Table of Contents
Vol.1 issued March 2014

1. Editor’s message ………………………………………………………………………… 1

2. Special Contribution…………………………………………………………………… 3- President of Doshisha University, Prof. K. Murata- Coordinator of GRM Program, Prof. M. Naito

3. GRM News………………………………… 3……………………………………… 7…………………………………………………………………………… 11(1) The First GRM Symposium [Moriyama]…………………………………………… 11(2) Lecture Series (academic years 2012-2013)………………………………………… 13- Lecture Series 1 [Nakamura]…………………………………………………………… 13- Lecture Series 2 [Nishi]………………………………………………………………… 17- Lecture Series 3 [Inui]………………………………………………………………… 19- Lecture Series 4 [Moriyama]…………………………………………………………… 21- Lecture Series 5 [Salim] ………………………………………………………………… 23(3) Special Seminar [Taketani] …………………………………………………………… 27(4) Global Leadership Forum…………………………………………………………… 29- Global Leadership Forum 1 [Salim]…………………………………………………… 29- Global Leadership Forum 2 [Hagari]………………………………………………… 31- Global Leadership Forum 3 [Minami]………………………………………………… 33(5) International Conference [White, et.al]……………………………………………… 35(6) International Workshop on Renewable Energy [Lamas](7) International Student Session [Huu Thang, et.al]…………………………… 39…………………………………… 41

(8) International Workshop [Shevchenko](9) On-Site Practice……………………………………………… 49……………………………………………………………………… 51- Miyako Island [Abdrahamanov, et.al]- Rishiri Island [Lamas]………………………………………………… 51………………………………………………………………… 69(10) Field Work Report …………………………………………………………………… 71- Field Work Report 1 [Inaka]…………………………………………………………… 71- Field Work Report 2 [Teshiba & Kagami]- Field Work Report 3 [Doi]…………………………………………… 73……………………………………………………………… 75

4. Papers …………………………………………………………………………………… 77(1) Invited papers………………………………………………………………………… 77- H. Griffiths “Wind Power in the UK”………………………………………………… 77- Matti Lehtonen “Energy Policy and Infrastructure in Finland”- Unnr Stella “Energy Policy and Infrastructure in Iceland”……………………… 85…………………………… 91(2) Papers presented at IWRE 2013 / Hanoi as a result of “Common Practice”……… 97- Toshie Inui “A Study of Measures to Satisfy the Growing Demand for Electricity in
Zambia”………………………………………………………………………………… 97- J.E. Lamas, et.al, “Reconstruction of Syria’s Electric Power Infrastructure using
Renewable Energies” ……………………………………………………………………… 111- X. Wang, et.al, “Electricity Supply to a Local/Isolated Area by Means of Renewable
Energy”………………………………………………………………………………… 123(3) Selected students’ Papers…………………………………………………………… 133- Nikolay Shevchenko “Forgiveness Brokers: Assessing the Role of Foreign Actors in
Libyan Reconciliation” ………………………………………………………………… 133- Tian Zhang “Development of Infrastructure in the Kingdom of Cambodia: Export of
Water Technology by Kitakyushu” ……………………………………………………… 151

Editor’s message

On the publication of“Global Resource Management” (GRM Journal)
Akihiro Ametani
Editor, GRM Journal
Professor of Graduate School of Science and Engineering
Reiko Mihara
Editor, GRM Journal
Associate Professor of Organization for Advanced Research and Education
In the autumn of 2012, the “Global Resource Management” (GRM) program
proposed by Doshisha University was selected to be one of the Leading Graduate
School Programs financially supported by the Japanese Ministry of Education, Culture,
Sports, Science and Technology (MEXT).
Since then, the faculty members and administrative staff of the GRM program
have worked hard to establish all the necessary rules, curriculums, and offices. We wereable to begin the first semester with eight Ph.D. students and twenty-one M.Sc. / M.A.
students in April 2013.
This journal aims to inform readers of our GRM activities and to publish research
and academic papers related to GRM topics. The journal is composed of the following
items:
1. News related to the last year’s GRM activities(a) Course activities, (b) symposia and conferences, (c) lecture series and seminars, (d)the Global Leadership Forum, (e) on-site practice, (f) internships and field work
2. Invited papers
3. Selected papers written by GRM students produced as a result of their GRM
coursework
4. Research and academic papers related to global resource management
Should you have any ideas about how to improve the journal, we certainly welcome
your comments and suggestions. We are quite sure that they will help us to improve ourfledgling publication.

1

Special Contribution

3

Message
Koji Murata, Ph.D.
President
Doshisha University

Welcome to Doshisha University’s Global Resource Management (GRM) Program.
We are very proud to publish this new journal from the GRM program. Recently,
Japan’s higher education institutions became strongly committed to educating the aptly
named “Global Human Resources” or Global Jinzai. Our GRM program is a part ofthis effort.
Why should we educate “Global Human Resources” in Japan today? Why should theybe educated at Doshisha University?
Let’s discuss the first question: “Why should we educate them in Japan today?”Japan remains the third largest economy in the world. One cannot discuss worldpolitics or economics, especially those of East Asia, without talking about Japan.
Japan is currently struggling with a number of constraints and stresses on its system,
such as a declining birth rate and an aging society; these are issues that many othercountries in the world will, in all likelihood, also experience eventually.
To explain this a bit deeper: Not only is Japan a “developed” nation, it also happens tobe the country in which the problems that plague developed nations first arise. Japan
was also one of the very first Asian countries to actively adopt Western culture and todevelop as a hybrid of both the East and the West.
Now, to address the second question: “Why educate them at Doshisha University?”
Japan has hundreds of universities – as many as 780 nationwide. Yet even among somany other universities, Doshisha University offers something truly unique.
Doshisha has three characteristics that make it an exceptional university:
First, Doshisha University is located in Kyoto. Nearly 40 percent of all Japanese
students attend universities in Tokyo and the surrounding region. A vast concentrationof students live and study in and around our capital city. Of course, there are many
advantages of going to a university in a metropolis. However, we should not forgetthat the majority of the world’s population does not reside in capital cities. Therefore,
it is extremely important that intercultural exchanges take place in areas outside of ourcapital city as well as within it. Most of all, I firmly believe that there is a profoundsignificance in being able to spend one’s youth in Kyoto, a city in which tradition has
historically co-existed with a spirit of innovation.
Second, Doshisha University is a private, and therefore independent, university. The
educational philosophy of Doshisha University’s founding father, Joseph Hardy

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

Neesima (Jo Niijima), continues to thrive on our campus. At the time in which the
Meiji government was attempting, in its policy of wakon yosai (“Japanese spirit with
Western technology”), to adopt the technologies and systems of the West for the sake ofmodernization, without truly understanding and incorporating Western ways of thinking,Neesima argued for the vital importance of a civil society that supported Western
technologies and systems. He devoted himself to developing independent-thinking,intelligent citizens who could comprise this civil society; he strived to educate people
who, as he described them, could “make decisions and take actions on the strength oftheir own conscience.” Neesima’s emphasis on the importance of developing a civilsociety is an example that surely many countries still take to heart.
Third, Doshisha University has always made Christianity the foundation of its education.
At Doshisha University, we do not require that all our students be Christian believers.
We know that Christians have only comprised a mere one percent of the Japanese
population, since the Meiji period through today. At the same time, the number ofChristians worldwide has now reached 2.2 billion. The ability to look at social
phenomena from a Christian perspective, and to have a basic understanding andknowledge of Christian teachings in Japan today, is an exercise in understanding what it
is to be a minority and thus have an appreciation for the importance of tolerance, while
also being part of a majority and linked with others in a global world. As if to provethis, on our campus, Christianity, Islam, Buddhism, and Shinto exist together inharmony.
It is the combination of these distinctive characteristics—our location in Kyoto, ourstatus as a private university, and the Christian beliefs that lie at the heart of theeducation we offer—that makes Doshisha University a truly superb and unique place tostudy. Underlying these characteristics are three qualities essential for leading a
productive and engaged life in the globalized world of the twenty-first century: anappreciation of diversity, a spirit of tolerance, and respect for individual conscience.
Amongst Doshisha’s traditions, there is something that is extremely contemporary
which speaks to life in the modern world.
With these unique characteristics and qualities, Doshisha University aims at educating
beyond the “Global Human Resources” and focus on developing “Glocal (global andlocal) Human Characters” or Glocal Jinbutsu. “Glocal Human Characters” possess
three qualities, in addition to a command of English and a deep understanding of
religion. First, they are empathetic towards diverse cultures and values. Second, they
are inquisitive about universal truths. Third, they engage in self-reflection. In thisregard, Neesima was a great model of the “Glocal Human Characters” of today.
Doshisha University has a well-established tradition of collaborating with esteemedhigher education institutions from all over the world, including Amherst College

Special Contribution(Neesima’s alma mater), Stanford University, and Tubingen University in Germany,
among others. Please join us in helping to educate the “Glocal Human Characters” or
Neesimas of the twenty-first century.
Thank you very much.

5

Special Contribution

Message
Masanori Naito
Program Coordinator
Dean of the Graduate School of Global Studies
Doshisha University’s Global Resource Management (GRM) Program has been
selected as part of the 2012 Japan Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Scienceand Technology (MEXT) Program for Leading Graduate Schools, under the categoryof interdisciplinary programs for a harmonious multicultural society. Under the aegis
of MEXT, the Program for Leading Graduate Schools promotes and supports
profound reforms in graduate education. Graduate schools that develop andimplement world-class comprehensive doctoral programs that go beyond theboundaries of an individual specialized field of study are supported by the Program.
Participating graduate schools bring in outstanding domestic and international faculty
and students, and develop creative leaders who possess a broad perspective and canwork across different industries, educational fields, and government departments on a
global scale.
The GRM program is an advanced interdisciplinary doctoral program in global
resource management, in which students taking global studies as a major take scienceand engineering as a minor. The areas of study in engineering include infrastructure,science and resource, and energy science. Conversely, students majoring in scienceand engineering take a sub-major in global studies. The GRM program fuses
humanities, social sciences, engineering, and the natural sciences. The Graduate
School of Global Studies and the Graduate School of Science and Engineering are
the core graduate schools forming the GRM program. However, students from othercollaborating graduate schools may also enroll in the program, subject to meeting the
program requirements.
The GRM program is also a comprehensive doctoral program that provides advanced
education in the interdisciplinary field of global resource management through the
integration of global studies and infrastructure, resource and energy science. These
fields form the very foundation of human society and security. The program aims at
fostering global leaders who possess a tenacious spirit and high ethical standards, andare highly capable of partnering with and taking action in the most troubled regions
and developing countries. The ideal leaders GRM aspires to develop will have thefollowing skill-sets:
1) To be able to work and learn alongside people facing life-threatening
situations, such as disasters, conflict, and poverty, and to formulate solutions
that will alleviate such suffering;2) To be able to integrate the natural and social sciences;
3) To be able to promote religious and ethnic harmony based on fairness,
equity and empowerment through the integration of engineering and science78Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

with the humanities, and to prevent fresh conflict and promote recovery anddevelopment from existing conflict; and4) To be able to form strategic partnerships with people and communities indeveloping countries who have overcome their struggles through thepromotion of sustainable and inclusive development.
Today, East Asia, Southeast Asia, Central Asia, and the Middle East are experiencing
significant economic growth, and many of the countries in these regions have growth
rates that are at par with or close to those of G-20 members. One unique feature of
the GRM program is our targeting such developing countries. In addition, theprogram aims to find suitable career paths for our highly trained Ph.D. graduates inthese countries. By directly participating in efforts to move from a state of struggle toa path to development, GRM graduates are expected to gain knowledge andexperience which will also help the development of Japan in the future. Many ofthese particular developing countries, the so-called Next Eleven countries, and themost troubled regions and countries have a high proportion of Muslim inhabitants.
The Doshisha University is well equipped for this, with the standard of interfaithdialog and research conducted at the University’s Center for Interdisciplinary Studyof Monotheistic Religions (CISMOR) amongst the most developed in Japan.
In order to bring about positive breakthroughs to a world currently experiencing
weak economic growth or even stagnation, a new kind of infrastructure that unifies
the physical, social, and spiritual dimensions need to be created. To accomplish this,the GRM program provides a doctoral education that integrates the university’s wellestablished educational system in the realm of natural sciences and engineering withrespect to energy and resources with the educational system for humanities and social
sciences with respect to the co-existence of different cultures. Taking from thedomains of natural science and engineering, the topics of electricity, energy,
information, transportation, and water resource management will be included in the
program. From humanities and social sciences, we incorporate aspects of our worldrenowned multicultural integration research program, as well as our programs
covering the topics of human-security assurance, conflict deterrence, peace-building,development, policy science, governance, sociology, social welfare, and a number ofother areas. In particular, the program will emphasize co-existence with Islam as oneof the major issues towards realizing a harmonious multicultural society – anotherunique characteristic of the program.
Although the development of global leaders is part of Japan’s educational policy, theimage of the ideal leader developed by the GRM program is unique to our university.
Our ideal leaders will not be modeled on pre-existing successful leaders, and it iscertainly not the program’s intent to develop monarchs or traditional leaders.
Breaking with Japan’s stagnation will be challenging if the focus remains only on
Japan itself, where the birth rate is already very low. By working alongside people indeveloping countries that have a large youth population, such as Indonesia, Turkey,
and China, GRM students and graduates will absorb the energy of these people andeventually contribute to a re-energizing of Japan. Ideal GRM global leaders will also
gain the knowledge necessary to tackle global issues by working alongside people

Special Contribution

living in countries and regions facing extreme difficulties. Furthermore, they will
also strive to formulate and implement realistic solutions. The program plans to focus
on Afghanistan in particular, where the university has already been involved withpeace-building activities, and also in the Gaza Strip, one of the most troubled regionsin the world.
In order to enroll in the GRM program, a student must either be enrolled in the
Graduate School of Global Studies or in the Graduate School of Science andEngineering. A student may also be accepted if he or she joins either one of thegraduate schools mentioned above and takes an area of specialization accepted by afaculty adviser affiliated with the program. International students can also enroll
subject to meeting the program entry requirements. Students are to follow theguidelines of their respective graduate school to obtain a degree. In addition,
humanities and social science majors must complete at least 20 credits of science andcommon courses, and science majors must complete at least 20 credits of humanities,
social sciences, and common courses. In developing countries and emerging
countries, those with only an educational background in humanities or social sciences,or those with only a science or engineering background bound by what they cancontribute towards development. Even if a corporation has succeeded in expanding
globally through its excellence in science and engineering, it cannot promote
multicultural harmony without good management and governance practices, andmoreover, without considering its social responsibilities. Similarly, a person wellversed in the humanities and social sciences will not be able to contribute effectively
to society without any knowledge of energy and resources, or of the physicalinfrastructure that forms the basis of human society. The GRM Program for Leading
Graduate Schools specializes in developing within students both a scientificunderstanding of energy, resources, and infrastructure, and an understanding of thehumanities and social sciences with respect to social responsibility and implementing
good management practices. Through such comprehensive doctoral education, GRM
students will gain strong support for the establishment of integrated multiculturalsocieties around the world.
As GRM students progress through their five-year doctoral program, we hope thatthey will consistently strive to make positive contributions as responsible global
citizens. We are currently planning to give special grants to students who complete
the first half of the GRM doctoral program to cover some of the costs forinternational internships and fieldwork. The GRM Program for Leading Graduate
Schools is not intended to produce highly specialized researchers, but rather Ph.Ds.
who can assimilate knowledge from various disciplines to promote sustainable
development and multicultural harmony.

9

GRM News

11

The First GRM Symposium
Date: March 9, 2013 13:00–17:00
Venue: M21 Meitokukan, Imadegawa Campus, Doshisha University

1. Timetable
Keynote Speeches
1. “Future Development of Doctoral Programsand the Role of ‘Program Graduate Schools’”
Shinjiro Komatsu (Director-General, Private
Education Institution Department, Higher
Education Bureau, Ministry of Education,
Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan)
2. “Multiculturalism and Education for Global
Leaders”
Masanori Naito (Professor, Graduate School of
Global Studies, Doshisha University)
3. “Globalization and Safety Management”
Tsukasa Uemura (Ministry of Foreign Affairs ofJapan)
4. “Development
Relationship”

inAfricaandGlobalJinichi Matsumoto (Advisor at the Asahi
Shimbun)5. “Current World Affairs: Perspectives of anInternational Correspondent”
Yasuhiro Nagasaki (Director General, NHK
Kobe)

Panel Discussion“The Present State of Interdisciplinary
Advanced Doctoral Programs in OtherCountries”“The State of Infrastructure in Other Countries
and the Expected Role of Global Resource
Management”
Panelists:
Park Jong Keun (Professor, Seoul National
University)
Carlo Alberto Nucci (Professor, University of
Bologna)
Matti Ilmari
University)

Lehtonen(Professor,

Aalto

Unnur Stella Gudmundsdottir (Energinet.dk)
Silverio Visacro Filho (Professor, University of
Minas Gerais)
Haruyuki Shimada (JICA)
Masanori Naito (Professor, Graduate School of
Global Studies, Doshisha University)
Chair: Akihiro Ametani (Professor, Graduate
School of Science and Engineering, Doshisha
University)

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

2. Overview
In the opening of the symposium,contemporary world issues and expectations for
the Global Resource Management (“GRM”)
program in solving those issues are addressed.
In today’s world, conflicts occur because of
inequalities in the basic infrastructure for human
life, such as electricity, water supply,transportation, and information. Differences of
ethnicity and beliefs are not a source of conflict.
Throughout history, people with many different
backgrounds coexisted. It is since the formationof the modern nation-state system that
inequality among states and among people has
increased.
Until now, social science and natural science
have been taught separately. We have not had achance to learn both at the same time. In GRM,
our objective is to understand specific problems
by moving beyond the dichotomy of state andprivate enterprises and social and naturalsciences. The GRM program seeks to addressthese issues and strives to realize a harmonious
coexistence of multiple cultures by providing
solutions founded on sustainable development,
human security, and a fair and reliable
distribution of resources. In order to bring about
positive breakthroughs to modern-world issues,
we need to overarch existing ideology andmethods, unifying the physical, social, andspiritual dimensions.

Students in and graduates of the GRM
program are expected to visit or stay in unstableregions that are at risk of disaster, war, anddisease for their research or for their jobs. Safety
management in such regions is demonstrated in
the next lecture. The importance of a deep
understanding about the region, its language,
and human network are emphasized.
In the last two lectures, the impact of
globalization in Africa and information literacy
to understand current world affairs were
presented. When one perspective sweep awayother perspective, it is important to keep
distance from such main perspective andreconsider from several other perspectives tounderstand current world affairs.
In the discussion, a system of higher
education and the conditions of infrastructure ineach panelist’s country were presented. Each of
those countries aims to develop renewableenergy, reduce consumption, and secure selfsufficiency of energy resources. These tasks
require knowledge and experience in both social
and natural sciences. The GRM program is
expected to develop such a human resource thatcan work in both fields.
(Takuya Moriyama, Doctoral Student,
Graduate School of Global Studies)

GRM News

Lecture Series 1
Date: February 4, March 8, 10, 19, 2013
Lecturer: Prof. M. T. Correia Barros, Prof. Silverio Visacro Filho,
Prof. Carlo Alberto Nucci, Prof. Jong Keun Park,
Prof. Matti Ilmari Lehtonen, Dr. Unnur Stella Gudmundsdottir,Prof. H. Griffiths, Dr. P. Yutthagowith
Title: Energy Policies and Infrastructure in the World
1. Energy Policy and Infrastructure in Portugal
Lecturer: Prof. M. T. Correia Barros, Technical
University of Lisbon, Portugal
Date: February 4, 2013
Overview: In Prof. Barros’s presentation, a
discussion about the commute by car between
two cities or areas is quite interesting. In Japan,
the commute between very big cities, such as
Tokyo and Osaka, is very short. However, thatbetween Akita and Sendai is much longer,
although the distance is far smaller. As part of acountry’s basic infrastructure, the idea ofcommute time has to be studied from theviewpoints of policymaking, economy, social
benefit, and welfare.

nuclear power station. With respect to thecountry’s
energyindependence,
policydiscussions are ongoing, and no conclusion has
yet been reached.

Lectures by Profs. Silverio Visacro Filho and Carlo Alberto
Nucci

2. Energy Development in Brazil
Lecturer: Prof. Silverio Visacro Filho, Federal
University of Minas Gerais, Brazil

4. Energy Policy and Smart Grid in Korea

Date: March 8, 2013

Lecturer: Prof. Jong Keun Park, Seoul National
University, South Korea

Overview: University education in Brazil isquite different from that in Japanese universities
because the country is very large and the naturalenvironment is very different in each area. To
develop the country effectively, even an
engineering student has to learn social andhuman science. This education is quite similar
to the GRM program in our university.
3. Energy Policy and Infrastructure in Italy
Lecturer: Prof. Carlo Alberto Nucci, Universityof Bologna, Italy
Date: March 8, 2013
Overview: Italy is very similar to Japan in its
natural environment and energy resources. Italy
needs to import electric energy, but it has no

Date: March 8, 2013
Overview: Korea is very similar to Japan in its
natural environment and energy resources. It isalso operating many nuclear power stations toretain its energy independence and industrial
development. There was a large blackout in
Korea last year, causing much criticism of thegovernment by its people.

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

Lecturer: Dr. Unnur Stella Gudmundsdottir,
Energinet.dk, Denmark
Date: March 10, 2013

Lecture by Prof. Jong Keun Park

Overview: Dr. Stella is originally from Iceland,
which is situated in a very severe climate
environment, but is rich in energy usage. Its
electric energy is entirely renewable andsustainable. It comes from geothermal andhydraulic resources. Iceland’s electricity
consumption per person is one of the highest in
the world because it is very cheap and thecountry has sufficient electricity generation.

5. Energy Policy and Infrastructure in Finland
Lecturer: Prof. Matti Ilmari Lehtonen, Aalt
University, Finland
Date: March 10, 2013
Overview: As one of the most advanced
countries
in
terms
of
its
ecology(environmentally friendly) and social welfare,Finland’s policy about electric power is quite
interesting. Contrary to our expectations,Finland has decided to carry on with nuclear
power generation because of demand fromindustries for cheap electricity and for export.
Finland’s energy policy is not straightforward at
all.

Lecture by Dr.Unnur Stella Gudmundsdottir

7. Energy Policy and Wind Power Generation in
the UK
Lecturer: Prof. H. Griffiths, Cardiff University,
UK
Date: March 19, 2013
Overview: The UK is going to construct windfarms to replace nuclear power stations in thenext 30 years.

Lecture by Prof. Matti Ilmari Lehtonen

6. Energy Policy and Infrastructure in Iceland

Lecture by Prof. H. Griffiths

GRM News15

8. Energy Policy and Infrastructure in Thailand
Lecturer: Dr. P. Yutthagowith, King Mongkut’s
Institute of Technology, Ladkrabang, Thailand
Date: March 19, 2013
Overview: Thailand is developing power
generation because of increasing energy
consumption. Electricity is a key element forindustrial and social development of the country.
However, it is not easy to maintain the powersystems because of the natural environment—very hot and humid, since Thailand is a tropicalcountry, with floods due to heavy rainfall all
year.

Lecture by Dr. P.Yutthagowith(Keisuke Nakamura, Master’s Student,
Graduate School of Electrical and Electronics
Engineering)GRM News

Lecture Series 2
Date: May 10, 2013 15:00–16:30
Venue: Chapel, Imadegawa Campus
Lecturer: Dr. Salahuddin Wahid (Leader of Nahdlatul Ulama, Indonesia)
Title: Social Activity of Nahdlatul Ulama: Coexistence of Plural Communities throughEmpowerment of Local Communities[Overview of the Lecture]

cultures with different backgrounds and origins.
These various factors have coexisted for
centuries. Before Islamization of the region
began around the 15th century, Indonesia
already had a foundation of pluralism that
respected different cultures or thoughts.
Wali, a Muslim intellectual, played an
important role in spreading teachings of Islam.
Wali respected the local customs, which were
dominated by Hinduism and Buddhism. Under
this circumstance, Muslims were able to develop
mutual respect, understanding, and tolerance ofothers. Pluralism is the main feature ofIndonesia.

1. Introduction
After 9/11, prejudice toward Muslims isincreasing around the world, especially in theWest. One of the countries that play a criticalrole to improve the situation is Indonesia, which
promotes pluralism and moderate Islam.
Indonesia holds the largest Muslim
population in the world. Nahdlatul Ulama(“NU”), which promotes moderate Islam, is thebiggest Islamic NGO in Indonesia. It is followedby Muhammadiya, which emphasizes more
modernized Islam. In East Java (Java), NU
related organizations exist and are active inevery level of society, including the rural areas.
Indonesia is a country that has been pursuingunity in diversity. However, many people now
question whether Indonesians will remain
moderate Muslims or become more radical in
the future. Indeed, there are radical Islamistgroups in Indonesia.
2. Historical Background
It is important to know the historicalbackground to analyze the current situation andtendency in the future. Indonesia consists ofdifferent races, ethnicities, religions, and3. Establishment of Nahdlatul Ulama
On January 31, 1926, NU was founded in
Surabaya (the capital of East Java Province) toform a new organization to accommodate andcoordinate local ulamas (Islamic religious
scholars) in Indonesia with the wide cooperationof local traditionalist ulamas. The NU succeeded
because it had the support of the local Pesantren(Islamic boarding school), and it made the bestof this existing network.
In 2001, according to statistics provided by
the Ministry of Religious Affairs, more than
40% of Muslims in Indonesia borrowed theideas of NU, but they were not necessarily
involved in NU as a member. NU follows thefollowing basic principles: (1) moderate
attitude; (2) maintenance of harmony; and (3)balance in everything, including using rational
justifications based on the Qur’an (the holy
book of Islam) and Sunnah (the words and/or
activity and/or attitude of the prophet
Muhammad, which is accepted by Muslims as
the second highest source of law after the
Qur’an). NU tries to promote generosity, mutual
understanding, and cooperation beyond ethnicity,
language, culture, politics, and religion. It tries

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

to do so by empowering local communities
while focusing on three basic elements: humanrelations, relations with the state, and relations
with other Muslims.
4. Tolerance as a Part of Religious Teaching
Tolerance, a characteristic of NU, wassubject to a new interpretation. Here, tolerance
becomes part of the religious teaching of Islam.
As mentioned in the Qur’an, we cannot force
our own belief on anyone, especially by using
any force or violence. If by any chance we seesome people using violence in the name ofreligion, they are actually doing that based on
their own interest, not because of religion.
Many of the members of NU are activists aswell, promoting human rights, community
development, and inter-faith dialogue. NU has
established a good relationship with otherreligions based on networking at a grassroots
level.
After 1984, NU resigned from the politicalarena and focused on social activity, especiallyprimary education, by establishing Pesantren.
The number of Pesantren has increased over thelast five years. However, the quality ofPesantren needs to be improved so thatcompetitiveness will increase and the schools
can face the challenges of globalization.
In order to prevent conflict and develop therural areas, where people are marginalized by
the government, NU and its relatedorganizations conduct various activities toempower local society.
5. Challenges to Pluralism
Indonesian people are generally moderate,
but there is an undeniable tendency that support
for religious conservatives is also increasing. An
attitude of intolerance is increasing, as is thenumber of violent attacks. Some groups justify
the violence. Among the religious conservative
groups, it seems social pluralism is accepted but
religious pluralism is rejected. Islam is areligion with no distinction of race or color,whether civilians or soldiers, rulers or subjects.
We have to note that pluralism itself is notagainst the teaching of Islam.
(Naomi Nishi, Doctoral Student,
Graduate School of Global Studies)

GRM News

Lecture Series 3
Date: July 17, 2013 18:00–20:00
Venue: SK119, Shikokan building, Karasuma Campus
Lecturer: Dr. Ko NAKATA (Former Professor of Doshisha University) and
Mr. Kosuke TSUNEOKA (Freelance Journalist)
Title: The Current Situation of Syrian Conflict (Lecture in Japanese)

Prof. Naito, Dean of the Graduate School of
Global Studies, mentioned at the opening of thelecture that the conflict in Syria is the biggest
humanitarian crisis in the twenty-first century. It
is impossible to send GRM students to Syria at
present, but the time when they will think about
the post-conflict era of Syria will come in the
future. Thus, it is important to know the current
situation of Syria through the people who
experienced the place where the conflict isgoing on.
1. The Lecture by Mr. Kosuke TSUNEOKA
Mr. Tsuneoka visited the area in Syria that isunder the control of the anti-government groupas an illegal entrant, but he stayed there forabout 18 days and interviewed the group. A
Turkish NGO, The Foundation for Human
Rights and Freedoms and Humanitarian Relief(IHH in Turkish), helped him to enter Syria. He
interviewed soldiers who belong to Nusra(Syrian Al-Qaeda), an anti-government andforeign volunteer soldiers’ group. The Nusra
soldiers are mainly Turkish and Arabian. Mr.
Tsuneoka wanted to take some photos of them,but he could not because they might be arrested
in their mother countries when they go backthere. However, some of them allowed him totake photos.
When Mr. Tsuneoka entered Syria, he waslost and met Nusra. It was a dangerous situation,
but the soldiers of Nusra contacted the volunteer
army so he could reach the army. While he waswith Nusra, he could communicate with theleader (not the commander), an Iraqi. Nusra has
tried to change Syria to a Caliphate because
presently, Syria is secular and Islam is notunderstood well. They would like to be a good
example of Islam and try to introduce Islam to
Syria little by little. Nusra is not anti-USA, but
their enemies are the Assad regime, Iran, andণizb AllƗh. In addition, Nusra thinks that todefeat the Assad regime, they must also fightagainst Russia.
There are many Chechens in the antigovernment groups in Syria. They did not cometo Syria directly from Chechnya, but via
European countries such as France, Germany,
Belgium, Austria, and Sweden. They speak
Russian or German when they communicate
each other. Some Chechens entered Syria,
Turkey, Lebanon, or Jordan as refugees orimmigrants. In the case of the Chechens in Syria,
they are fighting against the Syrian government
as members of anti-government groups.
It seems that Chechens like to live in Syria
because Muslims, especially Salafi Muslims, arecriticized in Europe and member states of theformer Soviet Union, such as Kazakhstan andUzbekistan. They are sometimes unjustly
arrested, and therefore escape from theircountries to Syria. Salafism is known for being
affiliated with Al-Qaeda in the Arabian
Peninsula, but they do not think they are AlQaeda. They are trying to establish a nation
based on Salafism in Syria. If they win theconflict against the Assad regime, they do notintend to cooperate with the regime. They will
not disarm them. Some of the Salafist groups do
not insist on the establishment of a Caliphate.
The anti-government groups have weapons,
especially automatic rifles. They also haveenough money. The Syrian government forces
attack them from high altitudes to prevent
attacks on the ground by anti-government
groups. Thus, many citizens are victimized.
There was an intense battle in Jabal al-Turkman,
where Mr. Tsuneoka conducted interviews.

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

government group, so weapons are made byhand. These weapons, especially trench mortar
guns, are produced at a rate of about 80 per day.
Explosives are procured from unexploded
bombs and dug up land mines that were buriedby the UK army during World War I.

2. The lecture by Dr. Ko NAKATA
Dr. Nakata stayed in Syria for three days andmade contact with a Salafi group organized by
Jordanians, Tunisians, and Egyptians, among
others. There are movements to revive theCaliphate, though such movements were notseen more than 20 years ago. The Salafi groupdoes not have anti-USA sentiment, but is, rather,
Syrian government and its ideology--that is panArabism.
Dr. NAKATA visited Al-Bab, which wasunder the control of a Salafi group with a blackbanner, but there was a Syria National army
presence as well. The anti-government group isorganized mainly by Jabhat or Nusra. These twogroups are suspected by the USA of having a
relationship with Al-Qaeda, so the USA would
not like to support the anti-government group.
However, the government of Syria will win theconflict if the USA does not support the group.
There was a shortage of weapons when Dr.
Nakata visited Al-Bab. NGOs and other groups
are not providing weapons to the anti-(Toshie Inui, Doctoral Student,
Graduate School of Global Studies)

GRM News

21

Lecture Series 4
Date: July 11, 2013 17:00–18:30
Venue: SK110, Shikokan building, Karasuma Campus
Lecturer: Dr. Wu JiNan (࿋ᐤ༡) (Director and Senior Fellow of the Department of JapaneseStudies, Shanghai Institutes for International Studies)
Title: Improving the Japan-China relationship (Lecture in Japanese)

1. Overview of the Lecture
In the lecture, China’s outstanding issues
since its economic reform and breakthrough of
the Japan-China relationship were presented.
Chinese economic reform is still evolving,fighting with vested interests. While it is very
hard to achieve, dissolving vested interests is the
key for reform projects.
Today is a turning point for the conventional
pattern of development and economic growth. In
China, huge amounts of resources such as
construction materials, fossil fuels, and mineral
resources are being consumed. There is also
serious environmental pollution. China’s
emission of carbon dioxide is the largest in theworld today. In addition, China is facing manyother issues, such as economic disparity
between large cities and rural areas, humanrights violations of farmers who migrated fromrural areas to large cities, political corruption,
and an ethnic minority problem. As asuperpower, more contributions to internationalsociety are also required.
Under the Xi Jinping government,
deregulation and an international cooperative
policy have brought good results. For its
strategy to achieve more growth, construction of
infrastructure such as housing, waterworks,
highways, and rapid-transit railways as well as
development of private sector capital and humanresource development is necessary.
The territorial conflict in the Senkaku Islands
is affecting the China-Japan relationshipadversely. On the other hand, because of
intensified economic interdependency, China
and Japan need each other. Other countries,
especially the United States, do not allow thedeterioration of China-Japan relations. The
China-Japan relationship is more than that of amarried couple—they cannot divorce. A risk
management system, the promotion of cultural
exchange among intellectuals and civilians, andthe closest economic ties are necessary toachieve a better relationship. The role of themedia in providing correct information on the
counterpart country is also being emphasized.
2. Outcome
China is experiencing both rapid growth andincreasing social issues, such as economic
disparity and environmental pollution. These
contemporary issues are difficult to resolve by
one country alone. Because Japan is a
frontrunner in solving these contemporary issues,
Japan and China can cooperate, using theirexperience and technology. It is important topropose a new model in the post-growth society.
China and Japan must develop a crisis
prevention system for territorial conflicts. In
addition, public and private interaction andefforts toward mutual understanding arenecessary. The role of the media is especially
important. Since news reports strongly affectnational image, the media must avoid creating
and propagating a negative image of thecounterpart. Multifaceted viewpoints andinformation, including that on daily life andculture, must be shown. Mutual understanding
among citizens through exchange in education,
economics, and culture will be a strong base for
the China-Japan relationship to develop
favorably.
(Takuya Moriyama, Doctoral Student,
Graduate School of Global Studies)

GRM News

Lecture Series 5
Date: September 27, 2013 13:30–16:30
Venue: Meeting room, Shikokan building, Karasuma Campus
Lecturer: Mr. Taha Özhan
(President of SETA, Foundation for Political, Economic and Social Research)
Discussants: Mr. Ufuk Ulutaú and Mr. Talip Küçükcan (SETA)
Title: Comparison of the process of democratization in Turkey and Egypt

1. Summary of the Lecture
Tahrir Square became a symbol of street
protests, where parliamentary process was
ignored at the parliamentary level. The military
regime did not ignore the potential of Tahrir
Square. Thus, the square turned into an
instrument of the military to interfere in thepolitical process. From a revolution to a coup,
Tahrir was at the center of Egypt. Since
February 11, 2011, the military decided to carryon with their grip on power and on the country
without
ex-president
Mubarak.
The
establishment maintained Mubarakism without
Mubarak.
The Egyptian political system has been usedin military and judiciary interventions manytimes over under the tutelage of the Supreme
Military Council. The parliamentary elections
took place despite the obstacles presented andengineered by the establishments of the militaryand judiciary. It took two and a half months tocomplete the elections successfully. For the firsttime, all segments of society were presented in
the parliament, from Islamists, secularists,
Salafists, leftists, and so on. The military did notseem to care much about parliamentaryelections. Liberals misunderstood that bythinking that the military was beginning toaccept democracy. However, the military madea blunt intervention through an administrative
court to abolish the constitution-making
committee. The reaction by the Egyptians wasmodest against a very serious event. Anotherintervention by the military, but this timethrough the judiciary, was to cancel thepresidential nomination of the Muslim
Brotherhood’s candidate, Mr. Khairat Al Shatter.
Al Shatter was not in prison and he was the defacto leader of the Muslim Brotherhood. He
seemed to be the only leader who could movethe country forward. Al Shatter’s candidacy wascanceled and therefore a new candidate,
Mohammad Morsi, was introduced. The third
serious intervention was the dissolution of theparliament on June 14, 2012, again using the
judiciary. That was a serious indication of what
was coming in the future. The opposition
secularists celebrated the decision. They thought
they were beginning to get rid of “Islamists.”
Egypt found itself in the middle of nowhere.
Democracy became absent.
The Muslim Brotherhood needs to be
criticized for not showing any reaction when
their leader, Khairat Al Shatter, was barred fromthe presidential candidacy. That was like a green
light for the judiciary to follow with otherserious decisions to come in the future. In myanalysis, the military was testing the opposition.
The only remaining post opened for election
was the presidency. The military prepared andinvested most of their resources for thepresidential election. They nominated Ahmad
Shafiq, who lost against the Muslim
Brotherhood candidate Morsi. The militarycame under international pressure to accept theelection of Morsi. However, two days before
Morsi took office, the military came up withdecisions to deny the new incoming president
much of his executive powers. Morsi started
with no parliament. The army, the police, andintelligence were working against him. The
economy was in bad shape, and he had no
constitution.
His first move was to bring back theparliament. Then, he canceled the decisions
made by the judiciary earlier. The military madea mistake through the issue of security in Sinai
in which Morsi removed the head of the military
council, Mr. Tantawi. Morsi removed the headof military intelligence, Mr. Murad Muafi.

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

These moves gave Morsi political capital tospend. Morsi, the newly elected president, madetwo important decisions: a constitution-making
committee and decreeing immunity onpresidential decisions until the process ofmaking a constitution was completed. It was
supposed to take one and a half months. The
opposition liberals immediately reacted byaccusing Morsi as the “new Mubarak” or a new
Pharaoh. It was a very harsh criticism. Everyone
knew that the country was going nowhere.
Morsi had to make such decisions to prevent
precariousness.
Morsi made offers to various political forces
but they were not appreciated. The liberals andsecularists, like Mohammad Al Baradhi,
rejected the offer even though the entire cabinetof the government did not include more than 40
percent of the Muslim Brotherhood. Therefore,
Morsi was alone and powerless.
It is important to understand the recent
history of Egyptian society. The Muslim
Brotherhood has been on the scene for morethan 80 years, which accounts for deep social
experience. Salafists emerged mostly in the late1980s and became an important political party.
It was a movement encouraged and cared for by
Mr. Omar Suleiman, the second ranking man in
the Mubarak regime, who wanted to split theIslamist camp. He wanted to undermine theMuslim Brotherhood camp. He was successful
to some extent. As can be seen, the Muslim
Brotherhood still holds the power base ofsociety. Other segments are secularist,
Westernized, Muslim political parties. There arealso liberals who call themselves the mostfanatical supporters of the military coup. In
addition, there are nationalists or Nasserists.
This is the Egyptian political map. If you look at
the representation in parliament, about 70 to 80
percent were Islamists, and the remaining arefrom the rest. That shows what Egyptian society
is and how long the coup could continue.
Right now, we are at a political deadlock.
The leader of the coup, General Sisi, is planningto run for presidency. By the way, opposition
leaders, secularists, and nationalists, under theleadership of Amr Moussa and Hamdien Sabahi,
declared that Sisi should run for president. The
dilemma is this: if Sisi could not run forpresident, he could not save himself and thetutelage. If Sisi does not let Morsi out and show
a new political map, he cannot save Egypt.
After the coup, the military made anapproach to the Anti-Coup Coalition, which
includes some Islamists, nationalists, andliberals. The coalition demands Morsi to be free,setting a date for election and abolishing the
new constitution committee. There is no need tomake a new constitution. The cost is high.
Thousands of people have been killed and15,000 people are in prison. The world is notshowing much interest. The UN is not showinginterest either, as if Egypt is a company.
If you remember, on July 3, when Sisi
declared the coup, in the background there were
Al Azhar Leader, Salafists, Coptic leaders andothers. The scene was becoming dismantled. Al
Azhar l leader, leader, could not go to theuniversity. Salafists were fragmented. As for the
Coptic leader, herisked the future of theentire Christian church in Egypt. This was theseen backdrop of the coup. The unseen
backdrop of the coup was Saudi Arabia and theEmirates, who gave money to the coup, and aWestern “green light” by not calling the coup a“coup.” Now, Saudi Arabia is asking about thefate of $3 billion that cannot be tracked down.
The only solution, again, is the release of
Morsi, and setting a date for elections. Egypt is
not a small country with a population of 90
million people. You can not manage thispopulation by Marshal Rule by imposing acurfew on 90 million. The economy is getting
worse. International pressure is not available
now for such a political map.
Turkey was a unique country where it calleda coup a coup. Turkey helped Egypt very much.
We gave $2 billion, which is now gone, andtechnical help. We had four military coups inTurkey in the past. Almost all of them were very
painful. In the 1980 coup in Turkey, half amillion people were imprisoned. About 200
people were hanged in one month after the coup.
Many people were tortured. Millions lost theirjobs, and tens of thousands left Turkey. To start
any political life in Turkey, it takes four years tostart an election with a very heavy military andjudicial tutelage system. We do know what a
military coup means. That is why Turkey’s
reaction was very harsh. It took some 25 five
years since 1980 to move on. If you go back to

GRM Newsthe 1950s, with the first multi-party system, the1960 coup took place. It took literally 50 years
to move on. It was only in 2010 there we wereable to change the constitution. It was then that
the Article that protected “coup makers” wasabolished. The military made articles in theconstitution to provide them with legal
immunization from the judiciary. Even if you do
not have the historical background, for the sake25

of Human Rights, ethics, and principles, aninternational actor should talk about coup in theway it deserves.

(Iyas Salim, Ph.D. Candidate,
Graduate School of Global Studies)

GRM News

27

Special Seminar
Date: March 25, 2013 13:30–16:30
Venue: GRM Common Room, Shikokan Building, Karasuma Campus
Lecturers: Prof. Webby Kalikiti and Prof. Ackim Zulu (University of Zambia)
Title: “The Historical Geography and Energy Infrastructure of Zambia”“About the University of Zambia”
The Global Resource Management (GRM)
Program invited two professors from the
University of Zambia (UNZA), Professor
Webby Kalikiti and Professor Ackim Zulu.
Professor Kalikiti is a historian and Professor
Zulu is an electrical engineer. The title of theirlecture was “The Historical Geography andEnergy Infrastructure of Zambia.” Doshisha
University signed the Memorandum ofUnderstandings (MOU) with UNZA, and it wascompleted in 2013. The relationship between the
University of Zambia and Doshisha University
will be more active and productive as ideas areexchanged in the near future. Thus, this lecture
provided good opportunities for each side tolearn more about the other. After this lecture
three students from the GRM Program,including GRM candidates, visited UNZA in
August 2013. The relationship between the
GRM program and UNZA will grow stronger.
Zambia is well known as one of the largest
copper producers in the world. Given the growthof the mining industry, as well as the populationand the economy, electricity consumption isincreasing every year in Zambia. Thus, it is achallenge to supply enough electricity to meetthe growing demand. (However, firewood,especially charcoal—used mainly for cooking—is still the most-consumed energy source inZambia). Additionally, large amounts ofpetroleum are consumed in Zambia, especiallyin the transport sector. Zambia is a landlocked
country and does not have petroleum fuelresources, so it imports petroleum. Thus, there is
a 1,700-km pipeline called the TAZAMA
pipeline running from Dar-es-Salaam, Tanzania,
to Ndora, Zambia. Its capacity is about 100–110
m3 per hour (2,400 m3 per day).
Zambia’s electric-generation capacity in2008 was 1,860MW. About 98% of the capacity
is covered by hydroelectric power plants. The
main consumer of electricity is industry,

especially the mining industry, and its
percentage is more than 60%. Zambia is located
1000–1300 meters above sea level. The average
precipitation per year is 500–1500 mm, andsouthern Zambia receives more rainfall than thenorth. The dry season is from May to September,and the rainy season is from October to April.
The supply of electricity decreases dramaticallyduring droughts, because the power generators
depend on hydraulic power. Therefore, it is anurgent challenge to introduce other types ofpower sources in Zambia, such as solar andwind power.
In addition to the lecture about energy sector,
we learned about the University of Zambia.
UNZA was established in 1965 and is thelargest university in Zambia. More than 7,000
students are enrolled. When UNZA wasestablished, there were only three departments:
Humanities and Social Science, Education, andNatural Science. The largest department is
Education. Today there are nine departments:
UNZA has since added Medicine, Engineering,
Mines, Agricultural Science, Veterinary
Medicine, and Law. UNZA now faces somechallenges: it must secure sufficient funding,and it must compete with numerous private
universities in Zambia to attract the best
students.
Students were able to learn about the energy
sector and UNZA through the lecture byProfessor Kalikiti and Professor Zulu. Theenergy issue, especially the electricity shortage,is an intriguing topic in Zambian affairs. The
GRM program should deal with this issue andfind a solution for the demand and supply ofelectricity in Zambia from the perspective ofrenewable energy by working in cooperation
with the Natural Science and Social Science
Departments.
(Marie Taketani, Doctoral Student, Graduate
School of Global Studies)

GRM News

Global Leadership Forum 1
Date: June 8, 2013 16:00–17:30
Venue: Divinity Hall Chapel, Imadegawa Campus
Lecturer: Mr. Wadah Aref Khanfar (former Director General of Al Jazeera TV Network)[Summary of Lecture]
One of the causes of difficulty in managing
the transformation and transition process in the
Middle East is the lack of legitimacy of thenation-state concept. The process of statebuilding initiated by the French and British
during the colonial era avoided the reality ofnations in building the nation-state, which in Mr.
Wadah’s opinion was illogical and irrational.
The Middle East consists of the Iranian nation,
the Turkish nation, and the Arab nation. In theprocess of nation-state building, the Iraniannation became one state, and the Turkish nation
became one state, while the Arab nation
separated into 22 states. The new type ofnationalism faces numerous challenges in thecontext of identity among these Arab states.
Before the Arab Spring, the polarization in
every Arab state was easy to define: thegovernment was on one side and the oppositionon the other. But nowadays, there are a lot ofinterest groups in between, those who intend to
influence the process of democracy. We have torealize that no country in the world started out
with democracy.
One solution to the problems of legitimacy
within Arab countries is by rebuilding the state.
Some states should be divided, and others need
to be merged. For instance, Iraq could be
divided into three new states, consisting ofSunni Iraq, Shia Iraq, and Kurdish Iraq. But
such an idea seems unrealistic, because ofWestern interests in the region. To some extent,
Western countries tend to keep the conflictgoing in order to maintain their presence in theregion.
The transformation to democracy is themoment in history when political maturity
became part of the public agenda. People have
many complaints about politics, but they havenot been able to communicate it. With the riseof mass utilization of social networks and media,
they have an opportunity to speak out.

The transition, which started in Tunisia andwent through Libya and Yemen, are all part ofArab Springs, but each transition has its own
context, simply because the transformation itself
is a long process. It is not just about structural orsystemic political change; it also includes social,
cultural, economic, and even philosophicaltransformation.
To clarify our understanding of the process in
the region, we should distinguish between
African and Asian countries. For the most part,the transformation in the African countries
already went through the third wave of
democratization, well before the current ArabSpring. The focus now should be thetransformation in Asia, where many Arabcountries are located.
After the lecture, there was a lively debate
between Mr. Wadah and Mr. Ishiai Tsutomo (ajournalist and the foreign news editor of Asahi
Shimbun). The main points of discussion wereas follows:- The future of democratization in the region,
following the current situation in some hot-spot
countries and the relations among countries in“conflict,” like Syria, Turkey, Egypt, and Israel.
- The impact of massive media coverage of the
Arab Spring on coverage of the Palestinian issue.
- The role of Al Jazeera as an independent
media outlet in promoting democratization,
including how this outlet (which consists ofmore than 4,000 people from 55 nationalities
who have different religions and ideologies)
maintains its neutrality and provides balanced
news.
- Some personal concerns, including thereason for Mr. Wadah’s resignation from Al
Jazeera and the clarification of the Wikileaks
reports about his relations with the United States
and the pressure to change the coverage about
the Iraq war.

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1(Ishaq Rahman, Doctoral Student, Graduate
School of Global Studies / Lecturer, Department
of International Relations, Hasanuddin
University)

GRM News

Global Leadership Forum 2
Date: September 26, 2013 13:00–14:30
Venue: Learning Studio, Shikokan Building, Karasuma Campus
Lecturer: Ms. Sadako Ogata (Special Advisor to the President of JICA)
This lecture was held as a dialogue between
graduate school students and Ms. Ogata, who
has been working on the front line ofinternational aid and development as a head of
the UN High Commissioner for Refugees andspecial advisor to the president of Japan
International
Cooperation
Agency(JICA).
Students who participated were Afghan students
from the Project for the Promotion andEnhancement of the Afgahn Capacity for
Effective Development:PEACE, Japanese Grant
Aid for Human Resource Development
Scholarship:JDS students from Kyrgyzstan, andstudents from Japan, Palestine, Mexico,
Indonesia, and the United States.
In the first part of the lecture, participants
discussed development issues in Afghanistan
and other developing countries. In the last part,the main issue was Ms. Ogata’s thoughts on the
many difficult problems she tackled in the fieldof human security and development.
The following is a summary of the lecture.
‫“ ڦ‬Self-Development”
At the beginning, Ms. Ogata talked about theimportance of countries developing theirsocieties by themselves. Afghan students asked
Ms. Ogata about problems that Afghanistan has
been facing as a post-conflict society and theprospect of JICA schemes to solve it, such as
the possible role of JICA in Afghanistan after
the withdrawal of the ISAF and how JICA could
deal with corruption in Afghanistan or the lackof energy management capacity there.
Responding to these questions, Ms. Ogata
stressed the importance of self-development.
What JICA does for Afghanistan is to help theAfghan government and Afghan people toreconstruct their society by themselves, not for
JICA to do it instead. The PEACE project isalso part of the human capacity development
launched by JICA for Afghan society. Ms.
Ogata also answered a question about therelationship with the private sector. In a way,giving direct assistance to the private sector
would be efficient, but development assistanceshould help show local people how to build
schools rather than providing schools. JICA’srole lies in between the private sector and the
public sector.
‫ ڦ‬Sensitivity to the local culture and history
Ms. Ogata’s second theme was that aid
agencies must be sensitive to the culture andhistory of recipient countries. In Indonesia,
JICA assisted in the reform of the national
police and subsequently a women’s police
station was set up following a suggestion fromthe Indonesian government. The background of
this project was women’s social advancement insociety, and it has been creating security for
local women. Ms. Ogata emphasized thattechnical assistance should be locally focusedand locally effective. She also mentioned thatdisaster management and peace-building are
heavily influenced by the culture of recipient
countries. Every country has their own way of
doing things; therefore, what is effective in one
country may not work in another. Moreover, she
discussed development approaches such as
bottom-up or top-down. While there are many
critical assessments of the top-down approach, it
is effective in certain countries. Aid agencies
should employ approaches case by case. Thereis no one recipe for all development assistanceor all countries.
Ŷ Careers in international society
She answered questions about strategies to be
implemented in international agencies and her
motivation for working in her field. She
recommended that students not attempt to do
everything but instead cultivate their own
expertise in a specific area to help others andwork alongside others. She also talked about her
background as a historian researching thepolitical history between Asian countries andthe United States. Before she got involved incurrent events, in her research on World War II

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

and the postwar recovery, she became curious
why Japan decided to engage with the UnitedStates. This core question would be a driving
force in her life.
Ŷ Civil war and the security of people
As UN High Commissioner for Refugees, Ms.
Ogata handled the crisis of refugees andInternally Displaced Persons (IDP) in the former
Yugoslavia and many other countries. She
mentioned that the major function of UNHCR is
to protect people. It is not only refugees who
have fled their countries who need protection;
sometimes the UN must provide security forpeople from their own government. The securityof people is a new doctrine for Ms. Ogata andJICA. Regarding the current situation in Syria,
she stated that the UN and Mr. Brahimi must try
to protect people by containing the chemical
weapons and by creating negotiation
opportunities. Moreover, she said that it is not
too late to “do anything” to solve the problems.
Finally, she pointed out that Syria was one
country that helped many Iraqi and Palestinian
refugees.
(Mayuko Hagari, Master’s Student,
Graduate School of Global Studies)

GRM News

Global Leadership Forum 3
Date: November 26, 2013 15:00–16:30
Venue: Learning Studio, Shikokan Building, Imadegawa Campus
Lecturer: Mr. Atsutoshi Nishida (Director, Chairman of the Board, Toshiba Corporation)
Title: “The Globalization Process of Leading Companies”
The lecture consisted of three parts:-What globalizationcompanies

imposesonglobal-Important factors to bear in mind
-Global leadership competencies
First, global companies have to struggle withthe triangle dilemma among sustainable
development, resource management, andenvironmental management. In Japan, thecurrent government has been seeking to recoverfrom the crisis with the Three Arrows policy
after the failure of the 12-Growth Strategy. In
other words, there are questions about whether
the government can successfully carry out its
policy.
Second, based on this globalizing situation,
the global companies should bear the following
factors in mind (especially factors 1 and 2):
1. Continuous innovation: to create new “value”
for the market through process innovation in
manufacturing and value innovation such as
work-life balance.
2. Pursuit of efficiency: to continuously enhance
productivity, especially in the service industry,
finding mistakes, areas to be improved, andwaste to be reduced.
3. Mitigation of risks: to deal with economiccrisis and natural disasters.
4. “Corporate” management of various business:to deal with intensifying competition and thevelocity of globalization
5. CSR (Corporate Social Responsibility) for thesurvivalofhumanity:environmental
management
Third, when it comes to global leadershipcompetencies, three capabilities were pointedout:

1. Capability for judgment: to grasp the current
situation, to analyze what to improve, and to
make clear what to do.
2. Decision-making capability: to decide what todo.
3. Execution capability: to accomplish theobjectives.
The recent environmental crisis has been
illuminated by issues such as climate change,
which embodies global interdependencies inwhich the actions of one country havesignificant
outcomesfordevelopments
elsewhere (Dominelli 2012: 87).
As is widely recognized, such a crisis stems
from industrialization and urbanization.
Industrialization has produced pressures forcentralization and the development of urban
environments and built infrastructures that are
driven by the creation of opportunities forbusiness to make profits, and by the movementof people following the resulting employment
prospects (Dominelli 2012: 42).
As advanced countries such as the UnitedStates, Japan, and the member states of the EU
are said to be responsible for this crisis as“polluters,” global companies owe the world adebt for the footprints they leave through theirglobalization process. It is obvious that global
companies are profit-oriented if their only
stakeholders are shareholders. However, they
exist in society, and society consists ofcommunities. That means that global companies
cannot survive without allowing the relevant
communities to participate in discussion anddecision-making.
Inevitably, we need a leader as the driving
force to accomplish the world’s mission as
stated above. The leader of global companies
must make clear how to create a participative
system for judgment, decision-making, andexecution. The time has come for “co-

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

production” (Pestoff and Brandsen 2008) among
multistakeholders.
[References]
Dominelli, L. (2012), Green Social Work: From
Environmental Crises to Environmental Justice,
Polity Press.

Pestoff, V., and T. Brandsen (2008), Coproduction, the Third Sector and the Delivery of
Public Services, Routledge.

(Yujiro Minami, Master’s Student,
Graduate School of Social Studies)

GRM News

35

International Conference“Transforming Conflict and Building Cohesion through Identity”
Date: July 5-6, 2013
Venue: SK112, Shikokan Building, Karasuma Campus

On July 5-6, 2013, scholars and practitioners
from over eight countries came together at
Doshisha University, Kyoto to explore thecurrent theories and practices for transforming
conflict and building cohesion by cultivating an
understanding of identity dynamics.
The conference was hosted by the Graduate
School of Global Studies (GS) and the school's
Global Resource Management (GRM) Program.
Several members of the Organization for IntraCultural Development were invited. The
conference was broken into four sessions.
In Session One, five speakers covered thepsychological,
anthropologicalandepistemological theories and practices thatdefinetheirdisciplines’
approachtounderstanding identity and conflict. The session
was chaired by Prof. Nakanishi, an expert on
conflict resolution in the Middle East. It became
evident in this session that there was a need fora more holistic approach towards understanding
the mechanisms of identity and change. Only
this holistic approach, taking in multiple
identities and broadening ideas of cultural
identity, can be of practical help in increasing
the effectiveness of real world projects.
ChairedbytheFormerSpecialRepresentative for the Secretary General, UN
Mission Timor Leste, Prof. Hasegawa, Session
Two attempted to compare and contrast
different approaches to utilizing identities, or anunderstanding of identities, in directly
promoting cohesion and transforming conflict.
Prof. Hasegawa’s closing remarks clearlyhighlighted the importance of interdisciplinary
cooperation in both formulating theory andpracticing effective methodological approaches.
The regional contexts that define the natureof conflict transformation / cohesion needs arebroad and varied. In Session Three, chaired by
Pierre Sané, Former Secretary General ofAmnesty International and Assistant Secretary

General, UNESCO, the speakers detailed casestudies from Israel-Palestine; Zambia and West
Africa; and former Yugoslavia and the Caucasus.
Despite the seemingly intractable problems
related to each region, the presentations
demonstrated how understanding identity as theroot cause of conflict could also potentially leadto exploring how those same dynamics may beutilized in the building of solutions.

Session Four showcased the work that the GS/ GRM students had produced over the durationof the semester. Six students were divided into
two teams and their detailed reflections are as
follows:
࠙Team: Sri LankaࠚGuneshwor Ojha , Nazgul Emilbaeva,and Aya Kainoh
1. Research process
First, we decided to focus on the postconflict situation in Sri-Lanka. We found thepost-conflict situation was still complicated as
peace was not an outcome of negotiations
between the government and the rebels. Thiscalled for research into the socio-economic andpolitical history of Sri Lanka. We started withthe ancient history of Sri Lanka to assess thecurrent situation marked by fragile peace.

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

We found that until the colonial period, Sri
Lankan society enjoyed peace and harmony inits modern history. The problem started with the
British policy of divide and rule, and thediscriminatory
policiesofsubsequent
governments. We did a “mapping” of the Sri
Lankan conflict to identify key concepts andbarriers among the major ethnic communities
involved in the conflict: Sinhalese (Buddhist)
and Tamil (Hindu). The results are featured
below. We also uncovered connections to unite
the diverse ethnic communities of Sri Lanka.

aforementioned theme. This conference was thefirst of its kind for all of us. In spite of the warmand friendly atmosphere of the conference, we
felt a bit nervous and emotional. The hard partof the presentation was answering questions
from speakers and participants. Undoubtedly, it
was a very significant and fruitful event
throughout which experts and students shared
their views on solving the issues of identity,
which play an important role in all of humanity.
Moreover, this opportunity allowed students to
expand their horizons and become acquainted
with interesting people.
3. Outcome of the presentation at theInternational Conference Student Session –2013

As part of this research, we reached out to Sri
Lankan nationals who provided us with muchneeded input. Thus, we were able to explore theidentity issues among the dominant ethnic
communities, the practice of “othering,” and thedifferent factors behind the violent conflict. We
combined our individual research to develop a
clear picture of the Sri Lankan conflict. We used
several symbols and pictures to make thepresentation
effective
anddeveloped
intervention measures in addition to the media
campaign aimed at promoting lasting peace in
Sri Lanka.
2. “Transforming Conflict and Building
Cohesion through Identity”
The International Conference “Transforming
Conflict and Building Cohesion throughIdentity” was organized by the Global Recourse
Management Office of the Graduate School of
Global Studies, Doshisha University, Kyoto,
and was held July 5-6, 2013 in Japan.
First, we would like to note the high level oforganization and professionalism with which
this conference was conducted. Professors andDoctors of Sciences from different universities
around the world were invited to take a part inthis event, and lecture and present on the

Our presentation on Sri Lanka elicitedseveral comments from scholars. While they
appreciated the team’s well-coordinatedpresentation featuring Sri Lanka as a postconflict country struggling to achieve a lasting
peace, the scholars also drew our attention todifferent aspects of the research procedures.
They stressed that academic research needs toinclude diverse research sources in order toauthenticate its findings. For example, they citedthat rather than relying only on the BBC for
media research, we should have referred to Al
Jazeera as well. The scholars identified that thestudents were seriously lacking in empiricalknowledge of this project and encouraged us todo field work while undertaking such research.
They also stated that identity can serve both as
the source of conflict as well as an effective
peace-building tool. The experts mentioned thatjustice is another key factor in any conflictsituation, in addition to identity. By observing
the scholars present during the first day, we
became acquainted with academic presentation
skills and applied those to our presentation on
the second day. We appreciate that the program
boosted our confidence and aptitude for research
activities. The project has immensely improved
our analytical skills, as well as our ability tointeract with people.

GRM News

Therefore, it was important for us to review the
Darfur conflict, and to conduct more in depth
research on different ethnic groups and how thiscorrelates with the concepts and ideas, so that
we could derive some symbolic interventions
for resolving the conflict.

࠙Team: Darfurࠚ
Megumi Inaka, Kaho Suzuki,
and Atsushi Takabatake
For this year’s international conference, wegave a presentation on the Darfur conflict, andprovided our own observations to constructpossible solutions for mitigating genocide
through identity. Throughout the semester, we
researched and prepared for the conference
during weekly study sessions in which we
discussed the information we had gathered,including newspapers, magazine articles,
dissertations, and much more. In order tounderstand the current conflict situation and toillustrate the relationships among different key
ethnic groups, we created a mind map, which
we used to brainstorm ideas and develop
concepts and ideas that could be utilized to ease
the tension in Darfur. From the research we had
undertaken, we noticed that the ongoing conflictin Darfur was not just a fight between two
ethnic groups (Black Africans and Arab
Africans), but was primarily fueled by the
Khartoum government. In short, the Khartoum
government has been using identity as anintegral tool to manipulate the inferior race andexploit their land and resources for the purposeof personal gain from the national wealth.

Upon reflection our overall work in this classand the feedback we received from bothprofessors and speakers at the conference, we
realized that there was significant room for
improvement. Since this was our firstpresentation as graduate students, and we hadlistened to presentations given by renowned
professors, we were very nervous. During ourpresentation, we assigned each person adesignated topic to present on, and used Prezi as
our visual aid to illustrate important points. In
retrospect, we thought the presentation itself
was well organized and went smoothly.
However, concurrently, we believe the questions
and feedback from the audience was the mostchallenging part of the conference. Most of thequestions were unanticipated, and thus we wereill prepared for that part of the session. Despitethat challenge, most of the audience was very
supportive and provided us with positive
comments and feedback. Taking that into
consideration, for our future presentations, wewill need to find more resources from a widearray of perspectives, and be well-prepared forany criticisms that we may receive from theaudience. We learned a great deal from theentire experience, and hopefully this can be put
in good use by other students who wish to takethis class.
(Dr. Bruce White, Associate Professor,
The Institute for The Liberal Arts, Doshisha
University, and the students of the 2013 Spring“International Conference Planning and
Presentation” course)

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GRM News

39

International Workshop on Renewable Energy 2013
Date: October 2-3, 2013
Venue: Hanoi, Vietnam
The work of three Global Resource
Management (GRM) Program students waspresented at the 2013 International Workshop
on Renewable Energy, in Hanoi, Vietnam. This
workshop was an opportunity to bring together
multidisciplinary experts from the academic
world, industry, and government institutions to
discuss the current challenges and opportunities
for renewable energy in power systems. In
recent years, renewable energies have become
an emerging issue with regard to the energy
infrastructure.
Significant
quantitiesofrenewable energy in power systems require not
only a great deal of technical effort, but are alsoof economic and political concern.

by the current armed conflict. Especially in thesoutheast part of Syria, which is mostly deserted
and where no transmission network exists, thepossible installation of photovoltaic solar
systems, together with solar water heating,seemed to be a promising solution for supplying
electricity to refugee camps and isolated regions.
Implementation of wind farms, small hydraulicturbine generators, and underground water
storage systems were also discussed as part of aplan to introduce renewable energies into
Syria’sfutureenergyinfrastructure.
Underground water storage systems, which havealready been implemented in Japan, seemed tobe the most appealing topic in this presentation.

The presentations in this workshop dealt
primarily with the electrical issues found in the
introduction of renewable energy systems into
existing power grids. Renewable energies, themost common of which are solar and wind
power, are inherently variable and produce afluctuating power output. Therefore, special
consideration must be given to the variations involtage and current, as they would decrease thepower quality of the grid. The presentations
showed novel methods for measuring andminimizing the effect of these variations.
Strategies for efficient coupling of renewableenergy systems, and protection against energy
discharges, were also presented.

The last presentation analyzed Zambia’s
water resources and the feasibility of installing
more hydroelectric power stations. Due to its
low cost and the large amount of water
resources available in Zambia, hydroelectric
power seemed to be a viable option. Pumpedstorage systems also needed to be considered, as
electricity surpluses during rainy seasons can beused to refill water reservoirs; this can then be
used for farming or sanitation, as well as forincreased power capacity during dry seasons. To
achievetotal
power
coveragefromhydroelectricity, energy saving strategies should
also be considered, such as replacing
incandescent light bulbs with fluorescent or
LED lighting, and older appliances with moreenergy efficient ones.

The GRM students presented three topics.
The first presentation addressed the use ofrenewable energies as a power generation mean
to provide quick relief support to isolated
communities when they lose connection to thepower grid. When fuel supply is not available,
electricity may instead be generated throughmicro-hydraulic power, wind power, andphotovoltaic solar power systems. The costassessment of these power systems used as
reference in this presentation, and developed by
the Japan International Cooperation Agency(JICA), was of special interest to the audience.
The second presentation involved a roadmap
for the reconstruction of Syria’s energy
infrastructure, which has been severely damaged

Group picture from IWRE 2013
(Jorge E. Lamas, Doctoral Student,
Graduate School of Science and Engineering)GRM News

41

International Student Session (ISET/ISS 2013) in Thailand
Dates: November 27–28, 2013
Venue: Samui Palm Beach Resort, Conference Room, Thailand

1.

ISET/ISS2.

The ISET/ISS was cooperatively organized
by Doshisha University (Japan), the Universityof Bologna (Italy), and Seoul National
University (Korea) under the Triangle
Cooperative Agreement between these three
universities. The Federal Institute ofTechnology Lausanne (Switzerland) and King
Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang(Thailand) have also participated as organizersof the ISET/ISS since 2011.
ISET/ISS 2013 was held in Samui Island,
Thailand, on November 27–28, 2013. The
ISET/ISS 2013 provides the opportunity for auniversity student to present his or her paper in
the International Student Session (ISS). There
are two sessions, as shown in Tables 1 and 2:
1. International student session: 32 papers
were presented. The presenters were MSc and
PhD students from Doshisha University andKing Mongkut’s Institute of Technology
Ladkrabang.
2. ISET Symposium “Unified Education ofSocial, Human, and Natural Science in
Universities”: Five papers were presented. The
presenters were professors from Doshisha
University, Seoul National University, King
Mongkut’s Institute of Technology Ladkrabang,and Hanoi University of Science andTechnology.

Approaches for operation of ISS 2013

The ISS session was organized and operated
by students in the class Global Resource
Management (GRM) Organizing International
Conference I. The students organized thefollowing staff:
ISS Committee
Chair: Tran Huu Thang
Vice Chair: K. Nakamura
Secretary: Y. Miyamoto
Subcommittee A
Registration, Flight and Hotel Reservations
M. Kusumoto, T. Higo, Y. Motoya
Subcommittee B
Program, Proceedings
D. Tanahashi, K. Yamamoto, Y. Oshima,
Y. Suzuki, Y. Tanaka
Subcommittee CNews
M. Aoki, T. Asada, Y. Imanishi, K. Takenaka
Subcommittee D
Operation
H. Shiraishi, S. Yamada

Fig. 2. The scene of the opening session

Fig.1. All participants joined the 2013 ISET/ISS

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

1.)

ISS Committee
In general, we supported the subcommittee
members. We made records of the lectures forthe meeting and generated a mailing list for ISS
Committee members. Finally, we shared
information, including the collection of
passports, the schedule, location, schedulechanges, etc.
2.)

Subcommittee A
We made flight and hotel reservations. We
discussed travel agencies and then decided thatthe best travel agency was one that had a local
branch office. We worked the front desk on the
day of ISS.

Fig. 4. Front desk on the day of the ISS

3.)

Subcommittee B
At the beginning, we determined theschedule and session program, as shown in
Tables 1 and 2. Then, we collected the papers
and formed the proceedings.
4.)

Subcommittee C
First, we checked the GRM office to see if
there were rental video cameras. We had
discussed the roles on the day of the ISS and thefilming points. We set up the equipment andrehearsed one day prior to the ISS.

Fig. 5. Setup for the filming

5.)

Subcommittee D
We made lists of the necessary equipment
and checked the equipment available in theconference facilities in advance. We thenprepared and purchased the equipment welacked. This committee kept track of time on the
day of the ISS.
Fig. 6. Session chair of the ISS

Fig. 3. Checking and preparing the equipment

Fig. 7. Timekeeper for the ISS

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GRM News

3.

Presentations at the ISS

4.

All students in the class submitted theirpapers to the ISS and made presentations inEnglish. Students in both informationengineering
andelectricalengineering
participated in the conference, which made forsome nice discussions. On a few occasions, we
missed statements by audience members
because they were foreigners speaking withstrong accents.

43

ISET Symposium

1.) Prof. A. Ametani, Doshisha University“On the Global Resource Management Program”
Our university has engaged in peace-building
operations in Afghanistan. The GRM program isdeeply concerned with these operations andcommitted to developing human resources. The
aim of the Global Resource Management
Program is not to produce highly specialized
researchers but PhDs who can collateknowledge from various disciplines to promotesustainable development and multicultural
harmony.
2.) Prof. Y. T. Yoon, Seoul National University“Strengthening University Education through a
Unified Curriculum of Engineering andHumanities”
The university education is similar to that of
the Japanese university. The curriculum consistsof major and general education courses.
However, the number of requirements for
specific areas is about half of that of ouruniversity.

Fig. 8. Participants gathered for the 2013 ISET/ISS

Fig. 9. Participants gathered for the 2013 ISET/ISS
Fig. 11. Prof. A. AmetaniFig. 10. Participants gathered for the 2013 ISET/ISS
Fig. 12. Prof. Y. T. Yoon3

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

3.) Dr. T. H. Pham, Hanoi University of
Science and Technology“Social Education for Future Engineers in
Vietnam: An Approach from Hanoi Universityof Science and Technology”
Dr. T. H. Thang made a presentation on
behalf of Dr. T. H. Pham, who was absent. This
was a very interesting presentation on social
education for engineers. At Hanoi University,
the required coursework for engineers includes
social science classes in management, ethics,
and politics.

Fig. 14. Dr. P. Yutthagowith

4.) Dr. P. Yutthagowith, King Mongkut’s
Institute of Technology“Basic Electrical Engineering for Social/Human
Science Students”
The target audience for this lecture was nonelectrical engineering students. In his lecture, Dr.
Yutthagowith presented basic principles ofelectricity and gave the students a better
understanding of electricity and its applications.
5.) Prof. K. Yamabuki, Wakayama National
College of Technology“Infrastructure Laboratory Work for Social/
Human Science Students”
This presentation introduced the outline ofInfrastructure Laboratory Work (ILW), a subjectof the GRM program. It is designed for nonelectrical engineering students to acquire
fundamental knowledge and techniques ofelectricalengineering
throughpractical
experiments.

Fig. 15. Prof. K. Yamabuki.

5.

Concluding Remarks
It was a very pleasant and exciting
experience for all the students who participatedin and facilitated the ISET/ISS 2013 in Samui.
We never had this kind of experience before.
We hope to organize an international conferenceor symposium on our own in the future.
Finally, we would like to thank Prof. A.
Ametani, who teaches the class Organizing
International Conferences and arranged thisopportunity.
(Tran Huu Thang, Ph.D. Candidate,
Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Keisuke Nakamura, andYoshiko Miyamoto, Master’s students,
Graduate School of Science andEngineering)Fig.13. Dr. T. H. Thang

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GRM News

Table 1 ISET/ISS 2013 schedule
ISET/ISS 2013 Symposium: “Unified Education of Social, Human, and Natural Science in
Universities,” Samui Program
Wed. November 27
A. International Student Session (ISS)
ISS-I: Transient Analysis / Chair: King Mongkut’s Institute ····························8:50–10:40
Opening talk: Prof. A. Ametani
ISS-01 to ISS-10 10 student presentations
Coffee break 10:40–11:00
ISS-II: System Dynamics in Infrastructures / Chair: Seoul National Univ. ·········· 11:00–12:40
ISS-11 to ISS-20 10 student presentations
Lunch 12:40–14:00
ISS-III: Information Technologies / Chair: Diah Permata ······························ 14:00–14:50
ISS-21 to ISS-25 5 student presentations
ISS-IV: Infrastructures Related Subject I / Chair: Y. Ikeda ···························· 14:50–15:20
ISS-26 to ISS-27 2 student presentations
Coffee break 15:20–15:50
ISS-V: Infrastructures Related Subject II / Chair: H. T. Tran ·························· 15:50–16:40
ISS-28 to ISS-32 5 student presentations
Welcome banquet 18:00–20:00
Thurs. November 28
B. Symposium “Unified Education of Social, Human, and Natural Science in Universities”
Session I / Chair: Prof. Y. Baba, Doshisha University ····································9:00–10:30
ISET-1 to ISET-3 3 presentations
Coffee break 10:30–11:00
Session II / Chair: Prof. Y. T. Yoon, Seoul National University ······················ 11:00–12:00
ISET-4 to ISET-5 2 presentations
Lunch 12:30–13:45
Closing 13:45–14:00

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

Table 2 Session program
A. International Student Session (ISS) ·································· Wed. November 27, 2013
ISS-I: Transient Analysis ············································································· 9:00–10:40
ISS-01 Application of the Rational Function-Based CIP Method to Analyzing Lightning Electromagnetic Fields
Y. Suzuki, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-02 FDTD Analysis of LEMPs Considering Ground Geometry and Grounded Structure
M. Aoki, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-03 Computation of Lightning Electromagnetic Pulses with the TLM Method in the 2D Cylindrical
Coordinate System
Y. Tanaka, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-04 Simulation of Lightning Electromagnetic Pulses Using the Constrained Interpolation Profile Method
K. Kajita, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-05 Application of Non-Uniform Grids to EM Field Analysis with the TLM Method
S. Sawaki, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-06 Representation of Vertical Cylinder by Cubic Cell in FDTD for Modeling of Wind Turbine Tower
Y.Ikeda, PhD, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-07 FDTD Study of Partial-Discharge EM Pulses in a GIS
D. Tanahashi, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-08 The Frequency Characteristic of Attenuation on a Vertical Two-Conductor Overhead LineY. Miyamoto, M. Sc., Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-09 A Study on Experiments of Lightning Surges in a Building by Using FDTD Analyses
T. Asada, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan
ISS-10 FDTD Electric Field Simulation of Surge Arresters in Substations
R. Okuda, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-II: System Dynamics in Infrastructures ·················································· 11:00–12:40
ISS-11 An Analytical Investigation of a Phase Controlled Switch using a Voltage Limiting Device
K. Yamamoto, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-12 Effect of L-Type Duct on Surge Voltage of PCS for PV Generation
T. Higo, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-13 A Frequency-Dependent Equivalent Circuit of an Impedance Bond of a Railway Signaling System
Y. Imanishi, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-14 A Basic Study of an Impedance Estimation of Lithium-Ion Battery by a Numerical Frequency Transform
MethodS. Yamada, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-15 Equivalent Soil Medium for a Scaled Grounding Test
S. Murase, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-16 A Synchronization Method of a PLC System Based on OFDM
S. Takemura, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

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GRM NewsISS-17 A Ground Fault Analysis of a Photovoltaic Generation System
A. Namba, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-18 Lightning Surge Over-Voltages due to Multiphase Back Flashovers
Y. Yamamoto, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-19 Transient Characteristics in a Vertical Grounding ElectrodeK. Nakamura, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-20 A Study on Grounding Characteristics of a Wind Turbine System
N. Yoshikawa, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-III: Information Technologies ······························································· 14:00–14:50
ISS-21 Effect of Window Luminance on Office Worker’s Preferred Illuminance
M. Kusumoto, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-22 Systematic Evaluation of Local-Lag Control Function in Remote Ensemble Support System
Y. Oshima, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-23 Power-Saving Control of the Wireless Sensor Node in the Intelligent Lighting System
Y. Motoya, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-24 Experimental Evaluation of Minimum Classification Error-Based Multiclass Support Vector Machine
K. Takenaka, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-25 Experimental Re-evaluation of Minimum Classification Error Training using Validation Data
H. Shiraishi, MSc, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-IV: Infrastructures Related Subject I ····················································· 14:50–15:20
ISS-26 Modeling of Corona Discharge for FDTD Simulations of Lightning Surges
T. H. Thang, PhD, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-27 A Modeling of an Impedance between Electrodes in a Wood using a Numerical Electromagnetic
Analysis
D. Permata, PhD, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISS-IV: Infrastructures Related Subject II ···················································· 15:50–17:10
ISS-28 Design and Construction of a High Voltage Measuring System Based on Saline Solution
B. Phoaphan, MSc, King Mongkut’s Institute of Tech. Ladkrabang Bangkok, Thailand

ISS-29 Design and Construction of a Long Duration Impulse Current Generator
C. Prasertsang, MSc, King Mongkut’s Institute of Tech. Ladkrabang Bangkok, Thailand

ISS-30 Determination of Optimum Rating of an Ozone Generator for a Room in a Hospital
M. Chidchanok, MSc, King Mongkut’s Institute of Tech. Ladkrabang Bangkok, Thailand

ISS-31 Steep Front Voltage Generation for Puncture Test in Air of Insulators
N. Trirattanapirak, MSc, King Mongkut’s Institute of Tech. Ladkrabang Bangkok, Thailand

ISS-32 A Rogowski Coil with an Active Integrator for Measurement of Long Duration Impulse Currents
B. Leelachariyakul, MSc, King Mongkut’s Institute of Tech. Ladkrabang Bangkok, Thailand

7

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

B. ISET/ISS 2013 Symposium ············································ Thurs. November 28, 2013
Unified Education of Social, Human, and Natural Science in Universities
Session I ··································································································· 9:00–10:30
ISET-1 On the Global Resource Management Program
Prof. A. Ametani, Doshisha University, Kyoto, Japan

ISET-2 Strengthening University Education through Unified Curriculum of Engineering and Humanities
Prof. J. K. Park and Prof. Y. T. Yoon, Seoul National University, Seoul, Korea

ISET-3 Social Education for Future Engineers in Vietnam, an Approach from Hanoi University of Science andTechnology
Dr. T. H. Pham, Hanoi University of Science and Technology, Hanoi, Vietnam

Session II ································································································· 11:00–12:30
ISET-4 Basic Electrical Engineering for Social/Human Science Students
Dr. P. Yutthagowith, King Mongkut’s Institute of Tech. Ladkrabang, Bangkok, Thailand

ISET-5 Infrastructure Laboratory Work for Social/Human Science Students
Prof. Yamabuki, Wakayama National College of Technology, Wakayama, Japan

8

GRM NewsInternational Workshop“Assessing Reconciliation: Actors, Risks, and Assets”
Dates: December 16–17, 2013
Venue: SK110, Shikokan building, Karasuma Campus

The international workshop examined thepractice of reconciliation in its full complexity
and geographical dispersion. Participants
attempted to find answers to questions including
the following:
Who needs to reconcile and why?
How can they do so?
Who can positively contribute to this process?
What are the potential obstacles?
The
presentations
anddiscussions
highlighted the global nature of the workshop,
which covered a number of regions including
the Middle East, Africa, and Southeast Asia.
The event attracted a diverse spectrum of
academics and practitioners from around theworld. The guests represented a variety ofinternational organizations and institutions,
including the Central Asian Studies Center(casc.kz), International Institute for Peace
Studies, Osaka University, Kimse Yok Mu (aTurkish nongovernmental organization), andCheikh Anta Diop University. The presentersand guests came from such countries as Japan,
Kazakhstan, the United States, Thailand, Mali,
Turkey, and others, ensuring the international
character of the workshop.
Professor Masanori Naito, director generaland dean of the GRM program at Doshisha
University, opened the first day of theinternational workshop. His speech reminded usof the need for reconciliation apparent in a
number of states and regions and of the troubles
associated with ignoring this need.
Following the opening remarks, Hiroshi
Matsuhisa, honorary professor emeritus ofKyoto University, gave a keynote speech inwhich he addressed a conventionally neglected
aspect of reconciliation: reconciliation between
developed and developing countries. His speechemphasized that discussions on reconciliation
should not be limited to postconflict societies
and states but must involve a broader, global
perspective.
After the opening remarks and the keynote
speech, graduate students of the GRM program
took the floor and led the workshop throughboth days. The two days of the workshop
covered two separate, though interrelated,themes linked to reconciliation. During the firstday, the participants and guests discussed the
problem of risks in practices of reconciliation.
The first presenter, Naomi Nishi, a PhD
student in the GRM program at Doshisha
University, talked about the distribution ofpolitical risks in Thailand and their effects onreconciliation between Muslims and Buddhists
in the country. The second presenter, Marie
Taketani, a PhD student in the GRM program,outlined the obstacles to reconciliation in Mali.
The second theme covered during theworkshop centered on the question of actors inreconciliation processes. Nikolay Shevchenko, a
PhD student in the GRM program, opened thesecond day with his presentation on the potential
contribution and limitations of international
actors in assisting postconflict Libya in its
attempt to address past injustices and reconcile
former enemies. Following his presentation,
Toshie Inui, a PhD student in the same program,spoke about the problem of water distribution in
Rwanda and its effects on reconciliation
between different regions in the country. The
last presenter, PhD student Moriyama Takuya,
concluded the second day of presentations with

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his speech on the role of civil society inreconciling secular and religious paths todevelopment in Turkey.
A majority of the presenters based theirpapers and presentations on fieldwork they
conducted personally during their study in the
GRM program.
During both days, presenters and guests
discussed
theproblems,
issues,andcontroversies touched on by the fivepresentations. The discussions covered various
aspects of reconciliation, including humanitarian
interventions, regime change, foreign aid,organized crime, drug trafficking, charity,
religion, education, development, and manyothers, all in relation to the overarching topic of
the workshop.
(Nikolay Shevchenko, Doctoral student,
Graduate School of Global Studies)

GRM News

Onsite educational field trip to Miyako Island
Date: March 10-13, 2013
Venue: Miyako Island, Okinawa Prefecture

The program of Global Resource
Management is available to the graduate school
students in the social sciences and science andengineering. The program offers students a
range of new learning opportunities in diverse
fields, which they can go on to utilize as global
leaders in the context of developing andemerging countries.
For the first onsite educational field trip, we
visited Miyakojima, in the Okinawa prefecture,from March 10 to 13, 2013. This island has asmooth terrain, composed of elevated coral reef
(Ryukyuan limestone). Miyako Island is subject
to drought and is frequently struck by typhoons.
Therefore, it has suffered in the past from alack of water resources. Miyako now has
unique irrigation systems, which use theisland’s geographic characteristics effectively.
Moreover, Miyako City is one of 41 cities
running the “Next Generation Energy Park”
project, established by the Minister of Economy,
Trade, and Industry. The project promotes
understanding of the new energy policy and an
examination of renewable and sustainable
resources, such as solar-energy systems andwind-energy systems in collaboration withexisting systems, such as thermo-poweredenergy.
We visited four infrastructure facilities
during the field trip to Miyakojima, including
one of the Next Generation Energy Parks. We

attended lectures given by professionals at eachof these facilities, to deepen our understandingof the energy systems.
This report describes each of the facilities
that we visited, from both the social scienceand the engineering perspectives. We thenoutline the schedule of the field visit to thefacilities. As this is a group work, we havedivided each of the four sections between thesocial science students, allowing each of themthe chance to add their own perspectives inplaces. The student from science andengineering has also added their own related
perspectives. One social science student has
written the introduction and conclusion, andhas edited the paper as a whole. The section
numbering follows the schedule of the onsite
visits.
1. Miyako Island Mega-Solar Demonstration
Facility
Today, energy is at the forefront of the global
agenda. It is central to the issues ofdevelopment, global security, environmental
protection, and achieving the Millennium
Development Goals (MDGs). Moreover,according to existing projections, the world’s
population of 7 billion is likely to increase to 9
billion by 2050, which means there will be
growing demand for diminishing natural

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resources, as never before. Furthermore, theprovision of electricity to remote rural areasand isolated islands is another serious challenge
on the socio-economic development path. Thus,
both developed and developing countries needto find innovative new solutions that makebetter use of the available resources, withoutcompromising the needs of future generations.
Recognizing the existing threats to the global
environment related to climate change, alongwith the urgent need to improve energy security,
many countries agreed under the Kyoto
Protocol to reduce their greenhouse gas
emissions by approximately 20% before 2020.
In order to achieve this target the countries
have started to shift towards more eco-friendly
energy, in pursuit of more sustainable
development. At the same time, a challenging
physical environment and a low-density
population in remote areas has also pushedsome countries towards the development ofsmart grids and independent energy generation
facilities. As a result, energy efficiency andsupport for renewable energies (such as
bio-fuels and hydro, wind, and solar power) are
now among the top priorities of energy policies
many countries.
In islands and remote communities, where
grid extension is difficult and fueltransportation and logistics are challenging andcostly, renewable energy is emerging as theenergy supply solution for the twenty-first
century, ensuring reliable and secure energy
supply in such communities.
The deployment of renewable-energy
technologies is increasing globally, supported

by rapidly declining prices and government
policies and strategies in many countries. This
has resulted in renewable-energy solutions
becoming the most cost-effective options inmany markets today. For example, in 2011 theSpecial Report of the IPCC (Intergovernmental
Panel on Climate Change) on Renewable
Energy Sources and Climate Change Mitigation
showed that approximately 50% of the newelectricity generation capacity added globally
between 2008 and 2009 came from renewableenergy sources. Therefore, the future of
renewables as the base energy source forislands and remote communities looks very
bright.
One of the most promising renewable energy
sources is solar power – it is the cleanest andmost abundant energy source available. The
potential of solar energy is beyond
imagination. According to the International
Energy Agency (IEA), the surface of the earth
receives around 120,000 terawatts of solar
radiation (sunlight) – 20,000 times more power
than what is needed to supply the entire world.
Solar power generation, which produces
electricity without emitting CO2 and provides
clean and renewable energy, is becoming
increasingly popular around the world.
Obviously, its availability is greater in warmand sunny countries – those countries that will
experience most of the world’s population andeconomic growth over the next decades.
Although, there are emissions associated withthemanufacturing,transportation,andinstallation of solar power systems, these are
negligible compared to most conventional

GRM News

energy sources. Needless to say, thedevelopment of solar energy will significantly
reduce our dependence on non-renewableenergy sources, and it is an important step inpreventing climate change.
Japan is well known as a leading country in
the promotion of alternative energy and the
reduction of greenhouse gases. In addition, thecountry’s topographical factors, the heavy
dependency on imported fossil fuels, and theremote locations of some islands at a distancefrom the mainland all create additional
incentives to develop solar powered generation,
as a potential solution for meeting the energy
needs in remote territories in Japan.
However, the large-scale introduction ofphotovoltaic (PV) power still needs further
research and development, mainly due to its
high costs and abrupt output fluctuations. It isnecessary to encompass a range of measures tomanagethisvariability,
includingabalanced-supply technology portfolio, better
forecasting tools, demand side management,
and appropriate energy storage solutions.
In this regard, recognizing the vast potentialof solar power contribution to the overall goalsof Japan’s energy policy, the government of thecountry (through the Ministry of Economy,
Trade and Industry) decided to support researchand development of large-scale PV power
generation. As part of this, in 2009 theysubsidized the project called the Mega-Solar
Power Demonstration Facility in Miyakojima(Okinawa Prefecture), with the main objective
to find solutions for existing obstacles in the
installationoflarge-scale
photovoltaic

equipment into the small independent grid of
isolated islands.
Miyako Island is an ideal location for thisresearch, due to its characteristics. It is 300 km
away from the Okinawa mainland, and it isapproximately 205 km2 in size, with apopulation of 55,000 people and approximately
25,000 houses. The average temperature on
Miyako is a balmy 23°C. The island is in alocation where typhoons often occur, so thephotovoltaic panels have to be installed withheavy-duty supports, capable of withstanding
strong winds. The panels were also inclined at a
5 degrees angle, to help prevent the wind fromcatching them, and to minimize the installation
area. The photovoltaic research facility has
4,000 newly established PV systems, with acapacity of approximately 50,000 kW per year
– this gives an estimated CO2 emission
reduction of 4,000 tons per year. This iscomplimented by the addition of NAS(sodium-sulfur) storage batteries to cope withthe unstable power quality of the energy
produced from the PV. The NAS battery is freeof self-discharge, and it features high-energy
density and high efficiency. It is probably oneof the key elements of the project, and it is very
expensive – with the average cost exceeding
US$ 10 million per item. Large capacity
batteries of this type have to be made especiallyfor the facility. The NAS battery is excellent inresponse performance and can absorb abrupt
fluctuations of PV output that cannot becompensated by a thermal generator. It should
be noted, however, that it is necessary tomaintain specified temperatures in the inner

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cell by a heater, since sodium and sulfur areused in their liquid state.
As we have learned from the visit to the
Miyako Mega-Solar power facility, afterconverting solar energy into electricity using a
PV cell made of a semiconductor material,
there is a need from time-to-time to adjust the
supply and demand equally, to ensure thenominal frequency (60Hz) remains constant. In
order to do that, it is necessary to fine-tune theoutput of the generators. If supply is less thanthe demand, the frequency decreases, and if thereverse supply is greater than the demand, thenthe frequency increases. If the balance between
supply and demand is not kept at a constantlevel, the frequency will fluctuate. This has thenegative result of poor power quality, which
has an impact on the quality of manufactured
products in factories.
The project has developed a special
simulated power distribution system fordetermining the impact of the introduction oflarge volume PV-power generators into the
distribution system, and to demonstrate theeffectiveness of the stabilization of the system.
This system is equipped with polycrystalline
silicon and thin-film silicon PV panels made by
Sharp,
Kyocera,and
Kaneka.
Eachmanufacturer offers different advantages, suchas high conversion effectiveness, product life
time, or maximum output capacity. Sharp has
the largest number of panels, due to its superior
technical characteristics and cost efficiency. In
addition, the system is divided into four
consumer blocks supported by eight NAS
batteries (0.5 MW), a step-voltage regulator(SVR), and a Static VAR Compensator (SVC).
The line length of the simulated power
distribution can be set as desired in the range of
0–20 km.
An interesting fact about this system, which
is operated by the Okinawa Electric Power
Company (OEPC), is that it can simulate an
ordinary household and school load (4 kW and
150 kW PV respectively), to determine theoptimum capacity of storage, while also
studying the prediction technique of the PV
output, for a more smooth system operation. It
also provides a 4 kW lithium ion storage
battery for 25 residencies as an additional partof the monitoring.
The project also aims to validate thefrequency fluctuation control effect of thefollowing combination: storage battery + PV +wind turbine. However, since the wind turbine
power is a separate subject, this report isfocused only on the aspects related to solar
power generation and its distribution.
The technologies presented here are notcurrently cost competitive with the storage
technologies discussed above. However, they
are under development and may someday
become mainstream technologies. Since theresearch and development (R&D) focuses on
improving technical performance, rather thancost reduction, and there are few or nofull-scale installations of these technologies,
reliable cost data are generally not available forthese technologies.
The storage technologies are undergoing
rapid advancement, and there is as yet no clear
leading technology. However, as experienceGRM Newswith these technologies grows, their advantages
and constraints are becoming clearer.
There are several interesting implications of
this project. For instance, adding the storage
signi¿cantly increases the initial cost. However,according to some estimates it also allows for a
25% reduction in diesel use. It does so largely
by allowing the diesel generator to operate at
higher loads (and thus higher efficiencies) andto switch off entirely when loads are low, as
was explained to us during our visit to the
Miyako Second Power Station and the Miyako
Gas Turbine Station. However, it is importantto have a precise prediction of the load, sincediesel power is very slow in reaction, and it
may take around two hours from start up to
having the engine working at the required level.
The gas turbine is faster and it is often used tocompensate for the gap that occurs during peaktimes, so this combination is also used incertain situations.
PV as a supplement to a diesel generator,
without the accompanying storage, is unlikely
to be a ¿nancially attractive choice – although
it may be worth considering as an interim stepto the introduction of PV technology on a large
scale. The combination of diesel generators,
solar power, and storage may be the lowest cost
option, based on the levelized energy cost.
However, such systems are complex andtechnologically sophisticated.
In this regard, the Miyako Mega-Solar
Demonstration Facility has very clear
objectives and expected outcomes, such as to:z

Validatethemethods

ofcontrolling

z
z
z

55

fluctuations caused by sudden output fromthe PV
Determine the required capacity of thestorage battery
Study the techniques of predicting PV
outputStudy the techniques of predicting theremaining power in the storage battery

If the project is successful in meeting its
expectations, then it will be a significant step
towards the development of alternative energy
and the provision of electricity to remote areas,
as well as the reduction of greenhouse gas
emissions. In addition, it will have a global
impact, by contributing to the spread of PV
power in developing countries via knowledge
sharing and the transfer of technology.
Of course, the financial aspect still remains a
key obstacle to the introduction of solar power.
However, high efficiency solar cells help tolower the overall cost of solar power, but that
only accounts for half of the costs related to atypical solar installation. The other half consistsof operation and maintenance, grid integration,and so on.
Nevertheless, with effective policies in place,PV on residential and commercial buildings
could achieve grid parity – i.e. with electricity
grid retail prices – by 2020 in many regions. In
this scenario, utility-scale PV could becomecompetitive in the sunniest regions by 2030,
and provide 5% of global electricity by 2050.
As PV matures into a mainstream technology,
grid integration, management, and energy
storage remain the key issues. The feed-in tariff

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can be a good tool for the stimulation ofrenewable energy, but it will also have its
limitations and possible side effects. Therefore,
it is important to have a complex approach,with incentives to private households to use PV
power for long-term energy security and moresustainable development. In this regard, theMega-Solar Power Demonstration Facility is an
important project for unlocking the potential ofsolar power, and can significantly help toprovide access to clean, reliable, and affordable
energy that has a profound impact on multiple
aspects of human development.

2. Science and Engineering perspectives

previous dependence on natural energy sources.
The windmill, however, remained an
important piece of technology, even when new
resources were developed. Why did it not go
out of use? In my view, it might have been
because of people’s preferences. For example,
the wind-power generators receive attention
from the tourism industry, and remainfunctional as the focus of tours. In this sense, it
may work and it is not a bad idea to use it as alandmark. However, in practical terms it cannot
be said that the wind-power generator makes asignificant contribution. According to the datafrom NEDO, 1 the output of wind-powered
generating plants, and other power plants, areas follows:This section will show two further technicalideas, with perspectives from the Science andEngineering students on wind- and solarpowered generation.

z

2.1. Wind-power generation systems

It is important to recognize that this shows
very significant differences between the typesof energy production from natural fluids.
However, the aim is to shift away from fossil
fuel energy towards a final goal of muchgreater use of renewable energies. This would
largely result in a move from thermo-power
generation to wind-power generation, and to do
this requires the closing of these significant
differences. At present, this aim does notappear to be realistic.

Wind energy is one of the oldest energy
systems, invented more than 5,000 years ago in
Mesopotamia and Egypt. Wind power is also afamous symbol of the Netherlands, althoughmost of their windmills were not built until
around the fifteenth century. As this shows,human beings have been constantly trying todevelop new resources. James Watt, in Scotland,in the United Kingdom, responded to one suchpractical challenge by inventing the steam
engine. In doing so, he started an era that
depended on fossil fuels, shifting from az

Thermo power accounts for 3,000 times
more output than wind power
Water power accounts for 300 times more
output than wind power

1

NEDO, ᪥ᮏ࡟࠾ࡅࡿ㢼ຊⓎ㟁タഛ࣭ᑟධᐇ⦼

http://www.nedo.go.jp/library/fuuryoku/index.html

GRM NewsOne of the methods to increase the output ofwind power is to make wind-power generatorslarger. The formula for calculating this is asfollows:
P = 1/2࣭ȡ࣭S࣭V3
Where P is wind-power energy (W), ȡ is air
density (kg/m3), S is the area of bladed wheel(m2), and V is wind speed (m/s). By Betz’s law,
the wind-generating power can expand inproportion to the area of the bladed wheel.
In Germany, a 6,000 kW wind-powered i
generator is being developed. However, it isdoubtful whether this level of power could bereached with a hydroelectric generator, because
it would be very difficult to develop one of
sufficient size.
Moreover, the rate of utilization of thermo,
water, and nuclear-power generation is decided
by each project. However, it is difficult to rely
on wind and solar-power generation (which wewill describe in the next section) for theprovision of 100% of energy use, because theproviding resources (wind and sunshine) areunstable and unpredictable natural energy
resources. Even if it works, the wind does notblow in sufficient strength everywhere. Miyako
Island has optimal conditions for wind-power
generation because of its frequent sea breezes.
There are few other places in Japan where
similar conditions can be assured, and it isdifficult to build in places near where people
live. Moreover, it may interfere with fishingactivities, and cause conflicts amongst local
residents. From these points, the wind-energy

power generation does have very strong
disadvantages.
2.2. Solar power generation
Solar-power generation can maintain a morestable level of generating power if the weather
is fine, in comparison with wind-power
generation, because it has fewer restrictions on
location. It needs less equipment maintenancethan other types of energy.
Also, as NEDO and other institutes haveshown [2-4], if we could spread solar cells
across the Gobi Desert, it would produce
enough energy to fulfill whole world’s current
energy usage. On this basis, solar-power
generation appears an ideal energy resource.
However, in practice this is not a realistic
idea. There are two reasons: costs and time.
First, the costs of the solar cells are very high.
Second, there are significant additional costs
for the transformation of the electrical energy
produced, and the transmission of this power todistant places. The transmission requires not
only costs but also energy. Moreover, as welearned from this onsite field trip, there arefurther costs for the storage of power fromsolar-power generation.
With regard to the time, this idea is also
unrealistic because of immense area required.
Even though, as I noted above, the idea ofcovering the Gobi Desert seems sustainable andclean, the scale works against it. The area of theGobi Desert is approximately 130×10 km2, and
it is approximately 3.5 times greater than thearea of Japan. Even if the solar cells were

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spread at the rate of 10 km2 per a day, it would
take more than 360 years to complete the task.
Since the massive earthquake andtsunami struck Japan in 2011, there has been
considerable thought and discussion about thediminution of nuclear-power generation. We
would like to now discuss the possibility ofsolar-power generation as a substitute fornuclear-power generation. Solar-generated
power is 1×106 kW, which can easily match theoutput of an atomic power plant2.
It is necessary to produce 8.33GW,
which is calculated with an average of 12% for
the utilization factor of solar cells in Japan, andthe conversion efficiency is set at an average of
10%. Sunlight provides around 1 kW/m2 at
ground level, and so the power output is 100
kW/m2. So, the necessary area for solar-power
generation, in substitution for a nuclear-power
plant, is 83.3 km2, which is the approximate
equivalent to 1,800 times the size of the Tokyo
Dome. That is to say, it is not realistic to thinkthat solar-power generation can replace
nuclear-power generation in the present
circumstances in Japan.

3. Miyako Second Electric Power Plant
The Miyako Second Electric Power Plant islocated in the northwest coast of Miyako Island.
With a further two internal combustion power
plants, the total electric-power generation
2 㛵す㟁ຊ, ཎᏊຊⓎ㟁ᡤࡢ㐠㌿≧ἣ

http://www1.kepco.co.jp/gensi/monitor/live_unten/u_real.htmlcapacity is approximately 74,000 kW. These
power plants also service Irabu Island, whichlies to the west of Miyako Island. The demandfor electricity in Miyako Island and Irabu
Island is at most 550,000 kW in the summer.
Because there is no large-scale factory in theislands, and so the main demand for electric
power comes from civil households, the peaktime for demand is from 7 p.m. to 8 p.m.
When we visited Miyako Second ElectricPower Plant in the afternoon, the generating
power was approximately 30,000 kW. Most of
this(26,000
kW)
came
from
the
internal-combustion power plants. At that time,
the remainder (4,000 kW) was fromwind-power generators and solar-power
generators. The maximum ratio of renewableenergy that is available to be produced in theislands is 25% of the total production.
3.1 Internal Combustion Power Plant
The Miyako Second Power Plant has four
diesel-powered generators. The electric-power
generation capacity of each generator is 10,000
kW. This means that the total capacity of the
Miyako Second Power Plant is 40,000 kW.
The second power plant uses a V-type8-cylinder twin diesel engine. Unlike otherdiesel engines that consume light oil, theseengines consume heavy oil. The power plant
has forty days of oil-storage for emergencies,
especially for the typhoon season when oil
tankers may be unable to approach the island.
The generating power of the internal
combustion power plants is automaticallycontrolled by computer, to adjust to theGRM News

generation of power by renewable energy.
Since the generation of power from renewableenergy fluctuates depending on the weather
conditions (that is, wind and sunshine), it isnecessary to adjust the fluctuation of otherelectricity
generated.
However,thediesel-powered generator cannot be controlled
quickly in response to weather changes. For
this reason, storage batteries are used to adjust
to the fluctuation of power generated fromrenewable energies.

[Figure 1]

The gas-turbine power plant is smaller andcheaper to build in comparison with thediesel-powered generator. However, thegas-turbine power plant in the island is only for
emergency use because its generating
efficiency is lower than the diesel-powered one.
They have three gas turbines whose generating
capacity is 5,000 kW each, and so the total
capacity for the gas turbine power plant is
15,000 kW.
Small Hydroelectric Power Plant
The Miyako Second Power Plant also has asmall hydroelectric power system, which usesdischarged engine-cooling water. The engine
cooling water falls from a height of 13 meters
into the ocean. The stream of this waterfall
rotates the water turbines and produces
electricity. The maximum capacity of power
generation from this is 65kW.

Diesel-powered engine generator[Figure 2]
Control Monitor㻌

Gas Turbine Power Plant
In addition to the diesel-powered generators,
Miyako Island has a gas-turbine power plant.

Challenges and Personal Review
The electricity generation systems in Miyako
Island have some challenges which need to beaddressed for them to become more reliable,
suitable for installation in other places. The
main challenge is how to stabilize thefrequency of the electricity. It is still difficult tocontrol the frequency of the electricity fromrenewable energies, which often fluctuate withthe weather conditions. While such afluctuation of frequency is acceptable in
Miyako Island, where almost all electricity
demand comes from domestic households, it isunsuitable for other regions with precision
machine factories that require exact electric

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frequency.
In the lecture, it was said that “high-quality
electricity” means electricity with a stablefrequency and voltage. According to the lecture,
it is easier to stabilize the frequency andvoltage with a large-scale energy source suchas thermal-power and nuclear power plants,
rather than with small-scale renewable energy
sources. Once renewable energy is installed
into an electric-power network, the quality ofelectricity will decline.
However, in my personal opinion, this does
not create the necessity to rely more onlarge-scale energy sources, which have many

[Figure 3]
Small Hydroelectric Power Plant

risks, such as uncontrollable nuclear reactions,or global warming. What we should do is not
only develop new energy sources but also
reconsider the ways we consume energy. So
long as it is not possible to achieve perfectly
sustainable, reliable, stable, safe, and clean
energy, it is necessary to rethink our society,and our own lifestyles, and reduce our energy
consumption.

4. The Museum of the Subsurface
Dam in Miyakojima Island
Japan has many water resources, such as
rivers. However, Miyako Island does not havethis. So how do the people in Miyako Island get
the water they need for drinking, agriculture,and so on? The answer is that they depend
largely on the Shirakawada Spring for drinking
water, and the Sunagawa and Hukuzato
Subsurface Dams for agriculture. This section
will discuss the mechanism of the subsurface
dam, which was provided at the Museum of the
Subsurface Dam, and then as a conclusion, theauthor will make some remarks on the visit to
the dam.
Map 1 shows the locations of the
Shirakawada Spring, and the Sunagawa andHukuzato Subsurface Dams. The spring is
mainly for the drinking water and the two dams
are for agriculture. The total volume of water
kept in storage in the two dams is 20 million
tons, which makes it 16 times larger than theTokyo Dome. The breakdown is that Sunagawa
is 9.5 million tons and Hukuzato is 10.5 million
tons. Their total length is 4.6 km and the
maximum height of the wall is 60 m. It is no
exaggeration to say that the two subsurface
dams sustain the farming in Miyako Island.

GRM News

Shirakawada Spring
Hukuzato Subsurface

Sunagawa Subsurface[Figure 4][Map 1]
Map Source: ᐑྂᓥᕷୖୗỈ㐨㒊ࠕᐑྂᓥࡢୖୗỈ㐨ࠖ19

The construction model of a subsurface
dam at the Museum of the Subsurface
Dam in Miyakojima Island.

㡫ࠋ http://miyakojimajyouge.jp/2011panf.pdf downloaded on
March 16th, 2013. The author tidied up the figures on the map.

How were subsurface dams constructed?
Figure 4 shows the construction model of a
subsurface dam. The yellow-collared large
machine tools are called tri-axial auger drills(୕㍈࣮࣮࢜࢞ࢻࣜࣝ) and their height isabout 25m. The tri-axial auger drill has three
axial drills as the name implies. The drills dug
down until they reached the Shimajiri
Mudstone layer, which is the third layer of soil
from the surface of Miyakojima Island (Figure
6 below shows the soil layers). These large
holes were dug at 90-cm intervals. The axial
drills were extracted from the holes whilst
cement was poured into them.

[Figure 5]
One of the cut-off walls of the Hukuzato Subsurface
Dam

After the drills were pulled from the holes,
the dirt which was produced during digging
was put back to the holes. Then, finally, thecut-off walls were completed. Figure 5 shows
one of cut-off walls of the Hukuzato
Subsurface Dam. To prevent the water flooding
from the dam during heavy rain, there are somespaces between the top of the wall and the soil,

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called Ryukyu limestone, which is the second
layer of the soil from the surface of
Miyakojima Island. Because of the way inwhich the dams were constructed, and also dueto their location, the water in the subsurface
dams has very little plankton, and it is possible
to use the surface of the island for farming.
Figure 6 shows the soil structure of the island.
[Figure 6]⏣

Red Clay㹼㹼㹼㹼㹼㹼㹼㹼㹼㹼㹼㹼

Seawater

Ryukyu Lime
Shimajiri Mudstone

Cut-Off Wall:
A space is left at the top of the wall and the Red Clay.

The water content of the red clay is only
about 10%. Most rainwater is not retained in
the soil; it flows into the sea. Therefore, it isreally important for the island to have this kindof dam.
The suitable conditions for the subsurface
dams are that: first, the soil allows water toflow through it easily; second, the land has a lotof rain; and finally, the topography of theunderground is like valleys. Thus, Miyakojima
Island is suitable for subsurface dams.
The system for the distribution of the waterfrom the dams to the farm land is very simple.
There are a number of wells located around thedams, and the water drawn from them goes into

farm ponds. Then, the water is distributed
directly to the farmlands thorough pipelines.
In conclusion, the subsurface dams in theisland are constructed in a way that utilizes the
topography very well. At the same time, theland of Miyakojima Island is flat and there islittle difference of altitude between the sea
level and the top of the highest hill. Because ofthis, the water collected into the ponds is easily
distributed to the farmland.
It would probably be difficult for developing
countries that face water shortages to introduce
this type of dam. In the case of Rwanda, which
has a lot of rain, the construction of such dams
appears suitable, and they would have apositive impact because agriculture is its mainindustry. However, it would first require someresearch into its stratifications. Also, thelocation of the country is problematic, as
Rwanda is located at an altitude between 1,500m and 2,000 m (and more in some places). At
such a high altitude, it may be hard to develop
efficient techniques for drawing anddistributing the water to the farmlands. Fromthe perspective of their maintenance andmanagement, it would be impractical for
Rwanda to introduce subsurface dams into theircountry. However, the structure of these dams
could be applied and developed in Rwanda insome way.

4. Visiting the water and sewer division of
Miyakojima City
In this section, we will make a report based

GRM Newson the lecture of Dr. Kajiwara, and add otherinformation as appropriate. Dr. Kajiwara is anexpert on water resource management in the
Miyakojima City office. He has also beenworking on providing technical assistance tothe Independent State of Samoa. In the first part,I would like to mention problems related to thewater-management system, and what has been
done in Miyako Island. In the next part, I will
cover international cooperation that the
Miyako-jima City water authority is involved
in. I will go into more detail about problems in
the water-supply business in the last section.
4.1 Between cost performance and publicwelfareWater is the most essential element for life,and so securing safe drinking water is an urgent
issue for all of us. As Dr. Kajiwara said, a waterauthority is a public “business.” Needless to say,the primary responsibility of a water authority
is to ensure a water supply and to provide safe
drinking water to the people. In addition, awater authority should be independent
financially and politically from otheradministrative systems. All the costs, including
the labor, and the maintenance/operation of the
facilities and systems have to be financed by
the water fee. The administrative officers haveto place importance, to some extent, on theperspective of cost performance. What they
have to consider, in particular, is whether thewater fee can cover the costs associated with
the infrastructure.
It is commonly acknowledged that Japan has

a high standard of water purity for tap water,
and that we have access to clean and safe
drinking water anywhere. The number ofcharacteristics to be inspected is about 3 to 4
times higher than that of bottled mineral water.
The water quality standards have to comply
with the Waterworks Act requirement. It also
has to be based on the result of the examinationof water carried out by local government. On
the other hand, the safety inspection of mineralwater is based on the Food Sanitation Act.
Because of these structural peculiarities,
there is inevitably a dilemma between publicwelfare and cost effectiveness. If the water fee
becomes too high, it could make water
inaccessible for some people. In what follows, I
will introduce the practices in Miyako Island.
Miyakojima City consists of six islands ʊ
Miyako, Irabu, Shimoji, Kurima, and Ogami.
The total population is 54,663 (2010 Statistics),
and 99.95% of them are served by the watersupply. In Miyako Island the available water
resources are limited, as with most other island
areas around the world. Moreover, theenvironment for the existing resources is
unstable. Because there are no fresh water
resources on the surface of the ground, the city
has to depend on groundwater in order for theacquisition of the water supply to be stable.
Miyako Island was known as a “no-waterland” for a long time. Obtaining water was anurgent priority for the islanders. It isnoteworthy that Miyako Island enacted Japan’s
first ordinance of groundwater conservation in
1965, based on the concept that the
groundwater resources were for public use.

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However, the groundwater is vulnerable. It iseasily affected by the condition of the surfaceof the ground. What was written in the novel
Silent Spring could easily occur. Once
pesticides have polluted the groundwater, it
will take a very long time to be clean again. So
if one pursues cost effectiveness, then s/he also
has to be environmentally conscious. However,
if remote islands want to survive, they have torely on resort development. This is also a
difficult problem that we should bear in mind.
There
are
also
some
geologicalcharacteristics to be considered. In Miyakojima,
water is pumped up from the limestone layer,
so the water contains high level of minerals,
such as magnesium and calcium. So there is aneed to reduce the water hardness to make itsmooth for drinking. However, soft water iseasily oxidized and it could cause the water
pipes to rapidly spoil. Therefore, theMiyakojima water division set a standard to
keep water hardness around 100 mg/l.
Above all, the water pumping and the otherspecial water-treatment processes consume
electricity. The small population and theabsence of major consumers may cause adecline in water fees collected, and this may
push the system into a negative spiral. There isneed to create a social system that ensures thewater project is sustainable.
4.2 Feedback on the experiences of others
The Miyakojima city office has joined aninternational cooperation project with the
Independent State of Samoa, which is locatedin the middle of the Pacific Ocean. Dr.
Kajiwara told us that the problem in Samoa is
not the shortage of water. The main problem iswith operation and maintenance. According toan estimate, the leakage rate in Samoa is 60 to80%, and there is no accurate map of the pipe
reticulation.
One of the most difficult issues here is the
misunderstanding of water treatment. The
project aims to introduce a slow-sand filtration
system, which is an ecological-purification
system (EPS). EPS does not need electricity or
chemicals. In addition it costs very little, has a
low impact on the environment, and it is highly
adaptable to disaster. However, if there is amisunderstanding of it operation, then thesystem might work in a counter-productiveway.
EPS has been empirically shown to purify
water, and the latest study claims that the
microscopic ecosystem is the key factor. For it
to work, it is necessary is to keep the algae
alive, which requires enough light and asuitable tank, which is round-shaped.
EPS’s purifying speed is not actually “slow,”
and in high-temperature areas the system canbe very effective. So the filtration time can be
reduced to a large extent in a hot weather area
like Samoa. In the Sodeyama treatment plant,
where 70% of water needs are supplied forresidents and tourists, there are nine ponds andseven of them are in operation. The filtration
speed is 7 meters a day, and that is enough foraround 70,000 people. In Samoa, thetemperature is higher than Miyako, whichmeans they can achieve a higher speed.

GRM NewsIn Dr. Kajiwara’s lecture, there were several
points worth noting. First, an administrative
officer cannot put new scientific knowledge ortheory into practice immediately. If they haveno confirmation of safety issues, they cannot
even try these ideas, because peoples’ lives
depend on it. Second, I keenly feel the need tonegotiate the “acceptable risk.” Zero risk is
impossible. What we have to do here is tonegotiate to what extent we can accept risk.
Third, international cooperation is not justhelping others, but also getting feedback fromtheir experiences, and using it to improve ourown practices. In Samoa and Japan alike,people have a strong adherence to high-tech.
Japanese experts have introduced in Samoa
some basic skills and techniques, such as using
a listening bar for leak detection. I also feel thatnow we are at the point of rethinking our
methods. We should review basic and simple
methods in order to maintain the systems byourselves. Forth, we need to adjust ourapproach to suit the conditions of each area.
For example, in Samoa each community
controls their water resources. This is theprinciple of the community, but there is not aconcept of the broader public. What they dothere is to deal with the situation within theframework of their own culture’s understandingof the issues. This can be applicable when we
operate water management systems in Japan,
for we have different social relations andsystems, and a particular environment.
4.3 The future of water management inJapan

In this part, I will discuss the current
situation in Japan regarding the water supply
business. It is said that in the future around
70% of smaller municipalities will not be able
to handle the water supply business bythemselves. Throughout Japan, there are about
43,000 km of end-of-life water pipes.
There are three conceivable problems:
financial, technical, and operational. Due tofinancial difficulties and falling populations,more and more of the smaller municipalities arefacing difficulties in operating and maintaining
their facilities. In fact, water-pipe relatedtrouble, such as bursting pipes, is increasing. To
improve the situation, we need to make use of
the merit of scale. As you see, smaller
municipalities do not have the significant“scale” in the first place. However, some
private companies are able to manage theinter-municipal water supply business.
There are also problems in technical transfer.
Local governments exclusively take a role in
the water supply business, so private companies
do not have the know-how. If foreigncompanies came into the Japanese market,
Japanese companies might then be thoroughly
excluded. We should be more careful aboutdeveloping private companies in the context ofpublic-private partnerships.
However, a small and isolated island like
Miyakojima cannot rely on the merit of scale.
So I think to some extent, they have to rely on
subsidies from the government. Miyakojima isunder the Remote Islands Development Act,and it is also one of the remote islands regions

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prescribed in item iii of Article 3 of the
Okinawa Promotion and Development Special
Treatment Act (Act No. 14 of 2002). However,it seems the subsidy mostly goes to hakomono(boxed) areas, such as concrete construction, orlogistic expenses.
We, and the government as well, have to be
more serious about the water-supply business,or we will not be able to obtain safe drinking
water in the near future. In the midst of
globalization we have to pay attention to world
trends, even if it is public works that are
involved. In terms of international cooperation,
we have to find out what are our advantages,
based on our international relationships. As Dr.
Kajiwara told us, we have learned from thehistory of ODA that it is very important to taketime and build up relations based on trust. In
terms of our internal affairs, we can learn fromwhat is going on outside Japan. It is reported
that major international water companies go inand purchase local water-supply businesses,
and then they raise the price of water on a
unilateral basis. We cannot say this will not
happen here in Japan.
We could learn many lessons from theexperience of Miyako Island. What we have to
do is to try to make the most of these lessons,and try to get the situation improved.

Conclusion
The experiments in Miyako Island makegood use of their environment, industry, andlife style. These may not necessarily be put into

effect easily in some other situation, even in thesame country. For instance, as it was describedabove, the wind-powered generators cannot
generate electric power if the wind does notblow continuously. The solar-power generators
cannot work so well if there is no sunlight, andalso the large population groups can easily
influence it. And the solar panels need a large
area if they are going to supply enough powerforhigh-energy
consumption.
Thehydroelectric power generators need a water
resource and a head of water. Moreover, it isput in place within the context of the local life
style and its demands. As there is no factorywith precision machinery in Miyako Island, it
can be said there are fewer challenges for arenewable energy plan, other than theenvironmental conditions. In the mainland ofJapan, it is essential to maintain a high qualityof electric power for the precision machinery,so the use of renewable energy needs to beconsidered carefully.
When we see the news about the energy
resources and the energy problems, we often do
not understand that some of these issues arequite simple. Also, as Miyako Island has asevere environment, the way that the problemsof Miyako City have been tackled might give
us some keys for dealing with the sameproblems elsewhere.
Visiting the four facilities in Miyako Island
has not only widened and deepened ourunderstandings about the infrastructure of
renewable resources. It has also helped us
realize what we need to learn for the future in
our study on the GRM program. For instance,

GRM News

during the lectures and explanations, social
science students have encountered their lack ofknowledge of science and engineering. There
are pros and cons for this. However, it has
made it more clear what kind of basic
knowledge we need to have to help us learn
further. For science and engineering students,
the lectures gave some clues and key points
such as why we should promote international
cooperation, and what we have to care about
when we are working internationally.
Also this field trip gave us an opportunity tounderstand the infrastructure of systems by
experiencing them first hand. It is required of
GRM students to do our best to make use of theknowledge we have acquired, and we have tokeep learning the basics, along with thesevarious cases, as it enriches our studies.
(Kanat Abdrahamanov, Master’s Student,
Graduate School of Global Studies,
Toshie Inui, Takuya Moriyama, Naomi Nishi,
and Marie Taketani, Doctoral Students,
Graduate School of Global Studies
Tian Zhang, Doctoral Student, Graduate Schoolof Science and Engineering)67

GRM News

69

Onsite training course at Rishiri Island
Date: August 18-21, 2013
Venue: Rishiri Island, Hokkaido

The Global Resource Management program
led an onsite training course at Rishiri Island in
August 2013. Rishiri Island is located 20 km
northwest of the main island of Hokkaido, Japanand has a declining population of 2,811 people,
as of 2013. Due to its small size and its
separation from the main island, Rishiri Island is
not connected to the power grid. Thus, all of its
energy has to be produced within the island. The
objective of the onsite training course was toassess the possibility of implementing
renewable energy systems to improve the living
standards of the community, and to reduce its
current dependence on fuel shipments from themain island.
The onsite training course started with a tourof the power-generating facilities. Currently,
Rishiri Island has an electricity generation
capacity of 8,145 kW, which is obtained using
three different energy resources. Diesel engine
generators account for 7,650 kW of the total
capacity, using a total of eight engines. Two
micro-scale hydroelectric generators areavailable with a total generation capacity of
245 kW, and lastly, a single 250 kW windturbine has also been recently installed. Out of
the
three
power
generation
systems,hydroelectric power has the highest utilization
factor, operating constantly throughout the year,with only a slight decrease in output in thewinter. Diesel generators are the most reliable
system, since they can be managed to quickly
adapt to load variations. However, they are fully
dependent on diesel oil, which must be regularlytransported from Wakkanai to Rishiri Island by
ship, and heavy storms might suddenly stop thetransit of the ships.

250 kW wind turbine in Rishiri Island
The power facilities tour was followed by alecture at the municipal office of Rishiri Island,
where the current state of and future plans forinfrastructure development were presented. A
feasibility study of renewable energies in Rishiri
Island showed that the most promising option iswind energy, with an annual usable capacity of
6.7 TJ, followed by solar photovoltaics with 1.7
TJ. The current plan for replacing the diesel
generators with renewable energies is still,
however, not enough to completely cover theenergy demands of the island. Especially in thewinter when electricity is most needed, solar
photovoltaics becomes less reliable due toshorter hours of sunshine and adverse weather
conditions, such as cloud cover and snow on thepanels. Since solar photovoltaics accounts for
15% of the installed power generation in thecurrent plan, heavier dependence on diesel
generators may be expected during this season.
The
onsitetraining
coursewascomplemented with lectures from invited guest
speakers from the University of Philippines.
Similar problems with energy infrastructure arepresent in the Philippines, due to it being anarchipelago country. The water and energy
infrastructure industries in the Philippines were
presented, as well as the major problems thathave been faced. These insights were helpful tothe students of the GRM program to analyze and70

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discuss the current state of Rishiri Island and its
capacity for social growth.
In conclusion, Rishiri Island does not face aneasy situation in terms of replacing its power
generation systems with renewable energies.
Although the island still has available to it
several unused energy resources, its energy
demands are mostly for heating, which is more
complicated to obtain than electricity. The
decrease in population also brings into question

the justifiability of implementing this project.
Nevertheless, the inhabitants of Rishiri Island
have the right to demand improvements in theirenergy infrastructure. With careful planning,
this project might bring benefits to the island inboth reduced costs and energy independence.
(Jorge E. Lamas, Graduate Student,
Graduate School of Science and Engineering)GRM News

Fieldwork Report 1
A Study of the Role of Education in Unity Building
and Conflict Prevention in Rwanda
Megumi Inaka(Master’s Student, Graduate School of Global Studies)

My study examines the role of education inunity building and conflict prevention in
Rwanda after the 1994 genocide. Focusing on
Rwandan education, I investigate how education
contributes to reconciliation, and what
educational methods the government andschools have employed to promote peace. The
overarching goal is to determine what role
education should play in helping the country
recover from conflict. I also aim to identify
educational methods that are effective inpreventing the resurgence of conflict.
1. Objective of the Fieldwork
The principle objective of this fieldwork in
Rwanda is to assess the existing condition of
education under the reconciliation policy and tounderstand the challenges it faces.
2. Fieldwork Outline
This fieldwork was conducted between
September 5–22, 2013. During this time, I
carried out the following activities: (1) observed
existing educational conditions throughvolunteer work at the UMUCO MWIZA
academy in the capital city, Kigali; (2)interviewed a history teacher at a public highschool, young people working at a market, and astaff member of REACH (Reconciliation
Evangelism and Christian Healing), an NGO
working for healing, reconciliation andsustainable development after the 1994
genocide; (3) visited a rural community,
Bugesera, while taking part in an activity
organized by the NGO Plan Rwanda; (4) visited
genocide memorials and the Protestant Instituteof Arts and Social Sciences.
3. OutcomesThis research did not progress as originallyplanned due to incidents such as the pre-election

bombing in Kigali, Rwanda. However,
unexpected gains, including interviews with a
REACH staff member and a high school history
teacher, helped to create a fruitful outcome.
By volunteering at the UMUCO MWIZA
academy, interviewing young people working at
a market, and visiting a rural community in
Bugesera, I became familiar with the difference
between urban and rural schools and learning
environments, as well as between the rich andthe poor in Rwanda. For example, there is a
substantial gap between urban and rural living
conditions and infrastructures; this affects theeducational environment for children. In therural community I visited, the children’s classschedule was divided into morning andafternoon sessions, reflecting both restrictedclassroom capacity and the demand for childlabor. I also observed a gap between private andpublic schools, with public schools having far
fewer school supplies, materials and resources
than private schools.
Interviews with a staff member of
REACH and a public high school history
teacher generated many findings about thepresent condition of reconciliation and the effectof genocide on post-genocide education.
According to the REACH employee,reconciliation had so far been promoted throughthe law prohibiting discrimination and activities
that gave people opportunities for atonement.
However, he said, it was still essential to makean effort. Education is one means to achievereconciliation, according to the history teacher.
To create unity and avoid genocidal ideology,
schools offer several programs, including club
activities during which students can learn about
the causes and consequences of the genocidefrom the viewpoints of both ethnic groups: Hutu
and Tutsi. In addition, physical education has a

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large role to play in fostering harmony. The
most important point, he said, is to tell children
the “whole truth.”

4. Future Tasks
This fieldwork helped me to understand thecurrent state of post-genocide education and thereconciliation process in Rwanda. In future, I
plan to investigate the effectiveness of postconflict education and, in particular, those
programs that aim to bring unity. Throughorganizations such as the NGO Plan Rwanda
and the National Commission for the Fight
Against Genocide (CNLG), I hope to conduct
in-depthresearch
intopost-genocide
reconciliation programs and the educational
environment for children in rural areas.

GRM News

Fieldwork Report 2
Bosnia and Serbia
Tomotaka Teshiba
Keisuke Kagami(Master’s Students, Graduate School of Policy and Management)

We conducted GRM fieldwork in Bosnia
and Herzegovina and the Republic of Serbia
between September 3–12, 2013. The aim of thisfieldwork was first, to visit two countries whereconflicts had occurred to investigate the current
state of those conflicts and reconstruction efforts,and second, to participate in two seminars heldin Serbia, giving presentations on our subjectsof study.
We stayed in Sarajevo, the capital of
Bosnia and Herzegovina from September 4–6.
On the first day, we visited the Sarajevo Tunnel
Museum. A small section of the tunnel had been
dug for the Bosniak armed forces and used tocarry various goods during the Bosnian war. We
walked down the narrow, low tunnel andexperienced their struggle to transport goods.
In exploring the urban area of Sarajevo,
we saw the beautiful Sarajevo cityscape.
However, there are still many buildings riddledwith bullet holes. We could imagine the violent
gunfights that took place during the Bosnian war.
Sarajevo is inhabited by Muslim Bosniaks,
Orthodox Serbs, and Catholic Croats; the city ishome to both Islamic and Christian cultures.
There was once a brutal war between these
ethnic groups in Sarajevo, but they now manage
to coexist.
On the second day, we had a meeting inSarajevo with the Embassy of Japan and the
OSCE (Organization for Security and Cooperation in Europe) mission to Bosnia andHerzegovina. We attended a lecture about theBosnian political situation and the OSCE’s
support for Bosnia.
On the third day, we went to Srebrenica
in the east of Bosnia, where more than 8,000
Bosniaks were killed (the Srebrenica massacre,in 1995). At the Srebrenica Genocide Memorial,over 6,000 victims of the genocide have beenburied. Our guide, who had lost relatives during
the genocide, told us about its tragedies.

We travelled through Munich and visited
Belgrade, the capital of the Republic of Serbia,
from September 8–10. On the fifth day, we went
to the inner city of Belgrade to conduct
fieldwork. We saw the state of reconstruction
and the damage from the war.
On the sixth day, we participated in aseminar hosted by the IIPE (Institute ofInternational Politics and Economics). In thisseminar, we listened to presentations by otherparticipants, and were each given an opportunity
to discuss our own research projects.
Kagami reported on the Reconstruction
Agency of Japan. In his presentation, he
explained the organizational design of theagency, arguing that it was pulled between twovalues, fairness, and responsiveness. In his
presentation, Teshiba explained why policy
evaluation does not work well in Japan,
focusing on the transition between objectives in
implementing a policy evaluation.

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After the seminar, we and the otherseminar participants attended a reception at theofficial residence of the Japanese Ambassador
to Serbia. Each of us received comments andsuggestions on our seminar presentations. We
also enjoyed the party.
On the seventh day, we took part in a
student seminar at the University of Belgrade.
We were grateful for another opportunity topresent our own research. Kagami gave apresentation on the Great East Earthquake ofJapan, and Teshiba talked about Japan’s
relationship to the Olympic Games. After theseminar was over, we went out for dinner and a
discussion with other student participants. On
September 11–12, we traveled back to Japan.
Through this fieldwork, we acquired agreater level of understanding of ethnic conflicts,
and improved our presentation skills in English.
By doing fieldwork, we learned to appreciate
the complexity of the ethnic conflict and the
difficult co-existence of multiple cultures. As to
presentation skills, we had two opportunities togive talks in English. As our first presentations
were at the international seminar, we felt a great
sense of anxiety and accomplishment.

GRM News

Fieldwork Report 3
A Solution to the Problem of Drinking Water Pollution and Scarcity
through a Joint Study with University of the Philippines
Kenta Doi
(Master’s Student, Graduate School of Science and Engineering)

Water delivery systems are an
indispensable infrastructure in people’s lives.
The history of social infrastructures, including
water delivery systems, has progressed inaccordance with human civilization. As
representatives of modern infrastructure systems,
information technology and electric power haveinterdependent
relationships
withthedevelopment of new technologies. By contrast,
the water service has supported people’s lives
since ancient times. By the end of 2011, 89
percent of the world population could haveaccess to water from improved sources,
including not only piped water but also dug
wells and rainwater collections; nevertheless, anenormous number of people still suffer from ascarcity of drinking water [1].
Not all of the world’s water delivery
systems are reliable. Poorly improved watercontains disease-causing microorganisms, toxic
chemical substances, and levels of heavy metals
at or above the reference value. In thePhilippines, just under one third, or 31 percent,of illnesses monitored between 2001 and 2005
had some connection with water-borne
pathogens [2]. This problem arises from thepollution of water resources due to untreatedwastewater discharge and other contaminants.
To address water pollution problems, it isnecessary to develop inexpensive and efficienttechnologies that can reduce the pollution ofwater resources and/or purify water before
distribution.
The application of a photocatalyst is one
way to purify water inexpensively andefficiently[3].
Photocatalytic
materials
decompose toxic organic substances and heavy
metal ions such as hexavalent chromium byabsorbing light; they also provide sterilizationand virus deactivation. This treatment cantherefore be applied not only to large water

networks but also to small-scale purification
systems for dug well and rainwater collection inremote rural areas at a relatively low cost.
Consequently, it can also reduce the number ofpeople suffering from water scarcity.
Through the GRM program, I studied
the formation of a titanium dioxide (TiO2)
photocatalyst thin film for the purpose of water
purification, as part of a joint project with the
Plasma Physics Laboratory of The National
Institute of Physics at the University of thePhilippines in Diliman. Since the film is formed
through a process involving chemically reactive
plasma in a vacuum container, the first task is toachieve a good vacuum-compatible environment.
Given the climate environment of thePhilippines, it was not easy to obtain a goodvacuum and this impeded our progress. After
struggling for six days to prepare theexperimental apparatus, we finally succeeded in
preparing the thin film. The results of ourformed thin film analyses, however, suggested
that further improvements should be made to theexperiment to ensure a better thin film, suitablefor water purification.
Through this process, I learned theimportance of communicating the objectives ofan experimental group to all collaborators
before starting a project. From a macroperspective, a joint study is undertaken toaccomplish one purpose: the main aim of thestudy. As individuals, however, each of theresearchers has a personal objective andmotivation for his or her own experiment. To
proceed efficiently and pleasantly, therefore, it
is of primary importance to communicate thegroup’s main objective to all collaborators,
while acknowledging and taking into
consideration their personal interpretations of
the experiment.

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Carrying out the experiment at the UP laboratory[1] World Health Organization and UNICEF,
Progress on sanitation and drinking-water(WHO Press, 2013), 8.
[2] L. Escandor, The state of water resources in
the Philippines (Greenpeace Southeast Asia,
2007), 22.
[3] K. Nakata and A. Fujishima, “TiO2
photocatalysis: Design and Applications”, The
Journal of Photochemistry and Photobiology C:
Photochemistry Reviews (2012), 13, 169–189.

Ms. Villamayor, Ph.D. student, UP, Diliman (upper left)
Prof. Ramos, UP, Diliman (upper right)
Kenta Doi, M.Eng. student, Doshisha Univ. (lower left)
Prof. Wada, Doshisha Univ. (lower right)papers

77

Wind power in the UK: existing provision and future development
H. Griffiths, Cardiff University
Abstract: This paper describes the UK government initiatives to support renewable energy and details the development ofwindpower in the context of overall renewables growth. The existing on-shore and off-shore windfarm fleet is described in detailin terms of distribution around the UK, turbine unit size, numbers of turbines and overall farm capacity. Future windfarm
developemnt and potential is quantified for both on-shore and off-shore and current and potential impact of wind power on theelectricity transmission system is considered. Based on UK government and industry current projections, wind power in the UK
is set to make a major contribution to future electricity production and it will be an essential component in meeting future
emissions reduction targets.
Keywords : wind energy, renewables, electricity systemtargets by also on the level of future UK electricity demand.
DECC has estimated that UK electricity demand may increase by
between 30% and 100% from 2012 to 2050, as a result of theincreasing electrification of heating, transport etc. This could raise
the UK maximum demand from about 60GW to potentially
120GW. DECC modeling [7] projects a possible renewableelectricity generation capacity of up to 72GW by 2030 and a highelectricity demand scenario with significant increased electricity
generation by renewables for the UK is set out in [8]. Figure 1,
shows the growth in electricity production from renewable in the
UK over the period from 1990 to 2010, based on EU publisheddata [9].

INTRODUCTION: Wind power in context ofincreased requirements for renewable generation

The UK government is committed to the development andimplementation of renewable energy in order to achieve asustainable low-carbon economy. The Department of Energy andClimate Change (DECC) has produced a ‘road map’ [1, 2] whichsets a target of 15% renewable energy by 2020. In order to meetsuch a target for the economy overall, it is envisaged that theamount of electricity derived from renewables will need toincrease from 11% (as of Dec 2012) to approximately 30% by
2020. Market support is therefore provided to subsidize energy
sources deemed to be most suitable and this currently includes
solar photovoltaics and wind farms. The government has produceda ‘Levy Control Framework’ up to 2020/21 [3] which provides
subsidies in the form of ‘Renewable Obligation’ (RO) tariffs forlarge generators and so-called ‘Feed-in tariffs’ (FITs) forsmall-scale sources. Although there are concerns about theincreased costs of supporting renewable, it is clear that, as
renewable technologies mature and economies of scale are
realized, the costs of production are set to fall. Recently, and inless than a period of one year, it is estimated that there has been a
50% reduction in the cost of solar PV [4] and costs for off-shore
wind are also anticipated to fall [5]. In comparison withconventional generation sources, it is expected that under a central
fuel price projection, the most economic on-shore wind farm willcompete with combined cycle gas turbine technology within a few
years [6].
The impact of this government support is evident by the rapid
increase in electricity production from renewables of 27% over the
past year with a current installed capacity of 14.4GW. Of thistotal, on-shore and off-shore wind components are 5.3GW and
2.5GW. It is clear, therefore, that wind power is already set as themost significant future contributor to electricity production fromrenewables in the UK.
Of course, the quantity requirements for electricity production
from renewables not only depend on overall renewable energy

35Electricity production (TWhr)

Renewables
30

Hydro
25

Wind
20

Biomass and Renewablewastes
15

Other
10

5

Fig. 1.Gross Renewable Electricity generation by type 1990-2010

From the figure, it can be seen that in 1990, the only significant
contributor was conventional hydro with biomass and windgrowing steadily over the following twenty year period. Morerecent rapid growth is evident in wind power generation and thistrend is likely to increase. Off-shore wind is seen as the mostscalable of the UK’s renewable technologies and the UK iscurrently the global leader by installed capacity and market size[2]. It is considered that there is potential for up to 40GW ofdeployed off-shore wind generation by 2030 [2].
This paper traces the development of electricity producing wind
power installations in the UK from the early on-shoredevelopmental individual turbines of the 1980’s to the major
off-shore wind farms proposed for the coming decades. The rise in
the number and capacity of existing installations is quantified indetail. Details of the turbine sizes, numbers, capacity and capacity

Contact Address:
Huw Griffiths, High Voltage Energy Systems Group
School of Engineering, Cardiff University
The Parade, Cardiff, CF24 3AA, Wales, UK
E-mail: griffithsh@cf.ac.uk
1

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1990

0
1991

1.

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

factor are given and the future development, particularly off-shore
is outlined. The challenges of introducing such large quantities ofvariable electricity generation by wind to the UK electricity
network is assessed in terms of transmission capacity andoperational security and how such challenges may be met. Finally,a projection of wind in the UK to 2050 is made.

5000

Installed capacity (MW)

2.

6000

UK ON-SHORE WIND POWER
INSTALLATIONS

2.1 Existing installations
The distribution of existing on-shore windfarms in the UK isshown in Figure 2 and Table 1 (red circles), which shows apreponderance of such generation on the western side of thecountry and, in Scotland, particularly for larger installations
Figure 2 shows the cumulative increase in on-shore wind farmcapacity in the UK over the period from 1989 to 2011.

4000

3000

2000

1000

1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
2005
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
2011
2012

0

Fig. 2. On-Shore Wind Farm Installed capacity

An estimate of the overall capacity factor (CF) of the UK on-shore
wind fleet factor can be calculated using Equation 1;‫ ܨܥ‬ൌ

஺௡௡௨௔௟ா௡௘௥௚௬௣௥௢ௗ௨௖௧௜௢௡ሺ்ௐ௛௥ሻ
்௢௧௔௟௜௡௦௧௔௟௟௘ௗ௙௟௘௘௧௖௔௣௔௖௜௧௬ሺெௐሻ‫଺଻଼כ‬଴

(1)

ͳͲͲ

Energy production values are taken from Figure 1 and capacity
data from Figure 2 (Data from 2005 onwards has been omitted to
exclude the contribution of off-shore installations). The resultsfrom Equation 1 are shown in Figure 4. This estimate of capacity
factor is in line with the recorded capacity factor of 27% foron-shore windfarms in the UK from 2005[10]. The use of theentire fleet in capacity factor calculations obscures (i) regional
differences (ii) the improvements in wind turbine technology andreliability achieved in the newer installations (longer blades andreduced downtime) and (iii) the decline in capacity factor with age
of installation [11]. It is considered that future turbines could
achieve rated powers in the range 4-6 MW and capacity factors of
up to 50% [12].

On-shore windfarm capacity factor (%)

40
35
30
25
20
15
10
5
0
1992

Fig. 3. UK operational wind farms at 2011: Reproduced from [13]

1995

1998

2001

2004

Fig. 4.Capacity factor of UK on-shore wind farms
TABLE I

More details on the individual wind turbine size at all UK
on-shore installations from 1989 to 2011 are given in Figure 5. It
can be seen that from 1989 to 1999, turbine size was restricted to
sub-MW. Since 2000, turbine size has increased significantly withseveral sites operating with 3MW units. However, there is also
continued widespread use of lower-output turbines from 800kW
upwards. The number of wind turbines at on-shore windfarms has
not grown significantly over the past two decades, and only two
operational
on-shore
wind
farms
exceed100
in

DISTRIBUTION OF INSTALLED ON-SHORE WIND POWER IN THE UK (TO 2011)
Country

Capacity (MW)England
Northern Ireland
Scotland
Wales

616
306
2241
377

Total for UK

3680

2

papers

2.2 Proposed on-shore wind installations
Based on the UK Department of Energy and Climate Change
planning database [14], the projected installed capacity of UK
on-shore wind power is shown in Table II. This shows that anadditional 6753MW (a figure in excess of the current operational
capacity of 5358MW) has already been approved and is either
under construction or awaiting construction. Beyond this, there isanother 6.9GW of on-shore wind capacity at the planningapplication stage. However, the on-shore wind farm planningapplication process takes up to two years and currently
applications on have an approval rate of only 40% [15].

Individual turbine capacity (MW)

3.5

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1989

79

1992

1995

1998

2001

2004

2007

TABLE II
FUTURE UK ON-SHORE WIND POWER

2010

Fig. 5. Individual turbine capacity at on-shore wind farm installations

Number of turbines per installation

160
140
120

Cumulative UK

StatusCapacity(MW)

on-shore capacity

Operational
Under construction
Pre-construction
Planning application

5358
2323
4430
6909

5358
7681
12111
19019

(MW)

100

3.

80
60

3.1 Existing installations
Offshore wind power first received its first incentive under the
now obselete ‘Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation’ (NFFO) which wasintroduced under Electricity Act 1989 and this led to theestablisment of the first relaively small off-shore installation of
two 2MW turbines at Blyth in the north of England. The UK
government then established with the Crown Estate, the owner of
UK coastline out to a distance of 22.2 km, a framework to develop
offshore wind farms. Three stages of leases were established, as
shown in Figure 8, known as Rounds 1, 2 and 3.

40

20
0
1989

1992

1995

1998

2001

2004

2007

UK OFF-SHORE WIND POWER
INSTALLATIONS

2010

Fig. 6. Numbers of turbines at on-shore wind farm installations

turbine numbers. The first, Llandinam windfarm in Powys, Wales
was constructed in 1992 and comprises 103 turbines. This site iscurrently under application to re-power with a smaller number oflarger capacity turbines. The second, Whitelee in Scotland, isEurope’s largest onshore windfarm and has 140 turbines and an
overall capacity of 322MW. This windfarm has ongoing
construction of an additional 75 turbines that will add 217MW
capacity to the site [14]. The total capacity of all UK on-shore
windfarms is shown in Figure 7.
Total capacity of installations (MW)

350
300
250
200
150
100
50
0
1989

1992

1995

1998

2001

2004

2007

2010

Fig. 7. Total capacity at on-shore wind farm installations

Fig. 8. Details of Round 1-3 on-shore wind farm lease areas (reproduced
from [16])380

Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

There were 17 developmental projects granted under Round 1 in
2001 with a total capacity of 1.1GW. In December 2003, 15
projects were awarded under Round 2, with a combined power
generating capacity of 7.2 GW. The Crown Estate launched a thirdround of site allocations in June 2008. As can be seen from Figure
8, Round 3 occupies significantly greater areas and, alone, may
contribute up to 25 GW.
The increase in off-shore wind installated capacity under Rounds,
1 and 2 is shown in Figure 9, the individual turbine capacities(Figure 10), and the total nubers of turbine units at each
installation (Figure 11). Figure 12 shows the total capacity of eachwind farm.

Total capacity of installations (MW)

600

500

400

300

200

100

3500

0
2000

Installed capacity (MW)

3000

2006

2008

2010

2012

From Figures 9-12, it can be seen that all turbines for off-shore
projects are at least 2MW and since 2005 have been between 3
and 5MW. The numbers of turbines per farm for Rounds 1 and 2
range between 20 and 100.
The highest capacity factor for a UK Round 1 off-shore windfarm was 36% in 2006 at North Holye, but other Round 1 farms
did not perform so well, with the others having CF values in therange 24.1% to 27.7% [17-18]. Capacity factors are expected torise for off-shore to 38% 2024 [17]. A detailed analysis of theperformance of Round 1 windfarms can be found in [18].

2000
1500
1000
500

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

0

Fig. 9. Off-shore wind farm currently installed capacity

3.2 Proposed off-shore wind installations
From the UK Department of Energy and Climate Change planning
database [14], the projected installed capacity of UK off-shore
wind power is shown in Table III. This a projected large increasein cumulative capacity. Round 3 and Round 1+2 extensions have
not yet progressed beyond the planning application stage. Further
applications under Round 3 are envisaged.

6

5

4

3

TABLE III
2

PROJECTED UK OFF-SHORE WIND POWER

1

Status
0
2000

2002

2004

2006

2008

2010

Fig. 10. Individual turbine capacity at off-shore wind farm installations

Operational
Under construction

Number of turbines per installation

2004

Fig. 12. Total capacity of off-shore wind farm installations

2500

Individual turbine capacity (MW)2002

Pre-construction

120

Planning
100

4.

60
40
20

2002

2004

2006

2008

Round
2

Round
3

1222
62
0

1771
1476
1999

0
0
18
5198

2095

)

2993
1538
2017
7293

Cumulative
capacity
(MW)

2993
4531
6548
13841

ECONOMIC CONSIDERATIONS

British electricity suppliers are required by law to provide a
proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind
power. The supplier receives a Renewables Obligation Certificate(ROC) for each MWhr of electricity purchased [19]. Off-shore
wind attracts double the ‘ROCs’ per MWhr compared withon-shore to reflect the additional costs. Wind energy generation
costs were estimated at £83/MWhr (~$150/MWhr) for on-shoreand £169/MWhr (~$250/MWhr) for off-shore at 2011 [20]. The
premium costs for windpower, as with other renewables that fallunder the Renewable Obligation, are ultimately passed on fromthe electricity suppliers to the electricity consumer as higher per
unit charges.

80

0
2000

(

Round
1

Capacity
(MW)

2010

Fig. 11. Numbers of turbines per installation, off-shore4papers

5.

WIND GENERATION TO 2020 AND THE
ELECTRICITY SYSTEM

81

Rounds 1 and 2 are connected to the UK electiricty networks atvoltage levels of 132kV and below. Future larger off-shore farms
associated with Round 3 may be required to be connected directly
to the transmission system. The voltage level and design ofconnection for an individual farm will be dependent on its
capacity in relation to the local network thermal capacity, voltage
regulation and protection requitements. However, given the
projected significant increase of wind generation, it is necessary toassess impact on the overall UK transmission network. One of
National Grid’s future scenarios, know as ‘gone green’, is shownin Table IV. The transition to 2020 is shown in Figure 13 as a year
by year net change in generation type.

5.1 UK electricity system: description of current system and its
historical development
The electricity system in the UK includes a 50Hz, 400kV/275kVtransmission system which was established in the 1950s-1960s
under a nationalised authority, which became the Central
Electricity Generating Board (CEGB). This network, known as the‘supergrid’, as contructed to meet the rapid growth in UK demandin the decades up to the 1970s (~doubling of demand every
decade). The supergrid was overlaid on the previous nationaltransmission grid (operating at 132kV) which was established in
the 1930s. Accompanying the supergrid transmission development
and also under CEGB ownership, large centralised thermal power
stations were established to feed into the new transmission system.
The generation was based on coal (mainly) and nuclear powerwith 660MW standard size generating sets. The new coal-fired
power stations were chosen to be sited at the midlands andnorthern coal fields rather than in the major urban centres, as had
been previously the case, due to reasons of transportation
efficiency and urban clean-air legislation. Nuclear plant were sited,
generally, on the coast and away from centres of population. The
function of the supergird was therefore, not only to interconnect
the large new generating plant, but also to provide an element ofbulk power transfer capability within the UK (mainly from northto south). At its time of design, the supergrid was estimated tohave a potential capacity of up to 120GW. With the phased
retirement of 132kV generating stations, the 132kV grid network
gradually evolved into a distribution-type network in England andWales and ownership was transferred, subsequntly in the 1970s,
from the CEGB to the distribution companies, also at the time
under public ownership. The 132kV network in Soctland remains
a transmission network. The consequence of the retirement of
132kV-based generation was to lose the ability to control voltage
at the main ‘bulk supply point’ substations feeding the power fromthe transmission system to the distribution systems. The solution,
implemented over many years, was the widespread introduction of
shunt capcitive reactive compensation [21].

TABLE IVNATIONAL GRID’S ‘GONE GREEN’ SCENARIO FOR 2020

In 1990, the electricity industry in the UK was privatised, with theformation of one main transmission operator (TO) - National Grid
– and, over time, a large number of independent private generatingcompanies were established. The distribution companies
companies are now privately-owned ‘distribution network
operators’ (DNOs) while the commercial arrangements forelectricity are handled between the generators, companies known
as electricity suppliers, and consumers. The Transmission
Operator (National Grid) has two main responsibilities (i) toensure there is an adequate and reliable network to meet
anticipated power transmission requirements and (ii) as an
operator for the residual power balancing (difference at any given
time between contracted generation and required demand). The
industry is now market driven and the structure of the market andthe conduct of the particpating companies is the responsibility of
the an independent regulator (OfGEM). The UK government’s
Department for Energy and Climate Change (DECC) sets theregulatory framework.

2010/112010/112020

Coal
Coal (CCS)
NuclearGas
Oil
Pumped Storage
Wind
Interconnectors
Hydro
Biomass
Marine

28.2
0.0
10.8
31.9
3.4
2.7
3.8
3.3
1.1
0.0
0.0

14.5
0.6
11.2
34.7
0.0
2.7
26.8
5.8
1.1
1.6
1.4

Total

85.3

100.5

Fig. 13. Net change in GB transmission connected generation capacity:(reproduced from [22])As can be seen from the table, it is projected that 28% of thetransmission connected fleet will consist of wind (and otherrenewables). Assuming a capacity factor of 30%, 70TWh (20%) of
average GB demand (320TWh) will be met through windcompared to 3% currently [22]. This high level of variablegeneration introduces more uncertainty and challenges forbalancing generation and demand as well as requiring new
infrastruture capacity. It is expected that there will be a significnat
increase in operating reserve requirment on the transmission
system. An illustration of the challenge of variability is shown in
Figure 14.
The large variability of wind generation is clearly seen, withload factors ranging from almost zero to ~80%. The demand

5.2 Impact of windfarms on transmission operation
The exisiting on and off-shore windfarms associated with5

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

projected to rise to 5.8GW which provides potential operating
benefits. Agreements between the TSOs either side of theinterconnectors (GB and France, Ireland, Netherlands andBelguim) allow for cross border balancing or emergency
assistance services for system security.
In the period up to 2020, it is projected that the transmission
network will require reinforcements through additional generation
connections, transmission upgrades with Quadrature Boosters,
HVDC interconnections within the transmission network, series
and shunt reactive compensation, further HVDC interconnection
to Europe and upgrades to existing transmission circuit capacity(voltage and current upgrading).

Demand side control measures
The increased deployment of smart metering is expected toachieve some flattening of the demand load curve and further
opportunities exist with large industrial electrocoty users toachieve significant controlled demand reduction with minimal
consumer impact.

Fig. 14. GB demand and wind generation profile on Jan 2010 (reproduced
from [22])profile has its expected daily shape with lower levels acrossweekend and holiday periods. National Grid has carried out
calculations by scaling this wind profile to 2021 (26.7GW
capacity) and subtracting it from the projected total GB demand.
Figure 15 represents a likely generation profile that would need tobe met by conventional thermal generation.

Research and developments
The following examples are areas of ongoing research as a resultof expected higher levels of wind generation;
Uprating of capacity and voltage of HVDC converters
Multi-terminal HVDC systems
European Supergrid
Higher capacity HV cables
Gas Insulated Lines for AC off-shore transmission using
alternative gases to SF6.

5.

ELECTRICITY AND WIND GENERATION TO
2050

National Grid has taken the ‘gone green’ scenario and made a
projection to 2050, as shown in Figure 17 (based on a reduction in
overall greenhouse gas emissions by 2050 of 80% on 1990 levels).
Here, electricity demand increases mainly due to the wide-scale
introduction of heat pumps and electric vehicles and rises to~500TWh per auum 2050. Electricity supply is predominantly
low-carbon by 2030 with extensive wind generation. Beyond 2030,
wind is considered mature and its capacity levels out, while
nuclear is set to rise alongside Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS)
power stations fuelled by coal, biomass and gas. It is anticipatedthat there will be no unabated thermal generation by 2050 [23].

Fig. 15. Example of thermal generation requirement: GB demand net ofwind projected to 2021 (reproduced from [22])5.3 Meeting the challenges

System operation measures
National Grid assume that wind will not generally be curtailed
to provide operating reserve except in periods where the sum of
inflexible generation plus wind exceeds minimum demand.
Therefore, it is expected that flexible thermal plant will meet
operating reserve requirements which are made up of(i)Basic Reserve – reserve for demand forecast error andconventional generation loss(ii)
Reserve for response –sudden loss of 2 times thelargest generating set (1800MW)(iii)
Reserve for wind – to manage variability.
A projection of this requirement in 2020 by National Grid isshown in Figure 16.
It should be noted that improved wind forecasting models will
also hep to reduce the operating uncertainty. Currently, it isassumed that wind output can deviate from forecast by 50% over 4
hours; the aim, through developing improved forecasting models,is to reduce this to around 30% by 2020. [22].

Increased transmission capacity

Fig. 17. Electricity demand and generation projected to 2050 (reproduced
from [23])Increased capacity of interconnectors to mainland Europe canalso help. As can be seen form Table IV, interconnector capacity is6papers

83

availablehttp://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/meeting_energy/
oil_gas/gasgenstrat/gasgenstrat.aspx#(8) David JC MacKay, “Sustainable Energy — without the hot air”,
UIT Cambridge Ltd., Cambridge (2009).
(9) EU (2013), “Energy; Country fact sheets”, available
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/observatory/countries/countries_en.htm(10) Environment Change Institute, “Wind power and the UK windresource”, University of Oxford, 2005.
(11) G. Hughes, “The Performance of Wind Farms in the United
Kingdom and Denmark”, Renewable Energy Foundation, London
2012.
(12) US Department of Energy (2008), “20% wind energy by 2030Increasing wind energy’s contribution to US electrocity supply”,
availablehttp://www.windpoweringamerica.gov/pdfs/20_percent_wind_2.pdf(13) Department of Energy and Climate Change: DECC (2013):
RESTATSrenewableenergymaps:
Available

5. CONCLUSIONSThe UK has made progress to install significant quantities ofon-shore wind installations and is currently the world leader foroff-shore projects. The currently installed capacity of 8GW may
ramp up to 27GW as soon as 2020. Considerable transmission
network infrastructure reinforcement will be required toaccommodate such large quantities of wind power and there will
also be significant operational challenges to maintain sufficient
operating reserve. As far forward as 2050, wind may be seen as
the largest of three main electricity resources alongside nuclear
and CCS conventional carbon fuel generations.
References

https://restats.decc.gov.uk/cms/wind-farm-capacities-map

(1)

(2)

(3)
(4)

(5)

(6)

(7)

(14) Department of Energy and Climate Change: DECC (2013):
Planningdatabase:Availablehttps://restats.decc.gov.uk/app/reporting/dec

Department of Energy and Climate Change: DECC (2011), “UK
Renewable
EnergyRoadmap”,
available
http://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/meeting_energy/renewabl
e_ener/re_roadmap/re_roadmap.aspx
Department of Energy and Climate Change: DECC (2012), “UK
Renewable Energy Roadmap Update 2012”, available
https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachme
nt_data/file/80246/11-02-13_UK_Renewable_Energy_Roadmap_
Update_FINAL_DRAFT.pdf
HM Treasury (2011), “Control framework for DECC levy-funded
spending”, available http://hm-treasury.gov.uk/d/ control_
framework_decc250311.pdf
Parsons Brinckerhoff (2012), “Solar PV Cost Update, May 2012”,
availablehttp://www.decc.gov.uk/assets/decc/11/meetingenergy-de
mand/renewable-energy/4290-solar-pv-cost-update-report--3-feb2012-.pdf
Arup (2011), “Review of Generation costs and deployment
potential of renewable electricity technologies in the UK”,
avaiablehttp://www.decc.gov.uk/assets/decc/11/consultation/ro-banding/3237-cons-ro-banding-arupreport.pdf
Department of Energy and Climate Change: DECC (2012), “A
brief guide to the carbon valuation methodology for UK policy
appraisal”,availablehttp://www.decc.gov.uk/en/content/cms/about/ec_social_res/analytic_projs/gen_costs/gen_costs.aspx
Department of Energy and Climate Change: DECC (2012), “ Gas
Generation Strategy Modelling, DECC Gas Generation Strategy”,

c/datasheet(15) The Guardian, “Has the wind revolution stalled in the UK?”,
Availablehttp://www.guardian.co.uk/environment/2012/feb/27/has-wind-revolution-stalled-in-uk?intcmp=239(16) BWEA (2009), “What does the Round 3 announcement mean?”,available:http://www.renewableenergyfocus.com/view/6293/uks-offshore-wind-round-3-winning-consortia-announced/(17) Boyle, Godfrey (2007), “Oơshore wind: the potential to contributea quarter of UK electricity by 2024”, Wind Engineering, 31(2), pp.
65–74.
(18) Feng, Y. and Tavner, P.J. and Long, H. (2010) ’Early experienceswith UK Round 1 oơshore wind farms.’, Proceedings of theInstitution of Civil Engineers : energy., 163 (4). pp. 167-181.
(19) UK regulator for Gas and Electricity (OFGEM), “Renewables
Obligation”,Availablehttp://www.ofgem.gov.uk/Sustainability/Env
ironment/RenewablObl/Pages/RenewablObl.aspx(20) Mott MacDonald (2011), “Costs of low-carbon generation
technologies: report for UK Government Committee on Climate
Change.
(21) British Electricity International (BEI), “Modern Power Station
Practice”, Vol. K, Pergamon Press, 1990.
(22) National Grid (2011), “Operating the electricity networks in2020”.
(23) National Grid (2012), “UK Future Energy Scenarios”.

7papers

ENERGY POLICY AND INFRASTRUCTURES IN FINLAND
Matti Lehtonen, Aalto University
Presentation at Doshisha University
March 2013

ENERGY POLICY
Being an EU member state, the energy policy of Finland is very much influenced by the EU
directives and policy. According to the EU Energy Package 1/2007, the following developments
must be realized by the year 2020 on EU level:– Cut 20% of greenhouse gas emission– Increase 20% of renewable energy– Increase 20% of energy efficiency
The targets have been divided between the member states according to their capabilities andstarting level. Finland being intensive in bio fuels has the target of renewable power production
to be 38% of energy production. Another important piece of legislation is the EU Energy
Efficiency Directive 2006 which has been implemented by energy efficiency audits andagreements, and by an act requiring by 2013 hourly metering for practically all the customers.
Other instruments of energy policy include in-feed tariffs for renewable production, where thestate is directly subsidizing for 12 years for plants over 500 kW.
In the future the emission trade will have more impact, since the price of the emission rights is
expected to rise. A perhaps unexpected byproduct of emission trade has been so called wind fall
profits. These are created using CO2-free production, like nuclear and hydro, since the market
price of power is increased due to the emission trade. There is a discussion whether these windfall profits should be taxed.
The Nordic power generation system is depicted in slide 3. The dominating generation is hydrowith about 50% share. The other two large generation categories are nuclear and CHP (combined
heat and power). For peak power production some condensing conventional and gas turbines areused.
In Nordic countries the power price level is mainly set in spot market, in the Nordic level. The
system price is simply defined by summing the hourly offers to buy in decaying price order, andoffers to sell in rising price order. The point where these sum curves intersect defines the systemprice for all the spot power of the respective hour. In practice this means that the more the actual
generation cost is below the marginal generation price of the hour, the bigger is the profit madeby the generation company (slide 4).

85

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

Though being a part of Nordic power market, the price area depends on the transmission
situation and load flows in the interconnecting lines. Finland has interconnections with Sweden
over AC lines in the North and a submarine DC cable link through the Baltic sea. To the Estonia
there is also a DC submarine cable, and to the Russia an AC/DC – DC/AC link, capable oftransmitting 1400 MW. A typical transmission situation in winter time is shown in slide 5.
INFRASTRUCTURES
The basic power system structure in Finland is presented in slide 7. The main part of thetransmission network is operating at 400 kV with some older parts at 220 kV. These networks
are of bare conductor overhead line construction. Local subtransmission operates at 110 kV. At
this level the tendency is to use more underground cables in the city and suburban areas. The
distribution is operating mostly at 20 kV voltage, with the exception being the urban core insome old cities like Helsinki and Turku, where 10 kV is used. And finally, the low voltage is thestandard 0.4 kV system.
The Nordic transmission system is shown in slide 8. The tendency is to build new tie lines toCentral Europe, which in practice means that the Norwegian hydro capacity will be used inhigher degree to level the intermittent renewable production of Germany, for instance. The priceformation in the Nordic power market depends on the generation situation versus the tie line
capacities use. In case of restriction in tie lines, the Nordic area is divided into price zones,
however Finland is operating practically as a single uniform price area. As is seen in slide 9, theprice differences in the areas typically are small. This is however, expected to change in the
future when the market is getting stronger coupling to Germany and other Central Europe.
The division of the power generation or supply types in Finland is shown in slide 10. The
dominating types are Nuclear, CHP, hydro and imports. CHP is mostly used in larger cities as
the main heating system (with regard to the building volume) is district heating. About 120
companies are involved in generation, the biggest being the power companies Fortum (40%) andPVO Group (20%), slide 11.
The energy and power demand and their expected growth are depicted in the slides 12 and 13. It
is expected that though the energy efficiency will be increased, the power demand is still
growing due to the fact that many energy efficiency investments, like heat pumps and electricalvehicles, decrease the use of fossil fuels but require the increased use of electricity.
The division of power consumption among sectors is shown in slide 14. Industry uses rough halfof the power, households 22%, service 12% and public sector 7%. The high share of households
is explained by intensive use of electricity for space heating.
The power market in Finland was liberalized in 1995. The basic rule is that selling andgeneration is governed by the markets, whereas transmission and distribution networks remainmonopolies and thus must be regulated. The Transmission System Operator Fingrid is
responsible for technical and commercial balance management and is not allowed to participate
in energy trade as an active party. The networks are unbundled from generation and selling inpapers

order to prevent cross-subsidizing which may distort the markets. The principal operation of
power markets is illustrated in slide 17. Although the power price is set at Nordpool, there also
are bilateral agreements between major parties, i.e. producers-retailers, producers-large end users
etc. The prices in power exchange are published but the bilateral agreements naturally are not.
The operation of the power market from the power balance management point of view ispresented in slide 18. The Nordic spot market has two products, Elspot being the hourly market
for the next day, and Elbas being the hourly intraday market. In addition there is regulation
power market for next hour balancing, operated by TSO Fingrid. The prices are set differently
for the three cases: generation up, generation down and leveling the demand (demand up is equal
to demand down). The purpose of this regulating market is to optimize the immediate balance ofgeneration and demand at the hour of delivery. So far the price of the regulation power has been
relatively close to the price of power in spot market, thus indicating that the market is working
well and that there are no problems with the control or peak power capacity.
Distribution networks
The following section gives an outline of the distribution network infrastructure in Finland. A
brief history of the power system development is in slide 20. The power systems were first
introduced in some factories and as local systems to replace the gas based street lighting in somemajor cities. This happened in 1880´s. The city utilities were mostly established round the
beginning of the 20th Century, but the largest rural networks were built only after the World War
II, in the late 1940´s. The rural power companies were slowly merged as bigger units, but nomajor changes happened in the industry until in 1995, when the power markets were liberalized.
The two major steps in power market development were in 1998 when all customers wereallowed to freely choose their power producer and in 2013 when all customers are to be taken to
the hourly based automatic meter reading. This latest step is expected to be crucial for thedevelopment of energy efficiency. In addition to the remote reading the hourly demands on adaily basis, the meters are equipped with remote control capability that makes the control of e.g.
heating loads possible, thus enabling Demand Response.
Characteristic for the Finnish distribution system is long distances, sparse population, demanding
climate and relatively high electricity use per capita (slide 21). There are around 130 000 km of
medium voltage lines to supply 5.4 million people, or about 2 million electrical customers. Thelines are primarily of overhead construction, and built straight through forested areas whichmakes them vulnerable to disturbances caused by strong winds, snow and lightning. An exampleof the network layout in a rural area is given in slide 23. Most of the primary substations do havea double feed from the 110 kV subtransmission network, but some of the HV/MV stations are ofsatellite type, that is, they only have one supplying line. In these cases the only reserve supply isover MV network. The medium voltage network has a similar layout, with some parts being inloop and some secondary substations only having one feeding MV line. In case of loop, theoperation is however radial and the reserve supply requires time consuming switching.

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The large distances and relatively small load density mean strict financial limitations to the basic
solutions of the power delivery systems. Consequently, the networks are relatively simple.
Examples of the typical primary (HV/MV) substations in rural and suburban areas are given inslides 26 and 27. An example of the MV switchgear building is given in slide 28, and a typicalcase of the present type MV overhead line is given in slide 29. Being a forested country, thepoles of the overhead line are made of wood. The lines were built in time when materials were
expensive, but the labor was cheaper than nowadays. That is why the lines are built short andstraight and, in most cases unfortunately, through the forests. Nowadays the new lines are built
primarily along the roads for two reasons: they are easier to patrol and repair and also exhibit
lower fault rates since one side of the line is in open air. Since the strongest winds come fromwest, the lines are preferably located on the eastern side of the road.
Improved supply reliability is also looked for by using insulated overhead line structures. Very
popular is the covered conductor line, where the phase conductors of the line do have a thininsulation layer. This insulation is partial, but good enough to prevent supply interruptions incase of temporary touching of phases with each other or with ground. At the time being the rural
underground cabling is in focus too. Some rural distribution companies have an active policy
towards underground systems, but others are hesitating due to the high costs of civil works. In
Finland, the dominating soil type is moraine, making the ground works tedious.
A typical secondary substation in rural areas is shown in slide 31. Traditionally, the distribution
transformers in rural areas have been pole mounted, but the current tendency is to locate them incabins on the ground level, regardless the type of the connected lines. In low voltage networks
the dominating line type (in rural areas) has been an Air Bundle Cable as shown in slide 32.
However, nowadays practically all new LV lines are built using underground cable, installed inmany cases by plowing.
The comparison of overhead line and underground line costs is shown in slide 34. It is seen thatthe higher is the voltage the relatively more expensive is the underground cable. Cabling will
first come to lower voltages and to more densely populated areas.
With regard to overhead line structures, some pole and tower types used are shown in slide 35. In
400 kV level, the towers are solely metallic, but at 110 kV both metal and wood are being used.
In case of wood the preservative is creosote for 110 kV towers, but for wood poles at MV and
LV level, CCA-impregnation (copper-chrome-arsenic) was previously used. The latter is
nowadays regarded as harmful for environment and hence it has been replaced by copperimpregnation, which unfortunately is not as effective.
A detailed figure of a CC-line is given in slide 36. For the case of lightning, the line must be
equipped with arc protection, implemented as metallic arcing horns at every phase and every
insulator. In addition to the reduced interruptions of supply, the benefit of using CC-line insteadof bare conductor overhead line, is the narrower right of way needed. A more detailed figure of
the LV ABC-line is given in slide 38. The messenger of the line is also working as a neural wire.
This leads sometimes during the storms to a dangerous situation with over voltages at thecustomer side, if the messenger is broken. The risk can be mitigated by suspending themessenger using a mechanical fuse link, which yields prior the messenger is broken.

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A comparison of the limiting factors with regard to the rating of overhead lines versus the cables
is given in slide 39. As seen in the figures, the load capacity of the overhead lines is primarily
limited by the voltage drop, whereas the capacity of cables is restricted by the thermal limits(ampacity limits).
An example of the typical MV power cables used in Finland nowadays is shown in slide 40. The
new cables have XLPE-insulation (cross-linked polyethylene), and they have water sealing inboth radial and axial direction. If no water sealing, the water treeing phenomenon would destroy
the cable insulation before the technical life time would be otherwise to the end.
Increasing the reliability of power supply is in the focus, since the society is getting more andmore dependent on the uninterrupted power. Supply reliability is still a subject of optimization
since it requires quite large investments from the power company´s side. The optimum level ofreliability investments should be defined by the trade-off between the utility´s investments andthe reduction of the customer´s outage costs, slide 43. Nowadays, the reliability of distribution
systems is monitored by the authorities and the key indexes of the outages are collected andcompared. Some internationally accepted reliability indexes are listed in slide 44. There is anumber of options, which may be used in order to increase the supply reliability level:
•
•
•
•
•
•
•
•

New HV / MV substations
New feeders
New reserve connections
Network protection
Operational arrangements
Network automation
Replacement strategies
Maintenance strategies

Nowadays the quality of service that the power companies are offering to their customers is also
getting more attention. Broadly speaking, the quality of service covers the information services
delivered to the customers and the power quality (PQ), which is in turn divided into interruptionsof supply and voltage quality. Voltage quality is getting more of interest since on one hand thesensitive equipment are getting more common, and on the other hand, there is development ofconnecting more power electronics in the networks, with the consequence higher emissions ofdisturbances, slide 49.
According to the regulation, the longer outages have now been penalized in Finland. In case ofexcessive outage times, the power companies are obliged to give to the customer concerned asubstantial discount of the power price, slide 50. When increasing the reliability of power
distribution systems, it is necessary to know better the causes of faults and outages in powersystems. For Finnish rural MV networks, these are listed in slide 51, based on the statistics of theEnergy Industry Association. Major part of faults is covered by natural phenomena, storm andwind, snow burden on lines or trees and lightning.

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FUTURE CHALLENGES OF POWER SYSTEMS IN FINLAND
Certainly the biggest challenge of our society and also power systems is the climate change.
From generation point of view this means an urgent need to cut CO2-emissions and to shift torenewable energy sources. From power transmission and distribution point of view, the climatechange will amplify the extreme weather conditions and hence endanger the security andreliability of the power system. The most important weather factors that affect the power systemand that will be amplified are wind, thunder, snow and a tree fallen by snow (affected by thelessened frost in the soil). The changes in these factors, for two different scenarios and in the
North-West coast of Finland are depicted in slide 53. The scenario 1 refers to 0.5 degrees
increase in average temperature and the scenario 2 refers to 1.5 degrees respectively. It is seenthat the climate change will perhaps drastically increase the reliability problems in present powersystems.
Examples of the real cases where weather has caused trouble to infrastructures are shown inslides from 54 to 57. In slide 54, the impact of a storm called “Gudrun” in South Sweden, in
January 2005, is shown. The storm destroyed 20000 km of MV line and caused a sustained
outage to 340 000 households for several days. After the storm, 6000 km of underground cables
were laid in a quick pace.
The second example is crown snow (slide 55). The formation of it depends on the behavior of
temperature and snow fall around zero degrees temperature. In a typical case, large areas at thesame altitude level are affected by the crown snow formation, causing extra mechanical stress to
the line constructions and felling trees on the phases. The problem may be sustaining for a periodof several weeks. Even worse is the ice storm where icing of the mechanical structures iscombined to the strong winds. In Canada, in January 1998, over 4 million people lost electricity
due to the ice storm, slide 56.
The extreme weathers will also make lightning more common and stronger. In the future, therole of lightning protection will be increased in the power systems. Especially in the case withextensive use of cables, the management and protection of lightning overvoltages is a crucial
issue, since the cables are more vulnerable to overvoltage failures than the overhead lines.

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Energy policy and infrastructure in Iceland
Unnur Stella Gudmundsdottir
Abstract— This paper describes the energy policy andinfrastructure in Iceland. Iceland is a geographically isolatedisland, placed in the North Atlantic. This country, having thehighest power consumption of the world, has achieved 100%
power production from renewable energy sources. The country
is rich in hydro and geothermal resources, which have been
harnessed for electricity production and household heating
systems. Furthermore, Iceland is in front when it comes tohydrogen powered vehicles, having 40 public busses, poweredby hydrogen, produced using renewable energy.
Keywords: Iceland, Renewable Energy, Energy Policy,
Infrastructure

I. INTRODUCTIONI

CELAND is a country with a small population, only
320,000 people living on an island of 103,000 km2. Incomparison, Japan is 3.5 times larger in area but has over
127 million people (almost 400 times the number of people
in Iceland). Nevertheless, Iceland is a country having one of
the largest consumption of energy per capita, in the world,
28.2 MW/year (Japans consumption is approximately 5.19
MW/year per capita).
Iceland is a volcanic island placed in the North Atlantic.
The island is both in North America and Europe, as theseparation of the two plates runs through the middle of theisland. Politically, Iceland is a part of Europe, although not amember of the European Union.

Fig. 2 Iceland is an island filled with volcanos, mountains and glaciers.

The rough landscape is also what forms the standard ofliving in the country, and the possibilities in energy usage.
Due to the volcanic activity and mountains with large
glacier rives, there are numerous geothermal areas andsources for hydropower. Therefore, as the only country in
the world, 100% of energy production in Iceland is fromrenewable energy sources. 77% of total capacity is producedby hydro plants, while 23% is geothermal energy.
Furthermore almost 90% of all space heating comes fromgeothermal resources, and the rest is from renewableelectricity. Of all power consumption in Iceland, 70% isfrom renewable sources, while the remaining 30% are
imported fossil fuels for vehicles, vessels and someindustrial processes.
II. ENERGY POLICY

Fig. 1 The world map. Iceland is placed in the North Atlantic, marked witha red circle.

The landscape of the island is quite harsh, as only thecoastline can be used for living. This is due to the fact, thatthe rest of the island is filled with volcanos, large mountains
and numerous glaciers. Furthermore, almost 60% of the
population lives in or near Reykjavík, the capital of Iceland.

Paper submitted for Advanced Doctoral Program in GlobalthResource Management at Doshisha University March 10 2013.

A large part of the growth in Iceland is due to access tocheap renewable energy sources. The country does notpossess hard metals, fossil fuels or areas of rich agriculture,but instead renewable energy is harvested and offered as acheap sustainable natural resource for power intensive
industries. This is the cornerstone for ensuring a sustainable
future for the country’s economy and one of the main
reasons for the fast recovery from the financial crisis that hit
Iceland in 2008.
One of the goals of the Icelandic government has been toachieve 100% of all power consumption in Iceland to befrom renewable energy sources. It has long been a dream toturn Iceland into the first hydrogen society by 2050, andhence there has been large work done in this field. In 1998
the Icelandic Parliament decided to strive for converting
vehicle and fishing fleets to hydrogen, produced fromrenewable energy. In 2003 the first hydrogen fuel station
was opened in Reykjavík and since 2007 there have been 40
hydrogen powered public busses on the streets of Reykjavík.
Although the country is in front regarding hydrogen based
public transportation, Iceland has seen the possibilities ofusing electric vehicles instead, due to more efficiency andless cost. The goal is still to become energy-independent,
using 100% renewable energy in all sectors, by 2050.

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III. ENERGY PRODUCTION AND CONSUMPTION
Today, 100% of all energy production is renewable and
70% of all power consumption (including vehicles and fleet)comes from renewable energy sources. The largest
consumption is by power intensive industry, such asaluminium smelters, green houses and fishing industry. Infact 82% of all produced energy in Iceland (16.5 GWh), isfor power intensive industries.

x

x
x
x

Fig. 3 Electricity consumption in Iceland is 16.5 GWh.

A. HydroIn 1904 the first hydroplant was set in operation in
Iceland. The turbine was 9 kW and was placed in a small
town close to Reykjavik, called Hafnarfjörður. In 1915,
several small turbines had been started throughout thecountry, producing a total of 370 kW. In 1965 the official
Icelandic electrical production company, Landsvirkjun wasestablished. Landsvirkjun is still today the owner of thelargest hydroplants in the country, and the main supplier ofelectricity for power intensive industry.

x
x

x

x

x

x
x
x
Fig. 4 Hydro power plant, Hrauneyjafossstöð, owned by Landsvirkjun.

Today, there are several hydroplants in operation in
Iceland. Amongst these are:x Blöndustöð can produce 910 GWh/year. It was
built in 1991 and uses water from a large glacierriver in the north of the country. The height difference used for production in this plant is 287 m.
x Búrfellsstöð can produce 2300 GWh/year. It was
built in 1969 and enlarged in 1998. The plant uses alarge glacier river in the southern part of thecountry. The used height difference is 115 m, andthere are 6 Francis turbines.
x Fljótsdalsstöð can produce 4800 GWh/year. It was
built in 2007 and uses water from a reservoir highx

on the mountains in the east part of the country.
The used total height difference is more than 600
m, and there are 6 large Francis turbines in use.
From the plant, the water is put into a large glacierriver.
Hrauneyjafossstöð can produce 1300 GWh/year. It
was built in 1981 and uses water from a small riverin the southern part of the country, 1.5 km above awaterfall and 7 km below another hydroplant. The
used height difference is only 88m.
Írafossstöð can produce 236 GWh/year. It was built
in 1953 and enlarged in 1963. The plant uses twowaterfalls in the southern part of the country.
Laxárstöð I can produce 3 GWh/year. It was built
in 1939 and enlarged in 1944. The plant uses awaterfall in the northern part of the country.
Lasárstöð II can prduce 78 GHw/year. It was built
in 1953 and uses a small river in the northern partof the country.
Laxárstöð III can produce 92 GWh/year. It was
built in 1973 and uses a small river in the northernpart of the country.
Ljósafossstöð can produce 105 GWh/year. It was
built in 1937 and enlarged in 1944. It uses awaterfall in the western part of the country, close to
Reykjavik.
Sigöldustöð can produce 920 GWh/year. It was
built in 1978 and taps water from a large glacierriver in the southern part of the highlands ofIceland. It contains 3 Francis turbines.
Steingrímsstöð can produce 122 GWh/year. It was
built in 1959 and uses a small river in the southernpart of the country. It is a part of three plants after
each other in this river.
Sultartangastöð can produce 1020 GWh/year. It
was built in 1999 and uses water from a large
glacier river in the south-western part of thehighlands.
Vatnsfellsstöð can produce 490 GWh/year. It was
built in 2001 and uses a river from a large lake inthe southern part of Iceland.
Andakílsárstöð can produce 25 GWh/year. It was
built in 1942 and is placed in western Iceland, not
far north of Reykjavik.
Elliðaárstöð can produce 16 GWh/year. It was built
in 1921 and enlarged in 1933. It is placed inReykjavik and uses a small river that flows in thecity.
Mjólkárvirkjun can produce 42 GWh/year. It was
built in 1975, is placed in the far western part of thecountry and uses a large glacier river in the area.

Most hydroplants in Iceland use vertical Francis turbines,
where the water is taken from a reservoir, through a tunnel
and then turns the blades of the turbine.

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Fig. 5 Above: The common principle used in Icelandic hydro plants.
Below: The Francis turbine.

B. Geothermal
Iceland is placed on the Atlantic ridge, where the North
American and European plates meet. Due to this, there arelarge high temperature geothermal fields through the middleof the country, see Fig. 6.

Fig. 7 Above: Geothermal plant at Nesjavellir. Below: Part of 23 km pipe
for hot water, from Nesjavellir to Reykjavík.

Most geothermal power plants either produce electricity
or heating. There are though few that produce both, asshown in Fig. 8.

Fig. 6 A high-temperature geothermal field runs through the middle ofIceland.

Use of geothermal resources is split into two categories;
using steam from geothermal sources, for producing
electricity, and direct use of the geothermal hot water, forhousehold heating, swimming pools, bathing, green houses,
etc. In 1907, geothermal sources were first harnessed in
Iceland. A farmer put a pipe from a hot spring that led steam
into his house using it for his heating system. In 1940-1975,
Iceland converted from oil to geothermal district heating.
Today, 89% of all houses in Iceland are heated using
geothermal energy (the rest coming from renewable electricheating), and 23% of all produced electricity comes forgeothermal resources.
For heating houses in Reykjavík and surroundings, a 23
km long pipe is used to transport hot water from two
geothermal plants just North-East of Reykjavík, see Fig. 7.
Here hot water is pumped at 177 m above sea level, andtransported to storage at 140 m above sea level.

Fig. 8 Principle in a geothermal plant, where both electricity and heating is
produced.

The largest geothermal power plants in Iceland arefollowing:x Nesjavellir can produce 120 MW of electricity
and 300 MWt hot water. The plant wascommenced in 1990.
x Reykjanes can produce 100 MW of electricity.
The plant was commenced in 2006.

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Hellisheiði can produce 303 MW of electricity
and 133 MWt of hot water. The plant was commenced in 2006.
Krafla can produce 60 MW of electricity. The
plant was commencend in 1977.
Svartsengi can produce 76,5 MW of electricity
and 80 MWt of hot water. The plant wascommenced in 1976. The surplus mineral-richwater from this plant is the very popular andfamous bathing resort, the Blue Lagoon.

C. Wind

The total length of the Icelandic transmission system in2013 is 3170 km. The system consists of a single ringconnection, and large amount of radial connections without
any connection to other countries. The islands network
system is therefore weak and vulnerable for any types ofdisturbances. Due to increasing demand and larger loads, itis necessary to strengthen the grid network in Iceland. The
plan is therefore to build a line, across the island, thus
creating more meshed network, to give stability and ensure
supply of electricity to both households and industry. Even
more strengthening of lines will be built, and the network in
2025 should be 3980 km long, see Fig. 10.

Due to the privilege of being able to harness abundant
low-cost geothermal and hydropower energy, it has not been
beneficial to utilize wind as a renewable energy source in
Iceland. However, with all its highlands, and placed in the
North Atlantic, Iceland is a windy country and having highpotential of utilizing wind farms for electricity production.
Iceland has started research in the area of using windenergy, by building two wind turbines. The wind turbines
are placed in the highlands, on a flatland between large
mountains, forming a natural wind tunnel. The windturbines were commenced the 14th of February 2013, andeach turbine can produce 900 kW. If the research project
gives promising results, it is possible to install several morewind turbines in the area.
D. Solar power
Iceland is an island positioned far up in the North
Atlantic. Due to the latitude, the country has a relatively low
insolation, with very little in the winter. In fact, during
November, December and January, the average sun hours a
day is less than 1. Therefore, already having 100% electrical
production via geothermal and hydro resources, it is not
feasible to install solar power in Iceland.
IV. ENERGY TRANSMISSION
The transmission system in Iceland is defined with 3
voltage levels; 66 kV, 132 kV and 220 kV, see Fig. 9. Mostof the transmission system is radial, due to the low
population, which is scattered on the coastline around thewhole island. It is therefore due to historical reasons, that 66
kV is a part of the transmission system, and not the
distribution system.

Fig. 10 Plans for network development until 2025.

When building new transmission lines, all environmental
aspects must be accounted for. The project needs
permissions from the local government, which sets highambitions for environmental impact and public acceptance.
Due to large protest against new overhead lines and focus on
the environment, Landsnet, the Icelandic Transmission
System Operator, made in 2008 a competition for ideas on
new pylons. Some of the outcome is shown in Fig. 11.

Fig. 11 Ideas for new pylons, results from a competition held in 2008.
Fig. 9 The transmission system in Iceland in 2012

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The focus has also been on improving the environmental
impact of substations. Therefore Landsnet has also looked atsome new ideas for indoor GIS transformerstations, shownin Fig. 12.

Fig. 13 Possible HVDC connections to the mainland of Europe.

Fig. 12 Design for indoor transformer stations.

Transmission cables are not common in the Icelandictransmission network. Underground cables are though usedin all towns and cities, as well as between the mainland of
Iceland and small islands not far from the coastline. In
cities, all transmission, water, electricity, telephone lines,
fiberoptic network, etc. are kept underground, while in morerural areas, overhead lines are used.
Underground cables are though becoming of moreinterest amongst the population, and the government has of2012 established a group of people, looking into possibilities
and cost of using more cables instead of overhead lines fortransmission of electricity. The results from this group are
not available yet, but it is for sure, that high ground heatbecause of geothermal resources, lava ground and rocky
environment, as well as the number of local earthquakes, isa large challenge for the idea of using only, or mainly,
underground cables instead of overhead lines.

Some research and discussions have been started, but afinal decision to the matter has not been made. The projectis highly criticized because of the risk of high increase in
prices of electricity in Iceland, due to open markets in
Europe.
VI. ELECTRICITY MARKETst

As of July 1 2003, there has been an open electricity
market in Iceland. Before this date, almost all electricity was
supplied by Landsvirkjun, and sold through regional
distribution companies. Landsvirkjun therefore at that time,
had a monopoly position. Today, the market is split up into
three factors: Power intensive industry, losses and generalmarket, see Fig. 14.

Power intensive industry

V. CONNECTION TO EUROPE
It is believed, that there is about 20 TWh per year of
unharnessed geothermal energy in Iceland. Furthermore,
there is around 30 TWh per year of unharnessed feasiblehydropower. This is about 8% of the entire, by year,
electricity consumed in Germany.
Due to this high potential for renewable energy sourcesin Iceland, an electrical connection to Europe has been
discussed in Iceland for about 60 years. This has however
not been feasible before, but because of increased demand
for green energy supply in Europe, and better HVDC andSubmarine Cable technology, the voices for an electricalconnection to the mainland have been getting more andmore interest.
For a connection to Europe, there are three main
possibilities; connections to the Netherlands via Scotland,
directly to Germany, or directly to Norway, see Fig. 13.

Fig. 14 The electricity market in Iceland.

Due to the fact that Landsvirkjun owns and operates thelargest hydroplants in the country, it is the largest or only
supplier of electricity to the market for power intensive
industries. Furthermore, Landsvirkjun often supplies theminimum stable load, while other smaller suppliers (mostly
having geothermal energy plants) deliver power for swings
in the load. These smaller companies are also the largest on
the general market.
As the rest of the world, Iceland is looking more andmore into a future of possible smart grid solutions. The TSO(Landsnet) has therefore a vision, of how the electricity
market should be in the future, see Fig. 15.

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production is from 100% renewable energy sources, in formof both hydropower and geothermal plants. Furthermore, thevision and energy policy of the government of Iceland, has
had focus on having the country fully energy-independent
by 2050, having both vehicles and fishing fleet using energy
from renewable sources.
IX. BIOGRAPHIES

Fig. 15 A vision of the future electricity market in Iceland, borrowed fromLandsnet.

For the new market structure, the market should be more
open, than it is today. The end-user should have more
influence on where to buy the electricity from, and what
type of electricity to buy. But due to the fact that the
Icelandic electricity market is geographically isolated, thischange in market structure is very costly.
VII. OTHER INFRASTRUCTURE
Iceland is an isolated country, with small population andhas 100% of all electrical production in renewable energy
sources. The heating of houses is either done by geothermal
hot water, or by electricity from renewable energy supply.
And even though the electricity and water consumption is
the highest in the world (per capita), and steadily increasing,it is estimated, that there is about 50 TWh/year unharnessedfeasible renewable sources in the country. Due to this, there
has been no need for either gas or electricity from fossil
fuels. Gas has not been harnessed in Iceland, and it isunlikely that there is much of it in the subsea ground aroundthe country. Even though there was, there is no focus andlittle interest in using gas for electricity or households in
Iceland. The only large pipe-system in the country istherefore used for hot water, coming from geothermal
sources, or for cold water, coming from the ground or themountains in Iceland. Clean water is another source in
Iceland, where there is no use for water cleaning units orwater stations. The water is pumped directly from theground, where it has been naturally filtered in the rocky
landscape. This water is one of the cleanest in the world, andis exported on bottles, to countries with less clean watersupplies.
Transportation in Iceland is by vehicles, shipping or
airplanes. Due to the low population, railways have not beenchosen as a feasible solution, and hence there are no rails in
the country. Most cargo is shipped on sea, while some isshipped in air. Import to Iceland is also both by air andshipping.
VIII. CONCLUSIONSThis paper has given an overview of the energy policy
and infrastructure in Iceland.
The paper explains the energy consumption, powertransportation, plans for the future, and other infrastructuresin Iceland. It is shown, how even though Iceland has theworld record in power consumption per capita, all power

Unnur Stella Guðmundsdottir was born in
Hafnarfjörður, Iceland in 1980. She received her
B.Sc. degree in 2003 from The University of
Iceland, and her M.Sc. degree in 2007 from
Aalborg University in Denmark. She received anhonours prise from the Danish ElectricalEngineering society for her M.Sc. final thesis.
Unnur Stella obtained her PhD degree from theInstitute of Energy Technology, Aalborg
University, in June 2010 where she alsosupervised students pursuing their M.Sc. degree in energy technology. Her
PhD studies focused on modelling of underground cable system at thetransmission level and were carried out for the Danish TSO (Energinet.dk).
She was a guest researcher at SINTEF in Norway in November 2008 and at
Manitoba HVDC Research Centre in Canada during June-October 2009.
Currently she holds a position as a senior cable specialist and a Group
Leader in Power Transmission at Energinet.dk, where she also is a deputy
manager for DANPAC, a research project focusing on undergrounding ofalmost the entire Danish transmission system. Unnur Stella is also theowner of the company Maris StarCab Consultancy, which is active in
Educational consultancy, giving lectures and power engineering courses
throughout the world.

papers

A Study of Measures to Satisfy the Growing Demand for Electricity in Zambia
Toshie INUI
Graduate School of Global Studies, Doshisha University
Abstract
It is well known that the use of renewable energy is an effective measure to
reduce the emission of greenhouse gases such as CO2. This is one of the dominantreasons why renewable energy has become very attractive, especially in advanced
countries where large amounts of oil and coal are consumed in electricity-generation
plants. Renewable energy is also valuable in underdeveloped and energy-poor countries,
such as the African country of Zambia, because it is rather easy to put into place and it
is less expensive than constructing a large thermal or hydraulic power plant. In thispaper, we describe the current electricity situation in Zambia, and we investigate threemeasures that can be taken to satisfy the growing demand for electricity in that country.
Zambia is located 1,000–1,300 m above sea level. The average precipitation per year is
500–1,500 mm, and the southern part of Zambia receives more rainfall than the northern
part. The dry season is from May to September; the rainy season is from October toApril. In 2008, the electricity generation capacity in Zambia was 1,860 MW. About 98%of that was covered by hydroelectric power plants. Industry is the main consumer ofelectricity, especially the mining industry, and its percentage is higher than 60%. The
rate of electricity use has been increasing annually due to population growth, economic
growth, etc. It is estimated that the population will increase 2.3% per year and thepercentage of electrification will increase about 3.5%–6% per year. In addition, power
generation always decreases during the dry season. Therefore, a higher generation
capacity is required in order to satisfy future electricity demand in Zambia. Based on theinvestigation detailed in this paper, the following measures should be taken: (i)Incandescent lamps, monitors, and other household appliances such as TVs and PCs
should be changed to light-emitting diode (LED) lights and products that use LEDs.
This will reduces electricity use by about 80%. (ii) Photovoltaic generation should be
introduced. (iii) Existing hydropower plants should be replaced by pumped-storagehydropower generators. This will enable energy storage during a light load and power
generation during peak load.

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1.

Introduction
Electricity demand in developing and emerging countries has been increasing by
the year due to rapid economic growth. How do such countries manage the supply anddemand for this power? Many countries rely on thermal power, nuclear power, or both.
However, issues regarding CO2 emission and the risks of nuclear power are negatively
impacting the people in these countries, as well as the world at large.
Some countries produce electricity using renewable energy almost exclusively, e.g.,hydraulic power. In this paper, we will examine the case of the Republic of Zambia(Zambia). Economic development in Zambia is rooted in natural resources, such ascopper, and the nation’s economic structure is similar to that of other developing
countries with dramatically growing economies. The demand for electricity in Zambia
has been increasing dramatically each year. However, the government’s policy does notinclude any plans to construct nuclear power stations or to increase the generation ofthermal power. Zambia already utilizes renewable energy (hydraulic power), and thepower generated in this way accounts for 98% [1] of the nation’s supply of electricity. In
addition, there are plans to introduce other forms of renewable energy in Zambia,
especially solar power and wind power. Thus when Zambia satisfies all of the supply
and demand for electricity using renewable energy, it will become a leading example inthe movement to establish environmentally friendly energy sources.
In this paper, we investigate three measures to satisfy the increasing demand forelectricity in Zambia. The first measure involves reducing electricity consumption, thesecond is photovoltaic (PV) power generation, and the third is a more efficient usage ofhydropower generation, i.e., pumped-storage hydropower generation.
2.

Current Electricity Situation in Zambia
Zambia is a lower-middle-income country. In 2012, its GNI per capita (Atlas
Method) was 1,350 USD and the GDP was 20.68 billion USD. In 2010, the poverty
head count rate at 1.25 USD (PPP) was 74.5% and its 2 USD (PPP) rate was 86.6%. It
is apparent that there are many people who live at 2 USD (PPP) in Zambia. On the other
hand, electricity consumption per capita in 2010 was 609.4 kWh [2].

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Figure 1. Structure of the electric sector in Zambia.
(This figure is based on the source from JICA 2010 [3].)Figure 1 illustrates the structure of the electric sector in Zambia. The top of thesector is the Ministry of Energy and Water Development. There are four administration
organizations: the Department of Energy, the Office for Promoting Private PowerInvestments (OPPPI), the Rural Electrification Agency (REA), and the Zambezi River
Authority (ZRA). The Department of Energy focuses on policy planning and its
operation, making laws to regulate the energy sector. The energy sector includes
electricity, oil, coal, charcoal, and renewable energy. The OPPPI conducts the nationalenergy policy, which includes making the electric services more efficient andintroducing private capital into the development of hydraulic power plants. Thus the
OPPPI mainly conducts evaluations and negotiations for policy administration. The
REA was established by the Rural Electric Act. Thus it focuses on the management andassemblage of the rural electrification fund, the operation and renewal of the rural
electrification master plan, etc. The ZRA researches and manages the Zambezi River,which is one of the trans-boundary rivers between Zambia and Zimbabwe [4].
There are three electric services companies: ZESCO, CEC, and LHPC. ZESCO
stands for the Zambia Electric Supply Corporation, and it is a public company. CEC is
the Copperbelt Energy Corporation, and it can be regarded as a private transmission
company for the Copperbelt area. It deals exclusively with copper mining companies,
but it has power stations operated by gas turbines with a total capacity of 80 MW. LHPC,
which stands for the Lunsenfwa Hydropower Company, is also a private company. It is
an independent power producer, and it sells electricity to ZESCO. Figure 2 illustrates
the installed and available capacity of the power stations of each electric services

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company [5].

Figure 2. Total installed and available capacity of power stations for electric service
companies (JICA 2010 [6]).

Figure 3 illustrates the trend in the electricity supply and demand in Zambia.
Export has been decreasing, and import began in 2002 as a result of drought and power
stations maintenance issues. Meanwhile, electricity consumption has been increased
remarkably since 2000. Most of the electricity is consumed by the mining sector (Figure4), making it the key factor in the supply and demand for electricity. Figure 5 shows thetrend in the consumption of electricity in Zambia. Apparently there is not a large
difference between the dry and rainy seasons. Thus there is a need for a stable supply ofelectricity in Zambia.
From the above figures, it can be seen that Zambia relies mainly on hydraulicpower stations, and growth in the demand for electricity will depend on the mining
sectors. This demand will increase with economic development and a growing middle
class.

Figure 3. Demand and supply of electricity [7].

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Figure 4. Consumption of electricity in each sector [8].

Figure 5. Trend in the consumption of electricity [9].

3.

Prediction of the Demand for Electricity in Zambia
According to a study conducted by the Chubu Electric Power Co., Inc. (Chuden)
thorough JICA, there are three prospects for the demand for electricity in Zambia: abase case, a low case, and a high case. These cases were calculated based on economic
growth (GDP), population growth, and electrification. Figure 6 shows the elements ofthe prospects in each scenario, and Figure 7 shows the expected amount of electricity
consumption in 2020 and 2030. The average power generation between 1977 and 2007
was about 8,400 GWh [10]. Thus the demand for electricity in Zambia will be at least
twice the average in 2020 if it grows in accordance with the base case.

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Fugure 6. Elements of the prospects in each scenario.
(The author excerpted and made the figure based on the source from JICA 2010 [11].)

Figure 7. Prospects of the amount of the electricity in 2020 and 2030.
(The author made the figure based on the source from JICA 2010 [12].)

In 2010, the consumption of electricity in Zambia was 7.96 billion kWh [13]. Also,
the percentage of the annual GDP growth in that year was 7.6%, and it has been
increasing gradually since 2009 [14]. In addition, the average population growth
between 2008 and 2010 was about 2.5% [15]. This average is 0.2% higher than
Chuden’s prediction. The expected consumption of electricity in 2010 was higher than
the actual consumption, which was almost the same as in 2007. However, electricity
consumption may surpass or be the same as the high case if the economy grows rapidly.
In that case, the power generation capacity of about 1,000 MW will begin to run short
after 2030 [16].
In the case of hydraulic power stations, the amount of power generation depends on
the natural environment. Over the past 30 years, the total power generation decreased by
16% due to a shortage of water [17]. Thus, it is necessary to have power generation
systems using renewable energies as well as thermal power stations to compensate fordraught conditions. Also, attempts should be made to conserve electricity, because thesupply and demand might not be balanced in the future.
In the next section, we will discuss three measures that should be taken to satisfy
the demand for electricity in Zambia: conserving electricity, the application ofphotovoltaics (PVs), and pumped-storage hydropower generation.
4.

Measures to Satisfy Electricity DemandIn this section, we investigate three possible measures to satisfy the increasingpapers

demand for electricity in Zambia. There are two fundamental goals: (i) to reduce
electricity consumption and (ii) to increase electricity generation.
4.1 Reducing electricity consumption
It is believed that one way to reduce electricity consumption is by replacing
incandescent lamps and fluorescent lamps with LED lamps, which use less electricity.
However, LED lamps are usually about ten times more costly than incandescent lamps.
Thus, it would be difficult for people in developing countries to buy such expensive
items. However, it is important to consider the change from incandescent lamps toLEDs in the case of Zambia.
The diplomatic conference for the Minamata convention on mercury was held on
October 9–11, 2013, in Kumamoto, Japan. Ninety-two states have already signed theconvention, and it will be executed after 90 days by the ratification of 50 states. The
projected year of execution is 2016. The Minamata convention bans the production,
import, and export of products that contain mercury after 2020. Zambia has alreadysigned the convention, thus products that contain mercury will not be permitted inZambia after 2020. Fluorescent lamps contain mercury, so it will be difficult to use themin Zambia after 2020. Therefore, making the change from incandescent lamps to LEDs
will be a difficult but necessary challenge in Zambia.
How much electricity can be saved using LEDs? According to SHARP, which is aJapanese electric manufacturing company, the electric charge needed to power LEDs is
one-fourth of the charge needed for incandescent lamps. A 40 W incandescent lamp will
cost about 2,890 yen per year. In contrast, a 7.5 W LED will cost about 603 yen per year.
Moreover, LEDs can operate for about 40,000 h, while incandescent lamps can only
operate for 1,000 h [18]. According to Panasonic, which is another Japanese electricmanufacturing company, the electric charge needed to power LEDs will be about
one-fifth of that needed for incandescent lamps. A 60 W incandescent lamp will cost
about 2,376 yen per year when used 5.5 h in a day, while a 9.2 LED will cost about 406
yen per year under the same conditions [19]. These two companies do not mention thecost of the LEDs, but it is clear that LEDs can operate longer than incandescent lamps,
thus electricity will be conserved. In addition, LEDs do not contain mercury, so they canbe used after 2020 even if the government of Zambia ratifies the Minamata convention
on mercury.
Although LEDs have many advantages from the perspective of conserving
electricity, it would be difficult for people in developing countries to buy them due totheir high cost. Thus, it is important to create a kind of cooperative or system that

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enables people to obtain LEDs. In Zambia, it might be a good idea to form acooperative that combines multiple electric power distribution companies. Because thegeneral population may find it difficult to pay the entire cost of an LED at one time, thecooperative could establish a payment system based on an installment plan. Then thecooperative could supply the LED lamps and collect the electricity charge byincorporating some of the cost of the LED to the total fee.
If the Minamata convention on mercury is ratified in Zambia, residents will be
prohibited from using fluorescent lamps after 2020. Therefore, it will be necessary toreplace incandescent lamps with LEDs from the perspective of the convention, and also
to conserve electricity in Zambia.
4.2 Photovoltaic generation
Photovoltaic (PV) systems are another possible solution for the supply ofelectricity in rural areas that are isolated or not electrified. According to the JICA, thetargeted electrification rate for rural areas in Zambia is 50.6% by the year 2030 [20].
However, even if that goal is met, about 50% of the people living in those rural areas
will still not be supplied with electricity. The introduction of a PV system in rural areas
may be a way to supply electricity to that portion of the population. In addition, the PV
system could serve as a base of the pyramid (BOP) business. In this section, we will
examine the possibility of introducing a PV system in a rural area from the perspectiveof contributing electrification in a business context.
The total amount of sunlight in Zambia over the course of one year is believed tobe between about 2,600 and 3,000 h [21]. However, the government of Zambia has notconducted precise research, so it is difficult to identify specific places or target areas forthe application of a PV system. Therefore, we will consider the application of PVs fromthe standpoint of electrification by a local company, and also as a way to facilitatebusinesses.
In many villages in the Philippines, there are solar battery-charging stations where
people can charge their batteries and bring them back to their homes. It is likely that
there are not many electrical appliances in these rural dwellings. Thus, the consumptionof electricity might be lower than it is in urban areas, such as the city of Lusaka. People
may use electricity for lights and to charge cellphone batteries, but there are very few
TVs. Therefore, demand for electricity in rural areas will be low. It would seem that asmall number of PVs could meet the demand for electricity in these locations.
As one of the activities performed by the Company for Social Responsibility(CSR), Panasonic provides a PV system to a village in Tanzania that does not have

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electricity [22]. In addition, they also provide solar lantanas for Africa and Asia. The PV
system is called a “life innovation container,” in that it is a container that has a PV on it.
It is used to power TVs, refrigerators, and batteries for lights during the nighttime.
Panasonic provides the container free of charge, and they perform occasional
maintenance. This activity has a big impact on the residents of the village, because they
can obtain electricity for free. However, is this situation beneficial over the long term?
Maintenance is conducted by employees of Panasonic, so local residents will not know
how to repair the container if a problem arises. It is necessary, therefore, to educate andtrain the local people how to maintain and repair the container. If people can obtain suchknowledge, it will help them to get a job related to electrical engineering. There is every
indication that PV systems will be popular in the future, so it would be advantageous tohave such knowledge. Also, it would help the local people to establish a cooperative forthe operation of the container. This cooperative will facilitate economic growth.
Therefore, the village will benefit not just from the donation of the container, but also
because it will be a trigger for business opportunities, which could have a dramatic
impact on the lives of the residents. For example, Panasonic could rent a container at avery low price, and the local people could start a business using that container and sharein the rental fee. At the same time, as part of the CSR, Panasonic would teach the people
how to maintain the container. This process will take a long time, but the mostimportant thing is that the container will be maintained and managed by the local people
themselves. Therefore, a PV system can serve not only to supply electricity, but also tofacilitate the economic development of a village from the perspective of Panasonic’s
CSR.
In 2010, the mobile cellular subscription rate per 100 people in Zambia was 75.8%[23]. This rate is quite large, and it means that most of the people in Zambia possess acellphone. However, many of these people do not have access to electricity in theirhomes, especially in rural areas. How do these people manage their cellphones bythemselves? There are a number of small shops available for battery charging, and they
operate during daytime hours. If a shop utilized electricity produced by a PV, it could
turn into a lucrative business. It may be possible to combine these shops with the life
innovation container.
The application of PVs on an individual level, especially in rural area, is difficult
because of the high cost. Thus it is important to introduce PV systems in rural areas thatincorporate a combination of companies, such as the CSR. As a result of thiscombination, the percentage of electrification in rural areas in Zambia may increase.

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4.3 Pumped-storage Hydropower generation
There is an ample water supply in Zambia, and almost all of the country’s
electricity is generated by hydraulic power stations. However, the dams are not apumped-storage system. Pumped-storage hydropower generators can be used togenerate power during peak demand times. Thus, they could serve as a key power
generation system in Zambia.
What is pumped-storage hydropower generation? It is a hydraulic power
generation system that is usually used during electricity shortages. It pumps up waterfrom a reservoir, such as a river, pond, or dam, by using surplus electricity that is
generated during the night. Thus, pumped-storage hydropower generates electricity
during the daytime, especially during peak time, and it pumps up water during the night[24].
What are the merits and demerits of pumped-storage hydropower generation?
There are two main advantages: (i) It can be used to generate power during peak time.
As was mentioned above, pumped-storage hydropower generation pumps up water
during the night, so it is possible to supply electricity during peak time. (ii) It can serveas an emergency power supply when other power stations encounter problems due toaccidents, natural disasters, etc. This type of power generation will become crucial
when disasters or accidents occur and other power stations stop operating. However,
pumped-storage generation can only operate for a few hours because it is designed for
temporary power generation [25].
On the other hand, there are two primary disadvantages. (i) There is anenvironmental impact from this type of power generation, not only from a natural
perspective but also from a social standpoint. When a pumped-storage hydropower
generator is constructed, it usually requires the creation of an artificial reservoir. Thiscan sometimes be detrimental to the natural environment. For instance, it may result in adecrease in area for wild animals and vegetation. It will also affect the residential areaof the citizens who live on the building site of the reservoir. Some villages are covered
over by the reservoir, forcing the citizens to relocate. This may have lingering
psychological effects, as many people will have to leave the village where they have
lived for a long time and move to a place that is unfamiliar to them. (ii) There is a riskof a dam burst. This may seem unlikely to many people, but it is an issue that will need
to be addressed in the future. Of course, the possibility of a dam burst would depend on
the strength of the materials used to construct the dam, or on the magnitude of anearthquake or a natural disaster such as heavy rain. Recently, there have been a numberof extraordinary weather events around the world. One of the reasons for this may bepapers

global warming. Thus, it will be necessary to consider the possibility of a burst dam andthe ensuing damage.
Chuden formulated two plans for the development of power stations. The biggest
difference between these two plans is the number of applications of thermal power
stations using coal. In plan 1, only one thermal power station will be introduced; in plan2, four thermal power stations will be introduced. As of 2016 or 2017, electricity
demand during peak time will be greater than the supply if the demand grows according
to the high-case scenario in plans 1 and 2.The deficit would be about 100–200 MW.
However, there would not be a large gap between demand and supply, although there
would occasionally be blackouts. Thus, it would be prudent to introduce
pumped-storage power generation in Zambia for peak time and to satisfy the future
demand for electricity. Chuden’s plans for Zambia would be suitable to manage thedemand and supply of electricity. However, in addition to these plans, it might bepossible to supply electricity via pumped-storage power generation for peak time. The
surplus electricity could then be sold to neighboring countries.
5.

Conclusion
In this paper, we examined the current electricity situation in Zambia, and we
presented examples of different ways to conserve electricity. The demand for electricity
in Zambia will increase. The current demand fluctuates between the base case and thehigh case, which was predicted by Chuden. If demand exceeds the high case, there will
be many blackouts. Thus, it is urgent that residents of Zambia find ways to conserve
electricity.
This article details three ways to respond to the increasing demand for electricity in
Zambia. (i) Change from incandescent lamps to LEDs, (ii) establish PVs in rural areas,and (iii) construct pumped-storage power generations. The first measure, i.e., use ofLEDs, represents a big challenge for Zambia. However, use of products that containmercury will be banned after 2020, when the government of Zambia ratifies the
Minamata convention on mercury. Therefore, the second measure, i.e., the applicationof a PV system in rural areas to increase electrification, is an attractive alternative. It isdifficult to distribute electricity immediately to areas that are not electrified. However,renewable energy, especially PV systems, will enable that immediate distribution ofelectricity, although the cost may be high. Therefore, it is important to introduce PV
systems in rural areas that can be used by businesses. The areas that are not electrified
will be targeted by a company that will try to start a BOP business using the PV system.
If a number of companies succeed in establishing BOP businesses, as was mentioned in

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section 4-2, this will contribute to electrification as well as development in the rural
areas. Finally, the third point, i.e., introducing pumped-storage hydropower generation
for use at peak times, also has merit. This type of power station has some disadvantages,
but it would serve as an emergency power supply in the event of a disaster. Thus, itwould be beneficial to have such power stations in addition to Chuden’s development
plan.
Based on the investigation detailed in this paper, the following measures should betaken: (i) Incandescent lamps, monitors, and other household appliances such as TVs
and PCs should be replaced by light-emitting-diode (LED) lights and products that use
LEDs. This will reduce the use of electricity by about 80%. (ii) Photovoltaic generation
should be introduced. (iii) Existing hydropower plants should be replaced withpumped-storage hydropower generators. This will enable energy to be stored during
periods of light load, and power to be generated during peak load.

References[1] JICA (Chubu Electric Co., Ltd), 2010, The Maser Investigation for the Developmentof the Electric Sector in Zambia (ࢨࣥࣅ࢔ᅜ㟁ຊ㛤Ⓨ࣐ࢫࢱ࣮ࣉࣛࣥㄪᰝ), pp.
4–9.
[2] The World Bank (accessed 12/09/2013),
http://data.worldbank.org/country/zambia?display=graph.
[3] JICA, 2010, op. cit., pp. 4-2–4-7.
[4] JICA, 2010, op. cit., pp. 4-2–4-5.
[5] JICA, 2010, op. cit., pp. 4-6–4-8.
[6] JICA, 2010, op. cit., p. 4-9.
[7] JICA, 2010, op. cit., p. 4-26.
[8] HP unknown (accessed 12/09/2013),
http://unstats.un.org/unsd/environment/envpdf/UNSD_UNEP_ECA%20Workshop/Sessi
on%2008-4%20Energy%20Statistics%20in%20Zambia%20(Zambia).pdf.
[9] JICA, 2010, op. cit. p. 4-29.
[10] JICA, 2010, op. cit. p. 4-10.
[11] JICA, 2010, op. cit, p. 5-10.
[12] JICA, 2010, op. cit, pp. 5-10–5-11.
[13] U.S. Energy Information Administration (accessed 16/10/2013),
http://www.eia.gov/countries/country-data.cfm?fips=ZA#elec.

papers[14] The World Bank (accessed 16/10/2013),
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/NY.GDP.MKTP.KD.ZG/countries/ZM-ZF-XN?displ
ay=graph.
[15] Index mundi (accessed 17/10/2013),
http://www.indexmundi.com/zambia/population.html. Its average was calculated by theauthor.
[16] JICA, 2010, op. cit., p. 6-1.
[17] JICA, 2010, op. cit., p. 6-28.
[18] SHARP (accessed 18/10/2013),
http://www.sharp.co.jp/led_lighting/consumer/economy/.
[19] Panasonic (accessed 18/10/2013),
http://panasonic.jp/lamp/everleds/hajimete/p02.html.
[20] JICA, 2008, The Study for Development of the Rural Electrification Master Plan inZambia Final Report Summary Report, p. 4.
[21] JICA, 2010, op. cit., pp. 3–36.
[22] Panasonic (accessed 23/10/2013),
http://panasonic.co.jp/citizenship/welfare/container_project/.
[23] The World Bank (accessed 20/10/2013),
http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/IT.CEL.SETS.P2/countries/ZM-ZF-XN-JP?display=graph.
[24] Akihiro AMETANI (Editor), Izumi AKASHI, Shigeki UMEDA, Hisato IWAI andAtsuko TAKAMATSU, 2011, Introductory Infrastructure Engineering, Ohmsha, p.149.
[25] Yu TANAKA, 2000, Why Is the Electricity Charges costly in Japan?, Hokuto
Syuppan Publish, pp.90-99.

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Reconstruction of Syria’s Electric Power Infrastructure using Renewable Energies
J. E. Lamas, T. Inui, K. Nakamura, X. Wang, T. Zhang, M. Taketani, N. Nishi, T. Moriyama,
N. Nakao, R. Arakawa, and K. AbdrahmanovGlobal Resource Management Course, Doshisha University
Abstract- In this paper, we discuss the possible installation of photovoltaic power generation systems in southeast
Syria, which is an area with no transmission network. We also examine other forms of renewable energy, including
solar heating of water, wind farms, and small hydroelectric generators. Compared with other methods, a hydroelectric
generator has a comparatively high capacity, lower cost, and very high efficiency. Therefore, it should be the first
choice if there is an available water flow. A wind turbine generator should be the second choice because it can operatecontinuously in favorable weather conditions, and it is easier to maintain than a photovoltaic generation system. A
photovoltaic generation system requires storage and a power conditioner, both of which are rather expensive. It also
has a shorter lifetime, and there are certain disadvantages with regard to temperature. In Syria, the daily temperature
can fluctuate by as much as 20 °C, which can lead to significant thermal fatigue. To reduce aging due to temperaturefluctuations, it is possible to implement a combined photovoltaic and solar heating system in which water can beheated during the day, stored in an insulated container, and used at night to maintain the photovoltaic panels at aconstant temperature. The heated water can also be used in people’s homes for air conditioning and personal hygiene.
1.

Introduction
The ongoing civil war in Syria has resulted in a damaged energy infrastructure, and many regions remain

isolated from the power network [1, 2]. Since a reliable energy infrastructure is indispensable for social development,
we must quickly repair the damage and utilize the available resources in Syria to fulfill their energy needs. However,it may be a long time before the current energy infrastructure can be reconstructed to the point that it is able toprovide electricity for these isolated regions. Therefore, alternative systems should be proposed. Fortunately, Syria is
in a favorable geographic location with available water, wind, and solar energy resources [3] from which electricity
can be obtained using micro-scale power generation systems [4]. Electricity from such systems can be distributed
directly without the need for transmission lines, and can be easily deployed and operated without consuming
additional fuel.
An estimated 17% of the Euphrates River passes through Syria, and there is an average annual flow of 36 cubic
kilometers [5] from which hydroelectric power can be harvested. Solar energy is widely available in the desert in
Syria, with an average annual solar irradiance of 1900 kWh/m2 [6], and the northeast region is suitable for wind
power generation, with wind speeds reaching over 7 m/s [7]. These energy resources can be used to satisfy part or allof the electricity demand in Syria`s isolated regions. However, any power generation system selected should also be
scalable in power generation capacity, and it should be able to be integrated into the existing infrastructure over thelong term.

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In this article, a roadmap for the restoration of Syria`s energy infrastructure is proposed, with a focus onproviding electricity to the isolated regions and implementing renewable energy power systems with scalability that
may later be incorporated into the current power network.
2.

About Syria
In 2009, gross power generation in Syria reached 43,309 GWh, a 5.6% increase over the previous year.

Electricity consumption per capita grew 7.4% from 2000 to 2010, to an estimated 1,905 kWh per capita [7-9].
Divided into sectors, residential electricity consumption in 2010 was the highest, with 15,830 GWh, followed by
8,445 GWh from the industrial sector [7]. However, electricity distribution was unbalanced between different regionsin Syria. Only the north and center regions received enough power to satisfy the demand, while the south, west, andnortheast regions faced power shortages [7]. Furthermore, Syria has been importing electricity since 2006, reaching a
total estimate in 2010 of 13.6 GWh from Jordan, 139 GWh from Egypt, and 330 GWh from Turkey [7]. As a result of
the current civil war, the transmission lines supplying electricity to the northeast region were also damaged, and thisregion is now receiving only one hour of electricity per day [1]. Furthermore, gross power generation drasticallydecreased to 21,655 GWh in 2013, although it is expected to start recovering by 2015 (as shown in Figure 1) [10].

Predicted Population Growth

90

77.9
62.4
49.9

60
39.1
30

21.7

0

Population (millions)Electric demand (TWh)Forecasted power generation
30

25.9
21.5

22.3

2010

2015

27.9

29.9

2025

2030

20

10
0

2013

2015

2020

2025

2030

2020

Figure 1. Forecasts for power generation and population growth in Syria [7, 10].
This article is based on data and forecasts from the current situation in Syria. The reconstruction roadmap isconsidered starting from the ceasefire in 2013. The electric power infrastructure has been damaged due to the conflict,resulting in a decrease of 50% of the available power plants, transmission lines, and distribution lines compared with2009. Thus, gross power generation in 2013 considered in this study is 21,655 GWh, as illustrated in Figure 1.
3.

Planning
The first part of the reconstruction roadmap for Syria involves providing electricity to the settlements that lackaccess to the national power grid. Micro-scale power generation systems are effective methods for supplying
electricity in isolated regions, as no power transmission lines are required and the reduced size of the system allows
for rapid installation. Although diesel-fueled electric generators are the most commonly used systems for this purpose,
they require a constant supply of diesel fuel, which is difficult to obtain in isolated regions. In contrast, solar andwind energy systems can provide electricity in any region as long as the weather conditions are favorable, andpapershydroelectric power can be utilized wherever there is an available source of running water. Although these systems
may not provide a completely reliable source of electricity over the course of a year, they will greatly benefit those inneed until the electric network can be fully restored. The viability and implementation strategies of these systems are
explained in the following sections.
Once the isolated regions have obtained access to electricity, and after a transition government is established in
Syria, the damaged power transmission and distribution lines will have to be rebuilt. After that, the regions where
micro-scale power generation systems were installed should also be integrated into the electric network to provide
them again with a stable and reliable power output. Subsequently, expansion of the power generation capacity will besought using renewable resources. Toward that end, it is important to choose a suitable region. Both wind and solar
power systems require a large, relatively flat land area with abundant wind and sunshine, while hydroelectric power
requires a constant source of running water, which is scarce in the Syrian Desert.
3.1. Possible generation system
3.1.1. Hydroelectric power
Micro-scale hydroelectric power generation systems can be implemented as an inexpensive method for power
generation with a constant output [11]. The limitation of these systems is that they must be located next to a source ofrunning water. The regions in Syria that are isolated from electricity are mostly located in the north and east [12],where the banks of the Euphrates and the Khabur are located. The flow of the Euphrates River is controlled by the
Tabqa Dam in Assad Lake, and the discharges from this dam are further stabilized by the smaller Baath Dam, which
is located 18 km downstream [13]. The Euphrates flows into Iraq with an annual mean discharge rate of 734 m3/s.
The Khabur River merges with the Euphrates near the town of Busayrah, and it has an average discharge rate of 45
m3/s [14].
The power output and installation costs depend heavily on the terrain and the head (i.e., the height difference
from the water inlet and the water turbine), but a 100-kWh system may be obtained with a flow of one cubic meter
per second and a head of 17 m. Variation of the head and the number of turbines is needed to design the system in a
specific region. For this type of technology, electricity cost is estimated at 13 JPY/kWh, with an installation cost of
approximately 900,000 JPY/kW [11].
3.1.2. Photovoltaic power
Due to the modularity and easy installation of photovoltaic power systems, they can be ideal for power
generation in isolated regions. They can be installed as standalone power systems to supply electricity directly in eachresidence, without the need for interconnection. Such systems are independent from fuel and from the electric grid,and they can be installed anywhere with almost no terrain limitations. However, these systems are still dependent on
weather and diurnal cycles, and power output may be available when it is not needed, resulting in large energy waste.
In contrast, communal photovoltaic power stations can be utilized in a community as a center for recharging batteries.
In that case, efficiency losses due to recharging, as well as the inconvenience of having to transport the battery to therecharging station, are tradeoffs for the ability to obtain electricity on demand
One of the disadvantages of a photovoltaic power system is that high temperatures and large temperature

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gradients damage the panels and shorten their lifetime. The average daily solar irradiation in Syria is about 5 kWh/m2.
In the Syrian Desert, maximum temperatures often surpass 40 °C, and temperature gradients larger than 20 °C arefrequent. To prevent overheating of the photovoltaic panels, a cooling system must also be implemented. Furthermore,
if the heat removed from the photovoltaic panels during the day is stored in an insulated container, it can be usedduring the night to heat the panels, allowing them to cool gradually and avoid sudden changes in temperature. This
process would mitigate thermal fatigue and extend the lifetime of the system.
The power output capacity in photovoltaic systems depends on the area covered by the panels having anapproximate energy density of 170 W/m2. These systems have an average lifetime of 20 years under normal
conditions. The cost of electricity from this source is around 53 JPY/kWh, with an installation cost of 690,000
JPY/kW. For rechargeable batteries, lead-acid batteries are the least expensive type, and they are frequently used forstationary applications. They have a lifetime of 4,500 cycles, an energy density of 35 Wh/kg, and a cost of 150,000
JPY/kW [11].
3.1.3. Wind power
Wind power generation systems require wind speeds over 5 m/s at 10 m above ground level, and they should beinstalled in a relatively flat and open land, as mountains, forests, and other tall obstacles will decrease wind speed.
For these systems, the power output is dependent on the swept area of the turbine. They also require an area of landof roughly 0.25 acres for each turbine to avoid turbulence generated by other turbines, although this land may still be
used for other purposes, such as farming. Energy density for wind power is variable, depending on the wind speed. At
higher altitudes, wind speed increases and a higher energy density is expected. The cost of electricity for offshore
wind power is estimated at 5 JPY/kWh, with an installation cost of 300,000 JPY/kW [11].
The most harmful weather conditions for wind power systems in the desert are sandstorms, which may damage
the surface of the blades and the internal components. The extreme temperatures in the desert also negatively affectwind turbines. The current technology has been improving in this area, and wind power farms that can withstandsandstorms and low temperatures have already been installed in Guangdong, China [15].
3.2. Location
The optimal location for future expansion of the electric network, using renewable energies, appears to be theregion southwest of the city of Deir Ez Zor and southeast of the Jabal Bishri mountain range. This region is selected
due to its advantageous weather and geographical conditions, and because it is close to one of the largest cities andpower transmission stations in the region. Figure 2 displays the location of the selected region.
About 25 km south of Deir Ez Zor, there is an inhabited flat region covering an area of several square
kilometers. Close to this area, 13.5 km southwest of Deir Ez Zor, there is the Al Tayem power plant, a 100 MW open
cycle gas turbine power station [17], which closes the electric network loop between the northeast and south regionsin Syria [7]. Furthermore, annual solar irradiance in this region is around 2,100 kWh/m2, making it suitable for solar
power generation (as shown in Figure 3). Additionally, the region also has a great deal of wind resources, whichallow the use of wind power systems (as shown in Figure 4). This region is also close to the Euphrates River before it
merges with the Khabur River, with an annual mean flow rate of 690 m2/s [14]. The availability of water in thispapers

region may be helpful for cooling solar power systems. In addition, energy storage systems based on water storage
may also be possible using water from the Euphrates.

Figure 2. Relief map of Syria showing the region selected for future expansion of power generation [16].

Figure 3. Annual mean solar irradiation in Syria, showing the region selected for future expansion [6].

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Unopened
Sea Surface
Open Area
Sea ShoreArea(10 km in the(Low Trees) (Low Glass)(City, Forest)
sea)
m/sec
5-6
6.5-7.5
7-8.5
8-9
4.5-5
5.5-6.5
6-7
7-8
3.5-4.5
4.5-5.5
5-6
5.5-7
3.5<
4.5<
5<
5.5<

Hills

Area

10-11.5
6.5-107-8.5
7<m²
54,00045,00075,00013,000Source: Syria's Master Plan for Renewable Energy

Figure 4. Wind speeds in Syria, showing the region selected for future expansion.
4.

Water resource management
Power generation systems using solar and wind energy have a variable output that depends on the weather. In

the case of Syria, the peak demand of electricity in summer happens at 23:00 hours [7], while power from solar
energy is only available during the daytime. This causes a surplus in power generation that must be used in anotherway to avoid wasting the electricity. Underground dams may be an effective method for utilizing surplus electricity
from wind and solar power systems, while also benefiting the farming industry. By diverting and storing water fromthe Euphrates into underground dams, we can later use surplus electricity during the daytime in the summer to pump
the water back to the surface and use it for irrigation. An illustration of underground water storage systems ispresented in Figure 5. Additionally, water reservoirs can also be dug on the surface; these reservoirs consume lessenergy in the pumping process because they are closer to the surface. Although they are less expensive and easier toconstruct than underground dams, surface reservoirs are subject to heavy evaporation, especially in the weather
conditions of the region discussed in section 3.2. Economic insulators made from palm fibers are being tested in
Saudi Arabia, and they appear to reduce evaporation significantly in surface water storage tanks.

papers

Figure 5. Underground water storage systems [18].
5.

Roadmap
Considering the assumptions and strategies discussed in the previous sections, a roadmap for reconstructing theelectric power infrastructure of Syria was developed. The roadmap is divided into ten major stages.
(1) Ceasefire
Reconstruction of the power infrastructure will begin after a ceasefire is declared in the current conflict in Syria.
The damage to the electric infrastructure has decreased power generation to 21.7 TWh, and it has left the northeasternpart of Syria isolated from the power network. After the ceasefire, currently occupied power stations and militaryactive settlements will gradually come back into use.
(2) Photovoltaic and hydroelectric power systems distributed to isolated regions
Standalone photovoltaic power systems and rechargeable batteries will be distributed in regions without accessto electricity. Batteries will be used to provide electricity to residences, and they will be recharged in a photovoltaic
power recharging station. Hospitals and schools will receive independent systems to ensure a constant supply ofelectricity. Micro-scale hydroelectric power systems will be installed in the northeast region in the Khabur River topartially restore electric supply.
(3) Transition government
A transition government will be established that can manage planning and investments for reconstruction of theenergy infrastructure. The government will need to analyze priorities with regard to the treatment of victims,
reconstruction of damaged cities, restoration of jobs and the economy, and reintegration of the country.
(4) Repair transmission and distribution lines
Restoration of the damaged electric transmission and distribution lines will be required to connect the northeast
regions back to the electric network. Supplying electricity back to this region is expected to lead to an economic
boost. Expansion of the distribution lines to cover the isolated regions also needs to be considered, although priorities
in the restoration of other sectors may delay this stage.

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1(5) Renewal of the hydroelectric power plants
The Tabqa Dam currently generates only 150 MW out of the 800 MW installed hydroelectric power plants due
to a lack of maintenance and a lower water flow coming from Turkey [13]. Renovation of the facilities would
increase the power output and greatly reduce the pressure on the amount of natural gas consumption for electricity
generation. With the transmission and distribution lines restored, the increased power output from the Tabqa Damwould be able to satisfy the electricity demands of the south, west, and northeast regions, which currently face power
shortages.
(6) Redistribution of the photovoltaic power systems
Once electric supply has been restored to currently isolated regions, the photovoltaic power systems that will be
distributed in stage 2 of this roadmap should be collected and redistributed into other regions without access toelectricity. As the electric supply starts to be restored in more regions and the photovoltaic panels are no longer
needed, they should be recollected to form a large-scale power plant, located in the region discussed in section 3.2.
By grouping the photovoltaic panels, better management in cooling and energy storage can be achieved, with thepossibility of future expansion by interconnecting additional photovoltaic panels.
(7) Raising the fee for electricity among residents
The Assad regime sought to appeal to the Syrian people by providing easy access to electricity and maintaining
a low price for residential use. With the current price of electricity, the annual electric fee for a six-person household
comes to about 43 USD, which is equivalent to 0.2% of the total Gross National Income [7, 9]. To obtain funds toimprove the energy infrastructure using renewable energies, it might be reasonable to increase the price of electricity
and use the additional income to carry out the restoration plans. By raising the capacity of renewable energy systems,
Syria would see a decrease in natural gas consumption, which can in turn be exported to further increase the incomeof the energy industry.
(8) Wind power and water storage systems in Deir Ez-Zor
The expansion of power generation using renewable energies should be continued in the region south of Deir
Ez-Zor, which was discussed in section 3.2, with an installation of wind farms and water storage systems discussed in
section 4. This power plant can be connected to the electric network through the Al Tayem power station. The storageof water should be carefully managed so as not to decrease significantly the flow of the Euphrates into Iraq and tomaintain the flow rate into Iraq at 60% of the total flow, as established in the agreements for international water usage[19].
(9) Concentrated solar tower system in Deir Ez-Zor
Solar photovoltaic systems have decreased efficiency in high-temperature regions. Therefore, concentrated
solar tower systems, which can benefit from the high solar irradiance in the region, should be considered instead.
Energy storage in concentrated solar power systems is more cost-effective and can last from 1 h (using steam as anenergy carrier) to up to 16 h (using molten salts as an energy carrier). Although the cost is higher and the construction
time is longer for these kinds of systems, they exhibit more reliability and a longer lifetime than photovoltaic powersystems.

papers

If the concentrated solar tower technology is out of reach for Syria, photovoltaic power systems should be
utilized instead, as long as they are properly cooled and maintained.
(10) Shift to an electricity-exporting country
Once the power infrastructure in Syria is reconstructed and there is promising growth, Syria should reduce orstop its electricity imports and become an electricity-exporting country. The natural resources available in Syria(natural gas, water, wind, and solar energy) appear to be enough for Syria to not only become energy-independent,
but also to produce sufficient electricity for exporting.
6.

Future plans
The potential growth that is expected for photovoltaic and wind power systems in Syria is shown in Figure 6.

Figure 4 shows that there are many other regions with strong wind speeds where wind energy may be harvested, anda linear growth for installed capacity is expected in this area. As for photovoltaic systems, there is potential growth,
but not as much as for wind power.

Figure 6. Future plans for wind and photovoltaic power generation [7].
7.

Conclusion
In this article, we present a roadmap for the reconstruction of Syria’s electric power infrastructure using

renewable energies. The current conflict in Syria has resulted in severe damage to various components of the power
infrastructure, and it has left some regions with little or no access to electricity. Several methods for electricity
generation using renewable energies are discussed in this article, and a strategy for implementing them is discussed.
To begin the restoration, a ceasefire is assumed under the current conditions in Syria. After this, micro-scalehydroelectric, standalone photovoltaic, and wind power systems will be distributed to provide electricity to thecurrently isolated regions. After a transitional government is established, the reconstruction and renewal of various
facilities in the power network is expected, followed by the development of additional power plants using renewableenergies. For this purpose, a region with suitable weather and geographical conditions is proposed and analyzed. In
addition to the power plants, water storage systems are also proposed that can utilize surplus energy from the powersystems to pump water into the irrigation systems of nearby farm lands. With the proposed strategy, an increase in

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natural gas and electricity exports is expected for Syria, while maintaining an extensive and reliable power
infrastructure.
Acknowledgements
The authors thank Prof. A. Ametani for suggesting that we write this article, and also for preparing thepresentation in Hanoi, Vietnam during the International Workshop on Renewable Energy (IWRE 2013).

References[1] U.S. Energy Information Administration. (2013). Country Analysis Brief: Syria. Retrieved fromhttp://www.eia.gov/countries/analysisbriefs/Syria/syria.pdf[2] Özkaplan, M. (2013). Syrian energy infrastructure struggles to survive destruction, Turkish Weekly. Retrieved
from http://www.turkishweekly.net/news/148069/syrian-energy-infrastructure-struggles-to-survive-destruction.html[3] Al-Mohamad, A. (2001). Renewable energy resources in Syria, Renewable Energy, 24, 365-371.
[4] Martinot, E. (2006). Renewable energy gains momentum: Global markets and policies in the spotlight,
Environment: Science and Policy for Sustainable Development, 48, 26-43.
[5] Isaev, V. A. & Mikhailova, M. V. (2009). The hydrography, evolution, and hydrological regime of the mouth areaof the Shatt Al-arab River, Water Resources, 36, 380-395.
[6] ChamSolar Initiative. (2013). Solar thermal. Retrieved from http://www.chamsolar.com/en/ed/solarthermal.htm[7] Japan International Cooperation Agency. (2012). Review Research for the Electric Power Sector: Syrian Arab
Republic, Final Report.
[8] International Energy Agency. (2013). Syrian Arab Republic statistics [Data sets]. Available at
http://www.iea.org/countries/non-membercountries/syrianarabrepublic/[9] The World Bank. (2013). Syrian Arab Republic [Data sets]. Available at
http://data.worldbank.org/country/syrian-arab-republic[10] United Nations. (2012). World Population Prospects [Data sets]. Retrieved fromhttp://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/unpp/panel_indicators.htm[11] New Energy and Industrial Technology Development Organization. (2013). NEDO Renewable Energy
Technology White Paper (in Japanese). Available at http://www.nedo.go.jp/library/ne_hakusyo_index.html[12] Tamamoto, A. (2013). Syria report 12: Electric supply is one hour (in Japanese), Asia Press Network. Retrieved
from http://www.asiapress.org/apn/archives/2013/05/07101106.php[13] Shapland, G. (1997). Rivers of Discord: International Water Disputes in the Middle East, New York, NY: St.
Martin’s Press. Page 110.
[14] Saleh, D. K. (2010). Stream Gage Descriptions and Streamflow Statistics for Sites in the Tigris River andEuphrates River Basins, Iraq: U.S. Geological Survey Data Series 540. Retrieved fromhttp://pubs.usgs.gov/ds/540/pdf/ds540.pdf[15] Mingyang Wind Power. (2007). 1.5 MW Wind Turbine [Data file]. Retrieved fromhttp://www.windpacific.com/downloads/mingyang.pdf

papers[16] One World - Nations Online. (2013). Topographic Map of Syria. Retrieved fromhttp://www.nationsonline.org/oneworld/map/syria-topographic-map.htm[17] Global Energy Observatory. (2013). Al Tayem OCGT power plant [Data set]. Retrieved fromhttp://globalenergyobservatory.org/geoid/41669[18] Okinawa general bureau. (2013). Miyakojima underground dam, Land improvement general bureau. Retrieved
from http://ogb.go.jp/nousui/nns/totikairyou/chikadamu/dam1.pdf[19] Kaya, I. (1998). The Euphrates-Tigris basin: An overview and opportunities for cooperation under internationallaw, Conflict Resolution and Transboundary Water Resources, 44. Retrieved fromhttps://ag.arizona.edu/OALS/ALN/aln44/kaya.html

121papers

Electricity Supply to a Local/Isolated Area by Means of Renewable Energy
X. Wang, J. E. Lamas, T. Zhang and K. Nakamura
Graduate School of Science and Engineering, Doshisha University, Kyo-tanabe, Kyoto 610-0321, Japan

1.

Introduction
There are a number of areas in the world where electricity supply is always limited. Some typical examples include

mountainous areas in Asia and the Far East, and a desert in Africa. Such areas do not have a well-establishedtransmission/distribution system, and no fuel can be supplied. The most promising solution, therefore, is to establish
locally dispersed electricity generation. In this paper, we discuss the possibility of generating electricity using
renewable energy, including micro-hydraulic power, wind power, and photovoltaic solar power. For a small village
with a population of 100 and the necessary generation capacity of about 10 kW, we attempt to determine the best
choice for electricity generation by investigating the following methods: a small hydraulic turbine, a wind turbine, or
photovoltaic solar generation. This choice is dependent on geological and climate conditions. Therefore, theinvestigation is carried out under various conditions, and the cost, maintenance, and lifetime of the methods are
discussed.

2.

Small Hydroelectric Generation

2.1 Water resources
Table 1 displays climatological information for Douala, Cameroon [1]. It is expected that there will be a sufficientwater supply from March to November in this case. A similar situation also exists in the countries of southeast Asia.
In such an area, hydroelectric power generation appears to be the most suitable method.
Table 1 Climatological information for Douala, Cameroon

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2.2 Scales of hydroelectric generation and generating capacity
 Table 2 displays the scales of hydroelectric generation [2-4]. It is clear that micro hydroelectric generation is thebest method for the assumed capacity of about 10 kW. Fig. 1 illustrates the principle behind hydroelectric power
generation, and Eq. (1) shows the generating capacity of a hydraulic turbine generator.

Table 2 Scales of hydroelectric generation.

H [m]Q [m3/s]water wheel

Fig.1 Principle of hydroelectric power generation.

P[kW] = g[m/s 2 ] × H[m] × Q[m 3 /s] × E ff [%](1)

 where, P denotes the electric power generation capacity, g denotes gravitational acceleration (9.8 m/s2), H
denotes a drop of water, Q denotes the quantity of water, and Eff represents the conversion efficiency (about 80%).
Substituting g = 9.8 (m/s2) and Eff (efficiency) of about 0.75, the equation is simplified asP 䍦 7.5HQ(2)

2.3 Features of hydroelectric generation
 Hydraulic turbine generators are advantageous because they are very reliable and efficient, they require lessmaintenance, they have a long lifetime, they are easy to plan with, and they are readily available.
2.3.1 Reliability
 If there is no significant change in the water flow rate of a river during the day, electric energy is generated with“high quality and efficiency.” Therefore, compared with other types of electricity generation, such as solar power andwind power, hydropower can supply about three to ten times more electric power per year than other methods. Also,papers

125

no battery is needed for hydropower, therefore it is can always be used.
2.3.2 Easy to plan
 Power output and electricity quantity can be predicted accurately and easily if we can measure the quantity andheight difference of the water.
2.3.3 Easily available Solar and wind power require normalization of fluctuated outputs for the design. For hydropower, it is necessary todesign the water flow in a pipe in order to function in the various environments of canals or rivers, and its design isdependent on each specific region.

2.4 Design and cost of 10kW generation
 Assuming a generating capacity of P = 10 kW, the following water flow condition is required:H ⋅ Q = 1.3 [m ⋅ t s], 1t = 1m3 water(3)

The above condition can be satisfied by a small river. The design of the generator station is done as follows:(1)

Pre-feasibility study phase Preliminary site studies for the potential power.
 Obtain the necessary authorization.
(2)

System design phase Actual design of the system.
 This is dependent on the size of the system and the complexity of the site characteristics.
(3)

Installation phase System components.
 Equipment and necessary labor.
 (Grid connection costs if necessary.)(1)

Operation phase Monitor the installed system.
 Necessary maintenance.
Based on data from Japan, the total cost appears to be about 10 million Japanese Yen [4].

3.

Wind Power Generation

3.1 Wind energy in the world
Fig. 2 displays the world’s mean wind speeds [5]. It can be seen that sufficient wind energy is present in coastal
areas. Thus, wind power generation might be the best choice along sea coasts and on islands.

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Fig. 2

The mean wind speed in ms-1 at 10 m above ground level for the period 1976–1995.
Reference: the NCEP/NCAR reanalysis data set

Fig. 3 illustrates a typical example of electricity consumption on an isolated island [6]. In this example, the highest
load occurs after 6 p.m., thus photovoltaic power generation is not effective unless a storage and power conditioner
system, which is rather expensive, is installed.

Fig.3

Typical electricity consumption on an the isolated island.

3.2 Principle of wind generation and generating capacity
Fig. 4 shows a photo depicting wind power generation [7]. Wind energy is energy from moving air caused bytemperature differences in the atmosphere. Wind turbines capture the air flow by converting it into a rotational
movement, which subsequently drives a conventional electricity generator. This principle corresponds to capturing
water flow in a water power system. The theoretical power of the air movement is given by

P=

[

]

1 2
1
mv ×η = ρAv 3 ×η ≅ 0.18 Av 3 kg ⋅ m 2 s 3 = [W ]
2
2

(4)

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where m denotes mass (kg), P denotes electric power generation (W), ȡ denotes the density of air, which is around1.22 kg/m³, A denotes the cross-section area in which the air flows (m2), v denotes the velocity of the air (m/s), and Ș
denotes the efficiency of the power generation (%), e.g., around 30% in case of the three-blade generator.
To generate P = 10 kW, Av3 = 56 (kg m2 / s3) is required.

(a) Wind power generation(b) Nacelle cross section

Fig.4 An example of the wind power generation.

3.3 Design and costs
3.3.1 Wind power generation only
If we design for only wind power generation, a 20 kW capacity is required to supply 10 kW, considering a working
ratio of about 50%. Table 3(a) indicates the estimated cost for only wind power generation [4].

Table 3 Estimated cost.
(a) Only wind power generation
Component
Main unit
Storage, power conditioner
Total

4

Cost ?×10 [Yen]
700
2,000
2,700

(b) Biomass thermal and wind power generation
Component
Wind䚷Main unit
䚷Storage, power conditioner
Biomass thermal
䚷Main unit
Total

4

Cost ?×10 [Yen]
350
1,000
200
1,550

3.3.2 Wind power and biomass thermal generation
If there is enough biomass, such as wood, it may be possible to combine a thermal generator using biomass withwind power generation. Assuming 50% each, the capacity of the biomass turbine generator is required to be 5 kW,
and that of the wind power must be about 10 kW. Table 3(b) indicates the estimated cost for this combination [4, 8].

4.

Photovoltaic (PV) Power Generation

4.1

Energy statistics in Arab states

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According to data from the Arab Union of Electricity [9] and The World Bank [10] (Fig. 5), most Arab states havea reliable energy infrastructure, with the exception of two cases: Iraq and Syria. Those two countries have a low
population ratio with access to electricity, despite having a considerably high level of energy consumption per capita.
In the case of Yemen and Sudan, the low ratio of population with access to electricity and the low energy
consumption may be attributed to their classification as Least Developed Countries by the UN, and thus their lack ofan energy infrastructure. Based upon these data, we focus on Iraq and Syria, where investment in new power
generation systems would be more likely.

Fig.5 Energy consumption and access to electricity in Arab states.

The major problems regarding electricity distribution involve obtaining fuel and expanding the power network. To
provide electricity while avoiding these issues, we must consider implementing renewable energy systems, which canoperate independently without the need for fuel.
 With regard to the available renewable energies (hydroelectric, wind, solar, and geothermal power), we can see thatthe geographic locations of Syria and Iraq make them ideal areas to implement solar energy systems (Fig. 6). Thesesystems utilize energy from the sun to produce electricity, thus they can be installed anywhere where sunshine isplentiful, and the problems of fuel availability and dependence on a power grid can be avoided. Commercial solar
energy systems can be divided into two basic types: conversion of light into electricity (solar photovoltaics) andconversion of heat into electricity (concentrated solar power). Since solar energy is only available during the daytime,and isolated regions cannot rely on a power grid to obtain backup power, energy storage systems for each of thesetechnologies should also be taken into account.

4.2 Solar photovoltaic power generation
4.2.1 Solar photovoltaics
 Solar photovoltaic systems are simple to install and operate. A solar panel is used to convert light from the sun
directly into electricity, which can be used immediately. In addition to their easy installation, these systems areadvantageous because their capacity can be increased simply by adding more solar panels. The disadvantage of thesepapers

Fig.6 Annual solar irradiation in Africa and the Middle East (map adapted from GeoModel Solar [11]).

systems is that they are more dependent on the climate of the region in which they are used. The electric output of asolar photovoltaic system decreases rapidly as the temperature increases. High temperatures also damage the system’sinternal components and decrease its lifetime. In the region of Syria and Iraq, high solar irradiance and long exposure
to the sun would result in a system with lower efficiency. The energy storage system also presents a disadvantage forsolar photovoltaics because the most suitable method for storing electricity involves rechargeable batteries, which
degrade quickly when stored at high temperatures.
4.2.2 Concentrated solar power This type of system collects sunlight over a wide area and redirects it all into one point, concentrating the energy to
produce a large amount of heat. This heat is then used to create steam and produce electricity via an electric generator,
in the same way that thermal power plants do. In contrast to solar photovoltaics, these systems achieve higher
efficiencies at higher temperatures, making them ideal for hot areas such as deserts.
 Concentrated solar power systems can be divided into two categories: parabolic trough systems and solar towers.
Diagrams for these systems are presented in Fig. 7. In parabolic trough systems, parabolic reflectors are used toredirect sunlight into a central tube carrying a fluid. In solar towers, large mirrors are used to redirect sunlight to alarge container at the top of a tower containing oil or molten salts. Both systems utilize a similar power generation
process in which heated fluid is used to generate steam and produce electricity through a steam turbine. These typesof systems also provide a convenient method for energy storage. The heated fluid can be stored in insulated tanks andreused later to generate electricity at night or in bad weather. When the ambient temperature is high, such as in deserts,
energy dissipation is low and storage efficiency increases.

4.3 Required capacity and cost
 4.3.1 Power capacity needed in the region
 To design an energy infrastructure using solar energy in this region, we first need to know the total energy
consumption and the amount of sunshine available. Alnaser et al. provided maps showing the average hours of

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Fig.7 Parabolic and solar tower systems, and the power block used for electricity generation

sunshine per day in Arab states (Fig. 8). In the region of Syria and Iraq (Fig. 5), we can see that the amount ofsunshine per day varies from four to seven hours in January, to twelve hours in August. The long sun exposure inAugust and the large amount of storage needed for January suggest that concentrated solar power is the best choicefor power generation. Based upon the data from Fig. 5, and the amount of sunshine available, we can see that a 50
kW power generation system with energy storage would be needed to fully supply electricity to a community of 100
people. The designed system should be competitive with Syria’s energy price of 14 cents (USD)/kWh.

Fig.8

Average hours of sunshine per day in January and August (map adapted from Alnaser et al., 2004).

4.4 Cost estimation
 The cost of PV solar power generation is still very high, particularly the cost of a power conditioner. Based on data
regarding PV solar power generation in Japan [4], we obtain the following estimated cost for 10 kW generation:
PV solar generation system: 10 million Yen
Power conditioner for 30 kWh: 20 million Yen
Total: 30 million Yen for 10 kW

5.

Conclusion
Based on the investigation, we conclude the following:(i) If there is enough rainfall and thus a sufficient water flow, a small hydraulic turbine generator is the mostpromising way to generate power. Hydraulic power generation is the most efficient method, and it is the most reliablepapers

provided that there is a continuous water flow. The estimated cost of a 10 kW hydraulic generator station is less than
15 million Japanese Yen. In addition, this system is easiest to maintain and it has the longest lifetime.
(ii) Along a seacoast and on an island, wind power generation is the best choice because of the continuous
winds that are present there, with an average speed higher than 5 m/s. However, based on the working ratio, thecapacity of a wind turbine generator would have to be about 20 kW to assume a generating capacity of 10 kW. This
costs about 7 million Japanese Yen. However, if an electricity storage system is installed together with a power
conditioner, taking into account the wind fluctuation and thus the output power fluctuation, the cost increases by anadditional 20 million Japanese Yen.
(iii) In an area where the average amount of sun is high enough annually, such as an African desert,
photovoltaic solar electricity generation is the best choice. However, it requires storage (battery) and a power
conditioner to supply reliable electricity. Also, aging (lifetime) and maintenance become big problems due to sanddust, and also because the daily temperature can fluctuate by 15̽20 °C. As with wind power, the capacity of aphotovoltaic solar generator necessitates about 20 kW. The estimated cost of a 20 kW photovoltaic solar panel isabout 10 million Japanese Yen, and a 30 kWh storage system costs about 20 million Japanese Yen.
(iv) Based on information regarding power generation in Japan, the following costs per kW can be applied to asmall-scale power generation system:(a) Hydraulic: 1–1.5 million Yen(b) bio-thermal: 0.4 million Yen(c) wind: 0.35 million Yen(d) solar: 0.7 million Yen.

Acknowledgments
The authors would like to express their sincere thanks to Prof. A. Ametani, who suggested this presentation, forpreparing the basic draft of the presentation and for a critical reading of the manuscript.

References[1]

Hong Kong Observatory, http://www.hko.gov.hk/wxinfo/climat/world/eng/africa/nig_cam/douala_e.htm[2] K. Ishikawa, “What is the future of electricity and energy?”, Ohm Pub. Co., 2011
[3] Kusakana, K.,et al. “Economic and environmental analysis of micro hydropower system for rural power supply”,
Proc.PECon, 2008
[4]

NEDO, “White paper on technology of a renewable energy̺a step in implementing a new energy society̺”,
2010

[5]

The World of Wind Atlases – Wind Atlases of the World, http://www.windatlas.dk/[6]

H. Morita, K. Shigeoka, “Micro grid systems in isolated islands”, 2013

[7]

A. Ametani, et al., “Introduction of Infrastructure Engineering”, Ohm Pub. Co., 2011

[8]

NEDO, “Guidebook for introduction of biomass energy”, 2010[9]

Arab Union of Electricity,

http://www.auptde.org/PublicationsFile.aspx?lang=en&CID=662[10] The World Bank, http://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS/countries/SA-SY-AE?display=default[11] Solar GIS Global Horizontal Irradiation, http://solargis.info/doc/71[12] Alnaser WE et al., “First solar radiation atlas for the Arab world”, Renewable energy 29, pp1085-1107, 2004

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papers

Forgiveness Brokers: Assessing the Role of Foreign Actors in Libyan
Reconciliation
Nikolay Shevchenko
Reconciliation encompasses a variety of problems and issues, often diverse in nature.
One division related to the theory of reconciliation lies between interstate and intrastate
reconciliation practices. In some cases, the process of reconciliation among different
nations and people of a single nation may be similar to some degree. However, theory
and practice of reconciliation draw clear a line between the two when considering thepotential role of foreign players in interstate and intrastate reconciliation. A commonly
articulated position of reconciliation experts and practitioners holds that whileinternational actors may have a substantial effect on the mediation of international
conflicts and the subsequent reconciliation process among nations, their role inintrastate reconciliation is rather limited. This paper outlines a preliminary assessmentof international actors' role in intrastate reconciliation through the observation ofreconciliation attempts in a post-conflict Libya. The goal is to gain a deep
understanding of potential contributions as well as limitations, of foreign actors'
attempts to assist post-conflict societies in need of reconciliation.
Key words: reconciliation, international community, foreign actors, civil war, Libya.

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Introduction
Current reconciliation literature does not dedicate enough attention to role of foreign
actors in intrastate reconciliation practices. It is commonly thought that the actors who
are directly affected by initiatives and programs concerning reconciliation should leadthem. When considering intrastate conflicts, foreign actors are eliminated from thiscategory as they might propose different initiatives, but the genuine practice ofreconciliation is considered to be an internal issue of a state in question. This paper
analyzes a situation in post-conflict Libya to demonstrate that this theoreticalassumption is not reflected in practice.
A number of foreign actors sought active roles in promoting reconciliation
initiatives in post-conflict Libya, including international, intergovernmental, and nongovernmental organizations. Contrary to the notion that foreign actors should play aminimal role in intrastate reconciliation practices, these entities sought an active role in
the Libyan post-war reconciliation efforts. This active engagement not only questions a
general assumption of literature on reconciliation, but also undermines one of the mostimportant features of reconciliation – the neutrality of its brokers. In the first part of thispaper, I attempt to explore why the role of foreign actors is typically neglected inliterature on intrastate reconciliation. The second part uses the example of Libyan
reconciliation to demonstrate why foreign actors deserve more attention in this regard. I
finally conclude with posing a question of neutrality regarding foreign actors playing arole in reconciliation after intrastate conflicts.
Foreign Actors and Reconciliation
Reconciliation resembles a kaleidoscope. This may seem a rather irresponsible
comparison to the professional eye of a practitioner or scholar, but nothing truer has
been said about reconciliation. In the end, reconciliation is a perplexing mix of causes,
purposes, objects, tools, and actors, all mixed in a colorful, but strange, difficult toconceptualize picture of multiple levels and incarcerated into a single term.
Various reasons can bring reconciliation to mind, be it quarreling with aneighbor over a minor issue, or a war breaking out. Reconciliation may be mentioned asa remedy to cure wounds inflicted by numerous and diverse causes. It is deemed vitalfor decreasing hostilities, preventing violence, bridging antagonists, and living together
peacefully, even while the causes of antagonism may vary widely.
Some people question whether reconciliation is useful for addressing
international conflicts. Successful reintegration of Germany into the society following
their defeat in World War II and their current peaceful relations with former enemies
illustrates how fruitful successful reconciliation can be, even following deadlyinternational conflicts. Another question is whether reconciliation is helpful forpapers

addressing injustices inflicted upon one group in a given society by another. Manystates, including the United States, have set a precedent. A number of cases have proventhat reconciliation can assist in forming alliances between former belligerents or
criminals, and their victims. Whether interstate or intrastate conflict, mass human rights
violations, civil wars, fall of dictatorships, or discrimination of minorities, people tend
to regard reconciliation with a hope of solving problems of the past and constructing apeaceful future.
People have expectations of many goals to be achieved if reconciliation ispracticed properly. However, this topic is more interesting than the one of causes
because different views on reconciliation may favor different sets of goals thatreconciliation is to achieve. This is where the perplexity of reconciliation develops.
Depending on personal judgments, reconciliation might be perceived as either seeking
to reestablish justice or to promote political and social peace, even at the expense of theformer. Of course, the latter’s objective inevitably involves the existence of a just orderwhich makes past injustices irrelevant; but the question of retribution remains.
People undergoing the process of reconciliation often have to choose between
punishing abusers and perpetrators of crimes and acknowledging victims' sufferings.
The two theoretical ends represent a fundamental practical choice between justice andpeace, as the goals may be contradictory. The basic choice is between victim-focused or
perpetrator-focused reconciliation.1 Victim-focused reconciliation may fail to punish
perpetrators of past crimes or to address victims' emotions of anger and resentment.
Perpetrator-focused practice of reconciliation may fail to secure a place for large groupsof people in the future socio-political structure of a state and cause a problem ofrevenge.2
This brings the discussion to tools of reconciliation. In other words, what are thepractical instruments, approaches, and techniques to conduct a successful practice ofreconciliation? The answer will essentially depend on successfully resolving the goal
dilemma described in the previous paragraph. There are multiple tools; each brings
people toward a different outcome. A broad spectrum of tools available to address
injustices begins with the dangerous practice of revenge and ends at a mild gesture of
forgiveness; while in between there lie retributive and restorative faces of justice.3 The
tools of this spectrum are institutionalized in different ways. Attempt to restore justice
may be exercised by punishing perpetrators of past injustices through trials in courts.
However, if the goal is to acknowledge victims while, at the same time, integrating
perpetrators in the future order, truth and reconciliation commissions, so widelypracticed now, promise a higher probability of success. Both have been widely practiced
and will continue to be practiced in the future. The former tool, for example, wasutilized in Yugoslavia and Rwanda, and the latter in South Africa and more than 25

1

Daniel Philpott, "An Ethics of Political Reconciliation," Ethics and International Affairs, 23(4), (2009):
389–407.
2
Ibid.
3
Joel H. Rosenthal, entry on "Making Peace: Dilemmas of Reconciliation," Carnegie Council for Ethics
in International Affairs Website, entry posted on April 10, 2001,
http://www.carnegiecouncil.org/people/data/joel_h__rosenthal.html (accessed April 10, 2001).

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states worldwide.4 Reconciliation is a kaleidoscope of causes, goals, and tools united ina single picture that easily changes its form and appearance.
While observing the complex interplay of factors that shape the practices ofreconciliation, it is especially puzzling to understand literature’s modest silence
regarding actors of reconciliation. One should avoid misreading the claim: it is fairly
easy to distinguish between two persons reconciling their minor divergences, between
fractions within a single society broken by a civil war, or between two separate statesreconciling after an international conflict. It is more difficult, however, to identify third
parties and their participation in bringing conflicting elements towards reconciliation.
Drawing from observations on post-civil war attempts at reconciliation in Libya, thispaper aims to make a preliminary assessment of the potential effects of involvement of
third parties into reconciliation among fractions in war-torn societies and of theirpotential contributions and limitations in this uneasy undertaking.
To be fair, the literature does examine third parties and their roles in conflict
management and reconciliation. However, it focuses on the international realm,
effectively restricting the question in its relation to domestic sphere.
The role of third parties in the management of international conflicts has
traditionally been quite extensive, as have the methods of external-driven attempts toreconcile hostile parties, returning them to a condition of mutual trust and potential
cooperation. In his review on the involvement of third parties in international conflicts,
Ronald J. Fisher defines six categories of intermediary practices available at theirdisposal, including conciliation, that refers to provision of "... an informal
communication link between or among the antagonists..." by a trusted third party;
mediation, that involves a more decisive involvement of a third party which might use
leverage or coercion as a mean to reconcile conflicting actors; arbitration, that include abinding judgment issued by a third party; consultation, which refers to a more scientificapproach to reconciliation that includes conflict analysis and alternative scenario
development "... through communication and diagnosis based on social-scientificunderstanding;" and, finally, a category of peacekeeping, that "involves the provision of
military personnel by an outside party to supervise and monitor a cease-fire between
antagonists."5
Although Fisher acknowledges these possible scenarios of foreign assistance ininstances of conflict mediation and reconciliation, he admits that they, as well as thetools and techniques they provide, are largely limited to the international level conflicts
and leave the domestic realm with fewer options for third party involvement.6 It is
possible to explain this theoretical reduction to international sphere by examining acertain conceptualization of conflict roots. If one assumes that violent conflicts occur
because of misperceptions and miscommunications between two or more actors who
may not be willing to use force to achieve their ends under different circumstances, theemphasis on the role of neutral mediators is explainable since they can potentially
4

Joanna R. Quinn, introduction to Reconciliation(s): Transitional Justice in Postconflict Societies, ed.
Joanna R. Quinn (Mc-Gill-Queen's University Press, 2009), 3–13.
5
Ronald J. Fisher, "Pacific, Impartial Third Party Intervention in International Conflict: A Review and an
Analysis," in Beyond Confrontation: Learning Conflict Resolution in the Post-Cold War Era, ed. John A.
Vasquez, James Turner Johnson, Sanford Jaffe, and Linda Stamato (The University of Michigan Press,
1995), 40–1.
6
Ibid. 39.

papersreconcile foes by the intermediary practices mentioned above. Those studying the root
causes of intrastate conflicts, however, must often seek a different explanation of theiroutbreaks as these conflicts typically result from "the incompatible positions two or
more parties have taken on issues that represent the core values of a regime and/or
society."7 The conclusion of a civil war is critical to all participants; it determines theshape of the future social, political, and economic order. Intrastate wars imply an
extreme form of incompatibility in the values and goals of different parties cursed tolive under a single roof; the incompatibility of desired outcomes that are binding for allparticipants explains why it is more difficult for foreign actors to practice meditation
and reconciliation in instances of intrastate conflicts as opposed to interstate ones.
An alternative view on the potential impacts of third parties on conflict
management and reconciliation stresses that it is essential to take into account thecomplex dynamics of interplay between international factors, attempts of third parties toprovide international assistance, and domestic factors in recipient states. Shiping Tang,for example, reviews a number of international and domestic factors when assessing
their degree of success in attempts at reconciliation between sovereign states. His
analysis stresses the importance of domestic factors such as "... regime type, regime
security, social cohesion (at both elite and public levels), and leaders’ preferences" intheir relation to such international factors as "... distribution of power, coalitions ofregimes within a region, the presence or absence of an external power, the presence ofregional organizations, regional identities, and global norms (for example, human rights
after WWII)" in successful reconciliation practices.8 Although his analysis concerns
conflicts and reconciliation on an international level, this is to say between sovereignstates, it nonetheless provides a useful insight into the framework of domestic factors
shaping practices of reconciliation and the broader practice of conflict management.
Analyses concerning reconciliation in cases of interstate conflicts are importantwhen taking into account that violent outbreaks often occur in international system.
There are no intermediaries other than states themselves in these instances. Moreover,taking into consideration the current level of globalization resulting in an increasing
degree of mutual interdependence, interstate conflicts in the most remote parts of theworld may present a threat to those states that may not directly be involved in hostilities.
In this respect, the relative abundance of tools available to third parties when attempting
to reconcile two or more hostile peers is understandable. However, one should notforget that intrastate conflicts dominate the current system of international relations.
Most conflicts in the post-World War II era have started internally and in somecases led to international involvement.9 Therefore, over the past millennium, andespecially following the Cold War, states and international organizations have become
more sensitive to intrastate conflicts occurring inside sovereign countries. Again, due toactors’ current interdependence in the international system, violence occurring in a third
country would certainly have an impact on the national interests and security of otherstates. Some may be affected by the flow of refugees escaping conflicts, while others
may have concerns about the security and balance of power in a region where a conflict
7

J.K. Holsti, "Paths to Peace: Theories of Conflict Resolution and Realities of International Politics," inInternational Conflict Resolution, ed. Ramesh Thakur (Colorado: Westview Press, 1988), 112.
8
Shiping Tang, "Reconciliation and The Remaking of Anarchy," World Politics 63(4), (2011): 732.
9
Adrian Guelke, "Force, Intervention and Internal Conflict," in The Use of Force in International
Relations, ed. F. S. Northedge (Faber and Faber Limited, 1974), 99.

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takes place; some may worry about the involvement of their rivals in a conflict andothers may simply be interested in one party’s victory over another.
In this respect, outside interference into intrastate conflicts is a well-known
phenomenon, and although some may oppose it, the trend remains. Foreign actors tend
to enter into domestic conflicts of sovereign states. Typically, those parties fight forredistribution of economic resources within the borders of their own state or forreshaping of the state’s political landscape; or sometimes for both. Still, although theseconflicts are purely domestic at their roots, foreign influence always affects events on
the ground, shifting balance, or assisting in resolving tensions. The role of foreign
actors in intrastate conflicts may not necessarily result in direct military intervention,
but it encompasses a number of actions, such as issuing statements condemning one
side or the other, supporting one party or the other, facilitating dialogue between foes,
etc. Inevitably, these aspects of external interferences influence the development ofdomestic conflicts and relations between conflicting parties. Hence, all instances ofexternal influence have their own effect on potential reconciliation between former foes
when a conflict ends. This self-evident point has not been properly addressed withregard to reconciliation. The role of the international community may be acknowledged
in such spheres as peace-building and peace-keeping while the question ofreconciliation remains in shadow. One may assume that peace building efforts could
include reconciliation as well, but this view is not accurate. When it comes toreconciliation between former foes in a period of constructing a new political andeconomic order prior to a conflict, it has been said "... we must be modest about the roleof the international community."10 The following part of the paper is an overview of the
Libyan civil war, the attempts for reconciliation in the aftermath of the conflict, and theimpact of foreign actors on these attempts.
Reconciliation in Libya
Libya is one of the most illustrative situations where reconciliation is urgently required
but problematic to achieve. It is almost impossible to agree on a successful approach toreconciliation in a condition where lack of trust, even mutual hatred, is still vivid among
former foes.
The notorious civil wars in the Arab World began with a wave of unrest sparked
in Libya, where people have been living under Gaddafi's regime for more than 40 years,
in what has since become known as the Arab Spring. The unrest in Libya, following awave of a broader unrest in the Middle East, began in mid-February 2011 with protests
breaking out in Benghazi. They quickly spread to eastern cities of Libya and after
several days, the protests moved west with the first clashes between protesters andgovernmental forces. Soon, the anti-government protesters reached the Tripoli, thecapital city of Libya. Around this time, the anti-government forces claimed control oversome cities located in the east of the country, including Benghazi.11
The week of February 23 to February 27 was considered the first breaking pointin the Libyan turmoil when the anti-governmental forces claimed control over the10

Enrique Sanchez, Sylvia Rognvik, "Building Just Societies: Reconciliation in Transnational Settings"(Workshop report prepared by the United Nations Organization, Accra, Ghana, June 5–6, 2012).
11
Jeremy Bowen, "Libya: The Fall of Gaddafi," BBC News Africa Website,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13860458.

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eastern part of Libya and the largest presence of police, military, and other security
forces is reported in Tripoli. At the same time, the rebels began clashing with progovernmental forces loyal to Gaddafi over control of several cities. Eventually therebels began to claim control of more cities than the Gaddafi's government and theprotests against the government turned into a full-fledged civil war between those forces
supporting an old Gaddafi regime and those fighting to overthrow it.12
Since the beginning of the protests, foreign actors exercised a degree of
involvement, which grew as time passed and events on the ground developed. These
attempts culminated into United Nations (UN) Security Council (UNSC) resolution
number 1973 that authorized enforcement of a no-fly zone over the territory of Libya as
well as implementation of "all necessary measures" to protect the civilian population of
Libya.13 This UN Security Council resolution culminated into air strikes against proGaddafi forces and installations by France, the United Kingdom, and the UnitedStates.14 With the eventual help of foreign actors, the National Transitional Council(NTC) of rebels achieved a number of a decisive victory.15 The civil war was over but
new problems arose.
Although the long and bloody conflict had ended, there were a number of urgent
issues to be addressed by the NTC in the post-conflict environment with thereconciliation standing out. The task of addressing and eventually reconciling with thepast is extremely difficult for post-conflict societies for a number of reasons. First, oneof the major tasks of post-conflict states is to build a new political, social, and economicorder different from the previous one, and that would take into account the roots andoutcomes of the conflict. Second, it is difficult for the winning side not to fall into thetrap of “victors’ justice.” The task of reintegrating your former foes into the new orderof the future is demanding yet vital for the peaceful development of a state. Third, thequestion of refugees must be addressed, particularly if there are hesitations on behalf ofrefugees to return home for fears that they will prosecuted under a new regime. In the
Libyan scenario, these problems became apparent following the end of the civil war.
After the open hostilities, there were significant obstacles for the Libyan
government to construct a new, stable, and peaceful order. For example, as previously
mentioned, the people of a new Libya had to deal with the risk of recurring
authoritarianism, which a number of revolutions in the past clearly demonstrated. In any
revolution there are risks of changing one authoritarian regime to another. People inmany countries suffer enormously only to find themselves trapped in the sameauthoritarian setting that was in place prior to the revolution. Of course, this is one of
the most important aspects of reconciliation: ensuring that a winning fraction does not
impose authoritarian rule over other groups within a state's borders; Libya is not an
exception, it only reinforces this conventional wisdom. In fact, the return ofauthoritarianism following the civil war is a major risk for new political order in Libya.
A number of factors contribute to fears of recurring authoritarianism in the Libyan case,
12

Ibid.
Department of Public Information, "Security Council Approves 'No-Fly Zone' over Libya, Authorizing
All Necessary Measures to Protect Civilians, by Vote of 10 in Favor with 5 Abstentions," United Nations
Security Council, http://www.un.org/News/Press/docs/2011/sc10200.doc.htm.
14
Jeremy Bowen, "Libya: The Fall of Gaddafi," BBC News Africa Website,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-13860458.
15
Ibid.
13

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including on-going human rights violations, ineffectiveness of judicial sector, internalfragmentation of a state, and dissatisfaction with the central authority.16 Karim Mezran,a senior fellow with the Atlantic Council's Rafik Hariri Center for Middle East, warns
that with many people, former supporters of the Gaddafi regime, being "... in jails
without a trial, limited access to a lawyer, and in unknown physical condition, [...] thestate of Libya risks implosion or a return to authoritarianism [...] [i]f a strong initiative
is not undertaken rapidly by the Libyan government and its Western allies."17
Moreover, constructors of a new political system in Libya intentionallymarginalize Gaddafi-era officials, as well as those who opposed the revolution, fromholding public offices and actively participating political life. As Human Rights Watch
reports, in May of 2013, Libya’s Parliament passed a "Political Isolation Law," that "...
bans members of various groups from working in 20 categories of public
service.” "Some of the excluded groups," the report says, "are fairly clearly defined,
such as former senior officials under Gaddafi, but others are much vaguer, such as thosejudged to have shown a “hostile attitude toward the February 17 revolution.” The law
even bans those who held office under Gaddafi but defected from him years ago or
during the uprising and war that ended in his fall."18 What is even more alarming for theprocess of reconciliation in Libya is that the Libyan parliament has "... attempted to‘immunize’ the law from review by the highest court in Libya, to see if it complies withhuman rights."19
This situation is typical one for a state that has only recently been torn to pieces
by hostile fractions, each fighting for their own political goals and agendas. Since the
NTC proved victorious in the revolution, it may appear natural that its members andtheir supporters would use this fact to boost their influence and legitimacy in the eyes of
the Libyan people. However, this leads to problems of recurring authoritarianism and of
marginalization of a large part of political strata. As a report of Chatham House on
Libya rightly underlines, "the key question [for Libya now] is not who is in thegovernment but who is out of the government,"20 for any illegitimate exclusion of somegroups from a future political life of the country bears risks of recurring
authoritarianism. The problem for Libya, though, is that at least "at present individual
political legitimacy is drawn from the role one played in the revolution, preventing thedevelopment of fully democratic representation."21 This presents one of the major
challenges to national reconciliation and construction in a newly inclusive sociopolitical order.
An additional reason in favor of a dedicated approach towards reconciliation in
Libya is Libyan refugees in other countries. Wars force people out of their states in asearch of better and safer lives. However, this is only the surface of other problems
16

Karim Mezran, "Insight: Libya Needs National Reconciliation, Not Retribution," Middle East Voices,
http://middleeastvoices.voanews.com/2013/04/insight-libya-needs-national-reconciliation-not-retribution81623/.
17
Ibid.
18
Tamara Alrifai, "Learning a Lesson from Libya & Iraq: Reconciliation, Not Revenge," Human Rights
Watch, http://www.hrw.org/news/2013/05/29/learning-lesson-libya-and-iraq-reconciliation-not-revenge-0.
19
Ibid.
20
Libya Working Group Report: MENA Programme, "Challenges after Liberation," Chatham House
Working Report,
http://www.chathamhouse.org/sites/default/files/public/Research/Middle%20East/231111libya.pdf.
21
Ibid.

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related to reconciliation and it appears much deeper if one recognizes the unwillingnessof the refugees to return to their homes following hostilities because they are afraid of
being prosecuted by new authorities. This kind of situation challenges not only thefurther development of the state, but can potentially deteriorate its relationship withneighbors for whom the issue of political refugees becomes significant. This scenario isapparent in Libya.
It is estimated that up to one million Libyan refugees now live in countries
bordering Libya, mainly in Egypt and Tunisia. Taken together, these refugees accountfor up to 20 percent of the Libyan population.22 Obviously, such a large population
cannot be excluded from the country's political life. At the same time, most of them areunwilling to return to Libya for fears of revenge and unfair trials in conditions of weaksecurity of a post-war Libya. The issue of Libyan refugees particularly affected Egypt,where around 800,000 Libyans found their refuge. This makes Egyptian authorities
interested in the progress of a national reconciliation program in Libya.23 As Karim
Mezran writes, "Libyan authorities have assured the Egyptian government that they willprotect the extradited individuals, guarantee a fair trial, and provide all protections
sanctioned under international law, yet it is questionable whether they can actually
deliver on this promise given that government officials themselves face significant
security threats."24 The Libyan refugees currently living in neighboring countries, andthe new government’s apparent inability to successfully address and solve this problem,
constituted yet another reason for the Libyan government to dedicate further efforts
toward national reconciliation in their country.
Injustices created by the Libyan civil war crystallized in the uneasy relationshipbetween the two cities: Misrata and Tawergha. A circle of revenge that affected
residents of the two cities highlights the disastrous potential of the failed process ofreconciliation in post-conflict states. During the civil war, Misrata was a hot spot wheresome key fights took place and where its residents suffered from torture and abuse frompro-Gaddafi forces. After the pendulum of civil war changed direction and rebel forces
initiated an offensive, the population of Tawergha, with its predominantly black
Libyans, suffered revenge from their former victims.25 The cycle of violence andrevenge recurring among the people of these two cities illustrates how easily roles canchange in a conflict and how former victims can become abusers. A UN report ontransitional justice in Libya highlights importance of this fact: "In some cases
perpetrators of past crimes became victims, while victims also became perpetrators."26
Persistent and dedicated attempts for a nation-wide reconciliation attempt to
22

Karim Mezran, "Opinion: Yet Another Reason National Reconciliation in Libya Cannot Wait," Libya
Herald, http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/01/27/opinion-yet-another-reason-national-reconciliation-inlibya-cannot-wait/#axzz2hz4ubPt8.
23
Karim Mezran, "Insight: Libya Needs National Reconciliation, Not Retribution," Middle East Voices,
http://middleeastvoices.voanews.com/2013/04/insight-libya-needs-national-reconciliation-not-retribution81623/.
24
Ibid.
25

Ashraf Mashharawi, "The Road to Tawergha," AlJazeera Documentary,

http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/aljazeeraworld/2013/10/road-tawergha201310191859343221.html.
26
United Nations Support Mission in Libya, "Transitional Justice - Foundation for a New Libya," United
Nations, http://www.unsmil.unmissions.org/LinkClick.aspx?fileticket=8XrRUOsXBs%3D&tabid=3543&language=en-US.

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eliminate this type of hostilities because it is impossible to build a healthy andfunctional society where feelings of hatred predominate between different cities, regions,fractions, groups.
Challenges of recurring authoritarianism, internal fragmentation of state, andrefugees are the reasons for conducting a process of national reconciliation in Libya
between the associates of the former regime and those currently in power. Due to anumber of reasons discussed above, successful reconciliation may determine a degree ofstability in the future Libyan political and social conditions. However, security
conditions in Libya, its ability to approach reconciliation in the country as well as
stability of it socio-political order must be of interest not only to Libyan public and its
political authorities, but also to a wider international community of states. There are anumber of reasons for this.
First, the issue of political exiles unable to return to Libya due to its new
government's failure to provide them with security guarantees and its inability toeffectively conduct a process of national reconciliation may potentially lead to thepolitical destabilization of Libya and, consequently, of the wider region. The issue
appears sharper if one considers the possible effect on al-Qaida in the Islamic Maghreb
and related extremist organizations.27
Second, because Libya is largely perceived as a strong historical precedent withregard to its impact on the Syrian civil war, failure of the international community toensure effective reconciliation practice in Libya may negatively affect the current stateof affairs in a conflict-torn Syria. As one expert explains, "with the Libya experience asa guide, abandoning Assad will look increasingly unattractive to his supporters."28
Third, with a complicated interplay of international and domestic actors' interests
and agendas, the Libyan case may be a future model that will determine a potential rolefor representatives of the international community in national reconciliation efforts. In
this respect, the Libyan case might be an opportunity for international actors to develop
more effective international tools for influencing and facilitating reconciliation
processes in post-conflict states.
Thus far, a number of international players have been assuming various roles in
Libyan reconciliation. These players included sovereign states, internationalorganizations, as well as representatives of a broader civil society and nongovernmental organizations.
One of the most recognized international contributors to reconciliation in Libya
was the International Criminal Court (ICC) that has been dealing with the conflict since
the beginning. The Libyan case was referred to the ICC in February 2011 by the UNSC
after it adopted resolution number 1970 that said, "the Libyan authorities shall cooperate
fully with and provide any necessary assistance to the Court and the Prosecutor pursuant
to this resolution."29 Subsequently, the ICC has begun its investigation of the Libyan
27

Karim Mezran, "Insight: Libya Needs National Reconciliation, Not Retribution," Middle East Voices,
http://middleeastvoices.voanews.com/2013/04/insight-libya-needs-national-reconciliation-not-retribution81623/.
28
Ibid.
29
Press Release, "Pre-Trial Chamber Issues Three Warrants of Arrest for Muammar Gaddafi, Saif AlIslam Gaddafi and Abdualla Al-Senussi," International Criminal Court Website,
http://web.archive.org/web/20111126013502/http://www.icc-cpi.int/NR/exeres/D07229DE-4E3D-45BC8CB1-F5DAF8370218.htm.

papers

case and soon after, in June 2011, the organization issued three arrest warrants: for the
Libyan ruler Muammar Gaddafi, his son Saif al-Islam Gaddafi, and Abdullah Senussi,
head of Libyan intelligence service, on charges of crimes against humanity.30 The caseagainst Muammar Gaddafi was eventually terminated due to his death; the other cases
remain open.
In this respect, one of the most important contributions to the Libyan
reconciliation by the ICC would be to ensure a fair trial for the two associates of theformer regime. Therefore, the choice of location for the trials is vital - the choice
between The Hague and Libya is going to have an impact on the future of the Libyan
reconciliation. In this light, the recent decision of the ICC to refuse to demand theformer intelligence chief, Abdullah Senussi, to be tried in The Hague is of particularinterest.31 This decision most likely implies that Abdullah Senussi will be tried in Libyaby the new regime.
The decision is a result of different factors. First, as a BBC analyst Rana Jawadhas explained, the new Libyan government had no initial intention to deliver its former
intelligence chief or Gaddafi's son to The Hague in the first place.32 In this respect, theICC could not demand the two men to face the trial in The Hague. At the same time, thedecision of the ICC had a symbolic effect of recognition of the Libyan judicial system's
credibility. It could be seen as an expression of trust in ability of a new Libya toorganize and conduct fair trials articulated by the respectful international body. This, in
its turn, boosts external legitimacy of the new Libyan regime.
However, this choice, on behalf of the ICC, may lead to negative consequences,
depending on the conduct and results of the trials. A major concern is that the new
Libyan regime may fail to guarantee a fair trial for the two associates of the former rule.
In this case, the major risk is that the trials may turn into “mob's justice.” A lawyer ofthe former Libyan intelligence chief has already raised these concerns commenting on
the ICC decision. He claimed, "... the Libyan justice system is in a state of collapse
and ... it is incapable of conducting fair trials of any Gaddafi-era officials”; and that the
ICC decision will "condemn Mr. Senussi to face mob justice without even access to alawyer, and in which the inevitable outcome is the death penalty."33 If events develop
according to this scenario, it will inevitably have an overall negative impact on anationwide reconciliation in a post-war Libya.
Reconciliation is not only about punishing the perpetrators of crimes andacknowledging their victims in judicial courts. First, reconciliation is about healing thepast traumas, forgiving abusers, learning how to live peacefully with them, andovercoming a moral, sensual divide that is decisively drawn by wars, revolutions, or any
other catastrophes. For this very purpose, which may appear less tangible thentransitional justice but which happens to be much more influential in constructing afuture order, trials may not be as effective, even if conducted in a fair manner. What isneeded instead is formal and informal cooperation between former foes on different
30

Ibid.
"Gaddafi-Era Spy Chief al-Senussi to be tried in Libya," BBC Africa News Website,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-24493885.
32
Rana Jawad, "Analysis," BBC Africa News Website, http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa24493885.
33"Gaddafi-Era Spy Chief al-Senussi to be tried in Libya," BBC Africa News Website,
http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-africa-24493885.
31

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levels of social structure that will ensure former antagonists have a common goal towork towards on the condition of trust and cooperation.
It is for this purpose that the participation of national and international NonGovernmental Organizations (NGOs) is important. Muzaffer Ercan YÕlmaz, an advisor
at the International Middle East Peace Research Center, outlines a clear role ofinternational and domestic NGOs in "track-two diplomacy," a practice aimed at
bridging hostile to pursue a common goal. Building on Montville's research, he explains
that, "one way to ease relational problems and build trust among hostile groups would
be track-two diplomacy. Track-two diplomacy is an unofficial, informal interaction
between members of adversary groups aiming to develop strategies, influence public
opinion, and organize human and material resources in ways that might help resolve
their conflict."34 These informal interactions and practices may help conflicting parties
when addressing the root causes of their antagonism and when working together to findways to overcome the causes and move forward, leaving behind a negative
psychologically constructed image of their former foes.35 For this less official approachto national reconciliation, though hardly less effective, a role of international facilitatorsand organizers in the face of NGOs must not be underestimated.
One of the most notorious examples of this initiative in practice in Libya was the
Italian NGO Ara Pacis. With support of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Italy and inclose cooperation with a number of Libyan NGOs as well as academic institution Ara
Pacis has launched a program aimed at encouraging reconciliation among Libyan
people called “The Libya Initiative.”36 The purpose of this initiative was to develop,
implement, and facilitate a path towards reconciliation by working with civil society in
Libya.37 Incorporating a number of governmental and non-governmental institutions,
universities, and NGOs, the initiative provided an example of the role of NGOs-driven
efforts to facilitate reconciliation in post-conflict states. It is only unfortunate that therole of other similar initiatives was not well known in the Libyan case, althoughpotentially they constitute a strong contribution to success of the national reconciliation.
Another type of foreign factor active in Libyan reconciliation was represented
by supranational organizations. Arguably, the United Nations is the most influential
player in this respect with its involvement in preparing Libyan reconciliation
beginning during the civil war. In August 2011, UN Secretary General, Ban Ki-Moon,emphasized the need for preparing for a post-conflict reconciliation to the leader of
NTC, Mustafa Abdul-Jalil.38 Later, the United Nations Security Council has authorized
the UN to launch the “United Nations Support Mission in Libya” (UNSMIL) by passing

34

Muzaffer Ercan Yilmaz, "Peace Building in Libya," International Middle East Peace Research Institute,
http://www.impr.org.tr/en/peace-building-in-libya/#.UpxZ4cRDtIE.
35
Ibid.
36
"Towards Healing and Reconciliation: The Libya Initiative Launched," Libya Herald,
http://www.libyaherald.com/2013/05/04/towards-healing-and-reconciliation-libya-initiativelaunched/#axzz2hz4ubPt8.
37
Council for Dignity, Forgiveness, Justice and Reconciliation, “The Libya Initiative," Ara Pacis Website,
http://www.arapacisinitiative.org/it/component/content/article/369 (accessed December 1, 2013).
38
UN News Center, "Libya: UN Chief Stresses Unity and National Reconciliation During Transition,"
United Nations Website,
http://www.un.org/apps/news/story.asp/html/realfile/story.asp?NewsID=39365&Cr=libya&Cr1=#.Upx2e
MRDtIE (accessed December 1, 2013).

papersa resolution number 2040 in March 2012.39 This resolution marked the beginning of aheavy UN involvement into the reconciliation process in Libya.40 The mission's
mandate was broad and included other spheres beyond reconciliation, but nevertheless,dedicated efforts to national reconciliation in Libya have been undertaken under the
mandate of the mission. In particular, the mission's role in strengthening and promoting
reconciliation in Libya has been undertaken through assistance it provided the new
Libyan government with, including in strengthening its justice system, protecting
human rights, and fostering domestic-driven reconciliation efforts.41 In December 2012,
the UNSMIL was the major force behind an international conference on reconciliationin Libya that provided a platform for representatives of governments, civil society, andinternational community to discuss prospects and obstacles towards reconciliation in the
post-conflict state. With nearly "... one hundred Government officials, members of theFact-Finding and Reconciliation Commission, members of the General National
Congress, members of the Council of Wise Men (Hukama), representatives from the
Ministry of Martyrs and Missing Persons, civil society and victim groups, andindividual experts as well as members from the diplomatic community," the UN-led
initiative had a huge impact on facilitating debates on Libyan reconciliation, underlying
its problems and seeking solutions.42 Undoubtedly, large international organizations,such as the United Nations, possess a spectrum of opportunities to contribute to anational reconciliation in post-conflict states due to their budget, connections,organizational power, and prestige and credence that they enjoy internationally.
The European Union (EU) was another foreign actor whose activities aimed at
supporting post-war reconciliation efforts in Libya. In general, the EU was closely
following the development of the crisis in the African state. A number of EU countries
contributed their assets to the NATO operation in Libya. Consequently, reconciliation isseen by the EU officials as one of the aspects of post-war reconstruction for which the
EU may contribute positively. For example, Nicolas Sarkozy, then serving as a
President of France, has emphasized the need for reconciliation and forgiveness in
Libya.43 In the aftermath of the war, reconciliation and transitional justice constitute animportant part of the EU's efforts to oversee the Libyan power transition andstabilization in the country. Thus far, the EU has been working in cooperation with the
new Libyan government to implement programs strengthening Libya's institutions, ruleof law, and work of judicial sector, in order to ensure adequate protection of rights toboth former victims and perpetrators.44 Due to its resources, its experience in the field ofinternational assistance, its high records of human rights and rule of law, and its

39

United Nations Support Mission in Libya, "UNSMIL Mandate," United Nations Website,
http://unsmil.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?tabid=3544&language=en-US (accessed December 1, 2013).
40
Ibid.
41
Ibid.
42
United Nations Support Mission in Libya, "Conference on Truth and Reconciliation in Libya
Concludes with Recommendations on the Way Forward," United Nations Website,
http://unsmil.unmissions.org/Default.aspx?ctl=Details&tabid=3543&mid=6187&ItemID=807743.
43"World Leaders Urge Libya Reconciliation," AlJazeera News Website,
http://www.aljazeera.com/news/africa/2011/09/20119119919614337.html.
44
Patryk Pawlak, "From protecting to rebuilding: The EU’s role in Libya," in Preventing Conflict,
Managing Crisis. European and American Perspectives, ed. Gross, Hamilton, Major and Rieke(Washington, DC: Center for Transatlantic Relations, 2011), 77.

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political interest in securing peaceful post-war transition in Libya, the EU possesses agreat potential to contribute to reconciliation process in the North African state.
The examples of the ICC, the United Nations, the NGO, and the EU demonstratethat foreign actors seek a role in post- conflict reconciliation practices, contrary to theassumption with regard to intrastate conflicts. It does not mean, however, that a generalskepticism about their role in intrastate reconciliation is groundless. It comes from alegitimate concern regarding the political interests of the parties promoting
reconciliation in Libya. The majority of actors contributing to reconciliation today have
only recently become involved in the Libyan conflict. Political interests integral to theirefforts in this sphere abandon roots of an original meaning of reconciliation, where themain feature of the practice is neutrality of a reconciling figure.45 The etymologicalorigin of the term demands today's political actors of reconciliation maintain neutrality
in relation to parties they aim to reconcile. Political interests, however, maintain that
preserving the neutrality of reconciliation in modern political setting is hardly possible.
An overwhelming majority of foreign actors seeking to find a role in Libyan
reconciliation favor certain scenarios of political development over others shaped bytheir own interests and concerns. This is not to say that foreign actors who demonstrate
their will to promote reconciliation in Libya do not intend to do so. Their emphasis on
the need for reconciliation seems to be grounded in their political interest in Libya andthe wider region. However, it is precisely these political interests that undermine thetheoretical neutrality that actors of reconciliation are supposed to observe. Foreign
actors play a great role in shaping intrastate reconciliation practices but this role,
however, is dubious as it blurs the original meaning of reconciliation, taking neutrality
out of the picture. The question of foreign actors’ involvement in reconciliation and a
degree of their neutrality might shift a conventional theoretical conception of intrastate
reconciliation practices.
Conclusion
Literature on reconciliation does not dedicate adequate attention to potential effects offoreign actors on reconciliation processes in sovereign states. This remains true
although some of the related topics are covered more thoroughly. For example, the roleof non-state actors in facilitating reconciliation has been addressed,46 as has broader
questions of international mediation in conflicts47 and aspects related to conflict
resolution and post conflict practice of reconciliation. However, a majority of thesestudies focuses on interstate conflicts with two or more sovereign states as participants.
This approach is by no means useless or impractical; it is important to study practices ofreconciliation between states to gain insight on how can one facilitate this process in the
future. However, intrastate conflicts should attract the attention of politicians andscholars today.
45

Murray, Michael and Rea, Michael, "Philosophy and Christian Theology, "The Stanford Encyclopediaof Philosophy (Fall 2012 Edition), Edward N. Zalta (ed.),http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/christiantheology-philosophy/
46
Shogo Suzuki, "Overcoming Past Wrongs Committed by States: Can Non-State Actors Facilitate
Reconciliation," Social and Legal Studies 21(2), (2012): 201–13.
47
Tobias Bohmelt, "Failing to Succeed? The Cumulative Impact of International Mediation Revisited,"
Conflict Management and Peace Science 30(3), (2013): 199–219.

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This trend adds to the need to study reconciliation processes with respect tointrastate conflicts. This must include an assessment of potential actors of reconciliation,
those who possess an ability to facilitate dialogue between reconciling parties, tooverview a process of transitional justice in the state in question, and, generally, lead theprocess of reconciliation to its logical conclusion. Taking into account the growinginternationalization of intrastate conflicts and the growing degree of involvement offoreign actors in their resolution, it is safe to assume that these actors would also beinterested in contributing to post-war reconciliation processes. However, it is frequently
said that any practice of reconciliation after an intrastate conflict must be initiated by its
participants, both internally and in an independent manner. While this statement is notnecessarily false, it must not reduce the importance of foreign actors’ potential
contributions toward successful practices of reconciliation in intrastate conflicts.
This paper has illustrated that there are a number of foreign actors, each of adifferent type, status, and ability, that can exercise a considerable impact onreconciliation development in a post-conflict society through the review of roles that
foreign actors played in the reconciliation process in a post-Gaddafi Libya. The Libyan
case demonstrates that foreign actors do seek an active role in promoting reconciliationin the aftermath of intrastate conflicts. Furthermore, the case demonstrates that
initiatives aimed at promoting reconciliation can be initiated outside of the state inquestion and encourage and facilitate domestic-driven reconciliation efforts andprograms. In addition, Libyan case has shown that a category of foreign players who
have an ability to foster reconciliation after an intrastate conflict includes a number ofactors, each of different nature. Hence, representatives of foreign states,intergovernmental organizations, international civil society, and of NGOs can all havetheir share in promoting reconciliation between hostile fractions within a sovereign state.
It is true that it remains difficult to assess the degree of success that their efforts
have brought to reconciliation in Libya thus far. However, the intensity of theirinvolvement and participation in nation-wide reconciliation efforts in Libya must not be
underestimated; in addition to the effect their involvement has on a conventional andtheoretical conception of reconciliation. This brief observation of roles and effects
foreign actors have in Libya’s reconciliation challenges a common perception of
inability of foreign actors to play a substantial role in intrastate reconciliation practices.
While efforts of some foreign actors might be limited, others may have a success infacilitating and organizational effects on promoting reconciliation in post-conflict states.
The question, however, is whether their political interests shift a conventional
conception of reconciliation that is characterized by neutrality of its brokers. To answer
this, further research on the roles of foreign actors and their potential to contribute toreconciliation processes in post-conflict states is needed.

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papers

Development of Infrastructure in the Kingdom of Cambodia:
Export of Water Technology by Kitakyushu
Tian Zhang
Department of Science of Environment and Mathematical Modeling,
Doshisha University
1-3 Tatara Miyakodani, Kyotanabe, Kyoto 610-0394, Japan
Abstract
Cambodia’s infrastructure has been severely damaged by decades of conflictand civil war. Re-establishing systems of infrastructure has become the highest priority
so as to develop the country and improve its people’s quality of life. The city of
Kitakyushu in Japan has been engaged in reconstructing Cambodia’s water systems anddeveloping its human resources since 1999, as part of its international cooperation work.
As a result, the Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority has undergone remarkable
recovery and growth, and most people in the city now have access to clean, safe water.
This outstanding result is recognized as “The Miracle of Phnom Penh.” This paper
provides a summary of the efforts of Kitakyushu’s development and water specialists in
Cambodia.
Introduction
Infrastructure building is essential to social and economic development,
including education, human rights, industry, and human life in general. Weak and failinginfrastructure perpetuates poverty and is a serious obstacle to both welfare and to a
country’s development. Therefore, improving infrastructure is regarded as a top priority
in breaking the cycle of poverty, and countries cannot be expected to develop without it.
The Kingdom of Cambodia is a Southeast Asian nation that, due to a long civil
war that lasted until around 1990, is substantially less developed and poorer than its
neighboring countries [1,2]. Owing to the chronic violent conflict, infrastructure such as
water supply, electricity, and roads deteriorated to an extremely poor condition [3,4].
For example, in 1993, only 20% of Phnom Penh’s residents had access to piped water.
Lack of infrastructure was, and still is, one of the main factors stalling the country’s
development.
The city of Kitakyushu, located in the western part of Japan, is known as one of
the biggest industrial areas in Japan. However, the city’s remarkable industrial

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development brought with it severe pollution. In the 1960s, several rivers and the Dokai
Bay were highly contaminated by industrial and domestic wastewater [5]. In order torestore the health of the environment, Kitakyushu’s city government implemented theirown technologies, with support from local companies and universities, such as sewage
maintenance management systems and industrial wastewater treatment technologies [6].
These efforts re-established Kitakyushu’s safe natural environment.
Through this experiment of overcoming its own serious pollution, Kitakyushu’s
city government has long-standing ties with cities across Asia and has continued toprovide support to water and environmental technologies. For example, in 2009,
Vietnam introduced biological contact filter (BCF) purification, which is a technology
patented by Kitakyushu, and Kitakyushu’s city government also held a training program
regarding capacity building of sewage facility managers in the city of Huhehaote, China[6].
As a result, Kitakyushu’s technologies are highly acclaimed not only in Japanbut also overseas. Furthermore, Kitakyushu was chosen by the Organization for
Economic Cooperation and Development (OECD) as a “Green Growth Model City” ofthe world that is maintaining both economic growth and environmental sustainability[7]. Since the 1990s, Kitakyushu’s city government has also pursued endeavors toexport water infrastructure relating to international technical cooperation. Today,
Kitakyushu’s water technologies have already been used in many Asian countries, suchas China, Vietnam, Saudi Arabia, and Cambodia. However, this road has not been aneasy one.
In the course of preparing this paper, I investigated the current water
infrastructure situation in Phnom Penh and explored how to create infrastructure indeveloping countries. In August 2013, I interviewed Kitakyushu’s water experts, thedirector of the Department of Potable Water under the Ministry of Industry, Mining, andEnergy (MIME) of the government of Cambodia, the Director General of the Phnom
Penh Water Supply Authority (PPWSA), the First Secretary of Embassy of Japan in
Cambodia, and a project formulation advisor of Japan International Cooperation Agency(JICA) in Phnom Penh. They described the wide variety of problems they had faced andthe knowledge gained throughout the learning process. This paper summarizes thefindings of my survey in Cambodia.
An important issue that became evident is that effective water supply requires
excellence, specifically in the areas of human resources and management, as well as intechnology and hardware. One reason for the success of the water supply in Phnom
Penh was appropriate investment and cooperation in both of these areas.

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153

Tracks of development of water infrastructure
Phnom Penh’s infrastructure was severely damaged by more than 20 years ofcivil war that began in 1970. The water supply dissemination rate in Phnom Penh was
20%, and, before 1993, water was only available for 10 hours per day. Consequently,
people were forced to perform the long, arduous work of collecting water. In order tosolve this serious problem, in 1993, a new director was appointed to the PPWSA: Mr.
Ek Sonn Chan. Chan initiated a thorough reform of the water agency, utilizing
international development funding and expertise [8,9]. JICA accepted this request andoffered funds to improve the water supply facilities. JICA provided a grant of $25
million in support of the PPWSA in 1995 and gave over $21 million in additional grantmoney in 1997. The PPWSA also received financial support from the World Bank andAsian Development Bank starting from 1997; however, these were not grants, but loans[10].
In 1999, Kitakyushu’s city government also accepted Cambodia’s request thatthey dispatch waterworks experts to Phnom Penh to develop water infrastructure and to
train local staff. At that time, the non-revenue water rate, which is defined as thedifference between the amount of water put into a distribution system and the water
billed to consumers, was more than 70%. Such losses are mainly caused by leakage andwater theft. Reducing the lost water was a serious problem for Cambodia, and thesuccessful management of the PPWSA was considered a virtually impossible task.

supply network is split into a number of blocks
with a water meter installed for each block.
This system allows blocks in need of repair tobe immediately identified. As a result, it canefficiently specify the precise locations of leaksor thefts, compared to the conventional method,and it successfully reduces the amounts of
non-revenue water.
Figure 1 illustrates the reduction in
the amount of non-revenue water in Phnom
Penh from 1993 to 2010. This diagram shows ayear-by-year decrease in the amount of
non-revenue water; the amount of leakage wasAmount of non–revenue water (㸣)The water and sewer bureau of Kitakyushu introduced the Zone-Monitoring
System, which was developed uniquely by Kitakyushu, to address the water loss issues[11]. Since it is difficult to pinpoint the locations of leakage or water theft, the water
80

40

0
1990

2000

2010

Year

Fig. 1 Amount of non-revenue waterin Phnom Penh154

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dramatically reduced from 72% to 6% or less, which is on par with developed countries.
Moreover, prior to Kitakyushu’s provision of technical support, only 20% of
people had access to piped water. Through the implementation of this cooperation, 90%
of Phnom Penh’s residents gained access to clean, safe water. Another outstanding result
was that it became possible to drink water directly from the tap—a rarity in the world.
In Asia in particular, such water is available only in Japan and Phnom Penh. These
achievements have been lauded as a “miracle” and certainly provide an excellent modelfor other cities [12].
Phum Prek Water Treatment Plant
There are four water treatment plants in Phnom Penh. Among them, Phum Prek
Water Treatment Plant, which is located next to the PPWSA, has the capacity to produce
150,000 m3/day of potable water. The water supply is fed by the Mekong River, whichflows from north to south through Phnom Penh to Vietnam.
Figure 2 depicts the facilities of Phum Prek Water Treatment Plant; the picture
was taken during the author’s research survey in Phnom Penh. This plant’s water
treatment mechanics are as follows:
1. Receiving and chemical dosing (Fig. 3)
The reception well intakes raw water and doses it with the chemicals calcium oxide(lime), polyaluminum chloride (PAC), and chlorine. This area also conducts the rapid
mixing of chemicals in water.
2. Flocculation basin (Fig. 4)
Small flocs (flocculent masses) are joined together to make big flocs in order tofacilitate quick setting.
3. Sedimentation basin (Fig. 5)
Big flocs are set at the bottom of the basin, and settled waters flow to the end of thebasin.
4. Rapid sand filter (Fig. 6)
Small substances and flocs are filtered out, producing cleaner water.
5. Dosing chlorine (Fig. 7)
Chlorine is added to the filtered water to disinfect it.

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This treatment method makes it possible to remove the brownish color from river waterand eliminate harmful components such as arsenic and lead.
Figure 8 depicts the plant’s control room, which monitors and controls the plant
24 hours a day. Initially, Japanese experts from Kitakyushu created the plant’s standard
operating procedures and instructed the management on how to run the plant. However,the staff of the PPWSA are highly skilled, and they manage the plant independently now.
Moreover, the PPWSA staff are transferring their skills to other water engineers at
various provinces in Cambodia.

Fig. 2 Phum Prek Water Treatment Plant

Fig. 3 Reception wellFig. 4 Flocculation basin

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Fig. 5 Sedimentation basin
Fig. 6 Filter basin

Fig. 8 Control room
Fig. 7 Chlorine dosing basin

Key to success in infrastructure building
Cambodia’s schooling and education system was destroyed during the Pol Pot
regime. A large number of people were executed as a consequence of his policies: it isestimated that, out of a population of approximately eight million, about two to three
million people perished, and doctors, teachers, and literate people weredisproportionately targeted. For this reason, most Cambodian people have had little
education.

papers

In order to assist these people with their work, Kitakyushu’s experts put
particular effort into human resource development at the PPWSA. They instructed local
staff not only in the knowledge and technology of water infrastructure but also in Arabic
numbers and methods of calculation. The water and sewer bureau of Kitakyushu also
provided the PPWSA staff with work uniforms in order to increase their motivation towork and raise their morale. The system of allocating personnel also had a positiveeffect on the water business management. For example, the PPWSA made efforts toassign jobs according to each staff member’s capabilities. Addressing these humanresources issues was key to the successful development of water infrastructure in
Phnom Penh.
Following these successful programs, many Cambodian agencies havedeveloped a deep level of trust in the experts from Kitakyushu. Kitakyushu’s city
government now has agreements to provide technical cooperation to 10 Cambodian
cities: Siem Reap, Battambang, Kampong Thom, Mondulkiri, Pursat, Kampong Cham,
Preah Sihanouk, Kampot, Krong Kep, and Svay Rieng. Many residents of these cities
still have no access to clean drinking water, and there is an increasing demand for water
driven by population growth. The annual population growth rate in Cambodia is 1.8%,
which is about nine times higher than that of Japan [13], and it is estimated that the
population of urban areas will double from 2010 to 2030 [14]. Accordingly, Kitakyushu
is increasing its efforts to tackle the problem of access to clean water and aims todevelop water infrastructure throughout the country.
Conclusion
Since 1999, the water and sewer bureau of Kitakyushu has cooperated with the
PPWSA to construct water infrastructure and has provided Cambodia with knowledge
and technology to this end. As a result, about 90% of households in Phnom Penh now
have access to potable water, and 24-hour stable water services have been madeavailable.
It is clear that the presence of well-qualified people is crucial for any
developing country where the construction of infrastructure is an important priority, anddevelopment needs to be made with a long-term perspective. In other words, humanresource development is vital to developing countries, and the key is to train and secure
human resources who can support ongoing development and pass their skills on toothers.

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Acknowledgments
I would like to thank my advisor, Professor Masatsugu Morimitsu, for his
continuing interest and strong support. I also thank Mr. Manabu Araki, who is on the
Kitakyushu’s city council, for his assistance in this survey. I am grateful to Mr. Satoshi
Kiyama, who is the director of the international project division of the water and sewer
bureau in Kitakyushu, for his support in Cambodia and his valuable and helpfulcomments, as well as Mr. Takayuki Kawasaki, who is the assistant manager of theinternational project division of the water and sewer bureau in Kitakyushu.
I also would like to thank Mr. Tan Sokchea, who is the director of the
Department of Potable Water under the MIME, Mr. Sim Sitha, who is the director
general of the PPWSA, Mr. Shinichi Tamamitsu, who is the first secretary of the
Embassy of Japan in Cambodia, and Mr. Togo Uchida, who is a project formulation
advisor of JICA, for his valuable discussions.
References[1] O. Hensengerth, Transitions of Cambodia War and Peace, 1954 to the present, INEF,
pp. 15-30 (2008).
[2] Z. Zimmer, J. Knodel, K.S. Kim, and S. Puch, The Impact of Past Conflicts andSocial Disruption in Cambodia in the Current Generation of Older Adults,
Population Studies Center Report (2005).
[3] The Public-Private Infrastructure Advisory Facility and the World Bank Group,
Private Solutions for Infrastructure in Cambodia, pp. 7-14 (2002).
[4] M. Sum, Infrastructure Development in Cambodia, ERIA Research Project Report,
pp. 32-84 (2008).
[5] H. Tsutsumi, N. Ueda, S. Montani, Proc. of The Twelfth International Offshore andPolar Engineering Conference, pp. 461-464 (2002).
[6] Office for International Environmental Cooperation Environment Bureau of
Kitakyushu, ECO, thereby Enhancing Global Partnership, pp. 5-12 (2010).
[7] International Policy Division, City of Kitakyushu, Kitakyushu Bridges, Vol. 38, p. 4
(2012).
[8] B. Das, E.S. Chan, C. Visoth, G. Pangare, and R. Simpson, Sharing the Reform
Process, Learning from the Phnom Penh Water Supply Authority (2010).
[9] Institute of Water Policy, Ek Sonn Chan and the Transformation of the Phnom Penh
Water Supply Authority (2009).
[10] A. Chiplunkar, K. Seetharam, C.K. Tan, Good Practices in Urban Water
Management, Asian Development Bank, pp. 133-143 (2012).

papers[11] K. Kitahashi, Presentation of Kitakyushu’s International Strategy to Empower
Japan, p. 31 (2011).
[12] Report of JICA Cambodia Office, Cambodia Dayori, No. 4, p. 3 (2011). (inJapanese)[13] Population Reference Bureau, 2013 World Population Data sheet, p. 10 (2013).
[14] JICA, Overview on Urban Water Supply Sector in the Kingdom of Cambodia, p. 4
(2012).

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Contributors
Akihiro Ametani:

Professor, Graduate School of Science and Engineering,
Doshisha University / Editor of GRM Journal

Bruce White:

Associate Professor, The Institute for The Liberal Arts,
Doshisha University

Huw Griffiths:

High Voltage Energy Systems Group, Institute ofEnergy, Cardiff University, Wales, UK

Ishaq Rahman:

Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University / Lecturer, Department ofInternational Relations, Hasanuddin University,
Makassar, Indonesia

Iyas Salim:

Ph.D. Candidate, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Jorge E. Lamas:

Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Doshisha University

Kanat Abdrahamanov:

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Keisuke Kagami:

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Policy andManagement, Doshisha University

Keisuke Nakamura:

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Doshisha University

Kenta Doi:

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Doshisha University

Koji Murata:

President, Doshisha University

161

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Global Resource Management ジャーナル Vol. 1

Marie Taketani:

Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Masanori Naito:

Dean, Graduate School of Global Studies, Doshisha
University / Program Coordinator of GRM Program

Matti Lehtonen:

Professor, School of Electrical Engineering, Aalto
University, Aalto, Finland

Mayuko Hagari:

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Megumi Inaka:

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Naomi Nishi:

Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Nazuna Nakao:

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Nikolay Shevchenko:

Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Reiko Mihara:

Associate Professor of Organization for Advanced
Research and Education

Risa Arakawa:

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Takuya Moriyama:

Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Tian Ziang:

Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Doshisha University

papers

Tomotaka Teshiba:

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Policy andManagement, Doshisha University

Toshie Inui:

Doctoral Student, Graduate School of Global Studies,
Doshisha University

Tran Huu Thang:

Ph.D. Candidate, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Doshisha University

Unnur Stella
Gudmundsdottir:

Energinet.dk, Denmark

Xiaoyun Wang:

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Doshisha University

Yoshiko Miyamoto:

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Science andEngineering, Doshisha University

Yujiro Minami:

Master’s Student, Graduate School of Social Studies,
Doshisha University

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