Cocoa Barometer
Latin American Baseline

September 2022

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 0Table of Contents
1

Introduction ............................................................................................................................................ 2

2

Production volumes and trends: an overview .................................................................................... 4

3

Social, environmental, climate risks – and cadmium.......................................................................... 84

FFC or not FFC .................................................................................................................................... 115Country profiles ................................................................................................................................... 15
Ecuador ......................................................................................................................................... 15
Brazil .............................................................................................................................................. 18
Peru ............................................................................................................................................... 20
Colombia ...................................................................................................................................... 22
Dominican Republic .................................................................................................................... 24
Mexico ........................................................................................................................................... 26
Central America ........................................................................................................................... 27

6

Recommendations .............................................................................................................................. 30
Governments of Latin American cocoa producing countries should .................................... 31
Companies in the cocoa and chocolate sector should ........................................................... 31

7

Colophon ............................................................................................................................................. 33

8

Literature .............................................................................................................................................. 34

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 1

1 Introduction
It all began on the American continent
The history of cocoa consumption and of
cocoa cultivation began in South and Central
America. There, the shade-loving plant grew inthe forest, and thousands of years ago people
discovered that food could be prepared fromits beans. Exactly when this happened iscontroversial, as is the question of where theuse of cocoa spread and who was responsiblefor it. Presumably, the tree originally camefrom the forests in the Orinoco and Amazon
river systems, i.e. the north and northwest ofSouth America.
Genetic distribution and archaeology studies
prove the domestic and religious use of cocoaby the Mochicas and Alto Amazonas culturesin the region which is now Peru. Similar stories
about the use of cocoa beans come fromcurrent Mexico and from other regions ofCentral America.
Many positive properties were attributed tococoa, and it was therefore used not only as
food, but also as a medicine, in bartertransactions, and in religious ceremonies.
It was probably the Olmecs who begancultivating cocoa in their empire in what is now
Mexico around 1500 BC. They called the tree
"kakawa", which gave rise to the term cocoa.
The legend of Quetzalcoatl shows how
important cocoa was in Aztec culture. The
legend states that Quetzalcoatl, the winged
serpent god, secretly brought cocoa from thedivine world to earth so that humans could
also enjoy it. As punishment for this he wasbanished from paradise.
Cocoa travels around the world
When the Spanish invaded Mexico anddestroyed Tenochtitlan, the capital of the
Aztecs, in the 1520’s, they were introduced tothe cocoa drink and brought the beans backto Europe as war booty. In Central America,
Dominican monks in particular developed newrecipes and added cinnamon and cane sugar
to the cocoa drink. This sweet, exotic drink wasappreciated at the Spanish royal court andbecame a favourite delicacy of the Spanish
aristocracy, spreading to other European
countries around 100 years later. Demand
increased and plantations were established,partly worked on by slaves.

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

The invention of machines that could produce
long-lasting chocolate changed consumption
patterns and the quantity demanded. Fromthe middle of the 19th century, what was oncea luxury step by step became a mass product.
The colonial powers developed the idea ofcultivating cocoa in other climatically suitableregions. Plantations were established in West
Africa in particular, but also in Indonesia andother Asian countries. Within a few decades,
production areas were massively expanded,
and West Africa became the most importantorigin of cocoa.
A culture of cocoa
This background distinguishes the Americas
from other cocoa growing regions: thecultivation and consumption of the cocoa
plant looks back on a history that goes backthousands of years. All other current cocoa
regions started cultivation much later.
Especially in West Africa, where about threequarters of the world's harvest comes fromtoday, there is no tradition of consuming
cocoa.
A diverse cocoa and chocolate sector
The structure of the cocoa and chocolate
sector in the Americas is incredibly diverse. In
Ecuador and Peru, and from a much lower
starting point Nicaragua, harvest volumes
have increased significantly in the past fifteen
years. Mexico, on the other hand, imports
large quantities of cocoa for processing andexports significant volumes of chocolate. The
Dominican Republic specializes in organic
cocoa. Brazil has become a net importer ofcocoa due to the large chocolate consumption
in the country. The entire region is known for
high-quality cocoa, but in Ecuador in particular
as well as in Peru and Colombia, the lower
quality hybrid CCN 51 variety is strongly on the
rise.

Page 2

Production Volumes and Trends

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 3

2 Production
volumestrends: an overview

andThe northern regions of South America werethe leading cocoa producers for a long time
before Brazil took over. Later, from the 1870’s
onwards, the colonial powers brought cocoa
to West Africa. Especially in Ghana,production grew very fast; between 1921 and
1978, the country was the world's largest
exporter of cocoa. Since then, Côte d'Ivoire
took over, and it presently produces morethan two times the volume of cocoa grown in
the Americas.
West Africa grew fasterRoughly 75% of the global cocoa production
comes from West Africa currently, less than
20% from the American continent. This does
not mean that cocoa production in all
American countries declined. The growth inWest African states was simply much faster.
This is specifically true for the Côte d’Ivoire.
From 2005/06 the harvest season the total
production in Cote d'Ivoire rose by roughly
700,000 tonnes to a total of 2.2 million tonnes
in 2021/22. This increase in tonnages is notmuch lower than the cocoa production of thewhole American continent in 2021/22 whichadds up to 939,000 tonnes (ICCO 2022: vi).

Without the significant increase of the cocoa
sector in Ecuador and Peru, the African
dominance would be even much greater. Bothcountries more than tripled the production
since 2005/06. Ecuador is now the third
biggest cocoa producer worldwide, but still
harvests less than half of the cocoa volumes of
Ghana and less than one fifth of the volumes ofCôte d’Ivoire.
During the last 15 years, cocoa production inother leading cocoa producing countries of
the Americas – Brazil, Colombia, theDominican Republic, and Nicaragua – also
increased. Elsewhere, Indonesia saw a decline
by two thirds (Table 1).
Growing cocoa trees is one thing, having a
cocoa and chocolate industry is somethingelse. Latin American countries have very
different characteristics in this regard. Ecuador
is by far the biggest cocoa producer but grinds
less than 10% of its harvest within the country.
On the other end of the spectrum, Brazil has
become the only leading cocoa producing
country which is a net importer of cocoa. The
Brazilian market consumes so much chocolatethat the national production is not sufficient tosatisfy the demand. Peru and Colombia also
have both significant local grinding industry as
well as local chocolate consumption. The
Dominican Republic exports more than 90% of

Table 1: Cocoa bean productionin 1000 tonnes
Cote
Dominican
Ghana Ecuador Cameroon Nigeria Indonesia Brazil Peru Colombia
Mexico Global
d'Ivoire
Republic

1408 741
1229 615
2007/08
1382 729
2008/091223 663
2009/101242 633
2010/111511 1025
2011/121486 879
2012/131449 836
2013/141746 897
2014/151796 740
2015/16
1581 778
2016/172020 969
2017/18
1964 905
2018/192154 812
2019/202105 771
2020/21* 2248 1047
2021/22** 2200 822* estimate** forecast
Source: ICCO
2005/06
2006/07

118
124
113
135
150
161
198
192
232
261
232
300
287
322
342
365
370

171
169
185
224
209
229
207
225
211
232
211
246
250
280
280
290
280

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

210
220
230
250
235
240
245
238
248
195
200
245
250
270
250
290
280

585
545
585
490
550
440
440
410
375
325
320
290
240
220
200
170
180

162
126
171
157
161
200
220
185
228
230
140
174
204
176
201
200
210

31
31
34
36
43
54
61
70
81
92
105
116
135
141
151
158
150

37
30
38
36
40
35
43
48
49
51
53
55
55
59
64
70
67

46
42
45
55
58
54
72
68
70
82
80
57
85
75
75
75
80

34
33
28
23
27
21
28
28
30
28
27
27
28
29
29
30
28

3808
3430
3737
3592
3634
4309
4095
3943
4370
4252
3994
4768
4647
4794
4735
5226
4955

Page 4

Table 2: Production, exports and imports of cocoa, semi-finished products and chocolate 2020/21
in tonnes
Ecuador

Production Beans
Exports cocoa beans
Exports cocoa paste/liquor
Exports cocoa powder and cake
Exports cocoa butter
Exports chocolate and chocolate products
Imports cocoa beans
Imports cocoa paste/liquor
Imports cocoa powder and cake
Imports cocoa butter
Imports chocolate and chocolate products
Domestic Consumption (2018/2019)
Consumption per capita (in kg)* 2019/20
Source: ICCO

Peru

370,000 210,000 150,000
323,407556 51,480
21,3516,480
2,828
4,097 21,386
9,810
4,689 27,526 15,723
1,582 33,354
5,229
103 52,968
100
6
610
1,415
623 41,464
2,494
27
369
1,523
8,976 17,158
9,239
6,800 187,700 25,200
0.393
0.893
0.776

its production. Nicaragua also strongly
depends on exports, but much of this goes toneighbour countries. Mexico is different fromany of these, as it imports much more cocoa
than it produces (Figure 1).
Though there are differences between the
Latin American countries, there are alsosimilarities, with the exception of Brazil, which
seems to be very different from the rest of thecontinent. It is the sheer number of people
living in Brazil (214 million) which makes thema giant in chocolate consumption. On theother hand, per capita cocoa consumption ofnearly 900 Grams per capita per year
(chocolate measured in bean equivalents) is

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

BrazilColombia

67,30010,950
1,136
1,405
5,251
16,285
394
123
4,041
4
10,77640,5000.803

Dominican
Republic

Mexico80,000 28,000
69,367
153
130
930
152
1,524
1,355
7,492
1,067 200,744
75* 34,995
60
9,410
744 31,865
1
9,330
6,249 81,637
4,800 73,000
0.466
0.577

not much higher than in Colombia and Peru –and still much lower than in developed
countries (Table 2). Germany for example has
per capita consumption of 4 kg per year.
Local production and consumption
A significant national consumption is a factor
which supports the establishment of a cocoa
and chocolate industry. Grinding and the
production of chocolate becomes muchcheaper if big factories are used and an
efficient transport infrastructure is available.
Having no significant national market, West
African cocoa producing countries attracted

Page 5the cocoa grinding industry by direct andindirect subsidies. This was partly successful as
the Côte d’Ivoire grinds nowadays as muchcocoa as the formerly leading nation
Netherlands. But this comes with costs. For
example, in the case of Ghana it is disputed if
the subsidies for multinational companies are
justified since modern factories do not create
many jobs (Mulangu/Miranda/Maiga 2015:23). In Indonesia, the government attracted
investments into grinding factories bycharging higher taxes for the export of raw
cocoa beans than for intermediate products(Hütz-Adams et al 2016).
Most value is added by producing and selling
chocolate. Setting up a chocolate industry ismuch easier if the country has a large
chocolate loving middle-class, because thisleads to high domestic consumption. This is
the case in Brazil.

Table 3: Leading cocoa
consuming countries (2018/19)
in 1000 Tonnes
1. United States817
2. Germany343
3. France
226
4. United Kingdom
223
5. Russian Federation
203
6. Brazil
188
7. Spain125
8. Italy102
9. Canada
89
10. Mexico
73
Source ICCO

Mexico is different due to its neighbourhood
to the USA and their trade agreements. The
country exports roughly 200,000 tons of
chocolate and chocolate products per year
(details see country profiles).
Some countries rely on the export of raw
beans (Ecuador, Dominican Republic) whileothers have a differentiated value chain ofchocolate products either for the local market(Brazil) or for export (Mexico). Others are
situated in between.
Brazil can be considered a cocoa consuming
nation, and Mexico a big producer of
chocolate, but the market is still dominated by
the United States and Europe. Globally, in thecocoa season 2018/19, Brazil ranked place 6in domestic consumption, and roughly half ofthe global cocoa production is consumed inmember states of the EU (Table 3).

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 6

Social, Environmental andClimate Risks

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 7

3 Social, environmental, climate
risks – and cadmium
The availability of (cheap) land and labour are
preconditions for cocoa plantations, and thesocial and environmental problems of cocoa
are therefore often interlinked.
The social dimension
The biggest social challenge in Latin America
cocoa production is that of labour rights,
especially for hired labour. Many farmers use
hired labour; large plantations even dependon it. Most of the Latin American countries are
known for problems concerning labour rights
and the freedom of association. Annually, theInternational Trade Union Confederation(ITUC) publishes an analysis on labour rights
violations. Brazil, Colombia, and Ecuador are
rated with “No guarantee of rights” (category
5, worst possible rating), Peru with “Systematic
violations of rights” (4), Mexico with “Regularviolations of rights” (3) and the Dominican
Republic with “Repeated violations of rights”(2). Nicaragua is not rated. In the 2021 ITUCreport, Brazil and Colombia are on the list of“The world’s 10 worst countries for workers(ITUC 2021).
Despite these major challenges around labour
rights, there are no studies proving further
widespread massive human rights violations in
the cocoa sector of the Americas such as are
witnessed in West Africa. However, this does
not mean that American cocoa production is
without its problems. Many of the farmers in
Peru, for example, work on very small
plantations and their income from cocoa isoften very low (Technoserve 2015). In Brazil,
courts are investigating the responsibility ofmultinationals concerning cases of child andslave labour in the cocoa sector.1
The environmental dimension
De facto, all land that is currently for cocoa
production was once tropical forest. In theAmericas, cocoa is largely grown under arange of shade canopies (Table 4). However,cocoa is also a driver of deforestation, but due
to the much smaller areas used in Latin
America, the damage has not been as
significant as in West Africa. Calculations forthe time from 2001-2015 show that in someregions of Brazil, Peru and Ecuador cocoa was
See: https://www.reuters.com/article/us-brazillabor-cocoa-exclusive-idUSKBN2FD1DO
1

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

responsible for up to 6% of the deforestation(Goldman et al. 2020: 14).
On the other hand, cocoa grown inagroforestry systems can become a tool for the
restoration of degraded (grass)land, such as ishappening in coastal Ecuador and someregions in Peru and Nicaragua. However, thisis only a small portion of all cocoa productionin Latin America (Orozco-Aguilar et al. 2021:
9).
The governments of Peru, Colombia and Brazil
have established national platforms to protect
the Amazon region, and to combine
sustainable cocoa production with forest
conservation. They have connected theirnational initiatives in the Tropical Forest
Alliance (TFA). Discussions with Ecuador are
underway to integrate this country in the
project as well (TFA 2022: 5, 16). Governmentsfrom Mexico, Nicaragua and the Dominican
Republic are not actively engaged in thesezero deforestation platforms yet
Environmental risk in the cocoa value chain isalso caused by the use of pesticides and nonorganic fertilizer. Many pesticides banned inEurope are still available in the Americas,
however there is no data available whichshows the dimensions of these problems.
Climate change
Cocoa trees are very sensitive to climate
fluctuations, and climate change is already areality in all cocoa producing countries.
Droughts and increased rainfall; changes intemperature and solar radiation; increased
humidity; these all have a direct impact on theoverall health of the trees, disease incidence,
Table 4: Proportion of shaded cacao cultivatedunder agroforestry systems in Latin America
Country
Area (ha) Shade (%) Sun (%)
Brazil
720,05393
7
Ecuador537,41020
80
Colombia
173,01675
25
Dominican Republic 152,261
100
*
Peru
125,580
90+*
Venezuela
64,46290+*
Mexico58,73490+*
Haiti
26,975100*
Nicaragua
9,310
90+
*
Guatemala
4,333
90+
*
Costa Rica
4,000
100
*
Honduras
1,889
90+
*
El Salvador
941
85
15
*areas in full sun insignificant
Source: Somarriba/Lopez-Sampson 2018: 7
Page 8and their ability to set flowers and produce
fruit. All of these directly affect productivity.
Large parts of the West African growing
regions, from which 75% of the world's harvest
comes today, will gradually become
unsuitable for growing today's cocoa varieties
by 2050 if no adaptation measures are taken(Schroth et al. 2016). Cocoa production in theAmericas is also already affected by climatechange. The regular weather phenomena La
Niña and El Niño lead to droughts and/or
short-term heavy rainfall, and there is evidence
that they are becoming more frequent andmore severe (Bunn et al. 2018).
In Ecuador for example, due to the rapid
recurrence of unusual weather phenomena,
rainfall in some coastal regions increased
fivefold in some years (Macias Barberan 2019).
This could threaten up to 60% of the current
cocoa growing areas in Ecuador, which in turn
could lead to cocoa having to migrate tohigher altitude areas, away from the coast. In
contrast, other studies predict that cultivationin mountainous areas will become particularly
difficult (Schockaert 2020: 21). Similar shifts
might happen in Middle America. Some areas
presently used might become unsuitable forcocoa while other regions might become
attractive (de Souza et al. 2019).
To counteract this, either new cocoa varieties
would need to be bred or impacts of weather
and climate change would need to be at least
partially mitigated through modified farming
practices, such as agroforestry systems.
At the same time, diversified cocoa cultivation
has the potential to counteract advancing
climate change. Large amounts of CO2 arestored in the biomass of cocoa and shadetrees. A diversified agroforestry system has its
own microclimate, which makes the cultivation
more resistant to climatic changes. The low
input (e.g., no or little mineral nitrogen
fertilizer) avoids other emissions such as
nitrous oxide (European Commission 2022).
In all cocoa growing regions, much research isstill needed for better forecasts. Cultivation
systems should be made climate-sensitive
and, in parallel, cocoa varieties need to bebred that are less susceptible to weather

See http://cci.alianza-cac.net/
3
The ICCO is a sub-organisation of the United
Nations, bringing together all major cocoa
2Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

extremes. Central America is one step aheadin this regard, since an open-access climate
smart cacao farming platform was created in2020 to support decision making on the future
suitability of land to grow cocoa2. In turn,
farmers must be given access to these varieties
and at the same time sufficient financial
resources to be able to restructure theirplantations. (Ceccarelli et al. 2021).
The cadmium problem
By far the biggest market for cocoa and cocoabased products is the EU, which has
specifications for the composition and levelsof a residues allowed. This includes pesticide
residue, for residues of fungi (ochratoxin A isparticularly relevant to cocoa), contamination
withpetroleumproducts(PAHs),
microbiological contamination, and, of great
importance to the cocoa sector in SouthAmerica, the maximum levels of cadmium
content allowed.
The cadmium content is a controversial point,
as the cadmium is usually absorbed via thesoils, where it is present to the naturalcomposition of the soils in Latin America, notdue to an external input. In the case of imports
from Latin America, the cocoa is repeatedly
objected to the EU borders and in some cases
entire cargoes are destroyed because thecadmium levels are too high. Critics of thepermitted guideline values complain thatimmensely high quantities of cocoa would
have to be eaten before there could even be aminimal risk to human health. In addition,cocoa is usually mixed with other products
such as milk, sugar or cocoa from other, nonLatin American regions. As a result, thecadmium levels in the final product are far
lower than would be the case with 100%
chocolate made from contaminated Latin
American beans. Committees of various
associations,especiallywithinthe
International Cocoa Organisation (ICCO)3,
deal with the issue. On the one hand, it is aquestion of whether the limits are justified, buton the other hand, it is also a question ofwhether the intake of cadmium can be
reduced by changing cultivation methods(see, for example, Ramtahal 2017, Meter et al.
2019).

producing and – with the exception of the UnitedStates, Turkey and Japan – consuming countries.

Page 9Fine/Flavour Cacao

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 10

4 FFC or not FFC
Latin America is well renowned for its specialty
cocoa. Some countries have their own
varieties with a high reputation on the market.
Indeed, some cocoa is traded at significant
higher prices than standard cocoa. But themarket for Fine or Flavour Cocoa (FFC) is
challenging. One crucial point is the question
how cocoa can achieve the classification as
FFC. A second point of interest is the question
why so much FFC is traded at the same priceas standard cocoa. This leads to the third
point: do farmers profit from producing FFC
cocoa?
ICCO sets criteria for FFC
The ICCO’s “Ad hoc Panel on Fine or Flavour
Cocoa“ has formulated the FFC criteria andclassifies the percentages of cocoa of FFC per
country. At first glance, this process seems
clear, but there are no single, hard criteria todefine FFC. One of the most important factors
is the genetics of the cocoa trees. However,the post-harvest treatment of the cocoa beans
and the resulting quality, special flavours and,last but not least, the price achieved, also playa role in determining whether a cocoa isrecognized as FFC or not.4
The last definition of FFC is from April 2018
and it leaves a lot of room for interpretation:
Working definition of Fine or Flavour
Cocoa
1. As the names “Annex “C”: Producing
countries exporting exclusively or partiallyfine or flavour cocoa” and the related Ad-Hoc
Committee imply, there are two categories of
cocoa under consideration, “Fine Cocoa” and“Flavour Cocoa”. The following definitions aremeant to serve as clarifications in the effort tocreate a working definition that is part of an
ongoing process towards a more meaningful
and impactful Annex “C”.
Fine Cocoa
2. Fine cocoa is defined as cocoa that is freeof defects in flavour while providing acomplex flavour profile that reflects theexpertise of the producer and the “terroir”, orsense of the particular environment where thecacao is grown, fermented and dried. Fine
Source:cocoa/
4https://www.icco.org/fine-or-flavor-

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

cocoa meeting these basic criteria may alsooffer important genetic diversity, as well as
historical and cultural heritage.
Flavour Cocoa
3. Flavour cocoa is defined as cocoa that has
little to no defects in flavour and provides
valuable aromatic or flavour characteristics
that have been traditionally important inblends. Flavour cocoa that meets these basic
quality criteria may also offer important
genetic diversity, as well as historical andcultural heritage5.
Different varieties
Criollo is the variety that was used by the
Mayan and Aztec civilizations. It remained the
predominant variety until the 18th century.
Usually, Criollo varieties taste different thanother cocoa; they have a more fruity, flowery,and mild aroma. Criollo can achieve highprices as high-quality specialty chocolate canbe produced from it (Durry/Schiffer 2012: 36).
However, this variety is more difficult tocultivate than others.
European colonisers brought other cocoa
varieties from different parts of Latin America
to today's main cultivation areas. Descendantsof these so-called Forastero varieties areusually more disease-resistant and productive
than Criollo. They were brought to West Africa
and formed the basis of cocoa cultivation
there.
Criollo and Forastero were later crossed andthe Trinitario variety was created, named after
its origin in Trinidad. This variety is moreresistant to diseases than Criollo and at thesame time tastes better than many Forasterovarieties (Leissle 2018: 163-164).
There are many more varieties, andclassifications are controversial. According to
one study, Nacional – the most famous variety
from Ecuador – descended from Forastero butisneverthelessconsideredas
FFC(Villacis/Alwang/Barrera 2019: 6). However,another study concludes that Nacional wasbred on the basis of Criollo and has similar
characteristics to it (Durry/Schiffer 2012: 329).
Non-genetic qualities

Source:https://www.icco.org/wpcontent/uploads/FFP-5-2-Rev.1-A-WorkingDefinition-of-Fine-or-Flavour-Cocoa-English.pdf
5Page 11

Genetically, there is a huge number of cocoa
varieties and all of them can be crossed witheach other (Motamayor et al. 2008,
Durry/Schiffer 2012: 38). However, it is not
only the genetic variety that defines good
cocoa.
Sometimes, it’s a region where the cocoa
comes from, which defines its different taste
and causes the classification as FFC. In otherregions, standard cocoa of a rare taste caused
for example by specific soils might achieve ahigh price, and the high price leads toqualification as FFC.
Harvesting at the optimal time, good
fermentation and the drying process have ahuge influence on the taste of FFC.
Furthermore, a good treatment of standard
cocoa beans can lead to relatively high-quality
cocoa.6
Growing volumes of FFC?
All in all, the market is not transparent.
Chocolate companies can achieve higher shelf
prices by claiming the chocolate is FFC, even
if the quality of this cocoa is not better thanstandard cocoa and the chocolate is only of
average taste.
The
ICCO
regularly
publisheswhat
percentage of a country's harvest may beconsidered FFC. According to the latest
determination in December 2020, the cocoafrom 18 countries is fully or partiallyrecognised as FFC. In Ecuador the mostimportant cocoa producer in the region,according to this classification, 75 % of total
cocoa production is FFC (Table 5).
Many market participants do not consider
these classifications reliable, however. This has
to do with the sometimes very elastic
definitions of what is counted as FFC, but alsowith political pressure within the bodies. Afterall, the classification is valuable for exporting
nations. Processors, in turn, can claim thatchocolate made from FFC has a higher quality.
This can lead to higher prices along the value
chain, especially downstream on the shelf ofthe supermarket.
At first glance, the amount of FFC cocoa on theworld market has increased significantly. The
figures of the ICCO can be extrapolated to a

harvest volume of around 730,000 tonnes,
about 14 % of the global cocoa harvest of justover 5 million tonnes.
For the year 2014, a comparison between the
ICCO quotas of FFC beans and the quantities
actually exported as FFC with significant
higher price concluded that in many countries
only a relatively small and sometimes even
only a vanishingly small part of the total
harvest was marketed as FFC (Abbott et al.
2018: 19-20).
One reason for this may be that the companies
buying the cocoa are not prepared to pay a
premium for FFC and the cocoa must
therefore be sold by the producers at the priceof standard cocoa.
Another possible reason is that the ICCO's
percentage figures are not correct. This could
be the case in Ecuador and Peru, for example,
where the real share of FFC in the total harvest
is below the 75 % indicated: experts estimatethat it’s in volumes in Peru less than 60% andin Ecuador less than 30%. Brazil is anotherspecial case, since according to ICCO
statistics, 100% of the exports can be classified
as FFC, but the country has been exporting
only very small amounts of cocoa for many
years, if at all (for details see country chapters).
Table 5:Percentage of exports classified as FFC
Brazil100%
Colombia
95%
Costa Rica
100%
Dominica
100%
Dominican Republic
60%
Ecuador
75%
Grenada100%
Guatemala
75%
Haiti
4%
Indonesia
10%
Jamaica100%
Madagascar
100%
Nicaragua
80%
Panama50%
Papua New Guinea
70%
Peru
75%
Saint Lucia
100%
Trinidad and Tobago
100%
Source: ICCO Council December 2020

See
forexamplehttps://cocoaflavormap.cacaomovil.com/.
6

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 12FFC often sold at price of standard cocoa
As FFC is not traded at the commodity
exchange, there is little transparency in pricesof certain qualities. Only a small amount ofworld harvest of cocoa is defined as fine cocoa
and even much lower percentage is high-end
fine cocoa (Figure 1)7. Additionally, it has to be
kept in mind that this pyramid shows theexport price and not the farmgate price.
Farmers specifically in remote areas might
receive much lower prices for the cocoa.
From the farmer’s perspective, sticking to FFC
means more labour, lower productivity, but
often not a higher price. Traders often pay thesame price for FFC as they pay for CCN 51. In
Ecuador, Peru, and Colombia, much of thereplanting of old plantations or planting on
new plantations took place by using the hybrid
variety CCN 51; cocoa farmers are moving
away from traditional FFC production.
In the case of Peru this situation reversed after
2011.8Source: Confectionery News 2016. It is notpossible to compare these figures to present prices
as the world market has significantly gone down
since.
7

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

FFC anddiscussion

thesupplymanagement

In parallel, Ecuador and Peru plan to increase
the cocoa production significantly. This takes
place at a time when West African countries
are starting to discuss production and supply
management. Due to the low cocoa prices
since the end of 2016, negotiations are taking
place on how the two main producing
countries, Côte d’Ivoire, and Ghana, canstabilise and increase world market price,among other means by talking about
preventing a further increase in production.
An expansion of production in Ecuador andPeru could undermine these efforts. Ecuador's
position in the talks, on the other hand, seems
to be that it has nothing to do with the mass
market for cocoa because of its high share of
FFC (75 %). It claims this cocoa does notcompete with the quantities from West Africa
and therefore cannot be co-responsible forthe falling prices. This is seen differently inWest Africa since most of Ecuador's cocoa
production is traded similarly to mass cocoa oreven as mass cocoa.

Between 2011 and 2016 the interventions of thePeru Cacao Alliance funded by USAID, contributed
to an increase of cultivated areas of FCC from 44%
to 60% (see http://www.alianzacacaoperu.org/en/)
8

Page 13

Country Profiles

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 14

5 Country profiles
This paper aims to set a spotlight on major
developments in and differences between themain Latin American cocoa producing nations.

EcuadorThe cocoa sector in Ecuador has undergone
many changes over time. Spanish colonialists
controlled cocoa trade for centuries, theninvestors and large-scale plantations tried togovern the market before the production
mainly went back to small-scale farmers. In
between, some plantation owners and traders
formed the financial and political elite in the
country. But at the beginning of the 20th
century, the cocoa sector ran into problems.
For a long time, it was not in the focus ofagricultural politics.
Reforms after 2007
At the beginning of the 21st century, the cocoa
sector in Ecuador was characterized by asystem mainly relying on small-scale farmers
who worked in agroforestry systems with low
yields. Most cocoa trees were old Nacionalvariety and yields per hectare were low.
Though high-quality Nacional formed the
backbone of the high reputation of cocoa
coming from Ecuador, most of the harvest was
not sold at prices usually paid for high quality
cocoa. Part of the problem was low uptake ofthe market, but other problems derived frombad post-harvest treatment on the farms aswell as traders who mixed beans of low andhighquality(ACDI/VOCA
2008:
1;
Jano/Mainville 2007: 5-6).
In 2007, a new government started a reform of
the sector. One framework condition for thereforms in the cocoa sector was the new
constitution, which came into force in 2008
and followed a concept originating fromindigenous culture, the sumak kawsay(Spanish: buen vivir, Engl.: good life). This led
to a stronger commitment to the developmentof strategies that followed social andecological principles. The aim was to preserve
ecosystems and biodiversity, and to promotepoverty reduction, solidarity, and social justice(UNCTAD 2015: 7). The government
specifically targeted small-scale farmers to
support them escaping poverty.
Among other things, productivity was to be
increased and the value chain improved. For
this purpose, advisory services, technical
Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

assistance, loans, investments in infrastructure,
support in marketing and the promotion of thedegree of organisation of the farmers wereadvanced (Troya Rocha 2013).
The
government
aimed to increase
production volumes, specifically of FFC, as
they saw a growing future market for highquality cocoa. A comprehensive approach was
initiated to improve quality, traceability, postharvest management and segregation ofvarieties during transport. Within ten years,
according to the government plan, 284,000 haof cocoa cultivation areas were to be
rejuvenated and 70,000 ha newly planted, thelatter on degraded pastures and fallow land.
Part of the program was the breeding of betterand higher-yielding cocoa varieties and acredit program for farmers. In addition,
capacity was built to provide training in good
agricultural practices. The goal was to reach atleast 60,000 producers and at least 50
producer associations. In addition, acompetitive industry for high-quality semifinished products and chocolate was to bepromoted.
Furthermore,thenational
government, partly with the support of local
autonomous
governments,
expandedinfrastructuretoimprovepost-harvest
processing opportunities, such as storage
facilities and collection points for the sale ofcocoa beans, which improved quality andfarming opportunities for medium and smallscale producers (USDA 2015: 7; CEPAL n.d.: 56).
Most of these programs took place between
2012 and 2014. Within a short period of time,
crop yields increased on large areas throughimproved tree pruning, fertilization, and shade
management. However, on many plots thetrees were so old that the measures were notsufficient, and trees had to be replaced (HützAdams et al. 2016).
In 2018, a new plan to improve cocoa
production in Ecuador was implemented (Plande Mejora Competitiva del Cacao – PMC). The
intention is to double cocoa production, whichmight increase the overproduction which
already exists on the world market. The PMC
aims to promote the cultivation of certified
cocoa, improve quality and efficiency in the
sector, increase the share of FFC, and expand
the production of processed products. In
addition, the farmers' organizations were to bestrengthened. Thus, the objectives of the plan
Page 15

partly coincided with previous programs. A
total of 600 million US dollars is available forthe period 2018-2030, which is to besupplemented by a similar amount of private
funds (Wiegel et al. 2020: 10). Different
organizations engaged in the development
corporation support the government in thecocoa sector.
In Ecuador, cocoa is grown by about 120,000
farms. The data on the areas differ from one
another. In a recent study, the harvested area
is given as 467,000 ha. This means that each
farm, on average, has just under 4 ha ofcultivated cocoa land (Wiegel et al. 2020: 2),
however, a considerable proportion of farmers
cultivate significantly smaller areas than thismean value. More than a fifth of the farms arelarger than 10 ha, some of them even morethan 100 ha (Table 6).
Table 6: size of cocoa farms
Area
Average in ha< 5 ha52%
2.3
5,1-10 ha
26%
7.47> 10 ha22%
24.23
Source:Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería 2020

Most cocoa in Ecuador is grown in the coastal
provinces Guayas, Los Ríos, Manabí andEsmeraldas (CFN 2020: 10-9). Farmers sell
their harvest either to small-scale traders or to
subsidiaries of multinational companies.
Especially in remote areas, farmers strongly
depend on traders and have little or nobargaining
possibilities.
Accordingtoestimates, only 20% of the farmers areorganized in cooperatives. Cooperatives areable to support farmers in many ways,
includingpricenegotiation.
Somecooperatives additionally ferment the cocoa
for farmers.
Yields per hectare
The yields per hectare in Ecuador differ
strongly between provinces and depend on
the planted variety. Some provinces thatmostly grow CCN 51 (see below) report
average yields of more than 1 ton per hectare,
while average yields in other regions thatmostly depend on old tree stocks of Nacional
are below 200 kg per hectare. The figures are
not fully comparable, as CCN 51 is mostly

grown in full sun systems with many trees per
hectare, while Nacional usually grows inagroforestry systems with a much lower
number of cocoa trees per hectare (MinisteriodeAgriculturayGanadería
2020;
Villacis/Alwang/Barrera2019).
The
dominance of CCN 51, which is not suitable foragroforestry systems, leads to a focus on fullsun systems which lead to lower biodiversity
and need more inputs.
Reputation
Cocoa from Ecuador still has a high reputation,
but markets are changing. Companies that areinterested in high quality cocoa complain that
FFC beans are either not properly fermented
and therefore of lower quality, or that they
were mixed with CCN 51 which is not classified
as FFC. These quality problems create amarket where companies are less prepared to
pay high prices for Ecuadorian cocoa.
Additionally, some of the companies which
formerly paid prices significantly above theworld market price for bulk cocoa learned thatmany customers do not taste the difference
anyway. Subsequently, they have changed
from high-priced good quality FFC to either
lower qualities of FFC or even to cocoa that isstill declared to be FFC but may containsignificant volumes of CCN 51 or other bulk
varieties.9
CCN 51This development is driven by the dominanceof CCN 51 which was developed in the 1960s
in Ecuador. It is a crossbreed of different cocoa
varieties, including FFC components. Usually,
cocoa pods and cocoa beans are CCN 51 arebigger than the usual varieties. This reduces
the workload during the harvest of the pods
and the post-harvest treatment of the beans.
Additionally, the trees are more resistantagainst diseases. Data from Ecuador show thatmany farmers achieve an average yield of 1 ton
per hectare with CCN 51. All in all, CCN 51 canbe an efficient choice for farmers as itincreases productivity and has the potential toreduce costs. On the other hand, new varieties
of FFC can also lead to significant higher yields
per hectare.
Adopted fermentation and drying processes
can lead to CCN 51 beans of relatively highBased on interviews with market participants. For
details see: Hütz-Adams/Campos/Knoke 2022.
9

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 16quality (Boza et al. 2014: 228; Abbott et al
2018: 193-194). Many exporters and traders
prefer CCN 51, as the beans are bigger andusually of a similar size which facilitates
grinding (Abbott et al 2018: 196-197).
10 years ago, it was estimated that most of thecocoa exported from Ecuador was still FFC,
but CCN 51 has become popular for farmers
who have replanted plantations or set up newones (USDA 2015: 3; CEPAL o.J.: 2-3). In thepast ten years, the volume of CCN 51 beans
has risen significantly, and it has become themost important variety. German importers
estimate that nowadays two thirds of theexports of Ecuadorian cocoa consist of CCN
51 beans (Kakaoverein 2021: 30). A study
commissioned by the EU comes to a similar
conclusion. The authors estimate thatnowadays 57% of the planted area uses CCN
51 and that 72% of the production comes fromthis variety (EU Commission 2022).
This does not mean, that the production ofNacional measured in tons is declining; thegrowing volumes of CCN 51 come into a fastgrowing market.
Dependency on export of raw beans
Ecuador only has a very small grinding
industry. Overcapacities of grinding factories
on the global market make it difficult toestablish such an industry and run it with profit.
The national chocolate market is small due tothe relatively small population and the low per
capita consumption of cocoa. This makes it

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

less lucrative to set up a large-scale chocolate
manufacturing industry. Local grinding andchocolate production is low compared toneighbouring states, as less than 10% of
harvest are processed in the country (Table 2).
The Ecuadorian cocoa sector depends onexports.
Export destinations changed
For a long time, companies from the UnitedStates were the biggest buyers of Ecuadoriancocoa. This has changed dramatically during
the last years, a change that has developed
parallel to the rise of CCN 51 production.
Nowadays, Indonesia is the most importantcustomer, followed by the United States, theNetherlands and Malaysia. Malaysia andIndonesia together buy nearly one third of theexports (Figure 2).
Standard cocoa dictates farmgate price
Another proof of the change in the Ecuadorian
sector is the export price. The Central Bank of
Ecuador indicates an average value per ton ofexported cocoa and (in very small quantities,
see above) semi-finished products made fromcocoa of 2,672 US dollars for 2020 (Banco
Central del Ecuador 2021: 7). This is almost
exactly on par with the price of standard cocoa
reported by the ICCO as an average for the
2019/20 season (US$2,398) as well as 2020/21(US$2,403) (ICCO 2022: Table 1).
This is not a new development. Farmers in
Ecuador do not receive a significant premium

Page 17

1500

2000

2500

USD per Ton

3000

3500

Figure 3: Price of bulk, Nacional and CCN 51 cocoa

Jan-13Jan-14Jan-15Jan-16

Jan-17

Bulk (futures price)
Nacional (producers' price)

Jan-18Jan-19CCN 51 (producers' price)

Data Source: ICCO (2019) and MAGAP (2019)

for higher quality cocoa. During the years
2013 to 2019 for example, the price for
Nacional was nearly exactly the same as for
CCN 51. Furthermore, both prices wereclosely linked to fluctuations of the world
market price (Villacis/Alwang/Barrera 2019:11-12; Figure 3).
The parallel movements between the market
prices for standard and Nacional cocoa must
be frustrating for farmers who frow FFC.
Ultimately, they produce the better tastingcocoa, accepting often lower productivity andhigher vulnerability to disease, but are notrewarded by price premiums.
The average prices do not always reflect thedifferences in the field. Some farmers sellunfermented cocoa which might be includedin the calculation. On the other hand, wellfermented CCN 51 is very attractive for traders
due to its physical characteristics and the sizeof the beans (Villacis/Alwang/Barrera 2019:13-14).
Nonetheless, there are indeed plantations andfarmer cooperatives in Ecuador who get
US$4000 and more for a ton of cocoa, but the
specialty buyers usually purchase very small
volumes.
In the end, the situation for most farmers in
Ecuador is similar to West African farmers;
Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

they are price takers with no influence onmarket prices. Their income completelydepends on the fluctuating price for standard
cocoa at the commodity exchange, whether or
not they produce Fine/Flavour cocoa.
This weak position has an influence on thesituation of workers on cocoa plantations.
Labour rights are not guaranteed in Ecuador
and labour unions are very weak or nonexistent in the agricultural sector. However,proper data on wages and labour conditions
on cocoa plantations are not available, andfurther research on this is needed.

BrazilIn Brazil, cocoa cultivation began in theseventeenth century. In the 1770’s, thePortuguese crown attempted to diversify
Brazilian exports by promoting the industrial
production of coffee, cotton, and cocoa. In
Bahía, to date the province with the highest
cocoa production behind Pará, the firstplantations were established in the 1820s with
Swiss and German capital. Around 1900, Brazil
increased its cocoa production significantly
and became the largest producer worldwide
for many years, until Ghana took over(Willumsen/Dutt 1991: 56; Valla 1976: 465).
However, the following decades, the sector
saw a gradual decline of production.
Page 18

In the 1950’s, government supported projects
aimed to strengthen cocoa production. Largescale plantations were developed that planted
cocoa without shadow trees and used
fertilisers and pesticides. Research showedthat yields could be increased significantly, butmany small-scale farmers were reluctant toinvest in new agricultural practices and inputs(Camargo/Nhantumbo 2016: 46-47).
Witches Broom
In the late 1980’s, the outbreak of a fungus
called Witches Broom had a disastrous impact
on Brazilian cocoa production. It was able tospread rapidly through large scale plantations.
Within a few years, approximately 200,000
workers lost their jobs. By the mid-1990s,
many farmers gave up their cocoa plantations
andthesectorcollapsed(Camargo/Nhantumbo 2016: 49).
While cocoa production decreased from
350,000 MT in 1989/90 to 123,500 MT in
1999/2000, consumption of chocolate
increased and in the harvesting season
1997/98 Brazil became a net cocoa importing
country (Pekic 2014).

Compared to West Africa, farm gate prices forcocoa are relatively high, as there is a demand
for the local chocolate market, and alternatives
are to buy cocoa in West Africa at the world
market prices plus transport costs (HützAdams et al. 2016).
The use of high yielding cocoa varieties
combinedwithintensified
useofagrochemicals has led to yields of roughly 900
kg/ha, while production in Bahia is still 300 kg
perhectare
(IBGE
2016:
38;
Camargo/Nhantumbo 2016: 53; Mendes et al.
2016: 10).
However, even with the support of federal orstate government agencies cocoa farmers still
face many problems when they need technicalassistance or extension services. Other
problems are labour shortage and the missing
coordination between the different projects
and programmes (Camargo/Nhantumbo
2016: 53-54).
Rising chocolate production

Stagnating bean production

Brazil exports nearly no unprocessed cocoa
beans, relatively low volumes of cocoa
paste/liquor, and much higher figures ofpowder and cake.

Since the Witches Broom collapse, productionin Brazil has only partially recovered, withcocoa production now fluctuating around
200,000 tonnes of cocoa per year (Table 1).
The main cocoa producing areas are Bahia
and Para. Para has attracted significant
investments into the cocoa sector, includingfrom multinational companies.

To meet the demand of local production,
during the season 2020/21, 52,000 tons ofcocoa beans were imported and additionally
41,000 tons of cocoa powder and cake. Except
Mexico, there is no other South Americancountry which imports significant amounts ofcocoa and cocoa products for the national
market.

Approximately 580,000 ha are used for cocoa
production,10 and most cocoa is produced bysmallholders who only have very limitedaccess to capital, extension services, andinputs.

With a domestic consumption of 187,700 tons
in 2018/90 (which is roughly 900 g per capita),
the country was the sixth biggest cocoa
consumption market globally (see tables 2 and3).

Usually, farmers sell their beans tointermediaries who then sell on to grinding
companies that are mostly subsidiaries of the
big international companies active on themarket, such as Cargill, Barry Callebaut and
OFI. There are also medium-sized companies
still active on the market who often buy directlyfrom producers.

Turnover of the local chocolate industry is near
US$4 billion.11 Chocolate production in Brazil
is dominate by subsidiaries of multinational
companies such as Mondelez, Nestlé, Mars,and Hershey (Hütz-Adams et al. 2016).
Additionally, many small and medium-size
local companies are active on the Brazilian
market.12

See:
https://www.confectionerynews.com/Article/2022/02/28/brazil-s-cocoa-production-bounces-backafter-covid-problems

11

10

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

See:
https://www.statista.com/forecasts/1246918/revenue-chocolate-market-brazil
12
See:
https://www.mordorintelligence.com/industryPage 19

Child labour
In Brazilian, there are both small-scale
producers and also medium-scale farms.
Working on small farms might lead to very low
income, and sharecroppers often earn a very
low income. This might lead to exploitationand cases of child slave labour (OIT / MPT
2018). Though more recent data isn’t
available, a 2014 study showed that around
7,900 children and adolescents – aged
between 10 and 17 – worked on cocoa
plantations (DIAS, 2016).
Agroforestry systems
Cocoa cultivation can be an opportunity for
restoration of plant cover. In Pará, the statewith the largest cocoa production, the local
government published specific legislation thatconsiders the planting of agroforestry systems
with cocoa as a method of forest restoration on
family properties, bringing legal certainty tothe practice. In the state of Bahia, the second
largest national producer, the management ofcocoa in agroforestry systems with local
species is regulated with specific legislation on
the management of cocoa production areas
intercropped with species native to the
Atlantic Forest. Vigilance is necessary toensure that cocoa does not contribute tofurther deforestation.
Sustainability Initiatives
Brazil has become member of the Amazon
Origin Cocoa Initiative. This is supported by
CocoaAction Brazil, an initiative of major
cocoa and chocolate companies. Anotherinitiative is Vision Cacau 2030, which focuses
on strengthening workers’ rights, andsupporting local governments to tackle childlabour, forced labour and other labour rights
violations. It also aims to increase productivity
and profits of cocoa producers. (TFA 2022:
24).

approximately 300 g. in the 1970s to 2,5 kg. in
2013, which means a yearly average increaseof 5,44 % (Neto et al. 2021: 3113). The country
is the second biggest cocoa producer in theregion, but a net importer of cocoa as it has achocolate industry which focuses on thenational market (Table 2).

Peru
Cocoa and coffee cultivation was promoted in
Peru in the 1930s. This took place during theperiod of first waves of migration of Andean
people and some groups of European
immigrants into the Amazonian regions of thecountry.
Later, cocoa production came under pressure
from two developments. Since the 1980s, cocacultivation for cocaine production increased
significantly in the region. As this was highly
profitable, many farmers switched from cocoa
to coca. This development was accompaniedby conflicts between rebels, government
troops and syndicates. The second threat forcocoa production was the outbreak of two
diseases, the moniliasis and the “witches'broom”.
Smallholder farmers
Cocoa production in Peru is still dominated bysmall-scale farmers. Many of them suffer frombad road infrastructure combined with hightransport costs and difficult logistics (Banco
Mundial 2016). Most farmers depend on
intermediaries working highly informally andsometimes paying low prices to the small
producers. Additionally, these often mix
different varieties and qualities which has anegative impact on the prices which can beachieved by farmer. Poverty among cocoa
farmers is still widespread (Technoserve 2015:
16, 7).

Different than the rest of Latin America

Growing sector

The situation of Brazilian cocoa is very different
than in other Latin American countries. It has
214 million inhabitants, more than ten times
the population of Ecuador. It has a large
middle-class, that can afford to buy the luxury
good chocolate. The per capita annual
consumption of chocolate has increased from

After a stagnation of cocoa production ataround 30,000 tonnes per year, the situation
changed from 2010 on. Harvests have grownconsiderably, and over the past three years
fluctuate around 150,000 tons per year (Table1). This has led to a strong increase of cocoa
exports from Peru. Additionally, a small

reports/brazil-chocolate-market
andhttps://www.mordorintelligence.com/industryreports/brazil-chocolate-market
Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 20

industry was set up and the local consumption
reaches 25,000 tonnes per year (Table 2).
YieldsApproximately 90,000 farmers produce cocoa
planted on 150,000 ha. Only one third of the
farmers are organised. Yields are an average
840 kg per hectare, which is higher than inmost other producing countries. The relatively
high yields are partly possible due to the factthat many cocoa plantations are young, butalso the variety of cocoa has an influence.
Farmers from Peru also often get a higher
price than their neighbours in Ecuador(Wiegel et al. 2020a: 20).
Part of the increase of cocoa production takes
place in the traditional cocoa growing areas of
the country. Many of the existing plantations
consist of old trees which need to be replaced.
Supported by researchers, some of thereplacement of old trees takes place withseedlings from trees which produce specificflavours. The seedlings are grown in clonalgardens. Many of the younger and highyielding plantations were set up as part of the
programme to support alternatives to coca.
These often use the CCN 51 variety (details
see chapter on Ecuador). Additionally,
specialty cocoa of different varieties is also
grown (Wiegel et al. 2020a: 21-22).
Between 2011 and 2016 the Peru Cacao
Alliance funded by USAID supported theincrease of cultivated areas of FCC from 46%
to 60%13
Cocoa for cocaine
The fast growth during the last decade waspartly driven by international development
cooperation programs in combination withtargeted support of the Ministry of Agriculture.
The government of Peru has implemented a
programme to combat drug trafficking in the
Peruvian Amazon, promoting cocoa as analternative crop to coca. These programmes
were heavily supported by USAID and theUnited Nations. Due to this extensive support,
there was an abundant supply of fieldtechnicians trained in search of permanentand stable employment (Hütz-Adams et al.
2016).
Support for farmers is coordinated by aplatform managed by the Ministry for

13

Agriculture(MINAGRI),
the
producerorganisation
Asociación
PeruanadeProductores de Cacao (APPCACAO) and theindustry body Cámara Peruana de Café yCacao. The common agenda of all
stakeholders is to improve quality e.g. with the
distribution of high quality seedlings, to set up
information and capacity building systems, toorganise farmers and to cope with theregulations specifically of the EU concerning
cadmium content of the cocoa beans (Wiegel
et al. 2020a: 21).
CCN & FFC
While the ICCO states that 75% of the cocoa
produced in Peru is FFC, the real figure ismuch lower, as is the case in neighbouring
countries. Much of the production increase
was a result of the introduction of CCN 51 in
the year 2002. 10 years later, this variety
already produced half of the cocoa harvested
in the country. In recent years, the Ministry ofAgriculture and Irrigation (Ministerio de
Agricultura y Riego (MINAGRI) supports
farmers who want to use FFC seedlings
instead of CCN 51 (Wiegel et al. 2020a: 20).
The German umbrella organisation of thecocoa importing sector estimates that two
thirds of the planting area in Peru is plantedwith CCN 51. Most of the harvest of thecountry is standard quality cocoa. But there
are some clusters left where high quality FFC
is produced which achieves high prices on thecocoa market (Kakaoverein 2021: 37). Other
sources indicate that for 2011 54% of cacao
cultivated areas were CCN 51 and that thepercentage had to 40% by 2016 (MINAGRI –DEVIDA 2014; Alianza Cacao Perú 2017).
Farmers from Peru also often get a higher
price than their neighbours in Ecuador(Wiegel et al. 2020a: 20). This is related to theimportance of exports of FFC.
Multinationals increased influence
The rise of cocoa production in Peru attracted
the interest of multinational companies,
hoping to profit not only from increasing
volumes but also from niche markets (Wiegel
et al. 2020a: 21).
Most Peruvian cocoa is traded as fermented
beans, which is preferred by export

See: http://www.alianzacacaoperu.org/en

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 21

companies and local processors. Usually,
farmers sell their cocoa to intermediaries, or totheir cooperative if they are part of one. These
export the cocoa either themselves or sell tomultinationals. Some of the cooperatives are
specialised in FFC, receiving significantly
higher prices (Wiegel et al. 2020a: 22).

Furthermore, the Ministry for Agriculture,
together with international agencies andnational stakeholders, developed a National
Plan for the Development of the CocoaChocolate Value Chain 2020-2030 (PlanNacional de Desarrollo de la Cadena de Valorde Cacao-Chocolate 2020-2030).17

Certification of organic cocoa is an importantand increasing factor in Peru. The country is
the second largest producer of certified
organic cocoa. This cocoa follows a different
andspecialized
value
chain.
Many
cooperatives are double or even triple
certified. Presently, approximately 25% ofproduction is certified (Banco Mundial 2016:
9; Technoserve 2015: 7).

Colombia

Deforestation issues
Around the year 2012, reports appeared thatcocoa could be at least as lucrative forinvestors as palm oil, and companies started toinvest in very large-scale plantations. One ofthese was United Cacao. Courts and theMinistry of Agriculture suspended theoperation of the company which had cleared
up to 5000 ha forest14 without the necessary
permits.15 Many things around this specificcase remain unclear, but it shows the risks
connected to large-scale investors attempting
to replicate experiences from the palm oil
sector for cocoa production.
Sustainability Initiatives
Based on the deforestation risks and theglobal regulation, the Cocoa, Forest, andDiversity Agreement was launched in 2021 aspart of the platform Coalition for Sustainable
Production. Supported by the Ministry ofAgriculture,
producer’organizations,
exporters, and civil society organizations, thisagreement commits members to eliminate
deforestation in their supply chains by 2025,
based on traceability and monitoring systems.
It also provides incentives to smallholders.16

Cocoa has been consumed and cultivated inwhat is now Colombia for thousands of years.
The cocoa tree might even originate from the
Orinoco region, which stretches from thenorth-eastern part of the country into
Venezuela.
While cocoa-based products have been partof diet for a long time, today the local market
is growing (Abbott 2018 et al.: 14). A rising
middle class is not only buying chocolate, butalso consuming cocoa-based drinks. The
national market is the most importantdevelopmental driver for the cocoa sector,
which is similar to the state of the Braziliancocoa sector.
Cocoa production in Colombia nearly
doubled in the last 15 years. Still, the country
is not a big player in the global market,
considering its rather small production ofroughly 70,000 tons per year (Table 1). While
40,000 tons of this harvest is consumed in thenational market, the country exports only
11,000 tons of unprocessed beans.
Colombian exports of chocolate andchocolate products exceed imports. Net
exports of cocoa add up to 16,000 tons (Table2). This shows a gradual increase in theinvestment of companies in the grinding andproduction of chocolate.
Cocoa productionMore than one third of the Colombian cocoa
production stems from the department
Santander (38%), smaller volumes originate

Peru has also joined the Amazon Origin Cocoa
initiative which aims to protect and assign
forests and add value to sustainably produced
cocoa (TFA 2022).
See:
https://reddmonitor.org/2015/09/26/dennis-melka-exportingdeforestation-from-sarawak-to-peru/
15
See: https://www.forestpeoples.org/en/newsarticle/2017/melka-resigns-united-cacaocompany-faces-financial-crisis-and-delistinglondon
14

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

See:
https://produccionsostenible.org.pe/grupos-detrabajo/cocoa/
17
See:
https://gestionparticipativa.pe.iica.int/Procesos/Pl
an-Cacao/Inicio.aspx
16Page 22

from Antioquia, Arauca, Huila, and Tolima(between 9-7 % of national production).18
Approximately 65,000 families grow cocoa on
190,000 ha, both figures increased during thelast years. Most farmers work underagroforestry systems, and cultivate cocoa
alongside other crops, including coffee,
banana, different fruits, and timber. The sector
provides 173,000 direct and indirect jobs ofwhich a significant number is done by women(Cardona/Nieto/Ramírez 2021: 3-4; Ministeriode Agriculutra de Colombia).
Smallholder farmers
Most farmers work on small farms with anaverage a yield of 400 kg per hectare. There
are different types of farmers. One sub-grouputilizes inadequate agricultural practices withlower yields of less than 300 kg per hectare.
Partly, these are situated in regions which are
not really suitable for cocoa production.
Another sub-group grows cocoa often as partof agroforestry systems. Yields are relatively
low between 300 and 500 kg per hectare dueto the lower plant density, in which they usually
produce bulk cocoa. A third group identifies
cocoa as a cash crop, uses technical assistanceand has access to inputs and modern
technologies. These farmers obtain yields
between 1,200 and 1,800 kg per hectare, forwhich they need significant investment capitaland hire workers. But this group only makes up
a small percentage of the whole cocoa sector.
The last group of farmers operates indiversified systems. In their diverse portfolio ofdifferent crops, cocoa is only one part of theirbusiness. Usually, yields lie between 300 and
600 kg per hectare (Abbott 2018 et al.: 58-60).
Cocoa prices
Despite the ICCO grading of 95% ofColombian cocoa as FFC, only small volumes
are traded as FFC at significantly higher prices(Abbott 2018 et al.: 20, 48-51).
Farmers struggle with hiring labour, since theinvestments of extra labour costs are often
higher than additional profits. Low premiums
for better quality cocoa are insufficientincentive for many farmers to improve theirpre- and post-harvest practices.

Traders generally are not offering higher
premiums, as they need a market that is
prepared to compensate these extra
expenses. Often, traders even mix different
qualities of cocoa, which leads to standard
cocoa and does not reward the efforts offarmers who invest money and labour to
produce higher quality cocoa.
Nonetheless, there are different segments in
Colombia, and there still is a market for highly
valued cocoa varieties. In some cases,
producerorganizationsorchocolatemanufacturer even control the fermentation
themselves and buy wet beans. But thisgenerally only affects small volumes (Abbott2018 et al.: 52).
Prices in Colombia follow the world market
price for bulk cocoa, but since transport costs
are low and the country bears no relevant
export tax, the percentage of the world market
price reaching the farmer is higher than inmany other cocoa producing countries.
Additionally, many farmers do not rely onintermediaries but transport the cocoa directly
to the larger buyer (Abbott et al 2018: 40-48).
Dominance of local chocolate producers
In contrast to the situation in Brazil or Mexico,
the Colombian cocoa sector is dominated bytwo
Colombianbased
multinational
companies, Casa Luker and Nutresa. They
purchase 80% of the national cocoa bean
production. Only relatively low volumes aretraded by other buyers, small local chocolate
producers, and multinationals. Of the large
multinationals, only ECOM and Olam have a
relevant market share.
Sustainability initiatives
The Colombian government runs several
projects to support cocoa farmers, including
the “Fondo Nacional del Cacao”. The fundsupports farmers who want to invest in the
rehabilitation of plantation and improved
production
practices(MinisteriodeAgriculutra de Colombia 2021).
Additionally, the increase of cocoa productionin Colombia was supported by projects
financed by international cooperation ofvariouscountries,
includingtheUSgovernment
throughagencieslike

See: https://www.colombia.co/en/colombiacountry/colombia-the-land-where-cocoaproduction-is-cacao-fino-de-aroma/
18

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 23

USAID/USDA. Target of the project was tosupport cocoa production in regions severely
affected by the internal conflict and illegal
drug production and trade.
The most recent larger project is called “Cacao
for Peace”, which runs from mid-2021 to mid2026. By strengthening cocoa research
institutions and through technical assistance
Cacao for Peace wants to support not only asustainable and growing cocoa production,
but also the creation of conditions which could
bring peace to the region (creation of jobs,
replacement of marihuana or coca production,
consolidation of state institutions, etc.).19
Led by the High Council for Post-conflict a
public-private initiative called Cocoa, Forest
and Peace (Iniciativa Cacao, Bosques & Paz
Colombia) was started in 2018. This publicprivate
initiative
aims
topromotedeforestation-free cocoa production models
that protect and restore forests in the cocoa
supply chain, improve livelihoods for
producers and help consolidate the peace
process with a focus in post-conflict territories.
The purpose is for cocoa to become a key
value chain to guarantee sustainableproduction options.20 An action plan for theyears 2020 to 2030 was established in
Colombia. It became part of the Cocoa
Amazon Origin initiative (also discussed in the
country profiles on Peru and Brazil) promotedby the Tropical Forest Alliance together with
Alisos Foundation (TFA 2022: 26)
Some of these projects focus on a sustainablecocoa production. For instance, the WorldBank cooperates with the Colombian
government and aims to implement climate
smart business models, to trade cocoa andbuild transparent value chains. The Colombian
government wants to utilize cocoa production
to reforest areas presently used for cattle
ranching. A pilot project on 3000 ha started in
2021.21See
https://www.usaid.gov/colombia/factsheets/red-cacao-peace
20
See: https://cacaobp.org/en/about-us/
21See:
https://blogs.worldbank.org/climatechange/futur
e-colombian-cocoa-sustainable-climate-smartand-oh-so-sweet
22
See: https://www.makeminefine.com/cocoasustainability/dominican-republic-republicadominicana/
19

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Most of these initiatives build on existing
projects
which
supported
production
increase, improvement of post-harvest
management and organization of farmers.
Nonetheless, the majority of production
increase was due to the extension ofplantations, since yields per hectare remained
relatively low (Abbott et al. 2018: 13-14, 17.
74-76).

Dominican Republic
The Spanish colonists brought cocoa to the
Dominican Republic in the 17th century. When
the French took over, they brought in different
cocoa varieties from other colonies. However,it took until mid 19th century for the country to
become a relevant exporter of cocoa.
Dominican cocoa usually has a genetic base of
FFC, descending from Criollo and Trinitario.
These varieties have the potential to develop
strong flavours.22
Cocoa production
Cocoa production in the Dominican Republic
increased significantly between 2005 and2015. Since then, cocoa volume havestabilised around roughly 75,000 tons per
year. The country has a relatively small local
consumption rate of roughly 10,000 tons, andmost of the cocoa is exported as raw bean
(Table 2).
Approximately 40,000 producers harvest
cocoa on 150,000 ha. A significant number ofthese producers are registered as organic
farmers.23 According to the government,roughly 80% of the export price goes to thefarmer (Matlick/Weber/Morillo 2016: 10).
Approximately 50 % of the production ismarketed by CONACADO (Confederación
Nacional de Cacao Dominicano).24
Roughly 70% of the farmers work on 2 - 5 ha ofland, mostly in agroforestry systems which
produce a wide variety of crops. In the northeastern region (Cibaoa) farms are often bigger
than 7.5 ha. There are also some significantlySee:
https://www.iica.int/es/prensa/noticias/cocoa-keycrop-keeps-dominican-republic-one-leadingcountries-export-organic
24
See: https://www.iica.int/es/prensa/noticias/elcacao-un-cultivo-clave-que-mantiene-la-republicadominicana-como-uno-de-los23

Page 24

larger farms. One of these, connected to thefamily-owned company Rizek Cacao, cultivates
2,000 ha of cocoa. Additionally, the company
buys cocoa from many small-scale producers.
All in all, they trade 14,000 tons of cocoa per
year.25
Many cocoa buyers in the Dominican
Republic, different from most other cocoa
producing regions, prefer wet beans. Someferment these in own facilities to produce
specific flavours preferred by their customers.
Often, international customers ask for specificfermentation processes as they need uniqueflavours.26
The development to become the origin of
cocoa with very specific flavour was supported
by sustainability programmes e.g. of theGerman development organization GIZ.
Nowadays, part of the cocoa coming from the
Dominican Republic is well-known for its highquality.27
Production increase plans
The government plans to significantly increasecocoa production and combined with thisexport earnings. To do this, they want tosupport farmers to replant old plantations withnew, higher yielding trees with the aim tosignificantly increase the low productivity.
Presently, productivity is on average less than
400 kg per hectare, but a small group of
farmers demonstrate that much more ispossible.28
Organic cocoa
Despite being a relatively small cocoa
producer compared to Ecuador, Brazil – andSee: https://www.makeminefine.com/cocoasustainability/dominican-republic-republicadominicana/;
https://www.worldcocoafoundation.org/blog/tran
sitioning-to-high-quality-sustainable-cocoa-in-thedominican-republic-a-success-story/
andhttps://www.cacaoteca.com/dominicancacao.html
26
See: https://www.makeminefine.com/cocoasustainability/dominican-republic-republicadominicana/27
See https://www.cacaoteca.com/dominicancacao.html. Employees of European chocolate
factories told the authors that the Dominican
Republic is becoming more and more attractive forthem as they can rely on good quality as promisedin contracts. Other countries, specifically Ecuador
and Peru, have difficulties to remain on the highquality standard (see country chapters).
25

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

even more so compared to West African
producing countries – the Dominican Republic
has found a market where it is the mostimportant producing country: a vast
percentage of the cocoa harvested in the
Dominican Republic is traded with an organic
certification.
It is estimated that up to 60% of the exports ofthe country are certified organic cocoa. As themarket for organic cocoa is small, this adds up
to approximately 70% of the global
production of organic certified cocoa.
How much more income organic cocoa
generates compared to conventional crops is
not transparent. Premiums for organic beansdecreased while certification costs remain
relatively high (Matlick/Weber/Morillo 2016:17).
The Dominican Republic has one big
advantage compared to other countries on themarket concerning organic production: somediseases which have a high effect on cocoa
production, e.g. Moniliasis (Moniliophthora
roreri) and Witch's Broom (Crinipellis
perniciosa), do not occur in the country.29 A
recent research shown that the arrival of
Moniliasis to the island could have devastating
effects along the value chain; 80% of theplantations could be infected in less than four
years, while the national production could fall
77% by year six (Brito Sosa 2021). Hence, newand improved cacao planting material isneeded to avoid a massive socioeconomic
impact on cacao cultivation in the Dominican
Republic.

See:
https://www.iica.int/es/prensa/noticias/cocoa-keycrop-keeps-dominican-republic-one-leadingcountries-export-organicandhttps://www.makeminefine.com/cocoasustainability/dominican-republic-republicadominicana/29
Seehttps://www.iica.int/es/prensa/noticias/cocoa-keycrop-keeps-dominican-republic-one-leadingcountries-export-organic. When the World Cocoa
Conference with more than 1000 visitors from allaround the world took place in the Dominican
Republic in 2016, these visitors were not allowed toenter cocoa plantations. The government wasafraid that they could introduce cocoa diseases
presently not occurring in the Dominican Republic.
28

Page 25

Roughly two thirds of the remaining cocoa
farmers operate in the state Tabasco. In
Tabasco, 10 of the 17 municipalities thatcomprise the state are dedicated to thecultivation of cocoa, the most prominent being
Comalcalco, Cárdenas, Cunduacán andHuimanguillo, which together produce 87% of
the production of said state. An area of 41
thousand hectares is used for cocoa. Most of
the others in Chiapas. There are few
producing states in our country, but due totheir climates and type of soil, Veracruz andNayarit have great potential for growing
cocoa.30
Some farmer cooperatives are well known for
their high quality beans (Michail 2019).

See:
http://www.cedrssa.gob.mx/post_industria_del_n-cacao_en_mn-xico-n.htm
30

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Costa Rica

PanamaIt might surprise some that cocoa farming is
not increasing in countries with a local
chocolate market, to satisfy the demand.
However, many Mexican farmers are wellaware of the risks connected with cocoa as
they remember the development of the sector
during the last decades. The sector grew for
decades until 2000 (Díaz-José et al. 2013).
When prices plummeted on an inflationadjusted historical low around the years 2000
and 2001, many cocoa farmers in Mexico
switched to other crops. From 2005 on thecrop disease Moniliasis spread in theremaining plantations. For many farmers,
planting cocoa does not seem to be a lucrative
business anymore. The did not invest into theirplantations, trees became too old and lessproductive (Díaz-José et al. 2013).

Honduras

Cocoa farming no longer lucrative

2005/2006
2006/2007
2007/2008
2008/20092009/20102010/20112011/20122012/20132013/20142014/2015
2015/20162016/20172017/20182018/20192019/2020*
2020/2021*** Estimate** Forecast
Source: ICCO

GuatemalaMexico builds on a history of thousands ofyears of cocoa production and consumption.
However, Mexican cocoa production is nolongergrowing. Since
2005 annual
production slightly decreased from 34,000
tons to 28,000 tons (Table 1). In the meantime,
domestic consumption of cocoa-based
products increased significantly, and thecountry nowadays imports more cocoa beans
than it produces. Additionally, the country
imports significant volumes of semifinishedcocoa products, chocolate, and chocolate
products (Table 2).

Table 7: cocoa production in Central America
in 1000 tonnes
Nicaragua

Mexico

1.2
1.2
2.8
2.2
2.8
3.4
3.2
4.0
3.4
4.8
4.6
5.2
6.6
6.9
7.3
7.5

0.8
0.8
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.1
1.0
1.0
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5

0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.7
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.1
1.1
1.5
1.0
1.0

0.5
0.6
0.6
0.6
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.5
0.8
0.8

1.5
1.5
1.3
0.7
0.6
0.7
0.8
0.8
0.8
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0
1.0

Organizations like ASCHOCO (Asociación
Nacional de Fabricantes de Chocolates,
Dulces, y Similares) and institutions like Pro
Mexico (a public office in charge of promoting
exports) have been pushing for thedevelopment of a differentiated and highquality local chocolate production, which
could use the historic heritage and theuniqueness of some Mexican cocoa beans.
Though the land area dedicated to cocoa has
decreased slightly since 2006, the value
generated has more than doubled between
2006 and 2020 (Blog Agricultura 2022).31
Only very small quantities of raw cocoa areexported, from high quality varieties with avery specific aroma.
High export volumes of chocolate
The Mexican cocoa sector is the only cocoa
producing nation that exports significant
amounts of chocolate and chocolate products.
It exported roughly 200.000 tons of chocolate
and chocolate products per year during the

However, this does not take into account thedevaluation of the Mexican Peso.
31

Page 26

Table 8: Cocoa Exports of Nicaragua : Destinations and prices 2017-2020
in tonnes
2017
2018
2019
Tons Price in USD Tons Price in USD Tons Price in USD
Belgium
862
2,730
1,162 2,950
1,599 2,910
El Salvador
839
430
790
490
835
480
Guatemala
2,360 470
1,645 150
1,874 410
Italy
76
4,340
82
4,220
124
4,130
Honduras
65
3,180
15
3,240
3
2,300
USA
35
2,830
54
2,222
68
2,230
Netherlands
0,02
73
3,100
98
2,470
Germany
14
3,210
11
3,470
Costa Rica
10
2,900
TOTAL
4,238 3,887 4,640 Source: CETREX

last decade and is by far the biggest exporterof all Latin American countries (Table 2).
Different cocoa production strategies weredeveloped but none of them were fully
implemented because the expansion of the
chocolate industry became the biggest
priority.
The main reason for this shift was the further
liberalization of trade between the U.S.,
Canada and Mexico (NAFTA-treaty) in 2006;
chocolate produced from non-NAFTA cocoa
beans obtained “duty-free” status that year
(Beganivic et al. 2010: 19).32 This liberalization– together with availability of cheap sugar andcomparatively low wages – turned Mexico in
the second largest chocolate supplier of the
U.S. within 3 years.33 By 2009, Mexico had
increased its chocolate exports to the U.S. by
63%, and 3% of all incoming foreign direct
investments were going to the chocolate
industry.
Hershey’s and Barry Callebaut are some of themultinationals which moved their production
facilities to the country – especially Nuevo
León – with the purpose of supplying the local
and the U.S. market. Two thirds of the Mexican
chocolate production is controlled bymultinationals, and one third by local
companies (Beganivic et al. 2010: 15).

2020
Tons Price in USD
1,855 3,030
500
460
2,716 390
111
4,250
3
1,300
107
2,380
17
4,260
2,000
44
2,450
5,352 -

retail sales in the country. Additionally,nationalandinternational
companies
including subsidiaries of Lindt, Mondelez, andHershey are active on the market, including
small and medium size Mexican companies(Euromonitor International 2017).

Central America
High quality cocoa from some Central
American countries – specifically Panama andCosta Rica, but recently also Nicaragua – havean excellent reputation. Nonetheless cocoa
production is very small compared to SouthAmerican countries and even more socompared to West Africa. Moreover, thevolume of cocoa production in Central
America is relatively stable, with the exceptionof Nicaragua (Table 7).
NicaraguaApproximately 11,000 families nowadays
grow cocoa in Nicaragua (Wiegel et al. 2020b:
2; Martorell 2020:12). Only 15 years ago, thecountry produced not much more than 1,000
tonnes per year, and nowadays 7,500 tons.
The significant increase of cocoa production in
Nicaragua was driven by farmers andcompanies with some government support.

The chocolate export market is dominated bymultinational companies, led by Nestlé
Mexico, followed by Mars and Ferrero. The
three of them contributed nearly 60% of the

Most important markets for the cocoa
producers in Nicaragua are still theneighbouring countries. Much cocoa isexported unfermented to these countries andserves in the traditional manner to produce
drinks and other traditional cocoa products in

See:
Annex
401:
https://tcc.export.gov/Trade_Agreements/All_Tra
de_Agreements/NAFTA_Annex_401_1.asp.
33
Mexico is the sixth larger sugar-producer
worldwide (Beganovic et al. 2010: 15). In 2007

labor costs per hour in Mexico averaged $ 2.02
while in Canada and Brazil they averaged $ 24.90
and $ 6.05 respectively (ibid.); a similar relation canbe observed in annual health care costs and social
insurance.

32

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 27

the region. In a parallel process, lucrative
markets for higher quality beans were
explored with the support of companies suchas Ritter Sport. Most of the planting materials
are of Trinitarian origin.
Depending on quality and market, export
prices differ extremely. Figures on export toneighbouring countries, however, are notreliable. According to official figures,
Guatemala pays roughly US$400 per tonne.
Meanwhile, exports to Belgium, which aremostly delivered to the German company
Ritter Sport, achieved an export price of
US$3,030 per tonne in 2020, smaller volumes
going to Italy even achieved US$4,250 per
tonne (Table 8).
The driver of production increase of highquality cocoa in Nicaragua was the long-term
engagement of Ritter Sport. The company
invested in strengthening cooperatives andsupported them to build an infrastructure totrain farmers, make better inputs available –including good seedlings, and centralise bestpractices in fermentation. Additionally, ways
were found to level price fluctuations withlong-term contracts and flexible premiums.
Farmers working with Ritter Sport received
much more support than usual in the sector.
Due to different premiums, most of thembased on high quality, their income rosesignificantly. Most of this production takes
place in agroforestry systems, protecting theLatin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

environment and guaranteeing diversified
income sources (Navarro et al. 2013). An
additional step for Ritter Sport was to set up a
known plantation of 1200 ha plus additional
1200
hareforested
area(HützAdams/Campos 2022).
As a result of these efforts, 80% of the
production in Nicaragua is now recognised by
the ICCO as FFC. This figure seems unrealistic,
as most of the production is either not
fermented or is of lower quality. Nevertheless,it gives the farmer an opportunity to increase
quality and be rewarded for this by higher
prices.
Honduras
Cocoa production in Honduras is small andstagnates a level of roughly 1,000 tonnes per
year. Approximately 4,500 producers work on
small plots with low productivity, and theimpact of cocoa on the local economy is low.
Many of the cocoa producing families have adiversified farm production, and family
members have additional jobs.
GuatemalaCocoa production in Guatemala remains very
low level and nearly all cocoa is consumed
within the country. To meet demand, thecountry imports cocoa.

Page 28

Recommendations

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 29

6 Recommendations
The cocoa sector is at a crossroads. Due tomassive human rights violations including
widespread child labour in West African cocoa
producing regions, and to a lower extent
potential human rights violations in theAmerican producing areas (such as thedisplacement of indigenous population or theappropriation of land, which was taken fromfarmer families or communities in violent
contexts), the sector has to rethink its businesspractices.
The political framework is changing. The UN
Human Rights Council endorsed the Guiding
Principles on Business and Human Rights(UNGP) in 2011. These principles stress thatgovernments have the duty to protect people
from human rights violations. But they also
clearly state that human rights violations arestill taking place, and that even if governments
to not fulfil their duty, businesses should not
profit from these violations.
To guarantee this, companies have toundertake all necessary steps to avoid humanrights violations. Therefore, companies needtransparency in their value chain, need tomake risk analyses, and where necessarychange present purchasing practices andguarantee a remediation for victims of humanrights violations. This process is called humanrights due diligence (United Nations 2011).
The United Nations have asked all national
governments to set up national action plans to
implement the UNGPs.

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

The Organisation for Economic Co-operation
and Development (OECD) incorporated the
UNGPs into the update of the OECD
Guidelines for Multinational Enterprises(OECD 2011). In addition to the OECDmember countries, seven non-members
including Brazil and Peru recognise the OECD
standards. Specifically for the agricultural
sector, the OECD in cooperation with the FAO
developed a Guidance for Responsible
Agricultural Supply Chains (OECD 2016).
Globally, more and more governments have
either implemented the UNPG’s in a specificlegislation (e.g. France, Germany) or areplanning to do it. The EU, the biggest global
cocoa market, is in the progressed stages ofdeveloping a regulation on businesses andhuman rights.
Besides the changed regulatory environment,
climate change is another factor that ischanging business as usual. Forests play a
crucial role within efforts to mitigate climatechange. Many governments, including all
major cocoa producing countries, have alegislation to protect the remaining forests,
and the EU has almost completed a specificregulation to ban the import of products
coming from deforested areas.
Human rights violations and deforestation freevalue chains should become major pillars of
the cocoa sector; all stakeholders must act.

Page 30

Governments of Latin American cocoa producing countries should-

implement obligations for companies concerning human rights due diligence in their respective
legislation;
enforce the application of the Regional Agreement on Access to Information, Public Participation
and Justice in Environmental Matters in Latin America and the Caribbean (Escazú Agreement) in
all its dimensions;actively participate in sectorial dialogue initiatives;support farmers to increase their income via training measures and a supportive environment(access to inputs, credit facilities, etc.);
support farmers to use cocoa as a tool to reforest deforested areas;
protect remaining forests against the encroachment of small-scale farmers or the ambitions oflarge-scale investors who want to set up cocoa plantations,
make the publication of data on projects collected by companies, NGOs and researchers
mandatory and use the collected information is to support farmers;
collaborate to collectively work for a higher cocoa price which allows a living income for cocoa
farmers in the living wage for workers in cocoa plantations.

Companies in the cocoa and chocolate sector should-sign a statement at board level to commit themselves to implement human rights due diligenceprocesses, as recommended by the UNDPs;
make their sourcing fully transparent to farm level as this is a precondition to detect human rights
violations and illegal deforestation;
analyse the risk of human rights violations in their value chains;ensure reparations to victims of detected past or present human rights violations;calculate prices which are necessary for cocoa farmers to achieve living income and to pay aliving wage to workers;
permit the creation of independent worker unions within plantations and companies;
use transparency to avoid buying cocoa from recently deforested areas;
engage/support farmers in the voluntary market of payment for environmental services, mainly
carbon sequestration to avoid land use change.
cooperate with local human rights organisations and independent and autonomous humanrights institutions;encourage and support the creation of collective organizations of rural producers;

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 31

Colophon and Bibliography

Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer 2022

Page 32

7 Colophon
Text: Friedel Hütz-Adams, Pablo Campos
Editor: Antonie C. Fountain
Citation: Hütz-Adams, F., Campos, P., Fountain, A.C. (2022): Latin America Baseline Cocoa
Barometer, 2022
Additional contributions by: Lorena Galla, Joaquin Salgado & Wendy Arenas – Alisos Colombia,
Luis Orozco Aguilar – Lutheran World Relief-the MOCCA Project-Nicaragua, Johanna Renckens &Fausto Rodriguez – Rikolto Ecuador, Paulo Lima & Mariana Pereira – Solidaridad Brazil, Angélica
Fort & Ada Lis Rosell – Solidaridad Peru, Javier Ortiz & Daniel Coronel – Tropical Forest Alliance
Latin America.
Photographs by Manuel Avilés: https://www.instagram.com/manuelavilesec/
Published by the Cocoa Barometer Consortium.
Administered by the VOICE Network.
The Cocoa Barometer Consortium consists of ABVV/Horval, ACE Japan, Be Slavery Free, EcoCare,
European Federation of Food, Agriculture and Tourism Trade Unions (EFFAT), Fair World Project,
Fern, Freedom United, Global Labor Justice/International Labor Rights Forum, Green America,
Inades Formation, INKOTA-netzwerk, Mighty Earth, Oxfam America, Oxfam Belgium, Oxfam Ghana,
Public Eye, Rikolto, SEND Ghana, Solidaridad Europe, Solidaridad West Africa, SÜDWIND Institut,
Tropenbos International, Tropenbos Ghana, WWF France
Contact
Requests for information can be addressed to: antonie@voicenetwork.cc
The authors are tremendously grateful for the input from all the contributors to the Latin America
Baseline Barometer, through which the document has become so much richer and better. Anyerrors, as well as the final responsibility for the content and the views expressed in this publication
lies solely with the authors.
The Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer is based on publicly available data as well as the offrecord information provided to the authors. The authors welcome any corrections to data provided
and challenge all actors of the cocoa sector to be much more forthcoming with public data on thecore challenges the sector faces.
This paper is a Consultation Paper for the 2022 Cocoa Barometer, which is to be released in
December 2022. The authors welcome any input, corrections and/or feedback on the content of thispaper.
We encourage the use of (parts of) the Latin America Baseline Cocoa Barometer in otherpublications, provided proper references are given.
Published under Creative Commons License Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International

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