7. Sedimentary rocks
Sediments and sedimentary rocks cover 90% of Earth’s surface. They are essential to ourunderstanding of the origin and evolution of life because they are the rocks containing fossils. They
are also the rocks from which coal, oil, and natural gas can be extracted, and are often associatedwith reservoirs of groundwater.

7.1. What are sediments?
Examples of sediments include beach sand, the gravels of riverbeds, and the fine particles desert
dunes are made of. These are sediments that have not yet been transformed into sedimentaryrocks. They are still soft, unlithified. We will see in section 7.3 how soft sediments become a hard,lithified rock.
Sediments can be classified into two broad categories: solid matter and ions in solution.
Examples of solid sedimentary matter: (1) fragments of rocks and minerals, (2) the hard parts oforganisms (biominerals, e.g. mollusk shells), and (3) organic matter (e.g. plant leaves).
Examples of ions in solution: Na+, K+, Cl-, Ca2+, CO32-…

7.2. How do sediments form?
7.2.1. Weathering
Sediments form by destruction of preexisting rocks. The destruction process is called rockweathering. Two types of weathering can be distinguished: (1) physical weathering and (2)chemical weathering.
(1) Physical weathering
Major physical weathering agents are wind (eolian weathering), water, and ice (glacialweathering). The dust carried by the wind abrades the surface of rocks. A good example of eolian
weathering is the polished surface of stones in arid regions such as the Moroccan desert or Mars.
Water is a powerful weathering agent. The destructive action of waves along shorelines is a good
example. Receding shorelines due to wave action are common around the world. Given enoughtime, rivers can cut through hard rocks and form V-shaped valleys with steep flanks. One of themost remarkable examples is the Grand Canyon in the US. Ice is also a powerful agent of rockdestruction. Glaciers are like rivers of ice which can carve large U-shaped valleys. During the last
ice age, the northern polar ice cap was much more extensive than today. Regions of North
America and northern Europe that are now ice-free still bear the marks of glacial weathering. Ice
can also destroy rocks through frost wedging. This weathering process results from the fact thatthe volume of water increases when it freezes. If liquid water fills the fractures in a rock and thenfreezes, ice expands and widens the fractures which can in turn break the rock. Plants may also
participate in rock physical weathering through root wedging. Plant roots in the fractures of a rock32

force them to open further as the plant grows which may lead to rock dislocation.
(2) Chemical weathering
Rainwater and CO2 combine in soils to form the weak carbonic acid H 2CO3. In contact withcarbonate rocks, the carbonic acid dissolves CaCO3. The products of this reaction, Ca2+, HCO3and CO32-, are transported by rivers to the ocean. In the ocean, the ions Ca2+ and CO32- can beused by marine organisms to build their calcareous hard parts (see related slide). Dissolution ofCaCO3 is responsible for the formation of caves and other dissolution features (karst).
The process of CaCO3 dissolution does not require the action of living organisms. However, theactive dissolution of CaCO3 by organisms happens as well. For example, some bivalves arecapable of dissolving CaCO3 and bore holes in which they live.
Like carbonate rocks, silicate minerals can react with acidic groundwater. The products of thisweathering reaction include dissolved ions (e.g. Ca2+, Si4+, Fe2+, HCO3-, CO32-, H+) and clays.
These ions are transported by rivers to the ocean and some can be used by marine organisms tobuild hard parts made of CaCO3 and SiO2. The weathering of silicate rocks results in a net removalof CO2 from the atmosphere over millions of years. This slow removal of CO2 must be balanced byan equally slow input of CO2. This input of CO2 is provided by volcanoes and hot springs.
7.2.2. Erosion and transport
The removal of sediments from their source area is called erosion. Erosion is carried out by thesame flowing agents causing rock physical weathering: wind, water, and ice. Sediments are thentransported by these same agents to the site of their deposition. If there is no active removal,sediments may simply move away from their source area by gravity. The downslope movement ofsediments by gravity is called mass wasting.
7.2.3. Sediment deposition
Solid sedimentary particles carried either by wind (eolian transport), water or ice (glacialtransport) will at some point be deposited. Deposition of a sedimentary particle transported by windor water occurs when the wind/water speed decreases and is no longer capable of carrying theparticle in question.
In water, strong currents with a speed of >50 cm/s can carry all sizes of particles up to boulder-size(>25.6 cm). Moderately strong currents with a speed of 20-50 cm/s can carry sand (62.5 µm-2 mm)
and smaller particles. Weak currents (<20 cm/s) can carry silts and clays (<2 mm). Note that we
consider here only sediments consisting of fragments of rocks and minerals which generally haveroughly the same density. We don’t consider material with a very low density like wood.
Sediments carried by ice deposit when the ice melts. The nature and morphology of these deposits
is typical and can be recognized in the rock record. Glacial deposits are useful indicators of pastclimate.
In the case of mass wasting, the nature of sediments (e.g. size, shape) and slope steepness
control deposition.
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For ions in solution, deposition occurs either abiotically or biotically. An example of abiotic
deposition is the precipitation of minerals in a saline lake by evaporation (see section 4.3). Biotic
deposition of ions in solution is the process of biomineralization (see section 4.3). A good example
is given by corals which use Ca2+ and CO32- present in the ocean to produce their skeleton made ofCaCO3.

7.3. How do sedimentary rocks form?
How soft sediments (say beach sand) are transformed into hard sedimentary rocks (in this case,sandstone)?
As soft sediments accumulate, they are progressively buried under younger layers of sediments.
The set of physical and chemical changes which happen to soft sediments after their burial iscalled diagenesis. The result of diagenesis includes the transformation of soft sediments into hardrock. This transformation is called lithification. Lithification results from two main diagenetic
processes:(1) Compaction: as sediments are buried deeper and deeper under younger sedimentary layers,
the pressure and temperature increase. Sediments are squeezed, compacted. The space
between sediment grains gets smaller.
(2) Cementation: dissolved ions in groundwater precipitate in the open space between individual
sediment grains. Common mineral cements include calcite (CaCO3), hematite (Fe2O3), andquartz (SiO2).
Compaction and cementation contribute to reduce the rock porosity. Porosity is a measure of theamount of open space (or pores) in a rock.

7.4. Properties of sediments and sedimentary rocks
The characteristics of sediment grains can provide information about the environment in which
they formed. Fundamental properties of sediments and sedimentary rocks include:
Grain size: since sedimentary particles have generally roughly the same density, grain size gives
a good indication of the strength of the current. The occurrence of coarse sand in a sedimentindicates a stronger water current than a sediment composed entirely of mud.
Sorting: sorting is a measure of the variation in grain size within a sediment. If all sediment grains
have approximately the same size, the sediment is well sorted. If the sediment is made of a
mixture of small grains and large grains, the sediment is poorly sorted. This also provides
information about the type of current which transported the sediment. If the strength of the water
current is unchanging, the size of sediment grains deposited tends to be uniform. If the strength of
the water current is variable, the size of grains deposited varies accordingly.
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Grain morphology: during transport sediment grains are abraded and become rounded.
Therefore the roundness of sediment grains provides information on the distance of transport. Thegreater the distance of transport, the greater the roundness.

7.5. Sedimentary basins and depositional environments
Large amounts of sediments are deposited in depressions of the Earth’s crust. Large depressions
in which abundant sediments accumulate are called sedimentary basins. The largest basins are
the ocean basins. Their size and morphology is controlled by plate tectonics. An example of a large
continental sedimentary basin is the East African Rift which corresponds to a divergent boundary
where two plates are pulled apart. The rift contains many lakes in which sediments can accumulate.
In the future, the plates will keep moving away from each other. The continental lithosphere will
stretch and get thinner. The rift will grow larger and deeper leaving more space for sediments toaccumulate. The downward movement of the lithosphere as it is stretched and thinned is calledsubsidence. Subsidence is accentuated by the weight of sediments pushing down the lithosphericplate. Ultimately, seawater will flood the rift and seafloor spreading will begin, transforming thecontinental rift into an ocean basin. The two continental margins that are moving apartprogressively cool as they are moving away from the source of heat. As it cools, the lithospheregets denser and progressively sinks creating space for sediments to accumulate. This is aparticular kind of subsidence called thermal subsidence. It enables the accumulations of thickpiles of sediments along continental margins (continental shelf).
There exist many different kinds of depositional environments (deserts, lakes, rivers, delta,beach, organic reef, continental shelf, deep sea…) which belong to either one of the threefollowing categories: continental, shoreline, and marine environments. Each depositionalenvironment is characterized by a unique combination of physical, chemical, and biologicalprocesses. The nature of sediments deposited in these environments is determined by theseprocesses. For example, the deep sea is not affected by strong, sustained currents likeshallow-water environments. The deep-sea is therefore generally characterized by a fine-grained
sedimentation (mostly mud). Deep-sea organisms are also different from those living in shallow
waters. Let’s take another example: coral reefs. Coral reefs are associated to tropical andsubtropical climate. They grow exclusively in shallow water and their rigid framework consists
mainly of coral skeletons and crustose coralline algae. Although the organisms which compose
them have evolved, organic reefs have been around for almost as long as the Earth has existed(e.g. stromatolites, see section 7.6.2).
Useful indicators of past depositional environments are sedimentary structures. Although many
sedimentary structures exist, only the most common are described herein. When one looks at an
outcrop of sedimentary rocks, the most conspicuous sedimentary structure is often the bedding orstratification plane (see related slide for illustration). Sedimentary beds can be a few cm thick to35

several m thick. Bedding results from changes in sedimentation affecting grain size and/orsediment composition. The equivalent of bedding at the mm scale is called lamination. Bedding isuseful to study tectonic deformation (folds and faults) because sediment layers are usuallydeposited flat and horizontal. Other remarkable sedimentary structures are ripple marks (seerelated slide for illustration). Ripple marks are a common feature of sandy beaches. The geometryof ripple marks preserved in sedimentary rocks provides information on the transport agent (wavevs. wind, unidirectional vs. bidirectional, current direction). Burrows are also sedimentary
structures. They represent one example of sedimentary structures resulting from the activity ofliving organisms. Other biological sedimentary structures include traces left at the surface ofsediments by benthic organisms (benthic means living on the seafloor).
In conclusion, geologists are able to reconstruct past sedimentary environments based on thecharacteristics of sedimentary rocks. When you have a succession of sedimentary rocks ofdifferent ages at an outcrop or in a drill core, it becomes possible to study environmental changes
over geological time scales. The fossil content of the rock can also be used to understand theevolution of life.

7.6. Types of sedimentary rocks
7.6.1. Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks
Siliciclastic sedimentary rocks are composed of fragments of rocks (lithic fragments) andminerals. The name “siliciclastic” comes from the fact that the composition of these rocks isdominated by silicate minerals (e.g. quartz).
Siliciclastic rocks are classified according to grain size (coarse = conglomerate, medium =sandstone, fine = shale) or grain composition (e.g. arkose = sandstone containing at least 25% ofa mineral called feldspar).
7.6.2. Biochemical sedimentary rocks
Biochemical sedimentary rocks are usually formed by accumulation of the hard parts of marineorganisms (e.g. bivalve shells, coral skeletons…). A beach deposit consisting of fragments ofbivalve shells (bioclasts) is an example. Coral reef framework is another example. Bivalve shells
and coral skeletons are made of CaCO3. Another major biomineral is silica (SiO2). Marine
microorganisms such as diatoms and radiolarians secrete a tiny shell made of silica that canaccumulate on the deep seafloor.
The constituents of biochemical sedimentary rocks are generally formed by the direct biologicalprecipitation of CaCO3. But biological activity can also induce precipitation of CaCO3 indirectly.
Photosynthetic microbial mats called stromatolites are a good example. The equilibrium between
dissolved calcium and carbonate ions in the sea and the mineral calcium carbonate can be written
as follows: Ca2+ + 2HCO3- ↔ CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O. The reaction of photosynthesis is 6H2O +36

6CO2 + sunlight → C6H12O6 + 6O2. Photosynthesis consumes CO2 whereas calcification releases
CO2 in the environment. Consequently, the photosynthetic activity of stromatolites tends topromote calcification by shifting the equilibrium state of the carbonate system to the right (Ca2+ +2HCO3- → CaCO3 + CO2 + H2O). Stromatolites can form rigid pinnacle-like structures and thesestructures owe their rigidity to the early cementation induced by photosynthesis (see related slidefor illustration).
7.6.3. Chemical sedimentary rocks
Chemical sedimentary rocks are formed by precipitation of minerals which does not involve
biological activity. For example, minerals precipitating at the bottom of a saline lake subject tointense evaporation. The accumulation of minerals in this kind of setting produces a rock calledevaporite. One of the most common constituent of evaporites is NaCl (halite or table salt).
7.6.4. Organic sedimentary rocks
Organic sedimentary rocks are formed by accumulation of organic matter (e.g. plants). Usually,organic matter is quickly decomposed by bacterial activity. However, in particular settings which
are characterized by a high rate of accumulation of organic matter and low levels of oxygen,organic matter can be preserved and accumulate.
An example of such accumulation is peat. Peat forms in wetlands by accumulation of plants. Low
oxygen concentrations prevent the complete decomposition of organic matter. As peat is buried
under younger sediments, the increase in pressure transforms peat into lignite (compressed peat).
At greater depth, pressure and temperature increases further and lignite is converted into coal.
Coal is a complex mixture of mineral matter and organic carbon compounds. Increasing further thepressure and temperature transforms coal into anthracite. Anthracite has a higher carbon content
than coal. Coal and anthracite have a different chemical composition than peat and lignite. Heatand pressure have modified their composition and texture. They are not strictly speaking
sedimentary rocks anymore but metamorphic rocks (see next chapter).

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