Wulfenia 19 (2012): xx–xx

Mitteilungen des
Kärntner Botanikzentrums
Klagenfurt

Embryology of Talinum paniculatum (Jacq.) Gaertn. andT. triangulare (Jacq.) Willd. (Portulacaceae s.l., Caryophyllales)
Tatiana D. Veselova, Khalima Kh. Dzhalilova,
Margarita V. Remizowa & Alexander C. Timonin
Summary: We investigated embryology of two species of the genus Talinum in comparison withclosely related taxa. Embryological data are ambivalent regarding segregation of the separate family
Talinaceae. Indeed, uniseriate archesporium of the anther, thick pollen tubes that remain visible longafter fertilization, uniseriate 4-celled proembryo, Solanad-type of embryo development, multinucleateendospermal haustorium are all traits typical of Portulaca. Therefore, embryology indicates closeaffinity between Talinum and Portulaca. However, the structure of exotesta in Talinum is nearly
identical to that in Claytonia (Montiaceae) and Pleuropetalum (Amaranthaceae), both families being
distantly related to the Portulacaceae s. str. The species investigated are diverse in structure of seed
coat, aril and funicle. These differences are believed to be correlated with different modes of seeddispersal. The species also differ in ultimate fate of the apical cell (ca) of the proembryo, but neither
taxonomical significance of this distinction nor its ecological importance are known.
Keywords: anther, development, embryo, embryology, funicle, ovule, pollen, seed, Portulacaceae,
Talinaceae, Talinum

The genus Talinum Adans. includes ca. 50 species of semisucculent herbs or subshrubs distributedin the tropics and subtropics of America, Africa and Asia (Gusev 1980). This genus wastraditionally regarded as a member of Portulacaceae (Pax 1889; Takhtajan 1987; etc.). Molecularphylogenetic data support the segregation of a separate family – Talinaceae – comprising thegenera Amphipetalum, Talinella, Talinum, with restricting Portulaceae s.str. to the genus Portulaca
only (Nyffeler & Eggli 2010).
Extensive comparative studies of Talinaceae and Portulacaceae are needed to find useful
phylogenetic markers in the group. Embryology of some Talinum species has been studied
previously (Guignard 1965; Nyananyo 1993; Nyananyo & Olowokudejo 1986) but manyquestions still remain unresolved. This study is aimed to fill some structural and developmental
gaps in embryology of Talinum. For our investigation, we selected T. triangulare (Jack.) Willd.
and T. paniculatum (Jacq.) Gaertn. because the former has been recognized as a type species of
the genus Talinum (von Poellnitz 1934; McNeill 1977; Brummitt 1978; Ferguson 2001)
and the latter better fits typical characteristics of the genus (see De Candolle 1828; Pax 1889;
McNeill 1974; Bair et al. 2006).

Materials and Methods
Living plants of T. paniculatum and T. triangulare were received from Komarov Botanical Instituteof Russian Academy of Sciences (St Petersburg) and from Tsytsyn Main Botanic Garden of
Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow). Plants were grown under laboratory conditions where
they copiously flowered and successfully set viable seeds.
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T. D . V e s e l o va , K h . K h . D z h a l i l o va , M . V. R e m i z o wa & A . C . T i m o n i nTalinum paniculatum has rather small pink flowers about 3 mm in diameter, whereas flowers ofT. triangulare are white and up to 6 mm in diameter. Both species opened their flowers for 2–4 hin the middle of the day. After that, withering tepals became curved inwards and closely appressedto the ovary so that the stamens touched the stigma providing self-pollination.
For light microscope observations (LM), buds on different developmental stages, anthetic
flowers and fruits were fixed in formalin acetic alcohol (FAA), transferred into 70% alcohol andembedded in paraffin. Embedded material was sectioned at 8–12 μm using standard methods ofserial sectioning (e.g., Barykina et al. 2004). Serial transverse (TS) and longitudinal (LS) sections
were stained in Rawitz Haematoxylin or Safranin and Light Green or Alcian Blue and mounted
in Canadian Balm. Sections were also stained with a PAS (Periodic acid-Shiff) reaction to detect
all carbohydrates (including starch grains) and with Procyonic Blue to detect proteins. To detectlipids, sections we stained with Sudan-IV using fresh material as described in Barykina et al.

Figure 1. T. paniculatum, anther development (TS). A, B – archesporium formation. C, D – microsporocytes
surrounded by four-layered anther wall. a – primary archesporium; a’ – secondary archesporium (sporogenous cells);e – endothecium; ep – epiderm; ml – middle layer; ms – microsporocytes; pc – parietal cell; t – tapetum. Scale bars:
in A = 50 μm; in B = 10 μm; in C–D = 20 μm.

2E m b r y o l o g y o f Ta l i n u m p a n i c u l a t u m a n d T. t r i a n g u l a r e(2004). Digital photomicrographs were made using a Zeiss Axioplan photomicroscope equippedwith an AxioCam MR digital camera.
For scanning electron microscopy (SEM), dry intact seeds as well as dissected ones were mounted
on stubs and then coated with gold and palladium using an Eiko IB-3 ion-coater (Tokyo,
Japan). Observations were made using a CamScan S2 SEM (Oxford, UK) at the Laboratory of
Scanning Electron Microscopy (Lomonosov Moscow State University). LM and SEM photos
were processed and edited using Adobe Photoshop.

Results
In the terms of embryology, T. paniculatum and T. triangulare are very similar.
Anthers. The anthers are tetrasporangiate, dithecal. The anther wall develops centripetally
following the monocot-type. The fully developed anther wall consists of epidermis, endothecium,
middle layer and tapetum (Figs 1, 4). Epidermal cells in T. triangulare form bubble-like outgrowths
whereas the epidermal cells in T. paniculatum remain flat (Fig. 5 C). Cells of the endothecium
develop typical fibrous thickenings in their cell walls. The middle layer disintegrates whenmicrosporocytes undergo meiosis (Fig. 2 B). The tapetum is of secretory type. Each of its cells
has two to several nuclei that can fuse to produce a large multi-nucleolate cell (Fig. 2 D). The
tapetum remains functional up to the stage of 2-celled pollen (Fig. 3 E–F). Crystals of calcium
oxalate appear in cells of the connective and septa between theca locules. These crystals are larger
in T. triangulare (Fig. 5 A, C). At anthesis, the mature anther wall is composed only by epidermis
and fibrous endothecium, whereas the middle layer and tapetum completely disappear.
The sporogenous tissue is mostly uniseriate and consists of 5 – 8 cells in T. paniculatum and up
to 10 cells in T. triangulare (Figs 2 A–B, 4 C), though the biseriate tissue is sometimes present in
middle part of the anther (Fig. 2 C). Uniseriate and partly biseriate sporogenous tissue can beseen in different microsporangia of the same anther (Fig. 1 D). Meiosis results in formation oftetrahedral and isobilateral microspore tetrads covered by a thick callose sheath (Figs 3 A–C, 4 F).
The pollen grains are spherical, polyporate, ca. 57 µm in diameter in T. triangulare and spherical,
polycolpate, about 46 µm in diameter in T. paniculatum. In both species, pollen grains are
3-celled, with well-visible cytoplasm of the two sperm cells (Figs 5 – 6). The pollen grains containstarch, proteins and lipids. Pollen fertility is close to 100%.
Anthers dehisce shortly before flower opening, so that the just opened flowers already have somereleased pollen grains attached to their stigmas. Dehiscence of the anther is likely to be resulted
from high tension of its wall, because the latter curves inside out to expose the fibrous layer after
the anther has dehisced (Fig. 5 D). When the flower closes again, the withering tepals push theanthers to contact the stigma to ensure self-pollination.
Gynoecium. The gynoecium is syncarpous and typically consists of three carpels, though
T. paniculatum occasionally has a 2- or 4-merous gynoecium. The placentation is axile in theyoung buds. However, septae between ovary locules disappear resulting in a columnar placentationin the older buds at the stage of megasporocyte formation.
Each carpel consists of fertile ascidiate and sterile plicate zones. T. paniculatum usually develops
15–20 ovules per ovary, whereas T. triangulare develops 25–65 ovules. All ovules are attachedto the placenta in the synascidiate zone, but they are lifted upwards by their funicles into the3

T. D . V e s e l o va , K h . K h . D z h a l i l o va , M . V. R e m i z o wa & A . C . T i m o n i nsymplicate zone. The ovules are anacampylotropous, crassinucellate, bitegmic and endostomous(i.e. with a micropyle formed by the inner integument). Both integuments are mostly 2-layered,though the number of cell layers is slightly greater in the micropyle region. There is a narrow
space between the integuments in the chalazal region (Fig. 8 E).
Nucellus. The nucellus develops a single archesporial cell in both species. This cell periclinallydivides to produce outwards a parietal cell which in turn divides 1(2) time(s) to give rise to
the parietal layer (Figs 7 A–C, 10 A). During megasporogenesis and early stages of embryo sac
development, this feeble parietal layer degenerates as well as the nucellus cells which adjoin the
progressing embryo sac. Simultaneously, the epidermal cells of the nucellus located nearby the
micropyle divide periclinally to form a nucellar cap. The latter consists of about four cell layers

Figure 2. T. paniculatum, microsporogenesis (LS). A – uniseriate archesporium. B, C – archesporial cells partly in two
rows. D – tapetum. e – endothecium; ep – epiderm; ml – middle layer; ms – microsporocytes; t – tapetum. Scalebars = 20 μm.

4E m b r y o l o g y o f Ta l i n u m p a n i c u l a t u m a n d T. t r i a n g u l a r e

and touches the embryo sac up to a half of its length (Fig. 9 C). The epidermal cells of the nucellus
located just below the micropyle divide only once or do not undergo divisions at all. Instead,they increase their length in longitudinal direction. These long cells eventually facilitate pollen
tube growth through the nucellus (Fig. 8 A). Thick pollen tubes remain during the proembryo
development.

Figure 3. T. paniculatum, pollen development (TS). A, B, C – microspore tetrads. D – microspores at late post-tetrad
period. E, F – two-celled pollen grains. ct – cross tetrad; e – endothecium; ep – epiderm; mi – microspore; pg – pollen
grain; t – tapetum; tt – tetrahedral tetrad. Scale bars = 20 μm.

5T. D . V e s e l o va , K h . K h . D z h a l i l o va , M . V. R e m i z o wa & A . C . T i m o n i n

Megasporogenesis. In both species examined, cell divisions of the micropylar cell of the dyad arecharacteristically suppressed. This results in a triad of cells instead of a tetrad. Micropylar cell of
the dyad degenerates, whereas the chalazal one produces two megaspores (Figs 7 E–F, 10 B). The
chalazal megaspore gives rise to the embryo sac.

Figure 4. T. triangulare, microsporogenesis (TS and LS). A – microsporocytes (TS, LS). B – two microsporocytes (TS).
C – uniseriate archesporium (LS). D, E – meiosis (TS). F – microspores in tetrahedral tetrad (TS). e – endothecium;
ep – epiderm; mi – microspore; ml – middle layer; ms – microsporocytes; t – tapetum; tt – tetrahedral tetrad. Scalebars: in A = 50 μm; in B–F = 20 μm.

6E m b r y o l o g y o f Ta l i n u m p a n i c u l a t u m a n d T. t r i a n g u l a r e

Figure 5. T. triangulare, pollen development (TS). A – microspores at late post-tetrad period. B, C – three-celledpollen grains. D – dehisced anther. cr – calcium oxalate crystals, e – endothecium; ep – epiderm; mi – microspore;orb – orbicules (Ubish bodies) on tapetal cells; pg – pollen grain; sp – sperm cells; t – tapetum. Scale bars = 20 μm.

Figure 6. Mature pollen (SEM). A – T. paniculatum. B – T. triangulare. Scale bars = 10 μm.

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T. D . V e s e l o va , K h . K h . D z h a l i l o va , M . V. R e m i z o wa & A . C . T i m o n i n

Embryo sac. The embryo sac is of Polygonum-type (Fig. 8) and has an egg apparatus of typicalstructure (Figs 9, 10 E–F). The synergids bear hook-like outgrowths and a filiform apparatus.
The egg cell contains starch grains. The polar nuclei of the primary endosperm fuse before
fertilization. The resultant secondary nucleus is surrounded by numerous starch grains. The
ephemeral antipodals are usually absent in the mature embryo sac.
Funicle. The funicle of T. triangulare is longer than that in T. paniculatum. In both species,
the distalmost part of the funicle adjacent to the ovule changes characteristically during seeddevelopment. It develops a parenchymatous outgrowth in counter direction of the micropyle(Fig. 11 A–C). This outgrowth further differentiates into an aril. In T. triangulare, the parenchyma
cells of the protruding part of the aril are larger than the others (Fig. 11 G). In T. paniculatum, allcells of the aril are uniform (Fig. 11 C). They are generally smaller than those of T. triangulare.
In funicles of both species, a small-celled abscission zone develops below the aril prior to seed
releasing. The lower part of the funicle remains attached to the placenta after the seeds have been
shed off (Fig. 11 D–E, I).
The funicle transformation is more complicated in T. paniculatum, whose funicle epidermal cells
located below the presumptive aril enlarge and detach from the inner tissue prior to fertilization

Figure 7. T. paniculatum, megasporogenesis (LS). A – sporogenous and parietal cells. B–D – megasporocyte (megaspore
mother cell). E – dyad. F – mitosis in dyad chalazal cell. cd – dyad chalazal cell; ii – inner integument; mg – megasporocyte; md – dyad micropylar cell; oi – outer integument; pc – parietal cell; sp – sporogenous cell. Scale bars = 20 μm.

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to form a sheath around the inner solid part of the funicle (Fig. 11 A). This detached epidermis
consists of large spherical cells with thin unlignified cell walls with fibrous cell wall thickenings
resembling those of anther endothecium. Their protoplasts contain elaioplasts (Fig. 11 C, F). The
entire structure remains attached after seed releasing (Fig. 11 D–E). Apparently, these transformed
funicle remnants have been mistaken with underdeveloped ovules by Galati (1986).
Aril. The aril of the mature seed of T. paniculatum is a small white plicate body whose cells
contain neither reserve lipids, nor proteins, nor starch. The aril of the mature seed of T. triangulare
is larger than that of T. paniculatum. It has smooth surface and consists of large thin-walled
cells with well-visible nuclei and dense cytoplasm containing both lipids and proteins in large
quantities (Fig. 11 H). In dried seeds, the arils of both species look similar, especially in SEM(Fig. 19 A, D).
Embryo development. The embryo development was scrutinized in T. triangulare. 24 h after
pollination, the zygote slightly elongates longitudinally and then divides transversally to give rise
to a 2-celled proembryo which is composed of a small apical cell (ca) with dense cytoplasm and a

Figure 8. T. paniculatum, embryo sac development (LS). A– 1-nucleate embryo sac. B – 2-nucleate embryo sac. C, D –4-nucleate embryo sac. E – immature embryo sac inside young ovule. F – 8-nucleate embryo sac with antipodals andegg apparatus. an – antipodals; ac – air cavity; ea – egg apparatus; es – embryo sac; mc – micropyle; nu – nucellus;
nuc – nucellar cap. Scale bars: in A = 10 μm; in B–D, F = 20 μm; in E = 50 μm.

9T. D . V e s e l o va , K h . K h . D z h a l i l o va , M . V. R e m i z o wa & A . C . T i m o n i nlarger basal cell (cb) with a large vacuole (Fig. 12 A–B). Then, both cells also divide transversely
yielding a linear 4-celled proembryo (Fig. 12 C). The cell ca produces a basal cell l’ and a distal
cell l. The cell cb gives rise to the basal cell ci and distal cell m. The cells l and m are smaller andhave denser cytoplasm than their sister cells l’ and ci, respectively. The proembryo cells l and l’(derivatives of ca) both divide longitudinally (the possibility that l divides either prior or after l’is equal). Simultaneously (or even before that), the transverse division of the basal proembryo
cell ci (which is a derivative of cb) takes place (Fig. 13 A–D). Division of the cell m (which is adistal derivative of cb) is slightly delayed. It divides only after the 2–3-celled suspensor has been
formed as a result of divisions of ci and mostly after 1–2 divisions of the two distal cells havetaken place (Fig. 13 C, E). Its distal daughter cell m’ represents a presumptive hypophysis ofglobular embryo. It further divides longitudinally (Fig. 14 A–C). The basal daughter cell n andits derivatives evolved from several transversal and longitudinal cell divisions form the distal partof the multicellular suspensor (Fig. 14 B–D). The basalmost massive part of the latter directly
originates from the basalmost cell ci of the 4-celled proembryo. It forms an anchor-shaped

Figure 9. T. paniculatum, mature embryo sac (LS). A–D – egg apparatus. ea – egg apparatus; ec – egg cell; ii – innerintegument; nu – nucellus; nuc – nucellar cap; pt – pollen tube; sg – starch grains; sn – secondary nucleus; sy –synergids. Scale bars: in A = 50 μm; in B–C = 10 μm; in D = 20 μm.

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support which tightly touches the nucellus (Fig. 14 C,–D). The embryo per se is formed by l
and l’ layers (derivatives of the cell ca). Thus, the embryo development of T. triangulare follows
Solanad-type.
Talinum paniculatum also develops a 4-celled proembryo (Fig. 15 B–C, E). First cell divisions of
its two distal cell layers are apparently longitudinal as in T. triangulare (Fig. 15 F). The hypophysis
and the small suspensor are formed at the stage of late globular embryo. The suspensor is distallyuniseriate and basally few-seriate, so it is less developed than its counterpart in T. triangulare(Fig. 15 G–H). The embryo per se is formed by both derivatives of the cell ca (Fig. 15 F– G) andthus corresponds to Solanad-type just as in T. triangulare.
Endosperm development. The endosperm is of nuclear type. Its cellularization commences at
its micropylar end simultaneously with the initiation of embryo cotyledons (Figs 14 D, 16 A).
Endosperm cells contain small starch grains and protein inclusions. Thereof, the reserve substancesof the endosperm are soluble. The chalazal end of the endosperm differentiates into massive

Figure 10. T. triangulare, megasporogenesis and embryo sac development (LS). A – megasporocyte. B – dyad. C –4-nucleate embryo sac. D – 8-nucleate embryo sac. E, F – mature embryo sac, micropylar end. an – antipodals; ea – egg
apparatus; ec – egg cell; cd – dyad chalazal cell; ii – inner integument; md – dyad micropylar cell; mg – megasporocyte;
nuc – nucellar cap; oi – outer integument; pc – parietal cell; sn – secondary nucleus; sy – synergids. Scale bars = 20 μm.

11T. D . V e s e l o va , K h . K h . D z h a l i l o va , M . V. R e m i z o wa & A . C . T i m o n i nhaustorium at the early stages of embryo development. It is represented by dense cytoplasm
containing large nuclei and rod-like protein bodies (Figs 16 A–B, 17 E). The haustorium extends
to the seed vascular bundle. At this stage, nucellar cells surrounding the haustorium containextensive starch deposits (Fig. 17 B). The wall of endospermal haustorium contacting the nucellus
is thickened and resembles those of transfer cells (Fig. 17 C–F). The part of the haustorium thatfaces the nuclear endosperm develops transparent bubble-like protuberances with small protein
grains on their surfaces, which jut into the endosperm (Fig. 17 C–D, F). At later stages of seeddevelopment, haustorial activity gradually ceases and haustorial nuclei and cytoplasm collapse
into a homogeneous mass, which is further demolished by the developing embryo. The cotyledontips are situated on the place of former haustorium in the mature seed.

Figure 11. Arils and funicles. A–F – T. paniculatum. G–I – T. triangulare. ar – aril; enc – endocarp; f – funicle; fe –funicular epiderm; mc – micropyle; rc – receptacle; sc – seed coat; vb – vascular bundle. Black arrowheads indicate
lipid drops. White arrowhead indicates sterile ovule. Scale bars: in A, D–E = 200 μm; in B–C = 100 μm; in F = 20 μm;
in G = 50 μm; in H = 500 μm; in I = 1 mm.

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Seed interior development. Soon after fertilization, the anacampylotropous ovule changes into
an amphitropous one due to the intensive growth in its chalazal region. Both micropyle andchalazal part are situated at the same level at the stage of proembryo (Fig. 15 A). The curving of
the nucellus is followed by the curving of the embryo sac.
In the mature seed, the endosperm is almost entirely consumed by the embryo and is represented
by protein-rich cap cells that cover the tip of the primary root (Fig. 16 E). The coiled embryosurrounds the perisperm, whose cells contain densely packed starch grains. The cells of the
fully developed embryo contain copious aleuron grains and lipid drops but do not have starch(Fig. 16 E–G). Starch grains are discernible only in the root cap of the primary root where they
will act as statoliths after seed germination (Fig. 14 F).
Seed coat development. The seed coat is formed by both integuments in both T. paniculatum
and T. triangulare. The cells of the outer layer of the outer integument and those of the inner

Figure 12. T. triangulare, proembryo development (LS). A – zygote. B – two-celled proembryo. C – four-celled
proembryo. D – micropylar region of an ovule with proembryo. ca – apical cell of two-celled proembryo; cb – basal
cell of two-celled proembryo; dsy – degenerating synergid; l and l’ – derivates of ca; ci and m – derivates of cb; nuc –nucellar cap; pe – proembryo; pt – pollen tube. Scale bars: in A–B = 10 μm; in C = 20 μm; in D = 50 μm.

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T. D . V e s e l o va , K h . K h . D z h a l i l o va , M . V. R e m i z o wa & A . C . T i m o n i nlayer of the inner integument enlarge immediately after germination. They accumulate tanninsin their vacuoles at first as numerous yellowish-brown small grains and then as large ones thatfurther amalgamate (Fig. 18 A–E). These cells also accumulate proteins and carbohydrates. The
inner layer of the outer integument and the outer layer of the inner integument contain starchgrains at the early stages of seed development. These layers become empty and obliterated soonafterwards. The cells of the inner layer of the inner integument gradually lose their protoplasm.
Thereof, this layer consists of thin-walled empty cells in the mature seed. This layer is referred
to as endotegmen (Fig. 18 C–E). The endotegmic cells are characterized by parallel secondarycell-wall thickenings appearing as radial striation (Fig. 19 C, F).
The seed coat mainly comes from the outer epidermis of the outer integument. It is thus an
exotesta. The exotestal cells accumulate tannins and develop thickened outer walls penetrated bynumerous pore canals (Figs 18 C–E, 19 B, E). These canals make a reticulate pattern on the cell

Figure 13. T. triangulare, proembryo. A–F – development, continuation. (LS). ca – derivates of apical cell of two-celled
proembryo; cb – derivates of basal cell of two-celled proembryo; l and l’ – derivates of ca; ci and m – derivates of cb;
n and m’ – derivates of m. Scale bars = 10 μm.

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surface (Fig. 18 F). Impregnated by deep-brown tannins and covered by thick cuticle, the outercell wall is the most prominent part of each exotestal cell in the mature seed (Fig. 19 B, E). The
exotestal cell lumen is reduced to a narrow slit. Thus, the seed coat of both species examined isof exotestal-endotegmic type.
Seed sculpture. Despite similarities in structure and development, the species examined differ inshapes and sizes of their exotestal cells and seed fine sculpture.
Seeds of T. paniculatum are almost black, glossy, ca. 1 mm long, reniform, laterally compressed.
Their micropylar end is slightly protruding the chalazal side. There is a depression (hilum area)
between micropylar and chalazal ends where hilum and aril are located (Fig. 19 A). Under thelight microscope, the exotestal cells are tetra- to hexagonal and slightly elongated towards theventral side of the seed (Fig. 18 F). Their anticlinal cell walls are straight or slightly undulate,non-protruding the seed surface. In SEM, the seed surface is almost smooth, the outer cell walls
are plane but there are deep cuticle depressions at places where three adjacent cells touch eachother. The cells are more convex on the ventral side of the seed.
Seeds of T. triangulare are of same shape and colour as those of T. paniculatum, but slightly
smaller. The exotestal cells are convex (especially in the hilum area), penta- to hexagonal. They

Figure 14. T. triangulare, embryo development (LS). A–C – globular embryo. D, E – development of cotyledons.
F – apex of primary root with starch grains (statoliths) in the root cap. ar – aril; ca – derivates of apical cell of twocelled proembryo; cb – derivates of basal cell of two-celled proembryo; f – funicle; ha – endospermal haustorium;
hp – hypophysis; l and l’ – derivates of ca; ci, m’ and n – derivates of cb (n, m’ – derivates of m); pr – protoderm; s –suspensor. Black arrowheads show statoliths. Scale bars: in A = 10 μm; in B–C, F = 20 μm; in D = 50 μm; in E = 100 μm.

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T. D . V e s e l o va , K h . K h . D z h a l i l o va , M . V. R e m i z o wa & A . C . T i m o n i nare slightly elongated on the lateral sides and almost isodiametric and in regular rows on the dorsalside of the seed. Their anticlinal cell walls are straight. Each cell in the hilum area has a papilla incentral part of its outer cell wall (Fig. 19 D). There are special cells with oval orifice surrounded
by a rim in hilum depression (Fig. 19 D).

Discussion
The species examined show embryological characters that are common for the majority ofCentrospermae (= core Caryophyllales sensu APG III 2009). These are campylotropous bitegmic
endostomous ovules, basal slit between the two integuments, ephemeral antipodals, presence of
perisperm, coiled embryo, exotestal-endotegmic seed coat, longitudinal striation of tegmic cell
walls, 3-celled pollen etc. At the same time, species of Talinum demonstrate characters which

Figure 15. T. paniculatum, embryo development (LS). A – ovule with proembryo. B – two-celled proembryo. C – threecelled proembryo. D, E – four-celled proembryo. F – multicelled proembryo. G, H – globular embryo. ca –apical cellof two-celled proembryo and its derivates; cb –basal cell of two-celled proembryo and its derivates; end – endosperm;
ha – endospermal haustorium, ii – inner integument; l and l’ – derivates of ca; ci, m and m’ – derivates of cb; m’ –derivate of m; oi – outer integument; nu – nucellus; pe – proembryo; pr – protoderm; s – suspensor. Black arrowheads
show statoliths. Scale bars: in A = 200 μm; in B–C, E–H = 20 μm; in D = 50 μm.

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are rare for angiosperms, like anther archesporial cells arranged in a single row. Sometimes wealso observed partly biseriate archesporial cells. Uniseriate archesporium of anther is a specificcharacter of all members of Portulacaceae s.l. studied so far (Batygina 1983). Both Talinum
and Portulaca demonstrate a 4-celled linear proembryo, an endospermal haustorium and thickFigure 16. T. paniculatum, seed development (LS). A – micropylar end of an ovule with bilobed embryo. B –endospermal haustorium in immature seed. C – immature seed. D – mature seed. E – primary root in mature seed.
F – aleuron grains in embryo cells. G – oil drops in squashed embryo. co – cotyledon; ec – endospermal cap; end –endosperm; ha – endospermal haustorium; hn – haustorial nuclei; hy – hypocotyl; nu – nucellus; od – oil drop;p – perisperm; r – primary root; sc – seed coat. Scale bars: in A, D = 200 μm; in B, F = 20 μm; in C, G = 100 μm; in
E = 50 μm.

17T. D . V e s e l o va , K h . K h . D z h a l i l o va , M . V. R e m i z o wa & A . C . T i m o n i npollen tubes that remain long after the fertilization. Both species examined in the present study
show Solanad-type of embryo development. The same type of embryo development has beenfound in Portulaca oleracea L. (Cooper 1940). Thus, embryological characters that are believed
to be of taxonomical importance do not provide further support for recognizing a separate family
Talinaceae.
Members of Portulacaceae s.l. in general demonstrate a high variability of seed coat anatomy(Plisko 1991), but T. paniculatum and T. triangulare are quite similar to Portulaca in the structure

Figure 17. T. triangulare. A–F – endospermal haustorium (LS). ar – aril; end – endosperm; ha – endospermal
haustorium; nu – nucellus; sc – seed coat; sg – starch grains; ves – vesicles. Black and white arrowheads indicate
haustorial wall. Arrows indicate protein corpuscles on a vesicle. Scale bars: in A–C = 50 μm; in D–F = 20 μm.

18E m b r y o l o g y o f Ta l i n u m p a n i c u l a t u m a n d T. t r i a n g u l a r eof the exotesta. Talinum exotesta resembles that of Pereskia (see Vishenskaya 1991), the primitive
member of Cactaceae, the latter being hardly discernible from Portulacaceae s. str. (Nyffeler &Eggli 2010). However, the exotesta of the investigated species is also similar to that of Claytonia
virginica L. (former Portulacaceae; see Plisko 1991) which is now placed in the family Montiaceae(Stevens 2008; Nyffeler & Eggli 2010) and to the exotesta of Pleuropetalum (Amaranthaceae)(see Veselova & Timonin 2009). Thus, the seed coat structure plainly confirms neither asegregation of the family Talinaceae nor its inclusion into the family Portulacaceae.

Figure 18. T. paniculatum, seed coat development. A–E – transverse sections. F – paradermal section showing pore
canals within outer cell wall. em – embryo; ext – exotesta; nu – nucellus; tg – endotegmen. Arrowheads indicate pore
canals within cell wall. Scale bars: in A–B, E–F = 50 μm; in C–D = 20 μm.

19

T. D . V e s e l o va , K h . K h . D z h a l i l o va , M . V. R e m i z o wa & A . C . T i m o n i n

The species of the genus Talinum differ in ploidy level (Steiner 1944), inflorescence structure(Timonin 2005), pollen types (Nyananyo 1993), anatomy and fine sculpture of seeds(Nyananyo & Olowokudejo 1986) and fruit dehiscence mode (Galati 1986; Carolin 1987;
Ferguson 2001; Veselova et al. 2011). We have revealed some additional differences between
the species examined: Pollen grains of T. paniculatum are multicolpate, whereas T. triangulare
produces multiporate pollen. Pollen grains of T. triangulare are larger, perhaps because of thepolyploidy of this species (Steiner 1944).
Embryo development generally follows Solanad-type in both species but in T. paniculatum, theembryo per se, the hypophysis and even a part of the suspensor are formed by the cell ca, whichis the distal cell of the 2-celled proembryo (Guignard 1965). In T. triangulare, both hypophysis
and entire suspensor are derivatives of the cell cb, the basalmost cell of 2-celled proembryo. At

Figure 19. Seed coat surface and structure in mature seed (SEM). A–C – T. paniculatum. D–F – T. triangulare. A, D –seed, micropylar view. B, E– transversally dissected seed showing seed coat structure. C, F – endotegmen, surface view.
ar – aril; mc – micropyle; o – omphalodium. Scale bars: in A, D = 100 μm; in B = 30 μm; in E–F = 10 μm.

20E m b r y o l o g y o f Ta l i n u m p a n i c u l a t u m a n d T. t r i a n g u l a r e

the stage of late globular embryo, the species show different structure of the suspensor. The
suspensor of T. paniculatum is mainly uniseriate, whereas that of T. triangulare consists of few
rows of cells and has a massive base.
Although the seed coats are anatomically the same in two species concerned, they differ in fine
sculpture. Seeds of T. paniculatum are almost smooth, but seeds of T. triangulare are clearly
mammillate. Additionally, there are specific rimmed cells in the hilum area in T. triangulare.
These cells apparently constitute an omphalodium here termed as ‘structure regulating seedwater balance’. The presence/absence of the omphalodium seems to be correlated with fruit
dehiscence modes. T. triangulare demonstrates explosive capsule dehiscence. At the moment offruit dehiscing, three capsule valves curve inwards and push releasing seeds away up to 0.5 m
from the mother plant. Such autochoric seed dispersal is probably accompanied by zoochorous
one. The latter is suggested on the base of presence of arils with voluminous proteins andlipids. The omphalodium apparently enables the released seed to intensify water intake for afaster germination. This could be of adaptive importance under conditions of semiarid habitats
preferred by Talinum.
However, explosive fruit dehiscence is not typical of the genus. The capsules of Talinum
paniculatum and a lot of other Talinum species dehisce gradually via formation of a set ofslits, viz. three longitudinal dorsal and one basal circumscissile, which are accompanied bytangential splitting of the seed vessel wall resulting in three inner and three outer semivalves,
respectively (Galati 1986; Carolin 1987; Ferguson 2001; Veselova et al. 2011). The outerones immediately shed off, whereas the inner ones remain hanging on their dorsal bundles to forma kind of membranous container full of detached seeds. The seeds remain inside this container
for a rather long period of time (for few weeks under laboratory conditions) because the slits andthe basal orifice are too narrow in comparison to the seeds.
Such a specific fruit dehiscence is accompanied by unusual structure of the funicle. We
hypothesize, that such slow seed dispersal can naturally be accelerated by small insects that get
into the dehisced capsule attracted by detached funicle epidermis whose cells contain lipids. Thishypothesis is supported by the fact that the aril of T. paniculatum lacks nutrients and thus cannot
properly attract insects for zoochoric seed dispersal. Attractant-rich funicle epidermis separates
from the seed and remains attached inside the capsule. Therefore, the zoochorous seed dispersal
is unlikely in T. paniculatum.
Relatively long storage of the mature seeds inside the fruit apparently requires a mechanism
preventing fast seed germination. Membranous inner semivalves are hardly able to keep seeds dry
under the rain and thus delay their subsequent in situ germination. Meanwhile, the mechanismsof deep seed dormancy are rather disadvantageous under semiarid environments. Thus, we
assume that in T. paniculatum the absence of an omphalodium as a specialized structure for water
absorption can cause seed dormancy for the period of time to keep the seed ungerminated in thedehisced capsule. Due to the absence of an omphalodium, the rate of water absorption throughthe seed coat is decreased preventing precautious seed germination inside the capsule.

Acknowledgements
The authors are grateful to Dr Dmitry D. Sokoloff, Lomonosov Moscow State University,
for critical reading of the manuscript and important suggestions, to Dr Elena M. Arnautova,21

T. D . V e s e l o va , K h . K h . D z h a l i l o va , M . V. R e m i z o wa & A . C . T i m o n i n

Komarov Botanical Institute of Russian Academy of Sciences (St Petersburg), and Dr Vladimir
Kh. Pankin, Tsytsyn Main Botanic Garden of Russian Academy of Sciences (Moscow), for living
plant material. We are indebted to the staff of the Laboratory of Scanning Electron Microscopy
for their help with SEM studies.

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Address of the authors:
Dr Tatiana D. Veselova
Khalima Kh. Dzhalilova
Dr Margarita V. Remizova
Prof. Dr Alexander C. Timonin
Department of Higher Plants
Faculty of Biology
Lomonosov Moscow State University
Vorobyevy Gory 1 (12)119992 Moscow
RussiaE-mail: timonin58@mail.ru

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