国際仏教学大学院大学研究紀要
第 16 号（平成 24 年)

Journal of the International College
for Postgraduate Buddhist Studies
Vol. XVI, 2012

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures:
Meditation and Liberation in the Śrāvakabhūmi
Florin Deleanu

国際仏教学大学院大学研究紀要第 16 号

平成 24 年 3 月

1

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures:
Meditation and Liberation in the Śrāvakabhūmi

1

Florin Deleanu
I Prefatory Remarks
The Śrāvakabhūmi (Tibetan, Nyan thos kyi sa; Chinese, 聲聞地 Shengwendi), The Foundation of the Disciples[’Path of Spiritual Cultivation],2
constitutes Book XIII of the *Maulyo bhūmayah (Sa dngos gzhi; 本地分 Beṅdi fen) division in the Yogācārabhūmi (rNal ’byor spyod pa’i sa; 瑜伽師地論
Obviously, part of the title is inspired by Thomas Gray's poem Elegy Written ina Country Churchyard (1751): ʻFar from the madding crowd's ignoble strife/ Their1sober wishes never learn'd to stray;/ Along the cool sequester'd vale of life/ They
kept the noiseless tenor of their wayʼ. Needless to say, the poem also inspired the titleof Thomas Hardy's famous novel Far from the Madding Crowd (1874). The ʻhollow
pleasuresʼ, on the other hand, come directly from the Śrāvakabhūmi. Our text
contains a long diatribe against sensual pleasures (kāma)(see ŚrBh-Sh 439.17-443.4;
for edited Sanskrit text, see Deleanu 2006, 319 § 3.28.2.1.2.2.-323 §3.28.2.1.2.7.; forEnglish translation, ibid. 447-449), which are described as ʻhallowʼ (rikta)(ŚrBh-Sh
441.14＝Deleanu 2006, 321.1)−to quote just one out of an endless list of unflattering
epithets.
2 Another possible rendering of the title is The Disciples’ Level. The primarysense of °bhūmi in titles of the Śrāvakabhūmi and the Bodhisattvabhūmi, especiallyin the early phases of their textual history, appears to have been that of ʻfoundationʼ
or ʻsourceʼ rather than ʻstageʼ. The latter is, to be sure, one of the meanings of theword, and this semantic sphere becomes more prominent in works such as theDaśabhūmikasūtra or Scripture on the Ten Stages [of the Bodhisattva’s Path]. We
must note, however, that as also argued by Itō (1968; 1970), even in theDaśabhūmikasūtra, one of the basic senses of bhūmi appears to have been that of

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Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)ākara ʻa rich source of anything, place of originʼ (Itō 1968, 134).
The meaning of ʻfoundationʼ in the title of the Yogācārabhūmi is also attested inlater commentarial works like the *Yogācārabhūmivyākhyā or Exposition upon theFoundation [or: Stages] of Spiritual Practice (T 30.884c25-26)(see Deleanu 2006, 48,n. 3). Similarly, in his Sūtrālamkāravrttibhāsya or Gloss upon the Ornament oḟ̇̇[Mahāyāna] Scriptures, the Yogācāra exegete Sthiramati (ca 510-570) glosses upon
the term pañcavidhā yogabhūmih (ad MSĀ 65.16ff.), usually construed as ʻfive types
̇of stages of spiritual practiceʼ, as follows: ʻThe [se] five types of factors are called“foundations of spiritual practice” (yogabhūmi) due to [their] being the basis(*āśraya) and the ground (*nidāna; or: *adhisthāna) of the cultivation (*bhāvanā) oḟ̇
spiritual practice (yoga)ʼ (chos rnam pa lnga rnal 'byor bsgom pa'i rten dang gzhir
gyur pas na rnal 'byor gyi sa zhes bya'o || D Mi 189a4-5). The polysemy of the wordbhūmi is undeniable, and it is not excluded that even in the same context, more than
one denotation or connotation may have been present. It seems to me, however,more natural to construe the original meaning of the titles of the Śrāvakabhūmi and
the Bodhisattvabhūmi as ʻThe Foundation of the Disciples[ʼ Path of Spiritual
Cultivation]ʼ and ʻThe Foundation of the Bodhisattvas[ʼ Path of Spiritual
Cultivation]ʼ respectively.
However, it is quite possible that °bhūmi in the sense ʻstageʼ, which originally
might have been a secondary, even dormant, semantic line in the title of the two
texts, may have gradually gained prominence over the meaning of ʻfoundationʼ oncethe Śrāvakabhūmi and the Bodhisattvabhūmi became part of the Yogācārabhūmi
and the latter continued its expansion into a mega-encyclopaedia of spiritual anddoctrinal lore. But even in the Yogācārabhūmi, the term °bhūmi has not astraightforward, unequivocal meaning of ʻstepʼ on a ladder of spiritual progression.
There is no implication, for instance, that a yogi must first practice according to theŚrāvakayāna, then follow the Pratyekabuddhaʼs path, and then engage in thebodhisattvic course of salvific activity and spiritual cultivation. If there is a sense ofbhūmi as ʻlevelʼ in context of the titles of the textual units making up the
Yogācārabhūmi, then it must be one of hierarchical evaluation of religious ideals
from the perspective of the Great Vehicle: Śrāvakayāna, the lowest Vehicle, is placed
first; this is followed by the path of the Solitary Buddhas; and finally the Mahāyāna
course of praxis is set forth in the Bodhisattvabhūmi.
I should add in this context that that my choice to translate the Śrāvakabhūmi
simply as The Disciples’ Level in Deleanu 2006, 13 and passim, should have been
discussed in more nuanced terms.

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

3

Yuqie shi di lun), the vast encyclopaedic Summa Ascetica of the YogācāraVijñānavāda school.3 Although Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda is one of the two
major Mahāyāna traditions in Indian Buddhism−the other being the
Madhyamaka school, the Śrāvakabhūmi is a text dedicated to the
exposition of the spiritual cultivation practised by the followers of theconservative path of Śrāvakayāna (also known by the less flattering

3 The Yogācārabhūmi was translated into Tibetan by Jinamitra, Ye-shes-sde, etc.
at the beginning of the 9th century (for more details, see Deleanu 2006, 73ff.). The
Chinese rendering of the text was made between 646-648 by the famous scholar-monk and pilgrim Xuanzang 玄奘 (602-664) and his translation team (see Deleanu
2006, 106). Only about a half of the entire Sanskrit text of the Yogācārabhūmi
survives in manuscripts. We owe the discovery of most of these manuscripts to thegreat Indian scholar Rāhula Sān
̇ krtyāyana (1903-1963). A large part of the Sanskriṫmanuscripts have been edited by various scholars over the years, but there are stillsome important fragments which have not been made available to the scholarly
community at large. I discuss in detail the discovery of the Śrāvakabhūmi MS, itspalaeographical features and date in Deleanu 2006, 51-59. Here it will suffice to saythat the probable date of the manuscript seems to be 11th century (at any rate, notlater than 12th century). It must be stressed, however, that the manuscript has nocolophon and the dating is made on the basis of palaeographical criteria, which
remains a highly conjectural method. The manuscript is written in a variety of a
Northern, to be more precise North-eastern, script which seems to have been fairly
widespread in the region for a couple of centuries. Palaeographic research on Indian
Buddhist manuscripts is an area about which we still have to learn a great deal, but I
would not be surprised to find out that the bulk of the manuscripts belonging to thislineage, Śrāvakabhūmi MS included, originated or were connected in one way or
another to the Vikramaśilā Monastery, a famous Buddhist centre of learning in late
mediaeval India. This, however, remains a mere hypothesis. Current research onthese and other related manuscripts, such as the projects undertaken by the
University of Hamburg, will certainly shed more light on the issue. Extremely
relevant will also be the findings yielded by the research conducted by theInternational Institute of Buddhist Studies (Tokyo), especially by my colleague Mr
Hori Shinʼichirō who works on the study of colophons in Northern Indian
manuscripts and their palaeographical chronology and historical background.

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Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

appellation of Hīnayāna or ʻLesser Vehicleʼ).4 The nature of its discourse ismultiple: presentation of the complex edifice of the spiritual progression
from its first steps to the attainment of Awakening, detailed meditation
manual, philosophical treatise on a variety of related topics, Abhidharmic
taxonomy of doctrines and human psychology relevant to the spiritualpraxis, etc. In spite of its incorporation into a basic scripture of the
Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda school, the Śrāvakabhūmi is written from, or at least
reflects, a Śrāvakayāna doctrinal standpoint and is not conceived of as astage or part of the bodhisattvaʼs path.
The importance of the Śrāvakabhūmi in the history of Buddhist
spirituality and philosophy is undeniable. The text reflects a great andunique synthesis of centuries of contemplative practice and theory as
In India, the Yogācārabhūmi was no doubt considered a basic scripture of the
Yogācāra-Vijñānavāda school (see Suguro 1989, 8-15).
4

The Tibetan doxographic treatises Grub mtha’ chen mo by ʼJam-dbyang bzhadpaʼi-rdo-rje Ngag-dbang-brtson-ʼgrus (1648-1722) and Grub mtha’i rnam par bzhag
pa gsal bar bshad pa thub bstan lhun po’i mdzes rgyan by lCang-skya Rol-paʼi-rdo-rje(1717-1786) mention the Yogācārabhūmi, referred to by the title Sa sde (for which,see Deleanu 2006, 46-47), as the representative text of the followers of the scriptures(*āgamānusārin; lung gi rjes ’brangs), a branch of the Cittamātra (Tibetan, Semstsam) school (see fragments edited in Hakamaya 1976, 21-22)(for a briefpresentation of these two Tibetan works, see Hopkins 1996, 172-173). Tibetan
doxographers often distinguish between this branch, whose proponents advocate theteachings of Asaṅ ga and Vasubandhu, and the followers of reasoning (*nyāyānusārin;rigs pa’i rjes ’brangs), who rely mainly on the logico-epistemological systems ofDignāga and Dharmakīrti (see ibid., 174-176).
The Far Eastern Buddhist tradition speaks of ʻsix sutras and eleven treatisesʼ 六
經 十 一 論 which constitute the fundamental scriptural authority for the Faxiang(Japanese, Hossō) school 法相宗 . The Yogācārabhūmi is listed as the first of thesetreatises (see Fukaura 1954, vol. 2, pp. 8-79 [especially, pp. 39-47]; Yokoyama 1976,
74; Hakamaya 1982, 48; etc.), and the impressive number of commentaries dedicatedto it in China, Korea, and Japan bears testimony to the influence of this work (seeDeleanu 2006, 248-252).

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

5transmitted in a Northern Buddhist tradition which appears to have been
mainly associated with the (Mūla-)Sarvāstivāda school5 and was probably
also influenced by (or at least displayed similarities with) the Sautrāntikas/Dārstāntikas.6 In many ways, the Śrāvakabhūmi can be said tȯ̇represent the Northern counterpart of Buddhaghosaʼs Visuddhimagga, themost celebrated and comprehensive treatise of spiritual cultivation in the
Theravāda tradition. The influence of the Śrāvakabhūmi on later Buddhism
can be seen in the works of many illustrious figures from Kamalaśīla (ca740-797) in India to Tsong-kha-pa (1357-1419), the founder of the dGe lugs
pa tradition in Tibet, and Zhiyan 智儼 (602-668), the second patriarch of
the Huayan school 華嚴宗 in China.7
Traditionally, Chinese sources attribute the authorship of the
Yogācārabhūmi to Bodhisattva Maitreya 彌勒菩薩. Tibetan historiography,on the other hand, assign it to Asaṅ ga (Tibetan, Thogs pa med).8 The text,
however, does not seem to be work of a single author. It rather appears tobe the outcome of a gradual compilation process which took place between
roughly the beginning of the 3rd century and the latter half of the 4th
century CE.9 The earliest reliable information concerning the date of the5

For a brief discussion of the term Mūlasarvāstivāda, containing references tosome of the key contributions to the topic, see Deleanu 2006, 215, n. 70.
6 On the scholastic affiliation of the Śrāvakabhūmi, see Deleanu 2006, 156-162, as
well as Deleanu 2007.
7 On the place of the Śrāvakabhūmi in the history of Indian Buddhism and its
influence on Tibetan and East Asian Buddhism, see Deleanu 2006, 248-280.
8 The problem of the differences between the Chinese and Tibetan traditions
concerning the authorship of the Yogācārabhūmi is meticulously examined by
Suguro (1989, 94-125).
9 The problem of the authorship or formation of the Yogācārabhūmi still remains
a controversial problem. While scholars like Frauwallner (1969, 265), Schmithausen(1969; 1987, especially pp. 13-14, 183-185; 2000), etc. strongly (and, in my opinion,
convincingly) argue in favour of a gradual formation of the Yogācārabhūmi, there

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Yogācārabhūmi, which can more or less be taken as the terminus antequem of its compilation, is provided by the Chinese translation of theBodhisattvabhūmi, which represents Book XV in our current text of the*Maulyo bhūmayah. The first rendering of this text was done in 418 by thėIndian monk Dharmaksema 曇無讖 (385-433)10 under the title of Pusa di̇chi jing 菩薩地持經 (*Bodhisattvabhūmyādhāra).11 It attests not only to theare quite a few modern researchers who maintain that the work can be ascribed to asingle author, whether Asaṅ ga or Maitreya or whatever his name was. More on thisas well as the formation of the Yogācārabhūmi is found in Deleanu 2006, 147-247.
10 For the eventful life of Dharmaksema 曇無讖 (var. lec. 曇摩讖 , 曇謨讖), see thė
Gao seng zhuan 高僧傳 or Biographies of Eminent Monks (T50.335c-337b). For an
excellent French translation, see Shih tr. 1968, 98ff.
11 Sengyou 僧祐 (445-518), the compiler of the Chu sanzang ji ji 出三藏集記 orCollection of Notes Concerning the Translation of the Tripitaka, the oldest extant
̇Chinese catalogue of Buddhist scriptures (generally considered to be a reliable
historical source), gives the translation date as ʻyear 7 of the Xuanshi 玄始 Eraʼ (i.e.
418 C.E.). (It must be noted, however, that this date appears only in the versions of
the Zifu, Puning and Jingshan Canons; see T55.11b19 and p. 11, n. 14)(for more on
Chinese editions of the Buddhist Canon, see Deleanu 2006, 110ff.). The Chu san zang ji
ji also registers the following variants of the Chinese title of the text: Pusa jie jing 菩
薩戒經 and Pusa di jing 菩薩地經 . Sengyou has also left a note on the relation
between this text and Gunavarmanʼs 求那跋摩 closely related translation, the Pusȧshan jie jing 菩 薩 善 戒 經 (T55.62c-63a). On the relation between these tworenderings, see also Tokiwa [1938] 1973, 948-951, and Demiéville [1957] 1973, 301.
Though some matters of detail are not certain, there is, however, no doubt that boththese two translations were done at the beginning of the 5th century.
In terms of textual history, the Pusa shan jie jing seems to be the oldest versionof the Bodhisattvabhūmi. Its revised and amplified version is the Pusa di chi jing, andthe latest stage is represented by the Bodhisattvabhūmi rendered by Xuanzang, theTibetan translation and the extant Sanskrit original which constitutes Book XV ofthe present Yogācārabhūmi (see Sueki 1980; cf. also Sueki 1979). It is quite possiblethat the Bodhisattvabhūmi also circulated as an independent work in India, and somevariants may have preserved older versions of the text. The Pusa shan jie jing and
the Pusa di chi jing may actually reflect such versions, and in the first centuries afterFar From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

7existence of the Bodhisattvabhūmi in a version more or less similar to theextant Sanskrit text but also to that of other parts of the Yogācārabhūmi,
including the Śrāvakabhūmi, which are cited or referred to.12
the formation of the text, they may have been transmitted in parallel with thedeveloped Bodhisattvabhūmi, i.e. which was more or less similar to the extant
Sanskrit original. One must add here that a careful analysis of the textual variants
should also take into consideration the role of the Chinese translator(s). Differencesin translation style, abbreviations of the original, explanatory additions, editorialinterventions, imperfections in communicating the exact sense of the text to theChinese assistants responsible for the final wording of the rendering, failure tounderstand nuances or difficult readings in the original, etc.−all these may result inenough divergences which do not necessarily need the postulation of a different
Indian version.
12 More on Dharmaksemaʼs translation is found Deleanu 2006, 183ff.
̇Another clue concerning the date of the Yogācārabhūmi is provided by the factthat we find three references to this text in Vasubandhuʼs Pratītyasamutpādavyākhyā (P Chi fol. 5b1, 13a1, 25b4)(see Matsuda 1984, 82-85; Skilling 2000, 303). The
exact date of the Pratītyasamutpādavyākhyā is not known, but it most probably
represents a work written by Vasubandhu in the early phases of his Mahāyāna
period. Furthermore, there are numerous similarities between the Abhidharmakośabhāsya and the Yogācārabhūmi. The American scholar Robert Kritzer (1999,̇
199-204; 2003, 375-381; 2005; etc.) reasonably argues that that many doctrines andpassages in the Abhidharmakośabhāsya actually seem to rely upon or presupposėthe Yogācārabhūmi. Though no direct reference to the Yogācārabhūmi is made in
the Abhidharmakośabhāsya itself, it is quite possible that Vasubandhu knew anḋ
drew inspiration from the former or, at least, was familiar with the doctrinal tradition
which had produced it. The Abhidharmakośabhāsya most probably belongs tȯVasubandhuʼs early phase of activity, traditionally being counted as his first major
opus. I suppose, however, that even a genius of Vasubandhuʼs stature needed sometime to become familiar and synthesise more than one scholastic tradition in such amasterful and creative way. Therefore, I would speculate that the Abhidharmakośabhāsya must have been written by Vasubandhu when he was in his thirties (oṙeven early forties?). This would then imply that the Yogācārabhūmi had probably
assumed its more or less final shape already before this date. But does this offer us a
precise point in time? This is a welcome clue, but it is far from bringing a final

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The Śrāvakabhūmi appears to belong to the oldest stratum of the
Yogācārabhūmi.13 There are, I believe, good reasons to assume that theŚrāvakabhūmi itself was compiled as an independent text in a gradualprocess spanning over a few decades. Roughly speaking, placing its
formation in the 3rd century CE cannot be too off mark. A more daring,
though arguably plausible, dating would be roughly between 200 and 270.
The authors and redactors behind this compilation most probably belonged
to one or several kindred groups of contemplatives (yogācāra) affiliated to
the Sarvāstivāda tradition.14 We know that monastics mainly specialised inmeditative practices, usually referred to as yogācāra or yogin, are attested
solution. Actually, Vasubandhuʼs date is one of the thorniest issues in Buddhist
studies. In Deleanu 2006, 186ff., I argue for 350-430 as being the most likely dates, but
this remains nothing but a hypothesis.
13 See Schmithausen 1987, 14; etc. For more details on the formation of theŚrāvakabhūmi and bibliographical details, see Deleanu 2006, 156 ff.
14 On quite a few occasions, the Śrāvakabhūmi expresses views which are similar
to or prefigure Sautrāntika doctrines. (What exactly Sautrāntika means as a school[if it ever was one] remains a controversial issue in Buddhist studies; for a collectionof some of the recent contributions on the subject, see the Journal of the International
Association of Buddhist Studies, Vol. 26, Nr. 2: The Sautrāntikas; see also Deleanu
2006, 159-160 [as well as notes], etc. for a brief discussion and further bibliographicaldata.) Moreover, we can also find instances in which the Śrāvakabhūmi agrees withneither the Sarvāstivādins nor the Sautrāntikas. (I discuss such examples in several
contexts in Deleanu 2006 and Deleanu 2007, the latter being a paper dedicated to this
topic.) This fact does not, I believe, upset the general picture, i.e. the affiliation of theŚrāvakabhūmi-related yogācāras to the Sarvāstivāda community, in terms of basic
doctrinal framework and probably monastic lineage. The Sarvāstivādins were a verylarge and fairly diverse community, allowing for some doctrinal freedom. The*Abhidharmamahāvibhāsāśāstra 阿毘達=大毘婆沙論 or Great Treatise upon thėExtensive Exposition of the Doctrinal System is actually an attempt to settle thedoctrinal diversity within the Sarvāstivāda fold and decide once and for ever anorthodox system of this school. Last but not least, it must be stressed that the
Sautrāntikas were not different from the Sarvāstivādins in every single detail of
their philosophy, and there is a common base shared by both schools.

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

9in numerous sources linked to a variety of Buddhist schools.15 As suggested
above, the doctrinal core of the Śrāvakabhūmi has much in common with
the Sarvāstivādin system. Since the active role of the yogācāras 瑜伽師 isabundantly attested in the *Abhidharmamahāvibhāsāśāstra 阿毘達=大毘̇
婆沙論, a fundamental treatise of the Sarvāstivādin school compiled aroundthe middle of the 2nd century CE, it seems natural, or at least plausible, toassume that the tradition behind the Śrāvakabhūmi is historically linked tothis milieu.16
No matter what the exact scholastic affiliation and formation processof the Śrāvakabhūmi might have been, there is no doubt that the text
represents a typically Śrāvakayānika standpoint. Even if we regarded it asa chapter in an encyclopaedic opus composed by a single author or group of
authors working according to a well-structured plan, we would have toconclude that this was the main entry devoted to the exposition of theŚrāvakayāna meditative praxis and theory.

***

The presentation below focuses upon the framework and main steps
on the path of spiritual cultivation in the Śrāvakabhūmi.17 Many of the
15 We owe Jonathan Silk (2000) an excellent study on the meaning and historicalbackground of the term yogācāra in Buddhist sources.
16 The role and many of the doctrines of the yogācāras in the *Abhidharmamahāvibhāsāśāstra are examined in a meticulous study undertaken by the Japanesėscholar Nishi Giyū (1975).
17 Unfortunately, we do not have a complete translation of the Śrāvakabhūmi into amodern language. The closest thing to it is Waymanʼs (1961) contribution which
offers a synoptical presentation of the entire text with key Sanskrit passages
translated into English. In spite of its shortcomings and controversial points,
Waymanʼs work succeeds in giving a birdʼs-eye view of the Śrāvakabhūmi. Of far
higher scholarly value and much more reliable is the translation of the text intomodern Japanese (alongside a new and meticulously edited Sanskrit text) provided

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doctrinal and psychological technicalities as well as numerous practicaldetails, which our text often discusses in great detail, have been omitted.
This will, I hope, allow for a clearer picture of the path trodden by thecontemplative from his/her first steps to the attainment of Awakening.18
by the Śrāvakabhūmi Study Group of Taishō University (see Shōmon ji Kenkyū-kai
ed. and tr. 1998, III-IX; Shōmon ji Kenkyū-kai ed. and tr. 1998). This is a translation of
the entire text, but the project is still progress with the latest instalment (at least as
known to me as of 28th of March 2012), i.e. Shōmon ji Kenkyū-kai ed. and tr. 2011b,
approaching now the end of Yogasthāna [Book] III. (The end of the text edited andtranslated in Shōmon ji Kenkyū-kai ed. and tr. 2011, i.e. ŚrBh-Gr (25) 150.15
corresponds to ŚrBh-Sh 422.9.)
The most important studies directly relevant to the path of spiritual cultivationin the Śrāvakabhūmi are (chronologically arranged): Wayman 1961; Schmithausen
1982; Mōri 1989; Huimin 1994; Schmithausen 2007, 215-232; Shōmon ji Kenkyū-kai ed.
and tr. 1998, III-IX; Abe 2004; Shōmon ji Kenkyū-kai ed. and tr. 2007, III-XVII;
371-380. Deleanu 2006 also contains edited passages, translations, discussions, andbibliographical data relevant to the meditative praxis in the Śrāvakabhūmi,especially the mundane path. (For more details on modern editions, translations andstudies in general of the Śrāvakabhūmi, see Deleanu 2006, 59-62).
Schmithausenʼs studies (1982 and 2007) are particularly outstanding, and mypresentation here owes a great deal to them. (Deleanu 2006 is actually based upon
my doctoral thesis supervised by Professor Schmithausen, to whose bodhisattvic
generosity and guidance I should once again like to express my deepest gratitude.)
18 The Śrāvakabhūmi refers to contemplatives as yogācāra or yogin. Our text does
not seem to make a doctrinally relevant distinction between these two words. On thethree classes or rather levels of yogācāra in the Śrāvakabhūmi, i.e. beginners(ādikarmika), adepts (krtaparicaya), and practitioners who have transcended thėpractice of contemplation (atikrāntamanaskāra), see ŚrBh-Sh 284.4ff. (＝ŚrBh-Gr II
168.1ff.). Let us note that the Abhidharmakośabhāsya uses similar terms witḣreference to the levels attained in the cultivation of the impure (aśubhābhāvanā)(seeAKBh Ch. VI ver. 9-13).
As many, if not most, of the traditional Indian sources, Buddhist ones included,
our text usually employs only masculine forms (ʻheʼ, ʻhisʼ, etc.) when speaking ofthese contemplatives. Seen from the paradigm of our age, such a usage appears
sexist. One should, however, be fair and add that there are also sources which clearlyFar From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

11

II The Path of Spiritual Cultivation
The path of spiritual cultivation depicted in the Śrāvakabhūmi consists of apreparatory phase and two lines of progression called ʻmundane pathʼ(laukikamārga) and ʻsupramundane pathʼ (lokottaramārga) respectively.
These paths can be practised either separately or combined, and as weshall see below, the decision on how to deal with them has much to do withthe contemplativeʼs mental constitution, background, and objectives. The
yogi practising the mundane path attains a series of ever deeper levels ofserenity and increasingly rarefied states of consciousness expansion,
reduction, and eventually cessation. These altered states of consciousness,traditionally subsumed under the category of tranquillity meditation(śamatha), are, however, temporary and cannot lead to the final Liberationfrom the cycle of rebirths and suffering.19 It is only the supramundane path,
which basically consists in reflective meditation (vipaśyanā) directed at theFour Noble Truths, that is conducive to Nirvana. This actually represents aspiritual paradigm typical of the Northern Śrāvakayāna strand of
Buddhism, mainly of the Sarvāstivāda and Sautrāntika schools.20 Like in the
famous Abhidharmakośabhāsya, for instance, the reflective meditatioṅrefer to female contemplatives, too (see, for instance, the examples analysed in Silk
2000), and that the Order of nuns likewise attests to the fact that women were notbarred from spiritual praxis. The fact that I often employ masculine forms only,
especially in translations, to refer to meditators should be understood as an attempt
to stay close to the conventions of the traditional wording. It reflects no sexist
assumption that the meditative techniques as well as the philosophy behind them are
not accessible to women, an assumption which was anyway alien to many of the
traditional sources in spite of their failure to express it in clear grammatical forms.
19 For the taxonomy of Buddhist meditation, see Deleanu 2010.
20 For an excellent study on the formation of the Sarvāstivādin path of spiritualcultivation, see Frauwallner 1995, 149ff. .

12

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

characteristic of the supramundane path is given the central role while themundane path is relegated to an ancillary or soteriologically inferioralternative course.21
1. Preparatory Phase
Strictly speaking, the preparatory phase also includes a basic training in the
restraint in morality (śīlasamvara), restraint of senses (indriyasamvara),̇̇
moderation in eating (bhojane mātrajñatā), mindful conduct (samprajānaḋvihāritā), etc. These topics are discussed in detail in the Chapter on
Requisites (sambhāra) in Book (yogasthāna) One of the Śrāvakabhūmi.22̇Each of them is quite interesting for understanding what traditional
contemplatives expected of their disciples as well as of the spiritual
21 The path of spiritual cultivation in the Abhidharmakośabhāsya is discusseḋ
mainly in Chapter VI (AKBh 327ff.).
22 ŚrBh-Gr I 62.2ff.; ŚrBh-Sh 36.11ff. The full list of requisites include the following
thirteen factors:
1. Propitious conditions regarding oneself (ātmasampad)(1)(begins at ŚrBh-Gr İ62.8; ŚrBh-Sh 37.4).
2. Propitious conditions regarding others (parasampad)(ŚrBh-Gr I 62.8; Sh 37.4)
̇
3. Wholesome aspiration for the Teaching (kuśalo dharmacchandah)(ŚrBh-Gr İ62.8; Sh 37.4)
4. Restraint in morality (śīlasamvara)(ŚrBh-Gr I 62.11; ŚrBh-Sh 37.7)
̇
5. Restraint of senses (indriyasamvara)(ŚrBh-Gr I 100.1; ŚrBh-Sh 63.14)
̇
6. Moderation in eating (bhojane mātrajñatā)(ŚrBh-Gr I 116.1; ŚrBh-Sh 73.19)
7. Staying awake and meditating in the first and last watches of the night(pūrvarātrāpararātram jāgarikāyogasyānuyuktatā) ( ŚrBh-Gr I 150.1; ŚrBh-Sh
̇
97.16)
8. Mindful conduct (samprajānadvihāritā)(ŚrBh-Gr I 172.1; ŚrBh-Sh 111.11)̇
9. Qualities of the spiritual guide (kalyānamitratā)(ŚrBh-Gr I 212.1)(2)̇
10. Listening to and cogitating upon the True Teaching (saddharmaśravanacintȧnā) (ŚrBh-Gr I 226.4; ŚrBh-Sh 134.6)
11. Lack of obstructions (anantarāya)(ŚrBh-Gr I 244.2; ŚrBh-Sh 144.1)

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

13

environment. A detailed presentation of these requisites is unfortunately
not possible here, and we shall go straight to the yogācāraʼs ABC inmeditative training.
The novice begins his/her praxis by choosing from one of the following
meditative objects: (1) impurity (aśubhā), (2) friendliness (maitrī), (3)dependent origination (idampratyayatāpratītyasamutpāda), (4) analysis oḟthe elements (dhātuprabheda) and (5) mindfulness of breathing (ānāpānasmrti).23 The choice is actually made by the master guiding the spiritual̇
progression of the trainee and is determined by the fundamental proclivity
which underlies the latterʼs psyche.24(1) Persons dominated by passion (rāgacarita) should contemplatethe impure (aśubhā) in the form of either (a) repellent anatomical partsand physiological processes of the human body or (b) various stages in the
decay of a corpse.
(2) If dominated by hatred (dveśacarita),25 the ascetic should meditate
12. Generosity (tyāga)(ŚrBh-Gr I 256.4; ŚrBh-Sh 149.8)
13. [Spiritual] adornments of the recluse (śramanālamkāra)(ŚrBh-Gr I 268.2;
̇̇ŚrBh-Sh 155.1)(1)

ʻPropitious conditionʼ for sampad is admittedly a free rendering. Closer translations
̇would be ʻexcellenceʼ, ʻperfectionʼ, or ʻfulfilmentʼ. It is also possible that, as suggested by
Wezler (2000, 440, 441), sampad could mean in fine compositi ʻcomplete groupʼ of factors.
̇
See also Deleanu 2006, 38, n. 23.

(2)

The last part of the mindful conduct and the beginning of the qualities of the spiritual
guide lack in the Sanskrit manuscript as well as in Shuklaʼs edition. The ŚrBh-Gr editongives here the corresponding Tibetan translation.

23 In the ŚrBh, these techniques are discussed in detail at ŚrBh-Sh 202.3 ff. (＝ŚrBh-Gr II 58.7ff.) and ŚrBh-Sh 411.5ff (＝ŚrBh-Gr (25)).
24 The beginning of Book III (ŚrBh-Sh 352.1ff.＝ŚrBh-Gr (22) 10.1ff.) gives a vivid
description of the way the master welcomes the disciple, gives advice, and initiates
him into spiritual praxis (yoga).
25 At ŚrBh-Sh 209.14 (＝ŚrBh-Gr II 70.15), this type of person is calledvyāpādacaritah pudgalo.
̇14

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

on friendliness or loving kindness (maitrī), a feeling which should be
gradually extended to encompass all sentient beings.26(3) The yogi dominated by bewilderment (mohacarita) should reflect
upon the fact that all phenomena arise on the basis of a complex chain of
causation which ultimately has neither permanent doer nor experiencer(niskārakavedakatva).27
̇(4) The practitioner dominated by arrogance (mānacarita) should
analyse the human being and comprehend that it consists of nothing morethan six basic elements, to wit, earth (prthvīdhātu), water (abdhātu), firė
(tejodhātu), wind (vāyudhātu), space (ākāśadhātu), and sentience (vijñāna).28(5) The mindfulness of breathing is the practice recommended for
those who are dominated by restless thoughts (vitarkacarita).29
The ascetic must grasp and refine the characteristic (nimitta) of his
meditative object until he purifies the mind (cittam viśodhayati) from thėrespective proclivity.30 The notion of nimitta ʻ(essential) characteristicʼ orʻmental imageʼ of the meditative object is actually fundamental for the
26 An excellent edition (Sanskrit and Tibetan texts) as well as German translationof the main passages connected to the practice of the meditation on friendliness inthe Śrāvakabhūmi is found in Maithrimurthi 1999, 277­304.
27 ŚrBh-Sh 210.7 (＝ŚrBh-Gr II 70.21).
28 For the definition of vijñāna here, see ŚrBh-Sh 218.6-8 (＝ŚrBh-Gr II 78.13). For

an excellent analysis of the meaning of the concept of viññāna in Early Buddhism, seė
Vetter 2000, 63-73, etc.
29 The matching of these techniques with various personality types is found inseveral places in the ŚrBh. Here I rely mainly on the treatment found at ŚrBh-Sh
198.12-199.9 (＝ŚrBh-Gr II 50.14-52.10) as well as ŚrBh-Sh 202.3ff. (＝ŚrBh-Gr II
58.7ff.).
30 See, for instance, ŚrBh-Sh 210.10-11 (＝ŚrBh-Gr II 72.2-3): mohacaritāc cittaṁviśodhayati ʻ[the yogi] purifies the mind from [being] dominated by bewildermentʼ.
(Here ŚrBh-MS omits moha but the word can be reconstructed from Tib. gti mug
and Ch. 諸癡 ; see ŚrBh-Gr II 72, note 3).

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

15

understanding of the yogic praxis in many, if not all, Buddhist traditions.31
Let us see how this works in the case of the meditation on the impure.32
First, the yogi must go to a charnel-ground (śmaśāna) and carefully beholda decaying corpse. When this is not feasible, the contemplative grasps its
basic characteristics from a painting or a representation made of wood
(citrakrtād vā kāsthaśmaśānakrtād vā nimittam udgrhāna; ŚrBh-Sh
̇
̇̇
̇
̇ ̇
416.7-8).33 Having imprinted the image (nimitta) in his mind, the ascetic
has no more need to observe the physical object as such.
He must then look for a quite place under a tree (vrksamūla) or in ȧ ̇solitary abode (śūnyāgara) and bring his mind in a state of non-distraction
and mindfulness (cittāviksepe smrtyupanibaddham kuru; ŚrBh-Sh 416.13).
̇̇̇
After dwelling a while in this state of concentration, undisturbed by innerand outer stimuli, the contemplative will start visualising the image which
he has grasped (ŚrBh-Sh 416.19-22). Obtaining a clear image of it is,however, far from easy, and the ascetic has two ancillary methods to boost
31 The term nimitta is polysemic. It also means ʻsignʼ, ʻphenomenonʼ, ʻcauseʼ, etc. On

different types of nimitta in our text, see ŚrBh-Sh 280-281; 411.5ff. For more details,
see Deleanu 2006, 473, n. 17. The importance of nimitta in Buddhist meditation iswitnessed in other sources as well. See, for instance, Visuddhimagga IV, § 31ff.; etc.
32 This meditation is described in detail in Schmithausen 1982, 63ff andSchmithausen 2005, 225-229. A detailed examination of the object of the meditation
on impurity in the Śrāvakabhūmi is found in Huimin (1994, 134ff.). The concentrationon the impurity of the body (variously referred to in the Pali tradition as
asubhabhāvanā, asubhajhāna, asubhasaññā, asubhato manaskaroti, etc.), either in theform of the foulness of the anatomical parts and physiological processes of the living
body or by observing the stages of a decaying corpse, is a very old meditative
practice. In the Pali Canon, the practice is expounded at DN II 239ff.; MN I 57ff.; etc.
A detailed explanation of the stages of decay is founded at Vism 145ff. Cf. also Dhs §§263-264.
33 It should be noted that the passage presented here is written in the form of
instructions directly given by the master to the novice acetic. This is also apparent
from the imperative form of the verb in the examples cited here and below.

16

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

his performance. One is to alternate the exercise proper with thevisualisation of light (ālokanimitta)(ŚrBh-Sh 421.18-422.9). This will
eventually make the image of the decaying corpse appear brighter.34 The
second is to repeatedly wipe off imperfect images and replace them withever better ones until a flawless mental representation is produced (ŚrBhSh 421.3-8).35 The process is compared to the training of a painterʼs disciple(citrakārāntevāsin) who is given a model to copy. The disciple first
produces an imperfect replica, then wipes it off and tries again and again
until his copy becomes faultless (ŚrBh-Sh 437. 8-19).
The meditative exercise does not stop here, and once a perfect image
is obtained, the contemplative imagines the whole world becoming
pervaded with corpses (ŚrBh-Sh 420.1-9). This makes him cogitate that in
the course of the beginningless cycle of rebirths (samsāra), he has lefṫ
behind an even larger number of bodies and this process will continue forever unless Liberation is attained (ŚrBh-Sh 420.9-421.1). In this way, ourascetic achieves his basic aim of purifying his mind from passion for sensualpleasures, at least while engaged in this meditative praxis. When the
purified conviction with regard to the meditative object arises in him(pariśuddhaś cālambanādhimoksah pravartate)(ŚrBh-Sh 437.12-13), thė ̇yogi can decide whether he will proceed by the mundane path or by thesupramundane path.
2. Mundane Path (laukikamārga)(ŚrBh-Sh 439.3-470.6)36
The mundane path consists in achieving the four meditative absorptions
34 See also ŚrBh-Sh 416.2-4.
35 See also ŚrBh-Sh 395.2-7; 397.2-19.
36 For critical editions of the Sanskrit, Tibetan, and Chinese versions as well as anannotated English translation of the Chapter on the Mundane Path, see Deleanu

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

17(dhyāna), the four immaterial attainments (ārūpyasamāpatti), the two
attainments without mental activity (acittike samāpattī), and the fivesupernatural faculties (abhijñā)(ŚrBh-Sh 439.3-470.6).37 The eight meditative attainments, i.e. the four dhyānas and the four ārūpyasamāpattis, areobtained by means of the seven contemplations or seven contemplative
levels (sapta manaskārāh), which is a unique set of meditative techniqueṡpeculiar to the Śrāvakabhūmi. In this section, we shall focus upon thepresentation of this practice in relation to the first absorption (prathamadhyāna)(ŚrBh-Sh 439.3-445.12).38(1) The contemplation apprehending the [essential] characteristics(laksanapratisamvedī manaskārah). This represents a careful examinatioṅ ̇̇̇
of the object of meditation under six aspects, i.e. meaning (artha), thing(vastu), characteristic (laksana), category (paksa), time (kāla), anḋ ̇̇reasoning (yukti). The meditative objects most amply treated in thiscontext are the coarseness (audārikatā; audārikalaksana) of the sensual̇ ̇
pleasures (kāma) and the serenity (śāntatā; śāntalaksana) of the firsṫ ̇
absorption. The nature of this examination is discursive, consisting mainly
in listening (śruta) to and cogitation (cintā) upon relevant Buddhist
teachings.
(2) The contemplation leading to [/characterised by] conviction(ādhimoksiko manaskārah). The ascetic gradually becomes convinced thaṫ̇
the sensual pleasures are fraught with defects which bring various andceaseless suffering. By contrast, the meditative absorption offers a serene
and peaceful abode. The process of gaining conviction is achieved bymeditative cultivation alone (bhāvanākārenaiva).39̇
2006.
37 The mundane path in the ŚrBh is also discussed in Schmithausen 1982, 74-76,
and Schmithausen 2005, 215-219.
38 For the revised Sanskrit edition, see Deleanu 2006, 318-326.
39 Buddhist sources distinguish the following levels in spiritual cultivation:

18

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)(3) The contemplation engendering separation (prāvivekyo manaskārah). As a result of his assiduous practice, the yogi generates for the firsṫtime the path leading to the elimination of defilements (kleśaprahānāya
̇
mārga utpadyate). In our particular case, this means that the meditatorʼs
attachment for sensual pleasures (kāma) begins to wane.
(4) The contemplation comprising delight (ratisamgrāhako manaskāṙah). The contemplative starts to feel the benefit of abandoning sensual̇pleasures. This leads to the experience of genuine joy and pleasure−still
limited in degree at this stage−resulting from their removal.
(5) The investigating contemplation (mīmāmsāmanaskārah). Thė̇
ascetic ascertains whether the elimination of the latent proclivities is only
due to his meditative efforts or is achieved by the very nature (dharmatā)of his mentation, i.e. in a spontaneous, effortless manner. Only when theformer proves to be the case, this contemplative level is achieved.
Otherwise, the practitioner has to engage in his training again and again
until the elimination is ascertained to be spontaneous.
(6) The contemplation attaining the culmination of the practice(prayoganistho manaskārah). The yogi cultivates the antidotes foṙ̇̇
defilements, repeatedly investigates whether the defilements have beenabandoned or not, and in the end, his mind becomes temporarily free fromall the defilements pertaining to the realm of sensual pleasures(kāmadhātu).

listening (śruta), cogitation (cintā), and meditative cultivation (bhāvanā), each being
associated with a specific type of wisdom (prajñā). The stage of bhāvanā represents
meditation par excellence, i.e. a contemplative process going beyond the discursive
levels of listening and cogitation. It is by means of bhāvanā that the practitioner
comes to directly apprehend the essence of the meditation object and eventually of
the Truth (often equated in the Śrāvakayāna tradition with the Four Noble Truths).
On this tripartite classification, see, for instance, AKBh ch. VI ver. 25 and following
auto-commentary (AKBh 349).

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

19(7) The contemplation representing the fruit of the culmination of thepractice (prayoganisthāphalo manaskārah). This constitutes the final goal̇̇̇of this series of contemplative steps, which in this case means theattainment of the first meditative absorption proper (mauladhyāna).40
And the rest of the meditative attainments are obtained by similarly
applying the same series of seven contemplations.
3. Supramundane Path (lokottaramārga)(ŚrBh-Sh 470.7-510.13)
The supramundane path represents a series of meditative processes whichlead to the realisation (abhisamaya) of the Four [Noble] Truths (catvāri
satyāni) and the attainment of Liberation.41 The same set of sevencontemplations (sapta manaskārāh) is employed but in a rather differenṫ
40 Theabsorption proper (literally, ʻroot [/main] absorptionʼ) refers to themeditative state as such which is distinguished from the preparatory concentration
preceding its full attainment. This is a distinction which probably originated with theNorthern Abhidharma, mainly Sarvāstivāda tradition. The Abhidharmakośabhāsya,̇for instance, discusses in various contexts the absorption proper and the liminal
attainments (sāmantaka, or dhyānāntara, or in the case of the first dhyāna only,anāgamya) through which one reaches the former state (see AKBh ch. VIII ver. 5ab; AKBh ch. VIII ver. 22a; AKBh 436.12-13; AKBh 447.17-18; AKBh 448.4; etc.). The
Theravāda tradition, on the other hand, does not use this terminology but has
structurally similar strategies for attaining jhāna proper (see Kv 565-569; Kv-a
174-175; Vism 102, §§ 32-33; etc.). (I discuss in more detail this problem in Deleanu
2006, 509-510, n. 118.) What the Śrāvakabhūmi does is actually a further refinement
which analyses the preparatory phase and absorption state proper into seven steps.
The feeling one gets from the Śrāvakabhūmi treatment here as well as in the context
of the mundane path is that of a praxis-orientated approach. This does not seem to beanalysis for analysisʼ sake but reflects a very careful mapping of the psychologicalprocesses occurring during the meditative training.
41 The supramundane path in the ŚrBh is also discussed in Schmithausen 1982,
76-85, and Schmithausen 2005, 219-224.

20

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

manner and with slight changes of order.
(1) The contemplation apprehending the [essential] characteristics(laksanapratisamvedī manaskārah)(begins at ŚrBh-Sh 470.10). It consists iṅ ̇̇̇reflecting upon the Noble Truths (āryasatyāni) under sixteen aspects.42
This contemplation receives a very detailed treatment. A brief summary of
its practice, in the words of the Śrāvakabhūmi itself, will suffice:The contemplative who has grasped the Four Noble Truths bylistening to their succinct and detailed expositions, who has wellcultivated his concentration or has obtained the basic absorptions andimmaterial [attainments], apprehends the [essential] characteristicsof the Truth of Suffering under four aspects, i.e. impermanence,
suffering, emptiness, and no(n)-Self;43 [and likewise, he apprehends]
the [essential] characteristics of the Truth of Origination under four
aspects, i.e. cause, origination, production, and condition. He [further]apprehends the [essential] characteristics of the Truth of Cessation
under four aspects, i.e. cessation, serenity, exquisiteness, and escape[from the cycle of rebirths]. [Finally,] he apprehends the [essential]
characteristics of the Truth of the Path under four aspects, i.e. path,method, course [of practice], and leading forth [from suffering].
(Sanskrit original: Tatra caturnām āryasatyānām soddeśavibhaṅgā̇̇
nām śravanenodgrhītā yogācārah44 subhāvitamanaskāro vā,̇̇̇̇
42 Letus also note here that Śrāvakabhūmi authors prefer to construe thecompound āryasatyāni as ʻTruths [realised by] the Noble Onesʼ (ŚrBh-Sh 254.5-10＝
ŚrBh-Gr II 120.1-5). I stick, however, to the translation ʻFour Noble Truthsʼ becauseof its almost universal use in modern introductions, essays, and studies dedicated to
Buddhism.
43 Here and below, I adopt a rather free rendering. The original literally goes asʻthrough the aspect of impermanence, through the aspect of sufferingʼ, etc.
44 Both ŚrBh-MS and ŚrBh-Sh read: śramanenodgrhītayogācārah.
̇̇̇
No doubt, śramanena°should be emended to śravanena°. This is not only morė̇Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

21

mauladhyānārūpyalābhī vā, caturbhir ākārair duhkhasatyasya laksȧ̇
nam pratisamvedayate, tadyathā ’nityākārena, duhkhākārena,
̇ ̇
̇
̇
̇
̇
śūnyākārena,45 anātmākārena ca; caturbhir ākāraih samudayasatẏ̇̇asya,46 tadyathā hetutah, samudayatah, prabhavatah, pratyayataś ca.
̇̇̇Caturbhir ākārair nirodhasatyasya laksanam pratisamvedayate,̇ ̇ ̇̇tadyathā nirodhatah, śāntatah, pranītatah, nihsaranataś ca. Caturbhir
̇
̇
̇
̇
̇
̇
ākārair mārgasatyasya laksanam pratisamvedayate, tadyathā mārgȧ ̇ ̇̇tah, nyāyatah, pratipattitah, nairyānikataś ca.)̇̇̇̇(ŚrBh-MS 120a5 (right side)-120a8 (left side); ŚrBh-Sh 470.10-21).47
meaningful from a doctrinal viewpoint but also supported by the Tibetan thos andChinese 聽聞 (see note 47 below for the citation of the entire passage). Wayman
1961, 130, also emends śramanena°to śravanena°.
̇̇More difficulties are raised by udgrhīta, but emending it to udgrhītā (i.ė̇udgrhītr＝one who grasps; cf. grhītr in Monier-Williams [1899] 1986, s.v.) appears tȯ ̇̇ ̇
be the best solution. For an occurrence of udgrhītr in our text, see ŚrBh-Sh 48.12 (＝̇ ̇ŚrBh-Gr I 78.8): nāmagotrodgrhītā.
̇
45 ŚrBh-Sh omits. Wayman 1961, 130, reads: śūnyatākārena.
̇46 Here, too, the Chinese and Tibetan contain the equivalent of laksanaṁ ̇ ̇pratisamvedayate (see note 47 below for the citation of the entire passage). Waymaṅ
1961, 130, too, adds: laksanam pratisamvedayate. The ŚrBh-MS (as well as ŚrBh-Sh)̇ ̇ ̇̇do not contain, however, this phrase, and the whole sentence is meaningful even
without it. As often seen in the ŚrBh, the style is not exactly symmetric and polished.
This is, I surmise, a trace of an earlier stage in the formation and circulation of thetext as an oral exposition. The addition in the Tibetan and Chinese versions can be
explained as a deliberate editorial effort made by the respective translators to bringmore symmetry to their texts.
47 The Tibetan translation reads: de la ’phags pa’i bden pa bzhi po mdor bstan pa
dang | rgyas par bshad pa dang bcas pa thos shing bzung la legs par bsgoms shing yid labyed pa’am | bsam gtan dang gzhugs med pa’i dngos gzhi thob pa’i rnal ’byor spyodpas(1) nyi rnam pa bzhi po ’di lta ste | mi rtag pa’i rnam pa dang | sdug bsngal ba’i
rnam pa dang | stong pa’i rnam pa dang | bdag med pa’i rnam pas bden pa sdug bsngal
gyi mtshan nyid so sor rig par byed do | | rnam pa bzhi po ’di lta ste | rgyu’i rnam pa
dang | kun ’byung ba’i rnam pa dang | rab tu skye ba’i rnam pa dang | rkyen gyi(2)rnam pas (P 214b1) bden pa kun ’byung ba’i mtshan nyid so sor rig par byed do | |22

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

A large part of the section on the laksanapratisamvedī manaskārah iṡ ̇̇̇dedicated to the way in which the yogi grasps the realities comprised in the
Truth of Suffering (duhkhasatya). For this purpose, the Śrāvakabhūmi
̇devises a further series of ten aspects which are distributed under the four
aspects mentioned above (ŚrBh-Sh 471.1ff.). These ten aspects offer a more
concrete picture of the reality and help the contemplative gain a concrete
feeling of this Truth. He is thus taught that all conditioned phenomena(sarvasamskāra) are impermanent (anitya) because they are subject tȯrnam pa bzhi po ’di lta ste | ’gog pa’i rnam pa dang | zhi ba’i rnam pa dang | gya(3) nom
pa’i rnam pa dang | nges par ’byung ba’i (D 178a1) rnam pas bden pa ’gog pa’i mtshan
nyid so sor rig par byed do | | rnam pa bzhi po ’di lta ste | lam gyi rnam pa dang | rigs
pa’i rnam pa dang | sgrub pa’i rnam pa dang | nges par ’byin pa’i rnam pas bden pa lam
gyi mtshan nyid so sor rig par byed pa ste | (P Wi 214a6; D Dzi 177b5; ZT vol. 23, p. 441,
l. 5)
(1)

All editions read: rnal ’byor spyod pa la. The most natural way of construing the text

here would be to emend pa la to pas (as required by the transitive verb so sor rig parbyed) and delete la. An early scribal error confusing pas with pa la (graphically quite
similar letters) can easily account for the present reading. It is not excluded, however,that la nyi could be a double emphatic particle (see Beyer 1992, 279, with a citation fromMother Sum-pa). If this was the original reading intended by the translators, the sentence
should be construed as ʻconcerning the ascetic, [....][he] apprehends [...]ʼ (which would
assume a *des in the deep structure as the subject of so sor rig par byed). However,
although pa la as a double topicaliser is not impossible, such constructions do not seem tooccur (at least not often) in translations of Yogācāra texts.
(2)

P, N read: gyis.

(3)

P reads: kya.

The Chinese translation reads: 修瑜伽師 於四聖諦 略摽廣辯 增上教法，聽聞受
持，或於作意 已善修習，或得根本A慮、無色。由四種行 了苦諦相，謂：無常行、苦行、空行、無我行。由四種行 了集諦相，謂：因行、集行、起行、緣行。由四種
行 了滅諦相，謂：滅行、A行、妙行、離行。由四種行 了道諦相，謂：道行、如行、行行、出行。(T 30.470c16; ZC 26.673a8)
The Sanskrit text is also edited and translated in Wayman 1961, 130. There are,however, details, some of which have been pointed out above, where my edition andrendering differ from Wayman 1961.

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

23change-and-decay (viparināma), annihilation (vināśa), and separation
̇(viyoga); these three aspects are imminent (sannihita), and this is the very
nature (dharmatā) of things. The conditioned phenomena are characterised by suffering (duhkha) because they are unpleasant (anista),̇̇̇represent fetters and bondage (samyojanabandhana), and are noṫ[conducive to ultimate] security (ayogaksema). They are empty (śūnya)̇
because no substantial Self can be observed (anupalambha) as being the
subject of the cognitive processes or the agent of rebirths. Finally, they areno(n)-Self (anātman) because they are not autonomous (asvātantrya), i.e.
they depend upon conditions to arise.
(2) Contemplation leading to [/characterised by] conviction (ādhimoksiko manaskārah)(ŚrBh-Sh 495.15). This contemplative level is alsȯ̇
amply treated. Its main function is to facilitate the meditatorʼs access(avatīrno bhavati) to the Four Noble Truths and eventually lead to thėattainment of the supreme mundane factors (laukikā agradharmāh)(Tasyȧ
yāval laukikebhyo ’gradharmebhya ādhimoksiko manaskārah)(ŚrBh-Sḣ̇
502.12-13). In Abhidharmic terms, of which the Śrāvakabhūmi makes fulluse, this corresponds to the highest level of the wholesome roots(kuśalamūla) conducive to the penetration (nirvedhabhāgīya) [of theTruth]. The yogi does this mainly by observing the sixteen aspects
mentioned above in his own mental continuum (cittasantati). Meditating
chiefly upon the conditioned phenomena of the external world, as done in
the preceding step of the laksanapratisamvedī manaskārah, is not sufficient.
̇ ̇̇̇The yogi must now direct his mind towards Nirvana. He succeeds infocusing on the summum bonum of the Buddhist path only when any notionof a permanent Self is eliminated. Our ascetic is liberated from this notion
precisely by contemplating the mind itself and realising that it consists ofnothing but a series of ever changing moments. He will thus gain direct
insight into the fact that the mind, too, is impermanent, conducive tosuffering, empty, and no(n)-Self (ŚrBh-Sh 497.3-499.12).

24

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

The yogi now reaches a state of deep tranquillity (śamatha) in which
the mind apparently has no more object and thus ceases functioning
altogether. This, however, should not to be confused with the actual
realisation (abhisamaya) of the Four Noble Truths (ŚrBh-Sh 499.17-500.5).
The first true insight into them occurs after his emergence from this deep
tranquillity. This is a non-conceptual (nirvikalpa) form of knowledge based
upon direct perception (pratyaksajñāna) which effects a certain cognitioṅ(niścayajñāna) of the Four Noble Truths (ŚrBh-Sh 500.6-17). These seriesof moments will prepare the decisive step of the path of vision(darśanamārga), which is matched with the next contemplative level.
(3) Contemplation engendering separation (prāvivekyo manaskārah)̇(ŚrBh-Sh 502.15). The ascetic attains the supramundane direct insight into
the Four Noble Truths and thus eliminates the defilements to beabandoned by the path of vision (darśanaprahātavyāh kleśāh), i.e. thė̇
proclivities related to wrong views and doubt.48(4) Investigating contemplation (mīmāmsāmanaskārah)(ŚrBh-Sḣ̇
503.2). The yogi begins his effort to eliminate the defilements to beabandoned by the path of cultivation (bhāvanāprahātavyāh kleśah), i.e.
̇̇emotional proclivities. Persevering in his spiritual cultivation, he investigates time and again the defilements which have been abandoned as well as
those which have not been abandoned yet. (Tasyaivam bhāvanāprayuktasya kālena ca kālam kleśānām prahīnāprahīnatām mīmāmsatah.)(ŚrBḣ
̇
̇
̇
̇
̇
̇

Sh 506.6-7)49(5) Contemplation comprising delight (ratisamgrāhako manaskārah)̇̇(ŚrBh-Sh 506.8). The practitioner repeatedly makes his mind loathe(/become frightened) on the basis of the factors conducive to loathing
48 This and the following subsections are particularly hard to define and delimit

accurately. For more details, see Deleanu 2006, 41-42 (especially notes 42-43).
49 Let us note that this and the next contemplation appear in reversed order in thedescription of the mundane path (see above).

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

25(/fright) and makes it rejoice on the basis of the factors conducive torejoicing. Thus he will attain the contemplation comprising delight.
(Kālena kālam samvejanīyesu dharmesu cittam samvejayatah, kālena
̇
̇
̇
̇
̇
̇
̇
kālam abhipramodanīyesv abhipramodayatah, so ’sya bhavati ratisamgrāhȧ̇̇̇ko manaskārah.)(ŚrBh-Sh 506.8-10)50̇
(6) Contemplation attaining the culmination of the practice (prayoganistho manaskārah)(ŚrBh-Sh 506.10). Relentlessly cultivating the conteṁ̇̇
plation comprising delight, the ascetic generates the diamond-like
contemplation (vajropamasamādhi) by which all defilements to beabandoned by the path of cultivation are eliminated. (Sarvapaścimah śaikso
̇̇vajropamah samādhir utpadyate. Tasyotpādāt sarve bhāvanāprahātavyāḣ̇kleśāh prahīyante.)(ŚrBh-Sh 506.13-15; Schmithausen ed. [1982] 1984,
̇460)51(7) Contemplation representing the fruit of the culmination of thepractice (prayoganisthāphalo manaskārah)(ŚrBh-Sh 507.7). This statė̇̇represents the result of the diamond-like contemplation, i.e. the supreme
fruit of the path, the attainment of Arhatship (Tatra yo vajropamaḣsamādhir, ayam prayoganistho manaskārah, yah punar agraphalārhattvȧ
̇̇̇̇samgrhīto manaskāro, ’yam prayoganisthāphalo manaskārah.)(ŚrBh-Sh
̇ ̇
̇
̇̇
̇
510. 10-12; Schmithausen ed. [1982] 1984, 472).

***

What is the precise relation between the mundane path and supramundane
path? The Śrāvakabhūmi suggests two possibilities. One is the combinatory
50 According to Shukla (1973, 506, n. 2), rati in ratisamgrāhako is added by ȧ
separate hand. The ŚrBh-MS is blurred here, but to me, this does not look like an
addition by a separate hand. Both the Tibetan and Chinese translations contain theequivalent of rati °.
51 Here and in the paragraph below, I follow Schmithausenʼs edition with a few
minor modifications linked to the conventions adopted throughout this paper.

26

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

pattern usually adopted in Sarvāstivādin and Sautrāntika sources.
According to this paradigm, it is the reflective strategy of meditation(vipaśyanā) associated with the supramundane path that is the key to
Liberation. The tranquillity-orientated meditation (śamatha) is not ignored
but neither is it a sine qua non condition on the path of spiritual cultivation.
True, it can speed up the attainment of Arhatship, and in this sense,śamatha is a helpful addition to the yogiʼs contemplative repertoire. The
Abhidharmakośabhāsya, for instance, tells us that in the case of ȧpractitioner who has mastered the mundane path, the successful
completion of the path of vision (darśanamārga) will bring the fruit ofOnce-Returner (sakrdāgāmin) or Non-Returner (anāgāmin) rather thaṅthat of Stream-Enterer (srotaāpanna). The latter, which is the lowest of thefour saintly fruits of the life of the recluse (śrāmanya), is actually accessiblėeven for a contemplative who has not gained command of the mundane
path.52 In fact, one can attain Awakening without experiencing theabsorptions (dhyāna) and immaterial attainments (ārūpyasamāpatti).53
The Śrāvakabhūmi is not as clear and detailed as the Abhidharmakośabhāsya in its discussion of the relation between laukikamārga anḋ
52 See AKBh ch. VI ver. 29c-d: ahīnabhāvanāheyau phalādyapratipannakau. See

also AKBh 366.5-6.
53 As Stanza 47cd of Chapter VI in the Abhidharmakośabhāsya declares,̇ʻdetachment from all [spheres][is obtained] by means of the pure threshold [ofmeditation]ʼ (anāsravena vairāgyam anāgāmyena sarvatah)(AKBh 367.12). Thė̇
threshold (anāgāmya) of meditation is the state in between the realm of sensualpleasures and the first absorption (prathamam dhyānam). It provides thėpractitioner with a privileged locus from which he can use reflection, mainly directed
at the precariousness of the sensual pleasures which is contrasted to theexquisiteness of the absorptions, in order generate the different mental processes
necessary for the attainment of dhyānas and ārūpyasamāpattis, processes which wewould call today ʻaltered states of consciousnessʼ.
For a discussion of the path of spiritual cultivation in the Abhidharmakośa, see
Deleanu 2012 forthcoming.

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

27

lokottaramārga, but it does tell us that the long process of the elimination ofemotional defilements, corresponding to the path of cultivation (bhāvanāmārga), can be shortened if the yogi practises the mundane path at an
earlier stage (ŚBh-Sh 500.19-501.6).54
The second possibility is that of limiting oneʼs practice of meditation to
the mundane path only−at least for one or as many lives as may benecessary to meet the right conditions. The Śrāvakabhūmi actuallydescribes in great detail the mundane path conceived as this latter
possibility. According to our text, there are four categories of persons
choosing or having to practise the mundane path in the present life (drstė ̇̇dharme). These include (1) non-Buddhists, (2) Buddhist followers withweak spiritual faculties but with experience in tranquillity (śamatha), (3)likewise, Buddhists who have keen faculties but whose roots of wholesome
factors (kuśalamūla) are unripe, and (4) bodhisattvas wishing to attain
Awakening not in this life but in the future (ŚrBh-Sh 437.17-438.7).55
54 Here I should like to correct an earlier statement made in Deleanu 2006, 20:ʻthere are some technical aspects which interconnect these two paths [i.e. themundane and the supramundane paths], but in principle, they do not presuppose
each otherʼ. Put in this way, the description is misleading. True, the two paths can bepractised separately, and the Śrāvakabhūmi basically presents the progression alongeach path more or less independently. Yet, as mentioned above, the passage at ŚBhSh 500.19-501.6 makes it clear that they can be interconnected. Like other sources
linked to the Northern Śrāvakayāna traditions, the possibility of connecting them is
not a sine qua non condition for attaining Nirvana, but it is a viable alternative which
can speed up the way towards It. Why the Śrāvakabhūmi did not elaborate upon thisconnection remains unclear, but one can conjecture that the issue was more of apractical nature rather than a theoretical aspect. It might have been enough tobriefly sketch the possibility of interconnection in the text itself, which doubtless wasa basic source of authority in the community (or communities) associated with it,
but it would have been up to the master to decide according to the personality ofeach disciple who was to tread along which path as well as if, when, and how the yogi
had to link the two paradigms of meditative praxis.
55 A revised Sanskrit edition is found at Deleanu 2006, 317-318 (for English

28

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

Of course, this path does not lead eo ipso to Nirvana. As a matter offact, it is a postponement of or detour from the supreme goal of the
Buddhist spirituality, but this does not make the Śrāvakabhūmi authors
neglect it. Actually, they give it a treatment almost as extensive as that of
the supramundane path. This has to do, I believe, with the praxisorientated nature of our text. Few other sources in the Yogācāra tradition
are so full of practical details, and one can safely conclude that many
passages in the Śrāvakabhūmi came straight from the mouths and pens ofyogācāra masters fully immersed in and knowledgeable of contemplative
cultivation and its psychology. These masters were guiding people in flesh
and blood rather than Abhidharmic abstractions, no matter how carefullyarranged in long taxonomical lists. It is not difficult to imagine that not all
their disciples were suited to practise the supramundane path alone or in
combination with the mundane path. Though Awakening remains theultimate goal for any serious Buddhist follower, the ground realities ofteaching and practising meditation probably required a great deal ofpragmatism. Instead of heedlessly herding novices along an idealised,theoretically tailored path, it must have been far more beneficial to set up a
detailed course for those who had to content themselves with the mundane
path only. This might have been the reason for paying so much attention tothis otherwise non-Nirvana-conducive alternative.

translation, see ibid. 446-447). Let us also note here the presence of the termʻbodhisattvaʼ, which is one of the very few instances where the Śrāvakabhūmi
mentions a potentially Mahāyānist concept. I say ʻpotentiallyʼ because the concept ofbodhisattva (Pali, bodhisatta) as an appellation of the Buddha of our aeon as well asof other previous or future Buddhas at any time before their full Awakening is also
known in the Śrāvakayāna tradition. Unfortunately, the Śrāvakabhūmi does not offer
any clue as to the exact meaning of the term ʻbodhisattvaʼ here.

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

29

III Concluding Remarks
In spite of its peculiarities, the Śrāvakabhūmi remains a work firmly
anchored in the Śrāvakayāna tradition. True, a certain role is allotted to a
non-conceptual (nirvikalpa) form of knowledge based upon directperception (pratyaksajñāna) said to engender certain cognition (niścayȧ
jñāna) of the Noble Truths. This is in itself a very interesting category,
which might represent an innovation, or an emphasis, peculiar to the ProtoYogācāra contemplatives.56 It will actually be a meditative strategy
developing the idea of deep tranquillity (śamatha) and non-conceptual(nirvikalpa) cognition that will gain the upper hand in the later Yogācāra
sources.57 For the Śrāvakabhūmi, however, this remains only a step−
important as it may have been−on a spiritual road dominated by reflective
methods of meditations. The practitioner bound to attain Arhatship has totread basically the same path and follow contemplative strategies similar to
those prescribed in the mainstream Sarvāstivādin model.

56 I must stress that this statement is highly conjectural. For more certainty, one

needs to check up earlier sources, mainly the discouragingly voluminous *Abhidharmamahāvibhāsāśāstra, to see whether prototypes of such ideas had alreadẏbeen formulated before the Śrāvakabhūmi.
57 As aptly pointed out by Schmithausen (2005, 232-235), in the Viniścayasaṁgrahanī, i.e. the auto-commentarial portion of the Yogācārabhūmi, a similarlẏ
described deep tranquillity in which the mind appears to have no more object and tohave ceased functioning is the decisive experience, actually the very insight(abhisamaya) into the Truth Itself (tathatā). ʻThe insight into the four Noble Truths,
which is liberating insight proper for the ŚrBh [i.e. Śrāvakabhūmi], is merely asubsequent conceptual analysis of this non-conceptual experience of undiversified
True Reality. The VinSg [i.e. Viniścayasamgrahanī] passages thus presuppose thė̇same experiences as the ŚrBh, but the evaluation of the two phases is reversedʼ (ibid.
p. 234).

30

Far From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

Abbreviations
and Citation Conventions
For Pali sources, I have followed the widely accepted system of the
Epilegomena to Volume I of A Critical Pāli Dictionary. I have relied upon
PTS editions with the sole exception of the Vism＝Visuddhimagga(Warren ed.). References to the latter are to page and section (marked as§).
Citations of and references to Sanskrit sources are done according to
the following model: AKBh 115.3 stands for the Abhidharmakośabhāsya,̇page 115, line 3. Sometimes, I quote or refer to verse rather than to page
number. Thus, AKBh ch. III ver. 5 stands for the Abhidharmakośabhāsya,̇
chapter III, stanza (kārikā) 5.
Citations of and references to Tibetan translations are done according
to the following model: D Wi 111a1 stands for the sDe-dge Canon, volume
Wi (i.e. traditional Tibetan numeration), folio 111, recto, line 1.
In the case of Chinese texts, T 30.527b16 stands for the Taishō Canon,
volume 30, page 527, segment b (middle segment), column 16.
The abbreviations below include mainly Sanskrit titles. The modern
editions which have been consulted are indicated in brackets. The list does
not include Tibetan and Chinese titles (which are referred to by pointing
out the location in their respective Tripitakas).
̇As far as the modern literature (listed in the Bibliography below) isconcerned, I follow the author-date style of reference. Where a reprint has
been consulted, the original date of publication is inserted in square
brackets.
AKBh＝Abhidharmakośabhāsya (Pradhan ed.)
̇
Ch.＝ChineseFar From the Madding Strife for Hollow Pleasures (Deleanu)

31

D: sDe-dge edition of the Tibetan Tripitaka (for modern reprint, seėTakasaki et al. ed.)
P＝Peking edition of the Tibetan Tripitaka (for modern reprint, see Suzuki̇ed.)ŚrBh＝Śrāvakabhūmi＊
ŚrBh-Gr I: Shōmon ji Kenkyū-kai ed. and tr. 1998.
ŚrBh-Gr II: Shōmon ji Kenkyū-kai ed. and tr. 2007.
ŚrBh-Gr (22): Shōmon ji Kenkyū-kai ed. and tr. 2008.
ŚrBh-Gr (25): Shōmon ji Kenkyū-kai ed. and tr. 2011.
ŚrBh-MS: Taishō University and China Library of Nationalities
facsimile ed.
ŚrBh-Sh＝Shukla ed.
See also Deleanu 2006 and Schmithausen ed. [1982] 1984.
T: Taishō edition of the Chinese Tripitaka (Takakusu and Watanabe ed.)̇Tib.: Tibetan
Vism＝Visuddhimagga (Warren ed.)
YoBh＝Yogācārabhūmi.
ZC＝Zhonghua edition of the Chinese Tripitaka (Zhonghua Canon Editinġ
Bureau ed.)
ZT＝Zhonghua edition of the Tibetan Tripitaka (Tripitaka Collatioṅ̇Bureau of China) Tibetology Centre ed.

＊ Citations

and references to the Śrāvakabhūmi throughout this paper arebasically given to Shuklaʼs edition. In spite of its shortcomings, it remains the only
complete edition of the text to this day and probably still the most widely used one.
The excellent edition prepared by the Shōmon ji Kenkyū-kai or Śrāvakabhūmi Study
Group of Taishō University is still in progress (for more details, see note 17 below).
Although not constantly, I have also often given the page and line number of the text
in the latter edition as well as in the passages contained in Schmithausen ed. [1982]
1984 and Deleanu 2006.

32

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