The New England

Journal of Medicine© Co py r ight , 2 0 0 1 , by t he Ma s s ac h u s e t t s Me d ic a l S o c iet y
V O L U ME 3 4 4

J A N U A R Y 4, 2001

NUMBER 1

EFFECTS ON BLOOD PRESSURE OF REDUCED DIETARY SODIUM AND THE
DIETARY APPROACHES TO STOP HYPERTENSION (DASH) DIETFRANK M. SACKS, M.D., LAURA P. SVETKEY, M.D., WILLIAM M. VOLLMER, PH.D., LAWRENCE J. APPEL, M.D.,
GEORGE A. BRAY, M.D., DAVID HARSHA, PH.D., EVA OBARZANEK, PH.D., PAUL R. CONLIN, M.D.,
EDGAR R. MILLER III, M.D., PH.D., DENISE G. SIMONS-MORTON, M.D., PH.D., NJERI KARANJA, PH.D., AND PAO-HWA LIN, PH.D.,
FOR THE DASH–SODIUM COLLABORATIVE RESEARCH GROUP

ABSTRACT
Background The effect of dietary composition on
blood pressure is a subject of public health importance. We studied the effect of different levels of dietary sodium, in conjunction with the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, which isrich in vegetables, fruits, and low-fat dairy products,
in persons with and in those without hypertension.
Methods A total of 412 participants were randomly
assigned to eat either a control diet typical of intake
in the United States or the DASH diet. Within the assigned diet, participants ate foods with high, intermediate, and low levels of sodium for 30 consecutive days
each, in random order.
Results Reducing the sodium intake from the highto the intermediate level reduced the systolic bloodpressure by 2.1 mm Hg (P<0.001) during the control
diet and by 1.3 mm Hg (P=0.03) during the DASH diet. Reducing the sodium intake from the intermediate to the low level caused additional reductions of
4.6 mm Hg during the control diet (P<0.001) and1.7 mm Hg during the DASH diet (P<0.01). The effects of sodium were observed in participants withand in those without hypertension, blacks and those ofother races, and women and men. The DASH diet was
associated with a significantly lower systolic bloodpressure at each sodium level; and the difference wasgreater with high sodium levels than with low ones. As
compared with the control diet with a high sodium
level, the DASH diet with a low sodium level led to amean systolic blood pressure that was 7.1 mm Hg
lower in participants without hypertension, and 11.5mm Hg lower in participants with hypertension.
Conclusions The reduction of sodium intake to levels below the current recommendation of 100 mmol
per day and the DASH diet both lower blood pressure
substantially, with greater effects in combination thansingly. Long-term health benefits will depend on theability of people to make long-lasting dietary changes
and the increased availability of lower-sodium foods.
(N Engl J Med 2001;344:3-10.)
Copyright © 2001 Massachusetts Medical Society.

H

YPERTENSION affects almost 50 million
people in the United States and places
them at higher risk for cardiovascular diseases.1,2 Furthermore, this risk increases
with progressive elevations in blood pressure, beginning at even normal levels of blood pressure.3 The
Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH)
trial demonstrated that a diet that emphasizes fruits,
vegetables, and low-fat dairy products, that includes
whole grains, poultry, fish, and nuts, that contains only
small amounts of red meat, sweets, and sugar-containing beverages, and that contains decreased amounts of
total and saturated fat and cholesterol lowers bloodpressure substantially both in people with hypertension and those without hypertension, as comparedwith a typical diet in the United States.4 The DASH
diet is now recommended in national guidelines.1,5Clinical trials have shown that reducing the sodium
chloride content of typical diets in the United States ornorthern Europe lowers blood pressure,6-8 and guidelines recommend reducing the daily dietary sodium

From the Endocrine–Hypertension Division and the Channing Laboratory, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women’s Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (F.M.S., P.R.C.); the Duke Hypertension
Center and the Sarah W. Stedman Center for Nutritional Studies, Duke
University School of Medicine, Durham, N.C. (L.P.S., P.-H.L.); the Kaiser
Permanente Center for Health Research, Portland, Oreg. (W.M.V., N.K.);
the Welch Center for Prevention, Epidemiology, and Clinical Research,
Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore (L.J.A., E.R.M.); the Pennington
Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, La. (G.A.B., D.H.); and theDivision of Epidemiology and Clinical Applications, National Heart, Lung,
and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md. (E.O., D.G.S.-M.). Address reprint requests to Dr. Sacks at the Nutrition Department, Harvard School of Public
Health, 665 Huntington Ave., Boston, MA 02115, or at fsacks@hsph.
harvard.edu.
Other authors were Mikel Aickin, Ph.D., Kaiser Permanente Center for
Health Research, Portland, Oreg.; Marlene M. Most-Windhauser, Ph.D.,
Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge, La.; Thomas J.
Moore, M.D., Merck, West Point, Pa.; and Michael A. Proschan, Ph.D.,
and Jeffrey A. Cutler, M.D., National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute,
Bethesda, Md.

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The Ne w E n g l a nd Jo u r n a l o f Me d ic i ne

intake to 100 mmol (equivalent to 2.3 g of sodium
or 5.8 g of sodium chloride) or less.1
We undertook this trial to address several questions
relevant to the prevention and treatment of hypertension. Does reducing the level of sodium from the average intake in the United States (approximately 150
mmol per day, which is equivalent to 3.5 g of sodium,or 8.7 g of sodium chloride) to below the currently
recommended upper limit of 100 mmol per day lower
blood pressure more than reducing the sodium level
only to the recommended limit? We hypothesized that
it would, on the basis of both the blood-pressure levels in populations with an average consumption of lessthan 60 mmol of sodium per day 9 and data from incompletely controlled10-14 or small-scale15 clinical trials.
Does the DASH diet lower the blood pressure beyond
the level achievable by simply reducing sodium intake?
What is the combined effect of the DASH diet andreduced sodium intake? The extent to which the reduction of the sodium level, in the context of a typical United States diet and in combination with the
DASH diet, lowers blood pressure in people without
hypertension is a much-debated6-8 issue critical to theprevention of hypertension.

participant’s energy intake was adjusted to ensure that his or her
weight remained constant throughout the study. Each of four clinical centers conducted the trial in four or five cohorts of participants.
The primary outcome was systolic blood pressure at the end of each30-day period of dietary intervention, and the secondary outcome
was diastolic blood pressure. The study was approved by the humansubjects committees of the centers, and written informed consent
was given by each participant.
Criteria for Eligibility
To be eligible participants had to be at least 22 years old and tohave an average systolic blood pressure on three screening visits of
120 to 159 mm Hg and an average diastolic blood pressure of 80
to 95 mm Hg. We targeted an enrollment that was 50 percent blacks
and 50 percent women. The criteria for exclusion were heart disease,renal insufficiency, poorly controlled hyperlipidemia or diabetes mellitus, diabetes requiring insulin, special dietary requirements, intake
of more than 14 alcoholic drinks per week, or the use of antihypertensive drugs or other medications that would affect blood pressureor nutrient metabolism.
Measurements
Blood pressure was measured with random-zero sphygmomanometers while participants were seated at three screening visits,

METHODSTABLE 1. BASE-LINE CHARACTERISTICS
OF THE PARTICIPANTS.*

Study Design
The study was a multicenter, randomized trial comparing the effects on blood pressure of three levels of sodium intake in two diets among adults whose blood pressure exceeded 120/80 mm Hg,
including those with stage 1 hypertension (a systolic blood pressure of 140 to 159 mm Hg or a diastolic blood pressure of 90 to
95 mm Hg). The design of the trial, which was conducted from
September 1997 through November 1999, has been described indetail elsewhere.16 The three sodium levels were defined as high (atarget of 150 mmol per day with an energy intake of 2100 kcal,
reflecting typical consumption in the United States1), intermediate (a target of 100 mmol per day, reflecting the upper limit of thecurrent national recommendations1), and low (a target of 50 mmol
per day, reflecting a level that we hypothesized might produce anadditional lowering of blood pressure). The daily sodium intake wasproportionate to the total energy requirements of individual participants, so that larger or very active persons would receive more
food and therefore more sodium than smaller or less active persons.
The two diets were a control diet 4 typical of what many people
in the United States eat, and the DASH diet, which emphasizes
fruits, vegetables, and low-fat dairy foods; includes whole grains,poultry, fish, and nuts; and contains smaller amounts of red meat,sweets, and sugar-containing beverages than the typical diet in the
United States.4,17 The DASH diet (originally termed the “combination diet”4) also contains smaller amounts of total and saturated
fat and cholesterol and larger amounts of potassium, calcium, magnesium, dietary fiber, and protein than the typical diet.4,17 The nutrient composition of the diets was calculated and monitored withthe use of chemical analysis. Specific dietary patterns were composedto achieve the high, intermediate, and low levels of sodium in boththe control and the DASH diets. Participants were provided with allof their food, including snacks and cooked meals. Taste tests were
performed to ensure that the diets were palatable.
During a two-week run-in period, eligible persons ate the highsodium control diet. Participants were then randomly assigned tofollow one of the two diets according to a parallel-group design.
They ate their assigned diet at each of the three sodium levels for
30 consecutive days in random order in a crossover design. Each

CHARACTERISTIC

Age (yr)
Female sex (%)
Race or ethnic group (%)
Black
Non-Hispanic white
Asian or other
Hypertension (%)†
Blood pressure (mm Hg)‡
Systolic
DiastolicBody-mass index§
Waist circumference (cm)Urinary sodium (mmol/day)¶
Educational level (%)
High-school graduate
Attended college
College graduate
Annual income (%)<$30,000$30,000–$60,000>$60,000DASH DIET(N=208)

CONTROL DIET
(N=204)

47±10
59

49±10
54

57
40
3
41

56
40
5
41

134±10
86±5
29±5
96±12
158±79135±1086±430±5
100±14152±72

12
41
45

17
32
48

32
33
35

34
41
25

*Plus–minus values are means ±SD. Because of rounding,
not all percentages total 100.
†Hypertension was defined as an average systolic bloodpressure of 140 to 159 mm Hg or an average diastolic bloodpressure of 90 to 95 mm Hg during the three screening visits.
‡Base-line blood pressure was the average of three screening measurements and two measurements during the run-in
period.
§The body-mass index is the weight in kilograms divided
by the square of the height in meters.
¶Base-line urinary sodium was determined from a 24-hoururine collection during the screening period, when the participants were eating their customary, self-selected diets. Data
were missing for four participants in the DASH-diet group.

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DIETARY EFFEC TS ON B LOOD PRES S URE

twice during the run-in period, weekly during the first 3 weeks ofeach of the three 30-day intervention periods, and at five clinic visits during the last 9 days (at least two during the final 4 days) of eachintervention period. During the screening period and during thelast week of each intervention period, a 24-hour urine collection was
obtained. The participants and the dietary staff were unaware of theoutcome data; the personnel involved in the collection of the outcome data were unaware of participants’ diet assignment. We assessed participants’ adherence to the diet by reviewing their daily
food diaries, having them eat their weekday lunches or dinners onsite, and measuring 24-hour urinary excretion of sodium, potassium, phosphorus, and urea nitrogen. Side effects were monitored
by means of questionnaires regarding symptoms and illnesses. According to the study protocol, a systolic blood pressure of more than
170 mm Hg or a diastolic blood pressure of more than 105 mm Hg
at a single visit was considered to necessitate a second measurement;
if the reading was sustained, the participant was referred to his or
her physician for further evaluation and treatment.
Statistical Analysis
The analyses were structured according to a two-by-four design
to compare the two diets (control and DASH) during the four periods (the run-in period and three intervention periods). The baseline blood pressure used for the analyses was the average of themeasurements taken during the screening and run-in periods, andthe blood pressure used for the end of each intervention period was
the average of the last five measurements. A unified generalizedestimating-equation18 model with an exchangeable covariance matrix was used for all primary analyses. Blood pressure was the outcome. The base-line blood pressure, the clinical center, and thecohort were represented in the model as fixed effects, whereas theintervention periods were included as random effects to allow forwithin-person correlation among blood-pressure measurements.
The model included indicators of the cohort, the clinical center, andthe carryover effect from the previous intervention. Results weresimilar with and without carryover in the model. Indicators for the
subgroups specified in the study protocol (hypertensive status,
race, and sex) and for the relevant interactions with the effects ofthe diet assignments and sodium levels were included in the subgroup analyses.
The linearity of the effects of sodium within the control diet or
the DASH diet was assessed by comparing the decrease in bloodpressure from the high to the intermediate level of sodium with thedecrease from the intermediate to the low level of sodium. Multiple
comparisons were accounted for by means of the method of Holm19;

the resulting adjusted P values could be compared to 0.05 to determine significance.20 The adjusted P values were used for the bloodpressure changes in the total cohort, but not in subgroups, as specified in the study protocol. All analyses were performed according
to the intention-to-treat approach; in 22 instances, missing bloodpressure measurements during an intervention period, including
those owing to a participant’s withdrawal from the study, were replaced by base-line values. The planned sample size of 400 was calculated in order to provide the study with a power of 90 percent
to detect a difference in systolic blood pressure of 2.1 mm Hg between sodium levels, and a difference of 3.0 mm Hg between the
DASH and control diets at each sodium level.

RESULTSThe base-line characteristics of the participants areshown in Table 1. A total of 95 percent of the participants assigned to the DASH-diet group (198 of 208)
and 94 percent of those assigned to the control-dietgroup (192 of 204) completed the study and provided blood-pressure measurements during each intervention period. Mean urinary sodium levels averaged
142 mmol per day during the high-sodium period,
107 mmol per day during the intermediate-sodium
period, and 65 mmol per day during the low-sodium
period (Table 2). The levels of urinary potassium,
phosphorus, and urea nitrogen (reflective of the intakeof fruit and vegetables, dairy products, and protein,respectively) were higher in the DASH-diet group thanin the control-diet group, and were nearly identicalfor all three sodium levels. Weight remained stable, as
intended.
The reduction of sodium intake significantly lowered systolic and diastolic blood pressure in a stepwise
fashion, with both the control diet and the DASH diet(Fig. 1). The level of dietary sodium had approximately twice as great an effect on blood pressure with thecontrol diet as it did with the DASH diet (P<0.001
for the interaction). There was a greater response ofblood pressure to progressively lower levels of sodi-

TABLE 2. URINARY EXCRETION AND BODY WEIGHT ACCORDING TODIETARY SODIUM LEVEL AND ASSIGNED DIET.
VARIABLE

HIGH SODIUM LEVELINTERMEDIATE SODIUM LEVELLOW SODIUM LEVELDASHCONTROLDASH

CONTROLDASH

CONTROL

DIET

DIET

DIET

DIET

DIET

DIET

mean ±SD

Urinary excretion
Sodiummmol/dayg/dayPotassium
mmol/dayg/day
Phosphorus (mg/day)Urea nitrogen (g/day)
Creatinine (g/day)Weight (kg)144±583.3±1.3

141±553.3±1.3

107±522.5±1.2

106±442.4±1.067±46
1.5±1.0

64±37
1.5±0.875±27
2.9±1.1
778±28511.5±4.0
1.4±0.582.3±14.540±141.6±0.5666±2489.6±3.2
1.5±0.585.3±15.681±313.2±1.2825±35012.4±4.5
1.5±0.682.1±14.441±14
1.6±0.5646±2649.7±3.4
1.5±0.685.1±16.0

81±29
3.2±1.1
783±28611.8±4.1
1.4±0.582.2±14.542±141.6±0.5672±24310.0±3.3
1.6±0.685.0±15.7

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The Ne w E n g l a nd Jo u r n a l o f Me d ic i ne

Systolic Blood Pressure (mm Hg)

Figure 1. The Effect on Systolic Blood Pressure (Panel A) andDiastolic Blood Pressure (Panel B) of Reduced Sodium Intake
and the DASH Diet.
The mean systolic and diastolic blood pressures are shown forthe high-sodium control diet. The mean changes in blood pressure are shown for various sodium levels (solid lines), and themean differences in blood pressure between the two diets ateach level of sodium intake are shown. Unidirectional arrows
are used for simplicity, although the order in which participants were given the sodium levels was random with a crossover design. The numbers next to the dotted lines connecting
the data points are the mean changes in blood pressure. The
95 percent confidence intervals are given in parentheses. There
was a significant difference in systolic blood pressure between
the high-sodium and low-sodium phases of the control diet(mean, ¡6.7 mm Hg; 95 percent confidence interval, ¡5.4 to¡8.0; P<0.001) and the DASH diet (mean, ¡3.0 mm Hg; 95 percent confidence interval, ¡1.7 to ¡4.3; P<0.001) and between
the high-sodium phase of the control diet and the low-sodium
phase of the DASH diet (mean, ¡8.9 mm Hg; 95 percent confidence interval, ¡6.7 to ¡11.1; P<0.001). There was also a significant difference in diastolic blood pressure between thehigh-sodium and low-sodium phases of the control diet (mean,¡3.5 mm Hg; 95 percent confidence interval, ¡2.6 to ¡4.3;
P<0.001) and of the DASH diet (mean, ¡1.6 mm Hg; 95 percent
confidence interval, ¡0.8 to ¡2.5; P<0.001) and between thehigh-sodium phase of the control diet and the low-sodium
phase of the DASH diet (mean, ¡4.5 mm Hg; 95 percent confidence interval, ¡3.1 to ¡5.9; P<0.001). Asterisks (P<0.05), daggers (P<0.01), and double daggers (P<0.001) indicate significant differences in blood pressure between groups or between
dietary sodium categories.

groups), and in men and women (Fig. 2). The effects
of sodium were greater in participants with hypertension than in those without hypertension (interaction, P=0.01 on the control diet; P=0.003 on the
DASH diet), in blacks on the control diet than in participants of other races or ethnic groups on that diet
(P=0.007), and in women on the DASH diet thanin men on that diet (P=0.04). As compared with the
combination of the control diet and a high level of
sodium, the combination of the DASH diet and a low
level of sodium lowered systolic blood pressure by
11.5 mm Hg in participants with hypertension (12.6mm Hg for blacks; 9.5 mm Hg for others), by
7.1 mm Hg in participants without hypertension (7.2mm Hg for blacks; 6.9 mm Hg for others), and by
6.8 mm Hg in men and 10.5 mm Hg in women (P<0.001 in all subgroups). The combination of the two
dietary interventions lowered systolic blood pressure
more in participants with hypertension than in those
without hypertension (P=0.004), and more in women than in men (P=0.02).

135
¡2.1I
(¡3.4 to ¡0.8)‡I

Control diet

130

¡4.6I
(¡5.9 to ¡3.2)‡I¡5.9I(¡8.0 to ¡3.7)‡I¡5.0I(¡7.6 to ¡2.5)‡I¡1.3I(¡2.6 to 0.0)*

125

¡1.7I
(¡3.0 to ¡0.4)†I

120
High

Intermediate

Low

Sodium Level85¡1.1I(¡1.9 to ¡0.2)†I

Control diet
¡2.9I(¡4.3 to ¡1.5)‡I

80

¡2.4I
(¡3.3 to ¡1.5)‡I¡2.5I(¡4.1 to ¡0.8)†I¡1.0I(¡2.5 to 0.4)

DASH diet¡0.6I(¡1.5 to 0.2)

¡1.0I(¡1.9 to ¡0.1)†I

75
High

B

¡2.2I I(¡4.4 to ¡0.1)*

DASH dietA

Diastolic Blood Pressure (mm Hg)

um intake. In the control diet, a reduction in the sodium intake of about 40 mmol per day from the intermediate sodium level lowered blood pressure morethan a similar reduction in the sodium intake from thehigh level (P=0.03 for systolic blood pressure, P=
0.045 for diastolic blood pressure).
The DASH diet, as compared with the control diet,resulted in a significantly lower systolic blood pressure
at every sodium level and in a significantly lower diastolic blood pressure at the high and intermediate
sodium levels (Fig. 1). It had a larger effect on both
systolic and diastolic blood pressure at high sodium
levels than it did at low ones (P<0.001 for the interaction).
As compared with the high-sodium control diet, thelow-sodium DASH diet produced greater reductions
in systolic and diastolic blood pressure than either the
DASH diet alone or a reduction in sodium alone (Fig.
1). The reductions in blood pressure caused by the
combination of dietary interventions were smaller thanthey would have been if the effects of each dietary intervention were strictly additive (P<0.001 for the interaction).
Reducing the sodium intake from the high to the
low level, with either the control diet or the DASH
diet, reduced systolic blood pressure in participants
with and in those without hypertension (among blacks
as well as among participants of other races or ethnic

Intermediate

Sodium Intake

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Low

DIETARY EFFEC TS ON B LOOD PRES S UREHigh to intermediate sodium intakeI
High to low sodium intake

Control Diet

A
2
0
¡2

*

*

¡4

Change in Systolic Blood Pressure (mm Hg)

*

*

†I

‡I
‡I

¡6

‡I

‡I

¡8

‡I

‡I

¡10
¡12

DASH Diet

B
2

0

¡2

*

*

*
†I

¡4

‡I

‡I
¡6

W
om
en

M
en

hy Bl
pe ackrt s
en w
Osi ith
t
on I
w he
ith r
hy pa
pe rtic
rt ip
en an
si ts
on I
Bl
ac
hy k
pe s wrt ith
en o
w O
si ut
ith t
on I
ou he
r
th p
yp arter ici
te pa
ns nt
io sI
n

¡8

Figure 2. The Effect on Systolic Blood Pressure of Dietary Sodium Intake during the Control Diet (PanelA) and the DASH Diet (Panel B), According to Subgroup.
The error bars represent the 95 percent confidence limits of the changes in blood pressure for eachsubgroup. Hypertension was defined as an average systolic blood pressure of 140 to 159 mm Hg or an
average diastolic blood pressure of 90 to 95 mm Hg during the three screening visits. The “other” category of race and ethnic group is composed primarily of non-Hispanic whites (see Table 1). Asterisks(P«0.05), daggers (P<0.01), and double daggers (P<0.001) indicate significant differences between
levels of sodium intake.

A systolic blood pressure of more than 170 mm Hg
or a diastolic blood pressure of more than 105 mm Hg
occurred in 36 participants in the control-diet groupand in 7 in the DASH-diet group; in 18 participants
during the period of high sodium intake, 22 during
intermediate sodium intake, and 3 during low sodium
intake; and in no participant during the low-sodium
phase of the DASH diet. None of these participants
reached the predefined threshold for sustained elevat-ed blood pressure16 that necessitated referral for antihypertensive pharmacologic therapy. The participantstended to report fewer symptoms during periods of
reduced sodium intake. Headache was reported at least
once by 47 percent of the participants during the highsodium phase of the control diet, by 39 percent during the low-sodium phase of the control diet, and by
36 percent during the low-sodium phase of the DASH
diet (P<0.05 for both comparisons with the high-N Engl J Med, Vol. 344, No. 1 · January 4, 2001 · www.nejm.org · 7
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The Ne w E n g l a nd Jo u r n a l o f Me d ic i ne

sodium phase of the control diet). The number of participants who did not complete an intervention period
was similar during all three sodium levels (seven during the high-sodium phase, seven during the intermediate-sodium phase, and eight during the low-sodium
phase).
DISCUSSION

This trial produced several key findings that areimportant for the prevention and treatment of hypertension. First, the DASH diet lowered blood pressure
at high, intermediate, and low levels of sodium intake,confirming and extending the findings of the previous
DASH study.4 Thus, the benefits of following theDASH diet have now been shown to apply throughout
the range of sodium intakes, including those recommended for the prevention and treatment of hypertension. Second, blood pressure can be lowered in the
consumers of either a diet that is typical in the UnitedStates or the DASH diet by reducing the sodium intake from approximately 140 mmol per day (an average level in the United States) to an intermediate levelof approximately 100 mmol per day (the currently recommended upper limit1), or from this level to a still
lower level of 65 mmol per day. Moreover, reducing
the sodium intake by approximately 40 mmol per day
caused a greater decrease in blood pressure when thestarting sodium intake was already at the recommended level than when it was at a higher level similar to
the average in the United States. These results provide
a scientific basis for a lower goal for dietary sodium
than the level currently recommended.
Third, the combined effects on blood pressure ofa low sodium intake and the DASH diet were greaterthan the effects of either intervention alone and were
substantial. In participants with hypertension, the effects were equal to or greater than those of single-drugtherapy.21,22 The combined effects were not as great aswould be estimated on the basis of strict additivity,
perhaps because low levels of sodium attenuated the
hypotensive effects of potassium in the DASH diet23,24
or because the high potassium or calcium content of
the DASH diet attenuated the effects of low levels of
sodium.25-27 Nevertheless, the combination of the twointerventions achieved the greatest effect on bloodpressure, and therefore, both — not just one or theother — merit recommendation. The DASH diet andthe low sodium level were well tolerated, with no increase in symptoms or dropouts. However, long-term
health benefits remain to be demonstrated and will
depend on the ability of people to make long-lasting
dietary changes, including the consistent choice oflower-sodium foods.
We found that the reduction of dietary sodium significantly lowered the blood pressure of persons without hypertension who were eating a diet that is typical in the United States. These results should settle
the controversy over whether the reduction of sodium

has a worthwhile effect on blood pressure in persons
without hypertension. This controversy stemmed inpart from the apparently divergent results and interpretations of individual trials and meta-analyses.6-8 Because of differences in the designs, quality, and study
populations of the trials and the subjectivity involvedin judgments about which studies to include in metaanalyses, a single, large, well-controlled trial with a diverse population provides the most reliable estimatesof the effects of treatments.
In our study the dietary intake was controlled andthe influences of behavioral factors, programs of dietary education, and varying degrees of adherence tothe diets were minimized, so that we measured only
true biologic effects. This method offers the optimal
approach for determining the effects of diet on bloodpressure. The variation in the results in persons without hypertension among previous trials and metaanalyses were probably caused in large part by variable
adherence to the prescribed reduction in sodium, inadequate trial design, small samples, or limitations inanalysis and presentation, rather than by the lack of abiologic effect of sodium on blood pressure.
We found that the level of dietary sodium and assignment to the control or the DASH diet each had
a substantial effect on the blood pressure of blacks,
confirming previous findings.28-33 Blacks have a higher rate of hypertension and the resulting cardiovasculardisease than other racial and ethnic groups in the United States. We speculate that a greater sensitivity to thedeleterious effects of diet could contribute to the highprevalence of hypertension in blacks. These findings
justify the intensification of public health and therapeutic efforts to induce dietary change among blacks.
The attainment of a lower sodium level in the population as a whole presents challenges, since sodium iswidely prevalent in the food supply, and since mostof the daily sodium intake comes from salt in processed foods rather than from table salt.34 The first report on U.S. dietary goals by the Senate Select Committee for Nutrition and Human Needs recommended
a goal of 3 g of sodium chloride per day (52 mmolof sodium),35 but concern about the feasibility ofachieving this goal led to an increase of the goal to
5 g of sodium chloride.36 Hence, efforts to reduce
sodium intake must ultimately rely both on consumers’ selection of low-sodium foods and, perhaps more
important, on the increased availability of low-sodium
products.
Our results should be applicable to most people in
the United States. Approximately 50 percent of theadult population of the United States and 80 percentof those 50 years of age or older have a blood pressureof at least 120/80 mm Hg,37 which is the upper limit of optimal blood pressure1 and which was the lower
limit of the eligibility requirements for blood pressure for our trial. Furthermore, epidemiologic studies
suggest that diets low in sodium and high in potassium

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DIETARY EFFEC TS ON B LOOD PRES S URE

blunt the rise in blood pressure that normally occurs
with age.9 The intervention periods in our trial were,of necessity, brief — just 30 days. Still, the effect of the
reduction in dietary sodium on blood pressure tends
to persist over time to the extent that adherence to thelower-sodium diet is maintained.7,15,38 In conclusion,
our results provide support for a more aggressive target
for reduced sodium intake, in combination with use of
the DASH diet, for the prevention and treatment ofelevated blood-pressure levels.
Supported by cooperative agreements and grants from the National
Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute (U01-HL57173, to Brigham and Women’s
Hospital; U01-HL57114, to Duke University; U01-HL57190, to Pennington Biomedical Research Institute; U01-HL57139 and K08 HL03857-01,
to Johns Hopkins University; and U01-HL57156, to Kaiser Permanente
Center for Health Research) and by the General Clinical Research Center
Program of the National Center for Research Resources (M01-RR02635,
to Brigham and Women’s Hospital, and M01-RR00722, to Johns Hopkins
University).

We are indebted to the study participants for their sustained commitment to the DASH–Sodium Trial; to the Almond Board of California, Beatrice Foods, Bestfoods, Cabot Creamery, C.B. Foods,
Dannon, Diamond Crystal Specialty Foods, Elwood International,
Hershey Foods, Hormel Foods, Kellogg, Lipton, McCormick, Nabisco
U.S. Foods Group, Procter & Gamble, Quaker Oats, and Sun-Maid
Growers for donating food; to Frost Cold Storage for food storage; tothe members of the external Protocol Review Committee — Janice
A. Derr, Ph.D., Richard D. Mattes, Ph.D., Lemuel A. Moye, M.D.,
Ph.D., Jeremiah Stamler, M.D. (chair), and Jackson T. Wright,
M.D., Ph.D.; and to the members of the Data and Safety Monitoring
Board — Avital Cnaan, Ph.D., Janice A. Derr, Ph.D., Richard
Grimm, M.D. (chair), Richard D. Mattes, Ph.D., Jeremiah Stamler,
M.D., and Jackson T. Wright, M.D., Ph.D.

APPENDIX
In addition to the authors, other members of the DASH–Sodium Collaborative Research Group include the following: Brigham and Women’s
Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston (clinical center) — N. Alexander, J. Belmonte, F. Bodden, L. Cashman, B. Cox, J. Dyer, A. Ghosh, J.
Hackett, E. Hamilton, T. Holiday, J. Karimbakis, C. Larson, M. McCullough, D. McDonald, P. McVinney, D. Moeller, P. Morris, M. Myrie,
K. Osborn, E. Penachio, S. Redican, J. Sales, J. Swain, Z. Than, K. Weed;
Duke University Medical Center, Durham, N.C. (clinical center) — J. Abbott, K. Aicher, J. Ard, J. Baughman, M. Baughman, B. Brown, A. Bohannon, B. Graves, K. Hoben, J. Huang, L. Johnson-Pruden, T. Phelps, C.
Plaisted, L. Reams, P. Reams, T. Ross, F. Rukenbrod, E. Ward; Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore (clinical center) — J. Abshere, D. Bengough, L.
Bohlman, J. Charleston, L. Clement, C. Dahne, F. Dennis, S. Dobry, K.
Eldridge, T. Erlinger, A. Fouts, C. Harris, B. Horseman, M. Jehn, S. Kritt,
J. Lambert, E. Levitas, P. McCarron, N. Muhammad, M. Nagy, B. Peterson, D. Rhodes, V. Shank, T. Shields, T. Stanger, A. Thomas, E. Thomas,
L. Thomas, R. Weiss, E. Wilke, W. Wong; Kaiser Permanente Center for
Health Research, Portland, Oreg. (coordinating center) — M. Allison, S.
Baxter, N. Becker, S. Craddick, B. Doster, C. Eddy, D. Ernst, A. Garrison,
S. Gillespie, R. Gould, T. Haswell, L. Haworth, F. Heinith, M. Hornbrook,
K. Kirk, P.A. LaChance, R. Laws, M. Leitch, W.R. Li, L. Massinger, M.
McMurray, G. Meltesen, G. Miranda, S. Mitchell, N. Redmond, J. Reinhardt, J. Rice, P. Runk, R. Schuler, C. Souvanlasy, M. Sucec, T. Vogt; National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute, Bethesda, Md. (sponsor) — C.
Brown, M. Evans; Pennington Biomedical Research Center, Baton Rouge,
La. (clinical center) — C. Champagne, S. Crawford, F. Greenway, J. Ihrig,
B. Kennedy, J. Perault, D. Sanford, A. Sawyer, S. Smith, R. Tulley, J. Vaidyanathan; Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg, Va. (food-analysis coordinating center) — K. Phillips; Washington University School of Medicine,
St. Louis (core laboratory) — T. Cole.

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