Importance of Circum-Japan Sea trade networks inthe transition from the Yayoi Period to the Kofun
PeriodMIZUMURA Naoto1
ABSTRACTThe archaeological study of trade networks is critical for our understanding of the transition
from the Yayoi to the Kofun period in prehistoric Japan. Based on the archaeologicalevidence from the waterlogged Aoya Kamijichi site, Tottori City, Tottori Prefecture, this paper
highlights the importance of the Circum-Japan Sea Trade Networks during the Yayoi period.
The perspective presented here is in contrast with previous studies that have focused on theimportance of the Inland Sea Trade Networks. Results of this study also indicate that the Aoya
Kamijichi site functioned as a nodal point of multiple trade routes, which are evidenced by therecovery of numerous imported items. Reports of non-local materials from other regions are also
discussed to help the reader understand the complexity of trade networks during these periods.
KEYWORDS: Aoya Kamijichi site, trade networks, water-logged site, transition from Yayoi to
Kofun, Circum-Japan Sea area, Japan

1.

Introduction

(1)

Goal

The goal of this paper is to present the possibility that the circum-Japan Sea trade
networks in the Yayoi Period (ca. 800 BC–AD 250) functioned equivalently to the Inland
Sea networks through analysis of archaeological ﬁndings from the Aoya Kamijichi site
located in Tottori City, Tottori Prefecture. The Aoya Kamijichi site is widely known asa representative water-logged site of the Yayoi Period in Japan. As evidenced by the soledomestic discovery of part of the brain of a Yayoi person, the excavated archaeologicalmaterials are in excellent conditions of preservation, allowing for successive conﬁrmationof phenomena that can overturn the past image of the Yayoi Period. Among those areincluded many artifacts that suggest transactional relations with various early states andregions, such as China, the Korean peninsula, and the Northern Kyushu and Hokuriku
regions. A survey of these artifacts shows that this site functioned as an important core
1 c/o 12 Board of Education of Tottori Prefecture (Tottori Foundation for Education and Culture), 12

Genta, Tottori City, Tottori 680–1133, Japan (mizumuran@pref.tottori.jp)
Category: Original Article Received: 14 November 2014; Accepted: 26 July 2015
JAPANESE JOURNAL OF ARCHAEOLOGY 3 (2015): 3–27

MIZUMURA Naoto

settlement in the circum-Japan Sea trade network.
Until recently, research on trade and circulation during the Yayoi Period had focused
mainly on the Inland Sea route. In recent years, with the results of reclassiﬁcation of
excavated materials (e.g., beads, bone, iron, and bronze tools, and wooden containers)
from the Aoya Kamijichi site, progress has been made in comparative analysis withsites in other regions. However, it cannot be said that these have been correlated in an
organized fashion to indicate a reﬂection of the reality of the Japan Sea trade network on
par with the Inland Sea network.
Under these conditions, this paper aims to present characteristics of the Japan Sea
trade network of the Yayoi Period and focuses on the existence and role of the maritime
traders who participated in this network. By doing so, it aims to show that the perspectiveof ‘trade’ does not merely tell of the movement of things, but is an important key to theexamination of background structures and factors in the transition from the Yayoi Period
to the Kofun Period.

(2)

Context

From its earliest days, research on the Yayoi Period in western Japan has mainly
proceeded with focus on Kinai and Northern Kyushu areas through studies of sites suchas Karako/Kagi site (Tawaramoto-cho, Nara Prefecture) and Sugu Okamoto site (Kasuga
City, Fukuoka Prefecture). One major reason for this is that it was possible to describe
in practical terms the connection between the portrayal of the Wa people noted in the
Chinese historical texts of the time and the archaeological evidence found in the areasof the Genkainada coast and Yamato basin. It is natural that under such circumstancesinterest would concentrate on the route between Northern Kyushu and Kinai (present
day Nara and Osaka Prefectures), the two main candidate sites in the debate concerning
the Yamatai state. Furthermore, after the terminal Yayoi Period, with the creation of
the typology of mound shaped tombs and cylinder shaped haniwa, and their correlation
with various artifacts, the connection between Kibi (present day Okayama Prefecture)
and Kinai regions deepened. This resulted in increased concentration on the Inland Sea
route, indicating a certain degree of inﬂuence from Kibi on the establishment of funeralrituals associated with keyhole shaped mound tombs in Kinai (e.g., Fukunaga 2002, 2013;
Terasawa 2000, 2011).
While those circumstances held sway, in the 1980s new excavations of bronze artifacts
were made in the San’in region, such as at Kamba Kojindani site (Izumo City, Shimane
Prefecture) (e.g., Matsumoto and Adachi 1996), necessitating the reconsideration of the
distribution of power in the Yayoi Period. In addition, the regional characteristics of theSan’in and Hokuriku areas became distinct with the illumination of the particular beadmaking process on the Japan Sea side, shown by the Yokaichi-jikata site (Komatsu City,© Japanese Archaeological Association

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CIRCUM-JAPAN SEA TRADE IN THE YAYOI AND KOFUN PERIODS

Ishikawa Prefecture).
Yet, even now, it cannot be said that the relations between the San’in and its
surrounding regions have been sufﬁciently studied. Although the existence of therelationship has been hypothesized, the construction of a concrete image of the Japan
Sea trade network has just begun. Due to such biases in the research, the subject of
the shift from the Yayoi Period to the Kofun Period has proceeded with discussions on
the thesis of the Inland Sea; and their viewpoint is most often taken up as a topic ofpolitical and social ideology of the Kofun Period. In order to correct this situation andaccurately describe the dynamism of the Yayoi society in Western Japan overall, it iseffective to ﬁx our gaze on the correlation between the San’in region, particularly with
the Aoya Kamijichi site as the nucleus of the trade node, and the Northern Kyushu andKinai areas. By pursuing our stance of clarifying the diverse networks and bringing theirconcrete images to the forefront, we can progress toward understanding the true natureof period transition from the perspective of “trade” in the Yayoi Period.

(3)

Method2.

Previous studies

In order to approach these topics, it is necessary to catalogue the imported artifacts
conﬁrmed from the Aoya Kamijichi site and understand the nature of trade that can beelucidated from them. The imported artifacts must be catalogued by temporal periods
based on results of existing research to accurately show the relationship between trade
and the site’s rise and decline. By making comparative studies of related regions’imported artifacts, centered on iron tools, pottery, and beads, additional inquiry into the
afﬁnity between them and causal relationships will be made.

Sixteen excavations have been conducted at the Aoya Kamijichi site as of 2014. Shortly
after the ﬁrst study began, as shown in Figure 1, large scale shore protection structuresand rows of plank pilings, as well as a large number of diverse artifacts, were unearthedin very good states of preservation, proving it to be an unprecedentedly important Yayoi
Period site (Kitaura et al. 2006). With recognition of the importance of this site, a system
was established for the site’s preservation, use, and upkeep. Since then, studies of the site
have proceeded with the aim of its preservation.
In parallel with archaeological excavation, research studies on the various materials
have progressed, with certain results achieved, particularly in wooden artifacts, including
building materials, bone and antler implements, metal implements, and beads (Chaya
and Ietsuka 2008; Kawai 2010, 2011, 2013a; Kimijima 2012; Mizumura 2011; Noda andChaya 2005). Furthermore, in recent years, it has come to light that the oldest terre verte© Japanese Archaeological Association

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MIZUMURA Naoto

Figure 1.

Boundary ditch in Aoya Kamijichi site (SD11)

Figure 2.

Wooden shield painted by green pigment (Terre verte)© Japanese Archaeological Association

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CIRCUM-JAPAN SEA TRADE IN THE YAYOI AND KOFUN PERIODS

in East Asia was applied to shields of the Late Yayoi Period, which has led to analyses
that overturn theories of pigment history (Kimijima and Mizumura et al. 2013; Naruse2010) (see Figure 2).
The following assessment of the site has been arrived at from results of excavations
and research:
1) This site indicates a representative Yayoi settlement fronting a lagoon on the JapanSea coast that developed through exchanges with circum-Japan Sea coast regions,
including the Korean Peninsula and the Asian continent; and2) Due to the extremely good state of preservation of the many varieties of excavatedartifacts, the way of life in the Yayoi Period can be concretely examined.
For these two reasons, the Aoya Kamijichi site was designated a national historic sitein March 2008, and the site has become widely recognized for its value.

3.

Goals of this paper

The contention of this paper is that, considering the results of studies in various
ﬁelds, such as archaeology, geography, paleo-environmental studies, and (physical andbiological) anthropology, as well as the East Asian state of affairs of the time relying
mainly on Chinese historical materials, along with the main route of trade that led from
Northern Kyushu to the Inland Sea and on to Kinai, there was also another networkthat functioned from Northern Kyushu to the Japan Sea coast from the Middle to Late
Yayoi Period. However, by the terminal Yayoi Period, with the upsurge in activity toobtain exotic goods and advanced technologies, such as valuable metal implementsfrom the Asian continent, the Kibi region became an indispensible route for the Kinai
powers (e.g., Osaka Prefectural Museum of Yayoi Culture 2013), which led to emphasison the single, direct route through the Inland Sea. Naturally, the impression that studiesof the Japan Sea route and its network are insufﬁcient is undeniable, neither can it besaid that there have been speciﬁc studies of the relation between the Inland Sea and theJapan Sea. However, it is widely acknowledged that both routes were major arteries for
trade in the Japanese archipelago around the time of the Late Yayoi Period, as shownby the compilation and study of foreign pottery excavated from the Hakata Bay coastal
region (Northern Kyushu) which was the common starting point for both the Japan Sea
route and the Inland Sea route (e.g., Hisazumi 2007; Matsui 1997, 2013; Morimoto 2013;
Takahashi 2002; Takano 2012; Tsunematsu 1986, 2001).
In order to overturn this perception, it is necessary ﬁrst to grasp the reality of tradeon the Japan Sea side that is insufﬁciently understood in comparison with the Inland Sea
side, and then deepen the understanding of the synchronic relations between the Japan
Sea trade route and the Inland Sea trade route. As a ﬁrst step in that effort, we consider© Japanese Archaeological Association

7

MIZUMURA Naotoit effective to position as the basis for discussion the materials from the Aoya Kamijichisite that indicate a variety of networked relations with many regions. With this analysis
as a foundation, we will prove that for the study of the transition of historic periods,
it is indispensable to incorporate an archaeological understanding of trade, rather thanfocusing only on religious, ritualistic, and ideological aspects.
In order to consider this thesis, it is effective to survey the rise and fall of the site
based on previous research reports, study the causal relationships between similar
implements and ancient structural remnants excavated (or not present) from sites in otherregions, and conduct analysis of the density and depth of relations between other regions
and the Aoya Kamijichi site (eastern San’in region).

4.

Result of analysis(1)

Examination of temporal changes

1)

Aoya Kamijichi phase I (Late Early–Early Middle Yayoi Period)

The Aoya Kamijichi site was formed intermittently from the later Early Yayoi Period
through the Early Kofun Period. A variety of diverse artifacts remain, but the majority ofthem have been excavated from cultural layers that span multiple time periods, making
it difﬁcult to date them with precision. A review of stratigraphy and calendar years foreach layer has been conducted in recent years, which has made it possible to divide theoccupational layers into four phases (Kawai 2010). At this point in time, we judge thisfour-phase division as the most appropriate to discuss the Aoya Kamijichi site, and wewill follow it for this paper.

According to results of paleo-environmental studies of this site (Ietsuka and Murata
2011; Mizumura 2006), prior occupation of this site to the Aoya Kamijichi Phase I
period, a series of ﬂood events during the Late Jomon Period formed a slightly higher
area of 200 m×200 m within the lagoon at the northern edge of the Aoya plain whichbecame the basis for the central area of the site. This coincides with the period when theJapan Sea coastline regressed signiﬁcantly, which allowed migration of people into thenorthern edge of the Aoya plain.
We can conﬁrm oyster shell middens and, in the site’s southwestern rear wetlands,
rice paddy ﬁeld furrows from Aoya Kamijichi Phase I (Kitaura 2001; Yumura 2002).
However, these are the conditions in the periphery outside the central area, leaving many
details that remain unclear inside the central area.
Although there are only a few imported artifacts from this period, notable is the oldest
iron tool in the San’in region, a fragment of a cast iron axe produced from the Liaotung
Peninsula in northeastern China through the northwestern part of the Korean Peninsula© Japanese Archaeological Association

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CIRCUM-JAPAN SEA TRADE IN THE YAYOI AND KOFUN PERIODS(Murakami 1998; Nojima 1992). The fact that iron, which was extremely precious at
the time, was acquired indicates that the Aoya Kamijichi site had become an essential
presence in the Japan Sea trade route from the time shortly after the site had become
occupied.

2)

Aoya Kamijichi phase II (mid to late Middle Yayoi Period)

The increased number of artifacts and features from this period shows that the settlement
began to become fully functional. In the latter part of this period, wooden shorings wererepeatedly constructed to counter the drifting sands from the beach north of the site thatﬂowed in and accumulated inside the site.
Notable among imported artifacts are the inﬂux of more cast iron axes and large-sizedboard-shaped iron axes than during the Aoya Kamijichi Phase I. As to bead-making,

Figure 3.

Artefacts related with beads-making in Aoya Kamijichi site
© Japanese Archaeological Association

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MIZUMURA Naotocylindrical beads using high quality “Bodai type jasper” that came from the area aroundKomatsu City in Ishikawa Prefecture were readily produced (Kawai 2013a, b) (seeFigure 3). Recent detailed examination has shown that the primary material, such as
unworked stone, was brought from the Hokuriku region for production within the site
(Kawai 2013a, b). This indicates that the Aoya Kamijichi site was an important location
for supplying jasper and cylindrical bead-making products to settlements in the San’inregion and the Northern Kyushu region. There are also ﬁndings of a certain amount of
Kibi-style pottery as well as Bingo region pottery. Discoveries of pottery with triangularclay bands (Nukdo III style: Pusan University Museum 1989) and ﬁshing tools and oraclebones have been made.

3) Aoya Kamijichi phase III (Late Yayoi to beginning of Early Kofun
Period)Due to the change in the current that surrounded the central area, the central area
expanded to the east and west, while its northern side fronted on the lagoon (Mizumura
2006). On the shore edge of the central area shorings were constructed of cedar planks(1 m wide) and horizontal boards and pikes, strongly indicating efforts to continuously
maintain the living area (Kawai 2014; Mizumura 2012a). Further, along with the
expansion of the paddy ﬁeld area on the southwestern side of the site, there was asigniﬁcant increase in the number of excavated wooden agricultural tools and seeds(Kimijima 2012).
Excavated imported artifacts were wide-ranging and included tools made of metal,stone, wood, and bone; in addition, as possible traded items, we can note artifacts ofgreen clay mineral with iron made of “green clay (celadonite and glauconite) mineral”(Mizumura 2013). Interaction networks with domestic and foreign locations reached theirpeak in this phase. Characteristic imported items in Figure 4 included double-banded
cast iron axes and their fragments, non-banded cast iron axes, trapezoid cast iron axe
fragments, iron axe with shoulder, iron axe with shoulder and chisel, broken Han mirrors(star-cloud pattern mirror, eight-raptorial mirror, mirror with interconnected arcs, mirror
with concentric circle pattern) (see Figure 4). Wooden artifacts such as bucket-shaped
container, pedestalled dish with petal motif, and hollowed out bucket had designs incommon with those found in Kyushu and San’in regions as well as the Hokuriku region(Mizumura 2009). Bone tools such as abalone openers and composite ﬁsh hooks werebrought over from Northern Kyushu; and pottery from Kinai, northern Kinki, andHokuriku were discovered here and there. A large number of human bones were buried
in a central area eastern boundary ditch, including those with evidence of lethal wounds.
These excavated human bones can be categorized as those of the so-called “immigranttype Yayoi people” (Inoue 2006; Inoue et al. 2002).
© Japanese Archaeological Association

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CIRCUM-JAPAN SEA TRADE IN THE YAYOI AND KOFUN PERIODS

Figure 4.

4)

Imports from other countries such as China and Korea in Aoya Kamijichi

Aoya Kamijichi phase IV (Kofun Period–)

The features and excavated artifacts from this period show a marked decline in number.
In contrast to the features in the central area boundary ditches, there appear to be hardly
any activities to drill anew or construct new shorings. In the paddy ﬁeld area the unevensurface became even and the ground foundation became stable, preparing the area for
the introduction of the land subdivision system (Jorisei) (Kitaura et al. 2006). Amid
this landscape, the ancient San’in-do Route was constructed on the southern side of thecentral area (Morimoto 2014). As the settlement size decreased, artifacts indicating trade
are not in evidence. After the Early Kofun Period, this site was no longer part of theJapan Sea coast trade route.

© Japanese Archaeological Association

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MIZUMURA Naoto(2)

Analysis of regional and international networks

1)

China

2)

Korean Peninsula

Through temporal analysis, we can see the connections between the Aoya Kamijichi site
and various regions. This section discusses speciﬁcs on the relationships with trading
partner areas by giving examples of excavated artifacts from the Aoya Kamijichi site.
The main focus is on the height of the site occupation (Aoya Kamijichi Phase III), butconditions of Aoya Kamijichi Phases I and II will be referred to as needed. The states
and regions related to the Aoya Kamijichi site are noted in Table 1.

Chinese iron tools include cast iron axes and knives with simple ring pommel; complete
artifacts and fragments of cast iron axes number 28 items, by far the largest number in
the San’in region (Mizumura 2011). Cast iron axes were reused as board-shaped iron axes
by processing the blade section. One simple ring pommel of a sword thought to havebeen 80 cm long has been excavated, which, according to Toshima’s (2010) classiﬁcation
is clearly imported from overseas, making high the probability of it having been madein continental China. There are no examples of pommels being cut off from the many
swords with simple ring pommels excavated in Northern and Central Kyushu, and thefact that pommels being cut off is limited to the region from eastern Shimane to northern
Kinki and Hokuriku, allows us to conclude this to be a custom particular to the JapanSea coast region (Mizumura 2012b; Murakami 2007). There are ﬁve bronze mirrors,
three Early Han and two Late Han; no other Yayoi sites show this many continuous Han
period mirrors (Okamura 2012). In particular, the star-cloud pattern mirror from the late
Early Han (mid-ﬁrst century BC) is the only example excavated on Honshu from a Yayoi
Period site. The four Chinese coins represent the largest number from a Yayoi Period siteon the Japan Sea side (Yumura 2002).

Rare Nukdo pottery from eastern Korean Peninsula has been excavated in the San’inregion, but the quality of the clay (colour, texture) is different from that in the original
location. From this, it is unlikely that items made in the locale were brought in to the
Aoya Kamijichi site. There are no other types of pottery from the Korean Peninsula thathave been excavated from the Aoya Kamijichi site. As to the bronze bell shaped stone
artifact that is a multi-sided pyramid with small hole on top, judging from examples
excavated from the Nukdo site and Harunotsuji site (e.g., Gyeongnam ArchaeologicalResearch Institute 2006; Ashibe Town Board of Education 2002; Board of Education ofNagasaki Prefecture 2005), it is possible that it is an imitation of a balance weight fromtechnically advanced areas (Takesue 2007, 2013).
As to iron tools, the trapezoid cast iron axe was brought in during Aoya Kamijichi© Japanese Archaeological Association

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Plain pottery (Nukdo type)Continental polished stone tool
Stone net sinker (Kyushu type)
Stone net sinker (Setouchi type)Obsidian from Oki island
Stone tools made of sanukite
Saw-shaped stone implement
Bead-making Jasper from Bodai-Nata
Jasper from Kasenzan
Accessory made of rock crystal
Curved bead made of jadeWoodenPedestalled dish with petal
implement
motifsFork-shaped hoe
Wooden footwear
Iron implement Cast iron axe
Trapezoidal cast iron implement
Large board-shaped iron axe
Iron axe with shoulder
Knife with a simple ringpommelSimple ring pommel of a sword
ChiselIron axe with a belt
Spade and sickle
BronzeMirror fragments
implement
Huoquan coin
Bronze weight
Bronze bell fragments
Bone
Spatula made of an abalone
implement
Fishing hook (Northwestern
Kyushu type)
Oracle bone
Other
Yayoi people from overseas
Tooth extraction
Eliminating simple ring pommelof a sword◎…Remarkable, ○…Recognizable

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④Western③Northen Tottori & ⑤Western⑨Northern①China ②Korea⑥Bingo ⑦Kibi ⑧Hokuriku⑩Shikoku ⑪Kinai
KyushuEastern
ShimaneKinki
ShimaneRelationships of artefacts between Aoya Kamijichi site and other areas

Aoya
Pottery
Kamijichi Stone
implement

Table 1.

CIRCUM-JAPAN SEA TRADE IN THE YAYOI AND KOFUN PERIODS© Japanese Archaeological Association

MIZUMURA Naoto

Phase II, while the iron axe with shoulder was brought in during Aoya Kamijichi Phase
III. Neither of these has been excavated in Kyushu, suggesting that they may havebeen acquired by direct trade with the Korean Peninsula, without having gone throughNorthern Kyushu (e.g., Takesue 2006). This is the only example of an iron axe withshoulder from Yayoi Period sites. Other iron tools that indicate trade with the Korean
Peninsula include rare wrought iron items, such as the large-sized board-shaped iron axe
and chisel-shaped iron tools.
In the case of bone artifacts, abalone openers and oracle bones show a commonality
with those in southeastern Korean Peninsula. The abalone openers are made from deer
antlers and have in common the point that both use the base of the antler. In contrast,
the abalone openers of Northern Kyushu are made of whale bone. Over 240 oracle bones
made of the scapula of wild boar and deer have been found, one of the largest ﬁnds inJapan (Kitaura 2008; Mizumura 2010b). In both the Aoya Kamjichi site and the Nukdo
site, oracle bone concentrations in which multiple bones were intentionally placed havebeen recovered. As this feature has been conﬁrmed only at these two sites, this traditional
method of treatment of oracle bones can be said to be shared in the circum-Japan Sea
region, even across the sea (Mizumura 2009). Physical anthropological characteristicsof the peoples of the Nukdo site-have strong similarities with human bones from the
Doigahama site (Yamaguchi Prefecture) and Aoya Kamijichi site. As extracting the upper
incisor (Nakahashi 1990) was also a common custom, this practice, just as with oraclebones, is thought to have been introduced from the Korean Peninsula.

3)

Northern Kyushu

4)

Hōki–Eastern Shimane

Many of the iron tools found at the Aoya Kamijichi site are made of similar materials
to those found in Northern Kyushu. Speciﬁcally, they are iron axe with shoulder, chisel,
plowshare, and sickle. Abalone openers and combined-style ﬁsh hooks are from theNorthern Kyushu area.
A certain number of Kyushu-style stone weights that suggest a connection with
Northern Kyushu have been excavated through the Aoya Kamijichi II and III Phases(Norimatsu 2007; Shimojo 1984). Products speciﬁc to Hokuriku and San’in, such as
jasper cylindrical beads, crystal beads, and pedestalled dish with petal motif, were
exchanged with Northern Kyushu stone artifacts, showing that they supported thetrade with Northern Kyushu. A footed jar with decoration and clay ﬂute have also been
excavated in the same area, and can be given as examples of items exchanged between
the Aoya Kamijichi site and Northern Kyushu.

Artifacts that show the relations between the Aoya Kamijichi site and the area to its© Japanese Archaeological Association

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CIRCUM-JAPAN SEA TRADE IN THE YAYOI AND KOFUN PERIODS

west include pottery and other objects made of clay: footed jar with decoration, balance
weight made with clay, and clay ﬂute; and stone tools, in particular arrowheads made ofobsidian from Oki island. The pedestalled dish with petal motif that is representative of
the wooden containers from the Aoya Kamijichi site is similar to that from the Himehara
Nishi site (Izumo City, Shimane Prefecture). Speciﬁc points of similarity include four
petals, made of kaya wood (Torreya nucifera), carved from one piece of wood, the wood
cut along the grain, and decorative lobes (Mizumura 2009; Noda et al. 2005).
Celadonite has been conﬁrmed in Oki island, and its relation to the celadonite painted
on the wooden shields excavated at the Aoya Kamijichi site has been noted in recent
years (Akagi 2013; Mizumura 2013; Naruse et al. 2013).

5)

Western Shimane

6)

Bingo

7)

Kibi

8)

Hokuriku

This area has scant connection to the Aoya Kamijichi site, with commonalities onlyin pottery and stone tools. These merely indicate the general conditions in the overall
Japan Sea region rather than speciﬁc connections between the two areas. Artifacts that
correspond to the San’in region include pottery (double rim pottery) and balance weight
shaped clay items.

The pottery of this area has a spout, and is the Shiomachi style pottery decorated withincised lines and zigzag shaped patterns (Yumura 2002). However, as the Shiomachi
style pottery excavated from the Aoya Kamijichi site differs slightly from the Shiomachi
style pottery of the Bingo region in the types of designs and their combinations, it ispossible that this is not a direct import but represent imitated items (Matsui 2007).

Pottery from this area is characteristic for its jars with a horizontal upraised section
above the rim, of which several have been excavated from the Aoya Kamijichi site. Stone
tools are evident in the Inland Sea style stone net sinker, and wooden implements such as
fork-shaped hoe were produced in Kibi during the ﬁrst half of Aoya Kamijichi Phase II
period, and entered the Aoya Kamijichi site during this phase (Kimijima 2012).

As with the Aoya Kamijichi site, this area and the northern Kinki area had mouths ofrivers at their northern edges facing the Japan Sea, which formed lagoons that were
natural good harbours. Taking advantage of these geographic characteristics, numerous
trading settlements were formed, functioning as the loci for exchange networks on theJapan Sea coast (Goto 2010; Osaka Prefectural Museum of Yayoi Culture 2005).
© Japanese Archaeological Association

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MIZUMURA Naoto

Evidence of direct connections with Hokuriku are seen in cylindrical beads made ofjasper and comma-shaped jade beads; bead-making using jasper from Bodai and Nata
(Ishikawa Prefecture) began in the ﬁrst half of Aoya Kamijichi Phase II. Some 70% of
the excavated jasper beads are from Bodai and Nata (Kawai 2013a). The material forcomma-shaped jade beads produced with the same technique as cylindrical beads wasfrom Itoigawa.
As to wooden artifacts, the shape and size of pedestalled dish with petal motif, carved
out barrel, mug-shaped wooden vessel, and wooden footwear excavated from the Aoya
Kamijichi site are similar to those in the various Hokuriku areas (Hayashi 2005).

9)

Northern Kinki

10)

Shikoku

11)

Kinai

Pottery from this area was excavated from the boundary ditch of Aoya KamijichiPhase III. Due to the concentration of oracle bones and skulls of monkeys and dogs
from the surroundings, it is possible that these were used in rituals (Yumura 2002).
The same method and material as the Aoya Kamijichi site were employed in Hokuriku
sites for bead-making; the similar custom of removing the pommel of the sword canbe inferred from the sword excavated from the Myorakuji burial mound (Toyooka City,
Hyogo Prefecture). These similarities directly reﬂect the relationship with Northern
Kinki geographically located between the Aoya Kamijichi site in eastern San’in and the
Hokuriku region.

There is a high possibility that stone material from this area such as sanukite for making
chipped stone swords and piemontite schist for stone saws were brought in to the Aoya
Kamijichi site. There have been no other artifacts excavated at the Aoya Kamijichi sitethat might show a connection with the Shikoku region.

Pottery from Kinai has been excavated in Aoya Kamijichi Phases II and III. Stone
implements include items made of sanukite and stone saws made of piemontite schist.
Bronze bell-shaped items excavated from the Aoya Kamijichi site include fragments ofbronze bell with projecting-lined handle type four or type ﬁve (Kitaura 2001; Yumura
2002). As with the Shikoku region, artifacts showing direct connection with the Aoya
Kamijichi site may be few, but conﬁrmation has been made of artifacts, such as
fragments of several bronze bells that were extremely rare items at the time, indicating
the possibility of a strong connection between the two regions.

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5.

Discussion(1)

Main trade routes associated with the Aoya Kamijichi site (Figure 5)

We have discussed the imported artifacts excavated from the Aoya Kamijichi site andtheir provenience. Of those, the regions and states with strong connections to the Aoya
Kamijichi site are those noted in 2)–4), 8), and 9), mostly facing the Japan Sea (Kitaura
et al. 2006; Ohno 2007; Takao 2007; Takesue 2013). Many of the imported artifacts
excavated from the Aoya Kamijichi site are the result of contact with regions along theJapan Sea coast. However, there are also some items that are shared with regions suchas Kibi and Shikoku, indicating that the connections are not necessarily limited to thecoastal Japan Sea route.
Next, we will discuss the trade routes that we can assume existed. Route A is the
China, Korean Peninsula–Northern Kyushu–San’in–Northern Kinki, Hokuriku route thatcovers a long distance of over 2,500 km. Iron tools such as cast iron tools (fragments)and swords were transported as well as continental polished stone tools using this as
the main route of dispersal to various regions of Japan. Furthermore, rice planting

Figure 5.

Map of inter-relationships between Aoya Kamijichi site and other areas© Japanese Archaeological Association

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MIZUMURA Naototechniques as well as people, particularly from the Korean Peninsula, migrated to a wide
area (e.g., Takesue 2007, 2009, 2011). The domestic version of Route A was Route B,
Northern Kyushu–San’in–Northern Kinki, Hokuriku, where iron axe with shoulder, bone
and antler artifacts, and clay ﬂutes were transported.
While many of the past discussions of the Japan Sea trade networks were based on
the above two routes, we can also postulate various other routes as well. The reverse
direction of Route B, Route C, is evidenced in beads made in the settlements at the
Yokaichi-jikata site (Hokuriku), Mejirojinja Minami site (Northern Kinki), and Aoya
Kamijichi site (San’in) transported to the Nakabaru site (Karatsu City, Saga Prefecture)
in Northern Kyushu (Kawai 2013a). This indicates that the Aoya Kamijichi site played
the role of a “transfer point” between the consuming area of Northern Kyushu and theplace of origin of Hokuriku.
We can also speculate on the east-west route centered on the Aoya Kamijichi site overthe 750 km distance in the direct line between Northern Kyushu and Hokuriku, Route
D: Northern Kyushu ← San’in → Northern Kinki, Hokuriku. Objects of trade included
the design and artifacts of pedestalled dish with petal motif. There is a high probability
that products that could be traded for iron tools were sent toward the Northern Kyushu
direction. In Hokuriku, there are differences such as many artifacts using zelkova(Zelkova serrata), a different wood from the mountain mulberry (Morus bombycis) items
found at the Aoya Kamijichi site, and lathe work items (Noda et al. 2005). From thesefacts, I would suggest that the design was transmitted from the Aoya Kamijichi site to
the Hokuriku region where items were produced with materials and techniques available
there.
There were also partial routes within Routes A and B: Northern Kyushu–San’in (RouteE) and San’in–Northern Kinki, Hokuriku (Route F). Items traded in Route E include
bone and antler artifacts and stone ﬁshing tools, while the custom of removing the simple
ring pommel of the sword is applicable to Route F. Route F also coincides with the
expansion of mound burials with four projecting corners. In addition, from the excavationof oracle bone collection features and iron axe with a belt, we can surmise the existenceof Route G, directly linking the Aoya Kamijichi site to southeastern Korean Peninsula.
There is also Route H, the inland north-south route that crosses over the Chugoku region
mountain range. However, compared to the marine transport route by planked boats anddugout canoes, movement crossing over 500–1,000 m mountains would have physicallylimited the frequency of north-south exchanges. Despite this, from the existence offragments of bronze bells and pottery, we can postulate Route I that passes through Kibi
and the Inland Sea region to arrive at Kinai.
Of these postulated routes, there are widely theorized routes, such as Routes A and B
from the distribution of excavated artifacts, but the other routes have not been presented© Japanese Archaeological Association

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CIRCUM-JAPAN SEA TRADE IN THE YAYOI AND KOFUN PERIODS

in a concrete manner. Moreover, the routes presented here are solely those that havedirect connections with the Aoya Kamijichi site. It is thought that people and things,
as well as technology, in actuality do not migrate in a single fashion; there are cases ofmultiple routes connected by a distribution centre such as the Aoya Kamijichi site, orconversely, of interrupted routes. There are also artifacts that bypass the neighboring
region and have commonalities with areas beyond (for example footed decorated jars
and stamped pattern pottery), indicating that exchanges were not always done within abalanced relationship (Iwahashi 2004). The more we look at the micro level, the more we
see that the true picture of the trade route reveals the characteristic of a complex networkweb.
The factors creating the variations of the trade routes or the afﬁnity (quality andquantity) with the Aoya Kamijichi site are not uniform. Because artifacts are thebyproducts accompanying human migration, they are evidence that the existence of theJapan Sea trade routes and the ﬂourishing of the site are closely related, and that it wasa necessary condition that the residents actively engage with the open sea that spread out
before their eyes.

(2)People who supported the trade networks

There is a commonality in various types of ﬁshing equipment used in the southeastern
Korean Peninsula to Northern Kyushu and Shimonoseki (Yamaguchi Prefecture), theShimane Peninsula, and the Aoya Kamijichi site (Kawai 2010; Shimojo 2005; Takesue2007). In actuality, there was the existence of “ﬁshing peoples” who went out to sea
regularly to engage in ﬁshing. The sea routes that they opened up became the basis forthe gradual development of trade routes. Numerous remains of marine animals from theouter sea to the coastal zone to lagoons, from whales to freshwater clams (Corbicula
clams), have been continuously excavated at the Aoya Kamijichi site. Furthermore, theexistence of a variety of ﬁshing tools to catch those animals, as well as planked boats anddugout canoes, and engraved plates depicting a ﬂeet of boats (Figure 6), clearly indicatesthat the coastal residents made maximum use of the Japan Sea. From these factors, we
can consider that they were a group that had close familiarity with combining ﬁshing,trade, and craftsmanship (Mizumura 2011). The members of this maritime-oriented
community, while making the sea a focal point of their life, connected the various
regions in a relay fashion to share people, objects, and ethnic identity (Goto 2010).
During the latter half of Aoya Kamijichi Phase II to the ﬁrst half of Phase III, theInland Sea route that connected Kinai to the Inland Sea and to Northern Kyushu became
established as the major maritime route. As the Japan Sea route that included the Aoya
Kamijichi site ﬂourished during the same time, this supports the fact that both routes
co-existed. However, the Japan Sea side trade network that ﬂourished during Aoya
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MIZUMURA Naoto

Figure 6.

A party of boats engraved on a board from Aoya Kamijichi site

Kamijichi Phases II and III rapidly lost its vigor in the Early Kofun Period. Althoughfurther research is warranted, it is possible that changes in the politics and economics ofthe period caused the Japan Sea route to be swallowed up by the wave of the restructured
Inland Sea route. In other words, the restructuring of the entire trade system by the
Yamato state to increasingly concentrate and consolidate trade from the Japan Sea coastto the Inland Sea forced changes in the power structure. Supporting this theory is thephenomenon of the increase in the number of octopus pots from the Osaka Bay shore to
the Harima Nada region excavated in sites in the Hakata Bay shore in the latter part of
the Late Yayoi Period, which further increased in the Early Kofun Period (Ohno 2007).
We consider this type of shift in ﬁshing tools, that is, archaeological evidence of the
migration of ﬁshing communities, to be a factor related to the signiﬁcant change in the
trade routes.
From this perspective, the rise and fall of trade can be said to be greatly dependent
on the movements of the groups engaged in this activity. By carefully examining thephysical evidence, i.e., imported items, that indicate their movements, we can grasp the
speciﬁc movements in terms of scale and direction. During the period of transformation
toward a centralized state, from the Yayoi Period to the Kofun Period, should it bepossible to be aware of the change in trade routes or the growth and decline of coresettlements, that is because of changes in the power relations with surrounding states. In
order to understand correctly the archaeological evidence indicating the characteristics ofregional networks and their relations and afﬁnities through the ﬁshing communities that
promoted the networks, these studies are essential for the examination of the long term
trajectory of early history.

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CIRCUM-JAPAN SEA TRADE IN THE YAYOI AND KOFUN PERIODS

6.

Conclusion

In this paper, I have argued that the perspective of trade indicated by archaeologicalmethodology is essential in examining the transition from the Yayoi Period to the Kofun
Period. By analyzing the “open trade environment” (Murakami 2001) of the Aoya
Kamijichi site through its numerous imported artifacts, I have pursued the reality oftrade relations along the Japan Sea coast, and clariﬁed the importance of its trade routeas rivaling that of the Inland Sea route that has been the focus in the past. I have also
made clear the fact that this trade route was not a uni-directional one from China andthe Korean Peninsula in the west, but was made up of complex factors of reverse routes,
partial routes, and north-south routes; and within that environment, the Aoya Kamijichisite played an essential role as a nodal point.
The people who operated in this trade network were those who based their livelihood
on ﬁshing rather than on agriculture, and belonged to communities active in seafaring
trade. Particularly after the Middle Yayoi Period, the expansion of the networks,
evidenced by the many items and customs dispersed to various locales, was closely
linked to the development of these communities. To understand the reality of theperiod transition and this trade is to understand the rise and fall of the trade routes andnetworks as being two sides of the same coin in the epochal transformation from the
Yayoi Period to the Kofun Period. Therefore, an examination of the transition of these
periods necessitates a more comprehensive understanding of the issues in the westernJapan Yayoi society as a whole that includes not only the Inland Sea route that has beenlong discussed but also the Japan Sea route that ﬂourished in synchronicity. Greater
understanding of the archaeological evidence of trade by the ﬁshing communities must
be emphasized in combination with traditional archaeological approaches which focus onpolitical, economic, and social structures. (Translated by Beth Cary)

Acknowledgements
I would like to express my appreciation to the late Professor Akira Matsui who initiallyencouraged me to publish this paper in English. My thanks also go to the anonymous
reviewer, Professor Koji Mizoguchi, Professor Junko Habu, and Ms. Beth Cary who gaveme useful comments on the contents and style of this paper. Moreover, I have to give
thanks to Dr. Simon Kaner and Mr. Takayuki Mizumura for helpful discussions about
the topic.
Figures 1, 2, 3, 4 and 6 are reprinted with permission from the Tottori Prefectural
Archaeology Centre.

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MIZUMURA Naoto

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