The Japanese Society for Aesthetics

Aesthetics No.22 (2018): 87-96

The Modernist Landscape of Waves and Wars in Britain:
A Comparison Between Vorticist Works and Korin’s Screens
KANAME Mariko
Atomi University, Tokyo

Introduction
Recently, several research projects are proceeding focusing on the acceptance of Japanese
art in England with a central focus on the 1910s Japan-British Exhibition at Shepherd’s Bush[1]. In particular, Ukiyo-e by the Japanese painters Katsushika Hokusai, Utagawa Hiroshige,
and Utamaro has not only attracted great and long-lasting attention in Europe, but it was also
an important motive for Japonism art in the late 19th Century. Bold and asymmetricalcompositions or brilliant colours on gold backgrounds are widely known as features of Japonism(nihon shumi) in European countries, through linkage with decorative elements such as French
Impressionist paintings or Art Nouveau design. In addition, we know that it is easy to identify
the influence of Japonism in British modern art and design through the work of J. A. M. Whistler
or E. W. Godwin. However, very few studies have referred to the fact that English avant-garde
art in the early 20th Century accepted Japanese art, which was introduced in the same periodwith tremendous curiosity [2]. Furthermore, the uniqueness of English avant-garde art has
almost never been defined, and the movement has been considered in alignment with Futurism
on the subject of cities, machines, and war. In this paper, through a comparison of landscape
representation between Vorticist art and Japanese paintings, I try to clarify the design ofJapanese art that fascinated English avant-gardists. Vorticism, including the work of Wyndham
Lewis (1888-1957) and C. R. W. Nevinson (1889-1946), which is considered to have been the
only avant-garde art movement in England, was inspired by the great Japanese designer Ogata
Korin (1658-1716, mid-Edo period).

1. The characteristics of British art and Modernism‘Modernism’, which has been associated with a certain stream of paintings since Clement
Greenberg used it strategically in his art criticism, has been recognised in the art world as ahistorical movement essentially confined to Europe and the United States. However, recent
studies on British Modern art [3] have pointed out that ‘African style’, ‘Japanese aesthetics’, and‘Indian influence’ can be found in abstract sculpture of the early 20th Century [4]. The emerging
importance of influences from non-Western cultural spheres is not only in terms of styleclassification, but also formalism.
It is characteristic of Western Modernist paintings that they break away with narrative andimitation of nature and let viewers into the painting itself, and it is worth noting that design
consists of colours and forms. Therefore, it seems only natural that decorative forms specific to88

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Japanese art, such as flat colouring and asymmetric compositions, should have been welcomed
into Western Modernist art. For example, Ukiyo-e prints made by Hiroshige or Hokusai would
have been loved by European people across the seas, displacing or exaggerating the main motif.
They use forms that we cannot imagine in the traditional methods or observational approachesof Western art, which try to shift directly from three-dimensional space into the two-dimensional
plane using anatomy and perspective. On the other hand, some works made by Sotatsu and Korin
are appreciated for their subtle colour arrangement and draw an attention to the usage ofcolouring (No-sai) or staining techniques (tarashikomi); otherwise, such works tend to bementioned as decorative patterns. This attention to colour arrangement in Modern art arising inthe same period suggests that Western paintings have traditionally been centred around drawing.
As well as (or more than) in the case of Japanese Ukiyo-e, we can find many wonderful works
that use appealing lines rather than colours in British paintings. Thinking back through history,
it is the line that is brilliant in Pre-Raphaelite works or those of William Blake that are favoured
in Britain. The art historian Quentin Bell discussed ‘hard-edge’ as a trait of Pre-Raphaelite art inhis book Victorian Artists, comparing the situation of Modernist paintings that appear toconverge with a colour plane – called ‘painterly’, originating from the German malerisch – in the
mid-20th Century in the United States.
According to Bell, the word ‘slosh’ was a term of condemnation in Pre-Raphaelite slang. Bellwanted to rightly define ‘slosh’, writing that ‘slosh, as far as I can gather, was malerisch gone
mouldy […] Slosh was the method of Victorian painters like W. E. Frost, who worked with a big
thick brush loaded with bitumen’ [5]. ‘Slosh was the brilliant splash dashed into the dark wet
ground to simulate the light in an eye or the sparkle of a wave [plate 1]’. Meanwhile, Bell described
the Pre-Raphaelite approach ‘hard-edge’, a kind of realistic attitude. He considers ‘hard-edge’style to be ‘anti-slosh’; one might find that this tradition still persists in the work of British
Modern painters such as Stanley Spencer and Lucien Freud who studied at Slade School [6].
If Bell’s analysis is correct, why did British Modernist painting accept colour-oriented
Japanese design? Previous studies suggest that their adoration for Japanese aesthetic
consciousness as represented by ‘Yūgen(subtle and profound)’ or ‘Wabi-sabi’ could
be associated with empty space, dry brushstrokes, and bold composition, but theconnections go even further than thesetechniques. It is hard to imagine that British
avant-garde artists borrowed from Tawaraya
Sotatsu’s or Korin’s designs just for fun. They
did not simply replace the old (Japanesedesign) with the new (novel design). In thenext chapter, British avant-gardism will be
investigated in terms of formative ideas inorder to elicit the inevitability of the[Plate 1] W. E. Frost, The Sea Cave, c. 1851, 40.5
x 47.5cm, Russell-Cotes Art Gallery &acceptance of Korin’s design.
Museum, Bournemouth

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2. Vorticist avant-gardism from the aspect of form
Generally, it is thought that British Modernist art began in 1914 with the outbreak of WWI,
and thus, it is assumed that researchers in this field should deal with the relationship between
war and art through war paintings. Vorticism, which was a specifically British avant-garde art
movement, was born in London in 1914. This movement, named by the poet Ezra Pound andRebel Art Centre artists like Wyndham Lewis, Edward Wadsworth (1889-1949), and Henri
Gordier-Brzeska (1891-1915), was known for its radical discourse and experimental works inthe actual sense of the word ‘Rebel’. Vorticists were fighting battles in various ways.
The name of the Vorticist Journal Blast originated from the loud noises of bombing, andincluded the slang ‘Damn!’, meaning to distaste or to scorch [7]. In the first issue of Blast,
published in 1914, Lewis expressed his stance, that ‘to make the rich of the community shed
their education skin, to destroy politeness standardisation and academic, that is civilised, vision,is the task we have set ourselves’ [8]. Blast declared a break with tradition and a break with theimpressions of contemporary domestic art, including paintings placed on the wall of Burlington
House, which was the hub of the Royal Academy of Arts (in Neoclassical style), or the paintingsof the emerging contemporary art group ‘New English Art Club’(in Impressionist style). As for the cover design of the journal,
the letters BLAST cross the cover diagonally with huge gothic
typeface against fluorescent pink [plate 2]. There is equal
spacing in both the large and small sizes of the typeface, whichhave the look of a disorderly arrangement at first glance.
Most poems and prose in the journal have a headline ingothic typeface, as if signalling the start of a battle. Bold andsans serif fonts are displayed in the text, which show anaggressive attitude [plate 3]. We can find some similarities
between such design and ‘Les mots en liberté futuristes’ by F. T.
Marinetti [plate 4]. Indeed, both have various letter widths all[Plate 2] Blast no.1, 1914,
cover
over the pages, but Lewis’s design is more readable than[Plate 3] Blast no.1, pp.12-3[Plate 4] Filippo Marinetti, Les Mots en Liberté
Futuristes, Edizionii Futuriste di Poesia,
Milan, 1919

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Futurist design, and manifested certain regularities.
In Blast no.1, Lewis strictly wrote that machinery is ‘the greatest Earth-medium:incidentally it sweeps away the doctrines of a narrow and pedantic Realism at one stroke’ [9]. Healso attempted to set Vorticism apart from Futurism, which still exhibited a blind faith inmachinery, by writing ‘I will point out, to begin with, in the following notes, the way in which theEnglish VORTICISTS differ from the French, German or Italian painters of kindred groups’ [10].
As a Vorticist, Lewis attempted to change art by promoting changes in the consciousness ofart. He did not intend to improve daily life by intervening in politics: this is the crucial difference
between Vorticism and Futurism. Lewis did not completely accept Marinetti’s romantic
admiration of machines since the machines that substituted for human skill would produce aworld in which human beings should subjugate themselves to those machines. The theme he had
pursued since the late 1910s was ‘Dehumanization’. For example, this word appeared in his essay‘The New Egos’ in Blast in 1914.
The human form still runs, like a wave, through the texture or body of existence, andtherefore of art. But just as the old form of egotism is no longer fit for such conditions as
now prevail, so the isolated human figure of most ancient Art is an anachronism. THE
ACTUAL HUMAN BODY BECOMES OF LESS IMPORTANCE EVERY DAY. […] All clean,clear cut emotions depend on the element of strangeness, and surprise and primitive
detachment. Dehumanization is the chief diagnostic of the Modern World. One feels theimmanence of some REALITY more than any former human beings can have felt it [11].
It is thought that Vorticist design appears similar to Futurist design because Lewis chose imagery
such as modern factories, bridges, and military equipment, ingeniously criticizing Futurism’s
blind faith in speed and automobiles.
Furthermore, Vorticism was different from the current aspects of domestic Modernism. In
the Omega Workshops that Vorticists were involved in at the founding of Vorticism, artists aimed
at the fusion of modernity and tradition, adapting Post-Impressionistic design into furniture or
furnishings in daily life. They attempted to prevail over all aspects of society. Meanwhile, Lewis
and his associates rejected the need for Omega artists who wanted to enhance beauty in everyday
life as aestheticist and feeble. For him, building, designing, and decorating in good taste wereabsurd.
In this way, representations of modernity such as machinery were the subject of worship as
well as criticism. Furthermore, the idea of ‘dehumanization’ and ‘new egos’ associated with
communication in our society at the present time were visualised through the metaphor of a wave.

3. The Influence from Korin’s screen ‘Matsushima’
Lewis hardly painted any landscapes; it is not too much to say that A Battery Shelled [plate5] is the only landscape painting he made featuring England. As Edwards mentioned, the designof this work might be inspired by Korin’s screen Waves at Matsushima. The motif of a wave
plays an important role in this theme, and then we have to consider the wave in connection with

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91

the literary metaphor we discussed in
the previous chapter. Here, I will
investigate the formative relationshipbetween Japanese art and British avantgarde art, following three versions ofscreens bearing the name ‘Matsushima’and their provenance, which would havean impact not only on Wyndham Lewis,
but also on other Vorticists.
The version of Korin’s ‘Matsushima’[Plate 5] Wyndham Lewis, A Battery Shelled, 1919, oilthat British people saw for the first timeon canvas, 182.8 x 317.5cm, Imperial War Museum,was well-known as part of the Iwasaki
London. By permission, the Wyndham Lewis
Memorial Trust (a registered charity)
collection. This version was offered onloan by Koyata Iwasaki, who was the
fourth-generation family head of Mitsubishi Zaibatsu (financial group), so that it could be
displayed in the Japan-British exhibition of 1910 [12]. The designer Charles Ricketts, who
visited the exhibition site, stated that:
Some of his works would give a better impression of the general trend of his painting than
the two exhibited here. His figure pieces are, I admit, strange to European eyes; with them
I am not concerned. The two great screens at the White City show [The Japan-British
Exhibition] him in a phase where he out-Korins Korin. A grey sea bent into fantastic waves
moves silently beneath great golden drifts of cloud with an uncanny force, as if controlled
by the spell of some Eastern Prospero [13].
The above-mentioned ‘Matsushima’ is no longer extant, but it would be considered an imitationof Sotatsu made by Korin, which was displayed under the title of Scene of Matsushima in the
exhibition [14]. Unfortunately, we cannot confirm that Vorticists visited the Japan-British
exhibition in 1910. However, it is highly likely that they would have come into contact with otherversions of ‘Matsushima’.
Another version of the ‘Matsushima’ screen was shown in a 1908 book written by Laurence
Binyon, who was a keeper inthe British Museum at thetime [plate 6][15]. This is
the most famous version ofKorin’s screen ‘Matsushima’at present, and it came to bein the possession of theFreer Gallery of Art owing to
Arnold Fenollosa in 1913.
[Plate 6] Ogata Korin, Waves at Matsushima, Edo period, 18th
Another version is The
Century, Six-panel folding screen; ink, color and gold on
Wave-beaten Rock [plate 7],
paper, 150.18 x 367.79cm, Museum of Fine Arts, Boston

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which appeared in the Guide to an Exhibition ofJapanese and Chinese Paintings (1914), known as amasterpiece of the Morrison Collection in the British
Museum [16]. This painting is now recognised ashaving been made by Korin’s workshop or the Rimpa
School, but it was thought to be an authentic work by
Korin when it was exhibited at the British Museum. For
example, W. B. Yeats heaped praise on the work in the
introduction of Certain Noble Plays of Japan, translated into English by Ezra Pound in 1916: ‘one half
remembers a thousand Japanese paintings, or whichever comes first into the memory. That screen painted
by Korin, let us say, shown lately at the British Museum,[Plate 7] School of/style of Ogata
Korin, The Wave-beaten Rock,
where the same form is echoing in wave and in cloud
Edo period, 18th Century, a 2-foldand in rock’ [17].
screen painting; paper, 146.4 x
131.4cm, The British Museum,Yeats’s experience was shared by Pound as well as
LondonVorticist Painters. In fact, Sotatsu, Koetsu, and Korin
were put under ‘Bless’ in a list of proper names in Blast
no.2 [18]. Moreover, Pound quoted an important passage in Binyon’s The Flight of the Dragon(1913): ‘You may say that the waves of Korin’s famous screen are not like real waves: but they
move, they have force and volume’ [19]. It is safe to assume that Vorticists who had contact withYeats and Binyon were familiar with the two ‘Matsushima’ – at least through plates in the book.
Two images of waves by C. R. W. Nevinson which were presented at the exhibitions of the
London Group and Friday Club in May 1917 convince us that he saw Korin’s works up close[plates 8, 9]; they represented breakers, that is to say the crest of a wave, and he created themusing the same motif with a different medium. Art critic Frank Rutter made a comment on thepainting of waves shown at the Friday Club as follows: ‘Mr. Nevinson’s fine lithograph of Breakers[plate 9] is the most memorable of all, with a grandeur of design that recalls a Korin’ [20].

[Plate 8] C. R. W. Nevinson, The Wave (Breakers),
1917, lithograph; printed in blue on paper, 34.8 x
42.8cm, The British Museum, London[Plate 9] C. R. W. Nevinson, The Wave (TheBlue Wave), 1917, oil on canvas, 50.8 x
76.2cm, Yale Center for British Art, Paul
Mellon Fund, New Haven

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With respect to the two versions of Nevinson’s Waves, he made the oil painting version inadvance and then used examples from this version to make a lithograph [21]. Therefore, the later
design reversed the former (original) design. Both works remind us of ‘Matsushima’ at theMorrisson Collection [plate 8] because of their deep blue. Comparing the two, the oil painting
would give a dull impression more than the lithograph since the crest of a wave in the design wascollapsed by the medium property of oil paint. This demonstrates that a major element in
Matsushima’s design was not colour, but line. On the other hand, Wyndham Lewis’s A Battery
Shelled is an oil painting that drew upon his war experience. We can find some impact from
Korin’s design here, as Paul Edwards pointed out:
Korin’s convention of representing the striations of the rocks that project from the sea isclearly echoed in the ridged furrows of churned up mud in Lewis’s painting. Where Korin
insinuates a shared rhythmical energy shaping the forms of wave, cloud and rock in his
scene, Lewis’s conventions assert continuity among tree-stumps, clothing, corrugated ironand the billowing smoke of destruction [22].
However, Edwards is not emphasising the similarity between the two works, but theirdifferences. A Battery Shelled has an impact as a picture of all motifs combined. In Waves at
Matsushima, the form of each motif functions as a single pattern, while each part is iteratively
put together. Generally in Japan, seasonal scenes epitomised by typical natural objects havereproduced many formats for artistic expression, which are circulated around the public evoking
shareable attitudes. On one hand, this circulation tends to rapidly reduce the expression intocliché. However, for people living in the same culture, representations of nature in Japaneseabstract design have begun to function not as simple ornaments but as signals evoking particularemotions. Sotatsu’s screen gives origin to Korin’s ‘Matsushima’, which was called ‘Araiso (arough shoreline)’ at that time, depicting the Suminoe Osaka area. ‘Araiso pattern’ evokes theimagery of the summer season in Japan.

4. Wyndham Lewis’s Line: ‘The Bone beneath the Pulp’
Coming back to the point of Vorticist design in the 1910s, it seems to me that rather thanexpressing signals to evoke particular emotions, Lewis wanted to express the strength of thevertical line extend upward, as in the erected rocks in the design of Waves at Matsushima.
The main characteristic of their expression is the simplification of shapes often referred toas being architectural or sculptural, and solid lines. These works, with their architectural
framework piling up repetitively, differ widely from the direction of other forms of Modernism,
which intended to introduce time into the picture plane, or to seek painterliness. As Lewis
said later, Vorticist abstraction included ‘the pictorial architectonics at the bottom of picturemaking’ [23].
Next, looking carefully at the ridged furrows of churned up mud in the central part of A
Battery Shelled, pencilled lines by Lewis come into sight. They seem to be more enlarged in thefinished work than he planned. The implication of the fact is that Lewis adopted Korin’s design

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of Waves at Matsushima as the architectural framework rather than as a representation ofsomething else. The main element of structure is never a plane on the surface. Consequently,
Lewis emphasised the importance of drawing in his 1930s article ‘The Role of Line in Art’. He
wrote that ‘drawing is the probity of art’ [24] and that ‘[his] central theme is, of course, that ofdrawing (with burin, pen, brush, or pencil) as a department of art existing in its own right. The
fine draughtsman, is it is more difficult upon a piece of white paper, your means of expression
reduced to a few lines’ [25]. He accepted the medium of etching or copperplate engraving as akind of drawing and thought that drawing had an effect that was difficult to achieve through oil
painting. The word ‘draughtsman’ is closely associated with architectural drafting, as previously
mentioned; further, it includes the man who makes a drawing as a great line artist. According toLewis, drawing is both an element and a medium that could convey an artist’s tension to viewers
and clearly display the artist’s mind, differing from oil painting, which becomes blurred throughbeing overlayed many times. While the expert spectator is deceived with the mass of oil paint on
a canvas, a line exposes the painter’s mind and skill. It follows that a line is nothing less than ‘thebone beneath the pulp’ for Lewis [26].
Lewis rejected Impressionist engagement in the late 19th Century with seeking the transient
effects of nature, because he found that the Impressionists produced nothing that was in any
sense progress. This is because ‘what Lewis called for was for artists to take control of nature’[27], and he ‘discipline[d] it, and legislate[d] for it’ [28].
The true reason why Lewis hardly included natural landscapes in his work is apparent in hisview of nature. He started from accurate drawing or the imitation of nature in art school, and for
him, lines were more than instruments for representing nature, but the result of improvisationand intuition. He wrote that ‘Korin found in the symmetrical gushing of water, in waves like hugevegetable insects, traced and worked finely, on a golden pâte, his business’ [29]. By contrast, A
Battery Shelled shows traces that Lewis emphasised furrows of churned up mud apart from
Korin’s arrangement of rocks and waves, yet he finished quickly.

Conclusion
In this paper, we examined how and why Japanese paintings with features that wereperceived as flat and decorative, and Korin’s designs in particular, were accepted by British
avant-garde artists. It is interesting to note that Lewis and Nevinson were not fascinated by
Japonism or Japanese patterns, but by the masterly lines combing architectural design anddecorative lines seen in Korin’s screens. For these reasons, Korin’s design was accepted by British
Modernists who believed that drawing was the quintessence of design. Therefore, further studies
should continue to address Lewis’s idea ‘The Bone beneath the Pulp’, referring to Chinese ideas
such as ‘Spirit Resonance (kiin-seidou) ’ or ‘Bone Method (koppou-youhitsu)’ in ‘The Six
principles of Chinese Painting’ established by Xie He, which Lewis learned about in Laurence
Binyon’s book.

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Notes
[1]

[2]

[3]

[4]
[5]
[6]
[7]

[8]
[9]
[10]
[11]
[12]
[13]
[14]
[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]
[19]
[20]
[21]
[22]

[23]

Rupert Richard Arrowsmith, Modernism and Museum: Asian, African, and Pacific Art and The
London Avant-Garde, Oxford University Press, 2010, Supervised and introduced by Matsumura
Masaie, The Japan-British Exhibition of 1910: A Collection of Official Guidebooks andMiscellaneous Publications, Kyoto: Eureka Press, 2011, Reconsidering early modern Yamato-e :perspectives from Japan, the UK, and the USA，BRÜCKE，2013.
Professor Paul Edwards’s article on Wyndham Lewis is greatly important as a very rare previous
study, which confers benefits to this paper. See Edwards, ‘Dark swarming insect: Lewis and Nature’in Ritsumeikan studies in language and culture, Vol. 26-3, 2014, pp.25-42.
See Anne Middleton Wagner, Mother Stone: The Vitality of Modern British Sculpture, New Havenand London: Yale University Press, 2005; Richard Cork, Jacob Epstein, London: Tate Gallery,
1999.
Rupert Richard Arrowsmith, Modernism and The Museum, Oxford University Press, 2011, pp.13.
Quentin Bell, Victorian Artists, London: Routledge and Kegan Paul,1967, p.30.
Ibid., p.32 & 39.
I learned about the origin of the name ‘Blast’ from Professor Edwards, and that the avant-gardismof Vorticism symbolised by ‘Blast’ fascinated the musicians Bryan Ferry and David Bowie. They
conveyed Vorticist avant-gardism as ‘cool’ to the British punk rock generation who rebelled against
the system.
Long Live the Vortex! Blast, no.1, 1914, p7.
Blast, no.1, 1914, p.39.
Blast, no.2, 1915, p.38.
Wyndham Lewis, ‘The Improvement of Life’, Blast, Vol.1, p.146.
This exhibition was held at Shepherd’s Bush in London from May 14 to October 29 1910.
Charles Ricketts, Pages on Art, London: Constable and Company, 1913, pp.181-182
The Japan-British Exhibition of 1910: A Collection of Official Guidebooks and Miscellaneous
Publications, Kyoto: Eureka Press, 2011, p.12
Laurence Binyon, Painting in the far East: an introduction to the history of pictorial art in Asia
especially China and Japan, London: Edward Arnold, 1908, p.206
p.13, No.32, A favourite motive of the master, and also of Sotatsu. A more elaborate screen of thesame subject is in the Boston Museum.
An introduction with W. B. Yeats of Certain Noble Plays of Japan, April 1916. See the URL:
http://www.gutenberg.org/files/8094/8094-h/8094-h.htm（Checked November 25th 2017）
Blast, No.2, 1915, p.95
Blast, No.2 p.86; Laurence Binyon, The Flight of the Dragon, 1911, p.27
Sunday Times, April 1917David Boyd Haycock, Exhibition Catalogue of a Crisis of Brilliance, 2013, p.139
The version of Korin’s ‘Matsushimazu’ that Lewis and other Vorticists adopted is disputable.
Professor Edwards suggests that they might have viewed Waves at Matsushima in the Museum ofFine Arts in Boston, which is almost the same size as A Battery Shelled, in which Lewis adopted
the landscape-oriented picture plane. See Edwards, ibid., 2015, p.29. On the other hand, focusing
on the erected rocks in Korin’s design, Lewis’s painting might be inspired by Matsushima in the
British Museum.
As seen in Lewis’s collage works or Wadsworth’s woodcuts, Vorticism represented the modern
industrial world differently from that of Futurist artists. As Etchells notes, in Wadsworth’s works,‘an interesting simplification of planes, the closely knitted composition of roofs and chimney stacks
seems to me a complete abstract of a modern industrial town’. See Frederic Etchells, ‘Note for the

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[24]
[25]
[26]
[27]
[28]
[29]

KANAME Mariko

Exhibition of Original Woodcuts and Drawings by Edward Wadsworth’, Avant-Garde British
Printmaking 1914-1960, London, British Museum, 1990, p.31.
Wyndham Lewis, The Role of Line in Art, privately edition by Paul Edwards, Cambridge, p. 2 (Ireceived the text from Prof. Edwards on the September 1st 2017).
Lewis, ibid., p.5.
Lewis, ibid., p.4.
Jacky Klein, ‘Things of A Minor King? Wyndham Lewis and The Art of Drawing’ The Bone Beneath
Pulp: Drawings by Wyndham Lewis, London: Courtauld Institute of Art Gallery, 2004, p.31.
Lewis, ibid., p. 7.
Edwards, ibid., p.41.

* This is the English translation by the author of a Japanese article published in Ritsumeikan studies inlanguage and culture, Vol. 26-3, 2015, pp.43-53. The author owes a great debt of gratitude to Professor
Paul Edwards (The Wyndham Lewis Memorial Trust) for his supportive advice and encouragement.