J., Carrique, F., Jiménez-Olivares, M.L. andDelgado, A.V. (,***) : Rheological and electro-£¤l¥¦ h "# # } 4

kinetic properties of sodium montmorillonite

J:; HJH  Y% Z'40U^hsuspensions. II. Low-frequency dielectric disper-"#

!/ e ῎ 'P!

QR#H/-

sion. J. Colloid Interface Sci., ,,3 : ++,ῌ+,,.

U N;,M1;{| \4K q 

Campbell, J.E. (+33*) : Dielectric properties and inﬂ-¡OLjl§M0U'~XH; Uj

uence of conductivity in soils at one to ﬁfty

'0U^h QR^M¨ pqr] \megahertz. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., /. : --,ῌ-.+.

 q ' N O e ῎  q j©  I0Ulª O 

Dalton, F.N. and van Genuchten, M.Th. (+320) : The N; 9 ^_`4abcdl0s

time-domain reﬂectometry method for measur-*.- GHz  e 1*+ -.῍ «¬­

ing soil water content and salinity. Geoderma,345 sb '-0UªO-2 : ,-1ῌ,/*.

O V[\] \) 9 ^_`4abcd

Dasberg, S. and Hopmans, J.W. (+33,) : Time domainl pqr] \^hPJ>!;A <=@

reﬂectometry calibration for uniformly and non-) e 1JM sb '"!®I0Ul

uniformly wetted sandy and clayey loam soils.

J:; HJH QQ'¯2 pqr] \8 e῎ *+, q I)ªO

Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., /0 : +-.+ῌ+-./.
Dirksen, C. and Dasberg, S. (+33-) : Improved calibra-

 Y%{| \4} ) "° V \4`±tion of time domain reﬂectometry soil water con-\²b ³]´ µbl()¶ ,

tent measurements. Soil Sci. Soc. Am. J., /1 : 00*ῌ

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001.

5I

Fernando, M. J., Burau, R.G. and Arulanandan, K.

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BCDE +,3ῌ+., FGHIJKL MN

O PQPRSFGTUVWX +30ῌ+31.

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Electrical conductivity problems associated withurement range in saline soils using frequency

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and Takayama, M. (,***) : E#ect of pore waterY

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23

lines. Water Resour. Res., +0 : /1.ῌ/2,.

tromagnetic determination of soil water content : measurements in coaxial transmission

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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
῏῍ῌῐῑ῎
No. ++*, p. ,/ῌ-/ ῍,**2῎

The E#ectiveness of Nominal Dosage of Ordinary Cementon Strength and Permeability of Clayey Soil
Md. Zakaria HOSSAIN* and Toshinori SAKAI** Graduate School of Bioresources, Mie University, +/11 Kurimamachiya-cho,
Tsu, Mie /+.ῌ2/*1, Japan
Abstract
Pozzolanic materials, either naturally occurring or artiﬁcially made, have long been in practicefor soil stabilization.

Of the artiﬁcial pozzolans, the ordinary portland cement is the mostcommonly used globally. Literature review indicates that, to date, the percentage of the cement
used to improve the properties of soil is . to +.ῌ or more. For the sake of cost saving in soilcement construction works, it is crucial to scrutinize the e$cacy of an incredibly diminutive
amount of cement on the engineering properties of soils. In this paper, e#orts have been made to
study the usefulness of nominal dosage rate of the ordinary portland cement on the bearing
capacity and permeability of a clayey soil in Mie prefecture. Laboratory tests were conducted on
California Bearing Ratio (CBR), unconﬁned compressive strength and the permeability coe$cient of the clayey soil with the cement content of *.*, *.,, *.. and *.0ῌ in the ratio of mass. On thebasis of the test results, it was concluded that both the CBR and compressive strength, a measureof bearing capacity of a soil, increased with the increase in the amount of cement. The stressstrain relationships of the soil under the unconﬁned compression tests indicated that the additionof the nominal dosage rate of ordinary portland cement reduced the strain at which the ultimate
compressive strength occurred noticing the increase in the rigidity of soil. The modulus ofdeformation, a measure of deformation characteristics of a soil, was also found to increase with
the increase in the quantity of cement content. Permeability tests revealed that the coe$cient of
permeability increased with the increase in the amount of cement.
Key words : Bearing capacity, Stress-strain relationships, Compressive strength, Modulus of deformation and Permeability coe$cient+.

Introduction

It is recognized that soil, a bequest of nature,
is both intricate and uneven material. Therefore, the soil existing at any particular site may
not be appropriate for the intended purpose
because of its complex properties and variablecharacteristics. Usually some techniques suchas mechanical, chemical, thermal, electrical andphysical etc. are used to improve the properties
of in-situ natural soil for proper applications inthe ﬁeld (ACI, +33, ; Sera, et al., +33*). Amongthese, the use of supplementary cementing ma-

terials, such as ordinary Portland cement, is
one of the most popular solutions anticipatedto improve the properties of soils (Wilhelmsson, +331 ; Awal and Mamun, +332). Datingback some /* years ago, Mitchell (+310) reported that the improvement of soil properties
using cement began with the concept of theprocess of deductive reasoning (Ahuja andSwartzendruber, +31, ; Kataoka, et al., +33,).
Cement treated soil is not a simple mixture ofsoil and cement but a unique conditioned material produced through the interaction between
calcium oxide of cement and water contained

῏

26



among of soil particles (Boswell, ,*** ; Hossain,
et al., ,**0).
A very little amount of ordinary Portland
cement is, especially, suitable to improve thebearing capacity of clayey soil because of thechemical reaction that occurs between clay
mineral and positive ion come from cement inwater. Research has shown that more than0*ῌ of the ordinary portland cement is calciumoxide ; a mixture of calcium, silicon and aluminium oxides ; quickly hydrate with water
resulting a high concentration of calcium, andcontent of silica and alumina (Stocker, +30- ;Ingles and Metcaf, +31,). These positive ionsof calcium oxide provide cementing action
among the clay particles bearing negative ionsand, therefore, the ions unite the soil particles
together as well as increase the stability ofaggregates (Mindess and Young, +32+ ; Arora,+323). Also, Marshal and Holes (+33,), Prusinski
and Bhattacharya (+333) and JSCE committee(,**-) reported that the negative ions createdby the clay minerals are, especially, attracted
by the positive ions of calcium (Ca). As calcium ions stuck to the negative sites, it consequences the soil-cement mixture as a chemicalcompound that not only act to bring the clay
particles together but also facilitate for binding
the clay particles. According to Mindess andYoung (+32+), the main source of the observed
strength in cement treated soils is due to theformation of C-S,H- compounds, a well-known
binding agent. It is noted that the Ca ionsreleased by cement connects to the Si- ions ofclay mineral and therefore, it forms C-S andC,S compounds. These C-S and C,S compounds
hydrate to form C-S, H- compounds which areparticularly responsible to the strength development in cement treated soil even at a nominal dosage rate of cement content.
Literature review, clearly, indicated that, todate, the percentage of cement used to improve
the properties of soil is . to +.ῌ or more. A
nominal dosage rate of cement to improve thebearing capacity and permeability of clayeysoils is getting much attention lately in order++*

,**2

to reduce the cost of the construction works. In
spite of the volume of technical information
existed on soil-cement and cement treated soil,
there is no or little work available on the e#ect
of very small amount of the ordinary portland
cement to improve the bearing capacity andpermeability of a clayey soil, although it has
great advantages for the environmentallyfriendly construction of a farm road, option
way & drain ditch etc. (Nagaishi et al., +32/).
The development of soil-cement with nominal
dosage of cement is a signiﬁcant contribution
in this direction because of its environmental
consideration, cost-e#ectiveness and drainage
ability. In Japan, there is a lot of terrace land
to which cement treated soil can be suitably
and e$ciently used for making new cultivatable paddy ﬁelds from unused land. In thispaper, since the soil-cement is made from nominal dosage of cement, it has tremendous beneﬁt to the environment and signiﬁcant costsaving in material acquisition along with thedevelopment of strength and permeability.
The main objective of this research is toinvestigate the inﬂuence of nominal dosage ofordinary portland cement on the strength andpermeability of locally available clayey soil tobe used for soil structures applications. Inview of this objective, the soil used in this research was collected from Kameyama mountain of Mie Prefecture, Japan. It is noted hereinthat this soil possesses some basic strength,
however, further improvement in strength andpermeability is necessary, because most ofthese soils are impervious which has many
disadvantages especially in the rainy seasonscausing disaster of sloping land. The present
research is highly signiﬁcant to overcome
these basic needs. To date, a number of researches have been conducted on strengths
characteristics of soil with cement content of
more than ..*ῌ. The authors believe that the
research reported in this paper is rudimentary
and there is no research work on soil-cementwith nominal dosage of cement content considered in this research article.

ῑῐ : The E#ectiveness of Nominal Dosage of Ordinary Cement on Strength and Permeability of Clayey Soil 27

The bearing capacity of clayey soils has been
investigated to study the e#ectiveness of thenominal dosage rate of the ordinary portland
cement. A series of California Bearing Ratio(CBR) tests, Unconﬁned Compressive Strength(UCS) tests, permeability tests and ScanningElectron Microscopy (SEM) analyses of clayeysoil with cement content of *.*, *.,, *.. and *.0῍
in the ratio of mass were performed. Results on
the CBR value, compressive strength, stressstrain relationships of the soil under unconﬁned compression tests, the modulus of deformation, the permeability coe$cient and theSEM images are reported.
,.

Materials and Methods,. + Properties of soil used
The soil samples were collected from theKameyama Mountain in Mie prefecture, andtested at the laboratory. The particle size distribution curve is shown in Fig. +. The soil has
00῍ percent of the clay and silt fractions. The
other properties of the soil used in this research
are shown in Table +. According to the uniﬁed
classiﬁcation system, the soil used in this research is classiﬁed as CH. For obtaining thecohesion and frictional properties of soil given
in Table +, the specimens were tested by the
direct shear test apparatus. The shear tests
specimens of size 0* mm in diameter and ,* mmin height were prepared in cutter-ring placing
into the mould of standard compaction test.
The shear tests were carried out in accordancewith Japan Industrial Standard (JIS). The dry
bulk density given in Table + was determinedby performing the standard compaction test. It
is the maximum density at which the optimum
water content was obtained. The densities ofsoil particles and the particles of soil-cement
mixtures were determined by the particles density test method according to JIS A +,*,.
,. , Properties of cement
Any type of cement can be used for improving the engineering properties of soils. Ordinary portland cement (Type I), which is the

Table +

Properties of the soil used

Parameters

Properties

Maximum dry bulk density (rd)Optimum water content (Wopt)
Density of soil particles (rs)Cohesion (c)Angle of internal friction (f)+4/3 Mgῌmῌ,*4/῍,41*+ Mgῌmῌ+/14.* kPa

Sand, ῎1/ mm
Silt, /ῌ1/ mm
Clay, ῍/ mm

-.῍
--῍
--῍

Liquid limit
Plastic limit
Plasticity index

0+4*῍
,142῍
--4,

Fig. + Particle size distribution curve of the soil used

-,42῏



28

most common for construction works and also
readily available in the local market, was usedin this investigation. The detailed properties ofthis cement can be found elsewhere (Prusinski
and Bhattacharya, +333).
,. - Preparation of specimens
The soil sample was air-dried in room temperature of nearly ,/ and humidity of about.*῍ for +* days, and it was grinded to ease thesieving process. For removing unnecessary
elements from the soil and for reducing thevariability of the particle sizes of the soil, it
was sieved by JIS Sieve No. . (. mm opening).
The water content of the air dried soil wasmeasured as +*῍. The required amount of soil
was taken, and the desired quantity of cement
was mixed properly. In order to obtain therequired percentage of cement in a mix, theamount of cement was calculated according to
the following equation :
P

C
+**῍
S

ῌ

where P is the required percentage of cement,
C is the weight of cement mixed and S is theweight of air dry soil required for a test. It isnoted that for each soil-cement ratio, three
specimens were prepared and tested for all
the cases. In case of unconﬁned compressive
strength test, usually , kilograms soil was required. The amount of cement (C) was calculated as ., 2 and +, gms for *.,, *.. and *.0῍soil-cement specimens, respectively. The soil
and cement were mixed manually in a bowl
with a scoop for +* to +/ minutes to uniform the
mixture. The calculated amount of water necessary to obtain the water-cement ratio of *./was added gently to the dry mix, and, ﬁnally,
the components were mixed thoroughly. Water up to the optimum water content was added gradually to the mixture while continuously stirred. The additional water calculated
as water to cement ratio of *./.
It is noted here that the CBR values, compressive strengths and permeability of thespecimens depend on the water content, dry
density after compaction as well as the degree++*

,**2

of compaction. In order to avoid these discrepancies, all the specimens were preparedwith the optimum water content and compaction was done in accordance with the standard
modiﬁed proctor test. All the samples for CBR,
compression and permeability tests were moist
cured for 1 days in room temperature of ,/ .
All the tests samples were prepared with the
optimum water contents of ,*./, ,+.*, ,+./ and,,.,῍ for specimens containing *.*, *.,, *.. and*.0῍ cement, respectively, obtained throughthe standard compaction tests. The compaction curves are shown in Fig. ,.
,. . Method of CBR test
The California Bearing Ratio (CBR) test adopted here is widely used all over the world toevaluate the bearing capacity of soils and subgrades since its invention in +3-* by the California Division of Highways, United States ofAmerica. In this research, the CBR test specimens were prepared in steel mould of +/ cm ininternal diameter and +1./ cm in height. After
placing a special disk of /.* cm in height in the
mould, the soil was poured and compacted inthree layers using a /.* cm diameter automatic
rammer. The rammer mass was ../ kg withfalling height of ./.* cm. Each layer was compacted by 3, blows. The ﬁnal height of the soil
specimen was +,./ cm. The compaction energy
was calculated as ,/**.* kJ/m- for each specimen. All the CBR tests were carried out according to the JIS-A-+,++ with the optimum
water contents of soil.
,. / Method of unconﬁned compressive
strength (UCS) test
For the unconﬁned compressive strength(UCS) test, specimens were manually compacted in the mould of +,./ cm in height and /.*cm in diameter. In this case also, the tests werecarried out with the optimum water content
of the soil with the di#erent percentage of
cement. The optimum water contents were,+.*, ,+./ and ,,.,῍ as well as the particles
densities of compacted soils were ,.1*/, ,.1*3
and ,.1+1 Mgῌm- for cement content of *.,, *..
and *.0῍, respectively. The specimens were῍ῌ : The E#ectiveness of Nominal Dosage of Ordinary Cement on Strength and Permeability of Clayey Soil 29

Fig. , Compaction curves of soil-cement with di#erent cement content(Z.A.V.C. means zero air void curve)

compacted in three layers using a ..3 cm diameter hand-rammer with rammer mass of +.* kg
and falling height of -* cm. Each layer wascompacted by ,* blows. The samples were tested for the unconﬁned compressive strength ata loading rate of *.+ mm per minute. Average
strength values were calculated for each set of
the three samples. These tests were also carried out in accordance of Japanese Industrial
Standards (JIS-A-+,++, +32*).
,. 0 Method of permeability test
For the sake of clariﬁcation of the high pressure permeability testing apparatus used inthis research, a simple diagram of it is shown in
Fig. -. The permeability tests were conductedby the constant head permeability test method
according to JIS +,+2. The specimens for thepermeability tests were prepared in the steel
mould of +*.* cm in diameter and 0., cm inheight. The compaction of the specimens wasdone manually using ,./ kg rammer with thefalling height of -*.* cm. After compaction, themould with specimen was placed on a stand toease in collecting the outlet water by a graduated cylinder. The water pressures gauge wasset at the upper plate of the specimens to
conﬁrm the constant water pressure on thespecimen. Before applying the pressure fromthe gas cylinder, the water from the water tankFig. -High pressure constant head permeability test apparatus(+. Gas cylinder, ,. Control valve for gas,-. Water supply, .. Control valve forwater supply, /. Air releaser, 0. Pressurized water, 1. Control valve for pressurized water, 2. Specimen, 3. Air releaser, +*. Dial gauge, ++. Graduated cylinder)

was poured to the pressure chamber by adjusting the water control valve. The water of pressurized chamber was then poured on the specimen. During pouring the water into themould, the air inside the mould on the top of
the specimen was released by the air releaseΐῐ῎῔῕ῑ ῒ ++* ῏ ῌ,**2῍30valve. The front face of the specimen was
continuously connected to the pressurizedwater chamber during the test. Therefore, thetop surface of the water in the mould was
subjected to a constant pressure of -.* MPa(gauge pressure). The amount of water ﬂowing
through the specimen was measured by thecollected water in the graduated cylinder.
Before recording the readings, percolation wasallowed for some time to ensure a high degreeof saturation and uniformity of test results.
-.

Results and Discussion-. +Results of California Bearing Ratio(CBR) tests
The results of the CBR test on cement
treated soil containing *.*, *.,, *.. and *.0ῌ
cement are shown in Fig. . in the form of theapplied load vs. the depth of penetration relationships. As can be seen from this ﬁgure, all
the curves are curvilinear initially and thenlinear. These curves also indicated that no
initial correction for the calculating the CBRvalue is necessary except in the case of control
specimen (*.*ῌ cement content). For *.*ῌ cement content, the extension of the initialstraight portion showed that it crossed x-axis
slightly right side of the origin and this was
taken account in calculating the ﬁnal CBRvalue. It is noted herein that all the tests werecarried out under optimum water contents

Fig. .

(wopt) of the soil. The wopt were ,*./, ,+.*, ,+./
and ,,.,ῌ for specimens containing *.*, *.,, *..
and *.0ῌ cement, respectively.
In Fig. /, the calculated CBR values of the cement treated soils with cement content of *.*,*.,, *.. and *.0ῌ both at penetration level of ,./and /.* mm are shown. It is evident that the
CBR values increased with the increase in cement content. The rate of the increase of the
CBR values at ,./ mm penetration is more thanthat at /.* mm penetration. Also, the CBR values at ,./ mm penetration are higher than thatat /.* mm penetration for all the level of cement
content.
-. , Results of Unconﬁned Compressive
Strength (UCS) tests
In order to understand the bearing capacityof the cement treated soils, the compression
behavior of specimens under unconﬁned compressive tests is demonstrated in Fig. 0 using
the stress-strain curves. The stress-strain relationship of the controlled specimens (*.*ῌ
cement content) is also provided in the same
ﬁgure for better comparison. For each curve,
there is a peak or ultimate stress (here termed
as compressive strength) and then, after the
peak value, there is a softening behavior. It isobserved that the compressive stress increases
with the increase of displacement until appearing the peak value, naturally, but, owing to thedi#erent quantity of cement, the increment

Load vs. penetration curves of soil-cement under CBR tests῎῍ : The E#ectiveness of Nominal Dosage of Ordinary Cement on Strength and Permeability of Clayey Soil 31

Fig. /

Fig. 0

CBR values of soil-cement with di#erent cement content

Stress-strain relationships of soil-cement under compression

rate varies depending on the amount of cement
content.
Figure 1 shows the variation of the compressive strength (qu) and the strain obtained at thecompressive strength with di#erent levels of
cement content. Notice a signiﬁcant increasein the compressive strength with the increasein the percentage of cement content. The
strain at the ultimate compressive stress (qu),on the other hand, decreases noticeably with
the increase in the quantity of cement content.
For the sake of calculating the modulus ofdeformation (E/*) of the cement treated soils
with *.*, *.,, *.. and *.0ῌ cement, the stressstrain relationships of the straight portions,avoiding the initial and ﬁnal nonlinearities, areconsidered. The values corresponding to the/*ῌ compressive strength (qu/,) are calculated
as +*+.1, +0,.,, ,,/.* and ,0*.+ kPa, and the corresponding strain (e/*) are ,.3ῌ ,.-ῌ, ,.,/ῌ and,.+ῌ for cement content of *.*, *.,, *.. and *.0ῌ,
respectively. The moduli of deformation (E/*)
of cement treated soil are calculated by thefollowing equation.
῏ῐ
῍
E/*ῌ
ῌ
ῌ+*
ῑ῎ῌ
Here, E/* is the modulus of deformation of a soil
in MPa, e/* is the compressive strain when sῌqu/, in kPa. The moduli of deformation (E/*)
calculated by equation (,) are shown in Fig. 2
with the di#erent levels of cement content. It
is evident that the moduli of deformation (E/*)
of the cement treated soils are increased re-32ΐῐ῎῔῕ῑ ῒ ++* ῏ ῌ,**2῍Fig. 1 Compressive strength and strain at compressive strength ofsoil with di#erent cement content

Fig. 2 Modulus of deformation of soil with di#erent cement content

markably with the increase of the nominal
dosage rate of cement content.
It is noted here that although the percentage
of cement is very nominal, it is observed thatboth the bearing capacity and the modulus ofdeformation are conspicuously enhanced ascompared to the controlled specimens (Figs. /to 2). It is also noticed that the addition of thevery small quantity of cement gives a continuous increase of both the properties. This is dueto the chemical reaction among cement, soil
and water.
It was observed that the failure modes of test
samples under unconﬁned compressive tests
were varied depending on the quantity of cement added. These failure modes are clariﬁed
in Fig. 3. It is apparent from Fig. 3a that thecracks formed in the vertical plane for thecontrol specimen without any cement content.
No diagonal cracks were formed even the load
was continued until compressive stain of +1..+
ῌ. The addition of *.,ῌ cement in soil, although nominal, changes the failure patternfrom vertical to diagonal direction as can beseen from the formation of major cracks diagonally in Fig. 3b. This change of failure
plane or formation of diagonal cracks occurred
at +..1*ῌ strain indicates the development of
the shear strength in soil by the addition of
cement. Further addition of cement (*.. and*.0ῌ), altered the failure modes of the soil incrashing type failure at strains of +-.++ῌ for*..ῌ cement content and ++.1*ῌ for *.0ῌ
cement content as shown in Fig. 3c and Fig. 3d.

῍ῌ : The E#ectiveness of Nominal Dosage of Ordinary Cement on Strength and Permeability of Clayey Soil 33

Fig. 3

Failure pattern of specimens under unconﬁned compressive strength test

Fig. +*

E#ect of cement content on permeability coe$cient-. - Results of Permeability tests
The test results on the permeability coe$cient of the cement treated soils are depicted inFig. +*. It is evident that the permeability coe$cient increased with the increase in theamount of cement content. The higher rate ofwater permeability was occurred due to theﬂocculation of the soil particles. This ﬂocculation brought the clay particles together bycementing them to form a compound or secondary particle. This phenomenon has alreadybeen discussed in the introduction section illustrating the e#ectiveness of nominal cement
in forming the ﬁner particles into secondary
ones. The formation of secondary particles

through cementing action is conﬁrmed by
Scanning Electron Micrographs (SEM) as
shown in Fig. ++. It is also evident from thecompaction curve given in Fig. , that the dry
bulk density of the soil decreased with theincrease of cement content indicating the inﬂuence of formation of bigger particles.
..

Conclusions

In this paper, the e#ectiveness of the very
nominal dosage rate of the ordinary portland
cement, such as, *.,ῌ, *..ῌ and *.0ῌ was used
to investigate the compressive strength, California Bearing Ratio, modulus of deformationand permeability of clayey soils in Mie prefec-

34ΐῐ῎῔῕ῑ ῒ ++* ῏ ῌ,**2῍creased remarkably with the addition of thesmall amount of the ordinary portland cement.
,. The compressive strength increased withthe percentage of cement content.
-. The modulus of deformation (E/*) increased with the increase in the percentage of
cement content.
.. The addition of cement increased the permeability coe$cient.
Acknowledgements
The research reported in this paper is partly
supported by the Research Grant No. +2/2*,.with funds from Grants-in-Aid for ScientiﬁcResearch given by the Japanese Government.
The writers gratefully acknowledge these supports. Any opinions, ﬁndings, and conclusions
expressed in this paper are those of the authorsand do not necessarily reﬂect the views of thesponsor.
References

Fig. ++

Scanning Electron Micrographs (SEM)of cement treated soil

ture. From the analyses of the test results
depicted above, the following conclusions canbe drawn.
+. The bearing capacity in terms of the CBRvalue and the compressive strength was in-

ACI Committee (+33,) : State-of-the-Art Report on
Soil Cement, American Concrete Institute, + :+ῌ,-.
Ahuja, L.R. and Swartzendruber, D. (+31,) : E#ect
of Portland cement on aggregation and hydraulic properties. Proceedings of the Soil Science Society of America, ++. : -/3ῌ-00.
Arora, K.R. (+323) : Soil Stabilization, Soil mechanics and foundation engineering, Standard Publishers Distributors, Nai Sarak, Delhi : 0+/ῌ0-..
Awal, A.S.M.A. and Mamun, A.A. (+332) : Improvement of Bangkok Clay by Using Ordinary
Portland Cement, Proceedings of the International Symposium on Problematic Soils,
Balkema, Rotterdam, + : 0*-ῌ0*0.
Boswell, W.F. (,***) : Soil Stabilization/Soil Cement Mark-Lang, Inc.’s Approach, Soil-Cement
and Other Construction Practices in Geotechnical Engineering, ASCE, 3/ : ,0ῌ-/.
Hossain, M.Z., Narioka, H. and Sakai, T. (,**0) :E#ect of Ordinary Portland-Cement on Properties of Clayey Soil in Mie Prefecture, J.of
Soil Physics, Japanese Society of Soil Physics,+*- : -+ῌ-2.
Ingles, O.G. and Metcaf, J.B. (+31,) : Soil stabilization, Melbourne : Buterworths.
JIS A +,++ (+32*) : Method of Unconﬁned Compressive Test of Soils, Japanese Industrial Stand- : The E#ectiveness of Nominal Dosage of Ordinary Cement on Strength and Permeability of Clayey Soil 35

ards, Dositsu Shiken Hou, Dositsu Kogakkai(in Japanese) : .1.ῌ.3..
JIS T +,+0 (+310) : Method of test for the California
Bearing Ratio of Soils, Japanese Industrial
Standards, Dositsu Shiken Hou, Dositsu
Kogakkai (in Japanese) : -*.ῌ---.
JSCE committee, (,**-) : Guideline for Experiment
on Materials of Civil Works, Japan Society of
Civil Engineers, + : +ῌ,..
Kataoka, K., Goto, T., Ogino, T., Shimizu, K. andNakano, K. (+33,) : Bearing capacity of soil
cement column in soft ground, Soil Improvement, Elsevier Science and the Society of Materials Science, Japan : +.3ῌ+00.
Marshal, T. J. and Holes, J.W. (+33,) : Soil physics,
Cambridge University Press, Melbourne, Australia.
Mindess, S. and Young, F. (+32+) : Concrete, Prentice Hall Inc. Englewood Cli#s, New Jersey.



Mitchell, J.K. (+310) : Fundamentals of Soil Behavior, John Wiley and Sons, Inc. New York.
Nagaishi, Y., Miazaki, T. and Haraguchi, N. (+32/) :Dositsu Antei Shori ni Yoru Noudo no Kani
Hosou-Keishachi no Noudou ni Tsuite- (in Japanese) Journal of the JSIDRE, /- (2) : ++ῌ+2.
Prusinski, J.R. and Bhattacharya, S. (+333) : E#ectiveness of Portland Cement and Lime in Stabilizing Clay Soils, Transportation Research
Board, Record No. +0/,, , : +32ῌ,*0.
Sera, E.E., Austriaco, L.R. and Pama, R.P. (+33*) :Natural Fibers as Reinforcement, Journal of
Ferrocement, ,* : -0ῌ.*.
Stocker, P.E. (+30-) : The chemical aspect of thecement stabilization of heavy clays, Constructional review, -0 : +-ῌ,,.
Wilhelmsson, B. (+331) : Strength properties of cement mortars with lime and dolomite, MIMERreport : +ῌ+,.

   !
  !#*ῌ** D ;< /+.ῌ2/*1  +/11   !"#$%&'()*+,-./.0 121 3-!"#$4567896:;<= !"#$45>' .῍ 2? +.῍ @AB>C45>'D/0E5'FBGH IJK7LMNOPQRB ST!"#$4567
UV6W0.;<3B'XYZ [3 \;<= 45>' *.0῍ ST!
"#$]6^_3B67` abc> CBR d  efgh K7Lij'H7k6
UV26W0.lmnop [qr ST!"#$^_Zo.s !"#$45>t_
6u0 abc> efghvw UxyzK7Lijyz=t_3B'{?2B|op : abc }c ~:y ghvw Uxyz ijyz : ,**2  ,  0  : ,**2  1  / 
J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.

No. ++*, p. -1/+ ,**2

¯°±'*ῌ²³(´*ῌµ¶·¸*ῌ¹º »*ῌ#¢£¼½*ῌ¤µ½)*
A New Method for Measuring Early Nutrient Release Pattern fromManure Compost Using Sand Column and its Application toSome Kinds of Cattle Manure Compost
Noburo HARAGUCHI*, Yusuke ARAKAWA*, Akihiro TANAKA*, Takashi KUSABA*,
Ken-ichi YAKUSHIDO* and Ichiro YAMADA** National Agriculture and Food Research Organization, National Agricultural Research Center
for Kyushu Okinawa Region, ,.,+ Suya, Koshi, Kumamoto 20+῎++3,, Japan
Abstract
Currently, various types of livestock manure composts have been developing for application to
farmlands as an organic fertilizer.

Nutrients released from these newly developed composts play

an important role in the overall chemical dynamics in soils. In the traditional methods, such as
an incubation method, the nutrient release patterns were measured under soil-compost mixing
conditions, in which the major cations and anions were not analyzed precisely.

Thus, in thisstudy, a new method for measuring early nutrient release pattern from composts was developed
using sand column mixed with manure compost and was applied for analyzing the nutrient
release patterns for four kinds of cattle manure compost. A sand column of 3.- cm height and of/ cm diameter, having the unsaturated sand layer of ,.- cm height mixed with compost overlain
the saturated sand layer of 1 cm height, was prepared.

Distilled water was supplied to the top of

the column at a constant rate and the pattern of the nutrient concentration in drained water wasmeasured.

This could be evaluated as BTC normalized with pore volume. This method per-formed well in detecting the delayed release of nutrients and the increase in the released K in thepelletized composts compared with the traditional ones.
Key words : Livestock manure compost, Nutrient release pattern, Sand column, Breakthroughcurve (BTC)+
MN GOPQRSTUV )WXY;QZ

9:;<= >?@AB=CD9:;5E ()* @ FGHIJCKLC
A<5 J[J 6()\]^_`Yabcdef CO, +ghXY;ijkl_mn

opXqr;7 +332 stIJCun;vwx8nyz{<= |} } ()

~=L N  IJCsnx WPQ~ (XpKLC

J<()* ῌXqr;~X B

;5 ,**, NXfKL<LC;5 L9@ ῌs=;<XYL () @! 3,*** "I=LC`¥ ¦§b¨I$9 © W

ῌ' ,**. ῍ %ª ῌ«& ¬­® 

¡KL<* ῌ #¢£ ,**, ; ¤*  ῌ ! 20+῎++3, "#$%&' ,.,++, ! -./0 +1234 BTC
 : ()*    ++*38   

,**2

 ῌ  !"# 

$% &# ,*** ; ' ,**+ ; (# ,**. )-.#/.!0 1/#2! 34 5 !

6701, ῍ 1/ "89# :;0<!

%="8>$;%= ?@ 
' ()% A,:;D.!0 Wang et al., ,**+ ;  *+,*+ 

&2. 1/# BC"# ) * +#"701,

(# ,**- &.;E F"# 1/# 2,  "#$/  / '0 +#"701,

!

1$G0

 

,+

"# 

 1/# / '0

HI0J K2GL 34 MN5O6P

,-,2




78

Q ! RS'*+ 9 : 

TD., UVWX/.Y 2"2 ;<>?,X/^,@AG0BV-_,`aG

Volume 9CD "# 9L efF8Gg?h i3j HI;! klD9 ;<mJ Break through Curve : BTC ,K nL /MENo2 p2q
YT0

E Q<-R!G"#

0 tSῌuv +331
,, X2,, [z{"#~]2 ^# 4 ,U_2;!WH!.

70 F- 1/# 

"#



:/hC2.

2 O701, Z[-;, ! ~ 70

1,-nG0 _BX/$: o2.pq2;-#r  % 70,
y#/.HL 1 T;A' e 70 , UVWH!.70t$-G0 2"2 uv2T ,#

2 "

70M;

,$

H!. /YZX/



,

UVW

;a BC"# *+Ck,*+lm ^?@7 f\*+70;a,,  ! @"#m + 1X +, cm

}~



*+

70 Z[-`a ,D.²VG0 1 © :S'-&.X/*+WTL*´X/0,y#/0
rT0)-;"#70 " !8t¼])[HI0
A' !;a ¸1,-jGL '0 dG0,y#/0

! ¤nwxX/_:¥ +*, cmῌs, ¦§C¨

-.3. KPa .* cm H,O G0 e # +321

@A «d 2! 34 5 !
­A' p ®,

$ T0,

BC ,7s / cm, X - . / cm

<!

$

p

} wxC,2. y:z{2|£}~!01,T ¸1,n2!- M;BC[

9#TD.i701,-jG0,y

BTC#/0  , 

1 T;*+WH!.



#/0

?@ }~ 

2. 701,-Y/± )

E Z[=% 7;

g;a

T0

L ^,- #/0,!r¯X/0,y"#

7

S'TD.`a-9 v}bcX/0 (D.j

Y0  +  :  efF «bE,;a BC"#

0 \L"# |:TL9X/0@} :2

! ~ Y0*+W $©,2. ,  Aª01,Y.X!,;a"  BTC ,2.ῌrO7

U_7

0,^,- #/0,!¡¢-G0
"#)

cd

 BTC e X/0 b $% J\f70,G0 2"2;-# 1  
$

:E

2.rOX/0 Ps +33. 

/ '0 ~]dG01, x2
"# )D b

01, wT2 T῎+ x7 y62 1 UVῌ'W ,**/  !.

Z [ = % - F  X / Z [ \ 2 ]  Pore,¬

9# ,A' p ~]70 @A°#0HT® / mm#0HT® / mm

$ ¬­<!

$

. F HT®>BC,2.³ % k ]G! .2 : ?@ % k @A°<!
0¹º

Vµ / F BC *+2 n¶/"#·7. [ ¶K2 » )\-L

X½.@A«E

82\

GL W/,**0 ; W/ῌ& ,**1 ¬­<!

¹º

-X/0uG0 b , F $ :  !"#$%&'(%)*+,-./0ῌ+Fig. +

39



Schematic view of experimental setup

1 2 3456789:;<=>?7@ABCD; ; ;EB! EFGHIJ

KLM+, NOP0 QR'STUV / mm, WS

XYZ[41 IJ4\];^4$_M7

2./ mm KLM`Qab . cdefEghi?jkEl<1E!E @mR1 #no&pῌ+ 4qr stu:1 vwxst y

z<$_M7?{/Arb@A|}4rb @

4~xstNO--N B@AByQa@A !

Q1 %)l"#<$b E h''(1 st +0῍ -_M7?B{/AEbY IJB\]ST 2῍ t %&- +0῍ $%& +-. /Bῌ B\]STBῌE

῍ l%& +0῍ $%& +/./῍ Qab

4b'(%) 1,- 



ῌ+ 4qr4< IJ !'(%)*+,



A¡Qab¢5M`£< ¤ !¥¦;§$- BTC A;<./ῌ¨©rbª41 {/$_ §$ «¬; ­ª®¯ῌ;?°-L?

M7?±²Q³)$'(´µ¶hB·.STb¸_>¹+, ¯¦º»¼1½  3.2. KPa  +** cm  ++* 4 ,**2

40

ῌῌ+ 
Table + Selected properties of four

(+*






+
 


 
+,
kg kg+)pH H,O,

EC,
(dS m+)

T-C-

0420
04.,
24+04.2

++4,.
+-4++
+,4,2
34-1

-,24/
-,343
-0/4-/24+,24..
+243+.41/
+,40+

T-N-

(+*- kg kg+)
.*42
-341
,241
,042

+

   / mm 
 :  + : +*     ,*** !"#-$%&  '.()ῌ*+), '/,MKCl - ',H,O 567 89:.  / mm 78!$!""D9E#FG$%  1 cm H=)*""DST /T 0 9 . U

P Z[\]9-^. )*D '/_V-1 cm T 2 " "D6a 3% bX^cF_!<=P;9<=>?@A 'BC9 +*ῌ5. I JKLM&=NOP@'(!QPOR
L+VWPXY ' ',H=9' T,X^0`> 1ῌ+.
UP 4dR   +./11+*- cmῌs

5 !:=N6-e9f7?@5g! [h9if. 6-e_VT '/Ij.k

lmn!89=N: *.+ mm ;o< +- =9

""Dpq>bX^<=>?=NOP@A h?@h@A 1ῌ+ 9BPO ',_V +./1

if5g!6-e9f7Or st!6%56-

1+*- cmῌs Ru9v T L)*

LC^wYDWxEFG!xWP. yykh

9HzFGDWxEFG9z. yR

if_V{g|}*~!6-e9f7?@y5k ~d?@I-BP@55> 

5. yJA!X^ 6-ef7 ~!KDW

JK_V 6-LMg|;LN!OVN

xELP@L@XYRS!XzO=N.

x?@5. =k T9O hif

~Q_!DWxEFG!

h9U . g|9 T V""D!>E#_V /./ ~!6-e9f7. 6-ef7~  2

WOP@I 9XP6~ Pz6-2+** cm- FG6-9. #9g|e9Y h9Z. y5` T k)*I

O 6-R 9A. w|! 6-I@ hZ![Y\WxEkPW

]a^_M ST /EC0 9mW]a^_P5VN. T '!

 +*ῌ ""D9M m^_  B-+1- Horiba 9BPO

 1./ mm,  +*ῌ ""D9 EC L ,* mSῌcm ST ;WJK`k /* mSῌcm S

 +./ cm, !M&. a' ,b9 /'T !Wz5` 6-e9Y h9ZO

T,0 /' ',0 r>kc9wc O /' 09¡d. ¡d~Q_!7 89,e '5?@ 1ῌ+.

 k'(!¢{!hV£@XY!

M&  QX¤;

`k N¥N / g9'(!¢!W@XY!hA. , ¨i $!­$%#k *.-/ g, , ¨i
 Nk *.2 g, ;` Nk *.,/ g 5Wz.

', ' T,QX¤T  9f$!!X^.

=N 5""D$%#!¦§`

,!Q©@# ª«QX¤)*M9¬.
6-®V Ca, Mg, K, Na ¯\mLM9°±

M&gJK_V I-9j@A!k '²³@A SOLAAR M0, UNICAM Cl QX¤ SO. ¯

BC L<=P´kP. _\mLM9µ¶· []a¸E@A

L<Quanta .***E,=?¹@5 hif~DWxE ~d ºx

Waters NH.-N, NO--N, PO.-P, T-N, T-P LM9²³³

!»¼LP@. yyk hif!lmGJK_

M@A TRAACS 2**, BRAN-LUEBBE EC ,/3

V I-9½nj _Ghif~!Q©@

9 EC  4 -m ^_ !X^

N :   !"#$41
kinds of cattle manure compost
P,O/.

K,O.

C/N

CaO.

MgO.

NH.-N/(+*- kg kg+)24+
24+,41+-4.

+34+14+-,41-24.

%&$ '

-,4+,34/--4-040

,+41
,*4.
+14/
+04/

Ca, Mg, K, Na ()* NO--N, PO.-P,

T-N, T-P $ 0 567 8

NO--N/(+*- kg kg+)
+*4+
342
+,4+
+.4/

24.
24,
+41
+4,

+140
+14.
+41
.4,

+, Pore Volume - ' ./0123(4+331 9:;'<=> ,. - 9?'./9@ AB 1 cm 'C NH.-N $ 0 D#EFGH"I J 9

2KL'M N +*῍ O :

PQ RS ,**-

 1./ mm, N +*῍  +* mmolῌl  KNO- T

U?'VWLX2K Y

: 1./ mm N +*῍ O :

ZG[\]>^ _ ῍ + 9`]2K   ,  9ab , +* mm /9c' dM efg' mm, B +./ cm hij[kl' m&

ng',  EC $ 'Yop HTV N-+**KP, HY-NET 3q"!rs"
CR+*X, Campbell 9{|'}~c9!2

Keuv"C<X+

X< Y$ '

tuv ,: 9(w>xyezuv3#+ D<}~NC9 $%&T I9'(' mT BTC + )}~9j , *+uvQ uv9,

$9)4 uvy ez - ' ./0'X0 -./+*./ X<=4 }~9)Q,Q

123(4<=> ,.- 9?'./9@ AB 1

 ],uv ,/ <Q ( cm '2KL'M N +*῍ : pH ,.- cm c' m9  +* mmolῌl ,/  pH 

# \ pH "! B-,+, Horiba 9)Q,$ ' ],}~9

KNO- T +/, 0./1.. -<=Q

4.' mX NO- $%$ ', .



Pore Volume

XῌO 0*X]WL - -  !"  _῍+ ()* ,. - <?'uv0 / -+ 

 2Kῌ0K UK  ¡ ng1M

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Pore volumes at which the peak ECs
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Fig. 1 Breakthrough curves for the cations and anions : (a) chemical fertilizer, (b) N-enriched cattle
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48

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49

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The amount of early released nutrients for chemical fertilizer and the four kinds of cattle
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Ca

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K

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ῐ
J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
ῐ῎῍ῑῒ῏
No. ++*, p. /-ῌ00 ῍,**2῎

Evaluation of Powdered Polyacrylamide Application
along with Source of Electrolytes inControlling Sodic Soil Erosion
Tahei YAMAMOTO*, Yutaka SHIMURA**, Taku NISHIMURA***, Henintsoa ANDRY*,
Shigeoki MORITANI* and Ahmed AL-BUSAIDI** Tottori University, Arid Land Research Center, +-3* Hamasaka, Tottori, 02*ῌ***+, Japan** Nishida Industry Co. Inc., +-+ῌ+ Koaza-inumaru, Aza-amada,
Hukuchiyama-shi, Kyoto, 0,*ῌ**.0, Japan*** University of Tokyo, Yayoi +ῌ+ῌ+, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo ++-ῌ20/1, Japan
Abstract
The anionic polyacrylamide (PAM) is recently used to rehabilitate saline and sodic soils. It isalso applied to control soil erosion ; however, few researches have tested the e#ectiveness ofanionic PAM along with source of electrolytes application to control artiﬁcial sodic soil erosion.
An experiment was conducted to study the e#ects of anionic PAM with and without gypsum on
the erosion of sodic soils under saline rain water conditions. A clay loam soil was prepared toachieve three levels of exchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) ; *./, 3.3 and ,/./ with appropriate
salts solutions. Soil samples were air-dried and packed in the trays. Powdered PAM, gypsum ora mixture of both were applied to the salt treated soils. Soils were subjected to simulated rainstorm of .* mm hῌ+ by a ﬁxed rainfall simulator. Saline waters with di#erent levels of electricalconductivity (EC) ; *.+-, ,, /, and 2 dS mῌ+ were used for simulated rains during the study.
It seems that the artiﬁcial soil showed fairly similar soil erosion characteristics as that reported
on a natural sodic soil. It was found that the soil sodicity enhanced soil erosion under non-saline
water. It seems that the e#ects of electrolyte source on soil erosion were a#ected by the soil initial
electrical conductivity (ECe) rather than by the ESP level of soil. PAM amendment substantially
increased the surface runo# while at the same time controlled the soil losses. A reduction insurface runo# was found by applying gypsum or saline water on the soil treated with PAM.
However, it seems that the mixed addition of PAM with gypsum or salts enhanced detachmentsof soil particles by raindrop impact.
Key words : Gypsum, saline water, polyacrylamide (PAM), artiﬁcial sodic soil, soil erosion+.

Introduction

Soil sodicity occurs naturally and can beenhanced by human activities such as irrigation. In arid and semi-arid areas, sodic soils
exhibit poor soil-water and soil-air relation ;these properties adversely a#ect root growth
restricting plant production and making thesoils di$cult to work when wet or dry. The

total area, which has sodic soils, is estimated atabout +-/ million hectares ; but as the distribution of sodic soils is very scattered worldwide
the individual areas are often too small for
inclusion in overview soil maps at a world
scale (FAO-AGL, ,***).
Soil sodicity can a#ect many physicochemical reactions. Soil pH usually has a strong
relationship with exchangeable sodium per-

῏

54



centage (Tan, +33-). Problem of sodic soil iscaused by the presence of sodium attached toclay in soil. A soil is considered sodic when thesodium reaches a concentration where it starts
to a#ect soil structure. The sodium may
extend di#use double layer and thus weaken
the bonds between soil particles when wetted
resulting in the clay swelling and often dispersing. When this happens the clay particles
spread out or disperse making the soil water
turbid. The dispersed clay particles can thenmove through the soil and clog the pores. Bothswelling and dispersion reduce inﬁltration anddrainage. During irrigation and rainfall, such
soils tend to have more runo# and thus bevulnerable to water erosion (Shainberg et al.,+32.). Agassi et al. (+32+) reported a considerable runo# from dispersive non-calcareous sodic
soil induced by rainfall. Soil loss becomes more
severe under sprinkler systems with highspraying intensities and longer duration of surface irrigation. Runo# and eroded sediments
not only lead to deterioration of land productivity, but also contribute substantially towards non-point source contamination of surface water bodies (Tang and Rengel, ,**-).
The scarcity of good quality water forces
farmers world wide to use poorer quality wateror reuse drainage water for irrigation. In somearid areas, saline (electrical conductivity of , to/.2 dS m+) and sodic (sodium adsorption ratioof +, to ,0) water have been used for irrigation(Levy et al., +33/ ; Yamamoto et al., +32*). Irrigation with such water introduces sodium tothe exchange sites and leads to the buildup ofhigh ESP levels of the soil (Mantell et al., +32/).
When exposed to the impact energy of water
drops, aggregates with high ESP levels disintegrate more readily than those with low ESP
levels (Shainberg et al., +33,). Consequently, athigh ESP levels the soil erosion is signiﬁcantly
higher than that at low ESP levels (Shainberg
et al., +33,).
Reduction of soil erosion can be obtained by
improving soil structure and aggregate stability at the soil surface. Gypsum has been used to++*,**2

improve soil physical properties such as soil
aggregation and permeability as a result ofproviding electrolyte into the rainwater andalso dissolved Ca ions into the soils as well
(Shainberg et al., +323). On the other hand,
Polyacrylamide (PAM) was found to improvesoil structure by reducing clay dispersion(Saybold, +33.). An anionic PAM having large
molecular weight has the ability to stabilize
soil structure, reduce runo# and soil loss
(Zhang and Miller, +330), when soil solution
cations can bridge negative charged clay particles with anionic PAM (Theng, +32.). For thisprocess carboxyl groups of PAM are attachingwith soil particles.
It was reported that the dissolution of PAM
encouraged soil aggregation and structuring(Al-Abed et al., ,**-). This phenomenon could
ensure reduction of soil loss by runo#. Beside,
Yu et al. (,**-) reported a decrease in inﬁltration rate after an anionic PAM application on
the soil. This was caused by clogging pores bylong chains of gel structured PAM. Also, small
molecular weight PAMs may prevent coagulation of clay particles by cancelling the particle
charges by adsorption (Heller and Keren, ,**, ;Shainberg and levy, +33. ; Shainberg et al.,+323).
Treating sodic soil with anionic PAM or
gypsum can improve soil structure (Shainberg
et al., +323 ; Al-Abed et al., ,**-) ; however, few
researches have tested the e#ectiveness ofanionic PAM along with gypsum application
on soil erosion (Tang et al., ,**0). The direct
relationship between soil structure, PAM andgypsum application on soil erosion is not veryclear. Moreover, the e#ect of anionic PAM on
soil erosion was not fully studied.
There is a limitation for basic research to be
conducted on a natural soil due to inherent
variability of the soil properties in the ﬁeld.
Controlling and measuring many physicochemical parameters under ﬁeld study withvariable conditions of sodic soils could lead to acomplexity and variation in measured values.
As a result, it is hard to determine which factor῔ΐ : Evaluation of Powdered Polyacrylamide Application along with Source of Electrolytes
in Controlling Sodic Soil Erosion

is more important and to predict where andwhen soil erosion events are going to takeplace in the ﬁeld. These problems have generated the need for controllable simulation,such as simulated rainfall as well as simulated
sodic soil. Rainfall simulation has been used
for decades to study basic erosion processes
that are di$cult to study in detail on the ﬁeld ;for example, surface sealing, soil aggregate stability, and raindrop detachment. Using artiﬁcial sodic soil may be a method for a basic
study on sodic soils induced by blackish water
irrigation. The current experiment was designed and carried out on the objective to analyze the e#ects of anionic PAM mixed with
gypsum or under saline rain water on artiﬁcial
sodic soil erosion. Therefore, conducting abasic study under laboratory condition will
give precise understanding on the response of
sodic soils to various amendments.
,.

Table +

55

Some characteristics of the studied
soil

Physicochemical properties

ValuesSand [ῑ*4*, mm] (ῌ)
Silt [*4*,ῌ*4**, mm] (ῌ)
Clay [ῐ*4**, mm] (ῌ)
Bulk density (g cm῍-)
Hydraulic conductivity (cm s῍+)
pH-H,* [+ : ,4/]ECe (dS m῍+)
CEC (cmolc kg῍+)

-340
-04*
,.4.
+4+,
043,῎+*῍/
/40+
*411
+14,

Clay minerals (ῌ)
Smectite
Chalcedony
Analcime
Plagioclase
CalciteDolomite
PyriteQuartz.0ῌ.3-1ῌ-2-4*ῌ-4/,41ῌ/4/,4+ῌ,40,4*ῌ,42*4/ῌ*41*4/ῌ*41

Materials and Methods,. + Soil preparation and analysis
The soil for the experiment was sampledfrom the paddy ﬁelds of Tottori prefecture,
Japan. Smectite is the dominant clay mineralin this soil. Textural class of the soil was determined as clay loam by pipette method (Gee and
Bauder, +320). The pH of the soil was measured
in + : ,./ soil-water suspensions. Electrical conductivity (ECe) was measured in saturation extract by electrical conductivity meter. Exchangeable cations are extracted by using sodium acetate solution and cation exchange capacity (CEC) was determined by quantifying
the adsorbed sodium cation following replacement of the cation by +N ammonium acetate
solution. Quantiﬁcation of cations was conducted by atomic absorption spectrophotometer. The selected properties of the soil are
given in Table +.
Soils were air-dried and passed through ,mm mesh sieve. The soil samples were treatedwith CaCl,, MgSO. and Na,CO- to attain thefollowing three levels of ESP : i) low ESP *./,
ii) medium ESP 0.00, and iii) high ESP ,/./

(Table ,).
,. , Soil erosion experiment
Steel boxes having a dimension of (+**῎/*῎+- cm) were used for this experiment. Boxes
were ﬁlled with 1 cm of sand overlain to - cm
thickness gravel layers. The treated soil was
air dried and then uniformly packed withthickness of - cm to the top of the sand box.
The boxes were placed at +*ῒ slope and .*mm h῍+ simulated rainfall was applied for ,hours. Rain water was prepared by mixing
salts of NaCl and CaCl, with tap water (EC῏*.*3 dS m῍+) to attain electrical conductivity(EC) levels of *.+-, ,, / and 2 dS m῍+. Thesesaline rain waters were prepared in order tosimulate the e#ect of saline water used insprinkler irrigation. The sodium adsorption
ratio (SAR) value of the rain water for every
level of EC was maintained as /. This SAR
value was selected based on the average SARof drainage water of irrigation reported in theprevious research of Yamamoto et al. (+32*) undertaken in Khuzestan areas of Iran. Moreover,this SAR value, which is classiﬁed to be higher



56

Table ,++*  ,**2

Selected chemical properties of the salt treated soils
Exchangeable cations (cmolc kg+)ESP levelof soil

pH-H,O(+ : ,./)ECe(dS m+)ESP

Low
MediumHigh/43//40+
04-1042/240134.,

34,3
+-4/.
,4,.

*4/
0400
,/4./

Fig. +

Soil erosion experimentin the USDA Agricultural Handbook Guideline(US Salinity Lab. Sta#, +3/-), was also selected
in order to analyze soil dispersion of the sodic
soil.
A drip-type rainfall simulator with raindrop
fall-height of +, m was used for the study (Fig.
+). Average rain drop size was , mm. Runo#
was collected by a ﬂume connected at thelower end of the tray during every / minutes
intervals. The sediments in the runo# were
determined gravimetrically after oven-drying
at +*/ for .2 hours.
The e#ect of gypsum, saline water andanionic PAM alone was determined by supplying of gypsum at the rate of *, +, and / Mg ha+,under saline rain water having EC values of*.+-, , and 2 dS m+, or dry PAM at the rate of *,

Na

Mg,

Ca,

*4*3
+4+.
.4-2

*4..
+4*3
*432

+*42/
+*4+,
04+.

,* and 2* kg ha+. The saline rain water of *.+dS m+, which is also referred as a non-salinerain water in the subsequent text, was used in
the case of dry gypsum and anionic PAM.
Prior to the simulated rainfall these chemical
amendments were uniformly spread on soil
surface.
In case of mixing experiment either dry PAM
mixed with gypsum or dry PAM subjected tosaline water, prior to the simulated rainfall, dry
gypsum was uniformly spread on the soil surface at the rate of *, +, ,, and / Mg ha+ whereas
the dry PAM was uniformly spread at the rateof *, ,* and 2* kg ha+. Application rate of thetwo chemical agents was arranged in a mannerthat the above two doses of the PAM weremixed with the three doses of gypsum to give a
total of six di#erent application conditions.
The powdered anionic PAM (AP2,/) used in
the experiment was manufactured by the DiaNitrix Co., Ltd, with a molecular weight of +.++*1 g mol+ and +1 to ,+ῌ hydrolysis.
,. - Soil intake rate study
Soils of highest ESP amended by anionic
PAM, gypsum and mixtures of both wereused in the intake rate study. Inﬁltration rateof the soil was measured using constructedsoil column. The study was done following
Bouwer (+30-). Soil with thickness of ,./ cm
was packed uniformly in columns of +* cm inheight and / cm in diameter. The soil column
was kept ponded with water depth of / cm.
Water supply rate was monitored until thesteady state condition. At the end, soil basic
intake rate at steady state condition was calculated (Table -). The inﬁltration experiment
was performed with , to - replicates and withῑῐ : Evaluation of Powdered Polyacrylamide Application along with Source of Electrolytes
in Controlling Sodic Soil Erosion

57

Table - Soil basic intake rate (IB in mm hῌ+) of high ESP soils
Water quality used in this test

Non-saline water

Saline water , dS m῍+

Saline water / dS m῍+Control
PAM ,* kg ha῍+ῌGypsum , Mg ha῍+
PAM ,* kg ha῍+ῌGypsum / Mg ha῍+
PAM 2* kg ha῍+ῌGypsum , Mg ha῍+
PAM ,* kg ha῍+
PAM 2* kg ha῍+

.41/
/4+0
/4/*
/4+0
-4,.
*4**

n/a῏
n/a
n/a
n/a
14*/
0430

n/a
n/a
n/a
n/a
14*2
14+2

῏

n/a : not available

either non-saline or saline water.
,. . Soil aggregate stability
The e#ect of PAM on soil aggregate stabilityof low and high ESP levels was tested under
deionizer water to assimilate the e#ect of natural rain. A -* g of the treated soil was spread onan aluminum plate (+, by +../ cm) to form amonolayer and then anionic PAM was appliedby spraying the / ml of dilute PAM solution ata concentration of -/* mg L῍+. The treated soils
were air-dried for .2 hours before analysis. Soilaggregate stability was done by a combinationof wet-sieving using two aperture meshes of ,and *.*1/ mm and then measured by hydrometer method. Distilled water was used for wetsieving.
-.
-. +Results and Discussion

E#ect of gypsum or saline water onsoil erosion
Gypsum is known as a dispersion-restricting
agent for sodic soils due to electrolyte concentration and cation exchange e#ects (Shainberg
et al., +323 ; Zhang and Miller, +330). The performance of gypsum depends on the soil waterelectrolyte and Ca concentrations that result
from gypsum dissolution, and on the e$ciencyof the Na-Ca soil exchange process (Keren andShainberg, +32+). The e#ects of gypsum andexchangeable sodium percentage (ESP) of thesoil on surface runo# and soil loss under nonsaline rain water are shown in Fig. ,. It was
found that the cumulative runo# of each treatment for , hours rainfall event did not clearly
di#er among the gypsum levels. The soil

which had highest ESP showed the highest
values of surface runo#, followed by low ESP,and medium ESP. This result was in contrast
with the initial ECe of the soil as cited in thefollowing order : high ESP soil῎low ESP soil῎medium ESP soil. Based on this ranking, it
seems that the e#ectiveness of gypsum on improving soil inﬁltration was a#ected by the
initial ECe of the soil. It is important to mention that as ECe was measured in saturation
extract, this ECe depends on the concentrationof total soluble salts in the solution. And sincesoil ESP and ECe are not linearly dependent, apossible decrease in ECe with increasing soil
ESP could be occurred such as seen in thisstudy and also reported by Yamada et al.,(,**,).
The soil loss was not clearly a#ected by
gypsum application rate ; however, it seems
that the e#ect of gypsum application varied
accordingly to the level of ESP in the soil.
Gypsum application reduces soil loss from high
ESP soil. The soil having low ESP showed thelowest values of soil loss among treated soils.
Gypsum helps clay particles to ﬂocculate that
may at least reduce seal formation on soil surface (Shainberg and Letey, +32.). During rainfall season, application of gypsum enhanced
deposition of sediments and reduced the transport of ﬁner particles by surface runo# (Warrington et al., +33* ; Yu et al., ,**-). The inconsistency of the results in this study as compared to those reported by previous researches
were partly due to the initial condition of the
low and medium ESP soils having high initial



58

Fig. ,++*

,**2

E#ect of gypsum on soil erosion at di#erent ESP subjected to non-saline water

ECe, 3.,3 and +-./. dS m+, respectively. The
electrolyte concentration exceeded the cationexchange e#ect in soil.
Without gypsum application, the surface
runo# from soils subjected to saline rain water
decreased with increasing the electrolyte concentration of rain (Fig. -). This result could be
explained by the improvement of soil inﬁltration by restricting clay dispersion (Shainberg
et al., +323 ; Zhang and Miller, +330) of thewhole soil layer. It was found that saline rainwater with EC value , dS m+ enhanced soil
loss of the medium and low ESP soils as compared to the non-saline rain water of *.+- dS
m+. However, the soil loss from the soil
having high ESP decreased signiﬁcantly withincreasing the electrolyte concentration in rain
(Fig. -). For the low and medium ESP soils hadhigh ECe at the beginning of rainfall event.
Combination of lower electrolyte concentration and rain drop impact of the saline water
rainfall exceeded ion exchange e#ect following
to apply saline water (SAR /) rainfall. En-

hance in dispersion due to raindrop impact
under dilluter electrolyte concentration could
happen at soil surface during saline water rainfall event. This caused more soil loss under ,dS m+ rainfall without drop in inﬁtration rate.
Then, soil loss decreased with higher EC salinerain water with the same SAR.
For both gypsum and saline water treatment, surface runo# and soil loss were varied
and inconsistence since those might be highly
a#ected by both ESP, SAR and the initial ECeof the soil. Hereby, the interactive e#ect of ECe,
ESP, gypsum and saline water treatment wasamong the main reasons for di#erentiatedranking order of soil loss and surface runo#
among all treatments as shown in Fig. , andFig. -.
-. , E#ect of PAM on temporal change ofsoil erosion under non-saline rainwater
The temporal changes of runo# and soil loss
during , hours simulated rainfall was a#ectedby PAM application (Fig. .). Runo# was great-ῐ῏ : Evaluation of Powdered Polyacrylamide Application along with Source of Electrolytes
in Controlling Sodic Soil Erosion

59

Fig. - Characteristics of soil erosion at di#erent ESP without gypsum application subjected tosaline waterer with higher dose of anionic PAM. This could
happen due to the long chain of the PAM
which clogged soil pores, prevented inﬁltrationand enhanced surface runo#. This is supported to some extent by the soil basic intake
rate test on the soil having high ESP (Table -),showing that the water intake increased asfollows : PAM 2* kg haῌ+῍PAM ,* kg haῌ+῍control. Soil loss decreased by higher amountof PAM incorporation in the following order :control῎,* kg haῌ+῎2* kg haῌ+ PAM. Yu et al.
(,**-) and Al-abed et al. (,**-) reported thatanionic PAM e#ectively reduced soil loss andenhanced surface runo# water. The long chainof the ionic PAM polymer in the soil surface
exposed to non-saline rain water could be apossible reason of reduction in soil loss. As Yu
et al. (,**-) explained that the chain length of
the PAM polymer in diluted solutions mightreach to a certain length and the polymer absorbed on external surfaces of aggregates andbound soil particles together, thereby developing higher resistance to the impacts of raindrops.
This result in Fig. . seems consistent withthe e#ects of PAM on the stability of soil aggregate of the low and high ESP levels as given
in Fig. /. The stability of the aggregate having, to *.*1/ mm was enhanced by anionic PAM
application. This is probably due to the anionic PAM incorporation with soil particles andreduction of sediment formation. PAM is anadhesive agent which is combining small particles into from large ones that can resist soil
erosion. The large fraction (῎*.*1/ mm) was
reported as an appropriate range to assess theability of soils to withstand rain impacts(Rasiah and Kay, +33/). Furthermore, as fraction of the largest aggregate increased, the formation of small particles decreased (Berthes◊
and Roose, ,**,). The results in general indicate that PAM stabilized the larger size frac-60ΐῐ῎῔῕ῑ ῒ ++* ῏ ῌ,**2῍Fig. . E#ect of PAM on surface runo# and soil loss at di#erent ESP subjected to non-saline watertions, suggesting that soil erosion from soil
treated with PAM would be less than that fromcontrol and this result is consistent with
reports by other workers (Berthes◊ and Roose,,**,).
-. - E#ect of PAM mixed with gypsum on
soil erosion under non-saline rain water
As shown in previous sections, the cumulative runo# and cumulative soil loss were notclearly a#ected by gypsum application rate or
by ESP level (Fig. ,). While, PAM application
alone was found enhancing surface runo# anddecreasing soil loss (Fig. .). As shown in Fig. 0,
mixing PAM with gypsum decreased surface
runo# compared to the soil treated with PAM
alone. Higher dose of gypsum application
caused generally a slight decrease in surface
runo#. It seems that the low rate of PAM
application mixed with gypsum is more e#ec-῎῍ : Evaluation of Powdered Polyacrylamide Application along with Source of Electrolytes
in Controlling Sodic Soil Erosion

Fig. /

61

E#ect of PAM on soil aggregate stability at two di#erent soil ESP levels

tive for certain soils than gypsum application
alone. On the other hand, the application of
PAM with gypsum greatly reduced the soil
loss compared to gypsum alone (Fig. , and Fig.
0). The maximum load of soil loss from soil
treated with PAM mixed with gypsum was 1
Mg haῌ+ whereas the minimum load of soil loss
from that treated with gypsum alone was 2 Mg
haῌ+. In detail, an increase in trend of cumulative soil loss with increasing gypsum application was found particularly on the soil treatedwith PAM at the rate of ,* kg haῌ+. This was
similar to the results of Yu et al. (,**-). He
reported that PAM along with gypsum treatments was found less e#ective than the application of PAM alone for reducing soil loss ofsilty loam. Shrink of the PAM structure ac-companied by a decrease in viscosity in thepresence of electrolyte, especially gypsum,
could be a reason of less e#ectiveness of PAM
with gypsum treatment. Although, surface application of dissolved PAM mixed with asource of electrolytes such as phosphogypsum
has been reported to be more e#ective indecreasing seal formation, surface runo#, andsoil erosion (Shainberg and levy, +33.). The useof dry PAM mixed with gypsum also could
result in lower runo# and wash erosion levels
than gypsum alone in loamy sand and clay
soils (Tang et al., ,**0), which is in agreementwith our result for intake rate observed onhigh ESP soils (Table -).
Basic intake rate of high ESP soil under nonsaline water di#ered among treatments as



62

Fig. 0++*,**2

Characteristics of soil erosion at di#erent ESP and treated with PAM mixed with gypsum
subjected to non-saline water

follows : PAM 2* kg ha+ PAM ,* kg ha+PAM ,*gypsum , Mg ha+ῌPAM 2*gypsum , Mg ha+ PAM ,*gypsum / Mg ha+
(Table -). It seems that improving the soil
inﬁltration is the beneﬁt from the applicationof PAM with a source of electrolytes such as
gypsum on sodic soil conservation, since thePAM e$cacy for preventing seal formation
was enhanced by the presence of electrolytes(Shainberg et al., +33*).
-. . E#ect of PAM on soil loss under various saline rain waters
PAM treated soil showed greater soil loss
under saline water rainfall than non-saline
water rainfall (Fig. . and Fig. 1). The increasein soil loss could be associated to the shrinking
of PAM chain structure as reported by Yu et al.

(,**-). Soil loss decreased with increasing PAM
application rate except with the soil having
medium ESP and also with the low ESP one
when this soil was subjected to 2 dS m+ salinerain water (Fig. 1). A signiﬁcant decrease insoil loss with increasing PAM application rate
was found on the soil having the highest
ESP, ,/../, in which whose ECe was the lowest
among treatments. In the low and high ESP
soils treated with PAM, it seems that increasing EC of the saline rain water enhanced cumulative soil loss but decreased surface runo#(Fig. 1). Decrease in surface runo# with increasing EC in saline rain water shows that thesoil inﬁltration was substantially improved. It
seems that the e#ects of saline water on thesoil treated with PAM were fairly similar to῎῍ : Evaluation of Powdered Polyacrylamide Application along with Source of Electrolytes
in Controlling Sodic Soil Erosion

63

Fig. 1 E#ect of PAM on soil erosion at di#erent ESP subjected to saline rain water

those soils treated with gypsum mixed with
PAM (Fig. 0). Based on the results in Fig. 0 and
Fig. 1, it shows a distinct reduction of soil loss
from soil treated either PAM with gypsum or
PAM with saline water compared to that fromthe soil treated with either gypsum or saline
water alone (Fig. , and Fig. -). The aim of gypsum application was to increase the electrolyte
concentration on soil surface prior to rainfall to
restrict the dispersion of clay particles. In thisexperiment, higher initial electrolyte concentration of the soil could shrink the PAM structure and decrease its e$ciency in binding soil
particles. This could be the reason that PAM
together with saline water induced higher detachments of soil particles and less surface
runo#, which could be veriﬁed by analyzing
the changing pattern of both surface runo#

and soil loss on the medium ESP soil in Fig. 1.
Laboratory and ﬁeld studies with anionic
PAM (e.g., Gardiner and Sun, ,**, ; Bjorneberg
et al., ,**- ; Vacher et al., ,**-) have demonstrated that addition of small amounts of PAM(+*ῌ,* kg haῌ+) on the soil surface were e#ective to maintain high permeability and decrease runo# and soil loss from soils exposed to
impact of rain drops, especially when the PAM
was applied together with a source of electrolytes (Tang et al., ,**0). In our study, where thee#ect of PAM on soil erosion of sodic soils wastested with solutions of di#erent electrolyte
concentrations ; the results obtained were inconsistent and could not relate to the salt concentration of rain water used particularly on
the medium ESP soil (Fig. 1). Ben-Hur et al.
(+33,b) and Levy et al. (+33/) have noted that



64

even at ESP 3, the impact of PAM tested withsolutions of di#erent electrolyte concentrations was found ine#ective or less e#ective on
soil erosion from sodic soil as compared tonon-sodic conditions. Conversely, these sameauthors found that PAM mixed with source ofelectrolytes was very e#ective in reducing soil
erosion even at ESP,/ (Levy et al., +33/). In
our study, it seems that the impact of PAM
tested with solutions of di#erent electrolyte
concentrations was found e#ective in reducing
surface runo# only on the soil having high ESP
and low ECe, precisely under the soil treatedwith 2* kg ha+ PAM (Fig. 1).
The increased PAM application exhibited
lower inﬁltration rate in the high ESP soil of
intake rate experiment (Table -). The ﬁnal rateof water intake di#ered among the treatments
as follows : PAM 2* kg ha+ with non-saline
waterPAM ,* kg ha+ with non-saline waterPAM 2* with saline water of , dS m+PAM,* with saline water of , dS m+ῌPAM ,* withsaline water of / dS m+PAM 2* with saline
water of , dS m+. When PAM was mixed withsaline water, the accumulated electrolytes on
soil surface improved hydraulic conductivity
even under high sodic conditions. However,adding PAM with high concentration (2* kgha+) might induce soil surface sealing and consequently inhibit inﬁltration rate. In the study
conducted by Tang et al. (,**0), he found increasing ESP from / to ,* in the loamy sanddecreased ﬁnal inﬁltration rate from +. to , mmh+ and increased runo# and wash erosion in
the control ; similar trends but of di#erent
magnitude were noted in the other soil types.
He concluded that spreading PAM mixed with
gypsum or gypsum alone was e#ective inmaintaining ﬁnal inﬁltration rate, low runo#,and low wash erosion levels as compared with
control.
..

Conclusion

The e#ects of anionic PAM mixed with
gypsum and subjected to saline rain water on
artiﬁcial sodic soil erosion under simulated++*

,**2

rainfall condition were studied. The e#ects ofgypsum and saline water treatments on surface runo# and soil loss on di#erent soil
sodicity level were a#ected initial soil ESP,
ECe, and SAR and EC of rain water. Soil loss
seems to be controlled by soil surface conditions such as ECe, and ESP of the soil and EC
and rain drop impact of simulated saline water
rainfall while inﬁltration and runo# may bea#ected whole soil chemical conditions.
The anionic PAM was very e#ective thanapplying electrolyte source alone in controlling soil loss. Beside, PAM could not reduceruno# or in some case reduced water intake ofsoil since PAM clogged pores of the surface
soil. This side e#ect was improved by supplying electrolytes by either applying gypsum orsaline water rainfall. Those electrolytes may
shrink PAM structure and prevent clogging
pores by PAM. PAM application is e#ective to
reduce soil loss, however sensitivity of PAM
structure and physical properties on electrolyte concentration must be considerd. This isimportant especially planning PAM application onto saline and sodic soil that inherently
contains some sort of electrolytes.
Acknowledgement
The authors gratefully acknowledge the assistance support provided by Mr. T. Shimizu
during the rainfall simulation experiments.
Acknowledgement is also extended to Dr. M.
Irshad, visiting professor of Arid Land Research Center (ARLC), Tottori University, for
his editorial comments. This research was
carried out under the Cooperative Research
Program of ARLC.
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

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

++*  ,**2

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J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
ῑ῏῎ῒΐῐ
No. ++*, p. 01ῌ11 ῍,**2῎Thermal Properties and Shrinkage-Swelling Characteristicof Clay Soil in a Tropical Paddy Field
ARDIANSYAH*, Sho SHIOZAWA* and Kazuhiro NISHIDA** Graduate School of Agricultural and Life Sciences, The University of Tokyo,+ῌ+ῌ+ Yayoi, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo ++-ῌ20/1, Japan
Abstract
Thermal conductivity (K) as functions of water content (w) is not so well known for swellingsoils as that for non-swelling soils. We measured K and thermal di#usivity of a swelling soil takenfrom paddy ﬁelds in Indonesia, together with its shrinkage-swelling characteristic. The soil
showed remarkable shrinkage-swelling nature ; void ratio of the soil in-situ exceeded ,.* when
ﬂooded condition whereas it became less then +.* when the soil was dry. Observed K increased
from *.0* to +.,2 W mῌ+ Kῌ+ with w increased from zero to *.,. g gῌ+. However, for w greater than*.,. g gῌ+, K decreased gradually with increase in w, di#erently from non-swelling soil that showsmonotonic K increase with w. The decrease in K with increase in w must be produced by increased
void ratio. As a result, the value of K for the soil of most dry condition in the ﬁeld (K῍*.33 W mῌ+Kῌ+) was almost the same as the value of K for ﬂooded condition. Consequently, drying of theswelling soil has no e#ects of reducing heat conduction from surface into the soil when it is
exposed to sunshine.
Key words : thermal conductivity, thermal di#usivity, swelling soil, paddy ﬁeld, shrinkageswelling characteristic+.

Introduction

Thermal properties of soil are necessary to
predict heat ﬂow and temperature changes insoil. The heat ﬂow in soil is proportional to thetemperature gradient in soil, and the proportionality coe$cient is thermal conductivity. Another soil thermal property, thermal
di#usivity, is deﬁned as the ratio of thermal
conductivity to volumetric heat capacity, andis a measure of the rate of transmission oftemperature change into soil, when the surface
temperature changes with time. Soil thermal
conductivity and di#usivity depend on soil
composition, bulk density, particle shape, andespecially water content. A number of measurements have been conducted for thermal
conductivity of non-swelling soils. Generaltendency of them as functions of water content

is well known ; the thermal conductivity of
non-swelling soil monotonically increases withincrease in water content (q). Thermal conductivity of water is about twenty times greaterthan that of air ; if soil air is replaced by waterin the process of increasing soil water content,
thermal conductivity must increase with watercontent (de Vries D.A., +30-). On the other hand,increase in bulk density (by compaction) increases thermal conductivity. Empirical equations for these relations have been also proposed (Campbell, +32/).
In paddy ﬁelds, there often exists surface soil
containing swelling clay minerals. Because of
puddling practice of every time of paddy culture, its original soil structure has been lostand single-grained structure is formed. Thesesoils in paddy ﬁeld remarkably swell by wetting and shrink by drying. The relation of ther-

῏



68

mal conductivity with water content of theswelling soil is signiﬁcantly di#erent from thatof non-swelling soil because water content
change of the swelling soil is accompanied by
the change in bulk density. However, thermal
conductivity of the swelling soil with relation
to water content or bulk density is not wellknown.
We measured thermal conductivity of a swelling soil in paddy ﬁeld in Indonesia in the laboratory. The paddy ﬁeld becomes uncultivatedand dry bare soil with cracks is exposed during
dry season of the tropical climate. Therefore,
in order to estimate evaporation from the
paddy ﬁeld, thermal properties of the paddy
ﬁeld soil, as functions of water content or bulk
density, are necessary to calculate the heatﬂow into or out of the soil that is a componentof heat exchange at the soil surface.
,.

Material and Methods,. + Location of soil sample
Soil sample was taken from a paddy ﬁeld inCidanau watershed, located northwest of Javaisland, Indonesia (between +*/ /,῍Eῐ+*0 *-῍E
and 0 2῍Sῐ0 +1῍S). This area is part of the tropical monsoon region, in which the rainy season
and the dry season are explicitly distinguishable. This watershed receives a great deal ofprecipitation : average annual rainfall is about,,/** mm. Since average daily temperature ishigh and constant all year around (,0ῐ,1),
rice can be cultivated in the paddy ﬁelds at any
time of the year as long as water is available ;up to three times cultivation of rice in a paddy
ﬁeld in a year is feasible if water is available in
the paddy ﬁeld during dry season. The ratio of
cultivated area of the paddy ﬁelds to the total
area of the paddy ﬁelds during dry season andwet season are /.ῌ and 2*ῌ, respectively (Yoshikawa and Shiozawa, ,**0). The uncultivatedpaddy ﬁelds expose dry bare soil with cracks
during dry season.
The soil has 0,.3ῌ clay, ,3.1,ῌ silt, and /.3ῌsand content (Yoshino and Ishioka, ,**/). Remarkable swelling-shrinkage and cracking phe-++*,**2

nomena observed in the paddy ﬁelds are responsible for the swelling property of the clay.
To obtain ﬁeld water content, we selected two
paddy ﬁelds and sampled soils of both ﬁelds.
One soil sample was taken from a paddy ﬁeld
in ﬂooded condition (wet ﬁeld), and the othersample was taken from uncultivated paddy ﬁeld
in dry condition (dry ﬁeld). The water contentsof the sampled soils were determined by ovendrying (+*/) and weighting in laboratory.
,. , Shrinkage-swelling characteristic
Shrinkage-swelling characteristic is expressedby void ratio (e) as a function of moisture ratio()). ) and e are deﬁned as follows,
)

Vw
Vs

ῌ

Vf
῍
Vs
where Vs is volume of solid, Vw is volume ofwater, and Vf is volume of void (ﬂuid ; air andwater). Volumetric water content (q) is given
from ) and e by
e

Vw
)
῎

VsVf +e
For saturated condition, VwVf, and )e.
Therefore, q of saturated condition (qs) is given
by
q

qs

e
+e

῏

Shrinkage-swelling characteristic was determined by measuring volume and mass of thesoil (including water inside soil) and soil volume
on changing water content. Initially soil pastewith *.01 g g+ water content ()+.1 cm- cm-)was made and put in a container to have a sizeof 0./ cm wide, ++ cm long, and -./ cm deep. The
soil paste was dried slowly by evaporating waterin a room (the room temperature was +1ῐ,*,
but not controlled) to prevent unequal verticaldeformation due to quick evaporation. Several
times during evaporation, volume of shrunken
soil and mass of lost water were determined bymeasuring length of three size of the soil block,and weighing. Bulk density was calculatedusing the soil volume mass of water and massof dry soil that was obtained by oven-drying῕῔ : Thermal Properties and Shrinkage-Swelling Characteristic of Clay Soil in a Tropical Paddy Field

after the evaporation experiment.
,. - Crack area measurement
Due to strong shrinkage-swelling nature of
the soil, large cracks are formed in uncultivated
dry paddy ﬁeld. To measure cracks area, imageof dry paddy ﬁeld with crack taken by a digital
camera was analyzed. Image analysis withthresholding methods of pixels (using ImageJ)
separated object into soil surfaces and thecracks only.
,. . Soil thermal conductivity measurement
Thermal conductivity of the soil was measured by probe method described by Shiozawa
and Campbell (+33*). Thermal conductivity
probe (Decagon Devices Inc., USA) is 0* mm
length-+ mm diameter stainless steel pipe inwhich a resistive heating wire and a copperconstantan thermocouple is inside.
Soil of higher water content was preparedfrom mixing initially dry soil (oven-dried) andwater to make clay paste with certain watercontent. The clay paste was then put into
container size of +,./ cm long, /./ cm wide, and /cm height. The thermal conductivity probe
was inserted to the soil. During wet condition,
the thermal conductivity probe can be inserted
easily into the soil. Soil block of lower watercontent than *.0 g g῏+ was prepared by gradually and slowly dried the soil in the container,
keeping it in a room temperature in the same
way as the shrinkage experiment. As the soil
drying, the heat probe was keep inside the soil.
Heat was generated in the probe for a shorttime by a constant current through a heating
wire and thermal conductivity was determinedby measuring the probe temperature change
during the heating period and/or subsequentcooling period. For the heating period, temperature of the probe, T, is given byT῏Toῐῌqῌ.pK῍lnῌt῎to῍῎d for tῑt+ ῌ
where K is thermal conductivity of the soil [Wm῏+ K῏+], q is heat generated per unit length ofthe probe, To is initial probe temperature [ΐ], t+
the heating time [second], t* and d is empiricalconstants. Temperature in the soil will fall if

69

the heating current is switched o#. During thisperiod, an imaginary heat sink removes thesame heat which exists previously. The temperature in the cooling period is the result ofsuperposition of e#ects of the imaginary heatsource and sink. Therefore probe temperatureduring the cooling period is given byT῏Toῐῌqῌ.pK῍lnῌt῎tῌo῍῏lnῌt῏t+῎tῌo῍῎dῌ for tῒt+῍where the parameters toῌ and dῌ may be di#erent from to and d in the equation /.
A data logger/controller CR,+X (Campbell
Scientiﬁc Inc. Logan, USA) was used for thethermal conductivity probe measurement. CR,+X controls switching of the heater and measures temperature of the probe. Heating period
was +,* seconds with the voltage of heating in
the probe up to 0** mV (q is ../ W m῏+).
K, to, d in equations (/) and (0) were determined separately for heating and cooling periods by using least squares optimization procedure. The data in the ﬁrst ﬁve seconds ofheating and cooling are excluded from theanalysis to eliminate the bias caused by e#ects
of probe thermal properties. Examples of themeasured and ﬁtted heating and cooling T-t
curves are shown in Fig. +. The observed values
ﬁt theoretical curves quite well. Resulting
thermal conductivity is acquired by averaging
K values from heating and cooling periods.
Thermal di#usivity (D) is deﬁned as the ratioof thermal conductivity (K) to heat capacity ofthe soil (Ch) :K
῎
ChThe volumetric heat capacity of a soil can becalculated as the sum of the heat capacities ofthe soil components. Soil is made up of minerals,
water, and organic matter. The soil heat capacity is therefore computed from (Campbell, +32/) :Dῐ

ChῐCmfm῎Cwq῎Cafa῎Cofo

῏

where f is the volume fraction of the component [m- m῏-] indicated by the subscript. Subscripts, m, w, a, and o indicate mineral, water,



70

Fig. +,.-+fm..+2q

ῌ

where Ch is expressed in MJ m- K+. For swelling soil, fm and q are not easy to obtain due tothe shrinkage-swelling characteristic, but canbe calculated from ) and e. q is given by equation (-), and fm is given byfm

,**2

Examples of temperature rise and down of a heat probe during heating and cooling period.
Heating period was +,* seconds with heat of ../ W mῌ+. Water content was *.1+ g gῌ+.

air, and organic constituents. C is volumetricheat capacity [MJ m- K+]. Values of C foreach of substances are ,.-+ [MJ m- K+] for soil
minerals, ..+2 [MJ m- K+] for water, and ,./[MJ m- K+] for organic matter. Volumetricheat capacity of air (Ca) is given as function of
air temperature (Campbell and Norman, ,***).
In this experiment only two terms of theequation were used to calculate volumetricheat capacity, namely mineral and water substances. Neglected parts of equation 2 is because air considered to contributes only small
amount to heat capacity, while organic mattersfound to be few (,ῌ) in the soil. Thus, the heat
capacity is given by
Ch

++*

+
+e

῍
῎

-.

Results and Discussion-. + Soil shrinkage-swelling characteristic
Figure , shows plot of void ratio (e) vs. moisture ratio ()). General form of the swellingshrinkage characteristic (SSC) curve contains
normal shrinkage phase, residual shrinkage
phase, and zero-shrinkage phase (Haines, +3,- in
Bronswijk, +322). On the other hand, Braudeau(+322) modeled )-e curve based on the assumption that the soil consists of clayey microaggregates separated from each other and fromthe other soil constituents by a network ofmacropores. Braudeau (+322) divides swellingshrinkage curve by four point ; shrinkage limit(SL), “air entry” in the microaggregates (AE),the limit of contribution of macroporosity toshrinkage (LM), and the maximum swelling of
the microaggregates (MS) (Garnier et al., +331).
However, it is apparent that the observed )-e
curve shows the typical three phases of normal,
residual and zero shrinkage. Since the soil was
made into puddle with water as it was in theﬁeld, it had no microaggregates or structure.
Field observation in dry season indicatedthat surface soil of a su$ciently wet paddy
ﬁeld (irrigated and slightly ponded) had waterΐῒ : Thermal Properties and Shrinkage-Swelling Characteristic of Clay Soil in a Tropical Paddy Field

Fig. ,

Shrinkage-swelling characteristic of the soil with three phases. Solid arrows indicate
moisture ratios observed in ﬁelds of wet and dry conditions, and that gives the thermal
conductivity peak in Fig. /. Dashed lines and arrows indicate shrinkage limit and air entry.

content of *.3/ g g῏+ and that of a dry paddy
ﬁeld (uncultivated) had water content of *.+0 g
g῏+. Mapping these values of moisture ratio
and void ratio in the )-e curve (Fig. ,) indicatesthat soil of dry paddy ﬁeld lies in the residual
shrinkage zone, while soil of wet paddy ﬁeldlies in the normal shrinkage zone where watercontent is saturated.
SSC curve for the curve range *-SL, SL-AE,
and after AE is expressed by the following
equations :a. Zero-shrinkage
eῐeSL
b.

71

ῌ
῍

Residual shrinkage)AE῏)SLeῐeSL῎Krῌ
expῌVn῍῏+῏Vn῍῎῍expῌ+῍῏+ ῌ
῏
῎
ῌ
)῏)SL
Vnῐ
ῌ
῏
)AE῏)SLc.

Normal shrinkageeῐKrῌ)῏)AE῍῎eAEῌῐValues of parameters in equations obtained byﬁtting them to observed data are :)SLῐ*.,, [cm- cm῏-], eSLῐ*.22 [cm- cm῏-], )AEῐ+.+3 [cm- cm῏-], eAEῐ+.+3 [cm- cm῏-], and Krῐ +.
Subscript SL indicates “Shrinkage Limits”, andsubscript AE indicates “Air Entry”.
The coe$cient Kr which equal to + showsthat during normal shrinkage the volume change
is equal to moisture change. In addition eῐ) of
equation (+.) means that soil is saturated. This
gives straight line of ./-degree slope thatpasses (*, *) in Fig. ,. Three observed points
that lie on the straight line indicate that thissoil has the volume change of normal shrinkage for )ῑ+., cm- cm῏-. Residual shrinkage isthe process of reducing water content follows
entering of air into soil and shrinkage simul-

72



++*

,**2

Fig. - Relationship between bulk density and water content of the swelling soil.

Fig. . Crack pattern in paddy ﬁeld. (a.) Dry paddy ﬁeld with crop plant residue and cracks. (b.)
Image of a. which thresholded for soil surface and cracks only. Crack opening is +0ῌ ofsurface area.

taneously. In zero shrinkage, reducing watercontent occurs without shrinkage.
The relationship of bulk density and mass
base water content is shown in Fig. -. In rigid
soil, the values of bulk density vary with structural condition of the soil, particularly related
to packing. Unlike rigid soil, bulk density ofthe swelling soil is variable with water content.
The bulk densities vary from +.. Mg m- to *..
Mg m- with increasing water content up to +.1
g g + .
Figure . shows observed crack pattern for+.*/ m, of paddy ﬁeld surface. As a result, areaof soil surface in the image was *.22 m, (2.ῌ)

and that of crack opening was *.+1 m, (+0ῌ).
Neglecting cracks in the edges of the image, theaverage surface area of one block surroundedby cracks is 010 cm,.
-. , Thermal conductivity
Figure / shows the relation of thermal conductivity (K) to mass base water content (w).
For water contents lower than *.,., K increases
steeply with increase in w. By contrast, for watercontents larger than *.,., K decreases with increase in w due to increase in bulk density.
This relation is di#erent from K-w relation of
non-swelling soils, which generally showsmonotonic K increase with the increase in῏῎ : Thermal Properties and Shrinkage-Swelling Characteristic of Clay Soil in a Tropical Paddy Field

Fig. /

73

Relationship between thermal conductivity and water content of the swelling soil. Solidarrows indicate water contents observed in ﬁelds of wet and dry conditions.

water content at an ordinary temperature (e.g.
Campbell, +32/ ; Hiraiwa and Kasubuchi, ,***).
The thermal conductivity value corresponds to
w of the wet (cultivated and ﬂooded) paddy
ﬁeld during ﬁeld observation (w῍*.3/ g gῌ+)was +.+0 W mῌ+ Kῌ+, while that correspond to w
of dry paddy ﬁeld (w῍*.+0 g gῌ+) was *.33 W
mῌ+ Kῌ+. K value of the ﬂooded paddy ﬁeld soil
was similar to that observed in a ﬂooded paddy
ﬁeld in Japan by Mowjood et al. (+331), whichwas *.3* W mῌ+ Kῌ+. It is surprising that thethermal conductivity value for very dry soil
and that for su$ciently wet soil are almost thesame ; generally for non-swelling soil, K ofwater saturated condition is several times asmuch as K of most dry condition. The maximum value of thermal conductivity is +.,2 W
mῌ+ Kῌ+ at water content value of *.,. g gῌ+.
This water content exists in the middle position between zero shrinkage and normal shrinkage in Fig. /.
These phenomena can be explained by comparing three values of thermal conductivity ofsoil constituents. Thermal conductivity of air,water and soil mineral are *.*,., *./0, and ,./ [Wmῌ+ Kῌ+] (de Vries +30- ; Campbell and Norman,,***). Roughly the ratio of air : water : soil particle is + : ,* : +**. If void ratio is constant withchanging water content (for non-swelling soil
or zero shrinkage zone of swelling soil), increasing water content occurs by replacing air(lowest K) in pores by water (the second highest K) of the same volume and it results inincreasing thermal conductivity. This e#ect ofincreasing K with increasing w is signiﬁcant
when air exists at contact point of solid particles (highest K) is replaced by water. For nonswelling soils, of which void ratio is constant, K
must increase monotonically with increase inw. However, for water saturated or nearly water
saturated condition of the swelling soil, increasing water content occurs by increasing
void ratio, that is decreasing solid volume ofthe same (or similar) amount of the increased
water ; therefore, it must result in decrease inK.
Regression equation that expresses thermal
conductivity as function of w is :



74

++*

,**2

Fig. 0Relationship between thermal di#usivity and water content of the swelling soil. Solidarrows indicate water contents observed in the paddy ﬁelds of wet and dry conditions.

Fig. 1

Relationship between volumetric heat capacity and water content of the swelling soil.
Solid arrows indicate water contents observed in the paddy ﬁelds of wet and dry conditions.

for * w *.,.
K1..1w,..2-w*.//῍ῌ

for *.,. w
K*.,,.lnw*.33

῎ῌ

Figure 0 shows the di#usivity of the soil thatis calculated by equation (1) and (3). The di#usi-

vity (D) basically decreases with increase in w
except for very dry condition in which di#usivity slightly increase with w. Its peak value isobserved at water content of *.+, g g+. The
value of di#usivity ranges between ,.0+*1
and /.-+*1 m, s+. At water content less thanthe peak value of thermal di#usivity, the rateof increase in thermal conductivity exceeds theῐ῏ : Thermal Properties and Shrinkage-Swelling Characteristic of Clay Soil in a Tropical Paddy Field

Fig. 275

Soil surface condition and heat ﬂow in soil during daytime ; (a) wet condition of bothswelling and non-swelling soil that have high thermal conductivity (K) ; K is high and heatﬂow is large. (b) dry surface of swelling soil with cracks ; K is high and heat ﬂow is large
even if cracks exist. (c) dry surface of non-swelling soil without cracks ; K is low and heatﬂow is small. Heat ﬂows in the reverse direction during nighttime.

rate of increase in volumetric heat capacity(Fig. 1). At higher water content but less thanthat of the peak of K (w῍*.+,ῌ*.,. g gῌ+), theincrease in heat capacity (C) exceeds increase
in K and thus D starts decreasing. At watercontents higher than that of the peak of K, decrease of K and increase of C resulted in steep
decreasing of D with increase in w. However,for higher water content of w῎*.1, K decreaseslightly while C is nearly constant values, thus
D decreases gradually with increase in w.
-. - E#ects of thermal conductivity of surface soil on heat balance
Thermal conductivity of the swelling soil asa function of water content is remarkably di#erent from those of non-swelling soils. The valuesof K for the swelling soil of very dry soil andthose of su$ciently wet (water saturated) soil
are almost the same ; for non-swelling soil, K ofnearly dry soil is much smaller than that of
su$ciently wet soil. When the soils are dry,the values of K for the swelling soil are muchlarger than those of non-swelling soil becauseof high bulk density and probably good thermal contacts among clay particles for the
shirked soil.
Thermal conductivity of the surface soil has
important e#ects on heat balance at soil surface and formation of the surface temperaturewhen the soil surface is exposed to sunshine.
The higher soil thermal conductivity the more
proportion of the heat from the sun ﬂows into
soil and stored in soil during day time ; surface
temperature rise during daytime is thus restrained. On the contrary, when the surface
soil has a low thermal conductivity, the low
conductivity prevents heat conduction into
soil and surface temperature rises more during
daytime ; apparent heat ﬂux from soil surface
to air thus increases. In the uncultivated dry
paddy ﬁeld, surface temperature rise during
the daytime would be less than that expected
in upland dry ﬁelds, by a larger heat conduction into the soil due to higher thermal conduc-

76



tivity of the swelling clay soil.
-. . E#ect of cracks on heat ﬂow in soil
Cracks are formed in the paddy ﬁeld as soil
dries. We consider that the cracks can be regarded as insulated spaces for heat conduction
and also for heat convection because thermal
conductivity of air is low and because convection of air should be limited in the narrow
space of cracks (at most a couple of centimeters). However, the formation of the crack is
vertical direction that is parallel to heat ﬂow insoil (Fig. 2-b). It creates system of parallel heat
resistance with crack resistance as one component. Resistance for heat ﬂow parallel to heat
ﬂow has only minor e#ect on the heat ﬂow,
even if the resistance is extremely large. Opening area of cracks was about +0ῌ of surface
area and cracks closed at about +* cm depth ;even assuming crack as insulator, the e#ect of
cracks on thermal conduction is at most only+0ῌ reduction within a few cm surface soil
layer. Therefore, we think that heat ﬂow in soilin the paddy ﬁeld with cracks is approximately
the same as the heat ﬂow that would be observed in the soil of the same thermal properties but with no crack.
Existence of air in soil that is series to heat
ﬂow signiﬁcantly resists heat ﬂow in soil. Thissituation is expressed by the remarkably lower
thermal conductivity of non-swelling soil oflower water saturation. In general, thermal conductivity of dry soil is about one order smaller
in magnitude than that of water saturated soil.
Due to such lower K, drying of the surface of
non-swelling soil interrupt heat conduction(Fig. 2-c). On the other hand, drying of theswelling soil with forming of cracks does not
reduce heat conduction signiﬁcantly (Fig. 2-b).

++*

,**2

References
Braudeau, E. (+322) : Equation generalisee des courbes
de retrait d’echantillons de sols structures. C.
R. Acad. Sci. Ser, -*1 : +1-+ῌ+1-..
Bronswijk, J. J.B. (+332) : Modelling water balance,
cracking and subsidence of clay soils. Journalof Hydrology, 31 : +33ῌ,+,.
Campbell, G.S. (+32/) : Soil physics with Basic ;Transport Models for Soil-Plant Systems, Elsevier,
Amsterdam.
Campbell, G.S. and Norman, J.M. (,***) : An Introduction to Environmental Biophysics ,nd ed.,Springer.
de Vries, D.A. (+30-) Thermal properties of soils. pp.
,+*ῌ,-/, In van Wijk W.R.(ed) Physics of Plant
Environment. North-Holland Publishing Co.,
Amsterdam.
Garnier, P., Perrier, E., Jaramillo, R.A. and Baveye,
P. (+331) : Numerical model of --dimensional
anisotropic deformation and +-Dimensional
water ﬂow in swelling soils. Soil Science, +0, :.+*ῌ.,*.
Haines, W.B., (+3,-) : The volume changes associatedwith variations of water content in soil. J.
Agric. Sci. Camb., +- : ,30ῌ-++.
Hiraiwa, Y. and Kasubuchi, T. (,***) : Temperaturedependence of thermal conductivity of soil
over a wide range of temperature (/ῌ1/). European Journal of Soil Science, /+ : ,++ῌ,+2.
Mowjood, M.M., Ishiguro, K. and Kasubuchi, T.
(+331) : E#ect of convection in ponded wateron the thermal regime of a paddy ﬁeld. Soil
Science, +0, : /2-ῌ/21.
Shiozawa, S., and Campbell, G.S. (+33*) : Soil thermal conductivity. Remote Sens. Rev. / : -*+ῌ-+*.
Yoshikawa, N. and Shiozawa, S. (,**0) : Estimating
variable acreage of cultivated paddy ﬁelds
from preceding precipitation in a tropical watershed utilizing Landsat TM/ETM. Agricultural Water Management, 2/ : ,30ῌ-*..
Yoshino, K. and Ishioka, Y. (,**/) : Guidelines forsoil conservation towards integrated basin
management for sustainable development : A
new approach based on the assessment of soil
loss risk using remote sensing and GIS. Paddy
and Water Environment, - : ,-/ῌ,.1.

: Thermal Properties and Shrinkage-Swelling Characteristic of Clay Soil in a Tropical Paddy Fieldῌ

EEAD*ῌ *ῌ**   ++-ῌ20/1  

 !"ῌ#$%&'()*+) ,-./#$0(1234 K 56789-:;<= /  >,? @ABCDE( K 1
FG9H IJKLMNOPM89%QR ,(  NOST%& UV?K
LM WXY? , Z[\) ]^_`? + Za?*b K  PM w ) * c< *.,. g+g+ de'+f *.0* c< +.,2 W M+ K+ de) w ) *.,. g+ g+ Z[? w [ghij , w deh. K ij #$kl? KLMde-+ UV]^f K
 *.33 W M+ K+ ? Wf K 5mnopq?*b ,r ,(s#$0(5t/u vw)]^=xy1z23%{|+}~)/  : 1234 1FG9H #$0(  !"ῌ#$k0
 : ,**2  1  .  : ,**2  +*  +0 

77ΐῒῑῌῐ
J. Jpn. Soc. Soil Phys.
ῐ῎῍ῑῒ῏
No. ++*, p. 13῍21 ῎,**2῏Relationship between Soil Water Content of a Surface
Sandy Soil and Groundwater Level in a Study Site
in Northeast Thailand
Hiromasa HAMADA* and Somsak SUKCHAN*** Japan International Research Center for Agricultural Sciences,
Owashi +ῌ+, Tsukuba, Ibaraki, -*/ῌ2020, Japan** Land Development Department, ,**-/0+ Phaholyothin Rd.,
Lardyao, Chatuchak, Bangkok, +*3**, Thailand
Abstract
In some areas of northeast Thailand, groundwater is conﬁned by a clay layer, and the waterlevel in wells drilled into the aquifer is above the ground surface, suggesting that water could be
supplied from the aquifer to the surface soil and making it possible to cultivate crops withminimum irrigation. We measured the groundwater level in wells and the water content of thesurface sandy soil during the dry season. In recharge areas, the soil water content was usually lessthan the depletion of moisture content for optimum growth in the dry season, and less than thepermanent wilting point in the late dry season (from January), indicating that in these areas,
irrigation would be required for the cultivation of crops. In the discharge areas, where the waterlevel in wells drilled into the conﬁned aquifer was higher than the ground surface, the soil watercontent was more than the depletion of moisture content for optimum growth throughout the dry
season, indicating that in these areas it would be possible to cultivate crops with minimum
irrigation during the dry season using natural upward ﬂow.
Key words : Northeast Thailand, Conﬁned groundwater, Soil water content of sandy soil, Minimum irrigation, Natural upward ﬂow+.

Introduction

The main industry of northeast Thailand is
agriculture, which depends on rainfall. Only+*ῌ of the area used for agriculture is irrigated(Prapertchob and Humnath, ,**.). The topography is undulating hills, and farmers growrice in the lowlands during the rainy season,and sugarcane and cassava in the uplands
throughout the year. Though annual rainfall is+,*** to ,,*** mm, little rain falls during themonths of the dry season (November to April).
Therefore, it is essential to develop water resources to enable cultivation during the dry
season. Sandy soils cover about 2*ῌ of thisregion (Kohyama and Subhasaram, +33-). In
some areas, a clay layer at depths of + to . m, of
which permeability is on the order of +*ῌ0 cm/
s, is overlaid by the sandy soil. Beneath theclay layer is a weathered sandstone aquifer. In
the lowlands, groundwater in the aquifer is
conﬁned by the clay layers and sometimes thewater level in observation wells drilled into theaquifer is higher than the ground surface(Hamada et al., ,**0). In this case, water could
be supplied to the surface sandy soil throughthe clay layer. It might be possible, therefore,
to cultivate some crops with minimum irrigation using natural upward ﬂow during the dry
season. In this study, we measured water re-



80

Table +++*

,**2

Elevation, depth, screen, period of measurement and land use

No.

Elevation
(m)

Depth
(m)

Screen(m)

Period of measurement

Land use

+ῌ+
+ῌ,
,

,*1
,*1
,*,

1
-*
-*

-ῌ1
,0ῌ-*
,0ῌ-*

April 1, ,**. to April ., ,**/
April 1, ,**. to April ., ,**/
September -*, ,**/ to May ,., ,**1

-

+3*

-*

,0ῌ-*

April 1, ,**. to April ., ,**/

.

+13

-*

,0ῌ-*

April 1, ,**. to April ., ,**/

Fallow
Fallow
Forestry
Paddy (rainy season)
Fallow (dry season)
Paddy (rainy season)
Fallow (dry season)

tention characteristics of surface sandy soil
and monitored the water content in ﬁelds andthe groundwater level in observation wells
during the dry season to examine the inﬂuenceof the groundwater level in the conﬁned aquiferon the surface sandy soil water content and to
consider the possibility of minimizing irrigation. Studies of soil water movements in Thailand have been reported, the relationship between shallow groundwater above the clay
layer and moisture damage to cassava (Taniyama and Miura, +33+), the relationship between variation of soil moisture and surface
runo# (Watabe et al., ,**/ ; Funakawa et al.,,**1), variation of soil water content in the
sandy soil (Watanabe et al., ,**., Oda and Ogura,,**2 ; Moroizumi et al., ,**2), and regional
groundwater ﬂow (Srisuk et al., ,***). However, no reports on the inﬂuence of the groundwater level in a conﬁned aquifer on soil moisture have been published.
,.

MethodWe selected Nong Saneg village, -/ km southof Khon Kaen city as the study site. The soil
from the surface to + m depth is Loamy Sand
(LS), of which permeability is on the order of+*. cm/s, and from + to . m depth is Sandy
Clay (SC), of which permeability is on the orderof +*0 cm/s. A weathered sandstone aquifer
underlies the SC layer (Hamada et al., ,**0).
We selected two sites in the recharge area andtwo sites in the discharge area for the measurements of groundwater level and soil water content considering the topography (Hamada,,**/). Fig. + is a map of the observation sites
and information about the observation wells
and the measurement periods is listed in Table+. Locations + and , are in the uplands, andlocations - (at the foot of a hill) and . (a ﬂatland) are in the lowland where farmers cultivate rice in a rainy season. We measured thegroundwater level in the observation wells atintervals of one to two weeks during the period
from ,**. to ,**1.
In the soil investigation, we measured thewater retention characteristics of the sandy soil
and monitored the soil water content, to examine the possibility of the cultivation of plants
with minimum irrigation. For the measurement of the water retention characteristics soil
samples were collected as +**-ml cores at the
point between location , and location - in September ,**. (Fig. +). We collected nine samples,
three samples at each depth, /ῌ+* cm, ,2ῌ-- cm
and 3/ῌ+** cm. The water retention characteristics were measured by the pressure plate
method. For monitoring of soil water content,
we collected disturbed soil samples at every +*cm depth by using an auger and measured thewater content (by weight : w). The measured
values indicate the average water content of
the soil layers +* cm thick. We conducted our
ﬁrst soil investigation in December ,**/. After
that, we measured the soil water content at
locations +ῌ- between October ,**0 and April,**1 at intervals of one to three months. The
soil water content at location . was measured
on January +,, ,**1 to conﬁrm that the soil
water content where the groundwater level inΐῒῑῌῐ : Relationship between Soil Water Content of a Surface Sandy Soil and
Groundwater Level in a Study Site in Northeast Thailand

81

Fig. + Observation sites (No. + : Two wells)Longitude : ,0-1**ῌ,03+**, Latitude : +1202**ῌ+123/** (UTM coordinates).

the observation well was above the groundsurface would be high. The monthly rainfalls
during the investigation at location . were+.,.. mm in October, ,**0, no data in November
and December (due to equipment problems), +..
mm in January, -., mm in February, /., mm in
March and ,3.2 mm in April ,**1(until April ,1).
-.

Result and discussion-. + Variation in groundwater level
The variation in the groundwater level isshown in Fig. ,. The water level in well +ῌ+ (1m deep) was higher than that in well +ῌ, (-* mdeep), indicating that these wells are in therecharge area. The water level in well , wasmore than +* m below the ground surface, indicating that the soil water content of the surface sandy soil was not a#ected very much by
the groundwater. The water level in well - washigher than the ground surface and that in well
. also rose above the ground surface after May,**.. In these areas, groundwater levels inholes which were drilled through the clay layer
were higher than the surface, inferring thatwater from the conﬁned aquifer could be
supplied to the surface sandy soil through theclay layer and could keep the soil wet evenduring the dry season.
-. , Water retention characteristics
Figure - shows the water retention characteristics of the sandy soil. According to theengineering manual for irrigation and drainage
by Japanese Institute of Irrigation and Drainage (+33*), the lower limit of available soil moisture for crops is regarded as the point at whichcrops begin to be damaged. The soil watercontent is called the depletion of moisture content for optimum growth (qog). In this study, weused the depletion of moisture content for optimum growth as the lowest point of soil moisture at which irrigation is not required, andadopted the value of +** kPa (Suction). The
bulk density of the samples (rb) was +...῎*.*2(Mg m῍-). Water content (w) was calculatedusing volumetric water content and bulk density (w῏q/rb). The qog of the sandy soil is *.*12m- m῍- (w : *.*/+ῌ*.*/1 kg kg῍+), and the permanent wilting point (qwp) is *.*+3 m- m῍- (w : *.*+ῌ*.*+. kg kg῍+). When the soil water content ismore than *.*/1 kg kg῍+, plants could growwithout irrigation. When the soil water content is less than *.*+- kg kg῍+, the plants might82ΐῐ῎῔῕ῑ ῒ ++* ῏ ῌ,**2῍Fig. , Groundwater level (upper : No. ,, Lower : No. +, No. - and No. .).

Fig. - Water retention characteristics.

die.
-. - Variation of soil water content
Figure . shows the soil water content measured on December ,* and ,+, ,**/. The soil
water content to a depth of + m at location ,,where the groundwater level was +,.,- m deep,
was less than qwp. At location -, where thegroundwater level was *./ m above the groundsurface, the soil water content was more thanqog, indicating that plants could grow there
without irrigation. The water content at location +, where groundwater level was ..,, mdeep (well +ῌ+) was similar to that at location ,.
Figures /ῌ2 show the soil water content nearῐ῏῎ῌ῍ : Relationship between Soil Water Content of a Surface Sandy Soil and
Groundwater Level in a Study Site in Northeast Thailand

Fig. .

Soil water content (December ,*ῌ,+, ,**/).

Fig. /

Water content (No. +).

83

84



++*

,**2

Fig. 0 Water content (No. ,).

the observation wells during the dry season(October ,**0 to April ,**1). At location +, thesoil water content tended to increase withdepth. From December +, ,**0 to April ,1 ,**1,
the values, except for some from more than 1*
cm depth, were less than qog, and most values at
depths above -* cm, were less than qwp (Fig. /).
Most values of the soil water content at location , from November +- were lower than qog
and after December +, ,**0, became less than
qwp (Fig. 0). In these areas, irrigation is required
for the cultivation of crops in the dry season.
The soil water content at locations - and .
was more than qog throughout the period of theinvestigation. Moroizumi et al. (,**2) reported
that the actual evapotranspiration during thedry season in the lowland of northeast Thailand where soil is same as our study sites was+./ mm day+. Using this value, the decrease ofsoil water content in the sandy soil to a depthof + m during the period of between December+,, ,**0 and April ,1, ,**1 was calculated to beabout ,** mm. However, our observation showedthat the decrease of soil water content in the

sandy soil was about 0* mm, less than the estimated value. Moreover, the soil water content in location . in a ﬂat land, where subsurface ﬂow from the upland didn’t a#ect thesoil moisture, was more than qog, suggestingthat some water was supplied to the surface
sandy soil through the clay layer in locations and .. Therefore, it should be possible to cultivate crops there with minimum irrigation using
natural upward ﬂow.
..

Conclusion

In this study, we examined the inﬂuence ofthe groundwater level in the conﬁned aquifer
on water content of the sandy soil to a depth of+ m in northeast Thailand. The soil water content in the area where the groundwater level inobservation wells was higher than the groundsurface was more than the depletion of moisture content for optimum growth, even during
the dry season, indicating that it should bepossible to cultivate crops there with minimum
irrigation using natural upward ﬂow.

ῐ῏῎ῌ῍ : Relationship between Soil Water Content of a Surface Sandy Soil and
Groundwater Level in a Study Site in Northeast Thailand

Fig. 1

Water content (No. -).
This land was used for rice ﬁelds until the end of November.

Fig. 2 Water content (No..) : January +,, ,**1.

85ΐῐ῎῔῕ῑ ῒ ++* ῏ ῌ,**2῍86

Acknowledgements
We would like to acknowledge the usefulsuggestions for this research from Dr Toshitsugu Moroizumi of Okayama University.
References
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TEL : *-ῌ-.1/ῌ/0+2 FAX : *-ῌ-.1/ῌ/0+3 Eomail : kammori@msh.biglobe.ne.jp

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++0ῌ**++ OPQª«S¬­® 1+,+0/¡/Journal of the Japanese Societyof
Soil Physics
November ῍ῌῌ῎

No. ++*
Contents

Foreword ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌT. SASAKIῌ +Original Papers
Measurement of Dielectric Properties Using Time Domain Transmissiometry (TDT)with Broad Band Impulse-Signal
ῌῌῌῌH. MIYAMOTO, N. ITO, E. YASUNAGA, S. TAKAICHI, A. MASE and J. CHIKUSHIῌ Dielectric Properties of Clays in Microwave Frequency
ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌH. MIYAMOTO, T. SHIMOMACHI, J. CHIKUSHI and E. YASUNAGAῌ+The E#ectiveness of Nominal Dosage of Ordinary Cement on Strength and Permeability of Clayey Soil ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌM. Z. HOSSAIN and T. SAKAIῌ,/A New Method for Measuring Early Nutrient Release Pattern from Manure Compost
Using Sand Column and its Application to Some Kinds of Cattle Manure CompostῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌN. HARAGUCHI, Y. ARAKAWA, A. TANAKA, T. KUSABA,
K. YAKUSHIDO and I. YAMADAῌ-1
Evaluation of Powdered Polyacrylamide Application along with Source of Electrolytes in Controlling Sodic Soil ErosionῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌT. YAMAMOTO, Y. SHIMURA, T. NISHIMURA, H. ANDRY,
S. MORITANI and A. AL-BUSAIDIῌ/Thermal Properties and Shrinkage-Swelling Characteristic of Clay Soil in a Tropical
Paddy FieldῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌARDIANSYAH, S. SHIOZAWA and K. NISHIDAῌ01
Notes
Relationship between Soil Water Content of a Surface Sandy Soil and Groundwater
Level in a Study Site in Northeast Thailand ῌῌῌῌῌH. HAMADA and S. SUKCHANῌ13
Readers’ column ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌH. HAMADAῌ23
Book review ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌ3+
Announcements ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌ3Editor’s Postscript ῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌῌ32

Japanese Society of Soil Physics
Department of Environmental Sciences
Faculty of Agriculture, Saga University+ Honjo-machi, Saga, 2.*ῌ2/*, Japan