Bulletin of the Toyo University Center for Global Education and Exchange, the Inaugural Issue, March 2023 (Academic Paper)

International Student Experiences of Emergency
Remote TeachingRobert C. MorelCenter for Global Education and Exchange
Toyo University
Abstract
This paper examines how international students perceived their experiences of a sudden shift
to online learning due to the COVID-19 pandemic. In-depth, semi-structured interviews wereconducted with five degree-seeking international students at a Japanese university. Interviews
were conducted after students had experienced their first semester of emergency remoteteaching online. Transcripts were analyzed using interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA)
to generate themes from each interview and then to look for overall themes across interviews.
The findings suggest the areas students perceived as most influential to their experiences witha semester of emergency remote teaching were a shift in the social dimension of learning,embracing and struggling with autonomy, and how instructors met the student’s expectations.
The paper suggests reasons for the importance of these themes and their importance in regard
to international student needs during an emergency remote teaching situation
Keywords: international students, emergency remote teaching, online learning, student
experience

Introduction
The past two decades have seen an explosion in international student mobility (ISM) and acorresponding increase in scholarly interest in international students (Gümüş, Gök, & Esen, 2019).
These students have come to represent an increasingly important population for host universities
and countries as source of income, prestige, and skilled labor (OECD, 2020). Although the student
destinations and research publications have centered around a small number of Anglo-Saxon andWestern European countries, regional hubs—particularly those in East Asia—are growing inimportance (Choudaha, 2017; Hou and Du, 2020; Gümüş et al., 2019). Despite growing interest in
the experiences of international students, there is still little qualitative inquiry centering the voicesof students themselves (de Wit, 2020).

−3−

International Student Experiences of Emergency Remote Teaching

International students often face different social and academic challenges than those of theirdomestic peers (Alfattal, 2016; Van Horne et al., 2018) and this may be especially true during timesof crisis when they may constitute a vulnerable and overlooked population (Chen et al., 2020;
Firang, 2020). Thus, while the abrupt shift from traditional on-campus classes to remote learning
due to COVID-19 has caused disruption for all students, it may impact international students
differently. The increasing frequency of pandemics (Ross et al., 2015) and the disruption to higher
education caused by COVID-19 highlight the importance of being prepared to shift to emergency
remote teaching (ERT) in the case of similar disruptions in the future. As an important and often
overlooked population, it is also necessary to better understand how international students
experience this shift to ERT.
This study attempts to bring together these two streams of inquiry: qualitative inquiry into theexperiences of international students, and experiences of students during the rapid shift to ERT. By
situating the research in an Asian country with a growing international student population it
attempts to extend the discussion of these streams beyond the often studied Anglo-Saxon andEuropean contexts. In doing so it asks the following questions:･  How do degree-seeking international students at a Japanese university understand theirlearning experience in the context of a sudden switch from face-to-face classes to ERT?
		◦ What academic or school-related factors do international students perceive as either
facilitating or hindering their learning during a semester of emergency remote teaching?

		◦ What can these experiences suggest about possible international student needs during
periods of emergency remote teaching?

Literature Review
International Student Mobility
In the past two decades the importance of, and interest in, international students has expanded
rapidly. Between 2000 and 2018 the number of students seeking a degree abroad increased from 2.2
million to 5.6 million students, with the most rapid increase happening in the latter half of that
period (OECD, 2020). During the same period, there has been a marked increase in research
focusing on ISM, particularly on international students themselves (Gümüş et al., 2019). For hostinstitutions, international students are often an important source of income and talent, while those
who stay in the host country after graduation contribute to the skilled workforce and economy(OECD, 2020). For students, the impetus to seek a degree outside of one’s home country often
arises from a desire for a higher quality education or improved career opportunities than what they
perceive to be available in their home country (Abbott and Silles, 2016; Urban and Palmer, 2016).
In addition to educational and economic considerations, international students’ choice of−4−Bulletin of the Toyo University Center for Global Education and Exchange, the Inaugural Issue, March 2023 (Academic Paper)

destination countries may also be influenced by similarity of culture or language and time-zone(Abbott and Silles, 2016; Weisser, 2016).
International students often face different challenges and place emphasis on different parts of
the university experience. These students often face challenges adapting to a new culture, language,
and academic style (Khanal and Gaulee, 2019). International students are likely to face anxiety
related to these challenges and need different academic and social support than do their domestic
peers (Alfattal, 2016; Andrade, 2006). Despite these challenges, however, studies by Van Horne etal. (2018) and Andrade (2006) suggest that international students are equally engaged in theirstudies as their domestic peers. International students also may emphasize different parts of theuniversity experience than domestic students, favoring professional goals over personal
development and placing greater importance on the quality of their lectures and less on social
experiences (Ammigan, 2019; Ammigan & Jones, 2018; Urban & Palmer, 2016).
Thus far research into ISM has been heavily focused on a small number of Western countries
as destinations and developing countries as sources of students (Choudaha, 2012; Perkins and
Neumayer, 2014). Compounding this Western focus is that the majority of ISM research is also
produced by scholars based in these countries. In a content and bibliographical analysis of twenty
years of research in the Journal of Studies in International Education, Bedenlier et al. (2018) foundthat both the origin and content of articles was heavily skewed towards Anglo-Saxon and Western
European countries. Gümüş et al. (2019), in their study of over 2,000 publications spanning thirty
years reveals that the majority of ISM articles come from scholars in just three countries: the US,
UK, and Australia.
However, this focus on a small number of Western destination countries, produced by Western
scholars, no longer reflects the reality of ISM. Although OECD countries still host the majority ofinternational students, the fastest growth in ISM is in students enrolled in institutions in non-OECD
countries (OECD, 2020). Chouda (2017) argues that since 2013 ISM has been undergoing a third
wave in which traditional source countries such as China, Japan, and Korea have been repositioning
themselves as destination countries in competition with each other and traditional Westerndestinations. This argument is supported by Hou and Du’s (2020) large-scale network analysis of
UNESCO tertiary-level student data. The authors found that student migration still primarily
flowed from Eastern to Western countries, but that between 2001 and 2015 the proportion of thestudent flow to Asian countries increased while that of Western countries decreased. They argue
that there has been a significant shift from a hierarchical ISM network to one which is more
decentralized, with regional hubs growing in importance. In light of this shift, a closer examinationof ISM in these emerging non-Western hubs such as Japan may reveal new insights as to theexperiences of international students and the ways in which they are coincide with or diverge fromthose of students in traditional Western destination countries.

−5−International Student Experiences of Emergency Remote Teaching

Emergency Remote Teaching
Due to the spread of COVID-19, in the late winter and early spring of 2020 universities inmany countries had to rapidly move classes online (Hodges, Moore, Lockee, Trust, & Bond, 2020).
While various terms evolved for this shift, the label of emergency remote teaching (ERT) emerged
as a description which clearly highlights the distinction between planned online instruction and a
rapid shift online in response to the current pandemic (Hodges et al., 2020; Milman, 2020). Online
learning involves careful instructional planning, design and implementation to best take advantage
of learning in an online format, and well-designed online instruction can be as effective as face-toface learning (Magagula and Ngwenya, 2004; McPhee and Söderström, 2012). In contrast, ERT is atemporary shift to remote instruction because of a crisis situation with the primary goal ofproviding reliably available temporary access to instruction and educational support until it ispossible to return to face-to-face instruction (Hodges et al., 2020).
Thus far, there is limited research as to the effects of ERT on students. Prior research into
student access to institutional support (Gómez, 2013), institutional resilience (SchWeber, 2008; Tullet al., 2017), or instructor perspectives (Mackey et al., 2012) during crises highlights the difficulties
faced by instructors and institutions but offers little insight into the learning experiences ofstudents. In the context of ERT during COVID-19, small scale studies in North America andAustralia have reported numerous negative impacts on student perceptions of learning including aloss of engagement and interaction (Kyne and Thompson, 2020; Petillion and McNeil, 2020),
challenges adapting to online learning platforms (Kyne and Thompson, 2020), and increased
workload and anxiety over coursework (Gelles et al., 2020). A study of university students in Korea
is one of the few to discuss positive aspects of ERT. In this study, students reported satisfaction
with being able to attend classes from home, being better able to utilize their time, and being able tocommunicate more easily with instructors using a private chat window during lectures (Shim andLee, 2020). As yet, there appear to be few studies focusing on international student learning
experiences during COVID-19. However, Chen et al. (2020) and Firang (2020) argue that, forsocial and financial reasons, international students constitute a vulnerable population and that
institutions must not overlook their needs during a crisis.
ISM and ERT in Japan
Japan is distinctly situated both in regard to international students and online instruction. Dueto a decreasing university-age population, saturation of higher education enrolment, and a national
push to internationalize universities, Japanese universities are increasingly trying to attract
international students. Government initiatives such as the 300,000 International Students Plan,
Asian Gateway Initiatives, Global 30, and Top Global University Project have greatly increased
university focus on and ability to attract international students (Ota, 2018). However, the difficulty−6−Bulletin of the Toyo University Center for Global Education and Exchange, the Inaugural Issue, March 2023 (Academic Paper)of achieving university-level Japanese proficiency as well as the high cost of life and study in Japan
have acted as barriers to prospective students, most of whom are from elsewhere in Asia (JASSO,
2020; Ninomiya et al., 2009). To help alleviate these difficulties, the government and universities
have increasingly begun offering attractive scholarships to promising students and promoted thedevelopment of programs taught fully in English (Brown, 2017; Kuwamura, 2009). Over the past
decade there has been a growing body of research on Japanese universities' internationalization
efforts (Huang, 2006; Ota, 2018; Yonezawa, 2009) as well as on English taught programs(Bradford, 2016; Brown, 2017). However, there remains a lack of bottom-up studies focusing on
the experiences of international students (Rakhshandehroo and Ivanova, 2020). Literature
foregrounding the voices of international students remains rarer still. Rakhshandehroo’s (2018)
study of international graduate students is one of the few to do so.
As for online instruction, Japan has a well-developed physical IT infrastructure, withwidespread adoption of high-speed internet (Akamai, 2017). However, due in part to a focus on
traditional students fresh out of high school, Japanese universities had virtually no experiencecreating and developing online courses. As of 2016, only 46 of 776 universities or junior colleges
providing any form of courses by correspondence or media (MEXT, 2016). Funamori (2017) notesthat Japanese universities have been slow to shift to internet communications technology based
instruction citing difficulties such as lack of knowledgeable staff, low digital competency among
faculty, lack of institutional support systems, and little understanding of the educational outcomesof digital learning. This is in sharp contrast to universities in countries like the US and Korea inwhich the adoption of internet communications technology based learning is considerably morewidespread (Ando, 2020; Funamori, 2017).
In response to COVID-19, Japan’s well-developed IT infrastructure meant that universities
had the technical resources—if not the pedagogical experience—to quickly move instruction
online. Additionally, because the Japanese school year begins in April, universities had a short time
between the emergence of COVID-19 in Japan in early spring and the beginning of the new school
year to plan the upcoming semester. A survey by the Ministry of Education (MEXT) found thatmany universities pushed the start date back as late as May, and that as of June 1, 60% of
universities nationwide were conducting classes exclusively online (MEXT, 2020c). MEXT
guidelines in response to COVID-19 state that online instruction should be equivalent to face-toface instruction (MEXT, 2020b; 2020a). However, student demands for a return to on-campus
instruction or a reduced tuition for online instruction suggest student dissatisfaction with ERT as itis being implemented by universities in Japan (“Daigaku ‘jugyoryo hanbun kaesite’ onrain-jugyonomi ga ima mo roku-wari. [‘I want half of my tuition fee back.’ Almost 60% of universities still
offer online classes only],” 2020).

−7−

International Student Experiences of Emergency Remote Teaching

Methodology
Participants and Data collection
Semi-structured interviews lasting 60—90 minutes were conducted with five undergraduate
degree seeking international students enrolled at a large, mid-level, urban university in Japan. The
study used purposive homogeneous sampling to maintain a focus on the experiences of a closely
defined group. Participants were enrolled in programs taught fully or primarily in English andwhich required a high level of academic English proficiency for admission. Additionally, allparticipants were studying on scholarships covering tuition and living expenses. A call forparticipants was sent out to international students via email and participation was voluntary. It was
important that students had been studying at the university for at least a year to have a basis ofcomparison between ‘regular’ campus study and studying online. Interviewees were enrolled in a
mix of synchronous video-conferencing lessons and asynchronous lessons with recorded video
lectures or simply postings on the class learning management system. The interviews wereconducted in July 2020, during the last two weeks of the online semester, using Cisco Webex
Meetings video conferencing software. All names are pseudonyms.
Using in-depth, semi-structured interviews allows for a deeper understanding of how
participants make meaning of their own experiences and help to give otherwise underrepresented
groups a voice (Lyons et al., 2013; Seidman, 2019). Such interviewing does not strive forgeneralizability but instead can help to enhance understanding of particular experiences and offer
useful insights for researchers (Johnson, 1997). The interview schedule served as a general guidefor interviews with room to explore individual participant experiences and responses. The lines ofquestioning centered on participants’ daily academic life, experiences with classes, coursework, andinstructors, and comparisons between the semester of ERT and previous semesters of in-person
learning. Participants were also asked to discuss instructors and courses they felt were managing
online learning effectively and those that were not.
Name

Year in School

Area of Study

Nationality

Mai
Lam
Novi
Kaede
Julia

3
3
4
3
3

International Studies
International Studies
Regional Development
Regional Development
Information & Design

VietnamVietnamIndonesia
Indonesia
Vietnam

Table 1. Participant Information
Analysis
Transcripts were analyzed manually using interpretative phenomenological analysis (IPA)(Smith, Flowers, & Larkin, 2009). IPA was chosen because it allows an examination of phenomena−8−Bulletin of the Toyo University Center for Global Education and Exchange, the Inaugural Issue, March 2023 (Academic Paper)reflecting everyday lived experience, concerns itself with the subjective accounts of individuals
situated in specific contexts, and it spotlights the perceptions of participants (Smith and Osborne,2008). Because IPA is interpretive rather than descriptive it engages in understanding theunderlying meaning of participant accounts. For these reasons, IPA encourages a deep focus onunderstanding, analyzing, and interpreting the experiences of a small number of participants.
Following IPA’s ideographic underpinnings, the generation of themes in IPA is a multi-layered
process which involves analyzing and generating themes and sub-themes for each individualtranscript in turn. Only after this is completed are the themes from each individual transcript
compared. This allows the research to both honor the experiences, perceptions, and understandingsof each individual participant and explore the subjective perceptions of a particular group (Reid etal., 2005; Smith and Osborne, 2008). Following the steps suggested in Smith et al. (2009), for eachparticipant in this study the interview transcript was read repeatedly to establish a general sense of
the participant’s account, exploratory comments were made, and emergent themes were inductively
generated and grouped into super-ordinate themes. After analyzing all the individual transcripts,
themes were compared to find patterns and commonalities among participant experiences. Finally,a master set of more abstract super-ordinate themes for the group was generated by focusing on thethemes that were most prominent among all participant accounts.
Results
This study highlights three recurrent, interrelated themes: a shift in the social dimension oflearning, embracing and struggling with autonomy, and student expectations of instructors.
Master themes

Subordinate themes

Shift in the social dimension oflearning--Being part of a class--Transactional interaction

Embracing and struggling withautonomy--Control of schedule and environment--Struggles with autonomy

Expectations of teachers--Guiding learning--Fostering interaction--Acknowledging student work

Table 2: Master and subordinate themes
A shift in the social dimension of learning
All participants highlighted the impact that the quality and style of interactions had on theirlearning experiences. With the shift to learning online, participant accounts revealed a picture ofinteraction with peers and professors becoming more transactional. Participant responses to thisshift, however, were more varied. The way participants discussed their interactions with peers andteachers points to the impact of interaction on both the affective and cognitive aspects of their−9−International Student Experiences of Emergency Remote Teachinglearning.
Being part of a class
Despite the difference in feeling between online lessons and being in a classroom, participants
voiced a strong need to feel like they were part of a class and had contact with the professor andother students. The extent to which they felt like part of a class greatly impacted their motivation,satisfaction, and perceived learning.
Julia highlights both the feeling of strangeness that many students felt with a shift to online
learning as well as the importance of maintaining the feeling of being part of a class.
It feels very surreal. Very surreal, so that for a while I wasn't as serious of learning as I used
to be. I think I see that in everyone around me. . . I can just read by myself, I had to join justto make me feel like I'm a student and I still have a serious mindset to do work.
[Julia]Not being able to see or talk to her classmates made the experience “very surreal” for Julia, making
it difficult to maintain a serious focus on her studies. Despite not feeling the same as a classroom
lecture, Julia still found even this level of interaction necessary to feel like a student—something
she suggests is necessary to maintain academic focus.
Participants also felt that there was a clear connection between opportunities for student
discussion and their own learning. Novi stresses the difference between participating in
synchronous video lectures and discussion-based classes.
In class, I think it's better if the students interact more, do more, discuss more, because I
could see the contrast between when I'm looking at screens and talking, discussing. So, I feellike I learned more when I'm discussing with students, teachers. The material is somethingthat you can learn, you can read before (class).
[Novi]
Content is something that Novi feels can mostly be assigned as readings outside of class. In
contrast, learning in class is something he perceives as happening primarily through interaction
with others.
Transactional Interaction
Overall, participants described their relationships with teachers and peers as more distant thanin previous semesters. This was primarily because of the barriers to communication created by not
being in the same physical space. When on campus, students noted the ease of staying a few
minutes after class to ask questions and the importance of informal after-class interactions inbuilding relationships with instructors and classmates.
While all participants described their interactions as more transactional compared to previous− 10 −

Bulletin of the Toyo University Center for Global Education and Exchange, the Inaugural Issue, March 2023 (Academic Paper)semesters, their feelings about this differed, giving insight into what they perceive as the purpose ofinteraction with professors and peers. Lam had particular difficulty accepting and adapting toonline discussions.
When you're talking face to face with someone or you are communicating physically withthem, you can see their emotion on their face, their body language, how they actually feel.
And by, just by looking at each other, you can express things with them. But even if we turnon our cameras or our microphone, we cannot see how either actually feels. It's more, it'seasier for them to cover up their real feeling. So when you are connecting with them or
you're communicating with the other students--when I'm communicating--um, I feel [pause]
I feel fake. [laughing] It feels like they’re only showing me what they want me to see. Not
their true feeling or thinking. So it doesn’t feel right.
[Lam]
For Lam, vital aspects of the physicality of in-person communication cannot be reproduced online.
Even over a video chat where she can see classmates’ faces, she notes that she cannot pick up on
her classmates’ feelings. To her the medium itself feels inauthentic. Lam’s emphasis on seeing
emotions and understanding classmates’ feelings suggests she believes the purpose of interactingwith classmates goes beyond sharing ideas and information. Lam sees the intangible sharing of
emotions as an essential part of communication that cannot be reproduced online. This may explain
why, of all the participants, she reported having the least positive view of interaction online.
In contrast, Novi found the online format made it easier to share information and know more
about his classmates. In addition to praising the benefits of file and screen sharing, he extolls theefficacy of online interaction.
It’s really convenient because let's say we're discussing about certain topics, right? And I canjust look it up in three seconds, I can look it up and then I go back to the discussion. It's
making it more effective in terms of discussion. . . it enhances the discussion.
[Novi]
And later . . .
So, this year I, I feel like I know everyone. I mean, at least I know who is in the class. I
know how many students. It's more transparent to what the class is. The size and theinteraction. I feel like I talk to more people in this kind of setting than last year because inclass we sit at a certain place and we only talk to maybe the person in front of us, in back ofus, on the side. But here, I can talk to people, like it's not restricted by the seats.
[Novi]
Novi’s comments show a more instrumental view of interaction with classmates. When speaking of
online communication, he stresses the efficiency of finding and exchanging information noting thatit “enhances the discussion.” Seeing the list of his classmates in an online meeting and being able to− 11 −

International Student Experiences of Emergency Remote Teaching

talk to a greater number of classmates makes him feel like he knows them better than in aclassroom setting. In a physical classroom he notes that he can only talk to classmates immediately
adjacent to him. Combined with this, the description of online class being “transparent” suggeststhat there is an opacity about classmates in a physical classroom whose names he may never evenknow. For Novi, being able to exchange information with a greater number of people and having
information of who those people are (their names) constitutes his image of what is important inclassmate interaction.
The other participants fell between these two views. Most felt positively about the ease withwhich they could share information online but missed having informal interaction with classmatesand instructors.
Embracing and struggling with autonomy
Participants described the benefits and challenges involved in having greater control over theirown time and learning that resulted from the lack of having a set class schedule on campus.
Although participants generally welcomed this sudden increase in autonomy, many spoke of thechallenges of this sudden increase in responsibility over their own learning and schedules.
Control of schedule and environment
Overall, participants welcomed having increased control over their schedules and physicalspace. The extent to which all participants appreciated this newfound control underscored how
much the campus environment and schedule had constrained their studies and lives in general.
Although some participants initially found it challenging to adapt to the increased autonomy andnew format of learning online, all reported an appreciation of having more control over theirstudent lives.
Julia describes the benefits she feels from having more control of her own study schedule.
I feel like I’m taking more control of my time and how I use it, because before there isalways a schedule I had to follow in school. So after that I feel actually very motivated tojust arrange my days to fit my work schedule, like what I want to do. And then I just have to
set up my own to do list and really care about how I structure my day. So I do feel I havemore control this semester and I have more control about what kind of day I want to have,what kind of result I want to achieve, and am more motivated to just contact people when I
need.
[Julia]Not only does she find this degree of control to be more motivating, but it has also helped her tobecome a more autonomous learner. In previous semesters she simply followed the schedule
dictated by her classes. This semester she has learned to carefully consider how to structure her day− 12 −

Bulletin of the Toyo University Center for Global Education and Exchange, the Inaugural Issue, March 2023 (Academic Paper)

based on what she wants to achieve, even going so far as to plan out the kind of day she wants tohave.
All participants also spoke of how having greater control over their schedules allowed them to
do more—both in terms of schoolwork and outside activities. Here, Kaede explains how the shift toonline classes has allowed her to achieve a healthier balance between her studies and the rest of herlife and allowed her to be more productive.
This semester, at the end of the day, I feel more productive. Honestly. I also feel morebalanced. . . the amount of sleep—the amount of quality sleep—that I'm getting is better thanwhen I used to go to school. Also I'm eating healthier, because I can cook my own food.
[Kaede]And later that. . .
It has changed my pace a lot. I'm not only focused on one thing. Usually when I get into thesemester, my priority is school and nothing else, because I need to maintain my scholarship,
my GPA, so I would not be involved in anything. And these extracurricular activities that I
mentioned, what I've only be doing them either in the beginning of the semester when theworkload is not so much or after the semester ends. So during summer break or spring break.
Now I can do both simultaneously, which is right, I think. I can achieve so many morethings.
[Kaede]Throughout the interview, Kaede made it clear that she views extracurricular activities as animportant part of her learning. Having greater control of her time and “pace” during this semester
allowed her to be more productive with her studies, participate in extracurricular activities, andmaintain a healthier lifestyle. Being able to focus on her studies while having a life outside ofschool is not just important to her personally, but something she feels “is right.” The fact that she
mentions basic life-maintenance like getting enough sleep and being able to cook for herself as newactivities this semester highlights the dramatic change having more control of her schedule had on
her studies and daily life. This is despite Kaede, and all other participants, commenting that there
was a heavier workload during the online semester than in semesters on campus.
When speaking of their days on campus in previous semesters, participants repeatedly
mentioned the long stretches of time between classes without having any comfortable space on
campus to relax and recharge. This dead time was repeatedly described as very tiring and an
impediment to both study and having the time and energy for other activities.
I feel like it's difficult for me in the set schedule. For example, in one day I have class in thefirst period and one class in the fifth periods, and the empty, empty time. [laughs] Yeah. It'squite tiring for us to stay at school. And, yeah, although we can sleep in the library, but it'squite not so comfortable.

− 13 −

International Student Experiences of Emergency Remote Teaching[Mai]
The description of the time between classes as “empty, empty time” suggests that the time between
classes is neither useful nor enjoyable, simply a blank space where students have to exist on
campus. Along with the other participants, Mai emphasized how tiring this time on campus is, withthe only coping mechanism to try to take a nap in the library. Her use of “us” also indicates that she
feels this is not an individual problem, but one that is true for other students as well. Kaede, in turn,
explicitly connects the difficulty of studying on campus to the lack of physical spaces where she
can be productive.
I have nothing to do, but I can't really go anywhere because it's not enough time to go backand forth. Yet at the same time, I cannot be productive in school, because there aren't any
spaces where I can relax and work at the same time.
[Kaede]As a group, the participants painted a picture of a typical day on campus as primarily
consisting of long stretches of empty time punctuated by two or three classes. During this time,
participants had limited control over their physical environment, with their choices limited toschool cafeterias, empty classrooms, or the library. There was nowhere on campus for students tobe alone or to relax. In addition to having greater control of their schedules, participants clearlyappreciated having more control of their own learning environments during this online semester.
Struggles with autonomy
Although the participants welcomed having greater control over their own learning, manyfound that adjusting to this level of autonomy and to the new style of studying online waschallenging. Some of these difficulties reflect poorly designed classes such as synchronous, ninetyminute video lectures with no student interaction or input. Others stemmed from having too many
distractions available when studying at home. Some participants struggled with adjusting to theincreased freedom and responsibility involved in managing their own schedules and studies.
Lam’s confession of how difficult she found the adjustment to be captures the range ofchallenges faced by students as they tried to maintain focus during online lectures.
It's really hard. [laughing] To be honest, it's really hard because, I mean, my room, like mybedroom, I don't have like a physical table and chair to actually sit on. So I don't feelpressure to be like, “Oh, I'm about to learn. I'm gonna have to learn.” So I would just do
something else, like I can do another assignment at that time, or I can just text with myfriends. Basically, I'm still participating in the class, but only for some part that I might needto speak like, group work or when he asks for our opinions. But in the meantime, I can dowhatever I want. So it's really hard to focus.
[Lam]− 14 −

Bulletin of the Toyo University Center for Global Education and Exchange, the Inaugural Issue, March 2023 (Academic Paper)

For Lam, not having a designated study space had the effect of making it harder for her to shift into
the mindset of being in class. Additionally, with all of the classes’ microphones and cameras off
she—along with her classmates—became invisible in class. Without the social pressure of being
seen, either by the instructor or classmates, or the motivation of being in the same room with others
who were all engaged in the lecture, it became easier to do other things while only nominallyengaging in class. Although she was aware that her study environment and doing other things
during class was disrupting her focus, Lam had yet to find a clear method of focusing during online
lectures, instead compensating by doing extra reading outside of class.
Julia describes the challenge of no longer having the external structure provided by on campus
classes, one which was echoed to varying degrees by other participants.
When you work at home you can just play and do whatever you want, chill, just spend yourtime. At the midterm the result hasn't come out yet so you think whatever you're doing isfine. You don't really have a feeling of results. You don't have a feeling of the consequencesof what you’re doing. And at the same time you're left with a lot of freedom. So my mind
was in the mindset of I'm playing all the time. There is no school. In my mind, that was themindset. And it took a long time to accept that, okay, not working is destroying my result. I
need to do something about that.
[Julia]Without the structure of going to campus, Julia had difficulty internalizing the need to focus on her
studies. The mindset she describes here of having no feeling of results or consequences—even
feeling that “there is no school”—echoes her earlier description of online classes as “surreal.” Thesudden disappearance of this external structure left her with an amount of freedom that was difficult
to manage. This resulted in a moment of crisis when she realized that she needed to improve her
work or risk losing a necessary scholarship. Her description of learning to take more control overher schedule shows that doing so is not a straightforward process.
Eventually, I guess I just grew up. I decided I just tried to set up a schedule during my day,and to set up a higher standard for myself. And I didn't succeed in the first place. Of course, I
had to try over and over again. And I couldn't do many things. And I, after some time,realized that okay, maybe one day I can only do three tasks, so like what are the most threeimportant tasks I need to do today? So, eventually, it takes me about, I think a month getmyself together. And to try to work harder.
[Julia]Julia speaks of becoming more autonomous as a process of maturation that goes beyond schedulingand time management skills. She speaks of it in terms of growing up and of the process as “getting
myself together.” Her words illustrate the effort and failed attempts required to seize control of her
own time and studies.

− 15 −

International Student Experiences of Emergency Remote Teaching

Participants had varying degrees of difficulty adjusting to having greater control of their timeand study environment. Even those such as Lam or Julia who had greater difficulty were still able
to develop coping strategies that led them to become more autonomous learners. By the end of thesemester, when interviews were conducted, it was clear that all participants strongly valued having
more control over their schedules and physical environment. Most participants also expressed
mixed feelings about going back to a regular on-campus schedule in the future. While they missed
the interaction with peers and instructors, they felt that spending hours on campus—especiallybetween classes—was a waste of time and drained them of energy. Being given more freedom andcontrol over their own learning was a challenge at first, but after having experienced it participants
expressed reluctance to go back to the rigidity of being on campus.

Expectations of teachers
The final theme to emerge from the interviews is the expectations participants had of theirinstructors during the online semester. Participants cited informal interactions and practical learning
experiences as key aspects of their education that were disrupted due to the sudden shift to ERT.
They described having a feeling of everyone—teachers and students—being in a similar situationand needing to learn how to navigate the technology and format of online learning together.
Overall, they expressed a general acceptance of professors having technical issues due to professors
not being very tech savvy or, as more than one participant pointed out, “not so young.”
What participants clearly expected, however, was effort. Participant feelings about instructors
largely came from both the extent to which they felt instructors put effort into class, and the extent
to which they felt those instructors acknowledge the effort of students. Participants expected that
(good) professors would guide their learning, that they would interact with students—or act as
facilitators of student interaction in class, and that they would show acknowledgement of student
work. Participants saw this effort as directly related to the quality of instruction and as a reasonable
return for the work they were putting into classes. This effort could, however, be expressed indifferent ways depending on the class and instructor.
Guiding learning
When speaking of her pre-ERT academic experience, Lam described her satisfaction with her
program’s emphasis on hands-on guidance that she felt was preparing her for a future career.
The teachers actually provide a lot of workshops . . . It's really fun and it's, it's like putting us
inside a situation that in the future we might be in when we’re working. So I think it's a very
good opportunity for me to learn things [pause] like theory and practice.
[Lam]
Speaking of her engagement with these “really fun” experiences that prepare her for the future is a

− 16 −

Bulletin of the Toyo University Center for Global Education and Exchange, the Inaugural Issue, March 2023 (Academic Paper)

stark contrast to her earlier description of sitting alone her room texting friends or doing otherassignments during online lectures.
With the shift to ERT, students still expected guidance and structure from their instructors—
guidance which was not always present. After describing her disappointment with classes where theprofessor only uploaded lecture slides (with no lecture), reading lists, and assignments Kaede
states:
It's very important for me, that the professor is actually teaching rather than just telling us tosearch this, send me this, or here's a book, read it, and then tell me what you think. And thenthe professor doesn't even give us the feedback. So, if I want that kind of style of studying, I
wouldn't be in college. Right? [laughs] But yeah, so that's why I think it's the essence ofcollege, my opinion.
[Kaede]Throughout the interview, she repeatedly refers to the importance of instructors “actually teaching.”
For Kaede, this means providing organization, guidance, and feedback on her work. For her, thisguidance from instructors is the reason to be in university, the one thing she cannot get throughself-study.
Fostering interaction
Participants highlighted the loss of informal contact with instructors that existed when they
were in the classroom. Julia, in particular, considered this informal contact with instructors to be
crucial to building relationships with her instructors and generating new ideas.
So the changes with—about my relationship with a professor is that it has become moredistant [pause] because we weren't able to talk to them very often and we're not able to talkto them one on one. Why is that so? Well teachers, it turns out that when they teach online,
they don't really have time to talk to you one by one. Online, they need to message otherpeople too, especially other professors, and that takes a longer time, and they have less time
to talk to you. And mostly they reply to you in messages rather than, you know, calls. . . But
at the same time, I really don't have, you know, time to just exchange, you know, random
small ideas with them. Because it feels weird to just message professors like that. . . In theprevious semester, I would stay after class and talk to them about random ideas or ideas I
find interesting. And that helped build up my relationship a lot, but this term is just about
asking, okay, what is not working and what is important and get like an immediate answer.
That's it.
[Julia]With the shift to ERT, Julia feels “weird” messaging instructors to exchange ideas informally. Boththe medium of exchange (email or messages) and the demands on her and her instructors' time

− 17 −

International Student Experiences of Emergency Remote Teachingbarriers to the informal exchange of ideas and building of relationships that she valued in previous
semesters. In contrast, Julia’s relationship and interaction with teachers has narrowed to focus only
on information immediately pertinent to the class.
Even during ERT, however, other participants highlighted the importance of having interaction
with instructors and of instructors fostering interaction between classmates. Mai describes a teacher
who did both well.
I think she's quite good at managing students because first, she replies our comments and ourmessages really quickly. So I really love that. And second, in the class she also tries to makediscussion with us and among the students. For example, in her classes at the end of like 20
minutes or 15 minutes, she will divide classes into small groups and we discuss with eachother. Yeah, I think that she's one teacher that I love this semester. Yeah. [pause] And, andshe also really cares for students. For example, when we have the thread on the [university
LMS] and we have the discussion. In some classes, the teachers never reply in this thread,but in this class, she replies to each comment. And I think she's quite caring.
[Mai]
Mai clearly appreciates this professor’s attempts to interact with students and to connect them witheach other. Other participants also mentioned the importance of instructors replying to student
questions, fostering synchronous (video conferencing) and asynchronous (message boards)
discussion, and taking part in class forums. Mai’s comment stands out because of the strength ofher praise and for what it suggests about other instructors. Mai’s enthusiasm indicates that she feels
these actions are exceptional.
Acknowledging student work
Participants also emphasized the need to feel that their work was acknowledged by instructors.
Receiving no feedback at all on assignments was a common experience for most participants.
Lam’s experience was shared by most participants.
It's more like, I'm just submitting it and then they would just leave it there. Some very niceprofessor will reply feedback, which is very general. They don't actually specifically go intosome parts.
[Lam]
The idea of assignments just being left hints at the feeling of her work being ignored by instructors,
a feeling that was mentioned by other participants as well. That giving even very general feedbackon assignments appears to elevate a professor to “very nice” status suggests the extent to which
students felt their work was ignored by many instructors. Participants did speak of instructors who
gave detailed feedback—all were satisfied with the level of feedback from their thesis advisor or− 18 −

Bulletin of the Toyo University Center for Global Education and Exchange, the Inaugural Issue, March 2023 (Academic Paper)

seminar instructor—but the overall impression was one of sending assignments into a digital void.
The way in which instructors guided student learning, facilitated interaction, and acknowledged
student work varied. However, these appear to be the three facets that combine to influenceparticipant perceptions of instructor effort and which influenced participants’ satisfaction with agiven class. Participants did not expect that an instructor could always meet all three of thesestandards, but that they should make an effort to do so. Participant experiences with individual
instructors varied, but overall there was a clear feeling that not enough instructors were meeting
participant expectations in terms of guidance, interaction, and feedback. While all participants had
some professors who they felt went above and beyond, they expressed disappointment that many
instructors were not making serious attempts to engage students.

Discussion
Although much research into student responses to the shift to ERT due to COVID-19
concludes that it negatively impacted students, participants in this study give a more nuanced
picture of their experiences. Participants faced challenges but also discussed ways in which they
preferred ERT to on-campus learning. In addition to describing participants’ learning experiences,
the three themes developed in the analysis offer insights into student needs during a period of ERT.
Shift in the social dimension of learning
The shift in the social dimensions of learning was apparent in the ways that participants
described their desire for interaction with classmates and instructors, and how the nature of thatinteraction changes. Without a physical classroom, participants had to make a conscious effort toconnect to classmates and instructors. Both Smoyer et al. (2020) and Ando (2020) argue that
fostering social connection between classmates is an essential part of meeting student needs,
particularly in the case of ERT. Ando (2020) suggests that this can be achieved in part throughsynchronous video lessons. However, although synchronous video-conferencing lessons present
opportunities for interaction, the technology itself can still be used to deliver non-interactive
lectures as was reported by participants in this study. Further complicating the equation ofsynchronous video-conferencing lessons with interactivity is that participants in this study
described some of their asynchronous classes as interactive if those classes had active discussion
forums or chat-groups. Participants universally emphasized the importance of interaction with peers
and instructors, but also indicated that interaction could take many different forms.
Although participants found that interaction with both instructors and classmates becamealmost wholly transactional with the shift to studying online, there was a range of responses to thisshift. According to Tu and McIsaac (2002), student perceptions of a given online learning context
can vary based on their cultural backgrounds individual situations, previous experiences, or− 19 −

International Student Experiences of Emergency Remote Teaching

psychological attitudes. Analysis of participant interviews in this paper suggests that student beliefs
about the purpose of class interactions may also influence their satisfaction with class interactions
becoming more transactional. In this case, Lam’s frustration with not being able to pick up onclassmates’ emotions and Novi’s satisfaction with being able to share more information withclassmates illustrate contrasting student beliefs about the purpose of classroom interaction. Students
described in Shim and Lee (2020) who felt they could communicate more using online chat than in
on-campus classes suggest that a number of students may prefer a more transactional communication style in classes.
Embracing and struggling with autonomy
Despite initial challenges for some, the embrace of autonomy was universally emphasized by
the participants. In line with the findings of Shim and Lee (2020), with more control over theirspace and schedule, participants were more productive and better able to balance study and daily
life. Additionally, participants expressed palatable frustration with the inflexible class schedules
and lack of spaces to study or relax between classes, both of which they saw as barriers to
productive learning. Based on this analysis, having an on-campus schedule and environment overwhich they could exercise little agency acted as a barrier to productivity and the development ofautonomous learning habits among participants. Kaede and Mai express their satisfaction with howmuch more productive they are when no longer tied to campus spaces and schedules. Julia frames
her struggle to develop the skills and mindset necessary to take control of her schedule and studies
as a learning experience in and of itself—one that was only made possible because of the shift to
ERT. As shown by Julia’s case, learning to independently manage one’s schedule and studies can bechallenging for students, and participants were not offered any explicit institutional training or
support as to how to do so. The participants in this study were all able to find ways to successfully
take control of their studies on their own. However, seeking out and qualifying for a competitive
scholarship program at a university outside their home countries shows a high degree of initiative.
That becoming more autonomous learners was a challenge even for these participants suggests thatstudents would benefit from more institutional training in how to independently manage theirstudies during a transition to ERT.
Expectations of teachers
Participants expected teachers to make a clear effort to guide them as learners, foster
interaction, and acknowledge student work. Participants empathized with the challenges and strain
that ERT put on instructors and did not expect that any instructor could do as much as in an
on-campus semester. Furthermore, participants put different emphasis on each of these areas.
However, they all made it clear that they expected teachers to put forth effort in at least one of these− 20 −

Bulletin of the Toyo University Center for Global Education and Exchange, the Inaugural Issue, March 2023 (Academic Paper)areas. Participants expressed the belief that this effort on the part of the instructor was directly
connected to the quality of their learning. While these participants expressed their expectations interms of teacher effort, a parallel can be found in studies of teacher caring during times of
disruption and ERT. Research on student experiences of ERT has suggested that during times of
disruption due to crises, instructors should place extra emphasis on social and emotional support for
students (Ando, 2020; Shin and Hickey, 2020) and demonstrate compassion and flexibility (Gelles
et al., 2020). Swartz et al. (2018) discuss the importance of instructor care in times of disruption interms of the qualities of attentiveness, responsibility, competence, and responsiveness to students.
Effectively guiding learning, fostering interaction, and acknowledging student work all require
these four qualities to varying degrees. And while these qualities are always important, theyarguably become more so in the case of ERT when established methods of instruction, interaction,
and assessment are upended. The way students spoke of these basic expectations highlighted theextent to which these three elements were lacking in many of their classes.

Conclusion
This study grouped participant experiences during a semester of ERT into three related but
distinct themes: a shift in the social dimension of learning, struggling with and embracing
autonomy, and their expectations of teacher effort. These themes helped to understand participant
experiences and to suggest factors they perceived as helping or hindering their learning. With alllearning shifted online, participants expressed a strong desire to feel like they were part of thesocial unit of a class. While some were disappointed in the more transactional nature of interactionthat emerged during ERT others felt that communicating with instructors and peers online improved
their learning experience. Participants had varying degrees of difficulty adapting to the increased
autonomy required to manage their schedules and study habits during ERT. Despite this,participants felt that having more control over their schedules and learning environment increased
their productivity and learning when compared to on-campus semesters. Finally, participants were
understanding of the challenges that ERT presented to instructors but expected instructors to show aminimum of effort to help students. This effort could be expressed by guiding student learning(through well-constructed lectures, organization, or individual instruction), fostering interaction (inclass discussions or being available to answer student questions), and by acknowledging student
work (through feedback on assignments).
This study aimed to examine in detail the experiences of a small number of international
students in the specific context of a single university in Japan during the shift to ERT. Following aninterpretive methodology, it did not seek to create generalizations. However, by focusing on the
lived experiences of participants, it can offer insights that may be useful to understanding theexperiences of international students in other settings as well. Additionally, the lack of research into

− 21 −

International Student Experiences of Emergency Remote Teachingdomestic student experiences of ERT—particularly in Japan—prevented direct comparisons
between domestic and international student experiences, making it difficult to delineate whichaspects of experience are unique to international students. Further research into the experiences ofdomestic students may help to better understand to what extent the experiences described here areshared or are unique to international students. However, the in-depth analysis presented here canhelp researchers to better understand the experiences and needs of international students during
ERT. With the increasing importance of non-Western countries as destinations for international
students and the increasing possibility of future academic disruptions due to crises, more research
will be needed to better understand the experiences and address the needs of international students
during ERT.
References
Abbott, A., & Silles, M. (2016). Determinants of International Student Migration. World Economy, 39 (5),621-635. https://doi.org/10.1111/twec.12319
Akamai. (2017). Akamai’s State of the Internet. Retrieved from https://content.akamai.com/gl-en-pg9135q1-soti-connectivity.html
Alfattal, E. (2016). A new conceptual model for understanding international students’ college needs.
Journal of International Students.
Ammigan, R. (2019). Institutional satisfaction and recommendation: What really matters to international
students? Journal of International Students, 9 (1), 262-281. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v9i1.260
Ammigan, R., & Jones, E. (2018). Improving the Student Experience: Learning From a Comparative
Study of International Student Satisfaction. Journal of Studies in International Education, 22 (4), 283301. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315318773137
Ando, S. (2020). University teaching and learning in a time of social distancing: A sociocultural
perspective. Journal of Human Behavior in the Social Environment. https://doi.org/10.1080/10911359.2
020.1814928
Andrade, M. S. (2006). International students in English-speaking universities: Adjustment factors. Journal of Research in International Education, 5 (2), 131-154. https://doi.org/10.1177/1475240906065589
Bedenlier, S., Kondakci, Y., & Zawacki-Richter, O. (2018). Two Decades of Research Into theInternationalization of Higher Education: Major Themes in the Journal of Studies in International
Education (1997-2016). Journal of Studies in International Education, 22 (2), 108-135. https://doi.
org/10.1177/1028315317710093
Bradford, A. (2016). Toward a Typology of Implementation Challenges Facing English-Medium
Instruction in Higher Education: Evidence From Japan. Journal of Studies in International Education,
20 (4), 339-356. https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315316647165
Brown, H. (2017). Why and why now?: Understanding the rapid rise of English-medium instruction inhigher education in Japan. Journal of International Studies and Regional Development, 8 (April), 1-16.
Retrieved from https://www.researchgate.net/publication/315745900− 22 −

Bulletin of the Toyo University Center for Global Education and Exchange, the Inaugural Issue, March 2023 (Academic Paper)

Chen, J. H., Li, Y., Wu, A. M. S., & Tong, K. K. (2020). The overlooked minority: Mental health ofInternational students worldwide under the COVID-19 pandemic and beyond. Asian Journal of
Psychiatry, 54 (July), 102333. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ajp.2020.102333
Choudaha, R. (2017). Three waves of international student mobility (1999-2020). Studies in Higher
Education, 42 (5), 825-832. https://doi.org/10.1080/03075079.2017.1293872
Choudaha, R. . C. L. (2012). Trends in International Student Mobility - Research Report. Retrieved fromhttp://www.wes.org/ewenr/12feb/feature.htm
Daigaku “jugyoryo hanbun kaesite” onrain-jugyo nomi ga ima mo roku-wari. [“I want half of my tuitionfee back.” Almost 60% of universities still offer online classes only]. (2020). Tokyo Shimbun. Retrieved
from https://www.tokyo-np.co.jp/article/34396
de Wit, H. (2020). Internationalization of higher education : The need for a more ethical and qualitative
approach. Journal of International Students, 10 (1), i-iv. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v10i1.1893
Firang, D. (2020). The impact of COVID-19 pandemic on international students in Canada. International
Social Work, 63 (6), 820-824. https://doi.org/10.1177/0020872820940030
Funamori, M. (2017). The Issues Japanese Higher Education Face in the Digital Age—Are Japanese
Universities to Blame for the Slow Progress towards an Information-based Society? International
Journal of Institutional Research and Management International Institute of Applied Informatics, 1 (1),37-51. Retrieved from http://www.iaiai.org/journals/index.php/IJIRM/article/viewFile/112/83
Gelles, L. A., Lord, S. M., Hoople, G. D., Chen, D. A., & Mejia, J. A. (2020). Compassionate flexibility
and self-discipline: Student adaptation to emergency remote teaching in an integrated engineering
energy course during covid-19. Education Sciences, 10 (11), 1-23. https://doi.org/10.3390/
educsci10110304
Gómez, O. A. (2013). Lessons from international students’ reaction to the 2011 Great East Japan
Earthquake: The case of the school of engineering at Tohoku University. International Journal ofDisaster Risk Science, 4 (3), 137-149. https://doi.org/10.1007/s13753-013-0015-9
Gümüş, S., Gök, E., & Esen, M. (2019). A Review of Research on International Student Mobility: Science
Mapping the Existing Knowledge Base. Journal of Studies in International Education, 24 (5), 495-517.
https://doi.org/10.1177/1028315319893651
Hodges, C., Moore, S., Lockee, B., Trust, T., & Bond, A. (2020). The Difference Between Emergency
Remote Teaching and Online Learning. Retrieved December 1, 2020, from https://er.educause.edu/
articles/2020/3/the-difference-between-emergency-remote-teaching-and-online-learning
Hou, C., & Du, D. (2020). The changing patterns of international student mobility: a network perspective.
Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 0 (0), 1-25. https://doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2020.1797476
Huang, F. (2006). Internationalization of university curricula in Japan: Major policies and practice sincethe 1980s. Journal of Studies in International Education, 10 (2), 102-118. https://doi.org/10.1177/
1028315306286312
Japan Student Services Organization (JASSO). (2020). Result of an annual survey of international
students in Japan 2019.
Johnson, J. (1997). Generalizability in qualitative research: Excavating the discourse. In J. M. Morse (Ed.),− 23 −

International Student Experiences of Emergency Remote Teaching

Completing a Qualitative Project: Details and Dialogue. London: SAGE.
Khanal, J., & Gaulee, U. (2019). Challenges of international students from pre-departure to post-study: A
literature review. Journal of International Students, 9 (2), 560-581. https://doi.org/10.32674/jis.v9i2.673
Kuwamura, A. (2009). The Challenges of Increasing Capacity and Diversity in Japanee Higher Education
Through Proactive Recruitment Strategies. Journal of Studies in International Education, 13 (2), 189202.
Kyne, S. H., & Thompson, C. D. (2020). The covid cohort: Student transition to university in the face of a
global pandemic. Journal of Chemical Education, 97 (9), 3381-3385. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.
jchemed.0c00769
Lyons, H. Z., Bike, D. H., Ojeda, L., Johnson, A., Rosales, R., & Flores, L. Y. (2013). Qualitative Researchas Social Justice Practice with Culturally Diverse Populations. Journal for Social Action in Counseling& Psychology, 5 (2), 10-25. https://doi.org/10.33043/jsacp.5.2.10-25
Mackey, J., Gilmore, F., Dabner, N., Breeze, D., & Buckley, P. (2012). Blended Learning for Academic
Resilience in Times of Disaster or Crisis. MERLOT Journal of Online Learning and Teaching, 8 (2),122-135.
Magagula, C. M., & Ngwenya, A. P. (2004). A comparative analysis of the academic performance ofdistance and on-campus learners. Turkish Online Journal of Distance Education, 5 (4). https://doi.
org/10.17718/tojde.30799
McPhee, I., & Söderström, T. (2012). Distance, online and campus higher education: Reflections onlearning outcomes. Campus-Wide Information Systems, 29 (3), 144-155. https://doi.org/10.1108/
10650741211243166
Milman, N. B. (2020). This Is Emergency Remote Teaching, Not Just Online Teaching. Education Week.
Retrieved from https://www.edweek.org/ew/articles/2020/03/30/this-is-emergency-remote-teaching-notjust.html
Ministry of Education Culture Sports Science and Technology (MEXT). (2016). Stastical Abstract 2016:
Universities and Junior Colleges. Retrieved from https://www.mext.go.jp/component/b_menu/other/__
icsFiles/afieldfile/2016/06/02/1368897_10.xls
Ministry of Education Culture Sports Science and Technology (MEXT). (2020a). Daigaku nado ni okeru
shingata-koronauirusu-kansensho e no taio-gaidorain ni tsuite (shuchi) [Notification of the guidelines
for responding to the novel coronavirus infectious diseases at higher education institutions]. Retrieved
from https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20200605-mxt_kouhou01-000004520_5.pdf
Ministry of Education Culture Sports Science and Technology (MEXT). (2020b). Gakuji-nittei nado no
toriatsukai oyobi enkaku-jugyo no katsuyo ni kakawaru Q&A [Q&A concerning adjusting academic
schedule and utilizing distance learning]. Retrieved from https://www.mext.go.jp/content/20200525mxt_kouhou01-000004520_2.pdf
Ministry of Education Culture Sports Science and Technology (MEXT). (2020c). Shingata- koronauirusukansensho no jokyo wo fumaeta daigaku nado no jugyo no jissi-jokyo [Survey on the implementation
status of classes at universities under the COVID-19 situation]. Retrieved from https://www.mext.go.jp/
content/20200605-mxt_kouhou01-000004520_6.pdf− 24 −

Bulletin of the Toyo University Center for Global Education and Exchange, the Inaugural Issue, March 2023 (Academic Paper)

Ninomiya, A., Knight, J., & Watanabe, A. (2009). The Past, Present, and Future of Internationalization in
Japan. Journal of Studies in International Education, 13 (2), 117-124.
OECD. (2020). Education at a Glance. Paris: OECD Publishing.
https://doi.org/https://doi.org/10.1787/69096873-en
Ota, H. (2018). Internationalization of Higher Education: Global Trends and Japan’s Challenges.
Educational Studies in Japan, 12, 91-105. https://doi.org/10.7571/esjkyoiku.12.91
Perkins, R., & Neumayer, E. (2014). Geographies of educational mobilities: Exploring the uneven flows ofinternational students. Geographical Journal, 180 (3), 246-259. https://doi.org/10.1111/geoj.12045
Petillion, R. J., & McNeil, W. S. (2020). Student experiences of emergency remote teaching: Impacts of
instructor practice on student learning, engagement, and well-being. Journal of Chemical Education, 97(9), 2486-2493. https://doi.org/10.1021/acs.jchemed.0c00733
Rakhshandehroo, M. (2018). A qualitative exploration of on-campus experiences of English-speaking
graduate international students at a leading Japanese university. Journal of International Students, 8 (4),1831-1847. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1468092
Rakhshandehroo, M., & Ivanova, P. (2020). International student satisfaction at English-medium graduate
programs in Japan. Higher Education, 79(1), 39-54. https://doi.org/10.1007/s10734-019-00395-3
Reid, K., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2005). Exploring lived experience. Psychologist, 18 (1), 20-23.
Ross, A. G. P., Crowe, S. M., Tyndall, M. W., & Petersen, E. (2015). Planning for the Next Global
Pandemic. International Journal of Infectious Diseases, 38, 89-94. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijid.2015.
07.016SchWeber, C. (2008). Determined to Learn: Accessing Education Despite Life-Threatening Disasters.
Online Learning, 12 (1), 37-43. https://doi.org/10.24059/olj.v12i1.44
Seidman, I. (2019). Interviewing as Qualitative Research: A Guide for Researchers in Education and theSocial Sciences (5th ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.
Shim, T. E., & Lee, S. Y. (2020). College students’ experience of emergency remote teaching due to
COVID-19. Children and Youth Services Review, 119 (July), 105578. https://doi.org/10.1016/
j.childyouth.2020.105578
Shin, M., & Hickey, K. (2020). Needs a little TLC: examining college students’ emergency remoteteaching and learning experiences during COVID-19. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 1-14.
https://doi.org/10.1080/0309877X.2020.1847261
Smith, J. A., Flowers, P., & Larkin, M. (2009). Interpretative Phenomenonological Analysis: Theory,
Method and Research. London: SAGE Publications.
Smith, J. A., & Osborne, M. (2008). Interpretative phenomenological analysis. In J. A. Smith (Ed.),
Qualitative Psychology: A Practivcal Guide to Research Methods (2nd ed., pp. 756-759). London:
SAGE Publications. https://doi.org/10.4135/9781848607927.n11
Smoyer, A. B., O’Brien, K., & Rodriguez-Keyes, E. (2020). Lessons learned from COVID-19: Being
known in online social work classrooms. International Social Work, 63 (5), 651-654. https://doi.
org/10.1177/0020872820940021
Swartz, B. C., Gachago, D., & Belford, C. (2018). To care or not to care - reflections on the ethics of− 25 −

International Student Experiences of Emergency Remote Teaching

blended learning in times of disruption. South African Journal of Higher Education, 32 (6), 49-64.
https://doi.org/10.20853/32-6-2659
Tu, C. H., & McIsaac, M. (2002). The Relationship of Social Presence and Interaction in Online Classes.
International Journal of Phytoremediation, 21 (1), 131-150. https://doi.org/10.1207/S15389286AJDE
1603_2Tull, S., Dabner, N., & Ayebi, A.-K. (2017). Social media and e-learning in response to seismic events :resilient practices. DEANZ the Journal of Open, Flexible, and Distance Learning, 21 (1), 63-76.
Urban, E., & Palmer, L. B. (2016). International students’ perceptions of the value of U.S. Higher
education. Journal of International Students, 6 (1), 153-174.
Van Horne, S., Lin, S., Anson, M., & Jacobson, W. (2018). Engagement, satisfaction, and belonging ofinternational undergraduates at U.S. Research universities. Journal of International Students, 8 (1), 351374. https://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.1134313
Weisser, R. (2016). Internationally mobile students and their post-graduation migratory behaviour: An
analysis of determinants of student mobility and retention rates in the EU. OECD Social, Employment
and Migration Working Papers. Retrieved from http://dx.doi.org/10.1787/5jlwxbvmb5zt-en
Yonezawa, A. (2009). The Internationalization of Japanese Higher Education: Policy Debates andRealities. Nagoya Koutou Kyouiku Kennkyuu, 9. https://doi.org/10.1007/978-94-007-1500-4− 26 −