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21

The Labyrinthine Search for Self-Identity-The Art of Southeast Asia fromthe 1980s to the 1990s
USHIROSHOJI Masahiro
Curator, Fukuoka Art Museum"The time has come for us to exam ine ourse lves in the light ofwhat we have become as opposed to what we ought to be." 1-Robe rto Feleo, 1988

1.

The basic subject for Southea _st Asian modern art was, andprobably is, in the exploration of se lf-identity. In other words,
we find the primary focus of Southeast Asian modern art to bea process through which the artists become aware of thei r
isolation from what they ought to be and they attempt to restore
thei r lost selves.
The history of modern art in Southeast Asia is not so long.
Some examp les before World War II should be admitted, 2 but it
was in the postwar period that modern art actually becam e
prevalent throughout Southea st Asia. The pionee ring artists, who
studied in the West and experienced Western direct ly art, deve loped the te ch niques , styles, forms, and trends of modern art andaesthet ics.
From that time , th e journey began, the labyrinthine searchfor "self-identity." In the context of art , its destination is not an
imitation of weste rn art , but the creation of a unique style andthe maturation of each artist's individual forms of spontaneous
expression. The ma tter was fundam enta lly the same in Japan,
although the period was slight ly different than in neighboring
countries. The movemen t of Japanese modern art hist ory was
also to study art in the West, th en to create "Japanese oil paint ing" under the prevailing influence of Western art .
The se nt ence by Roberto Feleo, Philipp ine artist , with which
this text begins , refers to the loss of cultural identity under therule of Western powers for a long time. If modernization in the
Asian count ries means to approx imate the modern Western civilization as closely as possible, whethe r a count ry was a colonyof a foreign country or not, art could not remain aloof from thattrend. Consequently, the isolation from "what we ought to be"
becomes the most important issue for the artists in every country
in Asia, and it is a natural result that th ey must search for "whatthey ought to be " or "self-identity" (it is becoming more and morenatural beca use the values of "Western m,;idernity" themsel ves
waver in confidence ).
In any case , the "sea rch for self-identity" was a very important subject for artists in Southeast Asia, because there is no
possibility of finding a unique artistic expression if they could not
rediscover once again their own cultural identity , which had
alrea dy bee n lost
Furth ermore, during the period shortly after Southeast Asian

count ries attained independence, the flames of nationali sm burst
forth and the establishment of a nationa l identity was an urgent
task for the peoples in Asia, and it was a very difficult thing to
ach ieve for countries whose peop le represent various ethnicalidentit ies. Such an enthusiastic atmosp here drove the artists to"search for self-identity ," but at the same time it caused theconfusion bet wee n the search for the national identity demandedby the State and the "search for self-identity" necessary for
individuals who need to express themselves. Perhap s the linkageof these two goals was a prob lem peculiar to Southeast Asian
count ries .
2.
How, then, did Southeast Asian artists really try to solve thatproblem?
It is both difficult and contradicto ry to attempt to create one 's
own world of expression throug h using the styles and techniq uesof modern Western art , and in depending upon the way of thinking of Western art . When Southeast Asian artists took up thatdifficult challeng e, they tried to anchor themselves firmly within
the unique and fertile traditions of Southeast Asia .
However, "the unique expressio n peculiar to Southeast Asianart," is actually composed of many levels: superficial depictionsof Southeast Asian customs, life sty les, or landscap es; rep resentations of Islamic , Buddhist, or Hindu religious episodes andviews of the world; and applications of traditional art tec hniquesor styles . But there are not so many examp les that strove for
spontaneous and original express ion , name ly, at the creative
artwork by the artists who are living in today 's Southeast Asia .
Most of these works are confined within the unc ritical repetitionsof traditio n or the eclecticism whic h introduced the frame ofWestern art into Oriental elements. That is wha t modern art inSoutheast Asia is, because the equ ivoca l concept of national
identity went far ahead of the "sea rch for se lf-iden tity" for the
self-exp ression of the artist .
Genera lly, the Oriental national identity was often pursued
superficially , wit hin the frame of modernism introduced from theWestern world , which is representat ive of such materials andforms as canvas and oil painting , or the marble and bronze sculptures on a pedestal. But it was so ha rd to find the self that was
searched for in such a way. It was not until the end of the 1970s
and the 1980s that the artists reconsidered and became aware of"wha t they had become as opposed to what they ought to havebeen," and that reconsiderat ion then began to crystali ze in theirartwork. 3
3.
When you travel through the Southeast Asian countries , you may
notice the cultural common elements between them. If you get
rid of the political boundaries of the borde rs which often shutthem off, you can get the vision of a cultural frame different fromthat of the Stat e; the spread of religions such as Buddhism orIslam , and the popu lations of those of Chinese de scent, of Malay22

descent , or of Indian descent. Therefore, now is the time to reconsider the true image of the Southeast Asian cultures in a fieldof art beyond the political frames of the borders, and then to startagain in order to realize what art could be in each country.
4.
It was between 1991 and 1992 that we twice visited and investigated the capitals and other cities in the six ASEAN countries
for this exhibition of Southeast Asian contemporary art. 4 During
these ten years, cityscapes in Southeast Asia have changed
greatly, and we were able to find artwork that attained to freshand vivid expression . The change in art occurred invisibly
through a series of subtle displacements during the 1980s, which
prepared the way for its long-expected and sudden revelation in
the 1990s with art works of substantial quality. Now the "searchfor self-identity" in Southeast Asian art has matured and is facing
a new era . I would like to examine some examples below .

5.
A precipitous mountain range extends across the northern partof Luzon Island in the Philippines; only its steepness blocked
the Spanish from invading into that district . The native tribes,
which have maintained thei r traditions and cultures sinceancient times , still live there. For Filipinos who think they havealready lost their identity under the rule of a different culture,that ethnic culture 5 is, so to say, itself already lost.
Baguio, a city among the mountains, is located at the en trance to the ethnic culture area in northern Luzon. Many artists
moved to Baguio in the 1980s and they organized the Baguio Arts
Guild (BAG) in the late 1980s. They had doubts about life in thecapital, Manila, where the influence of "Western modernism"
was evident, and they were also exploring "what they ought tobe." In the Philippines, the people living in ethnic cultures arecalled highlanders, and those living with the sense of values
affected by Western modernism are called lowlanders. The artists
felt that the culture of the lowlanders around Manila could bringnothing else but poverty, violence, and disorder. They tried tofind in the values of the highlanders something that could surmount "Western modernism." And they attempted to encounter"what they ought to be," and then to restore thei r lost selves.
Consequently, the artists who belong to BAG find their creative
bases in the values of the highlanders .6
Roberto G. Villanueva creates installations similar to religious
structures used in the festivals of the highlanders, and he also
plays a performance approximating the rituals. His action tosoothe the fury of the goddess of a volcano Pinatubo in collaboration with a shaman is in itself a religious ceremony, whichcannot be a work of art if one sees it only with the eyes of thelowlanders or of "Western modernism." However , he attempts toopen the autonomically closed system of the artwork and toreturn it to "what it ought to be" through the reestablishment of
the relationship with the community in order to recapture theoriginal power of the art itself . Therefore , he does not revive thealready dead tradition but communes with the living culture atpresent.
BAG invited groups from the provinces to its annual art
festival in order to promote exchange between the artists. Oneof the artists who exhibited-on-this occasion is Norberto Roldan;
he is a member of a group "Black Artists" in Negros. Thus , BAG
aims at making a decentralized network all over Southeast Asia.
The problem of locality symbolized by the activities of BAG will
be a more and more important issue in the Southeast Asian art
scene of the 1990s.
6.
As I mentioned before, the societies of Southeast Asia have racial
boundaries which are cultural ones different from the actual
political borders. One of the groups that spread throughout theSoutheast Asian area is that made up of people of Chinese
descent. They form Chinese societies, and they have a strong
consciousness of being Chinese• they do not identify themselves
as Malaysians or Singaporeans but as Chinese, regardless of
where they live.
Tang Da Wu is a Singaporean by nationality but a Chinese byblood. He is the oldest artist among those exhibiting artworks at
this exhibition, and probably belongs to the second generationof Singaporean modern art, by virtue of his age. However, he
could not find satisfaction in taking refuge in the traditional styleor in coating the Western style with a Chinese flavor like others
did. Having lived for a long time in England , he mastered theradical methodology of contemporary art. No sooner than hereturned to his native country in the late 1980s, he organized theArtists Village. Then he did a performance and made an instal lation focused upon "the boat people" on a major street, executeda work of "land art" in a forest demonstrating the power of asquall, and organized a group show in a museum whose subject
was the doom of the Earth. Those activities connected the new
methods with social issues and shook the art scene in Singapore,
which inspired young Singaporean artists. The budding artists
are now rising from the Artists Village, and the art scene inSingapore is suddenly revitalized. We could not introduce themon this occasion, but I am confident that someone will appear as
an artist representative of the next generation from among them.
Tang Da Wu always attaches importance to Chinese blood as
his artistic ground. He often practices his activities concerning
ecological subjects; however, when he approaches the social
problems-including
the indiscriminate hunting of the rhinoceros and tigers for Chinese medicine, the eating of endangered
species in Chinese banquets, and political subjects such as the
Tiananmen incide nt-he singles out each subject and transforms
it in his work from the standpoint of a Chinese. And that is theway he explores his self-identity.
He states that his nationality, namely, being a "Singaporean"
is a trifle that comes into question with official documents,
because he is Chinese.

23

7.
Nearly 40 percent of Malaysia's population is of Chinese descent,which is slightly less than in Singapore. "Bumiputraization"
limits the opportunity for Chinese people to have an art education; therefore, Chinese artists have rarely emerged in Malaysia.
In the Malaysian art world, which has been occupied with theclique of the MARA Institute of Technology (ITM), Chinese
artists such as the graduates of the Malaysian Institute of Art(MIA) have been becoming noticeable little by little during theseyears. The leading artist is Wong Hoy Cheong, who was bornafter the foundation of Malaysia as a state and is younger than
Tang Da Wu by two generations. He also studied in a foreigncountry, in the United States, and returned to his own country
after an interval of ten years. In the United States, there was aperiod when he was strongly conscious of being a Chinese andwas wearing the popular attire of the People's Republic, but now
he says that he is not a Chinese anymore and affirms that he is a
Malaysian.
The decorative abstract art by the Malayan artists has been
the main stream in the Malaysian art scene. It was the result of
the Islamic precepts forbidding the iconolatry, and consequently
figurative paintings were rare . But now Wong Hoy Cheong or Tan
Chin Kuan, who is still younger than the former , vitalize the art
world with figurative paintings that contain socia l and sometimes
politica l messages. Tan Chin Kuan enhances the consciousness
of being a Chinese in consolidating his political and social attitude little by little from his inner psychological images to theactual problems of the Chinese people in Malaysian society.
On the other hand, Hoy Cheong focuses upon the Western domination over Asia and the Japanese military government in
Malaysia, and returns to the origin of the country as a Malaysian.
8.
At the same time, on the side of the Malayan artists , the movements to exceed the frame of the "decorative abstract art"
revealed itself . At the "Salon Malaysia," the exhibition opened tothe public sponsored by the government on a national scale after
an interval of thirteen years, the large-scaled installations attracted the public attention in the sections of both painting andsculpture. The grand prix works of Zulkifli B. Yusoff (a simple but
vigorous installation) and of Mohd. Fauzin B. Mustaffa (a paintingthat inherits the Malayan decorativeness), both probe into therapid modernization, the great change in a society undergoing
economical growth, the dissolving union in communities , and thedestruction of the life environment .
In Thailand, the group called Neo-Traditional aims at therecurrence to the tradition and is gaining in public favor. However , there appears some artists who try to depict the actualchanges in the society with familiar materials such as soil, wax,
farming tools , industrial products , and so on, and Montien
Boonma is the leading figure in this movement.
In Indonesia, the group organized mainly of artists from theBandung Institute of Technology (!TB) has lost its influence overthe Indonesian art scene , where it took a role as "a window toWestern modernism" until the 1980s. On the other hand, a groupof mystical fantastic painters in Jogjakarta, which as tlie counterpart of the former, has not yet revealed its new aspect. Insteadof these groups, the new form of art emerged around Jakarta,
which is called "Instalasi" and is a mixture of installation andperformance. This form of art has been unfamiliar in Indonesia,
and the artists of "Instalasi " are critical of the social issues suchas the destruction of the environment. Among them, two artists
are exhibiting their works in this exhibition, Dadang Christantoand Heri Dono living in Jogjakarta. They are artists to be noticed
in these movements. Generally, each country in Southeast Asia
experiences the disintegration of its old society, previously comprised of communities, and the emergence of a new society
filled with commodities . The artists explore the meaning of selfidentity in facing the social changes hastened by modernizationand industrialization .
9.
As I mentioned above, the art scene began to change around the
beginning of the 1990s in every country of Southeast Asia. In thePhilippines , there is a movement to rediscover the lost self in thelocal ethnic culture and to try to surmount the values implanted
from Western modernism . In the Chinese societies in Asia , someartists attempt to find the self with recourse to being a Chinese.
Or on the contrary , some try to find their self-identity throughtheir nationality, through which we could recognize changes
in Chinese society . Anyway, it is evident that Southeast Asianmodern art develops and advances in "exploring self-identity."
The changes in the art scene in Southeas t Asia, namely , theappearance of a new subject (changing society), new forms of art(installation and performance), and the materials (familiar ones
from daily life), come from the desire of the artists to engage inthe society in which they live and in the real world surrounding
them. As one of the Indonesian artists says , they needed "thenew form, new style , and new materials in order to express a new
subjec t." They could no longer represent borrowed ideas withborrowed materials and techniques from the Western world.
Instead , it becomes obvious that they are trying to express themselves through spontaneous forms of expression. It might be said
that their struggle is to get rid of the "frame of modern art inSoutheas t Asia. "There could be various interpretations of these movements .
Viewing them from a standpoint that denies the autonomic
development of Southeast Asian art, one could not recognize thenecessity of inducing the spontaneous expression on the grounds
tha t these movements are only following the most recent trends
in Western contemporary art . And further, there might be doub ts
that "Southeast Asian art" could not engender a universal andcreative artwork which would become a driving force in the"Pos t-Modern " period , because it leaves ambiguous the significance of modernity without examination.
Certainly , one might notice the vestiges of the trends of24

Western art. But if one tries to trace out the autonomic develop ment, one could consider that Southeast Asian modern art is now
bearing fruit after a long struggle for self-identity, swaying between the overwhelming influence of the Western world and the
seduction of its own traditions.
The exhibited pieces of art should show us that Southeast
Asian contemporary art is now on its way to realizing more spontaneous and more libera l expression, through the liberation fromthe frame of "modern art" and the acquisition of its own techniques and the urgent subject of self-identity.
When it was released from the spell of "Western modernism,"
the binding force of tradition to stand against the Western influence weakened at the same time. Therefore, the young generation of Southeast Asians has to confront realities that are a
mixture of Western and traditional elements .
10.

Whether Southea::,, Asian art could find "what it ought to be," ornot, whether it could reconcile the opposition between what it
has become and what it ought to be, or not-at the moment we
do not need the answer, because art is not the answer. It does
not matter how and what we ought to be. The core of Southeast
Asian modern art is the awareness of the gulf inside us and thejourney of exploration for the self. The maturity derived from the
exploration is now bringing about new possibilities for Southeast(Translated by FUJIHARAErimi)
Asian art.

Notes
1. Roberto Feleo , "Message ," Exhibition Catalogue of Asian Artists TodayFukuoka Annual 1, Roberto Feleo, Fukuoka Art Museum, 1988, p. 5.
2. The examples are the group of Nanyang Academy of Fine Arts founded in1939 in Singapore , or the Persagi group organized in 1937 in Indonesia. In thePhilippines , Victorio Edadez, "father of Philippine modern painting ," held an
exhibition in 1928 which announced modern times. Then in 1937, "13Modems " was organized. In Thailand, Silpa Bhirasri, "father of Thailand
modern art ,'' founded the Art Academy in 1933, and began to educate thefirst generation of the modern art in Thailand
3. The people concerned with art in Southeast Asia often say that the "Festival:
Contemporary Asian Art Show, 1980" held at the Fukuoka Art Museum
provided a clue to the rising movements to reexamine the relationships
between the Asian countries regarding contemporary art and the Asian
tradit ional arts or the ethnic craft arts , including the tendency not to learn
from Western art as a model. The reason is that it was time to reestimate
different cultural values in the world and to relativize the Western sense ofvalues. However, it is a great pleasure for us that our project might haveopened an opportunity for Southeast Asian artists to turn their faces to eachother.
4. The persons in charge of organizing the exhibition and a field survey are as
follows: Nakamura Hideki and Tani Arata, art critics; Sakonaka Yoko,curatorof Hiroshima City Museum of Contemporary Art; Furuichi Yasuko, The JapanFounda tion ASEAN Culture Center ; Ushiroshoji Masahiro, curator of the
Fukuoka Art Museum.
5. Alice Guillermo draws a clear line between ethnic culture and folk culture .
The former is a culture inherited among the tribes who were never under the
Spanish rule , namely, the mountain tribes in the north of Luzon and theIslamic culture in the south. The latter is the culture of tribes influenced by
Spain ("The Social Roots of Philippine Popular Arts" in Rediscovery-Essays
on Philippine Life and Culture, ed . by C.N. Lumbera and T.G. Maceda , trans.
by Fukunaga Kei, (Tokyo: Imura BunkaJigyosha, 1981), pp . 11-25.
6. Roberto G. Villanueva plans to execute his work in the north garden of the
Fukuoka Art Museum in the end of September. Further information about theact ivity of the Baguio Arts Guild will be provided with "Baguio Revisited ,'' in

FS. Fukuoka Style , vol. 5, 1992, by myself, and "A Haven for Lowland
Artists ," in Mabuhay: The Inflight Magazine of Philippine Airlines , November
1989, by Elizabeth V Reyes.