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Vol.

March 2016

Table of ContentsVol. 2 issued March 2016

1. Editor’s message ........................................................................................................... 1

2. GRM News ................................................................................................................... 3(1) GRM Organizing International Conferences Symposium [Nakao] ............................ 3(2) International Student session (ISET/ISS 2014) in Vietnam [Hayakawa, et al] ........... 7(3) Joint Fieldwork 2014 in Kyushu [Carada] ................................................................ 23

3. Selected students’ Papers ............................................................................................ 31(1) Jorge Lamas “Energy supply in isolated areas: an outline of the current situationand the potential of hydrogen technologies for distributed power generation” ........ 31(2) Toshie Inui “The Status of the Twa Minority in Rwanda in the Past and the Present:
A post-genocide policy challenge” ............................................................................ 55

Editor’s Preface

Editor’s Preface
Yoichi Mine
Chief Editor, GRM Journal
Professor, Graduate School of Global Studies, Doshisha University

This issue is the second of the Global Resource Management (GRM) Journal, which was
first published in March 2014. Publication of this 2015 issue was delayed due to theneed to prepare rules concerning submission of papers and to reconsider the overall
structure of the journal from the editorial point of view. I am so happy to be able torelease this issue eventually with a selection of quality papers written by GRM students.
The significance of the agenda of global resource management is recognizedincreasingly in today’s international society. In 2015, political chaos in Syria and Iraq
along with outbreaks of terrorist attacks in Beirut and Paris, attracted the world’s
attention. At the same time, widening inequalities around the world in Asia and Africa as
well as in so-called developed continues continue to deprive people of opportunities tolive better lives they value. The failure of human security has been caused by complex
interactions of factors including political and economic inequalities as well as injusticepertaining to culture, religion and ethnicity.
There is no easy solution. However, if one aims to make progress toward sustainable
peace and development, the alleviation of inter-group inequalities in terms of natural
resources and infrastructure, as addressed by our own program, are expected to play apivotal role. Today, we should focus more clearly on resource inequalities so that we canmake difference in resolving conflict and bringing about coexistence of people withdifferent backgrounds, by means of mobilizing practical knowledge in social sciences,
natural sciences, and the humanities.
It is with these thoughts in mind that we undertook the task of editing this latest issue of
GRM Journal. After strict and thorough peer-review processes, we selected two papers
that were considered to be suitable for publication. Both papers offer fresh knowledge
that is in accordance with the mission of global resource management, whose
importance and appropriateness continue to rise. Having worked out authors’ guidelines,
we have started to accept papers online, so we expect to receive more papers on relevant
topics from visiting scholars and GRM students in the future.

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GRM NewsGRM Organizing International Conferences Symposium
Nazuna Nakao

Table of contents
I Context .............................................. 3
II Procedure .......................................... 3
III Conclusion....................................... 5
I Context
This article describes one of the lectures on global resource management, “GRM
Organizing International Conferences Symposium II.” In fact, this lecture is
programmed for a group of students, each of whom gives his or her ideas to create thetheme and works together to organize a conference or workshop. However, I wasallowed to complete the entire process alone under the supervision of my professor andthe administrative staff. As a result, this article focuses on the procedure for organizing
the conference alone and why I chose a topic of “dialogue basis.”
II Procedure
This conference is related to my research themes. In the process of conducting several
field research projects in two regions that have a common traditional culture, I came tounderstand that they have not had any opportunities to share their views, despite the factthat they have been curious and recognized each other. When conducting interviews forresearch in both regions, I always asked people how they recognized each other, andtheir responses revealed that despite their curiosity and familiarity, they knew little about
each other. Therefore, I was motivated to make them feel closer through mycommitment.
To stage a successful conference, I decided to propose the ideas to them in person. First,
this approach makes it possible to explain the purpose of the conference and my ideas
correctly. In considering how to offer them an ideal opportunity, I thought the best way
was to have a conference that would enable them to exchange their views instead of
discussing them. I wanted to explain the background of holding a dialogue-based
conference with non-academic speakers, so there is no intension to conduct stiff andcomplicated discussions. Second, this approach facilitates the exchange of information
by focusing on what they want to ask and what they want to share. Having a frank chatenables me to grasp their true feelings. Therefore, I visited both regions, the former

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 2

abroad (“Region A”), the latter in Japan (“Region B”). Regarding Region A, while
conducting field research in August 2014, I met three people whom I have known forthree years and invited them to attend the conference. Regarding Region B, I visited with
the GRM program officer and invited them to attend the conference in October 2014. As
a result, they both agreed to have a conference on the concept of “dialogue basis” andaccepted my offer.
After the formal decision to hold the conference, I proceeded with clerical tasks such asarranging the dates and booking flight tickets. I also mediated between guests andadministrative staff to ask them to send out photocopies of their passports and relayed
their requests to the staff, for example where they would like to depart from and theirpreference to not have tight schedules. Both regions changed and reduced the number ofconference delegates, but I did not try to persuade them otherwise and left thesedecisions to them since I wanted to fulfill their requests as much as possible.
The conference was to be held for six hours on a single day in consideration of theirschedules. People from Region B, however, expressed concern that the schedule was too
long-running, claiming that their inability to speak English and scarce knowledge would
make it hard to have a better conference despite the allocation of time. Though theexchange of opinions, which was initially planned to facilitate mutual understandings,
could not be fully realized, I suggested that the delegates offer presentations, thinking it
would better spur an exchange of views. Fortunately, they agreed to do presentations andgave themes that they had chosen themselves. Then I decided to make a presentation
including general knowledge about both regions in advance of the guests’ presentations.
My presentation focused on the similarities of both regions. To make the conference
significant for the seven attendees who are not scholars, I believed this was the best way
to facilitate awareness of their mutual impressions and information, rather thanexchanging and learning complicated facts.
Three guests from Region A arrived two days before the conference and left Japan twodays later. They asked me to spend all of these days with them because they were
anxious about their first stay in Japan. I made an effort to be as hospitable to them as
possible. I greeted them at the airport, took them to restaurants, planned an itinerary that
I thought would interest them, picked up and saw them to their hotel, and saw them off at
the station when they left. Four guests from Region B arrived on the day of theconference and left on the following day. They did not have any requests, and I only
greeted them at the station.

GRM NewsI was both chairperson and interpreter. Each speaker had 15 to 20 minutes for apresentation as well as a Q&A session with two breaks and 30 minutes for summarizing.
The conference room had two sets of computers and monitors, one for presentation andthe other for showing pictures or videos. Speakers from Region A made theirpresentations in English, while speakers from Region B made theirs in Japanese. I
translated every slide. They were awkward during the first meeting. I suggested that theyexchange souvenirs, and they gradually opened up to each other. After that, we got
started with the conference by having lunch. While they had lunch, I delivered some
opening remarks. I tried to get them to relax as best I could.
After self-introductions, I made a presentation. All the speakers greatly liked my idea ofusing pictures, and they laughed upon realizing what they had in common. Throughnonverbal tools such as pictures, it was easy to make them aware of their similarities. I
believe that the process raised their sense of closeness.
All speakers had a time limit, but I did not keep time strictly, opting instead to respect
what they wanted to express. As a result, we did not have any time left over and finished
30 minutes late. Without having time for the Q&A session, speakers actively raisedquestions and gave voice to their opinions.
III Conclusion
There are two major reasons why I succeeded in having the conference by myself. First,
I took the appropriate steps to accommodate the unique situation. Second, I benefited
from the close relationship between the two regions. I had to change the main theme
because both regions changed and reduced the number of delegates, but it was a valuable
experience for me to work to meet their demands.
In conclusion, I could not fully carry out a dialog-based conference as all speakers tookmuch time for their presentations. However, I believe this is the result of their kindconsideration not to leave time unused and to keep me from having to conduct the entire
process by myself. This is one aspect of the conference that could be improved, but I am
thankful for their kindness nonetheless. Besides, it was this relationship that enabled me
to have the conference, and all speakers took time to come all the way to Japan to attend.
It will be greatly meaningful if I am able to have more a more free and full dialog-based
conference next time.

5

GRM NewsInternational Student Session (ISET/ISS 2014) in Vietnam
Dates: November 26 to 30, 2014
Venue: HAGL Plaza Hotel, Danang, Vietnam
Yuichiro Hayakawa
Shinichiro Kaikawa
Naoya Narita
Kensaku Matsuda(Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Doshisha University)

1. ISET/ISS
The ISET/ISS was cooperatively organized by Doshisha University (Japan), theUniversity of Bologna (Italy), and Seoul National University (Korea) under the Triangle
Cooperative Agreement between these three universities. The Federal Institute ofTechnology Lausanne (Switzerland) joined as an ISET organizer from 2011.
ISET/ISS 2014 was held in Danang, Vietnam, from November 26 to 30, 2014.
ISET/ISS 2014 provides the opportunity for university students to present their papers at
the International Student Session (ISS). There are three sessions:
1. Panel Session on Unified Education: Nine presenters gave presentations.
2. Technical Session: Five papers were presented. The presenters were from Seoul
National University, the Federal Center of Technological Education, and the Danang
University of Science and Technology.
3. International student session: Thirty-six papers were presented. The presenterswere MSc and PhD students from Doshisha University, the Federal University of Minas
Gerais, Ecole Polytechnique Montreal, Hanoi University, and Danang University.

Fig.1. Opening ceremony of ISET/ISS 20147

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 2

2. Approach to orchestration of ISS 2014
The ISS session was organized and orchestrated by students in the class Global
Resource Management (GRM) Organizing International Conferences I. The students
organized the following staff:
General Affairs
S. Kaikawa, K. Matsuda, M. Ogino
Subcommittee A
Registration, Flight and Hotel Reservations
Y. Suzuki, S. Imato, S. Kumagai
Subcommittee B
Program, Proceedings
Y. Hayakawa
Subcommittee C
News
R. Kawashima, Y. Ataka, N. Narita,
M. Nakagawa
Subcommittee D
Operation
R. Hashimoto, A. Umeda

Fig. 2. The opening session

GRM News

1.) General Affairs
In general, we supported the subcommittee members. We made records of thelectures for the meeting and generated a mailing list for ISS Committee members.
Finally, we shared information, including the collection of passports, the schedule,
location, schedule changes, etc.
2.) Subcommittee A
We made flight and hotel reservations. We discussed travel agencies and thendecided that the best travel agency was one that had a local branch office. We staffed thefront desk on the day of the ISS.
3.) Subcommittee B
At the beginning, I determined the schedule and session program. Then wecollected papers and formed the proceedings.
4.) Subcommittee C
First, we checked the GRM office to see if there were any rental video cameras
available. We had discussed the roles we would play on the day of the ISS andconsiderations when filming. We set up the equipment and rehearsed one day prior to theISS.
5.) Subcommittee D
We made lists of the necessary equipment and checked the equipment available inthe conference facilities in advance. We then prepared and purchased the equipment welacked. This committee kept track of time on the day of the ISS.

Fig. 3. Checking and preparing the equipment

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 2

Fig. 4. Carrying a microphone

Fig. 5. Setting up for filming

Fig. 6. Session chair of the ISS

GRM News

Fig. 7. Start of the conference

3. Presentations for the ISS
All students in the class submitted their papers to the ISS and made presentations inEnglish. Students in both information engineering and electrical engineering participatedin the conference, which made for some nice discussions. This session gave us an
opportunity to learn about studying in a foreign country and communicating in a foreign
language.

Fig. 8. Participants at the 2014 ISET/ISS

4. ISET Symposium
1.) Prof. M. Nakata, Doshisha University“Asia-Africa Partnership for Sustainable Energy Development”
Our university is trying a GRM (Global Resource Management) program. This
program is deeply concerned with developing human resources. This symposium
proposes some recommendations to build a mutually beneficial partnership between two
continents by the study about effective partnerships between Asia and Africa,

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particularly in the energy and water sectors.
2.) Prof. A. Ametani, Doshisha University“Unified Education of Natural, Social and Human Sciences in Universities in the World”
Unified education of natural, social and human sciences in universities is asignificant subject, and various approaches have been investigated and tested.
Approaches to unified education were presented, together with the education system of
the GRM.
3.) Prof. Y.T. Yoon, Seoul National University“Frequency Regulation Using a Battery Energy Storage System Considering Response
Time of Power Generation in a Power Network”
This study analyzes the effects of discretized control update times for a batteryenergy storage system (BESS) based on a digital controller. It uses two area models that
represent a seven-bus system and two battery storage banks for frequency regulation.

Fig. 9. Prof. M. Nakata

GRM News

Fig. 10. Prof. A AmetaniFig. 11. Prof. Y. T. Yoon

4.) Prof. L. Araujo, Federal Center of Technological Education“Lightning Currents Measured by Means of a Remote Device”
This lecture presented the fundamental aspects of a remote device that is able tomeasure and record waveforms of lightning currents. It is used for reliable devices
installed at the base of the instrumented tower of Morro do Cachimbo Station.
5.) Dr. H. H. Nguyen, Danang University of Science and Technology“Comparison of Self-adaptive Evolutionary Algorithms for Multimodal Optimization”
This presentation introduced a self-adaptive evolutionary algorithm for solving
complex multimodal problems.
6.) Mr. H. S. H. Nguyen, Danang University of Science and Technology“Control Magnetic Levitation System by Combining PID and Sliding Mode Control”
This presentation studied regulation and tracking control design for a magnetic

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levitation system (Maglev).
7.) Ms. H. T. Nguyen, Danang University of Science and Technology“Dynamic-Stability Enhancement of a Multi-machine Power Flow Controller (IPFC)”This presentation studied the dynamic-stability enhancement of a two-area fourgenerator system connected with a large-scale offshore wind farm (OWF) based on adoubly-fed induction generator (DFIG) using an interline power-flow controller (IPFC).

Fig.12. Prof. L Araujo

Fig. 13. Dr. H. H. Nguyen

GRM News

Fig. 14. Ms. H. T. Nguyen

5. Concluding Remarks
It was a very pleasant and exciting experience for all the students who participatedin and facilitated ISET/ISS 2014 in Danang. We never had this kind of experience
before. We hope to organize an international conference or symposium on our own in the
future.
Finally, we would like to thank Prof. A. Ametani, who teaches the class Organizing
International Conferences and who arranged this opportunity.
(Hayakawa Yuichiro, Kaikawa Shinichiro, Matsuda Kensaku and Naoya Narita, graduate
students, Graduate School of Electrical and Electronics Engineering)

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ISET/ISS 2014 -Symposium / Danang Program
HAGL Plaza Hotel, Danang, Vietnam, on Thursday, 27 November, 2014, from 8:30
to 20:00
Thursday, November 27
A. Panel Session on Unified Education / Chair: Prof. A. Ametani
8:30-10:30
A-1 Introduction of Danang University of Science and Technology
Prof. L. D. Nguyen, Danang University of Science and Technology
A-2 Asia-Africa Partnership for Sustainable Energy Development
Prof. M. Nakata, Doshisha University
A-3 Panel Presentation
Prof. A. Ametani, Doshisha University / Ecole Polytechnique Montreal
Prof. Y. Baba, Doshisha University
Prof. S. Visacro, Federal University of Minas Gerais
Prof. Y. T. Yoon, Seoul National University
Prof. P. Yutthagowith, King Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang
Prof. K. Yamabuki, Wakayama National College of Technology
Ms. I. Lafaia, Ecole Polytechnique Montreal
A-4 Panel Discussions
A-5 Questions and Comments
A-6 Summarizing Remarks
Coffee break 10:30-11:00
B. Technical Session / Chair: Prof. T. Yoon
ISET-3 to ISET-7 5 presentation

11:00-12:00

Lunch

12:00-13:30

C. International Student Session (ISS)
ISS-I Transient Analysis / Chair: I. Lafaia, S. Kaikawa
ISS-1 to ISS-10 10 student presentation

13:30-14:30

ISS-II System Dynamics in Infrastructures / Chair: P. X. Nguyen, M. Nakagawa
14:30-15:30
ISS-11 to ISS-20 10 student presentation
Coffee break

15:30-16:00

GRM News

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SS-III Infrastructure Related Subject 1 / Chair: M. Guimaraes, Y. Hayakawa
16:00-16:30
ISS-21 to ISS-25 5 student presentation
ISS-IV Infrastructure Related Subject 2 / Chair: R. E. de Souza,K. Matsuda
16:30-17:36
ISS-26 to ISS-36 11 student presentation
Welcome Banquet

18:00-20:00

A. Panel Session on Unified Education
ISET-1 Asia-Africa Partnership for Sustainable Energy Development
Prof. M. Nakata, Doshisha University

8:30-10:30

ISET-2 Unified Education of Natural, Social and Human Sciences in Universities in
the World
Prof. A. Ametani, Doshisha University / Ecole Polytechnique Montreal
B. Technical Session
11:00-12:00
ISET-3 Frequency Regulation Using a Battery Energy Storage System Considering
Response Time of Power Generation in a Power Network
Prof. Y. T. Yoon, Seoul National University
ISET-4 Lightning Currents Measured by Means of a Remote Device
Prof. L. Araujo, Federal Center of Technological Education
ISET-5 Comparison of Self-adaptive Evolutionary Algorithms for Multimodal
Optimization
Dr. H. H. Nguyen, Danang University of Science and Technology
ISET-6 Control Magnetic Levitation System by Combining PID and Sliding ModeControl
Mr. H. S. H. Nguyen, Danang University of Science and Technology
ISET-7 Dynamic-Stability Enhancement of a Multi-machine Power System
connected with a Large-scale Offshore Wind Farm Using a Interlined
Power Flow Controller (IPFC)
Ms. H. T. Nguyen, Danang University of Science and Technology

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C. International Student Session (ISS)
13:30-17:36
ISS-I Transient Analysis
13:30-14:30
ISS-1 FDTD Electric Field Simulation of Surge Arresters in Substations
S. Imato, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-2 FDTD Analysis of Transient Current in the Vicinity of Fasteners in an
Isotropic CFRP model
M. Nakagawa, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-3 FDTD Analysis of the Error of Estimated Lightning Electromagnetic Field
Direction Caused by a Grounded Structure
Y. Suzuki, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-4 An Efficient Computation of Lightning Electromagnetic Fields with the
Rational-function-based CIP Method
Y. Suzuki, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-5 Analysis of Lightning Electromagnetic Pulses with the ConstrainedInterpolation Profile Method in the 2D Cylindrical Coordinate System
Y. Tanaka, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-6 FDTD Study of Influences of the Spacer on Propagation Characteristics ofElectromagnetic Waves Caused by a Partial Discharge in a GIS
D. Tanahashi, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-7 Magnetic Fields Radiated by a Lightning Strike to Flat Lossy Ground
M. Aoki, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-8 A Study of the Wave Attenuation in a High Frequency Region on an Overhead
Conductor Using the Method of Moment
Y. Miyamoto, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-9 An Investigation on Absorbing Boundary Condition in FDTD Simulations foran Accurate Representation of Semi-infinite Wires
T. Asada, MSc, Doshisha University

GRM News19

ISS-10 Effects of Residual Flux and Switching Angle on Sympathetic Inrush
Current
A. Zaid, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-II: System Dynamics in Infrastructure
ISS-11 Influence of Window Function of Discrete Fourier Transform
K. Takai, MSc, Chubu University

14:30–15:30

ISS-12 Similarity of Transient Characteristics between a Photovoltaic Panel and a
Diode
K. Matsuda, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-13 EMTP Simulation of Synchronization in SS-PLC Communication for a DC
Distribution System
Y. Ataka, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-14 Influence of Measuring System of Transient Potential Rise of Grounding
Electrode
Y. Hayakawa, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
ISS-15 Estimation Method of Degradation State of Lithium-ion Batteries Using
Transient Waveforms
N. Narita, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-16 Lightning Surge Voltage on a Small Ship due to Nearby Lightning
S. Kaikawa, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-17 Investigation of Energy Management System of DC Distribution Systemusing a Scaled-down Model
K. Yamamoto, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-18 An Equivalent Circuit Estimation of a Lithium-ion Battery using a Transient
Voltage Waveform by the Linear Least Squares Method
S. Yamada, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-19 Experimental Study on Internal Impedance of Single and Series-or Parallelconnected Photovoltaic Cells
H. Higo, MSc, Doshisha University

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 2

ISS-20 An Equivalent Homogeneous Circuit of Rails in Consideration of Sleeper for
Lightning Surge Analysis
Y. Imanishi, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-III: Infrastructure Related Subjects 1
14:00–14:50
ISS-21 Maximum Acceptable Window Luminance for VDT Work on Window Sideand the Limit of Use of Daylight in Offices
M. Kusumoto, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-22 Experiment to Search for Optimal Preference Illumination and Color
Temperature in an Office Using Task Ambient Lighting
R. Hashimoto, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-23 An Intelligent Lighting System Providing an Individualized lighting
Environment with Illuminance- and Color Temperature-linked Control
R. Kawashima, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-24 Evaluation of an Automatic Class Model Size Optimization Method forSurge Geometric Margin Minimum Classification Error Training
M. Ogino, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-25 Turning-round Behavior Influenced by Headphone-based Sound Image
Localization
S. Kumagai, MSc, Doshisha University
ISS-IV: Infrastructure Ralated Subjects 2
14:50–15:20
ISS-26 Lightning Current Distribution of a Wind Turbine Tower in the Ocean
Y. Ikeda, PhD, Doshisha University
ISS-27 Small Capacitance Measurement using Transient Waveforms and theNonlinear Least Squares Fitting Method
D. Permata, PhD, Doshisha University
ISS-28 Overview of an Artificial Lightning Research Project
G. M. Saquilayan, PhD, Doshisha University
ISS-29 Selective Coatings on Copper Substrates for Solar Thermal Collectors
B. A. T. Suarez, PhD, Doshisha University

GRM NewsISS-30 Lightning Measurements at Morro do Cathimbo Station
M. Guimaraes, PhD, Federal University of MinasGerais
ISS-31 A Discussion on the Lightning Rerformance of Transmission Lines: Effects ofLightning Current Representation and Soil Ionization
R. E. Souza, PhD, Federal University of MinasGerais
ISS-32 Boutre-Trans Project: A 225 kV AC Underground Cable Installed inSoutheastern France
I. Lafaia, PhD, Ecole Polyechnique Montreal
ISS-33 Model for an Underground Cable Installed in an HDPE Tube
I. Lafaia, PhD, Ecole Polyechnique Montreal
ISS-34 Coupling Effects between Counterpoises in Transmission Line Grounding
P. H. Nyuyen, PhD, Hanoi University of Science and Technology
ISS-35 Transient Stability Analysis of IMPSA Wind Power Plant Integration on the
Ninh Thuan Power System
H. M. Duong, MSc, Danan University of Science and Technology
ISS-36 Optimization of Electric Energy in a Three-phase Induction Motor by
Balancing of Torque and Flax Dependent Losses
H. T. Nyuyen, PhD, Danan University of Science and Technology

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GRM News

Joint Fieldwork 2014 in Kyushu
Date: September 8 to 11, 2014
Venue: Oita and Fukuoka, Kyushu

Earth’s population is expected to increase from 7 billion to 9 billion in 2050 with aquadrupling of the economy. As a result, demand for energy is projected to increase
80%. [1] Thus as future leaders, it is important for us to have awareness of andknowledge about energy issues and energy resources. There are various energy sources
including some that are renewable. One of these resources, geothermal energy, utilizes
the Earth’s heat.

(Mechanism of geothermal energy generation)

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 2

ABOUT THE FIELDWORKGRM Fieldwork I-2 in Oita and Fukuoka centers on an introduction to, and knowledgebuilding for, geothermal energy, particularly Japanese geothermal energy resources. It isa joint fieldwork combining three Leading Graduate Schools by MEXT: the Advanced
Graduate Program in Global Strategy for Green Asia, Kyushu University; the Advanced
Doctoral Program in Global Resource Management, Doshisha University; and the
TAOYAKA Program for Creating a Flexible, Enduring, Peaceful Society, Hiroshima
University. It is a four-day fieldwork program consisting of lectures (indoor andoutdoor), site visits (research institute and geothermal plants), student group activities,
and student presentations that aims to showcase our learning and analysis of geothermal
resource management.
SITE VISITS AND LECTURES
The first two days was a combination of plant visit and lectures around the Oita andFukuoka area. To kick-start our fieldwork, Professor Hayashida gave an outdoor lecture
entitled “What Is Occurring in Central Kyushu” and talked about the topography,
geography, and resources of Kyushu.

(Prof. Hayashida giving his “What Is occurring in Central Kyushu” lecture)

Apart from the plant visit, we were also given a chance to visit the Kyoto University
Geothermal Research Laboratory to learn about their work and some of their research.

GRM News(Lecture at the Kyoto University Geothermal Research Laboratory)

The third day was a day packed with lectures. Other issues regarding geothermal energy
were discussed, including a comparison of geothermal resources to other energy
resources like nuclear, poverty in Nepal and its geothermal energy, and Africa’s situationand its potential for geothermal resources.

(Prof. Mine giving his “The Past, the Present and the Future of Africa: An Introduction” lecture)

Apart from the lectures of our professors we also had guest speakers from outside theacademic circle like Dr. Eng. Tagomori, Executive Officer and General Manager of the
Geothermal Department of West Japan Engineering Consultants, Inc. He provided basic
information on the Japanese power sector, geothermal energy utilization, exploration,risk, measures, and policies. I would say that the highlight of his lecture was thediscussion on the two major issues affecting the development of geothermal energy—
resource development risk large initial investment risk—and possible measures toreduce the large financial risk.

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 2(Dr. Tagomori giving his “Geothermal Power in Practice” lecture)

Dr. Tagomori cited two possible measures for reducing the financial risk of the large
initial investment. One was soft loans and the other was ODA soft loans.
ODA soft loans are granted by several institutions, one of which was represented by oneof our lecturers: Mr. Kobayakawa, Director, South Asia Division 3, Japan International
Cooperation Agency (JICA). Mr. Kobayakawa gave a lecture entitled “Project
Formulation and Implementation under Japanese Official Development Assistance.”(Mr. Kobayakawa giving his “Project Formulation and Implementation
under the Japanese Official Development Assistance” lecture)

Mr. Kobayakawa discussed the conceptual basis of JICA assistance and the interventions
that it can provide in the form of either technical assistance or financial assistance. Oneof the main focuses that he discussed with regard to JICA projects was evaluation, in
which they use the PDCA (plan-do-check-action) cycle.

GRM News(PDCA Cycle)

There was also a discussion about some JICA projects concerning energy production
such as the one in Sri Lanka.
STUDENT PRESENTATIONS
From the beginning of the fieldwork, three mixed groups were formed consisting ofstudents from different programs, countries, and majors. These groups were tasked with
applying knowledge gained during the fieldwork, summarizing the advantages anddisadvantages of constructing geothermal plants in specific countries and areas, andpresenting their findings on the last day. Among the selected areas were the Philippines,
Kenya, and Indonesia.

(Students preparing for a presentation)

Different perspectives on geothermal energy were raised in the presentations. Our groupchose the Philippines, and we made a short case analysis focusing on the community andenvironmental impacts. In the case of Kenya, social and cultural challenges were tackled

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and in the case of Indonesia, the focus was on the potential of the country as well as
policies and partnerships for promoting and developing Indonesian geothermal energy
resources.

(A student presentation)

To wrap up the fieldwork, Prof. Wada gave a synthesis and highlighted the importance offieldwork.

(Prof. Wada’s closing discussion)

In general, it was a very fruitful and balanced event. We as students were able to further
understand and learn new things about geothermal energy, not only through the lens of
our own fields, but also with an interdisciplinary understanding. We were also augment
what we’ve learned from books with experience by seeing actual geothermal power
generation at a plant.

GRM News[1] OECD Environmental Outlook to 2050: The Consequences of Inaction.

Miriam Caryl Carada(Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Global Studies)29Selected students’ Papers

Energy supply in isolated areas:an outline of the current situation and the potential of hydrogentechnologies for distributed power generation
Jorge Lamas
Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Doshisha University
Department of Mechanical Engineering

Abstract
Energy supply in isolated areas is a challenging issue. In many regions, expansionof the main power network is either too expensive or not technically feasible, and thus
communities in these areas often have limited access to electricity. Current advances in
distributed energy technologies have allowed the implementation of efficient microgrids using renewable energy sources that generate energy on-site with a substantiallylower dependence on fuel imports. Several studies have found that in many cases,
renewable energy systems can be more economically favorable than expanding the main
power network. However, renewable energies alone cannot always provide a reliable
power supply. This paper introduces currently available distributed energy generationand storage technologies, and summarizes recent studies regarding energy supply
projects implemented in isolated areas. Several studies converge on the idea that a
reliable power supply may be obtained in isolated areas through renewable energies
coupled with hydrogen fuel cells, utilizing hydrogen generation as a means for storingsurplus electricity generated by the renewable energy systems. Since hydrogen for thefuel cells can be imported through other sources as well, such systems provide isolatedareas with a margin for increased energy consumption and economic growth. For thisreason, it is essential to explore the available sources of hydrogen and storage methods.
Although the current costs for distributed energy generation and storage technologies
remain high, future development of technology and increased manufacturing production
is expected to lower the costs to highly competitive prices.
Keywords: Sustainable energy, Hydrogen energy, Energy security, Isolated grids,
Rural development
I. Introduction
Access to sustainable energy is essential for human development and it has becomea priority sector for investments. The International Energy Agency (IEA 2014) estimatesthat about 1.3 billion people still lack access to electricity, and 2.7 billion people lack

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alternatives to biomass for cooking. In this paper, the role of energy in humandevelopment is illustrated. A stable energy supply for industries, hospitals and schools,
can greatly contribute to economic growth, improved health and education. Statistics
show a correlation between increasing commercial energy consumption in several
countries, with increased average life expectancy, school enrollment ratio, underweightchildren, and population with access to clean water. Several studies have been conducted
regarding the impact of electricity availability in rural areas (Reiche et al. 2000,
Kanagawa and Nakata 2007; Gómez and Silveira 2010; Van Gevelt 2014). Both indeveloped and developing countries, electrification of rural areas has been linked to asignificant increase in socio-economic levels. Expansion of the main power network(i.e., the power network that interconnects large-scale power generating stations to
distribute electricity throughout the nation) allows the rural population to rely more onelectric appliances that reduce manual labor and make life more comfortable. Thus,
increased electrification is reflected in increased energy consumption per capita.
Developing countries are rapidly increasing their energy consumption but theavailability of conventional fuels is putting considerable limitations on access to energy(Lior 2008). Furthermore, oil prices are rapidly increasing as the reservoirs become moredifficult to access and require more complex technology. These rising prices will either
result in expensive energy infrastructures, or an increased demand for coal and natural
gas to supply current thermal power plants. Despite the increasing demand for fossil
fuels, their use is being discouraged over concerns of air and water pollution,
environmental changes, and global climate change. There is also uncertainty about coaland natural gas reserves, and whether they can meet global energy demands. The coalreserves are estimated to be largest, and are expected to last for 200 years more, atconsumption rates of 2006 (Shafiee and Topal 2009). In contrast, oil and natural gas are
expected to last for only 40 and 70 years, respectively. These numbers could decrease
drastically if global demands increase faster than expected. As reserves decrease, energy
security could become vulnerable for countries that rely on fossil fuel imports.
For isolated areas where there is no access to the main power network, the limited
availability of fuel has a stronger impact. There are numerous populated areas
surrounded by unsuitable terrain that complicates extending the main power network.
Archipelago countries, such as Japan, Indonesia and The Philippines, face the problem
of extending their power networks over the sea to reach populated islands. Forests andmountainous regions often require terrain conditioning, which can rapidly escalate thecosts of extending the power network. Furthermore, plans to extend the power network
may be hindered over the presence of national reserves and wildlife sanctuaries, whereconstruction activities are restricted. As a result, extending the main power network toisolated areas sometimes requires vast resources that may not be deemed justifiable. For

Selected students’ Papers

such areas, energy is often supplied through small- or medium-scale diesel generators,
which require low initial investment and are easy to scale up as the electric demands
increase. Although this method has been proven effective, it requires a constant supplyof fuel, which in many cases results in increased costs and additional consumption of
resources related to transport and handling. In Japan for example, the cost of electricity
in islands using diesel generators can increase more than double compared to electricity
from the power network (FEPC 2014). Furthermore, electrification shows a reduced
impact in areas where a constant supply of fuel cannot be guaranteed. If power cuts are
frequent, stored reserves of alternative energy sources, such as candles for lighting andfirewood for heating, appear to be more useful than their electric counterparts (Davis
1998). Therefore, a different approach to the electrification of isolated areas should beconsidered.
This paper is divided as follows. Section II presents recent trends and cost analysis
for the electrification of isolated and rural areas. Section III gives an introduction to
micro-grids and distributed generation resources, followed by a summary of studies on
power generation for isolated areas in Section III.A. Energy storage technologies are
discussed in Section III.B, and the recent trends on hydrogen fueled micro-grids arepresented in Section III.C. Finally, Section IV addresses some of the available sources ofhydrogen and storage methods that could support these hydrogen-fueled micro-grids.
II. Power Network Expansion through Distributed Energy Systems
Renewable energies are promising alternatives to fossil fuel based energy systems.
The installation of renewable energy systems, in particular wind turbines and solar
photovoltaics (PV), has been rapidly increasing during the last decade (IRENA 2014).
These technologies, albeit having poor energy density and large output fluctuations,work efficiently as distributed energy resources (Shinji et al. 2008; Steimer 2010).
Distributed energy systems employ several small-scale (1 kW to 100 MW) power
generation and storage systems to generate electricity on-site, reducing transmission
losses due to transmission and distribution. In addition to electricity, cogeneration andmulti-generation technologies that can simultaneously generate electricity, hot water,
heating and cooling, or fuel are also available (cf. Chicco and Mancarella 2009).
Although initial costs for distributed generation systems tend to be higher than those forconventional power systems, other factors should also be taken into consideration, suchas primary energy consumption, carbon dioxide emissions, fossil fuel independence, andcosts to society. Optimization criteria using these factors are being researched todetermine whether the impact of implementing distributed systems is significant(Østergaard 2009).
Distributed energy systems using renewable energies, in particular solar, wind and

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micro-hydro, have the capacity to benefit remote rural areas. There are several
agricultural applications for renewable energies, including but not limited to irrigation,
greenhouse ventilation, refrigeration, grain threshing and milling, food processing andstorage, as well as electricity for radio, television and telecommunications (Weingart andGiovannucci 2004). Energy demand patterns for rural areas are generally different fromthose for urban and suburban areas; therefore the approach to installing distributed
energy systems should be selected accordingly. Areas that previously had no access toelectricity may rapidly increase their energy demands after the electric supply has been
installed. A study by Pereira et al. explains the impacts of the “2003 national rural
electrification project” in Brazil (Pereira et al. 2010). Energy consumption per capita forhouseholds that were not part of the electrification program decreased from 6.91 to 5.00
GJ per year after the program. This decrease was attributed to changes in energy
consumption behavior. In contrast, energy consumption for electrified households
increased from 5.16 to 6.19 GJ per year after the program. When electricity is supplied
to rural areas by expanding the power network, an increase in energy demand may be
met without the need to increase the installed capacity. However, if distributed energy
systems are implemented instead, it is important to consider future energy demand
growths, and allow room for increasing the generation capacity.
Expansion of the main power network is generally the cheapest means ofelectrification. A study on an isolated island in India assessed the difference in cost ofelectricity by supplying the island with power from the existing network, and withrenewable energies (Karki et al. 2008). The study area considered a peak load of 530 kW,
where power consumption per capita is 0.46 kWh/day. The study reveals that a PVbiomass stand-alone system would produce the highest cost of electricity for this area,
unless policies such as net metering and feed-in tariffs are implemented. However, not
all isolated areas respond the same way to distributed energy generation. Szabó et al.
(2011) used spatial mapping to compare costs between different energy generation
technologies in the African continent. In this study, costs of connection to the network,
installation of solar PV, and generation by diesel engines, including fuel transport, arecalculated for the African continent. The number of people that can be supplied witheach system is then estimated, with regard to their ability to pay a certain rate forelectricity. The study finds that when people can afford to pay 0.05 Euros (USD 0.06)
more per kilowatt-hour of electricity, the amount of people that can be supplied with PV
increases dramatically, while for diesel generation it remains the same, and for network
connection it actually decreases. These results suggest that in some cases, distributed
energy generation systems show lower electricity costs compared to extension of themain power network. Hence, deciding which areas should be connected to the main
power network and which should use distributed energy systems, can help optimize theSelected students’ Papers

consumption of resources.
III. Micro-grids
When the number of interconnected distributed generation systems starts toincrease, it is important to match the aggregated power output with total demand in orderto maintain a stable power-system operation. For renewable energies with variable
power output (i.e., solar and wind power), energy storage and load balancing techniques
are indispensable (Liu and Su 2008). Technologies for energy storage that are already on
the market include rechargeable batteries and supercapacitors (electrochemical storage),
flywheels (mechanical storage), and superconducting coils (electromagnetic storage).
Since power output from solar and wind power systems can be higher than actual power
demand or vice-versa, energy storage devices are used to balance the load and store
surplus energy for later use. However, energy storage systems have limited capacity andthus can only store and supply a limited amount of energy. Therefore, fuel based systems
are often used for backup power generation. Microturbines, diesel and electric
generators (thermal systems), and fuel cells (electrochemical systems) are distributed
energy generation technologies that transform fuel into useful energy. Tanrioven (2005)
shows that the addition of fuel cells or diesel generators to renewable energy systems
can increase the reliability of the system as the installed capacity is increased. To
interconnect distributed energy generation and storage technologies, and control theiroperation to ensure a stable power output, the concept of micro-grids has been
introduced.
Micro-grids utilize control algorithms to manage each of the interconnected energy
devices to stabilize the power output with the actual energy demands. Several algorithms
for optimizing the micro-grid’s operation and minimizing fuel consumption have alreadybeen proposed (Hernandez-Aramburo et al. 2005; Obara 2007; Moghaddam et al. 2011).
These algorithms control the operation (e.g., power output from generators, power
consumption from loads, and state of charge in storage devices) of the various
components in the micro-grid to provide the optimum use of resources, while
minimizing cost and CO2 emissions. As renewable energy systems and interaction withthe main power network became more prominent, micro-grids evolved into smart-grids,
which utilize forecast information of weather, and energy supply and demands toschedule the operation of each individual device. In this way, energy storage system canoperate more effectively by recharging with anticipation if a power output decrease fromthe renewable power systems is forecasted.
Cogeneration systems are commonly added to micro-grids and smart-grids as well.
Fuel based systems such as microturbines, reciprocating engines, Stirling engines andfuel cells are often used in cogeneration systems because they generate large amounts of

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waste heat during operation. This generated heat can be utilized as the driving energy
input for refrigeration equipment, air conditioning, and hot water production. In thisway, efficiency can be increased from 30-45 percent of pure electric generation to over
80 percent for cogeneration systems. A study by Maidment and Prosser (2000) compares
the performance of cogeneration systems for cold storage facilities with and withoutabsorption chiller technology. The hourly load considered for the facility was between
320 and 400 kW. Utilizing cogeneration to provide electricity, hot water and ambient
heating for a cold storage facility using only conventional vapor compression
refrigeration would present a payback period between 7.9 and 10.6 years. In contrast,
using waste heat from the cogeneration system in an absorption chiller instead ofambient heating, the system’s payback period was expected to decrease to 4.6 years.
From the technologies available for cogeneration systems, fuel cells appear to offer
the highest electric efficiency (Onovwiona and Ugursal 2004). The operation principle offuel cells is through electrolytic recombination of ions, similar to that of conventional
batteries. In fuel cells, hydrogen and oxygen are fed into an electrochemical cell, whereions flow through an electrolyte, while electrons are transported through electrodes to
produce electricity. The ions and electrons recombine with the molecules on the opposite
side of the electrolyte to form H2O. Compared to turbines and engines, fuel cells operate
on an electrochemical process that does not produce NOx and soot emissions that result
from combustion (Larminie and Dicks 2003). On the other hand, fuel cell systems
require complex fuel flow, pressure and temperature management systems to control thepower output. The characteristics of the available fuel cell generation technologies arepresented in Table 1. The two main types of fuel cells utilized for residential energy
generation are Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cells (PEMFC) and Solid Oxide
Fuel Cells (SOFC). The electrolyte in PEMFCs is activated at low temperature (65 °C),
which allows for fast startups and effective load following operation. However, thematerial of the electrolyte is very sensitive to impurities and moisture levels in the fuel;therefore auxiliary systems are used to maintain this delicate balance. In SOFCs, theelectrolyte is very resilient to impurities and can utilize carbon monoxide as fuel alongwith hydrogen. This electrolyte however, is activated at high temperature (750 °C) andthus requires preheating stages for the cell stack and the fuel input which consume
additional energy, and in addition elongate its startup time. For both types of fuel cells,
hydrogen (and CO in the case of SOFCs) is usually obtained by reformation of naturalgas. Therefore, both systems also need a gas reforming unit if pure hydrogen cannot be
supplied. Through reutilization of exhaust heat, researchers have been able to reduce theenergy needed for auxiliary elements in fuel cells, increasing the overall efficiency of thesystem (Moghaddam 2011). In the same way, fuel cells have shown promising results aspart of efficient residential cogeneration systems with decreased emissions of CO2

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37(Stambouli and Traversa 2002; Tsay 2003). For fuel cell systems, the main setback has
been that the industry is relatively new and development and production costs remainhigh. Current studies indicate that the viability of residential fuel cell systems are often
limited by the equipment costs. One study in Malaysia reports that if replacement andmaintenance costs for the fuel cell systems can be lowered to one third, fuel cellcogeneration systems would be able to replace the conventional system of electricity
supply through power networks (Mahlia and Chan 2011). Fortunately, as it happens withmost technologies, fuel cell production costs are expected to fall dramatically as
production volume increases in the following years. An increase in production from 5 to500 MW per year is expected to reduce costs by a factor of four to eight times (Thijssen2007).
Table 1. Summary of the cogeneration characteristics of available fuel cell technologies (Onovwiona andUgursal, 2004).
Polymer Electrolyte
Membrane Fuel Cell

Phosphoric
Acid Fuel Cell

Solid Oxide
Fuel Cell

Molten Carbonate
Fuel Cell

Type of Electrolyte

H+ ions

H+ ionsO2- ions

CO32- ionsOperating temperature

65-85° C

190-210° C

750-1000° C

650-700° C

Electrical efficiency (HHV)

35%

36%

45%

46%

Cogeneration efficiency (HHV)

72%

75%

70%

70%

Power/heat ratio

0.95

0.92

1.79

1.92

III.A. Isolated Grids
With the advances in distributed power generation technologies, power supply
becomes possible without integration to the national power network. This is especially
important for isolated areas (as discussed in the introduction), where extension of themain power network is not economically or technologically feasible. In order to design amicro-grid that can supply all energy demands during the year, the capacity ofcomponents would most likely tend to increase. Although this is expected to have higher
investment costs, a comparison for the long term may favor the use of micro-grids, since
the costs would escalate in the same manner if the main power network is to be extended
through unfavorable terrain. Energy consumption using the power network would
increase as well since higher electric losses exist when long power lines are used. For
on-site generation using conventional engines, fuel transportation costs and future oil
prices also need to be taken into account. For isolated areas where energy demand andfuel consumption patterns are different from those in urban areas, a corresponding
analysis is required.
As previously discussed, provision of a sustainable power supply in isolated areas
is a persistent issue. Expansion of the main power network is not always possible, and38

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constant demand for fossil fuels for diesel generators has negative impacts on theenvironment and the economy. The low availability of oil products in the near futurealso poses a threat to energy security in isolated areas. With the advances in micro-grids
using renewable energies, the viability for isolated micro-grids for remote and rural areas
increases. Efficient energy storage systems in these areas play a major role compared to
network-connected distributed energy systems. Considering the future potential of thesetechnologies, some countries have begun implementing energy independent power
supply systems in remote areas.
Nayar et al. (2008) present a study on an isolated micro-grid for three islands in the
Republic of Maldives using a 2.5 kWp solar PV system and 24 wind turbines each with a
rated capacity of 1.8 kW, where a 30 kW diesel generator is considered for backup
power. Using electronics and control technology to schedule the operation of the diesel
generator, this system has been operating for over a decade with satisfactory results. In
contrast, a study by Himria et al. (2008) on a remote area in Algeria analyzed anotherwind-diesel hybrid system (600 kW wind turbine, and a 500 kW diesel generator), but
found that the economic feasibility of the isolated grid was heavily limited by the priceof fuel, as well as the wind speeds in the area. Moharil and Kulkarni (2009) analyzed anisolated micro-grid using only a 25 kWp solar PV system in Sagardeep Island, India, arural community with severe energy shortages. The community at Sagardeep used toobtain electricity from a diesel generator, although a shortage of fuel only allowed forenergy production for a few hours a day and only for selected customers. However, theincreasing price of oil made it difficult to sustain this system. In response, 17 solar PV
panel systems were installed over a period of ten years, together with energy meters tomonitor individual electric consumption. This system was deemed successful, as
education, working hours, entertainment for human recreation, and residential
commodities were all improved thanks to the availability of electricity. Thiam (2010)
presents a summary of micro-grids in Senegal. The performance of diesel generators,
wind turbines, and solar PV are compared against each other for three remote areas in
Senegal with energy demands between 7.77 and 13.05 kW/day. In this case, diesel
generators presented the highest levelized electricity cost, over seven times the levelized
cost of solar power in the worst case. In this study the impact of fuel transport anddistribution costs on energy supply in remote areas can be clearly seen. Although wind
power in this case was not as competitive as solar, the results depended greatly on thewind speeds available for the area. Higher wind speeds are expected to increase power
generation and thus improve the competitiveness of wind systems. Regardless, bothsolar and wind power systems were well above the diesel system.
Sen et al. (2011) analyzed the possibility of co- and tri-generation in remote areas inIndia using biomass. Utilizing biomass it is possible to generate electricity, heat forSelected students’ Papers

refrigeration or food processing, and distilled water. The main complications with trigeneration is that it has conventionally been used for large-scale industries, where
installed capacity is over one megawatt, and scaling it down to lower capacity systems
faces technical difficulties. However, successful implementation of these systems is
expected to have a positive impact on society by creating microindustries in rural areas
and thus increasing economic activity. Kumaravel and Ashok (2012) present an off-gridmodel for a micro-grid in an isolated area in West India. Several configurations for
micro-grids are compared, and the authors conclude that for this area, a 22 kW solar PV/
biomass/hydropower micro-grid can achieve competitive costs and higher performance
than the conventional system used in this area: diesel and hydroelectric generators. In
order to further minimize the investment costs, design optimization models are underdevelopment. Morais et al. (2010) present an optimization model to minimize capitalcosts for a 630 W isolated micro-grid in Budapest. The model is able to schedule theoperation of batteries for energy storage and fuel cells for backup power, depending on
the availability of wind and solar resources for power generation. A similar model ispresented by Kyriakarakos et al. (2011) for a small island in the Aegean Sea, in Greece.
This model incorporates poly-generation of power, purified water, and fuel for 10 kWh/
day local consumption. A detailed economic analysis is presented as well, including aforecast of future oil prices. The study concludes that such system is feasible withminimal financial risk.
Domenech et al. (2014) analyzed the social factors in the implementation of a
micro-grid in a remote area in Peru, using renewable energies. This micro-grid was
installed over the course of a year, starting with wind power systems, followed by amicro-hydro power plant, a solar PV farm, and finalizing with individual PV systems.
This implementation in stages was due to the varied energy demand patterns across thecommunity, and the different power output profiles of each renewable energy source.
Rechargeable batteries were installed for energy storage. The community of Alto Peru,
where the micro-grid was installed, had diverse reactions to this micro-grid, regarding
power reliability and excessive power consumption by certain users. Therefore, thepeople relied heavily on technicians for repair, maintenance, and installation of power
meters for example. The results of this study reveal the differences of implementing
micro-grids between isolated areas and areas that have access to the main power
network. In isolated areas, local participation plays a key role in the successful
implementation as they get to decide where power is needed most and who has thepotential to benefit more from the energy supply.
III.B Energy Storage in Isolated Micro-grids
For isolated micro-grids, efficient energy storage is of utmost importance since

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backup fuel may not be available at all times. Various studies have discussed theavailable energy storage technologies (Ritchie 2000; Kaldellis and Zafirakis 2007;
Beaudin et al. 2010; Connolly 2010). Figure 1 shows the most commonly used types ofenergy storage technologies: Pumped Hydro Storage (PHS), Compressed Air Energy
Storage (CAES), capacitors, and rechargeable batteries (lead-acid, Nickel-Cadmium,
Sodium-Sulfur, and Lithium-Ion). Other technologies such as flywheel mechanicalstorage and supercapacitors have been developed but are not yet being used extensively.
Each of these technologies has advantages and disadvantages, as well as limitations fortheir use. PHS and CAES present the largest capacity for energy storage. In PHS, wateris pumped to an upper reservoir when electricity is available. The stored water presents ahigh potential energy based on the difference in height of the lower and higher
reservoirs. When this energy is needed back, water returns to the lower reservoir after
passing through a turbine that rotates an electric generator. A larger size of the reservoir
gives a higher capacity for energy storage. In a similar manner, CAES utilizes
underground caverns or empty water and gas reservoirs to store compressed air. Air iscompressed when electricity is available, and the energy is extracted through a turbine
powered by this compressed air. Although both of these systems have high efficiencies
and large storage capacity, construction of energy storage plants depends on thegeography of the area. CAES systems may only be built if a suitable reservoir isavailable, and PHS will need an adequate difference in the height of the terrain.
Conservation of the local environment is also an important factor because constructionof a PHS reservoir is generally expected to cover a large land area. When these systems
are utilized with renewable energies, their power generation patterns are also considered.
Solar PV in particular are subject to sudden fluctuations in power output, which cancreate a discontinuous signal. Although batteries and capacitors may still be recharged
with a discontinuous power source, PHS and CAES require a stable power input to
operate efficiently, and thus it may not be recommended to combine these technologies
with solar PV.

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Figure 1. Scale and application of various energy storage technologies. Adapted from Kaldellis andZafirakis (2007).

Rechargeable batteries present a more versatile option for energy storage thanks totheir fast response, high efficiency and easy installation. They are non-intrusive and canbe added to any system without significant reconfiguration. Batteries are however
limited by their storage capacity and charge/discharge cycles. Furthermore, the lifetimeof rechargeable batteries is around five years for lead-acid and Li-ion batteries, and 10 to
15 years for Ni-Cd batteries. In the long term, waste management of depleted batteries
may also become a problem, in particular for Ni-Cd batteries since cadmium is a toxic
material. Sodium-Sulfur batteries have a longer lifetime and their materials are
inexpensive and recyclable; however, they operate at high temperature (270 °C) and thus
require additional thermal management and safety regulations.
With the recent development of fuel cell technologies, hydrogen generation has also
been considered an attractive alternative for energy storage. Hydrogen can be used asfuel to generate energy, although hydrogen in its pure form is not commonly found innature. Nevertheless, hydrogen can be generated through water electrolysis, using
electricity to separate water into H2 and O2 molecules. Energy may be stored in this way
and recovered through fuel cells to produce electricity and heat. Hydrogen storage isalready being considered as a solution for energy independence in isolated micro-grids
using renewable energies, such as solar PV (Paul and Andrews 2008) or wind power (Yuet al. 2009). In PV systems, configuring the array so that the voltage output matches theelectrolyzer’s input can further improve efficiency (Gibson and Kelly 2010). Hydrogenstorage in micro-grids using solar energy can serve as support for rechargeable batteries
to increase the entire micro-grid’s performance. Since power output from solar PV

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depends highly on weather, energy available during the year will vary between seasons.
Therefore, relying on batteries during months with high solar output and using storedhydrogen to generate energy when solar output is low may reduce the micro-grid’s totalenergy consumption (Avril et al. 2010). As hydrogen storage is usually implemented
together with fuel cells, these micro-grids can also benefit from cogeneration of heat andpower. Shabani et al. (2010) studied a hydrogen fueled micro-grid for a remote area inAustralia, where solar energy is abundant. The results suggest that these systems could
be sufficiently competitive to replace diesel generators within 30 years. A study byBrinkhaus et al. (2011) analyzes the possibility of off-grid solar PV micro-grids for atypical household area in Europe. Energy storage using batteries and hydrogen iscompared, and the hydrogen storage system appears to show higher reliability
throughout the year in terms of stable power supply. They conclude that these off-gridsystems are technologically viable and are expected to be more financially competitive
as costs approach those offered by the main power network.
As many countries continue to expand their energy infrastructure, areas that are
now isolated may be able to be connected to the main power network in the future.
Therefore it is also worth considering whether the main power network will becompatible with the energy storage and generation systems used in the isolated microgrid. In this regard, studies by Li et al. (2008), Korpas and Greiner (2008), andGutiérrez-Martín et al. (2009) have suggested that electrolytic hydrogen can be helpful
for load balancing when connecting micro-grids to the main power network. Load in themain power network may be stabilized by shifting energy variations into the electrolyzer
and using fuel cells at peak times to generate electricity on-site for local consumption,
improving the power quality of the network. With these considerations, countries where
the main power network is still under development could rely on hydrogen fueled microgrids to supply energy to isolated areas, and benefit from them for load balancing whenthe main network is expanded.
III.C Isolated Micro-Grids Using Hydrogen Storage
Ntziachristos et al. (2005) present a study of an isolated micro-grid in the Greek
Aegean Islands. The main power network in Greece interconnects the mainland with the
Eptanisa Islands, but connection of the Aegean Islands to the west has yet to be
implemented. Peak loads in this region are as low as 40 kW and the cost for electricity
production is considered fairly high. Renewable energies started to be introduced inthese islands, but problems with load fluctuation of the currently installed network limit
the increase in capacity of renewable energies. The study considers the use ofelectrolyzers for load balancing and generating hydrogen to produce backup power fromfuel cells. The analysis incorporates various sizes of a wind turbine system, electrolyzer

Selected students’ Papers

for production of compressed or liquefied hydrogen, and different types of fuel cells forevaluation. The results of the study show that the proposed system can achieve payback
periods between one and two years, with the period decreasing with a higher capacity
wind turbine. Although liquefaction of hydrogen shows lower efficiency thancompressed hydrogen, the system’s payback period does not seem to vary much foreither technology, suggesting that the method for hydrogen storage may not have a big
impact as long as immediate consumption is favored over long-term storage.
Hydrogen storage should be assessed more assertively in order to improvereliability and minimize energy shortages for isolated micro-grids. Muhammad Ali andAndrews (2006) address the issues of high costs for hydrogen storage in isolated microgrids, by presenting lower cost storage options and methods for solar-hydrogen systems.
A computer simulation for an isolated energy supply system in southern Australia has
been carried out to estimate the hydrogen fuel demands during a year. The results
suggest that the cost of electricity would likely remain high for hydrogen storage
systems without cost constraint, although it may be lowered by finding the optimal
amount of hydrogen to store seasonally. On the other hand, the electricity cost becomes
highly competitive as the storage cost decreases. In response, the authors analyzed thelowest cost for hydrogen storage options and concluded that metal gas cylinders to store
compressed hydrogen allow for seasonal storage of up to seven kilograms of hydrogen atminimum costs for the selected area. There exist other low cost options for hydrogenstorage that are still under research, but rapid progress is expected as the demand forhydrogen systems continues to increase. Elamari (2010) applies hydrogen storage to an
isolated residential energy system in the Saharan Desert in Libya. In this region, many
remote villages are not connected to the main power network, and diesel generators
would be too expensive due to fuel transportation and maintenance. In this area, solar
energy resources are more abundant and reliable than wind, so Elamari analyzed a solar
PV system coupled with a PEMFC and a water electrolyzer, and designed a simulation
model and a program for a DC/DC converter controller to maximize the output of thesystem. No cogeneration is implemented in this system, but generation of hydrogenmight supply fuel for cooking or transportation, provided adequate equipment can be
implemented.
IV. Hydrogen Infrastructure
The concept of hydrogen infrastructure is relatively new, but it has been receiving
increased attention recently. As mentioned in the introduction of this paper, there isincreasing concern over the availability of fossil fuels and their capacity to cover
increasing global energy demands. Therefore, alternative sources of energy that arecompatible with the current infrastructure are constantly under research. Hydrogen

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appears to be the most promising alternative in this regard, as it can be generated fromboth fossil fuels and renewable energies. Therefore, an energy infrastructure that utilizes
hydrogen could be attractive to both consumers and suppliers in the industry, fromresidential and industrial energy consumption to the transport sector. Furthermore, a
reduction in the combustion of fossil fuels is expected to have a positive impact onenvironmental degradation and air quality, as well as improving energy security by
reducing fuel imports. The United States is already recognizing the importance ofstarting a hydrogen infrastructure in detailed reports that help as guidelines for assessinghydrogen based energy systems (US DOE 2002; Levene 2004). Other reports support theconcept of hydrogen infrastructure as a transition between conventional fossil fuelenergy systems and the introduction of renewable energies (Muradov and Veziroğlu
2005; Marbán and Valdes-Solís 2007). These reports present the possible paths forconverting the actual energy infrastructure into one compatible with hydrogentechnologies. This transition is expected to have positive impacts on energy security,environmental protection and economic growth. Currently, over 98 percent of the global
demand for hydrogen is produced through reformation of hydrocarbons (mainly steam
reforming of natural gas), and it is mostly consumed only in refineries and ammonia
production. As the market for hydrogen fuel expands, natural gas consumption forhydrogen production is expected to increase as well. Therefore, additional sources ofhydrogen (e.g., from renewable energies) are to be implemented in order to improveenergy security. Midilli and Dincer (2007) utilize the global instability ratio andhydrogen based sustainability ratio, developed by Midilli, to evaluate the benefits ofhydrogen energy systems. Their report suggests that an increase in non-fossil fuelhydrogen production is exponentially proportional to increased energy sustainability andlower global energy instability. Additionally, they suggest that a global increase inhydrogen energy utilization could help to improve sustainable development and energy
stability values.
For isolated areas with high energy demands that currently rely on diesel powered
generators, hydrogen fuel can provide a cleaner and more stable alternative, compared tothe installation of large-scale electric storage systems. Isolated areas with high energy
demands are those that have an established supply line of fuel, for example, the several
islands surrounding the main island in Japan. Japan is not a main producer of oil
products, thus the fuel needed to supply the isolated areas needs to be imported fromother countries, consuming a high amount of resources and leaving a large carbon
footprint in the process. Generating hydrogen in the main island through waterelectrolysis or reformation of carbohydrates, and using the existing fuel supply lines totransport this fuel, the energy security for these isolated areas could be effectively
improved, while reducing carbon emissions due to power generation. However, ifSelected students’ Papers

isolated areas are to transition into hydrogen based energy supply systems, thenadditional hydrogen sources that can meet the increased demand need to be explored.
Hydrogen generation may be divided into three: non-renewable hydrogen, renewablehydrogen, and hydrogen for energy storage.
Currently, the main source for hydrogen is found in hydrocarbons. Hydrocarbons
can be separated into H2 gas and other carbon components through a number ofprocesses. The source of hydrocarbons for hydrogen production is also varied. Methanefound in natural gas is currently the main source of non-renewable hydrogen due to its
abundance and for having the highest hydrogen content (two molecules of hydrogen gas
per atom of carbon) among other hydrocarbons. An efficient and technologically matureprocess called catalytic steam reforming uses methane (CH4) and high temperature
steam (H2O) that react over a nickel catalyst to disassociate it into H2, CO and CO2
gases. Although this process presents a source of carbon emissions, the catalytic
reforming process does not produce NOx or soot emissions as combustion ofhydrocarbons does. The steam reforming process may also be used with ethanol, which
has the same hydrogen to carbon ratio as methane. Ethanol is in liquid state at standard
temperature and pressure, which makes it more convenient to transport compared tonatural gas. Ethanol is considered an effective source of energy for low power
applications (100 to 1000 W), but for higher power applications it still lacks theinfrastructure and logistics for its use (Palo et al. 2007).
In recent years, hydrogen generation through reformation of industrial byproducts
has also been receiving attention. Although non-renewable, hydrogen generated fromindustrial byproducts does not present an additional consumption of resources. Waste
products from coke ovens in steelworks plants, mainly coke oven gas and tar, areconsidered a potential source of hydrogen (Onozaki et al. 2006; Bermúdez et al. 2010).
Coke oven gas has a hydrogen content of 50-60 percent and methane content of nearly
25 percent from which hydrogen may be recovered. A fraction of these waste gases isutilized for other processes in steelworks plants, but often there is excess gas that is not
being taken advantage of. If isolated areas adopt hydrogen fuel as a source of energy,
then industrial waste gases can be used to reduce fossil fuel imports for hydrogenproduction. Since these gases are considered waste products, they provide an attractive
source of hydrogen with no net CO2 emissions and lower transportation losses.
Another source of hydrogen with zero net CO2 emissions is biomass. Biomass may
be considered a renewable resource depending on the sustainability of its harvesting
practices. Balat and Balat (2009) list the benefits of bio-hydrogen as fostering the
economic sector (sustainability, increased rural jobs, reducing fuel imports), encouraging
environmental protection (reducing carbon emissions and air pollution), and improving
energy security (domestic targets, reducing fossil fuel consumption). Levin and Chahine

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 2(2010) have compiled a report on hydrogen production methods using biomass. Biomasshas been used as a source of hydrocarbons for several years now, and as such theconventional method of steam reforming may be applied to produce hydrogen. Bio-oil
output from biomass is rated above 75 weight percent, and further reformation intohydrogen has shown yields of 85 percent from the total hydrogen content (Wang et al.
1998). Hydrogen generation through autothermal reforming of ethanol is also anefficient process with high product purity. Furthermore, ethanol is soluble in water andthus appears to be a suitable fuel for PEMFCs, as they require a high hydration level inthe cell stacks (Deluga et al. 2004). Other processes for hydrogen production using gas
are available as well. Gasification of biomass can provide high hydrogen output, if theresulting gases can be separated efficiently. Current research is improving the techniques
for gas purification, achieving satisfactory results. Hydrogen is also obtained throughphotolysis or fermentation using algae, bacteria, or other microorganisms. Fountoulakis
and Manios (2009) have shown that glycerol addition significantly enhances hydrogen
output from anaerobic digestion of municipal solid waste and agro-industrial byproducts.
Although these technologies are not yet mature, they appear to have a large output
capacity for hydrogen generation.
Supplementary to biomass, hydrogen produced from renewable energy resources
may be obtained simultaneously to further decrease the dependence on fossil fuels.
Hydrogen from electrolysis can be readily implemented in solar, wind, hydro, andgeothermal power systems. For each of these renewable energy sources, a number of
additional processes for hydrogen generation are available (Dincer 2012). Solar energy
shows the most diverse range of hydrogen production methods, such as thermolysis,
thermochemical water splitting, photo-catalysis, bio-photolysis, artificial photosynthesis.
The solar thermochemical water splitting process is further explained by Licht (2003).
Besides, electrolysis seems to be the most effective and commercially viable for
producing hydrogen from renewable resources (Sherif et al. 2005; Fuel Cell Today2013). Recent advances in water electrolysis are increasing the efficiency of the process
and reducing costs. A Solid Oxide Electrolyzer Cell proposed by Jensen et al. (2007)
showed outstanding results in hydrogen production, and is expected to reduce costs byhalf compared to conventional alkaline electrolyzers as the technology matures.
Hydrogen as a means for energy storage is also possible using both non-renewable andrenewable energies. Large-scale power stations, including coal, hydro, geothermal andnuclear power, that generate power at maximum capacity regardless of demand canbenefit from water electrolysis to store surplus energy in the form of hydrogen. In thesame way, renewable energies that depend on weather conditions, such as wind and solar
power, may store energy in the form of hydrogen when the power output exceeds
demand.

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47

Table 2. Summary of hydrogen storage technologies (HI-Energy, 2014).

Technologies
Energy density

Compressed gas

Liquid hydrogen

Steel cylinders
Composite
Composite(200 bar)
Cylinders (350 bar) Cylinders (700 bar)

N/A

1 wt%H2

6 wt%H2

Availability

CommonlyusedStandard foronboard vehicle
tanks

IssuesLowest cost,
but low energy
density

5 wt%H2

5 wt%H2

Metal
hydrideChemical hydride

Hydrides that react
Hydrides ofwith water to produce
light metals
hydrogen
1-2 wt%H2

4 wt%H2

Transport by tanker
Target for onboard
Still inor in large-scale
Still in development
development
vehicle tanks
stationary vessels
High cost, yet Regenerating the
Low weight composite materials are a High cost, difficult tohydride consumes
low energy
challenge
scale size downenergydensity

In addition to hydrogen production, the method for storing hydrogen also needs tobe selected with respect to the expected consumption patterns. There are fourcommercial storage technologies for hydrogen (Table 2): compressed gas, liquidhydrogen, metal hydrides, and chemical hydrides (Zhou 2004; HI-Energy 2014).
Compressed gas in 200 bar steel cylinders is the most commonly used method. Higher
pressures (350 and 700 bar) can be achieved using composite cylinders, although theselection of suitable composite materials is still an issue regarding tank size. Liquidhydrogen is more often used in large-scale transport using tankers, as hydrogenliquefaction has very low efficiency on a small scale. For long-term storage, metal
hydride tanks are a better option. Metal hydrides are still expensive, but present
diminished losses and improved safety. Chemical hydride technology is still underdevelopment, although it presents high energy density for storage. Regarding
consumption, it is recommended to use on-site electrolysis and to avoid mid to longterm storage. If consumption is high (over 20 kg/day), on-site reforming of natural gas
may be more suitable than electrolysis, mainly due to the costs and operation of theadditional components needed for steam reforming (HI-Energy 2014). With regard tosafety, hydrogen storage is not considered any riskier than compressed natural gas
storage. The minimum fuel to air ratio at which the mixture first becomes flammable issimilar between hydrogen and methane, at approximately 5 percent fuel volume.
Furthermore, hydrogen safety standards have been in practice for decades and sufficientknowledge has accumulated to create or improve them, depending on the application(Tchouvelev et al. 2006; HI-Energy 2014).
V. Conclusions
Electrification of rural and isolated areas remains a problem. Energy supply is
widely related to social development, but many regions in the world still lack a stableenergy supply due to financial or technical issues. Diesel generators have been widelyused for this purpose despite increasing fuel costs, but recent advances in distributed

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energy generation technologies promise to bring more economic and sustainable
solutions. In particular, small-scale renewable energies such as wind and solar power
seem to provide a viable alternative for power generation in certain rural and isolatedareas. However, power output from solar and wind is inherently variable and it cannot byitself ensure stability in power supply, thus additional energy generation and storage
systems are needed. Several distributed energy technologies can be used to stabilize theoutput signal of solar and wind power systems. These technologies can beinterconnected through micro-grids in order to control their operation to match theenergy demands. Technologies that produce exhaust heat such as fuel cells can also be
used for cogeneration of power and hot water, increasing their overall efficiency. Several
studies have shown that micro-grid systems can achieve competitive costs in isolatedareas through the use of distributed energy resources, although former studies stillsuggest utilizing diesel generators for back-up power. In order to reduce dependence on
fossil fuels and increase sustainability in isolated micro-grids, methods of compensating
for the fluctuations in power output from renewable energies are needed.
Some studies are paying attention to more effective energy storage systems.
Hydrogen generation as means for energy storage is a particularly attractive alternative.
Hydrogen can be generated through water electrolysis using electricity from renewableenergies, and utilized in fuel cells to provide both heat and power. Although
rechargeable batteries present higher efficiencies than hydrogen generation, theircapacity is limited and they cannot be recharged until power generation becomes higher
than the demand. In contrast, hydrogen fuel can be generated through diverse sources
including fossil fuels, biomass and renewable energies, and it can be transported toisolated areas in times of need, ensuring a more reliable energy supply system.
Additionally, hydrogen fuel provides isolated micro-grids with the opportunity ofgrowth. While the capacity of rechargeable batteries is usually determined with respect
to the estimated power demand, fuel cells can provide energy as long as there is a fuelsupply. This allows isolated areas to invest in energy to improve their commercial
activities without having to increase the capacity of their energy supply system. If power
supply in isolated areas is to be provided through hydrogen fueled micro-grids, anincrease in hydrogen gas demand is to be expected. This paper introduces some of theavailable processes for hydrogen generation and storage that can be used to meet thisdemand. Although the costs for hydrogen fueled micro-grids are currently high, they are
expected to continue to decrease over the next few years, making them competitive withconventional diesel based systems. Furthermore, the benefits in sustainability and energy
stability offered by hydrogen based micro-grids make them the most viable option for
power supply in isolated areas.

Selected students’ Papers

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The Status of the Twa Minority in Rwanda in the Past and the Present:
A post-genocide policy challenge
Toshie INUI

Table of Contents
Abstract
I. Introduction
II. The Historical Status of the Twa
III. The Transformation of Rwanda under the Kagame Regime
IV. The Current Situation of the Twa
V. The Current Policy Issues in Rwanda from the Perspective of Horizontal
Inequalities (HI)Conclusion
References
Abstract
After the 1994 Genocide, the government of Rwanda (GoR) prohibited ethnicitybased separate identification of citizens. The ID card no longer shows the ethnic
identification of the card holder, and all citizens are called only Rwandese. However,
the Twa, an ethnic group that has been marginalized historically in Rwanda, is now
called a “Historically Marginalized People/Population” (HMP). Since my first field visit
in 2011, I have witnessed social and economic discrimination against the Twa in
Rwanda, and confirmed this in various reports published by human rights NGOs as well
as UN organizations, despite the fact that the GoR is trying to remove the prejudices,
inequalities and discrimination against the Twa. Such discrimination deprives the Twa of
the freedom to live in dignity, as well as the freedom from want and fear.
This article presents an analysis of inequalities and differences between the Twa
and the rest of the Rwandese from the perspective of horizontal inequalities (HIs), which
encompass political, economic, social and cultural-status dimensions. These inequalities
are discussed in terms of political participation, income, employment, access to
education. This article also discusses policy issues regarding the Twa by examining thetransformation of Rwandese society after the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi. Finally, it
concludes that the support from the GoR, although still insufficient, is having somepositive effects on the life of the Twa.

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Keywords
Rwanda, Twa, minority, livelihoods, HIs (horizontal inequalities),
I. Introduction
It is 53 years since the Republic of Rwanda (Rwanda) achieved independence in
1962. After independence, Rwanda became politically and economically unstable. At
present, Rwanda is stable after experiencing the 1994 Genocide and determining that it
would never happen again. The 1994 Genocide is usually described as a genocide
committed by the majority Hutu against the minority Tutsi and the moderate Hutu.
However, another minority group in Rwanda, the Twa, was also targeted during the 1994
Genocide, a subject that is rarely mentioned in academic research. After the genocide,
Rwanda launched Vision 2020 in 2000 as well as other policies for economic
development. Also, the indication of the name of ethnicity on ID cards was abolishedafter the genocide. Now, Rwanda is widely regarded as one of the success stories inAfrica because Rwanda is trying to rebuild “New” Rwanda through “unity,” “work” and“patriotism.” But to what extent has Rwanda changed since the 1994 Genocide and do
its policies include all citizens?
The Kingdom of Rwanda was formed in 1468 by the succession of the throne of
Ruganzu I Bwimba. The kingdom did not expand its dominion for 300 years after
formation, but it started to attack regions around the kingdom from around the 18th
century and extended its territory. However, the dominion was unstable for a long time
until it was colonized by Germany in 1899.1 The League of Nations approved the
mandate for Belgium in 1924. The identification card (ID) system2, which mentions thename of ethnicity was established during the Belgium mandate. With this system, thethree ethnicities in Rwanda, the Tutsi, Hutu and Twa, were clearly divided and Belgium
established a system in which the Tutsi were rulers and the Hutu were ruled3. This
European power brought such ethnic distinctions to the kingdom of Rwanda based on
the Hamitic Hypothesis4. The sudden death of the king in 1959 triggered mistrust
1

2
3

4

Takeuchi, Shinichi (Editor), Ruwanda Shi Nenpyou, (Chronology of History of Rwanda)“Chousa Kenkyu Houkokusyo Gendai Ahurika no Hunsou wo Rikai Suru Tameni(Research Report Understanding the Current Conflicts in Africa)” Japan External Trade
Organization, 1998.
Ibid,.
Takeuchi, Shinichi “Gendai Afurika no Funsou to Kokka ( The Post-Colonial Patrimonial
State and Conflict in Africa: Understanding the Genocide in Rwanda )” Tokyo: Akashi
Shoten, 2009, pp.128-129.
The Hamitic Hypothesis was advocated by a British explorer John Hanning Speak. Ham,

Selected students’ Papers

between Tutsi elites and Belgium and then Belgium tried to enforce the relations with
Hutu elites called PARMEHUTU. Then, in 1959, an ethnic massacre led to about
200,000 refugees fleeing the conflict, which triggered the transformation of the politics
from the Tutsi elites’ monarchy established by Belgium to a Hutu elites’ dominatedstructure.5 Three years later, Rwanda became independent on the 1st July 1962. The
second generation of refugees from the conflict in 1959 formed anti-government forces(Rwanda Patriotic Front; RPF). The 1994 Genocide occurred on the 6th of April in 1994
with the assassination of President Habyalimana and it terminated on the 18th of July
1994 with the assumption of the RPF. About 500,000 to 800,000 people of the Tutsi,
moderate Hutu and Twa were killed during the 1994 Genocide, and instability continued
after the ceasefire. Rwanda tried to integrate the people by abolishing the indication of
ethnicities from the ID cards6, and the International Criminal Tribunal for Rwanda(ICRT) and Gacaca courts were established in Rwanda.
There were three ethnicities, the Tutsi, Hutu and Twa, in Rwanda, but the GoR
abolished the indication of the name of ethnicities on the ID card after the 1994
Genocide. The GoR has also prohibited the ethnicity-based separate identification of
citizens. According to Lewis and Knight, the Twa is “the third and the lowest-statusethnic group, class, ‘caste’ or echelon of Rwandese society, and are recognized as being
one of the ‘Pygmy’ people of Central Africa. The Twa are Banyarwandans sharing acommon language, religions and culture of the Rwandese people as a whole.”7 Actually,
the Twa were not only outsiders but also had the perspective of insiders during the 1994
Genocide. The Twa numbered no less than 28,000 and 30% of them were killed during
the 1994 Genocide8. Interahamwe, which is a group of extremist Hutu, intimidated male

5

6

7

8

one of the sons of Noah, appears in the chapter 9 of the Old Testament. After theevacuation from the heavy floods, Ham saw his father, Noah, being drunk and sleeping
without clothes. Noah was enraged with Ham who was eventually cursed by Noah. Later,
it was claimed that Ham brought civilization to Africa. This is called the Hamitic
Hypothsesis. John Hanning Speke, Journal of the Discovery of the Source of the Nile,
London: J. M. DENT & SONS LTD, 1969, p.201.
Takeuchi, Schinichi, “Ruwanda ni Okeru Hutatsu no Hunsou jenosaido wa Ikani Kanou ni
Natta Noka (Tow Conflicts in Rwanda How did the genocide happen)”, Syakaikagaku
kenkyu (Research of Social Science) 55(5-6), 2004, p.107.
The Government of the United Kingdom of Great Britain Northern Ireland Immigration andNationality Directorate of the Home Office Country Information and Policy Unit, Rwanda
Assessment, London, 2001, p.23.
Lewis, Jerome & Knight, Judy, The Twa of Rwanda: Assessment of the Situation andPromotion of Twa Rights in Post-war Rwanda, Chadlington and Copenhagen: World
Rainforest Movement and International Working Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1995, p.21.
Lewis, Jerome & Knight, Judy, op.cit., 1995, p.93.

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Twa into participating in Interahamwe. However, academic research on the 1994
Genocide does not focus on the conditions of the Twa.
The Twa are described as “Historically Marginalized People/Population (HMP)” in
Rwanda today. The name, HMP, reflects their history of discrimination, prejudice andexclusion in Rwanda. All people who have Rwandese nationality are called Rwandese,but the Twa are called HMP as well as Rwandese. The Twa have suffered discriminationand prejudices historically, and have not been able to benefit sufficiently from the policyof the GoR, so they are finding it difficult to make a living. Article 14 of theConstitution mentions compensation for the genocide survivors, but the Twa’s welfare is
not indemnified in the Constitution. Thus, the Twa are the most vulnerable people in
Rwanda today.
This research focuses on Rwanda, which has abolished the indication of the nameof ethnicities from ID cards and is attempting to construct a new multi-ethnic nation.
Also, it examines the differences and gaps between the Twa and other Rwandese,making use of the notion of Horizontal Inequalities (HI), which includes the perspectivesof politics, economics, societies and cultures. The research also examines the current
situation of the Twa and how they are treated in Rwanda. The Twa ae a historicallyforgotten group, but the present GoR is offering them support. There are few studies on
the Twa, and this research aims to clarify the current issues confronted by the GoR fromthe Twa point of view, and to understand how Rwandan society has changed since the1994 Genocide by focusing on the discriminated people, the Twa.
Section 2 of this article provides an overview of the Twa people. Section 3
focusses on two policies the GOR implemented for poverty reduction and examines thepolicies of the Kagame Regime since 2003. Section 4 describes the current status of theTwa. Finally, Section 5 analyses the inequalities between the Twa and other Rwandese
from the perspectives of politics, economics, society and culture by adopting HIs andclarifies the current policy issues for poverty reduction of the Twa.
* This article does not aim to separate the nations of Rwanda but it aims to elucidate current
policy issues relating to the Twa in post-genocide Rwanda. As such, this article does nottransgress Article 33 of the Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda.

II. The Historical Status of the Twa
This section presents a historical overview of the Twa in Rwanda and the ethnicities
that used to exist formally in Rwanda. There were three ethnic groups in Rwanda, theTutsi, the Hutu and the Twa. Now they are all called Rwandese. There is muchdiscussion on the origins of the Tutsi and the Hutu. Both the Tutsi and the Hutu havetheir roots in the Bantu. The Tutsi are usually regarded as the Bantu who not onlySelected students’ Papers

adopted the food production system of yams but also engaged in cattle breeding9. The
Hutu are also considered to originate from the Bantu and to have migrated from thefrontier between today’s Cameroon and Nigeria. The Twa is one of the names for thepygmies who used to be hunter gatherers10 in central Africa. At the beginning of the 19th
century, the language, Kinyarwanda, became the common language of the Tutsi, Hutu
and Twa. Then, the Twa started to integrate into society, which was dominated by theTutsi and Hutu. Originally, the Twa lived in the forest and made their living by hunting
and gathering, but the livelihoods of the Twa gradually transformed to pot-making
because of the large-scale deforestation in the 19th and the 20th century.11
According to the Unrepresented Nations and People Organization (UNPO), the Twa
people live in the Great Lakes region, especially around Lake Kivu and Lake Edward12.
Also, the report by Minority Rights Group International (MRG) says that the Twa are theoriginal inhabitants of the forest in equatorial areas13. From these descriptions, the Twa
should be regarded as indigenous people in Rwanda. However, the Twa are not admitted
as an indigenous people because of Article 3314 of the Constitution of the Republic of
Rwanda. There was no rigid hierarchy between the Tutsi, Hutu and Twa before thecolonial period, but such a hierarchy was created especially during the time of Belgiancolonial rule. Ethnicities in Rwanda were formed after the establishment of theKingdom of Rwanda in 1468, and further divided into classes and strengthened during
the colonial period so that Europeans could control the Kingdom of Rwanda moreeasily.
The name Twa is commonly used in Rwanda and Burundi. This means that thesame group of pygmies is called by different names in different countries in Africa.
They are called Aka or Bambendjelé in the Republic of Congo, Bagyeli, Baka or
9

10
11

12
13
14

Takeuchi, Shinichi, “Gendai Afurika no Funsou to Kokka ( The Post-Colonial Patrimonial
State and Conflict in Africa: Understanding the Genocide in Rwanda )” Akashi Shoten,
2009, p.85.
Lewis, Jerome, The Batwa Pygmies of the Great Lakes Region, London: Minority Rights
Group International, 2000, p.5.
Takeuchi, Shinichi, “Gendai Afurika no Funsou to Kokka ( The Post-Colonial Patrimonial
State and Conflict in Africa: Understanding the Genocide in Rwanda )” Akashi Shoten,
2009, p.158.
UNPO, http://www.unpo.org/members/7861 (accessed on 22/June/2015).
Lewis, Jerome, The Batwa Pygmies of the Great Lakes Region, London: Minority Rights
Group International, 2000, p.3.
Article 33; Freedom of thought, opinion, conscience, religion, worship and the public
manifestation thereof of guaranteed by the State in accordance with conditions determinedby law. Propagation of ethnic, regional, racial or discrimination or any other form ofdivision is punished by law.

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Medzanin in Cameroon15, Twa, Mubuti or Bayanda in the Democratic Republic ofCongo, and Bayanda in Uganda16. The number of Twa in Rwanda is estimated to be from28,000 to 33,00017. Also, there are from 69,500 to 87,00018 in the Great Lakes region.
The Twa of Rwanda are not formally called Twa but HMP because of their historyof marginalization, discrimination and segregation. For instance, they could not eat andsit with other Rwandese19. It is very difficult for them to make a living because they
possess little or no land. Mwami (the king of Rwanda) distributed land to some of the
Twa in 1961, but most of the Twa had to rent land in exchange for belonging to a groupof Hutu and supplying labor and products to them. Rwandese except the Twa possessland that had been kept from their ancestors in accordance with an executive order in
1966, but the Twa could not do so because they lived in the forests at that time.
According to research on the possession of land of the Twa community conducted in
1993, 604 out of 4,553 Twa possessed no land, and 3,876 had some land but not enough,while only 73 had enough land20. Therefore, the Twa had to maintain their livelihoods
by begging, working as farm laborers or making pots. In addition, the land law in 2005
had negative impacts on the Twa. The Twa could not possess land legally because theland law was based on the executive order in 1966. Thus, the Twa could not possessland in that year and there was no land for them to possess in 2005 when the land law
came into effect.
In addition to the question of land ownership, the Twa do not have sufficient accessto education. Primary education in Rwanda is obligatory and tuition is free. However,the families of students have to bear the costs of text books, uniforms, shoes, bags, lunch
and others, which are burdensome for poor households. This situation makes it difficult
for the Twa to go to school because they generally do not have enough money. An
annual report in 2004 by COPORWA, an NGO supporting the Twa, states that only

15

16
17
18
19
20

African Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights and International Working Group for
Indigenous Affairs, Report of the African Commission’s Working Group on Indigenous
Populations/ Communities: Research and Information Visit to The Republic of Burundi,
March-April 2005, Banjul and Copenhagen, 2007, p.11.
Mugarura, Benon and Ndemeya, Anicet, The Experience of The Twa Pygmies of The Great
Lakes Region, Genève: International Council on Human Rights Policy, 2001, p.1.
Lewis, Jerome, The Twa Pygmies: Rwanda’s Ignored People, London: University College
London, 2006, p.3.
UNPO, http://www.unpo.org/members/7861 (accessed on 1/Dec/2012).
Lewis, Jerome, op.cit., 2006, pp.6-7.
Lewis, Jerome and Knight, Judy, The Twa of Rwanda: Assessment of the Situation andPromotion of Twa Rights in Post-war Rwanda, Chadlington and Copenhagen: World
Rainforest Movement and International Working Group for Indigenous Affairs, 1995, p.35.

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23.4% of Twa could read and write and only 34% of Twa went to school21. The literacy
rate of Rwanda in 2000 was 64.9%22, so this figure is low compared with the rate of thewhole country of Rwanda. In addition, it was reported in 1993 that some Twa children
were bullied by other children and teachers because they were Twa23.
Many male Twa were sent to jail after the 1994 Genocide with some of them beingarrested based on false accusations, and the ratio of male and female Twa outside prisons
was said to have become unbalanced as a result. This affected Twa society. Usually, theTwa make their living by making and selling pots as well as by getting and carrying clay.
There were too few male Twa who could work as manual laborers, especially carrying
clay, which meant that not enough pots could be made and incomes were reduced.
Although the Twa are experiencing the difficult conditions described above, thesituation has started to change recently. Clause 2 of Article 82 of the Constitution of the
Republic of Rwanda, which is about the composition of senators, mentions that “eight(8) members appointed by the President of the Republic shall ensure the representationof historically marginalized communities”24. Besides, as one of the policies for poverty
reduction, the GoR declared the principle of “One Family, One Cow.” The GoR give a
cow to each poor family under the policy, so five Twa families got a cow each. The
policy is aimed at benefiting the Twa, but giving a cow may ultimately change their life
style from pot making and/or cultivation. Thus, the GoR may have to revise the policy
so that their culture of pot-making is protected and respected.
III. The transformation of Rwanda under the Kagame Regime
This section focusses on two policies for poverty reduction in Rwanda under thecontrol of the Rwanda Patriotic Front (RPF), the Kagame Regime. One is the policy
adopted by the Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning (MINECOFIN) in 2002 andthe other is one adopted by the Ministry of Local Government (MINALOC) in 2011.
Then, after a brief explanation of the history of Rwanda, the section considers how the
Twa and other vulnerable people are included in the policy target and how the policies
changed from 2002 to 2011.
In 2003, a new Constitution was enacted and a presidential election based onuniversal suffrage was implemented. The incumbent president, Paul Kagame, won the
21 COPORWA, Rapport annuel enquête sur la condition de vie socio-économique des ménages
bénéficiares de la Communautés rwandais, Kigali, 2004, p.14.
22 UNDP, http://hdrstats.undp.org/en/countries/profiles/RWA.html (accessed on 1/ Novembr/2012).
23 Lewis, Jerome and Knight, Judy, op. cit., 1995, p.46.
24 The Republic of Rwanda, The Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda, Kigali, 2003, Article
82.

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election with 95% of the votes25. The RPF won the election for the chamber of deputies.
The senate is composed of 26 members nominated by each province, Kigali city, ahistorically marginalized community, the forum of political organizations anduniversities. In addition, Article 82 of the Constitution prescribes that at least 30% of thesenators must be women.
President Kagame has enacted many reforms in Rwanda. He is especially energetic
in poverty reduction efforts, and MINECOFIN and MINALOC have taken charge ofpolicies for poverty reduction. The contents of these polices are discussed below.
1. National Poverty Reduction Program: PRSPIn 2002, MINECOFIN launched the Poverty Reduction Strategic Paper (PRSP),
focusing on economic development and poverty reduction. The PRSP defines poor
people as those who lack certain amounts of land, income, provisions, clothes, medical
treatment and education. More specifically, it defines the poor as those whose
expenditure is less than 64,000 Rwanda Franc or whose expenditure on provisions is lessthan 45,000 Rwanda Franc26. PRSP maintains that the GoR should try to stabilize theeconomy by means of gradual inflation, developing the private sector, including theinformal sector, and nurturing good relationships with donor countries. 27
In addition, it includes agriculture, health, education and the economic
infrastructure. The agricultural sector focuses on productivity and the development of
fertilizers28. The health sector should address the increase of quality of medical
treatment and its access, the prevention of HIV/AIDS, family planning and deterring
population growth29. Goals related to the educational sector include an increase of theliteracy rate, promotion of girls’ education and education about HIV/AIDS in schools30.
The economic infrastructure should be built up in order to accelerate the development ofland, air and railroad transportation, as well as that of energy and communication31.
In addition to the contents described above, the PRSP emphasizes the necessity ofstrengthening support for vulnerable groups through cooperation with MINALOC and
25

26
27
28
29
30
31

Takeuchi, Shinichi, “Kyouken Taisei no Seiritsu to Seidoka Naisengo Ruwanda no Kokka
Kensetsu (The Formation of Authoritarian Regime and Institutionalization –Post Conflict
National Construction of Rwanda-)”, Afurika report (Africa Repot) 50, Japan External Trade
Organization, 2010, p.18.
The Republic of Rwanda, Ministry of Finance and Economic Planning, National Poverty
Reduction Program, 2002, pp.40-48.
Ibid., pp.40-48.
Ibid., pp.40-99.
Ibid., pp.59-62, 68-73.
Ibid., pp.63-66.
Ibid., p.74.

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NGOs. The vulnerable groups include genocide survivors, children in difficult
situations such as orphans and disabled persons. Although some funds are available forthem, the Twa are not regarded as a vulnerable group and it is difficult for the Twa tojoin in community activities32.
2. National Social Protection Strategy: NSPS
This strategy was drafted by the MINALOC in contrast with PRSP, which can beelaborated with the aid of international organizations such as the World Bank and UN
agencies. NSPS defines vulnerable groups as elderly people over 65 years old, widows,
patients, orphans, young people, genocide survivors and HMPs (Twa). The GoR
emphasizes support for genocide survivors with such measures as the provision ofincome and employment opportunities for vulnerable groups. The strategy also aims to
expand social welfare, increase access to financial services, establish a social security
fund for Rwanda for informal sectors and agricultural sectors and so forth. Finally, it
stated that the GoR would try to reduce poverty systematically through collaboration
among ministries and communities.33
As mentioned above, PRSP may be affected by the will of the development
partners, which is sometimes no more than their speculations regarding the developmentof Rwanda. The PRSP document focuses only on the economic aspects such as income
and expenditure. It defines genocide survivors, children in difficult situations anddisabled persons all together as vulnerable groups. Some sections discuss the Twa, but
the Twa are just described as Batwa and there is no deliberation on the historicalbackground of this group. In addition, there is no clear definition of vulnerable groups
in the document. For example, what kinds of people will be regarded as genocide
survivors, children in difficult situations and disabled persons? Furthermore, eachstrategy has its own policy goals, but it does not spell out how they will be achieved.
On the other hand, NSPS explains the nature of vulnerable groups explicitly. The
document also covers the guarantee of income and employment, support for people
living under poverty, and improvement of development efficiency by intensification ofcooperation between government and civil society. The target period is the 5 years
between 2011 and 2016. The aims and objectives of NSPS are clearer than those of
PRSP because the latter was more specific about the vulnerable groups and it would beeasy to notice vulnerable persons. Like PRSP, NSPS still lacks a detailed definition ofvulnerable groups. But, NSPS has concrete programs for achieving missions and plans
with the ministries and communities such as cash grants with requirements for genocide
32
33

Ibid., pp.93-94.
The Republic of Rwanda Ministry of Local Government, National Social Protection
Strategy, 2011, pp.34-43

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survivors and vulnerable people and investment plans for increasing the incomes ofvulnerable people. NSPS also focusses on increased access to financial services byvulnerable people and expanding the social security fund to other areas. These programs
and plans tend to focus on economic aspects, but NSPS is more explicit about addressing
poverty reduction from all aspects. NSPS was probably drafted chiefly by the GoR
because the genocide survivors are emphasized in this policy compared with PRSP.
The Twa were not directly discussed in PRSP, but NSPS mentioned their name as
HMP and the support for them. The situation of the Twa seems to be improving eventhough the policies and support from the GoR for the Twa are insufficient. However,
why are the Twa, who had been marginalized and discriminated against now being
accommodated in society through policy measures? Foreign aid might have an impact
on such a shift as its ratio in the development budget of the country is still very high.
The ratio of foreign aid in 2012 in the national revenue of Rwanda was reduced from
85% to 41%34. Rwanda will face many difficulties if the aid is further reduced.
Therefore, the GoR might utilize the Twa in order to appeal to donor countries to help
the plight a small minority from a humanistic point of view. Thus, the GoR, which iscontrolled by the larger minority group the Tutsi may give support to the Twa as thesame minority group in Rwanda to prevent future conflicts based on minority-majority
politics. The reasons why the government wishes to support the Twa may be open to
speculation, but the increased support for the Twa should be welcomed even though thereasons may be political rather than humanitarian.
IV. The Current Situation of Twa
This section describes the current situation of the Twa through interviews that wereconducted in 2012 in cooperation with the NGO, Communauté des Potiers de Rwanda(COPORWA). I conducted interviews at six villages in Nyaruguru district, Southern
Province. The discussion in this section is based on the results of the interviews.
In this interview research, I used the focus group method. “A focus group is a
special type of group in terms of purpose, size, composition, and procedures. The
purpose of a focus group is to listen and gather information. It is a way to better
understand how people feel or think about an issue, product, or service. Participants are
selected because they have certain characteristics in common that relate to the topic of
the focus group.”35 One of the positive points of the focus group method is that it enables
34

Alex Perry, “Strong Man, Rwanda’s Battle-hardened President, Paul Kagame, Is Under
Attack by the West. He’s Ready for the Fight.”, TIME (Europe, Middle East and Africa
version), 24, September, 2012, p.34.
35 Richard A. Krueger and Mary Anne Casey, Focus groups: a practical guide for appliedresearch, Thousand Oaks California: Sage Publications, 2000, p.4.

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interviewees to speak their mind and say what they think about the topic to interviewers
naturally.
The authorities limited the interviews to only two days. One of the most likely
reasons why COPORWA agreed on such a limit on the research may be related to thecharacteristics of Rwandese society. There are not many foreigners in Rwanda
especially in rural areas. If foreigners walk around alone or in a group, Rwandese
people watch them. Sometimes, they notify the sector or the cell office about theforeigner(s). Then, such public offices will interrogate the foreigner(s) and keep an eye
on them. In such conditions, COPORWA would face difficulty in conducting theiractivities if I were closely watched by public officials.
The questionnaire of the interviews covered the following topics:
1. The numbers of family members and persons in the village
2. Daily meals
3. Way of making a living
4. What they want to change in their life
5. The number of children going to school
6. Discrimination in school
7. (Changes brought by Vision 2020)
8. (What they feel about the name of HMP)
The interviews were conducted in the following places: Village V (8 families and 80
people), Village K (12 families and 30 people), Village RW (12 families and 35 people),
Village B (15 families and 40 people), Village R (10 families and 40 people) and Village
N (21 families and 42 people). I asked the Twa the above interview questions from 1 to
6. When there was time during the interview, I also asked Questions 7 and 8.
The possession of cow is a symbol of wealth in Rwanda. Goats are also important
domestic animals in Rwanda because they can be bred and sold in markets. Some of the
Twa were given goats and cows by the GoR as a policy. The Twa are usually thought ofas making their living only by pot-making, but usually they combine pottery, agriculture
and farming domestic animals such as goats and pigs.
They commonly live in modern houses in the capital city, Kigali, and the central
area of the main regions, but they live in houses made of clay in rural areas and in thesuburbs of the main regions. Extremely poor people often live in houses made of clay
without doors. Most of the Twa people whom I met during the interviews lived in suchhouses. Therefore, the level of poverty could be measured by the type of houses and thepossession of domestic animals. A brief summary of my findings from the field visits

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follows.
Village V: people in this village made their living only by pottery-making. They
make two pots per day, with the price being 100 Rwanda franc per pot, and they sell ten
pots per week. The dresses that people wore were dirty and they did not have shoes.
The houses were made of clay with roofs but no doors.
Village K: people in this village made their living by agriculture and pottery. They
made tiles in addition to pots. They dressed very well and all women wore African
costume made of African cloth. Village K also received modest support from the GoR,
so their houses had doors even though they were made of clay.
Village RW: people in this village mainly made their living by pottery but also by
agriculture. They made 15 pots per week, but they did not reveal the prices and how
many pots were sold. Few people wore shoes, but the village was supported by the GoR
and the houses had doors, though the walls were made of clay. Some women wore
African costumes made of African cloth, which was largely ragged.
Village B: people in this village mainly made their living by pottery but also
agriculture, and rearing domestic animals. They did not wear shoes and their clothes
were dirty. There were no indications that Village B received support from the GoR, butthey said that they could join social activities such as community meetings andUmuganda36 because of the GoR. They looked happy and appreciated being able toattend social activities with other Rwandese.
Village R: people in this village mainly made their living by agriculture but also
pottery. They had more land to cultivate than that of the other five villages. The houses
were made of clay and had doors. They were dressed well but not so cleanly.
Village N: people in this village mainly made their living by pottery but also
agriculture. They sold their pots for around 150 Rwanda franc per pot, but they did notdisclose the sales amount and their total income from the pots. Few of them wore shoes.
The women dressed well with African costumes made of African cloth. The village hadmodest support from the GoR, so the houses were made of concrete and bricks and had
doors. One woman, who looked like the leader of this village, had a cellphone.
36 Umuganda is one of obligatory social activities in Rwanda and held every final Saturday on
every month. Those who do not attend it have to pay some amount of penalty. Required
activities include cleaning or repairing the public roads.

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The interviews with villagers revealed that there were three similarities among
villages: the daily meal, what they want to change in their life and what they feel about
the name of HMP. They ate potatoes and beans once a day in the evening and theywanted to change their daily meal, and they wanted to change the way they made aliving from pottery to agriculture and rearing domestic animals because they made little
money from pottery. There was little demand for the old-fashioned looking pots madeby the Twa in the market. Furthermore, the consumer goods markets were full of cheap
pottery goods from China. On the other hand, some of the Twa said that they wanted to
improve the quality of their pots. However, the Twa who mentioned this were not ingood economic condition. Perhaps they had identified some needs on the part of somecustomers who were willing to buy their pots.
Regarding the name HMP, they generally thought that they had to accept the namebut did not understand why they were given such a name. The GoR authority is quiet
about this terminology, so they cannot do anything about it. However, during theinterview some Twa said that the GoR intended to change the name HMP.
There are two differences among villages in terms of their reactions to thequestions: the changes in village life occasioned by Vision 2020 and the discriminationin school. Village K, RW and N received visible benefit or positive impacts by the
implementation of Vision 2020, and the residents of those villages appreciated theefforts of the GoR. On the other hand, in those villages that did not receive any positive
impacts, namely, Village V and B, villagers did not express any particular feelings
toward the GoR. At the same time, they did not know what they could do to get jobs
because most of them had not received education. Thus, they had little idea about how
to increase their income.
There were two types of opinions about discrimination in school. Some said there
was discrimination in school, and others did not. Some children did not go to school
because they could not concentrate on classes due to hunger. As a result, they dropped
out of school. On the other hand, some of the Twa indicated the persistence of
discrimination in school. Some Twa children were discriminated against by teachers
when they wore nice or new uniforms that had been provided with support from NGOs.
They also faced discrimination in their daily lives. For instance, if something went
missing in a market when a Twa child visited, the child tended to be suspected of being
the thief.
The interview research has revealed that the situations against the Twa are changing
little by little. Given that the criteria for obtaining support from the GoR are not clear, it
is important for the GoR to treat all villages equally. I felt that some of the Twa had nohope for their future because they could not escape poverty even though they produced

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as many pots as they could. Most of the Twa received no education, and the lack of
educational opportunities makes it difficult for them to get jobs. If the GoR believes thatpeople are the most important asset of the nation, it is important to give themeducational opportunities as well as domestic animals and houses.
V. The Current Policy Issues in Rwanda from the Perspective of Horizontal
Inequalities (HIs)This section examines the relationships between the Twa and the rest of the
Rwandese from the perspective of horizontal inequalities (HIs) and then explains thecurrent issues that the GoR face with regard to the Twa. HIs are inequalities between
culturally-defined groups rather than between individuals. Cultural elements that definegroup boundaries include ethnicity, gender, nationality, religion, race, and region. The
inequalities are analyzed from the perspective of politics, economy, society and culture.
“Economic HIs include inequalities in access to and ownership of assets-financial,human, natural resource-based, and social. Social HIs include inequalities in access to arange of services such as education, healthcare, and housing, as well as in educationaland health status. Political HIs include inequalities in the distribution of political
opportunities and power among groups, including control over the presidency, thecabinet, parliamentary assemblies, the bureaucracy, local and regional governments, thearmy, and the police. Cultural status HIs include disparities in the recognition andstanding of different groups’ languages, customs, norms, and practices.”37 In places
where HIs are high in all dimensions, violent conflicts triggered by inter-groupinequality in terms of cultural-status are more likely. It is important to analyze HIs in
Rwanda to meet the countries aim of never repeating genocide and violent conflict.
1. Political HIs
Disparities in representation in parliament is an important part of political HIs.
Eight senators are elected by the HMP communities due to Article 82 of theConstitution38. Thus, the equitable participation of the Twa in politics is constitutionally
guaranteed, but in reality, only one senator was elected by Twa society in 201139.
Besides, it is not clear whether this person elected by the Twa community is Tutsi, Hutu
or Twa. The person was just elected from the Twa community, so he or she may be
37

Frances Stewart (Editor), Horizontal Inequalities and Conflict Understanding Group
Violence in Multiethnic Societies, Basingstoke: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008, p.6.
38 The Republic of Rwanda, The Constitution of the Republic of Rwanda, Kigali, 2003, Article
82.
39 Gay MacDougall, Report of the Independence Export on Minority Issues, Genève: HighCommissioner for Human Rights, 2011, p.18.

Selected students’ Papers

Tutsi, Hutu or Twa who is working for the community.
Filip REYNTJENS, a political scientist and a professor of the University of
Antwerp, discusses Tutsitization in Rwanda. He said that “over 80 percent of mayors,
most permanent secretaries and university teachers and students, almost the entire army
command structure and the intelligence services were Tutsi.”40 Although ethnicity is stilla key factor in Rwanda with the Tutsi taking important posts in the regime, politicalstability has been maintained and there have been no demonstrations against the Kagame
Regime even though anti-government groups may be regulated strongly by the GoR. Ifsuch situation should occur, the GoR would be required to make more efforts to achievetransparency and accountability in politics. The way of selecting senators from the Twa
community should be clearer because it might a part of “Tutsitization” if the selected
person is neither Twa or Hutu.
2. Economic HIs
Economic HIs include inequalities in income, employment, assets and others. The
GNI per capita of Rwanda in 2011 was 570USD41, which is about 359,000 Rwanda
Franc. On the other hand, a report by COPORWA in 2004 noted that the income of Twa
was 40,932 Rwanda Franc42. Most Rwandese engage in agriculture, but the main
occupation of the Twa is pottery. It is difficult for the Twa to make a living by pottery
because demand for pottery is decreasing. A report by COPORWA in 2007 states that
9% of the Twa work in agriculture, 71% in pottery and 20% in others, and 92% of other
Rwandese work in agriculture, 2% in pottery and 6% in others43. Even though many of
the Twa aspire to change their jobs from pottery to other jobs such as agriculture or
become payed workers in town, this would be difficult because of the lack of land andeducation. In addition, Rwandan society is an academic career-based society, so it isdifficult for those who do not graduate from university to get highly paid jobs in
Rwanda.
Thus, it is difficult for the Twa to get jobs in other sectors and their income is very
low compared to that of other Rwandese. The availability of land in Rwanda is limited,
so it is difficult to distribute land to the Twa. The GoR should provide educational
40

Filip Reyntjens, “Rwanda Ten Years On: From Genocide To Dictatorship” African Affairs,
103, 2004, p.188.
41 The World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD/countries/RW-ZFXM?display=graph (Accessed 25/October/2012).
42 COPORWA(CAURWA), Rapport annuel enquête sur la condition de vie socio-économiquedes ménages bénéficiares de la communautés rwandais, Kigali, 2004, p.34.
43 COPORWA, Rapport annuel Survey On The Status of The Rights Of Access To Land Alongthe Historically Marginalized Group Living In Rulindo District, Kigali, 2007, p.14.

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opportunities to adult Twa as well to enable them to find jobs in new economic sectors.
3. Social HIs
This section focuses on access to education and health. The gross and net
enrolment ratios of primary schools were respectively 127.3% and 95.9% in 2011 andthose of secondary schools were 35.5% and 25.7%44 in the same year. Tuition at primaryschool is free in Rwanda. However, all Rwandese have to pay for school supplies suchas uniforms and textbooks, and the Twa do not have enough money to bear the costs. A
survey conducted in 2004 by COPORWA revealed that no less than 51%45 of the Twa
had never gone to school. Also, the actual ratio of Twa children who went to school in2004 was only 34%46. According to the World Bank, they do not mention the net
percentage of the primary school enrolment in 2004 of Rwanda, but the ratio in 2003
was 90%47, and the gross percentage of 2004 was 132%48. In addition to the ratio ofaccess to education, the income of the average Twa household in 2004 was 40,932
Rwanda Franc49 (about 100 US dollar in 2004). On the other hand, the World Bank
mentions that gross nation income per capita in 2005 of Rwanda was 260 US dollar50. It
is clear that there is a large gap in income between the Twa and the rest of the Rwandese.
This is why the Twa cannot afford school.
In addition to education, access to healthcare especially access to health insurance
is insufficient for the Twa. The ratio of Rwandese who have health insurance was about
91% in 201051. The cost of health insurance depends on income and ranges between
2,000 and 7,000 Rwanda Franc, so poor people pay 2,000 Rwanda Franc52, but even this44 The Republic of Rwanda Ministry of Education, Rwanda Education Statistics, Kigali, 2012,
pp.8.
45 COPORWA, op.cit., 2004, p.15.
46 COPORWA, op.cit., 2004, p.15.
47 The World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.NENR?order=wbapi_data_
value_2004+wbapi_data_value+wbapi_data_value-last&sort=asc&page=2 (Accessed 14/
August/2015).
48 The World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/SE.PRM.ENRR/countries?order=wba
pi_data_value_2004+wbapi_data_value+wbapi_data_value-last&sort=asc&page=2 (Acces
sed 14/August/2015).
49 COPORWA, op.cit., 2004, p.34.
50 The World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GNP.PCAP.CD/countries/
RW?display=graph (accessed 27th/June/2015).
51 The government of Rwanda, Ministry of Health, http://moh.gov.rw/english/?page_id=2529(accessed 1/ November/ 2012).
52 All Africa.com, http://allafrica.com/stories/201101100192.html (accessed 15/December/2012).

Selected students’ Papers

is too high for most of the Twa.
There is inequality between the Twa and the rest of the Rwandese, and theamelioration of social HIs depends on the improvement of economic HIs. If the Twa’s
income were raised, they would be able to go to school and have increased access tohealthcare. The GoR offers the educational opportunity of primary school to all
Rwandese as compulsory education, but data from the World Bank and COPORWA
indicates inequalities between Rwandese and the Twa. Tuition in primary education isfree, so more children would be able to go to school if the GoR were to provide school
lunch and facilities for free. Thus, the GoR should enact social security for poor people
to improve their health and education.
4. Cultural-Status HIs
Twa culture is associated with pottery-making in Rwanda and this is also regarded
as part of the culture of Rwanda in general. 71% of Twa work at pottery and only 2% ofother Rwandese work at it53. The pots are sold from 100 to 150 Rwanda Franc and it isdifficult to boost sales of the pots because of insufficient local needs for pots. Thus, it isdifficult for Twa to earn enough money to live on from pottery. Therefore, many ofthem want to change their job from pottery to agriculture. However, it would be difficult
to change their way of making a living to agriculture because the access to land islimited in the case of the Twa.
The GoR has launched the policy of “One Family One Cow,” based on the cow as asymbol of wealth. Although the GoR has distributed cows to poor families, it did not
distribute one cow for every Twa family, so its intention to change the lifestyle of the
Twa may be doubtful. However, in the long term, it is expected that the distribution ofcows will gradually change the livelihoods of Twa and that the number of potters could
decrease.
In Rwanda, there are issues with transparency and accountability with regard to
how HIs are dealt with in policy-making. Socio-economic HIs could be addressed byincreased access to education and measures for income generation targeting the Twa.
The improvement of cultural HIs hinges upon the protection of pottery as part of thenational cultures of Rwanda and the promotion of the pottery industry if Twa wish tocontinue to make their living by pottery. Thus, it is important to tackle the issues
comprehensively in multiple fields.

53

COPORWA, op.cit., 2007, pp.13-14.

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Conclusion
This research focused on the experience of Rwanda, which has abolished theindication of ethnic names from ID cards of citizens and tried to construct a new nation.
This country could serve as an example of a multi-ethnic African nation. The researchalso examined differences and gaps between the Twa and other Rwandese through theperspective of horizontal inequalities (HIs), which encompass politics, economy, society
and culture.
Since the 1994 Genocide, the RPF has been in office under the banner “NeverAgain.” The GoR decided to ban the formal distinction of ethnic groups: Tutsi, Hutu
and Twa, and tried to integrate all of them into the single Rwandese. At the same time,
Rwanda has made efforts towards development and poverty reduction. The poverty ratio
has decreased and the ratio of the gross nation income (GNI) and gross domestic product(GDP) has gradually risen. Therefore, Rwanda has achieved massive economic andsocial changes since the 1994 Genocide.
The society of Rwanda may be changing positively little by little as seen by thechange in attitude toward the Twa. However, the Twa are still living in extreme poverty.
There is a lack of infrastructure such as electricity and water supply, as well as
provisions to satisfy basic human needs such as clothes, provisions, houses, medical
treatment, and education. The HIs between the Twa and the rest of the Rwandese will beameliorated with higher and more effective participation of the Twa in national and local
politics, income generation, employment creation, and access to education and health. It
is also important for Rwandese to show respect to Twa culture, especially, pottery
making. The GoR has made some progress on poverty reduction since the 1994
Genocide even though HIs are still very high in Rwanda and there are still bias in lightof ethnicities. The policies of the GoR have not equally affected the life of all
Rwandese, as the HIs between the Twa and the rest of the Rwandese persist. The
policies should match the Twa’s needs to improve their own living conditions. Thus, the
GoR should provide social security to cover basic human needs of poorer populations,especially those of the Twa. General policy measures such as the introduction of thecompulsory educational system may not be sufficient to remove the social andeducational inequalities that persist in Rwandan society because various conditions
discourage the Twa from going to school. Only when the HIs between the Twa and therest of the Rwandese have been effectively removed can it be said that Rwanda has truly
changed.
References
EnglishAfrican Commission on Human and Peoples’ Rights and International Working Group forSelected students’ Papers

Indigenous Affairs, “Report of the African Commission’s Working Group on Indigenous
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Contributors
Carada, Miriam Caryl:

Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Hayakawa, Yuichiro:

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Doshisha University

Inui, Toshie:

Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Kaikawa, Shinichiro

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Doshisha University

Lamas, Jorge:

Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Doshisha University

Matsuda, Kensaku

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Doshisha University

Mine, Yoichi:

Professor, Graduate School of Global Studies, Doshisha
University

Nakao, Nazuna:

Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Narita, Naoya

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Doshisha University

Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 2

編集・発行者

印刷所

2016 年 3 月

印刷

2016 年 3 月

発行

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