AESTHETICS No.13 (2009)

The Japanese Society for Aesthetics / 221

The Evangelists of the Maiestas domini in the Parma
Gospel Book, Biblioteca Palatina di Parma, MS gr. 5
SAKURAI Yuriko
Waseda University, Tokyo

Introduction
The Parma Gospel Book, Bibl. Palatina, MS gr. 5[1] is a Tetraevangelion (the Four Gospels)[2]believed to have been compiled in the latter half of the eleventh century in Constantinople. In
Byzantine manuscripts, there is no strict style governing the number or content of miniatures
and their positions within the text. Most miniatures are illuminations of initials and botanicalor geometric motifs, and do not include human figures. In a Tetraevangelion, Evangelist
portraits [3] are often inserted at the beginning of each Gospel, but some manuscripts,
although few in number, include Christological illustrations (full-page, half-page, column
picture, initial, marginal) or texts other than the Gospels and their miniatures [4]. The Parma
Gospel Book is a manuscript representing the middle Byzantine era (from the ninth to thethirteenth century), and not only includes a preface with a headpiece (ff.3r, 5r) but also a
number of miniatures including a full-page miniature of The Nativity, Constantine and Helena(f.13r) [5], narrative Christological illustrations (ff.91v-92v) [6], Evangelist portraits (ff.13v, 93v,
138v, 215v), and headpieces at the beginning of each Gospel (ff.14r, 94r, 139r, 216r) [7] (see theTable). However, research on this manuscript has been scarce, and has not been conductedcomprehensively on the manuscript in its entirety. Previous attempts, such as those by Millet,
Lazarev, and Bonicatti, have been limited to iconographic and stylistic analyses [8]. In thispaper, we will study the Maiestas domini (f.5r) of the Parma Gospel Book, which serves as thefrontispiece of four Gospels.
The Maiestas domini [9] is an iconography representing theophany, and is not a representation of a historical episode. The iconography is based on a number of texts, such as thedescriptions of the visions of Ezekiel and Isaiah in the Old Testament and the description ofJohn in the Apocalypse, and is also based on texts such as the Irenaean preface and theliturgical texts. This image is located in or around the apse in a church, and strongly bears theiconic characteristics. It is a theme common to all the genres of Byzantine art, related to the
iconodulistic teachings that support the veneration of religious images which became particularly popular in the wake of iconoclasm [10]. During the middle Byzantine period, newideas such as the significance of the apocalypse and the Second Coming were further added tothis image [11]. Though the motifs and characters may vary according to the given situationand context, the iconography of the Maiestas domini is basically constructed around the figureof Christ sitting on a throne with the four living creatures (the zodiac) [12] surrounding Him,the four living creatures in turn surrounded by Seraphim, Cherubim, and the prophets.

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Table: The structure of the Parma Gospel Book. The shaded area indicates the figural miniatures.
Folia

Content

f.3r
ff.3r-4v
f.5r

Eusebius and Carpianus
Epistle of Eusebius to Carpianus

Prefaces

Maiestas domini

ff.5r-6r

Hypothesis of the Harmony of the Evangelists

ff.6v-7v

the Chapter Lists (Kephalaia) of Matthew

ff.8r-12r

Canon Tables

f.12v

Eusebius and Carpianus, Ammonius

f.13r

Matthew

Nativity, Constantine and Helena Standing on Both Sides of the True Cross

f.13v

Matthew the Evangelist

f.14r

Journey to Bethlehemff.14r-89v

the Gospel According to Matthew

ff.90r-91r

the Chapter Lists (Kephalaia) of Mark

f.91v

f.92r

Mark

the
Christological
Cycle

Marriage Feast at Cana, Transformation of the Water into Wine
Miraculous Draught of Fishes (Calling of the Apostles)
Preparation for Washing of the Feet, Washing of the Feet
the Last Supper, Preparation for the Last Supper
Christ’s Prayer at Gethsemane,
Betrayal of Judas, Repentance of Peter
Crucifixion, Descent from the Cross
Entombment, Holy Women at the Sepulcher
Ascension, Pentecost

f.92v
f.93r

Blank

f.93v

Mark the Evangelist

f.94rJohn Baptizing the People

ff.94r-135v

the Gospel According to Markff.136r-137v

the Chapter Lists (Kephalaia) of Luke, Hypothesis

f.138rBlank

f.138v

Luke

Luke the Evangelistf.139rBirth of John the Baptist

ff.139r-213v

the Gospel According to Luke

ff.214r-v

the Chapter Lists (Kephalaia) of John, Hypothesis

f.215rBlank

f.215v

John

John the Evangelist

f.216rAnastasis

ff.216r-270r

the Gospel According to John

ff.270v-285v

Synaxarion

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223

1. The Maiestas domini (ff.5r-6r)
I would like to begin by describing
this particular miniature and its accompanying text, and organizing the matterin question. In the Parma Gospel Book,
prior to the Four Gospels, there areprefacing texts [13] titled ‘The Letter ofEusebius to Carpianus’ and ‘The Hypothesis of the Harmony of the Evangelists’ [14], which are accompanied bya headpiece of Eusebius and Carpianus(f.3r) and the Maiestas domini (f.5r), respectively. The Hypothesis accompanying the miniature of the Maiestas
domini begins with the initial letter Ι.
This Hypothesis is followed by an introduction to Matthew’s Gospel (f.5r),
an explanation of why there are four
The Maiestas domini (f.5r) in the Parma Gospel Book

Gospels, and a description of the four
faces of the Cherubim and the four
living creatures (f.5v). Introductions to

the Gospels by Mark, Luke, and John follow. I will describe the miniature upon quoting theentire text of the Hypothesis, which is as follows [15]:Know that the Gospel according to Matthew, written in the Hebrew language, waspublished by him in Jerusalem, and translated by John. The Gospel describes theanthropomorphic birth of Christ as a man [16].
One must know that there are no more and no less than four Gospels. Since there are four
universal winds, there are also Four Gospels, blowing immortality from all of them andregenerating men. From these Gospels, it is evident that He, who was shown to men
sitting among the cherubim, gave us the four-part Gospel, just as David, praying for His
advent said, ‘You who sit on the cherubim show yourself.’ These Cherubim have four
faces, and their faces are the images of the dispensation of the Son of God.
The one like the lion indicates the efficacious, royal, and authoritative nature. The one likethe ox presents the sacerdotal and priestly nature. The manlike form depicts theincarnation, and the one like the eagle represents the visitation of the Holy Spirit [17].
Know that the Gospel according to Mark was dictated by Peter in Rome. It began with theprophetic word of Isaiah, which proceeds from on high, and shows the winged image ofthe Gospel [18].

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Know that the Gospel according to Luke was dictated by Paul in Rome. Since it was ofpriestly character, it began with Zacharias the priest burning incense.
Know that the Gospel of John was dictated by John in the time of the Emperor Trajan on
the island of Patmos. It describes the lordly, real, and glorious generation of Christ fromthe Father [19].
The miniature in question depicts the abstract and theological concept of ‘the harmony of
the Four Gospels’ as stated in the Hypothesis [20]. In the middle circle within the rectangle [21]sits the figure of Christ encircled by a mandorla. Below the two pairs of Seraphim supporting
the mandorla are two pairs of Cherubim, between which four wheels of fire are depicted. The
four symbols bearing the Gospels are placed within the small circles positioned in the four
corners, while the sitting Evangelists are arranged facing the lectern in the external square
frame. The four living creatures are referred to in the Apocalypse according to John (4 : 6-8),
and their characteristics and symbolic significance are described by theologians in the prefaceof the Gospels. In the upper left corner sits Mark-man, in the upper right corner, Matthew-ox;
in the lower left corner is Luke-lion and in the lower right corner, John-eagle. Standing in themargins on both sides of the rectangular picture are David and Isaiah. David is referred to in
the Hypothesis as ‘the One who prophesied the Advent’, whereas Isaiah is described in thephrase, ‘(Mark’s Gospel) began with the prophetic words of Isaiah’. Peter and Paul are shownstanding on the left side of the title written in majuscule letters, and John the Evangelist andthe Emperor Trajan stand on the right. The three Apostles are dressed in tunics and himations
and are holding their Gospels. As John the Evangelist is the only one to appear twice on thepage, his standing figure is represented as an old man, with the frontal part of the head shownbald for the sake of variety. The Emperor Trajan is clad in a tunic and himation, is carrying alabarum in his right hand, and has a nimbus attached to his crown. All the four figures (thethree Apostles and the Emperor Trajan) are referred to in the introduction to the Gospels in the
Hypothesis. The Fountain of Life is painted in the upper part of the square frame, and is
depicted under a canopy, along with birds, deer, and vegetation [22].
Significant preceding studies on the miniature in question include works by Galavaris andNelson [23]. Both researchers deal with the relationships between the preface and theminiatures of the Gospel manuscripts, and refer to this particular miniature as part of theabove-mentioned subject. Both also share the standpoint of studying the miniatures bymaking comprehensive comparisons between iconographies and texts relating to the Parma
Gospel Book. Needless to say, an approach that compares a number of similar iconographic
examples in search of the greatest common factor is vital in the study of manuscripts.
However, in the case where one particular miniature is under examination, it is also critical tofocus on the manuscript it belongs to in its entirety, as some results may only be attained
through monographic research. This paper aims to study the Maiestas domini of the Parma
Gospel Book while taking into consideration the manuscript in its entirety.

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Biblioteca Palatina di Parma, MS gr. 5

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2. The positions of the Evangelists
In the miniature under study, Mark is positioned in the upper left corner, Matthew in theupper right, Luke in the lower left, and John in the lower right corner. On the other hand, in
the Tetraevangelion, the four gospels appear in the order of the Gospels of Matthew, Mark,
Luke, and John; the Hypothesis too begins with a description of Matthew’s Gospel. It isstrange that Mark is placed in the upper left, since this is the position that signifies the
beginning, suggesting that it would have been more appropriate to place Matthew here.
Doubtlessly, the switch in the positioning of both Matthew and Mark is an intentional
manipulation on the part of the painter [24]. This is apparent from the arrangement of theEvangelists in the four corners, since the names of only the two Evangelists in the upper half
are included in the illustration.
The Maiestas domini in the lectionary of the Athens National Library (cod. 2645, f.1r) has
been highlighted by researchers as having structural similarities with the Maiestas domini of theParma Gospel Book, such as the positions of the Evangelists in the four corners and thearrangement of characters in the left and right margins [25]. In the Athens Lectionary, it isJohn who is positioned in the upper left of the four corners, the part which signifies the
beginning. As in the text of the lectionary the manuscripts are stated in the order of John,
Matthew, Luke, and Mark’s Gospels, the arrangement of the four Evangelists in the Athens
Lectionary is in accordance with their order in its text. Through comparison, it should be
noted that it is peculiar that Mark should be placed in the upper left corner of the Parma
Gospel Book, which is a Tetraevangelion.
In addition, the positioning of the Evangelists in the Maiestas domini of the Parma Gospel
Book, with Mark in the upper left corner and Matthew in the upper right, are at variance intheir correspondence to the four living creatures. If Matthew had been positioned in the upper
left corner and Mark in the upper right in accordance with the order in the Gospel, thepositioning would also have corresponded with the order given by Athanasios, which is in thefollowing order: Matthew-man, Mark-ox, Luke-lion, and John-eagle [26]. However, as a resultof having had Mark placed in the upper left corner and Matthew in the upper right, ‘man’ ispositioned next to Mark and ‘ox’ next to Matthew, which prevents any semblance of order
between the Evangelists and the symbols. Galavaris explains the disaccord between the
Evangelists and the symbols by stating that though the reason is unclear, the symbols areassociated with the Cherubim in the preface and are not described in accordance with any
specific Gospel [27]. I do not intend to oppose Galavaris’s opinion that the symbols arestrongly associated with the Cherubim. However, as each symbol is shown bearing a Gospel,
it is inconceivable that the symbols are totally unconnected with the Evangelists. It does notseem natural to position the four Evangelists and the symbols in the four corners without
making any associations between the two. In fact, associating the Evangelists and the symbols
does not weaken the connection between the symbols and the Cherubim in any way. Above
all, Galavaris’s interpretation does not directly explain why Mark is positioned in the upper
left corner. It is reasonable to suppose that there was some valid reason behind positioning
Mark in the upper left corner, the order of the Four Gospels and discrepancy with the symbols

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notwithstanding.

3. Accompanying figures described in the Hypothesis
When considering the positions of the Evangelists, we must also take into consideration
their accompanying figures as mentioned in the Hypothesis [28]. As the Hypothesis states ‘The
Gospel according to Matthew was translated by John, the Gospel according to Mark was
dictated by Peter, the Gospel according to Luke was dictated by Paul, and the Gospel
according to John was dictated in the time of Trajan on the island of Patmos’. Based on thistext, Peter, Paul, John the Evangelist and the Emperor Trajan are positioned on both sides of
the title, two on each side. The critical difference among the Evangelists lies in whether or notthey were members of the Twelve Apostles, who were the original Disciples of Christ.
Matthew and John were inspired directly by Christ as they were among his Twelve Apostles,
whereas Mark and Luke were not. The fact that the canonical Gospels were written by men
who were not direct followers of Christ could prove difficult to accept, so lore was created that
the Gospels according to Mark and Luke were dictated by Peter and Paul, who were among
the Apostles [29]. In other words, the figures of Peter and Paul were included in the miniature
to guarantee the legitimacy of both Mark’s and Luke’s Gospels. Mark and Luke are often
depicted along with Peter and Paul [30], whereas Matthew and John are combined withvarious characters. Matthew may be paired with Christ [31], and there are examples of John
being paired with his disciple Prochorus [32], or with Mary [33]. The reason John and Matthew
are combined with various characters is probably that they do not need to be associated withany specific authority, since they are the original Disciples of Christ. As a matter of fact,
Matthew and John may each be represented independently even when Mark and Luke are
combined with a secondary character. Evangelists may be depicted along with accompanying
figures as per the requirements of the text, such as the preface, but cases have been confirmed
where accompanying figures are represented without any such request from the text; therefore
the situation seems to vary according to each manuscript.
One of the reasons why Mark was positioned in the upper left corner and Matthew in theupper right in the Parma Gospel Book may have had to do with their associations with thefour accompanying figures. First, Mark and Luke, who were not among the Twelve Apostles,
are aligned on the left, and Peter and Paul placed beneath them. Matthew and John, who weredirect followers of Christ, are aligned on the right, and John the Evangelist and the Emperor
Trajan are placed beneath the two. This shows the ingenious structural attempt to verticallyseparate the Apostles from the Evangelists who were not direct Disciples of Christ [34], and toposition characters described in the Hypothesis beneath the Evangelists they are associatedwith. However, if the aim had been to separate the Twelve Apostles from the others, it would
also have been possible to place Matthew and John on the left and Mark and Luke on the right.
With those among the Twelve Apostles on the left side and the others on the right, it would
have been possible to include Matthew in the upper left corner in accordance with the order of
the Four Gospels. Why, then, did the painter position Mark and not Matthew in the upper leftof the illustrations? It is in the sequence of the accompanying figures that a major change

The Evangelists of the Maiestas domini in the Parma Gospel Book,
Biblioteca Palatina di Parma, MS gr. 5

227

would have been effected with the switching of the Evangelists. With Matthew and John on
the left and Mark and Luke on the right, the four figures would be positioned in the order(from the left) of John, the Emperor Trajan, Peter and Paul, and Peter would not be positioned
in the beginning as in the existing miniature. Mark is believed to have been placed in theupper left corner so that Peter could be positioned at the head of the four accompanying
figures; in other words, it was necessary to have Mark in the upper left corner, even though it
would be going against the order in the Four Gospels of having Peter placed first.
The subsidiary characters, including Peter, are based on the introduction to the Four
Gospels in the Hypothesis. In general, secondary characters are paired with Evangelist portraits, and it is very rare for them to be incorporated in the Maiestas domini, as in this miniature.
In addition, the introduction to the Four Gospels is generally placed before the text of each
Gospel, and it is extremely rare to have the introduction to the Four Gospels collectively
described in the Hypothesis, as is done in the Parma Gospel Book [35]. As Nelson states, it isdoubtless that both the miniature and the text are attempting to create ‘the harmony of theFour Gospels’ as advocated in the Hypothesis. Furthermore, the innovative attempt toincorporate accompanying figures in the Maiestas domini may have been made in response to arequest to have Peter painted on the frontispiece. In other words, it would not have beenpossible to have Peter depicted on the frontispiece without incorporating the four characters
associated with the Evangelists in the Maiestas domini.
The same iconographic manipulations as those seen in this miniature for emphasizingPeter are also used in the narrative cycle of Christ’s life (ff.91v-92v) [36]. Each of the three
pages of this manuscript dealing with Christ’s life is divided into four sections, with one or
two scenes arranged within one section. In The Marriage Feast at Cana, the portrait of Peterdeviates from standard iconography by being positioned opposite Christ, where ‘the governorof the feast’ (Jn 2 : 8) should be placed. The scene which can be referred to as The Miraculous
Draught of Fish is described twice in the Gospels, first in The Calling of the Apostles (Lk 5 : 1-11)
and thereafter in The Appearance at the Sea of Tiberias (Jn 21 : 1-8). The former is an episode that
occurred in the early ministry of Christ, while the latter is an episode that took place after his
Resurrection. The difference between the two lies in the movements of Peter. In The Calling of
the Apostles, Peter gets on the boat with the disciples, while in The Appearance at the Sea ofTiberias, he plunges into the lake alone. The subject positioned next to The Marriage Feast at
Cana is not an episode after the Resurrection but The Calling of the Apostles [37]. However, thisminiature borrows the iconography of The Appearance at the Sea of Tiberias in which ‘Peter
plunges alone into the lake’, in order to represent The Calling of the Apostles. In The Washing ofFeet, the page is divided into the top and bottom sections, and the disciples are depicted in theformer, while Peter is sitting face to face with Christ in the latter. The unprecedented challenge
here lies not only in the painting of a subject with Peter as the main character, but also in
isolating Peter from the other disciples and representing him alone. The Repentance of Peter isan episode that took place between The Betrayal of Judas and The Crucifixion. It would havebeen possible to insert Christ Before Pilate in this section, but a subject in which Peter is the solemain character was selected instead [38]. In fact, Peter appears in nine out of thirteen scenes,
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Death and Resurrection of Christ. Furthermore, these three pages are positioned between thechapter lists (Kephalaia) of Mark, which precede the text of Mark’s Gospel, and the portrait ofMark [39]. In my previous paper, I had been unable to explain the reason for this strange
arrangement, but further examination for this paper has clarified this point, which is that
Christological illustrations placing emphasis on Peter have been placed before the text ofMark’s Gospel, which was ‘dictated by Peter’, as if they form the headpiece of the Gospel. In
addition to the portrait of Mark (f.93v) and the headpiece John baptizing the people (f.94r) for
Mark’s Gospel, three pages of Christological illustrations have been inserted in front of the textof Mark’s Gospel in order to place an emphasis on the presence of Peter. This, in fact, was thephilosophy behind the iconographic program of the Parma Gospel Book.

4. The sequence of the symbols
Unlike the case in Western Europe, there are several corresponding relationships between
the Evangelists and the symbols designated by theologists in the Byzantine world, and there is
no exclusive order. But if we are to assume that the positions of Mark and Matthew have beenswitched, it is reasonable to assume that our miniature had originally adopted the order given
by Athanasios (Matthew-man, Mark-ox, Luke-lion, John-eagle) [40]. It is believed that under
the request to position Mark in the upper left corner with the aim of emphasising Peter, thetwo Evangelists in the top area were switched from left to right and vice versa, which resulted
in the breakdown of the corresponding relationships between the symbols and the Evangelists.
Of particular interest is the fact that the symbols were not inter-changed when the two
Evangelists were switched. If the symbols of man and ox had been switched, the discord
between the Evangelists and the symbols could have been avoided even if Mark was
positioned in the upper left corner, with only the change in the sequence of the Four Gospels
necessary. However, the painter had chosen to represent the symbols in the correct sequenceof the Four Gospels and only switched the two Evangelists on both sides. It is impossible todiscern at a glance who is positioned where from the sitting figures of the Evangelists painted
in the section. However, if the symbols of man and ox were to be inter-changed, it would bequite obvious that they did not follow the order of the Four Gospels, since they were too
obviously different in shape. However much the emphasis that had been placed on Peter, it
was probably difficult to disrupt the symbolic order of the Four Gospels. At the cost of
sacrificing the corresponding relationship between the Evangelists and the symbols, man, thesymbol that stands for Matthew, was placed in the upper left corner, the home position forMatthew.
Needless to say, the Parma Gospel Book is a Tetraevangelion. Matthew’s Gospel is the firsttext mentioned in the Four Gospels, and the Hypothesis begins with the introduction to thisGospel, which speaks of the doctrine of the Incarnation. Just as three pages of Christologicalillustrations preceded Mark’s Gospel, the text of Matthew’s Gospel is preceded by two pages ofminiatures, the headpiece of Eusebius and Carpianus, Ammonius (f.12v) and The Nativity,
Constantine and Helena (f.13r), in addition to the portrait of Matthew and the headpiece of
Journey to Bethlehem (f.14r). The placement of the miniatures within the entire manuscript is

The Evangelists of the Maiestas domini in the Parma Gospel Book,
Biblioteca Palatina di Parma, MS gr. 5229

clearly more inclined towards Mark and Matthew than towards Luke and John. Among theEvangelists in the four corners, only Mark and Matthew bear inscriptions.
As images were deemed to be copies of the celestial world, it was the duty of the
Byzantine painters to make truthful reproductions of the model, and they were prohibitedfrom making arbitrary changes [41]. Restrictions stemming from norm are quite strong in
Byzantine art. However, when attempting to reflect some sort of intention in artistic works
without relying on the use of letters such as inscriptions and colophons, the cliché wassometimes broken. There were numerous methods for doing so, such as the switching of thehead of a character with that of the emperor who commissioned the picture [42], or implicating
the reason for the donation by selecting a biased subject [43]. Changing the sequence of theEvangelists, as was done in this miniature, was another way of doing so. The challenge facedby the painter lay in how to make the miniatures reflect special meaning into the miniatures
while observing tradition. The change in Matthew’s home position could not be termed ablatant, easily identifiable transgression. Even after switching the two Evangelists on eitherside, the symbols followed the order of the Four Gospels. However, the two Evangelists bear
inscriptions within the narrow space of 2 cm × 2 cm, describing the figure on the left as Markand the one on the right as Matthew. Would it be too fanciful to suppose that the painter had
been trying to strike a precarious balance between norm and deviation?

Conclusion
This paper studied the Maiestas domini (f.5r) of the Parma Gospel Book, and explored why
Mark, as opposed to Mathew, was positioned in the upper left of the illustration, the place
usually accorded to the first among the four Evangelists. The paper concludes that Mark was
positioned in the upper left corner because he was the author of the Gospel that was ‘dictatedby Peter’. It also concludes that Mark was positioned in the upper left corner so that Peter
could be placed first among the four characters positioned below. Accompanying figures wereincorporated in the Maiestas domini simply so that Peter could be painted on the frontispiece.
The emphasis placed on Peter is a characteristic also noted in the illustrations of Christ’s life
(ff.91v-92v). These three pages of Christological illustrations have been inserted before of thetext of Mark’s Gospel, which was ‘dictated by Peter’.
Though the positions of Mark and Matthew have been switched from left to right and viceversa, the positioning of the symbols seems to give priority to the order of the Four Gospels
rather than to the symbols’ associations with the Evangelists, and thus man, the symbol for
Matthew, is positioned in the upper left. As a result, the miniature ended up with the
combinations of Mark-man and Matthew-ox, which do not comply with any order. With
inscriptions describing only Mark and Matthew implying the switching of their positions, it isassumed that the symbols have been left untouched because it was not possible to belittle thepresence of Matthew, who is the first Evangelist in the Four Gospels, and it was necessary to
avoid the blatant disruption in the order of the Four Gospels. Iconographic manipulations
have been made in the Maiestas domini of the Parma Gospel Book with the intention of placing
an emphasis on Peter without deviating from its function as a frontispiece of the Four Gospels.

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I had previously pointed out that the Parma Gospel Book may possibly have been amanuscript donated to a church or monastery associated with Peter, or may have beensponsored by someone by the name of Peter [44]. The fact that there is an emphasis on Peter inthis miniature seems to complement the conclusion of my previous article.

Notes[1] Total 283 pages. 30×23.2cm. The Parma Gospel Book had originally been bound together with thefolia of a different manuscript (ff.1-2, 286), but the two were later separated in 1973 and themanuscript now starts from f.3r. According to Ficcadori, Michael IV Autoreianos, who was the
cartophilakos of Agia Sophia in Constantinople and served as the patriarch of Constantinople inNicaea, owned this manuscript from the late twelfth century to the early thirteenth century. The
Gospel Book was then supposedly relinquished to a certain μ(εγάλη)ν μ(ονήν) ‘Great monastery’.
Between this time and the year 1229, it was passed on to the island of Malta, where it isconfirmed to have been owned by the S. Salvatore Monastery Library in Messina. It was thenpurchased by the Buonvisi family in 1824, and held at the library owned by Duke Carlo Ludovico,which later became the Biblioteca Palatina. See below for basic documents on the Parma Gospel
Book. G. Ficcadori, cat. no.5, in I manoscritti greci della Biblioteca Palatina di Parma, ed. P. Eleuteri,
Milano, 1993, pp. 3-13 (with bibliography); Cum picturis ystoriatum codici devozionali e liturgici della
Biblioteca Palatina, ed. L. Farinelli, Milano, 2001, pp. 268-272; M. B. Foti, “Il Vangelo miniato diParma e la biblioteca del monastero in lingua phari,” Κοινωνία, 16 (1992), pp. 75-85; Y. Sakurai,“Iconographic Analysis of the Miniatures in the Parma Gospel Book (Bibl. Palatina, Cod.gr.5),”
Bulletin of the Institute for Mediterranean Studies, 6 (2008), pp. 99-108 (in Japanese).
[2] Tetraevangelia (pl.) are books that consist of the Four Gospels of Matthew, Mark, Luke, and John,and are a genre of manuscript most widely produced during the Middle Ages. Though thismanuscript maintains the appearance of a Four Gospels, it also has some lectionary(Evangelistarion or simply Evangelion: Gospel passages which are read aloud during liturgies
compiled in accordance with the ecclesiastical calendar) qualities; for example, it includes the
Synaxarion (immovable feasts from 1 September to 31 August). M. L. Dolezal, The Middle
Byzantine Lectionary: Textual and Pictorial Expression of Liturgical Ritual, diss. University of Chicago,
1991, p. 269, n. 88.
[3] On the Evangelist portraits in illumination see A. M. Friend, “The Portraits of the Evangelists in
Greek and Latin Manuscripts,” Art Studies 5 (1927), pp. 115-147; H. Hunger, K. Wessel,“Evangelisten,” RBK, vol. 2, cols. 452-507.
[4] Currently, there are nineteen surviving examples of Tetraevangelia that include more than six
scenes of Christological illustrations. In total, there are only about thirty surviving examples,
including lectionaries. A. W. Carr, “A Group of Provincial Manuscripts from the Twelfth
Century,” DOP, vol. 36 (1982), p. 56, n. 102.
[5] Y. Sakurai, “A Feast Image for Encaenia: Iconography of Constantine and Helena in the Middle
Byzantine Period,” Journal of the Japan Art History Society (The Japan Art History Society) 163(2008), pp. 143-158 (in Japanese).
[6] Y. Sakurai, “The Illustrations of the Life of Christ in the Parma Gospel Book,” ibid., 157 (2004), pp.
82-95 (in Japanese).
[7] On the Gospel headpieces see C. Meredith, “The Illustration of Codex Ebnerianus,” JWarb, 29(1966), pp. 419-424.
[8] G. Millet, Recherches sur l’iconographie de l’Évangile aux XIVe, XVe et XVIe siècles, Paris, 1916 (1960),
pp. 13 (n. 8), 116, et al; V. Lazarev, Storia della pittura bizantina, Turin, 1967, p. 191; M. Bonicatti,“Per una introduzione alla cultura mediobizantina di Constantinopoli,” RIASA, n.s., 9 (1960), pp.

The Evangelists of the Maiestas domini in the Parma Gospel Book,
Biblioteca Palatina di Parma, MS gr. 5

[9]

[10]

[11]

[12]

[13]

[14]

[15]
[16]
[17]
[18]

[19]
[20]

[21]

231

208-265.
On the iconography of the Maiestas domini see Sahoko Tsuji, “The Visions of Ezekiel and Isaiah,”
Bizantine Bijyutu no Hyosyo Sekai, Tokyo, Iwanami Syoten, 1993 (1970), pp. 49-97 (in Japanese); F.
van der Meer, Majestas Domini. Théophanies de l’Apocalypse dans l’art chrétien, Rome, 1938; Ch. Ihm,
Die Programme der christlichen Apsismalerei vom vierten Jahrnhundert bis zur Mitte des achten
Jahrhunderts, Wiesbaden, 19922; J. Lafontaine-Dosogne, “Théophanies-Visions auxquelles
participent les prophètes dans l’art byzantine après la restauration des images,” Synthronon, Paris,
1968, pp. 135-143; G. Schiller, Ikonographie der christlichen Kunst, vol. 3, Gütersloh, 1986, pp. 233249.
A. Grabar, L’Iconoclasme byzantin dossier archéologique, Paris, 1957, pp. 241-257; Sahoko Tsuji,“Bizantine Bijyutu no Hyosyo Sekai” op.cit., pp. 3-39 (in Japanese); R. S. Nelson, The Iconography ofPreface and Miniature in the Byzantine Gospel Book, New York, 1980, pp. 100ff..
Following the ninth century, central themes of the Maiestas domini were based on passages fromtexts, such as the Trisagion hymn and the Seraphic hymn, which were adopted in liturgical texts.
The miniature in question is no exception. Sahoko Tsuji, op.cit., “The Visions of Ezekiel andIsaiah,” pp. 45ff.; Van der Meer, op.cit., pp. 255-281; Ihm, op.cit., pp. 42-51.
The four living creatures have been interpreted as the symbols of Evangelists by Irenaeus in the
2nd century. Irenaeus, Adversus Haereses, vol. 3, 11: 8; PG, 7, cols. 886A-889B. Cf. Van der Meer,
op.cit., p. 288.
There are several designations for the prefatory texts, such as ‘prologue’ (πρόλογος), ‘hypothesis’(ὐπόθεσις), their use differs from researcher to researcher. In this paper, the text in the Maiestas
domini shall be called the Hypothesis in accordance with the title. ὐπόθεσις literally meaning‘theory’ or ‘theme’.
Ὑποθεσις τῆς τῶν εὐαγγελιστῶν συμφωνίας. This title is believed to have originated from thephrase ‘ ὐπόθεσις κανόνος (κανόνων) τῆς τῶν εὐαγγελιστῶν συμφωνίας ’ (‘the hypothesis of
the canons of the harmony of the evangelists’), which is used in the Letter of Eusebius to
Carpianus. The only surviving text — other than the Parma Gospel Book— that bears this title,
which is a condensed and organised version of Irenaeus’s text, is Oxford, Bodleian Library, E. D.
Clarke 10. It is believed that this text was structured on the lines of either the Parma Gospel Book
itself, or a similar manuscript in terms of structure, text, and the subject of the miniature. Nelson,
op.cit.,The Iconography of Preface, pp. 56ff.; R. S. Nelson, J. L. Bona, ‘Relative size and comparativevalue in Byzantine illuminated manuscripts: some quantitative perspectives’, in Paleografia ecodicologia greca: Atti del II Colloquio internazionale (Berlino-Wolfenbüttel, 17-21 ottobre 1983), eds. D.
Harlfinger, G. Prato, 2 vols. (= Biblioteca di Scrittura e Civiltà, 3), Alessandria, 1991, Tom. I, pp.
339-353 in rep., Later Byzantine Painting: Art, Agency and Appreiciation, Aldershot, 2007; I. Hutter,
Corpus der byzantinischen Miniaturenhandschriften, vol, 2, 1977-1982, Stuttgart, pp. 56f., fig. 28.
See below for text of the Hypothesis. Nelson, op.cit., The Iconography of Preface, pp. 6, 8-9; PG, 7,
cols. 885ff; H. von Soden, Die Schriften des Neuen Testaments I, 1. Göttingen, 1911, pp. 303, 311.
Ibid., p. 311; Nelson, op.cit., The Iconography of Preface, p. 9.
Ibid., p. 6; Von Soden, op.cit., p. 303.
The top 7 cm of f.6r has been cut away, and this part of Mark’s Gospel no longer exists, but it isbelieved to have been included this text. In Oxford, in the Bodleian Library, E. D. Clarke 10, thebiographies of Mark, Luke, and John are placed together. Nelson, op.cit., The Iconography ofPreface, pp. 57f., 119-121. On the Bodleian Library, E. D. Clarke 10 see n. 14 in this paper.
Von Soden, op.cit., p. 311.
Shigebumi Tsuji, “The Headpiece Miniatures and Genealogy Pictures in Paris. Gr. 74,” DOP 29(1975), p. 173; H. Belting, “Stilzwang und Stilwahl in einem byzantinischen Evangeliar in
Cambridge,” ZKunst 38 (1975), p. 228.
Approximate size: H. 10.5 × W. 13.5cm.

232

[22]

[23]
[24]

[25]

[26]

[27]

[28]

[29]
[30]

[31]
[32]
[33]
[34]

[35]

SAKURAI Yuriko

The iconography of the Fountain of Life is believed to represent the concept of the ‘regenerationof man’ included in the Hypothesis. P. Underwood, “The Fountain of Life in Manuscripts of theGospels,” DOP 5 (1950), pp. 41-138; T. Velmans, “La Fontaine de Vie dans la tradition byzantine àla fin du moyen âge,” Synthronon, Paris, 1968, pp. 119-134.
G. Galavaris, The Illustrations of the Prefaces in Byzantine Gospels, Wien, 1979, pp. 74ff.; Nelson,
op.cit., The Iconography of Preface, pp. 56ff.; Belting, op.cit., pp. 228ff..
The process by which manuscripts were produced in Byzantine times is not yet clear. In thispaper, the word ‘painter’ is used to refer to ‘someone who determined the program and designed
the miniature’. Cf. S. Dufrenne, “Problèmes des ateliers des miniaturistes byzantins”, JÖB 31/2
(1981), pp. 445-470.
The miniature of the Maiestas domini was used not only as the frontispiece of the lectionary, butalso as the headpiece of John’s Gospel. A. Marava-Chatzinicolau, C. Toufexi- Paschou, Catalogueof the Illuminated Byzantine Manuscripts of the National Library of Greece. Manuscripts of the New
Testament Texts, 10th-12th Century, vol.1, Athens, 1978, pp. 139-149, fig. 314; Galavaris, op.cit., pp.
51, 116ff.; Shigebumi Tsuji, op.cit., pp. 173ff.; A. Xyngopoulos, Τò Εὐαγγέλιον τοῦ Μελενίκου εἰςτῆν Ἐθνικὴν Βιβλιοθἰὴκην Ἀθηνῶν, Thessaloniki, 1975.
In addition to St. Jerome’s order of Matthew-man, Mark-lion, Luke-ox, and John-eagle, whichbecame the standard in Western Europe, theologians in Byzantine times attempted various
interpretations. As it stands, the combination of Mark-man and Matthew-ox as seen in thisminiature does not correspond to any order. See below for the corresponding relationships
between Evangelists and symbols. Galavaris, op.cit., pp. 36-49; Nelson, op.cit., The Iconography ofPreface, pp. 15-53; K. Wessel, “Evangelistensymbole,” RBK, vol. 2, cols. 508-516.
The Tetramorph (a motif that bears wings and the faces of a man, a lion, an eagle, and an ox)
found in the Batopedi Monastery on Mt. Athos, 937 (f.17r), a Tetraevangelion which dates back to
the fourteenth century, is inscribed with the four ekphonesis inherent to liturgical texts. It was
Galavaris’s interpretation that the Cherubim and the four symbols represented in the center of theMaiestas domini in the Parma Gospel Book was a disassembled Tetramorph, and he stated that theminiature in question is also based on the above-mentioned liturgical texts. This concept also
corresponds to the description in the Hypothesis of ‘the Cherubim having four faces’. Based on
the abovementioned arguments, he states that the four symbols are more closely related to the
Cherubim than to the Evangelists. The fact that the large circle in the centre and the circular ringsurrounding the four symbols are connected indicates that, as Galavaris points out, they areclosely related to each other. Galavaris, op.cit., pp. 80ff.. Cf. L. Nees, Speculum, vol.57, no.2 (Apr.,
1982), pp. 373-376 (book review).
On the secondary characters associated with Evangelists see Galavaris, op.cit., pp. 33-35, 50-72;
Nelson, op.cit., The Iconography of Preface, pp. 75-91; H. Hunger, K. Wessel, “Evangelisten,” RBK,
vol. 2, cols. 467-469.
PG, 20, cols. 172, 268.
Leningrad, Publ. Lib., gr. 101 (ff.50v, 76v). Nelson, op.cit., The Iconography of Preface, figs. 54, 55.
There are also cases where Luke is paired with Theophilus. E.g., Oxford, Christ Church 12 (f.82v).
Galavaris, op.cit., fig. 23.
Tbilisi, Mss Institute Ms No. A 484 (f.14v). Nelson, op.cit., The Iconography of Preface, fig. 66.
Napoli, Bibl. Naz. Supple. gr. 6 (f.316v). Ibid., fig. 71.
Vat. Copt. 9 (f.388v). Ibid., fig. 70.
In the Leningrad Public Library, gr. 98 (ff.111v, 179v), Matthew and John are shown standing,whereas Mark and Luke are seated, thereby making a distinction between those who wereamong the Twelve Apostles and those who were not. Nelson, op.cit., The Iconography of Preface,figs. 62,63.
Ibid., p. 58.

The Evangelists of the Maiestas domini in the Parma Gospel Book,
Biblioteca Palatina di Parma, MS gr. 5

233[36] Y. Sakurai, op.cit., “The Illustrations of the Life of Christ in the Parma Gospel Book,” pp. 85ff..
[37] The inscription of ἡ ἄγρα τῶν ἰχθυῶν (fishing) in the miniature in question is derived from theGreek passage in Luke’s Gospel, The Calling of the Apostles (5 : 9). E. Nestle, K. Aland, Novum
Testamentum Graece, Stuttgart 27th revised edition, 2006. Cf. K. Wessel, “Erscheinungen des
Auferstandenen,” RBK, vol. 2, cols. 387f..
[38] Vat., gr. 1156 (c.1070), a manuscript which dates back to the same period as the Parma Gospel
Book, sectioned the full-page into six parts (f.194v), and had Christ’s Prayer at Gethsemane, The
Betrayal of Judas, Christ Before Pilate, The Crucifixion, The Entombment, and The Anastasis selected as
headpieces for ‘The Twelve Evangelia for Passion of Our Lord Jesus Christ’. In the miniature inquestion, Christ Before Pilate was chosen in place of The Repentance of Peter as the episode between
The Betrayal of Judas and The Crucifixion. Bonicatti, op.cit., pp. 257-261; Dolezal, op.cit., pp. 147,
260-269.
[39] Codicological analysis revealed that the book is in its original binding.
[40] In the text of Irenaeus, the symbols are not clearly connected to any specific Evangelist, but later
theologians have interpreted the connections to mean Matthew-man, Mark-eagle, Luke-ox, andJohn-eagle. The relationships between the Evangelists and the symbols are not necessarily
limited to the definitions in the text, but it is not clear why the miniature in question adopted theorder of Athanasios. The order of Athanasios was also adopted in the Gospel manuscript thatwas produced in Constantinople in the late eleventh century. E.g., Athens, Nat. Lib., cod. 57.
Marava-Chatzinicolau, op.cit., pp. 108-117; Galavaris, op.cit., pp. 42ff..
[41] The Seventh Ecumenical Council of Nicaea (787), striking out in an unprecedented manner, cameto an agreement that clergymen, monks and laymen denying the Gospels, the shape of the cross,iconic expressions, and sacred relics offered to the church would be unfrocked andexcommunicated, respectively. Prior to the Council of Nicaea, the deacon Epiphanios from
Catania in Sicily stated that ‘The making of the Icons is not an invention of painters, but expresses
the approved legislation of the Catholic Church’ at the Council of Hieria (754) hosted by the
Iconoclasts (‘the Iconoclast Council’). G. D. Mansi, Sacrorum Conciliorum nova et amplissima
Collectio, vol. 13, Firenze, 1867 (1901), cols. 252, 377-380; D. J. Sahas, Icon and Logos: Sources inEighth-Century Iconoclasm, Toronto, 1986, pp. 84, 178-180; C. Mango, The Art of the Byzantine
Empire 312-1453 : Sources and Documents, Toronto, 1986 (1972), p. 172.
[42] K. Weitzmann, “The Mandylion and Constantine Porphyrogennetos,” Studies in Classical andByzantine Manuscript Illumination, Chicago, 1971, pp. 224-246.
[43] T. Masuda, “The Ktetor of the Dionysiou Lectionary,” The Study of the History of Art (The Societyof the History of Art, Waseda University) 30 (1982), pp. 51-66 (in Japanese).
[44] Y. Sakurai, op.cit., “The Illustrations of the Life of Christ in the Parma Gospel Book,” p. 92.
The illustration of the Maiestas domini was provided by the Biblioteca Palatina di Parma.
I would like to thank the director and librarians of the Biblioteca Palatina di Parma, for making my visit
at the Library very productive. I would also like to express my special thanks to Dr. G. Scarola and Dr. S.
Scipioni who secured important photographs to facilitate my research.