EARLY WARNING SYSTEM AND COMMUNITYBASED EMERGENCY RESPONSE MECHANISM
By:
Captain Mohamed Inayath
Director, Programs
National Disaster Management Authority (NDMA)
Republic of Maldives

Visiting Researcher Program – FY2015B
Asian Disaster Reduction Centre
Kobe City, Hyogo Prefecture, Japan
April 2016

Disclaimer

This report was compiled by an ADRC visiting researcher (VR) from ADRC
member countries.
The views expressed in the report do not necessarily reflect the views of theADRC. The boundaries and names shown and the designations used on themaps in the report also do not imply official endorsement or acceptanceby the ADRC.

Cover Photo(Source: Prime Minister’s Office and Fire and Disaster Management Agency)

An angel’s voice
A woman on the municipal staff in Minamisanriku City was urging residents
over the radio to evacuate to higher ground. Although tinged with fear
and apprehension, her voice gave people courage and helped savecountless lives. She continued broadcasting to the very end before being
engulfed by the tsunami. She never returned home. She had planned to be
married in September 2011. In all, 39 staff members were declared dead or
missing. The 12- meter- high building was located in a risk area that was
submerged by 2.4 meters of water during the 1960 Chilean Tsunami.
The cover photo shows the Disaster Management Headquarters of
Minamisanriku City where the late lady Staff kept providing early warning
about the impending disaster to the community until her own location
engulfed and submerged by the gigantic tsunami. She sacrificed her life toothers. It was an act of bravery and heroism. She was a true hero and aselfless humanitarian.

ii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTFirst of all, I would like to express my sincere thanks and heartfelt gratitude
to Chairman, Executive Director and all the kind Staff of Asian Disaster
Reduction Center.
I convey my honest thanks and appreciation to ADRC and NDMA for
allowing me to come all the way to Japan and complete the researchwork.
I am grateful to my VR friends Mr. Andrew from India and Mr. Chathurafrom Sri Lanka for the kind heart and friendship. I also would like to express
my gratefulness to Ms. Shiomi Yumi– VR Coordinator for her kindcooperation and support rendered during my research period at ADRC.
I also express my heartiest gratitude to the people who have helped meduring the field visits and tours for sparing their valuable time. I am sincerely
thankful to the Maldives National Defense Force (MNDF) - my parent
organization for allowing me to pursue this VR Program at ADRC.
Finally, I am very grateful to my family members and my wife’s family
members for the love and support. The most importantly, the biggest thanksfrom the bottom of my heart goes to my wife – Fathimath Muna Moosa foryour love, caring and encouragement throughout this research and fortaking very good care of my loving children. Last but not the least, thankyou so much my daughter Mariyam Neera Mohamed and my son Ryan
Areen Mohamed.

iii

ABSTRACTNatural disasters pose significant threats and challenges to many parts of
the world. Extreme weather events and climate change are causing
extensive damage and loss to life and livelihood of millions of people inurban cities, rural areas and low elevated coastal areas especially small
island states. Maldives is one of the most threatened countries by disasters
induced by climate risks.
Reliable disaster early warning is a prerequisite and a vital component ofdisaster response. It is particularly important for the local community andhouseholds to receive early warning in case of sudden onset disasters suchas earthquakes, tsunami, volcanic eruption, flash flood, landslide, cyclones
and storms etc. EW also serves as the trigger point for evacuation order andtimely response initiation decision by the individuals and local governments
which could result in saving numerous lives and property.
Although, Maldives has an established national level early warning system,
rural atolls and island communities hardly receive any of the early warning
messages on time. Therefore, this research would be addressing on how toestablish a community based early warning system for small islands andhow to integrate this system into an effective and efficient disaster
response and relief operations at the individual island community level in
the Maldives.
Keywords: Disaster Risk Management, Disaster Risk Reduction, Disaster
Management System, Early Warning System and Emergency Response
Mechanism.

iv

TABLE OF CONTENTS
1

2

INTRODUCTION ....................................................................................................... 8
1.1

Background ...................................................................................................... 8

1.2

Statement of the Problems and Significance of the Research .......................... 9

1.3

Objectives of the Research ............................................................................. 10

1.4

Expected Results ............................................................................................ 10

1.5

Scope and Delimitations of the Study ............................................................ 10

LITERATURE REVIEW........................................................................................... 12
2.1

Disaster Impact ............................................................................................... 12

2.2

Disaster Risk Management (DRM) ................................................................ 13

2.3International Mechanism and Platforms for DRR.......................................... 14

2.3.2 Sendai Framework for DRR (2015 – 2030) ................................................... 15
2.4

Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction (CBDRR) ................................. 15

2.4.1 Why is Community Based Approach is Important?....................................... 16
2.5

DRM Cycle .................................................................................................... 17

2.5.1 Disaster Preparedness for Response ............................................................... 18
2.6

Early Warning Systems .................................................................................. 19

2.6.1 Community Based Early Warning Systems ................................................... 21
2.7

Emergency Response Mechanism .................................................................. 21

2.7.1 Community Based Emergency Response Teams ........................................... 22
3

METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................... 26
3.1

Type of Research ............................................................................................ 26

3.2

Data Collection Methods ................................................................................ 26

3.2.1 Secondary Data Collection ............................................................................. 26
3.2.2 Primary Data Collection ................................................................................. 26
4

DISATER RISK PROFILE OF JAPAN AND MALDIVES ..................................... 31
4.1

Disaster Risk Profile of Japan ........................................................................ 31

4.2

Recent Disasters ............................................................................................. 32

4.2.1 Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake (January 1995) ......................................... 32
4.2.2 Mid Niigata Prefecture Earthquake (October 2004) ...................................... 32
4.2.3 The Great East Japan Earthquake (March 2011) ........................................... 33
4.3

Disaster Risk Profile of Maldives .................................................................. 33

4.4

Recent Disasters ............................................................................................. 34

4.4.1 Addu City Flood Crisis (24-25 November 2015)........................................... 34
4.4.2 Male Water Crisis (4 December 2014) .......................................................... 34v

4.4.3 Cyclone Nilam (October-November 2012) .................................................... 35
4.4.4 Surge Waves (15-17 May 2007) .................................................................... 35
4.4.5 Indian Ocean Tsunami (December 2004) ...................................................... 35
5

DISASTER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN JAPAN AND MALDIVES ................ 36
5.1

DM System in Japan ...................................................................................... 36

5.1.1 Legal ............................................................................................................... 37
5.1.2 Institutional..................................................................................................... 38
5.1.3 Disaster Management Plans ........................................................................... 39
5.2

DM System in Maldives ................................................................................. 41

5.2.1 Legal ............................................................................................................... 42
5.2.2 Institutional..................................................................................................... 43
5.2.3 Disaster Management Plans ........................................................................... 44
6

EARLY WARNING SYSTEMS ............................................................................... 45
6.1

Early Warning System in Japan ..................................................................... 45

6.2

Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) ............................................................ 46

6.3

Hazard Specific EW and Alerts ..................................................................... 47

6.3.1 Tsunami EW ................................................................................................... 47
6.3.2 EEW ............................................................................................................... 48
6.3.3 Meteorological Warnings and Advisories of JMA ........................................ 50
6.3.4 Flood Early Warning ...................................................................................... 51
6.3.5 Sediment Disaster Warnings .......................................................................... 52
6.3.6 Volcanic Eruptions ......................................................................................... 53
6.3.7 Emergency Warning System .......................................................................... 54
6.4

Dissemination of Forecast and Early Warning .............................................. 54

6.4.1 J-Alert System ................................................................................................ 57
6.4.2 L-Alert ............................................................................................................ 58
6.5

Early Warning System in the Maldives.......................................................... 58

6.5.1 Maldives Meteorological Service (MMS)...................................................... 59
6.5.2 MMS Criteria and Color Codes for EW Alerts .............................................. 59
6.5.3 EW Dissemination in the Maldives ................................................................ 62
6.6
7

Summary ........................................................................................................ 63

DISASTER RESPONSE AND RELIEF MECHANISM .......................................... 64
7.1

Japan ............................................................................................................... 64

7.2

National Level ................................................................................................ 64

7.2.1 Wide- Area Support System ........................................................................... 64
7.2.2 Disaster Response Coordination Mechanism ................................................. 65vi

7.2.3 Japan Self Defense Forces (SDF)................................................................... 66
7.2.4 Fire and Disaster Management Agency (FDMA) .......................................... 67
7.2.5 National Police Agency (NPA) ...................................................................... 67
7.2.6 Japan Coast Guard .......................................................................................... 68
7.2.7 Disaster Medical Assistance Teams (DMAT) ............................................... 68
7.2.8 Technical Emergency Control Force (TEC-FORCE) .................................... 69
7.2.9 Japanese Red Cross Society (JRCS) .............................................................. 69
7.2.10 NHK ............................................................................................................... 69
7.2.11 Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) ............................................................ 70
7.2.12 Prefectural Level ............................................................................................ 71
7.2.13 The Hyogo Emergency Net (E-Net)............................................................... 73
7.3

City/Municipal/Town/Village Level .............................................................. 73

7.4

Community Level ........................................................................................... 74

7.4.1 Community Based Volunteers ....................................................................... 74
7.5

Maldives ......................................................................................................... 75

7.5.1 National Emergency Response Force ............................................................ 76
7.5.2 National emergency Operational Plan (NEOP) ............................................. 77
7.5.3 Atoll and Island Level .................................................................................... 77
8

LESSONS LEARNT FROM JAPAN, RECOMMENDATIONS AND
CONCLUSION .......................................................................................................... 79
8.1

Lessons Learnt From Japan ............................................................................ 79

8.1.1 Self Help, Mutual Help and Public Help........................................................ 79
8.1.2 Multi-hazard Early Warning System.............................................................. 79
8.1.3 Wide Area Support System ............................................................................ 80
8.1.4 Volunteerism and Community based Organizations ...................................... 80
8.1.5 Emergency Kit Bag ........................................................................................ 80
8.1.6 Disaster Drills and Exercises.......................................................................... 81
8.1.7 Disaster Prevention Awareness ...................................................................... 81
8.2

Recommendations .......................................................................................... 81

8.3

Challenges ...................................................................................................... 83

8.4

Conclusion ...................................................................................................... 83vii

CHAPTER 1
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1

Background

Loss of lives and livelihood from disasters whether it is slow onset or sudden onset is a huge
global concern irrespective of the country’s location, size and economic status. Some nations
are luckier while many states continuously fight to minimize the impact from various
disasters that they face throughout but yet no country is 100 percent safe and disaster risks
free. The uncertainty of the nature calls for better preparedness planning and disaster countermeasures. Prediction of many natural and manmade disasters and extreme events with multihazards is possible to a great extent today with the help of advanced science and technology.
Reliable disaster early warning is a prerequisite and a vital component of preparedness fordisaster response. It is particularly important for the local community and households toreceive EW in case of sudden onset disasters such as earthquakes, tsunami, volcanic eruption,
flash flood, landslide, cyclones and storms etc. EW also serves as the trigger point forevacuation order and timely response initiation decision by the individuals and local
government which could result in saving numerous lives and property. The absence orinadequate EW may lead an avoidable circumstance into a catastrophe. The death toll of
Indian Ocean Tsunami in 2004 is a vivid example of this because majority of victims did nothave access or receive any EW although many of the countries have huge lead time for action.
Thus, establishing a multi-hazard disaster EWS should be a priority in preparedness for aneffective response at all levels.
Maldives is one of the most threatened countries by the natural disasters, extreme weather
events and other climate risks. Being one of the smallest and low elevated countries in theworld has a threat of existence from the effects of climate change and sea level rise in the longrun. Given the vulnerable situation of the country and based on the past disaster history, it isutmost important for Maldives to take immediate actions to establish an EWS which is able todisseminate and deliver timely, accurate and reliable warning messages to the most remoteisland communities and to set up an emergency first response mechanism within the local
island communities to make the atoll islands safe, secure and protected from disasters.
Japanese concept of disaster risk reduction, live with risk environment and attitude provide
valuable takeaways for other countries. Maldives as a developing country it is very importantto take the advantage of lessons learned from mega disasters in Japan especially GHAE and
GEJE, and the disaster mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery and reconstruction efforts,
and DRM approach as a whole in Japan as global public goods for future development of thenation.

8

1.2Statement of the Problems and Significance of the Research

Disasters affect the countries irrespective of size and geographical location but it is the small
and poor countries that are most severely impacted. This hinders the development and creates
extra burden economically and socially to achieve the desired prosperity of many developing
and underdeveloped communities. In fact, this is absolutely true particularly for the small
island states like Maldives. For example, the Indian Ocean tsunami on 26 December 2004
caused severe damage to the physical infrastructure of many islands and set back the highlevels of social progress and prosperity achieved in recent years. Total damages are estimatedto be US$470 million, 62% of GDP (World Bank, 2005).
In any disaster situation, the most important first responders are the affected local community.
It is them who perform first aid, search and rescue, protection and manage evacuation shelters
until the public assistance and support arrives at the scene. The central government, national
response force and other response efforts require and take time to take the control of thesituation. The time is critical and immense important in saving lives during disasters,
especially the golden 72 hours which should not be given up in waiting for the public support.
In the Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake in 1995, more than 80% of the rescued works weredone by the neighborhood and community people themselves. Therefore, empowering the
local community with maximum response capacity is a must that every community should be
adhered to. The best resources and manpower is the local community for a better early
evacuation and response in protecting the citizens from negative impacts of disasters.
Given the vulnerability, geophysical characteristics and the wide dispersal of the island
communities of Maldives apart in the deep ocean currently lacks a robust, redundant andreliable EWS. However, Maldives has established and maintains a multi-hazard national EWS
in the country. The critical issue here is the lack of infrastructure, the limitations of timely
access and dissemination of EW down to the last mile and grass root level in the remoteisland communities. Thus, it exists the gap and dire need for a comprehensive community
based multi-hazard early warning system to be established and maintained 24/7 in every
inhabited island locality in order to provide an effective emergency response by the island
communities.
Since, most of the island communities in the Maldives are physically isolated societies fromone another; a disaster with devastating magnitude could result a total isolation, loss ofcommunication and cut off from external support for several hours, days or may be for weeks.
Hence, preparing and equipping the Island Emergency Response Teams (IERT), commonlyreferred as Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) could be one of the best options
for the local governments, Island/Atoll and City Councils. These teams are based in islands onvolunteerism and consist of volunteers who could act and be a part of larger Local Emergency

9Response Force (LERF) in an Atoll or a City. At present, a handful of islands have IERTs andthey are inadequately equipped and very limited in capacity.
1.3

Objectives of the Research

The overall objective of this study is to understand the importance and role of multi-hazard
early warning system and the community based emergency response mechanism for the small
islands of Maldives. The specific objectives of this research are:
To learn and understand about the early warning systems, procedures and protocols inJapan and in the Maldives;
To identify how early warning initiates emergency response in the context of Japanese
local communities;
To identify and understand the community volunteer based emergency first response
and relief mechanism in Japan; andTo recommend a model to establish Island Emergency Response Teams and integratethem into the emergency response and relief operations and disaster preparedness at
the community level in the islands.
1.4

Expected Results

Upon completion of the ADRC’s Visiting Researcher Program FY2015B, the researcher
intends to produce the research paper consisting of the following outcomes;
 Recommend a mechanism to establish community based early warning systemin the islands.
 Lessons learnt and recommendation for the DRR and the development ofCommunity Emergency Response Teams (CERT) at the local community levelin the islands.
1.5

Scope and Delimitations of the Study

The scope of this research is very much focused on the various components of disaster early
warning systems and the disaster response and relief part of the disaster risk reduction andmanagement in the Maldives and in Japan. However, the importance of disaster preparedness
phase is highlighted to some extent. More emphasis is given to the Japanese context ofdisaster management in quoting examples, lessons learnt and past experiences because theprimary information and data gathered for the research are solely from Japan but it is not
limited to the good practices and case studies from other parts of the world as well.
In order to achieve the research objectives and outcome mentioned before, the approach offitting the most relevant and applicable options and solutions to the small island communities
of Maldives were used and adopted by keeping the vast differences in geophysical10

characteristics, economy, social and technological environment, risk profile and governancestructure between the Japan and Maldives.
Furthermore, various disaster risk reduction concepts and approaches of Japan werestreamlined and narrowed down in the conclusion and recommendations for Maldives todevelop a comprehensive multi-hazard early warning system and a community based disasterfirst response set up in the remote island communities. However, some of the hazards andrisks like inland earthquake, landslides, volcanic eruptions and other sediment disasters were
not discussed since those are not applicable in Maldives.
The challenges and few limitations of this research include the language barrier, majority of
the literature available on DRR are in Japanese, presentations and discussions required
translation to a great extent. Finally, the limitation of time available may be insufficient toproduce a comprehensive analysis for this research work.

11

CHAPTER 2
2 LITERATURE REVIEW
2.1

Disaster Impact

Disasters affect millions of people and cause damage cost in billions of dollars every year
around the globe. This trend keeps growing and increasing. The following figures show theoccurrence and economic damage of recent disasters. The increasing intensity and frequency
with which disasters are being experienced worldwide demonstrate the critical need toenhance disaster risk management. Indeed, high-profile, large-scale disasters are increasing
global consciousness of the need to strengthen national and regional capacities to mitigate,
respond to and manage such events.
Transition of the Number of Killed People in the World(1985 - 2014)
350,000

Number of people killed

300,000

250,000

200,000

150,000

100,000

50,000

2014

2013

2012

2011

2010

2009

2008

2007

2006

2005

2004

2003

2002

2001

2000

1999

1998

1997

1996

1995

1994

1993

1992

1991

1990

1989

1988

1987

1986

1985

0

Year
6

Source: CRED EM-DAT, Univeresite Catholique de Louvain, Brussels, Belgium

Figure 2.1 Number of People Died in the World (1985 - 2014)

Figure 2.2 Disaster occurrence and loss (1980 to 2015)12

Disaster risk reduction, and early warning, early action in particular, are essential in achieving
sustainable development. Furthermore to reduce the loss and damage from disasters,
preparedness for response is necessary. The above figures show the number of lives lost frompast disasters. This is evident that firm and proactive measures are required to combat
disasters. It's time to switch from managing disasters to risk reduction.
2.2

Disaster Risk Management (DRM)

Disasters put development achievements at risk in many societies. Often, disasters hurt themost vulnerable and poor communities who live multi-hazard prone areas. However, disasters
may not spare the developed world from recurring. The Great East Japan Earthquake and thesubsequent Tsunami caused widespread damage and extreme devastation five years ago on
March 11, 2011 is a powerful remainder to the world that even the best prepared country will
face exceptional disasters (World Bank, 2014).
Most of the developmental gains achieved in the past can be destroyed in a matter of seconds
with disasters if not prepared and responded to disasters effectively and efficiently.
Adaptation and risk reduction are the most common and the best options to prepare for futureclimate risks and disasters. Mainstreaming and integrating Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
and DRM in development planning could help lower the impact of disasters, protect and save
lives and property. Furthermore, disaster preparedness and effective countermeasures enhance
the coping capacity of the people leading to more resilient communities and nations aroundthe globe.
UNISDR disaster terminology defines DRM as the systematic process of using administrative
directives, organizations, and operational skills and capacities to implement strategies,
policies and improved coping capacities in order to lessen the adverse impacts of hazards andthe possibility of disaster. This term is an extension of the more general term “riskmanagement” to address the specific issue of disaster risks. Disaster risk management aims to
avoid, lessen or transfer the adverse effects of hazards through activities and measures forprevention, mitigation and preparedness.
DRR (Disaster Risk Reduction) is the concept and practice of reducing disaster risks throughanalysis and management of the causal factors of disasters. It leads to reduced exposure tohazards, lessening of vulnerability of people and assets, effective management of land and theenvironment and improved preparedness for adverse events (UNISDR, 2009). Disaster risk
reduction is an effective means to achieve resilience through prevention, mitigation andpreparedness to enable nations and communities and absorb damage and loss, minimize
impacts and bounce forward and build back better to link disaster risk management withsustainable development.

13

The ultimate goal of DRM is to build disaster resilient societies and keep achieving
sustainable development. Hence, DRM put stronger focus on risk prevention, risk reduction
and resilience building in post disaster recovery and reconstruction by supporting principles
and practice of ‘Building Back Better’ and safer as well as learning from past disasters. DRM
also ensures effective preparedness for communities to respond rapidly, recover better andremain resilient, including to new and deteriorating emergencies.
2.3

International Mechanism and Platforms for DRR

Disaster risk is a global challenge. In many countries, economic and social exposure to natural
hazards is increasing. Thus, reducing the risk of disasters requires an all-states and allstakeholders effort. International mechanism helps to create an enabling environment for thenations to achieve disaster resilience with global partnership, much-needed risk-sensitive
investment and sustainable development.
Unlike the traditional response and relief centric approach, more proactive and community
based approach of Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR) is popular and preferable by many nations
and communities. Lots of initiatives have been taken up to now by the international, regional,
national platforms and the local communities to reduce the risk and impact from disastrous
events. DRR is a top priority in the development agendas, global forums and platforms. The
purpose of these initiatives is to build resilience of nations and communities to future disasters
and reduce the disaster loss.
The United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UNISDR) system provides
a vehicle for cooperation among the international community, Governments, organizations
and civil society actors to assist in the formation, adaptation and implementation of theInternational DRR Frameworks. Furthermore, regional platforms play a vital role inpromoting DRR and capacity building in their respective regional countries. Being a memberof the Asian Disaster Reduction Center (ADRC) and SAARC Disaster Management Center(SDMC), Maldives receives many opportunities and benefits in the field of DRR and related
efforts to make a resilient Maldives.
A comprehensive approach to reduce disaster risks is set out in the most recent two United
Nations-endorsed Frameworks for Action, adopted in 2005 and in 2015 respectively. National
Platforms in the countries support better national DRR governance efforts and help to build
stronger and more effective national coordination mechanism with the relevant stakeholders.
2.3.1 Hyogo Framework for Action (HFA)The Hyogo Framework for Action 2005-2015, which aimed at building the resilience ofnations and communities to disasters, was adopted by the governments and organizations at
the World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction in Kobe City, in the Hyogo Prefecture ofJapan in January 2005. The conference outcome is known as the Hyogo Framework. Its goal
14

was stated as “the substantial reduction of disaster losses, in lives and in the social, economicand environmental assets of communities and countries” and it set out five Priorities for
Action to achieve this, namely:
1) Ensure that disaster risk reduction (DRR) is a national and local priority with a strong
institutional basis for implementation.
2) Identify, assess and monitor disaster risks and enhance early warning.
3) Use knowledge, innovation & education to build a culture of safety & resilience at alllevels.
4) Reduce the underlying risk factors.
5) Strengthen disaster preparedness for effective response at all levels.
2.3.2 Sendai Framework for DRR (2015 – 2030)
The Framework was adopted at the Third UN World Conference on Disaster Risk Reduction
in Sendai, Japan, on March 18, 2015. The predecessor to the HFA, also refer as the post-2015
framework for disaster risk reduction offers an important opportunity to renew a broad-based
commitment to building resilience and to support coherence across the post-2015
development agenda and the Sustainable Development Goals (UNISDR, 2015). Currently,
Sendai Framework for Disaster Risk Reduction 2015-2030 is the international guideline for
DRR.
The SFDRR aims to achieve the substantial reduction of disaster risk and losses in lives,
livelihoods and health and in the economic, physical, social, cultural and environmental assetsof persons, businesses, communities and countries over the next 15 years. It has four priorities
for action to prevent new and reduce existing disaster risks as follows:(i) Understanding disaster risk;(ii) Strengthening disaster risk governance to manage disaster risk;(iii) Investing in disaster reduction for resilience and;(iv) Enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response and to "Build Back Better" inrecovery, rehabilitation and reconstruction.
2.4

Community Based Disaster Risk Reduction (CBDRR)

In the context of disaster risk management, a community can be defined as people living in
one geographical area, who are exposed to common hazards due to their location. They may
have common experience in responding to hazards and disasters. However, they may havedifferent perceptions of and exposure to risk. Groups within the locality will have a stake inrisk reduction measures.
Community-Based Disaster Risk Reduction (CBDRR) is an approach and process of disasterrisk management in which communities at risk are actively engaged in the identification,
analysis, treatment, monitoring and evaluation of disaster risks in order to reduce their15

vulnerabilities and enhance their capacities to prevent and withstand damaging effects ofhazards (ADPC, 2004). CBDRR contributes to progressive realization of safety, disaster
resilience and development of all. Simply put, the aim of CBDRR is to reduce vulnerabilities
and strengthen people’s capacity to cope with hazards. This means that the people are at theheart of decision making and implementation of disaster risk management activities.
2.4.1 Why is Community Based Approach is Important?
Over the last two decades, the community-focus on disaster risk reduction has increasingly
been recognized as an essential component of a comprehensive national disaster risk
management system, for the following reasons: The community is the first responder in any disaster.
 In many cases, top-down approaches may fail to address the specific local needs ofvulnerable communities, ignore the potential of local resources and capacities and insome cases may even increase people’s vulnerability.
 Nobody can understand local opportunities and constraints better than the local
communities themselves.
 CBDRR brings together the local communities and other stakeholders for disasterrisk management to expand its resource base.
At the time of need, locals become the best readily available resource for the rescue of thecommunity. Therefore, it is believed that the most successful and sustainable approach of
DRM is to empower the local community through the Community Based Disaster Risk
Management (CBDRM), and it is often the local residents who suffer or get affected bydisasters.

Figure 2.3 Roles of the Communities in CBDRM

16

Recognizing the role of communities and providing them with central and local government
support is critical in order to maintaining and strengthening important community based
functions. Community based disaster risk management (CBDRM) programs have also
provided a critical vehicle for strengthening preparedness. Most CBDRM activities usually
have a strong component of raising local awareness of risks. However, while many programs
are short-lived, there are numerous examples of CBDRM programs successfully leading toenhanced preparedness and response capability in the communities.
From the past disaster experience, Maldives has learned the importance of risk reduction
before disasters and the enhancement of local level preparedness at the island communities.
Given the geophysical nature and the dispersion of the islands, the most effective approach toaddress the disasters in the Maldives is to prepare each and every island community for themultiple hazards they are exposed to. Hence, the main focus is given to empower the islanders
through the community based disaster risk reduction. This certainly would help to reduce thevulnerabilities, strengthen people’s capacities to cope with multi-hazards and finally,
improving the disaster resiliency of the island communities.
2.5

DRM Cycle

When a disaster strikes, emergency response and relief are taken, then recovery andreconstruction work follows. Society learns lessons from the disaster and takes
countermeasures for future disasters to prevent and mitigate possible loss and damages. Then,
preparedness is carried out for future disasters. This cycle is called as the “disastermanagement cycle” (JICA, 2014). The figure below shows a four phased DRM cycle.

Figure 2.4 Four Phased Disaster Management Cycle

172.5.1 Disaster Preparedness for Response
Preparedness has been defined as “the capacities and knowledge developed by governments,
professional response organizations, communities and individuals to anticipate and respondeffectively to the impact of likely, imminent or current hazards or conditions” (UNISDR,
2009b).
In order to lower the impacts of natural disaster, it is desirable to make damage itself as small
as possible by preventive measures. However, it is impossible to protect all areas from alldisasters, and also there is a budget limitation to do so. For these reasons, in order to protect
lives from a natural disaster, it is important to response with better preparedness immediately
before and after the occurrence of the disaster event. Response with better preparedness
means to forecast the occurrence of natural disasters in early stage, quickly disseminate theforecast and warning information, appropriately alerts or evacuate people in accordance with
the information and once a disaster occurs, immediately provide relief to victims and sufferedareas (lifesaving, medical care and relief supplies (JICA, 2014).
Preparedness has been central to all the international frameworks for disaster risk reduction
since the IDNDR and was included in Priority for Action 5 of the HFA and Priority for
Action 4 of the SFDRR. Thus, preparedness for response has been the main focus of thedisaster risk management sector in many countries. Many success stories during the HFA are
associated with improvements in preparedness, often combined with more effective early
warning.
Preparedness activities are a critical part of corrective disaster risk management in that certain
risks, particularly those associated with mortality and morbidity can be reduced throughanticipation and response. Put simply, if a prepared population is able to evacuate an area
before a major flood, lives will be saved and mortality and morbidity risk will therefore belower. At the same time, preparedness is part of compensatory risk management and helps
strengthen resilience. Well-organized emergency assistance based on contingency plans canhelp households and communities to buffer disaster losses, recover more quickly and avoid
the translation of loss into broader impacts
Strengthening early warning systems, disaster preparedness and response capacities is vital tominimize the human losses and damages to the property, livelihood assets and criticalinfrastructure of the communities. The basic requirements for a prepared community are:a. Alert, informed and active community members;b. Effective community organizations with identified and constructive roles in local
emergency management arrangements;18

c. Local governments which acknowledge their roles in community safety issues andwhich have well established, widely understood and practiced arrangements fordischarging their community safety responsibilities; andd. Organizations and communities being able to work together to respond to theemergency, save lives and property, and assist the community to recover.
Increased awareness on vulnerability and disaster risk to the island settlements is very
important to make proactive disaster preparedness culture in the mindsets of the local island
community people. Conducting and promoting regular disaster preparedness exercises,
including evacuation drills, with a view to ensuring rapid and effective disaster response is a
crucial part of disaster preparedness.
Preparing to respond to, and mitigate the impact of, disasters as well as delivering assistanceduring and after the incident comprise the ‘preparedness and response’ aspect of dealing withdisasters. Activities included under this umbrella are the activities of government at all levels,
as well as of the private sector, communities, individuals, volunteers, and non-governmentalorganizations.
Most of the developmental gains achieved in the past can be destroyed in a matter of seconds
with disasters if not prepared and responded to disasters effectively and efficiently.
Emergency Response is a set of activities implemented soon after a hazard event, designed tosave lives, reduce suffering and promote speedy recovery, utilizing any remaining capacitiesof the community. Effective response depends on integration of the whole community and allpartners executing their roles and responsibilities.
Local communities play a key role in preparing for disastrous events and are normally the
first responders to take action. During GEJE on March 11, 2011, community basedorganizations were very active in the disaster response and saved countless human lives. The
foundation for effective disaster preparedness and response is laid at the local level. Well
prepared local communities can often significantly reduce their disaster losses, even if
national level emergency management structures collapse or fail to respond. In contrast, eventhe best organized disaster management at the national level may be ineffective if local
preparedness capacities are weak or non-existent.
2.6

Early Warning Systems

Early Warning is the provision of timely hazard threat information to individual citizens.
Individual citizens based on their respective exposure to a hazard would take action for theirsafety. An early warning system, hereinafter referred to as EWS, is made of a set ofprocedures, policies, and Information Technology put together for an effective and efficientdissemination of timely hazardous event and risk information to the public. An effective early19warning system encompasses the early action and earlier response as its main element. EWS
has a core objective to save lives and minimize damage and losses to properties.
UNISDR, 2009 defines EWS as “the set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate
timely and meaningful warning information to enable individuals, communities andorganizations threatened by a hazard to prepare and to act appropriately and in sufficient time
to reduce the possibility of harm or loss.” This definition encompasses the range of factors
necessary to achieve effective responses to warnings.
A people-centered EWS necessarily comprises of four key elements: knowledge of the risks;monitoring, analysis and forecasting of the hazards; communication or dissemination of alerts
and warnings; and local capabilities to respond to the warnings received. The expression“end-to-end warning system” is also used to emphasize that warning systems need to span all
steps from hazard detection through to community response. Timely and effective hazard
forecasting, and early warning to the vulnerable community can save lives and prevent a
hazard from turning into a disaster. There are numerous examples when early information ofimpending disaster has saved valuable lives.
Developments in sophisticated technology, improvements in risk monitoring and forecasting,satellite data quality and increasing computer power and connectivity have resulted in atransformation of early warning across the globe. Moreover, the improved accuracy and leadtime of predictions of high-impact weather events have made a major contribution to timely
provision of early warning. In fact, the development and implementation of early warning
systems is one of the areas where the countries have achieved most progress (GAR, 2015).
For EWS to be effective and efficient, it needs to monitor and analyze hazards in real timeand also communicate and disseminate early warning to the vulnerable communities andresponse agencies in a most efficient and timely manner. Advancement in Information andCommunication Technology (ICT) has made not only forecast of the hazards possible but also
made it easy to mobilize response and communicate early warning to the vulnerable
communities thereby minimizing deadly impact of worst disasters.
Despite much progress in the EWS, several gaps still remain for improvement. Integration ofcomprehensive risk information into hazard warning information is still weak in many
countries, and it is still rare for alerts to provide information on the level of risk and possible
actions beyond evacuation alerts. Success stories from Bangladesh, Chile, India, thePhilippines and other countries show that timely and effective warning and communication
coupled with risk information and a prepared population significantly reduces mortality (ibid.).
Japan relied heavily on formal early warning systems, evacuation plans, and alerts to limit
loss of life. Indeed, Japan does have in place an extensive warning system for disasters likeearthquakes and tsunamis. in order to be effective, early warnings not only have to forecast a20

hazard but need to include value-added information with respect to the risks that can be
expected and the actions that can be taken. Even while warnings can now be issued directly
via SMS, which overcomes the communication barriers at the last mile, it is still rare for alerts
to provide information on the level of risk
2.6.1 Community Based Early Warning Systems
HFA progress reports highlight success in developing early warning systems that correspond
more closely to local needs. For example, Australia reports that every state and territory now
has the ability to tailor core messages to fit local conditions and evacuation plans. In Sri
Lanka, a people-centered early warning system was established that includes teams ofvolunteers using local communication methods. In Thailand, volunteers have been trained atthe village level to monitor hazards and transmit early warnings in a timely manner. However,
early warning information empowers only to the extent that households and communities areable to act on that information.
Warning systems can save people’s lives and reduce economic damages from natural disasters
such as floods, tsunamis, earthquakes, landslides, and other events. Start with low-cost
systems. Warning systems can start with simple methods. Low-cost equipment, such as ﬁrebells and sirens, were widely utilized as warning tools during the GEJE. EWS should belinked with community-based activities in order to trigger efficient response. Actions at thecommunity level are crucial as demonstrated by the volunteer ﬁre corps that issued warnings
and saved lives on March 11, 2011 in Japan. Warning systems and other measures organizedby communities may be particularly relevant in developing countries where government
capacity and resources are limited.
Since warning systems are meant to beneﬁt communities on the ground and to inform theiractions, the responsible organizations should understand how local people cope with andrespond to disasters. Community members decide on their own when, where, and how toescape or evacuate during a tsunami for example. The organizations should tailor the contents
of warning messages to the users’ needs and points of view. Such messages need to be simple,
timely, and encourage early action. Establishing end-to-end EWS ensure that warnings reachthe communities at risk. Multiple communication channels should be established so that
information keeps flowing in case of power and communication failures. Since natural events
can happen at any time, the organizations concerned are required to function around the clock
24 hours a day, 7 days a week.
2.7

Emergency Response Mechanism

By constantly dealing with an ever growing hazards, the developing world has learned that aprompt, well-coordinated and effective response mounted in the aftermath of disasters not
only minimizes loss of life and property but also facilitates early recovery are the most21

effective way. Countries will continue to require a dedicated disaster management system toprepare for and respond to disasters and emergencies. The important ingredients of aneffective response system are;
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Integrated all level institutional arrangements,
Multi-hazard end-to-end early warning systems,
Failsafe communication system,
Rapid evacuation of threatened communities,
Quick deployment of specialized response forces and coordination and synergy among
various agencies at various levels in dealing with any disaster.
f. Most importantly, all agencies and their functionaries must clearly understand theirroles and responsibilities and they specific actions they have to take for responding todisaster or threatening disaster situations.
Disaster response mechanism requires the establishment of full support by the national
government and empowerment of local authorities and administrators. Empowerment of local
governments, communities and stakeholders in rural and urban areas is a prerequisite for the
success of disaster risk reduction and resilience building. This is why local government
leaders, with the support of other actors such as community based institutions, private sector,
academia and experts, can use local disaster risk reduction information and strategies to save
lives and reduce losses.
In an ideal emergency response system, local governments have primary responsibility for
emergency management under the laws. This includes preparedness, response, recovery,
mitigation and prevention. Disaster Management legislation has assigned this responsibility tolocal governments. Communities identify local hazards, and set out a response plan.
Prefectural and municipal mandates give the Governor and the Mayor authority to request
support from their central government if they believe a hazard has overwhelmed thecommunity’s capacity to respond.
2.7.1 Community Based Emergency Response Teams
According to the World Disaster Report 2015, local actors are the key to humanitarianeffectiveness and local communities are always the first to respond to emergencies anddisasters. In Japan’s case, we learned how communities can play a critical role in preparing
for and coping with natural disasters. Communities can help prevent damage from spreading,maintain social order, and provide support to the vulnerable.
At the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake Disaster in 1995, the number of building collapse or
heavily damaged is around 250,000 and the number of people captured in the buildings isaround 35,000. After the earthquake happened, in the situation that telephone didn’t work andthere was a heavy traffic on the road, 27,000 people were rescued by neighbors and 80% of22them were alive. However, 8,000 people were rescued by Army, Police or Fire Fighters andless than 50% of them were alive. This fact gives us a lesson that the activity of local
community is the key to mitigate earthquake disaster.
During GEJE and Tsunami, the community-level response (and community- based warnings)
was the key that saved countless human lives. The volunteer fire corps are community-basedorganizations (CBOs) trained in disaster management used various tools such as handheld
loud speakers, ﬁre bells, sirens, and ﬁre engine loudspeakers to warn communities throughout
the affected areas. Thus, disaster risk communication must be practiced regularly, so thatpeople are able to better understand the information, and messages and agencies can better
understand the mechanisms that local people use to cope with disasters (GEJE, 2014)
2.7.1.1 Community Emergency Response Team (CERT)The Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) is a program that is rapidly gaining inimportance as the need for trained civilians, often the first responders to their own local
disasters, becomes more vital in an effort to make disaster management as effective and safe
as possible for survivors and rescuers alike. These are corps of trained volunteers who would
activate themselves immediately after a disaster to assist their families, neighbors, andcommunities until first responders can reach affected areas. The most important mission of
CERT is to provide a rapid, effective and efficient emergency response in times of disasters.
CERT Organization:
When a disaster occurs, natural or man-made, an immediate response is needed. In order toavoid chaos and maintain communication when providing an effective disaster response,
CERTs use the Incident Command System (ICS) to organize their relief efforts and toestablish an effective span of control.
The ICS is a “management system designed to enable effective and efficient domestic
incident management by integrating a combination of facilities, equipment, personnel,
procedures, and communications operating within a common organizational structure”.
Professional responders utilize the ICS because it provides a universal structure that can
expand or contract depending on the needs of a particular crisis or disaster. It also provides auniversal language that anyone can understand, so that responders, whether professional or
volunteer, can cooperate together without vital communication being lost or misunderstood in
the miasma of jargon that is often utilized by a wide variety of first responders.
The ICS is normally structured into five functional areas including: Command, Operations,
Planning, Logistics, and Finance/Administration. When applied to CERTs, the ICS operates
in the usual framework, with the command function being filled by the first CERT Team
Leader to respond to the disaster scene. The ICS functions within CERTs by organizing

23

volunteers/personnel into specialized functional groups based on acquired skills, or ones thatwere already present. ICS functions in the following ways:• Management, or Command, (the CERT Team Leader) is responsible for deciding what
is to be done.
• Operations is responsible for how it gets done.
• Logistics is responsible for how it gets supported.
• Planning is responsible for determining what is going on and how the information gets
communicated and/or displayed.
• Finance/Administration is responsible for how everything gets documented.
The ICS can also, as it is utilized by professional personnel, expand and contract based on theneeds of the disaster situation. As a disaster situation grows graver, and personnel from a stateor national level begin to arrive, the simpler ICS structure that fit the needs of just the CERT
team can grow to meet the needs of the expanding disaster relief efforts.
Roles of CERT
CERTs take on many active roles within a community. They seek to alleviate suffering not
only during a disaster, but also before and after as well. That is, through training, CERT
members are prepared to serve their community not only in disaster response, but in disaster
preparedness, mitigation, and recovery as well. This section of the paper will attempt toillustrate the importance of CERTs within a community before, during, and after a disaster
Before a Disaster: Instead of simply alleviating conditions and providing assistance postdisasters, CERTs can provide a means of preparing their communities for disasters. Bylearning preventive measures, a community can ensure that their families are safe as well aswork to minimize potential damage. CERTs can be utilized before a disaster occurs in avariety of ways, for example:• Distribute preparedness materials and conduct preparedness demonstrations.
• Ensure that community members have up-to-date knowledge and information of local
first responders.
• Demonstrate how to properly install smoke detectors and other household monitoring
devices.
• Verify and update a list of special needs residents who may have already registeredwith local emergency responders. Make sure these residents are properly prepared fordisasters and that they will be accounted for in the face of a disaster.
• Distributing information, and teaching people how to about disaster kits.
• Teaching hazard mitigation procedures (e.g. eliminating hazardous material from
home, ensuring electrical outlets are not overloaded, etc.).
During a Disaster: When a disaster is occurring widespread damage can take place andcreate more needs than can be immediately met by professional emergency responders. At

24

times, these emergency responders may be delayed due to infrastructure damage or othercauses. When such situations occur, CERTs can assist their local communities until
professional responders are able to arrive. CERTs can contribute to disaster response in a
number of ways, such as:• Conducting light search and rescue operations.
• Documenting damage and relaying important information to emergency personnel.
• Conducting triage on disaster survivors before emergency responders arrive.
• Providing basic first aid to disaster survivors.
• Assisting with crowd control and providing updated information to residents.
• Helping lost individuals and those with special needs.
After a Disaster: As soon as the critical phase of a disaster has passed the process ofregaining control and normalizing the affected area can begin. During this recovery process
CERTs might fill the following roles:• Helping survivors, first responders, and other CERT members cope with trauma
induced from the disaster.
• Keeping up-to-date information for citizens on recovery efforts.
• Delivering food and other supplies to survivors and emergency responders.
• Directing traffic and helping to maintain security around affected or high damage
areas.
• Helping to staff and set up shelters and medical centers.

25

CHAPTER 3
3 METHODOLOGY
3.1

Type of ResearchThis research is descriptive in nature and mostly qualitative. The data and information
gathered by primary and secondary means were used to understand the early warning systems
and disaster emergency response mechanism and preparedness of the nation and the local
communities as a whole in Japan in order to learn lessons to recommend a possible EWS anda community based response mechanism to adopt in the islands of Maldives.
3.2

Data Collection Methods

The primary data collection was done in some of the Prefectures, Cities and Municipalities ofJapan which have experienced mega disasters in the past history. Few of the disasters include
Great East Japan Earthquake in 2011, Great Hanshin Awaji Earthquake in 1995, Mt. UnzenFugen Volcanic Eruption Disaster and Pyroclastic flow in the years 1990 to 1993, Nakashima
River Flood in 1982 in Nagasaki, and Kamenose Landslide induced flood in Osaka and Nara.
Information sessions were provided by the Cabinet Office, JMA Regional Office Osaka,
disaster management units of MLIT, Prefectural Governments, Japan Police, Cities andMunicipalities, Fire Departments and Towns. Quite a lot of the data is from the Hyogo
Prefecture and Kobe City. This research has used both primary and secondary data tounderstand the early warning setup and the disaster response mechanism at different levels inJapan.
3.2.1 Secondary Data Collection
Most of the secondary data were collected from the relevant authorities, departments andBosai Units. Published and unpublished researches and other related data about EW, DRR
and Community Based Disaster Response have been gathered for the study. The secondary
data sources include books, journal articles, papers, research reports, NGO reports, documents
and reports. In addition, several internet websites were found to be very useful in providing
secondary data. ADRC’s web portal and Research Bank made numerous English translated
documents and readings available. Senior Researchers and Researchers at ADRC also
provided lots of Japanese Bosai materials and resources to this research.
3.2.2 Primary Data Collection
Primary data were gathered mainly from the institutional presentations, tours and field visits
and observations. In addition to this, interactive presentation and discussion sessions with
Subject Matter Experts during the site visits provided firsthand information and insight into
the specific disaster mitigation and countermeasures. The observations made by participating

26

community awareness programs, disaster drills and anniversary commemoration of past tragic
events by interacting with local people were very useful and enabled to know more about theJapanese disaster history, their culture of safety and protection, community participation anddelivery methods to create prepared communities for disasters.
3.2.2.1 Briefings and Presentations
The table below shows the various briefings and presentations delivered to the researcherswhich were used to gather knowledge about the Japanese DRR in detail.
#Title and Topic

Organization

Date

1

Disaster Management in Japan

Cabinet Office

10 Feb 2016

2

JMA, Osaka

3

International Disaster Risk
Forum (DRA Forum 2016)

Alliance DRA Members, Kobe

20 Jan 2016

4

International recovery Forum 2016

5

Kobe City’s Voluntary Disaster Reduction JICA, Kobe City Fire 22 Jan 2016
Organization
BureauIRP, Cabinet Office, 26 - 27 Jan 2016
Hyogo
Prefectural
Sending the message of Building Back
Government, ADRC,
Better from Hyogo, Japan
UNISDR
Post-event: Open Dialogue Session

Disaster Safe Welfare Community –BOKOMI
6

Earthquake and Tsunami in Japan and the Tohuku University
GEJE on 11.3.2011

02 Feb 20167

Impact on Minamisanriku City by the Minamisanriku
GEJE
Recovery Office

03 Feb 2016

8

Mainstreaming
Countries

9

Operation and Functions of Wide Area Tokyo Rinkai Disaster 10 Feb 2016
DisasterManagement
Baseand Prevention Park
Headquarters

10

Early Warning System and Mechanism in Osaka
Regional 17 Feb 2016
Japan
Headquarters of JMA

11

International Recovery Platform (IRP) ADRC, JICA and IRP, 18 Feb 2016activities and Build Back Better (BBB) Kobe
concept in disaster recovery

12

Mt.

DRM

Unzen-Fugen

in

Developing Japan-WorldDRM Hub

Volcanic

Eruption Unzen

27

Bank 9 Feb 2016

Recovery 23 Feb 2016

Disaster and Pyroclastic Flow

Office,KyushuRegional Development
Bureau, MLIT

13

Hyogo Prefecture Disaster Management

ADRC, Kobe

14

Kamenose Landslide Counter Measuresand Data Reference Center

15

Waste Water Treatment System
Higashinada Sewage Treatment Plant

16

Building Standard Law (Building Code) DRI and ADRC, Kobeof Japan

15 Mar 2016

17

Rokko Sabo Office

16 Mar 201618

Japanese Disaster Management

26 Feb 201602 Mar 2016

at Higashi
Environment
Kobe City

ADRC

Water 08 Mar 2016
Center,Many Classes

3.2.2.2 Field Visits and Observations
During the research period, several field visits were conducted and site observations weremade to get in depth knowledge about the effects of past disasters, recovery andreconstruction efforts of recent disasters like Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami,various counter measures and disaster prevention and mitigation for sediment disasters,
volcanic hazards, landslides, debris flows, storm surge, tsunami and flooding. The following
table provides a summary of field visits and observed locations and facilities.
#

Field Visit

Location

Observations

1

Nojima Fault Preservation
MuseumAwaji Island

Active Fault and Land
dislocation by GHAE

2

Kobe City Fire Department
Control Room

Kobe

Functions of Command andCommunication facility

3

Town Watching and Hazard
Mapping

Nada Ward

4

Tsunami Affected Sites

Minamisanriku City,
Iwanuma city, Natori City,
Yamamoto Town and
Yuriage Area

Tsunami devastation andongoing recovery andreconstruction efforts

5

Sendai Area Tour with a
Disaster Story Teller

Arahama Elementary
School, Yuriage Area

Tsunami Damage to Coastal
Areas

28

6

Tokyo Rinkai Disaster
Prevention Park

Wide Area Disastermanagement Base, Emergency
operations Room and Disaster
Prevention Experience
Learning Facility

7

Miki Emergency
Management Base, andHyogo Prefecture Emergency
Management and Training
CenterMiki, Hyogo Prefecture

Wide area disaster
preparedness and flow of
emergency actions

8

Atomic Bombing and Peace
Park

Nagasaki

Destruction created by Atomic
Bombing and rebuilding ofNagasaki City

9

Onokoba Sabo Observatory,
Mt. Unzen Disaster
Memorial Hall

Shimabara, Nagasaki

Sabo recovery work, affectedsites of volcanic eruption andsediment disaster prevention
and mitigation works.

10

Nakashima River and Urban
Flood Affected Areas in
1982

NagasakiUrban Flood Mitigation andCounter Measures. Flood
Diversion Channels.

11

Hyogo Prefecture Police

Police HQ, Hyogo

Role and functions ofCommand andCommunication Center, andTraffic Management Center.

12

Kamenose Landslide Counter
Measures and Data Centre,
and Kamenose Landslide
Area Library

Kamenose Area

Landslide Mitigation
Counter Measures

13

Higashinada
Treatment Plant

Sewage Higashi Water
Environment Center, Kobe
City

Waste Water Treatment and
Sewerage System

14

Osaka Tsunami and Storm Nishi Osaka Flood Control
Surge Prevention Station
OfficeManagement and Control ofseawalls and tide gates toprevent tsunami and storm
surges15

Rokko Sabo Office

Sumiyoshi RiverManagement, Green Belt
Project, Slope Counter
Measures and Kentani Daiyon Dam Construction

Sumiyoshi

29and3.2.2.3 Community Disaster Awareness Programs
Japan provides perhaps one of the best environments to witness and participate in thecommunity disaster awareness programs and events. Researchers were allowed to look,observe, feel and experience lot of events and programs organized by Prefectures, Municipals,
Cities, NGOs and other CBOs to the public and communities. The table below shows the few
and most important events that provided vital information for this research.
#

Event / Program

Organization/Location Remarks

1

Great
Hanshin-Awaji
Memorial and Museum2

17.1 Memorial Walk and Disaster Drill to Kobe
commemorate GHAE

2 km evacuation walkfollowed by visiting
and observing
booths/stalls and drill
exercises by various
stakeholders

3

Kaeru Caravan – Community Disaster JICA, Kobe
Awareness Program

Participated in someevents4

Honjo Bosaikan - Honjo Life Safety Tokyo Fire Department
Learning Center

Multi-hazard
awareness and disaster
experiencing

5

Disaster Prevention Experience Learning Tokyo Rinkai Disaster Earthquake Disaster
Facility
Prevention Park
Experiencing and
Learning

6

Disaster Evacuation Drill for disabled and Nada Ward, Kobe City
people requiring special assistanceParticipated in the
Drill and Debriefing(After Action Review)

7

Mount Unzen Disaster Memorial Hall

Awareness raising on
volcanic disasters andsimulated displays

8“Prepare and Feel DRR” – Hyogo Hyogo Prefecture
Prefecture River and Flood Mitigation
Bus Tour

Aono Dam, Horaikyo
Sabo Dam, River
Bank Facility and
Embankment Work

9

Kyoto Bosai 2016

Disaster Prevention
Learning andExperiencing

Earthquake DRI, Kobe

Shimabara, Nagasaki

Kyoto Prefecture

30

Museum Visit andwatching earthquake
disaster videos

CHAPTER 4
4 DISATER RISK PROFILE OF JAPAN AND MALDIVES
4.1

Disaster Risk Profile of JapanDue to its natural conditions, Japan is prone to virtually every type of natural disaster. A
variety of natural disasters occurred in the past. Historically, destructive natural disasters have
posed the greatest challenge for Japanese society. Unfavorable geographical, topographicaland meteorological conditions of the country have made it one of the most disaster prone
countries in the world. Although its territory accounts merely for the 0,25 % of the planet’s
land area, Japan is subject to about 20,5 % earthquakes with the magnitude 6 or more and 7 %the world’s active volcanoes is located on its territory.
The most frequent natural hazards in Japan are earthquakes, tsunamis, typhoons, volcano
eruptions, floods and landslides. Occasional torrential rains and heavy snows are anotherchallenge for the country. The high number of earthquakes, tsunamis and active volcanoes are
the conditioned by the fact that territory of Japan forms the part Circum-Pacific Seismic Belt
which is sometimes called as Pacific Ring of Fire.

Figure 4.1 Junction of Four Tectonic Plates

As it is described in the Figure 4.1 Japan is located at the junction of 4 tectonic plates –Eurasian Plate, North American Plate, Pacific Plate and Philippine Sea –which is the cause ofhigh seismicity of its territory. Tsunamis are triggered by strong earthquakes at ocean bottomor huge landslides in the vicinity of the coast.

31

Typhoons and rain front are the main causes of storm and flood disasters in Japan. About 10
typhoons hit Japan causing storm, tidal wave and high tides mainly during the period between
May and October with August and September. 1959 year is considered to be turning point infighting with typhoons – in that after Isewan typhoon which caused to the death of more than
5000. Since then as a result of set of measures taken and application new technologicaladvancements by Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) number of dead or missing peoples in
the result of typhoons sharply decreased.
Fire vulnerability and risk in Japan is high. This is mainly due to large forest areas which
cover about 70% of its total area, highly developed chemical and high-technology industries
and close proximity of buildings in densely populated areas. Wildfires in Japan occur usuallyin dry seasons, mainly in summer. Moreover, tsunamis and earthquakes are also likely toentail large-scale fires in its immediate aftermath. About 7000 fire cases occurred in
immediate aftermath of the Great Hanshin-Awaji earthquake in 1995.
Rivers in Japan are short and steep and flow rapidly and violently. Moreover, ratio between
normal volume of flow and that during a storm is extremely great. A great amount of rain falls
on the Japanese archipelago during the rainy season (heavy rains of June and July) andtyphoon seasons; and during periods of intensive rainfall, even a small stream that usuallyruns low may become a raging torrent. Moreover, combination of such factors as steep
mountains, fast-flowing rivers, unstable and soft ground, rainy climate and frequent
earthquakes often lead to such sediment disasters as debris flows, landslides and slope failures.
Charts and maps below explain situation in Japan with regard floods and sediment disasters.
4.2

Recent Disasters

4.2.1 Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake (January 1995)
On 17 January 1995, an earthquake with a 7.3 on the Richter scale occurred at Awaji island of
Hyogo Prefecture in Western Japan. It killed 6,434 people, injured 43,792 people, destroyed
104,906 houses, half destroyed 144,274 houses, and partially destroyed 390,506 houses. By
the fires broke out along with the earthquake, the area of 835,858 square meters was burnt
down.
4.2.2 Mid Niigata Prefecture Earthquake (October 2004)
On 23 October 2004, the Mid Niigata Prefecture was affected by an earthquake with a 6.8 on
the Richter scale. Landslides and destruction of buildings and houses caused 68 dead, and4,805 injured. 3,175 houses were totally destroyed, 13,810 houses were half destroyed, and105,573 houses were partially destroyed.

32

4.2.3 The Great East Japan Earthquake (March 2011)
A magnitude 9.0 earthquake hit the northeastern Japan on 11 March 2011, recording thelargest earthquake hit in Japan. Its epicenter was located in the coast of Sanriku and its
epicentral area stretched from the coasts of Iwate Prefecture to Ibaraki Prefecture. Massive
shakes were observed particularly in eastern Japan including Japanese intensity scale of 7
registered in the north of Miyagi Prefecture. Furthermore, this earthquake, a trench-type
earthquake occurred near the boundary of the Pacific Plate and the plate beneath Tohoku area,
triggered seafloor movements and generated massive tsunami. According to the National
Police Agency, this earthquake and tsunami have left unprecedented human suffering: 15,870
people death, 2,814 people missing and 6,114 people injured, as well as property damage:
129,472 totally collapsed buildings, 255,977 half collapsed buildings and 702,928 partiallycollapsed buildings. Furthermore, the value of the destruction of the social infrastructure,
housing, and corporate facilities was estimated at 16.9 trillion yen and it had a great impact on
Japanese economy.
4.3

Disaster Risk Profile of Maldives

The Maldives is a small island country lies between latitude 7° 6' 35" N, crossing the equatorand extending up to 0° 42' 24" S and between longitudes 72° 33' 19" E to 73° 46' 13" E in thesouth-west of Sri Lanka and India. Maldives is comprised of 20 administrative atolls
encompassing 1,192 small low-lying coral islands, of which 188 are inhabited and more than
100 islands are exclusive tourist resorts. The tiny islands stretch 820 km north to south and
120 km east to west. Total area is about 115,300 sq. km of which about 99% is water and total
land area is about 298 square kilometers. The population of the Maldives is 344,023 (Census,
2014), of which 38 percent live in Male’ City, the Capital of Maldives. Tourism is the
backbone of the economy; fishing and agriculture also significantly contribute to thelivelihood of the people. Two seasons; dry season (from December to April, northwest
monsoon) and rainy season (from May to November, southwest monsoon) dominate theMaldives' weather. Maldives is one of the most vulnerable countries in the world. Being themost flat and the lowest elevated nation with average height of 1.5 meters, Maldives faces
multi-hazard risks and threats from the global warming and climate change induced sea level
rise and extreme weather events.
The country’s geographic location, physical and geo-climatic features of its islands near theequator in the Indian Ocean exposes the country to different natural hazards from earthquakes(particularly the Southern region), tropical cyclones, storms, thunderstorms, heavy rainfall,drought, floods induced by heavy rainfall to storm surges, swell waves and tsunami. It
regularly experiences extensive risks in terms of high frequency, low impact events such as
monsoonal flooding, sea surges and other chronic phenomena including coastal erosion,
saltwater intrusion and other climate risks. In addition, many islands of the Maldives33

experience fresh water shortage during the dry season because of increased salinity andcontamination of the ground water since the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. Government spends
several millions to supply emergency drinking water to the affected island communities every
year.
Geologically, Maldives is located on the Indian tectonic plate which makes Indian Ocean ringas the main area of concern. There are two main subduction zones in this ring, the plateboundaries near Sumatra, Indonesia and the Makran coast. Large magnitude earthquakes insubduction zones tend to create Tsunamis, hence these areas are given a special importance.
In addition to the subduction zones mentioned, we experience earthquakes in the Carlsberg
Ridge which is located on the south west of Maldives islands. Even though this fault does notcause a Tsunami, it can cause other damages depending on the magnitude of the event. The
earthquake occurred on 15th of July 2013 which was recorded 7.6 in Richter scale, caused
some damages to the Addu City infrastructure.
Maldives is one of the fewer countries which do not have any natural higher grounds. Not asingle piece of land is higher than three meters above mean sea level. Generally, urban orrural, all the islands are coastal communities. All the human settlements, industries andcritical infrastructure are located near the shoreline. Airports, hospitals, schools, power plants
and more than 40 per cent of houses lie less than 100 meters from the sea. Due to the close
proximity to the coastline, several households are prone to severe climate hazards.
4.4

Recent Disasters

4.4.1 Addu City Flood Crisis (24-25 November 2015)
Addu Atoll in the south of the Maldives has been hit by severe flooding after several hours of
torrential rainfall. Homes and businesses in Addu City have been inundated by floodwaters
and the storm damage has been described as the worst in 40 years. The City experienced
228.4 mm rainfall between 8am Tuesday to 8am Wednesday and was the highest recorded in
the country history in 24 hours. It also experienced an alarmingly high rainfall in an hour with
54.9mm. The islands of Feydhoo, Maradhoofeydhoo and Maradhoo households were severely
affected. About 297 houses got flooded and loss is estimated at US$0.3 million.
4.4.2 Male Water Crisis (4 December 2014)
A serious fire broke out on 4 December 2014 inside the Maldives Water and Sewerage
Company (MWSC)’s Generator Unit and has disrupted Male’ City’s water supply. The watersupply was suspended across the capital city as MWSC is the sole provider of clean
desalinated water in the capital and the unit was severely damaged in the fire. A national
crisis was declared by the government of Maldives and an operation to distribute safe
drinking water in the Male’ City started. Maldives National Defense Force (MNDF) and the34

Maldives Police Service (MPS) are being tasked to manage the distribution of safe drinking
water. Meanwhile, the Maldives Red Crescent and various private sector companies havebeen supporting and deployed to assist in the wider delivery of clean water to the households.
The loss and the cost of relief operation were estimated to be US$20 million and lasted for 10
days.
4.4.3 Cyclone Nilam (October-November 2012)
Tropical cyclone that originated from the Bay of Bengal hit Maldives late October andcontinued until the first few days of November flooding 51 islands. 28 islands were severely
flooded, and 4 islands were in a critical state. The cyclone affected 33,826 people and caused
an estimated US$ 133,090 in damage.
4.4.4 Surge Waves (15-17 May 2007)
On 15-17 May 2007, a series of swells, between 10 - 15 feet, hit an estimated 68 islands in 16
Atolls across the Maldives, causing the inundation of up to 600 meters from the coastline. The
most affected atolls were Gaafu Dhaalu, Dhaalu, Thaa and Laamu, which include over 24
islands. There were no human fatalities from the coastal flooding. However, 1649 people
were evacuated from their homes. A total of 579 housing units were damaged by the high tide
floods. 33 islands were affected by salt water intrusions that caused significant damage tocrops, agriculture farms, home gardens and vegetation, which most people depend upon forlivelihood and food supplies. The wave surges also caused minor damage to harbors andjetties in 17 islands and 58 out of the 68 islands inundated have reported to have significant
area of the coastlines eroded.
4.4.5 Indian Ocean Tsunami (December 2004)
Indian Ocean Tsunami occurred off the Sumatra Island on 26 December 2004 devastated theMaldives, causing 82 people killed, 26 people missing and more than 27,214 people affected.
The total economic loss was approx. US$ 470 million, about 62% GDP. Total (World Bank,
2005).

35

CHAPTER 5
5 DISASTER MANAGEMENT SYSTEM IN JAPAN AND MALDIVESThis chapter highlights and identifies the disaster management system in two countries withrespect to legal framework, institutional mechanism and disaster management plans.
5.1

DM System in Japan

It is a national priority to protect national land as well as citizens’lives, livelihoods, andproperty from natural disasters. The turning point for strengthening the disaster management
system came into effect in response to the immense damage caused by the Typhoon Ise-wan
in 1959, and led to the enactment of the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act in 1961, which
formulates a comprehensive and strategic disaster management system. Thereafter, thedisaster management system has been continuously reviewed and revised following thelessons learned from large-scale disasters such as the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake in1995 and the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami in 2011 and the nuclear disaster(CAO, 2015). Response mechanisms to emergencies are specified in the Basic law on Natural
Disasters as well as in a series of contingency-related laws.

Figure 5.1 Outline of the Disaster Management System in Japan36

At the national level Central Disaster Management Council, the apex body for DM in Japan ishoused within the Cabinet Office headed by the Prime Minister. Along with a series ofreforms of the central government system in 2001, the post of Minister of State for DM was
newly established to integrate and coordinate disaster reduction policies and measures ofministries and agencies. In the Cabinet Office, which is responsible for securing cooperationand collaboration among related government organizations in the wide-razing issues, theDirector-General of Disaster Management is mandated to undertake the planning of basic
disaster management policies and response to large-scale disasters, as well as conduct overall
coordination.
5.1.1 Legal
It was major disasters in the Japanese history that triggered the introduction of disastermanagement Acts and Laws which enabled to form a comprehensive disaster management
system in Japan. Japan’s legislation for disaster management system, including the Disaster
Countermeasures Basic Act, addresses all of the disaster phases of prevention, mitigation andpreparedness, emergency response as well as recovery and reconstruction with roles andresponsibilities among the national and local governments clearly defined, it is stipulated thatthe relevant entities of the public and private sectors are to cooperate in implementing various
disaster countermeasures.
In Japan, the DM system has been developed and strengthened following the bitter experienceof large-scale natural disasters and accidents over the years. The country has 7 basic acts, 18
disaster prevention and preparedness legislations, 3 legislations governing disaster emergency
response and 23 disaster recovery and reconstruction and financial measures acts. The first act
for the disaster response i.e. Disaster Relief Act dates back to 1947, passed after the 1946
Nankai earthquake. Thereafter every disaster led to learning and experience and it led topassing of new legislation. There is almost a separate legislation for each disaster and separate
legislation for every aspect of disasters such as prevention, preparedness, response,
rehabilitation and recovery, building standard, financial measures, earthquake insurance, etc.
The most notable piece of legislation is the Act passed in 2002 namely ‘Act on Special
Measures for Promotion of Tonankai and Nankai Earthquake Disaster Management’. The
country is expecting mega earthquakes which may arise out of Tonankai and Nankai troughs
and this legislation aims at reducing possible impact from these earthquakes and preparing thecountry to face them.
The Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act has constantly been reviewed and amended since its
first enactment, and with lessons learned from the Great East Japan Earthquake, provisions
were added including enhancement of the measures concerning support activities mutually
done by local governments in 2012 and the measures for ensuring smooth and safe evacuation37

of residents and improving protection of affected people in 2013. In 2014, provisions wereadded for strengthening measures against unattended cars in order to promptly clear themfrom the roads for emergency vehicles.
5.1.2 Institutional
The highest and the supreme body for the disaster management in Japan is the Cabinet Office(CAO). Along with a series of reforms of the central government system in 2001, the post of
Minister of State for Disaster Management was newly established to integrate and coordinate
disaster risk management policies and measures of ministries and agencies. In the Cabinet
Office, which is responsible for securing cooperation and collaboration among related
government organizations in wide-ranging issues, the Director-General for Disaster
Management is mandated to undertake the planning of basic disaster management policies
and response to large-scale disasters, as well as conduct overall coordination.
In the event of a large-scale disaster, the Cabinet Office is engaged in collection anddissemination of accurate information, reporting to the Prime Minister, establishment of theemergency activities system including the Government’s Disaster Management Headquarters,
overall wide area coordination concerning disaster response measures.

Figure 5.2 Structure of the Central Disaster Management Council

38

5.1.2.1 Central Disaster Management Council (CDMC)
To prepare for disasters, the Central Disaster Management Council decides the national
government’s disaster management policies. Such decisions are carried out by respective
ministries and agencies, accordingly. The Central Disaster Management Council is one of thecouncils that deal with crucial policies of the Cabinet, and is established in the Cabinet Officebased on the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act.
The Council consists of the Prime Minister as the chairperson, all members of the Cabinet,heads of major public corporations and experts. The Council develops the Basic Disaster
Management Plan and establishes basic disaster management policies, and plays a role ofpromoting comprehensive disaster countermeasures including deliberating important issues
on disaster management upon requests from the Prime Minister or Minister of State forDisaster Management. The duties of the Central Disaster Management Council are to: Formulate and promote implementation of the Basic Disaster Management Plan andEarthquake Countermeasures Plans; Formulate and promote implementation of the urgent measures plan for majordisasters;
 Deliberate on important disaster reduction issues, in response to requests from thePrime Minister or Minister of State for Disaster Management (basic disastermanagement policies, overall coordination of disaster countermeasures anddeclaration of state of disaster emergency); Offer opinions regarding important disaster reduction issues to the Prime Minister andMinister of State for Disaster Management.
5.1.3 Disaster Management Plans
In Japan Disaster Management Planning is done at three levels namely:5.1.3.1 Disaster Management Planning System
Basic Disaster Management Plan: This plan is the highest-level plan and constitutes the basis
for disaster management activities prepared by the Central Disaster Management Council
based on the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act.
Disaster Management Operation Plan: This is a plan made by each designated governmentorganization and designated public corporation based on the Basic Disaster Management Plan.
Local Disaster Management Plan: This is a plan made by each Prefectural and Municipal
Disaster Management Council, subject to local circumstances and based on the Basic Disaster
Management Plan.

39

Community Disaster Management Plan: This is a disaster management activities plan at thecommunity level which is established by residents and businesses jointly on a voluntary basis.
5.1.3.2 Basic Disaster Management Plan
The Basic Disaster Management Plan is a comprehensive and long term disaster management
plan forming a foundation for the Disaster Management Operations Plan and Local Disaster
Management Plan. It is the most over-arching plan and stipulates provisions for theestablishment of the disaster management system, promotion of disaster management
measures, acceleration of post disaster recovery and reconstruction measures, and promotionof scientific and technological research on disaster management.

Figure 5.3 Structure of Basic Disaster Management Plan

The plan was revised entirely in 1995 based on the experiences of the Great Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake. It defines responsibilities of each entity such as the national and local
governments, public corporations and other entities. It consists of various plans for each typeof disaster, where specific countermeasures to be taken by each entity are described according
to the disaster management phases of prevention and preparedness, emergency response, as
well as recovery and reconstruction.
Further, based on the lessons learned from the Great East Japan Earthquake, a new chapter
was created in December 2011, for Tsunami Disaster Countermeasures and changes were40

made in September 2012 and January 2014, reflecting amendment of the Disaster
Countermeasures Basic Act and reflecting the study results by the Nuclear Regulation
Authority (NRA) respectively. In November 2014, another change was made to reinforce themeasures for removing unattended cars in case of emergency. A further change was made inMarch 2015, to enhance the nuclear disaster management system.
5.1.3.3 Department/Organizational Level:
Disaster Management Operation Plan: This is a plan made by each designated governmentorganization and designated public corporation based on the Basic Disaster Management Plan.
They are responsible for the formulation and promoting implementation of the Disaster
Management Operation Plan
5.1.3.4 Prefectural / Municipal Level:
Local Disaster Management Plan: This is a plan made by each prefectural and municipal
disaster management council, subject to local circumstances and based on the Basic Disaster
Management Plan.
Prefectural and municipal Disaster Management Councils are established in prefectures andlocal municipalities, with membership comprised of representatives of local governmentorganizations, including police and fire management departments, and designated local public
corporations. Implementation of disaster risk management measures is based on the Local
Disaster Management Plans drafted by the Councils. These Disaster Management Councils
and Disaster Management Plans, at each level from central government to local municipalities,
are prescribed in the Disaster Countermeasures Basic Act. This Act requires the Disaster
Management Council at each level to review its Disaster Management Plan every year andamend it in order to ensure that the capacities of all early warning system stakeholders are
utilized in the most effective and efficient manner. Each Disaster Management Council
should communicate developments and/or amendments of their Disaster Management Plan to
the Prime Minister, governors of prefectures and local municipalities.
The plans at all levels have been prepared and regularly revised and updated incorporating thelessons learnt and changes made in the Basic DMP prepared at the national level. DMP is themain document which is referred to for disaster management and emergency response inJapan.
5.2

DM System in Maldives

A presidential decree established the National Disaster Management Centre (NDMC) soonafter the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami. Initially, its mandate was to coordinate the recovery
process for the tsunami response and relief effort. However, as things progressed, thegovernment handed the mandate of disaster preparedness and risk reduction as well to the41

NDMC. With the Disaster Management Act 28/2015 the National Disaster Management
Authority (NDMA) was created. This is considered the greatest achievement in the history ofdisaster management in the country.
Following the 2004 Indian Ocean Tsunami there is a strong focus on developing disaster
preparedness at the national level. Each year December 26 is marked as National Unity Day
to commemorate the 2004 Tsunami. National institutions and civil organizations use the day
to advocate for better disaster preparedness in the country.
5.2.1 Legal
The following Acts and Ordinances provide the legal basis for the respective institutions andorganizations carryout and engage disaster risk reduction and emergency response activities
in the Maldives.
5.2.1.1 Disaster Management Act 28/2015
The Disaster Management Act 28/2015, which was published in the government gazette on 6
September 2015, stipulates the basic tenets and principles that govern the disastermanagement in the Maldives. The Act states the policies, rules and guidelines that need to be
formulated to realize the purposes specified by this Act; to save and protect the Maldives’geographical area, the Maldivian people, the property of the Maldivian people, and the naturaland urban environment from hazards and disasters of natural and other causes; and to reducethe disaster risk from various hazards considering the vulnerability; and to be prepared for andsafe from disasters, in the event of such an incident or state of emergency. This Act seeks toprovide a framework and a platform at all levels to address all the Phases of disastermitigation, preparedness, response, and recovery.
5.2.1.2 Decentralization Act (2010)
Article 24 of the Decentralization Act 2010 asserts the island councils mandate with the
responsibility to establish a mechanism to provide effective response in case of adisaster.
5.2.1.3 Armed Forces Act (1/2008)
The responsibilities in article 7 (d) of the Armed Forces Act gives mandate to the Armed
Forces to lead and coordinate with the relevant government agencies and work to save thelives of people and property in case of hazards and disasters. Article 7 (e) refers to freighting
and saving lives of people and property in case of fires. Article (f) refers to helping the livesof people facing maritime incidents and saving the lives of people and property in case of landor maritime hazards and disasters.

42

5.2.1.4 Police Act (5/2008)
Article 6 (11) of the Police Act observes the responsibilities of Police in case of hazards ordisasters. Police are mandated to save the lives of people, households and property in case ofa natural disasters or other type of disasters. Also help the victims of hazards and disasters
and assist in maritime incidents and other emergencies.
5.2.1.5 Maldives Red Crescent Act (7/2009)
Under the objectives of the Maldives Red Crescent Act, article 3 (a) asserts the primaryobjective is to provide humanitarian aid, prevent and alleviate human suffering.
5.2.2 Institutional
In Maldives, an atoll is an administrative division or a region in the government system. An
atoll consists of many islands. Number of islands and its sizes vary from atoll to atoll.
Individual atolls have received their mandates from the Act on Decentralization of the
Administrative Divisions of the Maldives. Atoll Councils are responsible for thedevelopmental programs and projects conduct at various islands within the particular atoll.
Local Government Authority is a national institution created to monitor the work andactivities and coordinate the work of the councils under the Act on Decentralization of the
Administrative Divisions of the Maldives.
National LevelNational Disastermanagement Council

National Disaster Steering
Committee

City / Atoll Level

Island Level

City / Atoll Council

Island Council

City / Atoll Disaster
Management
Committee

Island Disaster
Management
Committee

National Disaster
Management Authority

City / Atoll Disaster
Management Unit

Island Disaster
Management Unit

Maldives National
Defence Force

MNDF Area
Commands



MNDF Posts / Unit







Island Police Station

Maldives Police Service

MRC Unit

Maldives Red CrescentSociety

Police Divisions / City /Atoll Police

MRC BranchesCommunity Based
Organizations



Maldives Meteorological
Service

Public Media Service

Figure 5.4 Disaster Management Structure of Maldives43Currently, the NDMA serves as the national authority and institution with the mandate to leaddisaster management and disaster risk reduction in the country. It also serves as the national
platform to coordinate multi-sectorial disaster management activities in the Maldives andleads government commitment to protecting its people and the implementation ofinternational standards such the HFA (2005-2015) and moving forward with SFA (20152030). At present, NDMC is under the Ministry of Defense and National Security.
5.2.3 Disaster Management Plans
The National Disaster Management Plan (NDMP) and the National Operation Plan (NEOP)
would be providing the necessary guidance and direction for disaster mitigation, prevention,
Preparedness, response, recovery, rehabilitation, and the crisis management in the Maldives.
Disaster Management Act compels to produce and maintain these two plans. However, thework to formulate national disaster management plan (NDMP) is underway and the national
emergency operational plan (NEOP) is in the final draft stage
In addition, the Strategic National Action Plan (SNAP) for Disaster Risk Reduction (DRR)
and Climate Change Adaptation (CCA) aims to promote collaboration among policy makers,
experts and practitioners of disaster risk reduction and climate change adaptation throughout
the country in order to develop a comprehensive risk management approach. Other plansinclude the establishment national early warning system, commissioning of disastermanagement plan for tourism sector, development of Safe Island Strategy and integration andmainstreaming of climate change adaptation and disaster risk reduction into the resilientisland development planning of the Maldives.
Moreover, under national DRR efforts, some important national frameworks, guidelines andlocal level plans have been developed. They include the National Framework for Community
Based Disaster Risk Management, National Framework for Managing Internally Displaced
People, Guide for School Emergency Operation Plan, Island Disaster Management Plans,
Public Health Emergency Plan and Island Development Plans.

44

CHAPTER 6
6 EARLY WARNING SYSTEMSEWS is “the set of capacities needed to generate and disseminate timely and meaningful
warning information to enable individuals, communities and organizations threatened by ahazard to prepare and to act appropriately and in sufficient time to reduce the possibility ofharm or loss”. This definition given by the UNISDR encompasses the range of factors
necessary to achieve effective responses to warnings.
6.1

Early Warning System in Japan

Japan has one of the most sophisticated and hi-tech EWS in the world for multi-hazards. As
evacuation information when a tsunami is impending is information upon which lives depend,
every possible tool including local disaster management radio communication systems, JALERT (a satellite based system that allows authorities to quickly broadcast alerts to local
media and to citizens directly via system of speakers), television, radio, mobile phones, 1-Seg(a mobile terrestrial digital audio/video and data broadcasting service), etc should be utilized,
and tsunami warnings must be delivered to governments and residents without fail –Committee report

Figure 6.1 Outline of Early Warning System in Japan

45

6.2

Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)

Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA) is the national authority responsible for issuing disaster
early warning and is required to provide reliable and timely information to governmental
agencies, local governments and residents for the purposes of natural disaster prevention andmitigation. Within the structural framework of Japan’s central government, the JMA is placed
as an extra-ministerial bureau of the Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism(MLIT). In Japan, all warnings for hazards are issued by JMA either solely or jointly withother authorities.
As part of the Disaster Response Mechanism, the JMA provides timely and accurate ‘Disaster
Information’ to central and local disaster management authorities, in order to supply suchinformation to the public through these authorities. This ‘Disaster Information’ consists offollowing warnings, advisories and information:






Warnings and advisories on weather, high tides, high waves and flooding;
Earthquake Early Warnings;
Tsunami Warnings and Advisories;
Volcanic Warnings;
Information regarding typhoons, heavy rain, tornadoes, earthquakes, tsunamis andvolcanic activities.

JMA has the mandate for monitoring, forecasting and development of warnings for various
kinds of high risk natural hazards such as earthquakes and severe weather conditions,
including heavy rain, heavy snow and storm surge. JMA also has responsibility for issuingflood warnings, in collaboration with the River Bureau of MLIT or prefectural governments.
JMA is responsible for the development of Warnings in relation to weather (i.e. storm, snowstorm, heavy rain, heavy snow, storm surge, high waves and flood), volcanoes, tsunamis andearthquakes. In addition, JMA issues early warning information for extreme weather. JMA
also has a joint or shared responsibility for issuing River Flood Warnings, in collaboration
with Hydrological Services at national and municipal levels, and for Sediment Disaster Alerts,
with sediment control authorities at a municipal level.
JMA also provides hazard/risk information and contributes to the production of hazard/risk
information by other agencies in order to support emergency planning. Hazard risk
information obtained through early warning systems is utilized in supporting the early
evacuation of residents and the response activities of disaster management organizations.
JMA operates 24- hourly systems to monitor various natural phenomena and weather
conditions and it issues a wide range of forecasts and advisories regarding earthquakegenerated tsunami and severe weather events such as heavy rain. JMA incorporates the resultsof monitoring and forecasting into warning messages including, for example, sediment46

disaster alerts for municipalities, collaboratively issued by JMA and prefectural governments,and flood warnings for designated rivers, collaboratively issued by JMA and Hydrological
Services/prefectural governments.
6.3

Hazard Specific EW and Alerts

6.3.1 Tsunami EW
In case of an earthquake, JMA estimates the possibility of a tsunami. If a damaging tsunami is
expected, JMA issues tsunami warnings and advisories three minutes after the earthquake. Incase tsunamis are originated by seismic events far from Japan, JMA takes a coordinatedaction with the Pacific Tsunami Warning Center (PTWC). Information provided by thewarning system includes tsunami height and arrival times for affected locations in coastal
areas.

Figure 6.2 Timeline and Criteria for Tsunami Advisory and Tsunami Warning47

Figure 6.3 Tsunami Early Warning Dissemination by JMA

6.3.2 EEWIn order to constantly monitor seismic activity, the JMA and other relevant organizations
install and maintain seismometers that are used for estimating the location of the epicenterand magnitude of an earthquake as well as for tsunami forecasts, and seismic intensity metersthat measure the intensity of ground motion, in numerous places nationwide. As soon as anearthquake occurs in or around Japan, the JMA analyzes the data from various seismometersand seismic intensity meters. Within about ninety seconds (1.5 minutes), it issues a seismic
intensity information report for earthquakes of intensity 3 or greater, and within about fiveminutes issues an earthquake information report indicating the epicenter and magnitude of theearthquake and the seismic intensity in the municipalities where strong shaking was observed.

48

6.3.2.1 Utilization of Earthquake Early Warning Information
Earthquake Early Warning (EEW) information announces the estimated hypocenter andmagnitude of an earthquake as well as the estimated arrival time of the S-wave of theearthquake and seismic intensity in each area. This information is made possible by detecting
the P-wave near the epicenter and immediately processing the data since there is a differencein the speed of the P-wave, which arrives faster, and the S-wave, which arrives later andcauses more severely destructive phenomena.
In the case of a large-scale ocean trench-type earthquake, there may be a time lag (several
seconds to several tens of seconds) between the issuance of the EEW information and the startof severe shaking (when the S-wave arrives). This can be a critical time to be used for
mitigating damage by stopping trains and elevators, extinguishing flames or crawling undertables. Research and development has been promoted by the JMA in cooperation with relatedorganizations, and the provision of the EEW information to specific entities such as railway
companies began in 2006. Earthquake or tsunami warnings are instantly delivered to central& local governments, broadcasters, telecom carriers. After receiving these warning, local
governments deliver alarm through their sirens or microphones.
The JMA earthquake warning system issues alerts a few seconds or tens of seconds before an
earthquake. Since October 2007, the warnings are transmitted through media like TV andradio and are used for other applications such as promptly slowing down trains, controlling
elevators to avoid danger and enabling people to quickly protect by themselves. The warnings
include information on the estimated seismic intensity and the expected arrival time of49

principal motion when an earthquake occurs. This information is derived from prompt
analysis of the data obtained from Japan’s seismic network.

Figure 6.4 Outline of Earthquake Early Warning Information Used to Stop High Speed Trains

6.3.3 Meteorological Warnings and Advisories of JMA
When a hazardous weather condition is expected, JMA delivers various plain language
messages including Warnings, Advisories and Bulletins to the general public and disasterprevention authorities so that appropriate measures can be taken to mitigate possible hazards.
Warnings are issued when weather conditions are expected to be catastrophic and meetwarning criteria. Advisories are issued when weather conditions meet advisory criteria but are
expected to remain below the warning criteria. Bulletins provide information to supplement
the Warnings and Advisories. These messages are issued by Local MeteorologicalObservatories (LMOs) for each of the sub-divisions in their respective prefectures. JMA
issues 7 warnings and 16 advisories for hydro meteorological hazards as follows;50

Figure 6.5 Meteorological Warnings and Advisories by JMA

Figure 6.6 Timeline and Required Actions for Heavy Rain

6.3.4 Flood Early Warning
JMA issues flood warnings in collaboration with the Hydrological Service. JMA collects
weather information and predicts the weather situation while the Hydrological Service has its
own observation network of rain gauges and water level recorders for keeping an eye on theriver situation.
51

Figure 6.7 Flood Early Warning Communication

JMA is also responsible for providing flood forecasting services in collaboration with central
and local river management authorities. These services include flood warnings and advisories
covering 407 rivers (as of March 2011) throughout the country that have been designated bythese authorities as sites of potential flood disasters. Flood forecasting systems for 289 of the407 rivers are managed jointly by JMA and the MLIT, and the other 118 are managed jointly
by JMA and prefectural governments. Furthermore, JMA has extended the range of rivers forwhich flood warnings are issued by including medium to small rivers that are managed by
local governments.
6.3.5 Sediment Disaster Warnings
JMA has an established partnership with prefectures for issuing of sediment disaster alerts.
This partnership is very similar to that with hydrological services for flood warnings.
Prefectures have their local networks of precipitation measurements and topographical andgeological information including hazard maps.

52

Figure 6.8 Sediment Disaster Early Warning System at Rokko Sabo Office

By combining these sources, JMA and prefectures issue collaborative sediment disaster alertsthat specify cities, towns and villages affected by the sediment hazard. When a Heavy Rain
Warning is issued, Sediment Disaster Alerts are issued jointly by MLIT and prefectural
government civil engineering bureaus when sediment-related damage caused by heavy rain isconsidered likely within the next few hours.
6.3.6 Volcanic Eruptions
JMA operationally monitors seismic and volcanic activity throughout the country and issues
relevant warnings and information to mitigate damage caused by disasters related toearthquakes, tsunamis and volcanic eruptions. JMA began issuing volcanic warnings andvolcanic forecasts for each active volcano in Japan on Dec 1, 2007 to mitigate damage fromvolcanic activity. Volcanic warnings are issued in relation to expected volcanic disasters, andspecify the municipalities where people need to take action. Volcanic forecasts are issued forless active volcanoes or those that become so.

53

Figure 6.9 Volcanic Hazard Warnings Levels and Required Actions

6.3.7 Emergency Warning System
JMA launched the Emergency Warning System on 30 August 2013. Emergency Warnings areissued to alert people to the significant likelihood of catastrophes in association with natural
phenomena of extraordinary magnitude observed only once every few decades.

6.10 Emergency Warning System

6.4

Dissemination of Forecast and Early Warning

In order to prevent and mitigate damage caused by natural disasters and support prompt
disaster prevention activities, JMA disseminates weather information and warnings via
various channels to government disaster prevention agencies, local governments, the mass
media and the public. An outline of early warning provision in Japan is given in Figure 6.11.
For this purpose, the Agency maintains direct communication links with meteorologicaloffices and central/local governments. Strong communication with municipal governments54

that play direct roles in disaster management and mitigation in affected areas is essential.
Such communication is ensured via various channels for information dissemination, such asprefectural governments, NTT (Nippon Telegraph and Telephone Corporation), J-ALERT (aninstant information broadcasting system introduced by the Fire and Disaster Management
Agency (FDMA) and the Internet.

Figure 6.11 Provision of Hazard Information to the General Public

Reliable and redundant communication systems are essential for the effective disseminationof early warning information. JMA has an on-line system linking JMA and various users
including disaster management organizations of the national and local governments andmedia organizations. The Central Disaster Management Radio Communications System(CDMRCS) connects national organizations and is composed of a telephone and facsimile
hotline between designated government bodies and public corporations, an imagetransmission circuit for transmitting pictures of disaster situations from helicopters in
realtime, and a satellite communications system as a backup. The Fire and Disaster
Management Agency Radio Communications System connects firefighting organizations
across the country. Prefectural and municipal disaster management radio communications
systems connect local disaster management organizations and residents. Local governments
use simultaneous wireless communications systems including outdoor loudspeakers andindoor radio receivers to disseminate disaster information to residents. Tsunami and severe
weather warnings are also widely disseminated to citizens via TV and radio broadcasts.
To support prompt disaster mitigation activities by local governments, the Agency has
introduced a new information provision system called the Information Network for Disaster55

Prevention (INDiP), which enables effective and rapid dissemination of data in both text andgraphic form. INDiP connects disaster prevention agencies and local governments with JMA
headquarters via the Internet and provides detailed weather information and warnings tailored
to individual municipalities. Information for maritime users is transmitted via the JMH radio
facsimile broadcast service operated by JMA and fishery radio communications services.
Such information is also disseminated within the framework of the Global Maritime Distressand Safety System (GMDSS), i.e. via the NAVTEX broadcast service of the Japan Coast
Guard for seas in the vicinity of Japan, and via the Safety-Net broadcast service for ships in
the high seas via the maritime satellite INMARSAT. Nowadays, the Internet plays a vital rolefor JMA in the public dissemination of a wide range of meteorological information not only
on forecasts but also on historical and current observation data.

Figure 6.12 INDiP Network (Source: JMA)

56

6.4.1 J-Alert System
J-Alert is the system to immediately transmit emergency information such as Emergency
Earthquake information, tsunami warning, information of ballistic missiles, which people
have no enough time to deal with, is transmitted to the municipalities by using satellite (via
the Fire and Disaster Management Agency, the Cabinet Secretariat, and JMA). It became
operational on 09 February 2007 and on 01 October 2007 started sending the emergency
earthquake information. As of first March 2010, 344 municipalities have introduced thissystem. Among them, automatic activation system of radio broadcasting and community FM
has been introduced to 282 municipalities. The J-Alert framework has been given in figure
6.11.

Figure 6.13 Framework of J-Alert System

Using warning systems to trigger timely community response is the key to disastermanagement. No matter how advanced technology becomes, the guiding principle is thatpeople should take the initiative to escape from a tsunami on their own as soon as they
feel any quakes. Inaccurate or inappropriate information in a tsunami warning could
mislead, delay evacuation, and increase the loss of lives. Multiple methods of information
sharing must be secured. Inaccurate or inappropriate information in a tsunami warning could
mislead, delay evacuation, and increase the loss of lives. It was difficult to provide people
57with revised information during the evacuation because of power and communication system
failures.
6.4.2 L-Alert
L-Alert is a disaster information sharing system where prefectures use a shared platform forsending out local disaster information all at once via multiple media. The Ministry of Internal
Affairs and Communications (MIC) has been working on the dissemination of L-Alert
throughout Japan for the collective and quick transmission of disaster-related informationtransmitted by municipalities, including evacuation instructions, to a variety of media.
Local governments can also use emergency alert emails and prefectural / municipal disastermanagement radio communication system which delivers early warning information to thereceivers installed in households.

Figure 6.14 Outline of an Area Mail Distribution Service

6.5

Early Warning System in the Maldives

The importance of Early Warning was realized in Maldives only after the Tsunami in 2004.
Before, it was just the weather forecast intended for sea transportation and fishermen. Since
then Maldives has put tremendous effort to establish an EW setup. As a result, a national early
warning system was commissioned and in place at the Maldives Meteorological Services. The
Disaster Management Act issues responsibility to Maldives Meteorological Services tomaintain an updated multi-hazard early warning system to gather/seek information regarding
impending disasters in the Maldivian territory. Since 2010, National Multi-Hazard Early
Warning Centre (NMHEWC) is based within the Maldives Meteorological Services and has
been entrusted with the task of monitoring the Meteorological, Geological and Oceanographic
hazards and informs the concerned authorities. The NMHEWC collects information fromlocal, regional and international centers. All necessary information about tropical cyclone,
tidal wave, earthquake and tsunami will be disseminated to concerned authorities and generalpublic.

58

6.5.1 Maldives Meteorological Service (MMS)
Maldives Meteorological Service is the national prime agency mandated for providing hydrometeorological, geological and oceanographic hazard information to the public incoordination with other related stakeholders. Today, MMS is responsible for theseismological and meteorological services in Maldives.
The vision of MMS is to provide accurate, timely and reliable meteorological information tominimize the impact on life and property while supporting sustainable socio-economic
development of the Maldives. The mission of MMS is as follows;Timely dissemination of alerts and advisories on all natural disasters.



Expansion and maintenance of weather observation net-work in accordance withinternational standards and best practices with well trained professionals.

Enable easy access of high quality historical meteorological data to the user
community for Sustainable National Socio-Economic Development.



Develop meteorological services and capacity building for the national requirement,
and contribute to regional and international community.

There are 5 Meteorological offices under MMS, the station in Hulhule’ being the main office.
Aviation and synoptic observations done in the other four stations are sent to the Hulhule
station on their respective time via email or fax. Each of these stations is now working on
24/7. In addition to these stations, there are 20 automated weather stations and 3 tide gauges
installed across the country which provides real time data to MMS.
6.5.2 MMS Criteria and Color Codes for EW Alerts
6.5.2.1 Criteria for Issuing Weather Alerts and Proposed Actions
Alert Level

Description

1 White

2 YellowActionMean wind speed is expected or prevail
between 20-30 mph
Rainfall of more than 50mm is expected
to occur within 24 hours
High tidal waves are expected
Mean wind speed is expected or prevail
between 30-40 mph
Torrential rain is expected and if heavy
rain occurs for more than 2 hours
A severe thunderstorm is expected orexperienced
Tropical cyclone is formed within
effective areas of Maldives
Significant tidal or swell waves are
expected or experienced

59

Weather information, but noimmediate threat

Concern authorities and people
living in the area to be on alert
and ready to take action. Travelby sea is not advisable

Alert Level

Description



3 Red


4 Green

ActionFlash flood is expected
A tropical cyclone is tracked to movecloser or cross Maldives islands
Destructive tidal or swell waves or storm
surge is expected or observed

Evacuation of population fromthreatened areas to safer places.
Prohibition of sea transport

The condition has improved

Cancel Warning

6.5.2.2 Criteria for issuing Alerts and Warnings for the Earthquake and Tsunami
Alert Level

Description

1 White

2 Yellow

3 Red

4 Green

ActionAn earthquake with magnitude of 7.0 or
higher in Richter scale, occurred in the
Indian Ocean ring but there is no
immediate threat from the event
An earthquake occurred with magnitudeof 8.0 or higher in Richter scale over the
Indian Ocean region. The earthquake has
the potential to generate a widelydestructive regional tsunami in the IndianOcean
An earthquake of 8.0 or higher in Richterscale, occurred in the Indian Ocean ringand confirmation of an ocean wide
destructive tsunami originated from theepicenter
The condition has improved

Earthquake information

Earthquake and Tsunami
advisory, concerned authorities
and public are advised to be on
alert and be ready to move safer
areas and high rise buildings
Tsunami warning. People at risk
to be evacuated from the danger
zones
Cancellation message, MMS
assumes that the tsunami threat
does not exist to Maldives

6.5.2.3 Recommended Actions by the Public for Earth Quake and Tsunami Alerts
Level 1 – White Alert
This is issued for earthquakes with magnitude >7.0 in the Indian Ocean ring. This is issued as
an advisory. Make sure to check if it’s an ocean wide tsunami or a local tsunami.
Level 2 – Yellow Alert
This is issued for earthquakes with a possibility of an ocean wide tsunami.
If a yellow alert is issued, keep checking on the local news and our social media, the latest
news will be always updated on them by Maldives Meteorological Service.


Make sure to have a first aid kit ready with snacks and water60

Gather a few clothes and a blanket

Keep your identity cards and some cash with youSenior citizens and children ready for the emergency situation

Level 3 – Red Alert
Red alert will be issued for a confirmed ocean wide tsunami in the Indian Ocean ring and willaffect the Maldives islands. MMS will inform the tsunami travel time to the public via public
media and social networks. Take all the safety precautions and evacuate disaster prone islands
if possible.
The box below shows important safety measurements to be taken during a tsunami warning: Do NOT panic
 Go to a high, strong concrete building with your safety kit (first aid kit, snacks,

water and few clothes) Leave the first two floors empty
 If there are no high buildings, move in to the ocean on boats and wait till thewarning is cancelled or tsunami approaches.
 Priority is your own safety; do not carry house hold items with you Special attention is given to senior citizens, children and women If you are in school, follow the advice given by the school management
 Stay away from the beaches until the warning is cancelled by MMS
 If you are in the open sea and gets the tsunami warning, remain in the open sea,

DO NOT return to the lagoon, the ideal depth of the water at which the boat stays
should be about 400m.
 It’s also dangerous to take your boats out to the sea when it is closer to thetsunami arrival time Tsunami Arrival Seek advice from relevant authorities When the water in the harbor is sucked in to the ocean, that is the final warning

given before the first tsunami wave
 National Disaster Management Centre, MNDF, Police, MRC and Local Councils,

will aid you in every possible way, please corporate with them.

61

6.5.3 EW Dissemination in the Maldives
MMS communicates impending hazard information to the assigned authorities andorganizations and public via telephone, facsimile, SMS to selected mobile phones and throughinternet in their website and social media. The NMHEWC has hotline established between
itself and National Disaster Management Centre (NDMC), Maldives Police Service (MPS),
Maldives National Defense Force (MNDF), Voice of Maldives (VOM), Television Maldives(TVM), Maldives Red Crescent (MRC) and Tourism Disaster Management Centre (TDMC).
Any available information that may be beneficial to the public to prepare themselves for anatural disaster will be provided to the NDMC without any delay.

Figure 6.15 Early Warning Dissemination System in MaldivesFigure 6.16 Earth Quake and Tsunami EW Timeline

62

6.6

Summary

The most important element in enhancing disaster preparedness for effective response at alllevels is the reliable, timely and accurate early warning. EW leads early response action. Past
disaster experience shows that well delivered warning messages saved at risk communities fromvarious hazards. It enables local communities conduct planned evacuations if required, safeguard
property and livelihood assets, and first responders to prepare and standby for search and rescue
emergency operations.
Japan has developed EWS to cater for almost all hazards in the country. Based on disaster
understanding, Japan has improved EW mechanism to make it the finest state of the art systemand the reach covers nationwide service. JMA, FDMA, MLIT, Prefectural and Municipal
governments are in the forefront in ensuring the dissemination of EW to the Japanese households
and residents. Using multiple methods and platforms for dissemination, EW triggers timely
community response in Japan. Hazard maps, drills and exercises increase the level of
responsiveness on what actions to be carried out when an EW is issued.
Maldives has established a national multi-hazard early warning center at its meteorologicalservice. MMS communicates warning and advisories to pre-assigned concerned authorities bymeans of telephone lines, fax, SMS, website and social media. However, MMS lacks required
capacity and the infrastructure to disseminate early warning up to the grass-root level in the last
mile of the remote island communities. Therefore, it is paramount important to establish people
centered end-to-end community based early warning mechanism at the island level in each andevery inhabited island.

63

CHAPTER 7
7 DISASTER RESPONSE AND RELIEF MECHANISM
7.1

Japan

Since Japan disaster management system consists of four layers (national level, prefectural level,municipal level and residents level), disaster response mechanism too follows the same four tiers.
The basic level begins within the affected community by its residents. The Pillar of the Japanesesystem of emergency response at the community level is the “Self Help, Mutual Help and PublicHelp” concept.

Figure 7.1 Disaster Response Mechanism

7.2

National Level

The national government collects disaster information at the Cabinet Information Collection
Center 24 hours a day. When a large-scale disaster strikes, an emergency team composed of thedirector-generals of the respective ministries and agencies gathers immediately at the Crisis
Management Center in the Prime Minister's Official Residence to grasp and analyze the disastersituation, and report the results to the Prime Minister. Disaster Management meetings at theministerial or high-ranking senior official level are held, as necessary. According to the level ofdamage, the government may establish the Headquarters for Major Disaster Management(headed by the Minister of State for Disaster Management) or the Extreme Disaster Management
Headquarters (headed by the Prime Minister), to establish the policies for the disastercountermeasures, and to coordinate various emergency measures to be taken by variousorganizations.
Further, in order to grasp the situation in the disaster area, a government investigation teamheaded by the Minister of State for Disaster Management may be dispatched, or if quick andswift actions are needed to be taken with overall coordination of emergency activities on site, thegovernment may establish the onsite headquarters for disaster management.
7.2.1

Wide- Area Support System

In case of large-scale disasters that exceed the response capabilities of the affected local
government, various wide-area support mechanisms are mobilized by the National Police
Agency (Disaster Response Units), Fire and Disaster Management Agency (Emergency Fire
Rescue Team), and Japan Coast Guard. Furthermore, the Self-Defense Forces can be dispatched
64for emergency response activities upon request from the governor of the affected prefecture.
Also, the Disaster Medical Assistance Teams (DMATs) are dispatched to provide wide-area
medical services. These teams transport severely injured persons via Self-Defense Forces
vehicles and aircrafts to hospitals outside the disaster stricken zone.

Figure 7.2 Prime Minister's Office and Cabinet Office Disaster Response Mechanism

7.2.2

Disaster Response Coordination Mechanism

In the event of a disaster occurring, municipalities will primarily be engaged in emergency
countermeasures as they are the closest to residents. Prefectural administration will get involved
when the comprehensive wider-area measures are necessary. In the event of a large-scale disasterbeyond the capability of local public entities struck by the disaster, national government will stepin to support the local entity and coordinate mutual support among the local entities.
At the national level, the Extreme Disaster Management Headquarters or the Major Disaster
Management Headquarters is set up to promptly collect the disaster information from relevant
ministries and local public entities struck by the disaster, and overall coordination is provided for
rescue, first aid, medical and emergency supplies as necessary and appropriate. Also, an on-site
disaster management headquarters may be set up to promptly coordinates among the affected65

local entities and collect information and requests from relevant prefectures and to properly
conduct the emergency response activities in consideration to the needs for the affected people.

Figure 7.3 Response Coordination System between National and Local Governments

Through joint meetings held in collaboration with the disaster response headquarters organizedby the local entities in the affected areas, the national government and the local entities
coordinate based on their shared awareness to serve as the government’s closest one-stop
contact point for requests from the affected local entities. As such, the role of the on-site disastermanagement headquarters is increasing its importance.
7.2.3

Japan Self Defense Forces (SDF)

The SDF disaster relief role is defined in Article 83 of the Self-Defense Forces Law of 1954,
requiring units to respond to calls for assistance from prefectural governors to aid in firefighting,earthquake disasters, searches for missing persons, rescues, and reinforcement of embankments
and levees in the event of flooding. The SDF conducts a variety of disaster relief operations incollaboration with municipal governments when disasters such as natural disasters occur in any
part of the country, by engaging in the search and rescue of disaster victims or missing ships oraircraft, controlling floods, offering medical treatment, preventing epidemics, supplying water,
and transporting personnel and goods. In particular, over 100,000 SDF personnel weredispatched at a peak time for relief operations for the large-scale earthquake and nuclear disasterbased on the Great East Japan Earthquake in March 2011.
SDF are deployed only upon the request of prefectural governor. Municipal mayors can ask
prefectural governors to request a disaster relief dispatch by the SDF. In the event that mayors
are unable to make such a request to the prefectural governor, they can inform the Minister ofDefense, or those designated by the Minister of the disaster conditions. After receiving such
requests from governors, the Minister of Defense or other personnel designated by the Minister66

can immediately dispatch units as necessary according to the disaster situation. Undercircumstances of particular urgency when there is no time to wait for a request, the Minister ofDefense or those designated by the Minister may authorize an exceptional dispatch(discretionary dispatch).
7.2.4

Fire and Disaster Management Agency (FDMA)

Fire and Disaster Management Agency formulates various measures to prevent disasters, such as
fire, earthquake, storm, or flood damage, and to develop the necessary legal basis and improvearmaments consisting of the materials and equipment necessary to minimize damage when adisaster occurs. To this end, FDMA provides municipalities with advice, guidance andrecommendations concerning their fire service organizations and activities. It also functions as acontact center between local fire-defense related organizations and government and coordinationbody during the large scale disasters and accidents. Utilizing the available facilities and humanresources, fire services must achieve the following tasks:(1) to protect people's lives and property from fire, and(2) to take precautions against disasters such as storms, floods, fires and earthquakes and to
mitigate the damage resulting from these.
Moreover, in the case of large-scale disasters when firefighting organizations cannot cope alone,
elite emergency rescue teams of the FDMA, known as, Emergency Fire Response Teams assist
them. Emergency Fire Response Teams was founded in 1995, after the Great Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake and institutionalized by the Fire Defense Organization Law as amended in 2003.
Officially, EFRT founded in 2004.
Leader of the municipal teams supervise municipal teams and manage their activities whereas
the Leader of the Command Support Group deploys teams swiftly to disaster areas using
helicopters and other vehicles in order to gain a better understanding of disaster conditions,contacting and liaising with the Fire and Disaster Management Agency, and providing
instructions and support to local firefighting teams. Since 2004, the Commissioner of the Fireand Disaster Management Agency has the authority to mobilize and control firefighting teams in
the event of a large-scale disaster or accident. The FDMA controls all aspects of management,from obtaining real-time information on the disaster to instructing Emergency Fire Response
Teams to mobilize.
7.2.5

National Police Agency (NPA)

Japan is a risk prone country to many natural disasters. Therefore, the NPA promotes various
measures to respond to all types of natural disasters and accidents. In the event of a disaster, the
NPA instructs and coordinates relevant police headquarters on victims rescue, search for the
missing, traffic control and other relief measures. NAP carries out several emergency response
functions other the normal mandatory responsibilities including evacuation guidance, search andrescue for victims, searches for the missing autopsies and identification of bodies, securing of
emergency traffic routes, victim support, guard/patrol activities and crackdowns on crimes etc.
Based on the lessons learned from the Great East Japan Earthquake, the police have establishedspecial units around the nation that will be sent to affected areas in the event of a major disaster.
In 2014, many people were killed or went missing due to natural disasters, including landslides
caused by torrential rains in Hiroshima and the Mt. Ontake eruption. In the wake of thesedisasters, the Inter-Prefectural Emergency Rescue Unit (IERU), the units specializing in disaster
relief operations, and other units were swiftly sent for the rescue of survivors and the search forthe missing.
677.2.6

Japan Coast Guard

Japan Coast Guard (JCG) is an external organ of the MLIT. The main responsibilities of JCG
include:







Maintaining maritime order
Guarding territorial seas and EEZ
Protecting the marine environment
Taking marine disaster preparedness measures
Exploring the territorial waters
Ensuring Maritime Traffic Safety

It is the responsibility of JCG to conduct maritime search and rescue operation in disasters andmaritime incidents or accidents. The JCG works to raise awareness and educate people about thedangers of the sea and the principles of self-rescue. It also makes every effort when accidents do
occur to respond promptly and save lives. The JCG also works together with other public andprivate rescue organizations including police and fire departments to cover the vast areas of sea
that surround Japan. It is important that the JCG be notified as soon as possible when trouble
occurs in seas far from land. For that reason, the JCG operates a maritime accident reporting
service 24 hours a day by radio based on the Global Maritime Distress and Safety System(GMDSS). Reports of incidents and accidents and requests for help can also quickly be made to
the JCG when the need arises by dialing 118 on a mobile or onboard phone. Calls from landline
are received by the respective regional centers, whereas, the calls from onboard phones are
directed to headquarters.
To respond to such maritime disasters as large-scale oil spills, the discharge of hazardous andnoxious substances, and shipboard fires, the JCG has stationed fire-fighting ships and disastermitigation equipment around the country. This provides the JCG with a system that is always
ready to mobilize and is also useful for such tasks as predicting how an oil spill will spread anddrift in order to allow its effective removal.
The JCG also works for maritime disaster prevention by conducting exercises with private-sector
disaster prevention organizations in Japan and overseas. The JCG makes every effort to keep its
systems in good order and conducts drills so that when a major natural disaster occurs it is readyto quickly carry out such emergency relief operations as rescuing disaster victims, providing
emergency transportation for personnel and relief supplies, and conducting surveys of stricken
areas.
7.2.7

Disaster Medical Assistance Teams (DMAT)

Disaster Medical Assistance Teams are specialized and trained medical aid teams which operate
during large-scale disasters. DMAT system was established in 2005 based on the lessons ofGreat Hanshin Awaji Earthquake.. The guidelines for the deployment of DMATs are based on
the results of research funded by a Health and Labour Sciences research grant from the, theMinistry of Health Labour and Welfare (MHLW). In these guidelines, DMATs are defined as“mobile, trained medical teams that can be rapidly deployed during the acute phase of a disaster(within 48 hours). “DMAT Team Member Training Course” is conducted at the National
Hospital Organization’s Disaster Medical Center (an independent administrative agency) for
certification of DMAT personnel. DMAT member are specialized to render medical assistanceand treatment during the acute phases of disasters as well as transferring casualties to safe areas.
Functioning of DMAT are based on the agreements between prefectural governments andmedical establishments and DMATs are deployed only upon the request of government of68

disaster affected prefecture unless the one following conditions is not the case: an earthquake ofJapanese seismic intensity 5 occurring within any of the 23 wards of Tokyo; an earthquake ofJapanese seismic intensity of nearly 6 or greater occurring in any other area (outside of the 23
wards of Tokyo); a tsunami alert is issued; an earthquake alert is issued for the Tokai region; orlarge-scale aircraft crash occurs.
7.2.8

Technical Emergency Control Force (TEC-FORCE)

The Ministry of Land, Infrastructure, Transport and Tourism (MLIT) established TEC-FORCEin 2008. The TEC-FORCE is a specialized group made up of ministry staff that helps disasteraffected municipalities to quickly assess damages, identify measures to prevent additional
damage, and provide technical assistance for rehabilitation and emergency response activities.
7.2.9

Japanese Red Cross Society (JRCS)The JRCS is listed as a “Designated Public Corporation” under the Disaster Countermeasures
Basic Act. According to the Disaster Relief Act, the JRCS has the obligation to cooperate with
the national and prefectural governments in the provision of relief assistance, the details of which
are laid out in the agreement signed by the Minister of Health, Labour and Welfare and thePresident of the JRCS. Based on this, the JRCS is developing disaster relief responses according
to relief regulations and disaster management plans. Additionally, as a member of the Central
Disaster Management Council headed by the Prime Minister, and in collaboration with otherorganizations, the JRCS is responsible for a part of the country’s overall disaster management.
In times of emergency, the JRCS carries out the following activities to support disaster victims.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Medical Relief
Stockpiling and Distribution of Relief Supplies
Provision of Blood ProductsCollection of Donations
Disaster Volunteer Activities
Psychological Care

7.2.10 NHK
As the sole public broadcaster of Japan where earthquakes, volcanic eruptions, typhoons, andother natural disasters are all too common, NHK is expected to play a twofold role in emergency
situations. In its usual capacity as a source of information, NHK reports on the damage caused
and the state of the disaster affected area. But it is also regarded as part of the infrastructure ofdisaster prevention and crisis management. This perception is stipulated in the Disaster
Countermeasures Basic Act. By the law NHK is designated as ‘public institution’ to contribute,
through its broadcast, to the prevention of the disaster. NHK must broadcast warnings of tsunami
or other dangerous weather conditions in order to promote precautionary measures and themitigation of damage. Small quakes detected by the JMA before strong earthquake occurs,
automatically redirected to NHK is what enables it to issue public alert promptly and provide
necessary information regarding the magnitude and precise location of the earthquake as well as
tsunami information nationwide.
JMA’s Emergency Warning System (EWS) utilized in collaboration the NHK is carried out onlyin special emergency cases such as large-scale tsunami and earthquake warnings or based on therequest of governors and mayors. In striving to alert as many people as possible, the systemswitches on television sets and radios (4 TV channels and 3 radio channels belong to NHK)69

automatically. The test transmission is conducted every month and emergency drills held every
day by NHK.
To ensure quick and live broadcasting from disaster hit areas NHK owns several helicopterswhich are equipped with necessary devices for live broadcasting. Moreover, NHK has remotecontrolled cameras installed countrywide. In addition, the official web-page of NHK also
provides disaster and weather information and enables watching two channels (General TV andNHK World TV) online.
7.2.11 Japan Meteorological Agency (JMA)
The Disaster Management Operation Plan of the JMA prescribes the following measures to betaken by the JMA in support of disaster preparedness and emergency response:
Disaster Preparedness
 Implementing meteorological services for disaster preparedness; Implementing a cooperation scheme with national disaster authorities, prefectures andmass media;
 Conducting drills and training for disaster mitigation;
 Conducting surveys and research on disaster management and providing knowledge tothe public.
Emergency Response Establishing an emergency response scheme and activities;
 Setting priorities for services during emergency response; Cooperating with national disaster authorities, prefectures and mass media;
 Reporting results of surveys after disasters.

Figure 7.4 Role of JMA in Disaster Response707.2.12 Prefectural Level
The local governments need to collect and disseminate disaster and damage information quickly
and to have secure communications so that they can carry out effective disaster emergency
activities such as search and rescue and medical operations. Based on such information, local
governments set up a disaster response headquarters (headed by mayors of the cities and/or
governors of the prefectures concerned) while related organizations establish their own
operations mechanisms.
The public safety and welfare of a prefecture’s residents are the fundamental responsibilities ofevery governor. The governor coordinates prefecture resources and provides the strategic
guidance for response to all types of incidents. This includes supporting local governments asneeded and coordinating assistance with other prefectures and the national government. A
governor also:••••

Establish HQ to coordinate large scale disasters.
Communicates to the public, in an accessible manner (e.g., effective communications toaddress all members of the whole community), and helps people, businesses, andorganizations cope with the consequences of any type of incident
Requests assistance from Self Defense Force, Fire and Disaster Management Agency,
Japan Coast Guard and DMAT. Prefecture Police is also on Governor’s disposal to utilize
in the response operations.
Coordinates assistance from other states through interstate mutual aid and assistanceagreements, inter prefectural agreements.

Figure 7.5 TMG Crisis Management System

71

Figure 7.6 Tokyo Prefecture Initial Response System

Figure 7.7 Tokyo Prefecture Response Actions to a Large Scale Incident

72

7.2.13 The Hyogo Emergency Net (E-Net)
The Hyogo E-Net is a system designed to utilize current trends in mobile and wirelessinformation technology in order to supplement conventional systems for disaster management,such as radio and loudspeaker vans, which directly supplies local citizens with emergency
information (on earthquakes, tsunamis, weather warnings), evacuation information and othervital information via e-mail on mobile phones and websites.
Each municipality in Hyogo Prefecture has its own website. In the event of emergencies anddisasters, this system will expedite the transmission of vital information to local citizens in themost immediate manner possible. For everyday affairs, this site serves as a regular mobile phone
homepage, providing local citizens with information on upcoming events and useful information
on daily-life including pictures. The Hyogo E-Net was designed based on the lessons learned
through the experiences of the Great Hanshin-Awaji Earthquake. We believe that this network
will help us create safer and more secure communities in Hyogo.
7.3

City/Municipal/Town/Village Level

In Japan, the municipalities are obliged to fully carry out the fire services in their areas. They
implement the actual fire service affairs such as firefighting and rescue and ambulance services.
However, for such reasons as finances, if it is deemed more efficient and rational to handle suchaffairs jointly with other municipalities, some municipalities are doing so by establishing“municipal corporations” or “area associations.” The following figure shows the roles of Chuo
City in a disaster,Figure 7.8 Role of Chuo City in Disaster Response

The organizations for handling the fire services consist of fire departments, fire stations andvolunteer fire corps. The municipalities are required to organize some or all of theseorganizations. Main affairs handled by the municipalities are:•Establishment, management and operation of fire service organizations.

•Fire prevention, firefighting, rescue and ambulance services, and response to earthquake,storm and flood damage
73

•

7.4

Formulation of municipal disaster prevention
comprehensive disaster countermeasures.

plans

and

implementationofCommunity Level

Local communities have been responding to disasters for centuries. According to (GEJE, 2012)
before the creation of Japan’s formal state system, local communities carried out disaster- related
activities as volunteers; community based organizations (CBOs) have existed for centuries. They
include: Suibo- dan for flood risk dating from the 17th century, Syobo- dan for ﬁreﬁghting fromthe 18th century, and Jisyubo for earthquake disasters from the 1970s. In addition, various
nongovernmental organizations (NGOs) and non-proﬁt organizations (NPOs) are involved indisaster risk management (DRM) activities at the community level. Many of them collaborate
with neighborhood associations (Jichikai) and local governments, and sometimes with local
academic institutions.
Residents and enterprises at the community level are encouraged and supported to formulate,
promote and implement Community Based Disaster Management Plan. Main theme at the
localities is the concept of self-help, mutual help and public help where individuals first try toprotect the self and family and then assists others in the scene mutually until the public support
arrives. Since the “limits of public help” following a large-scale natural disaster is clear, andinitiatives based on self-help and mutual help are very important, a Community Disaster
Management Planning System has been established to support voluntary DRR activities bycommunity residents.
7.4.1

Community Based Volunteers

Community-based preparedness planning allows us all to prepare for and respond to anticipateddisruptions and potential hazards following a disaster. As individuals, we can prepare our homes
and families to cope during that critical period. Through prevent planning, neighborhoods andworksites can also work together to help reduce injuries, loss of lives, and property damage.
Neighborhood preparedness will enhance the ability of individuals and neighborhoods to reduce
their emergency needs and to manage their existing resources until professional assistancebecomes available.
Large scale disasters can severely restrict or overwhelm our response resources, communications,transportation, and utilities and leave many individuals and neighborhoods cut off from outside
support. Damaged roads and disrupted communications systems may restrict the access of
emergency response agencies into critically affected areas. Thus, for the initial period
immediately following a disaster, often up to 3 days or longer; individuals, households, andneighborhoods may need to rely on their own resources for food, water, first aid and shelter.
7.4.1.1 Voluntary Firefighting Corps
The courageous act of these volunteers to fight against disaster is based solely on their resolution
to protect their communities on their own and their sense of responsibility to live up to people's
trust in them. Members of Volunteer Fire Corps are working for communities to protect people's
lives and property through firefighting activities when a fire occurs, lifesaving and rescue
activity, patrolling and guidance for evacuation in a natural disaster, such as an earthquake,storm, or flood, fully utilizing their knowledge of and skills in firefighting and disasterpreventing activities acquired as members of Volunteer Fire Corps. They shoulder a variety ofroles including the organization of first aid classes, fire prevention instruction to residents,
special lookout patrols, and public relations activities.
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The mobility of Volunteer Fire Corps members, who are familiar with the geography andindividual residents of the area, has made a great contribution in many a serious disasters,
preventing further disaster and saving local residents. Volunteer Fire Corps are increasing theirimportance under improving cooperation between them and fire departments as well as otherautonomous disaster preventing organizations led by local residents. To support such activities
conducted by Volunteer Fire Corps, Fire and Disaster Management Agency is providing people
with disaster prevention education using the Internet and acting to encourage people toparticipate in Volunteer Fire Corps through PR in mail magazines, in addition to the promotionof improvement in activity environments and machinery and equipment of Volunteer Fire Corps.
7.4.1.2 Suibo-Dan – Voluntary Flood Fighting Teams
Voluntary flood fighting teams, known as “suibo-dan” play important role in flood fighting
system of Japan. These teams are usually established within the municipalities in the vicinity
areas of rivers. The members of “suibo-dan” normally engaged in different jobs but are also
involved in patrolling, watching out and levee protection works in close coordination with riveradministrators and other related organizations during floods. During periods without flooding,they still conduct patrols and inspection of levees, provisions for flood fighting warehouses andfor communication facilities, drills and other activities in preparation for a flood. As of 2009
there were about 900 000 voluntary flood fighters nationwide.
7.4.1.3 Bokomi
BOKOMIs are community based - elementary school district based disaster prevention
organizations. Since 1995, based on the lessons learned from the Great East Hanshin-Awaji
Earthquake, all of the districts of Kobe city – 191 districts have established BOKOMIs. To
establish BOKOMI, firstly, it is discussed and decided on by local government organizations
including the local city office and the local fire station, together with leader of local residents
associations, women’s associations, elderly associations, voluntary fire corps and etc.
The equipment and materials needed for the activities are provided by the local government andstorehouses installed in local parks, in preparation for emergencies. Schools in Japan also serve
as evacuation sites during emergencies. In normal times BOKOMI conducts various emergency
drill programs such as on how to use the provided equipment and materials (for ex. Water fire
extinguishers, powder fire extinguishers), rescue drills, evacuation drills, informationtransmission drills, flood control drills and etc. In addition, BOKOMI also conduct welfare
activities (such as keeping in touch with and holding lunch gatherings for the elderly people wholive alone) as an effort to cover both community welfare activities and community disasterprevention activities.
7.5

Maldives

The dispersed nature of the inhabited islands makes responding to emergencies a logisticalchallenge and a nightmare for concerned agencies and it is extremely difficult for the authorities
to deliver immediate first-response and emergency relief services to the people residing inremote rural islands. The national priority in disaster risk management is to establish asustainable model for risk reduction and response that is also efficient in providing relief andassistance to affected communities in the shortest time.
The community based approach is a proven model for a sustainable approach to disastermanagement. Apart from bringing down costs, it has the fastest response time, empowers thecommunity and gives ownership of the disaster response activities to the community.
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Organization at the community level that enables the community to identify problems, establish
priorities and act is a feature of a resilient community.
The institutional setup and structure for the community level decentralized management ofdisaster management activities has been established through the Disaster Management Units thatare being established at the Island Councils. The next step is to establish a mechanism forestablishing a human resource base that would support the DM Units in preparing for andresponding to disasters.
7.5.1

National Emergency Response Force

Disasters response in the Maldives also has three levels. They are national level, city/atoll level
and island level. Table below displays response tools established at different levels to ensure
effective and efficient emergency response. Each has different roles and responsibilities atdifferent levels of emergencies.
National

Atoll/City

Island/Local Level

Atoll/City Disaster
Management
Committee

Island Disaster
Management
Committee

Disaster Management
Council
Decision
Making/Strategic

Disaster Management
Steering Committee
National Disaster
Management Authority

Emergency
Management /Operational

National Emergency
Operations Centre/EOC

Atoll/City Disaster
Management Unit

Island Disaster
Management Unit

Field Level First
Responders/
Field Operations

National Emergency
Response Force (NERF)

City/Atoll Response
Team

Local Emergency
Response Force(LERF)

Figure 7.9 Emergency Response Mechanism

National Emergency Response Force consists of the following organizations and elements.
a. Maldives National Defence Force(Fire and Rescue Service and Coast Guard)
b. Maldives Police Servicec. Emergency Health Service Providers
d. Maldives Red Crescent
The legal mandate and responsibility of various response actors at different levels are;•

Article 24 of the Maldives Act on Decentralization of the Administrative Divisions of
the Maldives (7/2010) asserts the island councils mandate with the responsibility to establish
a mechanism to provide effective response in case of a disaster.

•

The responsibilities in article 7 (d) of the Armed Forces Act (1/2008) gives mandate to
the Armed Forces to lead and coordinate with the relevant government agencies and work
to save the lives of people and property in case of hazards and disasters. Article 7 (e) refers to76

freighting and saving lives of people and property in case of fires. Article (f) refers to helping
the lives of people facing maritime incidents and saving the lives of people and property incase of land or maritime hazards and disasters.
•

Article 6 (11) of the Police Act (5/2008) observes the responsibilities of Police in case ofhazards or disasters. Police are mandated to save the lives of people, households andproperty in case of a natural disasters or other type of disasters. Also help the victims ofhazards and disasters and assist in maritime incidents and other emergencies.

•

Under the objectives of the Maldives Red Crescent Act (5/2009), article 3 (a) asserts
the primary objective is to provide humanitarian aid, prevent and alleviate human suffering.

7.5.2

National emergency Operational Plan (NEOP)

The National Emergency Operations Plan (NEOP) is a multi-hazard plan that establishes asingle, comprehensive framework for the management of emergencies and disasters within
Maldives. The plan is implemented upon such emergency and disaster, when it becomes
necessary to mobilize the resources of the identified departments and agencies to save lives, andprotect property and infrastructure. The plan assigns major roles and responsibilities todepartments and agencies. The plan requires planning, training, and exercising prior to a real
event in order to respond effectively.

Emergency Response Organization
National
Level

City/Atoll Level(2 Cities / 19Atolls)

Island Level(187 Islands)

National Disaster Management Council
Line Ministries
National Disaster Management Steering Committee
National Disaster Management Authority
National Response Force (Defence Force, Police, Red
Crescent, Emergency Healthcare Service)
City/Atoll Council
City/Atoll Disaster Management Committee
City/Atoll Disaster Management Unit
Local Response Force (MNDF Area Commands, MPS
Divisional Commands and Atoll Police, MRC Branches,
Regional and Atoll Hospitals)
Island Council
Island Disaster Management Committee
Island Disaster Management Unit
Island Emergency Response Team (MNDF, Posts,
Island Police Station, MRC Units, Health Center,
Auxiliary Firemen, CBO Members)

Figure 7.10 Various Levels of Emergency Operations

7.5.3

Atoll and Island Level

At present, level of disaster preparedness within the atoll and island context is very low. There isno established disaster response official mechanism to be followed. The Atoll Council and Island
Councils together with other stakeholders need to focus more in terms disaster response, searchand rescue and community based emergency management plans.
Currently, disaster response activities are carried out through sub components of National
Emergency Response Force. Maldives National Defence Force has its Area Commands and77

Posts; Maldives Police Service has Divisional Commands, Atoll Police and Island Police
Stations; Maldives Red Crescent has Branches and Units; Emergency Healthcare Service has
Regional Hospitals and Atoll Hospitals established in different parts of the country. When
NDMA, Atolls Council and Island Councils request for emergency assistance, all these agencies
quickly provide emergency first response and relief depending on their capacity and mandate.
However, lack of resources and training keeps the islanders more dependent on military or police
to respond incidents and emergencies. Often island communities wait for police force or Defence
force to attend disaster events. Islands lack emergency response plans and mechanism within thecommunity level. The coordination of response in an ad-hoc manner delays the search and rescue
and had cost few lives in the recent past due to the late responses.
Nevertheless, some few islands have Community Emergency Response Teams (CERT) formed
and are operational. Their most important mission is to provide a rapid, effective and efficient
emergency response in times of disasters in the local community until public assistance reaches
to the scene. The handful of islands that have CERT are inadequately equipped and very limited
in capacity. The islands without any first response unit, the Island Council and the local
community have to manage the incident for as long as they receive support from theirneighboring island, Atoll Council or the national government.

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CHAPTER 8
8 LESSONS LEARNT FROM JAPAN, RECOMMENDATIONS AND CONCLUSION
In this last chapter of the study comprises of the lessons learnt from Japan and recommendations
for community based early warning system and better preparedness for response in the small
island communities of the Maldives.
8.1

Lessons Learnt From Japan

Believing it important to take the advantage of lessons learned from the past disasters and therecovery, reconstruction and rebuilding efforts in Japan as global public goods for future
integration of DRR in the resilient island development planning, many good and applicable
practices were identified. Out of several experiences and learning, the following lessons
represent only few examples related to early warning systems and emergency response
mechanism in Japan.
According to the Hyogo Prefecture Governor, “we cannot stop natural disasters from occurring.
What we can do though is try to prepare for disasters, mitigate the damage as much as possible,
and achieve quick relief and recovery even if we have been hit by them. In this context, sharing
our experiences and the lessons we learned with the next generation and preparing for futuredisasters is more important than anything else”.
8.1.1

Self Help, Mutual Help and Public Help

This is the backbone and bread and butter of the disaster preparedness and response in theJapanese society. This concept puts enormous emphasis on individual and household
preparedness for disasters. People are encouraged to protect and safeguard the self and family
first. Then to assist other neighbors and community by mutually supporting until the public help
arrives to the affected area.

Figure 8.1 Tripod Disaster Response Concept

The limitations of the various levels of public disaster response activities in every disaster, theimportance of “mutual-help” in collaboration with local municipalities becomes apparent in
affected communities. Self-help, mutual assistance, and public assistance are very important for
improving the ability of community to respond and cooperate in the event of a disaster in orderto minimize the disaster damage.
8.1.2

Multi-hazard Early Warning System

Japan has developed one of the most sophisticated hi-tech end-to-end multi-hazard early warning
systems in the world. All of Japan’s national territory is covered by early warning systems forstorms, torrential rains, heavy snow, sediment disasters, tsunami, tidal waves, high surf,
inundation and floods. This enables everyone living in Japan to receive early warning allowing
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taking early actions. As a result, the loss of life and damage to property has been significantly
reduced. During the GEJE on March 11, the community level response and community based
warnings was the key that saved countless human lives.
8.1.3

Wide Area Support System

National governments as well as the local governments have established wide area support
system to function as alternate operational and logistics hub in responding large scale disasters.
These multi-functional and multi-purpose Bases can be used as locations for extreme disastermanagement headquarters and on site local disaster management headquarters. Furthermore, italso serve as base camp for wide area support forces, coordinate response, relief and emergency
medical support during disasters. During normal times, it is used to emergency stockpiling,
provide training and conduct drills, and create public awareness and disaster risk reduction
activities.
8.1.4

Volunteerism and Community based Organizations

In Japan, a country prone to natural disasters, community organizations such as volunteer fire
corps, flood-fighting organizations and many CBOs have assumed a crucial role in preventing
disasters and assisting response and early relief activities in the event of disasters. The role ofcommunities in DRM is formally recognized and supported by local and national authorities
through linkages with local institutions. Japanese society values the vital role of volunteers to agreat extent.
After the Great East Japan Earthquake and Tsunami, to encourage volunteer activities byuniversity students, the Ministry of Education informed universities that they would provide
credit for volunteering in affected areas. Under corporate social responsibility, companies also
created new systems such as “volunteer leave” for employees.
Most people saved from major disasters are rescued by relatives and neighbors within the first 24
hours before professional responders can get there. Statistics show that in the 1995 Kobe
earthquake, 80 percent of those rescued were saved by their neighbors. So, while local andnational authorities have key responsibilities for civil protection in hazard events, communities
are always the first responders and should be empowered in that role. This fact gives us a lesson
that the activity of local community is the key to mitigate earthquake disaster.
The government has designated each January 17 as“Disaster Reduction and Volunteer Day, andthe week from January 15 to January 21 as“Disaster Reduction and Volunteer Week.”During
this one-week period, seminars, lectures, exhibitions and other events are held to promote thevolunteer and autonomous disaster reduction activities when disasters occur. These events takeplace throughout Japan, with the close cooperation of national and local governments, local
public corporations and other relevant entities. Thus, volunteer culture has become firmly
entrenched in Japan societies.
8.1.5

Emergency Kit Bag

Very strong emphasis is given to aware people to prepare for disasters by stockpiling emergency
supplies and making ready grab-and-go bag. While emergency services personnel are the best
trained and equipped to handle emergencies, they may not be immediately available in a
catastrophic disaster. In such a situation, members of the community may be on their own forseveral days or longer. They may have to rely on their own resources for food, water, first aid,
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and shelter, and neighbors or coworkers may have to provide immediate assistance to those whoare hurt or need other help. Such a bag would definitely serve the best when in need after adisaster.
8.1.6

Disaster Drills and Exercises

Throughout the Japan, at all levels from national to local and community participates, conducts
and organizes disaster evacuation and response drills, coordination exercises multiple times
during a year. Whole community including local governments, public and private organizations,NGOs, schools, CBOs and vulnerable groups are trained thoroughly and have been doing
disaster prevention drills regularly. Japan has a culture of preparedness, where training andevacuation drills are systematically practiced at the local and community levels and in schools
and workplaces.
The basic policy for disaster management drills that are conducted by national and local
governments, as well as an overview of the drills that are carried out at the national level, aredetermined every year by the Central Disaster Management Council in the Comprehensive
Disaster Management Drill Framework. The government also conducts several programs to
educate the people about the basic immediate response in the event of an earthquake or tsunami.
8.1.7

Disaster Prevention AwarenessIn Japan, other countries can learn how communities can play a critical role in preparing for andcoping with natural disasters. Communities can help prevent damage from spreading, assist local
authority, and provide support to the vulnerable. As disaster prone and frequent country, highpriority is given to raise public awareness on risks and disaster prevention. To make disaster
preparedness a second nature and inculcate the culture of safety in the citizens’ mind, disasterprevention awareness plays the most important role. Japan is doing it in every possible way.
Furthermore, to pass the lessons learned from the disasters to future generations, lots of me
approaches and modalities are being used. Making and preservation of monuments, disasterprevention learning centers, museums, DRR promotion events and festivals can be observed
throughout the Japanese communities. Many preserved sites of disasters have attracted large
number of visitors. By actually seeing these sites, the horror of disasters and preparedness
messages can be learned.
8.2

Recommendations
a. Empower and promote the island communities to take the ownership of the safety andsecurity of themselves and to safeguard their assets and island’s critical infrastructurefrom disasters. If there is large scale disaster like a tsunami or devastating storm affecting
the entire stretch of atolls, immediate response from national level can take few to several
days. It requires self and community preparation for survival and to reduce the impact.
Develop specific programs such as BOKOMI, CERT and auxiliary firemen to engage theactive participation and ownership of relevant stakeholders, including communities, indisaster risk reduction, in particular building on the spirit of volunteerism in islands.
b. Establish community based early warning system in all the inhabited islands. Develop
protocols to make receiving early warning an official and a duty of an assigned or
selected person or team as an additional task if that person is an employee. Organizations
and different stakeholders in the island can be used for this. The available or establishedfacilities and services which operate 24/7 (Power House, Health Center, Police stationetc.) are the most ideal locations to set up the early warning receiving system. So that,81

whenever the operations centers at national level or atoll level could pass the message,
the focal point would be able to receive it and pass to the relevant DM unit head or
identified person as per the protocol and SOPs. Out of several means, the most reliable
but cost effective option can be opted such as telephone, mobile phones, HF/VHF radios,email alert or satellite phones etc. In the worst case scenario when everything fails, as alast resort as a messenger, the EW can be passed to the relevant body.

c. Establish and create community emergency response teams (CERT) in all inhabitedisland communities. Provide them required training and skills to function as first
responders role. These teams will then be available to provide first response during
emergencies. Give priority to those who are in permanent jobs at work places within theisland to ensure the availability. Aim to provide them the basic equipment and gear basedon the capacity of the local government. Support CERT to organize meetings andtrainings by providing island council’s resources. The operational mechanism of
BOKOMI in Kobe, Japan and more popular CERT system as in US cities and counties
may be considered as a model to establish and operate in island communities of Maldives.
d. Prepare, implement and maintain emergency response plan for every island community
with whole community participation. Make CERT the primary response force of thatisland. With the emergency management skills, training and community resources, they
can operate upon receiving early warning from MMS or NDMA.
e. Arrange and conduct drills and emergency exercises at all levels involving all the sectors
and stakeholders. Include the most vulnerable people in evacuation drills and prioritize
testing early warning system and dissemination mechanism.
f. Teach disaster prevention skills for survival. This would inculcate lifelong lifesaving
skills in the island community members. Swimming and sea survival, basic first aid andmaintaining emergency kit with some protective and safety gears can be very handy
during disasters and surprised extreme weather events such as wind storms and sea
surges. Since, Maldivians are frequently exposed to rough weather conditions often due
to the extensive use of requirement of sea transportation.
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g. Make DRM a learning module and a practical component at schools. Schools in Maldivesprovide the finest environment for disaster prevention and risk reduction as a common
platform where the whole community can be involved and engaged. Public schools canlead and be a model for others since schools become evacuation centers or emergency
shelters once a disaster strikes the island.
h. Develop wide area support hubs in other parts of the country. Depend on capital Male’for supplying of relief items and other logistics or technical support proves impracticaland costly. This was evident in Indian Ocean Tsunami 2004, cyclone Nilam in 2012 andsevere flooding events in the past. During harsh weather conditions, it may take several
hours and days to deliver a barrel of chlorine to the affected island if it is from Male’
only. Therefore to enhance the disaster relief and humanitarian supplies uninterrupted,
concept of wide area support center is very ideal and important for a much dispersed
island country like Maldives. Operational and maintenance responsibility could be given
to one of the first responding agency from Maldives National Defence Force, Maldives
Police Service or Maldives Red Crescent considering their establishment and interest in
the intended possible Atolls.
8.3

Challenges

Lack of dedicated resources for disaster risk reduction at all levels. Most of the island
communities already lack the minimum equipment and other logistical support required for aneffective first response. Limited transportation within the atolls hinders disaster response andrelief delivery to a great extent. Some recurring threats could have been resolved with basic andsmall-scale mitigation interventions, yet no resources are allocated for mitigation actions andvulnerability reduction efforts at community levels.
Geographically dispersed islands and sparse populations provide a major challenge for DRR.
The country's unique geographical make often challenges effective response actions in times of
emergencies and disasters. It also is a factor for increasing vulnerability due to lack of timely
access to basic services or it hampers or delays delivery of basic services from central levels.
Meteorological information in particular has become increasingly pervasive through global
media and the Internet. There is less and less dependence on official channels for hazard
forecasts, although this has created new issues around the accuracy of warning information,
particularly when conflicting information is available from apparently credible sources. Satellite
television channels and social media break the news of distant earthquake and tsunami far aheadof local early warning creates chaos and panic in the public.
Local governance and decentralization still requires more familiarization in the country. There
still remains much to be done in terms of developing capacities of local councils on local
government management, local development planning, delivery of basic services, performanceof their duties and responsibilities and efficient dispensation of local mandate and authority.
These are important requisites if disaster risk reduction and management are to be fully
mainstreamed in the local development processes and should be inclusive of all groups andwomen. In addition, fiscal decentralization and national budgetary support to local development
processes are primordial to effect meaningful decentralization.
8.4

Conclusion

Japanese concept of disaster risk reduction, living with risk environment and attitude disasterprovide valuable takeaways for other countries. Maldives as a developing country it is very
important to take the advantage of lessons learned from mega disasters in Japan especially
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GHAE and GEJE, the disaster mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery and reconstruction
efforts, and DRM approach as a whole in Japan as global public goods for future development of
the nation.
Achieving and maintaining effective individual and community preparedness is the first line ofdefense against disasters and can reduce the immediate stress on response organizations. Thislevel of preparedness requires continual public awareness and education to ensure residents andbusinesses take precautions to reduce their emergency vulnerability, especially during and
immediately after disaster impact.
Therefore, reliable disaster early warning is a prerequisite and a vital component of disaster
response. It is particularly important for the local community and households to receive EW incase of sudden onset disasters such as earthquakes, tsunami, volcanic eruption, flash flood,
landslide, cyclones and storms etc. EW also serves as the trigger point for evacuation order andtimely response initiation decision by the individuals and local government which could result insaving numerous lives and property damage. The absence or inadequate EW may lead an
avoidable circumstance into a catastrophe.
Since, most of the island communities in the Maldives are physically isolated societies from one
another; a disaster with devastating magnitude could result a total isolation, loss ofcommunication and cut off from external support for several hours, days or may be for weeks.
Hence, preparing and equipping the Island Emergency Response Teams (IERT), commonlyreferred as Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) could be one of the best options forthe local governments, Island/Atoll and City Councils. These teams are based in islands onvolunteerism and consist of volunteers who could act and be a part of larger Local Emergency
Response Force (LERF) in an Atoll or a City.

“Acting for the common good is a frequent theme in Japanese culture and it infuses thecountry's approach to disaster preparedness and risk reduction. The rest of the world hasmuch to learn from Japan, if we are to make progress on saving lives and livelihoods, andreducing disaster losses”
Banki Moon, UN Secretary-General
Taking the above statement in a positive manner, there are ample rooms to improve the existing
early warning system and the emergency response mechanism of the Maldives. The gaps thathinder the effectiveness and efficiency in our DRR approach and emergency mechanism can be
filled with good practices and lessons learnt from Japan depending on the situation, adaptability
and feasibility. Physical components of risk reduction and management may not be possible toachieve as in developed country. However, social components, human behavior and attitude canbe approached and have more chance of success in a developing country like Maldives.

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