Fertility and Survivorship in the Jomon and Yayoi
Periods Estimated from Human Bones
IGARASHI Yuriko1
ABSTRACT

Fertility and survivorship among the Jomon and Yayoi peoples were reconstructed by examining
human skeletal remains from Jomon and Yayoi sites to acquire basic data for considering theinﬂuence of gender in prehistoric societies. Fertility and survivorship were estimated, respectively,
based on data from pregnancy parturition scars (PPS) on the ilium and age from the auricularsurface. The results indicated that both fertility and mortality were diﬀerent from one population toanother: they were high among Hokkaido Jomon women and low among Kyushu and Yamaguchi
Yayoi women. To determine whether these diﬀerences were caused by diﬀerences in the area
(climate or subsistence system) or era (Jomon and Yayoi, that is, by genes or means of subsistence),
fertility and survivorship in southern Jomon and central and northern Yayoi populations need to
be examined. Analysis not only of paleogeographic data relating to such factors as fertility andsurvivorship but also anthropological data and archaeological data concerning such factors as
subsistence activity, maternal nutrition, and cooperative childcare will bring deeper understandingof prehistoric societies including the role of gender in prehistoric societies.
KEYWORDS: fertility, survivorship, pregnancy parturition scars on the pelvis, Jomon, Yayoi

Paleodemographic analysis is one of the useful methods for understanding prehistoricsocieties. Several studies have been conducted on population structure in the Jomon andYayoi periods. Koyama (1984) estimated the population of each sub-period of Jomon fromthe number of archaeological sites. Nakahashi and Iizuka (1998) estimated the number of
immigrants during the Yayoi period through simulations based on analysis of skulls of Yayoi
individuals. Watanabe et al. (2019) estimated changes in population from the Jomon throughthe Yayoi period based on the results of genome analysis of modern humans.
As for the study of survivorship in the Jomon period, Kobayashi (1967) was a pioneer
study. He examined Jomon skeletal remains and estimated that the average life expectancy
at 15 years old was around 16 years old and that no one survived above 65 years old,
although many scholars including Kobayashi himself insisted that this estimated age was
too low. Nagaoka et al. (2008) estimated the age at death in the Jomon population on thebasis of examination of Jomon skeletal remains and concluded that the average age wasolder than that estimated by Kobayashi (1967), positing an average life expectancy at 15 of
1 Nihon University School of Dentistry at Matsudo, 2–870–1 Sakae-cho Nishi, Matsudo-shi, Chiba, Japan(igarashi.yuriko@nihon-u.ac.jp)
Category: Original Article Received: 30 April 2021; Accepted: 15 September 2021
JAPANESE JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 9 (2022): 173–188

IGARASHI Yuriko

32 years old.
In this paper, I estimate the survivorship and fertility patterns of Jomon and Yayoi
populations by conducting a morphological analysis of human skeletal remains.
To construct the correct survivorship of prehistoric populations, the skeletal age atdeath must be correctly estimated; in other words, accuracy is essential. Among themacroscopic methods of calculating age that have been developed, the method using theauricular surface of the ilium is useful because of the robustness of the ilium as found inarchaeological sites. Among methods of determining age using the auricular surface of
the ilium, the methods adopted by Lovejoy et al. (1985) and Buckberry and Chamberlain(2002) were widely used. However, with the method used by Lovejoy et al. (1985), it isoften diﬃcult to classify each auricular surface into one speciﬁc age category, and with themethod used by Buckberry and Chamberlain (2002), it is rather diﬃcult to estimate thearea that the target feature occupies on the auricular surface. After observing these results,
Igarashi et al. (2005) established a new method for estimation of adult skeletal age at deathfrom the morphology of the auricular surface of the ilium. This method was based on datafrom modern Japanese skeletal samples with conﬁrmed data on age. The process of age
estimation is as follows. The auricular surface is classiﬁed according to the presence orabsence of nine surface features and four features of hypertrophy of the structure aroundthe surface of the bone, for a total of 13 variables. The variables are tabulated for eachspecimen; the estimated age will be automatically calculated by the formula [and a formula
was developed for automatically calculating estimated age]. By this method, the processof calculating age is easy because the observers merely need to check for the presence orabsence of each target feature, and don’t need to estimate the area occupied by the target
features as in the method used by Buckberry and Chamberlain (2002) or Lovejoy et al.
(1985). For this reason, in the present study, I estimated the skeletal age at death from themorphology of the auricular surface by the method developed in Igarashi et al. (2005).
In previous studies, the rates of demographic growth in prehistoric populations were
estimated by simulation (Nakahashi and Iizuka 1998) or genome analysis (Watanabe et al.
2019). If fertility could be estimated from skeletal materials, we could estimate demographic
movements from skeletal remains. Indentations in the bone of the preauricular area of female
pelvises (Figure 1) have been regarded as the sign of pregnancy and/or parturition, and manyscholars have discussed whether the degree of development of such preauricular grooves is
associated with the number of pregnancies and/or parturitions or not, and the results diﬀer
from one study to another (Igarashi et al. 2020). Recently, Igarashi et al. (2020) showed thatcertain types of preauricular grooves could be regarded to be pregnancy parturition scars(PPS) and that the degree of development of the scars could indicate the relative number ofpregnancies and parturitions. Igarashi et al. (2020) derived their results by developing new
identiﬁcation criteria for the preauricular groove, thereby improving the reliability of fertility© Japanese Archaeological Association

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Figure 1.

Preauricular area, preauricular groove, and auricular surface

data, and by adopting new statistical methods. It is easy to judge macroscopically the degreeof development of PPS by the Igarashi et al. (2020) method, which makes it possible foranthropologists and archaeologists to estimate the fertility of prehistoric populations throughexamination of human skeletal remains. This is the method used in this study of the fertilityof the population.
Since fertility can be an indicator of the state of gender in pregnancy, parturition, andchildcare, this paper provides basic data for future discussions of the state of gender.

Materials and methods
1.

Materials

I used prehistoric human skeletal remains from the archaeological sites. The remains
are of adult individuals over 15, namely, whose iliac bone, pubic bone, and ischiac bone
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Figure 2.

Groups and archaeological sites where samples were excavatedare united, and whose gender was conﬁrmed. The samples were grouped by era anddistrict: North Jomon, East Jomon, Central Jomon, West Jomon, West Yayoi, and South
Yayoi (Figure 2). The number of the samples are shown in Table 1. The prefecture andarchaeological sites of each group are also shown in Table 1.

2.

Methods for estimating fertility

Fertility was determined by observing the preauricular groove on the pelvis of each female
in the population. A preliminary survey of the bones of modern humans (Igarashi et al.
2020) categorizes the specimens according to the following ﬁve preauricular groove
types: Type 1 no scars, Type 2 scars that are palpable but not visible, Type 3 perceptible
grooves or pits found in both males and females; Types 4 and 5 have perceptible grooves
or pits that are speciﬁc to females. Since Types 4 and 5 were identiﬁed in females only,© Japanese Archaeological Association

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Table 1. The number of examined samples, groups, archaeological sites where samples wereexcavated
Era

Group

Male

Female

Total

Jomon

North
East
Central
West

12
31
42
26

16
32
54
44

28
63
96
70

Yayoi

West
South

29
43

35
42

64
85

183

223

406

Total
Group

Prefecture

Sites

North Jomon

Hokkaido

Yakumo Kotan Onsen
Irie Kaizuka
Kitakogane Kamisaka Kaizuka
Abashiri Midori Machi
Takasago Kaizuka
Kushiro Tenneru Kaizuka
Kushiro Midorigaoka
Kushiro Higashikushiro Kaizuka

East Jomon

Chiba

Rokutsuu Kaizuka
Ubayama Kaizuka
Kasori Kaizuka
Arayashiki
Sonnou Midorimachi syougakkou
IitomiIchihara
Kounodai
YoyamaSoya
YahagiCentral Jomon

Aichi

YoshigoWest Jomon

Okayama

TsukumoWest Yayoi

Yamaguchi

Doigahama
NakanohamaSouth Yayoi

Fukuoka

Kuma Nishioda
Nagaoka
Dobayama
Kanenokuma
Aoki
Hara

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the grooves were tentatively determined to be pregnancy parturition scars (PPS). Type
4 indicates that the grooves or pits are weak and its contours are singular, and Type
5 indicates that the grooves or pits are well developed and its contours are double. In
accordance with these shapes, Type 4 was regarded as indicating a smaller number ofpregnancies and parturitions and Type 5 a larger number. Type 1–3 grooves were foundin both females and males and were therefore regarded as caused by factors, such as
ligamentous attachment, other than pregnancy and parturition. To examine the relationshipbetween the development of PPS and the total number of pregnancies and parturitions,score 0 was assigned to Types 1–3. A score of 1 was assigned to Type 4, which was
assumed to indicate a smaller number of pregnancies and parturitions. A score of 2
was assigned to Type 5, which was thought to indicate a larger number of pregnancies
and parturitions. The preauricular areas were observed and the types and scores for thepreauricular grooves were assessed in the left and right ilium of females, and then the sumof the left and right scores were taken as that individual’s total score (from 0 to 4). Further,
total scores of 0 (TS0) were set aside, total scores of 1 and 2 were collectively set as lowscores (TSL), and total scores of 3 and 4 were collectively set as high scores (TSH). The
relationship between the development of PPS, which is indicated by the individual’s total
PPS score (TS0, TSL, TSH), and the total number of pregnancies and parturitions wasthen examined. The results indicated that females with TS0 experienced no pregnancies orparturitions, those with TSL experienced a smaller number of pregnancies and parturitions,and those with TSH experienced a larger number of pregnancies and parturitions. It wasalso found that the exact number of pregnancies and parturitions could not be estimatedfrom PPS. The details of PPS have been described by Igarashi et al. (2020) (https://doi.
org/10.1002/ajpa.23961). Based on the above analyses, I decided to use the ratio of TS0,
TSL and TSH in each group as an index of the fertility of that group.

3.

Estimation of survivorship

Age was estimated for all individuals in each population by observing the auricular surface(Igarashi et al. 2005), and a survivorship curve was drawn based on the results.

Results
1.

Fertility

The fertility of each group is shown in Figure 3. It was found that the proportion ofscores for PPS diﬀered among the populations. For the North Jomon people, no TS0 was
observed, and the percentage of TSH was the highest. For the East Jomon people, no TS0
was observed, and the percentage of TSH was the second highest. On the other hand,for the South Yayoi people, no TSH were observed, and the ratio of TS0 was the second© Japanese Archaeological Association

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FERTILITY AND SURVIVORSHIP IN THE JOMON AND YAYOI PERIODS ESTIMATED FROM HUMAN BONES

Figure 3. Percentages of the types of pregnancy parturition scars for all groups. Numbers in bar
graphs show size of the samples.

highest. For the West Yayoi people, the percentage of TSH was the lowest, and the ratioof TS0 was the highest. The Central Jomon and West Jomon showed an intermediate
tendency. Based on Figure 3, it can be estimated that fertility was the highest in the
North Jomon population and second highest in East Jomon population; the fertility ofSouth Yayoi and West Yayoi people was lower than for any other populations and wasintermediate for the Central Jomon and West Jomon populations.

2.

Survivorship

The survivorship curves for each population are shown in Figures 4 and 5. In the case of
females (Figure 4), the values for the South Yayoi and West Yayoi people were higher
than others after 45 years and were intermediate before 45 years. The values for the North
Jomon people were lowest before 45 years and after 65 years, which means that South
Yayoi and West Yayoi people tended to have a higher survival rate, that is, longer lives,compared with the other populations studied, and that the North Jomon people tended tohave a lower survival rate, that is, shorter lives compared with the other populations. On
the other hand, in the case of males (Figure 5), even though North Jomon tended to havethe lower survival rate after 25 years old, no clear diﬀerences were observed.
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Figure 4. Survivorship of females for all groups. The horizontal axis shows range of age; thevertical axis shows the percentage.

3.

Diﬀerences in fertility and survivorship patterns

These ﬁndings suggest that fertility and survivorship in females diﬀers from one
population to another (Figures 3 and 4). The study revealed a pattern in North Jomon
females of “high fertility and high mortality,” whereas in South Yayoi and West Yayoi
females, the pattern was one of “low fertility and low mortality.”

Discussion
1.

Estimation of skeletal age at death

Kobayashi (1967) showed that for the Jomon people, average life expectancy at 15 years
was around 16 years and no one survived above 65 years. Nagaoka et al. (2008) estimatedthe age at death of the people of Jomon by the method of Buckberry and Chamberlain(2002) and concluded that the estimated age distributed older than that by Kobayashi(1967) and that average life expectancy at 15 years old was 32 years.
In the present study, the results of age estimation showed that the patterns ofsurvivorship were diﬀerent from one population to another, and that in West and Central
Jomon females and South and West Yayoi females, some persons survived beyond 65© Japanese Archaeological Association

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FERTILITY AND SURVIVORSHIP IN THE JOMON AND YAYOI PERIODS ESTIMATED FROM HUMAN BONES

Figure 5. Survivorship of males for all groups. The horizontal axis shows range of age; thevertical axis shows the percentage.

years. Therefore, the results of the present study also showed that the estimated age forsome Jomon populations was older than that reported by Kobayashi (1967). Igarashi(2004) suggested that the reason Kobayashi (1967) underestimated skeletal age at deathmight have been because his method of age estimation relied on cranial suture closure andthe development of osteophytes.

2.

Fertility and survivorship patterns

The results of the present study indicated that fertility was high in North Jomon females
and low in South Yayoi and West Yayoi females, and suggested that mortality was highin North Jomon females and low in South Yayoi and West Yayoi females; in other words,
fertility and survivorship patterns diﬀered from one population to another. However,I cannot currently determine whether these diﬀerences were caused by geographicaldiﬀerences (latitude), such as climate or system of subsistence, or by temporal diﬀerences(Jomon and Yayoi), such as genes or diet. To identify more clearly the cause of diﬀerencesin fertility and survivorship, fertility and survivorship among the southern Jomon andcentral and northern Yayoi populations must be conducted in the future.
That the fertility and survivorship patterns diﬀered among the Jomon and Yayoi© Japanese Archaeological Association

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Figure 6. Percentages of types of pregnancy parturition scars in the South Yayoi population.
Numbers in bar graphs show size of the samples.

populations requires that the fertility and survivorship patterns be as much as possible
estimated separately for each population. This is only natural because, as shown by various
archaeological studies, the lives of Jomon and Yayoi people were quite diﬀerent from one
region to another.
As an example of an ongoing study, I discuss a comparison of the fertility andsurvivorship patterns between two Yayoi subgroups in the South Yayoi population. The
South Yayoi population can be divided into two subgroups according by district: theFukuoka plain (Kanenokuma, Aoiki, and Hara sites) and the Mikuni hills (Kumanishioda,
Nagaoka, Dobayama sites), both subgroups in Fukuoka prefecture. Figure 6 shows thefertility for the Fukuoka plain group and the Mikuni hill group. Fertility was higher for the
Fukuoka plain group than for the Mikuni hill group. Figures 7 and 8 show survivorshipfor the Fukuoka plain and Mikuni hill groups. In females (Figure 7), survivorship tended
to be higher in the Fukuoka plain than in the Mikuni hills. In males (Figure 8), no clear
tendency was observed. Judging from these results, we could hypothesize that fertility
was higher and female longevity longer in the Fukuoka plain than in the Mikuni hills.
Archaeological studies showed that in the Fukuoka plain, there were wide plains suitable
for rice farming and settlements continued from Jomon to Yayoi times (Yonemoto 2016).
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Figure 7. Survivorship of females in the South Yayoi population. The horizontal axis shows rangeof age; the vertical axis shows the percentage.

In the Mikuni hills, people moved into that area in the Yayoi era and started to farm withsmall rice paddies built on the scarce land available (Yonemoto 2016). The diﬀerent
environment may have inﬂuenced the fertility and survivorship patterns in the Fukuoka
plain and Mikuni hills. Although these results are based on data drawn from a sample
of relatively small size, once fuller data are accumulated, we would obtain more precise
information about the lives of the people in these areas. This might oﬀer a good example of
how cooperation between paleodemographical and archaeological research could usher ingreater understanding of prehistoric societies.

3.

Factors that determine fertility

The data for fertility not only make possible conjecture about population movements but
also support discussion of gender in prehistoric societies.
Hrdy (2005) suggests the following factors as determining fertility in the data of cultural
anthropology.
1) Lifestyle: nomadic or sedentary. People who move their domicile frequently are lesslikely to have a large number of children, who may be less independently mobile.
Fertility tends to be higher in populations that remain settled in one place.
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Figure 8. Survivorship of males in the South Yayoi population. The horizontal axis shows range ofage; the vertical axis shows the percentage.

2) Subsistence activity: hunters-gatherers or farming. The diet of hunter-gatherer
subsistence systems features ingredients less suited to soft foods for babies. Agrarianbased subsistence systems provides ingredients suitable to transition to a solid diet,which leads to shorter weaning periods. When a child is weaned, maternal ovulation,
which is suppressed during lactation, resumes. By this logic, it may be inferred thatamong agricultural populations, the weaning period and birth interval is shorter, leading
to higher fertility.
3) Maternal nutrition: In populations where women can obtain more protein and fat, theirbirth interval is shorter and fertility is higher than those where the women consume lessprotein and fat.
4) Cooperative childcare: Cooperative childcare allows mothers to spend more time andeﬀort collecting food, which improves nutrition and increases fertility. In addition, many
children can be cared for through cooperative childcare.
Hrdy deduces these factors from ethnographic case studies of peoples in various partsof the world. They provide one way to evaluate the diﬀerences of fertility for the Jomon
and Yayoi people. Regarding the lifestyle of the Jomon and Yayoi populations examined in
the present study, archaeological studies indicate that they lived in settlements (Amemiya© Japanese Archaeological Association

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2009). Therefore, their lifestyle comes under the category of “sedentary,” and cannot
account for the diﬀerences of fertility. In relation to subsistence activity, the sedentary
lifestyle can be equated with the ability to make soft baby food. Judging from foods
believed to have been made in the Jomon and Yayoi periods soft food was made (Shitara
2014), although archaeological evidence of soft baby food in the Jomon and Yayoi periods
has not been found. Considering that the diet was diﬀerent from one area to another(Yoneda 2006), there is a possibility that the kinds of weaning foods and the duration ofnursing also diﬀered among the populations. Age of weaning can be estimated by isotopic
analysis of bone (Tsutaya et al. 2016). Further minute study of the diet and the age of
weaning in ancient populations will account for the diﬀerences in fertility. As for maternal
nutrition, some skeletal markers of nutrition and disease (Fujita 2012) and isotopic
analysis of diet (Yoneda 2006) could provide information about maternal nutrition, altoughsuﬃcient study has yet to be done. In the future, the results of such analyses are sure toaccount for the diﬀerences in fertility among populations. Regarding cooperative childcare,it may be diﬃcult to prove the existence of cooperative childcare in ancient societies. At
the moment, diﬀerences in the fertility of populations cannot be explained by this factor,
although there is a possibility that factors such as the duration of nursing and maternal
nutrition will be clariﬁed, thereby helping to explain fertility in the future. Meanwhile,
we can use the data on fertility anticipating these factors: diet, maternal nutrition, andcooperative childcare, which relate to gender diﬀerences in societies.
Data on fertility and survivorship alone cannot directly shed light on the nature ofgender in prehistoric societies. Used in conjunction with archaeological data, however,these data will help deepen our understanding of prehistoric societies.

4. The importance of studying the Jomon and Yayoi periods

The Jomon and Yayoi periods are, roughly speaking, hunter-gatherer and agrariansocieties, respectively, although some details about them still need to be examined, as
discussed above.
The change from a hunting-gathering to farming is common in human societies. The
hominini lineage dates back about 7 million years, and for most of this time, humans have
lived as hunter-gatherers. However, farming, which began about 10,000 years ago, quickly
swept the globe, and most humans now live in food-producing societies that involve
farming and raising livestock. The change from a hunter-gatherer to an agricultural society
might have signiﬁcantly changed people’s lives, society, and culture, including genderand the world of the mind. It is a future task to reconstruct the population structures ofhunter-gatherers and agrarian societies, and to re-envision their lives, society, and culture,including gender and the world of the mind in both societies, and to compare them.
A comparative analysis of the Jomon and Yayoi cultures not limited to an analysis of© Japanese Archaeological Association

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demographic structure is therefore considered to be extremely important, as it can serve asa model case for changes that occur worldwide during the transition from a hunter-gatherer
to agrarian society.

Acknowledgements
This paper is a revision of “Fertility and survivorship in the Jomon and Yayoi periods
estimated from human bones” which was presented at the symposium “Current GenderArchaeology” in the Archaeological Association Okayama Convention Subcommittee
III held on October 27, 2019. The author thanks the organizers of the symposium for thatvaluable opportunity.
The author sincerely thanks Dr Suwa Gen of the University of Tokyo, Dr Matsumura
Hirofumi of Sapporo Medical University, Dr Nakatsukasa Masato of Kyoto University,
Dr Kusaba Keiichi and Dr Yoshida Hotaka of Chikushino City Museum of History, andDr Iwanaga Shozo of Kyushu University for permission to examine skeletal remains.
This work was supported by a Grant-in-Aid for Scientiﬁc Research on Innovative
Areas JP19H05737 “Integrative Human Historical Science of ‘Out of Eurasia’”; Grantin-Aid for Scientiﬁc Research on S 19H05591 “The Origin and Evolution of Human
Sociality”; Grant-in-Aid for Scientiﬁc Research on A 18H03593 “Reconstruction of thetheory of Jomon societies based on collaboration among archaeology, anthropology, andcultural property science”; and Grant-in-Aid for Scientiﬁc Research on C 15K01135“Population structure (fertility, survivorship and meaning period) in hunter-gatherers andagriculturalists.”

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