Proceedings of the International Symposium on Engineering Lessons Learned fromthe 2011 Great East Japan Earthquake, March 1-4, 2012, Tokyo, JapanTSUNAMI HEIGHT MEMORIAL POLES INBANDA ACEH AND RECOMMENDATIONSFOR DISASTER PREVENTION
Hirokazu IEMURA1, Mulyo Harris Pradono2 , Megumi SUGIMOTO3,
Yoshikazu TAKAHASHI4 and Agussalim bin HUSEN5
1

President, Kinki Polytechnic College, h1.iemura@js.jeed.or.jp
Director of Disaster Prevention, BPPT, Indonesia, mulyoharis@yahoo.com
3
Adjunct Researcher, ERI, University of Tokyo, megumibooks@gmail.com
4
Associate Professor, DPRI, Kyoto University, yos@catfish.dpri.kyoto-u.ac.jp
25Syiah Kuala University and Yayasan Umi Abasiah, Banda Aceh, Indonesia (past away)
ABSTRACT: Huge earthquake and tsunami on December 26th, 2004 caused more than
150 thousands casualties around Indian Ocean rim countries especially Banda Aceh cityand Aceh Bessar district in Sumatra, Indonesia. Japanese investigation group led by the
first author found that the local people’s awareness of tsunami was very low from theresults of questionnaires. For disaster education of local people and students,
construction of tsunami height memorial poles was proposed by the first author andsupported by the local people and the embassy of Japan. Construction of the poles,
distribution of the tsunami height and recommendations including education from theinvestigation team is introduced and discussed in this paper.
Key Words: Indian Ocean, tsunami and earthquake, Banda Aceh, Memorial poles,
disaster prevention, education, recommendations
INTRODUCTION

Huge earthquake and tsunami on December 26th, 2004 has caused a great number of casualties around
Indian Ocean rim countries especially in Banda Aceh city and Aceh Besar Sub-province, in Sumatra
Island, Indonesia. Lessons from this huge disaster shall be learnt by locals and people all around theworld.
In a quick response to the disaster, a Japanese group of researchers led by the first author departed toBanda Aceh and surrounding areas in attempt to study the lessons by the huge earthquake and tsunami.
TheIn this paper, the results of the questionnaires distributed in the tsunami affected area, constructionof the tsunami height memorial poles, recommendations for disaster prevention including education
are introduced.
IMPORTANT RESULT OF QUESTIONNAIRES
The questionnaires ware distributed the affected people. They consist of questions asking their1605

experience during and after the earthquake and tsunami. The main aim for collecting information in
the questionnaire was to get a basis for planning a safer town under earthquake and tsunami disaster.
Except the questionnaires, there were no recorded numerical data in the area. The most importantresult of the questionnaires is that even if people had started running away just after the big earthquake,the percentage of expected survivors would have been less than 100%, according to the respondents.
Fig.1 shows the percentage of survivors ; the upper numbers show the actual percentage in the area
and the lower number in the parenthesis show the estimated percentage assuming that local people had
started running away just after the earthquake.
The practical implication is that education, socialization, escape routes, escape structures, warning
system, wave resisting structures are among important factors for people to be safer against futureearthquake and tsunami attacks.

North

8%
(80%)

Malaka Strait

28%
(84%)
Aceh Besar
Sub-provinc

BANDA ACEH CITY
1500

Ulee
Lheue

20%
(75%)

25%
(99%)

30% 66%7%(70%) (81%)
(90%)
40%
13%
(60%)
(60%)
10%
40% 50%Grand(70%)(90%) (80%)

15%
(70%)

75%
(84%)

17%
(72%)

20%
(75%)

KruengAceh

Mosque(Incert figure of the percentage)
KruengAceh River

Aceh Besar
Sub-provinc

Aceh Besar
Sub-provinc

Fig.1 Actual and Estimated Percentage of Survivors in Banda Aceh
(number in parenthesis shows percentage of survivors if people could have escaped
immediately after earthquake)
IMPORTANCE OF TSUNAMI HEIGHT MEMORIAL POLES
Since tsunami is a rare event, the future generations may forget the disaster easily. People needencouraging and reminding words that would be written on lasting memorial structures. One of theideas prompted by the first author to local people is to build poles with the height of tsunami run up

1606

throughout the affected areas in the city.
The poles have many important purposes: (1) to encourage people to be prepared for the next one, (2)to keep the memory of tsunami attack, (3) to educate next generation the important lessons from thetsunami, (4) to mourn the passed away people and to restore and reconstruct Banda Aceh from thedisaster, (5) to keep accurate data of tsunami height for future planning, (6) to be escaping sign withthe tsunami height, (7) to encourage local people to live with hope and ease under tsunami risk, and(8) to be a symbol of Banda Aceh as the tsunami-attacked city.
CONSTRUCTION OF THE POLES
The idea of the construction of many poles in the city area was supported by local people and theEmbassy of Japan in the Republic of Indonesia. The Embassy made available a grant up to US$ 91,411 (US $ Ninety one thousand, four hundred-eleven) by March 31, 2006. It contributes to the
execution of the construction by the Yayasan Umi Abasiah. The project entitled “The Project for
Supporting Education of Tsunami Disaster Prevention in Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam”.
The first author also provides technical assistance. The pole structure should be strong and yet
reasonably economical and feasible in the material availability point of view. Hybrid structure
consisting of masonry and reinforced concrete was finally adopted as the material. The first drawing
for designing the poles is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 1. First Drawing of the Pole for Design Purpose
Fig.2 First Design of Structures of Low, Medium and High Poles
The proposed locations of the poles are as shown in Figure 3. The purpose is for providing evacueeswith escaping sign with height, so that the evacuees escape toward the lower poles. Therefore thepoles would be built along the evacuation routes. After considering the limitation of the land forconstruction, the realized location of the poles is as shown in Figure 4. The height of the poles is theinundation of tsunami water, when the tsunami wave was relatively flat/stop and around ten minutes
later, the tsunami water returned back to the sea.

1607

Figure 3. Tsunami Height Memorial Poles along the Evacuation Routes
for Hazard Data Dissemination
TSUNAMI HEIGHT MEMORIAL POLES
Banda Aceh and Aceh Besar, Indonesia

Yayasan Umi Abasiah
Banda Aceh,
Indonesia
in collaboration with

Malaka Strait
BANDA ACEH CITY
65

66 25

North
41
39

1.5 km
43

51

53

44

50

54

42

49
47
55

48

1

37

18

8

2 31
30
4 6 7
27
40
5 3
26
13 12
4 29
33
3 17
10
11
14
15 16
32 28
45
38

52

9

67

23

36

19
21

24
22
35

Embassy of Japanin Indonesia
andKyoto University
Japan

20

46

ACEH BESAR
DISTRICT

56

57

Aceh
58 60 of 85 Banda
64
Figure3. Locations
TsunamiHeight Memorial Poles in Banda Aceh and Aceh Besar
Medan
Malaysia

68

79
77
75 78
73
76
72
74

Epicenter, 26 Dec. 2004

63 61
62

59

Singapore

Simelue Is.
Nias Is.
PadangIndonesia
Sumatera
Indian
Ocean

70 69

BANDA
ACEH CITY
68

Jakarta

71

Figure 4. Location of actually built Tsunami Height Memorial Poles

1608

80 81

85

84
82 83

Figure 5. The Firstly
Built Tsunami Pole
(February 2006)
Pole No.: 01, Height:
3.15 m, Distance from
Shore: 2.80 km,
Location: Gampong
Lamdingin, Kecamatan
Kuta Alam, Banda Aceh.
The placard in front of
the pole shows theinundation height,
distance from shore,time of tsunami arrival,time of earthquake,
location name, words of
wisdom, developer, anddonor

Figure 6. The Lowest
Tsunami Pole
Pole No.: 28, Height: 0.90m, Distance from Shore:
4.30 km, Location: Dinas
Pertanian dan Tanaman
Pangan, Banda Aceh.

15

Figure 7. Tsunami Pole at a School, Pole No.: 15,
Height: 1.52 m, Distance from Shore: 3.90 km,
Location: SD Negeri 28, Kp. Keuramat, Banda

Figure 9. Tsunami Pole at a School, Pole No.: 49,
Height: 3.80 m, Distance from Shore: 3.10 km,
Location: SDN 2, Punge Jurong, Banda Aceh

1609

Figure 8. The Tallest Tsunami Pole
Pole No.: 69, Height: 9.00 m (w),Distance from Shore: 0.50 km,
Location: Masjid Lam Tengoh,
Peukan Bada, Banda Aceh.
The wave height was justified from
witnesses, because there was no

Figure 10. Tsunami Height Memorial Poles as part of Education Tools on Hazard Mitigation

Fig.11 Photo of 85 Constructed Poles and the Site Location

1610

In May 2007, all of the 85 poles were constructed throughout Banda Aceh city and surrounding
areas. Some photos are shown in Figures 4 to 10 and the list of the poles is shown in Table 1.
The tsunami height memorial poles are also education tools for hazard preparedness. One
example is by showing the students the record of the data mentioned in the poles and why they
were built as shown in Fig.10. Fig.11 shows the photo of all of the poles and their locations. The
enlarged copies of this photo were distributed to the people at all the sites for understanding of
the tsunami height distribution.

RELATION BETWEEN TSUNAMI HEIGHT AND DISTANCE FROM THE COAST
Together with the construction of the poles, three dimensional coordinates (horizontal locationand height of the ground from the sea level) were measured by portable GPS system.
Construction sites in Banda Aceh city and Aceh Bessar sub-province are plotted in Fig.12 a(a) and(b), respectively. The distance from the nearest coast is calculated from the measured coordinates.
The tsunami height and the distance from the coast are listed in Table 1 in the Appendix.

Figure 12 (a). Distribution of Poles in Banda Aceh City(based on GPS Positioning)
In Fig.13 (a), the tsunami height from the ground level against the distance from the coast isplotted, in which relatively good correlation among them is found.
Meanwhile, both the height of the ground from the sea level and the tsunami height from the1611

Figure 12 (b). Distribution of Poles in Banda Aceh City and Aceh Besar Sub-province(based on GPS Positioning)

Tsunami Height from Ground

Tsunami Height from Ground (m)

25

20

15

10

5

0
0

1

2
3
Distance from Coast (km)45Figure 13 (a). Tsunami Height (from Ground Level) in Banda Aceh City

ground against the distance are plotted in Fig.13 (b). The bottom of the allow bar shows the groundheight from the sea level and the length of the allow bar shows the tsunami height from the ground.
Hence, the top of the allow shows the tsunami height from the sea level, which shows high values
when the sites are high and low values when the sites are low.

1612

25.00Ground and Pole Height (m)Ground & Pole Height (m)
20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00
Pole Height (m)

0.00
0.00

1.00

2.00
3.00
Distance from Coast (km)

4.00

5.00

Figure 13 (b). Tsunami Height (from Sea Level) in Banda Aceh City
Tsunami Height from Ground
25

Tsunami Height from Ground (m)Tsunami Height (m)Poly. (Tsunami Height (m))
20

15

10
y = -0.2113x2 - 1.1709x + 7.6074
5

0
0

0.5

1

1.5
2
2.5
Distance from Coast (km)3

3.5

Figure 14 (a). Tsunami Height (from Ground Level) in Banda Aceh City (at Meuraxa Ward only)
25.00

Ground and Pole Height (m)Ground & Pole Height (m)
20.00

15.00

10.00

5.00
Pole Height (m)

0.00
0.00

0.50

1.00
1.50
2.00
2.50
Distance from Coast (km)

3.00

3.50

Figure 14 (b). Tsunami Height (from Sea Level) in Banda Aceh City (at Meuraxa Ward only)

1613

Similar plots are shown in Fig. (a) and (b), limiting the sites only for relatively flat region ;Meuraxa
Ward shown in Fig.12 (a) and (b), in which better correlation of tsunami height and distance is found.
Tsunami height seems attenuating smoothly with distance even though the land height is going up or
down. This suggests that the Tsunami is like the strong stream which runs up the hill easily, andattenuates only with the distance.

RECOMMENDATIOS
Besides the construction of the Tsunami Height Memorial Poles, the investigation team propos
ed following recommendations to Indonesian people and Local Governments.
1) Installation of early warning system for tsunami attack2) Construction of tsunami evacuation buildings or structures
3) Construction of the tsunami research center for collection of the data, analysis and countermeasures
4) Construction of experimental tsunami simulation water channel
5) Construction of tsunami museum
6) Educational system for scientific study of earthquake and tsunami mechanics
7) Systematic education of disaster reduction
Most of the recommendations except the water channel have actively been carried out inIndonesia with worldwide technical and financial cooperation.

CONCLUDING REMARKSThe Japanese group of researchers led by the first author made field survey on earthquake and tsunami
damage in Banda Aceh and surrounding area using the questionnaires with cooperation of local
researchers. In this paper, not only results of the survey but also construction of the memorial poles,
analysis of tsunami height distribution and recommendations to local people and governments are
introduced and discussed. Each topic can be summarized as follows.
(1) One of the important results of the questionnaires on the tsunami disaster is that even if local
people at the coast had started to escape immediately after the earthquake motion, somepercentage of the people could not have been saved because of no escape places near by.
(2) The tsunami height memorial poles were built at 85 places in the Banda Aceh and surrounding
areas not only to keep the data of the tsunami, but also to be important material for education ofdisaster mitigation. The poles are expected to last long for present and next generations.
(3) With the analysis of the tsunami height of each site and the GPS data of the ground height fromthe sea level, and the distance from the coast it is found that the tsunami height attenuatessmoothly with the distance from the coast, nevertheless local land height is going up or down.
(4) Depending on the results of the survey, many recommendations on early warning system,
education, disaster mitigation programs, construction of research center, museum etc arerecommended. Most of them have been actively implemented by local governments andcooperation from oversees countries.
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
The authors would like to express their sincere gratitude to the Embassy of Japan in the Republic of

1614

Indonesia, researchers at the Syiah Kuala University and to the people of Nanggroe Aceh Darussalam,Indonesia for their strong interest and support. The support from the former head of Aceh Besar
District, Bapak Sanusi Wahab is also gratefully acknowledged.
APPENDIX
Table 1. List of 85 Tsunami Height Memorial Poles in Banda Aceh and Aceh Besar
1. 3.15 m 2.80 km GPG.
LAMDINGIN KEC.
KUTA ALAM
2. 2.90 m 3.00 km GPG.
LAMBARO SKEP
KEC. KUTA ALAM

23. 1.75 m 3.50 km ASRAMA
MAHASISWA UNSYIAH,
DARUSSALAM
24. 1.45 m 3.60 km Kantor
Rektorat Iain Ar-Raniry,
Darussalam

3. 1.40 m 3.75 km MAN 1

25. 2.00 m 3.40 km MAN 3,
RUKOH

4. 1.95 m 3.40 km SMP
NEGERI 2

26. 1.00 m 4.00 km SMP
NEGERI 18

5. 1.39 m 3.55 km SD
NEGERI 25

27. 1.80 m 3.85 km SMP
NEGERI 6

49. 3.80 m 3.10 km SDN
2 PUNGE JURONG

6. 1.84 m 3.70 km Masjid
Agung Al Makmur
Bandar Baru

28. 0.90 m 4.30 km DINASPERTANIAN TANAMAN
PANGAN7. 2.60 m 3.60 km SMK
NEGERI 2/STM
NEGERI

29. 1.60 m 3.80 km SMK
NEGERI 3

8. 2.60 m 3.40 km SD
NEGERI 80, PRADA

30. 2.45 m 3.50 km Kantor
Dekranas Taman Ratu
Safiatuddin

50. 4.50 m 2.00 km
Rumah Ny. Zulkifli
Narukaya Blang Oi
51. 5.80 m 1.90 km
MASJID SYECHABDUL RAUF
BLANG OI
52. 7.00 m 0.50 km
Rumah Bp. Bachtiar
Zakaria Deah Baro

31. 2.65 m 3.40 km KANTORBAWASDA

53. 3.90 m 1.80 km
SMPN 11 LAMJABAT

32. 1.00 m 3.85 km
Direktorat Politeknik
Kesehatan

54. 3.70 m 2.10 km SDN
95 GAMPONG
BARO
55. 2.20 m 2.90 km
Masjid Baitul
Muqarrabin Punge
Blang Cut
56. 2.20 m 2.90 km SDN
18 PUNGE BLANG
CUT
57. 3.40 m 2.70 km
Universitas
Iskandarmuda Surien
58. 2.30 m 3.00 km SDN
97 LAMTEUMEN
TIMUR
59. 2.00 m 3.10 km SDN
93 LAMTEUMEN
TIMUR
60. 1.40 m 3.30 km
PGSD FKIPUNSYIAH GOHENG
61. 2.00 m 3.30 km MIN
TELADANLAMTEUMEN
62. 1.00 m 3.50 km
RUMAH ZAKARIAISMAILLAMTEUMEN
63. 2.35 m 3.30 km BIROLOGISTIK POLDA
NAD LAMTEUMEN

9. 2.60 m 3.50 km
KANWIL KEHAKIMANDAN HAM
10. 1.55 m 4.10 km
DINAS KOPERASIDAN UKM
11. 3.20 m 3.50 km SMA
NEGERI 2
12. 2.70 m 3.70 km SD
NEGERI 20, POCUT
BAREN
13. 3.50 m 3.60 km SMP
NEGERI 9,PEUNAYONG

33. 1.80 m 3.75 km
Politekkes NAD Jurusan
Keperawatan
34. 2.00 m 3.40 km SD 35
LAMPRIET
35. 1.80 m 3.35 km MASJIDJAMIK SILANG RUKOH

14. 2.57 m 3.90 km
KANTOR BKPMD

36. 1.20 m 3.80 km SMP
NEGERI 8
DARUSSALAM

15. 1.52 m 3.90 km SD
NEGERI 28, KP.
KEURAMAT

37. 3.40 m 3.40 km SDN 27
GAMPONG MULIA

16. 0.89 m 3.90 km
DARUL ULUM, YPUI
17. 1.52 m 3.70 km SD
KARTIKA XIX-I,
LAMPRIET

38. 3.50 m 3.35 km MIN
Merduati Jalan
Malahayati, GP.MULIA
39. 4.60 m 3.00 km MASJID
AL MUKARRAMAH GP.
MULIA

18. 1.91 m 3.40 km Badan
Perpustakaan Wilayah

40. 4.50 m 2.50 km Masjid
Tgk. Dianjong
PEULANGGAHAN

19. 1.80 m 3.80 km
MASJID LAMGUGOB

41. 7.00 m 1.80 km SMPN
12 GAMPONG JAWA

45. 2.30 m 3.20 km
Kantor Pengadilan
Negeri Banda Aceh
46. 2.00 m 3.50 km
Taman Kanak-Kanak
YKA Taman Sari
47. 3.40 m 3.20 km SMA
NEGERI 1 BLANG
PADANG
48. 1.80 m 3.40 km
SMPN 17 BLANG
PADANG

1615

67. 1.30 m 3.30 km RUMAH
BP. ALAMSYAH UMAR
JALAN SYIAH KUALA
68. 5.70 m 1.50 km MASJID
BAITUL MAGHFIRAHPEUKAN BADA
69. 9.00 m (w) 0.50 km
MASJID LAM TENGOH
PEUKAN BADA
70. 7.00 m 0.40 km MASJIDINDRA PURWALAMGURON
71. 2.50 m 2.50 km
MEUNASAH TANJONG
KEC.LHOKNGA
72. 5.50 m 2.50 km SDN
KAJHU
KEC.BAITUSSALAM
73. 7.00 m 2.20 km TANAH
WIDARI DAWAMDAWOOD SP, COT PAYA
74. 3.50 m 2.70 km SMAN-1
BAITUSSALAM
75. 5.10 m 1.50 km MASJID
LAMBADA LHOKBAITUSSALAM
76. 4.60 m 2.00 km GAMPONGLABUI BAITUSSALAM
77. 4.00 m 1.50 km GAMPONG
LAMNGA JALAN KRUENG
RAYA
78. 3.40 m 1.30 km
MEUNASAH NEUHEUN
MASJID RAYA
79. 2.20 m 0.40 km
MEUNASAH DURONG
MASJID RAYA
80. 3.30 m 1.00 km
MEUNASAH PAYAKAMENG MASJID RAYA
81. 3.40 m 0.50 km MASJIDKRUENG RAYA
82. 3.20 m 0.80 km GAMPONGMEUNASAH KULAM
83. 3.20 m 0.80 km GAMPONGMEUNASAH MON
84. 2.50 m 0.30 km MASJID
LAMREH KRUENG RAYA
85. 3.10 m 0.50 km
PASANTREN/DAYAH AL
MAHFUZHAH KRUENG

20. 1.40 m 3.80 km MIS
LAMGUGOB

42. 6.00 m 2.00 km SDN 6
KEUDAH

21. 1.00 m 3.90 km
STIES/AMBA
22. 1.30 m 3.70 km SD
NEGERI 69,
DARUSSALAM

43. 8.00 m (w) 1.80 km SDN
8/38 MERDUATI
44. 2.70 m 2.70 km SD
MUHAMMADIYAHLAMPASEH

64. 3.80 m 2.30 km
SMPN 15 LAMPOH
DAYA
65. 3.70 m 2.70 km SDN
61 JEULINGKE
66. 3.20 m 2.70 km SDN
106 RUKOH

RAYA
Notes:- Data in [m] is height and datain [km] is distance from shore- Poles 43 & 69 show wave
height. Others show inundation
height- red in Banda Aceh, blue in
Aceh Besar

REFERENCES
Iemura, H., Takahashi, Y., and Pradono, M. H. (2005a). “Earthquake and Tsunami Damage Survey in
Banda Aceh.” JSNDS Symposium.
Iemura, H., Takahashi, Y., Sukamdo, P., Pradono, M. H., and Kurniawan, R. (2005b). “Tsunami
Questionnaires and Bridge Damage Surveys in Banda Aceh for City Restoration Planning and
Urban Design.” Memorial Conference on the 2004 Giant Earthquake and Tsunami in the
Indian Ocean, Part I, Workshop.
Iemura, H., Pradono,M.H. and Yoshikazu Takahashi, Y. (2005c). “Report on the tsunami damage ofbridges in Banda Aceh and some possible countermeasure” Proceedings of Earthquake
Engineering, JSCE, Vol.28, No.214.
Iemura, H., and Pradono, M. H. (2005d). “Vulnerability of Infrastructures against the Sumatra
Earthquake and Tsunami and their Restoration Program” Memorial Conference on the 2004
Giant Earthquake and Tsunami in the Indian Ocean, Part II, Symposium.
Iemura, H., Takahashi, Y., Pradono, M. H., and Kurniawan,R.(2006a) “Tsunami Questionnaires in
Banda Aceh and Surrounding Areas” 8th National Conference on Earthquake Engineering.
Iemura, H., Pradono, M. H., Husen, A., Jauhari, T. (2006b) “Sugimoto, M., and Fukuwatari, T.:
Tsunami Height Memorial Poles in Banda Aceh” International Disaster Reduction
Conference (IDRC Davos 2006), GADR, GDIN, UNESCO, UN/ISDR.
Iemura, H., Takahashi, Y., Pradono, M. H., Sukamdo, P., and Kurniawan, R. (2006c) “Earthquake andTsunami Questionnaires in Banda Aceh and Surrounding Areas” Disaster Prevention andManagement, Emerald, Vol. 15, No. 1, pp. 21-30.
Iemura, H., Yasuda,T., M. H. Pradono,M.H. and Tada, T. (2007) “Tsunami Hydrodynamic Force on a
Bridge,Survey and Experimental Studies”
Proc. 5th International Conference on
Seismology and Earthquake Engineering SEE5, 2007
Iemura, H. and Mulyo Harris Pradono, M.H. (2007a) “Earthquake and Tsunami Damage Survey inIndonesia and Recommendation for the Reconstruction” Proc. APRU/AEARU Research
Symposium 2007.
Husen, A., Jauhari, T., Iemura,H., Pradono,M.H., Sugimoto,M. and Fuwatari, T. (2007b) “Tsunami
Height Memorial Poles in Banda Aceh for Disaster Prevention and Education” Proc.
APRU/AEARU Research Symposium 2007.
Iemura,H. Yasuda,T., Pradono,M.H. and Tada, T. (2007c) “Survey and Experiments on Tsunami
Hydrodynamic Force on a Bridge,.” Proc. AOGS 2007, 2007
Pradono,M.H., Iemura,H., Yasuda, T. (2008a); “Tsunami Force on Bridge Models and Force
Reduction by Mangrove Models. (2008b) Proc. of 14th WCEE, Paper ID 15-0031, 2008.
Iemura,H., Pradono,M.H., Husen,A.H., Jauhari,T. and Sugimoto,M. (2008b) “Information
Dissemination for Reality-Based Tsunami Disaster Education.” Proc. of 14th WCEE, PaperID S22-012, 2008.

1616