(iThe Autonomous

Language Acquirer(ALA): Definition,
rationale, and somesuggestions
Stephen Krashen
Professor Emeritus, University ofSouthern California, Rossier School of
Education
About Stephen

Stephen Krashen is Emeritus Professor of Education at the University of Southern
California. He is best known for developing the first comprehensive theory of second
language acquisition, introducing the concept of sheltered subject matter teaching,
and as the co-inventor of the Natural Approach. He has also contributed to theory
and application in the area of bilingual education, and has done important work in
the area of reading. He holds a PhD in Linguistics from UCLA, was the 1977 Incline
Bench Press champion of Venice Beach and holds a black belt in Tae Kwon Do. His
recent papers can be found at http://www.sdkrashen.com.
A.

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KRAS HEN

Abstract

The goal of language pedagogy is not to develop fully proficient speakers of the second orforeign
language; it is, rather, to help acquirers become autonomous, so they can improve on their own. The
autonomous language acquirer needs to understand how language is acquired, as well as develop
enough competence to getcomprehensible inputfrom the "outside world." This requires an arsenal ofstrategies fordealing with native speakers, the media, and, perhaps most important, an understandingof the power of recreational reading in increasing second language ability.

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The autonomous language acquirer (ALA) is defined here as the acquirerwho (1) understands how
languageis acquired,and (2) is able to get the input necessary for languageacquisition,whether
formal programs are available or not, whether in the foreign or second languagesituation.
HOW IS LANGUAGE ACQUIRED?

There is by now overwhelming evidence that we acquire language in only one way: When we
obtain comprehensible input, i.e. messages we understand. We acquire language when we
understand what people say to us, and what we read. The evidence for this central hypothesis
comes from a number of sources, reviewed in Krashen (2003, 2004a):(1) Students in classes that contain more comprehensible input do better than similar students
in traditional classes, both at the beginning and intermediate levels.
(2) Students in classes that emphasize free voluntary (self-selected) reading do better thanstudents in traditional classes.

(3) Those who get more comprehensible input outside of class acquire more language thanthose who get less.
In addition, there are a number of compelling arguments against alternative views oflanguage acquisition. Language cannot be acquired from output alone, because people do
not produce enough output to have a significant impact. While speaking can help language
acquisition indirectly, by encouraging others to talk to us (conversation), there is no evidence
that output plays any direct role in language acquisition (Krashen, 2003). Speaking, it ishypothesized, is not a cause of language acquisition but is a result of language acquisition, a
result of obtaining comprehensible input.

There are several fundamental arguments against the most widely-used way of attempting
to learn languages: grammar study. Attaining a conscious knowledge of language cannot be
the key to language acquisition because (1) the grammatical system is far too complex toconsciously learn, and (2) grammar study produces only a very modest effect on performancein a second language, and grammar rules are "fragile" (easy to forget, hard to learn) (Truscott,1998, 2004; Krashen, 2003).

I have hypothesized (Krashen, 1981) that conscious knowledge of grammar is only available
to us in language performance as a Monitor: We can use grammar only to edit what we writeand say. In addition, studies show that there are severe limits on the use of the Monitor, limits
in terms of rules (only very simple ones) and limits in terms of when consciously learned rules
can be used (when we are thinking about correctness, and when we have time).

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The A u t o n o m o u s Language A c q u i r e r

AffectResearch is consistent with the hypothesis that affective factors in language acquisition act
as barriers (Stevick, 1976; Krashen, 1981). They do not affect how the "language acquisition
device" works; rather, they act to keep input out of the device. Those who do not have theoptimal attitudes about language acquisition are said to have a strong "affective filter."
It appears to be the case that if we engage in practices that run counter to the"comprehension hypothesis" expressed above, we raise the affective filter, we increase theacquirer's anxiety, which blocks input from reading the language acquisition device. This
happens when input is not comprehensible or not interesting, that is, when it is confusing or
boring. It also happens when students are forced to talk before they have built up sufficientcompetence to do so, and when they are overcorrected and made to feel self-conscious about
their accuracy. In contrast, activities that are good for language acquisition, such as hearing
stories and self-selectedreading, are typicallyperceivedto be pleasant (Krashen, 2003).
The ALA in the classroom

Regardless of whether the class is in harmony or not with the theory of language acquisition,
the Autonomous LanguageAcquirer (ALA) is aware that the language class is not designed tomake the ALA into a native-like or even very high-level performer in the language. Language
classes are designed to develop intermediates, those who know enough of the language so they
can continue to improve on their own, after the program has ended.
How will the ALA know if the class is in tune with the theory? In classes that are consistent
with theory, the syllabus is based on topics of interest, rather than grammatical mastery,students are not forced to speak (i.e. they are not called on) but respond voluntarily, the teacher
uses a variety of ways of making input comprehensible (e.g. pictures, movements, providing
background knowledge in the first language) and students are exposed to a wide variety ofreading material for self-selected reading (see e.g. Krashen and Terrell, 1983; Brown andPalmer, 1988; Ray and Seeley, 2004).
If the class is not set up in harmony with the theory, the ALA must be aware that the method
runs counter to the way the brain works, and that failure and discomfort are not the ALA's
fault. Nearly all classes, however, will contain some comprehensible input; the issue is whether
it is worth attending a class to get only scraps of what is needed. If the class is a requirement,
the best way of dealing with it is to get one's comprehensible input outside of class.'

Here is a suggestion for the motivated beginner, based on my experience and what others
have told me: Buy or borrow about 10 beginning textbooks in the target language, based on
traditional, grammar-translation methodology. Read the reading passages that are part of eachchapter, glancing at the vocabulary and grammar sections only when necessary to make thepassage comprehensible. Don't try to remember the specific vocabulary and grammar; just use
them as a means of understanding the passage when the text itself is insufficient.

If you move from chapter to chapter in one book, you will discover that the reading sections
became much too hard very soon. This is because each passage is designed to "reinforce" the newgrammar and vocabulary that are the focus of each chapter. The solution is to read chapter one ofeach text, then read chapter two of each text, and so forth. Bythe time you get to chapter eight ornine of ten different texts, you will have developed a surprising amount of competence in the new
language. Even though texts differ as to which aspects of grammar and which vocabulary they
cover, there will be enough overlap, enough common vocabulary and grammar, to ensure that the
texts are reasonably comprehensible and that language acquisition will take place.

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The ALA outside the classroom

As noted earlier, the goal of the classroom is to bring students' competence to the intermediatelevel.The intermediate ALA needs to be adept at getting comprehensible input from theoutside world, even in the foreign language situation where the language is not spoken insociety to a large extent.
Interacting with native speakers

The ALA knows how to find native speakers who will provide comprehensible input and knows
to avoid those who will not.

But the ALAalso knows that language is not a good basis for friendship. Some people may
provide clear, comprehensible input, but are boring, irritating, or in other ways just not rightfor the ALA.An ALA will be very lucky to find someone who is a real friend, and who can
supply comprehensible input as well. It may be the case that all the ALA needs is one person
like this to acquire the language.
The technique of "narrow listening" (Krashen, 1996) shows great promise. In narrowlistening, the ALA listens to recordings of several speakers talking about the same topic,
something that the acquirer is interested in. Ideally, the acquirer records others him/herself,
recording friends or acquaintances who speak the language. The ALA can then listen to the tapeas many times as he or she likes.

Repeatedlistening, interest in the topic, and familiar context help make the input
comprehensible. Topicsare gradually changed, which allows the acquirer to expand hisor her competence comfortably. Narrow listening is a low-tech, inexpensive way to obtaincomprehensible input.

Research done so far suggests that narrow listening can be an effective form of auralcomprehensible input for the ALA. Rodrigo and Krashen (1996) reported that students of
Spanish as a foreign language were enthusiasticabout narrow listening: 92% said the activity
was very interesting and beneficial. Their subjects reported that selecting their own topics
and their own speakers was more effective and interesting than hearing pre-selected tapes in aclassroomsituation. Dupuy (1999) reported a clear increase in comprehensibilitywith repeatedhearings of narrow listening tapes for students of French as a foreign language. Students did
not record the native speakers themselves but could choose the topics they listened to.

Note that both of these studies were done with students enrolled in foreign language classes.
Narrow listening promises to be even more effective for the dedicated ALA.
Reading

Pleasure reading would seem to be the most obvious place to get comprehensible input, and as
mentioned earlier, there is an abundance of research showing that it is very effective (reviewed
in McQuillan, 1998; Pilgreen, 2000; Krashen, 2004). FewALAs appear to take advantage of it,
however. Stephenson and Kohyama asked 50 university students of EFL in Japan to carry out
autonomous English learning projects over one semester. Despite the fact that the suggested
projects included reading books, comics, magazines, and newspapers (See the More Autonomy
You Ask! website for Appendix 1A), few students chose these options: Only two said they readnewspapers, and three read children's books. Similarly, Brown (2005) asked 171 first year
college students in Japan to provide suggestions on how to improve competence in English.
Reading was mentioned by only 20 students (12%).

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There are several guidelines that ALAs might consider when doing recreational reading inthe second language. These guidelines are consistent with the research literature and are also
influenced by my own experiences and what others have told me.
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Make it easy. Read books, magazines, and comics that do not require a great deal ofeffort, that are well within your ability. There is nothing to be gained by "working"through texts that are "challenging" and that require grim determination.

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Lower your standards. When doing recreational reading, there is no need to readclassics, no need to read "quality literature." (There is, in fact, good reason to doubt thatthe concept of "quality literature" has a great deal of validity; Nell, 1988). There is no
reason at this stage to read books that giveyou a special insight into another culture orthat will make the ALA a "better person." It is OK to read books in translation.

This is a wonderful opportunity to read what the ALA really wants to read with no guilt. A
massive amount of pleasure reading of this kind will build the competence that will make more
"serious" reading much more comprehensible, assuming that the ALA wants to "move on"or needs to read difficult texts professionally. (For evidence that "light" reading can serve as aconduit to heavier reading, see Krashen, 2004a).

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Read narrowly (Krashen, 2004b). Rather than attempting to read widely, and becoming"well-rounded," the ALAcan take advantage of narrow reading, that is, reading several
books by one author or about a single topic of interest.

Narrow reading speeds acquisition in several ways. First, it provides built-in review- eachwriter has favorite expressions and a distinctive style, and each topic has its own discoursefeatures and vocabulary. Second, narrow readers gain more knowledge as they read narrowly:
The more one reads in one area, the more one learns about the area, and the easier one finds

subsequent reading in the area (and the more one acquires of the language).
ALAs understand that deep reading in any topic will provide exposure to a tremendous
amount of syntax and vocabulary that is used in other topics. The ALA does not haveto attempt to cover a wide variety of texts. Massive reading in any genre will build atremendous amount of competence, enough so that nearly all other kinds of reading are morecomprehensible. It is true that styles and genres differ in their syntactic and organizational
characteristics, but there is also considerable overlap (Biber, 1986).
There is some evidence supporting the narrow reading idea. Lamme (1976) found that good
readers in English as a first language tended to read more books by a single author and books
from a series. More recently, Cho and Krashen (1994, 1995) reported considerable enthusiasm
for reading and substantial vocabulary development among adult second language acquirers
who read books in the Sweet Valleyseries; readers rapidly moved from Sweet Valley Kids
(second grade level) to Sweet ValleyTwins (fourth grade level) to Sweet Valley High (fifth andsixth grade level). Several readers in these studies had never read a book in English for pleasure
before, but became fanatic Sweet Valleyfans.
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Carry the book or magazine with you everywhere. Few people have "time to read." The
ALA carries a book with him or her, and assumes, correctly, that the world will conspireto give the ALA time to read through the day,standing in line, waiting for a bus, waiting
for service in restaurants, and so forth.

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Kras henMedia

In Brown's study of student preferences for independent language acquisition activities (Brown,
2005, discussed above), 51 out of 171 suggestions were related to media, 25 for TV, and movies
and 16 to news on TV or radio.

As noted above, the ALA understands that language is not a good basis for friendship.
Similarly,language alone is not a good basis for reading a book, watching a television program
or watching a movie. The ALA only reads or watches something he or she is really interested in,something the ALAwould read or watch in the primary language.
When there is little or no interest in the subject matter, the mind wanders. When it does
not wander, the ALA's focus might be more on language (what verb form was that?) and lesson meaning. In both cases, there is less comprehensible input. When the topic is genuinely
interesting,the ALA can get "lost in the book" (Nell, 1988), or become fully absorbed in thefilm. The ALAthen enters a state of "flow" (Csikszentmihalyi, 1992), in which only the story
exists and the sense of self is diminished and can even disappear. When this happens, the ALA
is not even aware that he or she is reading or listening to another language. This is when real
language acquisition takes place.

The problem with media, of course, is that it can be hard for the intermediate-level language
acquirer to understand. This is especiallytrue of films. Cho (in press) has developed a simple
but powerful way of dealing with this. Cho reports that when students of English as a foreign
language read a simplified version of the book corresponding to the film, the film became
significantly more comprehensible. Viewing the same film twice, however, had no effect oncomprehensibility. Reading a simplified version of the book makes sense: It gives the viewer
some idea of the story and characters, but leaves plenty of the story left over, enough to makesure the film version remains interesting.
Conclusion

A major goal of pedagogy is to develop autonomous language acquirers, to give students thetools to continue to improve their competence in the second language of their choice. Unless it
is the only possible source of input, or unless the topic of the class is of particular interest (i.e.
a sheltered subject matter class), the language acquirer need not return to school for a refresher
course. The language teaching profession does not need repeat business, and the intermediate isin a position to do better without us, if he or she is an ALA.
The ALA needs to have two essential characteristics: A clear idea of how language is acquired,and an arsenal of strategies for getting comprehensible input from speakers, books and media.
The strategies presented here are, of course, not the final word. As ALAs share their successes
and failures, our hope is that ALAs will become even more autonomous.
Note

1. Getting your comprehensible input outside of class can sometimes get you in trouble if you
are too successful. Here is what happened to one unintentional ALA:
Y. Cohen (1997) attended an English-language medium school in her native Turkey,
beginning at age 12.The first two yearswere devoted to intensive English study, andCohen reports that after only two months, she started to read in English, "as many
books in English as I could get hold of. I had a rich, ready made library of English

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7* The Autonomous Language Acquirerbooks at home ... I became a member of the local British Council's library andoccasionally purchased English books in bookstores... By the first year of middle
school I had become an avid reader of English."
Her reading, however, led to an "unpleasant incident" in middle school:"I had a new English teacher who assigned us two compositions for homework. She
returned them to me ungraded, furious. She wanted to know who had helped me write
them. They were my personal work. I had not even used the dictionary. She would
not believeme. She pointed at a few underlined sentences and some vocabulary andasked me how I knew them; they were well beyond the level of the class. I had not evenparticipated much in class. I was devastated. There and then and many years later I
could not explain how I knew them. I just did."More Autonomy You

Ask;