From “Guild” to “Chamber of Commerce”
Bankers and Commercial Associationsin 1950s Chongqing1)

Hayashi Koji

Foreword
In Late-Qing China, Chongqing merchants established “guilds”, traditionalsocial associations such as “Bang 帮”, “Hui 会”, and “Gongsuo 公 所”, that
controlled regional economic activity. As a consequence of the Sino-JapaneseWar, Chongqing became the most important industrial and commercial city insouthwest China, and these guilds were reorganized into official trade unions.
However, the city’s economy went into recession after its “liberation” in
1949. In order to reestablish Chongqing’s economy, the Chinese Communist
Party (CCP) government invested huge amounts of money in the city, especiallyduring the Korean War. For example, the government constructed railways to,and purchased many industrial goods from, Chongqing. These policies had a great
impact on Chongqing’s economy, and created business opportunities forcommercial and industrial enterprises there.
Within the framework of the above CCP policies, the Preparatory Committee
for the Chamber of Commerce and Industry 工商業聯合会筹備委員会 (PCCCI)
organized the industrial and commercial spheres. This paper analyzes the process1)This Study was supported by JSPS Grant-in-Aid for Scientific Research (C) No.
17K03857 and Seijo University Special Study Grant.

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of the establishment of the PCCCI and its function in the early days of the People’s
Republic of China (PRC).
There are many studies about the process of the reorganization of commerce
and industry. These include: a study of economic growth under the “newdemocracy”2); a study from the view of the united front3); and a study focused on
the relationship between commerce and socialism4). Solinger indicated that thepolicy of the socialist transformation of industry and commerce was based upon
the concept formed before the founding of the PRC. Studies have also emerged
rethinking this perspective, emphasizing the continuity between the Republic ofChina and the PRC5).
The most important documents utilized in this paper are the archival
documents of the Chongqing Chamber of Commerce and Industry 重慶工商業聯合会 owned by Chongqing Municipal Archive. These archival documents include
the proceedings of the managing committee and the semimonthly reports of the
PCCCI. This paper also drew on magazines such as Chongqing Gongshan 重慶工商, Chongqing Zhengbao 重慶政報 and Chongqing Shizheng 重慶市政.

2)

3)
4)
5)

Xue Muqiao, Su Xing, Lin Zili, Zhongguo Guomin Jingji de Shehuizhuyi Gaizao,
Beijing: Waiwen Chubanshe, 1966. MIKI Takeshi, Chugoku Kaihuku Jiki no Keizai
Seisaku: Shin Minshushugi Keizai Ron, Tokyo: Kawashima Shoten, 1970.
NISHIMURA Kojiro, Chugoku ni okeru Kigyou no Kokuyuuka. Tokyo: Seibundo,
1984. Liu Suinian, Wu Qungan eds., Zhongguo Shehuizhuyi Jingji Lueshi: 19491984, Beijing Zhoubaoshe, 1984.
Solinger, Dorothy J. Chinese Business under Socialism: The Politics of Domestic
Commerce, 1949-1980. Berkeley: University of California Press, 1984.
Li Yurong, Tongzhanshi Yanjiu, Jinan: Shandong Jiaoyu Chubanshe, 2001.
IZUTANI Youko, Chugoku Kenkoku Shoki Seiji to Keizai: Taisyu Undou to
Shakaishugi Taisei, Tokyo: Ochanomizu Shobo, 2007. KAWAHARA Katsuhiko,
Chugoku Doukyodantai no Kaizou, Kaitai Katei (1945-1956): Shandong Luhu
Tongxiang Tuanti no Jirei wo Chushin ni, Ajiya Kenkyu, 49-3. Wang Jing, Shanghai
Yinhang Gonghui Yanjiu (1927-1937), Shanghai Renmin Chubanshe, 2009. Zhang
Tianzheng, Shanghai Yinhang Gonghui Yanjiu (1937-1945), Shanghai Renmin
Chubanshe, 2009.

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From “Guild” to “Chamber of Commerce” Bankers and Commercial Associations in 1950s Chongqing

Based on the above studies and materials, this paper examines the process of
the reorganization of the “guilds” in Chongqing.

I Bankers’ “Guilds” in Chongqing
After 1914, the Beijing Government established “Yinhang Gonghui
Zhangcheng 銀行公会章程” and tried to control the banking industry. After that,many bankers established guilds in various cities, especially in Shanghai ─ afinancial center ─ where Shanghai bankers established the Shanghai Bankers’
Association in 19186). Chongqing bankers took this association for a model andreorganized their bankers’ guilds.
The origin of the bankers’ guild in Chongqing was the “Lianhuanhui 聯歓会”
established around 1926 (Figure 1). Lianhuanhui was not an official association,
but a kind of friendship group. This kind of association was similar to the“Laojunhui 老 君 会” or “Zhigonghui 至 公 会” formed by the Chongqing
Qianzhuang 銭 庄. These associations did not just take an active role in thereconciliation of interests between the Qianzhuang, but also held dinner parties or
festivals for the mausoleum of “Caishen 財神 (God of Wealth)”. From this point ofview, the Lianhuanhui had a traditional character7).
Around the 1930s, there was a movement to establish banks in Chongqing
and in September 1931 the Chongqing Municipal Bankers’ Association (CMBA)
was established, authorized by the national government.
The functions of CMBA were to:8)
6)
7)

8)

NEGISHI Tadashi. Shanghai no Guild. Nihon Hyoronsha, 1951, pp. 148-150.
Liu Wenfei, Chai Henian, Lu Lankang, Chen Deru. “Chongqing Qianbang Gongsuo
de Youlai”. ChongqingGongshang Xuanji Di 5ji. Zhongguo Minzhu Jianguohui
Chongqingshi Weiyuanhui, Chongqingshi Gongshangye Lianhehui, 1964, pp.115134.
Chongqingshi Yinhangye Tongyegonghui Zhangcheng. Zhang Xiaomei. Sichuan
Jingji Cankao Ziliao. pp. X98-100.

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成城・経済研究第 222 号（2018 年 12 月）(1) Establish a clearinghouse;(2) Reconcile the interests of member banks or between members and nonmembers;(3) Investigate the business situation of bankers;(4) Public service for financial industries.
In 1937, the Sino-Japanese War broke out.

The Nanjing National

Government moved the capital to Chongqing and declared the formation of the
Chongqing National Government. On June 1, 1942, the Central Bank started abill-clearing service, which took the place of the system established by bankers’
guilds in prewar Chongqing9).
The Chongqing National Government implemented strict wartime controls insouthwest China. Ultimately, these policies led to the previous regional economic
system being reorganized into an outwardly broad-based economic system under
the sway of the Chongqing National Government. The convoluted processes
involving local banks in Chongqing clearly serve to indicate a part of the economic
system that Chinese spontaneously create in unstable socio-economic
circumstances.

II Establishing the PCCCI
1

Organization of the Chamber of Commerce in Central Government
In 1949, the CCP kept on developing the policy of the United Front, while itbuilt a new nation, the “People’s Republic of China”. To get support from thebroad masses, the CCP held the People’s Political Consultative Conference andadopted a common program. It was envisaged that the policy of the United Front

9)

See HAYASHI Koji. “Banking under Sino-Japanese War: The Transition of
Economic Systems in China’s Wartime Capital, Chongqing”. The Institute for
Economic Studies Research Paper, No.83, 2018 (In Japanese).

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From “Guild” to “Chamber of Commerce” Bankers and Commercial Associations in 1950s Chongqing

would be taken charge of by people’s organization such as labor unions, farmers’
unions, youth leagues and women’s leagues; by liberal parties; and by the
Chamber of Commerce and Industry 工 商 業 聯 合 会 (CCI) representing
commercial and industrial enterprises10).
In 1950, the CCI’s principal function in United Front policy was educating
and supervising commercial and industrial entrepreneurs and it had the meaning ofan “organizing institution”11). In 1920s, the Soviet Union formed “trusts” thatunited industry and commerce under the New Economic Policy (NEP) Era12).
Trusts were organizations positioned between the state and productive units,
granting autonomy and responsibility to enterprises, while simultaneously seeking
to integrate productive units that were getting more difficult to control directly as
they became more decentralized.
Additionally, the Soviet Union established “syndicates” as collaborative
organizations among the trusts. These organizations in the Soviet Union wereprimarily for national enterprises, so it was different from the situation in the earlyyears of the PRC where there were so many private enterprises. But it could besaid that that the CCI was based on the trusts and syndicates of the Soviet NEP,
providing a means for consolidating commercial and industrial operations.
After 1951, the CCP changed its policy from nation-building to socialism.
From this time on, the CCI started to make clear its position, which was to be
responsible for commercial and industrial policy in general ─ including economic
development, conversion of business categories, overseeing the transfer of capital
10)

11)
12)

Li Weihan. “Renmin Minzhu Tongyi Zhanxian de Xin Xingshi yu Xin Renwu (21thMar. 1950)”. Zhonggong Zhongyang Wenxian Yanjiushi eds. Jianguo Yilai
Zhongyao Wenxian Xuanbian, Vol. I. Beijing: Zhongyang Wenxian Chubanshe,
1992, pp. 151-152.
Li Weihan op. cit. pp. 152.
KIMURA Masanori. NEPki Kokuei Kougyo no Kouzou to Koudou: Sorenpo 1920
Nendai no Shijyokeizai Dounyu no Kokoromi. Ochanomizu Shobo, 1995, pp.17-29.

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and strengthening the state economy as well as strengthening planning andleadership of the state economy13).
In August 1949, the CCP issued a directive establishing the CCI14), but it
wasn’t until June 1952 that the Central PCCCI was launched15). At the time of its
launch, the PCCCI had between 135 and 160 delegates, from among whom one
chief delegate and 13 deputies were elected16). Chen Shutong 陳 叔 通17) waschosen as chief delegate, while Nan Hanchen 南漢晨, Zhang Naiqi 章乃器, Rong
Yiren 栄毅仁 and Hu Zi-ang 胡子昂 were among the deputies.
It took almost three years from when the CCP issued its directive until theCentral PCCCI was launched. The office in charge of preparations（筹備処）spent time discussing how to elect delegates for the national chamber ofcommerce, how to communicate with them, how to draw up general rules for

13)

Chen Yun. “Zuohao Gongshanglian Gongzuo (20th Jul 1951)”. Chen Yun. Chenyun
Wenxuan (1949-1956). Tianjin: Renmin Chubanshe, 1984, pp. 149-150.
14) “Zhonggong Zhongyang guanyu Zuzhi Gongshangye Lianhehui de zhishi (August1949)”.
15) Chen Yun, “Zai Zhonghua Quanguo Gongshangye Lianhehui Choubei Daibiao
Huiyi shang de Jianghua (24th June 1952)”. Quanguo Gongshanglian Bangongshi,
Zhonghua Quanguo Gongshangye Lianhehui Zhongyao Lishi Wenxian Xuanbian,Beijing: Zhonghua Gongshanglian Chubanshe, 1993, pp. 25-30.
16) “Zhonghua Quanguo Gongshangye Lianhehui Choubei Weiyuanhui Zhangcheng(30th June 1952)”. Quanguo Gongshanglian Bangongshi, Zhonghua Quanguo
Gongshangye Lianhehui Zhongyao Lishi Wenxian Xuanbian, pp. 35.
17) Chen Shutong 陳叔通 (1876-1966), born in Zhejiang Hangzhou. Joined Hanlin 翰林
School. After Qing-Japanese war, he went Japan to study, entered Hosei University,and subsequently joined the Wushu Revolutionary Movement. After Xinhai
revolution, he became a senator of the first national congress, president of Shanghai
Commercial Press, and president of Zhejiang Xingye Bank. In the Sino-Japanese war
era, he joined the anti-Japanese savings movement, which lead to the formation of the
Shanghai Municipal Association of Peoples Unification. After the establishment of
the PRC, he became a senator of Central People’s Government, vice chief of thecommittee of All National Congress, and chief delegate of the All National Chamberof Commerce and Industry. He died in Beijing in 1966. Li Shengping eds. Zhongguo
Jinxiandai Renmin Dacidian. Beijing: Zhongguo Guoji Guangbo Chubanshe, 1989,
pp. 406.

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organizational activity, and how to supervise lower-level organizations that were
gradually being established18). It was in the context of these developments that the
Chongqing PCCCI was established on May 8, 1950.

2

PCCCI’s Organization in Chongqing
The mission of the Chongqing PCCCI was to prepare for the organization of

the Chongqing CCI and to unite commerce and industry. After the CCI wasformally established, the PCCCI would be dissolved19). The PCCCI consisted of
81 delegates and 33 standing committee delegates; a chief delegate and 3 deputies
were chosen from among the latter20). Hu Zi-ang, a central figure of the China
Democratic National Construction Party 民 主 建 国 会, was elected as chiefdelegate. The three deputies were Wen Shaohe 温 少 鶴, former chief ofChongqing Chamber of Commerce and chief delegate of Chongqing China
Democratic National Construction Party after “liberation”; Li Zhiqing 李志親,
manager of Yuxin 渝鑫 Steelworks; and Zhang Maofu 張茂甫, a CCP cadre in thesouthward movement. They also held the post of People’s Delegate of the
Chongqing Municipal People’s Congress and participated in policy-making forcommerce and industry in Chongqing.
To carry out its activities, the PCCCI had several committees, as follows: (1)a reorganization committee (in charge of expropriations); (2) an education committee(in charge of education) movement; (3) a finance committee (in charge of finance); (4)a policy-making committee (in charge of policy-making and propaganda); and (5) an

18)

19)
20)

Sha Qianli. “Zhonghua Quanguo Gongshangye Lianhehui Choubei Weiyuanhui
Choubeichu Choubei Jingguo Baogao (20th June 1952)”. Zhonghua Quanguo
Gongshangye Lianhehui Zhongyao Lishi Wenxian Xuanbian, spp. 23-24.
“Chongqingshi Gongshangye Lianhehui Choubei Weiyuanhui Zuzhi Zhangcheng”.
Chongqing Gongshang, Vol.1-2, December 1950, pp. 74.
“Chongqingshi Gongshangye Lianhehui Choubei Weiyuanhui Zuzhi Zhangcheng”.

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成城・経済研究第 222 号（2018 年 12 月）

engineering committee (in charge of studying industrial engineering).

These

committees were overseen by the standing committee members, who also carriedout the work (Figure 2).
Many of the PCCCI delegates also held positions in their own enterprises andso the PCCCI did not pay them a salary. The PCCCI’s expenses were covered bymembership dues collected monthly from the business enterprises of its
members21). These membership dues were put toward the wages of clerical staff,
propaganda expenditures, and publications22). In the early days of the PCCCI, theorganization faced financial difficulties23), and it became a “political mission” tocollect membership fees, even after the situation stabilized. Once the situation
stabilized, it became a “political mission” to collect membership fees24).
The standard membership fee was regulated at one-thousandth of the profits
of each enterprise25). The obligation of paying the membership fee rested not on
members themselves, but on the enterprises to which they belonged. This is theimportant point for understanding the activities of the PCCCI.

21)
22)

“Chongqingshi Gongshangye Lianhehui Choubei Weiyuanhui Zuzhi Zhangcheng”.
Chongqing CCI enacted the procedure of payment to the Central CCI. “Zhonghua
Quanguo Gongshangye Lianhehui Jingfei Yusuan ji Huiyuan Jiaona Huifei Banfa
Tian (12th November 1953)”. Quanguo Gongshanglian Bangongshi, Zhonghua
Quanguo Gongshangye Lianhehui Zhongyao Lishi Wenxian Xuanbian, pp. 99-102.
23) According to a report, because of the lack of expenditure, PCCCI obtained loans of
100 million RMB from banks in the beginning. “Chongqingshi Gongshangye
Lianhehui Choubei Weiyuanhui Gongzuo Baogao (6) (31th July to 12th August1950), Archival document of Chongqing CCI [1040-1-6].
24) Yang De. “Guanyu Shangjiao Quanguo Gongshanglian Kaiban Feiyong de Jige Juti
Wenti”. Chongqing Gongshang. Vol. 2-9, November 1952, pp. 16-17.
25) “Chongqingshi Gongshangye Lianhehui Choubei Weiyuanhui di 45 ci Changwu
Weiyuanhuiyi Jilu (21th December 1951)”. Archival Documents of Chongqing CCI[1010-1-56].

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From “Guild” to “Chamber of Commerce” Bankers and Commercial Associations in 1950s Chongqing

III Reorganizing “Guilds” in Chongqing
1

Reorganizing Former Guilds
The PCCCI had a number of missions: (1) establish the CCCI; (2)expropriate the former Chongqing Chamber of Industry 工会, former Chamber ofCommerce 商 会, and other commercial organizations that the People’s
Government deemed should be expropriated; (3) reorganize former tradeassociations; (4) explain and promote the policies of the People’s Government toeach commercial and industrial enterprise, and implement the mission of thePeople’s Government; (5) provide the government with information gathered fromeach commercial and industrial enterprise for decision making; and (6) foster
cooperation between each enterprise to accelerate the reconstruction of commerce
and industry. The most important mission was the third ─ reorganize former
trade associations.
In early PRC Chongqing, the situation was complicated: there were about
40,000 commercial and industrial enterprises, 156 categories of business and 126
former trade associations26). The PCCCI oversaw the expropriation of theseformer associations. Because of the cadres’ lack of experience, and the necessity
for organizing military industries given the growing tensions on the Korean
Peninsula, the PCCCI selected seven categories of business ─ coal mining,financing, shipping, textile manufacturing, Chinese textile dyeing, coal trading andvegetable oil ─ for reorganization27).
First, the PCCCI held discussion meetings of each category of business to26)
27)

Long Mingqiao. “50 Niandai Chongqing Tongyegomghui de Zuzhi Bianqian”.
Chongqing Gongshanglian, 2001, pp. 179.
Chongqing Gongshanglian Chouweihui Zuzhichu. “Chongqingshi GongshanglianZhengli Tongyegonghui de Gongzuo”. Chongqing Gongshang. Vol. 1-1, November
1950, pp. 73.

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understand the general situation, the problems of reorganization and to negotiate
detailed activities. As a result, the Shipping Industry Association, Coal Mining
Industry Association and Financing Industry Association each established a
Preparatory Committee on September 25, 1950; the Textile Manufacturing
Association established a Preparatory Committee on October 17; and the Machine
Textile Manufacturing Association and Chinese Textile Dyeing Association on
October 21.

By December 5, 42 categories of business had establishedPreparatory Committees for their trade associations28).
What kind of changes did this reorganization bring to these former
institutions? Let us examine the case of the financing industry.
Toward the end of the Civil War in China, the situation of Chongqingbanking fluctuated intensely.

Before “liberation”, the Chongqing Banking

Association was controlled by three men, but two of them ─ Liu Hangchen 劉航
琛 and Pan Changyou 潘 昌 猷 ─ fled from Chongqing to Hong Kong andelsewhere.

Szechuan Bank of Salt, Szechuan Meifeng Bank, Sichuan

Construction Bank and Chuankang Public Commercial Bank suspended
operations. The Bank of China, the Central Bank and the Bank of Szechuan wereexpropriated by the Chongqing Branch of the People’s Bank of China.
Under these circumstances, the PCCCI’s reorganization brought huge
influence for Bankers’ Association. The Preparatory Committee of the Financial
Industry Association was established by a combination of the former Bankers’
Association and Qianye 銭業 Association. In addition, over the half the delegateswere from non-Sichuanese banks and the CCP’s Southward Movement Cadre Yu
Yueze 余躍沢 took charge as chief delegate of the Preparatory Committee.

28)“Chongqingshi Geye Tongyegonghui Choubei Weiyuanhui Chouwei Minglu”,
Chongqing Gongshang, Vol. 1-1, November 1950, pp. 78-81; Vol. 1-2, January
1951, pp. 79-82; Vol. 1-3/4, 28th February 1951, pp. 67-69.

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Previously, it was usual for the delegates of Chongqing’s trading associations
to consist of influential members of the local economy. But many of these of these
influential people had since left Chongqing, requiring the reorganization personalconnections in business to facilitate corporate activities.
In this way, the CCP was able bring the personal networks of private
enterprises into the new institution. From the CCP’s perspective, it wanted to beable to show that many managers of private enterprises had joined the new
government, thus enhancing the new government’s credibility.

2

The Learning Movement and the Land Reform Inspection
The PCCCI also carried out various learning activities.

It formedorganizations for learning under the supervision of the Education Committee. By
the end of July 1950, 19 categories of business had established 29 learning groups
and were carrying out learning activities one to three times a week29).
Most of these learning activities consisted of lectures by members of
democratic parties such as the United Front or China Democratic National
Construction Association. The contents of these lectures included the theory of
revolution, and industrial and commercial laws and regulations30). For instance, afamous sociologist Fei Xiaotong 費 孝 通 gave a lecture titled “Learning andRemolding”. Audiences for these lectures totaled over 20,00031). Apart fromthese lectures, each learning group carried out group discussions and studied texts,
29)

30)
31)

The industries assigned to undergo extensive reorganization were: shipping,indigenous textiles, medical, oil trading, coal mining and textile spinning. “GeyeXuexi Xiaozu Xuexi Shijianbiao”,“Chongqingshi Gongshangye Lianhehui Choubei
Weiyuanhui Gongzuo Baogao (17th to 29th July 1950)”. Archival Documents ofChongqing CCI [1040-1-6].
Xu Baitu, “Jiefang Yinianlai de Gongshang Xuexi”, Chongqing Gongshang, Vol. 11, pp. 17-18.
“Chongqingshi Gongshangye Lianhehui Choubei Weiyuanhui Gongzuo Baogao(17th to 29th July 1950)”.

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成城・経済研究第 222 号（2018 年 12 月）

summarizing the results for circulation.32)
As one segment of these learning activities, the PCCCI carried out Land
Reform Inspection. According to what had been planned, the CCP would carryout land reform in southeast China after 195133). Beginning in the Chongqing
area, the CCP carried out rent reduction in the countryside around the city fromaround March 1950, completing the project around March 195134).
Meanwhile, Land Reform Inspection had already been carried out in the
Huabei area, with the participation of the city’s intellectuals, industrialist andentrepreneurs.35) On the basis of these experiences, the PCCCI formed a “Land
Reform Inspection Team” in Chongqing (Figure 3). The inspection team wasdivided into four groups. Group 1 went to northern Chongqing (Jiangbei district);
Group 2 went to western Chongqing (Shapingba district); Group 3 went to southwest
Chongqing (Shapingba and Dadukou districts); and Group 4 went to southern
Chongqing (Jiulongpo district). Of these, Group 3 was made up of delegates
representing commerce and industry, among them members from the PCCCI and
the China Democratic National Construction Party such as Xu Zonglin and Yuan
Xiaozhi. Group 3 departed Chongqing city on March 14, 1951, returning toChongqing city six days later on March 20.
Many of the commercial and industrial businessmen owned land in rural32) Xu Baitu, “Jiefang Yinianlai de Gongshang Xuexi”.
33) “Xinanqu Jianzu Zanxing Tiaoli”, Chongqing Zhengbao, Vol. 1-2, pp.38-39.
34) “Chongqingshi Jiaoqu Jianzu Shishi Xize”, Chongqing Zhengbao, Vol. 1-5, pp. 7273. Before the “liberation” of Chongqing, the National Government carried out thepolicy of so-called “2-5 rent reduction” near the city of Chongqing in places such as
Beibei. Yamamoto Shin, Kokkyo Naisenki Kokuminseihu no Nigo Genso Seisaku:
Chugoku Nouson Hukkou Rengou Iinkai no Enjo ni yoru 1949nen no Sisensyou no
Rei wo Chuxin to shite, Chugoku Kenkyu Geppou, 586, pp. 1-15.
35) For instance, in Beijing, many students and teachers went to rural villages to join theland reform. Zhou Yuan, “Wo Canjia le Jingjiao Tugai Gongzuo”, Li Jianmin eds.
Tugai de Jingyan yu Xinde. Shanghai: Shiyong Chubanshe, pp. 35-49.

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areas, so they found themselves in a delicate position in the land reform struggles.
Members of the Inspection Team jointly published a report in which theyemphasized that “generally, in the process of rent reduction, commercial andindustrial businessmen did better than pure landowners.” They went on to say that“through land reform, the peasant masses had not disrupted the interests ofcommercial and industrial businessmen. The businessmen could cut off theirfeudalistic tails, so as to concentrate on managing their own works36)”.
In Daxian 達県, a rural city in northern Chongqing belonging to Chuanbei
Administrative Office, the land reform struggles waged by the CCP were fierce.
By contrast, with its small population of peasants37), the level of land reform inChongqing was relatively moderate, in consideration of the interests ofcommercial and industrial businessmen. Businessmen in Chongqing were in a
delicate position politically, but were on high ground otherwise. This situation
clearly influenced their activities.
In addition, we also need to focus on the PCCCI’s role connecting the cityand the countryside.

3

The Movement of Purchasing Government Bonds and the Korean War
There is an intimate relationship between the Learning Movement of the

PCCCI and the international political situation surrounding China at that time.
36)

37)

Xu Zonglin eds. “Canguan Tudigaige Gongzuo de Baogao”, Xinan Renmin
Chubanshe Bianjibu Bian, Chongqingshi Jiaoqu Tudigaige Canguantuan Gongzuo
Baogao. Chongqing: Xinan Renmin Chubanshe, 1951, pp.30-31.
In August 1950, the total population of Chongqing was 1,086,000, out of whichpeasants accounted for 145,000, or 13.35% of the total. Furthermore, the average
ratio of peasants to the total population of Southwest Great District (Chuandong,
Chuannan, Chuanxi, Chuanbei, Yunnan, Guizhou, Xikang, Chongqing Special City)
was 88.61% and that of Chuanbei District was 94.02%. “Xinanqu Renkou Gengdi
Nongchanliang Jichu Shuzibiao (12th August 1950)”, Chongqing Zhengbao, Vol. 15, pp. 74.

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The situation in East Asia and on the Korean Peninsula was becoming morestrained. On June 25, 1950, Kim Il-sung led North Korean troops on a pushsouthward and the Korean War broke out. On June 27, the United States unveiled
the “Truman Doctrine”. This was a policy to dispatch ground forces to the Korean
Peninsula, neutralize the Taiwan Strait, and offer support to France in Indochina.
In the beginning, the war situation favored North Korea, but on September 15, theUnited Nations forces consisting mostly of U. S. troops, began a major landing at
Incheon and the war changed course. On October 9, U. N. forces crossed the 38th
parallel, advancing toward the border with China.
Ten days after the declaration of the Truman Doctrine, China decided toestablish defense units in Northeast China to deal with the expansion of the Korean
War38). On October 10, Chinese People’s Volunteers crossed the Yalu River into
Korean territory and China became involved in the war. From that time on, theChinese government needed to purchase and produce military materials as quickly
as possible, and it issued a huge amount of national bonds to cover its military
expenditures.
The Learning Movement in Chongqing and the international situation went
hand in hand. The most important activity of the Learning Movement was toprompt commercial and industrial businessmen to support the wartime economy
through “practical action”.
The most practical action was to join the Movement to Resist United States
Aggression and Aid Korea 抗美援朝運動. On July 20 and November 15, 1950,
the PCCCI held, respectively, the “Congress to Resist U. S. Imperialism’s
Aggression toward Taiwan and Korea” and the “Congress of the Chongqing City
Business Community to Resist U.S. Aggression and Aid Korea”39). In June 1951,
38)

Zhu Jianrong. Moutakuto no Chousen Sensou: Chugoku ga Ouryokukou wo Wataru
made. Tokyo: Iwanami Shoten, 1991, pp. 77-95.

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From “Guild” to “Chamber of Commerce” Bankers and Commercial Associations in 1950s Chongqing

the PCCCI established “The Committee for the Movement to Donate Airplanes”,
which raised sufficient money for 20 combat aircraft40).
Second was to pay tax. Hu Zi-ang, the chief delegate of the PCCCI, pointed
out that, “Commercial and industrial businessmen must recognize ‘Resisting
United States Aggression and Aiding Korea’ is the most important mission of thepeople at the present time”. At the same time, he also pointed out the necessity of“consolidating

pricestability,

remoldingbusinessmen’s

ideology,

andstrengthening political awareness,” but added that paying taxes was the way toeffectively guarantee resistance to U. S. aggression.41) From the government’s
point of view, businessmen were duty-bound to pay tax, but Hu’s words appear toindicate that tax evasion was a common phenomenon in Chongqing in those days.
Given the situation, his logic appeared to be that if businessmen fulfilled their dutyof paying taxes, then they would be making a major contribution to the wartime
economy.
Third was to purchase “Patriot Bonds on a Parity with Commodities 愛国折実 公 債”42).

Through the Learning Movement, Chongqing businessmen“enhanced understanding that the People’s Government strongly supported
39)

Long Mingqiao. “Jiji Touru Kangmei Yuanchao Yundong”, Chongqing Tongzhan
Zhengxie Wenshiziliao Congshu Binaweihui, Chongqing Gongshanglian. pp. 154155.
40) Long Mingqiao. “Jiji Touru Kangmei Yuanchao Yundong”, pp.157-158.
41) Hu Zi-ang, “Dui Qingzhu Chongqing Jiefang Yizhounian yu Kangmei Yuanchao
Gongshangyezhe Yingyou de Renshi he Nuli”, Chongqing Gongshang, Vol. 1-1, pp.
2-3.
42) To hedge the risks of the currency inflation, CCP established “Parity Unit Rates”(Zheshi Danwei Paijia). In southwest China, 1 parity unit formally converted into theamount of RMB of the commodities as follows: 3jins (= 1.5kg) of Dahe fine rice, 1shichi (= 1/3 meter) of Shuangxi white textile, 1liang (= 50g) of oil, 1liang of salt,
3jins of coal. “Chongqingshi Junguanhui guanyu Xinzi Jisuan Biaozhun de Guiding(January 1950)”, Zhonggong Chongqingshiwei Dangshi Gongzuo Weiyuanhui eds,
Jieguan Chongqing. Chongqing: Zhonggong Chonqgingshiwei Dangshi Gongzuo
Weiyuanhui, 1985, pp. 168-169.

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成城・経済研究第 222 号（2018 年 12 月）

commerce and industry and that “the way to overcome our individual difficulties isto resolve the difficulties the country faces”43). In fact, purchasing bonds was anactivity allocated to each enterprise via the PCCCI or learning groups. The
allocation was proportionate to the size of each enterprise. The highest allocation
was for the shipping industry at 220, 300 units, followed by the cotton textile
industry (207,287 units), the mountain product industry (188,900 units), the banking
industry (187,348 units) and the salt trading industry (144,051 units). Together, these
five industries accounted for 45 percent of the total amount of 2,107,448 units44).
Although enterprises were not obliged to buy bonds, in actual fact it was
mandatory to do so. That said, because they were issued by the state andconverted on a par with actual commodities, there was little influence of inflation.
In time of recession, when the risks associated with using idle capital wererelatively lower, industrialists and businessmen accepted purchasing Patriot Bonds
immediately.
Through researching the Learning Movement, we can see that the mostimportant task of the CCP was to concentrate the capital of industrialists andbusinessmen into the People’s Government as soon as possible. At the time, themanagers of each company also saw the practical benefits and so they joined theactivities of the PCCCI.

IV Becoming a “Chamber of Commerce”
1

The PCCCI and the Policy of Processing, Ordering and Purchasing
Another important mission of the PCCCI was to mediate in the “processing,ordering and purchasing” by the government.

43)
44)

Xu Baitu. “Jiefang Yinianlai de Gongshang Xuexi”, pp. 18.
“Chongqingshi Gongshangjie Yi Gouru Renmin Shengli Zheshi Gongzhai Fenshu
Mingxibiao (until 10th November 1950)” Chongqing Gongshang, Vol. 1-1, pp.63.

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From “Guild” to “Chamber of Commerce” Bankers and Commercial Associations in 1950s Chongqing

Early in 1950, the Chinese government adopted an austere fiscal policy andwithdrew the former currency; the economy went into recession, triggering the socalled “April emergency”. Meanwhile, the CCP and Kuomintang were stillfighting in Sichuan; in addition, March was the time between crops in rural areas
when the price of grain and textile soared. In January, 1 parity unit converted at
the rate of 2,000 RMB, but by March this had risen to 8,000 RMB45). After April,
prices stabilized, leading to a slow-down of speculative activities; this, together
with the delay in the recovery of transport infrastructure, disrupted the distributionof goods and the flow of funds, and the market fell into a panic. For instance, thecotton spinning industry had a manual production capacity of 5,700 bales of No.
20 count cotton yarn per month, but could only manufacture 4,412 bales in May;
the industrial screw industry had a production capacity of 469 tons per month, but
only produced 194 tons in May, of which it sold 115 tons. Every industry cut backproduction one after another; some enterprises suspended operations, and many
started to sell their real-estate holdings.46).
Under these circumstances, the People’s Government adopted the policy of“processing, ordering and purchasing” vis-à-vis private enterprises in an effort tostimulate the economy. After the “liberation” of Chongqing, the People’s
Government consistently carried out its policy of “processing, ordering andpurchasing”; in the beginning, however, each section of the People’s Government
carried out the policy separately, based on their needs. After July 1950, thePeople’s Government decided to consolidate the policy allocation under thesupervision of the Department of Commerce and Industry. From around August,because of the outbreak of the Korean War, the amount of the “processing,45) The Parity Rates from Chongqing DaGongbao.
46) Chongqingshi Renmin Zhengfu Gongshangju. “Jiefang Yinian lai de Chongqing
Gongshangye”. Chongqing Gongshang, Vol. 1-1, November 1950, pp. 5-6.

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成城・経済研究第 222 号（2018 年 12 月）

ordering and purchasing” increased and this had a big impact on the operations ofenterprises.
From July 15 to the end of October, the amount of processing, ordering andpurchasing carried out by the Department of Commerce and Industry was asfollows: 11,720,562,578 RMB (processing), 25,341,821,300 RMB (ordering) and 18,
267,100,357 RMB (purchasing), with the total amount coming to 55,329,484,235
RMB47). Seeing that tax revenues of Chongqing city from January to October1950 came to 298,538,150,880 RMB48), the extremely large scale of the policy ofprocessing, ordering and purchasing is evident.
The contracts drawn up in connection with this policy were not directly
between government and the contracted enterprises.

Concerning contract

procedures for ordering, the Department of Commerce and Industry first gatheredorders from each section, allocated by bidding in the “Meeting of Processing andOrdering” held several times a month. The PCCCI dispatched representatives tothis meeting who, after they received the bids, allocated the work to each member
enterprise. In addition, when the government concluded a contract with anenterprise after the work had been allocated by the PCCCI, the PCCCI’s signature
was needed49).
Regarding processing and ordering by the PCCCI from August to October
1950, many of the orders were placed by military-related institutions, including the
Department of Munitions, and by infrastructure institutions such as the Southwest
Railroad Bureau50). Most of the commodities ordered were industrial products for
47)

Chongqingshi Renmin Zhengfu Gongshangju. “Jiefang Yinian lai de Chongqing
Gongshangye”. Chongqing Gongshang, Vol. 1-1, November 1950, pp. 5-6.
48) “Jiefang Yinian lai Chongqingshi Renmin Zhengfu Shuiwuju Shuishou
Zhuangkuang Bijiaobiao”. Chongqing Gongshang, Vol. 1-1, November 1950, pp. 8.
49) “Chongqingshi Gongsi Yingye jian guanyu Jiagong Dinghuo Hetong Zanxing Banfa(28th November 1950), Chongqing Gongshang, Vol. 1-1, pp. 82.
50) “Chongqing Gongshangye Lianhehui Choubei Weiyuanhui Gongzuo Baogao (31th─ 162 ─

From “Guild” to “Chamber of Commerce” Bankers and Commercial Associations in 1950s Chongqing

the military such as canvas, medicinal supplies, military uniforms, tobacco, pots
and electric wire. The amount of processing, ordering and purchasing increased
rapidly from September 1950, totaling 39,049,349,048 RMB (+ 6,000 parity units +611,053 shi [1 shi = 1,00l]). This amount accounted for over 70% of the total amountof processing, ordering and purchasing in Chongqing city. From this standpoint, it
can be thought that the PCCCI had the authority to carry out the processing,ordering and purchasing policy on behalf of the People’s Government.

2

Commercial and Industrial Loans
The PCCCI also carried out another promotion for commerce and industry.

As mentioned above, the distribution of goods and the flow of funds were still
disrupted in early 1950. In May, when raw silk was listed on the commodity
market, there was an increase in demand for funds for purchasing and soon there
wasn’t sufficient money in circulation. To make up for the shortage of funds, the
PCCCI, the People’s Bank of China and the Department of Commerce andIndustry coordinated a “Commercial and Industrial Loan”.
The Commercial and Industrial Loan was coordinated by the United Banks
Syndicate consisting of the People’s Bank of China, Young Brothers Banking
Corporation, Xinhua Bank and the Chinese Industrial Bank, under the supervisionof the PCCCI51). Key industries such as transportation and the coal mining
industry became the object of the loan. At first, United Banks Syndicate made 48
billion RMB in loans to the shipping industry. After that, they also allocated 80
billion RMB in loans to PCCCI member enterprises, with a ratio of 80% toindustry and 20% to commerce. In addition, they granted furthers loans secured

51)

July to 12th August 1950) (14th August to 26th August 1950) (28th August to 8th
October 1950)”. Archival documents of Chongqing CCI [1040-1-6].
Renmin Zhengfu Gongshangju, “Chongqing Gongshangye zai Kaishi Haozhuan”,
Chongqing Zhengbao, Vol. 1-5, Sep. 1950, pp. 28.

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成城・経済研究第 222 号（2018 年 12 月）

by contracts for processing, ordering and purchasing52).
These loans were screened and guaranteed by the PCCCI. For member
enterprises, this meant they had access to operating capital immediately; forbankers, it meant they could avoid the risk of loan loss.
As examined above, the PCCCI used its function of economic intermediation
to strengthen its influence. That is the reason why the managers of each enterprise
were drawn into the PCCCI.

Afterword
Chongqing’s economy went into recession after its “liberation” in 1949. In
order to reestablish the city’s economy, the People’s Government invested hugeamounts of money in the city, especially during the Korean War. For example, thegovernment constructed railways to, and purchased many industrial goods from,
Chongqing. These policies had a great impact on Chongqing’s economy, andcreated business opportunities for commercial and industrial enterprises there.
Within the framework of the above CCP policies, the PCCCI organized theindustrial and commercial spheres. The members of the PCCCI were obliged tojoin the learning campaign and to purchase government bonds. Nevertheless,many merchants and entrepreneurs in Chongqing participated in the PCCCI andtried to find ways to succeed in business. The PCCCI was able to consolidate theprivate enterprises that the CCP could not control directly. By using the PCCCI,
the CCP attempted to control indirectly the merchants and entrepreneurs inChongqing after 1950.

52)

Hu Zi-ang, “Chongqing shi Gongshangye Lianhehui Choubei Weiyuanhui Shigeyue
lai de Gongzuo he Jinhou de Gongzuo Fangzhen yu Renwu”, Chongqing Gongshang,Vol. 1-5, May. 1951, pp. 4.

─ 164 ─

From “Guild” to “Chamber of Commerce” Bankers and Commercial Associations in 1950s Chongqing[Figure 1] The Transition of Chongqing Banker’s Association
Year
Lianhuan Hui 聯歓会

1926

Position
Bangdong(幇董)President
Executive
committee

Chongqing Municipal Bankers’
Association(First)25th Oct. 1931

Chongqing Municipal Bankers’
Association(Second)

1st Nov. 1933

President
Executive
committee

Chongqing Municipal Bankers’
Association(Third)1936

President
Executive
committee
alternateexecutive
committee

Chongqing Municipal Bankers’
Association(Reorganized)

1939Standing
committee
President
Standing
committee

Executive
committee

Supervisorycommittee

alternate
Supervisorycommittee

─ 165 ─Name

Belonging

Position

趙資生

中和銀行

総経理

康心如
周宜甫
張茂芹
湯壺嶠
張子黎
陳麗生
潘昌猷
潘昌猷
周宜甫
張子黎
康心如
任望南
劉航琛
呉受彤
戴秬初
周季悔
呉受彤
顧敦甫
龔農膽
連智臨
梅孝威
鮮伯良
廖問聘
任望南
康心之
康心如
徐維明
浦丞東
寧止村
潘昌猷
馮英
謝秉之
郭松年
董鴻詩
李其猷
張佑賢
呉晋航
王祖廉
唐棣之
何兆青
龔農膽
任望南
梅孝威
周季悔
楊暁波
李現林
賀友梅
汪粟甫

四川美豊銀行中国銀行
聚興誠銀行
川康殖業銀行重慶平民銀行
川塩銀行
重慶銀行
重慶銀行
中国銀行
重慶平民銀行四川美豊銀行聚興誠銀行
川康殖業銀行
川塩銀行

経理
経理
重慶分行経理
経理
経理
経理
総経理
総経理
経理
経理
経理
総管理処協理総経理
董事長

川康殖業銀行
川塩銀行
中国銀行
四川美豊銀行
重慶銀行
聚興誠銀行
江海銀行
四川建設銀行聚興誠銀行
四川省銀行
四川美豊銀行
中国銀行
交通銀行
川康平民商業銀行
重慶銀行
中国農民銀行
川塩銀行
四川建設銀行聚興誠銀行
上海商業貯蓄銀行
金城銀行
和成銀行
郵政貯金匯業局
江海銀行
四川省銀行
四川美豊銀行
聚興誠銀行
聚興誠銀行
川康平民商業銀行
聚興誠銀行
中国国貨銀行
新華信託貯蓄銀行
重慶銀行

協理
董事長
襄理
経理
襄理
副理
経理
襄理
経理
協理
総経理
経理
経理
総経理
常務董事
経理
董事長
総経理
総経理
経理
経理
総経理
経理
常務董事
経理
経理
協理
経理
協理
協理
経理
経理
襄理

顧義

中国銀行

襄理

成城・経済研究

Preparatory Committee
Chongqing Municipal
Financial Associationof

第 222 号（2018 年 12 月）

Year
Position
25th Oct. 1950 Chief delegate
vice chiefdelegate

Name
余躍沢
楊受百
陳詩可

Belonging
人民銀行重慶分行
聚興誠銀行
和成銀行

Position
副行長
代理総経理
総経理

Source: Zhang Xiaomei eds. Sichuan Jingji Cankao Ziliao. Shanghai: Guomin Jingji Yanjiusuo, 1938, pp. D37〜38; Chongqing Zhongguo Yinhang.
Chongqing Jingji Gaikuang. 1938, pp. 34〜42; “Chuankang Pingmin Shangye Yinhang Xiaoshi”. Sichuan Jingji Qikan, Vol. 1-1, December 1943,
pp. 195〜198; “Chongqingshi Yinhangshangye Tongyegonghui Diyijie Dangxuan Weiyuan Mingce (28th November 1939)”. Chongqingshi
Dang'an'guan, Chongqing Shifan Daxue eds. Zhongguo Zhanshi Shoudu Dang’an Wenxian Zhanshi Jinrong. Chongqing Chubanshe, 2016, pp. 367369; “Chongqingshi Geye Tongyegonghui Choubei Weiyuanhui Chouwei Minglu”. Chongqing Gongshang, Vol. 1-1, pp. 78, 81.

[Figure2] The organization of PCCCI

Standing Committee

Reorganization Committee
Education Committee
Finance Committee
Policy-making Committee
Engineering Committee

Secretary Bureau

First Section
Second Section

Education Committee

First Section
Second Section

Finance Committee

First Section
Second Section

Policy-making Committee

First Section
Second Section

Engineering Committee

First Section
Second Section

Source: “Chongqingshi Gongshangye Lianhehui Choubei Weiyuanhui Zuzhi Xitongbiao”.
Chongqing Gongshang, Vol. 1-1, November 1950, pp. 75.

─ 166 ─

From “Guild” to “Chamber of Commerce” Bankers and Commercial Associations in 1950s Chongqing[Figure 3] Overview of Land Reform Inspection
Group

Districts of inspection

Time

Name of delegates潘大逵（重慶大学教授・中
国民主同盟），馬耕漁，楊復全，張 増 民，馮 克 煕，胡 克
林，耿振華

1

Nothern area (Maoershi Xiang, Shimahe Xiang,
Guanyinqiao Xiang. Jiangbei District)

14th-20th March

2

Western area (Geleshan Xiang. Shapingba District)Around 25th March 金錫如（重慶大学教授）etc.

3

Southwest area (Daping Zhen, Shiqiaopu Zhen,
Hualongqiao Zhen, Liziba Zhen, Xietaizi Xiang, Yangjiu
Xiang. Shapingba and Dadukou Districts)

14th-20th March

徐崇林（工商聯籌委会常務委員・大成製革公司廠長・
民主建国会），王道衡（天永化工廠廠長・民主建国会），
劉崑水，袁効之（工商聯籌委会委員・中国標準鉛筆廠
重慶分廠経理），張群華（天泉造紙廠経理），金栄華

4West and central area (Longmenhao Xiang, Lijiatuo
Xiang etc. Jiulongpo District)Around the end ofMarch

夏仲実（謙泰豫商業銀行董事長），李紫翔，杜鋼百（四川省立教育学院教授），鄧後炎，羅宏章

Source: Xinan Renmin Chubanshe Bianjibu eds. Chongqingshi Jiaoqu Tudigaige Canguantuan Gongzuo Baogao.
Chongqing: Xinan Renmin Chubanshe, 1951. "Daibiao Tongxunlu". Chongqing Zhengbao. First issue, February 1950, pp.
85〜104.

─ 167 ─