Compare and Contrast
Traditional andScientific Perspectives
on the Past

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EVENTS, TERMS, AND VOCABULARY
abandoned—deserted or left; withdrew or
moved away from; ceased to use
acorns—nut of the oak treeacquire—come to possess
American Civil War—began in 1861
when Abraham Lincoln was electedpresident of the United States. South
Carolina seceded from the Union
because of Lincoln’s stand against
slavery. Eleven states eventuallyformed the Confederate States ofAmerica. The war ended in 1865.
archaeologists—scientists who study past
peoples and cultures by examining
the materials they left behindarchaic—very old
Athabascan—a Native American language group spoken in the American
Southwest and in Canada
chronicle—record of events
coexisting—existing at the same time andin the same placecolonists—people who establish a colony[place, village, or town]
Comanche—a group of Native American
people of the Southern Plains regionof the western U.S. whose current
home is in Oklahoma.
cultivated—grown by people
cultivation—the act of growing plants as
crops
datil—also called banana yucca or
Spanish dagger. It has long, pointy
leaves; white, bell-shaped flowers;
and large fruit. The fruit can be eaten
fresh, dried, or cooked. People also
used the leaves as paintbrushes andto make cordage.
Desert Land Act of 1877—This law
encouraged settlement of arid andsemi-arid areas, which people could
buy in 640-acre sections at a cost of
only $1.25 per acre.
distinctive—having traits that are easily
distinguished and are characteristic
or typical of a certain typedomesticated— plants or animals trainedor adapted to live in a human environment and be of use to humans
drainages—area where water flows,
although in the arid Southwest often
only during the rainy season
drought—lack of rain over a long periodof timeEastern Jornada Mogollon—pre-contact
farmers who lived in southeastern
New Mexico after A.D. 900 until theearly 1400s
endeavor—attempt
escarpment—steep clifflike side of a hillor mesa
extinct—died out, no longer existing
Euroamerican—people whose family orancestors came to America from
Europegeneralists—people who eat many different kinds of plants and animals
geological—having to do with the studyof the origin, history, and structure of
the earth’s crust
geographic—of or relating to the study ofthe interactions of humans and environment
Homestead Act of 1862—Under thislaw for the price of $18 people could
own a 160-acre section of land after
living on and farming it for five
years.
imperishable—not easily destroyed,
decayed, or spoiled
irrigation agriculture—growing crops bymoving water in from somewhere else
Kiowa—a group of Native American people of the Southern Plains region of
the western U.S. whose current home
is in Oklahoma
Late Pleistocene Epoch—a geologicaltime period lasting from approximately 100,000 years ago until about
10,000 years ago. Overall the
Pleistocene epoch lasted about two
million years.
lifeways—ways of living that are typicalto a culture
mammoths—gigantic, hairy, elephant-likeanimals that lived during the
Pleistocene Epoch and are now
extinct
mescal—an agave (century plant) with along stalk growing out of a cluster of
spiky leaves. People use different
parts of the plant for soap, food,cordage, alcohol, and medicine.
Mescalero Apache—a group of Native
American people of the south-central
plains and Southwestern U.S. whose
current home is in New Mexico
moniker—nickname

nomadic—people who move with theseasons in search of food andresources, often with wild or domesticated animal herds
Numic or Shoshonean—a Native
American language group spoken
throughout the Great Basin,
California, and into New Mexico and
Mexicooccupation—a place people lived
palatable—good tasting
Paleoindians—the first people who lived
in the Americas
perishable—easily decayed or destroyed
pinyon nuts—high-energy nut of thepinyon (pine) tree
protohistoric—a period prior to thebeginning of written records in an
area, but after that area has been
mentioned in reports written elsewhere
pueblo—Native American apartmentstyle villages made of adobe and orstone
pursuit—act of trying to catch or findsomethingresistance—opposition or fighting backscavenged—something collected after it isdead or has already been killed
sedentary—remaining in one place
sotol—This plant is also called the desert
spoon. It has a large stalk withgreenish white flowers coming out of
the middle of a cluster of long, dagger-shaped leaves. The bulb at thejunction of the leaves is cooked andthen can be eaten like a potato or
ground into flour.
subsistence—way of life based on how
people get food, water, and shelter
techniques—methods
territory—area of land under the controlof, or traditionally used by, a peopleor person
textiles—woven material of (usually)
plant fibers but also feathers andhides
virtually—almost but not quite; nearly
wended—continued on, proceeded along

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STORIES OF LAND-USE AND LIFEWAYS
Compare and Contrast Traditional and Scientific Perspectives on the Past
by Carol J. Ellick
SRI Foundation, 2004 • Albuquerque, NM
Produced under a contract with Statistical Research, Inc. and the Bureau of Reclamation, Upper Colorado Region, Albuquerque, New Mexico.
Base Map ©1992 Raven Maps and Images, www.ravenmaps.com; historical period photos and photos of the pots, atlatl, and dart, courtesy of theMaxwell Museum of Anthropology, University of New Mexico; territory ranges of the Kiowa and Apache from Native American Territorial Ranges
in the Central Region of Texas, courtesy of the Fort Worth District of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers; stone projectile points produced by Bruce
Huckell; metal point by Ian Thompson. Thanks to all who assisted with this project.

Subjects: Social studies, science, language arts
New Mexico Standards and Benchmarks (Grades 5–8):
Social Studies: I-A, I-D, II-A, II-B, II-C, II-D, II-E, II-F, III-B, IV-C
Science: II-I (A) Language Arts: I-A, I-B, I-C, I-D, II-A, II-B, II-C, III-A;
Skills: Knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation
Duration: 1–2 class periods. This lesson may be extended with additional researchInstructional Groupings: individual, small group, and whole class activities

OBJECTIVES
Students will read information about the archaeological and traditional interpretation of land-use and lifeways of thepeople who have inhabited the area now known as southeastern New Mexico. They will analyze images and text, list
the important data from each essay, and compare and contrast the perspectives given in each story. They will interpret the data and develop a personal perspective on the land-use and lifeways of past peoples.
The educational standards and benchmarks listed at the end of this lesson provide an instructional framework forthe concepts to be learned in this lesson.

MATERIALS
From Lesson: Copies of stories and poster.
Outside Resources: Paper, poster paper, pens, pencils, and colored markers or pencils; state and regional maps illustrating southeast New Mexico, western Texas, and Oklahoma; computers, books, and reference materials relating to
the geography and environment of southeastern New Mexico.

BACKGROUND
Archaeologists can document people living in and using the territory now known as southeastern New Mexico for
12,000 years. What we know about the people who first came to this continent, and those who subsequently lived inand made use of southeastern New Mexico, is based on archaeological remains. Early sites occupied by people
referred to by archaeologists as Paleoindians are distinguishable by artifacts such as Clovis and Folsom points. These
spear points, fashioned of stone and attached to wooden shafts, were used for hunting large animals such as mammoths and an ancient ancestor of modern-day bison. The scientific process of inquiry continues to be the mostinformative way to learn about people and their lifeways up to the time of European contact. The archaeologicalprocess relies on the analysis of material culture as data. Since much of what makes us human and differentiates one
group of people from the next goes beyond the preserved, tangible record of their existence, how do we gain anunderstanding of the intangible?
Many groups of people have lived in southeastern New Mexico over the millennia. Most were hunters and gatherers,
but the Eastern Jornada Mogollon built large villages that were occupied year-round. Even they, however, supplemented their agricultural subsistence through hunting and gathering.

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Several modern-day American Indian groups have a traditional relationship to this area, including the
Comanche Tribe, Fort Sill Apache and Mescalero Apache Tribes, and the Kiowa Tribe. None of these groups
actually occupy this area today, but some people still make trips to the area in order to gather the resources it
has to offer and consider it part of their traditional territory.
In recent years, archaeologists have attempted to learn about people of the past not only from the artifacts,
but from the people whose ancestors occupied the area. The coupling of data and stories adds a humandimension to the story of the past that has been written with the archaeological remains.

SETTING THE STAGE
Begin by providing students time to explore state and regional maps. They should locate the town that they
live in and, if not in the same community, the town in which the school is located. The students should
identify the geographic features, such as the closest rivers, valleys, and mountains. If environmental zones areindicated, students should identify the zone for their community. Once they have located their community
on the map, they should look for Mescalero, New Mexico; Apache, Oklahoma; Carnegie, Oklahoma; andLawton, Oklahoma—the current homes of the Mescalero Apache, Ft. Sill Apache, Kiowa, and Comanche
peoples, respectively.

PROCEDURE
The initial research and activities may be conducted by individual students, student teams, or small groups.
Begin by having all students read the essay, “What Archaeologists Say about Southeastern New Mexico.”Students should use the essay and the graphic information portrayed on the poster to identify and describe
the region and its inhabitants. They should list and define new vocabulary; identify the environmental zone
including geographic and environmental information; and describe how people used the area, from anarchaeological perspective. To extend this activity beyond the information presented in the essay and on theposter, students may consult state and regional maps, use the Internet, or conduct library research. Categories
of information should include names of the different groups of people, where they lived, their relationship tosoutheastern New Mexico, their use of the environment, and information on their lifeways.
After students have had a chance to explore the archaeological past, divide students into two groups. One
group reads “The Comanche,” by Ava Doty, and the second group reads, “What the Mescalero Apache Say
about the Carlsbad Area,” by Donna McFadden and Naida Natchez. From the data provided in the essays,
supplemented by the information provided on the poster, students should list as much information as possible
about the people, the environment, how they used the environment, and their lifeways.
Students should prepare illustrated posters or detailed outlines. One section will detail the archaeologicalinterpretation, one the Comanche, and one the Mescalero Apache. On a second poster or outline, students
should draw conclusions based on their information on the similarities and differences between the stories.
Which provides the most detail? Which is the “most human”? What doesn’t fit? What blends?

CLOSURE
Just as some archaeologists see the benefit of including the indigenous voice in the interpretation of the past,so have many American Indian groups learned the benefit of “using” archaeology. Many groups are using thestories that archaeology can tell to help them reconnect to the past and to regain pieces of their history.
Discuss the benefits that each group might gain by listening to the other. How does this process or otherinformation learned from this activity impact your life?

EVALUATION
A rubric may be developed that evaluates research, level of detail, ability to relate stories, as well as the ability to work independently and in a group.

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WHAT ARCHAEOLOGISTS SAY ABOUT
SOUTHEASTERN NEW MEXICO
by Carla R. VanWest, Ph.D.
Statistical Research, Inc.

W

hen humans arrived in what is now
southeastern New Mexico some 12,000
years ago, the earth had taken on its
present form. The Guadalupe and Sacramento
Mountains extended northward far to the west.
The western edge and escarpment of the Southern
Plains—the Llano Estacado—stretched northward
far to the east. Finally, the Pecos River, centered
between these two geological features, captured thewater of many east-flowing rivers and wended its
way south to join the Rio Grande along the
Coahuila and Texas borders. The cooler and wetterclimate of 10,000 B.C. sustained a world covered inforested mountains; grassy plains with small standsof pine and spruce and many small, shallow lakes;
and thickly vegetated river valleys.
The earliest people we know who lived insoutheastern New Mexico were hunters of wild
game and gatherers of native plants. We refer tothem as Paleoindians because the word “paleo”
means ancient. They enjoyed a very mobile
lifestyle, one that was based on moving to manycampsites over the course of the year to acquiredifferent foods and other items that they needed tosurvive. The Paleoindians likely gathered many of
the same kinds of seeds, nuts, roots, fruits, andgreens, and trapped and speared many of the same
species of mammals, birds, and fish that later people did. And although they probably owned dogs,
they did not have horses to help them travel great
distances and move quickly toward or away fromtheir prey. However, the Paleoindians also hunted
or scavenged very big game animals such as mammoths and giant bison that are extinct today.
These large grazing animals depended on the richgrasses and more plentiful water sources of the
Pleistocene Epoch (two million years ago to about
10,000 years ago). To kill and process these large
mammals, Paleoindians skillfully isolated thesehuge and dangerous beasts and killed them withstone-tipped spears, skinned and butchered themwith large stone knives, and worked their hides
with special stone scrapers. When we are lucky
enough to find one of their ancient camps, it isusually the distinctive spear points and stone tools
we recognize, sometimes together with the bones ofancient animals. Although
Paleoindian families surely
Late Pleistocene Extinctions:
made temporary shelters;
Archaeologists and biologists have
wove baskets and textiles;
concluded that many Late
wore leather, fur, and plant
Pleistocene animals died out for
fiber clothes; and fashioned
one of two reasons, or a combination of both. First, global warming
tools from bone and wood asat the end of the Pleistocene
well as stone, we rarely findcaused the loss of food and habitat
evidence of these ancienton which these large grazing anibut perishable items.
mals depended. As a result, certain
Almost always, only thegame species, like the mammoth,ancient bison (modern bison are aimperishable stone tools
different species), and four-horned
remain.
antelope, were not able to congregate as before, were restricted toonly the most favorable grazing
areas and water sources, and werefewer in overall number. Second,some scientists speculate that the
Paleoindians were such effective
hunters that the smaller, scatteredherds were more vulnerable tohunting. Ultimately, the most vulnerable game could not reproduce
fast enough to sustain their numbers and they died out as a species.

Hunting and gathering
peoples continued to use themountains, river valleys, andplains of southeastern New
Mexico for thousands ofyears. Although the big
game animals went extinct,
most of the smaller game
animals and virtually all theplant species survived into
recent times. So, from about
5500 B.C. until the A.D.
1870s, when the last hunting and gathering Indian
populations were confined to reservations, huntergatherer peoples of southeastern New Mexico
focused their attention on collecting plants andanimals that are known to us today. For an archaeologist, what differentiates one group of huntergatherers from another is food preferences and thetools and techniques they use to make a living.
Some groups chose to be generalists, pursuing a5

wide variety of plants and animals over a large
region (the Archaic-period and Ceramic-period
hunter-gatherers). Others narrowed their preferences to certain food resources located in a restricted geographic range (Mescalero Apache). And yetothers focused their efforts almost exclusively
around the movements of the bison herds(Comanche and Kiowa).
Bow and Arrow: Sometimearound A.D. 600, hunting
and gathering groups insoutheastern New Mexico
adopted a new and more
effective tool—the bow andarrow, which was being usedin other places in theSouthwest sometime between
A.D. 300 and 500—andadded it to their kits of hunting equipment. Unlike thelarger points that were hafted
onto thrusting or throwing
spears or foreshafts of darts
thrown on atlatls, arrows were
tipped with smaller, triangularprojectile points. With the
bow and arrow, hunters had atool that allowed them to propel their projectiles farther,faster, and more accurately
than ever before, and allowed
them to conceal themselvesmore effectively from theirprey and enemies.

Over time, the introduction of new tools, materials, and resources had profound influences on huntergatherer lifeways. Amongthese important introductions were the bow-andarrow, the availability of cultivated plants and textiles
from pueblo neighbors, thehorse, the gun, metal tools,
and domesticated animals
and food introduced by
Spanish, Mexican, andEuroamerican colonists.

To one degree oranother, all hunter-gatherergroups practiced a highly
mobile way–of life. Over thecourse of one or two seasons,they moved to various camps
within a large territory in
pursuit of seasonally available food. The camps nearest the reliable rivers,
lakes, and springs were the places where they
stayed the longest. Along the Pecos River, they
could find a dependable source of water, food,building material, and firewood. Cottonwood, willow, and mesquite lined the drainages and supported a wide variety of edible small mammals, waterfowl, fish, and shellfish. The mountains to the west
were places where upland game animals such as
deer, elk, and bighorn sheep were hunted andupland plant resources such as agave (mescal),pinyon nuts, and acorns could be collected. Bisonand pronghorn antelope were hunted on the plains

west of the Pecos River valley. Certain species,
such as cottontail and jackrabbit, lived in all threegeographic zones and were trapped and hunted regularly by all the peoples who lived in southeastern
New Mexico.
The first peoples in southeastern New Mexico
who practiced a very different lifeway than that of
the mobile hunter-gatherers were the Eastern
Jornada Mogollon, who moved into the region
sometime after A.D. 900. The Eastern Jornada
Mogollon were farming peoples whose lifeway
revolved around the cultivation of maize and other
Southwestern crops. Although they, too, hunted
and gathered wild foods, the emphasis on growing
and storing food resulted in the creation of morepermanent houses and villages near their fields; theproduction of pottery vessels for storing, cooking,and serving food; and a different sense of territory
than that understood by hunter-gatherers. Eastern
Jornada Mogollon sites are recognized by their particular pottery types, between A.D. 1100 and 1200
by their pit house residences, and between A.D.
1300 and 1450 by their adobe above-ground structures. Eastern Jornada Mogollon sites are found in
all three geographic zones, but village sites tend tobe found in the lowlands near farmable land wherewater was available during periods of time whensummer precipitation was plentiful and dependable.
Archaeologists infer that in times with good
weather—when wild foods were abundant and cultivated foods were plentiful—nomadic hunting andgathering peoples and sedentary agricultural peoples interacted often and relatively peacefully, trading products like buffalo hides and meat for cornand other agricultural
products. In stressful
times, however,when game andwild foods were
scarce, sedentary farmers
with stored foodwere easy targets
for raiding parties
Bison

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of nomadic hunters. Such was the dynamic relationship between nomads and villagers all over theWest in the historic period, and it likely was similar in the prehistoric period as well.
The Eastern Jornada Mogollon peoples appear
to have abandoned their territory in southeastern
New Mexico sometime in the early 1400s. A number of significant droughts in the early 1400s, in
combination with heavy raiding by hunter-gatherers, likely played a role in their decision to leave
the area. Thus for perhaps 500 years (ca. A.D.
950–1450) two coexisting and contrasting systemsof living were present in southeastern New Mexico.
One system was ancient, and it represented the
lifeway of the nomadic hunters and gatherers who
moved periodically to different geographic zones tocollect food and supplies. The other system wasnewer, and it represented the lifeway of those who
cultivated crops for part of the year. Not until the
mid-1800s did full-time agriculture become a wayof life for the few ranching families who settled
near military forts, and even then it was a high-risk
endeavor until Indian raiding was finally suppressed by the American military in the 1870s.
Just when the Athabascan-speaking huntergatherers—the Apache—first entered southeastern
New Mexico is uncertain, but material evidence
suggests that they entered northern New Mexicofrom a northern homeland sometime after A.D.
1425. The presence of the Apache and other “dognomads” (people who used dog-pulled travois tocarry gear and supplies) who depended on bison
hunting were recorded by Spanish chroniclers after
the Spaniards’ arrival in the northern frontier of
New Spain in 1541. Certainly by 1630, raids bygroups presumed to be Apache were recorded invarious places in southern New Mexico, and bythen they had acquired metal tools, guns, and horses through trade with and raids on Spanish andPueblo settlements. As the Apache acquired morehorses in the 1600s, their mobility and their effectiveness as raiders increased. During periods ofextreme subsistence stress, such as the severe
drought of 1666–1674, Apache raiding on pueblovillages in southern and eastern New Mexicocaused many to be permanently abandoned.
The various Apache bands who occupied
southeastern New Mexico not only
hunted bison and other game
animals, they spent considerable time in the uplands
gathering and processing
mescal, datil, and sotol,
which they cooked inrock-lined earth ovens.
Such processing helped
preserve these high-calorie
foods and made them morepalatable. They also gathered pinyon nuts and acorns, and otherupland plants. Because ofthis plant-processing
focus, they became
known as Mescalero
Apaches (Apaches who
depended on the mescal
agave), the moniker bywhich they are known
today.
The Numic or
Shoshonean- speaking
Comanche arrived insoutheastern New
Mexico sometime in the
1700s, after the Apache
had made their home in
the region. As armed andmounted nomads, theComanche were formidable
hunters and raiders whocompeted with the Apache for territory andresources. Unlike the Mescalero Apache, they
stayed primarily on the plains and emphasized thehunting aspect of their culture. In the 1800s,
however, the dual presence of the Apache andComanche kept permanent and enduring
occupation by other potential settlers insoutheastern New Mexico impractical.

agave

sotol

mesquite7

Cattle Drives: The existence ofmining camps and countless
hungry miners in Colorado provided incentives for cattlemen
to drive cattle up the Pecos
River from southwest Texas andeastern New Mexico. In 1867,
John Chisum began using thecattle trail forged by Texans
Oliver Loving and Charles
Goodnight the year before,
firmly establishing the traditionof cattle drives along the western margins of the Llano
Estacado.
Early Homesteads: The
Homestead Act of 1862 provided the initial incentive forEuroamerican settlers to moveto the newly acquired Western
territories, but the Desert LandAct of 1877, which increased
the allotment size from 160 to
640 acres, made it possible toestablish viable ranches on the
open range and river valleys ofsoutheastern New Mexico.
Railroads: The Texas andPacific Railroad arrived in
Carlsbad (Eddy) in 1890 andeffectively linked that small
town with the markets in Texas,
the Midwest, and the eastern
United States. The railroads
reduced the cost to local buyersof food and goods, provided a cost-effective
method of transporting
agricultural and mining
products to new markets,and encouraged settlement and tourism.

Fort Stantonin the late 1800s

8

Only after the American Civil War (A.D. 1861–1865), when soldiers
were assigned to Western military forts such as Fort Stanton on the Rio Hondodrainage, was it possible to overcome Indian resistance in southeastern New
Mexico and open the way for different kinds of settlement and land use.
Among these were cattle drives and cattle ranching; homesteading; irrigation
agriculture and the construction of dams, reservoirs, and extensive canal systems; mining; establishment of towns and community services; the coming of
the railroads; creation of national parks, forests, and public lands; oil and gas
exploration; and more recently, tourism and recreation.
In short, the history of human land use in southeastern New Mexico is
primarily a history of nomadic hunter-gatherers subsisting on and moving totake advantage of the seasonal availability of important plants and animals. For
more than 10,000 years, local groups were hunters and gatherers living on wild
foods available in the mountains, plains, and river valleys of the region.
Agricultural groups, few in number, and positioned in only the most favorable
places during the most favorable times, ventured into the region periodicallyduring a 500-year interval late in prehistory. Intergroup cooperation or competition varied considerably among the various groups who coexisted at any one
point in time. In times of resource abundance and free movement, intergrouprelations were cordial and mutually beneficial. During times of climatic or economic stress, intergroup relations often soured and were hostile. The greatest
changes to the region occurred after this portion of North America became
part of the United States. Today, lands in southeastern New Mexico are used
for a wide variety of personal, public, and commercial purposes, representing
the interests of farmers, ranchers, merchants, developers, government workers,
and managers of public lands. Although diverse in their goals and interests, all
the peoples of southeastern New Mexico, past and present, are bound together
through their common interest in extracting a living from the place theychoose to call home.

THE COMANCHES
by Ava Doty
Comanche TribeThe Comanches called themselves Neum or
Numanuu, meaning “the people.” The origin of the name Comanche is not definitively known. Early records refer to all “bands” thatmake up the tribe as Comanches, thus the nameremains.
The Comanche moved away from their parent tribe, the Shoshone, in the seventeenth century. The Shoshonean homeland is in the Rocky
Mountain region. Their linguistic stock, Numu
taquoip, is Uto-Aztecan.
Later when the Comanche established themselves on the plains, they divided themselves into
seven major tribal bands. As the population grew,
many new bands were formed from the major
bands; hence the Comanche grew in strength,
number, gallantry and valor. The Comancheria
boundary lines were defined, unifying the several
bands in one large tribal body.

shelter was a brush arbor made of a framework ofpoles set in an oval and bent toward the middle
where opposite poles were tied together to form aroof. A covering of willow limbs and brush called a“hukeah” was woven around the pole structure.
Comanche men wore hip-length leggings,
soft-soled moccasins, a breechcloth, t-shaped shirts,
buffalo and deer skin robes and fur caps, a headdress, and on special occasions a warbonnet withstreamers of 80 to 100 eagle tail feathers.
The women wore a t-shaped dress with apeese quinah (apron), knee-length fringed leggings, moccasins, a belt, and skin robes. Both men
and women decorated their formal clothes with
twisted fringe, silver ornaments, shells, feathers,
porcupine quill embroidery, bone, elk teeth, etc.

The Comanches were nomadic and non-agricultural. They moved frequently from one place toanother, sometimes because of a death in the camp,raids or warfare, or an outbreak of disease, andsometimes because the campsite was used or
exhausted. Their existence depended on hunting,fishing, food gathering and food preservation,
mainly tao (jerked meat).

The babies were carried in a cradle made froma stiff, tanned animal hide and shaped to hold an
infant. The cradle was fastened to a cradleboard.
The sides of the cradle were brought together infront and laced with a rawhide thong to hold theinfant securely. The board allowed the cradle to be
stood upright, out of the way of activity, in a secure
place. In addition, the mother carried the cradledinfant on her back when she worked, and on horseback when the tribe traveled. Children’s clothing
was patterned after their parents’ clothing.

They had two types of shelter, a tipi and abrush arbor. The tipi was made from about 10 to 12
buffalo hides sewn together in a half-circle, with
two flaps at the top. The hide covering was woundaround 20 to 24 tipi poles, pulled together tightly
in front, and pinned with wooden pegs. A pole wasplaced in a pocket in each top flap to enable theoccupants to open and close the smokehole and to
draw in fresh air or keep out wind and rain or snow.
All tipi openings faced the rising sun. The tipi wascool in summer and warm in winter. The summer

With the acquisition of the horse after 1540,
the whole life and economy of the Comanches
quickly changed. The Comanches could now travela great distance at a good speed. The lush plains
were the perfect setting for raising, breeding, andtraining horses. With the horse, the Comanches
were better equipped to protect their homelands
from enemies. Thus came a need to be prepared
and always ready for war. Out of this need, theComanches established military training camps
throughout Comanche land. One military camp9

was located on Lake Jao-yo, near Horsehead
Crossing on the Pecos River. These camps trained
all boys and young men who met warrior requirements. In the Pecos River area, pictographs tell thestory of the death of one very important commander-in-chief. Thousands of Comanche rock-pictures
are found throughout Comanche land, on cavewalls, canyon bluffs, and in mountain areas. Some
pictographs show triangular bodies as well as
rectangular bodies. Early Comanche history ispreserved in pictographs.
Scientific studies have shown that the Llano
Estacado was once a region of lush grasses, diverse
vegetation, rivers, lakes, streams, creeks, large herdsof animals, and a wide variety of wildlife. Also
found are Folsom artifacts and human bone fragments. All this prehistoric life existed many, many
years ago. From in-depth studies of Comanche
history, lore, legends, pictographs, and scientificfindings, the Llano Estacado is known to be theancestral land of the Comanches.

The Comanches respected, preserved, andconserved the natural resources. It is said, when thewhite man’s government planned to change the
Comanches lifestyle to a “civilized” one, theComanches responded: “The earth is our mother.
Do you give us an iron plow to wound our mother’s breast? Shall we take a scythe and cut ourmother’s hair?” As time moved on, more and more
people came looking for homes and changes in lifeways were made. The nomadic life of the horsetipi-buffalo culture was ending. The Comanches
fought a last battle and signed a treaty that gaveaway their land. The land was sold to white settlers, and each Comanche received 160 acres ofland in what is now southwestern Oklahoma.
Today, the Comanches still preserve theirculture in songs, history, legends, dance, language,
and societies. The Comanches have endured conflicts with great numbers of hostile forces, diseases,
poverty, loss in all areas of life, and deprivation.
Yet, today the Numanuu remain strong, proud, andare a generous, caring people.

MINNESOTAMINNESOTA

SOUTH DAKOTA

SOUTH DAKOTADes Moines
WYOMINGDes Moines
WYOMING

Lincoln

COLORADOIOWA
COLORADONEBRASKA

Kansas City

The Comanche
Wichita

PuebloFortSill Apache
NEBRASKA
Present Home
Apache, OK
Lincoln

MISSOURI

Wichita

PuebloKANSAS

Tulsa

Springfield
ARKANSAS

TEXAS

Kansas CityMISSOURI

KANSAS

OKLAHOMANEW MEXICO

IOWA

Amarillo

Little RockFort Sill

Mescalero Apache
Present Home
Mescalero, NM

Shreveport
El PasoOklahoma City

Amarillo
Albuquerque

Tulsa

ARKANSAS

TEXAS

Little Rock

ComanchePresent Home
Lawton, Oklahoma

Albuquerque

OKLAHOMANEW MEXICO

Oklahoma City

Springfield

Shreveport

El PasoFredericksburg
San Antonio

AustinHouston

LOUISIANA

New Orleans

MEXICO
Comanche Traditional Use Areas

Fredericksburg

The ApacheTribe
San Antonio

AustinHouston

LOUISIANA

New Orleans

MEXICO
Apache Traditional Use Areas

Is there an overlap of traditional use areas?
10WHAT THE MESCALERO APACHE SAY
ABOUT THE CARLSBAD AREA
by Donna McFadden and Naida Natchez
Mescalero Apache TribeAs far back as ancient times the Mescalero
Apache Tribe lived in a vast area thatstretched from central Texas to Arizona
and parts of Mexico. Divided into three sub-tribes,
the Mescalero, Chiricahua, and Lipan, Apaches
learned to live off the land as hunters of wild gameand gatherers of wild plant foods. With their greatknowledge of nature, the Apaches took advantageof whatever the land had to offer whether it bedesert, plains, or mountains. Since they depended
on natural foods, they had to move with the game,and with the seasons to assure themselves of an
ample food supply. Because of this they did not
believe that one could own the land. They werenomadic and moved to where game and otherresources were available. In the Guadalupe andSacramento Mountains the men hunted deer andelk, from which the women made clothing andmoccasins. On the plains east of the Pecos Riverthe men hunted buffalo, and the women used thehides of these animals to make tepees. Even in theharsh desert areas in and around the Guadalupeand Hueco Mountains, food was there if one knew
where to look. Here, wild plant foods like yucca,
sotol, prickly pear, and pinyon were gathered andprepared by the women. Most important of theseplant foods was the agave, or century plant, fromwhich mescal was made. It was gathered in desert
country just west of Carlsbad. It is through thisfood that the Mescalero Apaches have come to be
identified.
Mescalero Apache land use included morethan just hunting and gathering. They camped
near a source of fresh water, where firewood could
be found for warmth and cooking. Hueco Tanks,
for example, was an ideal camping spot.
Surrounded by the desert, Hueco Tanks was an
oasis for the people. It contained everything theyneeded to live. The small canyons contained poolsof fresh water and offered shelter from the elements. The Sacramento Mountains offered cool

refuge during the hot summers, and the many
canyons served as trails and sources of water. It wasalso in these mountains that the Mescalero
Apaches acquired the timber for their tepee poles
and arbors. In the nearby Guadalupe Mountains,certain plants were gathered and used as medicines
for illness, injury, and ceremonies.
The Mescalero Apaches understood the valueof their environment. They would not stay in theselocations for too long. They knew that if they did
they would use up their resources and there would
be nothing left for the next time or for the nextgroup. Because they relied so much on nature’s
offerings, they respected her gifts of food and bounty and did not abuse them. Since their use of theland was not based on ownership, their Chiricahua
and Lipan relatives camped and moved freely insouthern New Mexico and western Texas.
The traditional lifestyle of the Mescalero
Apache began to change during the 1800s, as theresult of frontier settlement and mining by Mexicoand the United States. As more and more settlers
moved into the area, traditional food getting patterns and seasonal rounds were disrupted. As
resources became scarce, conflicts occurred
between the Mescaleros and the settlers.
After the Civil War, the Mescalero Apaches
lost most of their ancestral lands in Texas and New
Mexico as they were forced onto a reservation in
the Sacramento Mountains of New Mexico. This iswhere the Mescalero, Chiricahua, and Lipan still
live. Even though their culture has experienced
many changes they still maintain their traditions,
including the use of tipis, traditional clothing,hunting, and plant gathering.
They also maintain their traditional
ceremonies that teach their young people whothey are and from whence they came.

11

NEW MEXICO SCIENCECONTENT STANDARDS, BENCHMARKS,
AND PERFORMANCE STANDARDS (GRADES 5–8)
SOCIAL STUDIES

II-F

Strand: History
Content Standard I: Students are able toidentify important people and events inorder to analyze significant patterns, relationships, themes, ideas, beliefs, and turning
points in New Mexico, United States, andworld history in order to understand thecomplexity of the human experience.

Benchmarks
I-A

New Mexico: Explore and explain
how people and events have influenced the development of New
Mexico up to the present day.

I-D

Skills: Research historical events andpeople from a variety of perspectives.

Strand: Geography
Content Standard II: Students understandhow physical, natural, and cultural processes
influence where people live, the ways inwhich people live, and how societies interact
with one another and their environments.

Benchmark
II-A Analyze and evaluate the characteristics and purposes of geographic tools,
knowledge, skills and perspectives andapply them to explain the past, present, and future in terms of patterns,
events, and issues.
II-B Explain the physical and human characteristics of places and use thisknowledge to define regions, theirrelationships with other regions, andtheir patterns of change.
II-C Understand how human behavior
impacts man-made and natural environments, recognizes past and present
results, and predicts potential changes.
II-D Explain how physical processes shape
the Earth’s surface patterns and biosystems.
II-E Understand how economic, political,
cultural, and social processes interact
to shape patterns of human populations, and their interdependence,cooperation, and conflict.

12

Understand the effects of interactions
between human and natural systems
in terms of changes in meaning, use,
distribution, and relative importanceof resources.

Strand: Civics and Government

LANGUAGE ARTS
Strand: Reading and
Listening for Comprehension
Content Standard I: Students will apply
strategies and skills to comprehend information that is read, heard, and viewed.

Content Standard III: Students understandthe ideals, rights, and responsibilities of citi- Benchmark
zenship and understand the content and hisI-A Listen to, read, react to, and interpret
tory of the founding documents of theinformation
United States with particular emphasis on
the United States and New Mexico consti- I-B Gather and use information for researchand other purposes
tutions and how governments function at
I-C Apply critical thinking skills to analyze
local, state, tribal, and national levels.
information

Benchmark

III-B Explain the significance of symbols,
icons, songs, traditions, and leaders of
New Mexico and the United Statesthat exemplify ideals and provide continuity and a sense of unity. (limited)

Strand: Economics

I-D

Demonstrate competence in the skills
and strategies of the reading process

Strand: Writing andSpeaking for Expression
Content Standard II: Students will communicate effectively through speaking and writing.

Content Standard IV: Students understand
Benchmarkbasic economic principles and use economic
II-A Use speaking as an interpersonal comreasoning skills to analyze the impact of ecomunication tool
nomic systems (including the market econoII-B Apply grammatical and language conmy) on individuals, families, businesses,
ventions to communicate
communities, and governments
II-C Demonstrate competence in the skills
Benchmarkand strategies of the writing process
IV-C Describe the patterns of trade andStrand: Literature and Media
exchange in early societies and civilizations and explore the extent ofContent Standard III: Students will use literatheir continuation in today’s world.
ture and media to develop an understandingof people, societies, and the self.
SCIENCE

Strand II: Content of Science
Content Standard II (Life Science):
Understand the properties, structures, andprocesses of living things and the interdependence of living things and their environments.

BenchmarkI

Explain the diverse structures andfunctions of living things and thecomplex relationships between living
things and their environments.

Benchmark
III-A Use language, literature, and media tounderstand various social and cultural
perspectives