BREASTFEEDING MEDICINE
Volume 9, Number 5, 2014ª Mary Ann Liebert, Inc.
DOI: 10.1089/bfm.2014.9984

ABM Protocol

ABM Clinical Protocol #4:
Mastitis, Revised March 2014
Lisa H. Amir1,2 and The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine Protocol Committee

A central goal of The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine is the development of clinical protocols for managing
common medical problems that may impact breastfeeding success. These protocols serve only as guidelines forthe care of breastfeeding mothers and infants and do not delineate an exclusive course of treatment or serve as
standards of medical care. Variations in treatment may be appropriate according to the needs of an individual
patient.

Introduction

 Infrequent feedings or scheduled frequency or durationM Missed feedings Poor attachment or weak or uncoordinated sucklingof feedings

astitis is a common condition in lactating women;estimates from prospective studies range from 3% to20%, depending on the definition and length of postpartum
follow-up.1–3 The majority of cases occur in the first 6 weeks,
but mastitis can occur at any time during lactation. There
have been few research trials in this area.
Quality of evidence (levels of evidence I, II-1, II-2, II-3,
and III) for each recommendation as defined in the U.S.
Preventive Services Task Force Appendix A Task Force
Ratings4 is noted in parentheses in this document.

leading to inefficient removal of milk Illness in mother or baby
 Oversupply of milk
 Rapid weaning Pressure on the breast (e.g., tight bra, car seatbelt) White spot on the nipple or a blocked nipple pore or

duct: milk blister or ‘‘bleb’’ (a localized inflammatory
response)9 Maternal stress and fatigue

Definition and Diagnosis

The usual clinical definition of mastitis is a tender, hot,swollen, wedge-shaped area of breast associated with temperature of 38.5C (101.3F) or greater, chills, flu-like aching,and systemic illness.5 However, mastitis literally means, and isdefined herein, as an inflammation of the breast; this inflammation may or may not involve a bacterial infection.6,7 Redness, pain, and heat may all be present when an area of thebreast is engorged or ‘‘blocked’’/‘‘plugged,’’ but an infection
is not necessarily present. There appears to be a continuum
from engorgement to noninfective mastitis to infective mastitis
to breast abscess.7 (II-2)

Investigations

Laboratory investigations and other diagnostic procedures
are not routinely needed or performed for mastitis. The World
Health Organization publication on mastitis suggests thatbreastmilk culture and sensitivity testing ‘‘should be undertaken if there is no response to antibiotics within 2 days
 the mastitis recurs
 it is hospital-acquired mastitis
 the patient is allergic to usual therapeutic antibiotics or in severe or unusual cases.’’7 (II-2)

Predisposing Factors

The following factors may predispose a lactating woman
to the development of mastitis.7,8 Other than the fact thatthese are factors that result in milk stasis, the evidence forthese associations is generally inconclusive (II-2):
 Damaged nipple, especially if colonized with Staphy-

lococcus aureus
1
2

Breastmilk culture may be obtained by collecting a handexpressed midstream clean-catch sample into a sterile urine
container (i.e., a small quantity of the initially expressed milk
is discarded to avoid contamination of the sample with skinflora, and subsequent milk is expressed into the sterile container, taking care not to touch the inside of the container).
Cleansing the nipple prior to collection may further reduce

Judith Lumley Centre (formerly Mother & Child Health Research), La Trobe University, Melbourne, Australia.
Royal Women’s Hospital, Melbourne, Australia.

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ABM PROTOCOL

skin contamination and minimize false-positive culture results. Greater symptomatology has been associated withhigher bacterial counts and/or pathogenic bacteria.10 (III)Management
Effective milk removal

Because milk stasis is often the initiating factor in mastitis,the most important management step is frequent and effective
milk removal:
 Mothers should be encouraged to breastfeed more fre-quently, starting on the affected breast.
 If pain interferes with the let-down, feeding may begin

on the unaffected breast, switching to the affected
breast as soon as let-down is achieved.
 Positioning the infant at the breast with the chin or nose
pointing to the blockage will help drain the affectedarea.
 Massaging the breast during the feed with an edible oilor nontoxic lubricant on the fingers may also be helpful
to facilitate milk removal. Massage, by the mother or ahelper, should be directed from the blocked area
moving toward the nipple.
 After the feeding, expressing milk by hand or pump
may augment milk drainage and hasten resolution of
the problem.11 (III)An alternate approach for a swollen breast is fluid mobilization, which aims to promote fluid drainage toward theaxillary lymph nodes.12 The mother reclines, and gentle handmotions start stroking the skin surface from the areola to theaxilla.12 (III)
There is no evidence of risk to the healthy, term infantof continuing breastfeeding from a mother with mastitis.7
Women who are unable to continue breastfeeding should
express the milk from breast by hand or pump, as sudden
cessation of breastfeeding leads to a greater risk of abscessdevelopment than continuing to feed.11 (III)Supportive measuresRest, adequate fluids, and nutrition are important measures. Practical help at home may be necessary for the motherto obtain adequate rest. Application of heat—for example, ashower or a hot pack—to the breast just prior to feeding mayhelp with the let-down and milk flow. After a feeding or after
milk is expressed from the breasts, cold packs can be applied
to the breast in order to reduce pain and edema.
Although most women with mastitis can be managed as
outpatients, hospital admission should be considered for
women who are ill, require intravenous antibiotics, and/or do
not have supportive care at home. Rooming-in of the infant
with the mother is mandatory so that breastfeeding cancontinue. In some hospitals, rooming-in may require hospital
admission of the infant.
Pharmacologic management

Although lactating women are often reluctant to takemedications, women with mastitis should be encouraged totake appropriate medications as indicated.

Analgesia. Analgesia may help with the let-down reflex
and should be encouraged. An anti-inflammatory agent suchas ibuprofen may be more effective in reducing the inflammatory symptoms than a simple analgesic like paracetamol/
acetaminophen. Ibuprofen is not detected in breastmilk following doses up to 1.6 g/day and is regarded as compatible
with breastfeeding.13 (III)Antibiotics. If symptoms of mastitis are mild and havebeen present for less than 24 hours, conservative management (effective milk removal and supportive measures) may
be sufficient. If symptoms are not improving within 12–24
hours or if the woman is acutely ill, antibiotics should bestarted.7 Worldwide, the most common pathogen in infective
mastitis is penicillin-resistant S. aureus.14,15 Less commonly,
the organism is a Streptococcus or Escherichia coli.11 The
preferred antibiotics are usually penicillinase-resistant penicillins,5 such as dicloxacillin or flucloxacillin 500 mg bymouth four times per day,16 or as recommended by local
antibiotic sensitivities. (III) First-generation cephalosporins
are also generally acceptable as first-line treatment, but may
be less preferred because of their broader spectrum of coverage. (III)Cephalexin is usually safe in women with suspected penicillin allergy, but clindamycin is suggested for cases of severe penicillin hypersensitivity.16 (III) Dicloxacillin appears
to have a lower rate of adverse hepatic events than flucloxacillin.17 Many authorities recommend a 10–14-day course ofantibiotics18,19; however this recommendation has not been
subjected to controlled trials. (III)S. aureus resistant to penicillinase-resistant penicillins(methicillin-resistant S. aureus [MRSA], also referred to as
oxacillin-resistant S. aureus) has been increasingly isolated
in cases of mastitis and breast abscesses.20–22 (II-2) Clinicians should be aware of the likelihood of this occurring intheir community and should order a breastmilk culture andassay of antibiotic sensitivities when mastitis is not improving 48 hours after starting first-line treatment. Local resistance patterns for MRSA should be considered whenchoosing an antibiotic for such unresponsive cases while
culture results are pending. MRSA may be a communityacquired organism and has been reported to be a frequent
pathogen in cases of breast abscess in some communities,
particularly in the United States and Taiwan.21,23,24 (I, II-2)
At this time, MRSA occurrence is low in other countries,
such as the United Kingdom.25 (I) Most strains of methicillinresistant staphylococci are susceptible to vancomycin ortrimethoprim/sulfamethoxazole but may not be susceptible
to rifampin.26 Of note is that MRSA should be presumed tobe resistant to treatment with macrolides and quinolones,
regardless of susceptibility testing results.27 (III)As with other uses of antibiotics, repeated courses place
women at increased risk for breast and vaginal Candida
infections.28,29
Follow-Up

Clinical response to the above management is typically
rapid and dramatic. If the symptoms of mastitis fail to resolve
within several days of appropriate management, including
antibiotics, a wider differential diagnosis should be considered. Further investigations may be required to confirm

ABM PROTOCOL

resistant bacteria, abscess formation, an underlying mass, or
inflammatory or ductal carcinoma. More than two or threerecurrences in the same location also warrant evaluation torule out an underlying mass or other abnormality.
Complications
Early cessation of breastfeeding

Mastitis may produce overwhelming acute symptoms that
prompt women to consider cessation of breastfeeding. Effective milk removal, however, is the most important part oftreatment.7 Acute cessation of breastfeeding may actually
exacerbate the mastitis and increase the risk of abscess formation; therefore, effective treatment and support fromhealthcare providers and family are important at this time.
Mothers may need reassurance that the antibiotics they aretaking are safe to use during breastfeeding.

241

Candida, whereas 8% of women in the asymptomatic groupgrew the organism.39 (I)Women with burning nipple and breast pain may also be
more likely to test positive for Candida on nipple swab bypolymerase chain reaction.40 Using molecular techniques aswell as standard culture, a large cohort study of women followed up for 8 weeks postpartum found that burning nipple
pain with breast pain was associated with Candida species,
but not with S. aureus.41 (II-2)
Further research in this area is required. Until then, a trialof antifungal medications, either with or without culture, isthe current expert consensus recommendation. (III)Prevention (III)8
Effective management of breast fullness andengorgement
 Mothers should be helped to improve infants’ attach-

Abscess

If a well-defined area of the breast remains hard, red, andtender despite appropriate management, then an abscessshould be suspected. This occurs in about 3% of women withmastitis.30 (II-2) The initial systemic symptoms and fever
may have resolved. A diagnostic breast ultrasound will
identify a collection of fluid. The collection can often be
drained by needle aspiration, which itself can be diagnostic aswell as therapeutic. Serial needle aspirations may be required.31–33 (III) Ultrasound guidance for needle aspiration
may be necessary in some cases. Fluid or pus aspirated should
be sent for culture. Consideration of resistant organisms
should also be given depending on the incidence of resistantorganisms in that particular environment. Surgical drainage
may be necessary if the abscess is very large or if there are
multiple abscesses. After surgical drainage, breastfeedingon the affected breast should continue, even if a drain ispresent, with the proviso that the infant’s mouth does notcome into direct contact with purulent drainage or infected
tissue. A course of antibiotics should follow drainage of theabscess. (III)Photographs of breast abscesses and percutaneous aspiration can be found in a 2013 review by Kataria et al.34
Candida infection

Candida infection has been associated with burning
nipple pain or radiating breast pain symptoms.18 Diagnosis
is difficult, as the nipples and breasts may look normal on
examination, and milk culture may not be reliable. Careful evaluation for other etiologies of breast pain should beundertaken with particular attention to proper latch andruling out Raynaud’s/vasospasm and local nipple trauma.
When wound cultures are obtained from nipple fissures,
they most commonly grow S. aureus.35–37 (I)A recent investigation of women with these typicalsymptoms, using breastmilk cultures after cleansing thenipples, found that none of the 35 cultures from the control
group of women grew Candida, whereas only one of 29 in thesymptomatic group grew the organism.38 (I) There was also
no significant difference in the measurement of a by-productof Candida growth [(1,3)b-d-glucan] between groups.38 Yet,evidence is conflicting as another recent study on milk culture
found that 30% of symptomatic mothers were positive forment to the breast.
 Feeds should not be restricted.
 Mothers should be taught to hand-express when thebreasts are too full for the infant to attach or the infant
does not relieve breast fullness. A breast pump may
also be used, if available, for these purposes, but all
mothers should be able to manually express as the needfor its use may arise unexpectedly.
Prompt attention to any signs of milk stasis
 Mothers should be taught to check their breasts forlumps, pain, or redness.
 If the mother notices any signs of milk stasis, she needs

to rest, increase the frequency of breastfeeding, apply
heat to the breast prior to feedings, and massage any
lumpy areas as described in the section Effective milk
removal.
 Mothers should contact their healthcare provider if
symptoms are not improving within 24 hours.
Prompt attention to other difficulties with breastfeeding

Skilled help is needed for mothers with damaged nipples oran unsettled discontent infant or those who believe that they
have an insufficient milk supply.
Rest

As fatigue is often a precursor to mastitis, healthcare
providers should encourage breastfeeding mothers to obtainadequate rest. It may also be helpful for healthcare providers
to remind family members that breastfeeding mothers mayneed more help and encourage mothers to ask for help asnecessary.
Good hygiene

Because S. aureus is a common commensal organism often
present in hospitals and communities, the importance of good
hand hygiene should not be overlooked.14,42 It is important for
hospital staff, new mothers, and their families to practice good
hand hygiene. Breast pump equipment may also be a source ofcontamination and should be washed thoroughly with soap andhot water after use.

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Recommendations for Future Research

There are several aspects of prevention, diagnosis, andtreatment of mastitis that require research. First, a consensus
on a definition of mastitis is vital.43 We need to know whenantibiotics are needed, which are the most appropriate antibiotics, and the optimal duration of treatment. The role ofprobiotics in prevention and treatment needs to be determined. Finally, the role of massage to prevent and treat breastengorgement and infection needs to be clarified.
Acknowledgments

This work was supported in part by a grant from the Maternal and Child Health Bureau, U.S. Department of Healthand Human Services.
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ABM protocols expire 5 years from the date of publication.
Evidence-based revisions are made within 5 years or sooner if
there are significant changes in the evidence.
The Academy of Breastfeeding Medicine Protocol Committee
Kathleen A. Marinelli, MD, FABM, Chairperson
Maya Bunik, MD, MSPH, FABM, Co-Chairperson
Larry Noble, MD, FABM, Translations Chairperson
Nancy Brent, MD
Amy E. Grawey, MD
Alison V. Holmes, MD, MPH, FABM
Ruth A. Lawrence, MD, FABM
Tomoko Seo, MD, FABM
For correspondence: abm@bfmed.org