Problem Solving Learning
in Research Ethics

Study Purposes
You are expected to be able to:
1. Explain the purpose, function and significance ofthe Ethics Test as a means of practicing problem
solving learning in research ethics (PSLRE);
2. Explain the meaning and goal of each test;
3. Explain how to use the Ethics Test.

Outline
Study purposes and outline
１ Introduction－How far we have come?
－Problem solving learning in research ethics
２-１ What is the Ethics Test?
２-２ How to Use the Ethics Test 1: Steps 1 and 2
２-３ How to Use the Ethics Test 2: Steps 3-6 on No Paper Problem
２-４ How to Use the Ethics Test 2: Steps 3-6 on No Money Problem
３ Conclusion－Research Ethics Revisited－Summary

１ Introduction

How far we have come• Many research and higher education
institutions provide research ethics education
for their constituents.
• Several textbooks on research ethics havebeen published.

！

Are they useful, effective, and efficientfor solving ethical problems in research︖

Problem Solving Leaning in Research Ethics
1. Provide a virtual simulation of solving ethicaldilemmas by using cases;
2. Analyse and solve those dilemmas by using ethics
tests;
3. Acquire knowledge and skill to avoid making theethically worst choice.

２－１ What is the Ethics Test?

What is the “Ethics Test” ?

The Ethics Test consists of a set of normative
standards, which reflect ethically desirable, positivevalues.

What is the Ethics Test for?

The Ethics Test is designed for checking
whether a given act has or lacks ethicalvalues.

The Ethics Test in Problem Solving Learning in Research Ethics

In Problem Solving Learning in Research Ethics,
all potential options is put through Ethics Tests.
lThe ethical permissibility or impermissibility of each
option is assessed by the Ethics Tests utilised.
lEthically permissible options are put in achronological order, according to ethical priority.

Put in chronological order, prioritised according to ethical desirability

Through this operation, we can:
1. Pursue the ethically preferable act, and subsequently pursue
the second best option *pending the failure of the first*;
2. Avoid taking the ethically worst option available;
3. Solve the ethical problems by ourselves.

Ethics Tests
Universalisability Test
Publicity Test
Harm Test
Respect Test

Ethics Tests
Universalisability Test
: What would happen if everyone did the same act as you?

Publicity Test
: Can you disclose your act to your colleagues and bosses, theacademic society you belong to, the public at large, etc.？
Would your act be blamed or condemned if it were known by
bystanders as well as stakeholders？

Ethics Tests
Harm Test: Could the act potentially cause serious harm to others
and/or yourself, physically, mentally or both？

Respect Test
: Does the act damage, degrade or undermine respect
for others as well as our self-respect as human beings？

２－２ How to Use the Ethics Test 1:
Steps 1 and 2

How to use the ethics test: operational procedure① Locate ethical problems or issues in a given situation.
② Identify the stakeholders.
③ List as many potential options as possible.
④ Put the above-listed options through a reality check.
⑤ Put all remaining options through the ethics test.
⑥ Prioritise those options according to ethicaldesirability, and put them in chronological order.

Case 3: ‘Career and Funding’Kate, a graduate student, has been nominated as one of the panellists at a worldrenowned, prestigious conference. This panel is the first step up the ladder ofbeing recognised as a rising star in her discipline. Indeed, many eminent
professors had an experience to take the rostrum at that conference. For Kate,
this is the once-in-a-lifetime opportunity to enhance her own professional careerand reputation and to be considered as a world-class talented young scholar.

However, Kate has a couple of problems. Although the conference has aregulation that the speech should be based on an ‘unpublished and original’paper, she has none like that. It might be possible to rush and make up one
based on her previous projects, but she has already published those papers.
Kate has no time to worry because her paper submission is due in 3 days andthere is absolutely no possibility that the deadline can be extended.

Moreover, Kate has another problem. The conference is to be held overseas andparticipation costs hundreds of dollars. Furthermore, the airfare of theinternational flights are extortionately-expensive for a graduate student on ascholarship. She has been granted one and only one research funding: however,the use of the funding is strictly limited; travel expenses to participate in theconference are excluded from the purposes of use. The theme of the funding also
has nothing to do with that of the paper which she is to read at the conference.

Kate attempted, but failed to contact her supervisor because he is currently on asabbatical leave for a remote island which is not covered by any radio waves. SoKate consulted about her situation with Professor Light, who belongs to thelaboratory next to hers. Professor Light made a proposal: Kate may participate in
the conference by using an off-the-book fund secretly pooled from the travel
expenses, which were in fact reimbursed for Professor Light’s fake business trips.
He also suggested that Kate pay in kind such as books for her travel expenses.

It seems to Kate that this deal is technically feasible, andpotentially the only option for which she could take for thesake of attending the conference.
What should Kate do?

眞嶋俊造、奥田太郎、河野哲也（共編）『人文・社会科学のための研究倫理ガイドブック』（慶應義塾大学出版会、2015）、113114ページ、「考えてみよう」の事例から一部改変、英訳。

Step 1 Locate ethical problems or issues in a given situation

Problem 1: Kate has no proper paper for the conference.
Problem 2: Kate has no proper money to join the conference.

Step 2 Identify the stakeholders
KateProfessor Light
Kate’s supervisor colleagues
familythe institution to which Kate belongs
conference organisers
potential audience
society…

２–３ How to Use The Ethics Test 2:
Steps 3-6 on No Paper Problem

Step 3 List as many potential options as possible(for problem 1)• Consult with the supervisor as to how she could (or if she should)
proceed writing.
• Seek advice from senior colleagues in the lab.
• Negotiate for a deadline extension with the conference organisers.
• Just write a paper based on a new theme.
• Submit an outline of the paper to be given at the conference.
• Plagiarise from another paper• Decline invitation.
• etc

Step 4 Reality check (for Problem 1)• Consult with the supervisor as to how she could (or if she should)
proceed writing…○• Ask advice from senior colleagues in the lab…○• Negotiate a deadline extension with the conferenceorganisers…○• Just write a paper based on a new theme...○• Submit an outline of the paper to be given at theconference…○• Plagiarise from another paper…○• Decline invitation…○

Step 5 The ethics test (for Problem 1)
Universali Publicity
sabilityHarm

Respect△is 0.5point

Consultation
Seeking Advice◯
◯◯◯

◯◯◯
◯

4/4
4/4

Negotiation
Writing-up
OutlinePlagiarise
Cancellation△◯✕✕◯◯△◯◯△Research◯
Misconduct✕✕◯◯◯◯
△
✕
◯

3/4
4/4
2/4
0/44/4

Step 6 Put them in chronological order (for Problem 1)
Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Writing a paper
Outlinesubmission

Cancellation

２－４ How to Use the Ethic Tests 2:
Steps 3-6 on No Money Problem

Step 3 List as many potential options as possible (for Problem 2)• Consult with her supervisor about how she could (or if she should)
proceed to solve the financial issue.
• Borrow money from parents／Borrow money from the bank.
• Check and apply for fellowship and grants.
• Commence fund-raising campaign.
• Make a deal with Professor Light.
• Ask the conference organiser to see if travel grants could be available.
• Hitchhike to the conference venue.
• Gamble to secure travel costs.

Step 4 Reality check (for Problem 2)• Consult with her supervisor about how she could (or if she should)
proceed to solve the financial issue…○• Borrow money from parents…○／Borrow money from the bank…○• Check and apply for fellowship and grants…○• Commence fund-raising campaign…○• Make a deal with Professor Light…○• Ask the conference organiser to see if travel grants could be available.○• Hitchhike to the conference venue…×• Gamble to secure travel costs…×Step 5 The ethics test (for Problem 2)
Universa Publicity
lisability
Consultation
Parental Loan
Bank Loan
Fellowship/Grants◯◯✕◯Fundraising
Deal with professor Light◯✕

Asking Travel grant◯

HarmRespect△is 0.5point

◯
◯
◯
△
◯△
◯Research◯
Misconduct!
◯△

◯◯
◯◯

4/4
3.5/4
2.5/4
4/4
3.5/4
0/4
4/4

✕

✕◯
✕

◯

◯

◯

Step 6 Put them in chronological order (for Problem 2)
Stage 1

Stage 2

Stage 3

Consultation
Travel Grant

Parentsfundraising

Bank Loan
Stage 4 cancellation

Conclusion

Research Ethics RevisitedResearch Ethics is• practical• ‘Art of self-management for research professionals’
Research ethics helps us avoid the worst
possible choices and consequences.

Two directions of Research Ethics

１．inward:

voluntary and autonomous internal
control of the academic community.

２．outward: manifestation of professional
integrity towards society.

Summary 1/3: Problem Solving Learning for Research Ethics
By using the method of Problem Solving
Learning for Research Ethics, we can:
1. Pursue the most ethically preferable act,and subsequently pursue the second best
(pending the failure of the first option);
2. Avoid taking the ethically worst option
available;
3. Solve the ethical problems by ourselves.

Summary 2/3 Ethics Tests
Universalisability Test
Publicity Test
Harm Test
Respect TestSummary 3/3: 6 Step Guide
How to use Ethics Tests in Problem Solving Learning in Research Ethics:
operational procedure: 6 Step Guide① Locate ethical problems or issues in a given situation.
② Identify the stakeholders.
③ List as many potential options as possible.
④ Put the above-listed options through a reality check.
⑤ Put all remaining options through the ethics test.
⑥ Prioritise those options according to their ethical desirability,and put them in chronological order.

References• オムニバス技術者倫理研究会（編）『オムニバス技術者倫理 第2版』（共立出版、2015年）• 眞嶋俊造、奥田太郎、河野哲也（共編）『人文・社会科学のための研究倫理』（慶應義塾大学出版会、2015年）