35950.NJ.COVERS

18/3/05

1:37 PM

Page 1The European Civic Citizenship and Inclusion Index
has been conceived to fill a knowledge gap on civic
citizenship policies and inclusion at a European level.
It is important for Member States to think about
issues of immigrant inclusion in a European
perspective, in order to keep up with the reality ofEU-level policymaking and the rapidly emerging EU
Common Space of Justice, Freedom and Security.
This is the first attempt to present the EU’s policies
governing civic citizenship and inclusion in a concise
and comparable format.
The European Civic Citizenship and Inclusion Index
was conceived and managed by British Council
Brussels, Foreign Policy Centre and Migration
Policy Group. The research was designed andco-ordinated by Professor Andrew Geddes(University of Sheffield) and Jan Niessen (Migration
Policy Group), and carried out by the Europe in theWorld Centre (University of Liverpool), andMigration Policy Group. The project has been
financed by the Barrow-Cadbury Charitable Trust,
Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust and theBritish Council.

European Civic Citizenship and Inclusion Index 2004

The need for immigrant inclusion in Europe isunavoidable. 13 million EU residents in the fifteen
old Member States (3.4% of the population) are nonnaturalized immigrants. Globalization, labour market
and demographic pressures make inward migrationa fact of life for the EU Member States. If Europe isto meet its Lisbon targets on employment and jobs,
maintain cohesive healthy societies and live up to
its founding values of equality and openness thenit must take a close look at its policies governing
inclusion and civic citizenship.

European Civic
Citizenshipand Inclusion Index

Research designed and co-ordinated by Professor Andrew Geddes
and Jan Niessen, with Alex Balch, Claire Bullen and María José Peiro
www.britishcouncil.org/brussels-europe-inclusion-index.htm

Compiled by Laura Citron and Richard Gowan

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 1

European Civic Citizenshipand Inclusion Index

Research designed and co-ordinated by Professor
Andrew Geddes and Jan Niessen, with Alex Balch,
Claire Bullen and María José Peiro
Compiled by Laura Citron and Richard Gowan

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PMFirst published in 2005 by
British Council Brussels
Leopold Plaza
108 rue du Trone
B-1050 Brussels
Belgium
Email enquiries@britishcouncil.be© British Council Brussels
Foreign Policy Centre
and Migration Policy Group 2005
All rights reserved

Page 2

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page iiiThe Index Team

Kate Arthurs
British Council

Jan Niessen
Director, Migration Policy Group

Alex Balch
Research Fellow, Europe in the World
Centre, University of Liverpool

Edward Pearce
University of Liverpool

Claire Bullen
Former Research Fellow, Europe
in the World Centre,
University of Liverpool
Laura Citron
Project Manager, Europe Programme,
British Council Brussels
Professor Andrew Geddes
University of Sheffield

María José Peiro
Research Assistant, Migration
Policy Group
Yongmi Schiebel
Programme Officer, Migration
Policy Group
Julia Smith
Press and Communications Officer,
British Council Brussels

Richard Gowan
Europe Researcher,
Foreign Policy Centre
Sharon Memis
Head Europe Programme,
British Council Brusselsiii

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page iv

Emma Bonino MEP
Yasmin Alibhai-Brown
The Independent
Jo Leinen MEP
Chair, Constitution Committee
Claude Moraes MEP
Cem Özdemir MEP
John Monks
Chair, European Trade Unions
Confederationiv

Mary Robinson
Former UN High Commissioner for
Human Rights, former President of
Ireland
Lord Simon of Highbury
Director, Unileverand Suez Group;
former Chair BP
Phillip Whitehead MEP
Chair, Internal Market& Consumer
Protection Committee

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page v

Foreword

Citizenship and inclusion have become key issues in European
political debate. There is an ever greater need for objective
information by which to compare our countries’ policies
and situations.
Over the last five years, the EU’s members have moved towards
creating common policies on justice and home affairs. The European
Commission has established a significant role in promoting newlegislation, from anti-discrimination to civic citizenship. It is
important that governmental and non-governmental actors,
governments and civil society remain fully engaged with these
European developments, for which the European Civic Citizenshipand Inclusion Index is a major instrument and is welcomed bypoliticians, civil servants and NGOs across Europe.
The Index shows that member-states still have very different
approaches to migration and civic citizenship questions, withconsiderable variation in the areas of economic migration andfamily migration and social inclusion. This is in spite of a seriesof commitments by all member-states to move towards common
standards in these areas. We must address these variations if weare to achieve not only more equal societies, but also a fullyfunctioning European Union. The Index allows us to identify
best practices among the member-states, and we must all follow
these examples.
The Index will be published annually, allowing us to monitor
developments in Europe’s attitudes to rights, citizenship andeconomic fairness. In supporting this first edition of the Index, we
join in calling for strong and consistent efforts by both the European
Commission and the member-states to promote the development
and implementation of high legal standards and inclusion policies
in this area.
v

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page vi

Acknowledgements

Disclaimer
The views in thispaper are notnecessarily thoseof the British
Council or Foreign
Policy Centre.

vi

The Index team would like to thank all those who have contributed
to the development of the Index over the past 18 months. In
particular, thanks is due to Rainer Bauböck, Bernhard Perchinig,
Carmen Claudín, Sir Bernard Crick, Vera Egenberger, Gilles Keppel,
Marco Martiniello, Claude Moraes, Joaquim Nunes de Almeida,
John Monks, Cem Ozdemir, Trevor Phillips, Francesco Rutelli,
Catherine de Wenden, Giovanna Zincone, Kate Nosowska,
Han Entzinger and Sandra Schmidt for their contributions to theinitial seminars on citizenship, political participation and labour
market inclusion. Shamit Saggar, Michelynn Lafleche, Martin Ruhs,
Jérôme Vignon, Jana Kotalik, Kay Hailbronner, Elspeth Guild,
Helene Urth and Isabelle Maquet Engstead shared valuable insights
and constructive criticism at the Index consultations in Brussels.
We are also very grateful to Kate Arthurs, Mark Leonard,
Phoebe Griffiths and Rob Blackhurst for their initial visionand hard work in the early days. The support of FrédéricCharillon at Sciences Po was extremely valuable in the initial
phases of the project.
The research teams would like to thank Sandra Schmidt and
Iketina Danso of the Commission for Racial Equality, Caterina Carta
and The Raxen network for help in providing data.
The team would also like to thank Sukhvinder Stubbs of theBarrow Cadbury Charitable Trust and Stephen Pittam of the Joseph
Rowntree Charitable Trust for their support, without which the
project would not have been possible.
Special thanks go to Edward Pearce for the stunning charts; andto Gerben van Lent for his help with the statistics.
Special thanks also to Alex Balch and María José Peiro for
their outstanding research assistance; and to Laura Citron, Richard
Gowan, Kalvin Bahia for their huge contribution to the final text.

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page vii

About the Partners

The British Council is an independent, non-political organisation
incorporated by Royal Charter. With offices in 110 countries
worldwide, it works to build mutually beneficial relationships
between people in the UK and other countries and increase
appreciation of the UK’s creative ideas and achievements. Its
extensive European network of offices means that it is uniquelyplaced to develop creative links between the UK and the rest ofEurope. The British Council in Brussels plays a key role in thisEuropean strategy. For more information, visit
www.britishcouncil.be.
The Foreign Policy Centre is a leading European think tanklaunched under the patronage of the British Prime Minister Tony
Blair to develop a vision of a fair and rule-based world order.
Through its research, events and publications, it aims to develop anddisseminate innovative policy ideas which promote:● Effective multilateral solutions to global problems● Democratic and well-governed states as the foundation of orderand development● Partnerships with the private sector to deliver public goods● Support for progressive policy through effective public diplomacy● Inclusive definitions of citizenship to underpin internationalist
policies. For more information, please visit www.fpc.org.uk.

vii

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page viii

Migration Policy Group (MPG) is an independent organisationcommitted to policy development on migration and mobility, anddiversity and anti-discrimination by facilitating the exchange
between stakeholders from all sectors of society, with the aim ofcontributing to innovative and effective responses to the challenges
posed by migration and diversity. For more information, please visit
www.migpolgroup.com
Barrow Cadbury Charitable Trust The project has been part fundedby the Barrow Cadbury Trust, a foundation that provides grants toprojects that encourage social change in the areas of inclusive
communities and global exchange, amongst others. Barrow
Cadbury Trust is committed to building bridges between policy
makers and grassroots communities, and to identifying best practiceto achieve change, principles that are reflected in the design of theEuropean Civic Citizenship and Inclusion Index.
Joseph Rowntree Charitable Trust The Joseph Rowntree Charitable
Trust is a UK grantmaking foundation which supports initiatives
promoting justice and equality within the structures of social andpolitical life. It makes grants of approximately €7 million a year
through programmes relating to peace and global security;
democracy and corporate responsibility; and migration, asylum andintegration; and through two geographically based programmes inSouth Africa and Ireland (with a special focus on the conflict inNorthern Ireland). The Trust mainly funds work in the UK, but
supports some projects in its fields of interest relating to policy at the
EU level.

viii

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page ix

Executive Summary

BackgroundThe need for immigrant inclusion in Europe is unavoidable. 13
million EU residents in the fifteen old Member States (3.4% of the
population) are non-naturalized immigrants. Globalization, labour
market and demographic pressures make inward migration a fact oflife for the EU Member States. If Europe is to meet its Lisbon targets
on employments and jobs; maintain cohesive, healthy societies; andlive up to its founding values of equality and openness, then it musttake a close look at its policies governing inclusion and civic
citizenship.

Rationale

The European Civic Citizenship and Inclusion Index was conceived
to fill a knowledge gap on civic citizenship policies and inclusion at a
European level. It is important for Member States to think about
issues of immigrant inclusion in a European perspective, in order tokeep up with the reality of EU-level policymaking, and the rapidly
emerging EU Common Space of Justice, Freedom and Security. Thisis the first attempt to present the EU’s policies governing civic
citizenship and inclusion in a concise and comparable format.

ix

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page xAims

1. To present data on civic citizenship and inclusion policies in the EU
in a way that allows for comparison between Member States andagainst EU averages.
2. To enable monitoring of the extent to which Member States are
implementing principles of civic citizenship and inclusion agreed toby all of them.
3. To identify examples of good practice amongst Member States.
4. To allow for comparison over time, by updating the Indexannually.

MethodThe Member States’ policies were compared to a common normative
framework. The normative framework sets out a formulation of thebasis for immigrant inclusion, which argues that immigrant
inclusion requires: 1. Labour Market Inclusion 2. Family Reunion 3.
Long Term Residence 4. Naturalization and 5. Anti-Discrimination.
In each of these five areas, a number of specific policy indicators weredeveloped, and each Member State scored against each policy
indicator. The indicators were based on the existing commitments ofMember States to give immigrants rights and obligations comparable
to EU citizens. There are almost 100 policy indicators. The data toscore the EU-15 against the policy indicators was collected from
migration experts in the EU-15.

Key findings

1. There is a glaring lack of data collected by Member States in thearea of immigrant inclusion and citizenship.
2. The Member States implement their common commitments indiverse ways.
3. Member States tend to score consistently across the five areas.
4. There are no major differences in policy between countries withlong and short migration histories.
5. Although statuses for immigrants are relatively difficult to acquire
and weakly protected, they have significant rights associated with them.
6. Although comprehensive anti-discrimination legislation has beenx35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page xi

adopted, its implementation is lagging behind and discrimination
based on nationality is badly covered.
7. Naturalization remains one of the most problematic areas for
Member States. This reflects the ongoing debate over whether
migration should be seen as a long-term or temporary phenomenon.

Project partners

The European Civic Citizenship and Inclusion Index was conceived
and managed by British Council Brussels, Foreign Policy Centre
and Migration Policy Group. The research was designed and coordinated by Professor Andrew Geddes (University of Sheffield)
and Jan Niessen (Migration Policy Group), and carried out by theEurope in the World Centre (University of Liverpool), andMigration Policy Group. The project has been financed by the
Barrow-Cadbury Charitable Trust, Joseph Rowntree Charitable
Trust and the British Council.

xi

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page xiii

Contents

Preface Rt Hon Lord Kinnock of Bedwellty

1

1 Introduction

2

2 Index Structure

14

3 Methodology

21

4 Key Findings

24

5 EU-15 Results

29

6 Country Results and Profiles
Austria
Belgium
Denmark
FinlandFranceGermany
GreeceIreland
Italy
Luxembourg
Netherlands
Portugal
Spain
SwedenUnited Kingdom

38
43
52
60
68
76
84
92
100
108
114
122
130
139
148
156

Annex I – Indicators and Options

164

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 1

Preface

The inclusion of immigrants in our European societies is vital if weare to achieve ambitious Lisbon Agenda targets on employment andcompetitiveness, and to have the benefit of socially cohesive andeconomically vibrant communities. I am therefore proud tointroduce this first European Civic Citizenship and Inclusion
Index. The Index will contribute solid facts to a public debate which
has too often been riddled with inaccuracies, fear andmisunderstanding. It is part of the British Council Brussels
programme of engagement with EU issues and an expression of ourdetermination to contribute intelligent objectivity and to promote
fresh, reasoned thinking.
The British Council’s international reputation for
professionalism and integrity is built upon our rigorously non
partisan, non sectarian approach. The Index does not represent,
therefore, governmental views and is not motivated by any intention
to ‘name and shame’ countries. Rather, the Index contributes to acomplex area by providing simple, accurate, accessible information.
The results highlight the diversity of practice on inclusion policy
within the EU, rather than pointing out ‘winners’ or ‘losers.’ We givethe facts. You make your own conclusions.
Rt Hon Lord Kinnock of Bedwellty
Chair, British Council

Preface35950

1

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 2

1 Introduction

There is a pressing need for European countries to ensure that they
are open and inclusive, not only for the development of theireconomies, but to build cohesive societies. There are already 13
million immigrants resident in the EU, and inward migration will bea fact of life for European countries in the 21st century. The
pertinent question is therefore not whether or not Europe accepts
migration, but how Europe manages the inclusion of immigrants in
European societies. Experience has shown that the incorporation ofprevious waves of immigrants was not straightforward. Many
European countries are still faced with persistent and structuraldifficulties in terms of the economic, social and political inclusion of
their immigrant populations. Social exclusion presents a tragic wasteof potential, while threatening the values of equality and openness
upon which the EU is founded. Meanwhile, the context for debates
about immigrant inclusion policy is changing as the European
economic and political spaces – centred on the Single Market andCommon Space for Justice, Freedom and Security – are everintegrating and enlarging to new Members.

1 Presidency
Conclusions,2000 Lisbon
European Council,
23–24 March

2

It is vital that Europe’s migrants are included in the labour market.
In 2000, the EU’s Member States set themselves the ambitious targetsof creating “the most competitive and dynamic knowledge-based
economy in the world, capable of sustainable economic growth withmore and better jobs and greater social cohesion”.1The EU’s
achievement of these targets is threatened if the EU’s immigrant
population is not included in the labour market. It is crucial that the
talent and entrepreneurship of the EU’s immigrant population is notwasted, but rather contributes to a vibrant and competitive
economy.
It is also important that the EU’s irregular migrant workers areI-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 3included in the labour market. Restrictive, closed labour markets
force the EU’s existing immigrants into the informal economy. This
makes irregular workers more vulnerable to exploitation, and fuelsa grey economy that is difficult to regulate. A large irregular labour
market for unskilled workers may also be a disadvantage for mostvulnerable Member State nationals, whose labour costs are higher.
Furthermore, the lack of channels for legal migration forces labour
migrants into asylum channels, which are overstretched.
The Lisbon Agenda has thrown up a debate about the need toencourage labour migration into the EU, given the backdrop ofcurrent labour shortages and skills gaps. Many argue that labour
migration could be part of the solution to the problems of an aging
European population, sectoral skills shortages and a lack of vitality.
However, labour migration can only be a credible solution toEurope’s demographic problems if the new migrants are
successfully included in the labour market and wider society.
Europe’s immigrants also need adequate civic citizenship rights
to be fully included in our societies. Labour market inclusion is
only a first step towards integration into Europe’s societies.
Immigrants need adequate civic citizenship rights so as to engage insocial and political life, and become active citizens.

2 The Amsterdam
Treaty set out thefoundations for aEuropean ‘CommonSpace’ for Freedom,
Justice andSecurity. Within the‘Common Space’,
there is a single
standard of EU
citizenship, withstandard rights
and obligations
associated with it.
This was followed
up at the Tampere
Summit, see
Presidency
Conclusions, 1999
Tampere European
Council, 15-16
October.
3 Presidency
Conclusions, 1999
Tampere European
Council, 15-16
October

The EU currently has a legal ‘underclass’ of Third Country
Nationals, who do not enjoy the same rights as EU citizens.
Europe is building a ‘Common Space’ of Freedom, Justice andSecurity2 based on the values of openness and equality, from which
immigrants are partly excluded. There is a need to address thispersistent inequality, and EU Member States have indeed
committed to the principle of equivalent rights for migrants in theTampere declaration.3 If migrants do not enjoy the same rights as
EU nationals, they are more likely to be excluded. We must combat
social and political exclusion to create vibrant, active societies.
Active, cohesive societies depend on the responsibilities of citizens
towards society. The responsibilities accepted by immigrants in
Europe must be linked to the entitlements they enjoy.
Introduction

35950

3

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 4

Box 1 Civic Citizenship

Civic citizenship would guarantee a number of core rights to thirdcountry nationals who are long-term residents in the EU, such thatthey are treated in a comparable way to nationals of their host state.
Civic citizenship uses EU citizenship as benchmark for rights. Apartfrom basic non-discrimination principles, civic citizenship includes
the following rights:● Right of residence● Protection against expulsion● Access to employment and self-employment● Access to family reunification● Access to education, vocational training and recognition ofqualifications.
● Access to social security and social assistance● Right of association and membership including trade unions● Right of participation in political life at (at least local level).
● Right to vote in European Parliament elections.
● Right of movement for work and study purposes to any state in
the EU.
Civic citizenship fits with the aims of the Tampere European
Council (October 1999), to grant long-term residents ‘rights which
are as near as possible to those enjoyed by EU citizens’.
The concept of ‘civic citizenship’ has become widely used inEuropean policy circles. For example, it has been discussed by boththe former and current European Commissioners for Justice andHome Affairs:● Former Commissioner Vitorino advocated an EU as acommunity of citizens and called for the extension of civic
citizenship to third country nationals pointing at the EU Charter ofFundamental Rights as a reference document for this.
● Commissioner Frattini has said recently that ‘civic citizenship(…) is important for the integration process and can enhance
immigrants’ feeling of belonging’ and that it can be ‘a means ofpromoting [a] common policy for integration of immigrants’.
Civic citizenship is gradually being incorporated into national law.
The Directive on the status of long-term residents (November
4I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 52003), regulating access to and protection of a long-term residence
status for third-country nationals, is one of various recent directives
which represent a significant step forward in the direction of civic
citizenship. However, much still remains to be done.
Civic citizenship would be a common baseline for all residents inthe EU. It would be part of a European framework for
integration for policies towards third-country nationals. Suchintegration policies would contribute to social cohesion andeconomic competitiveness, whilst remaining faithful to theUnion’s basic principles of legal and political equality and social
inclusion.
The EU’s Member States have much to gain from seeing migration
as a common EU issue. There is an ongoing process to create acommon EU economic and social space, within which to promotemobility and equality. The cornerstone is the development of acommon standard of inclusive citizenship which gradually extends
the responsibilities and entitlements of EU citizenship to all legallyresiding residents. It follows that, in a context of increasing
interdependence and mobility, EU states would benefit from coordinating standards with respect to the immigrants within its
borders. Common standards for citizenship would strengthen the
EU’s claim to be a truly inclusive Common Space for Justice,
Freedom and Security. EU Member States already have the basis for acommon framework for such a citizenship and inclusion policy – forexample, The Maastricht and Amsterdam Treaties, the Tampere
Declaration, the Lisbon, Thessaloniki and Hague Agendas, as well as
Council of Europe human rights and equality standards. By using
tools such as target-setting, peer review, benchmarking andidentifying good practice, EU Member States can profit from thepromising opportunities to work towards sustainable economies andcohesive societies.

Box 2 A Brief History of Migration Policy in the EU
Treaties
1957 The Rome Treaty● Introduced the right of freedom of movement of persons

Introduction

35950

5

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 6

1985 The Schengen Agreement● Abolished border control in the Schengen area.
1992 The Maastricht Treaty● Formally recognised that Justice and Home Affairs are matters ofcommon interest and reinforced co-operation between Member
States under the so-called ‘Third Pillar’.
● Introduced standard EU citizenship.
1997 The Amsterdam Treaty● Integrated the Schengen Agreement into the European Union
framework.
● Provided the legal basis for co-operation on visas, asylum,
immigration and other policies related to the free movement of
persons.
● Aimed to create an area of freedom, security and justice leading to
the creation of Directorate General of the European Commission(DG) Freedom, Security and Justice.
● Recognised the need for action by the EU in the areas ofimmigration and asylum and in the achievement of high levels of
employment.

Directives
2000 Directive implementing the principle of equal treatment

between persons irrespective of Racial or Ethnic origin (2000/43 of
29 June 2000).
2000 Directive establishing a general framework for equal treatment
in employment and occupation (2000/78 of 27 November 2000).
2003 Directive on the Right to Family Reunification (2003/86 of 22
September 2003) is due for transposition by 3 October 2005.
2003 Directive concerning the Status of Third-Country Nationals
who are Long-Term Residents (2003/109 of 25 November 2003) isdue for transposition by 23 January 2006.
2004 Directive on the right of citizens and their family members tomove and reside freely within the territory of the Member States(2004/38/EC of 29 April 2004).

Summits, Declarations and Programmes
1997 Luxembourg Summit

6I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 7● Set the European Employment Strategy.
1999 Tampere Summit
The ‘Tampere Programme’ (1999-2004) set out four strands of EU
migration policy:
1 Fair treatment of Third Country Nationals: commitment to ensure
they enjoy ‘rights comparable’ to those of Member State nationals.
2 Management of migration flows.
3 Partnership with countries of origin.
4 Common European asylum regime.
2000 Lisbon Summit● The ‘Lisbon Agenda’ was a commitment to create “the mostcompetitive and dynamic knowledge-based economy in the world,
capable of sustainable economic growth with more and better jobs
and greater social cohesion.”● Pioneered use of the Open Method of Coordination as a tool toshare information and monitor progress.
2001 – Laeken Summit● Introduced ‘Loyalty clause’, committing Member States not toadopt legal measures on asylum and migration which are in conflictwith EU recommendations.
2002 – Seville Summit● Reinforced the importance of migration issues to EU foreign
policy.
2003 – Thessaloniki Summit● Made migration and immigrant integration a joint responsibilityof Social Affairs and Employment as well as Justice and Home Affairs
ministries and Directorates General.
2004 – The Hague Summit● Launched the ‘Hague Programme’ to build on the previous
Tampere Programme. The Hague Programme (for 2004-9) identifies
five main areas of work:
1 Asylum (common asylum procedure and a uniform status).
2 Irregular migration (reinforcement of partnerships with third
countries, policy to expel and return illegal immigrants, use ofbiometrics and information systems, etc.).
3 Integration (establishment of a European framework of common
basic principles).
4 Legal migration (call for measures enabling foreigners to legallywork in the EU in accordance with labour market needs).
5 Judicial cooperation.

Introduction

35950

7

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 8There are limitations to the EU’s response to the new challenges
and opportunities of migration. An important limitation to theEU’s response is a lack of good data. This makes it impossible to tellwhether Member States are achieving their own targets, and whether
they are living up to the commitments they have made. Whilst
countries systematically collect data on every cow and chicken in the
EU as part of the Common Agricultural Policy (CAP), migration isapparently too politically sensitive, and Member States too different,
for systematic, comprehensible data to be collected. Where data has
been collected, it demonstrates that in many areas Member States are
not fulfilling their promises - there is a gap between intent andimplementation.
The lack of transparent information makes it difficult tomonitor the implementation of Member States’ obligations (see Box
on transposition). Furthermore, the Lisbon targets are far frombeing met. Tools such as benchmarking, peer review, good practiceand target setting to achieve social objectives could be used morevigorously toward this end. This requires clear, transparent andcomparable data on Member States immigrant citizenship andinclusion policies.
Non-institutional actors would benefit from proper datacollection enabling them to also step up their efforts and identify
particular areas of concern. The public discourse, fuelled largely bymass media, is riddled with inconsistencies and misinformation.
In this context, the aims of the Index are:
1 To present data on civic citizenship and inclusion policies in the

EU in a way that allows for comparison between Member States andagainst EU averages.
2 To enable monitoring of the extent to which EU-15 Member States
are implementing principles of inclusion and citizenship agreed toby all of them.
3 To identify examples of good practice amongst Member States.
4 To allow for comparison over time, by updating the Index annuallyand to extend the Index to all EU-25.
The Index is a systematic attempt to present how favourable
Member States policies are to immigrant inclusion. The Index
presents a formulation of the basis for immigrant inclusion, whichargues that inclusion requires labour market inclusion; family
reunion; long-term residence; naturalization and antidiscrimination. This structure reflects the accrual of rights over time8

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 9– starting from the point at which immigrants enter the labour
market, the Index follows the progression towards full citizenship. The
Index takes each of these five areas of immigrant inclusion, andcompares Member States’commitments to their actual policies. The
Index is therefore holding Member States to their word – are they doing
what they said they would do at Tampere, Lisbon and The Hague?
The Index is an opportunity for Member States, the European
institutions and NGOs to evaluate their response to thecontemporary challenges of migration. The Index will allow
countries to see clearly the ‘menu’ of inclusion policies available tothem, and to identify specific areas with opportunity for
improvement. This will enable Member States to level standards up
to a highest common denominator, thus avoiding a minimum
interpretation of their European commitments. It is an opportunityfor Member States to identify and exchange good practice on
immigrant inclusion, in an environment of transparent informationand positive competition. The Index will help the European
institutions to stimulate and monitor the countries’ inclusion
policies, and to understand its impact. (See Box 3 on Transposition
and Infringement). Finally, the Index should facilitate a reasoned,
objective dialogue on immigrant citizenship and inclusion acrossborders and interest groups in the EU.
We fully recognise the limitations of the Index. It is
important to state explicitly those areas that the Index
does not, or cannot, address.

4 For example, the1951 United Nations
Convention Relating
to the Status of
Refugees (known as
the ‘Geneva
Convention’)5 Third Country
Nationals are
persons who do nothold the citizenshipof any EU country.

Firstly, which categories of migrants does the Index cover? The
media reporting on migration often does not make the crucial
distinctions between asylum seekers, refugees and other migrants.
Asylum seekers are persons seeking refuge from persecution – theduty to offer them protection is basic to civilised and humane
nations, and clearly set out in various international instruments.4
The vast majority of immigrants are not asylum-seekers or refugees,
but are rather ‘economic’ or ‘labour’ migrants, and their family
members. The Index is concerned with these legal labour migrants
and family members, who are often referred to as ‘legally resident
Third Country Nationals’5 (TCNs). The Index also does not coverethnic minorities who hold EU citizenship. For example, immigrants
who have naturalised or subsequent generations of migrants who are
given EU citizenship at birth are not covered in the Index.

Introduction

35950

9

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 10The Index does not at present say anything about the cultural
integration or political participation of migrants. The Index
measures policies in the EU Member States, specifically the policies
that concern civic citizenship and the labour market. The Index
therefore does not illustrate, for example, to what extent migrants areincluded in their local community, or to what extent they participate
politically. Political participation is undoubtedly crucial to migrant
inclusion. Although the intention of this project had been to include
indicators of political participation, the lack of data and limited
resources precluded this. As the Index continues to develop over the
coming years, we hope to add data on political participation.
The Index does not imply any causal relationship between
policies and the conditions of migrants. The Index measurespolicies, not outcomes. The normative framework upon which theIndex is built sets out transparently the policies that, we argue, will
create favourable conditions for migrant inclusion. However, thisdoes not mean that there will be a direct causality between a strong
performance on policies measured in the Index, and the actual
conditions of migrants in a given Member State. This is because theactual condition of migrants depends on many factors other thanpolicy alone. For example, a group of migrants may have very low
employment rates, despite favourable policy on labour market
inclusion in that country. This could be the result of any number offactors, including skill levels, education, cultural attitudes towards
women working etc. Every Member State has a unique migration
history and migrant communities, which will interact with its
policies in a unique way. However, this is no reason to abandon
policy. Legal equality and the protection of basic rights are theminimum standards upon which pro-active inclusion work can takeplace. Social inclusion, of course, takes place at the level of the local
community. But without strong legislation to ensure that migrants
are equal in the law, such work will be frustrated.
It is also important to clarify what the Index is notaiming to do.

The Index is not a ‘naming and shaming’ exercise. Rather, the aim isthat by providing transparent, comparable information, actors will
be better able to co-ordinate, monitor and improve their policies. In
an atmosphere of positive competition, Member States will then beable to review areas of relative strength and weakness.
10

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 11The Index is not making a case for more or less immigration.
There is a vociferous debate in Europe over whether migration
should be encouraged as a solution to skills shortages and thelooming pensions crisis, and what systems should be put in place tocontrol this inward migration.6 The Index does not offer any answers
to these questions. Rather, it focuses on how migration should best
be managed once immigrants have arrived. We argue that there
is a need to ‘think backwards’ – from inclusion to migration.
If Europe is to gain economically from migration whilst
maintaining strong, cohesive societies, there needs to be an effective
inclusion system in place. We need to look beyond technicaldebates about how to control migrants at our borders, and focus
instead on how we manage immigrant inclusion to ensure inclusive
societies.
The Index is not a legal basis for infringement proceedings.

Box3 Transposition of EU Directives
What is a Directive?

● The EU issues all manner of Declarations, Communiqués,Conclusions, Green Papers, Directives, Regulations and otherstatements. It is important to understand the status of these various
instruments.
● When we talk about the legal commitments of EU Member Statesin the area of immigrant inclusion, we are referring to the Directives
that Member States have signed up to. The Member States also makeless binding commitments to looser principles or values, such as theTampere or Lisbon Declarations.
Which Directives are relevant?

6 See European
Commission COM(2004) 811, Green
Paper on an EU
approach to
managing economic
migration● The Council has so far adopted a number of Directives pertaining
to immigration and inclusion:– Directive on the Right to Family Reunification (2003/86 of
22 September 2003) is due for transposition by 3 October
2005.
– Directive concerning the Status of Third-Country Nationals who
are Long-Term Residents (2003/109 of 25 November 2003) is due fortransposition by 23 January 2006.
– Directive on the right of citizens and their family members to move

Introduction

35950

11

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 12and reside freely within the territory of the Member States(2004/58/EC of 29 April 2004).
● The Council has adopted two Directives on anti-discrimination,
both supposed to be incorporated into national law in 2003:– Directive implementing the principle of equal treatment between
persons irrespective of Racial or Ethnic origin (2003/43 of 29 June
2000).
– Directive establishing a general framework for equal treatment in
employment and occupation (2000/78 of 27 November 2000).
What does this mean for Member State policy?

● There are two types of legal commitment – Regulations andDirectives. A regulation implies the adoption by Member States ofCommunity law with direct effect. However, a Directive is onlybinding ‘as to the result to be achieved’. In other words, a Directive
has to be transposed into national law, but the choice of form andmethods for its transposition is left up to the national authorities(Art. 249 of the EC Treaty).
● In transposing a Directive (putting it into national law), Member
States must make sure that the aims of the Directive are fully
effective, and that there is maximum clarity and certainty in legal
situations (C-190/90, Jur. 1992 p. I-3265). The legislative
instruments used must have the same legal status as those regulating
the subject beforehand. Regulation through administrative practice
is not sufficient. Adaptation of existing national provisions or
adoption of transitional measures may be necessary.
● The transposition of directives still leaves Member States aconsiderable margin of action to Member States. This is particularly
the case with the Directives on migration above, which containnumerous derogations and flexible wording. Close monitoring at
national and European level of the transposition process of the
Directives is vital for a timely and favourable implementation.
Regular collections of data like this Index can contributesignificantly to this monitoring task.

Box 4 Infringement Procedures● The European Commission is the guardian of the European
Treaty. It therefore has the power to control the implementation of
Directives (Art. 211 EC Treaty) and to initiate infringement12

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 13

procedures against Member States when implementation is notcompleted correctly or in time (Art. 226 EC Treaty).
● There may be delays in the implementation of a Directive for anumber of reasons: an anticipated change of government;
administrative shortcomings; difficulties with interpretation;linkages with controversial legal or political decisions; or tacit protest
by Member States, unhappy with the adoption of the Directive.
● The Commission verifies both that the deadline for
implementation has been respected and that the measures andprovisions adopted comply with the terms of the Directive. The
measures adopted must be a correct and complete implementationof the aims of the Directive. Failure in either of these respects canbring about ‘infringement procedures’.
● The Commission can only initiate ‘infringement procedures’ after
obtaining relevant information pointing at a violation of theobligations of transposition. The Commission may detect such an
infringement itself, or, as is often the case, the Commission may be
informed by private complainants or by being asked questions bymembers of the European Parliament.
● Exercises such as this Index are no legal basis for such procedures
but can help the Commission, individuals and advocacy groups
identify possible infringements.

Introduction

35950

13

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 142 Index Structure

The Index sets out a formulation of inclusion based on labour
market inclusion and civic citizenship. It sets out a comprehensive
set of policies that Member States can use to facilitate immigrant
inclusion. Inclusion requires more than just access to the labour
market. Work is not enough – for immigrants to be included
successfully into society, they need to feel secure, and to feel that theircontribution over time is valued. The policies that can create thesefavourable conditions over the long term are in the areas of labour
market inclusion, long term residence; family reunion;
naturalization and anti-discrimination. Together, long-term
residence, family reunion, naturalization and anti-discrimination
contribute to what is often called ‘civic citizenship.’The normative framework

The Index presents data that illustrates to what extent Member States
are living up to the commitments they have made in these five vitalareas of immigrant inclusion. The Index measures to what extent the
EU-15 are making concrete their promises of equality.
We have constructed a common analytical framework,
informed by a set of normative criteria that are derived largely from
Member State commitments. The normative criteria allow us tobuild a common framework against which to hold Member States up
for comparison. This framework allows us to compare countries in
two respects. Firstly, it allows us to compare countries against theframework of desirable policy, in other words, the spirit of pastpromises. Secondly, it allows us to compare countries against eachother’s performance.
The normative framework sets out the policy conditions that are
14

I-50 V2

18/3/05

7 Two EU
directives on antidiscrimination of
2000, EU Directiveon the Status ofLong-Term
Residents of 2003,
EU Directive on
Family Reunificationof 2003, Council ofEurope Convention
on Nationality, MPG
and ILPA’s
Amsterdam
Proposals and theStarting Line.
8 For example,
please see Rita
Süssmuth andWerner Weidenfeld(eds.) (2004).
Managing
Integration. The
European Union’s
responsibilities
towards immigrants;
Groenendijk, Guild,
Barzilay (2000) The
legal status of third
country nationals
who are long term
residents in amember State of theEuropean Union;
International
Federation for
European Law,
Migration andAsylum Law and
Policy in theEuropean Union(2004) FIDE 2004
National Reports,
edited by Imelda
Higgins, General
Rapporteur Kay
Hailbronner, CUP.
9 European
Commission COM(2004) 508 First
Annual Report on
Migration andIntegration

1:41 PM

Page 15

most favourable to immigrant inclusion. The measures are about
creating favourable policy conditions for immigrant inclusion - they
do not describe immigrants’ actual position in society or policy
effectiveness. That would require a different type of indicator. The
indicators do not establish whether or not inclusion has beensuccessful, but whether or not favourable conditions in policy andlaw have been created. The normative framework is based on existing
EU legislation, international conventions and NGO proposals.7
There are almost 100 indicators, categorised over five strands for thefive areas of immigrant inclusion policy.
The normative framework is, of course, based on certain value
judgements. This is necessary to create a common framework toscore policies. The normative judgements are based on mainstream
arguments in the inclusion discourse about equal treatment andinclusion.8 The normative framework has been rigorously developed
and checked at a series of high-level expert consultations, involving
Europe’s leading migration experts. In some countries, certain
aspects of the normative framework may not fit with the public
philosophy of integration. This is likely to be limited to a very small
number of the almost 100 indicators, as most are based on policies
agreed to by all Member States at EU level. Nevertheless, thenormative framework for each area is transparently and explicitly
included here, and in detail for each indicator in Annex 1.
Labour market inclusion – Lack of access to employment has been
identified in the majority of countries as the most important barrier
to integration and therefore the most urgent political priority fornational integration policies.9 Restricting access to employment is
exclusionary, hinders mobility, and leads to a loss of skills in theeconomy.
Residence – Long-term residence can be secured by giving
immigrants the status of Long Term Resident, which grants them as
equal treatment as possible with EU citizens. The status enables themto contribute to society whilst maintaining their links with theircountry of origin and to move freely within the EU. As legallyresiding Third Country Nationals, immigrants should obtain a secureresidence status as soon as possible. Within this limited number ofyears, they should be allowed to be absent for short periods.
Family Reunion is a basic human right and is vitally important for

Index Structure

35950

15

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 16

immigrants’ life and life planning. It also contributes to family
stability and thus to cohesive societies. An immigration policy that ispartly based on family migration may also help to address the age
imbalances of Europe’s population. Immigrants should be entitled tobring in their family members as soon as possible. Family members
should include spouse and dependent and possibly other family
members in ascending and descending line.
Naturalization puts immigrants on a par with EU citizens in terms ofrights and obligations, allowing them to become active citizens.
Immigrants are to be encouraged to naturalise and policies should
provide easy access to nationality while making a distinction
between first and subsequent generations of immigrants.
Immigrants and their family members should have access tonationality after a limited number of years, and the second andsubsequent generations should acquire nationality automatically atbirth.
Anti-discrimination promotes equality, a basic human right common
to all Member States. It applies to immigrants and citizens
irrespective of their (immigrant) background and to relations
between and within various groups in society. It helps to eliminate
the obstacles for active economic, social and cultural participation of
all citizens in society. The grounds of anti-discrimination should
include race and ethnicity, religion and belief, as well as national
origin and nationality. It should cover, at least, employment,
provision of public and private services, education and training.

The Dimensions of Policy

So far, we have divided inclusion policy according to the five strands– or areas – described above. The Index also uses a second level ofdivision – it examines the different dimensions of policies. For eachof the five areas of immigrant inclusion policy, the Index examines
four important dimensions of the statuses and protections that
immigrants enjoy. Thus, each of the five strands is further divided
into four dimensions.
Dimension 1

What are the eligibility requirements for the status? What is thescope of anti-discrimination legislation? How easy is access to the16

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 17

labour market?
Dimension 2

What are the conditions that immigrants need to fulfil to access thestatus? What are the remedies available in cases of discrimination?
How secure is employment?
Dimension 3

How secure is the status? How strong are the equality agencies whichmonitor anti-discrimination? What labour market integration
measures exist to facilitate migrants’ inclusion?
Dimension 4

What are the rights associated with the status? What are the pro-active
policies in place to combat discrimination?

The Scoring System

10 In the antidiscrimination
strand, theindicators could
also have a score of
1, 2 or 3, but thisdepended on thenumber of groundsof discrimination
covered by themeasure. 3 points
were given when ananti-discrimination
measure covered
three discrimination
grounds, namely
race/ethnicity,religion/belief andnationality. 2 points
were given when theindicators covered
two out of three
discrimination
grounds. 1
point was given
when the indicators
covered only
one discrimination
ground or in
exceptional
cases none.

The normative framework describes the best direction that policy
could take to create favourable conditions for immigrant inclusion.
The Index is built up from almost 100 indicators, each relating to avery specific policy in one of the five strands. For each indicator, thenormative framework is translated into three options, which reflect
the most to least favourable policy for immigrant inclusion. The
three options reflect the favourable, less favourable and least
favourable conditions for immigrant inclusion. The ‘favourable’
option summarises NGO proposals and the more liberal provisions
in existing international instruments (in particular Free Movementof EU Citizens, Long Term Residence Directive, Family Reunion
Directive and Nationality Convention). The ‘less favourable’ and‘least favourable’ options are rephrased versions of the more
restrictive provisions of the directives. For each indicator, eachcountry was therefore given a score of 1, 2 or 3 to reflect how
favourable its policy is in the given indicator area. Thus, a score of 3
for a given indicator means that the specific policy the indicator
refers to is favourable to immigrant inclusion in that particular
Member State.10
In a small number of cases, there were no policies or legal
provisions at all for a certain indicator. In most of these cases (andwith the agreement of the expert for that country), the country was
given a default value of 1 for this indicator. Having no policy equates
to having no guarantee, no protection, no entitlement or at best an
ad hoc approach, which the normative framework does not favour.

Index Structure

35950

17

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 18

In other words, the lack of policies on important issues was classified
as an unfavourable condition.

The Structure of the Index

To summarise - the Index is built up from almost 100 indicators.
Each country is given a score of 1, 2 or 3 for each indicator dependingon which option - least favourable, less favourable or favourable –is selected. The indicators are grouped into five strands (LabourMarket Inclusion, Long-Term Residence, Family Reunion,
Naturalization, Anti-Discrimination). Within each of the fivestrands, the indicators are divided into four dimensions. The four
dimensions are consistent across the five strands as far as possible.
The indicators are therefore grouped as follows:

Index indicators

Dimension

StrandEligibility/Scope

Labour Market
Inclusion

Long-Term
Residence

FamilyReunionNaturalization

Antidiscrimination

Total

3

3

5

4

11

26

Conditions/Remedies

2

5

5

6

11

29

Security/Equality Agencies/
Integration Measures

2

7

4

3

4

20

Rights Associated/
Pro-active policies

2

8

5

2

7

24

Total

9

23

19

15

33

99

How to read and understand the Index

To allow us to analyse the results usefully, we have calculated averages
and indices from the numerous, complicated indicator results
collected.
The strand average per country is calculated as the average of all
the indicators in the strand. So, for each country, there are five strand
averages.
The dimension average per country per strand is calculated as
the mean of all the indicators in the dimension, in the strand. So, foreach country, there are four dimension averages per strand.
Note – The strand average is NOT the mean of the four18

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 19dimension averages. This is important, as the dimensions each have a
different number of indicators. If the strand average were simply
calculated as the mean of the four dimensions, each indicator would
hold a different weight in the strand average. Therefore, eachindicator holds an equal weight in the strand average.
For each strand, the EU average is calculated, as a simple
arithmetic mean of the 15 scores.

Index values and score values

The results are presented in two equivalent formats – score values
and index values.
The score values compare countries to the normative framework,and describe how favourable (from favourable to least favourable)
their civic citizenship and inclusion policies are.
For each indicator, each country is given a score of 1, 2 or 3. Oncethese scores have been aggregated into the strands and dimensions(i.e. once the averages have been calculated), there are many moredegrees of variation between the countries. This is obvious, as wehave moved from 3 degrees of variation at the indicator level (there
are only three options for each indicator!) to an average of almost
100 indicators. The average is given to 2 decimal places. It is therefore
possible to take a more nuanced reading of the score values, by taking
a more detailed look at the differences between the countries’ scores.
The meaning of the score, in terms of its favourableness for
immigrant integration, is described on the table below. These
descriptions should be read as the ‘key’ to the assessment of Member
State performance – they explain what a given score really means interms of immigrant inclusion policy.
Description

Range

Unfavourable

1 – 1,25

Modestly unfavourable

1,25 – 1,75

Less favourable

1,75 – 2,25

Modestly favourable

2,25 – 2,75

Favourable

2,75 – 3

The index values compare countries to each other. This 1-3 rangeof scores is converted into an Index, standardising to a base of 100 =Index Structure

35950

19

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 20

EU Average 2004 for every dimension, strand and the overall result.
A score over 100 means that a country is exceeding the EU average
for a given strand; whilst a score below 100 means that a country is
falling short of the EU average. For example, a score of 107.5 on theAnti-Discrimination strand means that the Member State’s policies
on anti-discrimination are just above the EU average in terms of
their favourableness to immigrant inclusion.
The Index scores are given to 2 decimal places. We can calculate
when a difference between two scores is significant. 11

11 The criterion used for this analysis is: two country outcomes are significantly different if thedifference is equal to a difference caused by an average score difference of 1 for one of their sets.
There is, however, one complication, because the strand means are calculated as the average of all
indicator values belonging to the strand and not as the average of the four dimension means per
strand, a dimension difference of 1 score point therefore has a different weight (more indicators
means more weight) depending on the table. In defining significant difference the model is usedthat approximates the strand mean by working with the mean of four dimension values per strand.
There are 4 dimensions per strand. Therefore, the criterion effect on a strand mean is 0.25.
There are 20 dimensions per country (5 strands of 4 dimensions); therefore the criterion effect on acountry mean is 0.05. In conclusion: two countries have a significant mean difference if two
respective strand means differ more than 0.25. Two countries have a significant country meandifference if the respective means differ more than 0.05. Two countries have a significant country
index difference if their country index differs more than 2.5 points.

20

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 21

3 Methodology

12 See for example,
Kees Groenendijk,
Elspeth Guild, Robin
Barzilay, The legal
status of third
country nationals
who are long-term
residents in a
Member State of theEuropean Union(Nijmegen, Centre
for Migration Law,
2000)
13 See International
Federation for
European Law,
Migration andAsylum Law and
Policy in theEuropean Union,
FIDE 2004 National
Reports, Edited by
Imelda Higgins,
General Rapporteur
Kay Hailbronner, CUP
2004. For antidiscrimination see,Isabelle, Chopin,
Janet Cormack and
Jan Niessen (eds),
The implementationof European antidiscrimination
legislation: work inprogress (MPG,
2004).

It is not easy to develop comparable data between countries. It
entails the danger of (over) simplifying complex policies. Policies are
adopted in different situations and responding to different
circumstances, but must be reduced to the point that they can becompared.
Nevertheless, the policies of different countries are often
compared. In academic circles comparative research is very
common. Good research not only stimulates academic discussions
but also informs policy debates. Profound scientific research or more
simple inventories may precede the formulation of concrete policy
proposals. A European level example is the practice of the European
Commission making inventories or commissioning summaries ofMember State policies before proposing directives.12
The project was designed such that the results would beaccessible to a wide group of stakeholders. The research undertaken
for this project benefited greatly from existing research and adds in a
specific way to the body of knowledge of the EU-15’s policies on
citizenship and labour market inclusion13. The methodology was
designed such that the output would be useful for a wide group of
stakeholders. This informed the choice of format – the aim is toprovide accessible, comprehensible and transparent information.
The idea was not to write fifteen lengthy country reports describing
policies in detail, but to summarise them into a quick reference
document. The information summarised in the Index was all
probably available before, given enough searching around forscattered information over many books and research reports. What
the Index offers, for the first time, is a simplified, unified format for
the EU-15’s complex immigrant inclusion policies.
The data on Family Reunion, Long Term Residence,
Naturalization and Anti-Discrimination was collected by

Methodology

35950

21

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

14 For morebackground on the
research and the listof experts see Jan
Niessen, María José
Peiro and Yongmi
Schibel, Civic
citizenship andimmigrant inclusion .
A guide for the
implementation of
civic citizenshippolicies (MPG, 2005).
15 Jan Niessen,
María José Peiroand Yongmi Schibel,(2005).

22

1:41 PM

Page 22

independent experts. Once the list of approximately one hundred
indicators had been agreed, and the three options for each indicator
formulated, they were sent as a questionnaire to a group of
independent experts (in all but one case to two experts per Member
State).14 Given the distinctive policy fields, one expert was asked todeal with the first three areas and the other with anti-discrimination.
The experts determined for all indicators which option applied fortheir country, describing the situation in October 2004.15
Who were the experts? The experts are well-known scientists
and experienced migration and anti-discrimination law
practitioners. Their names and more background on the researchundertaken for this project can be found in a separate publication16.
The data on Labour Market Inclusion was collected from avariety of sources. Some was collected from experts listed above, andsome from a second network of experts (The Raxen network).
However, much of the data was freely available from various sources(such as country legislation and various reports), and was therefore
collated by the research team.
Policies are changing continuously. Policies change
continuously, partly as a result of the transposition of European
directives and the ratification of international conventions. Despite
the fact the deadlines for the transposition of the Antidiscrimination Directives have passed, not all Member States havecompleted transposition in time, or transposed the directives
correctly. Ongoing debates in the states concerned and possible
infringement procedures started by the European Commission willlead to further changes in national law. The deadline for thetransposition of the Family Reunion and Long-Term residence
Directives is October 2005 and January 2006, respectively and one
may therefore expect that the relevant national laws will undergochanges in the near future.
The indicators are about law and the options are legal options.
They are not about practices and how the law is (not) applied.
Constitutional provisions were not considered a sufficient basis foranswers. Only more detailed legislative or administrative provisions
were accepted as an option.
The answers and comments of the experts were reviewed indetail to ensure that choices were consistently made, and thescoring robust. Where indicators appeared to be problematic they
were discussed with the experts. For example, where there were two
types of residence status comparable with the long-term residence

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 23

status as introduced by the Long-term Residence Directive, thechoice was made for the one that comes closest to the one of the
Directive. When it was difficult to make a choice for an option
because none of them reflected reality, the third (and unfavourable)
option was taken as a default answer. This occurred in a few instances
and it is clearly specified in the comments. In the few cases where theviews of the experts and the research team were not the same, theviews of the experts prevailed.
It was not always easy to bring the complex realities of policy
and law back to the selected indicators and policy options. Indeed,some experts had some uncertainties over certain indicators, where
they felt that nuances in the law could not properly be reflected in theoptions available. Therefore, the experts added comments to theiranswers so as to explain such nuances. The answers to thequestionnaire and the comments are made available in a separate
publication16 and the author of this publication is fully responsible
for the conclusions drawn from the answers and comments.
Nevertheless, the results are robust and succeed in the aim ofoffering an indication of countries’ policies with respect toimmigrant inclusion. The whole exercise is designed to provide
indications of how a country’s inclusion policies look, and not toprovide a comprehensive assessment of Member States’ immigration
policies and law. Although complex realities were inevitably notentirely done justice, in practice policies and law arguably work out
in quite simple and direct ways for the immigrants concerned. A
residence status, permission for family reunion, or nationality is
acquired after a number of years; there are different levels ofprotection of the status and there are specific rights attached to astatus and others are not, etc. Without wishing to portray the legal
and policy landscape in black and white terms, it can be maintainedthat the outcome of the exercise is a helpful contribution to thedebates around civic citizenship and inclusion, precisely because theindicators are robust.

16 See Niessen,
Peiro and Schibel

Methodology

35950

23

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 24

4 Key Findings

18 In Member State
where theacquisition ofnationality isrelatively
straightforward,
many immigrants arenaturalised,
including the vast
majority of secondand subsequent
generation
immigrants. In suchcountries, theimmigrants falling
into the TCN
category are either
relatively recently
arrived, or for somereason not choosing
to naturalise. This isquite different to a
country in whichcitizenship is difficult
to acquire. In suchcountries, secondand even third
generation
immigrants may nothold the citizenshipof the country of
their birth, and are
therefore classified
as TCNs.

24

At this point, it is worth re-stating clearly which groups arecovered by the Index. The ‘cleanest’ data set available is that for nonEU ‘third country nationals’ (TCNs) resident in EU-15 Member
States. It is this population group upon which we focus. The experts
were explicitly asked to exclude asylum seekers from their results.
Nevertheless, the 13 million people (3.4 % of the EU-15 population)
who are covered by the Index are extremely diverse, often due toparticularities in the countries’ citizenship policies.18
Every Member State has a unique migration history, which isreflected in their policy choices and the condition of migrants inthe economy and society. Academics have often attempted tocompare countries in terms of their immigration histories, dividingthem into broad categories. One such categorisation divides
industrialised countries into three groups.19 The first group
comprises countries where mass immigration played an importantpart in nation building and is closely linked to the formation ofnational identity, for example the US, Canada, New Zealand andAustralia. The second group is made up of European countries thatexperienced significant immigration following the Second World
War. These ‘guestworker’ and post-colonial countries (such as
Germany, France and Britain) allowed large numbers of foreign
workers from Southern Europe or ex-colonies to enter and fill labour
shortages, but then acted to halt the flows in the late 1960s and 1970s.
The final group are ‘newer’ countries of migration - Southern
European countries such as Spain, Italy, Greece and Portugal, andmore recently countries such as Ireland and Finland - that haverecently shifted from sending workers abroad to receiving significant
numbers of migrants themselves.20
The migration policies of a given country must be viewed incontext. The migration history is one important contextual factor.

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 25

We must also consider the following results in the light of otherfactors, such as the country’s integration concepts and the structureof its welfare state and labour market, for example. For eachcountry, the Index results are preceded by a brief synopsis of the
migration history of the country, and a set of situational data that
describe the real conditions of migrants in the labour market today.
This short background should help to ‘set the scene’ of the migration
policies.
Nevertheless, it is important to remember that the Index ismeasuring policy, not effectiveness. It does not reflect how wellimmigrants are actually included into Europe’s economies andsocieties.
Box 5 Why is the collection of data so varied?

19 For example
Freeman,G. (1995). "Modesof Immigration
Politics in Liberal
Democratic States."
International
Migration Review
29(4): 881-902.
20 King, R. (2000).
"Southern Europe
in the Changing
Global Map ofMigration", in King, R.
Lazaridis, G. andTsardanidis, C. (Eds)
Eldorado or
Fortress? Migration
in Southern Europe.
asingstoke,
Macmillan

The collection (or not) of data on migrants is not accidental. For
example, countries such as France eschew the collection of official
data on the ethnic origin of its population while the Netherlands andthe UK have developed policies that target ethnic minorities whose
origins lie in migration. These divergences are not simply questionsof data. The responses in these countries also reflect divergent public
philosophies of integration. To this philosophical dimension can be
added a temporal dimension because, for some EU Member States,
immigration is a relatively new issue with policy measures andinstruments that are of more recent provenance than those that exist
in Europe’s older immigration countries. Beyond this, there exists a
long-running dispute over the categorisation of immigrants – someargue that they should be categorised by nationality, others bycountry of birth. This deadlock over terminology, underlying which
is a serious philosophical disagreement about the nature of
integration and citizenship, is one of the factors preventing
thorough, comparable data collection in this area.
There is a need to enhance the collection, monitoring andcomparison of data. This will require an end to the disagreement
over the categorization of immigrants in the EU (see box 3 on datacollection). The lack of transparent, comparable data - which thisIndex hopefully goes some way to address - is itself a political issue.
The area of migration compares badly with other areas of European
activity, such as agriculture and even social inclusion. This lack of
information hinders EU-level debate by non-governmental actors.
The result is that the migration discourse remains at national level,

Key Findings

35950

25

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 26

despite a common EU level policy-making framework. The lack of
information also hinders policymakers’ attempts to identify andshare good practice, and to track their progress in an EU context.

1 Diverse migration experiences are no longer a sufficient

explanation for the lack of comparable data on migration policy
and conditions. Whilst Member States systematically collect data on
every cow and chicken in the EU as part of the CAP, migration isapparently too sensitive, and migrants too diverse, for systematic,
comprehensible data to be collected. But how can we monitor
inclusion policies across the EU, if we do not collect data at EU level?
The EU-15 do indeed have diverse migration histories. However,they systematically collect and share data on a range of social policy
in which they have equally diverse contexts.
2 A Common legislative framework, basic principles, statements,

22 The European
Commission has
developed themechanism of‘Open Methods of
Coordination’ tomonitor and improve
the performance ofMember States in agiven area, whilst
leaving individual
Member States the
freedom to design
and implement theirown policies.
Open Methods of
Coordination are
based on agreed
common objectives,and use indicatorsand periodic
reporting to monitor
progress. The
Open Method of
Coordination
promotes peer
review, transnational
exchange of goodpractice and policy
cooperation.

26

declarations and good intentions does exist at EU level. But
Member States are implementing their inclusion policy
inconsistently. There is a great deal of variation between countries,
in all strands. This illustrates that inclusion policy is not common to
EU Member States, despite their common commitments. The strand
in which countries showed the most consistent policy was
nationality. The greatest range in policy was found in antidiscrimination, with a full 1.5 points between the highest and lowest
score.
The issue of monitoring and comparing data at EU level could
be resolved through reform of the Open Methods of Coordination(OMC).22 Some aspects of the inclusion of migrants are included in
the Social Inclusion and Employment OMCs as part of the Lisbon
Strategy. However, the policies relating to migrants are not handled
systematically and comprehensively in these instruments. We
propose that there are two alternative solutions. Either, the Social
Inclusion and Employment OMCs could be overhauled tocomprehensively and systematically refer to the inclusion of
migrants. Alternatively, a new, separate OMC could be developed torefer specifically to policies relating to migrants.
3 There are clear opportunities for Member States to create morefavourable conditions for immigrant inclusion. Overall, the EU-15
scores in the ‘less favourable’ category for all of the strands. The

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 27strongest policy area for the EU-15 (according to EU averages) isLong Term Residence, but there is no significant difference withresults for Labour Market Inclusion, or Family Reunion; and antidiscrimination lies very close behind. Performance of Member Statesin these areas is rather similar. In contrast, the weakest policy area by
far is Nationality. There is a clear opportunity for Member States toimprove their policy on immigrant inclusion. The framework fordoing so already exists; Member States now need the political will tofurther implement their commitments.
4 Member States tend to score consistently high or consistently

low across the five areas of policy. This highlights that Member
States’ inclusion policies, or lack of them, are not due to accident or
neglect. Rather, they reflect the deliberate policy choices of countries
with respect to the migrants who live within their borders.
5 There are no major differences in policy between countries withlong and short migration histories. As discussed, the EU-15 havediverse migration histories. Some countries, such as Finland andIreland, have only very recently become countries of net inward
migration. Other countries, such as Italy, Spain, Portugal and Greecein the pat 10-15 years have moved from being countries of
emigration to countries of immigration. Further back, countries
such as France, Germany and the UK have experienced mass
immigration since the Second World War . However, the Index does
not show any correlation between the migration history of a
Member State and its inclusion policy today.
6 Although statuses (or rights) for migrants in the EU are

relatively difficult to acquire and weakly protected, they havesignificant rights associated with them. An analysis of thedimensions shows us that countries of the EU-15 tend to confer
generous rights on a status (such as Long Term Residence, forexample), but that the status itself is relatively difficult to acquire.
Anti-discrimination bucks this trend – the legislation tends to covera great breadth of areas (with the exception of discrimination on thebasis of nationality), but yet is rather weak on enforcement.
7 Naturalization is one of the most problematic areas for Member

States. The lowest EU-15 average of all the policy areas isnaturalization. Naturalization is also, however, the area with the

Key Findings

35950

27

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 28

weakest Treaty base, and therefore the area in which the EU’s
competencies are weakest. This reflects the ongoing debate in the EU– Member States have not yet decided whether to view migration as atemporary solution to labour market gaps; or as a permanent
phenomenon with positive benefits to, for example, the pension
system. They are therefore undecided on whether to create
legislation to give labour migrants a more permanent status, orwhether to continue with short-term statuses. We should expect tosee developments in this indicator as this issue is resolved over the
coming few years.

28

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 29

5 EU-15 Results

The tables below set out the results for each of the five policy areas of
the Index. As discussed, there are two types of equivalent result –score values and index values. The tables below use index values, toenable a simple comparison between countries. The detailed analysis
per country, in the following section, uses score values which
compare countries to the normative framework.
Table 5.01 – Index Scores Summary Results
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

1

Spain

127.55

1

Netherlands

113.402

Belgium

122.45

2=

Belgium

111.41

3

Netherlands

117.35

France111.41

4

Portugal

112.24

4

Spain

109.42

5=

5

Sweden107.14

6=

Finland102.04Italy

102.04

Finland107.43Sweden107.43

7

Denmark

103.45

Europe100.008=Germany99.47

UK102.04

Europe100.009France96.94

Portugal

99.47

10

Germany

91.84

UK

99.47

11=

13=

Austria

86.73

11

Italy

95.49

Ireland86.73

12

Austria

93.50

Denmark

81.63

13

Luxembourg

91.51

Greece81.63

14

Greece81.56

Luxembourg

81.63

15

Ireland75.60

EU-15 Results

35950

29

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 30

Family Reunion

Nationality

1

Finland115.94

1

France113.592

Sweden113.53

2=

Belgium

107.77

3

Belgium

111.11

Ireland107.77

4=

France106.28Luxembourg

107.77

Germany106.28UK

107.77

Portugal

104.85

Sweden104.85Italy

101.947=

9=

Portugal

106.28Netherlands

103.86

Spain

103.868=

Europe100.00Spain

101.94

Italy

99.03

Europe100.00
99.03

UK

99.03

10

Finland11

Ireland94.20

11

Netherlands

96.12

12

Luxembourg

91.79

12

Austria

93.20

13

Greece86.96

13

Germany

90.29

14Austria

84.54

14

Greece84.47

15

Denmark

77.29

15

Denmark

78.64

Anti-Discrimination

30

6=

1

Belgium

133.51

2

Portugal

128.07

3

Netherlands

122.62

4

Sweden119.895

Ireland114.44

6

Spain

107.637=

Finland100.82

France100.82Europe100.00

9

UK

99.46

10

Italy

95.37

11

Austria

85.83

12=

Germany

79.02

Greece79.02

14

Denmark

69.48

15

Luxembourg

64.03

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 31

Fig 5.01 – Summary of Strengths and Weaknesses against
the Normative Framework
Eur

100.00100.00

Aus

86.73

93.50

Bel
Den

103.45107.43Fra

96.94

111.41

Germ

91.84

Gre

81.63

81.56

Ire

86.73

75.60

Lux

102.04
81.63

85.83

111.1177.29

102.04107.77

78.64

99.03

106.28

99.47

90.29
84.47

94.20

91.51

100.82113.59106.2886.96

133.51

69.48

115.9495.49

100.0093.20

111.41Fin

Ita100.0084.54

122.4581.63

100.00100.82
79.02

79.02

107.7799.03

114.44101.9491.79

107.77

95.37
64.03

Net

117.35113.40103.86

96.12

122.62Por

112.2499.47

106.28104.85128.07Spa

127.55109.42

Swe

107.14107.43UK

102.04

99.47

Labour Market Inclusion

103.86113.53
99.03

Long-term Residence

101.94107.63104.85
107.77

Family Reunion

119.8999.46

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

EU-15 Results

35950

31

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 32

Box 6 Key to Index Scores
The Index allows us to review overall areas of strength and weakness acrossthe EU-15. Rather than focusing on particular Member States, this allows us
to identify areas in which the EU as a whole could improve policy. The box
below re-caps the meaning of the scores in terms of the favourableness ofpolicy to immigrant inclusion.
Descriptor

Range

Unfavourable

1 – 1,25

Moderately unfavourable

1,25 – 1,75

Less favourable

1,75 – 2,25

Moderately favourable

2,25 – 2,75

Favourable

2,75 – 3

Strengths and Weaknesses of the EU-15

The table below shows how many countries scored in each category
for each area. For example, it tells us that 12 countries scored ‘lessfavourably’ on nationality.
Qualification/strands
Unfavourable

Labour Market
Inclusion

Long-Term
Residence

FamilyReunionNationality

Antidiscrimination

0

0

0

0

0

Moderately unfavourable

0

1

1

2

4

Less favourable

10

7

6

12

5

Moderately favourable

4

7

8

1

4

Favourable

1

0

0

0

2

We can summarize the table above in a more simple form. The tablebelow sets out, for each area, how many countries have policies lessthan favourable to immigrant inclusion, and how many countries
have policies moderately or more favourable to immigrant inclusion.
For example, 10 countries have policy on labour market inclusionthat is less favourable, or worse, to immigrant inclusion.

Qualification/strands

32

Labour Market
Inclusion

Long-Term
Residence

FamilyReunionNationality

Antidiscrimination

Unfavourable
Moderately unfavourable
Less favourable

10

8

7

14

9

Moderately favourable
Favourable

5

7

8

1

6

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 33

Results by Policy Area
Fig 5.02 Labour Market Inclusion

Eur

2.18

Aus

1.89

Bel

2.67

Den

1.78

Fin

2.22

Fra

2.11

Germ

2.00

Gre

81.63

1.78

Ire

1.89

Ita

2.22

Lux

1.78

Net

2.56

Por

2.44

Spa

2.78

Swe

2.33
2.22

UK
0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

Labour Market Inclusion

EU-15 Results

35950

33

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 34

Fig 5.03 Long Term Residence

Eur

2.14

Aus

2.04

Bel

2.43

Den

1.61

Fin

2.35

Fra

2.43

Germ

2.17

Gre

81.63

1.78

Ire

1.65

Ita

2.22

Lux

1.78

Net

2.09

Por

2.17

Spa

2.39

Swe

2.35
2.17

UK
0.00

0.50

Long-term Residence

34

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 35

Fig 5.04 Family Reunion

Eur

2.16

Aus

1.84

Bel

2.42

Den

1.47

Fin

2.53

Fra

2.32

Germ

2.32

Gre

81.63

1.89

Ire

2.05

Ita

2.16

Lux

2.00

Net

2.26

Por

2.32

Spa

2.26

Swe

2.47
2.16

UK
0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

Family Reunion

EU-15 Results

35950

35

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 36

Fig 5.05 Nationality

Eur

2.02

Aus

1.88

Bel

2.18

Den

1.53

Fin

2.00

Fra

2.29

Germ

1.82

Gre

81.63

1.71

Ire

2.18

Ita

2.06

Lux

2.18

Net

1.94

Por

2.12

Spa

2.26

Swe

2.06
2.18

UK
0.00
Nationailty

36

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 37

Fig 5.06 Anti-Discrimination

Eur

2.16

Aus

1.85

Bel

2.88

Den

1.47

Fin

2.18

Fra

2.18

Germ

1.71

Gre

81.63

1.71

Ire

2.47

Ita

2.06

Lux

1.38

Net

2.65

Por

2.76

Spa

2.32

Swe

2.59
2.15

UK
0.00

0.50

1.00

1.50

2.00

2.50

3.00

Anti-Discrimination

EU-15 Results

35950

37

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 38

6 Country Results
and Profiles

Having compared the performance of states across different strands,
it is necessary to analyse their situations and performances moreclosely to understand the origins of the discrepancies between them.
This chapter focuses on both the economic circumstances of thirdcountry nationals (TCNs) in individual states, and on the policies of
those states. Its goal is not to give a comprehensive account of eachstate’s choices and challenges – but rather to profile countries
according to two sets of information:● Comparable data on the economic situations of TCNs relative tomember-state nationals (MSNs), suggesting positive andproblematic areas for governments to consider● The policy indicators, described in previous chapters, used toprovide a common framework for analysing their policy regimes.
While this chapter is not intended to replicate or replace the detailed
domestic analyses needed to mould specific policy choices, it offers a
set of criteria with which to address and compare those choices. Eachcountry profile is divided into three parts:● A short note on background issues in a given state’s immigrationand inclusion policies, pointing to significant demographic, politicaland legal factors● An overview of the labour market statistics as provided by theEuropean Labour Force Survey (LFS) relevant to TCNs in the state,with particular reference to rates of employment, unemployment,
contractual situations and training● An analysis of the policy indicators for the state, highlighting
areas of particular strength and weakness within the strands
discussed in Chapter 5.
38

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 39

Labour market statistics

The statistics used here are drawn from the European Labour Force
Survey (LFS), but this is the first time that they have been collated
and presented in this fashion. The lack of such accessible,
comparable data is arguably a deficiency for policy-makers to resolve
per se. It is an issue that can and should be addressed at the European
level.
In this survey, there are two levels of analysis. First, we discuss
aggregate employment and unemployment rates for TCNs andMSNs over the last three years, then we attempt to provide further
insights through an examination of a breakdown of the data for one
quarter, in both cases using the categories and definitions asprovided by the LFS. It is perhaps useful to briefly clarify some ofthese terms here:
1 Employment rates – the percentage of individuals between 15 and64 years that are either employed or self-employed
2 Participation rates – the percentage of each group that is
economically active be they employed, self-employed or registered
unemployed
3 Unemployment rates - the percentage of registered as
unemployed
4 Long-term unemployment rates - the percentage experiencing
unemployment for longer than 12 months
5 Skill levels – numbers employed in either low-skilled, mediumskilled and high-skilled work23
6 Contract type - the percentages holding permanent andtemporary contracts
7 Training - the percentage who received training in the four weeks
prior to the survey

23 Eurostat has acomplicated set ofdefinitions in orderto categorise lowskilled, mediumskilled and highskilled work,
contract type etc.
For more
information, visit
http://epp.eurostat.
cec.eu.int

The LFS breaks down nationality in the following manner: Nationals(those holding citizenship of the Member State), Other EU-15(nationals of one of the other EU (15) member states), Non-EU 15(Third Country Nationals).
These statistics give a picture of the relative level of access ofTCNs to a given labour market, their economic security within it,
and some of the opportunities they receive within it. It cannot, ofcourse, allow for those TCNs who work illegally within a country. As
is noted in a number of cases below, this group is liable to expand

Country Results and Profiles

35950

39

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 40

where legal opportunities are restricted.
It should also be noted that the EU expanded to 25 countries
during this period, and nationals of the new accession states now
experience a complex patchwork of mobility rights and access toemployment across the old EU 15, which while of great interest when
examining migration and employment is beyond the scope of thisproject.
However, these statistics can tell us the extent to which TCNs
play a part in a country’s formal economic framework. The
presentation here emphasises their experience relative to MSNs
(and, to a lesser extent, other EU citizens) so as to gauge thecorrelation between overall labour market situations and those ofTCNs. Comments on exclusion and inclusion within the labour
market should thus take into account prevailing economic
circumstances. This connection should be understood in terms ofour previous argument that inclusion within the labour market
should be seen as corollary of economic competitiveness moregenerally.
The more detailed data has largely been drawn from a single
quarter – the second of 2003. It thus represents a “snapshot” of thecircumstances TCNs and policy-makers face, and the discrepancies
noted will clearly vary over time. In the case of employment andunemployment rates, we have included graphs showing thisvariation, which can (as in the case of Portugal) be significant.
However, the “snapshot” technique should allow for concrete
comparisons between countries in similar economic circumstances,
opening new paths for research and analysis.

Policy indicators

In analysing the policy indicators discussed in Chapter 5, ourcountry profiles focus on their constituent elements:● Within labour market inclusion: access and eligibility; security of
employment status; labour market integration measures; and rights
associated with labour market participation.
● Within long-term residence: eligibility; conditions for acquisitionof status; security of status; and rights associated with status● Within family reunion: eligibility; conditions for acquisition of
status; security of status; and rights associated with status● Within nationality: eligibility; conditions for acquisition of40

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 41status; security of status; and rights associated with status● Within anti-discrimination: definitions and scope; remedies andsanctions; equality agencies and pro-active policies.
Each country’s overall strand score, as shown in Chapter 5, isbased on the average of the four constituent elements within it. At
the simplest level, these country profiles permit the reader to see how
a score was reached. Each profile includes bar graphs for each strand,showing how a country performed on each element. These arepresented relative to European averages and the scale ofunfavourable to favourable scores set out in the previous chapter.
The country profiles thus allow us to apply our normative
framework at a greater level of detail than before.
But it is possible to present the normative indicators in ways thatprovide a stronger sense of each country’s position. As previously
noted, each strand (with the partial exception of antidiscrimination) can be understood as containing a pathway from
eligibility, via acquisition and security of status, to particular rights.
There will be considerable differences between these: in some cases, ahigh degree of eligibility may lead to only limited security and rights,
or vice versa.
The experience of a migrant in a given country will befundamentally affected by the nature of the legal pathways open tohim or her. Each profile thus contains a graph showing each strand
in linear form. The shape of these lines offers a clearer indication of
weaknesses and strengths within a strand – and how these might
affect individuals over time.
It is further possible to combine these lines into a single image
that indicates a country’s overall performance on policy indicators.
Each profile opens with a radar graph, in which the elements ofpolicy indicators are shown in terms of a continuous line between
points within a circle. Each point represents a constituent element of
an indicator, and the edge of the circle represents the most favourable
score (3.00) possible for each element.
Overall, the radar graph allows the reader to see the balance
within a country’s performance on policy indicators. It may reachtowards the edge of the circle in one area, but not in others,suggesting where there is particular need for policy reform. Ourradar graphs thus provide the clearest statement of a country’s
performance on policy relative to our normative framework.

Country Results and Profiles

35950

41

3595042

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 42

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 43

Austria country profile

Figure 6.01 Overview of Austria’s Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

24 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends
in International
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

In 2001, Austria was host to 764,000 foreigners (9.3% of the
population), including 329,000 foreign workers (10.5% of theworkforce).24 Of the overall foreign population, more than fourfifths were nationals of states beyond the then borders of the EU. The
main sources of foreign workers were Croatia, Bosnia and Turkey.
The Austrian political debate has recently has had a strongemphasis on “integration”, the implementation of which devolves inAustria country profile

35950

43

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 44

large part to the regional level.25
Austrian law regarding the temporary and permanent
employment and residence for TCNs underwent a comprehensive
revision in 2002. Immigration is controlled through a quota systemthat emphasises a clear distinction between the rights of highlyskilled workers admissible for permanent residence and otherworkers admissible for temporary residence and employment. In
this context:
The reform of the Aliens Act of 2002 above all reduced immigrationfor economic purposes to key personnel and highly qualified employees
and self-employed persons. No further immigration including
permanent residence is possible for other types of employment.26
Aside from these skilled groups, and certain other exceptional
categories of workers, TCNs may receive temporary six-month workand residence permits, renewable for a further six months. Thosewith such permits do not have access to certain rights, such as family
reunion.

Labour market statistics27

Overall, employment and unemployment rates for TCNs in Austria
are relatively close to those of Austrian nationals. However, it isobservable that the TCN employment has declined relative to a fairly
static overall employment rate. Recent trends show a significant
worsening of the labour market situation for TCNs withsimultaneously decreasing employment rates (falling from 67.5% in2002 to 58.5% in 2004) and increasing unemployment rates (justunder 10% in 2002 to over 13% in 2004).
Employment of people between
15 and 64 years old (%)
25 The following
paragraphs are
based on K.König
and B. Perchinig,
Austria, in the EU andUS Approaches tothe Management of
Immigration series(Migration PolicyGroup, Brussels,
2003).
26 Ibid., p16.
27 EUROSTAT,
Labour Force Survey

75
70
65
60
55
50
2002q01
Total

44

Nationals

Non EU15

2003q01
Other EU15

2004q01

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 45

Unemployment of people between
15 and 64 years old (%)
25
20
15
10
5
0
2002q01
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

2003q01

2004q01

Other EU15

If we look in more detail at the comparative employment andparticipation rates for TCNs and MSNs for the second quarter of
2003, we see that there is a fairly insignificant difference between thetwo groups, but reference to the data for 2002-2004 shows that thisconceals a more worrying trend of a decrease in employment rates
and increase in unemployment for TCNs.
Table 6.01: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003) (Q2, 2003)

Table 6.02: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

68.20

Participation rate (%)

71.60

Rate for MSNs

68.23

Rate for MSNs

71.36

Rate for TCNs

67.58

Rate for TCNs

74.39

% difference TCNs from MSNs

0.95

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-4.24

% difference TCNs from total

0.90% difference TCNs from total-3.91

In the case of unemployment, when the figures are broken down into
overall and long-term categories, it appears that while TCNs are
more likely to suffer unemployment, they are marginally less likely to
be long-term unemployed
Table 6.03: Comparative
Unemployment Rates (Q2,
2003)

Table 6.04: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)

Unemployment Rate (%)

4.75

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

1.12

Rate for MSNs

4.39

Rate for MSNs

1.07

9.15

Rate for TCNs

Rate for TCNs

1.99

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-108.67% difference TCNs from MSNs

-85.87% difference TCNs from total-92.77% difference TCNs from total-77.38Austria country profile

35950

45

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 46

However, these aggregate statistics further conceal significant
variations between levels of registered unemployment anddifferent categories of employment and skill level. Looking in greater
detail at types of employment for TCN’s, there is an overrepresentation in lower-skilled and, to a lesser extent, mediumskilled employment – while conversely they are under-represented
in high-skilled employment (Table 6.05). These differences
may be related to the present legal framework for work andresidence rights:
Table 6.05: Comparative Rates for Employment according
to Skill (figures for Q2, 2003)
Low

Medium

High

Total employment rate

46.90

73.69

84.42

Rate for MSNs

45.07

73.51

84.84

Rate for TCNs

57.60

78.81

76.14

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-27.80

-7.20

10.26

% difference TCNs from total-22.81

-6.94

9.80

The differences between TCN experience in types of employment
may further be linked to contrasts between TCN and Austrian
nationals in permanent and temporary employment. While thedifference between rates of TCNs and Austrian nationals in terms ofpermanent contract-holders is relatively slight, there is a moremarked contrast in the rates of temporary contract-holders:Table 6.06: Comparison of Employment
by Type of Contract(Q2, 2003)
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

Total % in type of contract

92.79

7.21

% of MSNs in type of contract

92.95

7.05

% of TCNs in type of contract

91.91

8.09

% difference TCNs from MSNs

1.12

-14.79% difference TCNs from total

0.95-12.26Austria policy-makers may, therefore, wish to address potential
questions over the links between types of work and residence and the
profile of TCN employment. A clue is given when we look at
numbers receiving training – while a significant number of TCNs arerecorded as receiving training in the four weeks prior to the labour
force survey, the rate is below that of Austrian nationals:
46

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 47

Table 6.07: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

16.87

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

17.19

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

12.28

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

28.57

Percentage difference TCNs from total

27.24

Overall, therefore, we see a picture of relatively good but declining
employment rates for TCNs with an increase in the rate ofunemployment confirming structural difficulties in Austria with theincorporation of migrants into the economy. A more detailed
examination of employment data shows that TCNs areproportionally more highly represented in lower skilled occupations
combined with lower levels of training which might suggest possible
causes for the greater exposure to unemployment for this groupwhen compared with Austrian nationals.

Policy indicators

Overall performance
Austria’s performance over all five strands of policy indicators is
below the European average for each strand. It is closest to theaverage in terms of long-term residence, and furthest from theaverage in terms of labour market inclusion.
Judged against our normative framework, Austria can be said todemonstrate less favourable performances in all strands.
Figure 6.03
Comparative Performance: Austria and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.16

2.04
1.89

1.84

1.88 1.85

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Aus
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Austria country profile

35950

Anti-Discrimination

47

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 48

Austria typically offers relatively high levels of security in each strand(although its anti-discrimination performance is more generallylow). However, it tends to be below the European average either interms of the conditions necessary to achieve a given status, or therights associated with status.
On labour market inclusion, Austria is most obviously beneaththe European average in terms of access and eligibility (where its
score is moderately unfavourable), although also below-average onother strands. It nonetheless has a moderately favourable
performance on security of employment status.
In terms of eligibility for long-term residence, as well as
security of status, Austria is above the European average. However, interms of conditions and rights associated with long-term residence,
it is marginally below the average – all its scores in this strand fall
into the less favourable category.
Above the European average in terms of both eligibility forfamily reunion and security of status (on which it scores particularlywell), it performs notably poorly on both the conditions and rights
associated with family reunion. In terms of conditions for theacquisition of status, Austria’s performance is unfavourable.
Austria performs moderately favourably in terms of security ofnationality, but has areas of weakness in terms of eligibility andconditions for acquisition of nationality.
Anti-discrimination is an area of particular weakness, withperformance below the European average across all sections, mostclearly pro-active policies, definitions and scope. In all cases,
Austria’s scores are less favourable or moderately unfavourable.

48

I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 49

Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.04: Labour Market Inclusion: Austrian Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00
2.63
2.50

2.50

2.18

2.27

2.17

2.00

2.00

2.00

1.89

1.82

1.50

1.33

1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

Aus

Long-term residence
Figure 6.05: Long-term Residence: Austrian Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.18

2.00

2.17 2.14

2.13

2.04

2.34
2.13

2.00
1.89

1.80

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Aus

Austria country profile

35950

49

35950I-50 V2

18/3/05

1:41 PM

Page 50

Family Reunion
Figure 6.06: Family Reunion: Austrian Indicators and EU
Averages
3.00
2.50

2.33

2.18
1.97 2.00

2.00

2.50

2.47

1.97
1.80

1.84

1.50

1.20

1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunionEur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Aus

Nationality
Figure 6.07: Nationality: Austrian Indicators and EU
Averages
3.00
2.50

2.33
2.02

2.00

2.04

2.03
1.88

1.75

2.17
2.00

1.75

1.84

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

50

Aus

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 51

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.08: Anti-Discrimination: Austrian Indicators andEU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.35

2.19

2.16
2.00

2.00

2.04

2.00

1.85

1.83

1.60

1.57

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

Aus

Austria country profile

35950

51

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 52

Belgium country profile

Figure 6.9: Overview of Belgium’s Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

28 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends
in International
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

52

At the end of 2001, Belgium was host to 847,000 foreigners (8.2% of
the population).28 The foreign population decreased significantly incomparison with the two previous years, mainly because of a large
number of naturalisations (63,000 in 2001). The main groups
concerned were nationals of Morocco, Turkey, Italy and the former
Yugoslavia. The two largest groups of TCNs in Belgium are currently
Moroccans (91,000) and Turks (almost 46,000).

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 53

Belgium’s policies towards TCNs have been significantly affected by
the country’s high degree of devolution to its French and Dutchspeaking parts. 29 Indeed, it is arguable that “there is no such thing as
a Belgian integration policy”. At the federal level, access to citizenshiphas been seen as an important way to create some coherence in thisarea. In 2000, legislation was introduced to make access tocitizenship and naturalisation easier – some questions remain overits implementation.
The Belgian work permit system for TCNs is based on the needsof employers: permits should only be given where there are insufficient
workers available for the sector or specialisation in question.

Labour market statistics

TCNs in Belgium face a number of economic challenges. Theyexperience considerably lower rates of employment andparticipation than Belgian nationals. Figures for the last three years
reveal this to be a constant and relatively unchanging pattern,suggesting that this reflects structural problems in terms of thelabour market inclusion of the migrant population.
Figure 6.10: Employment trends
Employment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
29 The following
paragraphs are
based on S. Gsir,
M. Martiniello and
J. Wets, Belgium,in the EU and USApproaches tothe Managementof Immigration
series (Migration
Policy Group,
Brussels, 2003).

0
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

Other EU15

Again, the unemployment rates for TCNs and MSNs shows apersistent pattern of difference over the last few years, although thequarterly data reveals fluctuations that may reflect seasonal
employment patterns for this group.

Belgium country profile

35950

53

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 54

Figure 6.11: Unemployment trends
Unemployment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
0
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

Other EU15

The more detailed breakdown of employment data for the second
quarter of 2003 shows that employment rates for TCNs were justmore than half the national average, although it has risen slightly
since then:Table 6.08: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.09: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

59.30

Participation rate (%)

64.26

Rate for MSNs

60.64

Rate for MSNs

65.10

Rate for TCNs

30.70

Rate for TCNs

45.87

% difference TCNs from MSNs

49.37

% difference TCNs from MSNs

29.54

% difference TCNs from total

48.23% difference TCNs from total

28.61

Even clearer discrepancies are evident when comparing the twogroups in terms of unemployment, and, to the greatest degree, longterm unemployment:

54

Table 6.10: Comparative
Unemployment Rates (Q2,
2003)

Table 6.11: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)

Unemployment Rate (%)

7.73

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

Rate for MSNs

6.86

Rate for MSNs

3.16

Rate for TCNs

33.08

Rate for TCNs

15.91

3.57

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-382.27% difference TCNs from MSNs

-404.25% difference TCNs from total-328.02% difference TCNs from total-345.65

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 55

These figures suggest that issues surrounding long-term TCN
employment should receive particular attention. It should be notedthat TCN employment rates are significantly below the overall
average at all skill levels in Belgium. The employment rate of highskilled TCNs is less close to the national average than in many otherEU members:
Table 6.05: Comparative Rates for Employment according
to Skill (low, medium or high; Q2, 2003)
Low

Medium

High

Total employment rate

40.51

64.97

82.28

Rate for MSNs

40.51

65.97

83.24

Rate for TCNs

21.75

35.40

49.54

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-0.36

-24.393.58% difference TCNs from total-0.39-23.193.29

Employed TCNs are almost twice as likely to be on temporary
contracts as Belgian nationals:
Table 6.13: Comparison of Employment by Typeof Contract (Permanent or Temporary; Q2, 2003)
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

Total % in type of contract

91.46

8.54

% of MSNs in type of contract

91.65

8.35

% of TCNs in type of contract

83.63

16.37

% difference TCNs from MSNs

8.74

-95.92% difference TCNs from total

8.56-91.59Positively, TCNs do not appear disadvantaged in terms of training
opportunities. Indeed, TCNs are more likely to have recently received
training than Belgian nationals:
Table 6.14: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

19.38

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

19.59

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

24.16

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

-23.35Percentage difference TCNs from total-24.70Belgium country profile

35950

55

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 56

Policy indicators

Overall Performance
Belgium’s performance over all five strands of policy indicators is
consistently above the European average. It is most clearly above
average in terms of anti-discrimination (where it has a favourable
score) and labour market inclusion. It is closest to the average in thearea of nationality, the only area where its performance is not at least
moderately favourable.
Figure 6.12
Comparative Performance: Belgium and EU Averages
2.88

3.00
2.50

2.67
2.43 2.42
2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.18

2.16

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Bel
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Belgium is above the European average on all elements labour
market inclusion. In terms of security of employment status, its
performance is favourable (a full 3.00). In all other elements, its
policies are moderately favourable – with its scores in the upper halfof the category.
Again, Belgium is above the European average on all indicatorsfor long-term residence, especially eligibility and rights associatedwith status – it has strong moderately favourable scores in these areas.
It is only marginally ahead of the EU average on security of status,with a less favourable score.
Belgium performs ahead of the average in most indicators forfamily reunion, and has a favourable position on rights associatedwith status, but falls below the average on eligibility (where its
performance is less favourable).
In the context of the 2000 legislation, Belgium demonstrates aparticularly complicated set of results on nationality. It scores verystrongly on eligibility (with a favourable 3.00), but is well below the56

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 57

average for security of status (an unfavourable 1.00) and rights
associated with status.
Belgium performs ahead of the European average in all
indicators for anti-discrimination, on which it has a favourable
overall score. It does best in terms of remedies and sanctions –with 3.00 for both – and, to a very slightly lesser extent, equality
agencies.

Labour Market Inclusion
Figure 6.13: Labour Market Inclusion: Belgian Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.67

2.67

2.63
2.50

2.50

2.18

2.17

2.50
2.27

2.00
1.82

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

Bel

Long-term Residence
Figure 6.14: Permanent Residence:
Belgian Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.67

2.63

2.43

2.50

2.40

2.18

2.00

2.13

2.17 2.14

2.34

1.89

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Belgium country profile

35950

Bel

57

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 58

Family Reunion
Figure 6.15: Family Reunion: Belgian Indicators and EU
Averages
3.00

2.80

2.75
2.42

2.50

2.40

2.18
1.97

2.00

2.47

2.33

1.97
1.80

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunionEur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Bel

Nationality
Figure 6.16: Nationality: Belgian Indicators and EU
Averages
3.00

3.00
2.50
2.02

2.25

2.18
2.03

2.17

2.04

2.00

2.00
1.84

1.50
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

58

Bel

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 59

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.17: Anti-Discrimination: Belgian Indicators andEU Averages
3.00

2.88

3.00

3.00
2.71

2.60

2.50

2.35
2.16

2.19
2.04

2.00

1.83

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

Bel

Belgium country profile

35950

59

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 60

Denmark country profile

Figure 6.18: Overview of Denmark’s Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

30 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends
in International
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

60

At the end of 2001, Denmark was host to 266,700 foreigners (5% of
the population).30 EU nationals accounted for a fifth of the foreign
population, followed by nationals from the former Yugoslavia(13%), Turkey (12%), and Iraq (6%). There were also 415,000
immigrants (including those who had been naturalised) anddescendants of immigrants living in Denmark (7.7% of the
population).
The 1992 Danish opt-out in the sector of Justice and Home

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 61

Affairs – coupled with an opt-out on European citizenship – affects
commentary on migration and inclusion issues considerably.31 While
the Danish Presidency of the EU made a positive reference to theeconomic and social inclusion of TCNs in 2002, this remains an
extremely sensitive area in domestic political debate.
Some highly-skilled and specialised workers aside, TCNs
wishing to work in Denmark must apply for short-term
renewable work-permits, and applications are subject torigorous scrutiny. Permanent residence may become possible
after seven years.

Labour market statistics

TCNs experience significant problems within the labour market
relative to Danish citizens.In the period 2002-2004, the TCN
employment rates were constantly below those of Danish nationals
and other EU-15 nationals, although there is significant fluctuation
for this group along with that of other EU-15 while the total for
Denmark remained relatively flat. This could be explained by the
relatively small number of foreign nationals resident in Denmark
resulting in more statistical variation for these groups.
Figure 6.19: Employment trends
Employment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
100
90
80
70
60
50

31 The following
paragraphs are
based on H. Stenum,
Denmark, in the EU
and US Approaches
to the Managementof Immigration series(Migration PolicyGroup, Brussels,
2003).

40
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

Other EU15

The employment rate for TCNs for the second quarter of 2003 wasonly just more than 50% of that for Danes, while there was also aclear discrepancy in terms of participation:

Denmark country profile

35950

61

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 62

Table 6.15: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.16: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

75.11

Participation rate (%)

79.45

Rate for MSNs

75.97

Rate for MSNs

80.08

Rate for TCNs

47.83

Rate for TCNs

58.71

% difference TCNs from MSNs

37.05

% difference TCNs from MSNs

26.68

% difference TCNs from total

36.32% difference TCNs from total

26.10

In terms of unemployment, the discrepancies are clearer still, with
TCN unemployment rates at more than three times the national rate.
Observed over 2002-2004, moreover, the TCN unemployment rate
has risen significantly against the national rate:
Figure 6.20: Unemployment trends
Unemployment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
25
20
15
10
5

0
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

For the second quarter of 2003, the percentage difference for longterm unemployment is greater still, although relative to a low overall
rate:
Table 6.17: Comparative
Unemployment Rates(Q2, 2003)
Unemployment Rate (%)

62

Table 6.18: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)
5.46

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

1.07

Rate for MSNs

5.13

Rate for MSNs

0.96

Rate for TCNs

18.54

Rate for TCNs

4.90

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-261.61% difference TCNs from MSNs

-411.22% difference TCNs from total-239.69% difference TCNs from total-356.28

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 63

While there are discrepancies at all levels of employment, it is notablethat TCNs are least disadvantaged in terms of medium-skilled work,and most disadvantaged in the low-skilled sector:
Table 6.19: Comparative Rates for Employment according
to Skill (low, medium or high; Q2, 2003)
Low

Medium

High

Total employment rate

57.53

78.73

84.80

Rate for MSNs

58.50

79.30

85.85

Rate for TCNs

37.02

56.12

53.60

% difference TCNs from MSNs

36.72

29.23

37.57

% difference TCNs from total

35.66

28.71

36.79

In terms of contract type, TCNs are significantly less likely to holdpermanent contracts than Danish nationals, with a third holding
temporary positions:
Table 6.20: Comparison of Employment by Typeof Contract (Permanent or Temporary; Q2, 2003)
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

Total % in type of contract

90.44

9.44

% of MSNs in type of contract

90.90

8.98

% of TCNs in type of contract

67.31

32.38

% difference TCNs from MSNs

25.95

-260.37% difference TCNs from total

25.58-243.02

Training is an area of strength for Denmark. While Danish nationals
enjoy a high degree of training, an even higher percentage of TCNs
receive it. While there are clear challenges to the position of TCNs
within the Danish labour market, therefore, there are some factors toredress them:
Table 6.21: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

27.67

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

27.28

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

42.88

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

-57.20Percentage difference TCNs from total-55.00Denmark country profile

35950

63

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 64

Policy indicators

Overall performance
Denmark’s performance over all five strands of policy indicators is
below the European average in all strands bar long-term residence.
With two exceptions (labour market inclusion and long-term
residence) its strand scores fall in the moderately unfavourable category.
Figure 6.21: Comparative Performance: Denmark and EU
Averages
3.00
2.50

2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.26

2.16
1.78

1.68 1.59

1.50

1.50

1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Den
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

In labour market inclusion, Denmark is below the European averagein all areas and dimensions. Its scores are in the middle of the lessfavourable category for all strands except access and eligibility, where it
has a notable moderately unfavourable score, raising its overall
performance.
In terms of eligibility for long-term residence, Denmark has a lessfavourable score, and the same is true with regard to security of status.
However, in the other elements of this strand Denmark has moderately
favourable scores, and is clearly ahead of the European average.
Denmark is below the European average on all indicators forfamily reunion and is particularly weak in terms of eligibility, on
which it scores an unfavourable 1.00.
Denmark performs better than the European average in terms of
the security in the field of nationality. However, it is not only below
average in terms of all other measures, but scores unfavourable 1.00s
on both eligibility and dual nationality rights associated with status.
Anti-discrimination is an area of weakness, with performance
below the European average most notable in the area of antidiscrimination institutions, where the score is again unfavourable.
6451-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 65

Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.22: Labour Market Inclusion: Denmark’s
Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.63

2.50

2.18

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.27

2.17
1.78

2.00

1.82

1.50

1.33

1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

Den

Long-term residence
Figure 6.23: Long-term Residence: Denmark’s Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00
2.63

2.60

2.50

2.19 2.26

2.00

2.13
1.89

2.34

2.17
1.86

1.67

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Den

Denmark country profile

35950

65

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 66

Family Reunion
Figure 6.24: Family Reunion: Denmark’s Indicators and EU
Averages
3.00
2.50

2.47

2.33

2.18

2.20
1.97

2.00

1.97

1.80

1.75

1.68

1.50
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunionEur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Den

Nationality
Figure 6.25: Nationality: Denmark’s Indicators and EU
Averages
3.00
2.50

2.33
2.02

2.17

2.04

2.03

2.00

1.75

1.84

1.59

1.50
1.00

1.00

1.00

0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

66

Den

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 67

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.26: Anti-Discrimination: Denmark’s Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.35

2.19

2.16

2.04

2.00

1.82
1.50

1.50

1.83
1.45

1.43
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

Den

Denmark country profile

35950

67

35950NEW-68-75

18/3/05

1:55 PM

Page 68

Finland country profile

Figure 6.27: Overview of Finland’s Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

32 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends
in International
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

68

In 2001, Finland was host to 98,600 foreigners (1.9% of the
population).32 Those from the Russian Federation accounted for
23% of the foreign population, Estonia 12%, Sweden 8% andSomalia 4.5%.
A country of net emigration up to the 1990s, Finland has had toreconfigure its approach to migration and inclusion in recent years.33
It has been observed that there has been only a limited correlation

35950NEW-68-75

18/3/05

1:55 PM

Page 69

between immigration and economic needs during this period. The
legal situation has also been confused. A 1991 Aliens Act was subject
to 20 amendments prior to its replacement with new Act in 2004.
Practical problems were held to arise from the older Act’s
distinction between work and residence permits, which the new Act
is intended to remove.

Labour market statistics

While the employment rate of TCNs in Finland appears to havefollowed a pattern similar – although not identical to – the national
average in terms of seasonal fluctuations, the context is one ofconstantly lower and declining rates of employment.
Figure 6.28: Employment trends
Employment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
100
90
80
70
60
50
40
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02

33 The following
paragraphs are
based on P.
Salmenhaara,
Finland, in the EU
and US Approaches
to the Managementof Immigration series(Migration PolicyGroup, Brussels,
2003).

Nationals

Non EU15

Other EU15

The overall labour market experience of TCNs in Finland is mixed,
however. Data for the second quarter of 2003 shows that while TCNs
experience lower employment rates than Finnish nationals, theirlevel of participation in the labour market is relatively close to thenational average:

Finland country profile

Total

69

35950NEW-68-75

18/3/05

1:55 PM

Page 70

Table 6.22: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.23: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

68.71

Participation rate (%)

76.80

Rate for MSNs

68.88

Rate for MSNs

76.89

Rate for TCNs

54.45

Rate for TCNs

67.80

% difference TCNs from MSNs

20.95

% difference TCNs from MSNs

11.82

% difference TCNs from total

20.75% difference TCNs from total

11.72

TCN unemployment is still significantly higher than that of Finnish
nationals however, and this has also increased markedly relative tothat for Finns in recent surveys:
Figure 6.29: unemployment trends
Unemployment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
30

25
20
15
10
5

0
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

There is an even clearer discrepancy in percentage terms whenunemployment rates are disaggregated: long-term unemployment
rates for TCNs are nearly double that of MSNs, although this is in thecontext of a low total long-term unemployment rate:70

18/3/05

1:55 PM

Page 71

Table 6.24: Comparative
Unemployment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.25: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)

Unemployment Rate (%)

10.54

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

Rate for MSNs

10.42

Rate for MSNs

2.16

Rate for TCNs

19.69

Rate for TCNs

7.31

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-88.97% difference TCNs from MSNs

-238.43% difference TCNs from total-86.77% difference TCNs from total-228.38

2.23

These figures also obscure the significantly varying experiences ofTCNs at differing skill levels. The difference in employment rates forlow-skilled TCN and Finnish workers is relatively small, while thatfor medium-skilled workers is even narrower. However, thediscrepancy in terms of high-skilled work is very large, suggesting an
area for particular attention:
Table 6.26: Comparative Rates for Employment according
to Skill (low, medium or high; Q2, 2003)
Low

Medium

High

Total employment rate

48.26

72.37

84.88

Rate for MSNs

48.35

72.40

85.24

Rate for TCNs

42.02

69.46

45.12

% difference TCNs from MSNs

13.09

4.07

47.07

% difference TCNs from total

12.92

4.02

46.84

While a relatively large number of Finns hold temporary contracts(a national issue that should be noted before making judgements on
labour market standards), TCNs are even more likely to do so:
Table 6.27: Comparison of Employment by Typeof Contract (Permanent or Temporary; Q2, 2003)
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

Total % in type of contract

82.05

17.87

% of MSNs in type of contract

82.20

17.72

% of TCNs in type of contract

68.66

31.34

% difference TCNs from MSNs

16.47

-76.89% difference TCNs from total

16.32-75.38In terms of training, TCNs are relatively well-provided for in Finland,with a higher percentage having received recent training than Finnish
nationals. The levels of both nationals and TCNs having received

Finland country profile

35950NEW-68-75

7135950NEW-68-75

18/3/05

1:55 PM

Page 72

such training is relatively high overall, suggesting an area of strength:
Table 6.28: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

26.28

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

26.23

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

31.11

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

-18.57

Percentage difference TCNs from total-18.34

While the participation and training rates of TCNs in Finland canthus be reported positively, employment issues remain open toenhancement, especially in the high-skilled sector.

Policy indicators

Overall performance
Finland’s performance over all five strands of policy indicators isabove or (in the case of nationality) almost identical to the European
average. It is closest to the average in terms of nationality and antidiscrimination, and farthest above the average in terms of family
reunion. In no strand is its performance moderately (or fully)
unfavourable:
Figure 6.30: Comparative Performance:
Finland and EU Averages
3.00
2.53
2.50

2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.16

2.22

2.35

2.18
2.00

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Fin
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

In labour market inclusion, Finland is above the European averagein terms of access, eligibility and security, although below the average7218/3/05

1:55 PM

Page 73

on market integration measures and rights associated with thelabour status. Its scores are largely within the less favourable range,
but on security of employment it has a favourable 3.00.
In terms of eligibility for long-term residence, as well as securityof status, Finland is above the European average, as in all othermeasures. In terms of rights associated with long-term residence, it ismore conspicuously above the average, with a strong moderately
favourable score.
Finland is well above the European average in terms of both
eligibility for family reunion and security of status, it is at nearparity with the average for rights associated with the status. It has amoderately favourable performance across all areas in this strand.
In terms of nationality, Finland performs strongly in terms of
security of status and associated rights, but has areas of weakness interms of eligibility and conditions for acquisition of nationality – onthese it has less favourable scores.
Anti-discrimination is an area where Finland is very close to theEuropean average, although it has an unfavourable 1.00 in the area of
equality agencies. By contrast, it scores well above the average forpolicies in this area, with a moderately favourable result.
Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.31: Labour Market Inclusion:
Finland’s Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.63

2.50

2.18

2.22

2.27

2.17
2.00

2.00

2.00

2.00

1.82

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Fin

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

Finland country profile

35950NEW-68-75

73

35950NEW-68-75

18/3/05

1:55 PM

Page 74

Long-term residence
Figure 6.32: Long-term Residence: Finland’s Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00
2.63

2.50

2.35
2.13 2.20

2.19

2.17 2.29

2.34

2.00

2.00

1.89

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Fin

Family Reunion
Figure 6.33: Family Reunion: Finland’s Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00

2.75
2.60

2.53

2.50

2.40

2.18
1.97

2.00

2.33

2.47 2.40

1.97

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunion

Eur

74

Fin

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

18/3/05

1:55 PM

Page 75

Nationality
Figure 6.34: Nationality: Finland’s Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.50

2.33
2.02 2.00

2.00

2.17

2.04

2.03

1.88

1.75

1.84

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

Fin

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.35: Anti-Discrimination: Finland’s Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00
2.71
2.45

2.50

2.35
2.16 2.18

2.19

1.45

2.00

2.04
1.83

1.50
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

Fin

Finland country profile

35950NEW-68-75

75

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 76

France country profile

Figure 6.36: Overview of France’s
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

34 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends
in International
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

76

In 2001, France was host to 2,903,900 foreigners (9.3% of the
population), including 1,317,100 foreign workers.34 Of the overall
foreign population, more than two fifths were nationals from Africa
and another two fifths were EU citizens.
France is a well-established hub for immigration, although thesubject is a matter for strong political debate, often with reference tosecurity.35 A clear distinction is maintained between two main types

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 77of residence permit: a one year permit giving limited access toemployment, and ten-year permits giving automatic right to work.
For historical reasons, Algerian and Tunisian citizens have certain
special privileges regarding permits, and these were renewed throughbilateral agreements in 2001.

Labour market statistics

The labour market situation for TCNs in France is one of persistently
lower rates of employment. Furthermore, figures for the last three
LFS show there has been relatively little recent fluctuation in therelationship between the national and TCN employment rates inFrance, while citizens of other EU countries have recently
experienced increased employment:
Figure 6.37: Employment trends
Employment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
75
70
65
60
55
50
45
40
2002q01
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

2003q01

2004q01

Other EU15

In more detail, the figures for Q2, 2003, show that TCNs lag wellbehind French nationals in terms of both employment and, to alesser extent, participation rates.
35 This paragraphis based on R. Blion,
C. Wihtol de Wenden
and N. Meknache,France, in the EU
and US Approaches
to the Managementof Immigration
series (Migration
Policy Group,
Brussels, 2003).

France country profile

35950

77

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 78

Table 6.29: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.30: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

63.19

Participation rate (%)

69.43

Rate for MSNs

63.90

Rate for MSNs

69.80

Rate for TCNs

43.27

Rate for TCNs

58.27

% difference TCNs from MSNs

32.28

% difference TCNs from MSNs

16.52

% difference TCNs from total

31.51% difference TCNs from total

16.07

In terms of unemployment, significant and persistent differences
between TCNs and French nationals can be observed over the last
few years with both groups experiencing a slight increase.
Figure 6.38: unemployment trends
Unemployment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2002q01
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

2003q01

2004q01

Other EU15

When the figures are broken down in terms of overall and long-term
unemployed, the differences between the two groups are evengreater:Table 6.31: Comparative
Unemployment Rates(Q2, 2003)
Unemployment Rate (%)

8.99

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

3.33

Rate for MSNs

8.45

Rate for MSNs

3.02

25.73

Rate for TCNs

Rate for TCNs

78

Table 6.32: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)

12.43% difference TCNs from MSNs

-204.41% difference TCNs from MSNs

-311.36% difference TCNs from total-186.20% difference TCNs from total-273.88

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 79

Discrepancies in employment vary significantly according to skill
level, with major gaps between TCNs and French nationals in
medium and high-skilled work:
Table 6.33: Comparative Rates for Employment according
to Skill (low, medium or high; Q2, 2003)
Low

Medium

High

Total employment rate

47.47

70.24

77.98

Rate for MSNs

47.58

70.64

78.70

Rate for TCNs

37.85

51.17

55.10

% difference TCNs from MSNs

20.44

27.57

29.98

% difference TCNs from total

20.27

27.15

29.34

In terms of contract type, as is the case in many of the countries
analysed here, TCNs are considerably more likely to be in temporary
than permanent employment than their French counterparts.
Table 6.34: Comparison of Employment by Typeof Contract (Permanent or Temporary; Q2, 2003)
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

Total % in type of contract

87.50

12.50

% of MSNs in type of contract

87.74

12.26

% of TCNs in type of contract

79.85

20.15

% difference TCNs from MSNs

9.00

-64.44% difference TCNs from total

8.75-61.22In terms of training, TCNs appear to be at a disadvantage to Frenchnationals, with the latter more like to have recently received training.
The difference is, however, relatively slight.
Table 6.35: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

19.12

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

19.50

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

14.38

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

26.24

Percentage difference TCNs from total

24.76

France country profile

35950

79

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 80Thus, as with several of the other “older” countries of immigration
among the EU-15, labour market data illustrates that in France there
is a significant structural discrepancy in terms of employment rates,
unemployment rates, contractual and training situations for TCNs.

Policy indicators

Overall performance
France’s performance in four of five strands of indicators is above theEuropean average - in labour market inclusion it is below-average. In
all cases, the variation is not great, with the biggest discrepancy being
in the area of long-term residence:
Figure 6.39: Comparative Performance:
France and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.43 2.32

2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.16

2.11

2.29

2.18

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Fra
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Within strands, France varies more significantly from European
averages. It scores well above average on eligibility for long term
residence, but scores well below average on eligibility for labour
inclusion. France is markedly below the average on specialised
equality agencies, though well above the average for rights associatedwith nationality status, residency status and family reunion.
In labour market inclusion, France is ahead of the European
average on labour market integration issues and rights associatedwith labour status. It is most obviously below the European averagein terms of access and eligibility (where it has a moderately
unfavourable score), and slightly below it on labour market inclusionand security of employment status.
In terms of eligibility for long-term residence, as well as security80

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 81of status, France is well above the European average – it has afavourable 3.00 on the former. However, in terms of conditions forlong-term residence, it is marginally below the average.
France is well above the European average in terms of rights
associated with family reunion (a 3.00), and less clearly ahead interms of security of status. It is just below the European average forconditions for acquisition of status.
France performs strongly in all areas for nationality, especiallyrights to dual nationality – a very strong favourable score. In terms of
security of status, it comes in just under the European average, with amoderately unfavourable score.
France is above the European average in half of the measures foranti-discrimination, notably in remedies and sanctions. In theseareas, its scores are clustered around the division between lessfavourable and moderately favourable categories. But it is below theEuropean average in respect of equality agencies, with anunfavourable 1.00.
Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.40: Labour Market Inclusion: French Indicatorsand EU Averages

3.00
2.63
2.50

2.50

2.18

2.50
2.17

2.11

2.27

2.50

2.00
1.82

1.50

1.33

1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Fra

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

France country profile

35950

81

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 82Long-term residence
Figure 6.41: Long-term Residence: French Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00

3.00

2.71
2.43

2.50
2.19

2.00

1.89

2.34 2.38

2.17

2.13
1.80

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Fra

Family Reunion
Figure 6.42: Family Reunion: French Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.50

2.18

2.33

2.32
1.97 2.00

2.00

2.50

2.47

1.97
1.80

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunion

Eur

82

Fra

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 83

Nationality
Figure 6.43: Nationality: French Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.50

2.50

2.29

2.25

2.02

2.17

2.04

2.03

2.00

1.84

1.67

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

Fra

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.44: Anti-Discrimination: French Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00
2.64

2.50

2.35
2.16 2.18

2.27

2.19
2.04

2.00

2.14

1.83

1.50
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

Fra

France country profile

35950

83

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 84

Germany country profile

Figure 6.45: Overview of Germany’s Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

36 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends
in International
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158–161.

84

At the end of 2001, Germany was host to just over 7.3 million
foreigners (8.9% of the population), including 3.6 million foreign
workers.36 Slightly more than a quarter of all resident foreigners wereEuropean Union citizens. The most important national groups in theforeign population were from Turkey (26.3%), the former Yugoslavia(8.4%) and Italy (8.4%). Nearly a third of all foreigners had lived inGermany for more than 20 years.

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 85

Historically, immigration and inclusion issues in Germany havebeen affected by a high degree of diversity in policies and practices
resulting from the country’s federal constitution.37 The first national
immigration law only came into force in 2003. While it has been
observed that TCNs have enjoyed relatively high levels of rights inGermany, they have often faced a confusing legal situation – until
2003, for example, five varieties of residence permit were available.
The new, national, law has simplified this state of affairs,
introducing just two types of permit – temporary and unlimited.
There has also been a new emphasis on integration, although its
implementation has been affected by resource issues at the regional
and local levels.

Labour market statistics

In many areas of the German labour market, the experience of TCNs
is relatively close to that of German nationals, although by no means
identical. However, employment (and particularly high-skilled)
employment issues are significant. Data has historically been more
limited for Germany with regards to the situation of different
national groups (Munz 2004). However, data from the LFS since
2002 reveals evidence of a slight decline in the TCN employment rate
relative to a wider national decline:
Figure 6.46: Employment trends
Employment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
75
70
65
60
55
50
37 The following
paragraphs are
based on N. Cyrus
and D. Vogel,
Germany, in the EU
and US Approaches
to the Managementof Immigration series(Migration PolicyGroup, Brussels,
2003).

45
40
Total
2002q02

Nationals

non EU-15

other EU-15

2003q02

A closer look at employment and participation rates for Q2, 2003
shows that TCNs experience lower rates than German nationals:

Germany country profile

35950

85

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 86

Table 6.36: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.37: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

64.95

Participation rate (%)

72.06

Rate for MSNs

66.12

Rate for MSNs

72.86

Rate for TCNs

49.50

Rate for TCNs

61.50

% difference TCNs from MSNs

25.14

% difference TCNs from MSNs

15.54

% difference TCNs from total

23.79% difference TCNs from total

14.65

In terms of unemployment, TCNs are at a disadvantage relative toGerman nationals and also appear to have recently experienced asharper rise in unemployment than nationals:
Figure 6.47: Unemployment trends
Unemployment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Total
2002q02

Nationals

non EU-15

other EU-15

2003q02

When the data is split in terms of overall and long-term unemployed,
we can see that the percentage of TCNs suffering the latter is fairly
low relative to the national rate and the rates observed in many otherEU members:
Table 6.38: Comparative
Unemployment Rates(Q2, 2003)
Unemployment Rate (%)

86

Table 6.39: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)
9.87

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

4.87

Rate for MSNs

9.19

Rate for MSNs

4.53

Rate for TCNs

19.52

Rate for TCNs

9.85

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-112.28% difference TCNs from MSNs

-117.21% difference TCNs from total-97.71% difference TCNs from total-102.19

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 87

These overall figures however conceal considerable variations byskill-level. In terms of low-skilled employment, TCNs have nearparity with German nationals, and the discrepancy in mediumskilled employment is relatively small. The discrepancy in terms ofhigh-skilled employment is markedly greater:
Table 6.40: Comparative Rates for Employment according
to Skill (low, medium or high; Q2, 2003)
Low

Medium

High

42.56

68.98

82.94

Rate for MSNs

41.96

69.24

83.90

Rate for TCNs

40.87

61.15

61.42

Total employment rate

% difference TCNs from MSNs

2.59

11.69

26.80

% difference TCNs from total

3.96

11.35

25.95

While TCNs are more likely to hold temporary contracts than
German nationals, there is a considerably closer correlation between
national and TCN contract rates than in many other EU states:
Table 6.41: Comparison of Employment by Typeof Contract (Permanent or Temporary; Q2, 2003)
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

Total % in type of contract

87.23

12.18

% of MSNs in type of contract

87.51

11.91

% of TCNs in type of contract

82.22

16.78

% difference TCNs from MSNs

6.05

-40.95% difference TCNs from total

5.74-37.86In terms of training, another strong correlation is evident. German
nationals and TCNs are in similar situations, with almost identicalpercentages having recently received some training.
Table 6.42: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

16.38

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

16.52

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

16.37

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

0.94

Percentage difference TCNs from total

0.05

Germany country profile

35950

87

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 88

The labour market situation of TCNs in Germany does, therefore,
demonstrate some parallels with that of German nationals. However,
employment and participation rates do continue to demonstrate
discrepancies, and may be areas for policy focus.

Policy indicators

Overall performance
Germany’s performance is below the European average for every
strand except family reunion. Even family reunion is not aparticularly strong area: Germany has less favourable headline scoreson all strands. It is furthest from the European average in antidiscrimination.
Figure 6.48: Comparative Performance:
Germany and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.32

2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.16

2.00

2.17
1.82 1.71

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Germ
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

On labour market inclusion, Germany is ahead of theEuropean average on only one indicator, security of employment
status (a favourable 3.00). It is most notably below the European
average on access and eligibility, although it has no fully unfavourable
scores.
In terms of eligibility for long-term residence, security ofstatus, and rights associated with this status, Germany is above theEuropean average – in all cases, it scores in the lower part of themoderately favourable category. However, in terms of conditions foracquisition of long-term residence, it is below the average, with amoderately unfavourable result.
Impressively, Germany is above the EU average in every category8851-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 89

for family reunion, particularly eligibility and rights associated withreunion. This said, its scores on the other parts of this category
remain moderately unfavourable.
Nationality is an area of lower scores, with performance below
the European average across all elements, most clearly in eligibility.
However, it has no unfavourable score here.
With regard to anti-discrimination, Germany performs
strongly on equality agencies but less so on other sections, especiallyremedies and sanctions (where it has a moderately unfavourable
performance).
Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.49: Labour Market Inclusion: Germany Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.63

2.50

2.18
2.00

2.00

2.27

2.17
2.00

2.00

1.82

1.50

1.33

1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

Germ

Germany country profile

35950

89

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 90

Long-term residence
Figure 6.50: Long-term Residence: Germany Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.33

2.19 2.17

2.00

2.34 2.38

2.17 2.29

2.13

1.89
1.60

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Germ

Family Reunion
Figure 6.51: Family Reunion: German Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00
2.50
2.18

2.33

2.32
1.97

2.00

2.50

2.47

2.60

2.20
1.97 2.00

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunion

Eur

90

Germ

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 91

Nationality
Figure 6.52: Nationality: German Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00
2.50
2.02

2.00

2.17

2.04 2.00

2.03
1.82

2.00
1.84
1.67

1.50

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

Germ

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.53: Anti-Discrimination: German Indicatorsand EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.35
2.16

2.20

2.19

2.04

2.00

1.71

1.73

1.50

1.83

1.86

1.36

1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

Germ

Germany country profile

35950

91

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 92

Greece country profile

Figure 6.54: Overview of Greece’s Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

38 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends
in International
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

92

In 2001, Greece was host to 762,200 foreigners (7% of the
population), including 413,000 foreign workers.38 However, there
were also over 300,000 illegal immigrants that were detected,
significantly higher than in previous years. Of the legal foreign
population, over half were from Albania. Bulgaria (4.6%), Georgia(3%) and Romania (2.9%) made up the other largest elements. The
main sources of foreign workers were Albania (again over half),

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 93

Bulgaria and Romania.
In the 1990s, Greece experienced a shift from being a country ofemigration to one of immigration.39 Its approach to immigrationand inclusion remains centred on economic concerns – with theneed for labour shaping the distribution of residence permits. Policy
debate remains focussed on low-skilled labour, with six-month
temporary permits for workers.
Both politically and legally, long-term residence has been
overlooked: the legislation on this area is very limited, in spite of thefact that a new immigration law came into force in 2001.

Labour market statistics

While data from the LFS is useful in comparing the situation oflegally resident TCNs with MSNs, there needs to be a health warningin terms capacity of the survey to capture irregular working
practices, which are known to be a feature of some economies.
Bearing this in mind, therefore, in terms of legal employment andparticipation in the labour market, TCNs in Greece experiencemarkedly higher rates of employment and participation than Greek
nationals. Moreover, the TCN employment rate has fluctuated in linewith that for Greeks, in contrast to a marginally more volatile rate forother EU nationals.
Figure 6.55: Employment trends
Employment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
75
70
65
60
39 The following
paragraphs are
based on K.
Lykovardi and E.
Petroula, Greece,in the EU and USApproaches to theManagement of
Immigration series(Migration PolicyGroup, Brussels,
2003).

55
50
45
40
2002q01
Total

2002q02

Nationals

2002q03

Non EU15

2002q04

Other EU15

2003q01

2003q02

2003q03

2003q04

Greece country profile

35950

93

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 94

TCNs also have a remarkably similar unemployment rate to Greek
nationals with both groups appearing to experience similar temporalfluctuations.
Table 6.43: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.44: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

57.95

Participation rate (%)

63.76

Rate for MSNs

57.48

Rate for MSNs

63.25

Rate for TCNs

67.63

Rate for TCNs

74.34

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-17.65% difference TCNs from MSNs

-17.50% difference TCNs from total-16.69% difference TCNs from total-16.59Figure 6.56: Unemployment trends
Unemployment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2002q01
Total

2002q02

Nationals

2002q03

2002q04

2003q01

2003q02

2003q03

2003q04

Non EU15

When broken down into overall and long-term unemployment,
however, data from Q2, 2003 shows that TCNs are less likely to suffer
unemployment beyond 12 months:
Table 6.45: Comparative
Unemployment Rates(Q2, 2003)
Unemployment Rate (%)

94

Table 6.46: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)
9.11

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

5.14

Rate for MSNs

9.13

Rate for MSNs

5.25

Rate for TCNs

9.03

Rate for TCNs

3.50

% difference TCNs from MSNs

1.06

% difference TCNs from MSNs

33.45

% difference TCNs from total

0.87% difference TCNs from total

32.06

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 95

In terms of different types of labour, Greek nationals only enjoy abetter employment rate than TCNs in high-skilled work. While theGreek employment rate varies significantly across types of
employment, it is worth noting that the rate for TCNs is very
consistent:
Table 6.47: Comparative Rates for Employment
according to Skill (low, medium or high; Q2, 2003)
Low

Medium

High

Total employment rate

50.19

58.09

80.89

Rate for MSNs

49.27

57.66

81.36

Rate for TCNs

67.01

67.73

69.91

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-36.02-17.4614.07% difference TCNs from total-33.53-16.6013.57

However, TCNs are almost twice as likely as Greek nationals to holdtemporary contracts, and are concomitantly less well-represented interms of permanent contracts:
Table 6.48: Comparison of Employment by Typeof Contract (Permanent or Temporary; Q2, 2003)
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

Total % in type of contract

88.93

11.07

% of MSNs in type of contract

89.69

10.31

% of TCNs in type of contract

80.60

19.40

% difference TCNs from MSNs

10.14

-88.26% difference TCNs from total

9.38-75.36In the area of training, TCNs fare less well than Greek nationals,
although the overall number of those who have recently received
training is relatively low:
Table 6.49: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

14.76

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

14.91

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

11.92

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

20.03

Percentage difference TCNs from total

19.21

Greece country profile

35950

95

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 96

While legally resident TCNs evidently have a high degree of access to
the Greek labour market, therefore, contractual and training issues
may still need to be addressed. In addition to this, the LFS provides
little in the way of data for those immigrants that hold an irregular
status.

Policy indicators

Overall performance
Greece’s performance over all five strands of policy indicators is
below the European average. It is closest to the average in terms offamily reunion, and furthest from the average in terms of antidiscrimination.
Figure 6.57: Comparative Performance:
Greece and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.16
1.78 1.78

1.89
1.71 1.71

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Gre
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Greece’s scores are thus less favourable in the cases of labour market
inclusion, long-term residence and family reunion, and moderately
unfavourable on nationality and anti-discrimination.
In labour market inclusion, Greece is above the European
average in access and eligibility but below the European average onother strands, especially rights associated with labour market
participation.
Long-term residence is an area of low scores, with performance
below the European average across all sections, and moderately
unfavourable in terms of eligibility.
While marginally above the European average in terms of bothsecurity and rights (where it enjoys solid moderately favourable96

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 97

scores), Greece performs poorly in the other areas of family reunion.
Nationality is another area weakness, as Greece performs below
the European average in all indicators. This is most noticeable insecurity of status, an unfavourable 1.00.
In terms of anti-discrimination, Greece performs well inequality agencies, but it is below the European average in all otherstrands:
Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.58: Labour Market Inclusion:
Greek Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.63

2.50

2.18

2.00

2.27

2.17
2.00

2.00
1.78

1.82
1.50

1.50

1.50

1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

Gre

Long-term residence
Figure 6.59: Long-term Residence:
Greek Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50
2.19

2.34

2.17

2.13

2.00

2.00

1.78

1.89

1.88

1.60

1.50

1.33

1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Gre

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Greece country profile

35950

97

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 98

Family Reunion
Figure 6.60: Family Reunion:
Greek Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.33

2.18

2.00

1.89

1.97

2.50

2.60
2.47

1.97

1.40

1.50

1.20

1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunionEur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Gre

Nationality
Figure 6.61: Nationality:
Greek Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50
2.17
2.02

2.04

2.03

2.00

1.88
1.71

1.75

2.00
1.84

1.50
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

98

Gre

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 99

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.62: Anti-Discrimination:
Greek Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.60

2.50

2.35
2.16

2.19
2.04

2.00

1.71

1.73

1.73

1.83

1.50
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

Gre

Greece country profile

35950

99

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 100

Ireland country profile

Figure 6.63: Overview of Ireland’s Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

40 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends
in International
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

100

In 2002, Ireland was host to 182,000 foreigners (4.7% of the
population), including 95,300 foreign workers (5.4% of theworkforce).40 Of the overall foreign population, the majority are EU
passport holders (just over 100,000), though the number of non-EU
nationals has been growing rapidly (52,000 to 80,000 from 2001 to2002). The main sources of foreign workers remained EU countries,
especially the UK.

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 101

Traditionally a country of emigration, Ireland has seen its laws on
immigration and inclusion evolve in a “piecemeal” andeconomically-driven fashion.41 There have been recent attempts togenerate a more coherent policy approach, including a public
consultation process launched in 2001. Ireland has maintained two
types of work permit, one covering most types of labour, the other avisa-based scheme for high-skilled workers. Additionally,“there is noprovision in Irish legislation for long-term secure resident status for
non-EEA nationals”.

Labour market statistics

TCNs experience persistently lower employment rates than both
Irish nationals and other EU-15 nationals, but these should bebalanced against relatively low TCN unemployment and long-term
unemployment rates:
Figure 6.64: Employment trends
Employment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
70
68
66
64
62
60
58
56
54
52
50
2002q03Total

41 This paragraphis based on T.
MacVeigh and
NCCRI, Ireland,in the EU and USApproaches to theManagement of
Immigration series(Migration PolicyGroup, Brussels,
2003).

2002q04

Nationals

2003q01

Non EU15

2003q02

2003q03

2003q04

2004q01

2004q02

Other EU15

The breakdown of employment and participation for Q2, 2003
shows that while rates for TCNs are lower in both cases, participation
rates are marginally more convergent.

Ireland country profile

35950

101

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 102

Table 6.50: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.51: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

64.97

Participation rate (%)

68.08

Rate for MSNs

65.26

Rate for MSNs

68.28

Rate for TCNs

56.02

Rate for TCNs

60.17

% difference TCNs from MSNs

14.15

% difference TCNs from MSNs

11.88

% difference TCNs from total

13.78% difference TCNs from total

11.61

Turning to the data on unemployment, although TCN’s are more
likely to be unemployed than Irish nationals, this is the context ofvery low overall unemployment, and the numbers involved are
relatively small. While there are some variations between
fluctuations in the TCN employment rate and the national rate, theunemployment rates of TCNs and Irish nationals have remained
relatively synchronised:
Figure 6.65: unemployment trends
Unemployment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
2002q03
Total

2002q04

Nationals

2003q01

Non EU15

2003q02

2003q04

2004q01

2004q02

Other EU15

Table 6.52: Comparative
Unemployment Rates(Q2, 2003)

102

2003q03

Table 6.53: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)

Unemployment Rate (%)

4.56

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

1.59

Rate for MSNs

4.43

Rate for MSNs

1.55

Rate for TCNs

6.90

Rate for TCNs

2.52

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-55.72% difference TCNs from MSNs

-62.07% difference TCNs from total-51.23% difference TCNs from total-58.41

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 103

In terms of types of employment, however, there remain distinct
discrepancies between TCNs and Irish nationals at all levels, mostclearly in middle and higher-skilled employment rates:
Table 6.54: Comparative Rates for Employment
according to Skill (low, medium or high; Q2, 2003)
Low

Medium

High

Total employment rate

47.73

70.65

84.71

Rate for MSNs

47.92

71.24

86.24

Rate for TCNs

36.46

52.41

65.26

% difference TCNs from MSNs

23.91

26.44

24.32

% difference TCNs from total

23.61

25.82

22.96

While relatively few Irish nationals hold temporary contracts, theseare more common among TCNs, who are significantly less likely tohold permanent contracts than the national average:
Table 6.55: Comparison of Employment by Typeof Contract (Permanent or Temporary; Q2, 2003
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

Total % in type of contract

88.72

4.76

% of MSNs in type of contract

89.32

4.54

% of TCNs in type of contract

75.33

10.88

% difference TCNs from MSNs

15.66

-139.70% difference TCNs from total

15.09-128.35

Both Irish nationals and TCNs enjoy high rates of training relative toother EU member-states, with TCNs more likely to have recently
received training. This is an apparent area of strength:
Table 6.56: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

22.32

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

22.31

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

25.96

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

-16.36Percentage difference TCNs from total-16.30Overall, the experience of TCNs in Ireland is thus reasonably positivein terms of comparative unemployment and training rates, but
questions remain over access to permanent contracts and higherskilled employment.

Ireland country profile

35950

103

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 104

Policy indicators

Overall performance
Ireland’s performance in two of five strands of indicators is above theEuropean average, noticeably in anti-discrimination. In the otherthree cases, the variation is smallest in family reunion and largest in
long-term residence, where there is a moderately unfavourable score.
Figure 6.66: Comparative Performance:
Irish and EU Averages

In labour market inclusion, Ireland is above the European average
3.00
2.50

2.47
2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.16

2.05

2.18

1.89
1.65

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Ire
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discriminationin security of employment status (a favourable 3.00) but it is below
the average on other strands, particularly access and eligibility andlabour market integration measures.
In terms of long-term residence, Ireland performs well on one
indicator, conditions for acquisition of status, but below average forthe others. It has an unfavourable 1.00 on eligibility in this strand.
While above the European average in terms of both eligibility
and conditions for acquisition of status, Ireland performs less well inrights associated with family reunion. Here, all its scores are within
the less favourable category.
Ireland performs very strongly on eligibility as well as rights
associated with nationality – on the former it scores 2.75, just below
a favourable result, and on the latter it has a favourable 3.00. It is notvery far below the average in conditions for acquisition and securityof status, although its score on the latter is moderately unfavourable.
Anti-discrimination is an area of particular strength overall,with performance above the European average across all sections,most clearly in policies and equality agencies. However, Ireland does104

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 105

not have any outstanding favourable scores in this strand.
Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.67: Labour Market Inclusion:
Irish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.63

2.50

2.18

2.00

2.27

2.17
1.89

2.00
1.82
1.50

1.50

1.33

1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

Ire

Long-term residence
Figure 6.68: Long-term Residence:
Irish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.13 2.20

2.19

2.00

2.34

2.17

1.89
1.65

1.57

1.63

1.50
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Ire

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Ireland country profile

35950

105

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 106

Family Reunion
Figure 6.69: Family Reunion:
Irish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.40

2.18
2.05

2.00

2.47

2.33
2.20

1.97

2.00

1.97

1.60

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunionEur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Ire

Nationality
Figure 6.70: Nationality:
Irish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00

2.75

2.50
2.02

2.18

2.17
2.03

2.00

2.04
1.88

1.84

1.67

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

106

Ire

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 107

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.71: Anti-Discrimination:
Irish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.64
2.47

2.50

2.60

2.35

2.16

2.19

2.43

2.27
2.04

2.00

1.83

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

Ire

Ireland country profile

35950

107

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 108

Italy country profile

Figure 6.72: Overview of Italy’s Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

42 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends
in International
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

108

In 2001, Italy was host to 1,362,000 foreigners (9.3% of the
population), including 803,100 foreign workers, the majority ofwhom live in the northern regions (773,400).42 Of the overall foreign
population, most were European (563,900) The main non-EU
nationalities of TCNs are Moroccans, Albanians, Romanians,
Filipinos and Chinese.
Italy first encountered significant net immigration in the later51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 109

1980s, and it has been argued that it has been relatively slow toformulate a long-term policy response.43 Since 1990, new legislationin this area has been common, with a 1998 framework law receiving
significant updating in 2002.
Italian migration policy includes a quota system that favours
certain (mainly Mediterranean) countries, but TCNs access to work
permits is based on the specific needs of employers. The 1998 law
introduced a long-term residence permit, currently open to TCNs
who have been in Italy for six years, for the first time.

Labour market statistics

43 The following
paragraphs are
based on J. Chaloff,
Italy, in the EU andUS Approaches tothe Managementof Immigration series(Migration PolicyGroup, Brussels,
2003).
44 Posted on the
ISTAT website, 28
September 2004
http://www.istat.it/
Imprese/Storico/index.htm.
45 http://www.
caritasroma.it/
immigrazione/

Italy does not as yet publish data comparable to that of the othercountries analysed here, although this might change in the near
future. ISTAT, the national statistical body which provides
information for the European Labour Force Survey, reported
recently that is has modified its format of enquiry “in line with thedispositions of the EU”.44
In the absence of LFS data, we therefore resort to the various
reports on migrants provided by civil society organisations such as
CARITAS (a Catholic organisation), INAIL (workers’ insurance
association), and IRES (union-funded research institute). Each ofthese organisations focuses on different aspects according to theirrespective interests, but at least provide some details of the labour
market experience of immigrants in Italy.
As with other Southern European countries, there are also highestimates of irregular working in Italy, which render any statisticalaccounts of the labour market situation for immigrants lesscomplete, although still valuable. As is the case with Greece, forexample, data shows lower rates of unemployment for immigrants.
The annual report on immigration produced by CARITAS45 reported
that for 2001 the unemployment rate for immigrants was 7.4%,
which is lower than the national rate of 9.5%. Data from INAIL alsosuggests that immigrants are less likely to be employed in temporary
or fixed term contracts than Italian nationals. The percentage ofimmigrants employed in fixed term contracts was 25.4% comparedwith a national rate of 32.8%.

Italy country profile

35950

109

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 110

Policy indicators

Overall performance
Italy’s performance in two of five strands, labour market inclusion
and nationality, is above the European average. Its strand scores are
all in the upper part of the less favourable category.
Figure 6.73: Comparative Performance:
Italy and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.16

2.22

2.09 2.16 2.06 2.06

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Ita
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Italy’s performance across labour market indicators is extremely
varied. In terms of both security of employment status and rights, it
has favourable 3.00 scores well above the European average. Yet itscores an unfavourable 1.00 on access and eligibility, balancing thesestrong scores.
In terms of long-term residence, Italy again has anunfavourable performance on eligibility, but does well elsewhere. In
most elements, there is little variation between the Italian andEuropean averages.
There is a similar lack of variation from the European averages,
across all sections within family reunion – its performance in termsof associated rights in this area is marginally weaker than other partsof this strand.
Though it has moderately unfavourable scores on rights and, toa lesser extent, security of status, Italy is above the European averageon the other indicators for nationality.
Italy’s performance on anti-discrimination is extremely varied,with a particularly strong moderately favourable performance on
definitions and scope. Conversely, it scores an unfavourable 1.00 on
equality agencies and a moderately unfavourable 1.57 on policies.
11051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 111

Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.74: Labour Market Inclusion:
Italian Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00

3.00
2.63

2.50

2.50

2.18 2.22

2.17

2.27

2.00
1.82

1.50
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

Ita

Long-term residence
Figure 6.75: Long-term Residence:
Italian Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50
2.19

2.13 2.20

2.09

2.00

2.17

2.29

2.34

2.25

1.89

1.50
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Ita

Italy country profile

35950

111

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 112

Family Reunion
Figure 6.76: Family Reunion:
Italian Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.33

2.18 2.16

2.00

2.50

2.47
2.20

1.97 2.00

1.97 2.00

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunion

Eur

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Ita

Nationality
Figure 6.77: Nationality:
Italian Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.25

2.25
2.02 2.06

2.03

2.17

2.04

2.00

1.84

1.67
1.50

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

112

Ita

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 113

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.78: Anti-Discrimination:
Italian Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.73

2.50

2.35
2.16

2.19 2.18

2.06

2.00

2.04
1.83
1.57

1.50
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

Ita

Italy country profile

35950

113

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 114

Luxembourg country profile

Figure 6.79: Overview of Luxembourg’s Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

46 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends
in International
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

114

In 2001, Luxembourg was host to 166,720 foreigners (37% of the
population), and 170,700 foreign workers (61% of the workforce).
101,300 of these were made up of cross-border workers, including
52,900 from France.46 Of the overall foreign population, 78% are EU
nationals, with the Portuguese community accounting for more thana third of this (13.4% of the total population). Foreigners frombordering countries (France, Belgium and Germany) accounted for

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 115

10% of the total population.
Luxembourg’s small size and long-standing reliance on foreign,typically European, labour give it a distinctive position with regard
to immigration and inclusion.47 The lack of a fully-developed legal
framework in areas such as family reunion has been noted.
Three types of work permits are currently available to TCNs,
covering: a single year’s employment with one employer; four years
in a single sector; and five years in any sector. Residence permits offive years duration are available separately.

Labour market statistics

The situation of TCNs within Luxembourg’s labour market isparticularly complex. They enjoy near-parity with nationals in termsof employment, and a higher rate of participation in the labour
market. However, unemployment among TCNs is conspicuously
higher than among Luxembourg nationals.
Starting with employment rates, limited data suggests thatTCNs have experienced marginally more positive trends than others
within Luxembourg:
Figure 6.80: Employment trends
Employment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
80
70
60
50
40
30
20
10
47 The following
paragraphs are
based on S.
Kollwelter,
Luxembourg,in the EU and USApproaches tothe Managementof Immigration
series (Migration
Policy Group,
Brussels, 2003).

0
Total
2002q02

2003q02

Nationals

non EU-15

other EU-15

Luxembourg country profile

35950

115

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 116

Table 6.57: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.58: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

62.72

Participation rate (%)

65.12

Rate for MSNs

59.55

Rate for MSNs

61.04

Rate for TCNs

57.37

Rate for TCNs

64.25

% difference TCNs from MSNs

3.65

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-5.25

% difference TCNs from total

8.52% difference TCNs from total

1.34

Conversely, a look at trends in unemployment rates demonstrates amarkedly less positive trend for TCNs when compared with MSNs.
The LFS shows that for the last two years TCNs have experienced
much higher rates than other nationalities, and this trend isincreasing within the context of rising total unemployment:
Figure 6.81: Unemployment trends
Unemployment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
Total
2002q02

Nationals

non EU-15

other EU-15

2003q02

When the figures are broken down to overall and long-term rates, we
can see that long-term unemployment for TCNs is significantly
higher in percentage terms than for MSNs, although this is in thecontext of very low long-term unemployment overall:

116

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 117

Table 6.59: Comparative
Unemployment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.60: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)

Unemployment Rate (%)

3.69

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

0.91

Rate for MSNs

2.44

Rate for MSNs

0.70

Rate for TCNs

10.70

Rate for TCNs

2.05

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-338.41% difference TCNs from MSNs

-195.18% difference TCNs from total-189.78% difference TCNs from total-125.19

The overall employment rate also obscures differences between lowskilled work (where TCNs have a higher employment rate than
Luxembourg nationals), medium-skilled work (where there is nearparity) and high-skilled work (where Luxembourg nationals have anotably higher employment rate). However, it is worth noting thatTCNs in Luxembourg have relatively high percentage levels of accessto employment in all three categories of work:
Table 6.61: Comparative Rates for Employment
according to Skill (low, medium or high; Q2, 2003)
Low

Medium

High

Total employment rate

50.83

65.44

80.30

Rate for MSNs

37.98

64.06

83.11

Rate for TCNs

47.90

60.69

63.51

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-26.11

5.26

23.59

% difference TCNs from total

5.77

7.25

20.91

In terms of contracts, the experience of TCNs is very close to that of
Luxembourg nationals. While TCNs are rather more likely to have
temporary work, virtually all TCNs and nationals enjoy permanentcontracts:
Table 6.62: Comparison of Employment by Typeof Contract (Permanent or Temporary; Q2, 2003)
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

Total % in type of contract

96.74

3.20

% of MSNs in type of contract

97.30

2.67

% of TCNs in type of contract

96.28

3.72

% difference TCNs from MSNs

1.04

-39.43% difference TCNs from total

0.48-16.25

Luxembourg country profile

35950

117

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 118

Similarly, TCNs and Luxembourg nationals have near-parity interms of access to training, with only marginally more nationals
having been recently trained:
Table 6.63: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

17.24

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

18.90

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

18.20

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

3.71

Percentage difference TCNs from total-5.52

Luxembourg’s small labour market seems, therefore, to offer
significant opportunities to TCNs within it. The relatively high levelof TCN unemployment should, nonetheless, be noted.

Policy indicators

Overall performance
Luxembourg performs above the European average on nationality
and below on all others, with a markedly low score on antidiscrimination, where it has a moderately unfavourable score:
Figure 6.82: Comparative Performance:
Luxembourg and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.18

2.16
1.78

2.00 2.00

1.50

1.38

1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Lux
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

In labour market inclusion, Luxembourg is above the European
average on rights associated with labour market participation but
well below the average in all other aspects, save labour market
118

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 119

inclusion measures. It has an unfavourable performance on accessand eligibility, scoring 1.00.
Luxembourg performs below the European average in all but
one of the indicators for long-term residence, with its strength being
conditions for long-term residence. All its scores in this strand aremoderately unfavourable.
Luxembourg performs well in security and conditions forfamily reunion but below average in the other two sections. There isconsiderable variation across this strand, with a low moderately
unfavourable score on rights contrasting with a moderately favourable
score on security.
In terms of nationality, Luxembourg has an unfavourable scoreof 1.00 on rights and is below the European average on security ofstatus. However, it is above the average in the other sections, mostnoticeably conditions for acquisition of status, where it has a strong
moderately favourable score.
Anti-discrimination is an area of weakness, with performancewell below the European average across all indicators. In addition toan unfavourable 1.00 on equality agencies, Luxembourg has
moderately unfavourable scores on all other elements.
Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.83: Labour Market Inclusion:
Luxembourg’s Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.63

2.50

2.18
2.00

2.00

2.27

2.17
1.78

2.50

2.00

1.82

1.50
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Lux

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

Luxembourg country profile

35950

119

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 120

Long-term residence
Figure 6.84: Long-term Residence:
Luxembourg’s Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.40

2.50
2.19

2.34

2.17

2.13

2.13

2.00

2.00

1.89

1.67

1.71

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Lux

Family Reunion
Figure 6.85: Family Reunion:
Luxembourg’s Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.40

2.33

2.50

2.47

2.18
2.00

2.00

1.97

1.97
1.80
1.40

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunion

Eur

120

Lux

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 121

Nationality
Figure 6.86: Nationality:
Luxembourg’s Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.63

2.50
2.02

2.25

2.18

2.17

2.04

2.03

2.00

1.84
1.67

1.50
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

Lux

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.87: Anti-Discrimination:
Luxembourg’s Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.35
2.16

2.19
2.04

2.00

1.83

1.50

1.38

1.45

1.55
1.29
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

Lux

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

Luxembourg country profile

35950

121

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 122

Netherlands country profile

Figure 6.88: Overview of Netherlands’ Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

48 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends inInternational
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

122

In 2001, the Netherlands was host to 690,000 foreigners (4.3% of the
population).48 Of the overall foreign population, a third were fromthe European Union whilst Turkish and Moroccan citizens each
represented 15%.
Immigration and inclusion are currently the subject of heatedpolitical debate within the Netherlands.49 Migration and inclusion
have been the subject of relatively recent legislative activity, with the51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 123

Aliens Act (which governs the residence of TCNs, but not their rightto work) dating from 2000. In 2004, the Dutch government used its
presidency of the EU to highlight integration issues.
The Dutch approach to work permits typically rests on
employers’ specific requirements rather than quotas. TCNs who holdwork permits for three consecutive years acquire a special status, anddo not need to apply for further work permits while they continue toreside in the Netherlands.

Labour market statistics

Results from the LFS show that TCNs experience a consistently andsignificantly lower employment rate than Dutch nationals, although
the discrepancy in terms of participation rates is notably smaller.
Additionally, the TCN employment rate, while marginally morevolatile than that of nationals, is not hugely so:
Figure 6.89: Employment trends
Employment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
95
85
75
65
55
45
35
25
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02
Total

49 The following
paragraphs are
based on I. Magnéeand E. Gerritsma,
The Netherlands,
in the EU and USApproaches to theManagement of
Immigration series(Migration PolicyGroup, Brussels,
2003).

Nationals

Non EU15

Other EU15

Netherlands country profile

35950

123

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 124

Table 6.64: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.65: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

73.61

Participation rate (%)

76.87

Rate for MSNs

74.46

Rate for MSNs

77.08

Rate for TCNs

46.77

Rate for TCNs

69.54

% difference TCNs from MSNs

37.19

% difference TCNs from MSNs

9.77

% difference TCNs from total

36.46% difference TCNs from total

9.53

Turning to unemployment rates, TCNs appear to be at a significant
disadvantage. Over recent years the TCN unemployment rate has
proved much more volatile than that for Dutch nationals, and it has
also shown a distinct upwards trend overall:
Figure 6.90: Unemployment trends
Unemployment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
25
20
15
10
5
0
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02
Total

Nationals

Other EU15

Breaking down the data in terms of types of unemployment for Q2,
2003, it can be seen that for both overall and long-term
unemployment TCNs are significantly more exposed, although thelatter is relatively low in absolute terms for both nationals and TCNs.
It should be noted that unemployment for TCNs following thesecond quarter of 2003 was to grow significantly in succeeding
quarters prior to a slight fall.

124

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 125

Table 6.66: Comparative
Unemployment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.67: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)

Unemployment Rate (%)

3.60

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

1.03

Rate for MSNs

3.39

Rate for MSNs

0.98

10.62

Rate for TCNs

Rate for TCNs

3.28

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-213.14% difference TCNs from MSNs

-235.51% difference TCNs from total-213.14% difference TCNs from total-218.45

Data on types of employment in the Netherlands comparable to thatused in other profiles has not been available as this is not collected for
the LFS. However, there is clear evidence of TCNs’ reliance on
temporary contracts relative to Dutch nationals:
Table 6.68: Comparison of Employment by Typeof Contract (Permanent or Temporary; Q2, 2003)
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

Total % in type of contract

84.99

14.39

% of MSNs in type of contract

85.55

13.82

% of TCNs in type of contract

67.54

32.12

% difference TCNs from MSNs

21.05

-132.40% difference TCNs from total

20.53-123.24

However, the Netherlands performs well in the area of training.
Here, TCNs are advantaged compared to an already high percentageof workers with recent training:
Table 6.69: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

26.17

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

25.84

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

37.72

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

-45.97

Percentage difference TCNs from total-44.13

It would thus appear, that in spite of certain areas of strength, theshort-term unemployment and contractual status of TCNs in the
Netherlands require particular attention.

Netherlands country profile

35950

125

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 126

Policy indicators

Overall performance
The Netherlands’ performance over four of the five strands of policy
indicators is above the European average, anti-discrimination being
an area of particular strength. It does fall below the average innationality, although by a relatively small margin. Nationality aside,
its performances are consistently moderately favourable:
Figure 6.91: Comparative Performance:
Dutch and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.65

2.56 2.48
2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.26

2.16

1.94

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Net
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Labour market inclusion is an area of strength for the Netherlands
as it is well above the European average in all indicators, withmoderately favourable scores in three areas, and a favourable 3.00 on
security of employment status.
The Netherlands similarly performs above average across all
sections for long-term residence, with a particular strength ineligibility and rights associated with status (on both it scores in theupper half of the moderately favourable category). On conditions foracquisition of status, it has moderately unfavourable score, if by asmall margin.
The Netherlands is very close to the European average in two of
the indicators for family reunion. It is below average in security ofstatus but well above in terms of rights, where it has a favourable
score of 3.00.
With regard to nationality, the Netherlands performs above
average in rights and eligibility but it is below average in other areas.
Except on dual nationality, where there is a moderately favourable
score, there are moderately unfavourable scores throughout this126

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 127

strand.
Anti-discrimination is another area of strength, with figures
well above the European averages in all sections bar policies (where
the moderately unfavourable score is relatively close to the European
average). On both definitions and scope, and remedies andsanctions, the Netherlands has favourable scores.
Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.92: Labour Market Inclusion:
Dutch Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.63

2.56

2.50

2.50
2.33

2.18

2.17

2.27

2.50

2.00
1.82

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

Net

Long-term residence
Figure 6.93: Long-term Residence:
Dutch Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

2.75

2.67
2.48

2.50

2.13 2.20

2.19

2.00

2.17 2.29

2.34

1.89

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Net

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Netherlands country profile

35950

127

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 128

Family Reunion
Figure 6.94: Family Reunion:
Dutch Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.50
2.00

2.47

2.33

2.18 2.26
1.97 2.00

1.97 2.00

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

2.00

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunion

Eur

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Net

Nationality
Figure 6.95: Nationality:
Dutch Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.50

2.25
2.02

2.00

1.94

2.03

2.17
2.04
1.75

1.84
1.67

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

128

Net

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 129

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.96: Anti-Discrimination:
Dutch Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00

2.82
2.65

2.50

2.60
2.35

2.16

2.19
2.04

2.00

1.83

1.86

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

Net

Netherlands country profile

35950

129

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 130

Portugal country profile

Figure 6.97: Overview of Portugal’s Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

50 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends
in International
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

130

In 2002, Portugal was host to 405,000 foreigners (3.4% of the
population, but foreign workers made up 4.5% of the workforce).50
Of the overall foreign population, the majority comes from Europe
and Africa, though the relative share of nationals from East
European countries and Russia is growing.
Portugal’s status as a new immigration country searching for anenhanced legal framework was confirmed by its 2003 adoption of a

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 131new law on the rights of foreigners.51 This included the transpositionof a number of European directives and political recognition of theeconomic advantages of legal migration – coupled with an emphasis
on integration.
Portuguese law currently allows for two types of work visas for
TCNs, short-term and long-term. While some questions regarding
the transposition of directives remain, Portugal’s efforts to expand
the rights of longer-term residents in particular have been noted.

Labour market statistics

According to the LFS data, TCNs in Portugal have a very high level ofaccess to work, but it tends to be of a temporary nature, with a heavyemphasis on low-skilled labour. As with many countries included inthis survey, however, Portugal is a country with a high level of
estimated irregular working, which is an important aspect of thelabour market which is not captured by the LFS, which by its very
nature only records the formal labour market.
LFS data shows that TCNs have experienced a marginally higher
employment rate than Portuguese nationals in the context of an
overall convergence in recent years. The breakdown for the second
quarter of 2003 also shows that TCNs enjoy a markedly higher
participation rate:
Figure 6.98: Employment trends
Employment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
100
95
90
85
80
51 The following
paragraphs are
based on A. Esteves,
M.L. Fonseca and J.
Malheiros, The
Netherlands,
in the EU and USApproaches to theManagement of
Immigration series(Migration PolicyGroup, Brussels,
2003).

75
70
65
60
55
50
2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

Other EU15

Portugal country profile

35950

131

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 132

Table 6.70: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.71: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

68.17

Participation rate (%)

72.90

Rate for MSNs

68.10

Rate for MSNs

72.73

Rate for TCNs

72.48

Rate for TCNs

81.29

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-6.42

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-11.76% difference TCNs from total-6.32% difference TCNs from total-11.50In contrast, when we look at overall trends in unemployment, TCNs
experience a higher rate than Portuguese nationals. It is worth noting
here that TCN unemployment levels have fluctuated significantly,
such that a snapshot of either the first or third quarters of 2003
would have indicated a greater discrepancy than that which we see inthe subsequent analysis of the second quarter. Overall, however, theTCN unemployment rate does appear to demonstrate a gradualupwards trajectory:
Figure 6.99: Unemployment trends
Unemployment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
25
20
15
10
5
0
2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

In spite of this overall trend, the breakdown into overall and longterm unemployed for Q2, 2003 reveals that TCNs have a marginallylower long-term unemployment rate when compared withnationals, suggesting relative ease of access to new work:132

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 133

Table 6.72: Comparative
Unemployment Rates(Q2, 2003)
Unemployment Rate (%)

Table 6.73: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)
6.49

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

2.12

Rate for MSNs

6.36

Rate for MSNs

2.12

Rate for TCNs

10.84

Rate for TCNs

2.09

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-70.33% difference TCNs from MSNs

1.34

% difference TCNs from total-66.87% difference TCNs from total

1.34

The availability of low-skilled employment for TCNs is highlighted
by the near-parity between TCN and national employment rates inthis area. It is, however, also worth noting that the TCN employment
rate in medium-skilled work is very high. By contrast, thediscrepancy between the national and TCN high-skilledemployment rates is broad:
Table 6.74: Comparative Rates for Employment
according to Skill (low, medium or high; Q2, 2003)
Low

Medium

High

Total employment rate

66.79

63.76

82.28

Rate for MSNs

66.82

63.14

83.24

Rate for TCNs

67.06

78.54

49.54

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-0.36

-24.393.58% difference TCNs from total-0.39-23.193.29

The contrast between TCNs and Portuguese nationals in terms ofcontracts is particularly striking. Portugal and Spain are the only
countries in which a majority of TCNs are registered as holding
temporary contracts, confirming the working-pattern suggested
above:
Table 6.75: Comparison of Employment by Typeof Contract (Permanent or Temporary; Q2, 2003)
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

Total % in type of contract

79.36

20.64

% of MSNs in type of contract

80.64

19.36

% of TCNs in type of contract

33.61

66.39

% difference TCNs from MSNs

58.33

-243.00% difference TCNs from total

57.65-221.67

Portugal country profile

35950

133

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 134

In terms of training, TCNs are only marginally less likely to haverecently received training than Portuguese nationals:
Table 6.76: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

13.75

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

13.75

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

13.25

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

3.65

Percentage difference TCNs from total

3.60

The experience of TCNs in the Portuguese labour market is thus
unusual (if, not surprisingly, comparable with the situation in
Spain). While reflecting the Portuguese economic climate, thebalance between types of employment and contracts may be a
subject for particular focus.

Policy indicators

Overall performance
Portugal’s performance over all five strands of policy indicators isabove the European average. It is significantly closer to the European
average with regard to anti-discrimination and much closer to theaverage in the other areas:
Figure 6.100: Comparative Performance:
Portuguese and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.76
2.44

2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.16

2.17

2.32
2.12

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

134

Long-term Residence

Por
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 135

Notably, Portugal has moderately favourable scores on both labour
market inclusion and family reunion, and a favourable performanceon anti-discrimination.
With the exception of labour market integration measures,
Portugal performs above the European average in all other indicatorsfor labour market inclusion. It has a significantly higher score thanthe European average in access and eligibility (a favourable 3.00) andsecurity of employment status.
In long-term residence, Portugal performs above the European
average in all but one indicator, eligibility, though it is consistently
close to the European average. In the case of eligibility, Portugal has amoderately unfavourable score.
Portugal performs below the European average on security offamily reunion, and scores moderately unfavourable scores in allareas bar associated rights. On this latter area, Portugal has afavourable performance of 3.00.
Similarly, Portugal has a favourable score on rights associatedwith nationality, while again performing less well on other elementsof the strand. It is below average in terms of eligibility and, to a lesser
extent, conditions for acquisition, with moderately unfavourable
scores.
Anti-discrimination is Portugal’s strongest area as it performs
well above average across all sections – it has favourable scores onboth definitions and scope and remedies, and moderately favourable
scores in other elements.

Portugal country profile

35950

135

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 136

Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.101: Labour Market Inclusion:
Portuguese Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.63
2.44

2.50

2.33

2.27

2.17

2.18

2.50

2.00

2.00
1.82

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

Por

Long-term residence
Figure 6.102: Long-term Residence:
Portuguese Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50
2.19 2.17

2.00

1.89

2.13 2.20

2.17 2.14

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

2.34 2.38

1.67

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

136

Por

Eligibility
for Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 137

Family Reunion
Figure 6.103: Family Reunion:
Portuguese Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.50

2.18

2.33

2.32

2.00

1.97 2.00

1.97 2.00

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

2.47
2.25

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunion

Eur

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Por

Nationality
Figure 6.104: Nationality:
Portuguese Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.50

2.33
2.02 2.12

2.00

2.17

2.04 2.00

2.03

1.84

1.75

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

Por

Portugal country profile

35950

137

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 138

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.105: Anti-Discrimination:
Portuguese Indicators and EU Averages
2.27

3.00

2.82

2.76

2.60

2.50

2.43

2.35
2.16

2.19
2.04

2.00

1.83

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

138

Por

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 139

Spain country profile

Figure 6.106: Overview of Spain’s Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

52 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends
in International
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

In 2001, Spain was host to 1.1 million foreigners (9.3% of the
population), including 557,100 foreign workers.52 Of the overall
foreign population, Europe is still the main region of origin(412,500), followed by the Americas (just over 300,000) and Africa(nearly 300,000). The largest national group is made up by
Moroccans (235,000), followed by Ecuadorians (85,000) and then
British (80,000).

Spain country profile

35950

139

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 140

Spanish attitudes to TCNs and migration have recently undergone a
period of change, with 2000 seeing a “discovery” of immigration as asocial and political issue.53 This was reflected in a bout of legislation
intended to reform migration and foreigner’s rights issues. Although
one goal of this reform was to slow the immigration rate, this has
continued to be high. Local and regional authorities have asignificant degree of responsibility in this policy area.
Currently, TCNs wishing to reside and work in Spain may holdshort or long-term permits, both subject to quota restrictions. After
2000, significant efforts were made to ensure that these quotas weremaintained, but this has reportedly resulted in an increasing numberof TCNs working without permits of either type.

Labour market statistics

Data from the LFS suggests that TCNs in Spain experience both
higher employment and participation rates than Spanish nationals.
Although problems of unemployment and a lack of training
opportunities remain, Spain is also notable for a high rate of TCN
employment in higher-skilled work. However, as with Portugal,
Greece and Italy, high estimates of irregular working practices meanthat data from the LFS provides only a partial picture of the labour
market, which should be taken into consideration throughout thefollowing analysis.
Starting with employment rates, data from the LFS shows thatwhile the TCN employment rate has fluctuated a little more thanthat for Spanish nationals, although in the context of an overall
convergence. The rates for non-Spanish (TCN and non-Spanish EU
nationals) have typically risen and fallen in unison which perhaps
reflects the importance of tourism-related seasonal employment:

53 The following
paragraphs are
based on R.ZapataBarrero, Spain,in the EU and USApproaches to theManagement of
Immigration series(Migration PolicyGroup, Brussels,
2003).

140

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 141

Figure 6.107: Employment trends
Employment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
75
70
65
60
55
50
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

Other EU15

Table 6.77: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.78: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

59.56

Participation rate (%)

67.05

Rate for MSNs

59.36

Rate for MSNs

66.72

Rate for TCNs

66.54

Rate for TCNs

78.96

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-12.09% difference TCNs from MSNs

-18.33% difference TCNs from total-11.71% difference TCNs from total-17.75Turning to unemployment rates, we see a mirror image of the trends
in employment rates. While TCN unemployment is high, this is in
the context of relatively high overall unemployment. The rate of
TCN unemployment is notably less consistent than that for Spanish
nationals:

Spain country profile

35950

141

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 142

Figure 6.108: Unemployment trends
Unemployment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
25
20
15
10
5
0
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

Other EU15

The breakdown of unemployment rates into overall and long-term
reflects the fact that long-term unemployment is relatively low in
Spain, and not drastically more common among TCNs:
Table 6.79: Comparative
Unemployment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.80: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)

Unemployment Rate (%)

11.17

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

3.78

Rate for MSNs

11.03

Rate for MSNs

3.77

Rate for TCNs

15.73

Rate for TCNs

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-42.54% difference TCNs from MSNs

-13.90% difference TCNs from total-40.76% difference TCNs from total-13.544.29

As in Portugal, the percentage rate of TCN employment in low andmedium-skilled employment is actually higher than that formember-state nationals. Significantly, however, the discrepancy
between the high-skilled employment rates for TCNs and nationals
is fairly slight:

142

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 143

Table 6.81: Comparative Rates for Employment
according to Skill (low, medium or high; Q2, 2003)
Low

Medium

High

Total employment rate

53.55

59.99

78.57

Rate for MSNs

53.29

59.56

78.81

Rate for TCNs

64.12

71.46

71.31

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-20.31-19.999.51% difference TCNs from total-19.73-19.13

9.23

While temporary contracts are widespread in the Spanish labour
market as a whole, they are particularly preponderant among TCNs:
Table 6.82: Comparison of Employment by Typeof Contract (Permanent or Temporary; Q2, 2003)
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

Total % in type of contract

69.36

30.64

% of MSNs in type of contract

70.49

29.51

% of TCNs in type of contract

37.81

62.19

% difference TCNs from MSNs

46.36

-110.75% difference TCNs from total

45.48-102.97

In contrast to Portugal, there is a notable gap between the percentage
of TCNs who have had recent access to training and the figure for
Spanish nationals:
Table 6.83: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

16.24

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

16.44

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

10.08

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

38.66

Percentage difference TCNs from total

37.93

While there are outstanding questions over training and the balanceof temporary and permanent work for TCNs, the Spanish labour
market does contain a variety of opportunities for TCNs.

Spain country profile

35950

143

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 144

Policy indicators

Overall performance
Like Portugal, Spain’s performance over all five strands of policy
indicators is above the European average. Its strongest area is labour
market inclusion, where it has a favourable score:
Figure 6.109: Comparative Performance:
Spanish and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.78
2.39

2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.16

2.32

2.26
2.06

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Spa
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

In addition to this favourable performance, Spain has a moderately
favourable score on all areas except nationality, where it is lessfavourable.
Spain is well above the European average across all labour market
inclusion issues, with favourable scores of 3.00 on both security of
employment status and integration measures, and moderately
favourable scores on other elements.
In terms of long-term residence, Spain is again above theEuropean average in all indicators, though the differences are not as
great. A less favourable performance on conditions for acquisition of
status aside, Spain has a consistent moderately favourable
performance in this strand.
While above the European average in rights associated withfamily reunion and, marginally, in eligibility, Spain is not as strong
in terms of security and conditions. Thus it has a favourable 3.00 interms of rights, but less favourable scores across the rest of the strand.
Though it is above the European average in eligibility andsecurity, and only marginally below the average in conditions foracquisition, Spain performs poorly in terms of rights associated withnationality. In this strand, it has moderately unfavourable scores in
144

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 145

all areas except security of status.
With regard to anti-discrimination, Spain performs well inpolicies and remedies and sanctions but is well below the European
average in equality agencies, where it has an unfavourable score of
1.00.
Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.110: Labour Market Inclusion:
Spanish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00

2.78

2.50

2.67

3.00

2.63

2.18

2.27

2.17

2.50

2.00
1.82

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

Spa

Long-term residence
Figure 6.111: Long-term Residence:
Spanish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.57

2.50
2.19

2.39

2.00

2.33

2.13 2.20

2.17

2.34 2.38

1.89

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Spa

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Spain country profile

35950

145

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 146

Family Reunion
Figure 6.112: Family Reunion:
Spanish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.50
2.18

2.33

2.26

2.00

1.97 2.00

2.47
2.25

1.97
1.80

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunionEur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Spa

Nationality
Figure 6.113: Nationality:
Spanish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.33

2.25
2.02 2.06

2.03

2.00

2.17

2.04 2.00
1.84
1.50

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

146

Spa

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 147

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.114: Anti-Discrimination:
Spanish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

2.73

2.50

2.32

2.35

2.27

2.16

2.71

2.19
2.04

2.00

1.83

1.50
1.00

1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

Spa

Spain country profile

35950

147

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 148

Sweden country profile

Figure 6.115: Overview of Sweden’s Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

54 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends
in International
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

148

In 2001, Sweden was host to 476,000 foreigners (5.3% of the
population), including 222,000 foreign workers.54 Of the overall
foreign population, just over a third came from Nordic countries.
The biggest groups of non-EU nationals were from Iraq (36,200),
the former Yugoslavia (20,700) and Iran (13,500).
As these places of origin suggest, the presence of TCNs in
Sweden often reflects international crises as much as domestic

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 149

economic needs. It has been argued that Swedish immigration policy
rests on efforts to balance the basic rights of foreigners with an
overall desire to limit immigration. Issues around migration andinclusion led to heated political debate in the 1980s, which still
continues.

Labour market statistics

The LFS data shows that TCNs consistently experience significantly
lower and relatively unchanging rates of employment andparticipation in the labour market than Swedish nationals:
Figure 6.116: Employment trends
Employment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
85
75
65
55
45
35
25
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

Other EU15

Table 6.84: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.85: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

73.57

Participation rate (%)

77.95

Rate for MSNs

74.41

Rate for MSNs

78.54

Rate for TCNs

51.74

Rate for TCNs

63.11

% difference TCNs from MSNs

30.47

% difference TCNs from MSNs

19.65

% difference TCNs from total

29.67% difference TCNs from total

19.04

While there is therefore a strong correlation between the TCN
employment rate and that of the rest of the workforce, the TCN
unemployment rate in contrast has risen more sharply than thenational average in recent years. Additionally, TCN unemployment isSweden country profile

35950

149

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 150

high, in spite of a context of generally low unemployment:
Figure 6.117: Unemployment trends
Unemployment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02
Total

Nationals

Non EU15

Other EU15

When we turn to the breakdown of long-term versus overall
unemployment for Q2, 2003, the rate of long-term unemployment
for TCNs (4.44%) is low per se, but it is nevertheless considerable
relative to a national rate of less than 1%:
Table 6.86: Comparative
Unemployment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.87: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)

Unemployment Rate (%)

5.63

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

0.91

Rate for MSNs

5.26

Rate for MSNs

0.81

Rate for TCNs

18.01

Rate for TCNs

4.44

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-242.62% difference TCNs from MSNs

-450.95% difference TCNs from total-220.24% difference TCNs from total-389.93

The discrepancy noted in overall employment levels is common
across all types of employment. However it is notable that, in spite ofthese differences, the rate of high-skilled employment for TCNs ishigher than the rates of both low and medium-skilled employment:150

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 151

Table 6.88: Comparative Rates for Employment according
to Skill (low, medium or high; Q2, 2003)
Low

Medium

High

Total employment rate

56.99

79.10

85.86

Rate for MSNs

57.72

79.70

86.78

Rate for TCNs

40.14

60.98

63.07

% difference TCNs from MSNs

30.45

23.49

27.32

% difference TCNs from total

29.56

22.90

26.55

In terms of contracts, TCNs are markedly more likely to holdtemporary contracts than are Swedish nationals:
Table 6.89: Comparison of Employment by Typeof Contract (Permanent or Temporary; Q2, 2003)
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

84.44

15.56

Total % in type of contract% of MSNs in type of contract

84.80

15.20

% of TCNs in type of contract

69.56

30.44

% difference TCNs from MSNs

17.97

-100.26% difference TCNs from total

17.62-95.66

Training is an area of strength for the Swedish labour market as awhole, and it benefits TCNs. A TCN is marginally more likely to have
had recent training than a Swedish national:
Table 6.90: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

35.77

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

35.82

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

39.58

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

-10.50Percentage difference TCNs from total-10.64

While TCNs do enjoy some advantages in the Swedish labour
market, it should be noted that there are outstanding issues of
employment and participation to be addressed.

Sweden country profile

35950

151

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 152

Policy indicators

Overall performance
Sweden’s performance over all five strands of policy indicators isabove the European average, with noticeable strengths in family
reunion and anti-discrimination. It has moderately favourable scoresin all areas except nationality:
Figure 6.118: Comparative Performance:
Swedish and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.16

2.33 2.35

2.59

2.47
2.12

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Swe
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

In labour market inclusion, Sweden is well above the European
average in terms of access and eligibility but well below average insecurity of employment status (where it has a less favourable score).
The differences in the other two indicators are less marked.
Sweden is above the European average in each indicator for
long-term residence, save eligibility on which it demonstrates amoderately unfavourable performance. It is particularly strong inrights associated with residence.
In terms of family reunion, Sweden performs particularly wellwith regard to rights (a favourable 3.00) and is also above theEuropean average in eligibility and conditions for acquisition. It isslightly below average in security of reunion.
With regard to nationality, another strong performance inrights (3.00) is complemented with an above-average performancefor conditions for acquisition. However, Sweden is below theEuropean average in eligibility and security of nationality, with lessfavourable performances.
Anti-discrimination is the other area of strength for Sweden,
where it performs well above average in definitions and scope (3.00),
152

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 153

equality agencies and policies. It is marginally below the European
average, however, in remedies and sanctions.
Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.118: Labour Market Inclusion:
Swedish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.67

2.50

2.63

2.33

2.27

2.17

2.18

2.00

2.00

2.00

2.50

1.82

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

Swe

Long-term residence
Figure 6.119: Long-term Residence:
Swedish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

2.75

2.50
2.19

2.35

2.00

2.13 2.20

2.17

2.29

2.34

1.89
1.67

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Swe

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Sweden country profile

35950

153

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 154

Family Reunion
Figure 6.120: Family Reunion:
Swedish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.47

2.50

2.40

2.33
2.20

2.18
1.97

2.00

2.47
2.25

1.97

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunionEur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

Swe

Nationality
Figure 6.121: Nationality:
Swedish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00
2.50

2.25
2.02 2.12

2.00

2.17

2.04

2.03

1.84

1.75

1.57

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

154

Swe

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 155

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.122: Anti-Discrimination:
Swedish Indicators and EU Averages
3.00

3.00

2.71

2.60

2.59

2.50

2.35
2.16

2.19 2.10

2.00

2.04
1.83

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

Swe

Sweden country profile

35950

155

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 156

United Kingdom
country profile

Figure 6.123: Overview of UK’s Indicators
Eligibility
Pro-active Policies

Security of Employment Status

3.00

Labour Market
Integration Measures

Equality Agencies
Remediesand Sanctions

2.00

Definitions
and Scope

1.00

Dual Nationality

Rights Associatedwith LabourMarket Participation
Eligibility
for Status
Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

0.00

Security of Status

Security of Status

Conditions for
Acquisition of Status

Rights Associatedwith Status
Eligibility for Status

Eligibility for Status
Rights Associated with Status
Security of Status

Labour Market Inclusion

Long-term Residence

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Conditions for Acquisitionof Status

Family Reunion

Background

55 Data in thisparagraph is drawn
from OECD, Trends inInternational
Migration, Annual
Report 2003 (Paris,2003), pp158-161.

156

In 2001, the UK was host to 2.6 million foreigners (4.4% of the
population), including 1.2 million foreign workers (4.4% of theworkforce).55 Of the overall foreign population, the Irish remained
the largest national group but declined as a proportion of the foreign
population to 15.3% from 16.8%. Europe was the largest source of
foreign residents at 46% of the total, a slight increase due to thegrowth in numbers of Central and Eastern Europeans citizens.

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 157

African nationals declined to 14% but Asians as a proportion grew to21%.
Migration and inclusion are key issues in British political debate.56
While Britain is home to long-standing migrant communities, its
current approach to TCNs is based on a tightly-maintained work
permit system. The UK has opted out of most sections of European
co-operation regarding migration, meaning that “the government
does not participate in measures which would create new rights ofentry for third country nationals.”Labour market statistics

Overall, the LFS data suggests that while TCNs in the UK haveadvantages in terms of training and representation among thehighly-skilled, they are at an apparent disadvantage relative to British
nationals in terms of employment and participation.
Starting with employment rates, that of TCNs has varied
significantly relatively a fairly consistent national average (although
the employment rate of other EU citizens has demonstrated similar
volatility).
Figure 6.124: Employment trends
Employment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
75
70
65
60
55

56 This paragraphis based on A.
Baldacinni, The
United Kingdom,in the EU and USApproaches to theManagement of
Immigration series(Migration PolicyGroup, Brussels,
2003).

5
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02 2004q03

Total

Nationals

Non EU15

Other EU15

United Kingdom country profile

35950

157

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 158

Table 6.91: Comparative
Employment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.92: Comparative
Participation Rates(Q2, 2003)

Employment Rate (%)

71.69

Participation rate (%)

75.35

Rate for MSNs

72.30

Rate for MSNs

75.85

Rate for TCNs

57.21

Rate for TCNs

63.08

% difference TCNs from MSNs

20.87

% difference TCNs from MSNs

16.84

% difference TCNs from total

20.20% difference TCNs from total

16.29

Turning to the recent trends in unemployment, the TCN
unemployment rate, although marginally more volatile than that for
the rest of the workforce, does not demonstrate considerable
fluctuations:Figure 6.125: Unemployment trends
Unemployment of people between 15 & 64 years old (%)
25
20
15
10
5
0
2002q01 2002q02 2002q03 2002q04 2003q01 2003q02 2003q03 2003q04 2004q01 2004q02 2004q03

Total

Nationals

Non EU15

Other EU15

While we can see that the unemployment rate for TCNs is
consistently higher than that for British nationals, the long-term
unemployment rate as shown in the breakdown for Q2, 2003, isrelatively low for both nationals and TCNs:

158

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 159

Table 6.93: Comparative
Unemployment Rates(Q2, 2003)

Table 6.94: Comparative
Long-term Unemployment
Rates (Q2, 2003)

Unemployment Rate (%)

4.85

Long-term unemployment rate (%)

1.11

Rate for MSNs

4.68

Rate for MSNs

1.09

9.30

Rate for TCNs

Rate for TCNs

1.74

% difference TCNs from MSNs

-98.60% difference TCNs from MSNs

-60.38% difference TCNs from total-91.82% difference TCNs from total-57.31

As in Sweden, the employment rates for high and medium-skilled
TCN employment are higher than that for low-skilled labour:
Table 6.95: Comparative Rates for Employment according
to Skill (low, medium or high; Q2, 2003)
Low

Medium

High

Total employment rate

51.37

77.12

87.49

Rate for MSNs

52.32

77.38

87.94

Rate for TCNs

33.49

57.92

75.58

% difference TCNs from MSNs

35.98

25.15

14.05

% difference TCNs from total

34.80

24.90

13.61

Again similar to Sweden, the number of TCNs on temporary
contracts is high relative to the national average:
Table 6.96: Comparison of Employment by Type ofContract (Permanent or Temporary; Q2, 2003
Permanent Contract

Temporary Contract

Total % in type of contract

93.43

5.60

% of MSNs in type of contract

93.80

5.23

% of TCNs in type of contract

84.71

14.24

% difference TCNs from MSNs

9.69

-172.08% difference TCNs from total

9.33-154.46

The UK is notable in that training is not only an area of strength forthe labour market overall, but that TCNs are considerably more
likely to have recently received training than British nationals:

United Kingdom country profile

35950

159

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 160

Table 6.97: Proportion of workers having received
training in 4 weeks previous to survey (Q2, 2003)
Country-wide proportion receiving training in previous 4 wks

28.10

Percentage of MSNs receiving training in last 4 wks

27.66

Percentage of TCNs receiving training in last 4 wks

38.43

Percentage difference TCNs from MSNs

-38.96Percentage difference TCNs from total-36.77

While the UK labour market favours training and higher-skilled
TCNs, it demonstrates outstanding problems of employment andparticipation for TCNs generally.

Policy indicators57

Overall performance
Britain is very close to the European average in each indicator. It isslightly higher than average in labour market inclusion, longer-term
residence and nationality and slightly below in anti-discrimination.
All its strand scores are within the less favourable category.
Figure 6.126: Comparative Performance:
British and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.18 2.19 2.18
2.02

2.00

2.16

2.22 2.17

2.16 2.18 2.15

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Eur
Labour Market Inclusion

57 Devised by the
Migration Policy
group and Europe
in the World Centre
as describedin the methodology
section.

160

Long-term Residence

UK
Family Reunion

Nationailty

Anti-Discrimination

Though Britain performs above the European average in access andeligibility and labour market integration measures, it is below
average in security and rights associated with labour market
participation.
Britain is below the European average with regard to rights
associated with long-term residence and, to a much larger degree, to51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 161

eligibility. However, it performs comparably better in conditions foracquisition and security.
Again, this time for family reunion, Britain is above theEuropean average for two of the indicators and below for the otherhalf. However, there is not too much difference between the figures,with the exception of security of reunion, where it performs poorly.
Though it is slightly below the European average for eligibility
for nationality, Britain performs well in the other three indicators,
especially security.
In terms of anti-discrimination, there are again no significant
differences between Britain’s performance and the European
averages; it is slightly below in remedies and sanctions but
marginally higher in the other three indicators.
Labour market inclusion
Figure 6.127: Labour Market Inclusion:
British Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.63
2.50

2.50

2.18 2.22

2.50
2.17

2.00

2.00

2.27
2.00

1.82

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Labour Market
Inclusion

Eur

Eligibility

Security of
Employment
StatusIntegration
measures inthe LabourMarketRights Associatedwith Labour Market
Participation

UK

United Kingdom country profile

35950

161

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 162

Long-term residence
Figure 6.128: Long-term Residence:
British Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.40
2.13

2.19 2.17

2.00

2.17

2.29

2.34

2.25

1.89

1.50

1.33

1.00
0.50
0.00
Long-term
Residence

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

UK

Family Reunion
Figure 6.129: Family Reunion:
British Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.47 2.40

2.33
2.18 2.16

2.00

2.20
1.97 2.00

1.97

2.00

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
FamilyReunion

Eur

162

UK

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Rights Associatedwith Status

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 163

Nationality
Figure 6.130: Nationality:
British Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50

2.50
2.02

2.18

2.03 2.00

2.00

2.04

2.33

2.13

2.17

1.84

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
Nationality

Eur

Eligibility
for Status

Conditions
for Acquisitionof Status

Securityof Status

Dual
Nationality

UK

Anti-Discrimination
Figure 6.148: Anti-Discrimination:
British Indicators and EU Averages
3.00
2.50
2.16 2.15

2.35 2.36
2.19
2.00

2.00

2.00

2.04

2.14

1.83

1.50
1.00
0.50
0.00
AntiDiscrimination

Eur

UK

Definitions
and scope

Remedies
andSanctions

Equality
Agencies

Pro-active
Policies

United Kingdom country profile

35950

163

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 164

Annex I
Indicators and Options

Labour market inclusion strand
In the Commission’s first Annual Reporton Migration and Integration (2004)
lack of access to employment was
identified in the majority of countries
as the most important barrier tointegration and therefore the mosturgent political priority for national
integration policies.
Restricting access to employment is
exclusionary, hinders mobility, and leads
to a potential loss of skills to the economy,
yet European countries are characterisedby a structure of inclusion and exclusion.
This restriction of access to the labour
market can occur in a very explicit sense interms of sectors and occupations that arereserved for nationals or EU nationals, but
it can also be more indirect through the
non-recognition of qualifications, thetying of work permits to specific jobs or
sectors, or lack of access to education,
vocational training, etc.
For example, EU nationals haveunrestricted work and residence in any
other EU member state, whereas different
arrangements exist for citizens of the newaccession states in different countries
while nationals of other countries might
be covered by bilateral agreements.
Likewise, the recognition of academic andprofessional qualifications is an essential
part of access to the labour market andmobility as it allows individuals to findwork, and in the same way EU nationals
often enjoy pan-European recognition
while third country nationals are either164

not covered, or have to rely on ad-hoc orbilateral arrangements.
1.1 Access and Eligibility
Favourable
The same procedures that apply to EEA
nationals for the recognition of academic
and professional qualifications apply tothird country nationals. Third country
nationals enjoy equal access toemployment including the public sector,
but not including the exercise of publicauthority, and access to self-employment
is only limited by the financial viability of
the individual’s business plan.
Less favourable
Different procedures to those which apply
to EEA nationals for the recognition ofacademic and professional qualifications
apply to third country nationals.
Restrictions exist with regards to theemployment of third country nationals in
the public sector, and other limiting
conditions and restrictions restrict the
granting of self-employed status for third
country nationals, such as linguistic
ability.
Unfavourable
There is no recognition of academic andprofessional qualifications for third
country nationals, or there is a possible
down-grading of qualifications. Access toemployment in the public sector and othersectors is restricted by nationality. In the51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 165

case of self-employment, certain sectors
and activities are reserved solely fornationals/ EU nationals.
1.2 Security of Employment Status
Most countries have more than one work
permit scheme in place, and typicallydifferent systems have different conditionsin terms of duration, and whether theindividual is tied to a specific employer or
sector. As a result of the complexity
involved in each country, rather thanlooking separately at all the different types
of work permits available, we focus onwhat happens following admission for all
permits of one year or more in terms of
how easy it is to renew work permits, andthe security of the status for the migrant
worker after the termination of thepermit.
Favourable
All work permits (except for seasonal
permits) are in principle possible to renew.
Residence permit is not necessarily
revoked after the termination of a work
contract. If the individual has more than
three years of legal employment (and forless than three years) other elements are
considered, such as length of residence orworker’s social security history, or more
flexible criteria (less than three years etc.).
Less favourable
Certain permits (in addition to seasonal
permits) are in principle not renewable.
Residence permit is not revoked after thetermination of a work contract. If theindividual has more than five years of legal
employment further elements (length ofresidence, worker’s social security historyor other) are considered.
Unfavourable
Work permits are in principle notrenewable; residence permit can be
revoked in all cases after the terminationof a work permit.
1.3 Labour Market Integration Measures
Member States have committed
themselves to reduce significantly the gaps

in rates of unemployment between nonEU and EU nationals. First results fromworking groups set up within the open
method of co-ordination suggest that
there are significant obstacles for migrants
to access learning opportunities. In thissection we ask whether there is equal
access to education and vocational
training and test the commitment to
reduce the gap in unemployment by
asking what policy measures in terms ofwork-related integration have been
introduced for migrant workers.
Favourable
No distinction made between EU andnon-EU nationals in terms of educationand vocational training, including study
grants; national policy targets have been
set to reduce the unemployment of
migrants; national targets have been set topromote vocational training for migrants,
and there are language acquisition
programmes to improve occupational
skills.
Less favourable
Equal treatment in terms of education andvocational training only after more than
one but less than three years of legal
employment; either national targets havebeen set for reduction of unemploymentof migrants or vocational training, or
language programmes have been
introduced (but not all of these measures).
Unfavourable
Third country nationals do not have equal
access to education and vocational
training after three years, or other limiting
conditions exist; no elements ofintegration measures.
1.4 Rights Associated with LabourMarket Participation
Rights associated with job security andaccess to representation through unions
and other associations are crucial elementsof an inclusive and open labour market. It
should be noted that rights can vary
greatly according to the type of work
permit held by the migrant (as mentioned

Annex I – Indicators and Options

35950

165

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 166in section 1.2). This has been referred to by
Lydia Morris (2004) as ‘civic stratification’.
In the case of the UK, for example, there
are more than 12 separate migrant worker
schemes in operation, each with a different
set of rights attached. As with the previous
indicators, we focus on all those holding apermit of a year or more (not including
seasonal permits). Here we look at theright for the third-country national tochange working status or work permit (i.e.
different employer, different job, different
industry, different permit category etc.),
and the right to join and become an active
member of a trade union or otherprofessional organisation.
Favourable
The third country national has the right tochange working status or work permit
before completing one year of legal
employment. Membership and access toelected positions in unions and otherprofessional associations are equal to thatof nationals.
Less favourable
The right to change status is only granted
after one year (and less than three years).
Membership of unions and otherprofessional associations is allowed, butaccess is restricted for elected positions inunions.
Unfavourable
The right to change status is not allowed or
only allowed after more than three years oflegal employment. Restrictions apply tomembership of unions or otherprofessional associations.
Refs:
European Commission (EC) COM(2004)
508 final First Annual Report on Migration
and Integration Brussels,
July 2004
Morris, L. (2004) “The Control of Rights:
The Rights of Workers and Asylum Seekers
Under Managed Migration, Discussion
Paper, Joint Council For the Welfare of
Immigrants (JCWI)

166

Civic citizenship
Equality and access are cornerstones ofEuropean immigrant and integration
policies. Equal treatment of immigrants isoften a condition for their admission.
They acquire more rights and assume
more responsibilities over time and in thisway they gradually become full and active
citizens. Policies can set favourable
integration conditions and they include
securing residence, facilitating family
reunion, encouraging naturalisation andcombating discrimination. These areas,taken together, promote civic citizenship.

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 167

Long-term residence
1.1 Eligibility
Employed and self-employed thirdcountry nationals legally residing in a
Member State are after a certain period oftime entitled to the status of long-term
resident.
Favourable
This period is not more than three years
for employed persons and five years for
non-economically active persons, periods
that may be interrupted for more than ten
non-consecutive months.
Less favourable
This period is three to five years for (self-)
employed persons and up to eight for noneconomically active persons, periods that
may be interrupted for up to ten nonconsecutive months or six consecutive
months.
Unfavourable
This period is more than five years for(self-) employed persons and more thaneight years for non-economically active
persons, periods that may be interrupted
for less than ten non-consecutive months
or six consecutive months.
1.2 Conditions
Favourable
The status of long-term resident isacquired by way of a simple procedure
without economic, insurance or
integration conditions. The length of theapplication procedure is not longer thansix months and entails no costs.
Less favourable
The status is acquired on the basis of
employment related criteria. In addition, a
simple sickness insurance is required and alanguage test. The length of theapplication procedure takes between six toten months and the same administrative
fee is charged as for an identity card.
Unfavourable
The status is acquired after it is establishedthat the applicant has stable and sufficientmeans for himself and dependents. In
addition, there is a test on insurance at all
risks. The integration test includes morethan a language test. The length of theapplication procedure takes more thannine months and costs more than what ischarged for an identity card.
1.3 Security of status
Favourable
The long-term residence permit is valid
for five or more years and automaticallyrenewable. It is allowed to be absent from a
Member State for more than three years.
Grounds for withdrawal and refusal torenew the status should be limited toproven fraud in the acquisition of thestatus and a sentence for a serious crime.
In case of expulsion due account should betaken of personal behaviour of the person
concerned, his/her age, duration ofresidence, consequences for both status
holder and his/her family, links to theMember State and links with country oforigin. Alternative measures (e.g.
downgrading to a limited stay or
temporary residence permit) are taken
into consideration. Expulsion should beprecluded after status holder has been
resident for 20 years, in case of minors andwhen the status holder is born in theMember State or admitted as child before
the age of ten. If a permit is withdrawn oran expulsion order issued, the status
holder is entitled to a fair hearing, areasoned decision, access to appeal andrepresentation before a independent
authority.
Less favourable
The long-term residence permit is valid
for three to five years renewable
automatically or upon simple application.
The migrant is allowed to be absent from a
Member State for up to three years.
Grounds for withdrawal and refusal torenew the status include an actual andserious threat to public policy or national
security, but not unemployment. In case of

Annex I – Indicators and Options

35950

167

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 168

expulsion, due account should be taken ofat least the age of the status holder and theduration of residence, consequences forboth status holder and his/her family andlinks to the Member State. Expulsion
should be precluded after status holder has
been resident for 20 years and/or in case ofminors. If a permit is withdrawn or an
expulsion order issued, the status holder isentitled to a fair hearing, a reasoned
decision and access to appeal.
Unfavourable
The long-term residence permit is valid
for less than three years and only
renewable when the original requirements
are still met. It is not allowed to be absent
from a Member State for more than one
year. Grounds for withdrawal and refusal
to renew include unemploymentof status holder. In case of expulsion, one
or more essential factors are not taken into
account: age, duration of residence,
consequences for both the status holder
and his/her family and/or links to theMember State. Expulsion is possible undermany circumstances and legal redress
is limited. One or more of basic elements
of protection (fair hearing, reasoned
decision and right to appeal) are notguaranteed.
1.4 Rights associatedFavourable
Long-term residents maintain theirresidence status after retirement. They
have equal access to the labour market(except for work involving the exercise of
public authority) under the same working
conditions as EU citizens. Other equality
rights include access to social security,social assistance and healthcare, such as
minimum income support, minimum
housing support, assistance in case ofillness, pregnancy and maternity and longterm care. They have also equal access to
education and vocational training. The
recognition of their academic andprofessional qualifications and diplomas
takes place on the basis of the sameprocedures that are used for EEA
nationals. Long-term residents can

168

become (active) members of trade unions
and professional or other associations andhave the right to vote in all elections andstand for local elections.
Less favourable
Long-term residents maintain theirresidence status after retirement, but withfewer entitlements. They have equal accessto the labour market (except for work
involving the exercise of public authority)
under the same working conditions as
EU citizens, but priority is given tonationals and EEA citizens. They areentitled to some core benefits, including
minimum income support, assistance incase of illness, pregnancy and maternity
and long-term care. They have accessto education and to vocational training
but language proficiency is required(for other than university level). There aredifferent procedures for the recognitionof academic and professional
qualifications than those that apply to EEA
citizens. Long-term residents can become(active) members of trade unions andprofessional or other associations, butaccess to certain elected positions is
restricted. They have the right to vote andstand for elections, but only in local
elections and with some restriction forcertain posts.
Unfavourable
The long-term residence status is not
maintained after retirement. There arelimiting conditions for accessing thelabour market and equal working
conditions, other than priority given to
EEA citizens. Access to social security,
assistance and healthcare is less than accessto core benefits or there is no access at all.
Access to education and vocational
training is severely restricted. Academic
and professional qualifications are notrecognised or even downgraded.
Restrictions apply for the membershipof and participation in trade unions andother professional organisations.
There is no right to vote and standfor local elections or severe restrictions
apply.

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 169

Family reunion
2.1 Eligibility
Favourable
Legally residing third-country nationals–sponsors– are entitled to family reunion
after an up to one year’s waiting period orwhen holding a residence permit for up to
one year. The persons entitled toreunification with the sponsor include
spouse or registered partner and minor
children with no limiting conditions (suchas specific age limits). Dependent adultchildren and dependent relatives in theascending line are also entitled.
Less favourable
Legally residing third-country nationals –sponsors – are entitled to family reunion
after a waiting period of one or more years
or when holding a residence permit for
one or more years. The persons entitled
to reunification with the sponsor include
spouse, but not the registered partner,
and unmarried minor children.
Dependent adult children and dependent
relatives in the ascending line may undercertain conditions be united with theirfamily.
Unfavourable
Legally residing third-country nationals–sponsors– are entitled to family reunion
after a waiting period of two or more years
or when holding a residence permit of
two or more years. The persons entitled
to reunification with the sponsor must
either be of a certain age, or integrationor other conditions apply. For minor
children the applications must be madebefore the age of 15, or other conditions
apply. Dependent relatives and adultchildren may not be united with theirfamilies.
2.2 Conditions
Favourable
There are no accommodation, economic
resources or integration requirements forfamily reunion. The procedures are short,
not longer than six months, and do notentail costs.

Less favourable
Accommodation requirements only relate
to reasonable health and safety standards
and economic or integration requirements
relate only to employment or language
tests respectively. The application
procedure takes between six and ninemonths and the costs are not higher thanfor the issue of an identity card.
Unfavourable
Accommodation requirements go beyond
reasonable health and safety standards.
Economic or integration requirements
include stable and sufficient resources for
all family members and integration
conditions apply. The length ofapplication procedure exceeds ninemonths and the costs are higher than for
an identity card.
2.3 Security of status
Favourable
The residence status of family members
is the same as that of the sponsor’s and isrenewable. Grounds for the withdrawal
or refusal to renew are proven fraud inthe acquisition of the status and major
public policy or security threat. Before
the status is withdrawn or renewal refused,
due account is taken of the solidity ofthe sponsor’s family relationship, theduration of the sponsor’s residence and(non)-existing links with the Member
State and/or country of origin. If a permit
is finally withdrawn or refused, thestatus holder is entitled to a reasoned
decision, access to appeal andrepresentation before an independent
authority and/or a court.
Less favourable
The residence permit of family members
is renewable and valid for one year or
more but its duration is not equal to thatof the sponsor’s. Grounds for thewithdrawal or refusal to renew are provenfraud in the acquisition of the status andmajor public policy or security threat,but also the break-up of family

Annex I – Indicators and Options

35950

169

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 170

relationship (before three years).
Before the status is withdrawn or renewal
refused, due account may be taken ofsome but not all of the following factors:
solidity of the sponsor’s family
relationship, the duration of the sponsor’s
residence and (non)-existing links with
the Member State and/or country oforigin. If a permit is finally withdrawn orrefused, the status holder is entitled at least
to a reasoned decision and access toappeal.
Unfavourable
The residence permit of family members
is valid for less than one year after which a
new application may be required. Grounds
for the withdrawal or refusal to renewal
are proven fraud in the acquisition of thestatus and major public policy or security
threat, the break-up of family relationship,
but also other grounds. The status can bewithdrawn and renewal can be refused. If apermit is finally withdrawn or refused, thestatus holder is not entitled to at least oneof two basic guarantees of protection of
status (reasoned decision and right ofappeal).
2.4 Rights associatedFavourable
Spouse, partners, children reaching theage of majority acquire an autonomous
residence status after less than or justafter three years of residence. Other family
members acquire this right after three
years. Family members have access to
education, training and employment,
as well as access to social security andassistance, healthcare and housing,in the same way as the sponsor.
Less favourable
Spouse, partners and children reaching
the age of majority acquire an
autonomous residence status after three
to five years of residence. Other family
members acquire this right after three
years or upon certain conditions only.
Under certain conditions family members
have access to education, training andemployment, as well as access to social

170

security and assistance, healthcare andhousing.
Unfavourable
Spouse, partners and children reaching theage of majority acquire an autonomous
residence status after five years ofresidence or on the basis of otherconditions. Other family members haveno right to an autonomous residence
permit. Family members have no access to
education, training and employment, or tosocial security and assistance, healthcare
and housing.

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 171

Nationality
3.1 Eligibility
Favourable
First generation immigrants and spousesof EU citizens can apply for nationality
after three years of legal residence and/or
marriage (for spouses of nationals).
Second and third generation immigrants
acquire nationality automatically at birth.
Periods of absence of more than ninemonths are allowed previous to theacquisition of nationality.
Less favourable
First generation immigrants and spousesof EU citizens can apply for nationality
after three to five years of legal residence
and/or marriage (for spouses ofnationals). Second and third generation
immigrants acquire nationality on
application at age of majority but withno additional requirements. Periods ofabsence of six to nine months are allowed
previous to acquisition.
Unfavourable
First generation immigrants andspouses of EU citizens can apply fornationality after more than five yearsof legal residence and/or marriage (forspouses of nationals). Second andthird generation immigrants acquire
nationality provided they meetrequirements such as continuous
residence since birth, for a numberof years, etc. Only periods of absence
shorter than six months are allowed
previous to the acquisition ofnationality.
3.2 Conditions
Favourable
Conditions for the acquisition ofnationality are only linked to duration ofresidence and family ties. No language orcitizenship tests (including knowledge ofhistory and institutions) apply. Equally, no
economic resources, health insurance oroath of allegiance (in the form of adeclaration or other) is required for
acquisition. The application is rejected

only on grounds of having committed aserious crime, which is clearly defined in
the law. The application procedures must
be short, not be longer than six months,
and entail no costs.
Less favourable
Language and citizenship tests areconditions for the acquisition ofnationality but they are kept at a simple
level. Economic and health insurance
requirements are limited to minimum
income and simple health insurance
respectively. Applicants sign a declarationof allegiance. An application may berejected for reason of repeated offences orserious crimes. Procedures do not exceed
nine months and costs do not exceed theamount due for an identity card.
Unfavourable
Language and citizenship tests at high levelare conditions for the acquisition ofnationality. Economic and healthinsurance requirements must be met that
go beyond minimum income and simple
health insurance. Other conditions could
include attending naturalisation
ceremonies. An application can be rejected
on grounds of offences other than
repeated offences or serious crimes clearlyspecified in the law. Procedures exceed
nine months and have costs higher thanthose charged for an identity card.
3.3 Security of status
Favourable
There is only one ground for thewithdrawal of nationality, namely when
fraud in the acquisition of nationality isproven. Before withdrawal due account istaken of personal behaviour of the person
concerned, his/her age, duration ofresidence, consequences for both status
holder and his/her family, links to theMember State and links with country oforigin. In addition, alternative measures(e.g. downgrading to residence permit,etc.) are considered. If nationality is
withdrawn, the person concerned is

Annex I – Indicators and Options

35950

171

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 172

entitled to legal redress and legal
guarantees include, a reasoned decision,
the right to appeal and representation
before an independent authority and/or a
court.
Less favourable
Grounds for withdrawal of citizenship are
restricted to two, namely when fraud inthe acquisition of nationality has been
proven and when the applicant poses anactual serious threat to public policy or
national security. Before withdrawal due
account is taken of a number of elements:
age, duration of residence, consequences
for both status holder and his/her family
and links to the Member State and links
with country of origin. If nationality is
withdrawn, the person concerned isentitled to legal redress and legal
guarantees include a reasoned decisionand right to appeal.
Unfavourable
Grounds for withdrawal of citizenship go
beyond proven fraud in the acquisition of
the status and actual serious threat to
public policy or national security. Before
withdrawal of citizenship, one or various
essential factors such as age of person
concerned, duration of residence andconsequences for both the status holder
and his/her family, and links to theMember State and the country of origin
are not considered. If nationality is
withdrawn, the person concerned does nothave a right to a reasoned decision oraccess to appeal.
3.4 Rights associatedFavourable
When acquiring the nationality of a
Member State it is not necessary to give up
the original nationality of another state.
Children born to parents of different
nationality or different from the Member
State are entitled to dual citizenshipautomatically at birth.
Less favourable
When acquiring the nationality of a
Member State it is necessary to give up the172

original nationality, but there are
exceptions for certain nationalities.
Children born to parents of different
nationality or different from the Member
State are entitled to dual citizenship on
certain conditions (such as if born inwedlock).
Unfavourable
When acquiring the nationality of a
Member State it is necessary to give up theoriginal nationality. Children born toparents of different nationality or different
from the Member State are neither entitledto dual citizenship.

51-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 173

Anti-discrimination
Whether anti-discrimination policies set
favourable less favourable or unfavourable
conditions for immigrant inclusion
depends very much on whether a range of
discrimination grounds is covered.
Favourable
The grounds of discrimination include:
race/ethnic origin, religion/belief andnationality.
Less favourable
The grounds of discrimination include:
two of those three grounds.
Unfavourable
The grounds of discrimination include
only one ground
4.1 Scope
The definition of discrimination includes
direct and indirect discrimination,harassment and instructions todiscriminate. Anti-discrimination on allthese grounds cover as many as possible
fields including the labour market,
education and training, social protection(including social security and healthcare),social advantages and the supply of goods
and services (including housing). The law
also prohibits discrimination and coverracially motivated public insults, threats or
defamation, as well as instigating, aiding,abetting or attempting to commit suchoffences. Racist motivation in othercrimes should be treated as aggravating
circumstance.
4.2 Remedies
Accessible judicial civil and/or
administrative procedures are in place, as
well as procedures for alternative dispute
resolution. The burden of proof is sharedin civil procedures. Persons are protectedagainst victimisation. Legal entities with alegitimate interest may engage inproceedings on behalf or in support ofvictims. Legal entities can bring cases even
if no specific victim is referred to. The stateprovides financial support to pursue

complaint where victims do not have thenecessary means. Interpretation isprovided free of charge. Sanctions include,
financial compensation to victims formaterial and moral damages, therestitution of rights lost due todiscrimination, and imposing positive
measures on the discriminator.
4.3 Equality agencies
Equality agencies provide independentassistance to victims of discrimination.
They conduct independent surveys,
publish independent reports and makerecommendations. They undertake
awareness–raising and promote policies
and good practices. They have the power
to instigate proceedings in their own
name. They also have investigative powers
and the powers to enforce findings.
4.4 Pro-active policies
Anti-discrimination law provides for the
introduction of positive action measuresand public bodies are under the obligation
to promote equality in carrying out theirfunctions. They ensure that parties towhom they award contracts, loans, grants
or other benefits respect nondiscrimination. Governments disseminate
information and ensure social dialogue
around issues of discrimination and astructured dialogue with civil society. The
restriction of freedom of association,assembly and speech is permitted as ameans to combat racism.
Annex I – Indicators and Options

35950

173

3595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 174

Further reading

Also available from British Council Brussels

For a free copy tel +32 2 227 0840 or enquiries@britishcouncil.be
For full details of British Council Brussels publications, visit
www.britishcouncil.be
The Democratic Papers
Edited by Paul Hilder
In association with DEMOS, Opendemocracy.net and Vision.
The Democratic Papers contains rich, challenging and exciting
analyses of the future of governance in Europe and beyond. Twentythree contributors from twelve countries take a penetrating look atreal issues that matter to real people all over the world, aiming to help
shape new debates about what democracy can and should mean, andhow we can meet its demands.
Turkey in Europe: More Than a Promise?
Report of the Independent Commission on Turkey
In association with the Open Society Institute
The Independent Commission on Turkey was established in March
2004 to help defuse tensions surrounding the possibility of opening
accession negotiations with Turkey. The Commission’s reportexamines in detail opportunities and challenges presented byTurkey’s possible membership of the European Union to help shapea more rational debate. Chaired by former Finnish President Martti
Ahtisaari, its nine members include former heads of state, foreign
ministers and European Commissioners.

1743595051-176

18/3/05

1:51 PM

Page 175

Also by Andrew Geddes

Immigration and European Integration
A. Geddes, Manchester University Press, 2000
The Politics of Migration and Immigration in Europe
A. Geddes, Sage, 2003
The European Union and British Politics
A. Geddes, Palgrave Macmillan, 2004

Also available by the Foreign Policy Centre

The European Inclusion Index: Is Europe ready for the
globalisation of people?
By Mark Leonard and Phoebe Griffith
October 2003; available free online at: www.fpc.org.uk/publications
The European Inclusion Index will rank European member states’
attempts to promote progressive citizenship and inclusion policies.
The Index will assess the policies put in place to challenge
discrimination, as well as the ability of migrants and ethnic
minorities to participate actively in the social, political and economic
lives of their host communities.

175

51-176
18/3/05
1:51 PM

Design: Jon Hill Design with Matt Brown | Production: Route | Cover illustration: Gillian Blease

35950
Page 176