67

Some Remarks, on the Textual Historyof the Srlivakabhumi*

Florin Deleanu
The Sriivakabhumi ( =SrBh) (Tibetan, Nyan thos kyi sa; Chinese,~OO:l'lf!.) or The Disciples' Level constitutes Book XIIIof the vast ency-

clopaedic compilation Yogiiciirabhumi ( =YoBh) (Rnyal 'byor spyod

pa'i sa; ij«{iJ!Jm1i:l'lf!.~), the Summa Ascetica of the Yogacara school,
attributed to Asa:riga by the Tibetan tradition and toMaitreyaaccording
to Chinese sources. The work is dedicated to the exposition of the spiritual cultivation practised by a §ravaka or disciple following the conservative (non-Mahayana) path. The nature of its discourse is multiple.
All of the following terms reflect one or another of its multiple facets:
exposition of the contemplative path, philosophical treatise on related
topics, meditation manual, and Abhidharmic taxonomy of doctrinesand human types relevant to spiritual practice. In spite of its incorpo* I am most grateful to Professor Lambert Schmithausen for his kindand extremely helpful suggestions and critical remarks made on the preliminary drafts of this paper. I should also like to offer my warmest thanks
for the precious observations and assistance given by Dr Michael Zimmermann, Dr Mudagamuwe Maithrimurthi, Mr Martin Delhey, and all theother members of Professor Schmithausen 's colloquium of PhD candidates
at Hamburg University, Asia-Africa Institute, Department of Indian andTibetan Culture and History, where a first version of the article was read.
I also wish to express my sincerest gratitude for the comments made by
my colleagues at the International College of Advanced Buddhist Studies
where a second draft of the paper was presented. Last but not least, I amvery grateful for the kind advice and help offered by Dr Lore Sander, Dr
Harunaga Isaacson, and Mr Y asuhiro Sueki.

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ration in a classic of the Yogacara school, the SrBh is written fromor, at least, reflects a Sravakayanika doctrinal standpoint.
In what follows I intend to advance a few hypothetical remarks(apparently the suabhava of the Buddhist historico-philological studies)on the textual formation of the SrBh. In order to do that, we must firsttake a look at the content of this work, and the synoptic presentation
below has been drafted mainly to serve this purpose1 • This bird's-eye is
1 Different ways of summarising the content of the text having been

attempted so far. The most comprehensive and reliable synopsis of thewhole text remains the one found in the KIK, basically the outcome of
Kato Seishin's laudable efforts, who also draws upon the Sino-Japanesecommentarial tradition, especially Ji's£ Yuqieshi di lun We zuan fiff1JIIIW:l&fni!~· and Daolun's ilifnH Yuqie lun ji fiff1J!Ifni!~c. (The author of the latterwork is usually known as Dunlun ~faH, but according to YUki 1985,264-267,
Daolun is the correct name.) Wayman (1956, 318-324) includes a briefpresentation of the SrBh, but it unfortunately insists too much on some
sections and omits altogether some important parts of the text. His laterand more detailed work (W 58-134) contains a so-called 'analysis' of the
SrBh, which is actually a selection of important passages in Sanskrit text
andEnglishtranslation.Despite its imperfections, Wayaman's undertaking
should be acknowledged as the first major effort to present, partially edit
and translate the SrBh in a Western language. His 'analysis' is useful,though it fails to insist on some important parts and is rather too long fora brief survey of the text. The latter deficiency is remedied in Potter ed.
1999 (407-414), which basically relies upon W, but the summary here often
omits important parts and departs from the terminology peculiar to the
SrBh. In the presentation of the Caturtharrt yogasthiinam (pp. 413-414), forexample, no mention is made of the seven contemplations and their function
on the soteriological path. Shukla ed. 1991 contains 'A Short Survey ofthe
Contents' (CL VIII- CL IX) (indeed, a very short one! ) and 'An Analytic
Summary of the SBH [ = Sr Bh]' (CL X -CC X£ ) • Though useful, the latterdoes not always offer a satisfactory division and presentation of the text.
For instance, the Section on the Supramundane Path (3.29. below) is not
structured according to the seven contemplations and contains a rather
chaotic list of the topics discussed, which makes it fairly difficult for the-163-

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69

admittedly not free from, so to speak, 'unwholesome factors' ( aku-

saladharma!). First, it indulges in simplification, which means that I
have deliberately omitted some minor parts altogether. For our present
purpose, a detailed presentation would, however, have become too longand tiresome (unduly increasing the reader's styiinamiddha). Second,some sections have been briefly summarised; others have received more
attention. The synopsis of Chapter IV in particular is more detailed
since it constitutes the object of my ongoing project of editing andtranslating this part of the SrBh. Other passages, though short or
relatively minor (like, for instance, Section 2.4.), have been discussed
more amply because they seem to point at relevant aspects in theredactional 'geology' of the text. With these caveats in mind, let us
now embark on a brief presentation of the text.

reader to follow how the yogi advances along this path. Besides, Shukla's
presentation is largely rendered in a Buddhist Hybrid English style abundantly using Sanskrit terms left untranslated. The best synopsis so far,fulfilling rigorous philological and comparative standards, has been achieved by the Sravakabh:Umi Study Group (SrBh Group XXI- XXXV; SrBh
Group (13) 77-79; SrBh Group (14) 24-26; SrBh Group (15) 5-6). It is obviously restricted, however, only to the parts published so far by the Group.
Two very useful collation tables of the MS, Rahula Sarikrtyayana's negatives, Shukla's edition, Peking edition of the Tibetan translation, andTaisho edition of the Chinese translation are found in the introduction. to
the Facsimile Edition of the "Sriivakabhumi" Sanskrit Palm-leaf Manuscript. A brief collation table and presentation of the MS is also found in
Matsunami 1992.

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Textual History of the Srauakabhumi (Deleanu)rSynoptic presentation of the SrBh
The SrBh is divided into three parts ( bhiimi) 2 and four chapters(yogasthana). The first two parts, which are relatively short, areincluded in the Chapter I . Part Three begins with the second half of

2 The word bhumi in the Y oBh is used both with the meaning of 'level'

and editorial unit corresponding to 'book' or 'part'. 'Level' here does notmean a stage in an uninterrupted spiritual progression. The fact that theBodhisattuabhumi follows the Srauakabhumi and Pratyekabuddhabhumi does in no way entail the presupposition that the yogi must firstreach these two stages and then proceed with a bodhisattva career. Bhumi
rather refers to different levels of spiritual orientation and development,
and it is within these levels that the progression takes place. The second
nuance is, however, also present, and it is not impossible to construe thetitles of the seventeen bhumis of the YoBh as 'books' Cin this sense, resembling the different 'books' in the Bible). A rendering doing justice to bothsenses would probably be the 'book/part on the level of...'.
Actually, the same usage of bhumi is seen in the SrBh itself, which is
structured into three bhumis, i.e., Gotrabhumi, Auatarabhumi and Nai?kramyabhumi. Though bhumi is here best understood as primarily denoting a textual unit, the nuance of 'level' is not utterly absent. The Gotrabhumi deals with the basic classification of persons who embark upon
the spiritual path, therefore starting at the zero-level or propaedeutic stage
when each practioner has to know where he or she stands. Quite obviously,
the Auatarabhumi represents the entry upon the path, and the Nai§kramyabhumi details the actual progression. When I refer to the word as atextual unit, I prefer to render bhumis in the title of the seventeen portionsof the Mauli Bhumi as 'books' and within the SrBh itself, i.e., the threebhumis above, as 'parts'.
It must also be said that the bhumis seem play the role of the main
structuring units in the SrBh. The parallel units called yogasthanas, on
the other hand, seem secondary and their thematic unity is not always
apparent.

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Chapter I and covers the rest of the book3 •ICHAPTER I (prathamal'J1 yogasthiinam) I[Treating preliminary stages and requisites of the path] 4
PART [ONE] ON LINEAGE( Gotrabhiimi; Rigs kyi sa; =.fiM::Itf!)

1.1. Definition of the lineage (gotra; rigs; =.fiM:) (SrBh Group 2,17)'What is a lineage? Answer: it is the factor which represents theseed of a person stationed in a lineage.' (de la rigs gang zhe na I

smras pa I rigs la gnas pa'i gang zag gi sa ban gyi chos gang yin
paste I SrBh Group 2,17-18).
1.2. Establishment of the lineage (gotravyavasthiina; rigs kyi roam
3 As far as this synopsis is concerned,

though I also use the MS andother partially edited fragments of the Sanskrit text as well as the Tibetan· and Chinese translations, I give only the page and line numbers of theSravakabhfuni Study Group's edition in progress and Shukla's complete
edition. These show the place where the respective textual unit begins. The
Sravakabhfuni Study Group edition also contains the Tibetan text of theinitial missing portion and subsequent lacunae in the MS and Shukla's
edition (which closely follows the MS only). Shukla's edition actuallycontains a further omission amounting to about one folio. This lacuna
originally occurs in the MS, but a scribe (or 'proofreader'?) appears tohave noted the omission and the passage was written at two other placesin the MS. The missing passage was identified and edited by Kimura (1992)(cf. also Matsunami 1992, 32). Part II of Shukla's edition (1993, 2-10) contains Sanskrit reconstructions from the Tibetan translation of two missing
passages. As such attempts, even when resulting in pieces of high class
Sanskrit style, remain hypothetical, I give only the page and line numbersof the Sravakabhfuni Study Group's edition of the Tibetan version. The
Sravakabhfuni Study Group's edition has so far covered the text up to thefirst part of the mindfulness of breathing (iiniipiinasmrti), i.e., section 3.
7.2. below (see SrBh Group (15)).
4 Obviously, the square brackets represent my own additions or clarifications.

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par gzhag pa; fm~=t(:lz:) 5 (SrBh Group 4,4) The main topics include:
1.2.1. the dichotomy between the subtle (*suksma; phra ba; ff.ffi), i.e.,
not manifested lineage/seed, and the coarse ( *audiirika; rags pa;i[), i.e., manifested lineage/seed (SrBh Group 4,4)

1.2.2. the single or multiple nature of the continua ( rgyud gcig gam

rgyud du ma -~/f§$1) of the lineage (SrBh Group 4,11)
1.2.3. the four causes for not attaining [i.e., obstructing the attainment of] parinirvar:w (rgyu bzhi yongs su mya ngan las ma 'daspa [gi2Sf~i!i5t:/F7lJ~}~~) (SrBh Group 4,22)
1.2.4. the conditions [necessary for the attainment] of parinirvar:w(yongs su mya ngan las 'da' ba'i rkyen rnams i~~i:t~) (SrBhGroup 8,13)
1.2.4.1. main conditions (*pradhiinapratyaya; rkyengtso bo; Mf~),
which include the preaching of the true teaching and one's own
correct reflection based upon this (SrBh Group 8,17).
1.2.4.2. minor conditions ( *nihinapratyaya; rkyen dman pa; ~~),
including twelve conditions, eight of which have their equivalent in the list of thirteen requisites detailed in section 3.4.
(SrBh Group 8,20).
1.3. Characteristics Cli-nga; rtags; ;f>§) of the persons lacking the quality
necessary for the attainment of parinirvar:w ( aparinirvar:wdhar-

maka; yongs su mya ngan las 'da' ba'i chos can ma yin pa; /f~i~~i:t~) and those stationed in the lineage (gotrasthiif; pudgaliif;;

Vyavasthana also conveys the meaning of 'differentiation' or'distinction' (vi- clearly adds this nuance). The Tibetan rnam par gzhag
pa, also used as a rendering for vyavasthana in, for instance, the Kasyapaparivarta ( Chandra 1971, s.v.), stresses the sense of 'to establish' (though,rnam par obviously stands for vi-). Gzhag pa is the future form of 'jog
pa, which is glossed by Zhang Yisu 1993 as 'to put in a place or lay inorder' (gnas su jog pa'm sgrig pa'i don du go ba'i 'jog pa'i ma'ongs pa;s.v.). The Chinese 1f:j[ and Oater in 3.6.) ~j[ mean 'to establish'.
5

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73

rigs la gnas pa'i gang zag; 1.1{!~i1fij!Rf{:hll*-f), i.e., persons having
the quality necessary for the attainment of parinirvfiT;W (*parini-

rva7Jadharmaka; yongs su myangan las 'da' ba'i chos can; ~i~~1t~) (SrBh Group 24,2; Sh 16,7)

1. 4. Classification of persons stationed in the lineage ( gotrasthiiiJ

pudgaliiiJ; rigs la gnas pa,i gang zag; fMlM:tfti~fhn.ii) (SrBh Group
28,19; Sh 19,7): twenty-three types of persons.

PART [TWO] ON ENTRY [INTO THE PATH](Avatiirabhilmi; ,jug pa,i sa; ~A!&)
2.1. Essence of the entry [into the path] ( avatiirasvabhiiva; ,jug parang bzhin; ~A§ii:) (SrBh Group 40,6) Avatara is defined asentry, proceeding, going into the path, course, and accomplishment(lam gang yin pa dang lam srang gang yin pa dang sgrub pa gang
yin pa der zhugs pa dang yang dag par zhugs pa dang rab tu zhugs
pa yin pas na I de'i phyir zhugs pa zhes bya ste I SrBh Group 42,24) leading to parinirvfi7Ja.

2.2. Establishment of the entry [into the path] ( avatiiravyavasthiina;,jug pa rnam par gzhags pa; ~A*ft) (SrBh Group 42,6} Hereavatara is explained in more concrete terms as the preliminary
stage of spiritual cultivation in which the practitioner 'for the firsttime acquires [faith], observes morality, grasps the teachings,
develops generosity, and purifies [his] views' ([dad pa] dang por

thob par gyur cing tshul khrims yang dag par Zen pa dang thos pa'dzin pa dang gtong ba spel ba dang lta ba sbyong bar byed pagang yin paste I de ni zhugs pa zhes bya'o I I (SrBh Group 42,1820). Persons are classified according to how ripe ( *paripaka; yongssu smin par byed pa; .fflt ~.&) their practices are as well as on thebasis of six general degrees of spiritual levels, from one having
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Textual History of the Sriivakabhumi (Deleanu)
potentiality ( bhavya) to one who has attained the culmination[of the path] (nisthiigata).

2.3. Characteristics of the person who has entered [the path] (avati17)-

asya pudgalasya liligiini; zhugs pa'i gang zag gi rtags mams; B!OOA.-lfPJT:ffmf:f§) (SrBh Group 52,14; Sh 28,14)
2.4. Persons having entered [the path] ( avati17)iil], pudgaliil],; zhugs

pa'i gang zag; B1~JOO},Jm~fhn&) (SrBh Group 58,5; Sh 32,3) A
brief passage listing four types of persons classified according totheir degree of ripeness. The section concludes: 'And their division
should be understood as above. The other persons with weak faculties, etc. have been explained in the Part on Lineage. Their division
should be known here, too, in its due order.' (e?iil'{t ea purvavad

vibhiigo veditavyal} 11 tadanye mrdvindriyiidayal} pudgaliil} gotrabhumau nirdi?tii!J I te?iim ihiipi yathiiyogal'{t vibhiigo veditavya!J
11 )(Sh 32,5-8, which I follow here; SrBh Group 58, 8-10).

PART [THREE] ON DELIVERANCE(Naiskramyabhiimi; Nges par 'byung ba'i sa; lliltfHtf!)
3.1. Brief definition of the Part/level of Deliverance (SrBh Group 60,1;
Sh 35,l). 'What is the level of deliverance? Answer: It is the way
to detachment by the mundane path, the way to detachment by thesupramundane path, and the requisites [necessary] for these two'

( ni?kramiyabhumi!J katamii I iiha I yae ea laukikena miirger;w
vairiigyagamanam, yae ea lokottarer;w miirger;w vairiigyagamanam,ya§ ea tayo!J Saf!tbhiiral} SrBh Group 60,2-4).
3.2. Brief definition of the mundane path ( laukiko margal],; 'jig rten

pa'i lam; -w:r"',i![) (SrBh Group 60,5; Sh 35,5), which consists inthe practice of the eight attainments (samiipatti).
3.3. Brief definition the supramundane path ( lokottaro margal],; 'jig
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rten las ,das pa,i lam; llifftm) (SrBh Group 60,16; Sh 36,2), whichmeans contemplating the four noble truths and knowing them as
they are in reality (yathabhutal[l- prajanati).

3.4. Requisites (sambhiira; tshogs; ~ti) (SrBh Group 62,2; Sh 36,11)
A lengthy section which occupies about two thirds of chapter I . It
deals with the thirteen requisites necessary for the two paths:
3 .4 .1. propitious conditions regarding oneself ( atmasampad; bdag

gi 'byor ba; §!limY) (SrBh Group 62,8; Sh 37,4)
3. 4. 2. propitious conditions regarding others ( parasal[l-pad; gzhan

gyi 'byor ba; {lli!lliili'i) (SrBh Group 62,8; Sh 37,4)

3.4.3. wholesome aspiration for the teaching (kusalo dharmacchandah;dge ba'i chos la 'dun pa; ~~W\) (SrBh Group 62,8; Sh 37,4)

3.4.4. restraint in morality (silasamuara; tshul khrims kyisdompa;

JtX:ffit) (SrBh Group 62, 11; Sh 37,7)
3.4.5. restraint of senses ( indriyasamuara; dbang po sdom pa; t~ffm) (SrBh Group 100,2; Sh 63,14)

3.4.6. moderation in food ( bhojane matrajiiata; zas kyi tshod rig

pa nyid; 1f01t9ill£) (SrBh Group 116,2; Sh 73,19)

3.4. 7. staying awake and meditating in the first and last watches of
the night (puruaratriipararatram jagarikayogasyanuyuktata;nam gyi cha stod dang nam gyi cha smad la mi nyal bar sbyor
ba'i rjes su brtson pa nyid; 1<JJ11t13t11t1tlb~~~~~~fBIT) ( SrBh
Group 150,2; Sh 97 ,16)

3.4.8. mindful conduct (samprajanaduihiirita; shes bzhin du spyod
pa nyid; iE~rHm1!.) (SrBh Group 172,2; Sh 111,11)

3.4.9. qualities of the spiritual friend (kalyar;w,mitrata; dge ba'i bshes
gnyen; ~t~J~) (SrBh Group 212,2)

3.4.10. listening to and reflecting upon the true teaching ( saddharmasraum;acintana; dam pa'i chos nyan pa dang sems pa; lil:l }~iE~) (SrBh Group 226,4; Sh 134,6)

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3.4.11. lack of obstructions (anantiiraya; bar chad med pa; ~~)(SrBh Group 244,2; Sh 144,1)

3.4.12. generosity (tyiiga; gtang ba;~) (SrBh Group 256,4; Sh 149,
8)

3.4.13. [spiritual] adornments of the ascetic (sramaniilamkiira; dge
sbyong gi rgyan; r::llr~#±li) (SrBh Group 268,2; Sh 155,1)

ICHAPTER II ( dvityarp, yogiisthiinam) I[Discussing relevant technical terms]

3.5. Classification of persons (pudgala; gang zag; 1fi~fhnft) ( SrBh
Group (13) 82,3; Sh 169,14): twenty-eight types of persons

3.6. Establishment of [different types] of persons (pudgalavyavasthana;gang zag mams gyi mam par gzhag pa; ffi~fhn&JQ!:lrY (SrBh Group(13) 104,10; Sh 184,1): eleven criteriaforclassifyingpersons
3.7. Meditative objects (alambana; dmigs pa; Ffitri) (SrBh Group (14)28,3; Sh 192,21) Four basic categories:
3.7.1. universal meditative objects ( uyapy iilambanam; khyob pa'idmigs pa; i1![iitrim*i) (SrBh Group (14) 28,8; Sh 193,4)

3. 7.2. meditative objects for the purification of conduct ( caritavisodhanam iilambanam; spyad pa rnam par sbyong ba'i dmigs pa;

iJ-1-TBIT*i) (SrBh Group (14) 52,3; Sh 202,3) This subsection
describes the pan-Budhist meditative techniques on impurity(asubhatii), friendliness (maitri), dependent origination ( idampratyayatiipratityasamutpiida), analysis of the elements ( dhiituprabheda), and mindfulness of breathing (iiniipiinasmrti).

3.7.3. meditative objects for proficiency (kausalyalambanam; mkhas
pa'i dmigs pa; ~:r-'Jm*i) (Sh 237,6)
6 Here vyavasthiina is clearly construed as the basis upon which thedifferentiation (prabheda) between various types of persons is made.

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3.7.4. meditative objects for the purification of defilements (kle§avi-§odhanam iilambanam; nyon mongs pa rnam par sbyong ba'idmigs pa; ij-~Plf~) (Sh 249,12)
Each of these categories is further classified into subcategories.
3.8. Instruction (avaviida; gdams ngag; ~~) (Sh 258,14): four types

3.9. The threefold training, i.e., training in morality (adhisilaqt sik~ii;
lhags pa,i tshul khrims kyi bslab pa; :If! J: fflG~), training in mind
[cultivation] (adhicittaqt sik~ii; lhag pa,i sems kyi bslab pa; :If!
J:;f.~~)(i.e., meditation), and training in wisdom (adhiprajiiaqt

sik~ii; lhag pa,i shes rab kyi bslab pa; :lf!J:ft~)(Sh 261,8)

3.10. Factors consistent with the training (Sik~iinulomikii dharmiil),;bslab pa dang rjes su mthun pa,i chos; ftJJII{~l!;) (Sh 270,11): ten
factors
3.11. Impediments of the spiritual practice (yogabhraqtsa; mal ,byornyams pa; fi«fhuff'l) (Sh 273,1): four types
3.12. Spiritual practice (yoga; mal ,byor; fi«fhu) (Sh 275,23) Four categones:
3.12.1. faith (sraddhii; dad pa; 1~) (Sh 276,2)
3.12.2. aspiration [for liberation] (chanda; 'dun pa; 1iX). (Sh 276,5)
3.12.3. vigour (virya; brtson 'grus; rrf~) (Sh 276,20)
3.12.4. method [of practising mindfulness and meditation] ( upiiya;

thabs; :11-1£) (Sh 277,11)
3.13. Contemplation (manaskiira; yid la byed pa; 1'F~) (Sh 278,1):
two taxonomic sets, each containing four types. Also discussed are
four types of signs (nimitta) and nine classes of conviction ( adhi-

mokpa).
3.14. Functions of the spiritual practice ( yogakaral}iya; mal "by or dubya ba; fi«fhnm1'F) (Sh 283,2): four aspects
3.15. Spiritual practitioners (yogiiciira; mal "byor spyod pa; fi«fhntllfi)( Sh 284,4) Three classes:
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3.15.1. beginners (adikarmika; las dang po pa; .fJJ1~~~11JD~flj) (Sh 284,7), who are at the level of practising the first of the seven contemplations (see sections 3.28. and 3.29. below).
3.15.2. adepts (krtaparicaya; yongs su spyod pa byos pa; 8~1-T~

1iJUgrp) (Sh 284,16), who practise the next five levels of contemplation.
3.15.3. practitioners having transcended the practice of contemplation(atikrantamanaskara; yid la byed pa las 'das pa; B~1'F~~1im~flj) (Sh 284,19), who enjoy the seventh level of manaskaracalled'the fruit of the culmination of the practice' (prayogani~fhaphalomanaskara!y,).
3.16. Spiritual cultivation (yogabhiivanii; mal 'byor bsgom pa; Ji«Umf~) (Sh 285,11) Two types:

3.16.1. cultivation of ideation ( salJLfiiabhauana; 'du shes sgom pa;;m1~) (Sh 285,13)

3.16.2. cultivation of the [thirty-seven] factors of awakening ( bodhipak~yabhauana; byang chub kyi phyogs bsgom pa; l!ft1t?t1r~)(Sh 288,19), which are described in detail.
3.17. Fruits of [spiritual] cultivation (bhiivaniiphala; bsgoms pa,i ,brasbu; {~*) (Sh 331,1): the four fruits of the ascetic life ( §rama7Jyaphala),discussedinrelation with the defilements (kle§a)abandonedat each of these stages in the spiritual progress. We also find a
discussion of the characteristics of the persons with a slight degreeof impurity ( mandarajaskasya pudgalasya lingani).
3.18. Alternative terms [used] for [designating] 'person' (pudgalapa-

ryiiya; gang zag gi mam grangs; tm~Um-~r,) (Sh 338,9): one
taxonomic set of six types and another of eight types.
3.19. The acts of evil (miirakarman; bdud kyi las; nl$) (Sh 343,10)
Four classes of evil, i.e., the evil of aggregates (skandhamara),
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Textual History of the Sriivakabhilmi (Deleanu)

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and the Evil One, the god (devaputramara), and their acts.
3. 2 0. Reasons for failing in the undertaking of the right exertion( samyakprayuktasya,pi iirambho viphalo bhavati; gang dag par
rab tu brtson pa gang rtsom pa 'bras bu med par ,gyur; lEf~f=j:ft
fl!ffJfJf~1ftfff:W:) 7 (Sh 347, 9): three reasons!CHAPTER m(trtyal[t yogiisthanam) I[Dealing with the initial training of the beginner]
3.21. The beginner (iidikarmika; las dang po pa; ~)]f~~:ft) begs to be
instructed in spiritual cultivation (yoga; rnal 'byor; Ji({fhll) (Sh 351,

1) After ascertaining his faith and background, the spiritual master(yogin; rnal 'by or pa; fi<fhU ~ftj ) 8 'instructs [him] on five points'(paiicasu sthane?u vinayate Sh 358,2 ; gnas lnga po 'di [ ... ] nges
par sbyar bar bya'o D 130a5; m-:n.~~l]~~:li. T 449c15-16) 9 , to wit:
3.22. Guarding and accumulatingtherequisites [necessary] for meditation( samiidhisal[lbhiirarakfJopacaya; ting nge 'dzin gyi tshogs bsrungzhing bsags pa; ~lf5Eift-4ti) (Sh 358,4) The requisites (sambhara;tshogs; ifti) have already been explained in section 3.4. above.
7 Like in this case,the actual wording of the text cannot be easily
made to match word for word the titles of the sections, which I have tried
to keep as succinct as possible.
8 We often find the word yogajna; rnal 'byor shes pa; ~~ti1W used asa quasi-synonym or specification for the spiritual master (yogin) (e.g.,
Sh 411,8; W 122).
9 MS 96b4R, Sh, and W 106 read vinayate. The Tibetan nges par sbyar
bar bya'o and the Chinese tlO~*il., however, suggest something like viniyojayet, niyojayet, saT(Lniyojayet, etc., in which case the sense would be'to commit [the beginner] to the five points'. We find, for instance, manaskiirabhavaniiyfiT(L viniyujyate (Sh 411,5-6), translated into Tibetan as: yidla byed pa bsgom pa la nges par sbyor bar byed (D151a6), and into Chinese
as: nNMt:i':tlO~*il:. (T 456b25-26). Cf. also Sh 434,19: viniyoga.
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3.23. Solitude (pravivekya; rab tu dben pa; ~~) (Sh 359,1) Threeperfect conditions of dwelling in solitude:
3.23.1. the perfect conditions regarding places ( sthiinasar[7pad; gnas

phun sum tshogs pa; ~PJTOOim) suitable for meditation (Sh 359,
2)
3.23.2. the perfect conditions regarding bodily movements ( iryiipa-

thasampad; spyod lam phun sum tshogs pa; wxmOOim) (Sh 360,10)
3.23.3. the perfect conditions regarding isolation ( *vyapakar$asar[1pad;

dben pa phun sum tshogs pa;~~00im) 10 (Sh 362,1) implying
physical seclusion (kiiyauyapakar$a), i.e., dwelling away frommonks and laymen alike, and mental seclusion (eittauyapakarsa),
i.e., cultivating the wholesome contemplation 'after having
removed the defiled and neutral contemplation' ( kli?tam avyiikrta~ ea manaskiira~ ea varjayitvii I Sh 362,4-5).

3.24. Focusing of mind (cittaikiigrata; sems rtse gcig pa nyid; •L,~f:l-~)(Sh 362,11): nine types of tranquillity (samatha) and fourtypes of insight ( vipasyanii). Also discussed in relation to the
10 MS 97a2L-M reads: pravivekyarrt katamat

I ya sthanasampad irya-

pathasampad I (cf.Sh359,1-2; W 107: priivivekyaT{L katamat I yii sthiinasampad
iryiipathasampat I pravivekyasamapat ea), thus mentioning only two of
the perfect conditions. The Tibetan (D 130b3-4: rab du dben par gnas pagang zhe na I gnas phun sum tshogs pa dang I spyod lam phun sum tshogs
pa dang I db en pa phun sum tshogs pa gang yin pa 'o 11 ) and the Ch. (T 450
a3: ~1PJ~lflo llilllb%mlllii!Pia ~~lllii~Pia ~Jfllllii~Pio), on the other hand, list threeperfect conditions. The Sanskrit text does, however, mention a third category called vyapakar:}a (starting at MS 97b4L) . This is rendered into
Tibetan (D 131b7) as dben pa phun sum tshogs pa and into Chinese (T 450b19) as ~MIIIim. We could assume that the Sanskrit sentence above originally contained vyapakar:;a (or *vyapakar?aSaT[!Pad?) and this was later
lost in the process of scribal transmission.
For the meaning of vyapakar?a, see Edgerton s. v. vyapakr?.ta.
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latter are the insight with three doors ( trimukha uipasyana) andthe meditative object analysed under six aspects ( saduastuprabhe-dalam bana) 11 •3.25. Purification of the hindrances ( iivara!Javisuddhi; sgrib pa mam
par sbyong ba; ~~) (Sh 397,11) Four hindrances, i.e., depression(paritasana) 12 , obstacles (niuarar:z,a), discursive thoughts [directed
at pleasures] (uitarka) 13 , complacency (atmasampragraha)

3.26. Cultivation of contemplation (manaskarabhiivanii; yid la byed
pa bsgom pa; f~i'f:g) (Sh 405,19)
3.26.1. Four types of contemplation and their application in general:
3.26.1.1. Definition of the four contemplations (Sh 406, 7): thecontemplation making the mind undergo austere training( cittasaT[Ltfipano manaskaral}; sems kun tu gdung bar 'gyur
ba'i yid la byedpa; ~**Jl.·1~~), the contemplation fostering(literally, 'moistening') the mind ( cittabhisyandano mana-skaral}; sems mngon par brlan par 'gyur ba'i yid la byed pa
r~ifMIJL.'\1~~)' the contemplation engendering ease (pra§rabdhi-

janako manaskaral}; shin tu sbyang pa skyed pa'i yid la byedpa; :':t.~~f~~), and the contemplation purifying the wisdomand view (jiianadar§anaui§odhano manaskaral}; yes shes dang
11 For the six aspects, see Subsection 3.28.2.1.1.

on the Contemplation

Perceiving Characteristics.
12 Sh 398,16; 399,1; and 399,10 reads paritamanii, which is unattested(probably, misreading of ma for sa, which are practically similar lettersin the script of our MS). The term is construed as actually reffering to twomental states. Its explanation goes as follows: tatra paritasanii yii nai?kramyapriivivekyaprayuktasya kli?tii utkaQ,thii arati!J, I (Sh 399,1-2) 'paritasanii is the defiled longing [for worldly pleasures formerly experienced][and] dissatisfaction [with the hardships and lonliness of the wilederness][which arise] in relation with the [the practice of] detachment and solitude'.
13 Cf. uitarka!J, kiimauitarkiidaya!J, kli?tii uitarkii!J, I Sh 399,4-5.
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mthong ba rnampar sbyong ba'iyid la byedpa; ~~~1tll).
3.26.1.2. Application of the four contemplations in general (Sh 407,
10). The passage discusses the factors conducive to loathing(or fright) (saJ[Luejaniyii dharmiil}; kun tu skyo bar 'gyur badang mthunpa'i chos; 11TIR¥*), the factors conducive to rejoicing( abhipramodaniyii dharmiil}; mngon par dga' bar 'gyur badang mthun pa'i chos; llTJfXr&l~), and the application of thefour contemplations.
3.26.2. Detailed description of the actual practice of contemplation(Sh 411,5) by grasping the five signs (paiica nimittiini; mtshan

ma lnga po dag; .TIJ!l§) in correlation with the meditation on
impurity (asubhatii), friendliness (maitri), dependent origination( idaJ[Lpratyayatiipratityasamutpiida), analysis of the elements(dhiituprabheda), and mindfulness of breathing (iiniipiinasmrti).

!CHAPTER N (caturthaf!L yogasthiinam) l[Decribing the mundane and supramundane paths]
3.27. Choosing the path (Sh 437,1) After mastering the basics of contemplation ( manaskiira) and obtaining a certain limited degreeof joy resulting from abandonment (parittaprahii7Jnrati), the yogi
proceeds by either the mundane or the supramundane path.

3.28. Mundane path (laukikamiirga; jig rten pa,i lam; -HtrriH!§!) (Sh 437,
16)

3.28.1. Types of persons proceeding by this path: one taxonomic setof four categories and another of two classes of persons (Sh 437,
16)

3.28.2. Seven contemplations (sapta manaskiiriih; yid la· byed pa

rnam pa bdun; -t1tll) (Sh 437,3)
3.28.2.1. Description of the seven contemplation with reference to-149-

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attainment of the first trance (dhyana) (Sh 439,3)
3.28.2.1.1. contemplation perceiving characteristics (Sh 439,9)( laksanapratisamvedi
manaskarah;.. .
.
. mtshan nyid so sor rig
pa'i yid la byed pa; Tffi1t~), achieved by examining the six
aspects of desires, i.e., meaning ( artha) , object ( vas tu) ,characteristic (lak?ar;ta), category (pak?a), time (kala), andreason (yukti).
3.28.2.1.2. contemplation leading to conviction ( adhimok?iko

manaskaraly,; mos pa las byung ba'i yid la byed pa; Mf$1-'F~)(Sh 443,12)

3.28.2.1.3. contemplation engendering separation (pravivekyo

manaskarah; rab tu dben pa'i yid la byed pa; ~Jt$1-'F~)(Sh 443,19)

3. 28. 2 .1 . 4 . contemplation comprising joy ( ratisaf!tgrahako
manaskaraly,; dga' ba sdud pa'i yid la byed pa; ~~Ht~)(Sh 443,23)
3.28.2.1.5. investigating contemplation (mimiif!tsii manaskaraly,;

dpyod pa'i yid la byed pa; -fiJ~~Ht~) (Sh 444,8)
3.28.2.1.6. contemplation attaining the culmination of the practice(prayogani?tho manaskaraly,; sbyor ba mthar thug pa'i yid
la byed pa; :bD1T~~1t~) (Sh 445,1)
3.28.2.1.7. contemplation representing the fruit of the culminationof the practice (prayogani?thaphalo manaskaraly,; sbyor ba

mthar thug pa'i 'bras bu'i yid la byed pa; 1JD1T~~*1-'F~)(Sh 445,10)
3.28.2.2. Three additional remarks concerning the function andgrouping of the seven contemplations (Sh 445,13)
3.28.2.3. Extension of the seven contemplations pattern to the otherthree trances ( dhyana) and four immaterial attainments(arupyasamapatti) (Sh 447,1)
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3.28.3. Commentary to the canonical formula of the eight meditative
attainments ( samiipatti; snyoms par 'jug pa; 5E) : detailed
exposition of the four trances (dhyiina) and the four immaterial
attainments (iiriipyasamiipatti) (Sh 449,14)
3.28.4. Two attainments without mental activity (acittike samiipatti;

sems med pa'i snyoms par 'jug pa; ~,(.,5£) (Sh 458,19): attainmentof non-ideation (asamfiiisamiipatti) and attainment of cessation( nirodhasamapiitti)
3.28.5. Five supernatural faculties (abhijiiii; mngon par shes pa; ffrljlm!) (Sh 460,19), i.e., magical power ([ddhivi?aya), recollectionof previous lives (purvaniuiisiinusmrti), divine ear ( diuya'!lsrotram)' knowledge of the death and birth [of all living beings]( cyutyupapiidajiiiina) (also known as the divine eye ( divya!Jl
cak?ulJ)), and knoweldge of the minds [of all other living beings]( cetahparyiiyajiiiina). The yogi attains these faculties on thebasis of dhyiina and the practice of the twelve ideations (dviidasa

sa!Jljnii!y,; 'du shes rnam pa bcu gnyis; +=!~).
3.28.6. Births in different heavens according to the meditation levelattained (Sh 468,10)
3.28. 7. Characteristics of a person who has achieved detachment fromdesire by the mundane path ( vitariigasya lingiini; 'dod chags

dang bral ba'i rtags; i~1HtT(~ffi) (Sh 469,12)
3.29. Supramundane path (lokottaramiirga; )ig rten las ,das pa,ilam;ti1-Htit!) 14 (Sh 470, 7)
14 The treatment of the seven contemplations in relation to the supra-

mundane path is far from simple. It is not always easy to understand theexact matching between various contemplations (see especially subsections
3.29.3., 3.29.4., and 3.29.5) and the steps of the clas~ical Abhidharmicpathof spiritual praxis. Equally difficult to determine with precision is whether
the seven contemplations represent here a straight progression or an intricate pattern allowing for different contemplations to operate simultane--147-

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3.29.1. Contemplation perceiving characteristics (lak?W'.wpratisarrwedi

manaskiirah; mtshan nyid so sor rig pa'i yid la byed pa; Tffi1'FJ'it) (Sh 470,10)

3.29.1.1. Description of the contemplation perceiving characteristics(Sh 470,10)
3.29.1.1.1. The ascetic 'perceives the characteristic of the truthof suffering under four aspects, to wit, the impermanence
aspect, the suffering aspect, the emptiness aspect, and thenon-self aspect'. ( eaturbhir iikiirair duly,khasatyasya lak9a. T;WT[LpratisaT(Lvedayate I tadyathii 'nityiikiire7Jn duly,khii-

kare7Jn sunyiikare7Jn aniitmiikare7Jn ea I Sh 470,13-1515 ; rnampa bzhi po 'di lta ste I mi rtag pa'i rnam pa dang I sdug
bsngal ba'i rnam pa dang I stong pa'i rnam pa dang I bdag
med pa'i rnam pas bden pa sdug bsngal gyi mtshan nyid so
sor rig par byed do 11 D177b6; El3!IY~i1.:YT=ffWiffffio ~~~1t1-T=ff
1.:Y~1.:Y~:flt1.:Y o T 470c18-19) (Main treatment: Sh 471,1-492,

16) These four aspects, with many other ramifications, receive the most detailed treatment in the Section on the
Supramundane Path.
3~29.1.1.2. The ascetic '[perceives the characteristic of] the truthof origination under four aspects, to wit, cause, origination,
production, and condition'. (caturbhir iikiiraih samudayasa-

tyasya tadyathii hetutaly, samudayataly, prabhauata!y, pratyayata§ ea Sh 470,15-16; rnam pa bzhi po 'di lta ste I rgyu'i
rnam pa dang I kun 'byung ba'i rnam pa dang I rab tu skyes
ba 'i pa dang I rkyen gyi rnam pas bden pa 'byung ba 'i m tshan

ously at the same level.
15 Shukla omits silnyiikiire7Ja. W 130 includes the word but spells it assilnyatiikare7Ja. MS 130a 7L clearly reads silnyakiire7Ja.

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nyid so sor rig par byed do 11 D 177b6-7 ; EH !m*! 1::Y T #: ~ ;f§ o~'MIZSI1::Y#:1::Ylf91::Y~1To T 470cl9-20) (Main treatment: Sh 492,

17-494,7)
3.29.1.1.3. The ascetic 'perceives the characteristic of the truthof cessation under four aspects, to wit, cessation, calm,
excellence, and going forth [from suffering]'. ( caturbhir

akarair nirodhasatyasya lak?WJ,G,~ pratisa~vedayate I tadyathii nirodhatal} santatal} pral)itato nil}sarar;wtas ea Sh
470,17-19; rnam pa bzhi po 'di lta ste I 'gag pa'i rnam pa

dang I zhi ba'i rnam pa dang I gya nom pa'i rnam pa dang

I nges par 'byung ba'i rnam pas bden pa 'gag pa'i mtshan
nyid so sor rig par byed do l1 D177b7-178a1; El31m*!1::YTift~Wf
if§o ~ift1::Yf11::Y~Ji1::Y~1To T 470c20-21)(Main treatment: Sh

494,8-12)
3.29.1.1.4. The ascetic 'perceives the characteristic of the truthof path under four aspects, to wit, path, method, practice,and leading forth [from suffering]'. ( eaturbhir akiirair

margasatyasya

lak?ar:w~

pratisa~vedayate

I tadyatha

margato nyayatal} pratipattito nairyal)ikatas ea I Sh 4 70,
19-21; rnam pa bzhi po 'di lta ste I lam gyi rnam pa dang I

rigs pa'i rnam pa dang I sgrub pa'i rnam pa dang I nges par'byin pa'i rnam pas bden pa lam gyi mtshan nyid so sor rig
par byed paste I D178a1-2; EHimfi:i::YTill~Wfffio ~!!Iill1T~lHT1T

1::Ylli1To T 470c22-23) (Main treatment: Sh 494,13-19)
3.29.1.2. The texts adds that the preceding analysis refers to theaggregates belonging to oneself (pratyatmakiil;t skandhal;t) ,i.e., to one's own sphere, and it should be extended to the otherspheres, too (Sh 494,20).
3.29.2. Contemplation leading to conviction (adhimok?iko manaskiiral};mos pa las byung ba'i yid la byed pa; Bm1t~) (Sh 495,15) By-145-

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observing these sixteen aspects in his mental continuum ( citta-

santati; sems kyi rgyud; JL.-.:f!HJ), the yogi penetrates (avatin:w
bhavati; zhugs pa; 'f!¥-.A) the four truths and finally attains thesupreme wor Idly factors ( laukikaka agradharmah; 'jig rten pa 'ichos kyi mchog rnams; -tit~-~) ( tasya yaval laukikebhyo <')gradharmebhya adhimok?iko manaskara}J Sh 502,12-13)
3.29.3. Contemplation engendering separation (pravivekyo manaskara!J;

rab tu dben pa'i yid la byed pa; ~1l1'F~) (Sh 500,11) The ascetic
attains the supramundane direct insight into the four truths andeliminates the defilements to be abandoned by the path of vision( dar§anaprahatavya!J klesa}J; m thong bas spang bar bya ba'inyon mongs pa; ~ilim~-WiJH~) 16 •16 This and the following subsections are particularly hard to define

and delimitate accurately. Especially difficult is to decide the boundary
between sentences and subsections at Sh 502,14-503,3. Grammatically, it
appears that the best way to punctuate and construe the text is: < I > satyiiny abhisamitavata!J darsanaprahiitavye§U klese§u prahi7Je§U prauivekyo
manaskiira!J prahii[Liiya ea ata urdhvarp, yathii pratilabdharp, miirgarp,
bhiivayato [ '] bhyasyata!J. The MS 127 a1R-2L and Sh 502,14-503,2 punctuate,
however, differently: they have no da[Lrja after iidhimok§iko manaskiira!J(which immediately precedes the sentence above), place a daT}fla after
prahii[Liiya ea and continue the sentence after ['] bhyasyata!J ( kiimiivaearii[Liim adhimiitramadhyiinarp, klesiiniirp, prahiiniit sakrdagiimi bhavati I
Sh 503,2-3). Shukla also applies comma after pravivekyo manaskiira!J.
My rendening of the definition above is: 'one who has comprehended thetruths by having abandoned the defilements to be abandoned by the pathof vision and one who cultivates and repeats thereafter the path as he has
attained it in order to eliminate [further defilements] has contemplationengendering separation'. Xuanzang translates ata urdhvarp, 'thereafter'
as 1iif£JI:t1&~~Jz~!i)f{I~PJTI~Ji\~ (T 476b3) 'hereafter in order to eliminate thedefilements to be eliminated by the path of cultivation'. Os it due to a different MS variant? Or is it an instance of Xuanzang's (or his team's) explanatory translation? - hard to decide!). Actually, both Tibetan andChinese take prahii[Liiya ea with the next sentence, but punctuate only after
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3.29.4. Investigating contemplation ( mimiirrtsii manaskiiraf;,; dpyod

pa'i yid la byed pa; ifi~{lp~) (Sh 503,2) The subsection also
contains an excursus on eleven types of cultivation ( bhavanii;

bsgom pa; 1~) . At this stage the adept apparently begins his
effort to eliminate the defilements to be abandoned by the pathof cultivation ( bhiivaniiprahiitavyiif;, klesiif;,; bsgom pas spang

bar bya ba'i nyon mongs pa; {I~ilim!WT-WiJH~) 17 • Persevering in
cultivation, he repeatedly investigates both the defilements whichbhavati. I am not sure whether we should supply < kle§a > prahii!Jiiya as
in Tibetan (nyon mongs pa) or < bhavanaprahatavyaklesa> praha!Jiiya
as in Chinese ( 1~Plflf~), but the main problem with the interpretation
above is that it conflicts with the explanation given at Sh 503,9-11 (see note
17 below). Let us also note that the Chinese 1£1;£.ll:t1&~Wc~IT1~PJTIT~ cited
above is considered by the Sino-Japanese commentarial tradition reflectedby KIK 267 as referring to the investigating contemplation.
17 Subsection 3.29.4. has no clear definition of the investigating contemplation, but its function appears to be explained at Sh 503,9-11: < I >tatra sarvvo bhavanamarga!J pratyavek?ya pratyavek?ya mimiiT[LSiimanaskare7J-a prahi!Jiiprahir;Latii'[L yathapratilabdhamargabhyasaprabhavita!J(Sh reads 0 maprabhavita!J) 'the whole path of cultivation is establishedas the result of the repeated practice in accordance with the path attained,
after contemplating again and again the [defilements] abandoned and not[yet] abandoned by means of the investigating contemplation.' This isactually summarised at Sh 506,6-7. The Sanskrit sentence continues, separated by no dar;L<;fa or half-dal'J-ifa, with the passage cited in the following
subsection on the contemplation comprising joy (Sh 506,8-10). Thoughdifficult to delimitate and subdivide, the subsection on the investigating
contemplation appears to consist in four portions: ( 1) remarks on theelimination of different defilements on the path of cultivation and therespective spiritual level attained thereby (sakrdagamin, etc.) (Sh 502,15/
503,2-503,9); ( 2) the sentence quoted above connecting the investigating
contemplation with the path of cultivation (Does this represent an addition
by a later redactor?)(Sh 503,9-ll);excursus on differenttypesofcultivation(Sh 503,12-506,5); and a final summary (Sh 506,6-7).
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have been abandoned and those which have not yet been abandoned ( tasyaivam bhauanaprayuktasyakalenacakala~klesana~prahi1Jiiprahi1},(1tii~ mima~sata!J, Sh 506 6-7) .

3.29.5. Contemplation comprising joy (ratisa~grahako manaskara!J,;

dga' ba sdud pa 'i yid la byed pa; ~~1t!l:) (Sh 506,8) The yogi
repeatedly makes his mind loathe (or become frightened) on thebasis of the factors conducive to loathing (or fright) and makes
it rejoice on the basis of the factors conducive to rejoicing. Thus
the contemplation comprising joy will occur ( kalena kala~sa~vejaniye?udharme?u citta~ samuejayata!J,, kalena kalam

abhipramodaniye?v abhipramodayataiJ,, so (sya bhavati < rati>18 sa~grahako manaskara!J, I Sh 506,8-10) 19 •3. 2 9. 6. Contemplation attaining the culmination of the practice(prayogani?tho manaskaraiJ,; sbyor ba mthar thug pa'i yid labyed pa; :bO{i~JEft!l:) (Sh 506,10) This is equated with the
diamond-like meditation ( uajropamasamadhi; rdo rje lta bu'iting nge 'dzin; ~IMJUIIS«=~ifu). Relentlessly cultivating the contemplation comprising joy, the ascetic generates the diamondlike meditation by which all defilements to be abandoned by thepath of cultivation are eliminated ( sarvuapascima!J, saikf?O

uajropamaiJ, samadhir utpadyate. tasyotpadat sarvve bhavanaprahatauya!J, klesa!J,prahiyante. Schmithausen 460, which I follow
18 Shukla (p. 506, n. 2) says that rati is added by a separate hand. The

MS is too blurred here, but I can hardly see anything looking like an
addition by a separate hand. Both the Tibetan and Chinese translations
contain, however, the equivalent of rati.
19 Again, it must be stressed that the text is not clear about the exact
definition and role played by the investigating contemplation and thecontemplation comprising joy, but if this is the order in which they wereconceived in the context of the supramundane path, then this is the reverseof the sequence found in the Section on the Mundane Path (3.28. above).

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here; Sh 506,13-15).
3.29. 7. Contemplation representing the fruit of the culmination of
the practice (prayogani§thaphalo manaskaraJ;; sbyor ba mtharthug pa'i 'bras bu'i yid la byed pa; :iJD1:Y~Jt*1'ff.l:) ( Sh 507,7)
The result of the diamond-like meditation is the summum bonumof the path, the complete transcendence of suffering, the attainment of arhatship ( tatra yo vajropamal; samadhir <, > ayaf!l-prayogani§tho manaskaralJ. yaJ; punar agraphalarhattvasaf!l-g[hito manaskaro < , (>yaf!l- prayogani§.thaphalo manaskaraJ;.
Schmithausen 472, which I follow here; Sh 510,10-12).

Historical BackgroundAny discussion of the SrBh inevitably requires a few words about
the historical background of the YoBh. At the risk of never gaining
rebirth in Tw?ita Heaven (as well as losing the chance to set foot insome universities during the present life), I dare to believe that theY oBh is not the work of Maitreya and/ or Asanga. Following in thefootsteps of Professor Schmithausen (not because of hiskaly?il)amitrata
but rather because of the soundness of his arguments), I take the viewthat this text has behind it a complex formation process possibly
stretching over generations of authors, compilers, and redactors(Schmithausen 1969; Schmithausen 1987, especially 13-14; 183-185;
Schmithausen 2000; see also Frauwallner 1969, 265). In this sense, I
would consider it plausible, though not absolutely necessary, that
Asanga became associated with this editorial process or may even haveauthored some parts. A detailed analysis concerning the formation of
the Y oBh is, however, too vast and intricate to be attempted here.
The Sr Bh appears to be one of the oldest textual layers of the
YoBh (Schmithausen 1987, 14). Obviously, dating it with precision is-141-

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almost hopeless. Much of the material contained is very old and quite
a few of the doctrines and spiritual practices go back to the earliest
strata of Buddhist history. This, however, does not answer how old the
SrBh as a work is. It is clear that the SrBh relies upon and contains
many parallels to the canonical texts, but this should hardly come asa surprise. The canon has always represented a sacred intertextuality
whose commentary and clarification is the very raison d'etre of thesastra literature.
The SrBh belongs to the fairly substantial corpus of spiritualcultivation literature. As far as I know, there is no traditional Indian
Buddhist category denoting this genre, but the Chinese Buddhists, facedwith an impressive number of such translations (also including apocrypha), coined terms like chan jing fr¥*I 'meditation scriptures', chan

dian }ft¥:$ 'meditation sacred texts', and chan yao m¥~ 'meditation
summaries' (cf. Deleanu 1992, 43). This, again, is in no way surprising
for a religion in which meditation was a paramount spiritual concern(at least theoretically speaking-reality is, as we all know, much more
complex and often disappointing). Texts dedicated solely to meditation
are not a rarity in the Canon. Abhidharmic literature has also dedicatedmuch of its commentarial skills and ars combinatoria genius as well
as a huge number of pages (or rather oral expositions, palm leaves andbirch bark scrolls) to the discussion of spiritual cul ti va tion. Furthermore,
between roughly the 1•t and the 6th century CE, we witness the productionof an impressive output of meditation treatises and manuals of various
school affiliations and discourse orientation. At least two of these texts,
the Xiu xing dao dijing 1~1-Till:f:fu~ (T No. 606) and the Damoduoluo

chan jing ~!ffP-*iif'-'*! (T No. 618), surviving only in Chinese translations, appear to have originally been entitled * Yogacarabhumiw. Apart
20 The title of No. 606 appears

both in Chinese phonetic transcription
and translation in the Taisho Canon(Tl5.181c).The Chinese phonetic trans-

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Textual History of the Sriivakabhumi (Deleanu)

from a few idiosyncrasies, they both basically belongtotheSravakayana(probably Sarvastivada) tradition. This background may have playeda certain role, direct or indirect, in the birth and gradual growth of theY oBh, but this alone was not sufficient. Mahayana influence, of various
strains and manifesting itself in various degrees throughout the YoBh,
was an ingredient as important as the Nikaya background and thescholastic heritage.
The whole process is intrinsically linked to the birth of theY ogacaraViji'ianavada school. This, again, is a hugely complex subject, and here
I should only like to make a methodological remark. No matter whatview is taken, one should strive to avoid the fallacy of linearity, unless,of course, corroborated by textual and/or epigraphic evidence. By 'fallacy
of linearity' I mean the tendency to see historical development moreor less as an uninterrupted genealogy of masters and disciples stretchingback to the Buddha himself. To be sure, there is a long tradition offondness of lineages, starting withindianBuddhistsacredhistoriography
and continuing in all local traditions. The Chan/Zen fascination withorthodox transmission of the Dharma is only one reflection, though,admittedly a very pronounced and highly institutionalised one, of thisobsessive hunt for holy pedigrees. Modern historical research has donemuch to eliminate this fallacy of linearity, but wearestillnotcompletely
free from it, especially in those cultural milieux where Buddhist faithand tradition form an integral part of the historian's background. I
do not deny the importance of transmission from master to disciple,
cription of the title of No. 618 is known form Huiyuan's Y!I~Prefacetothe
scripture (T15.301b22). There is also a partial translation of No. 606 madeby An Shigao ~iit~ in the second half of the 2nd century. The translation
entitled Dao dijing m::J'lt!*!. (T No. 602), in one scroll, represents an extractof seven chapters, which is a selection probably made by An Shigao himself(Deleanu 1997, 38-39).
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93

but this is not a simple, unequivocal flow of Dharma from ancient
times to modern days. There is much more to this. Both masters anddisciples are complex human beings, living, it is true, within the paradigms of a tradition, but, fortunately, not under a draconian Inquisition
or totalitarian brain-washing regime. Being part of a sa-tigha obviously
meant sharing a Vinaya lineage and a sacred canonical intertextuality
as well as an interpretative perspective (for the latter, the role of theacarya was admittedly very important). But many other influencesmust have been at work. Genuine inquisitiveness, the wish to pushfurther the explanatory coherence of the system, personal background,spiritual experiences, historical situations needing an answer not readilyfound in the tradition, encounter with other scholar-monks and ascetics,
discussions with fellow monks, lay followers, or even heretics, browsing
the temple manuscript collection on a dull afternoon and finding an
unexpectedly stimulating piece of Dharma writing. All these have mademany or most genealogies anything but straight lines of development.
And this, coupled with other internal and external historical factors,
can account for the transformation of the early Buddhism (itself perhaps
not a monolithic teaching) into the later 'Buddhisms'.
The only consolation for those keen on precise historical dates isthat we have a better picture for the terminus ante quem of the compilation process of the SrBh. We find a series of cross-references to ourtext in the earliest Chinese translation of the Bodhisattuabhumi ( =BoBh) done by the Indian monk Dharmak9ema ~~~ (var. -~~) in
418 under the ti tie Pusa di chi jing tf

m:!:If! fif*& ( * Bodhisattuabhumya-

dhara)21. For instance, Dharmak9ema's translation lists the five factors
21 Both the date and thetitle are not beyond doubt. Year 7 of theXuanshi "!i:M:i Era (418 CE) is given by Sengyou fff)ij] (445-518), the compilerof the Chu san zangji ji m=~Z~~c, the oldest extant Chinese scriptural
catalogue, which though not infallible is generally considered a reliable
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Textual History of the Sriivakabhumi (Deleanu).li$ (or 'aspects' (akara), according to the extant Sanskrit text) of
the bodhisattva who is a spiritual friend (kalya7Jamitrabhiito bodhisa-

ttvalyJ, and then adds that these factors should be understood according
to the SrBh (~Jli~.li¥o !i~~IJ~lo ~{X~~~~~IJ~¥o -~~ f=l o=~~Zo~~ifo Jm~~~o .Ji~~t.to J;J_j~E$)J{11j~~:t!IJ§~:f:&o~if~~)J{~:t!IJ:JJ•lj:Jito

T30.927a2-5; the corresponding passage in the

Sanskrit text reads: tatra pa~cabhir akarair aya~ kalya7Ja-mitra-

bhiito bodhisattva!y, pare?fi~ vineyana~ kalya1}.a-mitra-karya~ karoti.
codako bhavati. smarako bhavati. avavadako bhavati. anusasako bhauati. dharma-desako bhavati. e?fim padana~ uistarauibhago veditaviuyafy, tad-yatha sravakabhumau. avauadanusasana~ ea bhiiyas tatauttari ueditavya~ tad-yathii bala-gotra-patale. BoBh 239,13-19; cf.
Xuanzang's::!i* translation at T30.535a29-b3). There is actually apassage in 3.4.9. (Subsection on the Qualities of the Spiritual Friend)of the SrBh (SrBh Group 218-225) which gives indeed a detailed description of these five aspects. In another contextDharmak~ema's translation
says that 'the adornments of morality' should be known as in the Sra-

vakabhumi' ('i'mliXJ±~o ~~§~i&o T30.917c12-13; Sanskrit text:
silfila~kiiro ueditauyafy,. tad-yathii Sriivkabhiimau. BoBh 185' 10-11 ;cf. Xuanzang's translation, T30.552b3-4). There is no substantial treatment of 'the adornments of morality' in the· extant SrBh text and its
historical source. The problem is that this date appears only in the Zifu,
Puning and Jingshan Canons (the so-called 'Three Editions' of the Sung,
Yuan, and Ming Dynasties abbreviated as_ in the Taisho Canon) (see T
55.11b19 and note 14). As for the title, the Chu san zang ji ji also gives thevariants tlri\ifi.Xil'! and tfi\i:I:!M!. Sengyou has also left a note (T55. 62c-63a)on the relation between this text and Gu:QB.varman's >lt11~.1lj(- closely relatedtranslation the Pusa shan jie jing tfiil~:tOCil'!. On the relation between these
two renderings, see also Tokiwa 1973, 948-951, and Demieville 1973, 301.
There is, however, no doubt that both these two translations were done at
the beginning of the 5th century.
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95

translations, but we find, nonetheless, a short passage explaining themeaning of the word §ilalamkiira as used by the Exalted One ( SrBh
Group, pp. 84 and 86). In another passage of the BoBh, we are toldthat the factors of awakening should be understood differently in accordance to the principles or method (naya) of Sravakayana, on the
one hand, and to that of Mahayana, on the other. The former, it adds,
must be known as expounded in the Sriivakabhumi ( Dharmaksema'stranslation: '§!iB~tn~~OJf%lo ~IJ§!iB:I:!J!PJf~o T30.929c23-24; Sanskrit
text: tatra §riivakayiinanayena yathii-bhiital[L prajaniiti tad-yathii§riivakabhiimau sarva7p yathii nirdi?ta'!L veditavya7p. BoBh 259,13-15;
cf. Xuanzang's translation, T30.536c5-6). The SrBh contains a detailed
description of the thirty-seven factors of awakening (subsection 3.16.2.
above), and it is probably to this that the BoBh alludes. We find anothercross-reference to the SrBh in the Prati?thapa.tala, which mentions
that the persons dominated by sensual passion ( riigacarita) should
practise the contemplation of the impure ( a§ubhii) as explained in ·detail in the Sriivakabhumi (Dharmakt?ema's translation: 1i"Wcil/f?J-o)J{~~O§OO:I:!J!oT30.956c20-21; Sanskrit text: riigacaritanam a§ubhii

vistarena tad-yathii §riivakabhumau BoBh 389,2-3; cf. Xuanzang's
translation, T30.570a6-7). This probably refers to the presentation ofthis contemplative technique in the Subsection on the Meditative Objects
for the Purification of Conduct (see 3.7.2. above). Finally, in a passage
speaking of the Buddha's ability to preach to various beings according
to their faculties and understanding, the BoBh refers to the teachingsof the Tathagatas to the followers of the Disciples' Vehicle, whichhave been explained in the Sriivakabhumi (Dharmakt?ema's translation:~IJ*~~1H~~{.t1i&F,{!{.t~~o ~o§OO:Ifu:&c~mJ~g~~~'fiiDto T30:957

bl9-20; Sanskrit text: tatra yathii tathiigatiil} §ravakiiT}iil[L te?u-te?v

avatiiramukhe?v avaviidam anuprayacchar[Lti. tathii §riivakabhumau
sarvel}fl sarval[L niral[Ltaram iikhyiitam uttiinar[L vivrtal[L praf?iaptal[L
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Textual History of the Sravakabhiimi (Deleanu)

prakasitam. BoBh 394,20-23; cf. Xuanzang's translation, T30.57lb2527). The BoBh most likely refers here to the Part on Entry (Avatara-bhumi) (part two above) and the Section on Instruction (avavada) (3.
8. above) 22 •We must not, however, forget that without an equally early Sanskrit original and/or translations of the SrBh, a definitive conclusion
is not possible. In view of the above cross-references, it is almost certainthat a text called the Sravakabhumi, probably already constituting an
editorial pair to the BoBh, existed at that time, i.e., beginning of the
5th century, and, roughly speaking, its content seems to have been fairly
similar to our extant text. Yet, we do not know how similar in termsof general structure, doctrinal nuances, and wording. We have alreadydiscussed above that the cross-reference to the silalaf!1kiira in the BoBhappears to match a minor passage in the extant SrBh. Of course, it is
not excluded that the compiler(s) of the BoBh had this particular fragment in mind and simply wanted to refer to it. It is, nevertheless, also
possible to see this as a proof of the fact that the SrBh of that age
was different from our text. Maybe a larger fragment was dedicatedto the 'adornments of morality', and this was later renamed 23• Or maybe
the whole subsection on silasamvara (3.4.4.above) was re-arranged.
Does this terminus ante quem provide the ground for any assumptions concerning when the actual compilation of the SrBh started?
Unfortunately, not a very solid ground. It is, therefore, a matter of
speculation to assign it more or less precise historical dates. Probably,
22 We also find a reference to the SrBh in thePusa shanjiejing Youboli

wen pusa shou jie fa =grili~tltf~~:l&-F~=~~tlrlfi~ffltt* translated by Gul)avarman(T30.1018a14-15). On the relations of this text with the Pusa shan jiejing=g:Tfi~ftlt*~ in nine scrolls, see Tokiwa 1973, 950-951.
23 A possible candidate would be the ten benefits of morality (siliinusaf!U3a) (SrBh Group 92-99), but this remains a mere conjecture.
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97

the only thing we can surmise, and even this is not unproblematic, isthat the SrBh referred to in Dharmak~ema's translation of the BoBhseems to be an already developed text and for its creation we should
perhaps allow enough time.

Textual 'Geology'
Is the SrBh the product of a single author or group of authors who
wrote a text more or less identical with the extant Sanskrit manuscript
and its Tibetan and Chinese translations? Or do we also witness herea textual history of different layers? My conjecture is admittedly basedon the tricky quicksand of circumstantial evidence, but I venture to
advocate the latter view. Here are some of my arguments.
What do we learn from the synopsis above? The first impression
is, I believe, that of an elaborate textual architecture and an undeniableattempt to confer it a systematic character. Yet no reader will fail tonotice that the text also contains numerous repetitions and not all its
taxonomic lists form an ideally balanced whole. Indeed, a historicophilologically-minded (-biased?) student cannot help feelingthat certain
passages appear to be later accretions in a process of expanding a certain
textual core (or cores) . Deciding whether the Sr Bh is a model of textual
coherence is definitely not an easy task. Such a judgement depends on
the historical age and personal standards of the reader 24 • The specter
24 There are scholars, traditional and modern,

Eastern and Western,
who definitely admire the structure of our text. Speaking of the Y oBh in
general, Saeki Join in KDK (p. 18) describes the work as 'coherent andneatly organised' §f=§-Jt . . *EL*~U=j:~. Similarly, commenting upon the
YoBh, Wayman (1956, 317-318) says that 'Asanga's work demonstrates aremarkable degree of organization of material'. Concerning the SrBh, theAmerican scholar praises Asanga's 'genius in organization of thought',
which he considers 'certainly superior to [ ... ] Buddhaghosa's Visuddhi-134-

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Textual History of theSriivakabhumi (Deleanu)

of an age-biased and person-based evaluation mayindeedloomominously
over such judgements. Nonetheless, I think that we can avoid it to acertain extant by placing our comparisons in the context of traditional
Buddhist literature. To my mind, a comparison of the SrBh with, forinstance, Vausbandhu's Abhidharmakosabhasya or Buddhaghosa's

Visuddhimagga seem to show that better achievements in matters ofsystematic textual structure can and do exist. Though not in a definitive
manner, this may hint at the possibility that we have here a text containing different formative layers which the final editing effort could
not arrange in a perfectly systematic whole.
Some of the repetitions may be more than lack of compositional
talent. There are two sections (3.4. and 3.22.) discussing the requisites(sambhiira). And as if these were not enough, subsection 1.2.4.2. deals
with eight of the requisites treated in 3. 4. The interest in pudgala
typology, admittedly important for determining who and how one isfit for various practices, pops up at virtually every 'corner' of the text,
leaving one strongly suspect that many of these sections, subsections,and smaller units may be later accretions rather than part of a unitarycompositional plan. Conspicuous is section 2.4. which looks just likean addendum to the preceding classification of persons. The editors
make no secret of this and actually refer the reader to the latter (seecitation in 2.4. above). In spite of the fact that the whole chapter N
is dedicated to the mundane and supramundane paths (sections 3.28.
and 3.29. respectively), we also find a discussion of these two paths inrelation to the meditative objects for the purification of defilements
magga' (1956, 324). I do not completely deny the editorial virtues of thecompilers of the YoBh in general and SrBh in particular, but I am not so
ecstatic about the final outcome of their efforts. I do admit, however, thatsuch evaluations concerning the coherence and organisation of a text contain an important dose of impressionistic and subjective judgement.

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99(subsection 3.7.4.).
Speaking of larger textual units, my feeling is that there is adifference between the first two chapters, on the one hand, and the lasttwo chapters, on the other. Though related to the spiritual path, thefirst two yogasthanas represent a lengthy propaedeutic exposition whichreflects rather theoretical interests than the actual yogic praxis andprogression. After this largely Abhidharmic prologue, chapter mstarts
on a different note. It is a lively description of the beginner visiting
the master, paying respect to him, and begging for instruction. The
rest of the text appears to be a blend of the direct teachings of thekalytitwmitra and elaborations upon relevant doctrines and practices.
Taxonomic and theoretical discussions are not absent, but they are lessconspicuous and more directly connected to the meditation practiceitself. Surprisingly, a large part of the first half of chapter m isactually another introduction to the fundamentals of the path (as if
the previous two chapters were not enough!). This leads me to surmisethat chapter m and chapter N were the initial core of the SrBh and theneed for further doctrinal clarifications and taxonomic arrangements
subsequently gave birth to chapters I and II. This could explain thesomehow anomalous repetition of the discussion on requisites in sections
3.4. and 3.22. The proto-SrBh text probably had a small section on therequisites necessary for meditation, but this must have been felt as
fundamental knowledge for those embarking upon the spiritual pathand gradually developed. As this became too large and other accretions
were being incorporated into the text, the amplified discourse on requisites was made into an independent section and moved to its present
position in chapter I. The former section (present 3.22.) could not be
removed and was kept as such in the text. The spiritual master actuallytells the disciple that he will instruct him 'on five points' (paiicasu

sthane?u) (section 3.21.), thus making the presence of all these five
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items absolutely necessary. Whether section 3.22. represents the original
wording of the proto-SrBh is hard to know. Even if this is the case,some later editorial 'make-up' was perhaps needed in order to accommodate it into the final version of our text.
The compilation process did not stop here and must have continued
with further accretions creeping into both the core text (chapters Ill
and N) and the newly developing introductory parts (chapters I andll). This can be surmised, for example, from section 2.4 which, as

pointed out above, appears to be an addendum to section 2. 3. Thisaddition probably took place after the main parts of what now constitutes the Avatiirabhumi had already been compiled and incorporated
into the SrBh. An equally very late accretion could be subsection 1.2.4.
2. The need to explain from the very beginning the factors necessary
for the attainment ofparinirviil)£L probably led to the development of
this subsection, even at the risk of repeating eight of the requisites in
3. 4. The latter, too, suffered some modifications. The first threerequisites are only briefly mentioned, and then the text says that theyshould be understood as above (SrBh Group 62,8-9) (referring to section

1.2.4.2.). The rest of the requisites are amply treated, though some ofthem are also described, admittedly not in detail, in 1.2.4.2. Theeditorial process must have been complex and not always very systematic.
The formation process may have been even more complex. The protoSrBh text must not necessarily be regarded as identical with the present
chapters Ill and N. The original text may have beensimplerandorganised
in a different way. It is also possible that there existed several protoSrBh texts which were later combined together giving birth to anintermediate stage (an early version of Chapters Ill and N or parts ofit) subject to further accretions and elaborations.
Another indirect glimpse into the early 'geology' of the text mightalso be gained from the irregular position of the summary verses-131-Textual History of the Sravakabhumi (Deleanu)

101(uddana) in some parts of the SrBh. They usually appear at the endof each yogasthana and bhumi, obviously summarising the preceding
textual unit. The pattern is not, however, al,ways regular. Chapter m
departs from the basic stylistic convention in a peculiar way. At theend of section 3.25. (MS 106a7R-106b1L; Sh 405,10-18; D 148b7-149a2;
T 458b13-22) we find so-called 'intermediate summary verses' ( antaro-

ddana25; bar gyi sdom; J:f:tP.Ifil:fE!¥0, which sum up the five preceding
sections, i.e., from 3.21. to 3.25. The yogasthana continues with a large
section on the cultivation of contemplation ( manaskarabhavana).
Then at the end of chapter m (MS 113a6M-7L; Sh 434,17-20; D 163b7164a2; T 448b26-29 26), we also find 'general summary verses' (pir;u;loddana;

bsdus pa'i sdom; *-l!tPi.~) listing up the main topics of theyogasthana,including the manaskarabhavana. We may be seeing here a trace of an
editorial restructuring of the text. The Section on the Cultivation ofContemplation (3.26.) may have originally belonged to chapter N or
may be a later accretion. (The four contemplations listed here are
actually a different taxonomic set from the seven contemplations inchapter N which play the central role in the spiritual progress of theyogi.) Its incorporation into chapter mwas accompanied, at the sametime or at a later date, by some extra 'surgical' modifications: theoriginal uddana was renamed antaroddana and a pilJ{loddana wasinserted at the end of the newly reshaped chapter m. This pir:ujoddana
summed up all topics exposed in the newly edited yogasthana, including
the cultivation of contemplation, and thus gave the impression of a
25 Sh reads anantaro •0

The position of the summary verses in Xuanzang's translation isdifferent from the Sanskrit and Tibetan because of the Chinese conventionof placing uddanas at the beginning of the chapters or sections which theysummarise. This rule is not, however, applied to antaroddanas, which,as their name suggests, occur in the middle of textual units.
26

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Textual History of the Sravakabhumi (Deleanu)

unitary chapter. This must have happened, however, at a fairly earlydate in the textual history of the SrBh as both the Chinese (mid-7th
century) and Tibetan (early 9th century) translations as well as theextant Sanskrit Manuscript (probably dating from the 11th or 12th century)
display the same antaroddana and pir;u;loddana arrangement27 •Things are, however, not so simple, and other possibilities mustbe given equal attention. What I have termed 'irregularities' may actually represent a stylistic idiosyncrasy of our work. We also find summary verses in the middle of chapter I (after subsection 3.4.4.), though
here they are not called antaroddana ( SrBh Group 98; cf. also p. 62,
notes 9 and 10). The set of four uddanas at the end of chapter I also
faces us with a rather complicated situation (SrBh Group 296; cf. also
SrBh Group (13) 80-81). The Manuscript (MS 66a2L) and Shukla (Sh
169,1-2), following it, actually place the fourth uddana at the beginningof chapter IT, but this must be a scribal error rather than reflect a
different rendition. The Tibetan translation, which follows the Indian
stylistic convention of having the uddana at the end of the textual unit
in question, adds a further problem. It calls the first stanza bar gyi

sdom (antaroddana) (D 67a1), the next two stanzas sdom ( uddana)(D 67a2), and the fourth stanza bsdudpa'i sdom (pi7)f;ioddana) (D 67
a3). As if it were not enough, still another complication arises. The
order of the stanzas in the Sanskrit Manuscript is different from that

27 The Indian tradition is not una ware of the possibility of later editorial

operations on classical texts. We find, for instance, the following verses
in the CarakasaT(l-hita: vistarayati lesoktaT(l- saT(l-k;;ipaty ativistaram I
saT(l-Skartii kurute tantraT(l- purii7J.aT(l- ea punar navam I (Chapter xn, stanzas
36-37, vol. 1, p. 681) 'Detailing what is brief, abridging what is excessively
detailed/ The redactor makes the old treatise new again'.

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103

in the Tibetan translation28 • This, however, has probably nothing to dowith the early history of the text and can be explained as an anomaly
in the later scribal tradition.
Another important aspect, which we, unfortunately, cannot ascertain accurately is the role of the oral transmission in the formationand preservation of such texts. There is no doubt that in the first
centuries of Buddhist history oral transmission was the only way ofpassing down the holy teaching from one generation to another. With
the advent of the manuscript transmission in the 1•t century BCE29 andits later spread, we can surmise that the role of oral tradition sufferedsome changes, but it has, nevertheless, continued to play an important(often central) role in the passing down of the sacred corpus even in
our cybernetic age. The details concerning how oral and written traditions interacted in the formation of different texts, especially of the

28 In the MS (65bM-66a1R) the first two stanzas list the thirteen requisites,

the next one enumerates the seventeen adornments of the ascetic ( sramalJ
iilar[Lkiira), detailing thus the last of the adornments, and the fourth stanza(placed at the beginning of Chapter II, MS 66a2L) sums up the three main
themes of the Nai§kramyabhumi. The same order is followed by Shukla(p. 166 and p. 169). The Tibetan translation, however, gives first the thirdstanza, which enumerates the seventeen adornments of the ascetic, andcalls it bar gyi sdom (antaroddiina) (D 67a). It then has the first two
stanzas, which list the thirteen requisites, and calls them sdom (uddiina)(D 67a2). Finally, it gives the fourth stanza, which sums up the three main
themes of the Nai§kramyabhumi, and, quite appropriately, calls it bsdud
pa'i sdom (pi!J<}oddiina) (D 67a3). This order is adopted by the Sravakabhiimi Study Group's edition (p. 296).
29 The crucial decision of the Singhalese Theravadin monks to commit
the Buddhist sacred corpus to writing in the 1st century BCE is recorded inboth the DipavaT(Lsa (XX, 20-21) and the MahiiVaT(LSa ( XXX1II, 100-101). For
details, see Lamotte 1958, 403-405.
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sastra literature, remain largely unknown 30 • I imagine, however, thatoral transmission could have played a certain part at least in the early
formation of the SrBh, which may have started as a text (or texts?)
recited by the master for the benefit of one or a relatively small numberof disciples. The SrBh itself hints at the role of the personal guidanceof the master and the oral transmission of the yogic tradition ( see30 The role of the oral tradition has been discussed in many modern

studies (see, for example, Cousins 1983; Collins 1992; Allon 1997, the latteralso containing an ample bibliography on this subject). Cousins (1983, 5)
argues that even after the introduction of writing, there followed 'a considerable transitional period with both oral and literary approaches
remaining concurrent'. Collins (1992) convincingly proves that the Buddhist
tradition remained largely an oral/ aural one in spite of the parallel usageof writing (cf. also Allon, 1-8).
Some interesting information about the parallel existence of the oral andwritten traditions is provided by the Chinese accounts concerning thetranslation of Buddhist texts. We find instances of both recitation frommemory and reading out of the manuscript, often with one and the same
person. I shall give only two examples from one of the earliest documentsof such kind, the Biographies of Eminent Monks ~fff{$. by Huijiao ;t~,compiled in 519. The famous translator Dharmarab;;a A:A-~Wi (239-316) is
described as 'everyday reciting scriptures tens of thousands of words' ~m*!Bf.its (T50.326c4). In spite of his prodigious memory, however, Dharmaraki?a also valued the manuscript tradition. After a journey to theWestern Regions, he 'brought a great number of scriptures in Indian
languages and returned to China' ~*Jff1ti%!a ~!ri~!L (T50.326cll-12).
Sanghabhadra, who came from Kashmir to China in· 381, was famed forhis knowledge by heart of the Abhidharmauibhii~a, a text which he recited
D~*I* (T50.328b7) for a translation team to render it into Chinese. The
same Sawhabhadra, however, also brought Vasumitra's Indian original~ft.J{~1t* (T50.328bll) (referring to the Aryavasumitrasmigiti§astra #~~~;grjiiBif~ffilil, T No. 1549), which later on he and two other translators
took in hand ¥1t1t* (T50.328b13) and, with the help of a team, rendered
into Chinese. Oral recitation and· reliance upon manuscript transmission
are seen thus side by side.
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105

section 3.21. as well as other passages, especially in chapter Ill). Of
course, it is not excluded that the SrBh was a written text from the
beginning, but the religious environment of the age makes it more likelythat oral transmission played a part, alone or in parallel with themanuscript tradition. If this is true, then the presence of many uddiinas,
some of them not in a very regular order, can be explained as a reflectionof the reciters' need to make sure, by means of these summary verses,that they do not forget topics. Then the irregular patterns or, at least,
some of them could be the result of the oral transmission process.
Though impossible to corroborate with direct evidence and adding much
more complexity to our hypotheses on textual formation, the oraltransmission remains a strong possibility which cannot be ignored.
Now, all the above conjectural remarks are based on a simple
presupposition, which, actually, is quite often seen in historico-philological studies. It basically represents a belief that an author must
always or usually be coherent and systematic. Though this is one fundamental desideratum, which presumably authors of all ages and lands
aspire to, the actual results of this widely espoused ideal may often bedisappointing. Texts, even when authored by one single person, may beappalling examples of incoherence and chaos in spite of the creator's
best intentions. Repetitions, ambiguities, inconsistencies, etc. do notnecessarily mean different layers going back to different ages. Though
I still believe that in the case of texts like the SrBh, the probability ofhistorical strata remains high, I, nevertheless, do not wish to rule out
completely another logical possibility: our text may be the product ofa single author or group of authors and redactors either not very
concerned with the perfectly systematic character of their discourse or,simply, whose noble intentions were not matched by equal talent. It isthus possible that the SrBh was authored or compiled as a whole on
the basis of previous treatises and bits of tradition. Ignoring some-126-

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106

minor editorial operations and additions, inevitable in the process of
sacred transmission, this SrBh was more or less similar to our present
text. This possibility can equally account for repetitions. Some of theantaroddiinas, for instance, may have belonged to the source materials
incorporated into the SrBh and were preserved as such in the new work.
Without compelling evidence, the historian should, I believe, remaincontent to list all major possibilities of the process which he or she tries
to reconstruct, even when these possibilities may be contradictory.
My discussion concerning the formation of the SrBh is far frombeing complete or definitive. Other important aspects, like the school
affiliation of our text and its doctrinal background, are certainly
relevant topics and deserve equal attention. I hope that, with the kindk?iinti of my learned readers, I shall be able to deal with them in the
future.

References
Primary sources, with abbreviations
The number following the abbreviated title indicates the page andthe next number, separated by coma, stands for the line. When I citefrom the Sanskrit manuscript, abbreviated as MS, I first write the folio
number, then recto (=a)/verso (=b), the line number, and the segmentof each line: left ( =L), middle (=M), and right ( =R). For the Tibetantranslation of the SrBh, I have used in this article only the sDe dge
edition, Dsi (see below), abbreviated as D. References give the folio
number, recto (=a)/verso (=b), and the line number. References to
the Taisho edition follow the usual conventions, but in the case of theChinese translation of the SrBh (found in volume 30), I omit the volume
number. I thus write T and then the page, segment (a/b/c), and line
number.
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Textual History of the Sravakabhumi (Deleanu)

107

Citations from the primary sources, SrBh included, follow theoriginal punctuation and spelling as close as possible. (It goes without
saying that this convention will not be followed in my critical edition.)
The only modification I have made here was to use < > (employed,for instance, by Schmithausen, too) for additions made to the original
texts. For unity's sake, I have thus replaced the square brackets usedby Shukla with < >.
BoBh: Bodhisattvabhumi
Wogihara Unrai, ed. [1936] 1971. Bodhisattvabhumi. Tokyo:
Sankibo Buddhist Book Store

Carakasal[l-hita: Agnive§a's Treatise refined and annotated by Caraka
and redacted by Drc;lhabala. Sharma, Priyavrat ed. and transl. 2
vols. 1981-1983. Varanasi and Delhi: Chaukhambha Orientalia.
D:sDe dge Tibetan Tripifaka bsTan J:tgyur- preserved at the Facultyof Letters, University of Tokyo-Sems tsam 6, Dsi. 1980. Tokyo:
Sekai Seiten Kanko Kyokai.

KDK: Kokuyaku daizokyo ~~jcjtf!. Here the reference is to the Preface
to the Japanese kundoku ~ll~ftranslation of the YoBh written by
Saeki Join 1ti:185EJ~L, also the translator of the work, found in the

Ronbu ~!~, vol. 6. First ed. of the series 1930-:1936. Reprint 1986.
Tokyo: Dai'ichi Shobo.
KIK: Kokuyaku issaikyo ~~--gJJ*I· Here references are to the Japanesekundoku ~~~~ftranslation of the SrBh found in the Yugaron ~1DU~,
vol. 2, Kato Seishin 11Dlift'ft$ trans., Katsumata Shunkyo JIJX~~
and Mukai RyUken[Q]::J:I:~~ revised. First ed. 1931. Second reviseded. 1993. Tokyo: Daito Shuppansha.
MS: Joint Publication of Taisho University (Tokyo) and China Libraryof Nationalities (Beijing). 1994. Facsimile Edition of the "Sriiva-

kabhumi" Sanskrit Palm-leaf Manuscript ~{hD~m:l:tf!~~Pfl :l:If!1'tJtJJit
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108

Textual History of the Sriiuakabhumi (Deleanu)
Jtt3~P::$:. Beijing: Minzu Chubanshe. ·Schmithausen: Schmithausen, Lambert. 1982. 'Die letzeten Seiten der
SravakabhU:mi'. In L.A. Hercus et al., eds. Indological and Buddhist

Studies: Volume in Honour of Professor J. W. de Jong on his Sixtieth
Birthday. Canberra: Faculty of Asian Studies.
Sh: Shukla, Karunesha, ed. 1973. Sravakabhumi of Acarya Aswiga.
Patna: K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute.
Shukla, Karunesha, ed. 1991. Sravakabhumi of Acarya Asanga. Part
II. Patna: K.P. Jayaswal Research Institute.
SrBh: Sravakabhumi
SrBh Group: Shomonji Kenkyllkai P'f~:l:t!!.1Vf~~ (SravakabhU:mi Study
Group) ed. and transl. 1998. Yugaron Shomonji Dai'ichi yugasho:

Sansukurittogo texisuto to wayaku fi?fhiifHB P'f~:l:t!!.~-fi{f:hiJj&: -+T/' A 7 1) '/ }- ~ 7 q:. A }- ~ 5¥0 ~ ( Sravakabhumi: Revised Sanskrit

Text and Japanese Translation, The First Chapter). Tokyo: Sankibo
Busshorin.
SrBh Group (13): Shomonji Kenkyllkai P'f~:l:t!!.1Vf~~ ed. and transl.
1994. 'Bonbun Shomonji (13) - Daini yugasho (1), wayaku, kamon-'jtJtP'f~:l:t!!. C+ · ) -~=fi?f1Jnj& ( 1 ), 5fD~R · *.!1-Jt. Taishodaigaku

sago bukkyo kenkyujo nenpo. 16: 73-129.
StBh Group (14): Shomonji Kenkyllkai ?i~:l:t!!..PJf~~ ed. and transl.
1995. 'Bonbun Shomonji (14) - Daini yugasho (2), wayaku, kamon"-'- '1-tJt?i~:l:t!!. (+!m) - ~=fi?f:hiJj& ( 2 ), 5¥D~R · 5¥.!1-Jt. Taishodaigaku
sago bukkyo kenkyujo nenpo. 17: 19-71.
SrBh Group (15): Shomonji KenkyUkai P'f~:l:t!!..PJf~~ ed. and transl.
1996~ 'Bonbun Shomonji (15) - Daini yugasho (3), wayaku, kamon-'1-tJtP'f~:l:t!!. (i-1L)- ~=fi?fhDj& ( 3 ), 5fD~R · 5¥.!1-Jt. Taishodaigaku·sago bukkyo kenkyujo nenpo. 18: 1-35.
T:

Takakusu Junjiro ~1ffl)ll.&:9z~~ and Watanbe Kaikyo iJi~#ij::l!!!, chiefeds., Taisho shinshu daizokyo :;klEf)f{~:;k-*!. 1922-1933. Popular-123-

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edition 1991. Tokyo: Taisho Shinshu Daizokyo Kankokai.
Y oBh: Y ogacarabhumi
W:

Wayman, Alex. 1961. Analysis of the Sravakabhumi Manuscript.
Berkley: University of California Press.
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Reader,International College
for Advanced Buddhist Studies-120-